Architectural Drafting and Design Sixth Edition Alan Jefferis Principal of Residential Designs Former architectural drafting instructor at Mt Hood Community College Faculty Emeritus at Clackamas Community College Former member of the American Institute of Building Designers. Former Autodesk Developer Network Member Coauthor of Residential Design Drafting and Detailing; Commercial Drafting and Detailing; and AutoCAD® for Architecture.
David A. Madsen President, Madsen Designs Inc. Faculty Emeritus Former Department Chairperson Drafting Technology, Autodesk Premier Training Center Clackamas Community College, Oregon City, Oregon Former Instructor, Drafting Technology Centennial High School, Gresham, Oregon Autodesk Developer Network Member Director Emeritus, American Design Drafting Association Author of Engineering Drawing and Design, Print Reading for Engineering and Manufacturing Technology, and Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing. Coauthor of AutoCAD and its Applications, Architectural Drafting Using AutoCAD, Civil Drafting Technology, Print Reading for Architecture and Construction Technology.
David P. Madsen Vice President, Madsen Designs Inc. Computer-Aided Design and Drafting Consultant and Educator Autodesk Developer Network Member SolidWorks Research Associate American Design Drafting Association Member Author of Inventor and its Applications. Coauthor of AutoCAD and its Applications, Architectural Drafting Using AutoCAD, Civil Drafting Technology, Engineering Drawing and Design, and Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing.
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Architectural Drafting and Design, Sixth Edition Alan Jefferis, David A. Madsen, and David P. Madsen Vice President, Editorial: Dave Garza Director of Learning Solutions: Sandy Clark Senior Acquisitions Editor: James Devoe
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Brief Contents Preface, xiii Acknowledgments, xix Prologue, xxiii
SECTION 5 Supplemental Floor Plan Drawings
SECTION 1 Introduction to
20 Plumbing Plans, 461
Architectural Design and Drafting 1 Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities, 3 2 Introduction to Construction Procedures, 33 3 Architectural Drafting Equipment, 44
19 Electrical Plans, 431
21 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning, 485
SECTION 6 Roof Plans 22 Roof Plan Components, 527 23 Roof Plan Layout, 547
4 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods, 58 5 Sketching Applications, 66
SECTION 7 Elevations
6 Architectural Lines and Lettering, 87
24 Introduction to Elevations, 567
7 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture, 104
25 Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques, 589
SECTION 2 Residential Design 8 Construction Specifications, 141 9 Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design, 152 10 Room Relationships and Sizes, 177 11 Exterior Design Factors, 209 12 Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction, 232
SECTION 3 Site Planning 13 Site Orientation, 257 14 Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements, 268 15 Site Plan Layout, 285
26 Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout, 608
SECTION 8 Framing Methods and Plans 27 Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods, 631 28 Structural Components of Framed Construction, 654 29 Design Criteria for Structural Loading, 685 30 Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables, 694 31 Determining Beam Sizes, 708 32 Drawing Framing Plans, 727
SECTION 4 The Floor Plan
SECTION 9 Foundation Plans
16 Floor Plan Symbols, 311
33 Foundation Systems, 773
17 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes, 360
34 Floor Systems and Foundation Support, 803
18 Floor Plan Layout, 379
35 Foundation Plan Layout, 828 iii
iv
Brief Contents
SECTION 10 Wall Sections and Details
SECTION 12 Commercial Drafting
36 Sectioning Basics, 853
42 Building Codes and Commercial Design, 953
37 Section Layout, 862
43 Common Commercial Construction Materials, 975
38 Alternative Layout Techniques, 876
44 Commercial Construction Projects, 1009
39 Stair Construction and Layout, 901
45 Structural Drafting, 1062
40 Fireplace Construction and Layout, 914
SECTION 11 Presentation Drawings
and Renderings 41 Presentation Drawings, 935
Glossary, 1095 Index, 1113
Contents Preface, xiii
Drafting Furniture, 44
Acknowledgments, xix
Drafting Pencils and Leads, 44
Prologue, xxiii
Technical Pens and Accessories, 45 Erasers and Accessories, 45
SECTION 1 Introduction to
Architectural Design and Drafting
1
1 Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities, 3
Drafting Instruments, 47 Drafting Machines, 50 Drafting Machine Controls and Machine Head Operation, 51 Scales, 51
Introduction, 3
Protractors, 54
Drafter, 3
Additional Resources, 56
Designer, 6
Architectural Drafting Equipment Test, 56
Interior Decorator, 6
4 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods, 58
Kitchen and Bath Designer, 6 Interior Designer, 7
Introduction, 58
Architect, 8
Papers and Films, 58
Engineer, 9
Manual Drawing Reproduction, 59
Related Fields, 10 Design Basics, 12
Sheet Sizes, Sheet Format, Title Blocks, and Borders, 60
Additional Resources, 31
How to Fold Prints, 61
Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities Test, 32
Diazo Reproduction, 62
2 Introduction to Construction Procedures, 33 Introduction, 33
Photocopy Reproduction, 62 Microfilm, 62 Additional Resources, 64 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods Test, 64
Loan Applications, 33 Individual Appraisal Requirements, 34
5 Sketching Applications, 66
Master Appraisal Requirements, 34
Introduction, 66
Change Orders, 34
Sketching Tools and Materials, 66
Building Permits, 34
Sketching Straight Lines, 66
Contracts, 35
Sketching Circular Lines, 67
Completion Notices, 35
Measurement Lines and Proportions, 68
Construction Estimates, 36
Introduction to Multiview Sketches, 71
Construction Inspections, 37
Isometric Sketches, 73
Additional Resources, 40 Introduction to Construction Procedures Test, 40
3 Architectural Drafting Equipment
44
Orthographic Projection, 75 Multiview Projection, 75 Projection of Features from an Inclined Plane, 79
Introduction, 44
Additional Resources, 84
Drafting Supplies, 44
Sketching Applications Test, 84 v
vi
Contents
National Building Codes, 155
6 Architectural Lines and Lettering, 87 Introduction, 87
Basic Design Criteria for Building Planning, 156
Types of Lines, 87
Climatic and Geographic Design Criteria, 163
Line Techniques, 91
International Energy Conservation Code, 169
Lettering, 94
Additional Resources, 174
Hints for Professional Lettering, 97
Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test, 175
Additional Resources, 100 Architectural Lines and Lettering Test, 101
10 Room Relationships and Sizes, 177
7 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture, 104
Introduction, 177 The Floor Plan, 177
Introduction, 104
Living Area, 177
Architectural CADD Software Products, 104
Sleeping Area, 185
Productivity with CADD, 107
Service Areas, 190
The CADD Workstation, 107
Traffic Patterns, 203
Using CADD Templates, 107
Additional Resources, 207
Template Drawings on the Student CD, 108
Room Relationships and Sizes Test, 208
U.S. National CAD Standard, 108 Uniform Drawing System, 109
11 Exterior Design Factors, 209
Model and Sheet File-Naming Standards, 110
Introduction, 209
Sheet Identification, 113
Site Considerations, 209
File Management, 113
Elements of Design, 211
Sheet Organization, 113
Principles of Design, 212
Schedules, 116
Floor Plan Styles, 214
Drafting Conventions, 116
Exterior Styles, 216
CADD Graphics, 117
Additional Resources, 230
Drawing on CADD Layers, 120
Exterior Design Factors Test, 230
CADD Plotting Guidelines, 125 Additional Resources, 135
12 Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction, 232
Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture Test, 135
Introduction, 232 Energy-Efficient Design, 232
SECTION 2 Residential Design 8 Construction Specifications, 141 Introduction, 141 Residential Description of Materials, 141
139
The LEED Program, 233 National Association of Home Builders Model Green Home Building, 235 Energy Star, 236
General Construction Specifications, 141
The EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian Home Builders’ Association, 236
Specifications for Residential Design, 146
Energy-Efficient Construction Practices, 237
Specifications for Commercial Construction, 146
Solar Energy Design, 237
Construction Documents, 149
Passive Solar Systems, 239
Additional Resources, 150
Envelope Design, 242
Construction Specifications Test, 150
Active Solar Systems, 242
9 Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design 152
Geothermal Systems, 244 Wind Energy, 246
Introduction, 152
Hydroelectric Power, 246
Green Building Guidelines, 152
Biopower, 246
Contents
vii
Healthy Architectural Design and Construction, 246
SECTION 4 The Floor Plan
309
Additional Resources, 251
16 Floor Plan Symbols, 311
Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test, 251
Introduction, 311 Wall Symbols, 311
SECTION 3 Site Planning 13 Site Orientation, 257 Introduction, 257 Terrain Orientation, 257 View Orientation, 257 Solar Orientation, 259 Wind Orientation, 260 Sound Orientation, 264 Additional Resources, 266 Site Orientation Test, 267
255
Wall Shading and Material Indications, 316 Door Symbol Representations, 318 Window Symbol Representations, 321 Schedules, 324 Cabinets, Fixtures, and Appliances on Floor Plans, 332 Common Sizes of Architectural Features, 337 Floor Plan Materials, 339 Stair Planning and Floor Plan Representation, 341 Hallways on Floor Plans, 345 Fireplaces on Floor Plans, 346 Solid Fuel–Burning Appliances, 350
14 Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements, 268
Room Titles on Floor Plans, 351 Other Floor Plan Symbols, 351
Introduction, 268
Conclusion, 354
Metes and Bounds System, 268
Additional Resources, 357
Rectangular Survey System, 268
Floor Plan Symbols Test, 358
Lot and Block System, 271 Site Plan Requirements, 272
17 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes, 360
Topography, 272
Introduction, 360
Drawing Site Plans, 274
Aligned Dimensions, 360
Grading Plan Features, 275
Floor Plan Dimensions, 360
Site Analysis Plan, 277
Placing Exterior Dimensions, 360
Subdivision Plans, 280
Placing Interior Dimensions, 364
Planned Unit Development, 281
Standard Feature Dimensions, 364
Metrics in Site Planning, 281
Omitting Dimensions Established by the Foundation, 365
Additional Resources, 284
Dimensioning Arc and Circular Floor Plan Features, 366
Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements Test, 284
Common Sizes of Architectural Features, 367
15 Site Plan Layout, 285 Introduction, 285 Site Design Considerations, 286 Rural Residential Fire Department Access and Site Planning, 287 Laying Out Property Lines, 288 Steps in Site Plan Layout, 289 Site Plan Drawing Checklist, 290
Masonry Veneer on the Floor Plan, 369 Concrete-Block and Structural Masonry Construction on the Floor Plan, 369 Solid Concrete Construction on the Floor Plan, 370 Floor Plan Notes and Specifications, 370 Designing Floor Plans Using Standard Construction Modules, 372 Using Metric Dimensions, 372 Additional Resources, 377 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes Test, 377
Drawing Contour Lines, 291 Drawing Profiles, 293
18 Floor Plan Layout, 379
Drawing Grading Plans, 294
Introduction, 379
Additional Resources, 303
Steps for Laying Out a Floor Plan, 379
Site Plan Layout Test, 303
Second-Floor Plan Layout, 392
viii
Contents
Basement Plan Layout, 394
Plumbing Plan Drawing Checklist, 478
Floor Plan Drawing Checklist, 398
Additional Resources,, 483
Additional Resources, 403
Plumbing Plans Test, 483
Floor Plan Layout Test, 403
21 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning, 485 Introduction, 485
SECTION 5 Supplemental Floor
Plan Drawings 19 Electrical Plans, 431
429
Central Forced-Air Systems, 485 Forced-Air Heating Plans, 486 Hot Water Systems, 490
Introduction, 431
Heat Pump Systems, 490
Electrical Terms and Definitions, 431
Zone Control Systems, 491
Electrical Circuit Design, 432
Radiant Heat, 492
Basic Electrical Design Recommendations, 433
Thermostats, 492
Home Automation, 434
Heat Recovery and Ventilation, 493
Electrical Design Considerations, 435
Exhaust Systems: Code Requirements, 495
Smoke Detectors, 437
Central Vacuum Systems, 495
Carbon Monoxide Alarms, 437
HVAC Symbols, 495
Universal Electrical Installations, 437
Universal HVAC Design, 497
Electrical Symbols, 439
HVAC Code Requirements, 498
Light Fixture Design and Placement, 443
Thermal Calculations for Heating/Cooling, 499
Reflected Ceiling Plans, 446
Steps in Filling Out the Residential Heating Data Sheet, 500
Electrical Schedules, 446
Steps in Filling Out the Residential Cooling Data Sheet, 506
Electrical Wiring Specifications, 447
HVAC Drawings, 511
Metrics in Electrical Installations, 448
HVAC Plan Drawing Checklist, 516
Steps in Drawing the Electrical Plan, 448
Additional Resources, 520
Drawing the Upper-Floor Electrical Plan, 449
Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Test, 520
Electrical Plan Drawing Checklist, 449 Additional Resources, 458 Electrical Plans Test, 459
SECTION 6 Roof Plans 22 Roof Plan Components, 527
20 Plumbing Plans, 461
Introduction, 527
Introduction, 461
Types of Roof Plans, 527
Plumbing Terms and Definitions, 462
Common Roof Terms, 527
Sizing of Plumbing Piping, 464
Roof Shapes, 533
Universal Plumbing Installations, 464
Roofing Materials, 539
Plumbing Schedules, 466
Roof Ventilation and Access, 543
Plumbing Drawings, 466
Additional Resources, 545
Water Systems, 466
Roof Plan Components Test, 545
Drainage and Vent Systems, 469 Isometric Plumbing Drawings, 470
23 Roof Plan Layout, 547
Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems, 471
Introduction, 547
Sewage Disposal, 472
Representing Roof Plan Components, 547
Fire Sprinkler Systems, 474
Representing Structural Materials, 553
Metrics in Plumbing, 474
Representing Nonstructural Material, 554
Adding Plumbing Information to the Floor Plan, 475
Dimensions, 557
Commercial Plumbing Drawings, 475
Annotation, 557
525
Contents
ix
Drawing Gable Roof Plans, 558
28 Structural Components of Framed Construction, 654
Drawing Hip Roof Plans, 559 Drawing Dutch Hip Roof Plans, 560
Introduction, 654
Roof Plan Checklist, 563
Floor Construction, 654
Roof Plan Layout Test, 563
Framed Wall Construction, 664 Roof Construction, 672
SECTION 7 Elevations
565
Additional Resources, 683 Structural Components Test, 684
24 Introduction to Elevations, 567 29 Design Criteria for Structural Loading, 685
Introduction, 567 Major Considerations of Drawing Elevations, 567
Introduction, 685
Representing Materials in Elevation, 572
Types of Loads, 685
Additional Resources, 587
Load Design, 688
Introduction to Elevations Test, 588
Load Distribution, 690 Design Criteria for Structural Loading Test, 692
25 Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques, 589 30 Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables, 694
Introduction, 589 Layout, 589
Introduction, 694
Drawing Finished-Quality Lines Manually, 593
Determining Wood Characteristics, 694
Annotation, 595
Determining Size and Span, 694
Drawing Roof Intersections, 596
Working with Engineered Lumber, 699
Drawing Irregular Shapes, 597
Additional Resources, 706
Projecting Grades, 600
Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables Test, 706
Elevation Checklist, 606
31 Determining Beam Sizes, 708
Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques Test, 607
Introduction, 708 Structural Lumber, 708
26 Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout, 608
Loading Reactions of Wood Members, 710
Introduction, 608
Methods of Beam Design, 712
Types of Millwork, 608
Sizing Wood Beams Using Standard Formulas, 714
Cabinets, 612
Wood Adjustment Factors, 718
Cabinet Elevations and Layout, 617
Review, 719
Bathroom Cabinet Layout, 623
Sizing Beams Using Span Tables, 720
Cabinet Elevations Checklist, 623
Sizing Laminated Beams, 720
Additional Resources, 627
Working with Engineered Beams, 720
Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout Test, 627
Simple Beam with a Load Concentrated at the Center, 721 Simple Beam with a Load Concentrated at Any Point, 723 Cantilevered Beams with a Uniform Load, 723
SECTION 8 Framing Methods and Plans
629
27 Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods, 631 Introduction, 631
Additional Resources, 725 Determining Beam Sizes Test, 725
32 Drawing Framing Plans, 727
Wood Framing Methods, 631
Introduction, 727
Energy-Efficient Framing Methods, 638
Major Components Represented on a Framing Plan, 727
Green Construction Goals, 649 Additional Resources, 652
Resisting Lateral Loads Using the Prescriptive Path of the Code, 735
Framing Methods Test, 653
Completing a Framing Plan, 751
x
Contents
Roof Framing Plans, 753
Types of Sections, 853
Roof Framing Plan Checklist, 759
Drawing Scale, 856
Floor Framing Plans, 759
Representing and Locating Materials, 858
Roof Framing Plan Checklist, 762
Sectioning Basics Test, 861
Framing Plan Checklist, 764
37 Section Layout, 862
Additional Resources, 770
Introduction, 862
Drawing Framing Plans Test, 770
Stage 1: Evaluate Needs, 862
SECTION 9 Foundation Plans
771
33 Foundation Systems, 773
Stage 2: Lay Out the Section, 862 Stage 3: Finished-Quality Lines for Structural Members Only, 864 Stage 4: Drawing Finishing Materials, 867
Introduction, 773
Stage 5: Dimensioning, 869
Soil Considerations, 773
Stage 6: Lettering Notes, 870
Types of Foundations, 777
Stage 7: Evaluating Your Work, 871
Dimensioning Foundation Components, 798
Section—Trusses Checklist, 871
Additional Resources, 800
Section Layout Test, 874
Foundation Systems Test, 801
38 Alternative Layout Techniques, 876
34 Floor Systems and Foundation Support, 803
Introduction, 876
Introduction, 803
Floor Joist/Foundation, 876
On-Grade Foundations, 803
Post-and-Beam Foundations, 879
Crawl Space Floor Systems, 814
Basement with Concrete Slab, 881
Additional Resources, 826
Conventional (Stick) Roof Framing, 886
Floor Systems and Foundation Support Test, 827
Section—Rafters Checklist, 892 Garage/Residence—Section, 892
35 Foundation Plan Layout, 828
Alternative Layout Techniques Test, 895
Introduction, 828 Concrete Slab Foundation Layout, 828
39 Stair Construction and Layout, 901
Slab Foundation Plan Checklist, 831
Introduction, 901
Foundation Plan with Joist Construction, 831
Stair Terminology, 901
Foundation Plan with Joists Checklist, 835
Determining Rise and Run, 902
Standard Foundation with Post-and-Beam Floor System, 835
Straight Stair Layout, 903
Foundation Plan with Post-and-Beam Checklist, 840
Open Stairway Layout, 906
Combination Slab and Crawl Space Plans for a Partial Basement, 840
U-Shaped Stairs, 909
Checklist for Foundation Plans with Partial Slab and Floor Joists, 844
Exterior Stairs, 910
Full Basement, 844
Additional Resources, 913
Foundation Plan Layout Test, 849
Stair Construction and Layout Test, 913
SECTION 10 Wall Sections and Details 36 Sectioning Basics, 853
L-Shaped Stairs, 910 Section—Stair Checklist, 911
851
40 Fireplace Construction and Layout, 914 Introduction, 914 Fireplace Alternatives, 914
Introduction, 853
Fireplace Terms, 915
Section Origination, 853
Drawing the Fireplace Section, 921
Section Alignment, 853
Section—Masonry Fireplace Checklist, 926
Contents
xi
Fireplace Elevations, 928
45 Structural Drafting, 1062
Additional Resources, 931
Introduction, 1062
Fireplace Construction and Layout Test, 931
Plan the Drawing, 1062 Procedure—From Calculations to Working Drawing, 1062
SECTION 11 Presentation Drawings
and Renderings
933
Order of Precedence, 1065 Structural Drafting Project, 1066
41 Presentation Drawings, 935 Introduction, 935
BOXED FEATURES
Types of Presentation Drawings, 935 Methods of Presentation, 936
Going Green
Rendering Procedure for Drawings, 941
An Introduction to Green Design, 12
Presentation Drawings Test, 948
Sustainable Design Opportunity, 130 GreenFormat, 148
SECTION 12 Commercial Drafting
951
Green Codes, 173 Green Design Considerations, 207
42 Building Codes and Commercial Design, 953
Green Styles, 228
Introduction, 953
An Overview, 233
Exploring Building Codes, 953
The Ultimate Urban Green Home, 248
Determining Design Categories, 955
Environmentally Sound Landscaping Practices, 265
Using the Codes, 971
Designing an Ecosystem, 301
Additional Resources, 973
Windows and Energy Loss, 325
Building Codes and Commercial Design Test, 974
The International Energy Conservation Code, 396 Living Smart, 400
43 Common Commercial Construction Materials, 975 Introduction, 975 Wood, 975 Concrete Block, 979 Poured Concrete, 983 Steel Construction, 988 Common Connection Methods, 995 Additional Resources, 1005 Common Commercial Construction Materials Test, 1007
44 Commercial Construction Projects, 1009 Introduction, 1009 Office Practice, 1009 Drawing Organization, 1011 Site Drawings, 1013 Architectural Drawings, 1017
Going Green, 404 Energy Conservation, 434 Electricity Generation from Wind Power, 456 Energy Conservation, 465 Solar Hot Water, 473 Indoor Water Use, 481 Improving Indoor Air Quality, 509 Green Roofing, 544 Green Applications of Exterior Elevations, 587 Green Framing, 637 Environmentally Friendly Design and Construction, 682 Green Foundations, 800 Green Floor Systems, 826 Goals of an Energy-Efficient Fireplace, 922 Green Design Considerations, 1003
Structural Drawings, 1038
CADD Applications
Electrical Drawings, 1050
CADD Applications, 56
Fixture Drawings, 1052
Drafting Archives, 60
Mechanical Drawings, 1054 Plumbing Drawings, 1055
Using CADD for Conceptual Design and Presentation Sketches, 80
Commercial Construction Projects Test, 1061
Drawing Lines, 92
xii
Contents
CADD Lettering, 97
CADD Applications, 392
The Future Is Here with CADD, 106
CADD Applications, 392
Architectural CADD Symbols, 119
CADD Applications, 394
This Is What the Future Looks Like: Web-Based Architectural Collaboration, 129
Using CADD to Draw Floor Plans, 399
Using Surveyor’s Units, 289
Drawing Electrical Symbols with CADD, 454
Using CADD to Draw Site Plans, 296
Drawing Plumbing Symbols with CADD, 479
CADD Applications, 311
CADD in the HVAC Industry, 517
CADD Applications, 316
Drawing Roof Plans with CADD, 561
Drawing Floor Plan Walls Using CADD, 317
CADD Elevations and Symbols, 586
U.S. National CAD Standard for Schedules, 330
CADD Applications, 589
Placing Material Symbols with CADD, 340
CADD Applications, 600
Designing and Drawing Stairs with CADD, 345
Options for Creating Cabinet Elevations, 621
CADD Floor Plan Symbols, 354
Drawing Millwork and Cabinet Elevations with CADD, 625
Placing Architectural Dimensions with CADD, 374
Drawing Framing Plans with CADD, 769
CADD Applications, 381
Using CADD to Draw Foundation Plans, 847
CADD Applications, 383
Drawing Sections and Details with CADD, 872
CADD Applications, 384
Drawing Stairs with CADD, 912
CADD Applications, 385 CADD Applications, 385
Drawing Fireplace Sections and Elevations with CADD, 930
CADD Applications, 386
Using CADD to Make Presentation Drawings, 948
CADD Applications, 387
The Code and Computers, 973
CADD Applications, 387
Commercial Drawings, 1058
CADD Applications, 431
CADD Applications, 388 CADD Applications, 389 CADD Applications, 390
Glossary, 1095
CADD Applications, 390
Index, 1113
Preface For nearly 25 years, students have relied on Architectural Drafting and Design for easy-to-read, comprehensive coverage of architectural drafting and design instruction that complies with and reinforces architectural, engineering, and construction industry standards and practices. This sixth edition of Architectural Drafting and Design is a practical, comprehensive textbook that is easy to use and understand. The content can be used as presented by following a logical sequence of learning activities for residential and light commercial architectural drafting and design, or the chapters can be rearranged to accommodate alternate formats for traditional or individualized instruction.
AMERICAN DESIGN DRAFTING ASSOCIATION (ADDA) APPROVED PUBLICATION The content of this text is considered a fundamental component to the design-drafting profession by the American Design Drafting Association. This publication covers topics and related material, as stated in the ADDA Curriculum Certification Standards and the ADDA Certified Drafter Examination Review Guide. Although this publication is not conclusive, with respect to ADDA standards, it should be considered a key reference tool in pursuit of a professional design-drafting career.
ABOUT THE INTERNATIONAL CODE COUNCIL The International Code Council (ICC) is a nonprofit membership association dedicated to protecting the health, safety, and welfare of people by creating better buildings and safer communities. The mission of ICC is to provide the highest quality codes, standards, products, and services for all concerned with the safety and performance of the building environment. ICC is the publisher of the family of the International Codes® (I-Codes®), a single set of comprehensive and coordinated model
codes. This unified approach to building codes enhances safety, efficiency, and affordability in the construction of buildings. The Code Council is also dedicated to innovation, sustainability, and energy efficiency. Code Council subsidiary, ICC Evaluation Service, issues Evaluation Reports for innovative products and reports of Sustainable Attributes Verification and Evaluation (SAVE). Headquarters: 500 New Jersey Avenue, NW, 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20001-2070 District Offices: Birmingham, AL; Chicago. IL; Los Angeles, CA 1-888-422-7233 www.iccsafe.org
APPROACH Architectural Drafting and Design provides a practical and realistic approach to solving problems that are encountered in the architectural design world.
Practical Architectural Drafting and Design provides a practical approach to architectural drafting as it relates to current standard practices. The emphasis on standardization is an excellent and necessary foundation of drafting training as well as for implementing a common approach to drafting nationwide. After students become professional drafters, this text will serve as a valuable desk reference.
Realistic Chapters contain professional examples, illustrations, step-by-step layout techniques, drafting problems, and related tests. The examples demonstrate recommended drafting presentation with actual architectural drawings used for reinforcement. The correlated text explains drafting practices and provides useful information for knowledge building and skill development. Step-by-step layout methods provide a logical approach to beginning and finishing complete sets of working drawings. xiii
xiv
Practical Approach to Problem Solving The professional architectural drafter’s responsibility is to convert architects’, engineers’, and designers’ sketches and ideas into formal drawings. This textbook explains how to prepare formal drawings from design sketches by providing the learner with basic guidelines for drafting layout and minimum design and code requirements in a knowledge-building format. One concept is learned before the next is introduced. The concepts and skills learned from one chapter to the next allow students to prepare complete sets of working drawings for residential and light commercial construction projects. Problem assignments are presented in order of difficulty and in a manner that provides students with a wide variety of architectural drafting experiences.
Real-World Architectural Problems The problems are presented as preliminary designs or design sketches in a manner that is consistent with actual architectural office practices. It is not enough for students to duplicate drawings from given assignments; they must be able to think through the process of drawing development with a foundation based on how drawing and construction components are put into practice. The goals and objectives of each problem assignment are consistent with recommended evaluation criteria based on the progression of learning activities. The drafting problems and tests recommend that work be done using drafting skills on actual drafting materials with either professional manual or computer-aided drafting equipment. A problem solution or test answer should be accurate and demonstrate proper drafting practice.
FEATURES OF THE TEXTBOOK Major features of this textbook that guide you through the world of architectural design and drafting include realistic application of the information presented throughout each chapter, professional illustrations of each concept to be explored, CADD applications of each type of working drawing, exploration of the 2009 building codes and standards produced by the International Code Council, the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED).
Applications Special emphasis has been placed on providing realistic drafting problems. Problems are presented as design sketches or preliminary drawings in a manner that is consistent with architectural practices. The problems have
Preface
been supplied by architects and architectural designers. Each problem solution is based on the step-by-step layout procedures provided in the chapter discussions. Problems are given in order of complexity to expose students to a variety of drafting experiences. Problems require students to go through the same thought and decision-making processes that a professional drafter faces daily, including scale and paper size selection, view layout, dimension placement, section placement, and many other activities. Problems can be solved using manual or computer-aided drafting, as determined by individual course guidelines. Chapter tests provide complete coverage of each chapter and can be used for student evaluation or as review.
Illustrations Drawings and photos are used liberally throughout this textbook to strengthen the concepts presented. Fullcolor treatment enhances the clarity. Abundant stepby-step illustrations take students through the detailed stages of the drafting process for each application. The step-by-step illustrations are created using computeraided drafting for the highest accuracy and quality.
Computer-Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) CADD is presented as a valuable tool that has revolutionized the architectural design and drafting industry. The complete discussion of CADD introduces the workstation environment, terminology, drafting techniques, and sample drawings. Although individual course guidelines may elect to solve architectural drafting problems using either computer-aided or manual drafting equipment, the concepts remain the same, with the only difference being the method of presentation.
Construction Techniques and Building Codes Construction techniques differ throughout the country. This text clearly acknowledges the difference in construction methods and introduces the student to the format used to make a complete set of working drawings for each method of construction. Students may learn to prepare drawings from each construction method or, more commonly, for the specific construction techniques that are used in their locality. The problem assignments are designed to provide drawings that involve a variety of construction alternatives. To provide oversight of the wide range of construction methods and materials used throughout the country,
Preface
the 2009 model codes written by the International Code Council (ICC) are referenced throughout this textbook. The major ICC codes addressed in this textbook include the International Residential Code (IRC) in Chapter 1 through Chapter 41 and the International Building Code (IBC) in Chapter 42 through Chapter 45. Although many municipalities have adopted their own versions of these codes, the use of these model codes provides a firm background before exploring local variations.
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NEW TO THE SIXTH EDITION Architectural Drafting and Design, Sixth Edition, provides the following improvements over the fifth edition.
Codes and Standards Compliance Each chapter is based on information provided by the following major industry leaders: ●
Additional Resources At the end of most chapters, an Additional Resources section provides students with information on additional resources related to chapter topics. This section lists Web sites for companies or organizations that offer materials, services, and standards related to the chapter content. The following is an example of how the Additional Resources are presented in the textbook:
Chapter Tests Chapter tests are found at the end of each chapter. Select the Chapter Tests link on the Student CD to access chapter tests using Microsoft Word. The chapter tests allow you to review or test your knowledge of the related chapter content, depending on your course objectives. Open the related link and answer the questions electronically, unless otherwise directed by your instructor.
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2009 editions of the International Residential Code and the International Building Code published by the International Code Council. National CAD Standards Version 4. MasterFormat and UniFormat published by The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC). LEED rating system published by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). Model Green Home Building Guidelines (MGHBG) developed by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) and the International Code Council (ICC), which publishes the International Residential Code (IRC).
Going Green Protecting the environment is one of the most important worldwide issues today. A new flagship feature called Going Green is found throughout this textbook, providing current, practical, and experimental energy-efficient
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architectural design and construction techniques that result in a significant reduction in energy consumption. As the building industry grows to meet the demands of our increasing population, we must take care of the environment and allow for current and future development. As a student, it is very important for you to learn what is available today and to find ways to improve energy efficiency in architectural design and construction into the future in an effort to protect the earth. National and local programs have been established to meet this need. A leading program is often referred to as green building. The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is a key organization developed to promote building design and construction that is environmentally responsible and healthy, while allowing construction to remain profitable. Modern advances in building construction are available to designers, builders, and owners who want to “build green” and make the most of environmental protection in the architectural and construction industries. The following is part of one of the Going Green features found in this edition:
Preface
by a CD icon in appropriate locations throughout this textbook. The supplemental reference material provides optional learning opportunities. The supplemental material ranges from commonly known topics available for students desiring a review, to advanced information that is beyond the scope of this textbook for students interested in further exploration. The supplemental chapter readings are identified within chapter content in this manner:
CADD Applications CADD Applications is a special boxed feature that provides a variety of real-world examples, professional presentations, software applications, tips, standards, and procedures used with computer-aided design and drafting. CADD Applications were first introduced in the fourth edition but have been revised, improved, and expanded due to the rapidly changing CADD industry. CADD Applications in the sixth edition range from one-sentence statements to multipage content. The following is an example of part of one of the CADD Applications found in the sixth edition:
Note Supplemental Chapter Readings Students are directed to supplemental chapter readings that are found on the Student CD and are identified
The Note feature is provided throughout this textbook to provide brief information related to the specific content where the note is found. The following is an example of a sixth edition note:
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NOTE: Although both groups have produced “guidelines,”
many municipalities are starting to move beyond the recommendation stage and are incorporating portions of these guidelines into their design and building requirements. It is expected that with the 2012 edition of the ICC codes, the NGBS-ICC 700 will move from guidelines to law. Verify with the municipality that will govern each specific building project to determine if specific aspects of a green guideline are required. The ICC is also planning to develop a green building code for buildings that are not covered by the NGBS-ICC 700. This code will most likely be the International Green Construction Code (IGCC).
THE STUDENT CD Although not new to the sixth edition, the Student CD has new and improved content. A student CD icon found throughout this textbook guides students to features found on the CD. Refer to the Prologue for a complete description of each component and how to use the Student CD. The following features are found on the Student CD: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Supplemental Chapter Readings Step-by-Step Layout Drawings Chapter Tests Drawing Checklists Drawing Problems Drawing Templates Architectural Blocks and Symbols Related Web Links Workbook Video Clips of Major Concepts Review Questions
ORGANIZING YOUR COURSE Architectural drafting is the primary emphasis of many technical drafting curricula; however, many other programs offer only an exploratory course in this field. This textbook is appropriate for either application, as its content reflects the common elements in any architectural drafting curriculum.
Prerequisites An interest in architectural drafting, plus basic arithmetic, written communication, and reading skills are
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the only prerequisites required. Basic drafting skills and layout techniques are presented as appropriate. Students with an interest in architectural drafting who begin using this text will end with the knowledge and skills required to prepare complete sets of working drawings for residential and light commercial architectural construction projects.
Fundamental through Advanced Coverage This textbook can be used in an architectural drafting curriculum that covers the basics of residential architecture in a one-, two-, or three-semester sequence. In this application, students use the chapters directly associated with the preparation of a complete set of working drawings for a residence, where the emphasis is on the use of fundamental skills and techniques. The rest of the textbook can remain as a reference for future study or as a valuable desk reference. This textbook can also be used in the comprehensive architectural drafting program where a four- to six-semester sequence of residential and light commercial architectural drafting and design is required. In this application, students can expand on the primary objective of preparing a complete set of working drawings for the design of residential and light commercial projects with the coverage of any one or all of the following areas: energy-efficient construction techniques, solar and site orientation design applications, heating and cooling thermal performance calculations, structural load calculations, and presentation drawings.
Section Length Chapters are presented in individual learning segments that begin with elementary concepts and build until each chapter provides complete coverage of every topic. Instructors can choose to present lectures in short, 15-minute discussions or divide each chapter into 40- to 50-minute lectures.
Drafting Equipment and Materials Identification and use of manual and computer-aided drafting equipment is outlined. Students need an inventory of equipment available for use as listed in the chapters. Professional drafting materials are explained, and it is recommended that students prepare problem solutions using actual drafting materials.
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SUPPLEMENTS
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Instructor Resources Spend Less Time Planning and More Time Teaching With Delmar, Cengage Learning’s Instructor Resources to accompany Architectural Drafting and Design, 6th Edition, preparing for class and evaluating students has never been easier! This invaluable instructor CD-ROM, titled e.resource, allows you anywhere, anytime access to all of your resources. (ISBN: 1–4354–8163–1) Features contained in e.resource include: ●
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Syllabus: Lesson plans created by chapter. You have the option of using these lesson plans with your own course information. (http://www.worldclasslearning .com) Chapter Hints: Objectives and teaching hints that provide the basis for a lecture outline that helps you to present concepts and material. Key points and concepts can be graphically highlighted for student retention. PowerPoint Presentation: Slides for each chapter of the text provide the basis for a lecture outline that helps you to present concepts and material. Key points and concepts can be graphically highlighted for student retention.
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Exam View Computerized Test Bank: More than 800 questions of varying levels of difficulty are provided in true/false and multiple-choice formats so you can assess student comprehension. Video and Animation Resources: These AVI files graphically depict the execution of key concepts and commands in drafting, design, and AutoCAD and let you bring multimedia presentations into the classroom.
Solutions Manual A solutions manual is available with answers to endof-chapter review questions and solutions to end-ofchapter problems. Solutions are also provided for the Workbook problems. (ISBN: 1–4354–8165–8)
Videos Two video sets, containing four 20-minute tapes each, are available. The videos correspond to the topics addressed in the text: ● ●
Set #1: ISBN 0–7668–3094–2 Set #2: ISBN 0–7668–3095–0
Video sets are also available on interactive video CD-ROM. ● ●
Set #1: ISBN 0–7668–3116–7 Set #2: ISBN 0–7668–3117–5
Acknowledgments Preface The authors would like to thank and acknowledge the many professionals who reviewed the sixth edition of Architectural Drafting and Design. A special acknowledgment is due the instructors who reviewed the chapters in detail.
Sharon Bagby Texas State Technical College, Sweetwater, Texas
2009 International Residential Code and the International Building Code. Portions of this publication reproduce text from the 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, with the permission of the publisher, the International Conference of Building Officials, under license from the International Code Council Inc., Falls Church, Virginia. The 2009 International Residential Code is a copyrighted work of the International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.
Amanda Boyle Texas State Technical College, Marshall, Texas
Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. (www.mascord.com)
Rebecca R. Brining Virginia College, Mobile, Alabama
For more than 20 years, a deep-rooted commitment to architectural excellence has made Alan Mascord a trusted name among builders, consumers, and competitors. To date, well over 50,000 Mascord homes have been built across the United States, Canada, and in most developed countries around the world. Alan Mascord Design Associates provides more than 600 stock home plans in a wide range of architectural styles, from single-family homes to multifamily dwellings, including detached garage plans. An active custom design business serves clients with specific and unique requirements, and Efficient Living Services provides builders with tools and resources for building green. Mascord Efficient Living (ISBN-10 0–9788–1131–3) is a guide to the philosophies and practicalities of green building for builders and consumers. Presenting more than 50 home plans detailed to meet nationally recognized green building standards, this book explains the elements to consider before, during, and after construction. Special thanks are given to Jon Epley and Gary Higginbotham for their professional support for this edition in providing content, photographs, and illustrations for several Going Green features found throughout this textbook. Mascord Design Associates also provided several sets of working drawings used for problems in Chapter 18.
Reviewers
Clark Cory Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana Tom Felton Western Technical College, La Crosse, Wisconsin Andy Jacobs West-Oak High School, Westminster, South Carolina David K. Landry Louisiana Technical College, Lafayette, Louisiana Edward J. Rother Cerritos College, Norwalk, California
Contributing Companies The quality of this textbook is also improved by the support and contributions from architects, designers, engineers, and vendors. The list of contributors is extensive and acknowledgment is given at each illustration. The following individuals and companies gave an extraordinary amount of support with technical information and art for this edition.
International Code Council (ICC) Special thanks goes to Hamid Naderi, Vice President of Product Development of the International Code Council (ICC), for reviewing the content of this text related to the ICC codes and for allowing us to use text from the
3D.DZYN Special thanks to Ron Palma, 3D.DZYN, for providing loyal feedback related to professional architectural xix
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Acknowledgments
CADD applications. Palma has more than 20 years of experience in the architectural industry as a drafter, designer, lead project designer, and, most recently, as a CAD manager implementing Architectural Desktop for a residential design firm. He is an Autodesk Certified Instructor, trainer, and support technician for an Autodesk reseller. Palma has professional experience as an educator at two community colleges and is a U.S. Army certified instructor. In addition, He taught the Instructor Trainer’s Course for the U.S. Army and has taught courses at Autodesk University. Palma is the coauthor of architectural drafting and AutoCAD books.
Res Communis (www.rescommunis.org) A design collective started by Garrett and Dustin Moon, Res Communis is dedicated to the creation and dissemination of “good” design for all, not just for those who can afford it. Their goal is to contribute to the solving of problems, not the concentration and collection of intellectual property. To that end, every idea and design created is released to the public to use and refine for the good of all. Garrett and Dustin Moon provided the content and illustrations for the Going Green content in Chapter 12. The Going Green feature titled The Ultimate Urban Green Home is the flagship of the Going Green features found in this textbook, demonstrating perfect, sustainable, and selfsufficient design using super-energy-efficient, environmentally safe materials, and clean energy technologies.
Construction Specifications Institute (www.csinet.org) Information used in this text is from MasterFormat and UniFormat and is published by The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC), and is used with permission from CSI, 2008. The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314 800-689-2900; 703-684-0300
Bryan Higgins Architect Bryan Higgins, AIA, LEED AP, from Portland, Oregon, provided a set of working drawings and photographs of his design of one of the winning homes in the Living Smart program, in Portland, Oregon. The Living Smart program design competition created a catalog of affordable home plans designed for narrow lots, called small-footprint houses. His Living Smart small-footprint design is used in Problem 18–1. Higgins also provided the content for the Going Green feature in Chapter 18 of this textbook.
Leann Collins and Laura Numbers Leann Collins and Laura Numbers contributed a complete set of working drawings and related photographs for a small-footprint residential architectural design. This small footprint is one of the winning homes in the Living Smart program, in Portland, Oregon, and the design is used in Problem 18–3.
TKP Architects, PC, Golden, Colorado (www.keating-partnership.com) Thanks to Erin Elston with TKP Architects for the contribution of residential architectural plans and impressive photographs.
DeSantis Landscapes Dean DeSantis, CLP, President of DeSantis Landscapes, provided the content and photographs used in a Going Green feature found in Chapter 12.
Southwest Windpower (www.windenergy.com) Michael French, Graphics Coordinator for Southwest Windpower, provided the content, photographs, and illustrations for the Going Green feature in Chapter 19.
Autodesk, Inc. (www.autodesk.com) Catherine Palmer, Marketing Manager, AEC Initiatives provided the Going Green feature content in Chapter 7. As a world leader in design innovation technologies, Autodesk helps to empower architecture, engineering, and construction professionals with cost-effective designs and delivers high-performing, resource-efficient buildings and infrastructure.
Solatube International, Inc. (www.solatube.com) Bridget Palitz, Vice President of The McRae Agency, Public Relations for Solatube International, Inc., provided the content, photographs, and illustrations for a Going Green feature in Chapter 16.
National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) (www.nfrc.org) The NFRC provided content and illustrations for a Going Green feature in Chapter 16.
Engineering Drawing and Design Approximately 180 illustrations are reproduced from Engineering Drawing and Design, by David A. Madsen, David P. Madsen, and J. Lee Turpin from Delmar Publishers.
Acknowledgments
Step-by-Step Model Home Plan Drawings The authors greatly appreciate the efforts of David P. Madsen, Tereasa Jefferis, and Connie Wilmon for their work with the step-by-step drawings found in layout chapters. In addition, we would like to thank: Janice Jefferis for her photo contributions Ken Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects and Associates, Inc. Richard Wallace, Southern Forest Products Association APA—The Engineered Wood Association Richard Branham, National Concrete Masonry Association Pamela Allsebrook, California Redwood Association Eric Brown, Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Kathleen M. Arnelt, Louisiana-Pacific Corporation Richard R. Chapman and Robert C. Guzikowski, Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Inc. Stephen Fuller, Incorporated Steven Merrill, Mechanical Designer Havlin Kemp, VLMK Consulting Engineers Western Wood Products Association Rajni Pisharody and the staff at Glyph Internaional for their excellent work on the production of this text. Julie Searls for her excellent mastery of the English language and skill as a copy editor.
To the Student Architectural Drafting and Design is designed for you, the student. The development and format of the presentation have been tested in conventional and individualized classroom instruction. The information presented is based on the National CAD Standards, drafting room practice, and trends in the architectural design industry. This textbook is the only architectural drafting reference that you need. Use the textbook as a learning tool while in school, and take it along as a desk reference when you enter the profession. The amount of written text is complete but kept to a minimum. Examples and illustrations are used extensively. Drafting is a graphic language, and most drafting students learn best by observation of examples. Here are a few helpful hints for using this textbook: 1. Read the text. The text content is intentionally
designed for easy reading. Content is given in as few, easy-to-understand words as possible. You should
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do the reading because the content can help you to understand the drawings clearly. 2. Look carefully at the examples. The figure examples
are presented in a manner that is consistent with architectural drafting standards and the U.S. National CAD Standard. Look at the examples carefully in an attempt to understand specific applications. If you are able to understand why something is done a certain way, it will be easier for you to apply the concepts to the drawing problems in this textbook and to the similar issues when working as an architectural drafter. Drafting is a precise technology based on standards and guidelines. The goal of a drafter is to prepare drawings that are easy to read and understand. There are times when rules need to be altered to handle a unique situation. Rely on judgment based on your knowledge of accepted standards in these situations. Drafting is often like a puzzle—there is often more than one way to solve a problem. 3. Use the text as a reference. Few drafters know every-
thing about drafting standards, techniques, and concepts. Always be ready to use this textbook as the reference if you need to verify how a specific application is handled. Become familiar with the definitions and use of technical terms. It is difficult to memorize everything in this text, but architectural drafting applications should become second nature as you gain experience. 4. Learn each concept and skill before you continue to
the next. The text is presented in a logical learning sequence. Each chapter is designed for learning development, and chapters are sequenced so drafting knowledge grows from one chapter to the next. Problem assignments are presented in the same learning sequence as the chapter content and also reflect progressive levels of difficulty. 5. Practice. Development of good manual and comput-
er-aided drafting skills depend to a large extent on practice. Some individuals have an inherent talent for manual drafting, and some people are readily compatible with computers. If you fit into either group, great! If you have difficulty, then practice is all you may need. Practice manual drafting skills to help improve the quality of your drafting presentation, and practice computer skills to improve your skills and efficiency with communication and drafting. 6. Use sketches or preliminary drawings. When you are
drawing manually or with a computer, the proper use of a sketch or preliminary drawing can save a lot of time in the long run. Prepare a layout sketch or preliminary layout for each problem. This preliminary
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step gives you a chance to organize thoughts about drawing scale, view selection, dimension and note placement, and sheet size. After you become an experienced drafter, you may be able to design a sheet layout in your head, but until then, you should use sketches. 7. Use professional equipment and materials. For the best possible learning results and skill development, use the professional drafting equipment, supplies, and materials that are recommended.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS Alan Jefferis Alan Jefferis is Faculty Emeritus of Drafting Technology at the Autodesk Premier Training Center at Clackamas Community College in Oregon City, Oregon. He was an architectural drafting and CAD instructor at Clackamas Community College for over 30 years. He also taught at Mt. Hood Community College in Gresham, Oregon, for four years. In addition to community college experience, Jefferis had eight years of experience drawing for architects, engineers, and residential designers prior to working for 26 years as a professional building designer as the principal of Residential Designs, a design firm specializing in custom, energy-efficient homes. He is also a former member of the American Institute of Building Designers. In addition to his design work, he is a coauthor of several standard reference works from Cengage Delmar Learning including Residential Design Drafting and Detailing; Print Reading for Architectural Construction Technology; Commercial Drafting and Detailing; and AutoCAD® for Architecture.
David A. Madsen David A. Madsen is the President of Madsen Designs Inc. (www.madsendesigns.com). Madsen is Faculty Emeritus of Drafting Technology and the Autodesk Premier
Acknowledgments
Training Center at Clackamas Community College in Oregon City, Oregon. He was an instructor and department chairperson at Clackamas Community College for nearly 30 years. In addition to community college experience, Madsen was a drafting technology instructor at Centennial High School in Gresham, Oregon. He is a former member of the American Design and Drafting Association (ADDA) Board of Directors, and was honored by the ADDA with Director Emeritus status at the annual conference in 2005. He has extensive experience in mechanical drafting, architectural design and drafting, and building construction. Madsen holds a Master of Education degree in Vocational Administration and a Bachelor of Science degree in Industrial Education. He is the author of Engineering Drawing and Design; Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing; Print Reading for Engineering and Manufacturing Technology; and coauthor of Architectural Drafting and Design, and Print Reading for Architecture and Construction Technology, as well as many other drafting and CAD titles.
David P. Madsen David P. Madsen is the Vice President of Madsen Designs Inc. (www.madsendesigns.com), and operates the Madsen Designs Inc. consulting service. He has been a professional design drafter since 1996, and has extensive experience in a variety of drafting, design, and engineering disciplines. Madsen has provided drafting and computer-aided design and drafting instruction to secondary and postsecondary learners since 1999, and has considerable curriculum, and program coordination and development experience. He holds a Master of Science degree in Educational Policy, Foundations, and Administrative Studies with a specialization in Postsecondary, Adult, and Continuing Education; a Bachelor of Science degree in Technology Education; and an Associate of Science degree in General Studies and Drafting Technology. Madsen is also the coauthor of Engineer Drawing and Design and has authored and coauthored other drafting and CAD titles.
Prologue Preface HOW TO USE THE STUDENT CD
Chapter Tests
Pick one of the following links to open. The content of each link is described below.
Chapter tests are found at the end of each chapter. Pick the Chapter Tests link to access chapter tests using Microsoft Word. The chapter tests allow you to review or test your knowledge of the related chapter content, depending on your course objectives. Open the related link and answer the questions electronically, unless otherwise directed by your instructor.
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Architectural Blocks and Symbols
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Workbook
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Review Questions
Supplemental Chapter Readings Throughout this textbook, a Student CD icon guides you to chapter-related content provided for additional reading and research. The Supplemental Chapter Reading features found on the Student CD include chapter-related content, basic information, advanced content that is beyond the scope of the main textbook, and commonly used abbreviations.
Step-by-Step Layout Drawings Several chapters throughout this textbook use the same model home to describe step-by-step techniques for laying out drawings required in a set of residential working drawings. Click the Step-by-Step Drawings link to view Acrobat Portable Document Format (PDF) files of many of the textbook figures related to the step-by-step layout process. Use the files to display the figures on your computer screen, and to look more closely at the layout steps and details.
Drawing Checklists Drawing checklists are provided for the model home layout chapters throughout this textbook. The checklists allow you to check your work to be sure everything is included in the drawing that you are completing.
Drawing Problems The Chapter 18 drawing problems are found on the Student CD. These problems are identified in the textbook with a Student CD icon. The Chapter 18 drawing problems can be used for creating the floor plans of the selected or assigned house that continue throughout this textbook to create a set of working drawings.
Drawing Templates Select the Drawing Templates link to access a page containing a link to architectural and civil AutoCAD drawing template (.dwt) files. Use the Drawing Templates link and the available drawing template files to create new drawings, as a resource for drawing content, or for inspiration when developing your own templates. The architectural drafting templates are set up to allow you to prepare architectural drawings, whereas the civil drafting templates include preset civil drawing content for site plans and other civil drafting projects. Use the (U.S.) templates to draw using U.S. customary, or feet and inch, units. Use the (metric) templates to draw using metric units. Each template includes a variety
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of appropriate drawing settings and content, such as layers, layouts, and object styles. You can also use a utility such as DesignCenter, to add content from the drawing templates to your own drawings and templates. Consult with your instructor to determine which template drawing and drawing content to use.
Architectural Blocks and Symbols The Architectural Symbols link provides access to an AutoCAD drawing (.dwg) file that contains several common architectural drafting symbols. These symbols are stored in folders named for the drawings in which they are most typically used. Many of the symbols are in AutoCAD block form and are drawn on the 0 layer; others are common symbols that should be made into blocks before inserting into the drawing. Use a utility such as DesignCenter, or copy and paste, to add the blocks to your own drawings. Use the blocks as desired or as directed by your instructor. Additional symbols are available through a variety of resources. Some software programs, such as AutoCAD, include and allow you to access many architectural symbols. Many other symbols are available through the Internet for free download or purchase. The U.S. National CAD Standard (NCS) include separate .dwg files of the symbols presented in the standard.
Related Web Links Internet research is an excellent way to gain additional knowledge about architectural drafting and the professional organizations related to architectural drafting and design. The Related Web Links section contains a variety of related Web site links for you to explore as preferred or as directed by your instructor. The Web site links are provided in alphabetical order covering the entire textbook content, and chapterby-chapter. Click a link to go automatically to the designated Web site.
Workbook Additional problems have been provided to reinforce the knowledge and skills introduced throughout the
Prologue
textbook. These problems are divided into these Sections and Chapters: Section I: Basic Residential Projects Chapter 1 Basic Architectural Drafting Practices Chapter 2 Site Plans Chapter 3 Floor Plan Fundamentals Chapter 4 Basic Floor Plan Problems Chapter 5 Floor Plan Dimensions Chapter 6 Electrical Plans Chapter 7 Plumbing and HVAC Plans Chapter 8 Roof Plans Chapter 9 Elevations Chapter 10 Cabinet Elevations Chapter 11 Foundation Plans Chapter 12 Details Chapter 13 Sections Chapter 14 Stair Sections Chapter 15 Fireplace Sections Chapter 16 Design Criteria for Structural Loading Chapter 17 Construction Specifications, Permits, and Contracts Chapter 18 Presentation Drawings Section II: Advanced Residential Projects Section III: Additional Advanced Residential Projects Section IV: Advanced Research Projects
Video Clips of Major Concepts This feature provides a variety of video clips covering major concepts presented throughout the textbook. These video clips provide you with an alternate learning and study option covering a variety of topics.
Review Questions This feature provides you with review questions that are in addition to the chapter-by-chapter test questions provided throughout the textbook. Use the review questions for additional opportunities to test your knowledge and review textbook content.
www.kevinmillerphoto.com
SECTION 1
Introduction to Architectural Design and Drafting
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CHAPTER 1
Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities I
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As you begin working with this text, you are opening the door to many exciting careers. Each career in turn has many different opportunities within it. Whether your interest lies in theoretical problem solving, artistic creations, or working with your hands creating something practical; a course in architectural drafting and design will help you satisfy that interest. An architectural drafting class can lead to a career as a drafter, CAD technician, designer, interior decorator, interior designer, architect, or engineer. Mastering the information and skills presented in this text will prepare you for jobs as a drafter or CAD technician and serve as a solid foundation for each of the other listed professions as well as many others.
DRAFTER A drafter is the person who creates the drawings and details for another person’s creations. It is the drafter’s responsibility to use the proper line and lettering quality and to properly lay out the required drawings necessary to complete a project. Such a task requires great attention to detail as the drafter draws the supervisor’s sketches. Although the terms are used interchangeably, professionals often use the term drafter to refer to a person who draws manually using pencils or pens. The term CAD technician is used to describe a person who creates the same type of drawings using a computer. Throughout this book, the term drafter will be used to describe both those who draw manually and those who create drawings using a computer.
The Beginning Drafter Your job as a beginning or junior drafter will generally consist of making corrections to drawings created by others. There may not be a lot of mental stimulation to making changes, but it is a very necessary job. It is also a good introduction to the procedures and quality standards within an office. As your line and lettering quality improve, your responsibilities will be expanded. If you’re working at a firm that uses computers, in addition to mastering
basic CAD commands, you’ll need to become familiar with the U.S. National CAD Standards (NCS). These are guidelines assembled by the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) that incorporate the Uniform Drawing System (UDS) published by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI), CAD Layer Guidelines published by the American Institute of Architects, and the U.S. Coast Guard. These guidelines are aimed at bringing uniformity between consulting firms to ensure quality plans. Future chapters in this text will introduce key concepts from the NCS. You’ll also need to become proficient using the firm’s computer standards and any special menus and list-processing language (LISP) routines needed to work efficiently. No matter what tools are used to create the drawings, typically your supervisor will give you a sketch and expect you to draw the required drawing. Figure 1-1 shows a project manager’s sketch. Figure 1-2 shows the drawing created by a drafter. As you gain an
3 X 6 PT SILL
SOLID BLOCK W/ A-35 ANGLE W16 X 67
5/16 12 X 12 X 3/4" STEEL TOP PL. 3/8
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6 X 6 X 3/8" SIDE PLATE 3/4" o TIE RODS & 3/4" TURNBUCKLES
FIGURE 11 A sketch created by the project manager is usually given to a junior drafter to follow for a first drawing. The drafter can find information for completing the drawing by examining similar jobs in the office. 3
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Architectural Drafting and Design
SOLID BLOCK W/ A-35 ANGLE @ EA. JOIST AND EVERY OTHER BLOCK TO PL. W16 X 67
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The Experienced Drafter 5/16 12 X 12 X 3/4" STEEL TOP PL. 3/8
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5/16 1/4 T.S. 6 X 6 X 1/4" STEEL COLUMN TYPICAL
office chores. Don’t get the idea that a drafter does only the menial chores around an office. But you do need to be prepared, as you go to your first drafting job, to do things other than drafting.
6 X 6 X 3/8" SIDE PLATE 3/4" o TIE RODS & 3/4" TURNBUCKLES
1 FLOOR / GIRDER / PILING R6010309 500 3/4" = 1'–0" FIGURE 12 A detail drawn by a drafter using the sketch shown in Figure 1-1.
understanding of the drawings that you are making and gain confidence in your ability, the sketches that you are given generally will become more simplified. Eventually your supervisor may just refer you to a similar drawing and expect you to be able to make the necessary adjustments to fit it to the new application. The decisions involved in making drawings without sketches require the drafter to have a good understanding of what is being drawn. This understanding does not come from a textbook alone. To advance as a drafter and become a leader on the drawing team will require you to become an effective manager of your time. This will include the ability to determine what drawings need to be created, selected from a stock library, and edited; and to estimate the time needed to complete these assignments and meet deadlines established by the team captain, the client, the lending institution, or the building department. An even better way to gain an understanding of what you are drafting is to spend time at a construction site watching projects that you’ve worked on become reality. Gaining an understanding of what a craftsperson must do as a result of what you have drawn will greatly aid you as you assume more responsibility on projects. Depending on the size of the office where you work, you may also spend a lot of your time as a beginning drafter editing stock details, running prints, making deliveries, obtaining permits, and doing other such
Although your supervisor may prepare the basic design for a project, experienced drafters are expected to make decisions about construction design. These decisions might include determining structural sizes and connection methods for intersecting beams, drawing renderings, visiting job sites, and supervising beginning drafters. As you gain experience, you will be assigned drawings that are more complex. Instead of revising existing details or drawing site plans, cabinet elevations, or roof plans; an experienced drafter and team leader may be working on the floor and foundation plans, elevations, and sections. Your supervisor probably will still make the initial design drawings, but will pass these drawings on to you as soon as a client approves the preliminary drawings. In addition to drafting, you may work with the many city and state building departments that govern your work. This will require you to research the codes that govern the building industry. You will also need to become familiar with vendors’ catalogs. The most common is the Sweets Catalog. Sweets, as it is known, is a series of books that contain product information on a wide variety of building products. Sweets is also available on the Internet or on CDs that are updated quarterly. Information in these catalogs is listed by manufacturer, trade name, and type of product.
Educational Requirements In order to get your first drafting job, you will need a solid education, good computer-aided drafting (CAD) skills, a good understanding of basic computer skills, and the ability to sell yourself to an employer. CAD skills must include a thorough understanding of drawing and editing commands, as well as the ability to quickly decide which option is best for the given situation. This ability will also come with practice. If you work full-time editing details, you’ll quickly become proficient at determining the best commands to use. The education required for a drafter can range from one or more years in a high school drafting program to a diploma from a one-year accredited technical school to a degree from a two-year college program, and all the way to a master’s degree in architecture.
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
Helpful areas of study for an entry-level drafter include math, writing, and drawing. The math required ranges from simple addition to calculus. Although the drafter may spend most of the day adding dimensions expressed in feet and inches, knowledge of advanced math will be helpful for solving many building problems. You’ll often be required to use basic math skills to determine quantities, areas, and volume. Many firms provide their clients with a list of materials required to construct the project. Areas will need to be calculated to determine the size of each room, required areas to meet basic building code requirements, the loads on a structural member, or the size of the structure. Writing skills will also be very helpful. As a drafter, you are often required to complete the paperwork that accompanies any set of plans, such as permits, requests for variances, written specifications, or environmental impact reports. In addition to standard drafting classes, classes in photography, art, surveying, and construction can be helpful to the drafter.
Personal Requirements In addition to a solid education, professionals working in the design field need to function well in group settings. Because the drafter will generally be working for several architects or engineers within an office, the drafter must be able to get along well with others. An additional skill required for a new technician is to be reliable. Reliability within an office is measured by the maintenance of good attendance patterns and the production of drawings as scheduled. To advance and become a good team leader you will also need to develop skills that promote a sense of success among your teammates. Although it is against the law to discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age, marital status, or disability, moving beyond the law and creating a friendly and productive work environment is a critical skill for a team leader.
Workplace Ethics A key quality required in any of the design professions that you might enter is to be ethical. Ethics are rules and principles that define right and wrong conduct. Although ethics guidelines can be as simple as treating others as you would like to be treated, many businesses have a formal code of ethics that employees are required to sign in order to obtain a job. A code of ethics is a formal document that states an organization’s values and the rules and principles that employees are expected
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to follow. In general, codes of ethics contain these main elements: be dependable, obey the laws, and be good to customers. An example of an architectural firm’s standard for ethical business conduct can be seen below: 1. Honesty: to be truthful in all our endeavors, to be
2. 3.
4. 5.
honest and forthright with one another, with our customers, and with our communities. Integrity: to say what we mean, to deliver what we promise, and to stand for what is right. Respect: to treat one another with dignity and fairness, appreciating the diversity of our workforce and the uniqueness of each employee. Trust: to build confidence through teamwork and open, candid communication. Responsibility: to speak up, without fear of retribution, and report concerns in the workplace, including violations of published or unpublished works that are copyrighted.
Copyright Protection Clients often come to an architectural firm hoping to use the plan of a competitor as the basis for the design for their project. It’s important to understand that architectural drawings are protected by copyright. The copyright immediately becomes the property of the person who created the work. Copyright is secured automatically when the work is created, and the work is created when it is fixed in a copy for the first time. Copies are material objects from which the work can be read or visually perceived either directly or with the aid of a machine or device. In the world of architecture, you’ll be most affected by copyright laws as clients present you with plans from magazines, and ask you to recreate the design. There is nothing illegal when a client gives you several stock plans, and expects you to combine features from these plans into a new plan. However, it is very illegal to take one stock plan, make minor changes, and pass it off as your design. That’s copyright infringement. NOTE: Professional designers and architects have donated
the plans in this book knowing that they will be copied and redrawn. It is perfectly legal for you to reproduce these plans for school projects. It is important to realize though, it is not OK to reproduce these drawings for resale. Laws vary for each state, but as a general rule, unless you’ve changed more than 50% of the plan, or significantly altered the appearance of the design, you may be found guilty of copyright infringement. Never take the plan from another professional, make minor changes, and then call it your design. It’s lazy, unethical, and illegal.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Employment Opportunities Drafters can find employment in firms of all sizes. Designers, architects, and engineers all require entrylevel and advanced drafters to help produce their drawings. Drafters are also employed by suppliers of architectural equipment. This work might include drawing construction details for a steel fabricator, making layout drawings for a cabinet shop, or designing ductwork for a heating and air-conditioning installer. Many manufacturing companies hire drafters with an architectural background to help draw and sometimes sell a product or draw installation diagrams for instruction booklets or sales catalogs. Drafters are also employed by many government agencies. These jobs include working in planning, utility, or building departments; survey crews; or other related municipal jobs.
be hired to decorate interiors of businesses such as boutiques, restaurants, and offices. They may work on the entire interior of a building or a single room. An interior decorator’s work may involve a variety of elements, including space planning, determination of color schemes, furniture placement, and the coordination of interior finishes such as paint and wallpaper, window coverings, and flooring. It may also include the arrangement of lighting fixtures, art objects, furnishing accessories, and interior plants. Specific job requirements may include: ● ● ● ●
DESIGNER The meaning of the term designer varies from state to state. Many states restrict its use by requiring those calling themselves designers to those who have had formal training and have passed a competency test. A designer’s responsibilities are very similar to those of an experienced drafter and are usually based on both education and experience. A designer is usually the coordinator of a team of drafters. The designer may work under the direct supervision of an architect, an engineer, or both and supervise the work schedule of the drafting team. In addition to working in a traditional architectural office setting, designers often have their own office practice in which they design residential, multifamily, and some types of light commercial buildings. State laws vary regarding the types and sizes of buildings a designer may work on without an architect or engineer’s stamp. For more information about design careers, contact: American Institute of Building Design 991 Post Road East Westport, CT 06880 800-366-2423 Web site: www.aibd.org
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There are no formal educational requirements to enter this career. You can start calling yourself an interior decorator as soon as you start doing interior decorating.
KITCHEN AND BATH DESIGNER Some drafters and designers choose to specialize in the area of residential kitchen and bath design. This might include design work for a client, working with a residential contractor, or working with manufacturers of kitchen and bath equipment. In order to meet the demand for qualified professionals in this area of design, the National Kitchen & Bath Association (NKBA) has created its own training program that offers the foundation for professional career growth through its course offerings, technical manuals, and multilevel certification programs. The three professional levels in which the NKBA certifies its members, and the requirements of each level are: ●
INTERIOR DECORATOR An interior decorator decorates the interiors of buildings, with the aim of making rooms more attractive, comfortable, and functional. Most interior decorators are hired to decorate homes, but they may also
Meeting with clients to determine the scope of a project. Reviewing and measuring the space to be decorated. Preparing proposed room layouts and obtaining cost estimates. Providing samples and colors of materials to be used. Arranging and overseeing painting, wallpapering, and flooring. Selecting and purchasing furnishings and other items.
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Associate Kitchen & Bath Designer (AKBD)—One year of experience related to the kitchen and bath industry and one year in a related field, 30 hours of NKBA professional development training, and successful completion of the AKBD exam. Certified Kitchen Designer (CKD) or Certified Bathroom Designer (CBD)—Three years of experience related to the kitchen and bath industry and
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
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four years in a related field, 60 hours of NKBA professional development training, and successful completion of the AKBD exam. Certified Master Kitchen & Bathroom Designer (CMKBD)—Ten years of experience related to the kitchen and bath industry, 100 hours of NKBA professional development training, and both CKD and CBD certification.
For further information about careers in the field of kitchen and bath design, contact: National Kitchen & Bath Association 687 Willow Grove Street Hackettstown, NJ 07840 800-843-6522 Web site: www.nkba.org
INTERIOR DESIGNER An interior designer works with the structural designer to optimize and harmonize the interior design of structures. In addition to health and safety concerns, interior designers help plan how the space will be accessed, how a space will be used, the amount of light that will be required, acoustics, seating, storage, and work areas. An interior designer must consider how the visual, tactile, and auditory senses of the occupants will be impacted. Visual considerations include the study and application of color, lighting, and form to improve how the occupants function in the space. Consideration must be given to the design of surfaces, the shape of individual rooms within a structure, and the texture of finished surfaces and how furnishing will affect the usage of areas within a structure. The design of a structure must also be considered in relation to how noise and echo will be created and how they can be controlled. An interior designer must have an aesthetic, practical, and technical appreciation for how people use and respond to these elements and to how the elements interact with one another. Interior designers must also be knowledgeable about the many types and characteristics of furnishings, accessories, and ornaments used in creating interiors. Furniture, lighting, carpeting and other floor coverings, paint and wall coverings, glass, wrought metal, fixtures, art, and artifacts are some of the many items and materials designers select. In addition, they must be familiar with the various styles of design, art, and architecture and their history. Interior designers provide a variety of services that include:
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Consulting to help determine project goals and objectives.
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Generating ideas for aesthetic possibilities of the space, and arranging space to suit its intended function.
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Creating illustrations and renderings of proposals.
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Developing documents and specifications related to interior spaces in compliance with applicable building codes.
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Specifying colors and purchasing fixtures, furnishings, products, and other interior materials.
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Designing and managing fabrication of custom furnishings and interior details.
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Monitoring and managing construction and installation of the design.
Although a college degree is currently not a requirement, the trend among employers and in states that have licensing requirements is to require a degree from an accredited institution. This can range from training in a two-year program to earn an associate’s degree or certificate, to a four- or five-year program leading to a bachelor’s (BA, BS, BFA) or master’s (MA, MS, MFA) degree. The option chosen may depend on the licensing requirements in your state and whether you have completed a degree in another field. In the United States, where interior designers are registered by title, designers may not use the title “interior designer” or “registered interior designer” unless they have met the requirements for education, experience, and examination as set forth in the statutes established by the National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ). Candidates who apply to take the NCIDQ examination must demonstrate an acceptable level of professional work experience and completion of related course work. The minimum examination requirements include two years of formal interior design experience and four years of full-time work experience in the practice of interior design. Passing the examination is required in twenty jurisdictions in the United States and eight provinces in Canada that regulate the profession of interior design. For further information about careers in the field of interior design, contact: American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) 202-546-3480 Web site: www.asid.org International Interior Design Association (IIDA) Web site: www.iida.org
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Students can also contact the American Design and Drafting Association, the U.S. Department of Labor, or the U.S. Office of Education.
ARCHITECT An architect is a licensed professional who designs commercial and residential structures. Architects perform the tasks of many professionals, including designer, artist, project manager, and construction supervisor. Few architects work full-time in residential design. Although many architects design some homes, most devote their time to commercial construction projects such as schools, offices, and hospitals. An architect is responsible for the design of a structure and for the way the building relates to the environment. The architect often serves as a coordinator on a project to ensure that all aspects of the structure blend together to form a pleasing relationship. This coordination includes working with the client, the contractors, and a multitude of engineering firms that may be involved with the project. Figure 1-3 shows a home designed by an architect to blend the needs and wishes of the client with the site, materials, and financial realities.
Education High school and two-year college students can prepare for a degree program by taking classes in fine arts, math, science, and social science. Many two-year drafting programs offer drafting classes that can be used
FIGURE 13 Architects use their training to blend the needs and wishes of the client with the site, materials, and financial realities. Courtesy California Redwood Assoc., Robert Corna architect, photo by Balthazar Korab.
Architectural Drafting and Design
for credit in four- or five-year architectural programs. A student planning to transfer to a four-year program should verify with the new college which classes can be transferred. Depending on the desired field of practice, students will eventually need to complete the requirements for a bachelor of architecture, master’s of architecture, or a doctorate of architecture degree. Fine arts classes such as drawing, sketching, design, and art along with architectural history will help the future architect develop an understanding of the cultural significance of structures and help transform ideas into reality. Classes that will aid problem-solving abilities, as well as math and science classes, including algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and physics, will provide a stable base for the advanced structural classes that will be required. Sociology, psychology, cultural anthropology, and classes dealing with human environments will help develop an understanding of the people who will use the structure. Because architectural students will need to read, write, and think clearly about abstract concepts, preparation should also include literature and philosophy courses. In addition to formal study, students should discuss with local architects the opportunities and possible disadvantages that may await them in pursuing the study and practice of architecture.
Positions in Architectural Firms Use of the term architect is legally restricted to individuals who have been licensed by the state where they practice. Once the required degree has been completed, obtaining a license will require practical experience working under the supervision of a licensed architect. A typical path to becoming an architect requires three years to complete a master’s program, three years as an intern, and two years to complete the registration exam process. Some states allow a designer to take the licensing test through practical work experience. Although standards vary for each state, five to seven years of experience under the direct supervision of a licensed architect or engineer is usually required. Positions in an architectural firm include: Technical staff—Consulting engineers such as mechanical, electrical, and structural engineers; landscape architects; interior designers; CAD operators; and drafters. Intern—Unlicensed architectural graduates with less than three years of experience. An intern’s responsibilities typically include developing design and
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
technical solutions under the supervision of an architect. Architect I—Licensed architect with three to five years of experience. An Architect I’s job description typically includes responsibility for a specific portion of a project within the parameters set by a supervisor. Architect II—Licensed architect with six to eight years of experience. An Architect II’s job description typically includes responsibility for the daily design and technical development of a project. Architect III—Licensed architect with eight to ten years of experience. An Architect III’s job description typically includes responsibility for the management of major projects. Manager—Licensed architect with more than 10 years of experience. A Manager’s responsibilities typically include management of several projects, project teams, and client contacts, as well as project scheduling and budgeting. Associate—Senior management architect, but not an owner in the firm. This person is responsible for major departments and their functions. Principal—Owner/partner in an architectural firm.
Areas of Study The study of architecture is not limited to the design of buildings. Although the architectural curriculum typically is highly structured for the first two years of study, students begin to specialize in an area of interest during the third year of the program. Students in a bachelor’s program may choose courses leading to a degree in several different areas of architecture such as urban planning, landscape architecture, and interior architecture. Urban design is the study of the relationship among the components within a city. Interior architects work specifically with the interior of a structure to ensure that all aspects of the building will be functional. Landscape architects specialize in relating the exterior of a structure to the environment. For further information on training or other related topics, students can contact: American Institute of Architects (AIA) 1735 New York Avenue NW Washington, DC 20006 800-242-3837 Web site: www.aia.org
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American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) 636 Eye Street NW Washington, DC 20001 202-898-2444 Web site: www.asla.org
ENGINEER The term engineer covers a wide variety of professions. In general, an engineer is a licensed professional who applies mathematical and scientific principles to the design and construction of structures. In the construction fields, structural engineers are the most common, although many jobs exist for electrical, mechanical, and civil engineers. Structural engineers typically specialize in the design of structures built of steel or concrete (see Figure 1-4). Many directly supervise drafters and designers in the design of multifamily and light commercial structures. Electrical engineers work with architects and structural engineers and are responsible for the design of lighting and communication systems. They supervise the design and installation of specific lighting fixtures, telephone services, and requirements for computer networking. Mechanical engineers are also an instrumental part of the design team. They are responsible for the sizing and layout of heating, ventilation, and airconditioning systems (HVAC) and plan how treated air will be routed throughout the project. They work with the project architect to determine the number of
FIGURE 14 The architectural team determines the shape and style of the structure. The structural engineering team is responsible for determining the size of materials to resist the loads and stress that a building will face. Courtesy David Jefferis.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
occupants of the completed building and the heating and cooling load that will be generated. Civil engineers are responsible for the design and supervision of a wide variety of construction projects, such as highways, bridges, sanitation facilities, and water treatment plants. They are often directly employed by construction companies to oversee the construction of large projects and to verify that the specifications of the design architects and engineers have been carried out. As with the requirements for becoming an architect, a license is required to function as an engineer. Potential engineers can apply for the license after several years of practical experience, or after obtaining a bachelor’s degree and three years of practical experience. Success in any of the engineering fields requires high proficiency in math and science, and involves completing courses in physics, mechanics, print reading, architecture, mathematics, and material science. As with the requirements for becoming an architect, an engineer must have five years of education at an accredited college or university, followed by successful completion of a state-administered examination. Certification can also be accomplished by training under a licensed engineer and then successfully completing the examination. Additional information can be obtained about engineering by writing to:
New York, NY 10005 212-248-5000 Web site: www.iesna.org
RELATED FIELDS So far, only opportunities that are similar because they involve drawing, design, and creativity have been covered. In addition to these careers, there are many related careers that require an understanding of drafting principles. These include model maker, illustrator, specification writer, plan examiner, inspector, and construction-related trades.
Model Maker In addition to presentation drawings, many architectural offices use models of a building or project to help convey design concepts. Models such as the one shown in Figure 1-5 are often used as a public display to help gain support for large projects. Model makers need basic drafting skills to help interpret the plans required to build the actual project. Model makers may be employed within a large architectural firm or may work for a company that only makes models for architects. For more information, contact the Association of Model Makers at www.modelmakers.org.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, VA 20191-4400 800-548-2723 Web site: www.asce.org American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC) 1015 15th Street, NW, Suite 802 Washington, DC 20005 202-347-7474 Web site: acec.org American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE) 1791 Tullie Circle NE Atlanta, GA 30329-2305 800-527-4723 Web site: www.ashrae.org Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) 120 Wall Street, 17th Floor
FIGURE 15 Models such as this one of the KOIN Center in Portland, Oregon, are often used in public displays to convey design ideas. Courtesy KOIN Center, Olympia & York Properties (Oregon) Inc.
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
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the architectural world to assign reference numbers to architectural materials and products. The numbers consist of 17 groups, 5 major subgroups, and 50 divisions. These listings can be used for production, distribution, filing, and retrieval of construction documents. Each major division of the MasterFormat system is related to a major grouping of the construction process and will be introduced in Chapter 8.
Plan Examiner FIGURE 16 Drawings created by an architectural illustrator are often used for advertising and presentation purposes. Courtesy Bob Greenspan, Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
Illustrator Many drafters, designers, and architects have the basic skills to draw architectural renderings. Very few, though, have the expertise to make this type of drawing rapidly. Most illustrators have a background in art. By combining artistic talent with a basic understanding of architectural principles, the illustrator can produce drawings that show a proposed structure realistically. Figure 1-6 shows a drawing that was prepared by an architectural illustrator. Section 11 provides an introduction to presentation drawings. For more information, contact the American Society of Architectural Illustrators (ASAI) at www.asai.org.
Specification Writer Specifications are written instructions for methods, materials, and quality of construction. A written specification for a product may range from a sentence or two describing a price range of a product, to a lengthy document that specifies how a product is to be purchased, delivered, stored, installed, maintained, and recycled at the end of its use. Generally, a writer will have had classes in technical writing at the twoyear-college level. A specification writer must have a thorough understanding of the construction process and the use of the CSI 2004 MasterFormat numbering system, and have a good ability to read plans. The MasterFormat system is published by the Construction Specification Institute (CSI) in the United States, and by Construction Specifications Canada (CSC) in Canada. The numbering system is used by all areas of
Building departments require that plans be checked carefully to ensure that the required codes for public safety have been met. A plan examiner must be licensed by the state, to certify minimum understanding of the construction process. In most states, there are different levels of examiners. An experienced drafter or designer may be able to qualify as a low-level or residentialplan inspector. Generally, a degree in engineering or architecture is required to advance to an upper-level position. Additional information on how to become a plan examiner can be obtained from the International Code Council at www.iccsafe.org.
Inspector The construction that results from the plans must also be inspected. Depending on the size of the building department, the plan examiner may also serve as the building inspector. In large building departments, one group examines plans and another inspects construction. Being be a construction inspector requires an exceptionally good understanding of code limitations, print reading, and construction methods. Each of these skills has its roots in a beginning drafting class. Additional information regarding becoming a building inspector can be obtained from the International Code Council at www.iccsafe.org.
Jobs in Construction Many drafters are employed directly by construction companies. The benefits of this type of position have already been discussed. These drafters typically not only do drafting but also work part-time in the field. Some drafters give up their jobs for one of the high-paying positions in the construction industry. The ease of interpreting plans as a result of a background in drafting is of great benefit to any construction worker.
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GOING GREEN An Introduction to Green Design
Reduce, reuse, recycle! No matter what area of the design or construction field you enter, an important aspect of your career will be a building mind-set that revolves around these three words. Whether it is called earth-friendly, green, ecological, or sustainable construction, the concept is to build in a manner that will produce a structure that uses energy efficiently, that uses materials that have low impact on the environment, and that contributes to a healthier workplace. One of the leaders in the development of sustainable construction is the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Green Building Rating System, referred to as LEED. LEED is a rating system used to evaluate key areas of building projects, such as: • • • • • •
Sustainable sites. Water efficiency. Indoor environmental quality. Energy and atmosphere. Material and resources. Innovation and the design process.
Other key organizations that are leaders in green construction include the developed by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and the International Code Council (ICC) that publishes the International Residential Code (IRC). The IRC will be introduced in Chapter 9. These three industry leaders have combined their resources to develop the National Green Building Standards (ICC 7002008). The NGBS are currently a group of guiding principles that can be used throughout the construction process to ensure an environmentally friendly project. It is expected that these current guidelines will become mandatory as part of the ICC code family as the 2012 codes are released. Major principles addressed by the 2008 guidelines include: • Site design and development. • Site design, preparation, and development.
DESIGN BASICS As you enter the world of design, it’s important to understand what you can expect to encounter in an architectural office. Designing a home for a client can be an exciting but difficult process. Very rarely can an architect sit down and create a design that meets the needs of the client perfectly. The time required to design a home can range from a few days to several months. It is important for you to understand the design process and the role that the drafter plays in it. This requires an understanding of basic design,
• • • • •
Resource efficiency. Energy efficiency. Water efficiency. Indoor environmental quality. Operation, maintenance, and building owner education.
The LEED and NGBS principles will be introduced throughout the text. As a new employee in a firm, you may not be making the decisions on how to increase the sustainability of a residence, but in order to advance in an office, you must understand key green issues presented in each of these guidelines. Section 2 of this text will examine common methods of designing a residence that is environmentally friendly. Section 8 will examine common framing methods found in residential construction. Environmentally friendly framing is not just a matter of selecting green materials; once selected, these green products must be transported and used in a manner that will reduce the environmental impact of the structure. Creating an environmentally friendly structure requires the matching of materials to a specific design and site that minimizes the effect on that site. Five questions should be considered that will affect the selection of materials to make a sustainable structure: 1. Can products be selected that are made from environmentally friendly materials? 2. Can products be selected because of what they do not contain? 3. Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact during construction? 4. Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact of operating the building? 5. Will the products to be used contribute to a safe, healthy indoor environment?
financial considerations, and common procedures of design. In the balance of this chapter, the terms architect and designer can be thought of as synonymous. Typically the designing and much of the drafting will already be done before a project is given to the junior drafter. As experience and confidence are gained, the drafter enters the design process at earlier stages.
Financial Considerations Both designers and drafters need to be concerned with costs. Finances influence the drafter’s decisions about
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
framing methods and other structural considerations. Often the advanced drafter must decide between methods that require more materials with less labor and those that require fewer materials but more labor. The owner may never be aware of these decisions, but the choices made can make the difference in whether or not the house is affordable. The designer makes the major financial decisions that affect the cost and size of the project. The designer needs to determine the client’s budget at the beginning of the design process and work to keep the project within these limits. Through past experience and contact with builders, the designer should be able to make an accurate estimate of the cost of a finished house. This estimate is often made on a square footage basis in the initial stages of design. For instance, in some areas a modest residence can be built for approximately $75 per square foot. In other areas this same house may cost approximately $150 per square foot. A client wishing to build a 2500 sq ft house could expect to pay between $187,500 and $375,000, depending on where it will be built. Keep in mind that these are estimates. A square footage price tells very little about the home. In the design stage, square footage estimates help set parameters for the design. The estimate is based on typical cost for previous clients. The price of materials such as lumber, concrete, and roofing will vary throughout the year depending on supply and demand. Basic materials will typically account for approximately 50% of the project cost. Finished materials are the part of the estimate that will cause wide variation in the cost. If you have ever been in a home supply store, you know that a toilet can be purchased for between $30 and $300. Every item in the house will have a range of possible prices. The final cost of the project is determined once the house is completely drawn and a list of materials is prepared. With a list of materials, contractors are able to make accurate decisions about cost. The source of finances can also affect the design process. Certain lending institutions may require some drawings that the local building department may not. Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and Veterans Administration (VA) loans often require extra forms, drawings, and specifications that need to be taken into account in the initial design stages.
The Client Most houses are not designed for one specific family. In order to help keep costs down, houses are often built in subdivisions and designed to appeal to a wide variety of people. One basic plan may be built with several
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FIGURE 17 Stock plans are designed to appeal to a wide variety of buyers. Courtesy Design Basics, Inc. Home Plan Design Service.
different options, thus saving the contractor the cost of paying for several different complete plans. Sections 4, 6, and 7 will explore alternative designs to the home presented throughout this text. Some families may make minor changes to an existing plan. These modified stock plans allow the prospective home buyer a chance to have a personalized design at a cost far below that of custom-drawn plans (see Figure 1-7). If finances allow, or if a stock plan cannot be found to meet their needs, a family can have a plan custom designed.
The Design Process The design of a residence can be divided into several stages. These generally include initial contact, preliminary design studies, room planning, initial working drawings, final design considerations, completion of working drawings, permit procedures, and job supervision.
Initial Contact Clients often approach designers to obtain background information. Design fees, schedules, and the compatibility of personalities are but a few of the basic questions
14
to be answered. This initial contact may take place by telephone or a personal visit. The questions asked are important to both the designer and the client. The client needs to pick a designer who can work within budget and time limitations. Drawing fees are another important consideration in choosing a designer. Design fees vary based on the type of project and the range of services to be provided. Fees are generally based on hourly rates, price per square feet of construction, on a percentage of construction cost, or a combination of these methods. Square footage prices vary based on the size of the project and the area of the country, but must be set to cover design and drafting time, overhead, and profit margin. New drafters are often shocked to learn that their office bills clients at a rate that is often three to four times their hourly rate of pay for drafting time. It is important to remember that this billing price must include supervision time, overhead, state and federal taxes, and hopefully a profit for the office. Design fees for architectural services of a custom house range from 5% to 15% of the total construction cost. The amount varies based on the services provided, the workload of the office, and the local economy. The designer needs to screen clients to determine if the client’s needs fit within the office schedule. Once an agreement has been reached, the preliminary design work can begin. This selection process usually begins with the signing of a contract to set guidelines that identify which services are to be provided and when payment is expected. This is also the time when the initial criteria for the project will be determined. Generally, clients have a basic size and a list of specifics in mind, a sketch of proposed floor plans, and a file full of pictures of items that they would like in their house. During this initial phase of design it is important to become familiar with the lifestyle of the client as well as the site where the house will be built.
Preliminary Design Studies Once a thorough understanding of the client’s lifestyle, design criteria, and financial limits has been developed, the preliminary studies can begin. These include research with the building and zoning departments that govern the site, investigation of the site, and discussions with any board of review that may be required. Once this initial research has been done, preliminary design studies can be started. The preliminary drawings usually take two stages: bubble drawings and scaled sketches. Bubble drawings are freehand sketches used to help determine room locations and relationships. Several sketches similar to Figure 1-8 are usually created. It is during this stage of the preliminary design that consideration is given to the site and energy efficiency of
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 18 Bubble designs are the first drawings in the design process. These drawings are used to explore room relationships.
the home by planning room orientation to the site, the surroundings, the movement of the sun, and available sunlight at the property at various times of the day. Once a satisfactory layout has been sketched, these shapes are transformed into scaled sketches. Figure 1-9 shows a preliminary floor plan. Usually several sets of sketches are developed to explore different design possibilities. Consideration is given to building code regulations and room relationships and sizes. After the design options are explored, the designer selects a plan to prepare for the client. This could be the point when a drafter first becomes involved in the design process. Depending on the schedule of the designer, a senior drafter might prepare the refined preliminary drawings, which can be seen in Figure 1-10. These will include floor plans and an elevation. These drawings are then presented to the client. Changes and revisions are made at this time. Once the plans are approved by the client, the preliminary drawings are ready to be converted to design drawings.
Room Planning Room usage must be considered throughout the design process. Many professionals verify standard sizes by using vendor catalogs and books such as Architectural Graphic Standards. Chapter 10 will introduce major design concepts to be considered. Typically the designer will have talked with the owners about how each room will be used and what types of furniture will be included. Occasionally, placement of a family heirloom will dictate the entire layout. When this is the case, the owner should specify the size requirements for that particular piece of furniture.
15
S&P
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
14
FIGURE 19 Bubble drawings are converted to scale drawings so that basic sizes can be determined. The preliminary floor plan contains enough text to convey ideas to the owner, but will require additional annotation to be added for the construction process.
48" X 48" SKYLIGHT 5
300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT
12
BRICK VENEER
2 X 6 FASCIA
6" HORIZ. CEDAR
FRONT ELEVATION 1/4"
1 X 3 CORN. TRIM
1'–0"
FIGURE 110 Based on preliminary floor plans, the front elevation is drawn to explore design options.
16
Architectural Drafting and Design
When placing furniture outlines to determine the amount of space in a room, the drafter can use transfer shapes known as rub-ons, templates, freehand sketching methods, or blocks if working with a CAD program. Rub-ons provide a fast method of representing furniture when manual methods are used, but they can also be expensive. Furniture can be drawn with a template or sketched. Figure 1-11 shows a preliminary floor plan drawn with a CADD program with the furniture added by the use of blocks. In the final stages of the preliminary process, the designer will often work with the clients, or bring in the assistance of interior designers to start planning interior finishes. With the interior space designed, attention can
now be focused on interior details. This might include the use of interior elevations, interior perspectives, and presentation boards. Presentation boards are used to present samples of cloth or other materials that can be used for wall finishes and furniture. Each element will be addressed in future chapters. This is also the time the design team will start to help the clients make selections about key pieces of furniture, lighting fixtures, and equipment.
Initial Working Drawings With the preliminary drawings approved, a drafter can begin to lay out the working drawings. The procedure will vary with each office, but generally each of the
14
FIGURE 111 The preliminary floor plan shows the owner’s changes, with furniture added.
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
drawings required for the project will be started. These will include the foundation, site, roof, electrical, cabinet, and framing plans. At this stage the drafter must rely on past experience for drawing the size of beams and other structural members. Beams and other structural material will be located, but exact sizes are not determined until the entire project has been laid out.
to get a building permit. On a complicated plan, a wall-framing plan, a roof-framing plan, a grading plan, and construction details may be required. Some lending institutions may require interior elevations, cabinet drawings, and finish specifications. The skills of the drafter will determine his or her participation in preparing the working drawings. As an entry-level drafter, you will often be given the job of making corrections on existing drawings or drawing, for example, site plans or cabinets. As you gain skill you will be given more drawing responsibility. With increased ability, you will start to share in the design responsibilities.
Final Design Considerations Once the drawings have been laid out, the designer will generally meet with the client several times again to get information on flooring, electrical needs, cabinets, and other finish materials. This conference will result in a set of marked drawings that the drafter will use to complete the working drawings.
Working Drawings. The drawings that will be provided vary for each residence and within each office. Figure 1-12 through Figure 1-17 show what are typically considered the architectural drawings. These are drawings that show finishing materials. Figure 1-18 through Figure 1-20 show the electrical drawings. Figure 1-21 through Figure 1-24 show what are
Completion of Working Drawings The complexity of the residence will determine which drawings are required. Most building departments require a site plan, a floor plan, a foundation plan, elevations, and one cross section as the minimum drawing
1200 GAL SEPTIC TANK 10' MIN FROM FND.
4" CONC FLATWORK W/ BROOM FINISH PROPOSED S.F.R.
730.00'
EAM
6- 120' DRAIN LINES @10'O.C.
180'-0"+/WELL- 100' MIN. FROM SEPTIC TANK
36'-0" DIA. MIN. TURNAROUND 60" MIN. RADIUS TYPICAL
W N 30˚ 00;
BRICK PAVERS LAID IN HERRINGBONE PATTERN
24' WIDE X 22' DEEP MIN. PARKING 12'-0" MIN GRAVEL DRIVE
250'-0"+/-
N 30˚ 00' W
730.00'
STR
/'-0"+ 175 MIN. ) 0' ( 10
CL
OF
17
580.00'
CL
GRIGGS RD. LEGAL: TAX LOT 2800, LOT 5 GORDON GLEN HOMES 3E SECTION 24, T2E EAGLE CREEK, MO
FIGURE 112 A site plan is used to show how the structure relates to the site. When the site is relatively flat, grading information is placed on this drawing.
18
Architectural Drafting and Design
SANITARY MANHOLE
A PROPOSED RESIDENCE FOR:
MICHAEL & TEREASA JACOBS 11130 S.E. DAVID ALAN COURT CLACKAMAS, OR 97015
7" E 5 '5 1˚1 ACK S4 ETB DS R A E Y SID 10'
'
19'-
.16
220
0"
20' FRONT YARD SETBACK
15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT
S
5' 97.3 L=
7.
18 '
52
24" MAX. DEC. RETAINING WALL
25'-0" 32'-0"
CURB FACE OF 0' 2 2 .0 R=3
"W
49
LINE OF DECK ABOVE
8'-0" RETAINING WALL
4" CONC. DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL
ALAN DAVID
3'
COUR
˚3
T
43
24" MAX. DEC. RETAINING WALL
48" HIGH MAX. RETAINING WALL
10' SIDE YARD SETBACK 264.62'
S21˚16' 25" E
NO
RTH
24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE INTERLOCKING DEC. BLOCK
LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T1S, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS COUNTY OREGON
FIGURE 113 If grading is extensive, the site plan is separated from the grading plan. By careful use of layers, this site plan was used as a base for the grading plan in Figure 1-14.
A PROPOSED RESIDENCE FOR:
SANITARY MANHOLE
165
MICHAEL & TEREASA JACOBS
170 175 E " 7 5' 5 1˚1 ACK S4 180 ETB DS R A E Y SID 10'
11130 S.E. DAVID ALAN COURT CLACKAMAS, OR 97015
15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT
19'-
185 ' 190 20.16 2 195
0"
5' 7.3 L=9
0'
'
32'-0"
ENTRY DECK F.F. 194.85' 24" MAX. DEC. GARAGE RETAINING WALL FIN. FL. 195.00 48" HIGH MAX. RETAINING WALL
52
165
10' SIDE YARD SETBACK 264.62'
205
200
195
TH
GRADING PLAN 1"
190
10'-0"
NOR
2.0 R = 32
7.
RB FACE OF CU
18
ALAN DAVID
LINE OF DECK ABOVE
"W
25'-0"
49
4" CONC. DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL
3'
24" MAX. DEC. RETAINING WALL ENTRY FIN. FL 195.00' 8'-0" RETAINING WALL LOWER FIN. FL 184.00'
˚3
T
43
COUR
S
200
S21˚16' 25" E 185
180
175
170
LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T1S, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS COUNTY OREGON
24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE INTERLOCKING DEC. BLOCK
FIGURE 114 A grading plan is used to define new and existing grades, and the cut and fill banks that will be recreated as the soil is relocated. On this drawing, existing soil contours are shown with dashed lines and new grade contours are represented with solid lines.
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
19
300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT
LINE OF ROOF BEYOND 2x6 FASCIA 1x3 R.S. CORN. TRIM HORIZ. CONC. SIDING W/ 6" EXPOSURE OVER 1/2" CDX PLYWOOD & TYVEK 4" CONC. FLATWORK
6x6 POST 4" CONC. FLATWORK
5
REAR ELEVATION
10'-0"
NOTE: EXTEND CHIMNEY FLUE A MIN. OF 2'-0" ABOVE ANY POINT ON ROOF WITHIN 10'-0" HORIZ.
14
48"x48" SKYLIGHT
24" MIN.
12
LINE OF ROOF BEYOND
2x6 FASCIA BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE & TYVEK W/METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD 4x3x3/16" METAL LINTEL OVER GARAGE DOOR. SEE OWNER FOR BRICK DESIGN FIN. FLOOR
1x3 R.S. CORN. TRIM
LEFT ELEVATION
LINE OF COLUMN BEYOND LINE OF PLANTER BEYOND
14
48"x48" SKYLIGHT 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT 5
12 8'-0" FIN. FLR.-FIN. CEIL.
12'-0" FIN. FLR. - FIN. CEIL. 9'-0" FIN. FLR./FIN. CEIL.
2x6 FASCIA
3'-0" BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR 6" HORIZ. CEDAR SPACE & TYVEK W/METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD 4x3x3/16" METAL LINTEL OVER GARAGE DOOR. SEE OWNER FOR BRICK DESIGN
FRONT ELEVATION
14
5
12
10'-0" 24" MIN.
1x3 CORN. TRIM NOTE: EXTEND CHIMNEY FLUE A MIN. OF 2'-0" ABOVE ANY POINT ON ROOF WITHIN 10'-0" HORIZ.
HORIZ. CONC. SIDING W/ 6" EXPOSURE OVER 1/2" CDX PLYWOOD & TYVEK
RIGHT ELEVATION
14
FIGURE 115 Once the owners have approved the preliminary designs, the exterior elevations can be completed. The elevations will provide a view of each side of the structure and show and specify all exterior materials to be used.
typically called the structural drawings. Many architectural firms number each page based on the type of drawing on that page. Pages are represented by: A—Architectural S—Structural M—Mechanical E—Electrical P—Plumbing
Figure 1-12 shows the site plan that was required for the residence in Figure 1-8. Typically the site plan is completed by a junior drafter from a sketch provided by the senior drafter or designer. A grading plan is not required for every residence. Because this home is to be built on a fairly level site, the elevations are indicated at each corner of the structure. Figure 1-13 shows a site plan for a hillside home. Because of the large amount of soil to be excavated for the lower floor, the grading
20
TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT
A
2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
A
A
B
12' PLATE
1. ALL HIPS, RIDGES & VALLEYS TO BE 2x10 UNLESS NOTED. 2. ALL RAFTERS TO BE 2x8 DFL #2 @ 24" O.C. UNLESS NOTED.
48"x48" SKYLIGHT
12" - 16'-2" 16" - 14'-0" 24" - 11'-5"
2x10 @
12" - 19'-8" 16" - 17-0" 24" - 13'-11"
8' PLATE
HIP SCHEDULE
A B
8' PLATE
2x8 @
B
1. USE 1/2" 'CCX' PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. 2. ROOF VENTS MUST HAVE AN AREA EQUAL TO 1/150 OF THE ATTIC AREA. 3. SKYLIGHTS TO BE DOUBLE DOMED PLASTIC BY VELEX OR EQUAL.
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
A
4. ALL ROOF PITCHES ARE 5/12 UNLESS NOTED. 5. 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT.
FIGURE 116 The roof plan shows the shape of the roof structure as well as vents and drains.
B
A
2x12
B
2-2x12
C
5 1/8" x 10 1/2" GLULAM
D
2-2x10
E
3 1/8" x 12" GLULAM
F
5 1/8 x 13 1/2 GLULAM
G
3 1/2" x 11 7/8" MICROLLAM
Architectural Drafting and Design
12" - 12'-9" 16" - 11'-1" 24" - 9'-1"
TYP. 2'-6"
8' PLATE 2'-6" TYP.
12' PLATE
MAX. RAFT. SPAN 2x6 @
E
PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN
D
B
B
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
2x10 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
12' PLATE
ROOF FRAMING NOTES:
CRICKET
D
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
B
PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN
N
CRICKET
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
D
48"x48" SKYLIGHT
2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. B
2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
8' PLATE SEE SECTION
2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN 12" ~SCREENED RIDGE VENTS
B
A
B
2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
E
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
CHIMNEY W/ 26 ga FLASH/ COUNTER FLASH 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
A
CRICKET
PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN
CRICKET
E
2x8 PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN
48"x48" SKYLITE
8' PLATE
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
D
2x10 RAFT. @ 12" O.C.
2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
9' PLATE
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
12' PLATE
8' PLATE
12' PLATE
8' PLATE
PLATE HEIGHT REMAINING LEVEL. FLOOR HEIGHT CHANGES. SEE SECTION
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
21
BUILT-INS 8
13'-6" CEILING
B
L
6
3'-6" X 6'-0" C.T. SUNKEN TUB
9
S&P
MASONRY FIREPLACE W/ 18" FLUSH HEARTH
G
D
C
36" HIGH PLANTER 8" MAX. STEP
UP 2 RISERS
D
SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 24"
BUILT-INS
S&P
4'-0"X4'-0" SKYLIGHT
36" HIGH PLANTER
8" MAX.
ARCH
4'-0" X 4'-0" SKYLIGHT
2'-6" CASE OPENING
22" X 30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS
4'-0"X4'-0" SKYLIGHT ARCH
K
36" F.G. SHW. SHOWER
FULL WALL
ARCH
N N
N
F
P CLS
J N
N
F
3'-6" X 7'-0" SHOWER
N
S&P
P
60" F.G. TUB & S. 2'-6" CASE OPENING
F
FOLDING COUNTER W/ SHELVES BELOW
SELF VENT M
N
10 11
E ARCH
S&P A
22"X30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. FLOOR AND CEILING
6 3
4
5
BUILT-INS
1
R
INSULATE W.H. TO R-11 & PLACE ON 18" HIGH PLATFORM
2
S
14 DESIGN BASED ON 1996 OREGON ENERGY CODE - PATH I.
13
FIGURE 117A The preliminary floor plan is used to form the base of the finished floor plan. Text to describe all interior materials must be provided.
DOOR SCHEDULE SYM.
WINDOW SCHEDULE
A
3'-6" X 8'-0"
B
12'-0" X 8'-0"
C
8'-0" X 6'-8"
D
6'-0" X 6'-8"
TYPE S.C.,R.P., W/ 24" SIDELIGHT W/ SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE SL. GLASS W/ 12'-0" X 3'-0" SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE SL. FRENCH DRS. W/ 12" SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE SL. GLASS DRS. W/6'-0" x 3'-0" SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE
E
3'-0" X 6'-8"
SELF CLOSING, M.I.
1
F
PR 2'-6" X 6'-8"
HOLLOW CORE
2
G
6'-0" X 6'-8"
SL. MIRROR
1
H
6'-0" X 6'-8"
BIFOLD
1
J
4'-0" X 6'-8"
BIFOLD
1
K
PR 2'-0" X 6'-8"
HOLLOW CORE
1
L
2'-8" X 6'-8"
S.C., M.I.
1
M
2'-8" X 6'-8"
HOLLOW CORE
1
N
2'-6" X 6'-8"
HOLLOW CORE
7
P
2'-4" X 6'-8"
HOLLOW CORE
3
Q
16'-0" X 8'-0"
OVERHEAD, GARAGE
1
9'-0" X 8'-0"
OVERHEAD, GARAGE
1
R
SIZE
QUAN.
DOOR NOTES: 1. FRONT DOOR TO BE RATED AT 0.54 OR LESS; VERIFY DOOR STYLE WITH OWNER. 2. EXTERIOR DOORS IN HEATED WALLS TO BE U 0.20 OR LESS. OR LESS. 4. ALL GLASS WITHIN 18" OF DOORS TO BE TEMPERED.
1
SYM.
SIZE
GENERAL NOTES: TYPE
QUAN.
1. STRUCTURAL DESIGNS ARE BASED ON 2003 I.R.C AND 1996 OREGON ENERGY CODE PATH 1. 2. ALL PENETRATIONS IN TOP OR BOTTOM PLATES FOR PLUMBING OR ELECTRICAL RUNS TO BE SEALED. SEE ELECTRICAL PLANS FOR ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS.
1
5'-6" X 7-'6"
ARCHED TOP
1
1
2
5'-6" X 1-0"
AWNING
1
1
3
2'-6" X 5'-0"
PICTURE
2
1
4
2'-6" X 1'-0"
AWNING
2
3. PROVIDE 1/2" WATERPROOF GYP. BD. AROUND ALL TUBS, SHOWERS, AND SPAS.
5
2'-6" X 2'-6"
ARCHED TOP
6
1'-8" X 4'-6"
ARCHED TOP
2 1
4. VENT DRYER AND ALL FANS TO OUTSIDE AIR THRU DAMPERED VENTS.
7
6'-0" X 4'-6"
HOR. SLIDING
1
8
5'-0" X 4'-0"
HOR. SLIDING
1
9
6'-0" X 4'-0"
HOR. SLIDING
1
10
1'-8" X 4'-6"
CASEMENT
11
3'-6" X 4'-6"
PICTURE
2 1
12
4'-0" X 3'-0"
PICTURE
1
ARCHED TOP
1
13 3'-6" X 4'-6" WINDOW NOTES:
1. ALL WINDOWS TO BE VINYL FRAME, MILGARD OR BETTER. 2. ALL WINDOWS TO BE U 0.40 MIN. 3. ALL BEDROOM WINDOWS TO BE WITHIN 44" OF FIN. FLOOR. 4. GLASS WITHIN 18" OF DOORS TO BE TEMPERED. 5. ALL WINDOW HDRS. FOR 8' & 9' CEIL. HEIGHTS TO BE SET AT 6'-8", ALL HDRS FOR 12' CEIL. TO BE SET AT 10'-8", UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED. 6. VERIFY HEIGHT OF WINDOW #7 WITH TUB HEIGHT.
FIGURE 117B Notes and schedules are typically displayed near the floor plan.
5. INSULATE WATER HEATER TO R-11. PROVIDE 18" HIGH PLATFORM FOR GAS APPLIANCES. 6. PROVIDE 1/4" COLD WATER LINE TO REFRIGERATOR. 7. BRICK VENEER TO BE PLACED OVER 1" AIR SPACE, AND TYVEK W/ METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD.
22
SS
4
4
FLUORESCENT LIGHTS UP IN SOFFIT.
4
WP
(2) FLOOR OUTLETS VERIFY LOCATION W/ OWNER
4 4
TV
SS S 33 P
P
TO LIGHTING IN SOFFITS
GFI
SS
S.D.
S S 3 3
SS
J
S
SSSS
GFI
GFI
GD
S3
S3 SS
TR
J
SD
3 S
S L
S 3
WP F
S S
TV
GFI F
S
S.D. SS
TR
3 SSS
WP
P
P
120" WP
P
S
SS S 3 33
TR
FLUORESCENT LIGHTS IN SOFFIT.
WP 72" SUPPLY 220 CIRCUIT TO A.C.
S S3 SSSS3
P
S3S3
CH.
S3
S
S
GFI
42"
S3S3S3
SS
S.D.
F
S
S
S.D.
S 3
S3S3S3
F L H
SD
SD
SSS
P
GFI
GFI
SD S3
TR.
S
S
TV
WP
WP 120"
4
S3
WP
4
SS
TV
AIR COND.
S
ALL OUTLETS IN KITCHEN, LAUNDRY, WP BATHROOM & OUTDOOR TO BE GFI.
CIR
SWITCH TURNS ON ALL W.P. OUTLETS MOUNTED UNDER EAVES D
50 AMP.
ELECTRICAL PLAN
14
D
W.P.
W.P 72"
FIGURE 118A The electrical plan shows the locations for lights, plugs, switches, and other electrical fixtures and specifications. Using the floor plan as the base drawing, the electrical drawing can be completed by adding the electrical information on new layers.
Architectural Drafting and Design
LIGHTS ON GATE
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
23
ELECTRICAL LEGEND
ELECTRICAL NOTES: 1. ALL GARAGE AND EXTERIOR PLUGS & LIGHT FIXTURES TO BE ON GFCI CIRCUIT. 2. ALL KITCHEN PLUGS AND LIGHT FIXTURES TO BE ON GFCI CIRCUIT. 3. PROVIDE A SEPARATE CIRCUIT FOR MICROWAVE OVEN. 4. PROVIDE A SEPARATE CIRCUIT FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER. VERIFY LOCATION WITH OWNER. 5. VERIFY ALL ELECTRICAL LOCATIONS W/ OWNER. 6. EXTERIOR SPOTLIGHTS TO BE ON PHOTOELECTRIC CELL W/ TIMER. 7. ALL RECESSED LIGHTS IN EXT. CEIL. TO BE INSULATION COVER RATED. 8. ELECTRICAL OUTLET PLATE GASKETS SHALL BE INSTALLED ON RECEPTACLE, SWITCH, AND ANY OTHER BOXES IN EXTERIOR WALL. 9. PROVIDE THERMOSTATICALLY CONTROLLED FAN IN ATTIC W/ MANUAL OVERRIDE (VERIFY LOCATION W/ OWNER).
CEILING-MOUNTED LIGHT FIXTURE CAN CEILING LIGHT FIXTURE
110 CONVENIENCE OUTLET L GFI 110 C.O. GROUND FAULT INTERRUPTER WP 110 WATERPROOF
WALL-MOUNTED LIGHT
110 HALF HOT J
JUNCTION BOX
RECESSED LIGHT FIXTURE P.C
220 OUTLET
10. ALL FANS TO VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR. ALL FAN DUCTS TO HAVE AUTOMATIC DAMPERS. 11. HOT WATER TANKS TO BE INSULATED TO R-11 MINIMUM. 12. INSULATE ALL HOT WATER LINES TO R-4 MINIMUM. PROVIDE AN ALTERNATE BID TO INSULATE ALL PIPES FOR NOISE CONTROL.
S
SINGLE POLE SWITCH
S3
THREE-WAY SWITCH
L H F
LIGHT, HEATER, & FAN
S.D. SMOKE DETECTOR
13. PROVIDE 6 SQ. FT. OF VENT FOR COMBUSTION AIR TO OUTSIDE AIR FOR FIREPLACE CONNECTED DIRECTLY TO FIREBOX. PROVIDE FULLY CLOSEABLE AIR INLET. 14. HEATING TO BE ELECTRIC HEAT PUMP. PROVIDE BID FOR SINGLE UNIT NEAR GARAGE OR FOR A UNIT EACH FLOOR (IN ATTIC).
V
VACUUM
LIGHT ON PULL CHORD SPOTLIGHTS 48" SURFACE-MOUNTED FLUORESCENT LIGHT FIXTURE
S
STEREO SPEAKER
P
PHONE OUTLET
TV
CABLE TV OUTLET
15. INSULATE ALL HEATING DUCTS IN UNHEATED AREAS TO R-11. ALL HVAC DUCTS TO BE SEALED AT JOINTS AND CORNERS.
FIGURE 118B Notes and legends are placed with the electrical plan to explain fixtures.
plan was provided (see Figure 1-14). The junior drafter may draw the base drawing showing the structure and site plan and the designer or senior drafter will usually complete the grading information. Typically the owner is responsible for hiring a surveyor, who will provide the topography and site map, although the designer may coordinate the work between the two offices. Section 3 will provide insight into how these two drawings are developed. Using the preliminary drawing that was presented in Figure 1-10, the working elevations can be completed. Depending on the complexity of the structure, they may be completed by either the junior or the senior drafter. Figure 1-15 shows the working elevations for this structure. Section 7 will provide information needed to complete working elevations, and Section 11 will introduce presentation elevations. Figure 1-16 and Figure 1-17 show the completed plan views of this structure. Figure 1-16 shows the view from flying over the structure. The roof plan is often completed by the junior drafter using sketches provided by the senior drafter. Section 6 will provide information on roof plans. The floor plan, represented in Figure 1-17A, is usually completed by the senior drafter. These drawings provide information related to the room arrangements and interior finishes. Junior drafters also work on the plan views by making corrections or adding notes, which are typically placed on a marked-up set of plans provided by the designer or senior drafter. Section 4 will provide information for completing floor plans.
Figure 1-18 shows the electrical plan. Depending on the complexity of the residence, electrical information may be placed directly on the floor plan. A junior drafter typically completes the electrical drawings by working from marked-up prints provided by the designer. Chapter 19 will provide information for completing the electrical plans. Figure 1-19 through Figure 1-21 represent the framing plans and notes associated with these drawings. The notes shown with Figure 1-19 are standard notes that specify the nailing for all framing connections. Depending on the complexity of the structure, framing information may be placed on the floor plan. Because of the information to be shown regarding seismic and wind problems, separate framing plans have been provided. Typically these drawings would be completed by the designer and the senior drafters. Notice in Figure 1-21B that notes have been provided to specify the minimum code standards used to design the residence. Section 6 and Section 8 will provide information needed to complete the framing plans. Figure 1-22 and Figure 1-23 contain the section views required to show the vertical relationships of materials specified on the framing plans. Office practice varies greatly on what drawings will be provided, the scale to be used, and the detail that will be shown in the sections. Section 10 will provide information for drawing sections. Sections are typically drawn by the designer and the senior drafter and completed by the junior drafters. Section 10 will provide information for creating building sections and details.
24
Architectural Drafting and Design
FASTENER SCHEDULE
CAULKING NOTES: CAULKING REQUIREMENTS BASED ON 1992 OREGON RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CODE 1. SEAL THE EXTERIOR SHEATHING @ CORNERS, JOINTS, DOOR AND WINDOW, AND FOUNDATION SILLS W/ SILICONE CAULKING. 2. CAULK THE FOLLOWING OPENINGS W/ EXPANDED FOAM OR BACKER RODS. POLYURETHANE, ELASTOMERIC COPOLYMER, SILCONIZED ACRYLIC LAYTEX CAULKS MAY ALSO BE USED WHERE APPROPRIATE. ANY SPACE BETWEEN WINDOW AND DOOR FRAMES BETWEEN ALL EXTERIOR WALL SOLE PLATES AND PLY SHEATHING ON TOP OF RIM JOIST PRIOR TO PLYWOOD FLOOR APPLICATION WALL SHEATHING TO TOP PLATE JOINTS BETWEEN WALL AND FOUNDATION JOINTS BETWEEN WALL AND ROOF JOINTS BETWEEN WALL PANELS AROUND OPENINGS FOR DUCTS, PLUMBING, ELECTRICAL, TELEPHONE AND GAS LINES IN CEILINGS, WALLS AND FLOORS. ALL VOIDS AROUND PIPING RUNNING THROUGH FRAMING OR SHEATHING TO BE PACKED
ALTERNATE ATTACHMENTS TABLE NO R 402.3A (1) NOMINAL THICKNESS 5/16" 3/8" 15/32" & 1/2" 19/32" & 5/8" 23/32" & 3/4" 1"
DESCRIPTION (1,2) OF FASTENERS & LENGTH .097-.009 NAIL 1 1/2" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 3/8" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 3/8" .097-.099 NAIL 1 1/2" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 1/2" .097-.099 NAIL 1 5/8 .113 NAIL 1 7/8" STAPLE T 15 & 16 GA. 1 5/8" .097-.099 NAIL 1 3/4" STAPLE 14 GA. 1 3/4" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 3/4" .097-.099 NAIL 1 7/8" STAPLE 14 GA. 2" .113 NAIL 2 1/4" STAPLE 15 GA. 2" .097-.099 NAIL 2 1/8"
SPACING OF FASTENERS INTERMEDIATE EDGES SUPPORTS 6" 6 4 6 3
12" 12 10 12" 6"
6 3" 6 5 3 6 4"
12" 6" 12 10 6 10" 8"
3"
6"
FLOOR UNDERLAYMENT: PLYWOOD, HARDBOARD, PARTICLEBOARD
|" & 5/16"
3/8"
1/2"
.097-.099 NAIL 1 1/2" STAPLE 15 & 16 GA. 1 1/4" .080 NAIL 1 1/4" STAPLE 18 GA. 3/16 CROWN 7/8" STAPLE 15 & 16 GA 1 3/8" .097-.099 NAIL 1 1/2" .080 NAIL 1 3/8" .113 NAIL 1 7/8" STAPLE 15 & 16 GA. 1 1/2" .097-.099 NAIL 1 3/4"
6"
12"
5"
10"
DESCRIPTION OF BUILDING MATERIAL
NUMBER & TYPE OF FASTENERS (1,2,3,5,)
1. JOIST TO SILL OR GIRDER, TOE NAIL 2. BRIDGING TO JOIST, TOENAIL EA. END 3. 1 x 6 (25 X 150) SUBFLOOR OR LESS TO EACH JOIST, FACE NAIL
5"
10"
6"
12"
5"
6"
1. NAIL IS A GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND MAY BE T-HEAD, MODIFIED ROUND HEAD, OR ROUND HEAD. 2. STAPLES SHALL HAVE A MINIMUM CROWN WIDTH OF 7/16" O.D. EXCEPT AS NOTED. 3. NAILS OR STAPLES SHALL BE SPACED AT NOT MORE THAN 6" O.C. AT ALL SUPPORTS WHERE SPANS ARE 48" OR GREATER. NAILS OR STAPLES SHALL BE SPACED AT NOT MORE THAN 10" O.C. AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS FOR FLOORS.
6d 6
5/8" (16 mm)
8d 6 7
1/2" (13 mm)
No. 16 ga.9
2-8d 25/32" (20 mm)
4. WIDER THAN 1 x 6 (25 x 150) SUBFLOOR TO EACH JOIST, FACE 3-8d NAIL 5. 2" (50) SUBFLOOR TO JOIST OR GIRDER BLIND AND FACE NAIL 6. SOLE PLATE TO JOIST OR BLOCKING FACE NAIL SOLE PLATE TO JOIST OR BLOCKING AT BRACED WALL PANELS 7. TOP OR SOLE PLATE TO STUD, END NAIL
No. 11 ga.8 6d 4 No. 16 ga.9
2-16d 16d @ 16" (406mm) O.C.
No. 11 ga. 6d 4
2-8d
29. INTERIOR PANELING
3- 16d PER 16" (406mm) O.C.
1/4" (6.4 mm)
4d 10
2-16d
3/8" (9.5 mm)
4d 11
8. STUD TO SOLE PLATE, TOE NAIL
4-8d, TOENAIL OR 2-16d END NAIL
9. DOUBLE STUDS, FACE NAIL
16d @ 24" (610mm) O.C.
10. DOUBLE TOP PLATE, FACE NAIL DOUBLE TOP PLATE, LAP SPLICE 11. BLOCKING BTWN. JOIST OR RAFTERS TO TOP PLATE, TOENAIL 12. RIM JOIST TO TOP PLATE, TOENAIL 13. TOP PLATES, TAPS & INTERSECTIONS, FACE NAIL 14. CONTINUED HEADER, TWO PIECES
16d @ 16" (406mm) O.C. 8-16d
1. - COMMON OR BOX NAILS MAY BE USED EXCEPT WHERE OTHERWISE STATED.
2-16d
2. - NAILS SPACED @ 6" (152 mm) ON CENTER @ EDGES, 12" INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS EXCEPT 6" (152 mm) AT ALL SUPPORTS WHERE SPANS ARE 48" 1220 mm OR MORE. FOR NAILING OF WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL AND PARTICLEBOARD DIAPHRAGMS AND SHEAR WALLS, REFER TO SECTION 2314.3. NAIL FOR WALL SHEATHING MAY BE COMMON, BOX OR CASING.
16d @ 16" (406mm) O.C. ALONG EACH EDGE
3. - COMMON OR DEFORMED SHANK.
3- 8d 8d @ 6" (152mm) O.C.
15. CEILING JOIST TO PLATE, TOE NAIL 3-8d 4. - COMMON.
16. CONTINUOUS HEADER TO STUD, TOE NAIL 17. CEILING JOIST, LAPS OVER PARTITIONS, FACE NAIL 18. CEILING JOIST TO PARALLEL RAFTERS, FACE NAIL 19. RAFTERS TO PLATE, TOE NAIL 20. 1" (25mm) BRACE TO EA. STUD & PLATE FACE NAIL 21. 1 x 8 (25 x 203mm) SHEATHING OR LESS TO EACH BEARING, FACE NAIL 22. WIDER THAN 1 x 8 (25 X 203mm) SHEATHING TO EACH BEARING, FACE NAIL 23. BUILT-UP CORNER STUDS 24. BUILT-UP GIRDER AND BEAMS
4-8d 5. - DEFORMED SHANK. 3-16d 6. - CORROSION-RESISTANT SIDING OR CASING NAILS. 3-16d 3-8d 2-8d 2-8D 3-8d
8. - CORROSION-RESISTANT ROOFING NAILS W/ 7/16" ~ (11 mm) HEAD & 1 1/2" (38 mm) LENGTH FOR 1/2" (13 mm) SHEATHING AND 1 3/4" (44 mm) LENGTH (FOR 25/32" (20 mm) SHEATHING CONFORMING TO THE REQUIREMENTS OF SECTION 2325.1.
9. - CORROSION-RESISTANT STAPLES WITH NOMINAL 7/16" (11 mm) CROWN AND 1 1/8" (29 mm) LENGTH FOR 20d @ 32" (813 mm) O.C. 1/2" (13 mm) SHEATHING AND 1 1/2" (38 mm) LENGTH FOR 25/32" ( 20 mm) SHEATHING CONFORMING TO THE @ TOP/BOTTOM & REQUIREMENTS OF SECTION 2325.1. STAGGER 2-20d @ ENDS & @ EACH SPLICE. 2-16d AT EACH BEARING
26. WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS AND 2 PARTICLEBOARD: SUBFLOOR, ROOF AND WALL SHEATHING ( TO FRAMING) 1" = 25.4mm) 1/2" OR LESS
6d 3
19/32 - 3/4"
8d OR 6d 5
7/8 - 1"
8d 3
1 1/8 - 1 1/4"
10d 4 OR 8d 5
COMBINATION SUBFLOOR—UNDERLAYMENT (TO FRAMING) 1" = 25.4 mm) 3/4" AND LESS
7. - FASTENERS SPACED 3" (76 mm) O.C. AT EXTERIOR EDGES AND 6" (152 mm) O.C. AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS.
16d @ 24" (610 mm) O.C.
25. 2" PLANKS 12"
1/2" (13 mm)
28. FIBERBOARD SHEATHING:
3-8d
6"3 ""
6"
27. PANEL SIDING (TO FRAMING):
10. - PANEL SUPPORTS @ 16" (406 mm) O.C. 20" (508 mm) IF STRENGTH AXIS IN LONG DIRECTION OF THE PANEL, UNLESS OTHERWISE MARKED CASING OR FINISH NAILS SPACED 6" (152 mm) ON PANEL EDGES, 12" (305 mm) AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS. 11. - PANEL SUPPORTS @ 24" (610 mm). CASING OR FINISH NAILS SPACED 6" (152 mm) ON PANEL EDGES, 12" (305 mm) AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS.
INSULATION NOTES: INSULATION BASED ON PATH # 1 OF 1992 OREGON RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CODE.
8d 5
7/8" - 1"
8d 5
1 1/8 - 1 1/4"
10d 4 OR 8d 5
FIGURE 119 Many offices use one or more sheets to include all standard framing notes and building specifications.
6x12 HDR. 6x10 HDR.
4x6
4x6 HDR.
NOTES:
1. ALL HEADERS TO BE SUPPORTED BY 2x6 TRIMMERS AND KING STUD UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED. 2. STRUTS SHALL NOT BE SMALLER THAN 2x4 MEMBERS. THE UNBRACED LENGTH OF STRUTS SHALL NOT EXCEED 8' AND THE MINIMUM SLOPE OF THE STRUTS SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 45˚ FROM THE HORIZONTAL. 3. HIP, VALLEY AND RIDGE TO BE 2x10 UNLESS NOTED. 4. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITION. 5. EXTEND INTERIOR BEARING WALLS THROUGH TO RAFT. USE 2x4 @ 24" O.C. MAX. @ 45˚ MAX.
W/ 2-H5 EA. END. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
HDR. 4x4
2-2x4
MST 27
2x4 BRACE 45˚ MAX. TYP.
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
BEARING WALL 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
4x8 HDR.
6x12 HDR.
SEE NOTE #7
4x4
THIS SYMBOL REPRESENTS THE LOCATIONS OF ALL THE 2x4 ROOF SUPPORTS. BRACES TO BE WITHIN 45˚ OF VERT.
4x4 HDR.
4x4 HDR. 4x4 HDR.
4x8 HDR.
MST 27 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL 4x4 U-26 HGR. TYP.
4x6 HDR. 4x4 W/ PC 44
4x4 HDR.
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
2x6 C.J. @ 24" O.C.
4x10 HDR.
4x4 HDR.
BEARING WALL
5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM 5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
4x12 STRONGBACK
4x4 HDR.
5.125"x10.5" GLU-LAM
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
W/HUC410TF 4x10 HDR.
4x6 HDR.
4x8 HDR. 3-2x6
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
FLUSH
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 4x10 HDR.
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
MST 27
2x10 VALLEY 6x10 STRONGBACK
4x12 HDR. 4x4 HDR.
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
4x6 HDR.
FLUSH
4x8 HDR.
BEARING WALL ABOVE
4x8 HDR.
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
4x4 HDR.
4x6 HDR.
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4x4 PC44
4x6 HDR.
BEARING WALL ABOVE
1x4 LET IN BRACE TYP.
4x12 HDR.
3-2x4 6x12 STRONGBACK
4x10 HDR.
4x10 HDR.
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
4x6 HDR.
4x4 HDR.
4x14 HDR.
2-2x4
FLUSH
4x4
2x8 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
6x6 CC 5|-6
5 1/8" x 10.5" GLU-LAM 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 5 1/8" x1 0.5" GLU-LAM
3 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM
4x8 HDR.
4x6 HDR.
4x6 HDR.
4x6 HDR.
MST 28 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL
4x14 HDR.
4x6 HDR.
6x12 HDR.
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
6x6 W/ PC66 CAP
MST 27 SOLID BLOCK @ WALL
MST 48 STRAP FROM BM. TO BM.
MST 27 SOLID BLOCK @ WALL
ECC 5|-4 4x8 HDR.
25
FIGURE 120 Because of the complicated roof structure, the material used to frame the roof is separated from the material displayed on the roof plan (Figure 1.16). The roof plan shows the material used to frame the roof. The roof framing plan is used to display the structural materials used to transfer roof loads into the walls.
26
90'-0"
MST 27
1
C
1'-0"
12'-4"
12
8'-4"
C 1 2'-0"
4'-4" 3'-8" 5'-4"
32'-4"
3'-2" 2'-8" 3'-2"
11'-8"
B 1 13'-0"
MST 27 SOLID BLOCK @ WALL
R
PROVIDE 4"x3"x 5/8" STEEL OVER EA. DOOR & WINDOW TYPICAL. 38'-8"
5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM
5 1/8" x 10.5" GLU-LAM 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
MST 48 STRAP FROM BM. TO BM.
Q
C
5 1/8" x1 0.5" GLU-LAM
6'-0"
4x8 HDR.
8'-8"
A
MST 27 SOLID BLOCK @ WALL
A 1
25'-8"
10 11
71'-0"
C 1
ECC 5 1/4 x 4 13 8'-0"
4x6 HDR.
4x8 HDR. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
6x12 HDR.
9'-10"
15'-0"
3'-10"
10'-0"
C 1
A 1
12'-0"
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
9'-10" +
B 1
17'-0"
90'-0"
FIGURE 121A In addition to showing materials needed to frame the structure, materials needed to resist wind, seismic, and other forces of nature are shown.
Architectural Drafting and Design
A 0
4x4 HDR. 4x4 HDR.
2'-4" 5'-4"
1'-0"
19'-0"
4x8 HDR.
4'-6"
4'-0"
2'-7"
2
4x4 HDR.
6'-0"
6'-6"
6'-6"
4x6 HDR.
8'-4"
3'-10"
6x6 CC 5 1/4" x 6
4x10 HDR. 4x4
2'-6" 2'-6"
N
P
P
A 0
1'-0"
1/4"
E
M
5'-0"
2x6 C.J. @ 24" O.C.
C 1
4x4 HDR.
J
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
5'-4"
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
B 1
5'-4" 4x4 HDR.
P
1'-0"
FRAMING PLAN
8'-1"
4x4 HDR.
2'-6" 2'-10"
7'-2" 4x4 U-26 HGR. TYP. N 2-2x4 SEE NOTE #7
N
7'-8"
33'-4"
4x4 W/ PC 44
3'-10"
N 4x4 HDR.
5'-8"
9'-6"
4x4
FLUSH
4x8 HDR.
4x4 HDR.
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
8'-4"
H
4x4 HDR
N
4'-0"
4x6 HDR.
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
2'-10"
4'-6"
5'-6"
7'-6"
6'-10"
7'-3"
5
G
4x12 HDR.
3
9
3 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM
7'-6"
14'-8" 12" WIDE WALL
7'-0"
4'-0"
1x4 LET IN BRACE TYP.
8'-10"
4x6 HDR.
4x6 HDR. 4
A
D
FULL WALL
MST 27
9'-4"
12'-4" B 1
A 0
4x6 HDR.
8
L
D
4x4 PC44
MST 27 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL 4x12 STRONGBACK 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. W/ 2-H5 EA. END. B 1 4x8 HDR.
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
6
4'-0"
F
8'-4"
4'-0"
1'-0"
4x6 HDR.
3'-0"
3-2x6
0"
B 1
4'-0"
4x10 HDR.
-1
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
4'-8"
5'-8"
K
4'-2"
16" WIDE WALL
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
2'-4"
2'-10"
8'-6"
6'-2"
5'
A 0
2'-4"
N
7'-6"
10'-10"
4x10 HDR. FLUSH
4x6 HDR. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
4'-2"
N
5'-6"
16" O.C.
3'-10"
2x6 C.J. @
4'-10"
3'-8"
2'-2"
4x8 HDR.
37'-0" 7'-4"
2'-8"
F
2'-10"
7'-0"
A
A 0
4x6 HDR.
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
4x12 HDR.
3'-0"
6x12 HDR.
3'-2"
7'-2"
4x6 HDR.
4x14 HDR. FLUSH
7'-2"
16'-0"
B
6'-0"
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
1'-0" 5'-8"
4x10 HDR.
14'-2" 5'-8"
2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.
4'-0"
2'-4"
12'-6"
4x4
D
8'-10"
B
A 0
2x8 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
2-2x4 3-2x4 6x12 STRONGBACK 1'-10"
72'-6"
B 1
B 1
2'-2"
8'-4"
A 0
B 1
C
4x8 HDR.
4x14 HDR.
5'-6" 17'-2"
7 4x6 HDR.
MST 28 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL
B
4x6 HDR.
6x10 HDR. B 1
5'-6"
1'-6"
5'-8" 6x6 W/ 6x12 HDR. EPC66 CAP
7'-4"
8'-10"
7'-6"
7'-0"
6'-0"
6'-8"
7'-2"
5'-9"
11'-2"
5 1/8"x10.5" GLU-LAM
6'-1"
14'-6"
5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM
4'-3"
25'-6"
13'-8"
8'-10"
4'-0"
11'-10"
19'-10"
4'-7"
3'-10"
3'-8"
8'-10"
32'-0"
2'-4"
24'-6"
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
27
NOTES: 1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL. #2 MIN.
2. FRAME ALL EXTERIOR WALLS W/ 2X6 STUDS @ 16" O.C. ALL EXTERIOR HEADERS TO BE 4X6 DFL. #2 UNLESS NOTED. 3. ALTERNATE: FOR ALL BMS. SMALLER THAN 4X10 USE 2X6 NAILER AT THE BOTTOM OF ALL 4X HEADERS @ EXTERIOR WALLS. BACK HEADER W/ 2" RIGID INSULATION. 4. ALL SHEAR PANELS TO BE 1/2" PLY NAILED W/ 8 d'S @ 4" O.C. @ EDGE BLOCKING AND 6 d'S @ 8" O.C. @ FIELD UNLESS NOTED. 5. ALL METAL CONNECTORS TO BE BY SIMPSON CO. OR OTHER. 6. ALL ANGLES ON INTERNAL WALLS TO BE 45˚ UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED. 7. USE 4X6 POST W/ EPC 5 1/4 TOP CAP TO 4X6 POST & PC 46 BASE CAP UPSIDE/DOWN TO HDR OVER GARAGE/HALL DOOR. 8. 1X4 DIAG. LET IN BRACE @ 45˚ MAX. TYPICAL. 9. BLOCK ALL WALLS OVER 10'-0" HIGH AT MIDHEIGHT. 10. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITIONS.
SHEAR WALL SCHEDULE MARK A B C
WALL COVER EDGE NAIL'G 15/32" C-D EXTR. 8d @ 6" O.C. PLYWD. (1) SIDE -U BLOCKED -UNBLOCKE 15/32" C-D EXTR. PLYWD. (1) SIDE - 8d @ 6" O.C. BLOCKED EDGES 15/32" C-D EXTR. PLYWD. (1) SIDE - 8d @ 4" O.C. BLOCKED EDGE
FIELD NAIL'G 8d @ 12" O.C. 8d @ 12" O.C. 8d @ 12" O.C.
HOLD DOWN SCHEDULE MARK 0
1
HOLD DOWN
CONN. MEMBER
DETAIL
NON-REQ'D SIMPSON PAHD42
8d @ 6" O.C.
FIGURE 121B Notes specifying minimum building standards are shown near the framing plan.
Figure 1-24 shows what is typically the final drawing in a set of residential plans, although the foundation plan is one of the first drawings used at the construction site. Because of the importance of this drawing, it is typically completed by the designer or the senior drafter, although junior drafters may work on corrections or add notes to the drawing. Section 9 will provide information for creating drawings to represent the foundation and floor system. As you progress through this text, you will be exposed to each type of working drawing. It is important to understand that a drafter would rarely draw one complete drawing and then go on to another drawing.
Because the drawings in a set of plans are so interrelated, often one drawing is started, and then another drawing is started so that relationships between the two can be studied before the first drawing is completed. For instance, floor plans may be laid out, and then a section may be drawn to work out the relationships between floors or any headroom problems. When the plans are completely drawn, they must be checked. Dimensions must be checked carefully and cross-referenced from one plan to another. Bearing points from beams must be followed from the roof down through the foundation system. Perhaps one of the hardest jobs for a new drafter is coordinating the
28
Architectural Drafting and Design
2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
LINE OF ROOF BEYOND 3.125x12" GLULAM
3.125x12" GLULAM 300# COMP. SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT
12" R-30 MIN. BLOWN-IN
BATH 2
BED 2
8"MIN,
6x10 GIRDER
6" BATTS. R-25 MIN.
6x10 GIRDER
2x6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" Ø @ 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. -7" MIN. INTO CONC. ANCHOR BOLT W/ ~2" WASHER
4x4 POST
6"
GUSSET
8" 12"
4x6 HDR.
BED 3
2x4 @ 16" O.C. 2x4 LEDGER
2x4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
6" BATTS. R-21 MIN. 2x4 SILL, TYP. 3/8" HARDBOARD OVERLAY
2x6 MUDSILL
1/2" SHEETROCK
12" MIN.
C 1
2'-6" TYP.
BATH 3
8'-0"
1x4 T&G @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES W/ 2x4 NAILER & CONT. VENT
12"MIN,
2-2x4 TOP PLATES, TYP.
(2) 2x6 TOP PLATE LAP 48" MIN. TYP. ALL EXT. WALLS
2x6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER
BAFFLE
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
SOLID BLOCK
2x4 NAILER W/ U24 HGR.
2x8 RAFT @ 16" O.C.
A 0
18" MIN.
SOLID BLOCK OMIT EA. 3RD FOR SCREENED VENTS
12 TYP. 5
2x4 BRACE @ 48" O.C. 45˚ MAX. TYP.
CONC. PIER SEE FND. PLAN FOR
.006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER
SECTION A-A 1'-0" 3/8" NOTES: 1. SEE FND. PLAN FOR GIRDER AND PIER SIZES. 2. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITIONS.
SOLID BLOCK OMIT EA. 3RD FOR SCREENED VENTS
45˚ MAX.
5
12
2x8 RAFT. @ 24" 0.C.
4x4 26 ga. METAL FLASH
2x4 PLATE
2x4 @16" O.C.
2x4 BRACE @ 48" O.C. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
U-26 HGR. EA. SIDE
2x6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER 1x4 T&G @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES W/ 2x4 NAILER & CONT. VENT 4" BRICK VENEER W/ 1" AIR SPACE W/ METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD
3/8" NOTES:
8"MIN,
9'-0" 2x6 @ 16" O.C. 2-2x4 TOP >
GUSSET
2x4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
4x4 POST
2x4 SILL
6"
12"MIN,
2x6 T&G DECKING
8" 16"
1" TREAD MATERIAL SOLID BLOCK
6" TYP. (7 3/4" MAX.)
12" MIN. 18" MIN.
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" @ 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. -7" MIN. INTO CONC. ANCHOR BOLT W/ 2" WASHER
SECTION B-B
4x10 HDR.
8'-0"
LINE OF WALL BEYOND
CONC. PIER SEE FND. PLAN FOR SIZE
1'-0"
1. SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES.
FIGURE 122 Sections are used to show the vertical relationships of the structural members. A section or detail is used to represent each major shape within the structure.
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
29
2-2x12 RIDGE BLOCK RIDGE VENT
2x8 RAFTER @ 16" O.C.
2x4 BRACE 48" O.C. @ 45˚ 45˚ MAX. 2x6 C.J. @ 24" O.C.
5 1/8"x13.5" GLU-LAM
12" MIN.
8'-0"
6"
HGR. 4"x3"x 5/8" STEEL W/ 4" LEG TO WALL. TYP. 7'-0"
2x6 DFPT SILL
LINE OF FIN. FLOOR
SECTION C-C 3/8"
16"
B 1
GARAGE
2x6 DF SILL
8"
5
3 1/8"x13.5" GLU-LAM
U-26 EA. SIDE
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. FOR 1-HR. WALL & CEIL.
A 0
12
2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL-SLOPE 1/4" / 12" FOR DRAINAGE.
1'-0"
NOTES:
THICKEN SLAB TO 8" @ EDGE
6x12 CONT. FOOTING
1. SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES. 2. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITIONS. 2x10 RAFTER @ 12" O.C. 3.125"x12" GLU-LAM HIP 2x8 RAFTER @ 24" O.C.
2"x12" HIP
12
5
2x8 COLLAR TIE @ 48" O.C. 2x6 NAILER
2x8 RAFTER @ 24" O.C. 2x8 PURLIN
2x4 PURLIN BRACE @ 48" O.C. @ 45˚ MAX. FROM VERT.
2x8 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
SOLID BLK. 4x14 HEADER
2'-0"
2-2x4 TOP PLATES, TYP.
LINE OF WALL BEYOND
15'-6"
SOLID BLOCK @ MID SPAN FOR ALL WALLS OVER 10'-0" HIGH
2x4 NAILER
13'-6"
9'-0"
2X6 LEDGER W/ U26 HGR.
PLANTER BEYOND 1" TREAD MATERIAL 2x8 LEDGER W/ U210 HGR.
4x8 TYP.
4x10
1'-6"
2x12 STRINGER @ 16" O.C. 2x KICKER
GUSSET
SECTION D-D 3/8"
.006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER
1'-0"
4x10
GIRDER & CONC. PIER. SEE FOUNDATION PLAN FOR SIZE.
NOTES: 1. SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES. 2. SEE FND. PLAN FOR GIRDER AND PIER SIZE.
FIGURE 123 Each section is referenced to the framing plan with a viewing plane line to show where the structure is “cut” and in which direction the viewer is looking.
30
90'-0"
1/2"X10 @ 48" O.C.
1'-6" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0"
32'-4"
4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0"
4'-4"
4'-0"
1'- 2"
5'-4"
9'-2" 4'-0"
4'-0" 2'-0"
1/2"X10 @ 48" O.C.
18'-0"
2 X 6 D.F.P.T. SILL W/ 1/2"X10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. & 12" MAX. FROM ANY CORNER W/ 2" WASHERS W/ 2 MIN. PER PLATE. 18" X 6" SCREENED CLOSABLE VENTS @ 10' O.C. & 3' OF EA. CORNER. PLACE VENTS TO AVOID KING STUDS.
BLOCK OUT FOR DOORS
38'-8"
15'-8" 30"X12" DP. CONC. PIER W/ CB66
A 0
1'-10"
1'-6" TYP. @ VENEER
11'-0"
A 1 9'-10"
12'-4"
16'-4"
2'-7"
PROVIDE 1/2" AIR SPACE @ ENDS & SIDE W/ 55# FELT & 3" MIN. BEARING
8'-0"
B 1
8"
3 1/2"
C 1
PROVIDE 1/2" AIR SPACE @ ENDS & SIDE W/ 55# FELT & 3" MIN. BEARING
13'-0"
6'-6" C 1
4x8 GIRDERS W/ 15" O.C.
9'-4"
6'-0" 4'-9" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-3"
4x10 GIRDER W/18" x 8"
9'-10"
B 1 15"x15"x12"DP. W/ PB44
4x8 TYP.
C 1
5'-1"
4x8 BLOCK EA. SPAN W/ U46 HGR.
7'-0"
18 R
4'-6" 2'-0" 1'-8" 3'-6" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0"
2'-10"
4'-0"
3'-10"
4x10 GIRDER W/18"¯ x 8" PIERS
1'-4" 4'-0"
3'-2"
12"x6" TYP.
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL. FILL SLOPE |" MIN. PER FT. FOR DRAINAGE. 21"x21"x12"DP. CONC. PIER. 6'-0"
25'-8"
A 1 9'-10"
B 1
17'-0"
1'-0"
15'-0"
U46 HGR. TYP.
4'-0"
A 0
3'-2"
19'-0"
2'-8"
4'-0"
4'-0"
8" TYP.
90'-0"
FIGURE 124 The foundation plan shows how each of the loads will be supported. The foundation resists not only the loads caused by gravity but also the loads from seismic forces, winds, and flooding.
Architectural Drafting and Design
1'-0"
8'-0"
OO FL TH
IS
4x8 GIRDER ON 4x4 2'-4" POST (4x6 @ SPLICE) W/ GUSSET ON 55# FELT ON 15"¯ x 8" CONC. PIERS. TYP.
1. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE OF 2000 P.S.F. 2. ALL CONC. TO BEAR ON FIRM, NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AT 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER 2500 PSI WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER 3000 PSI PORCHES,STEPS AND GARAGE SLAB 3500 PSI 4. EXTEND FOOTINGS BELOW FROST LINE,(12" MIN. INTO NATURAL SOIL FOR 1 STORY AND 2 STORY CONSTRUCTION). FOOTINGS TO BE 6" THICK FOR 1 STORY, AND 7" THICK FOR 2 STORY CONSTRUCTION. ALL FOUNDATION WALLS TO BE 8" WIDE UNLESS STEEL IS PROVIDED WITHIN 2" BUT NOT CLOSER THAN 1" FROM THE FACE OF THE WALL AWAY FROM THE SOIL. STEEL TO BE 2-#3'8 HORIZONTAL. 5. THE GRADE AWAY FROM THE FOUNDATION WALLS TO FALL A MIN. OF 6" WITHIN THE FIRST 10 FEET. 6. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DOUG. FIR LARCH #2. 7. PROVIDE PEST SCREEN IN EACH INTERIOR PLANTER. 8. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL SCHEDULE.
12'-0"
LINE OF SUNKEN FLOOR
7'-8"
8'-0"
8'-0"
6x10 GIRDER W/ 18" x 8" PIERS @ 48" U46 HGR. TYP.
19'-10"
1'-0"
5'-4"
30"x15"x12" CONC. PIER
30"x15"x12" CONC. PIER
2'-4"
8'-4"
B 1
4" 1'-0"
1/4"
4'-0"
5'-10"
FOUNDATION PLAN
4'-0"
ER
6'-2" 6'-0"
4'-0"
17'-6"
LINE OF RAISED FLOOR
3'-0"
3'-4"
4'-0"
"
5'-4" 4x10 GIRDER
1'-0"
18" CONC. PIERS
B 1
4'-0"
3'-4"
6x10 GIRDER W/ 18"Ø x 8" PIERS
2'-4" 5'-2"
2'-8"
2'-0"
7'-0"
18"X8" CONC. PIER 15"x15" CONC. PIER
4'-0"
4'-8"
B 1
3'-0"
1'-0"
72-6"
18"X8" CONC. PIER
21"x21" CONC. PIER
14'-10"
8'-0"
18"X8" CONC. PIER
5'-3"
4x8 GIRDER
18"X8" CONC. PIER
A 0
B 1
18" MIN. CRAWL SPACE COVER W/ 6 MIL BLACK VAPOR BARRIER THROUGHOUT. LAP JOINTS 12" MIN. EXTEND UP STEM WALL & STAPLE TO MUD SILL.
PIER SIZE 15"x15"x12" 6x6 W/ PB66
2'-6"
B 1
15"x15" CONC. PIER
24"X8" CONC. PIER
4x10 GIRDER W/15"X8" PIERS @ 48" O.C. 3'-10"
4'-0" 4'-0"
8'-4" 37'-0"
8'-0"
8'-0"
15"X8" CONC. PIER
4'-0"
8'-0"
B 1
6'-4"x3'-4"x 12" DP. FIREPLACE FTG. 2'-10"
18"X8" CONC. PIER
4'-0"
7'-6"
2'-2" 2'-10"
4'-0"
9'-2"
LINE OF RAISED fLOOR
1'-10"
5'-6"
4'-0"
4'-0"
B 1
28'-6" 14'-6"
22'-6"
11'-10"
W
3'-10"
LO
8'-10"
71'-0"
37'-0"
24'-6"
Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities
31
drawings. As changes are made throughout the design process, the drafter must be sure that those changes are reflected on all affected drawings. When the drafter has completed checking the plans, the drafting supervisor will again review the plans before they leave the office.
obtaining a permit varies depending on the local building department and the complexity of the drawings. Permit reviews generally take several weeks. Once the review is complete, either a permit is issued or required changes are made to the plans.
Permit Procedures
Job Supervision
When the plans are complete, the owner will ask several contractors to estimate the cost of construction. Once a contractor is selected to build the house, a construction permit is obtained. Although the drafter is sometimes responsible for obtaining the permits, this is usually done by the owner or contractor. The process for
In residential construction, job supervision is rarely done when working for a designer, but it is quite often provided when an architect has drawn the plans. Occasionally, a problem at the job site will require the designer or drafter to go to the site to help find a solution.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in the building industry. Address www.acec.org www.aceee.org www.aia.org www.aibd.org www.asce.org www.ashrae.org
www.asla.org www.aspenational.com www.aeinstitute.org www.awa-la.org www.buildinggreen.com
www.crbt.org www.corrim.org
Company, Product, or Service American Consulting Engineers Council American Council for Energy Efficient Economy American Institute of Architects American Institute of Building Designers American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirConditioning Engineers American Society of Landscape Architects American Society of Professional Engineers Architectural Engineering Institute Association for Women in Architecture Building Green Inc. (This site contains a listing of site-related links based on LEED standards and CSI formats.) Center for Resourceful Building Technology Consortium for Research of Renewable Industrial Materials
www.thebluebook.com www.csinet.org www.eere.energy.gov www.dreamhomesmag.com www.eeba.org
Construction Information Network Construction Specifications Institute DOE Integrated Building for Energy Efficiency Dream Homes Energy and Environmental Building Association
www.energydesignresources.com www.energystar.gov www.afsonl.com www.greenbuilder.com www.thegbi.org www.greenguard.org www.build.com www.iesna.org www.ieee.org www.nahbrc.org www.noma.net www.nsbe.org www.nspe.org www.naima.org
Energy Design Resources Energy Star (appliance energy standards) First Source™ Greenbuilder Green Building Initiative Green Guard Environmental Institute Home Building and Home Improvement Network Illuminating Engineering Society of North America Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers National Association of Home Builders National Organization of Minority Architects National Society of Black Engineers National Society of Professional Engineers North American Insulation Manufacturers Association
32
www.residentialarchitect.com
www.raic.org www.scscertified.com www.sara-national.org
Architectural Drafting and Design
Residential Architect Online (bulletin board and buyers’ guide) Royal Architectural Institute of Canada Scientific Certification Systems Society of American Registered Architects
www.oneshpe.org www.same.org www.housingzone.com www.usgbc.org www.wbdg.org www.beconstructive.com
Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers Society of Military Engineers Sustainable Buildings Industry Council U.S. Green Building Council Whole Building Design Guide Wood Promotion Network
Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD.
Question 1–8 Why should furniture placement be considered in the preliminary design process?
1. Letter your name, Chapter 1 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 1–10 List five drawings that may be required for a complete set of house plans in addition to the five basic drawings.
Question 1–1 List five types of work that a junior drafter might be expected to perform. Question 1–2 What three skills are usually required of a junior drafter for advancement?
Question 1–9 What would be the minimum drawings required to get a building permit?
Question 1–11 List and describe the steps of the design process. Question 1–12 What are the functions of the drafter in the design process? Question 1–13 Following the principles of this chapter, prepare a bubble sketch for a home with the following specifications:
Question 1–3 What types of drawings should a junior drafter expect to prepare?
a. 75 × 120' lot with a street on the north side of the lot
Question 1–4 Describe what the junior drafter might be given to assist in making drawings.
c. South property line 75' long
Question 1–5 List four sources of written information that a drafter will need to be able to use.
b. A gently sloping hill to the south d. 40' oak trees along the south property line e. 3 bedrooms, 2 1/2 baths, living, dining, with sepa-
rate eating area off kitchen
Question 1–6 List and briefly describe different careers in which drafting would be helpful.
f. Exterior style as per your choice
Question 1–7 What is the purpose of a bubble drawing?
Explain why you designed the house that you did.
CHAPTER 2
Introduction to Construction Procedures I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
●
N
The architect or designer is often involved with several phases of preparation before construction begins on a project. The level of commitment can range from the preparation of plans to the complete supervision of the entire construction project. Clients need several items before construction starts, depending on the complexity or unique requirements of the project. Architects and designers are often involved with zone changes when necessary, specification preparation, building permit applications, bonding requirements, the client’s financial statement, the lender’s approval, and the building contractor’s estimates and bid procurement.
3.
LOAN APPLICATIONS Loan applications vary depending on the requirements of the lender. Most applications for construction financing contain similar information. The construction appraisal requirements proposed by the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), Veterans Administration (VA), and U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) are typical of most lenders and include: 1. Plot plan (three copies per lot).
4.
2. Prints (three copies per plan). Prints should include
the following: ● Four elevations: front, rear, right side, and left side. ● Floor plan(s). ● Foundation plan. ● Wall section(s). ● Roof plan. ● Cross sections of exterior walls, stairs, and other important details. ● Cabinet elevations including a cross section. ● Fireplace detail (manufacturer’s detail if fireplace is prefabricated). ● Truss detail and engineering (include name and address of supplier).
5. 6.
Heating plan—For forced-air, show size and location of ducts and registers plus cubic feet per minute (cfm) at each register, and furnace British thermal units (Btu). ● Location of wall units with watts and cfm at register. Specifications (one copy per print), which include information about the following: ● Appliances (make and model numbers). ● Smoke detectors (make and model number and “Direct Wire”). ● Typical detail for each plant type (if the project is landscaped). ● Plumbing fixtures (make and model number, size, and color). ● Carpet (brand, style, and directory number). ● Carpet pad (brand, style, thickness, and directory number). ● Truss manufacturer (name and address). ● Fireplace (if applicable) manufacturer and model number. Public Utility District (PUD) or heating contractor’s heat loss calculation (one per specification sheet). Room-by-room Btu heat loss values showing the total Btu heat loss for the dwelling as well as the total output of the heating system. Proposed sale price. Copy of earnest money agreement, blank or completed for a presale. Earnest money is a good faith sum of money given to bind a contract, for example an agreement to purchase real property, or a commitment fee to ensure an advance of funds by a lender. In a real estate transaction, the money is applied to the purchase price and can be forfeited if the purchaser fails to carry out the terms of the agreement. A presale is an exclusive or private sale that is made before construction begins. For a presale, the buyer and the builder must sign the specification sheet. 33
34
Architectural Drafting and Design
Most lending institution applications are not as comprehensive as that of the FHA, but some can require additional information. The best practice is to research the lender to identify the needed information. A wellprepared set of documents and drawings usually stands a better chance of funding.
INDIVIDUAL APPRAISAL REQUIREMENTS An individual appraisal is required when a person or persons want to obtain financing to purchase or build a home or other building. The subdivision can be FHA approved, in which case, the FHA approval is submitted to the lender. A subdivision, also called a plat, divides land into pieces, also known as plots or lots, that are easier to develop and sell. The original land divided into individual parcels is a subdivision. A subdivision used for housing is also known as a housing subdivision, housing development, or community. Generally, a subdivision that is not FHA approved contains the following information when submitted to a lender: 1. Total number of lots in the subdivision. 2. Evidence of acceptance of streets and utilities by local
authorities for continued maintenance.
1. Location map and a copy of the recorded plat and
covenants. 2. A letter from the builder that includes the following information: a. The number of lots in the area owned by the builder and the number of lots proposed to be built on. b. The number of homes presently under construction and the number completed and unsold. If the builder has not worked with FHA previously, an equal employment opportunity certificate and an affirmative fair housing marketing plan must be submitted for either a master or an individual appraisal request.
CHANGE ORDERS Any physical change in the plans or specifications should be submitted to FHA or the lender. The change order notes whether the described change is an increase or decrease in value and by what dollar amount. The change order must be signed by the lender, the builder, and by the purchaser if the structure is sold. A typical change order is located with Problem 2–3 on page 42 and on the Student CD.
3. One copy of the recorded plat and covenants.
Covenants, also called deed restrictions, are legal agreements setting the conditions and restrictions for the property. Covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&R) is a commonly used short form in real estate business. CC&Rs are limitations and rules placed on a group of homes by a builder, developer, neighborhood, or homeowner association. All condominiums and townhomes, and most planned unit developments and established neighborhoods have CC&Rs.
MASTER APPRAISAL REQUIREMENTS A master appraisal is required when a company wants to obtain financing to develop a subdivision where several homes will be constructed. A minimum of five lots for each plan type is normally required for a master appraisal. The subdivision should be FHA or VA approved and contain the following information:
BUILDING PERMITS The responsibility of completing the building permit application can fall to the architect, designer, or builder. The architect should contact the local building official to determine the process to be followed. Generally, the building permit application is a basic form that identifies the major characteristics of the structure to be built, the legal description and location of the property, and information about the applicant. The application is usually accompanied by two sets of plans and up to five sets of plot plans. The fee for a building permit usually depends on the estimated cost of construction. The local building official determines the amount, which is based on a standard schedule at a given cost per square foot. The fees are often divided into two parts: a plan-check fee paid upon application and a building-permit fee paid when the permit is received. Other permits and fees may or may not need to be paid at this time. In some cases the mechanical, sewer, plumbing, electrical, and water permits are
Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures
obtained by the general contractor or subcontractors. Water and sewer permits can be expensive, depending on the local assessments for these utilities. A typical building permit application is found with Problem 2–1 on page 41 and on the Student CD for this text.
CONTRACTS Building contracts can be very complex documents for large commercial construction or short forms for residential projects. The main concern in the preparation of the contract is that all parties understand what will specifically be completed in the project, in what period of time, and for what cost. The contract becomes an agreement between the client, general contractor, and architect. The Student CD includes an example of a typical building contract. It is customary to specify the date that the project is to be completed. On some large projects, completion dates for the various stages of construction are specified. Usually the contractor receives a percentage of the contract price for the completion of each stage of construction. Payments are typically made three or four times during construction. Another method is for the contractor to receive partial payment for the work done each month. Verify the method used with the lending agency. The owner is usually responsible for having the property surveyed. A survey determines the boundaries, area, or elevations of land, structures, and other features by means of measuring angles and distances. The architect can be responsible for administering the contract. As specified on typical building contracts, the contractor is responsible for construction and for the security of the site during the construction period. Certain kinds of insurance are required during construction. The contractor is required to have liability insurance and a performance bond. The liability insurance protects the contractor against being sued for accidents occurring on the site. The performance bond guarantees the contractor completes the work in a professional and timely manner or the insurance company covers the cost. The owner is required to have property insurance, including fire, theft, and vandalism. Workers’ compensation is another form of insurance that provides income for contractors’ employees if they are injured at work. The contractor must be licensed, bonded, and
35
insured under the requirements of the state where the construction occurs. The contract describes conditions under which it can be ended. A contract can be terminated if one party fails to comply with requirements, if one of the parties is disabled or dies, and for several other reasons. The two kinds of contracts in use for most construction are the fixed-sum contract and the cost-plus contract. Each contract type offers advantages and disadvantages. Fixed-sum contracts, sometimes called lump-sum contracts, are used most often. With a fixed-sum contract, the contractor agrees to complete the project for a certain amount of money. The greatest advantage of this kind of contract is that the owner knows the exact cost in advance. However, the contractor does not know what hidden problems may be encountered, and so the contractor’s price is likely to be high enough to cover unforeseen circumstances, such as excessive rock in the excavation or sudden increases in the cost of materials. A cost-plus contract is one in which the contractor agrees to complete the work for the actual cost, plus a percentage for overhead and profit. The advantage of this type of contract is that the contractor does not have to allow for unforeseen problems. A cost-plus contract is also useful when changes are to be made during the course of construction. The main disadvantage of this kind of contract is that the owner does not know the exact cost until the project is completed. To overcome this disadvantage, the contractor generally reports costs and is paid after specific phases of construction. The completion and payment for each phase should be specified in the contract. Regardless of the payment schedule, the contractor should report progress and cost periodically and never wait until the end of the project. A typical building contract is located on the Student CD.
COMPLETION NOTICES The completion notice is a document that is posted in a noticeable place on or near the structure. This legal document notifies all parties involved in the project that work has been substantially completed. There can be a very small part of work or cleanup to be done, but the project, for all practical purposes, is complete. The completion notice must be recorded in the local jurisdiction. Completion notices serve several functions. Subcontractors and suppliers have a certain given period of time to file a claim or
36
lien against the contractor or property owner to obtain payment for labor or materials that have not been paid. Lending institutions often hold a percentage of funds for a given period of time after the completion notice has been posted. It is important for the contractor to have this document posted so the balance of payment can be made. The completion notice is often posted in conjunction with a final inspection by the local building official and the client. A series of inspections are conducted at different phases throughout the course of construction. The final inspection is the last opportunity to confirm that all work has been completed and the home or structure is ready to occupy. A checklist containing specific practices that must be accomplished and the proper methods and materials used for completion of each practice is evaluated. These inspections are always conducted by a local building official, and often by the lender and property owner. Most lenders require that all building inspection reports be submitted before payment is given, and some also require a private inspection by an agent of the lender. A sample completion notice is located with Problem 2–4 on page 43 and can also be found on the Student CD.
CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATES A statement of probable construction cost is a forecast of construction costs prepared by the architect or designer during the design process to give the client an approximation of the expected cost to construct the building. This is an important responsibility of the architect or designer. Clients generally want to build a home that they can afford. Determining a budget in advance and designing within that budget can save serious trouble. Architects or designers need to inform the clients if their ideas and desires do not match the budget. Construction estimating is an analysis of construction cost based on a detailed examination of materials and labor for all work to be completed on the project. The construction estimate or elements of the estimate are often referred to as a takeoff. A takeoff carefully identifies the construction materials for a specific aspect of the project, such as a lumber takeoff. The lumber takeoff includes the cost of every piece of lumber, sheathing, trusses, engineered joists, and hardware needed for the project. An electrical takeoff, for example, includes all wire, outlets, switches, junction boxes, and every other item used for the rough-in of the electrical part of the project. The finish electrical fixtures are often found in a separate list of materials.
Architectural Drafting and Design
An accurate cost estimate requires an orderly and organized system of identifying and pricing every construction item in a phase of construction and for the entire project. Construction bids can be part of the construction estimate process when an architect, designer, or general contractor seeks estimates from subcontractors covering the materials and cost of their part of the project. The general contractor is responsible for working directly with the architect, designer, or property owner to complete the entire project in a quality and professional manner. Subcontractors complete specific aspects of the project. Many types of subcontractors, such as foundation, framing, electrical, plumbing, and heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC), can be asked to give separate bids to the architect or general contractor. Construction bids are often obtained by the architect or a general contractor for the client. The purpose is to get the best price for the best work. Some projects require that work be given to the lowest bidder, while other projects do not necessarily go to the lowest bid. In some situations, especially in the private sector, other factors are considered, such as an evaluation of the builder’s history based on quality, ability to meet schedules, cooperation with all parties, financial stability, and license, bond, and insurance. The bid becomes part of the legal documents for completion of the project. The legal documents usually include plans, specifications, contracts, and bids. The architect and client should know clearly what the bid includes. The following items are part of a total analysis of costs for residential construction: 1. Plans. 2. Permits, fees, and specifications. 3. Roads and road clearing. 4. Excavation. 5. Water connection (well and pump). 6. Sewer connection (septic). 7. Foundation, waterproofing. 8. Framing, including materials, trusses, and labor. 9. Fireplace, including masonry and labor. 10. Plumbing, both rough and finished. 11. Wiring, both rough and finished. 12. Windows. 13. Roofing, including sheet metal and vents. 14. Insulation. 15. Drywall or plaster.
Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures
16. Siding. 17. Gutters, downspouts, sheet metal, and rain drains.
37
Refer to the Student CD: COUNTING THE COST, for more information.
18. Concrete flatwork and gravel. 19. Heating.
CONSTRUCTION INSPECTIONS
20. Garage and exterior doors.
The basics of construction inspections were introduced earlier. When the architect or designer is responsible for the supervision of the construction project, then it is necessary to work closely with the building contractor to get the proper inspections at the necessary times. Two types of inspections occur most frequently. The regularly scheduled code inspections required during specific phases of construction help ensure that the construction methods and materials meet local and national code requirements. The general intent of these inspections is to protect the safety of the occupants and the public. The second common type of inspection is lender inspections, which are conducted by the lender during certain phases of construction. Lender inspections ensure that materials and methods described in the plans and specifications are being used. The lender has a valuable interest in the construction quality. If the materials and methods are inferior or not of the standard expected, then the value of the structure may not be what the lender had considered when a preliminary appraisal was made. Another reason for inspections, and probably the reason that the builder likes best, has to do with disbursement. Included as part of the lender inspections, disbursement inspections are requested at various times, such as monthly, or they can be related to a specific disbursement schedule, such as four times during construction. If the disbursement inspection finds the work to be satisfactory, then funds are released to pay the builder for that completed work. When architects or designers supervise the total construction, then they must work closely with the contractor to make certain the project is completed in a timely manner. When a building project remains idle, the overhead costs, such as construction interest, begin to add up quickly. A contractor who bids a job high but builds quickly can save money in the final analysis. Some overhead costs go on daily even when work has stopped or slowed. The contractor or construction supervisor should also have a good knowledge of scheduling so subcontractors are available in proper sequence, and inspections are obtained at the proper time. If an inspection is requested when the project is not ready, the building official may charge a fee for excess time spent. Always try to develop a good rapport with building officials so each encounter goes as smoothly as possible.
21. Painting and decorating. 22. Trim and finish interior doors, including material
and labor. 23. Underlayment. 24. Carpeting, including the amount of carpet and pad-
ding, and the cost of labor. 25. Vinyl floor covering—amount and cost of labor. 26. Formica. 27. Fixtures and hardware. 28. Cabinets. 29. Appliances. 30. Intercom or stereo system. 31. Vacuum system. 32. Burglar alarm. 33. Weather stripping and venting. 34. Final grading, cleanup, and landscaping. 35. Supervision, overhead, and profit. 36. Subtotal of land costs. 37. Financing costs.
As previously mentioned, the architect or general contractor is often responsible for the complete cost estimate and for getting bids. Cost-estimating education is normally a good idea for learning how to accurately and completely prepare a cost estimate. A variety of cost-estimating software programs are available. One way to find these software programs is to search the Internet with a search subject such as “construction estimating.” Microsoft Excel is a convenient and commonly used tool for preparing cost estimates. This program allows you to set up your own cost-estimating format that tracks and automatically calculates subtotals and totals for the estimate, bid, actual cost, cumulative cost, payee or subcontractor, check number, and date of payment. A Microsoft Excel sample cost estimate sheet for a 2366-square-foot new home construction is shown in Figure 2-1. Counting the Cost content on the Student CD includes information and analysis about the construction cost and general fees for the construction and financing of a new home.
38
Architectural Drafting and Design
NEW HOME CONST. 2366 SQ FT Updated 2/26/10 EXPENSE
Bid/Est.
Cumulative
Actual
Cumulative
Payee
Appliances
10,000
10,000
budget
Backfill
1000
11,000
estimate
Bathroom Fixtures
3500
14,500
estimate
Ck #
0
Cabinets
25,000
39,500
budget
Carpets
8500
48,000
estimate @ $45 / sq yd
Carpets Labor
4732
52,732
estimate @ $2 / sq yd
Cleanup
1000
53,732
estimate
Concrete Flatwork/Patios
8000
61,732
estimate @ $2.50 / sq ft
875
63,857
estimate
Concrete Stairs
1250
62,982
estimate lin ft @ $10 / lin ft
Countertops
3000
66,857
estimate @ $22 / sq ft
0
66,857
2500
69,357
0
69,357
Concrete Pumping
Crane Truck & Operator Decks Demolition/Tree Removal
estimate
Doors-Exterior
12,700
82,057
Doors-Interior
18,500
100,557
estimate
Drywall
11,625
112,182
Chapperal
Electrical-Finish
5500
117,682
Lite Rite Electric Inc.
Electrical-Rough
12,000
129,682
Lite Rite Electric Inc.
Electrical-Temporary Electrical-Underground
750
130,432
4500
134,932
Electricity
0
134,932
Equipment Rental
0
134,932
Excavation
2 @325; IWP #645 $12,000
1000
135,932
estimate
10,000
145,932
estimate
Finish Carpentry-Materials
5000
150,932
estimate
Fireplace Mantels
1575
152,507
D Luchs
Foundation Labor
15,260
Finish Carpentry-Labor
Foundation Materials Framing Labor
0 24,000
167,767
Jet Concrete
167,767
w/ labor
191,767
Corban $2,400. Bailey $24,750
Framing Materials
35,000
226,767
BMC 37K Lumbermans 30K
Furnace & Mechanical
10,000
236,767
Wilfert or Rite Way
3500
240,267
Edelen
Garage Doors Ga
FIGURE 21 A sample cost-estimate sheet for a 2366-square-foot new home construction, created using Microsoft Excel.
Date
Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures
39
NEW HOME CONST. 2366 SQ FT Updated 2/26/10 EXPENSE Gutters/Downspouts
Bid/Est.
Cumulative
Actual
Cumulative
Payee
1000
243,267
estimate
Hardware-Bath
450
243,717
estimate
Hardware-Cabinets
975
244,692
estimate
5200
249,892
Knez
Insurance & Licenses
0
249,892
Labor-Misc.
0
251,892
Landscaping
0
249,892
Insulation
Light Fixtures
2000
251,892
estimate
Lumber/Materials-Misc.
27,500
279,392
Parr Lumber
Masonry Veneer & Frplc
28,000
307,392
Dave Clooten
Misc. Const. Expense Painting Permits and Plan Ckk Fee Plans and Specs Plumbing-Finish
0
307,392
10,000
317,392
estimate
4600
321,992
County $1,200 paid
10,000
331,992
Architectural Designer $10,000 paid
2500
344,992
Fixtures estimate
10,500
342,492
Fowler $6,500; spkr sys $4,000
Pre-Wire Electronics
1700
346,692
Quadrant
Rain Drains
1000
347,692
estimate
Plumbing-Rough/finish
Roof
20,000
367,692
Bliss Roofing Grand Manor
Security Systems
1500
369,192
Quadrant
Sewer Lines & Cesspools
6000
375,192
Nussbaumer
Sheet Metal/Ducting
0
375,192
see Wilfert heat
Siding Labor
3500
378,692
estimate
Siding Materials
3500
382,192
estimate
Skylights/Greenhouses
0
382,192
Steel Pipes
0
382,192
Structural Engineer
0
382,192
Supervision
0
382,192
Tile/Stone Floors
10,000
392,192
@$10 / sq ft
Tools & Hardware-Misc.
0
392,192
Truck Hauling
0
392,192
Underlayment
0
392,192
Water Main Extension
0
392,192
Water Meter Trench
0
392,192
1000
393,192
estimate
424,692
Pella
Weather stripping Windows Wood Floors
FIGURE 21 Continued
31,500 0
424,692
I-joist systems
Ck #
Date
40
Architectural Drafting and Design
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to construction supervision procedures and keep current with trends in the industry. Address www.fha.gov
Company, Product, or Service Federal Housing Administration
www.nahb.org www.sagecre.com www.hud.gov www.va.gov
National Association of Home Builders Sage Software U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
Introduction to Construction Procedures Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS ●
Project location address: 3456 Barrington Drive, your city and state
●
Nearest cross street: Washington Street
●
Subdivision name: Barrington Heights
●
Township: 2S
●
Range: 1E
●
Section: 36
●
Tax lot: 2400
●
Lot size: 15,000 sq ft
●
Building area: 2000 sq ft
●
Basement area: None
●
Garage area: 576 sq ft
●
Stories: 1
●
Bedrooms: 3
●
Water source: Public
●
Sewage disposal: Public
●
Estimated cost of labor and materials: $88,500
●
Plans and specifications made by: You
●
Owner’s name: Your teacher; address and phone may be fictitious
PROBLEMS
●
DIRECTIONS: All forms must be neatly hand-lettered or typed, unless otherwise specified by your instructor.
Builder’s name: You, your address, and your phone number
●
You sign as applicant
●
Homebuilder’s registration number: Your social security number or another fictitious number
●
Date: Today’s date
DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 2 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 2–1 Define and list the elements of the following construction-related documents: a. Loan applications b. Contracts c. Building permits d. Completion notices e. Bids f. Change orders
Question 2–2 Outline and briefly discuss the required building construction inspections.
Problem 2–1 Access and print the building permit application on the Student CD, or copy the building permit application on page 41. Complete the application using this information.
Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures
Problem 2–2 Access and print the building contract on the Student CD. Complete the contract using this information: ●
Date: Today’s date
●
Name yourself as the contractor and your teacher as the owner. (Give complete first name, middle initial, and last name where names are required.)
●
ARTICLE I: Construction of approximate 2000-square-foot house to be located at 3456 Barrington Drive, your city and state. Also known as Lot 8, Block 2, Barrington Heights, your county and state.
●
Drawing and specifications prepared by you.
●
All said work to be done under the direction of you.
●
ARTICLE II: Commence work within 10 days and substantially complete on or before. (Give a date four months from the date of the contract.)
●
ARTICLE III: $88,500. Payable at the following times:
41
1. One-third upon completion of the foundation. 2. One-third upon completion of drywall. 3. One-third 30 days after posting the completion
notice. ● ARTICLE X: Insurance $250,000; $500,000; and $50,000. ● ARTICLE XVIII: Give the owner’s name, address, and phone number—a fictitious address and phone number may be used if preferred. Give your name and address as the contractor. ● ARTICLE XX: This contract amount is valid for a period of 60 days. If, for reasons out of the contractor’s control, construction has not begun by the end of this 60-day period, contractor has the right to rebid and revise the contract. Problem 2–3 Access and print the change order form found on the Student CD, or copy the change order form on page 42. Complete the form using this information: ● Date: Today’s date ● Project name: Your teacher’s name
42
Architectural Drafting and Design
●
●
● ● ●
Location: 3456 Barrington Drive, your city and state. Also known as Lot 8, Block 2, Barrington Heights, your county and state. Description of change: Add a 24" × 48" insulated tempered flat glass skylight in the vaulted ceiling centered in the entry foyer. Additional cost: $850 Adjusted total project cost: $89,350 Signatures
Problem 2–4 Access and print the completion notice found on the Student CD or copy the completion notice on page 43. Complete the top half of the form above the double line only. The rest of the information is for the official notary public and recording officer. Use this information: ●
Date: Today’s date
●
Owner or mortgagee: Your name
●
P.O. address: Your address
Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures
The Stevens-Ness form has been reproduced with the permission of Stevens-Ness Law Publishing Co. No further copying or reproduction in any form is permitted without the express permission of the publisher.
43
CHAPTER 3
Architectural Drafting Equipment I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
Manual drafting is the term used to describe traditional pencil or ink drafting. Manual drafting tools and equipment are available from a number of vendors of professional drafting supplies. For accuracy and durability, always purchase high-quality equipment. This chapter introduces a variety of manual drafting tools and their proper use. Additional products are described in the Supplemental Reference found on the Student CD.
●
● ● ● ●
DRAFTING SUPPLIES Whether equipment is purchased in a kit or by the individual tool, the following items are the minimum normally needed for manual drafting: ●
● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 44
One mechanical lead holder with 4H, 2H, H, and F grade leads. This pencil and lead assortment allows for individual flexibility of line and lettering control, or for use in sketching. The lead holder and leads are optional if automatic pencils are used. One 0.3 mm automatic drafting pencil with 4H, 2H, and H leads. One 0.5 mm automatic drafting pencil with 4H, 2H, and F leads. One 0.7 mm automatic drafting pencil with 2H, H, and F leads. One 0.9 mm automatic drafting pencil with H, F, and HB leads. Automatic pencils and leads are optional if lead holders and leads are used. Lead sharpener (not needed if the lead holder is omitted). 6" bow compass. Dividers. Eraser. Erasing shield. 30°–60° triangle. 45° triangle. Irregular curve. Adjustable triangle (optional).
● ●
Scales: 1. Triangular architect’s scale. 2. Triangular civil engineer’s scale. Drafting tape. Architectural floor plan template for residential plans, with 1/4" = 1'−0" scale. Circle template with small holes. Lettering guide. Sandpaper sharpening pad. Dusting brush.
Not all of the items listed here are used in every school or workplace. Additional equipment and supplies may be needed depending on the specific application, for example: ● ● ● ●
Technical pen set. Drafting ink. Lettering template. Assorted architectural drafting templates.
DRAFTING FURNITURE Special tables and chairs are available for professional drafting use. Refer to the Student CD: DRAFTING FURNITURE, for more information.
DRAFTING PENCILS AND LEADS Manual drafting is generally done using pencils. The two most commonly used pencils are mechanical and automatic pencils. Most manual drafters prefer automatic pencils.
Mechanical Pencils The term mechanical pencil refers to a pencil that requires a piece of lead to be manually inserted. Special sharpeners are available to help maintain a conical point.
Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment
45
Automatic Pencils The term automatic pencil refers to a pencil with a lead chamber that, at the push of a button or tab, advances the lead from the chamber to the writing tip. Automatic pencils are designed to hold leads of one width that do not need to be sharpened. These pencils are available for leads 0.3 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.7 mm, and 0.9 mm thick. Many drafters have several automatic pencils, each with a different grade of lead hardness, used for a specific application.
Lead Grades Several different grades, or hardness, of leads are used for drafting. Your selection depends on the amount of pressure you apply and other technique factors. You should experiment until you identify the leads that give you the best quality. Leads commonly used for thick lines and lettering range from 2H to F. Leads for thin lines range from 4H to H, depending on individual preference. Construction lines for layout and guidelines for lettering are very lightly drawn with a 6H or 4H lead. Figure 3-1 shows the different lead grades. Generally, leads used for sketching are softer than those used for formal drafting. Good sketching leads are H, F, or HB grades.
Polyester and Special Leads Polyester leads, also known as plastic leads, are for drawing on polyester drafting film, often called by its trade name, Mylar. Plastic leads come in grades equivalent to F, 2H, 4H, and 5H and are usually labeled with an S, as in 2S. Some companies make a combination lead for use on both vellum and polyester film. See Chapter 4 for information about drafting media, such as vellum and polyester film. Colored leads have special uses. Red or yellow lead is commonly used to make corrections. Red or yellow lines appear black on a print. Blue lead can be used on
9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H
3H 2H H F HB B
2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B
HARD
MEDIUM
SOFT
4H AND 6H ARE COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION LINES.
H AND 2H ARE COMMON LEAD GRADES USED FOR LINE WORK. H AND F ARE FOR LETTERING AND SKETCHING.
FIGURE 31 Range of lead grades.
THESE GRADES ARE FOR ARTWORK. THEY ARE TOO SOFT TO KEEP A SHARP POINT AND THEY SMUDGE EASILY.
an original drawing for information that is not to show on a print, such as notes, lines, and outlines of areas to be corrected. Blue lines do not appear on the print when the original is run through a diazo machine but do reproduce in the photocopy process if not very lightly drawn. Some drafters use light blue lead for layout work and guidelines. Drawing reproduction is discussed in Chapter 4, with information about the diazo and photocopy processes.
Basic Pencil Motions A mechanical pencil must be kept sharp with a slightly rounded point. A point that is too sharp breaks easily, but a point that is too dull produces fuzzy lines. Keep the pencil aligned with the drafting instrument and tilted at an angle of approximately 45° in the direction you are drawing. Always pull the pencil. If you are right-handed, it is recommended that you draw from left to right for horizontal lines, and from bottom to top for vertical lines. Left-handed people draw from right to left and top to bottom. It is very important to keep lines uniform in width. This is done by keeping the pencil at uniform sharpness and by rotating the pencil as you draw. This rotation helps keep the lead from having flat spots that cause the line to vary in width and become fuzzy. Even pressure is also needed to help ensure a uniform line weight. Your lines need to be crisp and dark. Keep practicing, so you can draw high-quality lines. When using an automatic pencil, keep it straight from side to side and tilted about 40° with the direction of travel. Try not to tilt the lead under or away from the straightedge. Automatic pencils do not require rotation, although some drafters feel that better lines are made by rotating the pencil. Provide enough pressure to make a line dark and crisp. Figure 3-2 shows some basic pencil motions.
TECHNICAL PENS AND ACCESSORIES Technical pens provide excellent inked lines. Refer to the Student CD: TECHNICAL PENS AND ACCESSORIES, for more information.
ERASERS AND ACCESSORIES The common shapes of erasers are rectangular and stick. The stick eraser works best in small areas. Select an eraser that is recommended for the particular material used.
46
Architectural Drafting and Design
India Ink Refill Eraser The India ink refill eraser is for removing India ink from vellum or film. It contains a solvent that dissolves the binding agents in the ink and the vinyl, and then removes the ink. This eraser does not work well with pencil lead.
ROTATE PENCIL AS YOU DRAW (OPTIONAL FOR AUTOMATIC PENCIL). PENCIL MOVES FROM BOTTOM TO TOP.
KEEP AUTOMATIC PENCIL 90° TO SURFACE AND MECHANICAL PENCIL 45° TO SURFACE. PENCIL MOVES LEFT TO RIGHT.
FIGURE 32 Basic pencil motions. Note, these pencil movements should be reversed (top to bottom, right to left) for lefthanded people.
Erasers Used for Drafting White Pencil Eraser The white pencil eraser is used for removing pencil marks from paper. It contains a small amount of pumice but can be used as a general-purpose pencil eraser. Pumice is an abrasive material.
Pink Pencil Eraser A pink pencil eraser contains less pumice than the white pencil eraser. It can be used to erase pencil marks from most kinds of office paper without doing any damage to the surface.
Soft-Green or Soft-Pink Pencil Erasers Soft-green and soft-pink erasers contain no pumice and are designed for use on even the most delicate types of paper without damaging the surface. The color difference is maintained only to satisfy long-established individual preferences.
Kneaded Eraser Kneaded erasers are soft, stretchable, and nonabrasive. They can be formed into any size you want. Kneaded erasers are used for erasing pencil and charcoal. Kneaded erasers are also used for shading. In addition, kneaded erasers are handy for removing smudges from a drawing and for cleaning a drawing surface.
Vinyl Eraser A vinyl or plastic eraser contains no abrasive material. This eraser is used on polyester drafting film to erase plastic lead or ink.
Erasing Tips In erasing, the idea is to remove an unwanted line or letter, not the surface of the paper or polyester film. Erase only hard enough to remove the unwanted feature. However, you must provide enough pressure to eliminate the feature completely. If the entire item does not disappear, ghosting results. A ghost is a line that should have been eliminated but still shows on a print. Lines that have been drawn so hard as to make a groove in the drawing sheet can also cause a ghost. To remove ink from vellum, use a pink or green eraser, or an electric eraser. Work the area slowly. Do not apply too much pressure or erase in one spot too long, or you will go through the paper. On polyester film, use a vinyl eraser and/or a moist cotton swab. The inked line usually comes off easily, but use caution. If you destroy the matte surface of either a vellum or film sheet, you will not be able to redraw over the erased area. Matte is a surface with some texture and is not glossy.
Electric Erasers Professional manual drafters use electric erasers, available in cord and cordless models. When working with an electric eraser, you do not need to use very much pressure, because the eraser operates at high speed. The purpose of the electric eraser is to remove unwanted items quickly. Use caution, because these erasers can also remove paper quickly! Eraser refills for electric erasers are available in all types.
Erasing Shields Erasing shields are thin metal or plastic sheets with a number of differently shaped slots and holes. They are used to erase small, unwanted lines or areas. For example, if you have a corner overrun, place one of the slots or holes of the erasing shield over the area to be removed while covering the good area. Now, erase through the slot or hole to erase the unwanted feature.
Cleaning Agents Special eraser particles are available in a shaker-top can or a pad. Both types are used to sprinkle the eraser particles on a drawing to help reduce smudging and
Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment
to keep the drawing and your equipment clean. The particles also help float triangles, straightedges, and other drafting equipment to reduce line smudging. Use this material sparingly because too much of it can cause your lines to become fuzzy. Cleaning powders are not recommended for use on ink drawings or on polyester film.
47
HOLD THE COMPASS HERE DURING USE
GEAR MESH CENTER-WHEEL ADJUSTING SCREW
Dusting Brushes Use a dusting brush to remove eraser particles from your drawing. Doing so helps reduce the possibility of smudges. Avoid using your hand to brush away eraser particles, because the hand tends to cause messy smudges. A clean, dry cloth works better than your hand for removing eraser particles, but a brush is preferred.
DRAFTING INSTRUMENTS This chapter began with a general list of required drafting instruments. Find a supplier that provides professional-quality drafting instruments of the type and characteristics described in the following section.
ONE LEG REMOVABLE TO ADD IN EXTENSION
REMOVABLE LEAD
REMOVABLE NEEDLE POINT
Kinds of Compasses Compasses are used to draw circles and arcs. A compass is especially useful for large circles. However, using a compass can be time consuming. Always use a template, whenever possible, to make circles or arcs quickly. There are several basic types of drafting compasses: ●
●
●
The drop-bow compass is mostly used for drawing small circles. The center rod contains the needle point and remains stationary while the pencil, or pen, leg revolves around the point. The center-wheel bow compass is most commonly used by professional drafters. This compass operates on the screw-jack principle by turning the large knurled center wheel, as shown in Figure 3-3. The beam compass is a bar with an adjustable needle and a pencil or pen attachment for swinging large arcs or circles. Also available is a beam that is adaptable to the bow compass. Such an adapter works only on bow compasses that have a removable break point, not on the fixed-point models.
FIGURE 33 Center-wheel bow compass and its parts.
The compass lead should, in most cases, be one grade softer than the lead you use for straight lines because less pressure is normally used on a compass than a pencil. Keep the compass lead sharp. An elliptical point is commonly used with the bevel side inserted away from the needle leg. Keep the lead and the point equal in length. Figure 3-5 shows properly aligned and sharpened points on a compass. Use a sandpaper block to sharpen the elliptical point of a compass lead. Be careful to keep the graphite residue away from your drawing and off your hands.
Compass Use Keep both the compass needle point and the lead point sharp. The points are removable for easy replacement. The better compass needle points have a shoulder, which helps keep the point from penetrating the paper more than necessary. Compare the needle points in Figure 3-4.
COMPASS OR DIVIDER POINT WITH SHOULDER
COMPASS OR DIVIDER POINT WITHOUT SHOULDER
FIGURE 34 Common compass points.
48
Architectural Drafting and Design
3/8"
1/4" at about 45°
FIGURE 35 Properly sharpened and aligned elliptical compass lead. ADJUSTING THE DIVIDER
Remove excess graphite from the point with a tissue or cloth after sharpening. Sharpen the lead often. Some drafters prefer to use a conical compass point. This is the same point used in a mechanical pencil. If you want to try this point, sharpen a piece of lead in a mechanical pencil, and then transfer it to your compass. If you are drawing a number of circles from the same center, you will find the compass point causes an ugly hole in your drawing sheet. Reduce the chance of making such a hole by placing a couple of pieces of drafting tape at the center point for protection. There are also small plastic circles available for this purpose. Place one of the plastic circles at the center point, and then pierce the plastic with your compass point.
Dividers Dividers are used to transfer dimensions or to divide a distance into a number of equal parts. Some drafters prefer to use a bow divider because the center wheel provides the ability to make fine adjustments easily. Also, the setting remains more stable than with standard friction dividers. A good divider should not be too loose or too tight. It should be easily adjustable with one hand. In fact, you should control dividers with one hand as you lay out equal increments or transfer dimensions from one feature to another. Figure 3-6 shows how the dividers should be handled.
Proportional Dividers Proportional dividers are used to reduce or enlarge an object without mathematical calculations or scale manipulations. The center point of the divider is set at the correct point for the proportion you want. Then measure the original size object with one side of the proportional divider, and the other side automatically determines the new reduced or enlarged size.
USING THE DIVIDER
FIGURE 36 Using the divider.
Parallel Bar The parallel bar slides up and down the drafting board on cables that are attached to pulleys mounted at the top and bottom corners of the table as shown in Figure 3-7. The function of the parallel bar is to allow you to draw horizontal lines. Vertical lines and angles are made with triangles in conjunction with the parallel bar as demonstrated in Figure 3-8. Angled lines are made with standard or adjustable triangles. The parallel bar is commonly found in architectural drafting offices because architectural drawings are frequently very large. Architects and architectural drafters often need to draw straight lines that are the full length of their boards, and the parallel bar is ideal for such lines. The parallel bar can be used with the board in an
CABLE
CABLE PULLEYS
TENSION BRACKET
FIGURE 37 Parallel bar.
BAR
Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment
49
angles of any degree. A protractor is an instrument used to measure angles.
Architectural Templates
FIGURE 38 Drawing vertical lines with the parallel bar and triangle.
inclined position. Triangles and the parallel bar must be held securely when used in any position, which makes drafting more comfortable. Professional models have a brake that can lock the parallel bar in place during use.
Triangles There are two standard triangles. One has angles of 30°–60°–90° and is known as the 30°–60° triangle. The other has angles of 45°–45°–90° and is called the 45° triangle. Triangles can be used as a straightedge to connect points for drawing lines. Triangles are used individually or in combination to draw angled lines in 15° increments (see Figure 3-9). Also available are adjustable triangles with built-in protractors that are used to make
Templates are plastic sheets with standard symbols cut through them for tracing. There are as many standard architectural templates as there are architectural symbols to draw. Templates are commonly scaled to match a specific application, such as floor plan symbols. One of the most common architectural templates used is the residential floor plan template shown in Figure 3-10. This template is typically available at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50 metric), which matches the scale usually used for residential floor plans. Features that are often found on a floor plan template include circles, door swings, sinks, bathroom fixtures, kitchen appliances, and electrical symbols. Other floor plan templates are available for both residential and commercial applications. Additional architectural templates are introduced in chapters where their specific applications are discussed. Always use a template when you can. For instance, use a circle template rather than a compass when possible. Templates save time, are very accurate, and help standardize features on drawings. For most applications the template should be used only after the layout has been created. For example, floor plan symbols are placed on the drawing after walls, openings, and other main floor plan features have been established. When using a template, carefully align the desired template feature with the layout lines of the drawing. Hold the template firmly in position while you draw the feature. For best results, try to keep your pencil or pen perpendicular to the drawing surface.
Template Use with Technical Pens 45°
30°
60°
15°
75°
90°
FIGURE 39 Angles that can be made with the 30°–60° triangle and 45º triangle, individually or in combination.
Information on using a template and a technical pen is included on the Student CD.
FIGURE 310 Architectural floor plan symbol template. Courtesy Berol Corporation.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 312 Arm drafting machine. Courtesy VEMCO America, Inc.
FIGURE 311 Irregular or French curves. Courtesy of C-Thru® Ruler Company.
Irregular Curves Irregular curves are commonly called French curves. Irregular curves are used to draw arcs having no constant radii. A selection of irregular curves is shown in Figure 3-11. Also available are ship’s curves, which become progressively larger and also have no constant radii. Ship’s curves are used for layout and development of ships’ hulls. Flexible curves are made of plastic and have a flexible core. They can be bent and shaped to draw almost any desired curve. Irregular curves are used for a variety of applications in architectural drafting. Some drafters use the curves to draw floor plan electrical runs or leader lines that connect notes to features on the drawing.
DRAFTING MACHINES Drafting machines can be used in place of triangles and parallel bars. Drafting machines have scales attached vertically and horizontally, which are used as straightedges and for measuring increments on a drawing. The drafting machine maintains a 90º relationship between scales using a protractor mechanism. The protractor allows the scales to be set quickly at any angle. There are two types of drafting machines: arm and track. Although both types are excellent tools, the track machine has advantages over the arm machine in industry. A major advantage of the track machine is it allows you to work with a board in the vertical position. A vertical drafting surface position is generally more comfortable to use than a horizontal table. For school or home use, the arm machine can be a good economical choice. When you order a drafting machine, the size specified should relate to the size of the drafting table. For example, a 37 1/2 × 60" machine fits the same size table.
Arm Drafting Machine The arm drafting machine is compact and less expensive than a track machine. The arm machine clamps to a table and through an elbow-like arrangement of supports allows you to position the protractor head and scales anywhere on the board. The arm drafting machine is shown in Figure 3-12.
Track Drafting Machine A track drafting machine has a traversing arm that moves left and right across the table, and a head unit that moves up and down the traversing arm. There is a locking device for both the head and the traversing arm. The shape and placement of the controls of a track machine vary with the manufacturer, although most brands have the same operating features and procedures. Figure 3-13 shows the component parts of a track drafting machine. As with the arm machines, track drafting machines have a vernier scale head that allows you to measure
VERTICAL TRACK BRACKET CLAMP
HORIZONTAL TRACK
VERTICAL BRAKE LEVER
VERTICAL TRACK HORIZONTAL BRAKE LEVER
DOUBLE HINGE
VERTICAL SCALE HORIZONTAL SCALE SCALE CHUCK PLATE
SCALE CHUCK ARM MICRO ADJUSTMENT ANGLE-SETTING CLAMP BASE-LINE CLAMP FOOT ROLLER
FIGURE 313 Track drafting machine and its parts. Courtesy Mutoh America, Inc.
Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment
51
angles accurately to 5 minutes of arc (5'). A vernier scale is an auxiliary scale sliding alongside a main scale to allow reading of fractional values during measurement. There are 360 degrees in a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes (1° = 60'), and 1 minute equals 60 seconds (1' = 60").
DRAFTING MACHINE CONTROLS AND MACHINE HEAD OPERATION The drafting machine head contains controls for horizontal, vertical, and angular movement. Refer to the Student CD: DRAFTING MACHINE CONTROLS AND MACHINE HEAD OPERATION for more information.
● ● ● ● ●
Actual size of the structure. Amount of detail to be shown. Sheet size selected. Amount of dimensions and notes required. Common standard practice that regulates the scale of specific drawing types.
The following scales and their notation are frequently used on architectural drawings.
SCALES The drafting instruments used for making measurements, establishing dimensions, and drawing features at reduced size are called scales. Architectural drafting scales are available in a variety of shapes and calibrations.
Scale Shapes There are four basic scale shapes, which are shown in Figure 3-14. The two-bevel scales are also available with chuck plates for use with standard arm or track drafting machines. These machine scales have typical calibrations, and some have no scale reading, for use as a straightedge alone. Drafting machine scales are purchased by designating the length needed, such as 12", 18", or 24", and the scale calibration, such as metric; engineer’s full scale in tenths and half scale in twentieths; or architect’s scale 1/4" = 1'−0" and 1/2" = 1'−0". Many other scales are also available. The triangular scale is commonly used because it offers many scale options and is easy to handle.
Scale Notation The scale of a drawing is usually noted in the drawing title block or below the view that differs in scale from
TWO BEVEL
that given in the title block. Drawings are scaled so that the object represented can be illustrated clearly on standard sheet sizes. It would be difficult, for example, to draw a full-size house, so a scale is used to reduce the size of such large objects. Drawing title blocks and sheet sizes are discussed in Chapter 4. The drawing scale selected depends on:
FOUR BEVEL
FIGURE 314 Scale shapes.
OPPOSITE BEVEL
TRIANGULAR
1/8" = 1'−0"
3/8" = 1'−0"
1 1/2" = 1'−0"
3/32" = 1'−0"
1/2" = 1'−0"
3" = 1'−0"
3/16" = 1'−0"
3/4" = 1'−0"
12" = 1'−0"
1/4" = 1'−0"
1" = 1'−0"
Some scales used in civil drafting are noted as follows: 1" = 10'
1" = 50'
1" = 300'
1" = 20'
1" = 60'
1" = 400'
1" = 30'
1" = 100'
1" = 500'
1" = 40'
1" = 200'
1" = 600'
Metric Scale According to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the International System of Units (SI) linear unit, which is commonly used on drawings is the millimeter. On drawings where all dimensions are in either inches or millimeters, individual identification of units is not required. However, the drawing shall contain a note stating: UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED, ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES (or MILLIMETERS as applicable). Where some millimeters are shown on an inch-dimensioned drawing, the millimeter value should be followed by the symbol mm. Where some inches are shown on a millimeter-dimensioned drawing, the inch value should be followed by the abbreviation in. Metric symbols are as follows: millimeter = mm
dekameter = dam
centimeter = cm
hectometer = hm
decimeter = dm
kilometer = km
meter = m
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Architectural Drafting and Design
112 mm 60 mm
1000 mm
25 mm
500 mm I00 mm
I0 mm
20 mm
I mm
1:25
1:1 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 110 120
0
FULL SCALE = 1:1
500
1 m = 1 meter
ONE TWENTY-FIFTH SCALE = 1:25
112 mm 60 mm 800 mm 25 mm I00 mm I0 mm 2 mm
2 mm 1:2 0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1:33 1/3
180
50
0
HALF SCALE = 1:2
1m
ONE THIRTY-THREE AND ONE-THIRD SCALE = 1:33 1/3
280 mm 1800 mm 112 mm 1000 mm
60 mm I00 mm
I0 mm 5 mm
50 mm 1:5 0
100
200
1:75
300
0
ONE-FIFTH SCALE = 1:5
1m
ONE SEVENTY-FIFTH SCALE = 1:75
METRIC SCALES THAT MATCH ARCHITECT AND CIVIL SCALES Metric Scales
Inch-to-Feet Architectural Scales
Civil Engineering Scales
1:1
FULL SCALE, 1:1
1:5
Close to 3" = 1'–0"
1:10
Between 1" = 1'–0" and 1 1/2" = 1'–0"
1:20
Between 1/2 " = 1'–0" and 3/4" = 1'–0"
1:50
Close to 1/4 " = 1'–0"
1:100
Close to 1/8" = 1'–0"
1:200
Close to 1/16 " = 1'–0"
1:500
Close to 1" = 40'
1:1000
Close to 1" = 80'
FIGURE 315 Common metric scale calibrations and measurements.
Some metric-to-metric equivalents are provided in the following: 10 millimeters = 1 centimeter 10 centimeters = 1 decimeter 10 decimeters = 1 meter 10 meters = 1 dekameter 10 dekameters = 1 kilometer
Some metric-to-U.S. customary equivalents are provided in the following: 1 millimeter = 0.03937 inch 1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch 1 meter = 39.37 inches 1 kilometer = 0.6214 mile
Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment
53
Some U.S. customary-to-metric equivalents are provided in the following:
1/16
1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers = 1609.3 meters 1 yard = 914.4 millimeters = 0.9144 meter 1 foot = 304.8 millimeters = 0.3048 meter 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters = 0.0254 meter
1/32 1/64
16
To convert inches to millimeters, multiply inches by 25.4. One advantage of metric scales is any scale is a multiple of 10. Therefore, reductions and enlargements are easily performed. In most cases, no mathematical calculations are required when using a metric scale. Whenever possible, select a direct reading scale. If no direct reading scale is available, use multiples of other scales. To avoid the possibility of error, avoid multiplying or dividing metric scales by anything other than multiples of 10. Some metric scale calibrations are shown in Figure 3-15.
FIGURE 317 Enlarged view of an architect’s 16 scale.
●
Floor plans for most residential structures are drawn at 1/4" = 1'−0".
Architect’s Scale
●
Although some applications require a larger or smaller scale, commercial buildings are often drawn at 1/8" = 1'−0" when they are too large to be drawn at the same scale as a residence.
●
Exterior elevations are commonly drawn at 1/4" = 1'−0", although some architects prefer to draw the front, or most important, elevation at 1/4" = 1'−0" and the rest of the elevations at 1/8" = 1'−0".
●
Construction details and cross sections can be drawn at larger scales to help clarify specific features. Some cross sections can be drawn at 1/4" = 1'−0" with clarity, but complex cross sections require a scale of 3/8" = 1'−0" or 1/2" = 1'−0" to be clear.
●
Construction details can be drawn at any scale between 1/2" = 1'−0" and 3" = 1'−0", depending on the amount of information presented.
The triangular architect’s scale contains 11 different scales. On 10 of the scales, each inch represents a foot and is subdivided into multiples of 12 parts to represent inches and fractions of an inch. The 11th scale is the full scale with a 16 in the margin. The 16 means that each inch is divided into 16 parts, and each part is equal to 1/16 inch. Figure 3-16 shows an example of the full architect’s 16 scale. Figure 3-17 shows the fraction calibrations of the full architect’s 16 scale. Look at the architect’s scale examples in Figure 3-18. Notice the form in which scales are expressed on a drawing. The scale is expressed as an equation of the drawing size in inches or fractions of an inch to 1 foot. For example: 3" = 1'−0", 1/2" = 1'−0", or 1/4" = 1'−0". The architect’s scale commonly has scales running in both directions along an edge. When reading a scale from left to right, be careful not to confuse its calibrations with the scale that reads from right to left. When selecting scales for preparing a set of architectural drawings, several factors must be considered.
2 17/32 1 3/16 1/2 16 0
1
2
FIGURE 316 Full (1:1), or 12" = 1'−0", architect’s scale.
3
1/8 1/4 1/2
Some parts of a set of drawings are traditionally drawn at a certain scale, for example:
Civil Engineer’s Scale The architectural drafter also commonly uses the civil engineer’s scale to draw site plans, maps, or subdivision plats or to read existing land documents. Most landrelated plans such as construction site plans are drawn using the civil engineer’s scale, although some are drawn with an architect’s scale. Common architect’s scales used for site plans are 1/8" = 1'−0", 3/32" = 1'−0", and 1/16" = 1'−0". Common civil engineer’s scales used for site plans are 1" = 10', 1" = 50', and 1" = 100'. The triangular civil engineer’s scale contains six scales, one on each of its sides. The civil engineer’s scales are calibrated in multiples of ten. The scale margin specifies the scale
54
Architectural Drafting and Design
2 11/16 1/8 1/16 16 0
1
2
3
11
12
FULL SIZE; 1:1 ; 12"= 1'–0" 1
1 8 1/2
1/4 9
1 1/2
6
3
0
0
3
1/8 SIZE; 1 1/2" = 1'–0"
1/4
1/8
8 1/2
6 1/4 SIZE; 3" = 1'–0"
6
9
3
20
0
1/2
3'–5"
1'–7 1/2" 1
3
9
8
1
4
1/24 SIZE; 1/2" = 1'–0"
1 — 1/2" 2
0
2
9
10
1/12 SIZE; 1" = 1'–0" 1/2
1 5'–4" 3/8
0
2
14
2'–7 1/2"
4
13
12
6
2
26
28
1
3/4
0
1/16 SIZE; 3/4" = 1'–0"
1/32 SIZE; 3/8" = 1'–0"
1
2 18'–4" 1/8 0 46
8 42
4 44
1/8
5'–3" 12 40
16 38
20 36
76
8
80
6
84
88
4
92 0
2
1/4
1/4
1/48 SIZE; 1/4" = 1'–0"
1/96 SIZE; 1/8" = 1'–0"
1
2 11'–4"
23'–0" 3/32
0
62
3/32
0
4
60
8
58
12
56
16
54
20
52
24
50
4
28
48
1/128 SIZE; 3/32" = 1'–0"
12
10
8
12
8
6
16
4
20
24
2
1/64 SIZE; 3/16" = 1'–0"
0
3/16
3/16
FIGURE 318 Architect’s scale combinations.
represented on a specific edge. Keep in mind that any multiple of 10 is available with this scale. The 10 scale is used in civil drafting for scales such as 1" = 10', 1" = 100', and 1" = 1000'. Any multiple of 10 can be used (see Figure 3-19). The 20 scale is used for scales such as 1" = 2', 1" = 20', or 1" = 200'. The remaining scales on the civil engineer’s scale are used in a similar manner. The 50 scale is popular in civil drafting for drawing plats of subdivisions, for example.
Figure 3-20 shows commonly used civil engineer’s scales, with sample measurements provided.
PROTRACTORS A protractor can be used when a drafting machine is not used or when combining triangles does not provide enough flexibility for drawing angles. Protractors can be used to measure angles to within 1/2°.
Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment
55
4450' 1" = 1000'
Division
Ratio
Scales Used with This Division
10 20
1:1 1:2
1" = 1" 1" = 2"
1" = 1' 1" = 2'
1" = 10' 1" = 20'
1" = 100' 1" = 200'
30
1:3
1" = 3"
1" = 3'
1" = 30'
1" = 300'
40 50
1:4 1:5
1" = 4" 1" = 5"
1" = 4' 1" = 5'
1" = 40' 1" = 50'
1" = 400' 1" = 500'
60
1:6
1" = 6"
1" = 6'
1" = 60'
1" = 600'
235' 1" = 100' 17' 1" = 10' 10' 1" = 10' 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
FIGURE 319 Civil engineer’s scale, units of 10.
285' 1" = 100' 570' 1" = 200'
23' 1" = 10' 35' 1" = 20'
1.6' 1" = 1'
2' 1" = 2'
1.2 1:1
.10 1:2
.10 1:1 10
20 0
1
2
3
0
1
2
1"
1"
10 SCALE
20 SCALE
6900' 1" = 3000'
3
4
5
6
10
12
7400' 1" = 4000'
550' 1" = 300'
660' 1" = 400'
45' 1" = 30'
53' 1" = 40'
3' 1" = 3'
4' 1" = 4'
.10 1:3
.10 1:4 40
30 0
2
4
6
8
10
0
2
4
1"
1"
30 SCALE
40 SCALE
8300' 1" = 5000'
6
8
13600' 1" = 6000'
770' 1" = 500'
1130' 1" = 600'
64' 1" = 50'
88' 1" = 60'
5' 1" = 5'
6' 1" = 6'
.10 1:5
.10 1:6
50
60 0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0
2
4
1"
1"
50 SCALE
60 SCALE
FIGURE 320 Civil engineer’s scales and sample measurements at different scales.
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
56
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS As a professional drafter, designer, or architect, you may continue to see the traditional manual drafting equipment in some offices. However, drafting has changed. The concepts and theories are the same, but the tools are different. Traditional manual drafting has been converting to computer-aided design and drafting (CADD). Computer-aided design and drafting is common in architectural drafting schools and architectural businesses. The CADD workstation is
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to drafting supplies and equipment. Address www.alvinco.com www.vemcocorp.com
different from the traditional manual drafting table and equipment described throughout this chapter. Drafting tools have changed. For example, the new table is flat and holds a computer, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. A printer and a plotter are usually on or available to the workstation. Chapter 7 describes the computer-aided drafting workstation in detail and explains computer-aided design and drafting applications. ■
Company, Product, or Service Drafting equipment and tables Drafting machines
Drafting pencils www.mayline.com Drafting tables For additional Web sites, search for these key words on your Web browser. Drafting pencils, supplies, tables, machines, templates www.pentel.com
Architectural Drafting Equipment Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD.
Question 3–5 In a short, complete paragraph, describe how to properly use a mechanical pencil.
1. Letter your name, Chapter 3 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 3–7 List three characteristics recommended for technical pen inks. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: TECHNICAL PENS AND ACCESSORIES.
Question 3–1 Describe a mechanical drafting pencil. Question 3–2 Describe an automatic drafting pencil. Question 3–3 List three lead sizes available for automatic pencils. Question 3–4 Identify how graphite leads are labeled.
Question 3–6 In a short, complete paragraph, describe how to properly use an automatic pencil.
Question 3–8 Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using an electric eraser. Question 3–9 What type of compass is most commonly used by professional drafters? Question 3–10 Why should templates be used whenever possible?
Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment
57
Question 3–11 Why should a compass point with a shoulder be used when possible?
Question 3–30 Name the scale shape that is commonly used, and why.
Question 3–12 Identify two lead points that are commonly used in compasses.
Question 3–31 To convert inches to millimeters, multiply inches by _____.
Question 3–13 What is the advantage of placing drafting tape or plastic at the center of a circle before using a compass?
Question 3–32 What is an advantage of using metric scales?
Question 3–14 A good divider should not be too loose or too tight. Why?
PROBLEMS
Question 3–15 What are two uses for dividers? Question 3–16 At what number of degree increments do most drafting machine heads automatically lock? Question 3–17 How many minutes are there in 1°? How many seconds in 1'? Question 3–18 Explain the uses of and differences between the soft-green and soft-pink erasers. Question 3–19 What type of eraser is recommended for use on polyester drafting film? Question 3–20 Provide a short, complete paragraph explaining the proper erasing technique. Question 3–21 Name at least five features found on a residential floor plan template. Question 3–22 What piece of drafting equipment is used to draw curves that have no constant radii? Question 3–23 Describe the parallel bar and how it is used. Question 3–24 Why is the parallel bar commonly used for manual drafting in the architectural office? Question 3–25 In combination, the 30° to 60° triangle and the 45° triangle may be used to make what range of angles? Question 3–26 Show how the following scales are noted on an architectural drawing: 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1 1/2", and 3". Question 3–27 What civil engineer’s scale is commonly used for subdivision plats? Question 3–28 What architectural scale is usually used for drawing residential floor plans? Question 3–29 List three factors that influence the selection of a scale for a drawing.
Determine the length of the following lines using an architect’s scale, a civil engineer’s scale, and a metric scale. The scales to use when measuring are given above each line. The architect’s scale is first; the civil engineer’s scale is second; and the metric scale is third.
Problem 3–1 a. Scale: 1/8" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 10'−0" c. 1:1 (metric) Problem 3–2 a. Scale: 1/4" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 20'−0" c. 1:2 (metric) Problem 3–3 a. Scale: 3/8" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 30'−0" c. 1:5 (metric) Problem 3–4 a. Scale: 1/2" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 40'−0" c. 1:10 (metric) Problem 3–5 a. Scale: 3/4" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 50'−0" c. 1:20 (metric) Problem 3–6 a. Scale: 1" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 60'−0" c. 1:50 (metric) Problem 3–7 a. Scale: 1 1/2" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 100" c. 1:75 (metric) Problem 3–8 a. Scale: 3" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 200' c. 1:75 (metric)
CHAPTER 4
Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
This chapter covers the types of media used for the drafting and the reproduction of architectural drawings. Manual drawings are generally prepared on precut drafting sheets with printed graphic designs for the company logo and information, borders, and title blocks. Computer-aided drawings are generally created using a template containing a border, title block, and graphic designs for the company. The computer-aided drawings are stored in files and reproduced on media by printing or plotting. This is described in Chapter 7. Drawing reproductions or copies are made for use in the construction process so the original manual drawings are not damaged. Alternative materials and reproduction methods are described as they relate to common architectural practices.
●
●
●
●
PAPERS AND FILMS A variety of paper and plastic media, known as film, has been used for manual drafting applications. Computer-aided drawings can be printed on the same media used for most manual drafting applications, but are generally printed on materials better suited for computer printing methods. ●
Selection of Drafting Media This discussion relates to the selection of media for manual drafting applications. The selection of these media can also apply to CADD, but other factors are also described for these applications. Several factors influence the choice and use of manual drafting media. These include durability, smoothness, erasability, dimensional stability, transparency, and cost. ●
58
Durability should be considered if the original drawing is expected to have a great deal of use. Originals can tear or wrinkle, and the images become difficult to see if the drawings are used often.
Smoothness relates to how the medium accepts line work and lettering. The material should be easy to draw on, so the image is dark and sharp without excessive effort on the part of the drafter. Erasability is important because errors need to be corrected and changes are made frequently. When images are erased, ghosting should be kept to a minimum. Ghosting is the residue when lines are not completely removed. These unsightly ghost images can reproduce in a print. Materials with good erasability are easy to clean. Dimensional stability is the quality of the medium that maintains size despite the effects of atmospheric conditions such as heat and cold. Some materials are more dimensionally stable than others. Transparency is one of the most important characteristics of drawing media. The diazo reproduction method requires light to pass through the material. Diazo printing is not commonly used today, and is described on the Student CD. The final goal of a drawing is good reproduction, so the more transparent the material is, the better the reproduction, assuming that the image drawn is of professional quality. Transparency is not a factor with photocopying. Cost can influence the selection of drafting media. When the best reproduction, durability, smoothness, erasability, and dimensional stability are important, there may be few cost alternatives. If drawings are to have normal use and reproduction quality, then the cost of the drafting media can be kept to a minimum. The following discussion of available materials can help you evaluate cost differences.
Vellum Vellum is drafting paper that is specially designed to accept pencil or ink. Lead on vellum is the most common combination used for manual drafting.
Chapter 4: Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods
Vellum is the least expensive material and has good smoothness and transparency. Use vellum originals with care. Drawings made on vellum that require a great deal of use could deteriorate. Vellum is not as durable as other materials. Also, some brands are more erasable than others. Affected by humidity and other atmospheric conditions, vellum generally is not as dimensionally stable as other materials.
Polyester Film Polyester film, also known by its trade name Mylar, is a plastic manual drafting material that is more expensive than vellum but offers excellent durability, erasability, dimensional stability, and transparency. Drawing on polyester film is best accomplished using ink or special polyester leads. Do not use regular graphite leads, because they smear easily and do not adhere properly to the surface. Drawing techniques that drafters use with polyester leads are similar to those used with graphite leads except that polyester lead is softer and feels like a crayon. Film is available with a single- or double-matte surface. Matte is a surface texture that is not glossy. Manual drafting is done on the matte surface. Double-matte film has texture on both sides so drawing can be done on either side if necessary. Single-matte film, which is more common, has a matte surface on one side and a slick surface on the other side. When using polyester film, be very careful not to damage the matte by erasing. Erase at right angles to the direction of your lines, and do not use too much pressure. This helps minimize damage to the matte surface. Once the matte is removed, the surface does not accept ink or pencil. Also, be careful not to get moisture on the polyester film surface. Moisture or grease from your hands can cause ink to skip across the material. Normal handling of drawing film is bound to soil it. Inked lines applied over soiled areas do not adhere well and in time can chip off or flake. It is always good practice to keep the film clean. Soiled areas can be cleaned effectively with special film cleaner.
MANUAL DRAWING REPRODUCTION The one thing most engineers, architects, designers, and drafters have in common is that their finished drawings are made to be reproduced. The goal of
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every professional is to produce drawings of the highest quality, providing the best possible prints when reproduced. Reproduction is the most important factor in the selection of media for drafting. The primary combination that achieves the best reproduction is the blackest, most opaque lines or images on the most transparent base or material. Each of the materials described makes good prints if the drawing is created with clean, sharp, and opaque lines and lettering. Some products have better characteristics than others for quality reproduction. It is up to the individual or company to determine the combination that works best for the purpose and budget. The question of reproduction is especially important when sepias must be made. Sepias are second- or third-generation originals. For more information on sepias, see the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Figure 4-1 shows a magnified view of graphite on vellum, plastic lead on polyester film, and ink on polyester film. Notice that each combination provides progressively improved reproduction quality. As you can see from the figure, the best reproduction is achieved with a crisp, opaque image on transparent material. If your original drawing is not of good quality, it will not get better on the print. Even though graphite on vellum is shown as the lowest quality combination for quality reproduction, this combination is the most commonly used for manual drafting practice. The use of graphite on vellum is generally considered the easiest and fastest combination for use in professional manual drafting. Quality originals are created using graphite on vellum when professional drafters follow proper techniques.
GOOD
GRAPHITE ON VELLUM
BETTER
PLASTIC LEAD ON MYLAR
BEST
DIRECT INK DRAFTING ON MYLAR
FIGURE 41 A magnified comparison of graphite on vellum, plastic lead on Mylar, and ink on Mylar. Courtesy Koh-I-Noor, Inc.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS Drafting Archives CADD has almost entirely taken over manual drafting in architecture and industry. Some companies and individuals hold on to traditional drafting practices. Many have said that professional manual drafting is an art form made up of line styles, contrasting line thicknesses, and lettering. Manual architectural lettering is an art style of its own. While there are similarities in the style of architectural lettering, the artistic presentation follows examples provided in Chapter 6. Preserving this artistic lettering style is so important that CADD programs have text styles closely duplicating the best architectural hand lettering. For a time into the near future, there may be a need for you to create new manual drawings or revise archive
SHEET SIZES, SHEET FORMAT, TITLE BLOCKS, AND BORDERS Every professional drawing has a title block. Standards have been developed for the information put into the title block and on the sheet next to the border. A standardized drawing is easier to read and file than drawings that do not follow a standard format. The term file, as it relates to manual drafting, is the storage of drawings in standard file cabinets.
Sheet Sizes Drafting materials are available in standard sizes, which are determined by manufacturers’ specifications and based on national standards. Paper and polyester film can be purchased in cut sheets or in rolls. Architectural drafting offices generally use cut sheet sizes, in inches, of 18 × 24, 24 × 36, 28 × 42, 30 × 42, 30 × 48, or 36 × 48. Roll sizes vary in width from 18" to 48". Sheet sizes used in architectural drafting are often different, but can be the same as sheet sizes recommended by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) for mechanical drafting done for manufacturing. ANSI sheet sizes, title block format, and content follow a strict set of standards for use in the industry. Architectural sheets, title block format, and content do not generally follow the same strict standards. The actual application depends on the practice followed
drawings. The term archive defines old drawings that are no longer in use and are stored for possible future use or reference. When revising archive drawings, handle the original very carefully to avoid causing damage. Use the same medium, such as graphite, used on the original drawing. Try to carefully match the line and lettering style used on the original. Reproduce the original as needed and carefully store the original in its proper archive location when finished. Many companies have converted or are continuing to convert their manual drawings to computer-aided drawings. ■
Sheet Size
Dimensions (inches)
A
8 1/2 × 11 or 11 × 8 1/2
B
17 × 11
C
22 × 17
D
34 × 22
E
44 × 34
F
40 × 28
TABLE 41 Standard ANSI Inch Drawing Sheet Sizes
in a specific architectural office. Table 4-1 shows the standard ANSI-recommended inch sheet sizes. Metric sheet sizes vary from 297 × 210 mm to 1189 × 841 mm. Metric roll sizes range from 297 mm to 420 mm wide. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has established standard metric drawing sheet sizes that have been adopted by ANSI. Standard metric drawing sheet sizes are shown in Table 4-2.
Sheet Size
Dimensions (mm)
Dimensions (inches)
A0
1189 × 841
46.8 × 33.1
A1
841 × 594
33.1 × 23.4
A2
594 × 420
23.4 × 16.5
A3
420 × 297
16.5 × 11.7
A4
297 × 210
11.7 × 8.3
TABLE 42 Standard Metric Drawing Sheet Sizes
Chapter 4: Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods
Zoning Some companies use a system of numbers along the top and bottom margins, and letters along the left and right margins. This system is called zoning. Zoning allows a drawing to be read like a road map. For example, the reader can refer to the location of a specific item as D-4, which means the item can be found on or near the intersection of row D and column 4. Zoning can be found on some architectural drawings, although it is more commonly used in mechanical drafting for manufacturing.
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●
● ●
● ●
Architectural Drafting Title Blocks Title blocks and borders are normally preprinted on drawing paper or polyester film for manual drafting applications to help reduce drafting time and cost. “Drawing borders” are thick lines that go around the entire sheet. Top, bottom, and right-side border lines are usually between 3/8" and 1/2" away from the sheet edge. The left border can be between 3/4" and 1 1/2" away from the sheet edge. This extrawide left margin allows for binding drawing sheets. Preprinted architectural drawing title blocks are generally placed along the right side of the sheet, although some companies place them across the bottom of the sheet. Each architectural company uses a slightly different title block design, but this same general information is found in almost all blocks: ● ● ● ●
●
Drawing number. This can be a specific job or file number for the drawing. Company name, address, and phone number. Project or client. This is an identification of the project by company or client, project title, or location. Drawing name. This is where the title of the drawing is placed. For example, MAIN FLOOR PLAN or ELEVATIONS. Most companies leave this information off the title block and place it on the face of the sheet below the drawing. Scale. Some company title blocks provide space for the drafter to fill in the general scale of the drawing. Any view or detail on the sheet that differs from the general scale must have the scale identified below the view title, and both are placed directly below the view.
●
Drawing or sheet identification. Each sheet is numbered in relation to the entire set of drawings. For example, if the complete set of drawings has 8 sheets, then consecutive sheets are numbered 1 of 8, 2 of 8, 3 of 8, through 8 of 8. Date. The date noted is the one on which the drawing or project is completed. Drawn by. The place for the initials or name of the drafter, designer, or architect who prepared the drawing. Checked by. This is the identification of the individual who approves the drawing for release. Architect or designer. Most title blocks provide for the identification of the individual who designed the structure. Revisions. Many companies provide a revision column where changes in the drawing are identified and recorded. After a set of drawings is released for construction, there can be changes. When this is necessary, there is usually a written request for a change from the contractor, owner, or architect. The change is then implemented on the affected drawings. Where changes are made on the face of the drawing, a circle with a revision number accompanies the change. This revision number is keyed to a place in the drawing title block where the revision number, the revision date, the initials of the individual making the change, and an optional brief description of the revision are located. For further record of the change, the person making the change also fills out a form, called a change order. The change order was discussed in Chapter 2. The change order contains complete information about the revision for future reference. The change process and the method of documenting changes vary between companies.
Figure 4-2 shows different architectural title blocks. Notice the similarities and differences between the title blocks.
HOW TO FOLD PRINTS Architectural drawings are generally created on large sheets, and prints are made from the originals. It is necessary to fold the architectural prints properly when they must be mailed or filed in a standard file cabinet. Folding large prints is much like folding a road map. Folding is done in a pattern of bends that
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 42 Sample architectural title blocks. (A) Courtesy Summagraphics; (B) Courtesy Southland Corporation; (C) Courtesy Structureform.
puts the title block and sheet identification on the front. Using the proper method to fold prints also aids in unfolding and refolding prints. Never fold original drawings. Figure 4-3 shows how large prints are folded.
DIAZO REPRODUCTION The diazo reproduction method, also known as blue-line prints, has historically been one of the most common methods for reproducing original manual drawings. Refer to the Student CD: DIAZO REPRODUCTION, for more information.
PHOTOCOPY REPRODUCTION A photocopy is a photographic reproduction of printed or graphic material. Photocopies of architectural drawings are commonly made on large-size engineering copy machines, also called engineering copiers or engineering printers. The photocopy engineering-size printer makes prints up to 36" wide and up to 25' long from originals up to 36" wide by 25' long. Prints can be made on bond paper, vellum, polyester film, colored paper, or other translucent materials. Reproduction capabilities also include reduction and enlargement
on some models. Bond paper is a strong, durable paper especially suitable to electronic printing and use in office machines including copiers and desktop printers. Almost any large original can be converted into a smaller-sized reproducible print for distribution, inclusion in manuals, or more convenient handling. Also, a random collection of mixed-scale drawings can be enlarged or reduced and converted to one standard scale and format. Reproduction clarity is so good that halftone illustrations, photographs, and solid or fine line work have excellent resolution and density. The photocopy process has mostly replaced the diazo reproduction process for copying architectural drawings. A halftone is the reproduction of continuous-tone artwork, such as a photograph, by converting the image into dots of various sizes.
MICROFILM Microfilm is a film containing a reduced image of a drawing or other printed material for compact storage and for future access, viewing, and reproduction. Refer to the Student CD: MICROFILM, for more information.
Chapter 4: Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods
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FOLD 5
FOLD 4 FOLD 3 FOLD 2
FOLD 1
FOLD 5
FOLD 1
FOLD 2
FOLD 1
FOLD 2
FOLD 3
FOLD 2
FOLD 1
B-SIZE
C-SIZE
D-SIZE
E-SIZE
FIGURE 43 How to fold B-size, C-size, D-size, and E-size prints.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to drafting media and standards. Address www.aia.org
Company, Product, or Service American Institute of Architects
www.ansi.org
American National Standards Institute
www.clearprintpapercompany.com
Drafting paper
Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD.
Question 4–12 Identify two different locations where the scale can be located on an architectural drawing.
1. Letter your name, Chapter 4 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 4–14 Briefly describe the revision process and its steps.
Question 4–13 What are the results of a properly folded print?
Question 4–15 What is another name for a diazo print?
Question 4–1 List five factors in the choice and use of drafting materials.
Question 4–16 Is a diazo print the same as a blueprint? Explain. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION.
Question 4–2 Why is transparency so important in reproducing copies using the diazo process? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION.
Question 4–17 Describe the diazo process. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION.
Question 4–3 Describe vellum. Question 4–4 Describe polyester film. Question 4–5 What is another name for polyester film? Question 4–6 Define matte, and describe the difference between single-matte and double-matte. Question 4–7 Which of the following combinations yields the best reproduction: graphite on vellum, plastic lead on polyester film, or ink on polyester film? Question 4–8 What are the primary elements that give the best reproduction? Question 4–9 Identify three standard sheet sizes commonly used by architectural offices. Question 4–10 Describe zoning. Question 4–11 What six elements are normally found in a standard architectural title block?
Question 4–18 What should a good-quality diazo print look like? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–19 Define sepias and describe their use. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–20 Discuss safety precautions in the handling of ammonia. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–21 Describe the recommended first-aid for the following accidents: ammonia spilled on the skin, ammonia in the eyes, and inhaling excess ammonia vapor. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–22 List four advantages of photocopying over the diazo process. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION.
Chapter 4: Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods
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Question 4–23 Give at least two reasons for using microfilm. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: MICROFILM.
Question 4–25 Why is CADD rapidly replacing the need for microfilm? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: MICROFILM.
Question 4–24 What is the big advantage of microfilm? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: MICROFILM.
Question 4–26 Given the architectural title block shown in the illustration for this question, identify elements a through h.
h.
g.
f.
e.
d.
c.
b.
BLKID
SODERSTROM ARCHITECTS, P.C. ARCHITECTURE PLANNING SPECIALIZED STUDIES 1200NW FRONT SUITE 410 PORTLAND, OR 97209 (503) 228-5617
a.
CHAPTER 5
Sketching Applications I
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T
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D
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T
I
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Sketching, or freehand drawing, is drawing without the aid of drafting equipment. Sketching is convenient because only paper, pencil, and an eraser are needed. There are a number of advantages to freehand sketching. Sketching is fast, visual communication. The ability to make an accurate sketch quickly can often be an asset when communicating with people at work or at home. Especially for technical concepts, a sketch can be the best form of communication. Most drafters prepare a preliminary sketch to help organize thoughts and minimize errors on the final drawing. The computer-aided drafter usually prepares a sketch on graph paper to help establish the coordinates for drawing objects or just to organize the drawing before beginning. Some architects, designers, and drafters use sketches to help record the stages of progress until a final design is ready for formal drawings.
SKETCHING TOOLS AND MATERIALS The pencil used for sketching should have a soft lead. A common No. 2 pencil works fine for most people. A mechanical pencil with a soft lead such as H, F, or HB is good. An automatic 0.7-mm or 0.9-mm pencil with F or HB lead is also good, and commonly used because of its availability and ease of use. Soft pencil leads allow for maximum control and variation of line weight. The pencil lead should not be sharp. A slightly rounded pencil point is best because it is easy to control and does not break easily. The lead point is not a factor when using an automatic pencil. Different thicknesses of line, if needed, can be drawn by changing the amount of pressure applied to the pencil. Paper quality is not critical, either. A good sketching paper is newsprint, although almost any kind of paper works. Use commonly available paper such as standard copy machine bond paper or notebook paper. Paper with a surface that is not too smooth is best. Many preliminary architectural designs have been created on a napkin at a lunch table. Sketching paper should not be taped down to the table. The best sketches are made when you are able to move the paper to the most comfortable drawing position. Some people make horizontal lines 66
better than vertical lines. If this is your situation, move the paper so vertical lines become horizontal. Such movement of the paper may not always be possible, so it does not hurt to keep practicing all forms of lines for the best results.
SKETCHING STRAIGHT LINES Lines should be sketched lightly in short, connected segments, as shown in Figure 5-1. If you sketch one long stroke in one continuous movement, your arm tends to make the line curved rather than straight. If you make a dark line, you may have to erase it if you make an error. If you draw a light line, there is often no need to erase an error because it does not show up very much when the final lines are darkened to your satisfaction. Use the following procedure to sketch a horizontal straight line with the dot-to-dot method: Mark the starting and ending positions or dots, as in Figure 5-2. The letters A and B are only for instruction. All you need are the points. STEP 2 Without actually touching the paper with the pencil point, make a few trial motions between the marked points to adjust your eye and hand to the anticipated line. STEP 1
SHORT 2"–3" STROKES MAKE STROKES FROM LEFT TO RIGHT AND BOTTOM TO TOP IF RIGHT-HANDED
DOT-TO-DOT
FIGURE 51 Sketching short line segments.
A
FIGURE 52 Step 1: Dot-to-dot.
B
Chapter 5: Sketching Applications
67
A
B
FOR A Ø 6" CIRCLE
FIGURE 53 Step 3: Short, light strokes.
3" R
1 A
A
B
B
FIGURE 54 Step 4: Darken to finish the line. 1/2"–1" WIDE
Sketch very light lines between the points by moving the pencil in short, light strokes, 2" to 3" long. With each stroke, attempt to correct the most obvious defects of the preceding stroke so the finished light lines are relatively straight (see Figure 5-3). STEP 4 Darken the finished line with a dark, distinct, uniform line directly on top of the light line. Usually the darkness can be obtained by pressing on the pencil (see Figure 5-4). STEP 3
FIGURE 56 Step 1: Making a trammel.
2 CENTER
A
B
FIGURE 57 Step 2: Marking the radius with a trammel.
SKETCHING CIRCULAR LINES The parts of a circle are shown in Figure 5-5. Three sketching techniques are used in making a circle: trammel, hand compass, and nail and string.
Sketching Circles Using the Trammel Method A trammel is an instrument used for making circles. In this example, the instrument is a strip of paper. Use the following steps to sketch a 6" diameter circle using the trammel method: To sketch a 6" diameter circle, tear or cut a strip of paper approximately 1" wide and longer than the radius of 3". On the strip of paper, mark an
STEP 1
approximate 3" radius with tick marks, such as A and B in Figure 5-6. STEP 2 Sketch a straight line representing the diameter at the place where the circle is to be located. On the sketched line, locate with a dot the center of the circle. Use the marks on the trammel to mark the other end of the radius line, as shown in Figure 5-7. Place the trammel next to the sketched line, being sure point B on the trammel is aligned with the center of the circle. STEP 3 Pivot the trammel at point B, making tick marks at point A as you rotate the trammel, as shown in Figure 5-8, until you have a complete circle, as shown in Figure 5-9. STEP 4 Lightly sketch the circumference over the tick marks to complete the circle, as shown in Figure 5-9.
RA
CENTER
D R IUS
X
Y
DIAMETER Ø C
B
Z 3 A
CIRCUMFERENCE
FIGURE 55 Parts of a circle.
FIGURE 58 Step 3: Sketching the circle with a trammel.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
4
5
FIGURE 59 Steps 4 and 5: Completing and darkening the circle.
Darken the circle, as shown in Figure 5-9. You can darken the circle directly over the tick marks if your sketching skills are good, or if you are in a hurry.
STEP 5
Sketching Circles Using the Hand-Compass Method The hand-compass method is a quick and fairly accurate way to sketch circles, although it takes some practice. Use the following steps to sketch a 6" diameter circle using the hand-compass method: Be sure your paper is free to rotate completely around 360°. Remove anything from the table that might stop such a rotation. STEP 2 To use your hand and a pencil as a compass, place the pencil in your hand between your thumb and the upper part of your index finger so your index finger becomes the compass point and the pencil becomes the compass lead. The other end of the pencil rests in your palm, as shown in Figure 5-10. STEP 1
FIGURE 511 Steps 4 and 5: Sketching a circle with the handcompass method.
Determine the approximate radius by adjusting the distance between your index finger and the pencil point. Now, with the radius established, place your index finger on the paper at the proposed center of the circle. STEP 4 Using the established radius, keep your hand and pencil point in one place while you rotate the paper with your other hand. Try to keep the radius steady as you rotate the paper (see Figure 5-11). STEP 5 You can perform Step 4 very lightly and then go back and darken the circle or, if you have had a lot of practice, you may be able to draw a dark circle as you go (see Figure 5-11). STEP 3
Sketching Circles Using the Nail-and-String Method A method used to sketch large circles is to tie a pencil and a nail together with a string. The distance between the pencil and nail is the radius of the circle. When a large circle is to be sketched, use this method because the other methods do not work as well. This method is used with a nail driven at the center and a string connected to a pencil, for drawing large circles at a construction site.
MEASUREMENT LINES AND PROPORTIONS
FIGURE 510 Step 2: Holding the pencil for the hand-compass method.
In sketching an object, all the lines that make up the object are related to each other by size and direction. In order for a sketch to communicate accurately and completely, it should be proportional to the object. The actual size of the sketch depends on the paper size and the desired size of the sketch. The sketch should be large enough to be clear, but the
Chapter 5: Sketching Applications
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LINE 1
TABLE
LINE 2
FIGURE 512 Measurement lines.
proportions of the features are more important than the size of the sketch. Look at the lines in Figure 5-12. How long is line 1? How long is line 2? Answer these questions without measuring either line; instead, relate each line to the other. For example, line 1 can be described as half as long as line 2, or line 2 described as twice as long as line 1. Now you know how long each line is relative to the other. This relationship is called proportion. You do not know how long either line is in terms of a measured scale, but no scale is used for sketching, so this is not a concern. Whatever line you decide to sketch first determines the scale of the drawing, regardless of the actual length of the line. This first line sketched is called the measurement line. You relate all the other lines in your sketch to the first line. This is one of the secrets in making a sketch resemble the object being sketched. The second thing you must know about the relationship of the two lines in the example is their direction and position relative to each other. Do they touch each other? Are they parallel, perpendicular, or at some other angle to each other? When you look at a line, ask yourself the following questions (for this example use the two lines given in Figure 5-13): 1. How long is the second line?
Answer: Line 2 is about three times as long as line 1. 2. In what direction and position is the second line relative to the first line? Answer: Line 2 touches the lower end of line 1 with about a 90° angle between the lines. Carrying this concept a step further, a third line can relate to the first line or the second line, and additional lines can continue to relate in the same manner. Again, the first line drawn is the measurement line, which sets the scale for the entire sketch. This idea of relationship can also apply to spaces. In Figure 5-14, the location of a table in a room can be
FIGURE 514 Spatial proportions.
determined by spatial proportions. A typical verbal location for the table in this floor plan might be as follows: “The table is located about one-half the table width from the top of the floor plan or about two table widths from the bottom, and about one table width from the right side or about three table widths from the left side of the floor plan.”
Using Your Pencil to Establish Measurements on a Sketch Your pencil can be a useful tool for establishing measurements on a sketch. When you are sketching an object that you can hold, use your pencil as a ruler. Place the pencil next to the feature to be sketched and determine the length by aligning the pencil tip at one end of the feature and marking the other end on the pencil with your thumb. The other end can also be identified by a specific contour or mark on the pencil. Then transfer the measurement to your sketch. The two distances are the same. Even though sketches do not require this accuracy, this is a quick way to establish measurement lines. A similar technique can be used to sketch a distant object. For example, to sketch a house across the street, hold your pencil at arm’s length and align the pencil with a feature of the house, such as the house width. With the pencil point at one end of the house, place your thumb on the pencil, marking the other end of the house. Transfer this measurement to your sketch in the same orientation taken from the house. Repeat this technique for all of the house features until the sketch is complete. If you keep your pencil at arm’s length and your arm straight, each measurement has the same accuracy and proper proportions.
Block Technique for Sketching MEASUREMENT LINE
FIGURE 513 Study the relationship between the two lines.
Any illustration of an object can be surrounded overall with a rectangle or any other geometric shapes as shown in Figure 5-15. Before starting a sketch, visualize the object inside a rectangle. Then use the measurement-line
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 517 Step 2: Block technique. Cut out the sections and lightly sketch the shapes.
lines you learned previously. An elevation is an exterior view of a structure, which is the house in this case. To use the measurement-line and block techniques, follow these steps:
FIGURE 515 Block technique.
technique with the rectangle, or block, to help determine the shape and proportions of your sketch.
Sketching Procedures Using the Measurement-Line and Block Techniques You can sketch any object, such as an elevation, as you look at an actual house or a floor plan and think about how the features of the house relate to the measurement
When you start to sketch an object, try to visualize the object surrounded with an overall rectangle. Sketch this rectangle first with very light lines. Sketch the rectangle in the proper proportion with the measurement-line technique, as shown in Figure 5-16. STEP 2 Cut sections out or away using proper proportions as measured by eye or using your pencil to establish measurements. Use light lines, as shown in Figure 5-17. STEP 1
WIDTH
HEIGHT
WIDTH THIS IS THE ELEVATION TO BE SKETCHED.
FIGURE 516 Step 1: Sketch the block.
THIS RECTANGLE IS IMPORTANT, ESTABLISHED AS OVERALL WIDTH AND HEIGHT OF VIEW. USE CONSTRUCTION LINES.
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FIGURE 521 Step 2: Evenly spaced grid sketched over the swimming pool.
FIGURE 522 Steps 3 and 4: Proportioned box with a regular grid.
FIGURE 518 Step 3: Darken the view.
Complete the sketch by darkening the outlines desired for the finished sketch as shown in Figure 5-18.
STEP 3
Sketching Irregular Shapes By using a frame of reference or an extension of the block method, irregular shapes can be sketched easily to their correct proportions. Follow these steps to sketch the free-form swimming pool shown in Figure 5-19: Enclose the object in a lightly constructed box (see Figure 5-20). STEP 2 Sketch several evenly spaced horizontal and vertical lines, forming a grid, as shown in Figure 5-21. If you are sketching an object already drawn, draw your reference lines on top of the object lines to establish a frame of reference. Make a photocopy, and sketch on the photocopy if the original cannot be used. If you are sketching an object directly, you have to visualize these reference lines on the object you sketch. STEP 1
FIGURE 523 Step 5: Sketching the shape using a regular grid.
FIGURE 524 Step 6: Darkening the object completely.
On your sketch, correctly locate a proportioned box similar to the one established on the original drawing or object, as shown in Figure 5-22. STEP 4 Use the drawn box as a frame of reference, and include the grid lines in correct proportion as shown in Figure 5-22. STEP 5 Using the grid, sketch small, irregular arcs and lines that match the lines of the original object, as in Figure 5-23. STEP 6 Darken the outline for a complete proportioned sketch, as shown in Figure 5-24. STEP 3
INTRODUCTION TO MULTIVIEW SKETCHES
FIGURE 519 Free-form swimming pool.
FIGURE 520 Step 1: Imaginary box.
A multiview, or multiview projection, is also known as orthographic projection. Multiview projection is the views of an object as projected upon two or more picture planes in orthographic projection. Orthographic projection is any projection of the features of an object onto an imaginary plane called a plane of projection, where the projection of the object’s features is made by lines of sight that are perpendicular to the plane of projection. These terms
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TOP
TOP
FRONT FRONT
RIGHT SIDE
RIGHT SIDE
FIGURE 526 Pictorial view.
FIGURE 525 Multiviews.
are traditionally used in drafting, but they are more commonly used in mechanical drafting for manufacturing. In architectural drafting such drawings are referred to as elevation views. Elevation views are two-dimensional views of an object, such as a house, that are established by a line of sight perpendicular to the surface of the object. When you make multiview sketches, follow a methodical order. Learning to make these sketches can help you later as you begin to prepare elevation drawings.
45°
Multiview Alignment To keep your drawing in a standard form, sketch the front view in the lower left portion of the paper, the top view directly above the front view, and the rightside view to the right of the front view as shown in Figure 5-25. The views needed may differ depending on the object.
FIGURE 527 Step 1: Block out views and establish a 45° line.
Multiview Sketching Technique The following describes how to sketch three basic views of a house: Sketch and align the proportional rectangles for the front, top, and right side of the house given in Figure 5-26. Sketch a 45° line to help transfer width dimensions. The 45° line is established by projecting the width from the proposed top view location across and the width from the proposed right-side view location up until the lines intersect, as shown in Figure 5-27. STEP 2 Complete the shapes within the blocks, as shown in Figure 5-28. STEP 1
FIGURE 528 Step 2: Block out shapes.
Darken the lines of the object, as in Figure 5-29. Remember to keep the views aligned for ease of sketching and understanding by others.
STEP 3
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Sketch a horizontal reference line. You can consider this as the ground-level line. STEP 2 Sketch a vertical line perpendicular to the ground line somewhere near its center. This vertical line is used to measure height. STEP 3 Sketch two 30° angular lines, each starting at the intersection of the first two lines, as shown in Figure 5-30. STEP 1
Making an Isometric Sketch The steps in making an isometric sketch from a multiview drawing or from a real object are as follows:
ISOMETRIC SKETCHES Isometric sketches provide a three-dimensional (3D) pictorial representation of an object, such as the shape of a building. Isometric sketches are easy to draw and provide a fairly realistic 3D view of an object. An isometric sketch tends to represent objects as they appear to the eye. Such a sketch can help you visualize an object because three sides of the object are shown in a single three-dimensional view.
Establishing Isometric Axes
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Measure height of object along this line
To establish isometric axes, you need four beginning lines: a horizontal reference line, two 30° angular lines, and one vertical line. Draw these lines as very light construction lines as shown in Figure 5-30. Use the following steps to establish the isometric axes:
Me
Select an appropriate view of the object to use as a front view, or study the front view of the multiview drawing. STEP 2 Determine the best position in which to show the object. STEP 3 Begin your sketch by setting up the isometric axes as previously described (see Figure 5-30). STEP 4 Using the measurement-line technique, sketch a rectangular box to the correct proportion, which surrounds the object to be sketched. Use the object shown in Figure 5-31 as an example. Imagine that the rectangular box represents a glass box that surrounds the object to be sketched inside. Begin to sketch the box by marking off the width at any convenient length. This is the width measurement line shown in Figure 5-32. Next, estimate and mark the length and height relative to the measurement line (see Figure 5-33). Sketch the three-dimensional box by using lines parallel to the original axis lines (see Figure 5-33). The box must be sketched correctly; otherwise the rest of your sketch will be out of proportion. All lines drawn in the same direction must be parallel. STEP 1
FIGURE 529 Step 3: Darken all lines.
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FIGURE 530 Isometric axes.
FIGURE 531 Given structure.
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1/4 as lon ga sw idt h
About 1 1/2 as long as width
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FIGURE 532 Step 4: Lay out length, width, and height.
FIGURE 534 Step 5: Sketch the features of the structure.
NONISOMETRIC LINES
FIGURE 533 Step 4: Sketch the three-dimensional box. ISOMETRIC LINES
Lightly sketch the features that define the details of the object. When you estimate distances on the rectangular box, you will find that the features of the object are easier to sketch in correct proportion than they would be if you tried to draw them without the box (see Figure 5-34). STEP 6 Darken all the outlines to finish the sketch, as shown in Figure 5-35. STEP 5
Sketching Nonisometric Lines Isometric lines are lines on or parallel to one of the three original isometric axes. All other lines are nonisometric lines. Isometric lines can be measured in true length. Nonisometric lines appear either longer or shorter than their actual length (see Figure 5-35). You can measure and draw nonisometric lines by connecting their endpoints. Find the endpoints of the nonisometric lines by measuring along isometric lines.
FIGURE 535 Step 6: Darken the structure.
To locate where nonisometric lines should be placed, you have to relate to an isometric line.
Sketching Isometric Circles and Arcs Circles and arcs appear as ellipses in isometric views. To sketch isometric circles and arcs correctly, you need to know the relationship between circles and the faces, or planes, of an isometric cube. Depending on which isometric plane the circle appears, isometric circles look like one of the ellipses shown in Figure 5-36. The angle at which the isometric circle slants is determined by the surface on which the circle is to be sketched.
Using the Four-Center Method to Sketch Isometric Circles The four-center method of sketching an isometric circle is fairly easy, but care must be taken to form the ellipse
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1
2 22 LEFT PLANE
HORIZONTAL PLANE
RIGHT PLANE
1
1
FIGURE 536 Isometric circles.
arcs properly so the ellipse does not look distorted. Use the following steps to sketch isometric circles using the four-center method: STEP 1 Sketch an isometric cube or box similar to Figure 5-37. STEP 2 On each surface of the box sketch line segments connecting the 120° corners to the centers of the opposite sides as shown in Figure 5-38. STEP 3 With points 1 and 2 as the centers, sketch arcs beginning and ending at the centers of the opposite sides on each isometric surface (see Figure 5-39). STEP 4 On each isometric surface, with points 3 and 4 as the centers, complete the isometric circles by sketching arcs that meet the arcs sketched in Step 3 (see Figure 5-40).
Sketching Isometric Arcs Sketching isometric arcs is similar to sketching isometric circles. First, block out the overall shape of the object. Next, establish the centers of the arcs. Finally, sketch the arc shapes. Remember that isometric arcs, just like isometric circles, must lie in the proper plane and have the correct shape.
120° CORNER 6 PLACES
2
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FIGURE 539 Step 3: Sketch arcs from points 1 and 2.
HORIZONTAL (TOP) PLANE
3
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LEFT PLANE
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RIGHT PLANE
FIGURE 540 Step 4: Sketch arcs from points 3 and 4.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION Orthographic projection is any projection of features of an object onto an imaginary plane called a plane of projection. The projection of the features of the object is made by lines of sight that are perpendicular to the plane of projection. When a surface of the object is parallel to the plane of projection, the surface appears in its true size and shape on that plane. In Figure 5-41, the plane of projection is parallel to the surface of the object. The line of sight from the object is perpendicular to the plane of projection. Notice also that the object appears three-dimensional, which means the object has width, depth, and height. The view on the plane of projection is two-dimensional, which means the view has only width and height. In situations where the plane of projection is not parallel to the surface of the object, the resulting orthographic view is foreshortened, or shorter than the true length, as shown in Figure 5-42.
3
MULTIVIEW PROJECTION FIGURE 537 Step 1: Isometric cube.
FIGURE 538 Step 2: Fourcenter construction of an isometric ellipse.
As a review, multiview projection establishes two or more views of an object as projected on two or more planes by using orthographic projection techniques.
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OBJECT 5
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LINES OF SIGHT PROJECTORS PERPENDICULAR TO PLANE OF PROJECTION
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PLANE OF PROJECTION ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW
ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW FORESHORTENED ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW OF SURFACE 1, 2, 3, 4
2 TRUE SHAPE OF THE ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW
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4 TRUE SHAPE ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW OF SURFACE 2, 3, 5, 6
PLANE OF PROJECTION
FIGURE 542 Projection of a foreshortened orthographic surface.
FIGURE 541 Orthographic projection to form orthographic view.
The result of multiview projection is a multiview drawing. Multiview drawings represent the shape of an object using two or more views. The six possible views include: the front, top, right side, left side, bottom, and rear. All six views are seldom used. Consideration should be given to the choice and number of views so, when possible, the surfaces of the object are shown in their true size and shape. If you can hold an object in your hands, you can visualize the views by turning the object until you are looking directly at a side. Continue turning the object, stopping to look at each view as your line of sight becomes perpendicular to the object surface. Figure 5-43 is a graphic representation of a person holding and rotating an object in this manner. As the object is rotated to each position, the person stops to look directly at the object surface. What the person sees at each of these positions is related to the specific multiview seen in proper positions within a set of multiviews in Figure 5-43. Some people can visualize multiviews better than others. If you have difficulty visualizing views, pick up any object and try to sketch what you see
as you rotate the object looking at each side. Holding an object and rotating to see the sides works well if you can pick up and hold the object. To see the views of your home, for example, go outside and stand so you can see the front of the house with your line of sight as perpendicular as possible to the front. This is the front view. You can do the same thing by walking around your home and stopping to look at each side in the same manner. Take a sketch pad and sketch what you see at each location, just like you do when holding an object.
Elevations as Multiviews It is often easier to visualize a three-dimensional drawing of a structure than it is to visualize a two-dimensional drawing of the same structure. In architectural drafting, however, it is common to prepare construction drawings showing two-dimensional exterior views of a structure that provide representations of exterior materials or interior views of features such as kitchen and bath cabinets. These drawings are called elevations. The method used to draw elevations is multiview projection.
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TOP VIEW
REAR VIEW
LEFT-SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
RIGHT-SIDE VIEW
BOTTOM VIEW
FIGURE 543 A graphic representation of a person holding and rotating an object. As the object is rotated to each position, the person stops to look directly at the object surface. What the person sees at each of these positions is related to the specific multiview seen in proper positions shown.
A more detailed discussion of elevation drawing is found in Chapter 24 and Chapter 25. Figure 5-44 shows an object represented by a three-dimensional drawing, called a pictorial drawing, and three twodimensional views. This is the same object that the
TOP OR PLAN VIEW
TOP (PLAN VIEW)
FRONT
SIDE
FRONT VIEW
SIDE VIEW
FIGURE 544 Comparison of a pictorial and a multiview presentation.
person is holding in Figure 5-43. Look at the object represented in Figure 5-43 and compare it to the pictorial and multiview drawing shown in Figure 5-44.
Using the Glass Box Viewing Method If you place the object in Figure 5-44 in a glass box so the sides of the glass box are parallel to the major surfaces of the object, you can project the surfaces of the object onto the sides of the glass box and create the multiviews shown in Figure 5-45. Imagine the sides of the glass box are the planes of projection previously described. Look at Figure 5-45 again to see if you can visualize this idea. If you look at all sides of the glass box, you see the six views: front, top, right side, left side, bottom, and rear. Now, unfold the glass box as if the corners were hinged about the front view as demonstrated in Figure 5-46. These hinge lines are commonly called fold lines.
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TOP
TOP REAR
LEFT
RIGHT
FRONT
BOTTOM
FIGURE 547 Glass box unfolded.
FRONT
SIDE
FIGURE 545 Glass box.
Completely unfold the glass box onto a flat surface, and you have the six views of an object represented in a multiview. Figure 5-47 shows the glass box unfolded. Notice also that the views are labeled:
TOP
front, top, right, left, bottom, and rear. Views are always found in this arrangement when using multiview projection. Now, analyze Figure 5-48 in detail so you see the features that are common among the views. Knowing how to identify the features of an object that are common among views can aid you later in the visualization of elevations. Notice again how the views are aligned in Figure 5-48. The top view is directly above and the bottom view is directly below the front view. The left side is directly to the left and the right side is directly to the right of the front view. This alignment allows the drafter to project features from one view to the next to help establish each view. Now, look closely at the relationship of the front, top, and right-side views. A similar relationship exists using the left-side view. Figure 5-49 shows a 45° projection line established by projecting the fold or reference line (hinge) between the front and side view up, and the fold line between the front and top view over. All of the features established on the top view can be projected to the 45° line and then down onto the side view. This is possible because the depth dimension is the same in both the top and the side views. The reverse is also true.
WIDTH
FRONT
TOP
SIDE
HEIGHT REAR
LEFT
FRONT
RIGHT DEPTH
BOTTOM
FIGURE 546 Unfolding the glass box at hinge lines, also called fold lines.
FIGURE 548 View alignment.
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FOLD LINE
45°
Y X
FOLD LINE
FOLD LINE
FOLD LINE
X Y
FIGURE 549 Establishing a 45° projection line. FIGURE 551 Using dividers to transfer view projections.
Features from the side view can be projected to the 45° line and then over to the top view. The transfer of features in Figure 5-49 using the 45° line can also be accomplished by using a compass with one leg at the intersection of the horizontal and vertical fold lines. The compass establishes the relationship between the top and side views, as shown in Figure 5-50. Another method for transferring the size of features from one view to the next is the use of dividers to transfer distances from the fold line at the top view to the fold line at the side view. The relationship between the fold lines and the two views is shown in Figure 5-51. The front view is usually most important because it is the one from which the other views are established. There is always one common dimension between adjacent views. For example, the width is common between the front and top views and the height is common between the front and side views. This knowledge allows you to relate information from one view to another. Take one more look at the relationship of the six views, as shown in Figure 5-52.
RADIUS FOLD LINE
TOP
REAR
LEFT
FRONT
RIGHT
BOTTOM
FIGURE 552 Multiview orientation.
Proper View Selection There are six primary views that you can use to describe a structure completely. In architectural drafting, the front, left-side, right-side, and rear views are used as elevations to describe the exterior appearance of a structure completely. Elevation drawings are discussed in more detail in Chapter 24 and Chapter 25. The top view is called the roof plan view. This view shows the roof of the structure and provides construction information and dimensions. Roof plans are discussed in detail in Chapter 22 and Chapter 23. The bottom view is not used in architectural drafting.
PROJECTION OF FEATURES FROM AN INCLINED PLANE
FOLD LINE
FIGURE 550 Projection with a compass.
When you use multiview projection, features of objects that are parallel to projection planes appear true size and shape, but features that are not parallel to projection planes are foreshortened, and are not in true size and shape.
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ROUND WINDOW
LINE OF INTERSECTION
ROUND WINDOW
FORESHORTENED SKYLIGHT
TRUE WIDTH
ROOF
PROJECTION LINES
FIGURE 553 Rectangular features on an inclined plane.
FIGURE 554 Round window is a circle when the line of sight is perpendicular.
FORESHORTENED DIAMETER MINOR DIAMETER
Rectangular Features on an Inclined Plane When a rectangular feature such as a skylight projects out of a sloped roof, the intersection of the skylight with the roof appears as a line when the roof also appears as a line. This intersection can then be projected onto adjacent views, as shown in Figure 5-53.
SKYLIGHT DIAMETER MAJOR DIAMETER
TOP (ROOF PLAN)
Circles on an Inclined Plane When the line of sight in a view is perpendicular to a circle, such as a round window, the window appears round, as shown in Figure 5-54. When a circle is projected onto an inclined surface, such as a round skylight projected onto a sloped roof, the view of the inclined circle is elliptical, as shown in Figure 5-55.
FORESHORTENED DIAMETER MINOR DIAMETER SKYLIGHT DIAMETER MAJOR DIAMETER ROUND SKYLIGHT
FRONT
SIDE
FIGURE 555 Circle projected onto an inclined surface appears as an ellipse.
CADD APPLICATIONS Using CADD for Conceptual Design and Presentation Sketches Google SketchUp is a CADD program that can be used to create, share, and present three-dimensional models with an easy-to-use interface. Interface, also called user interface, is the term describing the tools and techniques used to provide and receive information to and from a computer application. Google SketchUp is often used in the conceptual design phase of a project and to create presentation drawings that look hand-sketched, as shown in Figure 5-56.
Tools such as Line, Arc, Rectangle, and Circle are used to sketch two-dimensional (2D) closed boundaries, known as faces. Then, tools such as the Push/Pull, Follow-Me, and Move are used to “pull” faces and edges into three-dimensional (3D) objects (see Figure 5-57). CADD graphic and image files can be imported into Google SketchUp, and then traced over with sketch tools to create quick 3D models for design studies (see Figure 5-58).
Chapter 5: Sketching Applications
CADD APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 556 Google SketchUp can be used in the conceptual design phase to sketch new ideas and designs. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
FIGURE 557 In Google SketchUp, use sketch lines to create faces, then push/pull the faces into 3D geometry. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
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CADD APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 558 Google SketchUp lines are traced over an imported image to create a 3D model. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
“hand-sketched” styles, and shadows to create presentation drawings as shown in Figure 5-59. Custom appearances can be used to create a sampling of different presentation styles. When Google SketchUp is combined with Google Earth, a location from Google Earth can be found and imported into Google SketchUp. A new design idea is sketched relative to the Google Earth location. The Google SketchUp file is then imported back into Google Earth to create a 3D presentation file of the design within Google Earth as shown in Figure 5-60. Google SketchUp is available for download from the Google Web site and comes in two formats. Google SketchUp is a free download and allows you to create 3D models very quickly. Google SketchUp Pro is a premium version and includes all of the tools from the free version plus advanced settings for commercial use and interaction with other CADD programs. ■
In addition to sketching and modeling tools, Google SketchUp can be used to add finish materials,
FIGURE 559a Apply different materials and sketch styles to 3D model geometry to create unique presentation drawings. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
Chapter 5: Sketching Applications
CADD APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 559 b Continued
FIGURE 560 Use Google Earth to import a site into Google SketchUp, design the 3D model, then send the model back to Google SketchUp for design review. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to sketching applications. Address www.sketchup.google.com www.drawsketch.about.com
Company, Product, or Service Google Sketch Up Sketching lessons and tutorials
Sketching Applications Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD.
Question 5–13 When is a surface foreshortened in an orthographic view?
1. Letter your name, Chapter 5 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 5–15 Give at least two reasons why the multiviews of an object are aligned in a specific format.
Question 5–1 Define sketching. Question 5–2 How are sketches useful in CADD? Question 5–3 Describe the proper sketching tools. Question 5–4 Should paper for sketching be taped to the drafting board or table? Why or why not? Question 5–5 What kind of problem can occur if a long, straight line is drawn without moving the hand? Question 5–6 What type of paper should be used for sketching? Question 5–7 Briefly describe a method that can be used to sketch irregular shapes.
Question 5–14 How many principal multiviews of an object are possible?
Question 5–16 In architectural drafting, what are the exterior front, right-side, left-side, and rear views also called? Question 5–17 If a round window appears as a line in the front view and the line of sight is perpendicular to the window in the side view, what shape is the window in the side view? Question 5–18 If a round skylight is positioned on a 5/12 roof slope and appears as a line in the front view, what shape is the skylight in the side view? Question 5–19 Briefly describe the trammel method for sketching a circle. Question 5–20 Why must the paper be free to rotate when you are using the hand-compass method for sketching a circle?
Question 5–8 Define isometric sketch.
Question 5–21 What is the distance from the center of a circle to the circumference called?
Question 5–9 What is the difference between an isometric line and a nonisometric line?
Question 5–22 Name the distance that goes all the way across a circle and passes through the center.
Question 5–10 What do proportions have to do with sketching techniques? Question 5–11 Define orthographic projection.
Question 5–23 Describe an easy way to sketch a 15" circle on paper and a 6'–6" circle at a construction site.
Question 5–12 What is the relationship between the orthographic plane of projection and the projection lines from the object or structure?
Question 5–24 In a short but complete paragraph, discuss the importance and use of measurement lines and proportions in sketching objects.
Chapter 5: Sketching Applications
Question 5–25 Briefly describe how the block technique works for making sketches of objects.
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elements large enough to fill most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper.
Question 5–26 Name two basic applications for multiviews in architectural drafting. Question 5–27 In multiview projection, what is the top view commonly called?
PATIO
Question 5–28 Name the four views that are commonly used as elevations to describe the exterior appearance of a structure. Question 5–29 Why should a soft lead and slightly rounded pencil point be used when sketching?
SWIMMING POOL
Question 5–30 Briefly describe how you would use your pencil to establish measurements if you were sketching a house across the street.
PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: On 8 1/2" × 11" bond paper or newsprint, use proper sketching materials and techniques to solve the following sketching problems. Use very lightly sketched construction lines for all layout work. Darken the lines of the object, but do not erase the layout lines. Additional problems are available on the Student CD.
Problem 5–1 Sketch the front view of your home or any local single-family residence using the block technique. Use the measurement-line method to approximate proper proportions.
SPA
Problem 5–8 Given the top and side views shown in the sketch for this problem, redraw these views and draw the missing front view, filling most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper.
Problem 5–2 Use the box method to sketch a circle with a diameter of approximately 4". Sketch the same circle using the trammel and hand-compass methods. Problem 5–3 Find an object with an irregular shape, such as a French (irregular) curve, and sketch a two-dimensional view using the grid method. Sketch the object to correct proportions without measuring. Problem 5–4 Use the same structure you used for Problem 5–1, or a different structure, to prepare an isometric sketch. Problem 5–5 Use the same structure you used for Problem 5–1 to sketch a front view and right-side view. Problem 5–6 Use a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" to draw a 38° acute angle with one side horizontal and both sides 8'–6" long. Problem 5–7 Given the sketch for this problem of a swimming pool, spa, and patio, resketch these
START VIEW HERE
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Problem 5–9 Given the pictorial sketch for this problem, draw the front, top, and right-side views, filling most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper.
FRO
NT
Problem 5–10 Given the three views of the house shown in the sketches for this problem, sketch an isometric view, filling most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper.
CHAPTER 6
Architectural Lines and Lettering I
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Drafting is a universal graphic language that uses lines, symbols, dimensions, and notes to describe a structure to be built. Lines and lettering on a drawing must be of a quality that reproduces clearly. Properly drawn lines are dark, crisp, sharp, and of a uniform thickness. There should be no variation in darkness, only a variation in thickness, known as line contrast. Certain lines are drawn thick to stand out clearly from other information on the drawing. Other lines are drawn thin. Thin lines are not necessarily less important than thick lines, but they can be subordinate for identification purposes. Recommended line thicknesses are much more defined in mechanical drafting for manufacturing than in architectural drafting. Architectural drafting line standards have traditionally been more flexible, and the creativity of the individual drafter or company can influence line and lettering applications. This is not to say that drafters can do anything that they desire when preparing an architectural drawing. This chapter presents some general guidelines, styles, and techniques that are recommended for architectural drafting. Practices using CADD are covered in Chapter 7 and applied to specific content in later chapters.
TYPES OF LINES Lines are the primary method of displaying images on architectural drawings. The lines must accurately and clearly represent the drawing content. There are a variety of line types found on drawings. Each type of line conveys a meaning in the way it is represented and its placement on the drawing. There are basically two widths of lines commonly found on architectural drawings, thick and thin. The purpose of different line widths is to make certain that lines stand out more than others. Thicker lines are meant to be more dominant than other lines. They may not be any more important, but they are the first lines that are intended to be seen by the viewer. For example, when you look at a floor plan, the wall lines and related features should be the main focus at first glance. Other lines, such as dimension lines, are equally important, but their appearance is subordinate to the lines used to create the plan. Even though national standards recommend two different
line thicknesses for use on drawings, some companies use three line thicknesses to represent different lines on a drawing. Confirm the actual practice used by your school or company. This discussion introduces you to each of the lines commonly used in architectural drafting. Figure 6-1 shows each type of architectural line and its desired width.
Construction Lines and Guidelines Construction lines are used for laying out a drawing. They are drawn very lightly so they do not reproduce and so they are not mistaken for any other lines on the drawing. Manually drawn construction lines are drawn with very little pressure using a pencil with 4H to 6H lead, and if drawn properly do not need to be erased. Use construction lines for all preliminary work. Construction lines are drawn on a separate layer when CADD is used. This layer can be turned on or off as needed. CADD layers are discussed in Chapter 7. Guidelines are similar to construction lines in that they should be drawn lightly enough so they do not reproduce. Guidelines are drawn to guide your manual lettering. For example, if lettering on a drawing is 1/8" (3 mm) high, then the lightly drawn guidelines are placed 1/8" (3 mm) apart. Guidelines are not used with CADD. Some manual drafters prefer to use a light-blue lead rather than a graphite lead for all construction lines and guidelines. Light-blue lead does not reproduce in a diazo printer and is usually cleaner than graphite. Blueline can reproduce in a photocopy machine unless it is drawn very lightly.
Object Lines In architectural drafting the outline lines—or object lines, as they are commonly called—are a specific thickness so they stand out from other lines, as they form the outline of views. Object lines are used to define the outline and characteristic features of architectural plan components, but the method of presentation can differ 87
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THICK
VISIBLE OBJECT LINES
THICK LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.025" (0.6 mm) FLOOR PLAN WALL OUTLINES, ELEVATION OUTLINE/ACCENT, SECTION ACCENT, FOUNDATION OUTLINES AND BEAMS
THIN
THIN LINE
THIN LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.012" (0.3 mm) FLOOR PLAN SYMBOLS, ELEVATION FEATURES, SECTION FEATURES
THIN
HIDDEN LINE
THIN LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.012" (0.3 mm)
THIN
CENTER LINE
EXTENSION LINE
LEADER
DOT
DIMENSION LINE
DIMENSION LINE, EXTENSION LINE, AND LEADER LINE
THIN 20'0" SLASH
ARROWHEAD
THICK CUTTING-PLANE LINE OR VIEWING-PLANE LINE
THICK THICK THICK SHORT BREAKS
BREAK LINE
THIN
LONG BREAKS
THICK
CHAIN LINE
THICK LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.025" (0.6 mm) PROPERTY LINES
DIMENSION LINE VISIBLE OBJECT LINE
GARB. DISP. GFI
GFI DW
HIDDEN LINE
HOOD W/ LIGHT & FAN. VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR
12'-0"
LEADER LINE
REFR
48"X72" LIGHT SOFFIT W/ 5-48" PERIOD FIXTURES S3
DBL OVEN
HIDDEN LINE BREAK LINE
BRM S S 3
EXTENSION LINE
CUTTING-PLANE LINE
THIN LINE
FIGURE 61 Recommended architectural line styles and weights, with an example as used in a partial floor plan.
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slightly from one office to another. The following techniques are alternatives for object line presentation: ● A popular technique is to enhance certain drawing features so they stand out clearly from outer items on the drawing. For example, the outline of floor plan walls and partitions, or beams in a cross section, can be drawn thicker than other lines so that they are more apparent than the other lines on the drawing. When drawn manually, these thicker lines can be drawn with a mechanical pencil or 0.7-mm or 0.9-mm automatic pencil using a 2H, H, or F lead (see Figure 6-2A). This technique can also use light shading to highlight the walls of a floor plan. Dark shading can be used, but it hides the thicker outline lines. ● Another technique is for all lines of the drawing to be the same thickness. This method does not differentiate one type of line from another, except that construction lines are always very lightly drawn. The idea of this technique is to make all lines medium-thick to save drafting time. The drafter uses a lead that works best, although a mechanical pencil or 0.5-mm automatic pencil with 2H or H lead is popular (see Figure 6-2B). This technique
can use dark shading to highlight features such as walls in floor plans, as shown in Figure 6-2C. The objective with any manual drafting line work is to get all lines dark and crisp. If the lines are fuzzy, they do not reproduce well. ●
Some object lines may not be drawn as thick as others. This idea can be confusing at first. When you are creating an architectural drawing, you need to think about what features you want to be most visual. On a floor plan, for example, the outlines of the walls might be drawn thick to stand out clearly from other features. However, the outlines of cabinets, doors, and other objects might be drawn thin even though they are objects and their outlines might be considered object lines. The partial floor plan in Figure 6-1 shows this variation between object lines. Although this practice is common, the confusion can be compounded for the beginner because some variations can exist between offices. The best thing for you to do is spend as much time as you can looking at sets of architectural drawings with the goal of observing how lines are displayed. Also, quickly become familiar with the methods preferred by your instructor and the company where you work.
10'–0"
10'–0" 5'–0"
5'–0"
5'–0"
5'–0"
ALL LINES SAME THICKNESS
THICK WALL OUTLINES
B 10'–0" 5'–0"
5'–0"
THICK LINES FOR BEAMS AND FOOTINGS DARK SHADING
A
THICK LINES FOR FOUNDATION WALL
C
FIGURE 62 (A) Thick outlines. (B) All lines the same thickness. (C) Accent with shading.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Dashed Lines In mechanical drafting dashed lines are called hidden lines; the terms are interchangeable in architectural drafting. Dashed lines are used to show drawing features that are not visible in the view or plan. In architectural drafting, dashed lines can also be considered hidden lines because they are used to show drawing features that are not visible in the view or plan. These dashed features are important but subordinate to the main emphasis of the drawing. Dashed lines vary slightly from one office to the next. These lines are thin and generally drawn about 1/8" to 3/8" (3 to 10 mm) in length with a space of 1/16" to 1/8" (1.5 to 3 mm) between dashes. The dashes should be kept uniform in length on the drawing, for example, all 1/4" (6 mm) should have equal spaces. Dashed lines are thin, and the spacing between dashes should not be measured, but should be approximately the same. Draw dashed lines manually by estimating the dash length and spacing. It takes practice to manually draw dashed lines. Recommended leads for manual drafting are a 0.5-mm automatic pencil with 2H or H lead, or a sharp mechanical pencil with 4H, 2H, or H lead. Examples of dashed-line representations include beams shown in Figure 6-3, headers shown in Figure 6-4, and upper kitchen cabinets, dishwasher, and electrical circuit runs as shown in Figure 6-5. These concepts are discussed again throughout this textbook as used with specific applications.
Extension and Dimension Lines Extension lines show the extent of a dimension. Dimension lines show the length of the dimension and terminate at the related extension lines with slashes,
4 X 12 BEAM
DASHED LINE BEAM
FIGURE 63 Dashed line beam representation.
4 X 14 HDR.
DASHED LINE HEADER
FIGURE 64 Dashed line header representation.
DASHED LINE DISHWASHER
DASHED LINE UPPER CABINETS
DASHED LINE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT RUN
FIGURE 65 Dashed lines for upper kitchen cabinets, dishwasher, and electrical circuit runs.
arrowheads, or dots. The dimension numeral in feet and inches, or millimeters, is generally placed above and near the center of the dimension line. Extension lines generally start a short distance, such as 1/16" (1.5 mm) away from the feature being dimensioned and typically run 1/8" (3 mm) beyond the last dimension line. When you are dimensioning to a feature such as the center of a window, the center line becomes an extension line. Figure 6-6 shows several extension and dimension lines. Further discussion and examples are provided in later chapters. Extension and dimension lines are generally thin, dark, crisp lines that can be drawn with a sharp mechanical pencil or 0.5-mm automatic pencil using 4H, 2H, or H lead, depending on the amount of pressure you use.
Leader Lines Leader lines are also thin, dark, crisp lines. These lines are used to connect notes to related features
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DIMENSION LINE 10'-0" EXTENSION LINE
5'-0"
5'-0"
1/8 45°
CENTER-LINE EXTENSION LINE
FREEHAND SLASH ALL IN THE SAME DIRECTION
10'-0" 5'-0"
1/8"
A THICK SLASH IS COMMON ON MANY MANUAL AND CADD DRAWINGS
SOME COMPANIES USE A DOT TO END DIMENSION LINES
TO 3/16"
5'-0" 1/16
FREEHAND ARROWHEAD
CADD ARROWHEADS MAY BE FILLED OR UNFILLED
FIGURE 66 Extension and dimension lines.
on a drawing. Leader lines can be drawn freehand or with an irregular curve. Do them freehand if you can do a good job, but use an irregular curve if they are not smooth. Confirm the preferred practice with your school or company standards. The leader should start from the vertical center at the beginning or end of a note and be terminated with an arrowhead at the feature. Some companies prefer that leaders be straight lines beginning with a short shoulder and angling to the feature. Figure 6-7 shows several examples.
2 X 6 PT SILL 1/2"o
X 10" A.B. @ 6'–0" O.C.
8" X 16" CONC. FTG.
8" THICK FND. WALL ALL
FIGURE 67 Sample leader lines. The style for leaders should be the same throughout the drawing.
Break Lines Break lines are used, for example, to remove a portion of an object, to show a partial view, or to shorten a long object. Break lines are also used to terminate features on a drawing when the extent of the feature has been clearly defined. Two types of break lines can be used in architectural drafting: the long break line and the short break line. The long break line is normally associated with architectural drafting, and uses a break symbol that is generally drawn freehand. Figure 6-8A shows several examples. The short break line can be found on some architectural drawings. This line, as shown in Figure 6-8A, is an irregular line drawn freehand and is used for a short area. The short break line is less commonly used in architectural drafting than the long break line. Breaks in cylindrical objects such as steel bars and pipes are shown in Figure 6-8B.
LINE TECHNIQUES For more information and instructions covering manual drafting techniques for drawing lines with pencil on vellum, polyester lead on polyester film, and inking on vellum and polyester film, refer to the Student CD: LINE TECHNIQUES.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
LONG BREAK LINE 1/3 R R
LONG BREAK LINE ALTERNATE SYMMETRICAL ABOUT CENTER
1/2 R SHORT BREAK LINE NOT AS COMMON
A
R
B
FIGURE 68 (A) Solid break lines. (B) Cylindrical break lines.
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Lines INTRODUCTION
POINT ENTRY METHODS The process of specifying points to create and edit objects, such as locating line endpoints, is known as
SINK
2'–0"
W WASHER DRYER R
8'–0"
6" BACKK SPLASH
ADJ. SHELVES L
3'–0"
Drawing line segments is one of the simplest forms of CADD. To draw a line, first access the proper line tool or command. Typically, a line is drawn by specifying a start point and an endpoint. Both points are often known as endpoints. The line appears between the selected points. Usually the LINE command remains active, allowing you to create multiple connected single line segments. When finished, exit the LINE command or restart the command to draw other disconnected lines. Drawing lines using a LINE command represents the fundamental approach to creating computer-aided drawings, because a drawing is a grouping of lines and shapes. Figure 6-9, for example, shows an interior elevation drawing. If you look closely, you can see how the drawing consists of lines and different line types. As you learn more about CADD and specific CADD systems, you will become more familiar with the commands and options that allow you to create and modify complex objects without using individual line segments.
5'–3"
4
1'–10"
UTILITY ELEVATION A
FIGURE 69 An example of a utility room interior elevation. The drawing consists of lines assigned specific line types, created using LINE and OBJECT commands.
point entry. A common traditional method of point entry relies on the Cartesian coordinate system, also referred to as rectangular coordinates. This system is based on
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CADD APPLICATIONS establishing points at a given distance from the x, y, and z axes. For two-dimensional drafting applications, objects are drawn on the x,y plane and use horizontal x and vertical y coordinates. Three-dimensional drawings make use of the z axis and require x, y, and z coordinate entry. The intersection of the axes is called the origin. This is where x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0, or the 0,0,0 coordinate is located. Absolute coordinate entry uses the exact coordinates from the origin to locate points. Figure 6-10 shows the two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. In this example, two lines have been drawn by entering the absolute coordinate 2,1 followed by 2,4 and finally 4,4. The z axis usually requires no consideration when preparing two-dimensional drawings. The actual entry technique varies depending on the CADD system and work environment settings. For example, typing 2,1 or #2,1 may be necessary to enter an absolute coordinate two units right and one unit up from the origin. Figure 6-10 shows how the Cartesian coordinate system is divided into quadrants. Positive and negative values specify coordinates from the origin in each quadrant. Generally, the origin is in the lower left corner of the drawing area to allow for drawing in the upper right quadrant, using positive x,y coordinates. The drawing area is often infinite in size, though drawing limits, or the specified drawing area, can be set to create a virtual drawing area according to sheet size and drawing scale. Depending on the CADD program, many point entry methods exist for placing objects, such as the endpoints of lines. Absolute coordinate entry, as well as relative, and polar coordinate entry are common. Relative coordinate entry is used when points are located at a specified
– ,y –x
distance on the x and y axis from the previous point. For example, when using relative coordinate entry, and the first point is located at 2,2 from the origin, the next point is 2 units directly above the first point by entering @0,2. In this example, the @ symbol indicates from the previous point. Polar coordinate entry is used when points are located from the previous point at a specified distance and angle. For example, when using polar coordinate entry, and the first point is located at 2,2 from the origin, the next point is 2 units directly above the first point by entering @2<90. In this example, the @ symbol indicates from the previous point and the < symbol establishes the polar relationship. The relative and polar coordinate entry symbols used here are for AutoCAD applications. Other CADD systems use similar or different entry methods. The most basic point entry technique is to pick points using the cursor, which can appear as a crosshair, arrow, wand, or point. Often, coordinates appear on-screen as you move the cursor to various positions. This is known as the coordinate display, and it constantly identifies where the cursor is located relative to the origin or to the previous point, as desired. Picking a point using the screen cursor can be an accurate method of point entry when specific tools or options are used to aid precise point selection. AutoCAD Snap Mode, Ortho Mode, and Polar Tracking are examples of options that help position the cursor at designated increments, and specified coordinates and angles. Other AutoCAD functions, such as Object Snaps and Object Snap Tracking, allow you to pick or reference points on existing objects. Some tools allow you to enter the length of the line and angle at which the line is drawn, significantly reducing the need to consider and identify exact coordinates. Figure 6-11 shows how a combination of drawing aids can be used to draw a 4" long line to the midpoint and perpendicular to an existing line.
x,y 2,4
4,4 START P POINT AT THE MID DPOINT ENTER AN ALTERNATIVE ANGLE 2,1
ENDPOINT PERPENDICULAR TO AND 4" FROM THE MIDPOINT
ORIGIN 0,0 – ,–y –x –
x,–y –
FIGURE 610 Using absolute coordinates and the Cartesian coordinate system to locate line endpoints.
LENGTH AND DIRECTION OF CURRENT LINE ENTER THE LENGTH OF THE LINE
FIGURE 611 An example of using drawing aids to precisely size and locate a line.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS ASSIGNING LINE FORMAT In most situations, unique line formats are used when preparing computer-aided drawings. Many systems, such as AutoCAD layers, allow you to define the name, color, line type, line weight (thickness), and display characteristics for each line type and object. For example, a line format used to draw a door on a floor plan using visible object lines might be named Doors or A-DOOR, use a blue color, use a solid (continuous) line type, and have a thickness of .014" (0.35 mm). A line format used to draw an upper cabinet on a floor plan that uses hidden lines might be named Upper Cabinets, A-CSWK-UPPR, or A-FLOR-CSWK-UPPR, use a red color, use a dashed or hidden line type, and have a thickness of .014" (0.35 mm). Example
Figure 6-12 shows a variety of single line segments drawn using CADD. The ability to use systems, such as layers, is a major advantage to CADD. The line used to represent underground natural gas lines in Figure 6-12 highlights the advantage. This complex line, complete with text and a specific line weight, would be very time consuming and less accurate if drawn manually. Different line configurations can be set before or after lines are drawn, though it is good practice to set the line format before you begin drafting. All lines drawn after you choose a specific format use that format’s characteristics. You must select a different line format each time you draw a different type of object. Still, you can modify the properties of an existing line using a variety of editing tools. ■
Purpose
Name
Line Type
Dimensions
A-ANNO-DIMS
Continuous 0.3 mm
Line Weight
Borders and title blocks
A-ANNO-TTBL
Continuous 0.7 mm
Doors
A-DOOR
Continuous 0.5 mm
Underground natural gas lines
A-NGAS-UNDR
GAS_LINE
0.5 mm
Property lines
A-PROP
PHANTOM
0.7 mm
Upper cabinets
A-FLOR-WDWK-DASH
DASHED
0.5 mm
FIGURE 612 Examples of common computer-aided drafting line formats.
LETTERING Information on drawings that cannot be represented graphically by lines can be presented by lettered dimensions, notes, and titles. It is extremely important that these lettered items be exact, reliable, and entirely legible in order for the user to have confidence in them and never have any uncertainty as to their meaning. Poor lettering can ruin an otherwise good drawing. The following is basic terminology commonly associated with lettering: ● ●
●
Composition refers to the spacing, layout, and appearance of the lettering. Justify means to align the text. Several lines of text that are left-justified are aligned along the left side, for example. Lettering is the term used to describe the traditional handmade letters and numbers on a drawing.
●
Text is the term for lettering that is done using CADD. The term annotation is commonly used in architectural CADD applications to refer to any text, notes, dimensions, and text symbols on a drawing.
●
A font is a complete assortment of any one size and style of lettering or text.
●
Text style is a set of text characters, such as font, height, width, and angle.
Lettering and text used on mechanical drafting for manufacturing follow very strict guidelines recommended by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Architectural lettering and text requirements follow less strict principles, but have developed as an artistic style that is commonly used by architects, architectural designers, and drafters.
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A N B P 1 9
95
E F H I K L M T VW X Y Z & CDG J O QR S U 23456 78 3 1 – 3/4 – 0 1/2 2 4
FIGURE 613 Vertical straight element letters, curved element letters, numerals, and fractions.
Single-Stroke Lettering The standard lettering that has been used for generations by drafters is called vertical single-stroke letters. The term single stroke comes from the fact that each letter is created by single straight or curved line elements that make it easy to draw and clear to read. There are uppercase and lowercase letters, although the industry has traditionally used uppercase lettering. Figure 6-13 shows the recommended strokes used to form architectural letters and numbers. Architectural lettering styles can vary, but there are similarities. Figure 6-14 shows typical architectural lettering. As a beginning drafter, you should be conservative in the style you use to create architectural letters. Too much flair causes unnatural lettering. One important point regarding lettering technique is to make letters consistent. Do not make a letter one way one time and another way the next time. Also, keep letters vertical and always use
guidelines. Entry-level drafters should pay particular attention to match the style used at the architectural firm where they are employed. A professional
FIGURE 614 Examples of architectural lettering.
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FIGURE 615 Slanted letters (uppercase) and numerals.
drafter should be able to letter rapidly with clarity and neatness.
Slanted Lettering Most architectural drafting is done using vertical uppercase lettering and text, but some companies prefer slanted lettering. These letters slant to the right with an angle of 68° from horizontal. Structural drafting is one field where slanted lettering is commonly found. Uppercase slanted lettering is generally used for water feature names in mapping, such as streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans. Figure 6-15 shows typical slanted uppercase letters and numerals.
Lettering Height Minimum lettering height should be 1/8" (3 mm). Some companies use 5/32" (4 mm). All dimension numerals, notes, and other lettered information should be the same height except for titles, drawing numbers, and other captions. Titles and subtitles, for example, can be 3/16" or 1/4" (4 or 6 mm) high. The height of numbers in fractions should be the same height as the other lettering associated with the fraction. The fraction bar can be placed horizontally at mid height of the whole numbers, or it can be placed diagonally. It is common for the fraction bar to be placed horizontally when used with dimension values and notes, but titles often use diagonal fraction bars. The exact practice depends on the preference of the architectural office. Some offices allow fraction numbers to be smaller than the other lettering, but for best readability, this is not preferred. Verify the specific requirements with your instructor or employer.
Lettering Legibility Lettering should be dark, crisp, and sharp so it provides excellent reproduction quality. The composition of letters in words and the space between words in sentences should be such that the individual letters are uniformly spaced, with approximately equal background areas.
Architectural Drafting and Design
To achieve uniform spacing usually requires that letters such as I, N, or S be spaced slightly farther apart than L, A, or W. A minimum recommended space between letters is approximately 1/16" (1.5 mm). The space between words in a note or title should be about the same as the height of the letters. Notes should be lettered horizontally on a sheet. In some cases where space or format requires, notes can be lettered vertically so they read from the right side of the sheet. You should confirm if this is acceptable with your instructor or drafting manager. When lettering notes, sentences, or dimensions requiring more than one line, the vertical space between the lines should be a minimum of one-half the height of the letters. The maximum recommended space between lines of lettering is equal to the height of the letters. Some companies prefer to use the minimum space to conserve space, while other companies prefer the maximum space for added clarity. Some companies choose to exceed the maximum space between lines by using twice the height of letters between separate notes.
Rules for Lettering and Text Numeral Applications The following outlines basic rules for placing inch and metric unit values on drawings in dimensions, notes, and specifications: ●
Foot units are followed by the foot symbol ('), and inch units are followed by the inch symbol (").
●
Inches and fractions are used for values less than 12 inches, as in 6". Numerals are given in feet and inches for values equal to or over 12". A dash separates the feet and inch values, for example 8'–6".
●
Metric values in architectural drafting are generally in millimeters; the abbreviation “mm” is not used when all the values are in metric.
●
When metric values are used on a predominantly foot and inch drawing, the millimeter abbreviation symbol (mm) follows the metric value.
●
Metric unit names are lowercase, except those resulting from proper names, for example, millimeter, meter, kilogram, Kelvin, Newton, and Pascal.
●
Use vertical text for unit abbreviations. Use lowercase text, such as mm (millimeter), m (meter), and kg (kilogram), unless the unit name is derived from a proper name, as in K (Kelvin), N (Newton), or Pa (Pascal).
●
Leave a space between a numeral and an abbreviation, for example, 55 kg, 24 m, 455 Hz.
Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering
● ● ●
●
Do not leave a space between a unit abbreviation and its prefix, for example, use kg, not k g. Do not use plural unit symbols, for example, use 5 kg, not 5 kgs. Use the plural of spelled-out metric measurements, for example, 125 meters. Use either names or symbols for units; do not mix them. Symbols are preferred on drawings. Millimeters (mm) are assumed on architectural drawings unless something else is specified.
97
HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING, for more information on creating professional manual lettering, including making lettering guidelines, and lettering guideline templates. There is also a discussion covering the use of mechanical lettering equipment, lettering machines, and transfer lettering.
CADD APPLICATION CADD Lettering The term annotation is commonly used in architectural CADD applications to refer to any text, notes, dimensions, and text symbols on a drawing. Adding annotation to a drawing is one of the most efficient and effective tasks associated with CADD. CADD eliminates the usually tedious task of freehand lettering. The process of placing text varies depending on the CADD system, the tools and commands used to generate the text, and the purpose of the text. Typically, adding text involves defining and selecting a text style, picking the text location, and typing characters using the keyboard. Some commands and options automatically add text to symbols and other drawing content. For example, dimensions used to describe the size and location of features automatically include text of dimension values when placed. Another example is a floor plan refrigerator symbol that when inserted, includes the text REFR as the abbreviation for refrigerator.
TEXT STYLES Most CADD programs contain standard, or default, text styles. Default refers to any value maintained by the computer for a command or function that has variable settings. For example, the default text height might be 1/8" (3 mm), but can be changed. Though the default text style can be used to add text, a new or modified style can be more appropriate. CADD systems have multiple text options allowing you to create text styles based on the nature of the drawing and specified drafting standards. Font, height, width, and slant angle are a few of the characteristics applied to text. Figure 6-16 shows examples of CADD text styles assigned specific fonts. Most CADD programs include, or allow you to add, text fonts that resemble quality freehand architectural lettering. AutoCAD, for example, includes the CityBlueprint, CountryBlueprint, and Stylus BT fonts. These architectural fonts allow computer-aided drawings to have the artistic flair often
desired in architectural drafting. The examples shown in Figure 6-16C and Figure 6-16D use an architectural text style with fonts that closely duplicate the artistry of freehand architectural lettering. Many architects and architectural drafters have adopted a less artistic style with a more computergenerated appearance. The U.S. National CAD Standard recommends using uppercase text that is proportional and nonstylized. The standard suggests a SanSerif or similar font (see Figure 6-16E). A basic uniform font such as RomanS is another alternative (see Figure 6-16F). These fonts are very clear and easy to read, and can eliminate misunderstanding, which occasionally results from the use of a more architectural appearing font.
DRAWING SCALE FACTOR Depending on the CADD program, objects should be drawn full size, or full scale. This is a benefit to using CADD because you can draw according to the actual size of objects, without considering the scale factor. However, scale factor becomes an issue when adding text and other annotations. To help understand the concept of drawing scale, look at the kitchen floor plan shown in Figure 6-17. All objects, such as the walls, cabinets, and appliances are drawn full scale. This means that the sink, for example, is actually drawn 2' long. However, text that is drawn at full scale, 1/8" high for example, is extremely small compared to the other fullscale objects (see Figure 6-17A). As a result, you must adjust the text height according to the drawing scale, as shown in Figure 6-17B. Some CADD programs require you to increase the size of, or scale, text according to the drawing scale. For example, in order for text on a final drawing, plotted at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0", to be 1/8" high, you must use a text height of 6". Six inches at this scale is actually 1/8". The scale factor establishes the relationship between
98
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS
Arial font A
Times font B
CountryBlueprint font C
Stylus BT font D
SanSerif font E
RomanS font F FIGURE 616 (A) Arial font. (B) Times font. Architectural text styles with fonts that closely duplicate the artistry of freehand architectural lettering can be seen in (C) CountryBlueprint and (D) StylusBT. (E ) The U.S. National CAD Standard recommends using uppercase, proportional, nonstylized text, such as the SanSerif shown here. (F ) A basic uniform font such as RomanS is another alternative.
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CADD APPLICATIONS 9'–5"
12'–7"
REFR
A
9'–11'5"
B
FIGURE 617 An example of a kitchen floor plan drawn to scale. (A) If text is drawn full scale, the text is too small compared to the large objects. (B) The text must be scaled in order to appear and be plotted correctly.
the drawing scale and the desired text height. An architectural drawing to be plotted at a 1/4" = 1'−0" scale has a scale factor of 48, calculated as follows: 1/4" = 1'−0" (1/4" = 0.25") 0.25" = 12" 12/0.25 = 48 Other CADD programs automate the process of scaling text, and certain other objects, reducing the need for you to calculate the scale factor. AutoCAD Annotative Object tools, for example, allow you to select an annotation scale, which is the same as the drawing scale. Then, when you create text that uses an annotative text style, the text height adjusts according to the appropriate drawing scale text height. For example, in order for text on a final drawing, plotted at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0", to be 1/8" high, you set an annotation scale of 1/4" = 1'−0". Then you draw the text using a text height of 1/8", ignoring the drawing scale. The 1/8" high text is scaled to 6" automatically, because of the preset 1/4" = 1'−0" annotation scale.
Changing the annotation scale automatically updates the height of text according to the new scale.
ADDING TEXT TO A DRAWING In some ways, the practice of adding text to an architectural drawing has not changed from manual drafting to CADD. You still must decide how the text should look, and where the text is to be located. The actual process of adding text is, however, quite different from freehand lettering. Depending on the CADD program, tools and commands are available to place a basic single line of text, paragraphs with extensive formatting, and objects that include text. Figure 6-18 shows an example of a single word created using a basic text command. To add this text to a drawing, once you access the command, you typically use point entry to specify the location for the text. Text is justified to control where the text occurs from the selected start point. Justified means to align the text. Several lines of text that are left-justified are aligned along the left side, for example.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS
TOP CENTER
MIDDLE CENTER TOP RIGHT
TOP LEFT MIDDLE RIGHT MIDDLE LEFT LEFT
RIGHT
BOTTOM LEFT BOTTOM CENTER
CENTER
BOTTOM RIGHT
FIGURE 618 Some common justification options used to locate and position text.
be familiar. These types of commands are especially useful in architectural drafting where an entire sheet can consist of notes and specifications. Other commands allow you to place text with objects such as the window schedule, shown in Figure 6-19B, created using a table command. Another example is the dimension shown in Figure 6-19C, created using a dimension command. In this example, lines, symbols, the dimension value, offsets, and all other dimension properties are drawn using a single dimension command. ■
5'–5"
Common justification options are shown in Figure 6-18. Justification is critical for accurately placing text. For example, use middle-center justification to place text in the center of a circle. You also have the option of rotating or further adjusting the text before it is actually created. Figure 6-19 shows examples of other text objects created using specific CADD commands. Some text commands, such as the command used to create the list of notes shown in Figure 6-19A, function much like word processing programs with which you may already
A
B
C
FIGURE 619 (A) A list of notes created using a word processing command. (B) A window schedule created using a table command. (C) A dimension placed using a specialized dimension command.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to drafting standards. Address www.aia.org www.ansi.org
Company, Product, or Service American Institute of Architects American National Standards Institute
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Architectural Lines and Lettering Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD.
Question 6–17 What are the minimum recommended lettering heights?
1. Letter your name, Chapter 6 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 6–19 What is the recommended space between words in a note?
Question 6–1 Is there any recommended variation in line darkness, or are all properly drawn lines the same darkness? Question 6–2 What are construction lines used for, and how should they be drawn? Question 6–3 Discuss line uniformity and line contrast. Question 6–4 Define guidelines. Question 6–5 What is the recommended thickness of outlines? Question 6–6 Identify two items that dashed lines represent on a drawing. Question 6–7 Describe a situation in which an extension line is also the center line of a feature. Question 6–8 Extension lines are thin lines that are used for what purpose? Question 6–9 Where should extension lines begin relative to the object and end relative to the last dimension line?
Question 6–18 How should letters within words be spaced?
Question 6–20 What is the recommended horizontal space between horizontal lines of lettering? Question 6–21 When should guidelines be used for lettering on a drawing? Question 6–22 Why are guidelines necessary for freehand lettering? Question 6–23 Describe the recommended leads and points used in mechanical and automatic pencils for freehand lettering. Question 6–24 Identify a method to help avoid smudging a drawing when lettering. Refer to the Student CD: LINE TECHNIQUES. Question 6–25 For lettering fractions, what is the recommended relationship of the fraction division line to the whole numbers on the same line? Question 6–26 List two manual methods that can be used to make guidelines rapidly. Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING.
Question 6–10 Describe leaders.
Question 6–27 Why should the mechanical lettering template be placed along a straightedge when lettering? Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING.
Question 6–11 Describe and show an example of three methods used to terminate dimension lines at extension lines.
Question 6–28 Identify an advantage of using lettering guides. Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING.
Question 6–12 How does architectural line work differ from mechanical drafting line work?
Question 6–29 Describe a use of lettering machines. Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING.
Question 6–13 What is the advantage of drawing certain outlines thicker than other lines? Question 6–14 If all lines on a drawing are the same thickness, how can walls and partitions, for example, be represented so they stand out clearly on a floor plan? Question 6–15 Describe the proper technique to use for drawing lines with a technical pen. Refer to the Student CD: LINE TECHNIQUES. Question 6–16 Describe proper architectural lettering.
Question 6–30 List four uses of transfer materials. Refer to the Student CD: HINTS FOR PROFESSIONAL LETTERING. Question 6–31 The Cartesian coordinate system is also called what? Question 6–32 What is the basis of the Cartesian coordinate system? Question 6–33 Where is the origin found in the Cartesian coordinate system?
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Question 6–34 How are points in the absolute coordinate system located relative to the origin? Question 6–35 How is an absolute coordinate specified that is 4 units on the x axis and 3 units on the y axis?
5.
Question 6–36 Describe how relative coordinate points are located. Question 6–37 If the first point is located at 2,2, then how do you specify the next point, using relative coordinates, if it is to be 2 units directly above the first point? Question 6–38 Describe how polar coordinate points are located.
6. 7. 8.
Question 6–39 If the first point is located at 2,2, how do you specify the next point, using polar coordinates, if it is to be 2 units directly above the first point?
9.
Question 6–40 Explain how a CADD system might have commands and options that allow you to pick points accurately with the cursor.
10.
Question 6–41 What is the function of the coordinate display on a CADD system? Question 6–42 Define font. Question 6–43 Define annotation. Question 6–44 What does the term default mean when applied to CADD?
11.
second drawing, make all lines the same thickness. Each drawing represents a line thickness technique discussed in this chapter. Use guidelines for all lettering. Using architectural lettering, letter the title FLOOR PLAN; center it below the drawing in 1/4"-high letters. In 1/8"-high letters and centered below the title, letter the following: SCALE: 1/4" = 1'–0". Letter your name and all other notes and dimensions using 1/8" high architectural lettering. Lightly lay out the drawing using construction lines. When you are satisfied with the layout, darken all lines. For the lettering exercise, use 1/8" guidelines with 1/8" space between the lines. Leave a 3/4" minimum margin around the lettering exercise sheet. Make a diazo print or photocopy of your original drawings or lettering exercise sheet as specified by your instructor. Submit your copies and originals for evaluation and grading, unless otherwise specified by your instructor. Problems can be completed manually or with CADD, or both, depending on your specific course objectives and instructions. Confirm this with your instructor.
Problem 6–1 Lines and lettering. Given the following information, draw the garage floor plan: 1. Overall dimensions are 24'−0" × 24'−0".
Dimensions are measured to the outside of walls. 2. Make all walls 4" thick.
Question 6–45 Explain the function of a template drawing.
3. Center a 16'−0" wide garage door in the front
Question 6–46 What is another name for a template?
4. Using dashed lines, draw a 4 × 12 header over the
Question 6–47 Discuss the purpose of drawing scale factors related to text height.
garage door and label it 4 × 12 HEADER with a leader from the note and pointing to the header.
Question 6–48 What drawing scale factor should be used if you want text 1/8" (3 mm) high on a drawing with a 1/4" = 1'−0" scale? Show your calculations.
5. Label the garage floor 4" CONC OVER 4" GRAVEL
Question 6–49 Give at least three advantages of doing lettering with a CADD system. Question 6–50 Explain how it might be possible to have CADD text that looks like high-quality architectural freehand lettering.
PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: 1. Read all instructions carefully before you begin. 2. Use an 8 1/2" × 11" vellum or bond paper drawing sheet for each drawing or lettering exercise. 3. Use the architect’s scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" for each drawing. 4. Draw the floor plan described in Problem 6–1 twice. On the first drawing, use thick lines for the walls and thin lines for extension, dimension, and symbol lines. On the
wall.
FILL. Use a leader. Problem 6–2 Lettering practice. Using uppercase architectural lettering with proper guidelines, letter the following statement as instructed: YOUR NAME MOST ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS THAT ARE NOT MADE WITH CADD EQUIPMENT ARE LETTERED USING VERTICAL FREEHAND LETTERING. THE QUALITY OF THE FREEHAND LETTERING GREATLY AFFECTS THE APPEARANCE OF THE ENTIRE DRAWING. MANY ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTERS LETTER WITH PENCIL ON VELLUM OR POLYESTER LEAD ON POLYESTER FILM. LETTERING IS COMMONLY DONE WITH A SOFT, SLIGHTLY ROUNDED LEAD IN A MECHANICAL PENCIL OR A 0.5MILLIMETER LEAD IN AN AUTOMATIC PENCIL. LETTERS ARE MADE BETWEEN VERY LIGHTLY DRAWN GUIDELINES. GUIDELINES ARE PARALLEL AND SPACED AT A DISTANCE EQUAL TO THE HEIGHT OF THE LETTERS. GUIDELINES ARE REQUIRED TO HELP KEEP ALL LETTERS THE SAME UNIFORM HEIGHT. THE SPACE BETWEEN LINES OF LETTERING MAY BE BETWEEN HALF TO EQUAL THE HEIGHT OF THE LETTERS. ALWAYS USE GUIDELINES WHEN LETTERING FREEHAND. LEARN TO RELAX SO THAT THE STROKES FOR EACH
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Problem 6–3 Given the partial floor plan shown for this problem, identify the line types labeled A through K.
LETTER FLOW SMOOTHLY. WHEN YOUR HAND BECOMES TIRED, REST FOR A WHILE BEFORE BEGINNING AGAIN.
54'-0" 34'-0" 15'-6"
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CONC. FILLED HARD POST
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CHAPTER 7
Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture I
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In Chapter 3 you learned about the traditional manual drafting workstation with conveniences such as an adjustable drafting table and a drafting machine or parallel bar. Also available to enhance your speed and accuracy are automatic pencils, electric erasers, and templates of all kinds. As a professional drafter, designer, or architect, you may continue to see the traditional equipment in some offices. However, drafting is changing. The concepts and theories are the same, but the tools are different. Traditional manual drafting is rapidly converting to computer-aided design and drafting (CADD). CADD is now available in most drafting and architectural schools and is commonly used in architectural firms. Both acronyms CADD and CAD are commonly used to identify the use of computers in the drafting industry. CADD, as previously mentioned, refers to computer-aided design and drafting. CAD is the acronym for computer-aided design, but is often used as a reference to computer-aided drafting.
Even as the computer waits for input, architectural designers continue to make sketches. The traditional method of making bubble drawings to determine a preliminary room arrangement continues to be a common practice. Designers still create sketches in an effort to establish design ideas. The computer can help in the design process, but individual creativity happens before the computer is turned on. The CADD system can perform a number of design functions in a manner that often exceeds expectations. Plan components, such as room arrangements, can be stored in a design file; this allows the designer to call on a series of these components and rearrange them in a new design. Another aid to design is that a given plan can be quickly reduced or enlarged in size, with all components remaining in proportion. One particular room can be changed while the rest of the design stays the same. The design capability of drawing layers allows the architect to prepare a preliminary layout on one layer while changing and rearranging components on another layer. Layers allow for details of a design or different drafting information to be separated. Layers are generally of different colors and have their own names. 104
Layers can be kept together, or individual layers can be turned on or off as needed. Creativity is enhanced with CADD, and the repetitive aspects of design are handled more effectively. For example, in the design of an apartment or condominium complex, an initial unit can be designed, and then any number of the same units can be attached to one another as desired, very quickly. Alternative designs, such as a reverse plan, can also be made. Some units can be expanded or reduced in size, or alternatives for bedrooms and baths can be implemented quickly. Architecture in education and business today uses a vast variety of design and drafting applications from the traditional manual drafting discussed in Chapter 3, to the most modern form of CADD explained in the next section. Most educational institutions and architectural firms have evolved to CADD. CADD is here to stay and will eventually be a part of every architectural school’s curriculum and every office’s operational practices. The next section gives you a look at the future of architecture. Innovative minds are always looking for better ways to be creative. What makes this the future is that eventually all schools and companies will be using CADD and those who want to use the full power and potential of CADD will be involved in applications of this type.
ARCHITECTURAL CADD SOFTWARE PRODUCTS The following provides general information about a variety of CADD software manufacturer products. Much of the information is taken from the related Web sites. The information provided is intended as an introduction only. For more information, refer to the list of Web sites at the end of this chapter. This discussion is not intended to promote or endorse any of the products represented. Other CADD software products are available. Do an Internet search using keywords such as computer-aided drafting, computer-aided design, computer-aided design and drafting, CADD, architectural CADD, and CADD software to find additional products or more information about the products listed here.
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
Autodesk, Inc. Autodesk’s core product is AutoCAD. AutoCAD is a two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) drafting and design software product. AutoCAD LT software is a 2D drafting product. Autodesk products are available for industries such as building, infrastructure, manufacturing, media and entertainment, and wireless data. Autodesk has a variety of CADD software programs created for specific disciplines such as architectural, civil, electrical, and mechanical. The following provides a sample of the architectural, engineering, and construction products: AutoCAD Civil 3D software is used for civil engineering applications using a dynamic engineering model. AutoCAD Architecture provides the efficiency of real-world building objects, design, and documentation productivity for architects and architectural designers. AutoCAD Revit Architecture Suite software combined with AutoCAD or AutoCAD Architecture software gives the competitive advantage of building information modeling (BIM). Autodesk Revit platform for BIM is a complete architectural design and documentation solution supporting all phases of design and all the architectural drawings and schedules required for a building project.
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SolidBuilder software package was created by contractors for contractors. Features include true 3D modeling, framing, complex roof generation, and working drawings. DetailPro makes detailing and drafting easy with a complete library of over 200 predrawn details. Each detail can also be customized and saved. DetailPro saves drafting time when used with SolidBuilder. BidBuilder estimating software is used to produce professional estimates, proposals, and bids for all types of construction projects, with an Excel-like interface that contains the power of a database. Digital Takeoff is on-screen takeoff software for contractors, builders, and remodelers. A takeoff is the quantity estimates and areas and footages taken from a drawing.
Google Google SketchUp is available for download from the Google Web site and comes in two formats. Google SketchUp is a free download and allows you to create 3D models very quickly. Google SketchUp Pro is a premium version and includes all of the tools from the free version plus advanced settings for commercial use and interaction with other CADD programs. Refer to the CADD applications feature at the end of Chapter 5 for more information.
Bentley Systems, Inc.
Graphisoft
Bentley Systems provides a wide range of software products for building areas such as plant, civil and geospatial, architecture, engineering, construction, and operations. MicroStation is Bentley’s key product for the design, construction, and operation applications. MicroStation PowerDraft is a professional CADD application used for production 2D/3D drafting and detailing. PowerDraft is used to create, edit, and manipulate drawings and models, and is completely integrated with all Bentley solutions. ProjectWise is an engineering project team collaboration system that is used to help teams improve quality, reduce rework, and meet project deadlines. Generative Design and Building Performance products are Bentley’s integrated multidisciplinary BIM software for architects, engineers, energy assessors, and other professionals to design, analyze, construct, and manage buildings of all types.
Graphisoft is the manufacturer of the ArchiCAD Design/ Building Series, which is a set of tools for builders and residential designers. Graphisoft packages are based on open standards, allowing you to create data without recreation. A Graphisoft product called Virtual Building manages the full information cycle of buildings from concept through occupancy. The program contains information about building materials and characteristics. Virtual Building is a 3D digital database that tracks all elements that make up a building, allowing the designer to use items such as surface area and volume, thermal properties, room descriptions, costs, product information, and window, door, and finish schedules.
Digital Canal Corporation Digital Canal provides home design software, with Building Blocks technology. This software allows you to create house and floor plan designs, and at any point in the process, you can take your Building Blocks design into SolidBuilder to utilize its powerful features. The
SoftPlan Systems, Inc. SoftPlan Architectural Design software is a residential and light commercial CADD software package. SoftPlan allows you to create floor plans, cross sections, elevations, framing plans, detail drawings, and site plans. Drawings are assembled with features such as walls, windows, doors, and beams. SoftView takes the drawing created in SoftPlan and generates a 3D rendering of the model. You can also create photorealistic interior and exterior 3D renderings from any view.
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CADD APPLICATIONS The Future Is Here with CADD CADD software programs offer a wide variety of applications that make the design and drafting process efficient. Software is the program or instructions that run the computer. One example is a concept referred to as the Virtual Building. With regard to computer usage, the term virtual refers to something that appears to have the properties of a real or actual object or experience. The Virtual Building stores your work in a single building file where the information remains integrated, up-to-date, and easy to manage. Working from the Virtual Building file, you can create and modify buildings in 2D and 3D views and easily create sections, elevations, details, and other working drawings. Because the Virtual Building is integrated, changes are automatically updated in all views, saving time and reducing errors along the way. Architects and designers can share their work directly across a local network or the intranet and Internet. An intranet links computers within a company or organization; the Internet is a worldwide network of communication between computers. The Virtual Building allows coordination among the activities and elements of a project as shown in Figure 7-1:
• Complete plans, sections, and elevations. • Architectural and structural details. • Window, door, and finish schedules with elevation and plan symbols. • Component lists with quality calculations for estimating and building management. • Photorealistic renderings for presentation and marketing. • Virtual reality (VR) to show clients or to display on a Web site. Virtual reality refers to a world that appears to be a real or actual world, having many of the properties of a real world. The VR world often appears and feels so real that it almost is real. This is where the computer is used to simulate environments, including the inside and outside of buildings; sound; and touch. • Walk-through or fly-through animation. Walk-through can be described as a camera in a computer program that is set up like a person walking through a building, around a building, or through a landscape. Fly-through is similar, but the camera is like a helicopter flying over the area. Fly-through is generally not used to describe a tour through a building. Walk-through or
FIGURE 71 The Virtual Building covers every facet of the architectural process of communication and collaboration. ArchiCAD Images. Courtesy Graphisoft.
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CADD APPLICATIONS fly-through has the effect of a computer-generated movie in which the computer images represent the real architecture; or it is like a VR presentation in which the computer images turn or move as you turn your head in the desired direction. Realistic renderings, animations, and VR are excellent tools for
PRODUCTIVITY WITH CADD Users agree that CADD increases drafting productivity over traditional manual drafting methods. Estimates range from two times to ten times productivity increase over manual drafting. In reality, any increase in productivity depends on the task, the system, and how quickly employees learn to use CADD. Productivity is also directly related to the amount of time a company has had CADD in use, and to employee acceptance experience with the technology. Most companies can expect more productivity after the users become comfortable with the capabilities of the equipment and software. For many duties, CADD does multiply productivity several times. This is especially true of repetitious and time-consuming tasks, which CADD performs much faster and more accurately than manual techniques. A great advantage of CADD is that it increases the time available to designers and drafters for creativity by reducing the time they spend on the actual preparation of drawings. A big increase in productivity over manual drafting is when drawings are revised. CADD makes the drawing revision process quick and easy. Some of the business tasks related to architectural design and drafting, such as analyzing construction costs, writing specifications, computing, taking materials inventories, scheduling time, and storing information, are also done better and faster on a computer. With some CADD systems, a designer can look at several design alternatives at one time. The drafter draws in layers; one layer can be the plan perimeter, the next layer fixtures, the next electrical, and the next dimensions and notes. Each layer appears in a different color for easy comparison.
THE CADD WORKSTATION This content provides information covering the CADD hardware, ergonomics and ergonomic workstations, and positive work habits. Refer
showing a client how a building will look inside and out. At this stage, design ideas can be created and changes made easily. • Sun studies for any location, date, and time. • Reference drawings for sharing within the company and for sharing with consultants in other companies. ■
to the Student CD: The CADD Workstation for more information on CADD hardware and the CADD work environment.
USING CADD TEMPLATES A CADD template is a pattern of a standard or commonly used feature or features that is created once and then used on following drawings. A collection of symbols in a symbol library could be called a template. If you create a base drawing that contains standard components, values, settings, borders, and title blocks, it is referred to as a template drawing. Most schools and companies use template drawings. Template drawings save time and help produce consistency in the drawing process.
Template Drawing Contents Template drawings should be stored in a common location that is accessible to everyone who needs them. This is often on a network computer. If you maintain your own templates, be sure they are stored in at least two different locations for safekeeping. Template drawings can and should be updated and added to periodically. When updating a template, it is important that you replace all old copies with the updated versions. Keep on file a variety of template drawings that contain settings for different drawing disciplines, drawing applications, and scales. Template drawings can contain, but are not limited to, the following items: ● ● ● ●
Border and title block with standard title block text information completed if desired. Several named text styles with heights to match different scale drawings. Named dimension styles with values and settings for specific drawing scales. Named layers containing colors, line types, and line weights.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Display settings for point styles, line styles, and line weights. User profiles containing display screen menu layouts, colors, fonts, and configuration. Drafting settings, such as object snaps, grid, snap, units, and limits. Section patterns (hatch) and scales. Plot styles and settings.
architectural and civil drafting templates are based on appropriate architectural and civil drafting standards, including standards specified in the U.S. National CAD Standard. Template drawings on the Student CD include the following: Template File
Application
ARCHITECTURALUS.dwt
Architectural draw- Architectural C size ings dimensioned Architectural D size in feet and inches.
ARCHITECTURALMETRIC.dwt
Architectural draw- Architectural A2 size ings dimensioned Architectural A1 size in metric units.
CIVIL-US.dwt
Civil drawings dimensioned in decimal inches.
Using Template Drawings Template drawings help you create new drawings by referencing a base drawing that contains many of the standard items required for multiple drawing projects. Using template drawings is an easy process, and if a standard procedure is followed, creates a productive drawing session and ensures consistency in your drawings. Template drawings function and are used differently, depending on the CADD program. Many programs provide convenient tools for referencing stored drawing templates. This automates the traditional method of opening a template file and then saving a copy of the template file using the name of the new drawing. For example, AutoCAD software makes use of drawing template (.dwt) files. Other CADD programs have different but similar applications. Once you create a .dwt file containing standard drawing settings and objects, save the file in an easily accessible location and create backup copies. When you are ready to prepare a new drawing (.dwg) file, use the NEW command to reference an existing .dwg file. A new drawing file appears, with all the template file settings and contents. Use the SAVE command immediately to save the drawing in the appropriate project file location and with the desired name. The new drawing name is normally related to the drawing type or project. Confirm this with your school or company standards. You are now ready to begin work on the new drawing project. As you work, you may discover additional items that should be included in your template drawings. When using AutoCAD, for example, use the OPEN command to open a .dwt file. Then add content to the file as needed. Once you resave the file, the modified template is ready to use. This leads to greater productivity in future work.
TEMPLATES DRAWINGS ON THE STUDENT CD The TEMPLATE DRAWING section of the Student CD contains several predefined templates that you can use to create drawings in accordance with correct architectural and civil drafting standards. The
CIVIL-METRIC.dwt Civil drawings dimensioned in metric units.
Layout Sheet Sizes
Civil C size Civil D size Civil A2 size Civil A1 size
U.S. NATIONAL CAD STANDARD In 1997, a group of agencies including the CADD/GIS Technology Center (CGTC), the American Institute of Architects (AIA), the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI), the U.S. Coast Guard, the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA), and the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) came together to develop a single CADD standard for the United States, now referred to as the U.S. National CAD Standard (NCS). The NIBS Facility Information Council (FIC) facilitated the development of the NCS, and continues to support its advancement. The development groups have agreed to maintain, revise, and support the continued publication of the standard in cooperation with the NIBS NCS Project Committee. This cooperative agreement is unique in the architectural design, construction, and computer industries. The NCS is made up of three documents previously published by member organizations of the FIC and a report from the NIBS NCS Project Committee. The NCS Project Committee report describes how the documents are related, resolves discrepancies between the documents, and ensures the integration of previously independent parts of the document. The previously independent documents include: ● ●
●
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) CAD Layer Guidelines. The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) Uniform Drawing System, Modules 1–8. Refer to Chapter 8 of this textbook. The CSI Plotting Guidelines.
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Standards are very important in drafting. The purpose of the standard is to allow consistent and streamlined communication among owners, architects and designers, and construction teams. Use of the standard can result in reduced costs for developing and maintaining office standards and greater efficiency in the transfer of building design information from design to construction. The standard is not intended to be applied with any specific CAD software program, but AutoCAD and MicroStation were selected as the primary applications because of their popularity.
UNIFORM DRAWING SYSTEM The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) created the Uniform Drawing System (UDS) modules consisting of standards, guidelines, and other tools for organizing and presenting architectural information that is used for the planning, design, construction, and operation of facilities. The UDS was adopted by the U.S. National CAD Standard. The UDS modules are based on flexibility, consistency, and the linking of modules. UDS provides a framework for the creation of a facility model that is represented using drawings. The facility model is all information created that relates to a specific facility. Drawings store
and catalog information that is distributed through the project cycle. A facility is a physical structure or group of structures, including site construction, serving one or more purposes. A project is a set of related activities taking place at a facility and can include planning, design and construction documents, consulting, purchasing, construction, and post-construction activities. The need for information contained within drawings is different for each phase of a facility or project cycle. Information in one cycle is normally the basis for developing new information for the next cycle. It is important for the drawings to be accurate and organized in a way that makes them easy to find and reuse. The project cycle is graphically presented in Figure 7-2. The basic content found in each UDS module is as follows: ●
The Drawing Set Organization module covers drawing units, file naming, and sheet identification. Drawing set organization establishes standard discipline designators for each discipline, such as A for Architectural, and establishes the order of presentation of these disciplines within a drawing set. CADD systems use real-world units for drafting with feet and inches, feet and tenths of feet, and meters and millimeters as appropriate for the
Occupancy & Use of Completed Project
5. Post-
1. Planning &
Construction Activities
Predesign Activities
Facility Management Documents Operations & Maintenance Documents Project Planning Documents
Marketing Materials Planning & Programming Documents Building and Site Assessment
Project Identification & Acquisition
4. Construction Activities
2. Design Modifications Submittal Documents Record Documents
Activities Construction
3. Procurement Activities
Addenda Agency Approvals Bidding/Negotiation/Purchasing
FIGURE 72 The project life cycle.
Sketches, Diagrams, & Schematics Working Drawings Perspectives and Renderings
Project Development
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specific drawing. File naming and sheet identification standards are described in detail later. ●
The Sheet Organization module establishes standards for sheet sizes in the metric, or International System of Units (SI), and the inch measurement systems. A graphic layout divides the sheet into the drawing area, the title block area, and note area. There is also a grid system for organizing drawing information on a sheet. The title block format includes content placement locations, but allows flexibility for company design.
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The Schedules module provides standard formats for schedules used in construction documents, and has an organizational system for identifying and filing schedules. UDS schedules are described in detail in Chapter 16, and specific discipline schedules, such as electrical and plumbing, are described in their related chapters.
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The Drafting Conventions module addresses standard practices used on drawings, such as drawing orientation, layout, symbols, material indications, line types, dimensions, drawing scale, diagrams, notation, and cross-referencing.
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The Terms and Abbreviations module provides standard terms and abbreviations used in construction documents and specifications. It provides consistent spelling and terminology, standardizes abbreviations, and notes common usage.
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The Symbols module addresses commonly used standard symbols, classifications, graphic representation, and organization in creating, understanding, and fulfilling the intent of construction documents. Standard symbols ensure clear and concise communication on drawings.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
and the various drawing features on their own layers as shown in Figure 7-3. A building model is an electronic representation of a building, with elements graphically representing the building drawn with real-world size in their real-world units. Real-world size and real-world units refer to true size and full actual units. The sheet files bring the model files together to create the composite drawing, and include the border and title block (see Figure 7-3). CADD layers are covered in detail later in this chapter.
Model File Names Model file names are established in a standard format based on the project code, the discipline designator, the model file type, and the user definable code. The project code is optional and is determined by the designer or architect. The project code can have up to 20 characters that are placed before the discipline designator. The discipline designator has two characters, with the second character being a hyphen (-). The first character of the discipline designator is one of the following:
Discipline
Designator
General
G
Hazardous materials
H
Survey/Mapping
V
Geotechnical
B
Civil
C
The Notations module provides guidelines for note classification, format, components, and location, and includes the use of notes, terminology, and linking drawing notes to specifications.
Landscape
L
Structural
S
Architectural
A
Interiors
I
The Code Conventions module identifies types of general regulatory information that should appear on drawings, locates code-related information in a set of drawings, and provides standard graphic conventions. This module can be a tool to speed up code review by designers and plan review authorities.
Equipment
Q
Fire protection
F
Plumbing
P
MODEL AND SHEET FILE-NAMING STANDARDS The model files contain the individual elements that make up the final drawing of the building model, such as the walls, doors, windows, dimensions,
Process
D
Mechanical
M
Electrical
E
Telecommunications
T
Resources
R
Other disciplines
X
Contractor/Shop drawings
Z
Operations
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Architectural AutoCAD 12 6 12 6
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Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
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9'-1"
HEADER LINE
WRITTEN DIMENSIONS ON THESE DRAWINGS SHALL HAVE PRECEDENCE OVER SCALED DIMENSIONS. CONTACTOR SHALL ASSUME RESPONSIBILITY FOR ALL DIMENSIONS AND CONDITIONS ON THE JOB. 3D-DZYN MUST BE NOTIFIED AND CONSENT TO ANY VARIATION FROM DIMENSIONS SET FORTH HEREIN. ALL IDEAS, DESIGNS, AND PLANS SET FORTH IN THESE DOCUMENTS ARE THE ORIGINAL WORK-PRODUCT AND PROPERTY OF, AND OWNED BY 3D-DZYN. THESE DOCUMENTS ARE FOR A SPECIFIED PROJECT OF THE PURCHASOR, ANY REUSE OR REPRODUCTION OF SAID DOCUMENTS BY OTHER THAN 3D-DZYN IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED BY LAW WITHOUT THE WRITTEN PERMISSION OF 3DDZYN.
1X4 CORNER BOARDS
2003
1X8 TRIM BOARD
FLOOR LINE
HOUSE EXERCISE A
REAR ELEVATION
LEFT-SIDE ELEVATION
-
A
RIGHT-SIDE ELEVATION
FLOOR PLANS PROJECT NUMBER: ISSUED: DRAWN BY: CHECKED BY: FILENAME:
RP2003-004 30APR03 RMP RMP A-FP01.DWG
A2.01 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
FIGURE 73 The sheet file brings the model files together to create the composite drawing, and includes the border and title block. 111
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Architectural Drafting and Design
The model file type characterizes the type of drawing. The following are model file types:
Code
Description
FP
Floor plan
SP
Site plan
DP
Demolition plan
QP
Equipment plan
XP
Existing plan
EL
Elevation
SC
Section
DT
Detail
SH
Schedule
3D
Isometric or 3D
DG
Diagram
The last four characters are user-definable such as F1 for floor one. If all four characters are not used, the remaining spaces are filled with Xs, for example F1XX. An example complete model file name is PR2010AFPF1XX.dwg, where: ● ● ● ● ●
PR2010 is the project code. A- is the discipline designator. FP is the model file type. F1XX is the user-definable code. .dwg is the AutoCAD drawing file extension. MicroStation files use .dgn. Design Web format files use .dwf. Drawing exchange files use .dxf.
Detail File Names Detail files are a specific type of model file that can include plans, elevations, sections, and details. Detail files are placed on a sheet using sheet grid coordinates (see Figure 7-5 on page 115). Sheet grid coordinates are similar to zoning, described in Chapter 4. The coordinates are a system of numbers along the top and bottom margins and letters along the left and right margins, allowing a drawing to read like a road map. Detail file names are related to the sheet file where they are located. The identification of details includes the drawing area coordinate system, the sheet identification format, and a twopart reference bubble. A reference bubble is a symbol placed below the detail or section drawing used to designate the
origin of details and sections. The first five characters of a detail file name are identical to the identification of the sheet file where the detail is found. This coordinates the detail file to the specific sheet. The sixth character is the hyphen. The seventh and eighth characters are used for the detail identification number. A-201-B3.dwg is an example of a file name, where: ●
A-201 is the page where the detail is found.
●
B3 are the sheet grid coordinates where the detail is found. This detail is located at the intersection of coordinates B across and 3 up or down.
●
.dwg is the drawing file extension.
●
B3/A-201 is the two-part reference bubble for this example detail.
Refer to the following sheet identification discussion to learn how the detail file names relates to the sheet.
Library and Text File Names Library files contain information for more than one project, such as a commonly used detail, schedule, text, database, symbol, border, and title block files. Library file naming should be grouped by building systems, assemblies, or usage for easy search reference. CSI MasterFormat and UniFormat numbers are used for organizing library files. Refer to Chapter 8 for a detailed discussion on the CSI system. The library file naming format includes three user-defined characters after the MasterFormat or UniFormat numbers, which are followed by a dot and the file extension, such as .dgn, .dwg, or .dxf. An example is 040519XXX.dwg where: ●
040519 is the MasterFormat numbering system for masonry anchorage and reinforcing.
●
XXX is a user identification.
●
.dwg is the file extension.
Similar to library files, text files are notes that can be used on multiple projects, such as commonly used general notes, discipline-specific notes, sheet-specific notes, and standard symbol legends. An example text file name is E-001-D.txt where: ●
E is the equipment category.
●
001 is the page where the note is found.
●
D is services.
●
.txt is the file extension that indicates this is a text file.
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
the sheet sequence number. For example, in the sheet reference number A-124:
Sheet File Names The purpose of a sheet file is to prepare information for sheet setup. The format of the sheet file name should be uniform with the sheet identification format.
SHEET IDENTIFICATION
Designator
General
0
Plans
1
Elevations
2
Sections
3
Large-scale views
4
Details
5
Schedules and diagrams
7
User-defined 3D
● ●
A- represents the architectural discipline. 124 indicates that 12 is the total number of sheets and 4 is the specific sheet, such as sheet 4 of 12.
FILE MANAGEMENT
Sheet names are similar to file names, with the first one or two characters being the discipline designator. A level-one discipline designator uses one character. The list of discipline designators is in the Model File Names section earlier in this chapter. Level-two designators use two characters for specific applications, such as AD for “Architectural Demolition.” The discipline designator is followed by a sheet-type designator, which is one of the following numbers:
Sheet Type
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Computer operating systems provide a tool that allows you to create folders that are like the traditional file folders found in the office file cabinet. The operating system is a master program that controls a computer’s basic functions and allows other programs to access the computer’s resources such as the disk drive, printer, keyboard, and screen. Folders, also known as directories, on your computer allow you to store and organize computer files. Without folders, your hard drive can have thousands of separately named files that would make it difficult or impossible to control. Drawing and other construction document files are saved in project folders and subfolders and are identified by name or number. A subfolder is a folder placed inside another folder and contains files related to the folder in which it resides.
Organizing Drawings and Construction Documents
7 and 8 9
The sheet-type designator is followed by a twocharacter sheet sequence number, for example, 02-12. Three more characters can be added for user-definable content. A sample sheet name is PR2004AD102XXX.dwg, where: ●
PR2004 is the project code.
●
AD is the level-two discipline designator, Architectural Demolition.
●
1 is the sheet type.
●
02XXX is the sheet sequence number and userdefinable characters.
●
.dwg is the AutoCAD file extension (.dgn for a MicroStation file).
The sheet identifier is located in the title block and in any reference to the sheet on a drawing. Coordinating between the sheet name and the sheet identifier are the discipline designator, sheet-type designator, and
Drawing and construction document files must be organized, so you or anyone else in the office can easily find a drawing or document when needed. When organizing files, create a project folder that contains subfolders for each of the projects. The subfolders can be named for the project, client, or job number. The files in each project subfolder can include drawing files, word processing documents, and spreadsheets as needed. This helps keep the entire project together, making it easier to manage. Figure 7-4 shows a file structure for organizing drawing files.
SHEET ORGANIZATION The NCS Sheet Organization module provides standards for consistent sheet format and a location system for drawings on a sheet; it also establishes guidelines for sheet management, note placement, and title block content. Sheet organization standards are important, because they improve communication among industry professionals, improve drawing quality control, make data management easier, and establish consistent sheet organization appearance.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
●
Root Folder C:
●
Projects
Sheet Sizes .dwg files Duplex
Movie Theater
.dwg files
.dwg files RP99-01
.dwg files RP99-02
.dwg files RP99-03
.dwg files RP99-04
Recommended ANSI and ISO sheet sizes were discussed in Chapter 4. The ANSI standard sheet sizes are generally used for inch drawings and the ISO sheet sizes are used for metric drawings. Although the NCS does not recommend specific sheet sizes, U.S. government agencies often require ANSI sheet sizes.
Sheet Layout Sheets are divided into three main areas: drawing area, title block area, and production data area. The drawing area and title block area are required, but the production data area is optional. The drawing and title block areas are surrounded by border lines to outline and separate the areas. Sheet margins are the spaces between the edge of the sheet and the sheet area. The sheet margins vary depending on plotter capabilities, sheet size, and sheet area dimensions. The following are the recommended minimum sheet margins: ●
.dwg files RP00-01
.dwg files
FIGURE 74 A file structure for organizing drawing files.
Sheet Sizes, Borders, and Title Blocks Sheet sizes, borders, and title blocks were discussed and shown in Chapter 4. The standard recommends that title blocks be placed vertically along the right side of the sheet and contain the following compartments:
● ●
● ●
RP00-02
●
Project identification block: Project name and location. Sheet identification block: The sheet identifier.
Designer identification block: The logo or name of the agency or company. Issue block: Revision area or addenda. Management block: Information about the designer, checker, and drafter.
Top and bottom margin: 3/4 inch (20 mm). Left margin: 1 1/2 inch (40 mm). Right margin: 3/4 inch (20 mm).
The Drawing Area Coordinate System The drawing area coordinate system was introduced in Chapter 4 with the discussion about zoning, and again earlier in this chapter. Sheet grid coordinates are like zoning, which is a system of numbers along the top and bottom margins, and letters along the left and right margins, allowing a drawing to read like a road map. A goal of drawing layout is to organize drawing areas in columns and rows. Columns are identified with numerical characters starting with 1 and increasing to the right. Rows are identified with alphabetical characters beginning at the bottom starting with A and increasing toward the top of the sheet. Each drawing module is identified by a letter and a number, such as A1. Each drawing module is identified based on the lower left corner location as shown in Figure 7-5. Notice in Figure 7-5 that the drawing block labeled A1 actually occupies several portions of the coordinate system, but is identified by its location in the lower left corner of the grid. A drawing can have one or more drawing area modules.
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
FIGURE 75 The drawing area coordinate system. Columns are identified with numerical characters starting with 1 and increasing to the right. Rows are identified with alphabetical characters beginning at the bottom starting with A and increasing toward the top of the sheet. Each drawing module is identified by a letter and a number based on the lower left corner location, such as A1. The note block is located in the far right column of the drawing area.
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116
The Note Block The note block is the module or modules within the drawing area where keynotes, general notes, and key plans are located. The note block is reserved for sheets that have notes. The note block is located in the far right column of the drawing area. A key plan block, when used, should always be located in the lowest module of the note block (see Figure 7-5).
SCHEDULES A schedule is a grouping of related features or applications. Schedules format information in rows and columns to clearly provide design information. Schedules can be developed as computer-generated databases or spreadsheets, and can then be incorporated into drawings or specifications. Schedules can also have text and symbols or diagrams as needed. The NCS recommends schedules with uniform location, format, and information content for consistency and ease of use. Chapter 16 provides detailed information about the use of schedules and shows the recommended NCS schedule format options. Additional schedule information is provided where schedules apply to specific content, such as electrical and plumbing.
DRAFTING CONVENTIONS The following content provides specific information about drafting conventions not covered in detail in other chapters. The information provided throughout this textbook relates to the NCS drafting conventions where appropriate. Drafting conventions provide a standard format for graphic and text content on drawings. The NCS drafting conventions include guidelines for consistent placement of drawings, consistent orientation of dimensions related to drawings, line representations, and drawing scales. The NCS considers floor plans as the basis of drawing documentation. Elevations, sections, and details are developed from floor plans. Drawing standards provide uniform guidelines for developing a set of construction drawings of consistent quality and by avoiding duplicate information. Drafting standards cover the drawing grid, north arrow, recommended scales, line types, material representation, and notes. Information covering these standards is provided throughout this text as related to specific applications. The orientation of the main floor plan establishes the orientation of all other floors. Floor plan orientation, the north symbol, and layout practices are described in detail in Chapter 18.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Drawing Scales The NCS defines scale as the ratio of measuring units expressing a proportional relationship between a drawing and the full-size item it represents. CADD drawings are created at full scale and plotted at the selected scale. Proper scale selection determines the readability of the drawing. The selected scale should be large enough to allow the drawing to display its graphic, dimensional, and textual content clearly, without crowding. For example, the detail of a windowsill can be drawn at a 3" = 1'−0" (1:5 metric) scale to clearly identify the features and dimensions. Scale selection is the responsibility of the designer or drafter. The example windowsill detail can be drawn using a smaller scale, if the drawing content is still easy to read and the features are clear. Some drawings have a specifically recommended scale, such as floor plans that are typically drawn using a 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50 metric) scale. Scale can be expressed numerically and graphically. All drawings or views should indicate the numeric scale, such as 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50 metric). All drawings that may be reduced or enlarged should include numeric and graphic scales, because the scale of the reduced or enlarged drawing is no longer accurate. A graphic scale is like a small ruler that represents the numeric scale. The divisions on the graphic scale represent increments of measure that can be easily applied to the drawing. The numeric and graphic scale, when used, is generally placed below the drawing title as shown in Figure 7-6. Drawing scales were introduced in Chapter 3, and they will be discussed in other chapters as related to specific content. Recommended drawing scales are also discussed in chapters where they relate to the application, and may differ from the usual standard. The following combines the standard recommended scales for a variety of drawing types in inches and metric:
MAIN FLOOR PLAN SCALE: 1/4" = 1'–0" NUMERIC SCALE
0
1
2
GRAPHIC SCALE
FIGURE 76 A drawing title with the numeric and graphic scales provided.
5
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
Drawing Type
Inch Scale
Metric Scale
Site plans
1" = 20"
1:200
1" = 30"
1:400
1" = 40"
1:500
1" = 50"
1:600
1" = 60"
1:700
1" = 100"
1:1000
1" = 200"
1:2000
1" = 400"
1:5000
1" = 500"
1:6000
1" = 1000"
1:10000
1" = 2000"
1:20000
1/4" = 1'−0"
1:50
1/8" = 1'−0"
1:100
1/4" = 1'−0"
1:50
1/8" = 1'−0"
1:100
1/4" = 1'−0"
1:50
1/8" = 1'−0"
1:100
1/4" = 1'−0"
1:50
1/8" = 1'−0"
1:100
1/4" = 1'−0"
1:50
1/8" = 1'−0"
1:100
1/2" = 1'−0"
1:25
3/4" = 1'−0"
1:15
1" = 1'−0"
1:10
1 1/2" = 1'−0"
1:8
1" = 1'−0"
1:10
1 1/2" = 1'−0"
1:8
3" = 1'−0"
1:5
Floor plans
Roof plans
Exterior elevations
Interior elevations
Full sections
Wall sections
Stair details
Details
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Thus, the terms line thickness and line weight are used interchangeably in CADD. A large variety of line weights are possible, and the standard recommends the following: Line Thickness Inches Millimeters Use Extra fine
Thin
0.005
0.13
Fine detail.
0.007
0.18
Material patterns, section lines, hatch patterns.
0.010
0.25
Text: 3/32" to 3/8" (2.5 to 10 mm). Dimensioning features, phantom lines, hidden lines, center lines, long break lines, schedule grid lines, background objects.
Medium
0.014
0.35
Object lines, property lines, text for notes and in schedules, terminator marks, door and window elevations, schedule grid accent lines. Wide
0.020
0.50
Line Weights Using a variety of line weights, or thicknesses, helps improve drawing clarity. Certain features can be drawn with thicker lines in an effort to make them stand out.
Text: 7/32" to 3/8" (6 to 10 mm). Major object lines at elevation edges, cutting-plane lines, short break lines, title text, border lines.
Extra wide
0.028
0.70
Text: 1/2" to 1" (13 to 25 mm). Minor title underlines, schedule outlines, large titles, special emphasis object lines, elevation and section grade lines, sheet borders, schedule borders.
2× wide
0.040
1.00
Major title underlines, separating portions of a drawing.
3× wide
0.055
1.40
Border lines, cover sheet lines, artwork.
4× wide
0.079
2.00
Border lines, cover sheet lines.
CADD GRAPHICS Architectural drafting is a graphic language made up of features such as lines, symbols, and text. The NCS standard provides recommendations for these drawing elements.
Text: 5/32" to 3/8" (4 to 10 mm).
Companies can use the range of NCS-recommended line weights to provide accent to their drawings as desired, or select a few of the line weights that correlate best to their desired applications. This textbook recommends the following line weights, which are provided in the architectural templates found on the Student CD:
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Line Thickness Inches Millimeters Use Thin
0.010
0.25
Dimensioning features, phantom lines, hidden lines, center lines, long break lines, schedule grid lines, background objects.
Medium
0.014
0.35
Object lines, text for dimension values, notes and in schedules, terminator marks, door and window elevations, schedule grid accent lines.
Wide
0.020
0.50
Major object lines at elevation edges, cuttingplane lines, short break lines, title text, minor title underlines, border lines.
Extra wide
0.028
0.70
Major title underlines, schedule outlines, large titles, special emphasis object lines, elevation and section grade lines, property lines, sheet borders, schedule borders.
Line Types
Chapter 6 and throughout this textbook as related to specific applications.
Dimensioning Floor plan dimensioning is discussed in detail in Chapter 17. The dimensioning standards and practices for other applications are covered in the chapters where they correlate to the related content. Both feet and inches and metric units are covered and related to the standard.
Terms and Abbreviations The NCS provides a complete listing of terms and abbreviations used in architectural design and drafting, and in the construction industry. The proper terms and abbreviations are provided throughout this text where they apply to specific content. Abbreviations should be used to save time and drawing space.
Notes on Drawings Drawing notes are introduced and covered in Chapter 17, and notes for other applications are covered in the chapters where they correlate to the related content. The types of notes recommended by the standard are:
A variety of line types are included in the standard. The commonly used line types are introduced and shown in Chapter 6, with examples of their applications. Additional line type examples are provided throughout this textbook as related to specific applications.
●
Text Styles and Fonts
Architectural CADD Symbols
Text and text fonts are introduced and discussed in Chapter 6. The NCS recommends using uppercase text that is proportional and nonstylized. The standard suggests a SanSerif or similar font. Basic uniform fonts such as RomanS or Arial are alternative font styles. These fonts are very clear and easy to read, and can eliminate the possible misunderstanding of drawing content. CADD programs have a variety of fonts that comply with NCS recommendations. Although not recommended by the NCS, CADD programs have fonts that closely duplicate the artistic architectural style preferred by some companies. Refer to Chapter 6 for more information. Recommended text heights are also covered in
CADD symbols are discussed and shown where they apply to specific content throughout this textbook. The standard provides a complete range of recommended symbols for all disciplines. The following is a list of the classification of symbols by type:
● ● ●
● ● ● ● ● ●
General notes. General discipline notes. General sheet notes. Keynotes.
Reference symbols. Line symbols. Identity symbols. Object symbols. Material symbols. Text symbols.
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CADD APPLICATION Architectural CADD Symbols INTRODUCTION Many companies have a manager who is responsible for setting up the architectural CADD system and standards. This person and the staff often create custom architectural CADD menus and symbol libraries. The systems generally include a custom screen and cursor, and pull-down, icon, and tablet menus. Every time a new symbol or drawing detail is made, it can be saved for future use. In this way, it is never necessary to draw anything more than once with CADD. For example, if a designer or drafter draws a structural detail, as shown in Figure 7-7, this detail is saved for future use. A copy of the symbol or detail is kept in a symbols manual, and information about it is recorded for future reference. Although every company saves symbols for future use, many companies purchase their own core architectural programs from a software developer. These are complete architectural CADD programs that are ready to use out of the box. These software programs provide commands for the design and layout of walls, symbols, stairs, roofs, structural grids, and plot plan symbols. Specific CADD demonstrations are provided in the CADD Applications features throughout this textbook. AutoCAD, for example, has a powerful drawing information manager called DesignCenter that allows you to effectively reuse and share drawing content. Drawing content is the variety of information in the drawing, such as layers, layouts, line types, text styles, and symbols. For example, you may want to add the same common details, sections, architectural symbols, and drawing layouts to numerous drawings. DesignCenter lets you conveniently access drawing
24" CEDAR SHAKES 1Ø" EXPOSED 1 X 2 TRIM OVER 2 X 8 VERGE BOARD RAFTERS
1'- Ø"
1/2" A-C EXT. T PLLYW'D SOFFIT TYP P. WALL FRAMING
TYPICAL RAKE DETAIL SCALE = 3/4" = 1'- Ø"
FIGURE 77 Drawing a structural detail on CADD and saving it for future use. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD.
content and drag and drop it from one drawing to another. Drag and drop is accomplished by picking an item by positioning your cursor over it, pressing down on the pick button, and holding it down. Then, still holding down the pick button, drag the item to the desired location. Finally, release the pick button to add the information to the new area. A number of sample drawing files are installed with AutoCAD, and are available in the AutoCAD sample folders. The Sample and DesignCenter folders contain numerous different files, each with its own drawing content, such as architectural symbol blocks. The content in each sample file can be accessed in DesignCenter and dragged and dropped into your drawing. Additionally, other symbol libraries can be accessed through the DesignCenter Online Web page using the DesignCenter’s DC Online tab. The DesignCenter Online Web page allows you to download drafting symbols from manufacturers and catalogs online, which gives you access to a large number of architectural symbols. Online refers to communicating with other computers or with devices such as printers or file servers through your modem or network. In addition to DesignCenter, AutoCAD allows you to insert frequently used drawing content from custom storage spaces called tool palettes. Tool palettes are tabbed areas in the Tool Palettes window used to store symbols and hatch patterns for insertion into your drawings. You can create a number of tool palettes with customized settings. For example, you can store symbols with a variety of different scale settings and object properties. Symbols can easily be added to a tool palette from DesignCenter. Most advanced software programs allow drawings to be created as 2D or 3D and switched back and forth at any time. These packages also let you render and animate 3D models. These 2D and 3D characteristics are presented in CADD Applications features throughout this textbook. Architectural software programs typically have standard layer systems based on the American Institute of Architects (AIA) format, which is described later in this chapter.
DRAWING ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLS Symbols are drawn by selecting the desired symbol from a menu. For example, if an exterior door is to be drawn on a floor plan, the door symbol is selected from a menu, the door symbol is dragged onto the screen with the crosshairs, the door location is picked at the desired insertion point with the crosshairs, and the desired
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATION rotation is specified. Each symbol has an established insertion point, as shown in Figure 7-8. Figure 7-9 shows an architectural floor plan, with text and its many lines and symbols, drawn using CADD. Additional CADD symbols are provided throughout this text where they apply to specific content. The U.S. National CAD Standard provides a full range of CADD-recommended symbols.
CREATING YOUR OWN CADD SYMBOLS You can create your own CADD symbols if a customized architectural menu is not available. The symbols that you can make are called blocks, wblocks, or dynamic blocks in AutoCAD. You can design an entire group of symbols
DOOR
WINDOW
WATER CLOSET
TUB
LAVATORY
for inserting into architectural drawings. As you create these symbols, prepare a symbols library or catalog, where each symbol is represented for reference. The symbol catalog should include the symbol name, the insertion point, and other important information about the symbol. Blocks are symbols that can be used within a single drawing. Symbols that can be used in multiple drawings are wblocks. Dynamic blocks are symbols to which parameters and actions are assigned. A parameter is a value that defines custom properties, such as positions, distances, and angles for objects. An action is a definition that controls how the parameters of a dynamic block act. ■
SHOWER
DOUBLE SINK
SPA
THIS SYMBOL DISPLAYS THE INSERTION POINT FIGURE 78 Insertion points for several architectural symbols.
Using layers increases productivity in several ways:
DRAWING ON CADD LAYERS Drawings are made in layers, each perfectly aligned with the others. Each layer contains its own independent information. Layers can be reproduced individually, in combination, or together as one composite drawing. Figure 7-10 shows how layers are used to share information among drawings.
●
Each layer can be assigned a different color, line type, and line weight to correspond to line standards and to help improve clarity.
●
Changes can be made to a layer easily, affecting all objects drawn on the layer.
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
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CADD APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 79 Architectural floor plan with lines, symbols, and text, drawn using CADD. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD.
●
●
●
Selected layers can be turned off or frozen to decrease the amount of information displayed on the screen or to speed screen regeneration. Each layer can be plotted, or printed, in a different color, line type, or line weight, or set not to plot at all. Specific information can be grouped on separate layers. For example, a floor plan can be drawn using specific
floor plan layers, the electrical plan on electrical layers, and the plumbing plan on plumbing layers. ●
Several plot sheets can be created from the same drawing file by controlling layer visibility to separate or combine drawing information. For example, a floor plan and electrical plan can be reproduced together and sent to an electrical contractor for a
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Floor Plan Drawing Consolidated CADD File
Reflected Clg. Plan Drawing
Three word phrase Labels
Labels L to be is used used
Label
Three word phrase Labels L to be is used used
Label
Drawing Plans
Drawing Plans 12"
No measure lft. to rt. 7 ft. 48"
24"
Company name Address of the local arch. office
No measure to rt. 7 ft.
12"
A–Z
No measure to rt. 5 ft.
Reflected Clg. Plan
Walls
Walls
Walls
Doors
Doors
Labels L to be is used used
Label
Three word phrase Labels
Label
Labels L to be is used used
Drawing Plans
No measure to rt. 7 ft.
Label
Label
Drawing Plans
No measure lft. to rt. 7 ft. 48"
24"
Company name Address of the local arch. office
12"
A–Z
Floor Plan Notes, Dimensions
24"
Company name Address of the local arch. office
No measure lft. to rt. 7 ft. 48" No measure to rt. 7 ft.
A–Z
Floor Plan Notes, Dimensions
Three word phrase
Three word phrase
Labels L to be is used used
Labels L to be is used used Drawing Plans
12"
No reason to measure this part 24"
A–Z
Ceiling Grid Three word phrase
Labels
Someones name
No measure lft. to rt. 5 ft. 48"
Floor Plan
Ceiling Grid
12"
No reason to measure this part 24"
Someones name
Drawing Plans
No measure lft. to rt. 5 ft. 48" No measure to rt. 5 ft.
12"
A–Z
Clg. Plan Notes, Dimensions
No reason to measure this part 24"
Someones name
No measure lft. to rt. 5 ft. 48" No measure to rt. 5 ft.
A–Z
Clg. Plan Notes, Dimensions
FIGURE 710 An example of using layers to share information.
bid. The floor plan and plumbing plan can be reproduced together and sent to a plumbing contractor.
CADD Layer Names AIA recommends the use of layer names that contain two to four parts. Refer to the AIA Standard, CAD Layer Guidelines, or the U.S. National CAD Standard for complete information. The layer name format is organized as a series of ordered groupings. This organization allows you to select from a variety of options for naming layers according to the desired level of detailed information you want to provide. Layer names consist of separate groups of information, each separated by dashes (–). The AIA CAD Layer Guidelines and the NCS provide detailed lists of abbreviations, and codes for use in layer
names. Layer abbreviations and codes are designed to be easily recognized and remembered as the intended application. Because the NCS allows you to select from a variety of format options for creating layer names, it is recommended that you select the desired options for a project, and then apply it consistently for all layer names on that project. The NCS-recommended layering system has a discipline designator, a major group, a minor group, and a status field of information in the layer names.
The Discipline Designator The discipline designator is a two-character field identified by two letters followed by a hyphen. The first letter is called the level-one discipline designator, and the second letter is an optional modifier called the level-two discipline designator. There are many
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
discipline designator code combinations identified in the standards. These are the common level-one discipline designator code letters:
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There are many level-two discipline designators identified in Appendix A of the AIA CAD Layer Guidelines and the NCS. Each level-one discipline designator has a variety of level-two options. The following are the leveltwo options for the A (architectural) discipline:
Discipline
Description
A
Architectural
B
Geotechnical
C
Civil
D
Process
E
Electrical
F
Fire protection
G
General
H
Hazardous materials
I
Interiors
L
Landscape
M
Mechanical
O
Operations
The Major and Minor Groups
P
Plumbing
Q
Equipment
R
Resource
S
Structural
T
Telecommunications
V
Survey and mapping
X
Other disciplines
Z
Contractor and shop drawings
The major group is a four-character field that identifies a major building system such as doors, windows, walls, ceilings, furniture, or equipment. In the recommended format, the major group is followed by a hyphen, and then the minor group is used. An optional four-character minor group field is used to further define the major groups. A minor group can be added to the layer name for further definition. Layers might have minor groups such as NOTE, SYMB for symbols, DIMS for dimensions, or TITLB for title block information. An example is AWALL-FULL, which refers to Architectural (A), Wall, Full-height (FULL). A second minor group can be used for further layer description. An example using a second minor group is, A-WALL-FULL TEXT, where the features mean Architectural (A), Wall, Full-height (FULL), Text. Minor group code abbreviations are logically grouped in the standard with specific major groups. However, any minor group can be used with any major group, but the definition of the minor group must remain unchanged. This provides you with flexibility, because any reasonable combination of the major and minor groups is permitted.
The use of discipline designators can depend on the office where the drawings are created. For example, if an architectural office creates all of the drawings for a complete set of working drawings, then the A discipline designator can be used to indicate the origin of all drawings as architectural. A more likely example is where the architectural office creates the base drawings, such as the floor plan designs, and then sends the base drawings to consultants who create the discipline-specific drawings such as electrical, plumbing, and mechanical. The consulting offices then use the discipline designators that relate to their drawing disciplines, such as E for electrical, P for plumbing, and M for mechanical. This practice can also be used in the architectural office that creates all the drawings for the complete set of working drawings. In this case the office correlates each layer name with the discipline that the layer identifies, such as E for electrical, P for plumbing, and M for mechanical. The layer names identified throughout this textbook are coordinated by discipline as in the last two examples.
Designator
Description
AD
Architectural Demolition
AE
Architectural Elements
AF
Architectural Finishes
AG
Architectural Graphics
AI
Architectural Interiors
AJ
User-Defined
AK
User-Defined
AS
Architectural Site
The Status Field The status field is an optional single-character field that identifies the information on the layer according to the status of the work or the construction phase of the project. These status entries are for special project requirements that relate to new and existing construction in remodeling projects. The following are the status field codes:
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Code
Description
Discipline Designator
D
Existing to demolish
E
Existing to remain
F
Future work
M
Items to be moved
N
New work
T
Temporary work
X
Not in contract
1–9
Phase numbers
Major Group
A
A
-
W
A
L
L
Discipline Designator – Level 1 Discipline Designator – Level 2 Major Group
B
A
D
-
W
A
L
L
FIGURE 711 Examples of the U.S. National CAD Standard layer name format. (A) The required discipline designator and major group fields. (B) The required level-one discipline designator and major group fields, with the optional level-two discipline designator.
Combining the Layer Name Elements Figure 7-11 shows examples of the U.S. National CAD Standard layer name format with the discipline designator and major group. Figure 7-12 shows examples of the U.S. National CAD Standard layer name format from discipline designator to status code. The recommended NCS layer names are too numerous to display in this textbook. However, each chapter provides recommended NCS layer names that relate to the layers used in the chapter content.
architect often creates the building design and has others design the electrical, plumbing, and mechanical systems. The mechanical system encompasses heating, ventilating, and air conditioning. To make this system work effectively, the architect prepares a base drawing, which represents the floor plan and its bearing walls and partitions as shown in Figure 7-13. The file is sent to the interior design department or consultant to create the layers containing the nonbearing facility layout, which can include the room layout with fixtures and appliances as shown in Figure 7-14. The CADD drawing files then go to the plumbing, electrical, and mechanical contractors
Using CADD Layers A big advantage of CADD is the ability to send drawing files on disk or through the Internet or an intranet to different subcontractors involved in a project. This is important in commercial applications because the
Discipline Designator Major Group Minor Group
A
A
-
W
A
L
L
-
F
U
L
L
Discipline Designator Major Group
B
A
-
W
A
L
L
-
Minor Group F
U
Discipline Designator – Level 2 Major Group
C
A
-
W
A
L
L
-
F
L
L
-
Second Minor Group T
E
Minor Group
U
L
L
-
X
T
Second Minor Group Status Code T
E
X
T
-
N
FIGURE 712 Examples of the U.S. National CAD Standard layer name format. (A) The discipline designator, major group, and minor group fields. (B) The discipline designator, major group, minor group, and second minor group fields. (C) The discipline designator, major group, minor group, second minor group, and the status code.
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
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FIGURE 713 Base layer sheet for exterior and support structure is unchanged through the project. Courtesy Structureform.
for design of their related construction drawings. Figure 7-15 shows the plumbing layer for the building used in this example. A composite drawing of all layers is shown in Figure 7-16. Each layer is set up in its own color and is displayed in color on the computer screen.
CADD PLOTTING GUIDELINES A drawing created in CADD exists in two forms: soft copy and hard copy. Soft copy is the computer software version of the drawing that you see on the computer
screen, or the actual data file. Hard copy, as introduced earlier, is a physical drawing produced on paper or some other medium by a printer or plotter.
Scale Factors A scale factor is a numeric value that is used in the proper scaling of text, and dimension objects, such as dimension text and arrowheads or slashes, and the size of the model limits. When drawing in CADD, the objects
FIGURE 714 Interior design of nonbearing partitions may be changed as desired using layers. Courtesy Structureform.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
co 3/4"
10 GAL ELEC W.H. co 1/2"
co 1/2"
1/2"
2"
1/2"
3"
1/2"
co
2"vent 1/2"
2"
1/2"
1/2"
1/2"
w
w
s
w
s
s s
1/2" 1/2"
w
co
2"
w 3"
1" 2"
co
1/2" 3/4"
1/4"
1/2" 10 GAL ELEC W.H.
s
3" 3/4"
co
1/4" 2" 1/2" 1/2"
co 1/2" 1/2"
= EXIST. 4" C.I. SEWER LINE
s
w
= NEW C.I. SEWER LINE = EXIST. 1" WATER LINE
w
= NEW WATER LINE = NEW 10 GALLON ELECTRIC WATER HEATER OVER RESTROOM ON PLATFORM. WATER HEATER TO BE AMERICAN APPLIANCE 4 GSM 10 OR EQUAL AS LISTED IN THE DIRECTORY OF CERTIFIED WATER HEATERS BY THE CALIFORNIA ENERGY COMMISSION (NOTE: PROVIDE 3/4" + COPPER P+T VALVE DISCHARGE LINE TO OUTSIDE FOR EACH WATER HEATER).
FIGURE 715 Plumbing layer. Courtesy Structureform.
co
10 GAL ELEC W.H. co 2"vent 1/2"f 1/2"
co
w
3"f
co
1/2"f
1/2"f
2"f
1/2"f
1/2"f s
w
w
s
s 1/2"f w
co
s
1/2"f
3"f 3/4"f
3"f
1"f 2"f
co
1/2" 3/4"f
10 GAL ELEC W.H.
1/2"f
co 1/2"f 1/2"
w
co
w
1/4" s
2"f
1/4"f 2"f 1/2" 1/2"f
= EXIST. 4"f C.I. SEWER LINE
w
= NEW C.I. SEWER LINE = EXIST. 1"f WATER LINE = NEW WATER LINE
1/2"
1/2"
2"f 3/4"f
1/2"
s
FIGURE 716 Composite of base layer, interior design layer, and overlays. Courtesy Structureform.
= NEW 10 GALLON ELECTRIC WATER HEATER OVER RESTROOM ON PLATFORM. WATER HEATER TO BE AMERICAN APPLIANCE 4 GSM 10 OR EQUAL AS LISTED IN THE DIRECTORY OF CERTIFIED WATER HEATERS BY THE CALIFORNIA ENERGY COMMISSION (NOTE: PROVIDE 3/4" + COPPER P+T VALVE DISCHARGE LINE TO OUTSIDE FOR EACH WATER HEATER).
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
are always full scale. For example, a 50'−0" × 30'−0" (15,240 × 9,144 mm) building is drawn 50' × 30'. After the building is drawn, the notes and other text are added. If you use standard text height, then the text needs to be plotted 1/8" (3 mm) high on the drawing. If 1/8" text is placed on the 50' × 30' building, the text on the computer screen and on the plot is too small to read. This is where the scale factor becomes important. The scale factor of a drawing is something that you need to plan in advance and is part of your CADD template. As discussed earlier, a template is a file containing standard settings such as layer names, dimension and text styles, and line types applied to the drawing. To make the text readable on the plotted paper, the desired plotted text height of 1/8" is multiplied by the scale factor, to determine the height of the text when in the drawing. The scale factor is also used to scale dimension features. To determine the scale factor, first decide on the drawing scale for the plotted drawing. The scale factor is then determined by dividing the plotted units into the drawing units. The following formula demonstrates this concept: Plotted Units = Drawing Units Plotted Units Drawing Units = Scale Factor An architectural drawing to be plotted at 1/4" = 1'−0" has a scale factor calculated like this: 1/4" = 1'−0" .25" = 12" 12/.25" = 48" The scale factor is 48. Once the scale factor has been determined, calculate the actual text height to be used in the CADD program. If the desired text height is 1/8", multiply the plotted text height by the scale factor. So, for the 1/4" = 1'−0" scale drawing, the text height is: 1/8" × 48" = 6" 1/8" high text on the 1/4" = 1'−0" scale plotted drawing is drawn at 6" high
Model and Sheet Layout Earlier in the standards discussion, you learned that CADD files are created as models and sheets. AutoCAD, for example, refers to the place where drawing objects are created as model space, and sheet space is called layout space. Layout space is an area used to lay out the sheet of paper to be plotted. Everything you draw in CADD is drawn full scale in model space. When you enter layout (sheet) space, a real-size sheet of paper
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is placed over the top of the model space drawing. Border lines, title blocks, and notes are also found on the real-size paper layout space. The model space drawings and the layout space sheet are put together for plotting. In Figure 7-17, the drawing in model space is combined with the layout space sheet. When setting up the drawing to be plotted, multiple models can be arranged on the layout space sheet. For example, a foundation sheet can have the foundation plan at one scale and separate details at another scale as shown in Figure 7-18.
Getting Ready to Plot When the layout is prepared as desired, the sheet can be set up for plotting. During this process you can select plotter settings, pen settings, and paper size. Each layout can have a unique sheet setup. For example, you can create two layouts for a floor plan. One layout can be assigned a 36 × 24" sheet size and another can be assigned an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet size. This allows you to maximize the plotting possibilities with the same drawing. Your CADD program has a sheet or page setup dialog box or menu where plotter configurations can be selected. Plotters are displayed on the list of devices if you use the Microsoft Windows operating system where printers and plotters are configured. After the plotter is selected, you can specify the desired pen settings. To do this, a plot style table can be assigned to the layout. A plot style table is a pen configuration that allows you to have complete control over how your drawing appears when plotted. Two common plot style tables are the color table and the style table. Color tables assign different pen values to the colors in the CADD program. For example, if the color red is assigned a heavyweight pen that plots with a black color, then any objects with a red color are plotted with heavy black lines. Style tables are names with pen settings that can be assigned to layers or objects. For example, a style table can include a named style called Walls, which has been assigned a heavy black line. The Walls pen style can then be assigned to the Wall layer in the drawing. Anything that is drawn on the Wall layer then plots with a heavy black line. After the desired plot style table is set up, you are ready to send the drawing to the plotter. Standard applications of line weights and colors were discussed earlier in this chapter. Line weights are also covered in Chapter 6 and throughout this book where they apply to specific drawing features. Additionally, the NCS provides information and settings for black, white, and gray plotting, line weight plotting, and color plotting. There are likely more settings required for your specific CADD program, such as AutoCAD
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Architectural Drafting and Design
MODEL SPACE DRAWING SCALED IN LAYOUT SPACE VIEWPORT VIEWPORT CUT INTO PAPER
DRAWING IN MODEL SPACE (FULL SCALE)
REAL-SIZE PAPER IN LAYOUT SPACE
FIGURE 717 The drawing in model space being combined with the layout space sheet.
FIGURE 718 A foundation sheet with the foundation plan at one scale and separate details at another scale ready to be plotted.
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
or MicroStation. Carefully review the users’ guide, Help files, or an in-depth textbook correlated to your CADD software for detailed information.
Plotting to a File It is also possible to plot your drawing to an electronic file. This is often done to allow your drawing to be published to the Internet and viewed through a Web browser. The file type for this application is DWF, which stands for drawing Web format. One advantage of plotting files to a DWF format is that the drawings
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can be shared by another person who does not physically have the CADD program to view the drawings. For others to view your CADD drawings in this manner, they need a DWF Viewer program. This is a free viewer available from the Autodesk Web site. No major programs, such as Microsoft Word, can open a DWF file. Other advantages are that drawings cannot be edited, and this provides a great means for archiving projects, because the actual drawing files do not have to be opened and viewed from the CADD program. The DWF files are also considerably smaller in size and can be easily sent through e-mail.
CADD APPLICATIONS This Is What the Future Looks Like: Web-Based Architectural Collaboration Architecture is beginning to see the development of technologies that allow teamwork over the World Wide Web (WWW). This technology has major implications for the evolution of the practice. Architecture is a cooperative process involving multiple disciplines such as structural, mechanical, and electrical engineering; interior design; and facility management. One of the most time-consuming and risky aspects of the practice is document management. Hundreds of drawings and documents can be issued during the design process. All of these documents can be in various states of completion. The coordination of this information is a big task. Web-based coordination uses the power of advanced database management systems together with the Internet to simplify and streamline document management and team communications. These products allow architects, designers, drafters, product suppliers, building contractors, and owners to communicate and coordinate throughout the entire project regardless of where each team member is located. This changing technology also has applications for the way design projects are produced. Web-based coordination allows for the increased use of outsourcing. Outsourcing means sending parts of a project out to subcontractors for completion. Outsourcing to multiple resources requires consistency in procedure and similarity in tools. This interactive teamwork of the
future requires clear measurement of progress. The collaboration tools now being developed give architects a higher level of communication and control over the production process. E-mail allows tracking throughout the project. The outsourcing model of the future is based on defined tasks rather than hours worked. These separate tasks are based on interrelated logical steps rather than drawing sheets. Drawings move forward on the basis of their relationship to other drawings and the available information. The development of drawings and documents is treated as stepped tasks or slices of time. Outsource personnel are independent contractors responsible for managing their own time rather than punching a clock. These professional subcontractors are found all over the world, and they are connected through the Web. Through this huge network of potential workers, it is possible to find professionals who produce high-quality drawings economically and on schedule. Web-based collaboration also affects the relationship of the architect and the client. Because the work product is visible on the Internet, the owner can view progress at any time. Progress on the documents is obvious, and the owner can involve more people in reviewing the work. This model of practice improves the owner’s involvement in the process and increases the sense of overall teamwork. ■
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GOING GREEN Sustainable Design Opportunity
INTRODUCTION According to the U.S. Green Building Council (http:// www.documents.dgs.ca.gov/dgs/pio/facts/LA%20 workshop/climate.pdf), buildings alone account for a sizable amount of global greenhouse gas emissions, representing 39% of CO2 emissions in the United States. This is primarily due to energy use, as buildings consume 76% of all power plant–generated electricity, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (http:// www.architecture2030.org/current_situation/building_ sector.html). Increasingly, voluntary goals, such as the AIA 2030 Challenge to achieve carbon-neutral buildings by 2030, are becoming regulatory requirements like the U.S. federal law that requires a 55% fossil fuel reduction by 2010 and carbon neutrality by 2030 for all new federal buildings. Improving building energy performance by employing sustainable design principles presents an enormous opportunity for innovative Architectural, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) practices. Building professionals can dramatically reduce the negative environmental impact of new and renovated buildings.
SUSTAINABLE DESIGN IN PRACTICE The world is changing, the economy is changing, and architectural practice is changing. Designing and delivering more sustainable projects can be complex. It requires close coordination across different project stages, from design through construction and operation. Many firms are looking for the best way to integrate building information modeling (BIM) technology with sustainable design and analysis tools. BIM is an integrated workflow built on coordinated, reliable information about a project from design through construction and into operations. With BIM, the information required for sustainable design analysis, code compliance, and certification becomes available as a by-product of the standard design process, making the sustainable design process inherently more efficient and cost effective.
ANALYSIS FOR SUSTAINABLE DESIGN Everything in the built environment is sustained by energy, water, and materials. Design decisions made early in the process can deliver significant results when it comes to the efficient use of these vital resources. Analysis tools for sustainable design enable significant impact on the efficient use of energy, water, and materials in a building design. These tools: • Empower users to be experts quickly. • Consider the whole building system. • Deliver powerful analysis from immense stores of data.
• Interpret results in a meaningful way. • Enable iteration for improvement.
Sustainable Energy Use Buildings consume energy throughout their life cycle— from the energy used to create the building materials, to the heating, cooling, lighting, and ventilation systems used during building operation, and the equipment used by the occupants for movement, such as elevators; and various processes, such as business equipment. From a sustainable building perspective, once a project is complete it should remain in use for a very long time. Think centuries. Given this time frame, the operational energy of most buildings will be many times greater than that required for the initial construction or renovations. Therefore, to achieve sustainable energy use, a building’s total operating energy must first be minimized and then rely on renewable forms of energy to meet its total operating requirements.
Sustainable Water Use Similar to energy, a building’s initial construction and renovations use a much smaller portion of water compared to its operational use over its life. The water uses in the building include requirements for occupant potable and nonpotable needs, heat, ventilation, airconditioning (HVAC) systems, and other processes. To achieve sustainable water use in a building, its use must first be minimized, then seek reclaimed and renewable sources. The primary renewable source for water is rainwater catchment, either natural as in surface water or groundwater or human collected using cisterns.
Sustainable Material Use The construction of a building or other structure requires a significant amount of raw and manufactured materials, such as wood, metal, plastics and minerals for the structure and finishes, wiring, duct work, and other system components, including fittings, finishes, equipment, various adhesives, gypsum board, glass, concrete, and masonry products. The vast majority of the materials used are nonrenewable, so from the start, the project design should have a very long life in mind. The next step is to select materials that are appropriate for the development and benefit its energy and water use minimization goals. If reliable data are available, identify sources for materials that have low manufacture, supply, and transportation energy and emissions requirements, and minimum toxic by-products. Architects and engineers can use digital design information to analyze and understand how their projects perform before they are built. Developing and evaluating multiple alternatives at the same time
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Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued) allows easy comparison and informs better sustainable design decisions. BIM is core to Autodesk’s sustainable design approach for building performance analysis and simulation. For example, with Autodesk Green Building Studio Web service, architects and designers can easily perform wholebuilding energy, water, and carbon-emission analysis, and evaluate the energy profiles and carbon footprints of various building designs. Autodesk Ecotect software measures how the environment will affect building performance. The 3D conceptual analysis tools within Ecotect allow architects and engineers to simulate and analyze, in the conceptual and design phases, how factors such as solar, shading, lighting, and airflow will affect how a building design will operate and perform. Figure 7-19 shows shading analysis at work, and Figure 7-20 shows the result of airflow analysis. For most building projects, decisions made in the first few weeks of the design end up having the greatest impact on a building’s performance. The location of the building on the site, its basic form and orientation, its internal layout and external materials selection, its exterior
openings—all of these factors are set very early in the design process. As soon as the layout of a building’s walls, windows, roofs, floors, and interior partitions (elements that define a building’s thermal zones) are established, a model is ready for whole-building analyses. A computable Autodesk Revit design model is a great fit for the analyses needed.
ANALYZING A BUILDING DESIGN The Autodesk Green Building Studio Web service delivers the ability to exchange and use information between building designs and advanced energy analysis software programs such as DOE-2, allowing analyses of a building model to be performed by architects, from within their own design environment, directly over the Internet. DOE-2 is an energy modeling program that provides different approaches for defining the building geometry. This streamlines the entire analysis process and allows architects to get immediate feedback on their design alternatives—making green design more efficient and cost effective.
FIGURE 719 An example of shading analysis at work. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc.
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GOING GREEN Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued)
FIGURE 720 The result of airflow analysis. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc.
Based on the building’s size, type, and location, which drive electricity and water usage costs, the Green Building Studio Web service determines the appropriate material, construction, system, and equipment defaults by using regional building standards and codes to make intelligent assumptions. Using simple drop-down menus, shown in Figure 7-21, architects can quickly change any of these settings to define specific aspects of their design: a different building orientation, a lower U-value window glazing, or a 4-pipe fan coil HVAC system, for example. The Web service uses precise hourly weather data, as well as historical rain data, that are accurate to within 9 miles of any given building site. It also uses emission data for every electric power plant in the United States and includes the broad range of variables needed to assess carbon neutrality. The software determines a building’s carbon emissions and the architect views the output in a Web browser, including the estimated energy and cost summaries as well as the building’s carbon-neutral potential. Architects can then explore design alternatives
by updating the settings used by the Web service and rerunning the analysis, and/or revising the building model itself in Revit and then rerunning the analysis. The output also: • • • • •
Summarizes water usage and costs. Summarizes electricity and fuel costs. Calculates an Energy Star score. Estimates photovoltaic and wind energy potential. Calculates points toward Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) daylighting credit. • Estimates natural ventilation potential. The Autodesk Green Building Studio report is very easy to understand, giving architects the actionable information they need to make greener design decisions. Autodesk Ecotect software, built specifically by architects that focuses on the building design process, is an analysis tool that allows designers to simulate a wide array of environmental factors—such as shadows, shading, solar, lighting, thermal, ventilation, and acoustics—with a highly visual and interactive display
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Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued)
FIGURE 721 Using the Green Building Studio drop-down menus, architects can quickly change any of these settings to define specific aspects of their design: a different building orientation, a lower U-value window glazing, or a 4-pipe fan coil HVAC system. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc.
that presents analytical results directly within the context of the building model. This visual feedback allows the software to communicate complex concepts and extensive datasets, and helps designers engage with comprehensive performance issues early in the schematic phase when designs can be changed easily. Revit-based design models can be imported directly into Autodesk Ecotect for analysis throughout the design process. At the start of the design process, early-stage massing models can be used in combination with the site analysis functionality to determine the optimal location, shape, and orientation of a building design based on fundamental environmental factors such as daylight, overshadowing, solar access, and visual impact. As the conceptual design evolves, whole-building energy solutions, such as Green Building Studio, can be used to benchmark its energy use and recommend areas of potential savings. Once these fundamental design parameters have been established, Ecotect can be used again to rearrange rooms and zones, to size and shape individual openings, to design custom shading devices or to choose specific materials based on environmental factors such as daylight availability, glare protection, outside views, and acoustic comfort. Autodesk Ecotect provides the ability to act on feedback to the designer in the form of visual and interactive displays, which are more than just charts and graphs. The analysis results are presented directly within the context of the model display: shadow animations resulting from shadow casting analysis, surface mapped information such as incident solar radiation, and
spatial volume-related renderings such as daylight or thermal comfort distribution in a room. Surface mapped information is data, such as lighting levels, shading, or shadowing, mapped over building surfaces. Incident solar radiation is the amount of energy falling on a flat surface. It is not affected in any way by the surface properties of materials or by any internal refractive effects; it is concerned only with the radiation actually striking the surface. Spatial volume-related renderings are 3D visualizations that help to identify the spatial relationships between different zones. Figure 7-22 shows incident solar radiation analysis at work. This type of visual feedback lets designers more easily understand and interact with analysis data, often in real time. For instance, a designer can rotate a view of solar radiation looking for variations over each surface, or watch an animated sequence of solar rays to see how sunlight interacts with a specially designed light-shelf at different times of the year, as shown in Figure 7-23. During conceptual design, Autodesk Ecotect can be used for a variety of early analyses. For example, the designer can perform overshadowing, solar access, and wind-flow analyses to repeat on a form and orientation that maximizes building performance without infringing on the rights-to-light of neighboring structures. As the design progresses and the elements that define a building’s thermal zones are established (the layout of the walls, windows, roofs, floors, and interior partitions), the model can be used for room-based calculations such as average daylight factors, reverberation times, and portions of the floor area with direct views outside.
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GOING GREEN Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued)
FIGURE 722 Incident solar radiation analysis at work. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc.
FIGURE 723 An animated sequence of solar rays to see how sunlight interacts with a specially designed light-shelf at different times of the year. Courtesy Autodesk, Inc.
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GOING GREEN Sustainable Design Opportunity (Continued) SUMMARY The consistent, computable data that come from a BIM workflow, combined with the breadth of performance analysis and meaningful feedback of Autodesk Green Building Studio and Autodesk
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to computer-aided design and drafting and keep current with trends in the industry. Address www.aia.org www.autodesk.com www.bentley.com www.digitalcanal.com www.graphisoft.com www.sketchup.com
Ecotect, provide a complete approach that architects can use to simulate and analyze designs. This feedback, especially during early conceptual design, is critical for architects to optimize the performance of their building designs.
Company, Product, or Service American Institute of Architects Architectural software Architectural software Architectural software Architectural software Architectural software
www.softplan.com www.csinet.org www.nahb.org
Architectural software Construction Specifications Institute National Association of Home Builders
www.buildingsmartalliance.org/ncs
National Institute of Building Sciences Initiative https://cadbim.usace.army.mil Order a CD of the A/E/C CADD Standard from the CADD/GIS Technology Center www.nationalcadstandard.org U.S. National CAD Standard ordering information
Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 7 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 7–4 Describe how drawing layers can be prepared on a computer graphics system. Question 7–5 Describe three ways architectural design functions are improved with a CADD system. Question 7–6 Describe three potential disadvantages of CADD. Question 7–7 What does WWW stand for? Question 7–8 Define outsourcing.
Question 7–1 What does the abbreviation CADD mean?
Question 7–9 Define virtual reality.
Question 7–2 Identify three factors that influence an increase in productivity with CADD.
Question 7–10 Explain the difference between an intranet and the Internet.
Question 7–3 Identify five tasks, not related to drafting, that can be performed by a computer.
Question 7–11 Discuss the similarities and difference between walk-through and fly-through.
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Question 7–12 What is a scale factor?
r. Windows
Question 7–13 Give a sample U.S. National CAD Standard file name and label its parts.
s. Attribute
Question 7–14 Give a sample U.S. National CAD Standard sheet name and label its parts.
u. Optical mouse
Question 7–15 Define template. Question 7–16 Calculate the scale factor for an architectural drawing to be plotted at 1/4" = 1'−0", and determine the height of 1/8" plotted text at this scale. Question 7–17 Define model space and layout space.
t. Font v. Facsimile w. Resolution x. Text y. Layers z. Backup
Question 7–18 Give a sample U.S. National CAD Standard layer name, providing the maximum number of fields, and label its parts.
Question CD7–5 Name the most common type of injury that can develop at a poorly designed workstation.
Question 7–19 Define drawing content.
Question CD7–6 Identify at least three factors related to positive work habits that can contribute to a healthy environment.
Question 7–20 Define sheet grid coordinate.
OPTIONAL QUESTIONS
Question CD7–7 Explain the difference between a cursor and cross hairs.
Refer to the student CD: The CADD Workstation to answer the following questions:
Question CD7–8 Briefly discuss each of the following data storage devices:
Question CD7–1 Define microcomputer in general terms. Question CD7–2 Define ergonomics. Question CD7–3 Describe the following components of a computer-aided drafting workstation:
a. Disk b. Hard drive c. Optical disk d. High-capacity disk drive
a. Computer b. Monitor
PROBLEMS
c. Digitizer d. Plotter
Question CD7–4 Define the following CADD terms: a. Hardware b. Software c. Program d. Commands e. Soft copy f. Default value
DIRECTIONS: Write a report of approximately 250 words on one or more of the following topics. Use illustrations to accompany your report or reports.
Problem 7–1 Productivity. Problem 7–2 Ergonomics. Problem 7–3 CADD workstation. Problem 7–4 Customizing your own architectural symbols.
g. Disk drive
Problem 7–5 Architectural program by a software developer.
h. Storage
Problem 7–6 CADD layers.
i. Floppy disk
Problem 7–7 Digitizing existing drawings.
j. Menu
Problem 7–8 Scanning existing drawings.
k. Hard copy
Problem 7–9 Virtual building.
l. File
Problem 7–10 Virtual reality.
m. Network
Problem 7–11 Repetitive strain injury.
n. PC
Problem 7–12 Ergonomic workstation.
o. Puck
Problem 7–13 Positive work habits.
p. Mouse
Problem 7–14 Data storage devices.
q. Stylus
Problem 7–15 Computer networks.
Chapter 7: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture
Problem 7–16 Mobile computers. Problem 7–17 Design coordination. Problem 7–18 Web-based architectural collaboration. Problem 7–19 The U.S. National CAD Standard.
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Problem 7–22 U.S. National CAD Standard: Drawing set organization. Problem 7–23 U.S. National CAD Standard: Sheet organization.
Problem 7–20 Plotting a drawing.
Problem 7–24 U.S. National CAD Standard: Drafting conventions.
Problem 7–21 U.S. National CAD Standard: AIA CAD Layer naming guidelines.
Problem 7–25 U.S. National CAD Standard: Symbols.
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SECTION 2
Residential Design
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CHAPTER 8
Construction Specifications I
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Building plans, including all of the elements that make up a complete set of residential or commercial drawings, contain general and specific information about construction. It is often very difficult to provide all of the required information on a set of plans. Schedules, as discussed in detail in Chapter 16, provide specific information about items and applications such as doors, windows, appliances, fixtures, hardware, finishes, and structural components. Information that cannot be provided clearly or completely on the drawing or in schedules is provided in construction specifications. Specifications are an integral part of any set of plans. Specifications are part of the construction and contract documents consisting of written technical descriptions of materials, equipment, construction systems, standards, and work quality.
Construction specifications often follow the guidelines of the individual architect or engineering firm where the architectural design and drawings are created. Specifications can be as basic as a description of materials created for a construction loan, or can be as indepth as MasterFormat, a detailed specifications format published by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC).
RESIDENTIAL DESCRIPTION OF MATERIALS Most lenders have a format for providing residential construction specifications. The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC) have a specification format titled Description of Materials. This specifications form is used widely, as is or with revisions, by most residential construction lenders. The same form is used by the Farm Home Administration (FmHA) and by the Veterans Administration (VA). A completed FHA Description of Materials form for a typical structure is found on the Student CD and shown in Figure 8-1. The sample completed form is for the model home used in the step-by-step instructions found throughout this textbook. A blank FHA Description of
Materials form is also found on the Student CD. You can also access this form online by doing an Internet search using the words FHA Description of Materials. The plans, construction specifications, and building contract together become the legal documents for the construction project. These documents should be prepared very carefully in cooperation with the architect, client, and contractor. Any variation from these documents should be approved by all three parties. When brand names are used, a clause specifying “or equivalent” can be added. This means that another brand that is equivalent in value and quality to the one specified can be substituted with the client or construction supervisor’s approval.
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS Specifications are written documents that describe in detail the requirements for products, materials, and workmanship upon which the construction project is based. A specification is an exact statement describing the characteristics of a particular aspect of the project. Specifications communicate information about required products to be used in construction, as a basis for competitive construction bidding, and to measure compliance with contracts. Proprietary product specifications, method specifications, and endresult specifications are types of performance specifications commonly used in the construction industry. Proprietary product specifications provide specific product names and models for desired applications. When this type of specification is used, a named product can be followed by “or equivalent,” which allows for equal alternatives and helps promote competition in providing the product. Proprietary product specifications can limit competition, increase cost, and decrease flexibility. Method specifications outline material selection and the construction operation process to be followed in providing construction materials and practices. Method specifications provide the final desired structure, such as the concrete thickness and strength, or the lumber dimensions, spacing, species, 141
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FIGURE 81 Completed FHA Description of Materials form for the model home used throughout this textbook.
Chapter 8: Construction Specifications
FIGURE 81 Continued
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FIGURE 81 Continued
Chapter 8: Construction Specifications
FIGURE 81 Continued
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and grade. Method specifications allow for more flexibility, but the owner is responsible for the performance. End-result specifications describe the final characteristics of the products and methods used in construction, and the contractor can use a desired method for meeting the requirements. End-result specifications often provide minimum and maximum as a range of acceptable completion. For example, slab gravel under concrete might be specified between 4" and 8" thick with specific compaction given. End-result specifications can use statistical methods to estimate overall material quality based on a limited number of random samples. End-result specifications place construction quality on the contractor, by defining the desired final product. This gives the contractor freedom in achieving that final product, which can lead to innovation, efficiency, and lower costs.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR RESIDENTIAL DESIGN Minimum construction specifications, as established by local building officials, vary from one location to the next, and their contents are dependent on specific local requirements, climate, codes used, and the extent of coverage. You should verify the requirements for a construction project in your location, because they can be different from those given in this discussion. Refer to Chapter 9 for specific information related to national building codes. For more information about the general classifications of construction specifications, see the Student CD, TYPICAL MINIMUM CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS FOR RESIDENTIAL DESIGN.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR COMMERCIAL CONSTRUCTION Specifications for commercial construction projects are often more complex and comprehensive than the documents for residential construction. Commercial project specifications can provide very detailed instructions for each phase of construction. Specifications can establish time schedules for the completion of the project. Also, in certain situations, the specifications include inspections in conjunction with or in addition to those required by a local jurisdiction. Construction specifications often follow the guidelines of the individual architect or engineering firm, although a common format has been established. Published by CSI and CSC, the common format is called MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for the Construction Industry. The information used in this textbook
is from MasterFormat and UniFormat and is published by CSI and CSC; it is used with permission from CSI, 2008. For more information on organizations involved with construction specifications, please contact: Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314 800-689-2900; 703-684-0300 Web site: www.csinet.org Construction Specifications Canada (CSC) Web site: www.csc-dcc.ca The MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for the Construction Industry is a master list of numbers and subject titles for organizing information about construction work results, requirements, products, and activities into a standard sequence. Construction projects use many different delivery methods, products, and installation methods. Successful completion of projects requires effective communication among the people involved. Information retrieval is nearly impossible without a standard filing system familiar to each user. Using MasterFormat numbers and titles facilitates standard filing and retrieval schemes throughout the construction industry. MasterFormat numbers and titles are suitable for use in project manuals, for organizing cost data, for referencing keynotes on drawings, for filing product information and other technical data, for identifying drawing objects, and for presenting construction market data. Each MasterFormat number and title defines a “section,” arranged in “levels” depending on the depth of coverage. The broadest collections of related construction products and activities are level-one titles, otherwise known as “divisions.” Each division in the MasterFormat 2004 Edition: Numbers and Titles is made up of level-two, level-three, and occasionally level-four numbers and titles assigned by MasterFormat, each of which defines a gradually more detailed area of work results to be specified. Work results are traditional construction practices that typically result from an application of skills to construction products or resources. The MasterFormat 2004 Edition numbers are established using a six-digit system. The following is an example showing how the list of numbers and titles is used: Division 04 Masonry The first two numbers, 04 in this example, represent the division and are also called level one. The complete list of divisions is given in the next section of this textbook.
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SPECIFICATIONS GROUP 04 05 19.26 Division / Level one—Masonry Level two—Common Work Results for Masonry Level three—Masonry Anchorage and Reinforcing Level four—Masonry Reinforcing Bars
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS SUBGROUP Division 01 General Requirements FACILITY CONSTRUCTION SUBGROUP Division 02 Existing Conditions
FIGURE 82 Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) MasterFormat titles and numbering system.
Division 03 Concrete Division 04 Masonry Division 05 Metals
04 05 Common Work Results for Masonry The second pair of numbers, 05 in this example, is referred to as level two. In this case, Common Work Results for Masonry is a subcategory of Masonry. 04 05 19 Masonry Anchorage and Reinforcing The third pair of numbers, 19 in this example, is called level three. In this case, Masonry Anchorage and Reinforcing is a subcategory of Common Work Results for Masonry. 04 05 19.26 Masonry Reinforcing Bars Occasionally, level-four numbers are provided, such as .26 in this example. When level-four numbers are used, they follow level-three numbers and are separated from level-three numbers with a dot. Levelfour numbers are used when the amount of detail requires an additional level of classification. In this case, Masonry Reinforcing Bars is a subcategory of Masonry Anchorage and Reinforcing. An example of the six-digit numbering system with levels one through four is shown in Figure 8-2.
Division 06 Wood, Plastics, and Composites Division 07 Thermal and Moisture Protection Division 08 Openings Division 09 Finishes Division 10 Specialties Division 11 Equipment Division 12 Furnishings Division 13 Special Construction Division 14 Conveying Equipment Divisions 15 through 19 Reserved FACILITY SERVICES SUBGROUP Division 20 Reserved Division 21 Fire Suppression Division 22 Plumbing Division 23 Heating, Ventilating, and AirConditioning (HVAC) Division 24 Reserved Division 25 Integrated Automation
MasterFormat Division Numbers and Titles The MasterFormat has two main groups: (1) Procurement and Contracting Requirements, and (2) Specifications. Procurement and Contracting Requirements are referred to as series zero because they begin with a 00 level-one numbering system prefix. These documents are not specifications. They establish relationships, processes, and responsibilities for projects. The Specifications group contains the construction specifications subgroups and their related divisions. Some divisions are identified as reserved for future additions or specific user applications. The following is an outline of the divisions found in the two groups: PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS GROUP Division 00 Procurement and Contracting Requirements
Division 26 Electrical Division 27 Communications Division 28 Electronic Safety and Security Division 29 Reserved SITE AND INFRASTRUCTURE SUBGROUP Division 30 Reserved Division 31 Earthwork Division 32 Exterior Improvements Division 33 Utilities Division 34 Transportation Division 35 Waterway and Marine Construction Divisions 36 through 39 Reserved PROCESS EQUIPMENT SUBGROUP Division 40 Process Integration Division 41 Material Processing and Handling Equipment
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GOING GREEN GreenFormat
The Construction Specifications Institute has established GreenFormat: The Construction Product Sustainability Information Reporting Guide. GreenFormat is a new CSI format allowing manufacturers to accurately report the sustainability measuring properties of their products, and providing designers, contractors, and building operators with basic information to help meet “green” requirements. When using GreenFormat, construction product manufacturers complete an online GreenFormat reporting questionnaire that collects the sustainable information about their product. Data from the questionnaires are displayed in a standardized style designed to ease sustainable design decision making. Access to the GreenFormat report and the resulting data is provided through http://www.greenformat.com.
Division 42 Process Heating, Cooling, and Drying Equipment Division 43 Process Gas and Liquid Handling, Purification, and Storage Equipment Division 44 Pollution Control Equipment Division 45 Industry-Specific Manufacturing Equipment Divisions 46 and 47 Reserved Division 48 Electrical Power Generation Division 49 Reserved
The UniFormat Uniform Classification System UniFormat is a uniform classification system for organizing preliminary construction information into a standard order or sequence on the basis of functional elements. Functional elements, also referred to as systems or assemblies, are common major components in buildings that perform a known function regardless of the design specification, construction method, or materials used. The use of UniFormat can provide consistent comparable data across an entire building life cycle. Building life cycle refers to the observation and examination of a building over the course of its entire life. The life cycle of a building considers everything about the building from design,
Those using the Web site can print reports on specific products based on their questions within the database. Sustainable information reported in GreenFormat is grouped into categories, each containing individual topics and questions about product sustainability. The categories are organized with topics more likely to be important to design decisions first. This flexible structure can adapt to anticipated changes in the industry. As sustainability issues evolve, new topics and questions are added in the appropriate category, and existing topics and questions that become obsolete or change are dropped if necessary. The structure can be applied to all construction products and product categories. Refer to www.greenformat.com to see the categories and their contents and to view additional information about GreenFormat.
commissioning, operation, and decommissioning. The purpose of UniFormat is to achieve consistency in economic evaluation of projects; enhance reporting of design program information; and promote consistency in filing information for facility management, drawing details, and construction market data. UniFormat classifies information into nine level-one categories, which can be used to arrange brief project descriptions and preliminary cost information. The first level-one category is Project Description, which includes information about the project, through cost estimating and funding. The last eight level-one categories are referred to as Construction Systems and Assemblies, which include construction applications and practices, such as foundation, roofing, exteriors, electrical, and plumbing. Each of the Construction Systems and Assembly categories is identified with a letter and title as follows: A—Substructure B—Shell C—Interiors D—Services E—Equipment and Finishings F—Special Construction and Demolition G—Building Site Work Z—General
Chapter 8: Construction Specifications
UniFormat has a numbering system that divides each level-one category into level-two, level-three, level-four, and level-five titles with set alphanumeric labels. The following is an example showing the first three levels of the UniFormat alphanumeric system for a specific category: Level 1: D Services Level 2: D20 Plumbing Level 3: D2010 Plumbing Fixtures
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS Documents is a general term that refers to all drawings and written information related to a project. Construction documents are drawings and written specifications prepared and assembled by architects and engineers for communicating the design of the project and administering the construction contract. The two major groups of construction documents are bidding requirements and contract documents. Bidding requirements are used to attract bidders and explain the procedures to be used for submitting bids. Bidding requirements are the construction documents issued to bidders for the purpose of providing construction bids. Contract documents are the legal requirements that become part of the construction contract. The construction drawings and specifications are found within the contract documents.
Construction Drawings As you learn concepts and develop skills covered throughout this textbook, you will be creating construction drawings. Drawings show lines and text for the purpose of providing information about the project. These drawings are a principal part of the set of construction documents. The individual drawings needed depend on the specific requirements of the construction project. The drawings for a small residential addition might fit on one or two pages, while the drawings for a commercial building might be on a hundred or more pages. Drawings vary in how much information they show, depending on the use, the project phase, and the desired representation. In addition to plan views, elevations, sections and details, drawings can have schedules that have a detailed list of components, items, or parts to be furnished in the project. You will create all of these drawings and features as you progress through this textbook.
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Coordinating Drawings and Specifications A complete set of construction documents contains drawings and specifications. These combined drawings and specifications are often referred to as plans. One person or a unified team of people should coordinate drawings and specifications. The elements used in the drawings and specifications, such as symbols, abbreviations, and terminology, should be standardized to prevent confusion. After the construction documents are prepared in a professional manner, the construction coordination must be conducted with effective communication. The drawings should locate and identify materials and should include the assembly of components, dimensions, details, and diagrams. The drawings have notes, but notes should be used only to identify, not to describe, a material or part. Overly detailed notes can obscure the drawing. Detailed written information should be placed in the specifications. Symbols used in the set of drawings should be represented as an approved standard and should be shown and labeled in a legend for reference purposes. Drawings do not need to be cross-referenced to the specifications. Drawings and specifications are combined to become the complete set of construction documents, which means that you do not have to provide notes that refer to the specifications when identifying an item on the drawings. The specifications are used to define the specific quality and type of material, equipment, and installation. The drawings provide quantity, capacity, location, and general written information in the form of notes, whereas the specifications clearly define items such as minimum requirements, physical properties, chemical composition, and installation procedures. Schedules are used on drawings to help simplify communication by providing certain items in a table format. The schedules can be placed on the drawings or in the specifications. The information found in schedules or on the drawings should not repeat the information found in the specifications. The drawings, schedules, and specifications must be carefully coordinated so the information is consistent. The MasterFormat divisions and sublevels can be used as a checklist to ensure that every required specification is included. MasterFormat is an effective system for indexing specifications for large projects, and can be used for light commercial or residential construction.
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to construction specification procedures and keep current with trends in the industry. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.csc-dcc.ca www.csinet.org
www.greenformat.com www.nahb.org www.hud.gov
GreenFormat report and the resulting data National Association of Home Builders U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Company, Product, or Service Construction Specifications Canada Construction Specifications Institute
See CD for more information
Construction Specifications Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 8 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 8–1 Give a general definition of construction specifications. Question 8–2 Identify the basic differences between residential and commercial specifications. Question 8–3 List four factors that influence the specific requirements of minimum residential construction specifications established by local building officials. Question 8–4 Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference, TYPICAL MINIMUM CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS FOR RESIDENTIAL DESIGN. Using general terms, list the typical minimum construction requirements for the following categories:
f. Roof g. Chimney and fireplace h. Thermal insulation and heating i. Fire warning system
A partial example would be as follows: 4. d. Framing 1. lumber grades 2. beams bearing area Question 8–5 Briefly describe the format established by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) for construction specifications. Question 8–6 Define work results. Question 8–7 Define functional elements. Question 8–8 Define systems or assemblies. Question 8–9 Define building life cycle. Question 8–10 Define construction documents. Question 8–11 Define bidding requirements. Question 8–12 Define contract documents.
a. Room dimensions b. Light and ventilation c. Foundation d. Framing e. Stairways
PROBLEMS Problem 8–1 Obtain a blank copy of the FHA Description of Materials form from your instructor, from the Student CD, or by doing an Internet search
Chapter 8: Construction Specifications
using the words FHA Description of Materials. Make a copy or print of the Description of Materials form and keep it in a notebook or folder for reference. Alternately, if you access the Description of Materials form from the Internet, you can save a copy in a file with the same name on your computer. As you progress through this textbook, problems are assigned that allow you to complete a set of residential working drawings. Access and complete the Description of Materials form as you complete each drawing in the set of architectural plans for the residence you select or are assigned as a continuing problem. If you create more than one set of plans, fill out a separate Description of Materials form for each set of working drawings. Problem 8–2 Use a word processor to write an approximately 150-word report covering the difference
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between proprietary product specifications, method specifications, and end-result specifications. Problem 8–3 Use a word processor to write an approximately 500-word report covering the Construction Specifications Institute and Construction Specifications Canada MasterFormat: Master List of Numbers and Titles for the Construction Industry. Include detailed information about the purpose and function of this specifications format. Explain and show an example of the numbering system. List the MasterFormat division numbers and titles. Problem 8–4 Use a word processor to write an approximately 250-word report covering construction documents, construction drawings, and coordinating drawings and specifications.
CHAPTER 9
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Architects and designers must deal with a multitude of guidelines and required codes that will affect home design. Guidelines have traditionally come from home-owner associations, but many designers and builders are now attempting to follow green building guidelines established by the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and the National Green Building Standard (NGBS) published by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) and the International Code Council (ICC). For most municipalities, these guidelines are just that, but some areas have adopted these guidelines into law. Building codes are required laws that are intended to protect the public by establishing minimum standards of safety. Although landowners often assume that they can build whatever they want because they own the property, building codes are intended to protect everyone, including the neighbors, visitors and potential future owners. Consider the stories you have seen in the national news media about structures that have been damaged by high winds, raging floodwaters, hurricanes, tornadoes, mudslides, earthquakes, and fire. Although they do not make the national news, hundreds of other structures become uninhabitable because of inadequate foundation design, failed members from poor design, mold, rot, or termite infestation. Building codes are designed to protect consumers by providing minimum guidelines for construction and inspection of a structure to prevent fire, structural collapse, and general deterioration. Many other aspects of building construction, such as electrical wiring, heating equipment, and sanitary facilities, represent a potential hazard to occupants if not designed and constructed or installed properly. Building codes are enforced as a safeguard against these risks.
the home in Figure 9-1 are designed to meet certain objectives such as protecting the health of the occupants; using energy, water, and other resources more efficiently; and reducing the overall impact to the environment. The biggest leaders in residential green building are LEED and the NGBS-ICC 700. NOTE: Although both groups have produced “guidelines,”
many municipalities are starting to move beyond the recommendation stage and are incorporating portions of these guidelines into their design and building requirements. It is expected that with the 2012 edition of the ICC codes, the NGBS-ICC 700 will move from guidelines to law. Verify with the municipality that will govern each specific building project to determine if specific aspects of a green guideline are required. The ICC is also planning to develop a green building code for buildings that are not covered by the NGBS-ICC 700. This code will most likely be the International Green Construction Code (IGCC).
GREEN BUILDING GUIDELINES Green building is the incorporation of environmental considerations and resources into every step of the construction process. A green or environmentally friendly building is a structure that is designed, built, operated, renovated, and recycled in an ecological and resource-efficient manner. Green buildings similar to 152
FIGURE 91 An environmentally friendly home is designed to blend with its environment; protect the health of the occupants; use energy, water, and other resources efficiently; and reduce the overall impact to the environment. This sunroom provides a comfortable living area while serving as a passive solar collector. Courtesy BOWA Builders, Inc. Greg Hadley, photographer.
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
LEED Green Building Guidelines The LEED Green Building Rating System is a leader in environmentally friendly design and construction. Incorporating the MasterFormat numbering system introduced in Chapter 1 and discussed in detail in Chapter 8, the guidelines are designed to help improve the quality of buildings and to minimize their impact on the environment. The rating system, developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), is intended to blend the structure with the environment, reduce operating costs, and aid in marketing the structure for resale. LEED certification requires that the project meet the fundamentals, and score a minimum number of points in a LEED rating system. LEED certification acknowledges four levels of certification, including:
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7. Landscape and exterior design to reduce heat
islands—see divisions 6, 7, 10, and 32. 8. Light pollution reduction—see divisions 1 and 26.
Water Efficiency Three credits are available related to the use, and reduction of the use of water in the structure and at the building site. Chapter 20 of this text will explore the use of water in a residence. LEED credits for water efficiency include: ● ● ●
Water-efficient landscaping—see divisions 7, 22, 32, 33, and 44. Innovative wastewater technologies—see divisions 22, 32, 33, and 34. Water use reduction—see divisions 11, 22, and 23.
1. Certified: 26–32 points.
Indoor Environmental Quality
2. Silver: 33–38 points.
Eight credits are available related to the interior air quality of the structure. Chapter 12 and Chapter 21 will address these areas of home design. LEED credits for indoor environmental quality include:
3. Gold: 39–51 points. 4. Platinum: 52 points or more.
Key areas of the construction process and their corresponding Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) MasterFormat 2004 division number (see Chapter 8 for a listing of CSI divisions) are covered by the LEED rating system. These areas include sustainable sites, water efficiency, indoor environmental quality, energy and atmosphere, material and resources, and innovation and the design process.
1. Carbon dioxide monitoring—see divisions 1, 23,
Sustainable Sites
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This area of the credits is applied to efficient design and construction as it relates to the construction site. Although the standard is intended for residential design, many credits in this area are best applied to multifamily design. Section 3 of this text will further explore environmental considerations of site design. Eight credits are available related to sustainable sites, including: 1. Site selection—see CSI division 32. 2. Urban redevelopment—no CSI divisions are cur3. 4. 5. 6.
rently available for this area. Brownfield redevelopment—no CSI divisions are currently available for this area. Alternative transportation—see division 12. Reduced site disturbance—see divisions 31 and 32. Stormwater management—see divisions 7, 10, 22, 31, 32, and 33.
2. 3. 4.
6. 7. 8.
and 28. Increase ventilation effectiveness—see divisions 9, 11, 12, and 23. Construction interior air quality management plan— see divisions 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 12, 23, and 28. Low-emitting materials—see divisions 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, and 23. Indoor chemical and pollutant source control—see divisions 4, 7, 10, 12, 14, 22, and 23. Controllability of systems—see divisions 8, 23, and 26. Thermal comforts—see divisions 8, 23, and 28. Daylight and views—see divisions 7, 8, 10, 12, and 26.
Energy and Atmosphere Six credits are available related to the use of energy to control the atmosphere within a residence. Chapter 12 and Chapter 21 will address this area of home design. LEED credits for energy and atmosphere include: 1. Optimize energy performance—see divisions 1, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 22, 23, 26, 28, 33, 35, 42, and 44. 2. Renewable energy—see divisions 1, 7, 8, 22, 23, and 26.
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3. Additional commissioning—see divisions 1, 23,
and 26. 4. Elimination of hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and halons—see divisions 13, 22, 23, and 26. 5. Measurement and verification—see divisions 1, 23, 26, and 27. 6. Green power—no CSI divisions are currently available for this area.
Material and Resources Seven credits are available that are related to the materials and products used to build and sustain a structure. Sections 6, 7, 8, and 9 will address these areas of home design. LEED credits include: 1. Building reuse—see divisions 3 and 9. 2. Construction waste management—see divisions 2, 9, 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
and 26. Resource reuse—see divisions 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, and 32. Recycle content—see divisions 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 23, 32, 33, 34, and 35. Local and regional materials—no CSI divisions are currently specified for this area. Rapidly renewable materials—see divisions 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 23, 31, and 32. Certified wood—see divisions 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12.
Innovation and the Design Process Two credits are available that are related to the design phase of a residence. Section 1 addresses these areas of home design. LEED credits for innovation and design include:
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lot design, preparation, and development; resource efficiency; energy efficiency; water efficiency; indoor environmental quality; operation, maintenance, and building owner education.
Site Design and Development This area of the guidelines describes considerations for resource efficient site design and development practices that can improve the energy efficiency of a structure. Section 3 of this textbook will further explore environmental considerations of site design.
Lot Design, Preparation, and Development This area of the standards describes considerations for lot selection, lot design, lot construction, and innovative practices that can be incorporated in the design of the driveway and parking areas, and heat island mitigation. Section 3 of this textbook will further explore environmental considerations of lot design.
Resource Efficiency Creating resource efficiency includes the consideration of materials to build and furnish the home to maximize the function and optimize the use of natural resources. Areas covered include: quality of construction materials and waste, enhanced durability and reduced maintenance, reduced and salvaged materials, recycled-content building materials, recycled construction waste, renewable materials, resource-efficient materials, indigenous materials, life-cycle analysis, and innovative practices. Sections 6, 7, 8, and 9 of this text will further address the use of energy-efficient materials like those in Figure 9-2 for residential projects.
1. Innovation in design—no CSI divisions are currently
specified for this area. 2. About LEED—no CSI divisions are currently specified for this area.
National Green Building Standards-ICC 700 In collaboration with the NAHB, the ICC has developed the National Green Building Standard ICC 700. The guidelines allow the designer to use a wholehouse systems approach throughout the design process to increase the home’s performance and efficiency. Seven key sections are included in the NGBSICC 700 guidelines: Site design and development;
FIGURE 92 The use of energy-efficient materials such as insulated concrete forms, structurally insulated panels (SIPs), and engineered products can increase the energy efficiency of a home. Courtesy PolySteel Insulating Concrete Forms.
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
Energy Efficiency This area of the standard describes considerations for helping the residents of the home reduce their dependence on fossil-fuel energy sources. Attention is not only given to the operation of the home, but credits are also earned throughout the construction of the home, and for the materials that are used to construct the home. Major elements of the standard include minimum energy efficiency requirements, performance path, prescriptive path, additional practices, and innovative practices. Sections 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 of this text book will further address the use of energy-efficient materials.
Water Efficiency This portion of the standard is aimed at reducing water consumption both inside and outside the home as well as the incorporation of innovative practices. The plumbing products and appliances that are specified can help reduce water use inside the home. The selection of native and drought-resistant landscaping, the collection of rainwater for irrigation, as well as the reuse of gray water from the house can reduce or eliminate water use outside the home. Chapter 20 of this textbook will explore the use of water in a residence.
Indoor Environmental Quality According to NAHB research, the indoor air quality of a home is often the number one green consideration of home buyers. Inside air quality is affected by the mechanical equipment used to heat and cool the home and by the materials that are used to construct and furnish the home. The NGBS-ICC 700 awards points for the categories of pollutant source control, pollutant control, moisture management, and innovative practices. Chapter 12 and Chapter 21 of this text will address these areas of home design.
Operation, Maintenance, and Building Owner Education Designing or building an energy-efficient home is futile if you can not convince the home owner to invest in the home, or to maintain key features of the home once it is constructed. This credit is earned by providing the building owners with the operation and maintenance manuals as well as the construction, operation, and maintenance manuals to properly operate their home.
Levels of Certification Similar to the LEED system that allows credits to be accumulated based on the areas of the guidelines that are used, the NGBS-ICC 700 provides for four levels of performance to be achieved, based on
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how the green building categories are incorporated into the plan. The basic level of achievement is the Bronze level. A Bronze designation indicates that the home features items that demonstrate that the design pays attention to a project’s environmental impact. The Silver, Gold, and Emerald levels of certification include additional criteria that place increasingly greater emphasis on green practices.
NATIONAL BUILDING CODES The regulation of buildings can be traced through recorded history for more than 4000 years. In early America, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson encouraged building regulations as minimum standards for health and safety. Building codes are now used throughout most of the United States to regulate issues related to fire, structural ability, health, security, and energy conservation. Architects, engineers, interior designers, and contractors also rely on building codes to help regulate the use of new materials and technology. Model code organizations oversee accredited laboratories and testing facilities in order to develop safe, cost-effective, timely construction methods. In addition to the testing facilities of each major code, several major material suppliers have their own testing facilities. A list of Web sites for several major testing labs, quality assurance, and inspection agencies is available at the end of the chapter in the Additional Resources section. Although most areas of the country understand the benefits of regulating construction, each city, county, or state has the authority to adopt building codes in accordance with their state laws. While some areas do not have adopted codes, most areas do. This system of codes is based on the government system of the United States where regulation at the state and local level is considered very important. Accordingly, many jurisdictions that adopt building codes, adopt them with local amendments. As a result, even though the majority of the United States uses the same base model building code, the users should be aware of local variations because of the local amendments to the base code.
National Code Options Most states have adopted the building codes published by the International Code Council (ICC), but a small number of jurisdictions might still be using one of the legacy codes of the ICC. The current editions of the ICC codes are the 2009 editions of which the IRC could possibly incorporate 30% more energy efficiency in its 2012
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edition which is slated for publication in late 2011. The ICC legacy codes consist of: ●
●
●
Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc. The 1999 BOCA National Building Code was the last edition published. Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. The 1999 SBC (Standard Building Code) was the last edition published. International Conference of Building Officials. The 1997 UBC (Uniform Building Code) was the last edition published.
It is important to remember that each municipality and state has the right to adopt all, or a portion, of the indicated code. Although all of the legacy code organizations of BOCA, ICBO and SBCCI have merged to form the ICC and one code, the IRC and other family of its codes, the legacy codes, NBC, SBC and UBC, are still available and could be used by some municipalities.
International Code Family In 1972, in order to serve designers better, BOCA, SBCCI, and ICBO joined forces to form the Council of American Building Officials (CABO) to create a national residential code. While some jurisdictions adopted this code, most decided to continue their prior codes of NBC, SBC and UBC and not adopt the CABO One and Two Family Dwelling Code. In 1994, in another attempt to create a national code, the International Code Council (ICC) was formed. The goal of the ICC is to develop a single set of comprehensive, coordinated national codes that would eliminate disparities among the previous three major legacy codes. The ICC has published the 2009 editions of the International Building Code (IBC) and the International Residential Code (IRC). These codes are referred to as the model codes. The IBC in general covers all buildings except detached single family, two-family and townhouses three stories or less in height. The IRC covers detached single family, two-family and townhouses three stories or less in height to ensure quality residential construction. Each of these codes has combined certain features, best or most consistent requirements, of the BOCA, NBC, SBC, and the UBC into one base code. Most municipalities are now using these codes, or their amended version of this code, to govern residential construction. The ICC also published the International Energy Conservation Code with portions that apply to both residential and commercial construction. Verify the building code that governs your area with your local building department prior to starting construction drawings.
Architectural Drafting and Design
NOTE: Information in this text is based on the 2009 International Residential Code (IRC) for One- and TwoFamily Dwellings published by the ICC. Listings of metric sizes in this chapter are shown as soft metric conversions in order to be consistent with the IRC listings. Visit the International Code Council Web site to verify the release of the codes that govern your area. You will need to verify with your local building department to determine if the new edition has been adopted.
In addition to these national codes, the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the Federal Housing Authority (FHA), and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) each publish guidelines for minimum property standards for accessibility for the disabled some provisions of which might apply to certain residential construction.
Choosing the Right Code The architect and engineer are responsible for checking with the local jurisdictions and determining which code will be used during the design process and for ensuring that the structure complies with all required codes. Although the drafter is not expected to make decisions regarding the codes as they affect the design, drafters are expected to know the content of the codes and how they affect construction. Each of the major codes is divided into similar sections that specify regulations covering these areas: ● ● ● ● ●
Fire and Life Safety Structural Mechanical Electrical Plumbing
The Fire and Life Safety and Structural codes have the largest effect on the design and construction of a residence. The effect of the codes on residential construction will be discussed throughout this textbook. Chapter 42 examines the effects of the IBC on commercial construction.
BASIC DESIGN CRITERIA FOR BUILDING PLANNING Building codes influence both the design and construction methods. The influence of codes on construction methods will be discussed later in this chapter and throughout Sections 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 of this textbook. Drafters and designers need to be familiar with several areas in order to meet minimum design standards,
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
including basic design criteria. Areas of the code such as climatic and geographical design criteria will affect the materials used to resist forces such as wind, snow, and earthquakes. These forces and how they affect a residence will be discussed in Chapter 29. Keep in mind that the following discussion is only an introduction to building codes. As a professional drafter or designer you will need to become familiar with, and constantly use, the building code that governs your area. It’s also important as you start to explore building codes that you understand the common markings that are used by the ICC to identify items in the text including: ● ●
●
Black text represents information that has remained the same from the previous edition of the code. Black text with a bold vertical line in the margin beside the text represents information that is new or has been revised from the last edition to the current edition. A bold black arrow placed in the margin between lines of text, or between paragraphs, represents where information has been removed from the current code.
Another key element to remember as you start to explore building codes is that this textbook is based on the International Residential Code. Many municipalities will take a base code such as the 2009 IRC, amend it to meet specific local issues, and then publish the state version of the code in the following year. Although the ICC is making efforts to include more options in the base codes, read the title of your code carefully to verify you’re working with the correct code.
Habitable and Nonhabitable Space The space within a home or dwelling unit is subdivided into habitable and nonhabitable space. A room is considered habitable space when it is used for sleeping, living, cooking, or dining purposes. Nonhabitable spaces include closets, pantries, bath or toilet rooms, hallways, utility rooms, storage spaces, garages, darkrooms, and other similar spaces.
Location on the Property For building code purposes, the exterior walls of residential building cannot be located within 5' (1524 mm) of the property lines unless special provisions are met. Keep in mind that zoning regulations may further restrict the location of the structure to the property lines. Typically, an exterior wall that is built within 5' (1524 mm) of the property line must be
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made from materials that will resist a fire for 1-hour wall tested in accordance with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E119 or UL 263. This is known as a 1-hour fire rating. Although only 1/2" (12.7 mm) gypsum board is required on each side of the wall in certain wall assemblies, using 5/8" (16 mm) type X gypsum board on each side of the wall is a common method of achieving a 1-hour wall. Many municipalities require any walls built into the minimum side yard to be of 1-hour construction. Openings such as doors or windows are not allowed in a wall with a fire separation distance less than 36" (914 mm). Projections such as a roof or chimney cannot project more than 24" (610 mm) from the line used to determine the fire separation distance. The one exception to this rule is that detached garages located within 24" (610 mm) of the property line may have a 4" (102 mm) eave projection.
Egress and Accessibility Requirements for a Residence The major subjects to be considered for egress are the path of egress, egress doors, stairs and emergency escape. Accessibility for the disabled is not required for buildings constructed under the IRC unless there are four or more dwelling units in a single structure, in which case chapter 11 of the International Building Code (IBC) for R-3 Occupancies must be complied with.
Means of Egress Residential projects are required to provide a continuous and unobstructed path of vertical and horizontal egress travel from all portions of the dwelling to the exterior of the dwelling at the required egress door without requiring travel through a garage. Egress Doors. Each dwelling unit, as a residence is referred to in the codes, must have a minimum of one door that is at least 32" (813 mm) wide measured between the face of the door when open 90° (1.57 rad) and the stop. The minimum clear height of the door opening must be 78" (1981 mm) from the top of the threshold to the bottom of the stop. The designer can determine all other door sizes based on personal preferences or the client’s needs. NOTE: The IRC may only require the main entry door to be 32" (813 mm) wide, but common practice is to provide a 36" (900 mm) or larger door to provide an inviting entrance. Remember building codes dictate minimum sizes, not desirable or practical sizes. Chapter 16 provides guidelines for determining door sizes throughout a residence.
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A floor or landing must be provided on each side of an exterior door. The IRC requires the landing to be a maximum distance of 1 1/2" (38 mm) from the top of door threshold for required egress doors. The landing for an exterior door can be within 7 3/4" (196 mm) from the top of the door threshold provided that the door does not swing over the landing. The minimum landing width must be equal to or greater than the width of the door at the landing, and the landing length must be a minimum of 36" (914 mm) measured in the direction of travel. The landing is required on each side of the required egress door. Interior landings are to be level. Exterior landings may have a maximum slope of 1/4" / 12" (2% slope). This often becomes a design problem when trying to place a door near a stairway. Figure 9-3 shows some common door and landing problems and their solutions.
DOOR MAY NOT SWING OVER STAIR
DN DN
DN DN
Emergency Egress Openings. The term egress is used in the IRC to specify areas of access or exits. It is used in reference to doors, windows, and hallways. Windows are a major consideration in designing exits. Emergency egress is required in basements, habitable attics, and every sleeping room. For basements that contain more than one sleeping room, emergency egress and rescue openings are required to be in each sleeping room. Escape may be made through a door or window that opens directly into a public street, alley, yard, or exit court. The emergency escape must be operable from the inside without the use of any keys or tools. The sill of all emergency escape bedroom windows must be within 44" (1118 mm) of the floor. Windows used for emergency egress must have a minimum net clear area of 5.7 sq ft (0.530 m2). Grade floor opening size can be reduced to 5.0 sq ft (0.465 m2). The net clear opening area must have a minimum width of 20" (508 mm) and a minimum height of 24" (610 mm). All net clear openings must be obtainable during normal operation of the window. This opening gives occupants in each sleeping area a method of escape in case of a fire (see Figure 9-4). Emergency escape windows with a finished sill height below the surrounding ground elevation must have a window well that allows the window to be fully opened. The window well is required to have a clear opening of 9 sq ft (0.9 m2) with a minimum horizontal projection and width of 36" (914 mm) when the window is fully open. If the window well has a depth of more than 44" (1118 mm), the well must have an approved permanently fixed ladder or stair that can be accessed when the window is fully opened. The ladder or stair cannot encroach more than 6" (152 mm) into the required well dimensions and must have rungs that have a minimum inside width of 12" (305 mm).
THIS LANDING MUST BE AS LONG AS THE STAIR IS WIDE
STEPS AT A DOORWAY MUST BE WITHIN 7 3/4" OF FLOOR
FIGURE 93 Placement of doors near stairs. Landings by doors in group R-3 occupancies must be within 1 1/2" (38 mm) of the door threshold. When the door does not swing over the landing, the landing can be a maximum of 7 3/4" (197 mm) below the threshold.
The rungs must be a minimum of 3" (76 mm) from the wall and must be spaced at a maximum distance of 18" (457 mm) on center (O.C.) vertically for the full height of the window well. Emergency escape windows are allowed to be installed under decks provided the emergency escape window can be fully opened and provides a path not less than 36" (914 mm) in height to a yard or court.
Halls Hallways must be a minimum of 36" (914 mm) wide. This is very rarely a design consideration because hallways are often laid out to be 42" (1067 mm) wide or
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20 " O CLE MIN PE A . R NI NG
RUN 10" (254 mm) RISE 7 3/4" (196 mm) RUN 11" (279 mm) RISE 7 3/4" (196 mm)
RUN 10 1/2" (265 mm) RISE 7 1/2" (191 mm)
24" (610 mm) CLEAR OPENING SILL HEIGHT
44" (1118 mm) MAX.
6'-8" (2030 mm) TYPICAL
AREA OF ESCAPE MUST EQUAL 5.7 SQ FT (0.53 mm3) CLEAR OPENING MIN.
20" MIN. (508 mm) CLEAR MIN. WHEN OPEN. FINISHED FLOOR
FIGURE 94 Minimum emergency escape window opening sizes. A means of escape is required for all sleeping units including those located in a basement or habitable attic.
wider at the main and service entries to create an open feeling and to enhance accessibility from room to room.
Stairs Stairs often can dictate the layout of an entire structure. Because of their importance in the design process, stairs must be considered early in the design stage. For a complete description of stair construction see Chapter 39. Minimum code requirements for stairs can be seen in Figure 9-5. Following the minimum standards would result in stairs that are extremely steep, very narrow, and have very little room for foot
INTERNATIONAL RESIDENTIAL CODE MINIMUM STAIR GUIDELINES Width (minimum)
*36"
*914 mm
Rise (maximum)
7 3/4"
196 mm
Tread (minimum)
10"
254 mm
*Minimum clear width above the permitted handrail and below the required headroom height. Below the handrail, 31.5" (787 mm) minimum width with handrail on one side, 27" (698 mm) minimum width with handrail on each side.
FIGURE 95 Basic design values for stairs.
FIGURE 96 Stair layouts comparing minimum run and maximum rise based on common practice.
placement. Good design practice would provide stairs with a width of 36" to 42" (914 to 1067 mm) for ease of movement. A common tread depth is 10" to 10 1/2" (254 to 267 mm) with a rise of about 7 1/2" (191 mm). Figure 9-6 shows the difference between the minimum stair layout and some common alternatives. Within any flight of stairs, the largest step run cannot exceed the smallest step by 3/8" (9.5 mm). The difference between the largest and smallest rise cannot exceed 3/8" (9.5 mm). Headroom over stairs must also be considered as the residence is being designed. Stairs are required to have 6'–8" (2032 mm) minimum headroom. Headroom of 6'–6" (1981 mm) is allowed for spiral stairs. This headroom can have a great effect on wall placement on the upper floor over the stairwell. Figure 9–7 shows some alternatives in wall placement around stairs. Winding stairs may be used if a minimum width of 10" (254 mm) is provided at a point not more than 12" (305 mm) from the side of the treads. The narrowest portion of a winding stairway may not be less than 6" (152 mm) wide at any point. When a spiral stair is the only stair serving an upper floor area, it can be difficult to move furniture from one floor to another. Spiral stair treads must provide a clear walking width of 26" (660 mm) measured from the outer edge of the support column to the inner edge of the handrail. A tread depth of 7 1/2" (190 mm) must be provided within 12" (305 mm) of the narrowest part of the tread. The rise for a spiral stair must be sufficient to provide 6'−6" (1981 mm) headroom, but no riser may exceed 9 1/2" (241 mm), and all risers must be equal. Circular stairways must have a minimum tread run of 11" (279 mm) measured at a point not more than 12" (305 mm) from the narrow edge. At no point can the run be less than 6" (152 mm).
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Architectural Drafting and Design
LINE OF STAIRS BELOW
FLOOR MAY NOT EXTEND INTO THE AREA REQUIRED FOR MINIMUM HEADROOM
6'-8" MIN (2032 mm)
DN 14 R
6'-8" MIN (2032 mm)
DN 14 R
FIGURE 97 Wall and floor placement over stairs.
Handrails and Guardrails. All stairways with four or more risers are required to have at least one smooth handrail that extends the entire length of the stair. The rail must be placed on the open side of the stairs and must be 34" to 38" (864 to 965 mm) above the front edge of the stair. The height is allowed to exceed the maximum height as the handrail transitions into the guardrail. The following types of handrails are allowed by the IRC: Type I–Circular. Handrails with a circular cross section must have a minimum outside diameter of 1 1/4" (32 mm) and not exceeding 2" (51 mm). Type I—Noncircular. The rail must have a minimum perimeter dimension of 4" (102 mm) and not exceeding 6 1/4" (160 mm) with a maximum cross section of 2 1/4" (57 mm). Type II. Rails with a perimeter greater than 6 1/4" (160 mm) must have a graspable finger recess area on both sides of the profile. Handrails are required to be 1 1/2" (38 mm) from the wall but may not extend into the required stair width by more than 4 1/2" (114 mm). A guardrail must be provided at changes in floor or ground elevation that exceed 30" (762 mm). Guardrails are required to be 36" (914 mm) high except on the open side of the stairs the railing can be reduced to
34" (864 mm) when measured vertically from a line extending from the leading edges of the treads. Railings must be constructed so that a 4" (102 mm) diameter sphere cannot pass through any opening in the rail. The triangular opening formed by the bottom of the rail and the stairs must be constructed so that a 6" (152 mm) sphere cannot pass through the opening. Horizontal rails or other ornamental designs that form a ladder effect cannot be used.
Room Dimensions Room dimension requirements affect the size and ceiling height of rooms. Every dwelling unit is required to have at least one room with a minimum of 120 sq ft (11.2 m2) of total floor area. Other habitable rooms except kitchens are required to have a minimum of 70 sq ft (6.5 m2) and shall not be less than 7' (2134 mm) in any horizontal direction. These code requirements rarely affect home design. One major code requirement affecting room size governs the space allowed for a toilet, which is typically referred to as a water closet. A space 30" (762 mm) wide must be provided for water closets. A distance of 21" (533 mm) is required in front of a toilet to any obstruction. A minimum clearance of 21" (533 mm) is also required in front of a bathroom sink to any obstruction, and a minimum distance
HEADROOM
7'-0" MIN (2134 mm)
5'-0" (1520 mm)
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
FLOOR SPACE WITH LESS THAN 5'-0" (1524 mm) OF CEILING HEIGHT CANNOT BE COUNTED AS USABLE FLOOR SPACE
FIGURE 98 Minimum ceiling heights for habitable rooms.
of 24" (610 mm) is required in front of a shower. These sizes can often affect the layout of a small bathroom, but are rarely a problem in a custom home. Chapter 16 will provide additional information related to the layout of the bathroom plumbing fixtures.
Ceiling Heights Habitable rooms, hallways, corridors, bathrooms, toilet rooms, laundry rooms, and basements must have a minimum ceiling height of 7'−0" (2134 mm). The bathroom ceiling can be reduced over a counter or plumbing fixture to 6'−8" (2032 mm). This lowered ceiling can often be used for lighting or for heating ducts. Beams that are spaced at a maximum distance of 48" (1219 mm) O.C. are allowed to extend 6" (152 mm) below the required ceiling height. A shower or tub equipped with a shower head must also have a minimum ceiling height of 6'−8" (2032 mm) above a minimum area of 30" × 30" (762 × 762 mm) at the shower head. In rooms that have a sloping ceiling, the minimum ceiling must be maintained in at least half of the room. The balance of the room height may slope to 5' (1524 mm) minimum. Any part of a room that has a sloping ceiling less than 5' (1524 mm) high, or 7'−0" (2134 mm) for furred ceilings, may not be included as habitable square footage (see Figure 9-8). Portions of basements that do not contain habitable space, hallways, bathrooms, toilet rooms, and laundry rooms shall have a minimum ceiling height of 6'−8" (2032 mm). Beams, ducts, or other obstructions may project to within 6'−4" (1931 mm) of the finished floor.
Light, Ventilation, Heating, and Sanitation Requirements The light and ventilation requirements of building codes have a major effect on window size and placement. The heating and sanitation requirements are so minimal that
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they rarely affect the design process. The codes covering light and ventilation have a broad impact on the design of the house. Many preliminary designs often show entire walls of glass to take advantage of beautiful surroundings. At the other extreme, some houses have very little glass and thus no view but very little heat loss. Building codes affect both types of designs.
Providing Natural Light The IRC requires that all habitable rooms must have natural light provided by windows. Kitchens are habitable rooms but are not required to meet the light and ventilation requirements. Windows for other habitable rooms are required to open directly into a street, public alley, or yard on the same building site. Windows may open into an enclosed structure such as a porch as long as the area is at least 65% open. Required glazed openings may face into the area under a balcony, bay, deck, or floor cantilever provided a clear vertical space at least 36" (914 mm) in height is provided. Required glazing is also permitted to open into a sunroom or covered patio that abuts a street, yard, or court if more than 40% of the exterior sunroom walls are open, or enclosed only by insect screening and the ceiling height of the sunroom is not less than 7'–0" (2134 mm). Required areas for light and ventilation may be provided by skylights. All habitable rooms must have a glazing area equal to 8% of the room’s floor area, and that one-half of the area used to provide light also be openable to provide ventilation. A bedroom that is 9' × 10' (2743 × 3048 mm) is required to have a window with a glass area of 7.2 sq ft (0.66 m2) to meet minimum standards. Another limit to the amount of glass area would be in locations that are subject to strong winds or earthquakes. These restrictions will be explored later in this chapter as climatic and geographic design criteria are discussed.
Alternative Methods of Providing Light and Ventilation Two alternatives to the light and ventilation requirements are allowed in all habitable rooms. Mechanical ventilation and lighting equipment can be used in place of openable windows in habitable rooms except bedrooms. Glazing can be eliminated except when required for emergency egress when artificial light capable of producing 6 footcandles (6.46 lux) over the area of the room at a height of 30" (762 mm) above the floor is provided. Ventilation can be eliminated when an approved mechanical ventilation system capable of producing 0.35 air changes per hour is provided for the room. Ventilation is also waived if a whole-house mechanical ventilation system capable of producing 15 cfm
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(7.08 L /s) per occupant is provided. Occupancy is based on two per the first bedroom and one for each additional bedroom. The second method of providing lighting and ventilation allows floor areas of two adjoining rooms to be considered as one if 50% of the area of the common wall is open and unobstructed. This opening must also be equal to 10% of the floor area of the interior room or 25 sq ft (2.3 m2), whichever is greater. Openings required for light and ventilation may be allowed to open into a thermally isolated sunroom or covered patio. To use this ventilation option, the openable area between the adjoining rooms must be equal to 10% of the floor area of the interior room, but cannot be less than 20 sq ft (2 m2). Although considered nonhabitable, bathrooms and laundry rooms must be provided with an openable window. The window must be a minimum of 3 sq ft (0.3 m2), of which one-half must open. A fan that provides 50 cfm (24 L/s) for intermittent ventilation or 10 cfm (10 L/s) for continuous ventilation can be used instead of a window. These fans must be vented to outside air. If mechanical ventilation is to be used, careful consideration must be given to the type and placement of the intake and exhaust vents. Exterior vents are required to be protected from local weather conditions. They must also be covered with corrosionresistant grills, louvers, or screens that have a 1/4" (6.4 mm) minimum and a 1/2" (12.7 mm) maximum opening. Intake openings must be located a minimum of 10' (3048 mm) from hazardous or noxious contaminants, and from any plumbing vents, chimneys, alleys, parking lots, or loading docks. The minimum distance can be reduced if the intake vent is placed a 2' (610 mm) minimum below the contaminant source.
Heating The heating requirements for a residence are very minimal. IRC requires a heating unit to be installed in any residence built in an area where the winter design temperature is below 60°F (16°C). So unless you’re building in Hawaii, plan for a heating unit capable of producing and maintaining a room temperature of 68°F, or 20°C at a point 3' (914 mm) above the floor and 2' (610 mm) from exterior walls for all habitable rooms. Portable space heaters can no longer be used to meet compliance with the current codes. Chapter 21 provides information on sizing heating units.
Sanitation Code requirements for sanitation rarely affect the design of a structure. Each residence is required to have a toilet, a sink, and a tub or shower. A sink is required to be provided in the kitchen. All plumbing fixtures
Architectural Drafting and Design
must be connected to an approved water supply, and kitchen sinks, lavatories bathtubs, showers, bidets, laundry sinks, and washing machines are required to have hot and cold water. All plumbing fixtures must be connected to a sanitary sewer or an approved private sewage disposal system. The room containing the toilet must be separated from the food preparation area by a tight-fitting door. Chapter 16 provides further information regarding the layout of each fixture, and Chapter 20 provides information regarding plumbing plans.
Safety Equipment Major considerations of required safety equipment include automatic fire sprinkler systems, smoke detectors, and carbon monoxide alarms.
Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems Based on the acceptance of the 2009 IRC, automatic fire sprinkler systems that meet Section P2904 of the International Plumbing Code (IPC) are required for all new townhouse construction. A sprinkler system is not required to additions or alterations made to existing townhomes. As part of the 2009 IRC, effective January 1, 2011 automatic residential fire sprinklers must be installed in all new one- and two-family dwellings. The fire sprinkler systems must be installed to meet Section P2904 of the IPC or National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 13D.
Smoke Detectors Smoke detectors and alarms provide an opportunity for safe exit through early detection of fire and smoke. A smoke alarm that meets the requirements of UL 217 must be installed per NFPA72 in each sleeping room, as well as at a point centrally located in a corridor that provides access to the bedrooms. For a one-level residence, a smoke detector must be located: ● ●
At the start of every hall that serves a bedroom. In each sleeping room.
For multilevel homes, a smoke alarm is required on every floor, including the basement. The smoke alarm should be located over the stair leading to the upper level. In split-level homes, the smoke alarm is required only on the upper level if the lower level is less than one full story below the upper level. If a door separates the levels of a split-level home, a smoke alarm is required on each level. A smoke alarm is required on the lower level if a sleeping unit is located on that level. Smoke alarms should not be placed in or near kitchens or fireplaces because a small amount of smoke can set off a false alarm.
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
Smoke alarms must be located within 12" (305 mm) of the ceiling or mounted on the ceiling. Alarms must receive their primary power from the building wiring when the power is served from a commercial source. When the primary power is interrupted, the alarm system must be connected to electrical wiring with a battery-powered backup system. Smoke alarms must be interconnected so that if one alarm is activated, all will sound. Carbon Monoxide Alarms. A carbon monoxide alarm is required in all new residential construction that contains fuel-fired appliances or has an attached garage. Alarms that meet UL 2034 must be placed outside of each separate sleeping area in the immediate vicinity of the bedrooms in dwelling units. Units must be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
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site of the governing building department. Building codes specify how a building can be constructed to resist the forces from wind pressure, seismic activity, freezing, decay, and insects. Each of these areas will be discussed in detail in later chapters. NOTE: Because of wide variation in the weather patterns
and the seismic risk across the country, most municipalities have made alterations to the national code to address local considerations. A key role of the designer is to verify local requirements, and ensure that the project exceeds those standards. In exploring the following variables, the first two can be taken directly from a table in the code or provided by the building department. The balance of factors will require information provided by the local jurisdiction.
Ground Snow Load
CLIMATIC AND GEOGRAPHIC DESIGN CRITERIA The major influence of the IRC on a structure has to do with structural components. Chapters covering foundations, wall construction, wall coverings, floors, roof-ceiling construction, roof coverings, and chimney and fireplace construction are provided to specify minimum construction standards. To use the information in the codes as it relates to each area of construction requires some basic climatic and geographic information about the area where the structure will be constructed. Key elements that must be known to design a safe structure include: ●
Air freezing index.
●
Flood hazard.
●
Ground snow load.
●
Mean annual temperature.
●
Ice barrier underlayment.
●
Seismic design category.
●
Susceptibility to damage by frost line depth.
●
Susceptibility to damage by termites.
●
Susceptibility to damage by weathering.
●
Wind design—speed.
●
Wind design—topographic effects. Winter design—temperature.
●
Values for each category will consist of a YES or NO, or a design value. Information for many of these categories can be obtained from a table in the IRC. Other factors need to be determined from the Web
The ground snow load factor will affect the sizes of structural members. The amount of snow that can be expected will also be important in planning access to the structure when the maximum amount of snow is on the ground. The ground snow load factor can be determined using maps provided by the IRC. Figure 9-9 shows the ground snow loads for the western portion of the United States. Zones of the map are designated by the maximum ground elevation of the zone, and the snow load to be used in the design for that area. For instance, in the southeastern corner of California, the maximum elevation is 1000', and the snow load is zero. In the southwestern corner of California, the maximum elevation ranges from 1800', to 2000' and the snow load ranges from zero to five. In the northeastern corner of Washington, the snow load is listed as CS. This designation indicates that a site-specific case study must be preformed. The local building department will generally be able to provide the snow loads that should be used to determine the size of building materials as well as the ground snow that should be planned for as access to the structure is planned. Buildings designed in areas with a snow load of 70 pounds per square foot (3.35 kPa) or less can be constructed using the provisions of the IRC. In areas that exceed this, the value must be determined using accepted engineering practice.
Winter Design Temperature The outdoor design temperature can be determined from Appendix D of the IPC or from the Web sites of the local jurisdiction. The winter design temperature will be important as the heating loads of the home are considered in Chapter 21.
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FIGURE 99 Maps similar to Figure R301.2.(5) can be used to determine the snow loads to be used in the selection of structural members. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington D.C. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
Flood Hazard It’s not just homes that are built on a riverbank, oceanfront property, or the banks of a lake that must be designed to withstand floodwaters. The risk of flood damage will vary for each region based on several factors. The amount of rain is a major consideration in flood risk, but certainly not the most important factor. Areas of the country such as the Pacific Northwest or the Gulf states that receive large amounts of rain typically have drainage systems prepared to handle the runoff. Areas of the country that are arid often have poor facilities for coping with excess runoff. Designers should verify with local municipalities which specific areas of their jurisdiction are prone to flooding, and design the foundation accordingly. The building department can provide a date that the area was placed into the National Flood Insurance Program, and the date for the adoption of the code or ordinance of management of flood hazard area. This information will help in determining the design flood elevation height of the floor. Chapter 33 will explore precautions that can be taken based on the risk of flooding.
Mean Annual Temperature Based on the mean annual temperature from the National Climate Data Center, the governing jurisdiction will determine the mean annual temperature. This information will be used for planning the heating system as well as calculating the insulation requirements for the building envelope.
Ice Barrier Underlayment The governing jurisdiction will determine the value of the ice barrier underlayment based on local history of damage from the effects of ice damming. For areas that are required to receive an ice barrier, a barrier must be provided that meets the requirements of Section R905.2.7.1 of the IRC. These guidelines will be covered in Chapter 22 of this textbook as roof construction is explored.
Seismic Design Category The governing jurisdiction will determine the seismic design category value based on one of seven categories, including A, B, C, D0, D1, D2, and E. The IRC specifically addresses construction methods that can be used in categories C, D0, D1, and D2. Categories A and B require no special provision, and category E requires
165
construction per the IBC or design by an engineer. Construction in categories C through D2 requires designing for increasing seismic risk as the risk category progresses. The effects of the seismic category will affect the construction of roof, wall, floor and foundation assemblies, and will be addressed in Chapter 22, Chapter 27, Chapter 28, and Chapter 33.
Susceptibility to Damage by Frost Line Depth The frost line depth will affect the design and construction of the foundation and will be explored in Chapter 33. Depending on the frost line depth, the governing jurisdiction will determine the required minimum depth of footings below the finish grade.
Susceptibility to Damage by Termites The governing jurisdiction will determine the need for protection from termite damage based on the history of subterranean termite damage. In areas where there is potential for damage, one of the alternatives from Section R318 must be provided for controlling damage. Each method will be presented in Chapter 33 as foundation construction is explored.
Susceptibility to Damage by Weathering The general risk of damage due to weathering can be determined from using the map shown in Figure 9-10. In areas of the country that have a wide variance in weather conditions, the governing jurisdiction will determine the need for weathering protection to the foundation based on local conditions. Possible weathering zones include negligible, moderate, or severe. As the risk of weathering increases, a higher strength of concrete or grade of masonry will be required to reduce the chance of damage. Concrete weathering will be explored in Chapter 33.
Wind Design The effects of wind on a structure will need to be considered in terms of the wind speed and the how the topography affects the wind.
Speed The general risk of wind damage can be determined using a map similar to Figure 9-11 that shows basic wind speeds. The wind speed values are 3-second gust speeds listed in miles per hour. Although this map will
166 Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 910 Maps similar to Figure R301.2(3) can be used to determine the risk of damage to the foundation from weathering. Based on the risk, precautions will need to be taken as the foundation is designed. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington D.C. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
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FIGURE 911 Several maps are provided in the IRC to represent wind speeds in various portions of the country. Figure R301.2.(4) can be used to determine the anticipated wind speed in the southern portion of the United States. Speeds are listed as 3-second gust speeds in miles per hour, assumed at 33' above the ground for exposure C. Based on the speed, precautions will need to be taken as the roof, wall, and foundation assemblies are designed. Chapter 22, Chapter 28, and Chapter 33 will address these assemblies. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington D.C. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 912 When a structure is built on the upper half of a hill, the assumed wind speed must be increased. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington D.C. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
provide general design guidelines, the governing jurisdiction will determine the actual wind speed based on local ground conditions referred to as exposures. The IRC defines four basic exposures including: ●
●
●
●
Exposure A—Large city centers where at least 50% of the buildings have a height in excess of 70' (21336 mm). Exposure B—Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of a single-family dwelling or larger. Exposure C—Open terrain with scattered obstructions including surface undulations or other irregularities, having heights generally less than 30' (9144 mm), extending more than 1500' (457 m) from the building site in any quadrant. Exposure D—Flat, unobstructed areas exposed to wind flowing over open water (excluding shorelines
in hurricane-prone regions) for a distance of at least 1 mile (1.61 km). Once the speed and exposure zones are known, the structure can be designed to resist the lateral stress resulting from the wind. Methods of protecting the structure from wind-borne debris must also be considered. Chapter 32 and Chapter 33 will explore ways to resist wind loads and protect the structure.
Topographic Effects The governing jurisdiction will determine the risk of wind damage based on local historical data documenting structural damage caused by topographic wind speed-up effects at isolated hills, ridges, and escarpments that are abrupt changes from the general topography of the area. If a structure is located in the top half of one of the designated areas, the basic wind speed must be adjusted upward based on the values in Figure 9-12.
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
169
FIGURE 913 The International Energy Conservation Code divides the United States into three major regions and eight climate zones. These zones are further divided by the expected humidity to be encountered in each zone. Once the climate zone of the building site is determined, the required insulation and fenestration efficiency can be determined. Courtesy 2009 International Energy Conservation Code, Copyright 2009, Washington, D.C., International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY CONSERVATION CODE
Determining the Required Building Envelope
The 2009 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) is published by the International Code Council and is updated every three years to conform with the other international codes. The purpose of the IECC is to regulate the design and construction of the exterior envelope and selection of heating, ventilation, and airconditioning (HVAC), water heating, electrical distribution and illuminating systems, and equipment required for effective use of energy in buildings. The exterior envelope is made up of the elements of a building that enclose conditioned (heated and cooled) spaces through which thermal energy transfers to or from the exterior. This chapter will address the basic IECC requirements for the building envelope. These requirements can also be found in Chapter 11 of the IRC. Section 5 of this text will address methods for improving the environment inside the building envelope.
The exterior envelope of a residence comprises the exterior walls, the ceiling, the openings in the walls and ceiling, and the floor. The IECC refers to the openings in the envelope as fenestration. How the envelope is constructed will depend on the climate zone where the home is to be located. The IECC divides the United States into three major regions and eight climate zones that can be seen in Figure 9-13. The climate zones are based on the wet-bulb temperature of the area. The wet-bulb temperature is a measurement of the environment that reflects the physical properties of the surrounding air. The measurement is based on the use of a thermometer that has its bulb wrapped in cloth that draws moisture from the surrounding air. These zones are further divided by the expected humidity to be encountered in each zone
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 914 Table 402.1.1 of the IECC defines the minimum insulation and fenestration requirements. Courtesy 2009 International Energy Conservation Code, Copyright 2009, Washington, D.C., International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
and include A—moist; B—dry; and C—marine. Zones that do not have a moisture designation are areas where moisture is deemed irrelevant. Although this map provides guidelines for the designer, it’s also important to consult Table 301.1 of the IECC (a very lengthy list of zones by state and county) or to contact the governing building department to verify specific climate requirements.
General Requirements for Building the Envelope The IRC governs the actual construction of the walls, floor, and ceiling assemblies that will form the building envelope. The IECC and Chapter 11 of the IRC govern the insulation and fenestration to be used in completing the envelope. General requirements for these two areas of construction are specified in IECC Table 402.1.1 shown in Figure 9-14. A comparison of envelope components for a home built in Houston, Texas, in a warm, humid area in climate zone 2A; Walla Walla, Washington, in a marine
zone 5A; and Grand Forks, North Dakota, in a moist zone 7 can be seen below. Envelope Component
Walla Houston Walla
Grand Forks
Fenestration U-factor
0.65
0.35
0.35
Skylight U-factor
0.75
0.60
0.60
Glazed fenestration
0.30
NR
NR
Ceiling R-value
30
38
49
Wood-framed wall R-value 13
20 or 13 +5 21
Mass wall R-value
13/17
4/6
19/21
Floor R-value
13
30
38
Basement wall R-value
0
10/13
15/19
Slab R-value and depth
0
10, 2'
10, 4'
Crawl space wall R-value
0
10/13
10/13
The IECC allows the envelope to be described in U-factor in lieu of using R-values. U-values can be determined in the IECC and will not be addressed in this chapter.
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
IN UNFINISHED ATTIC SPACES, INSULATE BETWEEN THE FLOOR JOISTS.
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INSULATE BETWEEN CEILING JOISTS. INSULATE BETWEEN STUDS AND THE RAFTERS.
INSULATE WALLS BETWEEN LIVING SPACES AND UNHEATED GARAGES OR STORAGE AREAS.
INSULATE BETWEEN VAULTED RAFTERS.
EXTEND INSULATION INTO JOIST SPACE TO REDUCE AIRFLOWS. INSULATE BETWEEN THE STUDS OF “KNEE” WALLS.
INSULATE EXTERIOR WALLS ABOVE GROUND AREA.
INSULATE BETWEEN JOISTS ADJACENT TO UNHEATED SPACE.
INSULATE ANY PORTION OF THE FLOOR IN A ROOM THAT IS CANTILEVERED BEYOND THE EXTERIOR WALL BELOW.
INSULATE ALL EXTERIOR WALLS.
EXTEND INSULATION INTO JOIST SPACE TO REDUCE AIRFLOWS.
CAULK AND SEAL AROUND ALL WINDOWS AND DOORS. INSULATE FOUNDATION WALLS OF CRAWL SPACES AND PERIMETER PLATES.
INSULATE FOUNDATION WALLS ABOVE GROUND AREA. INSULATE FOUNDATION WALLS IN HEATED BASEMENTS INSIDE OR RIGID INSULATION OUTSIDE.
INSULATE SLAB FLOORS BUILT DIRECTLY ON THE GROUND. GROUND. INSULATE FOUNDATION WALLS IN HEATED BASEMENTS. GROUND.
FIGURE 915 Locations where insulation is required to be installed.
Insulation Insulation is material used to restrict the flow of heat, cold, or sound, in the building envelope keeping the home warmer in winter and cooler in summer. It saves energy costs, and when properly installed it helps maintain a uniform temperature throughout the house. Various types of insulation are available and will be discussed in Chapter 12. Figure 9-15 shows the locations where insulation is required. Insulation reduces the amount of heat lost through walls, ceilings, and floors during the winter and helps keep heat from entering the residence during the summer. The ability of materials to slow heat transfer is called thermal resistance. The R-value of a material is a measure of thermal resistance to heat flow. The higher the R-value assigned to a material, the greater the insulating ability. Insulation is critical in helping reduce heat loss, but it must be combined with proper caulking and construction methods. How much insulation a home should have depends on local and national codes, climate, energy costs, budget, and personal preference. The IRC and IECC give minimum required insulation levels and the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) provides recommended insulation levels, by zip codes, for walls, ceilings, floors, and foundations. Recommended R-values in the ceiling range from R-30 to R-60 depending on the type of heating to be provided and the climate zone of the home. Vaulted ceilings can vary from R-22 to R-60. R-13 to R-30 insulation is recommended for use in floors, although homes built in some warm climates do not require floor insulation. Wall insulation levels vary from R-13 to R-21 depending on the climate. Always confirm the minimum insulation required by the codes governing your area. In general, better energy efficiency can be gained by using more insulation.
Fenestration The listing for glazed fenestration in Figure 9-14 shows the letters SHGC in the column heading and footnotes. These letters are to represent the phrase solar heat gain coefficient. SHGC is a ratio of the solar heat gain entering the space inside the envelope through the fenestration to the incident solar radiation. Solar heat gain includes solar heat that is transmitted through the fenestration and energy that is absorbed radiation.
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The prescriptive method of installing insulation according to IECC Section 402.1.1 allows some some listed ceiling values to be reduced. Ceilings requiring insulation values of R-38 can be reduced to R-30 if the uncompressed height of the insulation extends over the top plate of the exterior walls. If the same conditions are met, R-49 insulation can be replaced by R-38 insulation.
Ceilings with No Attic Storage When insulation values greater than R-30 are required by Section 402.1.1 of the IECC, the value of insulation can be reduced to R-30 if the roof/ceiling assembly does not allow for the the required insulation height. This reduction in insulation R-value is limited to 500 sq ft (46 m2) or 20% of the total insulated ceiling area, whichever is less.
Mass Walls The listing for mass walls in IECC Table 402.1.1 refers to concrete block, poured concrete, insulated concrete form (ICF), masonry cavity, brick, adobe, earth block, rammed earth, and solid timber logs. Masonry veneer is excluded from this category. The requirements for mass walls apply if at least 50% of the required insulation R-value is part of the wall or on the exterior side of the wall. Walls that do not meet this requirement can be insulated to meet the standards for wood frame walls.
●
The insulation must extend from the floor to the line of the finish grade. From the grade, the insulation must extend an additional 24" (610 mm) vertically along the wall, or along the grade in the crawl space. When placed horizontally along the soil in the crawl space, the insulation must be laid over a continuous vapor retarder. Other requirements for placing the vapor retarder will be covered in Chapter 28 and Chapter 33.
Basement Walls The walls of basements that are part of the building envelope must be insulated from the top of the wall to the basement floor. Basement walls that surround unconditioned air do not need to be insulated if the floor supported by the wall is insulated. If the floor is uninsulated, the basement wall must be insulated to the same standards as walls surrounding rooms with conditioned air.
Slab-on-Grade Floors The edge of concrete slabs that are at, or within 12" (305 mm) of the grade must be insulated. The insulation can be placed on the inside or outside face of the concrete wall. Insulation extending away from the slab must be protected by a minimum of 10" (254 mm) of soil similar to the footing in Figure 9-16A and Figure 9-16B.
C SILL SEAL
FLASHING PROTECTION BOARD RIGID INSULATION
C
12" MIN.
Ceilings with Attic Storage
The insulation must be permanently attached to the stem wall.
12" MAX.
The IECC/IRC provides specifi criteria to supplement the general information provided in Figure 9-14. The specific requirements are divided by ceilings with attics, ceilings without attics, walls, floors, and fenestration.
●
10"
Specific Requirements for Building the Envelope
Architectural Drafting and Design
FOUNDATION PERIMETER
B
Floor/Crawl Space Walls Typical floor insulation methods place the insulation so that it will be in permanent contact with the underside of the floor decking. The IECC allows the floor to be uninsulated, and the walls of the crawl space to be insulated. To use this insulation method, the crawl space can not be vented to outside air, and the insulation is required to meet the following placement guidelines:
4" SCREENED AND WASHED GRAVEL OR CRUSHED STONE A
INSULATION DETAIL
HORIZONTAL INSULATION PLAN
FIGURE 916A Insulation placement for frost-protected footings. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington, D.C., International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
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GOING GREEN Green Codes Building codes address how the environment affects a structure. Stresses resulting from gravity, wind, snow, water, and seismic activity have always been a major concern of the model codes. The National Green Building Standard ICC 700 now addresses how the building affects the environment. The ICC and the NAHB have jointly developed the National Green Building Standard that provides a common national benchmark for designers. Although primarily aimed at residential construction, the standard does apply to multifamily construction. The standard requires designers and builders to address:
• Energy conservation. • Indoor and outdoor air quality. In addition to the Green Building Standard, the ICC and the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) have signed a Memorandum of Understanding between the two organizations in order to further green building practices. Because green code development is such a fluid area, it is imperative that you constantly monitor the Web sites of the ICC, USGBC, and NAHB for the most current information on green building and developing codes. Another great source of green building information can be found at the joint Cengage-ICC portal titled The Green Destination: Essential Information for Green Building. The address for each site is listed at the end of this chapter.
• Land conservation. • Water conservation. • Material resource conservation.
MINIMUM INSULATION REQUIREMENTS FOR FROST-PROTECTED FOOTINGS IN HEATED BUILDINGSa HORIZONTAL INSULATION R R-VALU Ec,e AIR FREEZING INDEX (°F-DAYS)b
VERTICAL INSULATI A ON R-VALUE c,d
ALONG WALLS
AT CORNERS
HORIZONTAL INSULATION DIMENSIONS PER FIGURE R403.3(1) (INCHES) A
B
C
1500 or less
4.5
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
2000
5.6
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
2500
6.7
1 .7
4.9
12
24
40
3000
7.8
6 .5
8.6
12
24
40
3500
9.0
8 .0
11.2
24
30
60
4000
10.1
10.5
13.1
24
36
60
For SI: 1 inch ⫽ 25.4 mm,°C ⫽ [( °F)-32]/1.8. a. Insulation requirements are for protection against frost damage in heated buildings. Greater values may be required to meet energy conservation standards. Interpolation between values is permissible. b. See Figure R403.3(2) for Air Freezing Index values. c. Insulation materials shall provide the stated minimum R-values under long-term exposure to moist, below-ground conditions in freezing climates. The following R-values shall be used to determine insulation thicknesses required for this application: Type II expanded polystyrene—2.4R per inch; Type IV extruded polystyrene—4.5R per inch; Type VI extruded polystyrene—4.5R per inch; Type IX expanded polystyrene—3.2R per inch; Type X extruded polystyrene—4.5R per inch. NR indicates that insulation is not required. d. Vertical insulation shall be expanded polystyrene insulation or extruded polystyrene insulation. e. Horizontal insulation shall be extruded polystyrene insulation.
FIGURE 916B Minimum insulation requirements for a concrete slab. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, Washington, D.C., International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in floor plan related materials. Major Building Code Organizations Company, Product, Address or Service
www.afanda.org
www.thegreendestination.com
www.steel.org
www.iccsafe.org
Cengage/ICC -essential information for green building. The International Code Council (ICC)—The 2009 IRC is their current code; the 2012 codes are coming in the spring of 2012.
United States and Federal Agencies Related to Construction Address www.access-board.gov
www.ada.gov www.eren.doe.gov
www.epa.gov www.nara.gov/fedreg www.nist.gov
www.osha.gov
Company, Product, or Service The Access Board—U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board Americans with Disabilities Act DOE—Department of Energy’s Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network EPA—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Federal Register— Government Printing Office NIST—National Institute of Standards and Technology OSHA—Occupational Safety & Health Administration
The following sites are listed in the IBC and IRC for their reference standards that the codes are based on. See the IRC for additional references. Address www.aamanet.org www.aci-int.org
Company, Product, or Service American Architectural Manufacturers Association American Concrete Institute
www.aisc.org www.aitc-glulam.org
www.ansi.org www.asce.org www.asme.org www.astm.org www.aws.org www.awpa.org www.apawood.org www.pwgsc.gc.ca.cgsb www.cedarbureau.org www.gypsum.org www.iso.org www.masonrysociety.org www.naamm.org
www.nahb.org www.ncma.org www.nfpa.org www.post-tensioning.org www.pci.org www.spri.org www.steeljoist.org www.seinstitute.org www.tpinst.org
American Forest & Paper Association American Institute of Steel Construction American Institute of Timber Construction American Iron and Steel Institute American National Standards Institute American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Society of Testing Materials—International American Welding Society American Wood-Preservers Association APA—Engineered Wood Association Canadian General Standards Board Cedar Shake and Shingle Bureau Gypsum Association International Standards Organization The Masonry Society National Association of Architectural Metal Manufacturers National Association of Home Builders National Concrete Masonry Association National Fire Protection Association Post-Tensioning Institute Precast Prestressed Concrete Institute Single-Ply Roofing Institute Steel Joist Institute Structural Engineers Institute Truss Plate Institute
Chapter 9: Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design
www.ul.com www.usgbc.org www.wdma.com
Underwriters Laboratories U.S. Green Building Council Window and Door Manufacturers Association
www.wirereinforcementinstitute.org
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www.approvals.org www.asfconline.org www.mbinet.org
Wire Reinforcement, Inc. Construction-related organizations that ensure the quality of materials include: Address www.csa.ca
Company, Product, or Service Canadian Standards Association
www.nibs.org
www.nmhc.org www.wwpa.org
International Approval Services, Inc. International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC) Modular Building Institute (MBI) National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) National Multi-Housing Council (NMHC) Western Wood Products Association
Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD.
Question 9–9 Are bathrooms in a single-family residence required to be handicapped accessible?
1. Letter your name, Chapter 9 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it. 3. Answers should be based on the code that governs your area, unless otherwise noted.
Question 9–11 What are the minimum size requirements of spiral stairs? Question 9–12 For a bedroom that is 10' × 12', what area is required to provide the minimum ventilation requirements?
Question 9–1 What is the minimum required size for an entry door?
Question 9–14 For a sloping ceiling, what is the lowest height allowed for usable floor area?
Question 9–2 List the five major building codes used throughout the United States that govern residential construction, starting with the code that governs your area.
Question 9–15 What is the minimum size opening for an emergency egress?
Question 9–3 All habitable rooms must have what percent of floor area in glass for natural light?
Question 9–17 Visit the Web site of the building department that governs residential construction in your area. Determine the following current design criteria:
Question 9–4 What is the required width for hallways? Question 9–5 What is the minimum width for residential stairs? Question 9–6 What is the minimum ceiling height for a kitchen? Question 9–7 What is the maximum height that bedroom windowsills can be above the finish floor? Question 9–8 Toilets must have a space how many inches wide?
Question 9–10 List three sanitation requirements for a residence.
Question 9–13 List the minimum square footage required for habitable rooms.
Question 9–16 What is the minimum required size for an exterior door?
a. Roof live loads b. Wind pressure c. Risk of weathering d. Frost line depth e. Snow loads f. Seismic design category g. Risk of termites
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Question 9–18 Determine the climate zone of the area where your school is located. Question 9–19 What wind and seismic factors will influence window placement in the initial home design? Question 9–20 How does the IECC define fenestration? Question 9–21 What components comprise the exterior envelope of a home? Question 9–22 List the required R-value for the building components of the envelope for your climate zone.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Question 9–23 Visit the Web site of the agency that regulates your state’s building code. List and describe any code changes currently under consideration. Question 9–24 Visit the Web site of one of the testing labs and obtain information related to a class drawing project. Question 9–25 Visit the Web site of one of the regulatory agencies that influence construction in your area and describe your findings.
CHAPTER 10
Room Relationships and Sizes I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
Architecture probably has more amateur experts than any other field. Wide exposure to houses causes many people to feel that they can design their own house. Wide media exposure to home design programs on Home and Garden Television (HGTV) and the availability of home improvement retail stores such as Lowe’s and Home Depot that offer in-store seminars and product demonstrations, have produced educated consumers with an increased sensitivity to design. Because they know what they like, many people attempt to draw their own plans, only to have them rejected by building departments. Designing can be done by almost anyone. Designing a home to meet a variety of family needs takes more knowledge.
THE FLOOR PLAN As a home is designed for a family, the floor plan is usually the first drawing that is started. The floor plan must be designed to harmonize with the site and the inhabitants. Planning for the site is introduced in Chapter 13 through Chapter 15. The balance of this chapter will introduce both the design process and basic requirements for a home. Clients typically provide the designer with many pictures collected from years of planning, which can be very helpful in planning for the family’s needs and lifestyle. Many architectural firms have a written questionnaire to provide insight into how the structure will be used. Important design considerations include the following factors: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
The number of inhabitants. The ages and gender of children. Future plans to add onto the dwelling. A list of general family activities to be done in the home. Entertainment habits. Desired number of bedrooms and bathrooms. Kitchen appliances desired. Planned length of stay in the residence.
● ● ● ●
Live-in guests or requirements for people with disabilities. The budget for the home. The style of the home. Neighborhood covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&R).
It is helpful to have clients write out a specific list of requirements including minimum number of rooms, minimum size of each room, and a listing of how each room is to be furnished. The written list is an excellent way to have the clients agree on the design criteria before the design team spends hours pursuing unwanted features. Providing minimum room sizes is also much more helpful than allowing a client to request “three big bedrooms.” An understanding of how the room is to be furnished will also help the designer be sure that the owner has realistic expectations for the size of the room. It is also helpful to have clients provide a “wish list” of items for their residence. These items can be eliminated if the budget is exceeded, but it may be possible to provide them. Once this information has been provided, the design process described in Chapter 1 can be started. The bubble drawings and preliminary sketches will need to integrate the living, sleeping, and service areas, as well as movement among these areas. Consideration must also be given to the style of the home. Single-level and multilevel homes pose different design challenges. This chapter will explore the challenges of placing the living, sleeping, and service areas in various styles of homes.
LIVING AREA The living area consists of the living, dining, family, den, and nook areas. These are the rooms or areas of a house where family and friends will spend most of their leisure time. The rooms of the living area should be clustered together near the entry to allow easy access for guests.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Entries Entries serve as a transition point between areas of the home. A well-planned home will have at least two points of entry—the main entry, to draw guests into the home, and a service entry that is used by the family for access between the garage, yards, and service areas.
Main Entry The main entry, as in Figure 10-1, provides an outside focal point to draw guests to the front door and serves as a hub for traffic to the living areas. A raised entry is a common method of accenting the front door. Figure 10-2 shows an example of a simple but inviting entry that clearly draws guests to the home. Both examples clearly define access to the front door. The entry should be kept proportional to the entire structure and should be made of compatible materials. The size of the entry will be influenced by the number of entry doors and their size. Single entry doors are generally 3' (900 mm) wide. Larger homes may have doors that are 42" (1050 mm) or 48" (1200 mm) wide. Double doors are typically 5' (1500 mm) or 6' (1800 mm) wide, and one or both panels can be operable. Single and double doors are usually 6'–8" (2000 mm) high but are also available in 8' (2400 mm) and custom heights. NOTE: Review Chapter 9 for code requirements for egress
doors located on the egress path.
A second major consideration in planning the entry is providing protection from the weather. Depending on your area of the country, this might include direct sunlight (in arid climates), rain, snow, and wind. A wellplanned entry will provide a covered access into the
FIGURE 101 The main entry should provide a focal point from the outside of the home to draw guests to the front door. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
FIGURE 102 A simple but inviting entry can clearly draw guests to the home. Courtesy Paul Helus.
home as well as a windbreak. The windbreak can often be achieved by recessing the entry area similar to the home in Figure 10-3. The depth of the recess should be kept proportional to the width and height of the entry.
FIGURE 103 This recessed, covered entry provides protection from the weather and blends well with the balance of the home. Once inside the foyer, guests should have direct access to other living areas of the home, and have close access to a coat closet. Courtesy Mike Jefferis.
Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes
179
GREAT RM.
REFR.
DN. 3 RISERS
MAST. SUITE
LINEN SKYLIGHT
STUDY
KITCHEN
several people at a time. The size will be based on the client’s needs and personal preferences, as well as the size and cost of the home. In a small home, a foyer 48" (1200 mm) wide may be tolerable, although 6' × 6' (1800 × 1800 mm) is still considered small. In a larger home, a room 8' to 12' (2400 to 3600 mm) wide would be more appropriate. The height of the foyer should be considered as the size is determined. A small foyer with a tall ceiling will create a feeling of being in an elevator shaft. Remember, the goal of the foyer is to create a warm, inviting feeling and to enhance traffic flow throughout the home (see Figure 10-4).
Service Entry
FOYER
DINING RM. COVERED PORCH BRICK COLUMN
The service entry similar to Figure 10-5 links the garage, kitchen, utility room, bathrooms, and patios or decks. In many homes, although guests typically use the main entry, the family’s main access is through the service entry. Depending on the size and location of the home, the service entry may serve as a mudroom. The service entry will be discussed later in this chapter as utility rooms are explored.
36" HIGH PLANTER
FIGURE 104 The foyer should create a warm, inviting feeling and enhance traffic flow throughout the house. Courtesy Tereasa Stark Designs.
Foyer The foyer is typically the first access to the residence for guests. In cold climates, many homes have an enclosure that leads to the foyer, to prevent heat loss. The ideal entry will open to a foyer rather than directly into one of the living areas. The foyer serves as a place for welcoming guests or saying final good-byes. The foyer also provides access to the living areas, the sleeping area, and the service areas of the house. This might include a hall leading to the sleeping area and a stair way leading to an upper or lower floor. A closet should be provided near the front door for storage of outdoor coats and sweaters, space for guests’ coats, as well as room for seasonal clothing. Provide access to the closet that will not be blocked by opening the front door. The area must provide ample room to open the entry door completely and allow it to swing out of the way of people entering the home. The foyer should be proportional to the rest of the home, but it should also be of sufficient size to hold
FIGURE 105 The service entry is used to link the service areas to the exterior. Courtesy David Jefferis.
180
Living Room The purpose of the living room will vary, depending on the size of the home and the preferences of the home owner. Points to consider in planning the living room include how the room will be used, how many people will use it, how often it will be used, and the type and size of furniture that will be placed in it. Some families use the living room as a place for quiet conversation and depend on other living areas for noisier activities. In homes designed to appeal to a wide variety of interests, the formal living room has given way to a large multipurpose room. If both a living room and a family room are provided, the living room is typically used to entertain guests or for quiet conversations. Figure 10-6 shows a formal living room. If the home has no family room, the living room will also need to provide room for recreation, hobbies, and relaxation. The size of the living room should be determined by the number of people who will use it, the furniture intended for it (see Figure 10-7A), and the budget for the entire construction project. Rectangular rooms are typically easier to plan for furniture arrangements. The closer a room is to being square, the harder furniture placement becomes. The minimum width needed for common activities is 12' to 14' (3600 to 4200 mm). A room 13' × 18' (3900 × 5400 mm) works well for most furniture arrangements and allows for moving furniture easily. Figure 10-7B lists common sizes of living room furniture.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Within the room, an area approximately 9' (2700 mm) in diameter should be provided for the primary seating area. This area is often arranged to take advantage of a view or centered on a fireplace. In smaller homes, the living room can be made to seem larger if it is attached to other living areas as in Figure 10-8A. In larger residences similar to Figure 10-8B, the living room is often set apart from other living areas to give it a more formal effect. The living room is usually placed near the entry so that guests may enter it without having to pass through the rest of the house. The living room should also be placed so that the rest of the home can be accessed without having to pass through it. Many designers place the living room one or more steps below the level of the balance of the home, as in Figure 10-9, to enhance a feeling of separation and to discourage through traffic. The location of the room should also take energy efficiency into consideration. If the room is used primarily in the evening, it should be placed on the west side of the residence so it will have natural light at that time. In cooler climates, a southwestern orientation will provide the most hours of sunlight; in warmer climates a northwestern orientation will help the room take advantage of evening light while offering some protection from the low summer sun. The overhang of roofs, wall projections, type and amount of glazing, and landscaping can all be used to control the effects on the structure. Figure 10-10 shows a casual living room that is open to both the rest of the home and to the yard.
Family Room
FIGURE 106 A formal living room provides an area for quiet conversation away from the noise of other living areas. In larger homes, the living room is often set apart from the rest of the living areas to create a formal area. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD.
The family room is probably the most used area of a house. A multipurpose area, it is used for such activities as watching television, informal entertaining, sorting laundry, playing pool, or eating. With such a wide variety of possible uses, planning the family room can be quite difficult. The room needs to be separated from the living room but still be close enough to have easy access from the living, dining, and kitchen areas for entertaining. Figure 10-11 shows a possible layout of living areas providing close but separate rooms. The family room needs to be near the kitchen because it is often used as an eating area. Placing the family room adjacent to the kitchen combines the two most used rooms into one area called a country kitchen. It is also common to have the family room near the service areas of the residence.
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181
LIVING / FAMILY ROOM
SOFA
DESK & CHAIR
LOVE SEAT
ENTERTAINMENT CENTER COMPONENTS
COMPUTER WORKSTATION
TELEVISION
GRANDFATHER CLOCK
RECLINER
END TABLE
END TABLE
END TABLE
CORNER TABLE W/ LAMP
OVAL END TABLE
COFFEE TABLE
SHELF UNIT
HALL TREE STEREO CABINET
STUFFED CHAIR
OTTOMAN
FLOOR LAMP SECRETARY
POOL TABLE
PING-PONG TABLE
FOOSBALL TABLE
GRAND PIANO
PIANO
DINING ROOM
DINING ROOM TABLES
SERVING CART
CHINA HUTCH
BUFFET
CURIO
DINING CHAIR
BEDROOM DRESSER
BUREAU CRIB
BUNK
TWIN
DOUBLE
FIGURE 107A Furniture typically found in living areas.
QUEEN
KING
NIGHTSTAND
182
Architectural Drafting and Design
COMMON FURNITURE SIZES (INCHES) LIVING ROOM AND FAMILY ROOM Sofas
34 ⫻ 78
End
34 ⫻ 90 34 ⫻ 96
Tables
34 ⫻ 102
18 ⫻ 18
Armchairs 18 ⫻ 21
18 ⫻ 24 18 ⫻ 30
18 ⫻ 24 22 ⫻ 24
18 ⫻ 36
28 ⫻ 32
24 ⫻ 24
32 ⫻ 34
Sectional
26 ⫻ 30
26 ⫻ 26
Pieces
26 ⫻ 53 26 ⫻ 62
24 hex 26 hex
Recliners
to 66 24 ⫻ 56
Piano Love Seats
32 ⫻ 50
Coffee
30 ⫻ 66
Tables
30 ⫻ 29
18 ⫻ 36 20 ⫻ 52
Grand
20 ⫻ 60
Piano
58 ⫻ 75
FIGURE 108A If the living room is open to other living areas, a casual feeling is created. Courtesy Aaron Jefferis.
the family room, the room should be large enough to allow for the heat from the stove. Often in an enclosed room where air does not circulate well, the area around a stove or fireplace is too warm to sit near comfortably.
20 ⫻ 75
DINING ROOM Oval Tables
54 ⫻ 76
Hutch
18 ⫻ 36 ⫻ 72
Round Tables
30
Chairs
18 ⫻ 18 18 ⫻ 20
32 36 42 48 Rectangular Tables
Tea Cart
16 ⫻ 24 18 ⫻ 33
30 ⫻ 34 36 ⫻ 44 to 108 42 ⫻ 48 to 108
BEDROOM Beds: Crib
Dressers
18 ⫻ 30 to 82
Desks
24 ⫻ 30 24 ⫻ 35
30 ⫻ 54
Bunk
30 ⫻ 75
Twin
39 ⫻ 75
24 ⫻ 42 32 ⫻ 42
Double
54 ⫻ 75
32 ⫻ 48 32 ⫻ 60
Queen
60 ⫻ 80
King
76 ⫻ 84
Nightstands
12 ⫻ 15 15 ⫻ 15 to 21
FIGURE 107B Common furniture sizes.
Sizes can vary greatly depending on the design criteria for the residence. When the family room is designed for a specific family, its size can be planned to meet their needs. When the room is being designed for a house where the owners are unknown, it must be of sufficient size to meet a variety of needs. An area of about 13' × 16' (3900 × 4800 mm) should be the minimum. This is a small room but would provide sufficient area for most activities. If a wood-burning stove or fireplace is in
FIGURE 108B In addition to being open, this area creates an elegant room in which to entertain. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Oscar Thomson.
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183
Dining Room
FIGURE 109 Many designers place the living room one or more steps below the level of the rest of the home to enhance a feeling of separation and to discourage through traffic. Courtesy Sara Jefferis.
For most families, space should be provided for an entertainment center storing the television, the stereo system, and related equipment. Figure 10-12 shows a pleasing arrangement of a fireplace, a television, and entertainment units.
Dining areas, depending on the size and atmosphere of the residence, can be treated in several ways. The dining area is often part of, or adjoining, the living area, as in Figure 10-13. For a more formal eating environment, the dining area will be near but separate from the living room area. See Figure 10-14A and Figure 10-14B. The two areas are usually adjoining so that guests may go easily from one to the other without passing through other areas of the house. The dining room should also be near the kitchen for easy serving of meals but without providing a direct view into the work areas of the kitchen. Because of the need to be by the living room and kitchen, the dining room is often placed between these two areas or in a corner between the two rooms, as in Figure 10-15. A casual dining room can be as small as 9' × 11' (2700 × 3300 mm) if it is open to another area. This size would allow for a table seating four to six people and a small storage hutch. A formal dining room should be about 11' × 14' (3300 × 4200 mm). This allows room for a hutch or china cabinet as well as the table and chairs. Allow for a minimum of 32" (800 mm) from the table edge to any wall or furniture for placement of chairs and a minimal passage area. A space of approximately 42" (1050 mm) will allow room for walking around a chair when it is occupied.
Nook When space and finances will allow, a nook or breakfast area is often included in the design. This is where the family will eat most meals and snacks (Figure 10-16). The dining room then becomes an area for formal eating only. Both the dining room and the nook need to be near the kitchen. If possible, the nook should also be near the family room. Where space is at a premium, these areas are often placed together in one room called a grand or great room (Figure 10-17). In larger homes a patio or deck may be enclosed to provide a solarium (Figure 10-18).
Den/Study/Office
FIGURE 1010 A casual living room that draws the outside in. Living areas of this residence are close to each other for easy entertaining, but separated for noise control. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor.
Although the name may vary, many families plan for a room for quiet reading and study, as in Figure 10-19. This room is typically located off the entry and near the living room. The den often serves as a buffer between the living and sleeping areas of a residence. In many tract houses, the den is used as a spare bedroom or guest room.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PATIO
NOOK 9/0 X 11/0
LIVING AREA
SH EL VE S
WALK IN CLOSET LINEN
LAUNDRY 11/3 X 6/2
FURN
D
SHOWER
PANTRY
BO O K W.H.
M. BATH
LIVING 13/4 X 17/4
WOOD STOVE
W
MASTER BEDRM 18/0 X 16/8
KITCHEN 10/0 X 12/0
FAM. RM. 15/0 X 17/4
WOOD STORAGE
SPA TUB
COFFERED CLG.
LIVING AREAS
TUB/SHR
BATH
LIN.
STORAGE
CLO.
DINE 11/6 X14/0
ENTRY
BEDRM 2 10/8 X 12/2
BEDRM 3 11/6 X 12/2
WINDOW SEATS W/ STORAGE
3 CAR GARAGE 43/0 X 27/0
PLANTER
FIGURE 1011 Living areas of this residence are close to each other for entertaining, but separated for noise control. Courtesy Wally Griener, SunRidge Designs, CPBD.
FIGURE 1012 A pleasing arrangement of fireplace, television, and display and storage units should be part of every family room. Courtesy Jordan Jefferis.
FIGURE 1013 The dining area can be combined with other living areas to create a spacious environment. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD.
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185
DN. 3
RISERS
GREAT RM.
KITCHEN
PANTRY
ENTRY DINING RM.
11'-10" x 15'-3"
CURIO CAB.
BUILT-IN CHINA HUTCH 9'-0" CEIL
GARAGE 12'-0" HIGH CEILING
FIGURE 1014A Separating the dining room from the other living areas creates a more formal eating area. Courtesy Tereasa Stark Designs.
If the room is to be a true office within the home, the entrance should be directly off the entry. An entry separate from the residence is ideal. Entry to the office can be provided from a covered porch but should be distinctive enough so that clients will know where to enter. The size of the office depends on the equipment to be used and the number of clients to be accommodated. It should have room for a desk, computer work space, storage areas for books and files, and a separate area for phones, fax, and photocopying machines.
Home Theaters Although not included in most tract homes, personal theaters or media rooms are becoming popular in many custom homes. What used to be unfinished space, or a bonus room above a garage, can be made into a home theater. Home theaters are customdesigned rooms created, as the name implies, for high-quality viewing of movies. The home designer will work closely with media consultants to meet the needs of the family and to help plan the locations of sound equipment. Figure 10-20 shows four common room layouts for home theaters with surround sound.
FIGURE 1014B Although open to other rooms, a formal atmosphere is created by enclosing the dining area with columns and arches. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor.
Points to consider will be the size and type of the television, the number of viewers, and the type of seating. A wall-mounted digital or plasma television will require far less room than a projection television or even a big-screen television. While most home theaters are designed for eight to twelve people similar to Figure 10-21, larger capacity rooms are occasionally found. Sofas, recliners, and easy chairs make for casual, comfortable seating. Theater-type seating is also available. For larger seating groups, an inclined or stepped floor should be part of the design. No matter how small the room, space should be provided for snack preparation. Items that may be included are a popcorn machine, a counter with a microwave, and a small refrigerator or wet bar.
SLEEPING AREA The age, gender, and number of children will determine how many bedrooms will be required. Preteens can share a bedroom if space is limited. Teens of the same gender have even been known to survive sharing
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Architectural Drafting and Design
LIVING AREA
LIVING RM.
PATIO
MASTER BEDRM
14/0 X 16/0
14/8 X 13/0
DINING RM.
12/0 X 14/6
SPA
M. BATH TUB
PANTRY
WALK IN CLOSET
KITCHEN
11/0 X 12/6
TU D
BATH B/
SH
R
LINEN
SHOWER
BEDRM 2 11/0 X 11/0
FIGURE 1017 A grand or great room is a combination of a living, dining, and family room. Courtesy Marvin Windows and Doors.
W
FUR W.H.
ENTRY DEN/BEDRM 2 CAR GARAGE
13/6 X 11/4
20/0 X 22/0
FIGURE 1015 Combining the dining and living areas provides ample space for entertaining. Courtesy Wally Griener, SunRidge Designs, CPBD.
a room together, although this situation often results in distinctive markings of territory during tense times. The ideal situation is to provide a separate bedroom for each child. Each room should have space for sleeping, relaxation, study, storage, and dressing.
FIGURE 1016 A nook is a casual area for family dining. Courtesy Megan Jefferis
FIGURE 1018 A sunroom or solarium can provide added square footage at a relatively low construction cost. Courtesy American PolySteel.
FIGURE 1019 Many homes provide a room that can be used as an office, study, or guest bedroom. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor.
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187
CENTER DIPOLAR
LISTENING AREA
FRONT MONOPOLAR REAR SUBWOOFER
LARGE LISTENING AREA
FIGURE 1021 Many custom homes include a personal theater as part of the design. Courtesy BOWA Builders, Inc. Greg Hadley, photographer. LISTENING AREA
L-SHAPED ROOM
LISTENING AREA
ELONGATED ROOM
LISTENING AREA
SMALL LISTENING AREA
FIGURE 1020 Four common room layouts for a home theater.
Bedrooms The sleeping area consists of the bedrooms. These rooms should be placed away from the noise of the living and service areas and out of the normal traffic
patterns. The number of bedrooms will vary depending on the size of the family and the ages of the children. Even in a family with no children, a minimum of two rooms should be provided. A second bedroom can be used as an office, craft room, or guest room and greatly increases the value of the home for resale. Most homes have a minimum of three bedrooms; and four bedrooms and a den are a common option for many subdivision homes. Many custom homes plan for a space about the size of a bedroom to be used as a multipurpose room. An exercise or equipment room, a game room, and a darkroom are common types of multipurpose rooms located near the bedrooms. The arrangement of bedrooms will vary greatly depending on the needs of the family. Common arrangements include placing all the bedrooms together, or placing the master bedroom separate from the bedrooms for children. It is also common in custom homes to plan a bedroom–living unit for long-term care of a live-in relative. Bedrooms are generally located with access from a hallway for privacy from living areas and to be near bathrooms, as in Figure 10-22. Care must be taken to keep the bathroom plumbing away from bedroom walls. One way to accomplish this is to place a closet between the bedroom and the bath. If plumbing must be placed in a bedroom wall, use insulation to help control noise. Bedrooms function best on the southeast side of the house. This location will bring morning sunlight to the rooms. When a two-level layout is used, bedrooms are often placed on the upper level, away from the living areas. Not only does this arrangement provide a quiet sleeping area, but bedrooms can often be heated by the natural convection of heat rising from the living area. Another option is placing the bedrooms
188
Architectural Drafting and Design
SEW / BED 4 11'-0" X 12'-6" BED 3 13'-2" X 11'-0"
FOLD-DN. IRON'G BD.
TUB. & S.
NOOK 11'-0" X 13'-4"
DESK
COVERED PATIO
LINEN BED 2 16'-5" X 11'-0"
SHOWER
FIGURE 1022 Bedrooms should be located with access from a hallway, for privacy from the living areas, and be near bathrooms. Courtesy Tereasa Stark Designs.
in a daylight basement. An advantage of a bedroom in a daylight basement is the cool sleeping environment that the basement provides. Care must be taken in basement bedrooms to provide direct emergency exits to the outside. Sizes of bedrooms vary greatly depending on the size of the home, the age of the occupants, and the furniture to be placed in a bedroom. The International Residential Code (IRC) requires a minimum of 70 sq ft (6.5 m2). Homes financed by Federal Housing Authority (FHA) loans are required to provide a minimum of 100 sq ft (9.3 m2). Spare or children’s bedrooms are often as small as 9' × 10' (2700 × 3000 mm). This might be adequate for a sleeping area, but not if the room is also to be used as a study or play area. Each bedroom should have enough space for a single bed, a small bedside table, and a dresser. Clients often specify enough space for a twin or double bed. Plan for a minimum of 24" (600 mm) on each side of a bed, where space to walk is required. A space of approximately 36" (900 mm) should be provided between dressers and any obstruction to allow for opening of drawers or doors. This requires a space of about 12' × 14' (3600 × 4200 mm) plus closet areas. Minimum closet space will be covered in the next section.
FIGURE 1023 A well-designed master suite provides spacious room for a queen- or king-sized bed, a fireplace, a sitting area, direct access to the wardrobe and bathing areas, and access to a private deck or balcony. Courtesy Zachary Jefferis.
area, and bathing area. A well-designed master suite, as in Figure 10-23, provides spacious room for a queen- or king-sized bed, plus room for a fireplace, sitting area, direct access to the wardrobe and bathing areas, and access to a private deck or balcony. The master bedroom should be at least 12' × 14' (3600 × 4200 mm) plus closet areas. An area of 13' × 16' (3900 × 4800 mm) will make a spacious bedroom suite, although additional room is required for a sitting or reading area (Figure 10-24). A window seat
Master Suites More than just a room for sleeping, the master bedroom in many custom homes is a retreat from the day’s troubles. The master suite serves as a bedroom, sitting
FIGURE 1024 A master suite often includes a sitting area for quiet reading or conversation. Courtesy Marvin Windows and Doors.
Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes
can often be used to provide sitting room without greatly increasing the square footage of the room. Try to arrange bedrooms so that at least two walls can be used for bed placement. This is especially important in the master bedroom to allow for periodic furniture movement. Window planning is very important in a bedroom. Although morning sun is desirable, space should be planned so that sunlight will not shine directly on the bed. Especially important in planning windows for a bedroom is to allow for emergency egress from the bedroom. Review Chapter 9 for a summary of emergency egress requirements for bedrooms. For upper-level bedrooms, try to provide a roof, porch, or balcony as an escape route from a window for young children. A flexible escape ladder can be used for older children.
Closets Building codes do not require bedroom closets. FHA recommends a length of 48" (1200 mm) of closet space for males and 72" (1800 mm) for females. Six feet (1800 mm) should be considered the practical minimum for resale if a traditional shelf-and-pole storage system is to be used for storage. Space can be reduced if closet organizers are used. Minimum closet depth is typically considered to be 24" (600 mm). A depth of 30" (750 mm) is adequate to keep clothing from becoming wrinkled. If a closet must be small, a double-pole system can be used to double the storage space or a premanufactured closet organizer can be used to provide storage. Closets can often be used as a noise buffer between rooms or located in what would be considered wasted space in areas with sloping ceilings. Space must also be provided near the bedrooms for linen storage. A space 2' (610 mm) wide and 18" (457 mm) deep would be minimal.
189
FIGURE 1025 An area containing shelves, baskets, and drawers increases storage without increasing square footage. Courtesy Matthew Jefferis.
equipment and fold-down ironing boards are provided in the closet similar to Figure 10-26. Figure 10-27 shows a well-planned wardrobe area for a master suite. Many clients request space for a freestanding armoire to provide additional storage.
Walk-In Closets Master bedrooms, as well as the other bedrooms of a custom home, often will have a walk-in closet. It should be a minimum of 6' × 6' (1800 × 1800 mm) to provide adequate space for clothes storage. A closet of 6' × 8' (1800 × 2400 mm) provides much better access to all clothes. Providing multiple rods for hanging pants, shirts, skirts, and blouses can increase storage. A single pole should be provided for hanging dresses and seasonal coats. An area containing shelves, baskets, and drawers, as in Figure 10-25, is also desirable if space permits. In large closets, a seating area should be provided, and in some cases, laundry
FIGURE 1026 In large closets of a custom home, laundry equipment and fold-down ironing boards are provided in the master bedroom closet. Courtesy Tom Worcester.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
36" HIGH COUNTER W/ DRAWERS BELOW
S& P
S & DBL. P 3 SHELVES W/ GLASS DOORS OVER COUNTER
LINEN
FULL MIRROR
SEAT
SHOE SHELVES
BUILT-IN IRON
S & DBL.P LINEN
KNEE SPACE
BED. 1
21'–6" X 17'–0"
FIGURE 1027 A well-planned wardrobe provides ample storage space for hanging and folded clothes and easy access to the bedrooms and bathrooms.
SERVICE AREAS The bathrooms, kitchen, utility rooms, and the garage are each considered part of the service area. Notice that three of the four areas have plumbing. Because of the plumbing and the services that each provides, an attempt should be made to keep the service areas together. Another consideration in placing the service area is noise. Each of these four areas tends to have noises that will interrupt activities of the living and sleeping areas.
Bathrooms
FIGURE 1028A A bathroom suite typically includes the features of a full bath with a separate shower. Courtesy Janet Helus.
Although many adults prefer only a shower, families with younger children often require a tub unit. A bathroom suite typically includes the features of a full bath with a separate tub and shower similar to Figure 10-28A. The tub is often an enlarged tub or spa similar to Figure 10-28B. If the tub is to be raised, skid-proof steps should be provided. If windows are
To provide privacy, bathrooms are often reached by a short hallway, apart from living areas. A house with only one bathroom to serve the living area and the kid’s bedrooms must have it located for easy access from both the living and sleeping areas. Access to the bathroom should not require having to pass through the living or sleeping areas.
Types of Bathrooms Options for bathrooms include half-bath, three-quarter bath, full bath, and bathroom suite. A half-bath has a lavatory and a water closet (a toilet). A half-bath is usually provided near the living area to serve guests. A three-quarter bath combines a shower with a toilet and a lavatory. Three-quarter baths are often used near bedrooms for older children. A full bath has a lavatory, a toilet, and a tub or a combination tub-and-shower unit.
FIGURE 1028B A bathroom suite typically includes a spa or a large soaking tub separate from the shower. Courtesy Lee Gleason.
Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes
191
LINE OF LOWER FLOOR U.L. APP'D METAL CHIMNEY
6' X 4' CER. TILE SPA AND SURROUND
MAKE-UP COUNTER
COVERED DECK
SEAT
S&P
OPEN SHELVES
GLASS BLOCK
BED. 2
OPEN SHELVES LIN
WARDROBE W/ CLOSET ORGANIZER
LIN
3 GU 6" H AR IGH DR AIL
FIGURE 1029 Master bath suite.
placed around a tub or spa, the glass is required to be tempered. Glass blocks are a common alternative to tempered glass. The wardrobe, dressing area, and a sitting area are also usually part of, or adjoining, the bathroom suite. Figure 10-29 shows a plan view for a master suite. Many custom homes feature a full bath with an adjoining exercise room, sauna, or steam room.
Bathroom Locations The style of the house affects the number and locations of bathrooms. A single-story residence may have one bathroom for the master bedroom and a second to serve the living areas and the other bedrooms. A twostory house typically has two full bathrooms upstairs, with a minimum of a half-bath downstairs. Multilevel homes should have a bath on each level containing bedrooms or a half-bath on each level with any type of living area. When a residence has two or more baths, they are often placed back-to-back or above each other to reduce plumbing costs. A full bath is typically provided near the master bedroom, with a separate bathroom to serve the balance of the bedrooms. If space and budget allow, a bathroom for each bedroom is desirable. For families with young children, a tub is usually a must. Many bathrooms that are designed to be shared place the sinks in one room, and the toilet and tub in an adjoining room similar to Figure 10-30A and Figure 10-30B. For homes designed to appeal to a wide variety of families, a combination of a tub and shower is often used. Homes designed for outside activities often have a three-quarter bath near the utility room or combine the laundry facilities with a bathroom to create what is often called a mudroom.
SEAT
10'–6" X 10'–4"
OPEN STORAGE IN ATTIC SPACE
BED.1 48" X 60" C.T. SHW. W/ SEAT & 2 HDS.
S&P
BED. 3
10'–6" X 10'–0"
AR CH
SEAT
60" F.G. TUB & S.
DN. 14 R. 34" HIGH RAIL
36" HIGH RAIL LINEN S&P
22 X 30 MIN. ATTIC ACCESS
FIGURE 1030A Many bedrooms share a bathroom. When the lavatories are separated from the bathing area, two people can use the room at once.
Kitchen A kitchen is used through most of a family’s waking hours. It not only serves for meal preparation but often includes areas for eating, working, and laundry (see Figure 10-31). It needs to be located close to the dining areas so that serving meals does not require extra steps. The kitchen should also be near the family room. This will allow those preparing meals to be part of family activities. When possible, avoid placing the kitchen in the southwest corner of the home. This location will receive the greatest amount of natural sunlight, which could easily cause the kitchen to overheat. Because the kitchen creates its own heat, try to place it in a cooler area of the house unless venting and shading precautions are taken. One advantage of a
FIGURE 1030B By placing the lavatory in each bedroom, a room containing the toilet and shower can be placed between two adjoining bedrooms.
192
Architectural Drafting and Design
Kitchen Work Areas The space within the kitchen also demands great consideration. Perhaps the greatest challenge facing the designer is to create a workable layout in a small kitchen. The National Kitchen & Bath Association (NKBA) considers any kitchen with less than 150 sq ft (13.9 m2) as a small kitchen and a kitchen with greater than 150 sq ft (13.9 m2) as a large kitchen. Layout within the kitchen includes the relationship of the appliances to the work areas. The main work areas of a kitchen are those for storage, preparation, and cleaning. Each can be seen in the plan in Figure 10-33.
FIGURE 1031 The kitchen is used for meal preparation and is often a place for eating and a social hub at family gatherings and parties. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor.
western placement is the natural sunlight available in the late evening. In a house for a family with young children, a kitchen with a view of indoor and outdoor play areas is a valuable asset. This will allow for the supervision of playtimes and control of traffic in and out of the house. The kitchen is often closely related to the utility area. Because these are the two major workstations in the home, a kitchen close to the utility room can save valuable time and energy as daily chores are done. It is also helpful to place the kitchen near the garage or carport. A location similar to the layout in Figure 10-32 will allow groceries to be unloaded easily.
VAULTED CLG.
PATIO
NOOK
11/0 X 8/7
KITCHEN DINING RM.
CARPET HARD FAMILY RM. WOOD 16/6 X 15/2
REC. ROOM 19/6 X 16/2
12/6 X 16/2 ARCH
ENTERTAINMENT CENTER DESK FREEZER W.H. FURN
ALLISON EASY SWING
LINE OF FLOOR ABOVE
ENTRY
UTIL. 3 CAR GARAGE 31/0 X 25/9
PANTRY
W
UP16 RI SE RS
STORAGE
COFFERED CLG.
34'' HIGH HANDRAIL
VAULTED CLNG
LIVING RM. 14/6 X 17/6
D
FIGURE 1032 For efficient living, the kitchen must be near the dining, living, family, and utility areas and the service entry. If traffic must flow through the kitchen, it should not pass through the work triangle. Courtesy Wally Griener, SunRidge Designs, CPBD.
Storage Areas. The storage areas consist of the refrigerator, the freezer, and cabinet space for food and utensils. Most families prefer to have a refrigerator in the kitchen, with a separate freezer in the mudroom, laundry, or garage. Storage for cans and dried foods is typically in base cabinets 24" (600 mm) wide or in a pantry unit, similar to Figure 10-34A and Figure 10-34B. Upper units 12" (30 mm) deep are also typically used for dishes and nonperishable foods. A minimum counter surface 18" (450 mm) wide should be provided next to the refrigerator to facilitate access to it (see Figure 10-35). This area can also be useful for preparing snacks if the width is increased to approximately 36" (900 mm). As the size is increased, this counter can also be used to store appliances, such as mixers and blenders in an appliance garage similar to the one shown in Figure 10-36. This is a useful area for a breadboard and a drawer for silverware storage. Additional drawer space could be used for mixing bowls, baking pans, and other cooking utensils. Enclosed cabinet space should also be provided for storage of cookbooks, writing supplies, and telephone books, similar to Figure 10-37. The NKBA recommends that the main storage area include at least five of the following items located 15" to 48" (375 to 1200 mm) above the finished floor. The items useful for storage include lowered wall cabinets (see Figure 10-34B), raised base cabinets, tall cabinets (see the center of Figure 10-37), appliance garage (see Figure 10-36), bins (see Figure 10-38A), racks, swing-out pantry closets, interior vertical dividers, specialized drawers, and pullout shelves. Preparation Areas. The main components of the preparation areas are the sink, cooking units, and a clear counter work space. Clear counter work space should be placed near the storage areas, sink, and cooking areas with a minimum of one counter that provides approximately 48" (1200 mm) of work space. This length should be increased to 72" (1800 mm) if two or more people will be involved in preparing a meal.
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TRASH COMP.
APPL. GARAGE
SINK & G.D. W/ GARBAGE DISP.
DOWNDRAFT STOVE OPEN SHELVES
BUILT-IN MICRO.
DISHWASHER
36" HUTCH
APPLIANCE GARAGE
REFR.
EXISTING WALL TO BE REMOVED
OPEN SHELVES
FREESTANDING ANTIQUE REFR. LINE OF 9' CEILING OPEN SHVS
TILE FLOOR
S&P
DRY
BRM.
BOOK
WASH
'0' CLEARANCE KIT WOOD COOK STOVE
36 X 18 X 14" HIGH SEAT W/ WOOD BOX
FIGURE 1033 A well-planned kitchen will provide preparation areas, storage areas, and cleaning areas separated by adequate counter space. These areas are generally not specified on the floor plan except to denote specific appliances required for each area. Related information is specified on the interior elevations (Chapter 26). Figure 10-34 through Figure 10-39 show features of this kitchen.
FIGURE 1034A A pantry should be located in or near the kitchen to provide storage for dry and canned goods. This walk-in closet, located between the kitchen and garage, uses shelves, bins, and pullout drawers for long-term storage. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
FIGURE 1034B Storage cabinet located in the kitchen. The cabinet has pullout shelves and drawers for storage of foods for daily use. Because the cabinet is located just to the left of the baking center, the lower drawers provide convenient storage for large pans and other baking utensils. Courtesy Norm Holtzer.
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FIGURE 1035 The refrigerator is used for the short-term cold storage of food. A counter 18” (457 mm) wide should be provided next to the refrigerator. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
FIGURE 1036 An appliance garage can be placed between the countertop and the upper cabinet to store small appliances that are used on a regular basis. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
FIGURE 1037 Cookbooks can be stored and antique kitchen tins can be displayed in this storage cabinet. Courtesy Leonard Conklin.
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 1038A The cooking center of this home includes a downdraft stove, a microwave, and preparation areas on each side of the stove. Storage includes open upper cabinets for spices, hanging storage for common utensils, and enclosed upper cabinets for cooking supplies. The counter provides space for storage of baking supplies. Lower cabinets feature breadboards on each side of the stove, and drawers and doors for storage. The drawers on the right side of the stove have false fronts for the display of dry food items such as lentils, beans, and corn. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
The preparation center can be placed between the primary sink and the cooking unit, between the refrigerator and the primary sink, near a secondary sink, or in an island. Each work area should have a counter at least 18" (450 mm) wide. Specific requirements will be introduced as each appliance is discussed. Large kitchens often have a small vegetable sink in the preparation area and a larger sink for cleaning utensils. A minimum size for a vegetable sink is 16" × 16" (400 × 400 mm). The cooking appliances are usually a stove that includes both an oven and surface heating units or separate appliances for baking and cooking and a microwave oven. Custom kitchens similar to Figure 10-38B often include warming drawers for maintaining foods at the desired temperature during meal preparation or for warming bread. The microwave oven can be part of a built-in oven, mounted below the upper cabinets, placed on the counter, or placed below the counter. A minimum counter space of 18" (450 mm) should be placed on each side of a stove or oven unit to prevent burns and provide temporary storage while cooking. Figure 10-38A shows a cooking center; Figure 10-38B shows a cooking center using a double oven. Cleaning Center. The cleaning center typically includes the sink, garbage disposal, and dishwasher, as in the arrangement shown in Figure 10-39. The sink and the surrounding cabinets and counter space
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FIGURE 1039 The kitchen sink is the hub of the cleaning center. Located near windows providing a view of the outside entertainment areas, the sink is flanked by a trash compactor on the left and a dishwasher on the right. Storage for dishes is provided above the dishwasher. The drawers provide storage for eating utensils and other basic kitchen supplies. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
FIGURE 1038B A double oven is a popular choice for the main cooking unit. It can include two standard ovens, a standard oven and a convection oven, or a microwave over either a standard or convection oven. A microwave and a warming drawer complete this cooking center. Courtesy Barbara Conklin.
are the most heavily used work area of the kitchen, so this area should be centrally located. Most clients prefer a double sink rather than a single sink. A typical double sink is 32" × 21" (800 × 525 mm), but 36" (900 mm) and 42" (1050 mm) wide units are also available. Double sinks are also available, at 90 degrees to each other for use in a corner. If the sink is connected to a public sewer, a garbage disposal can be installed to one side of the sink to eliminate wet garbage. A garbage disposal should not be used on sinks connected to septic tanks. The NKBA recommends that if a kitchen contains only one sink, the sink should be located across from the cooking surface, preparation center, or the refrigerator, or between these items. It also recommends that a clear floor space of 30" × 48" (750 × 1200 mm) be provided in front of the sink and the dishwasher. A minimum area 36" (900 mm) wide should be provided on one side of the sink for stacking dirty dishes, and about 24" to 30" (600 to 750 mm) on the other side for clean dishes. The dishwasher can be placed on either side of the sink,
depending on the client’s wishes. The dishwasher should be placed within 36" (900 mm) of the edge of the sink. A minimum of 21" (525 mm) of clear floor space should be allowed between the edge of the dishwasher and cabinets or appliances that are placed at right angles to the dishwasher to allow loading and unloading. An upper cabinet should be provided near the dishwasher to store dishes.
The Work Triangle The mere fact that a kitchen is big and has all the latest appliances does not make it efficient. Designing a functional kitchen requires careful consideration of the relationship between the work areas. This relationship, referred to as the work triangle, is a key aspect of kitchen ergonomics. The work triangle is formed by drawing lines from the centers of the storage, preparation, and cleaning areas similar the kitchen drawing in Figure 10-33. This triangle outlines the main traffic area required to prepare a meal. Food will be taken from the refrigerator, cleaned at the sink, and cooked at the microwave or stove, and then leftovers will be returned to the refrigerator. Using this work pattern and considering the work triangle, good design places the work centers at approximately equally spaced points of the triangle connected by counters. General rules for efficient kitchen design include: ● ●
Always place work space between each workstation of the triangle. No side of the work triangle should be less than 4' (1200 mm) or greater than 7' (2100 mm).
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●
●
Architectural Drafting and Design
The sum of the sides of the work triangle should be at least 15' (4500 mm) but not more than 22' (6600 mm). Avoid kitchen arrangements that cause traffic to flow through the work triangle.
Keep in mind that these are only guidelines—a large kitchen consists of more than just three appliances or workstations. The triangle may need to be modified to accommodate doors or to preserve a view. Appliances such as convection ovens, grills, microwave ovens, multiple sinks, and even multiple refrigerators will all affect the arrangement of work areas and appliances. In addition to traffic within the kitchen, the relationship of the kitchen to other rooms also needs to be considered. If care is not taken in the design process, the kitchen can become a hallway. The kitchen needs to be in a central location, but traffic must flow around the kitchen, not through it. Figure 10-40 shows the traffic pattern in three different kitchens.
DW
REFR
PAN
REFR
PAN
STRAIGHT (ONE-WALL) DW FOOD BAR
PENINSULA
REFR DW
DW FOOD BAR
DESK
BRM
REFR
DESK
PAN
ISLAND
PAN
CORRIDOR
PAN
REFR DW
REFR
DW
L-SHAPED
U-SHAPED
FAMILY
REFR
REFR
DW
DW
PAN
FIGURE 1041 The sum of the three sides of the work triangle must be between 15" to 22" (4500 to 6600 mm) for an efficient work pattern.
Common Counter Arrangements PAN
FAMILY
A. NO THROUGH TRAFFIC
DINING
B.THROUGH TRAFFIC WITH MINOR INTERRUPTIONS
FAMILY
REFR
DESK
DW
PAN
DINING
C.THROUGH TRAFFIC WITH MAJOR INTERRUPTIONS
FIGURE 1040 Traffic flow should never disrupt the working area of a kitchen; plan A accomplishes this. Plan B allows traffic through the kitchen, but it will not disrupt work. Plan C shows traffic that will be very disruptive.
Designers typically use one of six common counter arrangements to define the work triangle: straight (one wall), corridor, L-shape, U-shape, peninsula, and island (see Figure 10-41). Each arrangement presents its own design challenges. Straight. The straight-line or one-wall kitchen layout is ideal when appliances must be placed in a very small space. This type of layout is often used in a small apartment, a mother-in-law unit, or a recreation room that is on a different floor from the main kitchen. Although this arrangement requires few steps to move between appliances, it also provides a very limited amount of cabinet space and work areas. This arrangement can be improved, however, by using a movable cart or cutting block to expand the work triangle. Corridor or Galley. The corridor or galley arrangement places all of the cabinets on two parallel walls. This arrangement is a great improvement over a straight-line kitchen because it allows convenient storage, provides ample counter space in a small area, and minimizes
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walking distance in the triangle. The distance between the cabinet faces should be a minimum of 48" (1200 mm). A width of 54" to 64" (1350 to 1600 mm) will allow two or more cooks to use the kitchen simultaneously. A galley kitchen is usually placed between two living areas. This arrangement is appropriate for a small home but should not be used in larger homes because of the possibility of poor traffic flow. Unless an alternative route is provided, the galley kitchen will become a thoroughfare for room-to-room traffic. L-Shape. An L-shaped cabinet arrangement is suitable for both small and large kitchens, but it loses efficiency as the size of the kitchen increases. Cabinets are placed on two adjacent walls with two workstations placed along one wall and the third workstation placed on the remaining wall. The L-shape enables efficient travel between workstations that are located close to the right angle, but the arrangement loses its effectiveness as the legs of the L become longer. This type of cabinet arrangement eliminates traffic through the work area and is well suited to kitchens that are adjacent to great rooms. U-Shape. The U-shaped cabinet arrangement provides an efficient layout with easy access between workstations. It also eliminates through traffic unless a door is placed in one of the walls. Many designers consider the U-shape ideal for a large kitchen, but it can result in hard-to-reach storage areas in the corners. The U arrangement may also seem confining in a small kitchen. A minimum space of 60" (1500 mm) should be used between cabinet faces. As the distance increases, an island or peninsula can be added to improve the cabinet arrangement. Peninsula. A peninsula arrangement provides ample cabinet and work space by adding one additional leg to an L-shaped or U-shaped kitchen. The peninsula can be used as work space, as the location for a work center, as a food bar, or as a combination of these features. Island. An island similar to Figure 10-42 can be added to any of the other five cabinet arrangements. The island can be used to provide added counter space or work space. A range or cooktop, or a small sink, is often placed in the island. A minimum of 42" (1050 mm) should be provided between the island and other counters to allow for traffic flow around the island. If the island contains an appliance such as a range, 48" (1200 mm) should be the minimum distance provided between counters, to allow for traffic flow when the oven door is open.
FIGURE 1042 An island can be used to increase work areas. This island also includes a lowered food bar. Courtesy Tereasa Jefferis.
Counter and Cabinet Sizes The standard kitchen counter is 36" (900 mm) high. The NKBA recommends that at least two different counter heights be provided in the kitchen with one work area ranging from 28" to 36" (700 to 900 mm) and a second area ranging from 36" to 45" (914 to 1143 mm) above the finish floor. For custom homes, the height may be adjusted to meet the physical needs of the owners, but it is important to remember that radical changes from the norm may greatly limit resale value. Common cabinet dimensions are listed in Table 10-1. If a food bar is provided in a peninsula or island, consideration must be given to the height and width of the eating counter. Common heights include 30", 36", and 42" (750, 900, and 1050 mm). Widths range from 12" to 18" (300 to 450 mm). For a 30" (750 mm) high counter, allow a space 30" wide × 18" deep (750 × 450 mm) for each person seated at the counter. When the food bar is level with the main countertop, allow at least a 15" (375 mm) deep clear space for the counter. When the food bar is above the main counter height, allow at least a 12" (300 mm) deep clear space for the food bar. Figure 10-43 shows an example of each type
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Overhead Cabinets
Base Cabinets
Standard depth
12" (300 mm)
24" (600 mm)
Maximum depth
18" (450 mm)
36” (900 mm)
Height
30" to 33" (750 to 825 mm) when placed above countertop
36" (900 mm) floor to countertop
12" to 18" (300 to 450 mm) when placed above an appliance Width
9" to 48" (225 to 1200 mm) 9" to 48" (225 to Stock cabinets are available 1200 mm) Stock in 3" (75 mm) increments cabinets are available in 3" (75 mm) increments
Location
15" (375 mm) above countertop 24" (600 mm) above sink 30" (750 mm) above range
TABLE 101 Cabinet Dimensions
of food bar located in a peninsula. If a counter 30" (750 mm) high is provided, chairs can be used with it. The other heights will require stools for seating. When the food bar is the same height as the other counters, the counter area will seem much larger than when two different heights are used. A width of 12" (300 mm) will provide sufficient space for eating. If the food bar is higher than the other kitchen cabinets, it can be used as a visual shield to hide clutter in the kitchen.
be placed to promote easy movement between work areas. The sink should be near the cooking units and the refrigerator to facilitate the preparation of fresh foods. Provide a minimum of 48" (1200 mm) between counters to accommodate someone working at the sink and another person walking behind him or her. Try to avoid placing the sink and dishwasher on different counters, even if they would be just around the corner from each other. Such a layout often leads to accidents from water dripping onto the floor. Refrigerator. Typically a space 36" (900 mm) wide is provided for the refrigerator similar to Figure 10-35. If a built-in or refrigerator similar to the unit in Figure 10-44 is used, a space ranging from 36" to 48" (900 to 1200 mm) wide × 24" to 28" (600 to 700 mm) deep × 84" (2100 mm) high should be allowed. To ease unloading of groceries, the refrigerator should be placed near the service entry. The refrigerator should be placed at the end of a counter, so that it will not divide the counter into small work spaces. If it must be placed near a cabinet corner, allow a minimum of 15" (375 mm) in the corner for access to the back of
Arrangement of Appliances Many home owners prefer the sink to be located in front of a window, but a location with a view into other living areas is also popular. Placement of the sink at a window allows for supervision of outdoor activities and provides a source of light at this workstation. Because of its placement at a window, the sink is often located first as the kitchen is being planned. The sink should also
42" HIGH FOOD BAR
36" HIGH FOOD BAR
30" HIGH FOOD BAR
FIGURE 1043 Common arrangements of food bars.
FIGURE 1044 If a home is to include a built-in refrigerator, the designer will need to verify the exact size of the unit to be used. Courtesy Dick Schmitke.
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used. Cooktops are available in widths of 30", 36", 42", and 48" (750, 900, 1050, and 1200 mm). Oven units are typically 27", 30", or 33" (675, 750, or 825 mm) wide. The bottom of the oven is typically 30" (750 mm) above the floor. Avoid placing a stove next to a refrigerator, a trash compactor, or a storage area for produce or breads.
FIGURE 1045 Many homes use a range combining all of the cooking needs in one central location. Courtesy Sam Griggs.
Microwave. A microwave unit may be placed above the oven unit, but the height of each unit above the floor should be considered in regard to the height of the clients. A microwave mounted with the bottom of the appliance between 30" to 48"(750 to 1200 mm) above the floor and near the daily eating area often proves to be very practical. Provide a counter 15" (375 mm) wide beside the microwave for placing hot dishes coming out of the unit.
the counter. A minimum of 15" (375 mm) of counter space should be provided on the latch side of a singledoor refrigerator, and on both sides of a side-by-side unit. If space cannot be provided adjacent to the refrigerator, provide a counter within 48" (1200 mm) across from the refrigerator. The location must also be convenient for access to the sink for food preparation and to the cooking areas for food storage. The refrigerator should be placed within 60" to 72" (1500 to 1800 mm) of both the sink and the cooking center. If possible, it should be placed so that the door will not block traffic through the work triangle. Avoid placing the refrigerator beside an oven.
Breadboard. In addition to the major kitchen appliances, care must be given to other details such as breadboards, counter work spaces, and specialized storage areas. The breadboard should be placed near the sink and the stove but not in a corner. Ideally, a minimum of 15" (375 mm) of counter space can be placed between appliances to allow for food preparation. Specialized storage often needs to be considered to meet clients’ needs. These needs will be covered as cabinets are explained in Chapter 26.
Range. The cooking units should be located near the daily eating area. The range, similar to Figure 10-45, should be placed so that the person using it will not be standing in the path of traffic flowing through the kitchen. This will reduce the chance of hot utensils being knocked from the cooking elements. Ranges should be placed so that there is approximately 18" (450 mm) of counter space between the unit and the end of the counter to prevent burns to people passing by. If a food bar is provided behind and at the same height as the cooking surface, provide a minimum space of 9" (225 mm) behind the cooking surface. Stoves should not be placed within 18" (450 mm) of an interior cabinet corner. This precaution will allow the oven door to be open and still allow access to the interior cabinet. A walkway 48" (1200 mm) wide should be provided to allow someone to walk behind a person working at the stove.
For most kitchens a cabinet or an under-cabinet rack similar to Figure 10-46A is adequate for wine storage. In custom homes, a special room may be requested for storing wine. Although this is referred to as a wine cellar, it could be as simple as a small, insulated closet near the kitchen or family room, a small storage area located under a stairwell, or an environmentally controlled room specifically designed for the storage of fine wines. The location and size will vary based on the budget, the number of bottles to be stored, and the availability of a basement. A temperature of 55°F, a relative humidity of 60% to 65%, and low exposure to ultraviolet light exposure are ideal for long-term wine storage. The cool temperature slows the aging process, while the high humidity prevents moisture inside the wine bottle from moving into the cork and eventually evaporating into the air. Placing the wine storage area in a naturally cool location such as a basement may eliminate the need for a cooling unit. While some basements in northern climates may naturally provide these conditions, the basements of most
Cooktop. A cooktop and oven should be within three or four steps of each other if separate units are to be
Wine Cellar
200
FIGURE 1046A An under-counter wine storage area is common in many kitchens. Courtesy Judy Schmitke.
homes are too warm and dry to passively provide the ideal conditions for wine storage. Most storage units require the use of a wine cellar cooling unit. Wine cellars installed above ground will require active conditioning to achieve the ideal wine cellar environment. Figure 10-46B shows a small wine cellar.
Utility Room The room that is called a utility room or mudroom should be planned to include space for washing, drying, folding, mending, ironing, and storing clothes. Additional space is often used for long-term storage of dry and canned food, as well as for a freezer. Figure 10-47 shows a small utility room. In a wellplanned clothing center, a means of hanging wet clothing should be provided in addition to the standard clothes dryer. A counter for folding and storing clean clothes as well as a closet for hanging clothes as they come out of the dryer should also be included. A built-in ironing board should be provided as well. Figure 10-48 shows common items found in a utility room. Utility rooms are often placed near either the bedrooms or the kitchen area. There are advantages to
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 1046B A wine cellar can be located in an insulated room near the kitchen or family room, or in a cool area of the basement. Courtesy Karen Griggs.
both locations. Placing the utility room near the bath and sleeping areas puts the washer and dryer near the primary source of laundry. Care must be taken to insulate the sleeping area from the noise of the washer and dryer. Placing the utilities near the kitchen allows for a much better traffic flow between the two major work areas of the home. A utility room near the kitchen can often provide space for additional kitchen storage. In smaller homes, the laundry facilities may be enclosed in a closet near the kitchen. In warm climates, laundry equipment may be placed in the garage or carport. In homes with a basement, laundry facilities are often placed near the water heater source. Many home owners find that laundry rooms in a basement are too separated from the living areas. If bedrooms are on the upper floor, a laundry chute to the utility room can be a nice convenience. The utility room often has a door leading to the exterior. This allows the utility room to function as a mudroom. Entry can be made from the outside directly into the mudroom, where dirty clothes can be removed. This allows for cleanup near the service entry and helps keep the rest of the house clean. Figure 10-49A shows
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DINING
DW
KIT REFR
5 SHELVES
UTIL WASH
DRY
GARAGE
LT
FIGURE 1049A The utility room may serve as a service entry where dirty clothes can be removed as the home is entered.
FIGURE 1047 A small utility room near the kitchen can be used for additional kitchen storage as well as for washing, drying, and folding clothes. Courtesy Cary Gleason.
this type of utility layout. Another common use for a utility room is to provide an area for sewing and ironing similar to Figure 10-49B.
Bonus Room
budget allows. Many plans show this space as unfinished attic space, but plan for future conversion to living area as the need arises. The unused attic can be turned into living space similar to that in Figure 10-50 if access can be provided. A hallway connected to other upper-level living areas typically provides access. The use of bonus rooms is determined by the home owner.
GARAGE 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. WALL & CEIL. W.H.
DRY
L.S.
30" HIGH COUNTER W/ KNEE SPACE
UTILITY
WASH
BRM IR
Homes with a high-pitched roof often have space above the main living area or above the garage that can be converted from attic space into extra living space if the
S.P.
F.A.U
O N BD
LT
W
D DW G.D.
SEWING CENTER
FIGURE 1048 Common utility room appliances.
FOLD-DN IRON BD.
KITCHEN
3 SHELVES
REFR
SK
5 SHELVES
.
DBL T.C. OVEN
PAN
FIGURE 1049B This utility room provides a service entry, spacious layout for laundry chores, a sewing center, and plenty of storage.
202
FIGURE 1050 What might have been unused attic space can often be turned into living space as a bonus room. Courtesy Leta Allmain.
Common uses for the area include a family room, additional sleeping areas, or a home office. When a bonus room is used for one of these purposes, windows must be provided to meet code requirements for light, ventilation, and emergency egress. Dormers are usually provided to meet building code requirements. Verify code requirements for each of these requirements as well as minimum wall heights in Chapter 9. See Chapter 22 for a discussion of dormers.
Architectural Drafting and Design
bike to an in-house weight room or gymnasium. If an exercise room will be provided, space for the equipment should be provided, as well as hallways and doors that are wide enough to provide access. The room should be near a bathroom, or it may have its own bath in larger custom homes. Features such as a steam room, sauna, and massage room are also located close to the exercise room. Figure 10-51 shows a full health center created for a custom home. An interior lap pool such as the pool shown in Figure 10-52 is common for many custom homes. When included, consideration must be given to venting the hot, moist air displaced by the pool. Consideration must also be given to the additional structural needs associated with the exercise equipment.
Garage or Carport Believe it or not, some people actually park their car in the garage. For those who do not, the garage often becomes a storage area, a second family room, or a place for the water heater and furnace. The minimum space for a single car is 11' × 20' (3300 × 6000 mm).
Exercise Center An exercise center or health center can range from a spare bedroom that will be used to store an exercise
FIGURE 1051 A full weight room is often provided in many custom homes. This room includes access to a bathroom through the left door, and a sauna located to the right. Courtesy BOWA Builders, Inc. Photo by Jim Tetro.
FIGURE 1052 A lap pool is sometimes included in exclusive custom homes. Designing a ventilation or dehumidification system is critical in the planning stages. Courtesy Dean Benfit.
Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes
The minimum practical space for two cars should be 21' × 21' (6300 × 6300 mm). These sizes provide enough room to open doors and to walk around the car. Additional space should also be included for a workbench. A garage 22' × 24' (6600 × 7200 mm) provides for parking, storage, and room to walk around. Many custom homes include enclosed parking for three cars. Consideration is often given for parking a boat, truck, camper, or recreational vehicle. Space should be planned in the garage or in a separate storage location for the lawn mower and other yard equipment. Additional space must be provided if a post is located near the center of the garage to support an upper floor. It will also be helpful if a required post can be located off center from front to back so that it will not interfere with the opening of car doors. The garage location is often dictated by the site. Although access and size are important, the garage should be designed to blend with the residence. Many home owners prefer that the garage doors not be seen from the street as the home is being approached. Clients usually have a preference for either one large single door or smaller doors for each parking space. A single door 8' wide × 7' high (2400 × 2100 mm) is common. A door 9' (2700 mm) wide is the smallest that should be used for a truck with wide-side mirrors, or for most boat trailers. A double door is typically 16' (4800 mm) wide. Aside from the owner’s preference, posts required to support upper floors may influence the type of door to be used. Typically, the space between doors will be based on the amount of space needed inside the garage to allow car doors to open without hitting anything. When multiple single doors are to be used, consideration should be given to lateral bracing for the front of the garage. Although a good engineer can make any structure stand up, keeping the space between doors to a minimum and increasing the size of the walls at each outer edge of the garage can minimize the cost of keeping the front wall rigid. Chapter 32 will explore lateral bracing in more detail. As a general guideline, do not let structural considerations dictate the initial design. A 32" (800 mm) wide door should be installed to provide access from the garage to the yard. In areas where cars do not need to be protected from the weather, a carport can be an inexpensive alternative to a garage. Provide lockable storage space on one side of the carport if possible. This can usually be provided between the supports at the exterior end.
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TRAFFIC PATTERNS A well-designed home must consider the relationship of the rooms to each other, the flow from the interior to the exterior, and the rooms’ relationship to the site and orientation of the sun.
Interior Traffic A key aspect of any design is the traffic flow between areas of the residence. Traffic flow is the route that people follow as they move from one area to another. Often this means hallways, but areas of a room are also used to aid circulation. Rooms should be of sufficient size to allow circulation through the room without disturbing the use of the room. By careful arrangements of doors, traffic can flow around furniture rather than through conversation or work areas.
Interior Hallways Codes that cover the width of hallways were covered in Chapter 9. Good design practice will provide a width of 36" to 48" (900 to 1200 mm) for circulation pathways. A space of 48" (1200 mm) is appropriate for pathways that are used frequently, such as those that connect main living areas. Pathways used less frequently can be smaller. In addition to hallways, the entries of a residence are important in controlling traffic flow.
Traffic between Floor Levels In addition to considering traffic flow between rooms, it is important to determine how the levels of a home will relate to each other. The ideal location for stairs is off a central hallway. Many floor plans locate the stairs in or near the main entry similar to Figure 10-53 to provide an attractive focal point in the entry, as well as convenient access to upper areas. Stairs should be located for convenient flow from each floor level and should not require access through another room. The location will also be influenced by how often the stairs will be used. Stairs serving mechanical equipment in a basement will be used less frequently than stairs connecting the family room to other living areas.
Traffic Flow between Interior and Exterior Areas Just as important as how the major interior areas relate to each other is the traffic flow between each of these areas and exterior areas. A well-planned home will expand the inside living areas to outside areas such
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FIGURE 1054 A sunroom is a multipurpose room that can be used as a reading room, a breakfast room, or a music room, or as extra space for entertaining while providing transition between interior and exterior spaces. Courtesy Marvin Windows and Doors.
FIGURE 1053 Many floor plan designs locate the stairs in or near the main entry to serve as a focal point in the foyer. Courtesy Dick Carroll.
as courtyards, patios, decks, balconies, and porches. Sunrooms and solariums are interior areas that combine interior and exterior features. Exterior structures that enhance outdoor living include gazebos and arbors. Each should be planned so that it blends with the overall design of the home. A sunroom or solarium is a common way to bring the outside into the interior living areas. A sunroom is a multipurpose room, similar to the one shown in Figure 10-54 that can be used as a reading room, a breakfast room, a music room, or as extra space for entertaining while providing transition between the interior and exterior spaces. A solarium is typically associated with passive solar heating, but the room also provides an excellent location for casual living and may include a lap pool, a spa, or an area for indoor gardening. Each of these uses will require that ventilation, sun orientation, and views are carefully planned. Chapter 12 will introduce materials to help in planning a sunroom or solarium. Figure 10-55 shows a solarium used to provide added room for entertainment and to enclose a spa. Most of the terms describing exterior areas are strictly defined and regulated by building codes, but the use of
FIGURE 1055 A solarium can provide an excellent location for casual living and may include a lap pool, spa, or an area for indoor gardening. Courtesy Sunbilt Solar Products.
Chapter 10: Room Relationships and Sizes
FIGURE 1056 A patio designed to provide an elegant extension of the living areas to the outside. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Lawrence Taylor.
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Balconies and decks are elevated floors. The IRC defines a deck as an exterior floor supported on at least two opposing sides by adjoining structures, posts, or piers. Figure 10-57 shows a covered deck supported by columns on the upper floor of a home. A balcony is an above-ground deck that projects from a wall or building with no additional supports. Although a porch is not defined by the building code, a common perception is that it is an enclosed patio or deck, as in Figure 10-58. In some areas of the country, the term enclosed would refer to walls, windows, doors, and a roofed area. In warmer areas of the country, enclosed may include only a roof or awning-type covering to protect the area from sunlight, insects, or other natural elements. The usefulness of an outdoor area
these terms by the general public will vary slightly. The IRC defines a court as an exterior space that is at grade level, is enclosed on three or more sides by walls or a building, and is open and unobstructed to the sky. The courtyard provides an excellent screen, allowing privacy for outdoor living in the front yard and a secure play area for young children. Courtyards can be used as an extension of the living, dining, and family rooms by providing a patio or deck and landscaped areas. A patio is a ground-level exterior entertaining area made of concrete, stone, brick, or treated wood. The patio in Figure 10-56 is designed to provide an elegant extension of the living areas to the outside. It provides good access to the interior, ample areas of sunny and shaded seating, and room for pool activities.
FIGURE 1057 What many would consider the balcony or veranda of this historic southern home is considered a deck by building codes. The IRC defines a deck as an exterior floor that is supported on at least two opposing sides by adjoining structures, posts, or piers. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Oscar Thomson.
FIGURE 1058 An enclosed porch can provide outdoor living protected from insects and weather. Courtesy California Redwood Association. Waters, Cluts, and O’Brian Architect; photo by Saari Forai.
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may be greatly increased if it is enclosed by screens, plastic, or glass panels. Gazebos and arbors are freestanding structures that provide protection from the elements. Common uses include protected outdoor eating areas, covered pools, or spas. Most families will require one or more outdoor entertaining areas. To determine which areas are to be included in a home, designers must consider needs, function, location, orientation, climate, and size. Key questions to be considered with the client include: ● ● ● ●
When will the area be used? Who will use it? What activities are planned for the area? Will traffic flow through the area?
Areas that may need to be provided include a play area for children; seating for dining, quiet activities, or lounging in the sun; and space for outdoor games such as Ping-Pong, shuffleboard, and tennis. Common to most outdoor entertainment areas of custom homes is an outdoor kitchen similar to Figure 10-59. A patio or deck that will be used for outdoor eating will have different size requirements if a pool or spa is to be included. A deck will seem smaller than a patio of the same size because of the addition of a rail. Any deck, patio, or balcony is required to have a guardrail when the finished floor height is 30" (750 mm) or more above the finish grade or floor below. A balcony as small as 36" (900 mm) wide can be used to place a lawn chair in a sunny spot for one person. A minimum balcony width of 48" (1200 mm) should be provided for two or more
FIGURE 1059 Covered patios and creative landscaping can be used to beautify outdoor living areas. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Photo by Oscar Thomson.
Architectural Drafting and Design
small chairs, to allow access. The minimum space for patios and decks that will include a seating and traffic area is 10' × 14' (3000 × 4200 mm). Once the function is determined, the location of the deck or patio must be considered. A patio or deck located near main living areas will need to incorporate traffic flow in addition to the space required for its own functions. Exterior areas located near a bedroom or bathroom suite should have some type of screen or landscaping to provide privacy. Figure 10-60 shows how landscaping can be incorporated into the design to provide a sense of privacy and beauty. A designer must consider the orientation of the outdoor area and the local climate. A balcony or deck may be placed on the west side of a home in a northern region to take advantage of the sun. In a southern region, designing for shade will be of great importance. Just as important as the movement of the sun will be prevailing wind directions and the view. Chapter 13 will discuss methods of designing homes to enhance the relationship of the home to terrain, view, sun, wind, and sound.
FIGURE 1060 Landscaping can be an effective way to enhance outdoor living. Courtesy Sherry Benfit.
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GOING GREEN Green Design Considerations You may not have thought about it as you read this chapter, but the design concepts presented throughout this chapter are based on green construction and energy efficient design. Green design is much more than specifying appliances that are certified efficient by the Energy Star program. A key element of green design is the process of designing a home so that it blends with its environment aesthetically, flows with the terrain with minimal impact on the natural resources, and takes advantage of prevailing winds to heat and cool the home. Good planning involves designing each room of the house so that it functions well with adjoining rooms. Good environmental planning requires not only that the home meets the design criteria of the family, but it must also make efficient use of the movement of the sun throughout the day and the entire year. By arranging the required living, sleeping, and service areas of a home based on the site and its orientation to the sun, the efficiency of the home’s heating and cooling systems can
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
• Placing the kitchen near the utility room to minimize the steps required between two major work areas. • Placing the laundry utilities near where the majority of laundry will be created to greatly reduce travel distances. • Placing a kitchen window to allow for supervision of the play area of small children. • Designing the location of appliances so that heat produced by the appliance can be an asset to the living area and not be detrimental to items in surrounding storage areas.
See CD for more information
One of the best ways to improve your ability to design pleasing homes is to look at successful designs. Excellent sources for review include magazines, television, and the Internet. To increase your reading options, use your favorite search engine and research major listings such as architectural magazines, interior design magazines, and home magazines. Magazines used by designers include: Architect’s Journal Architectural Design Architectural Digest Better Homes and Gardens Building Design & Construction Country Home Country Living Design Architecture
be enhanced, and the energy used to maintain the inside environment can be greatly reduced. The layout of features within the home also contributes to the efficiency of the occupants of the home. A welldesigned floor plan will minimize travel distances from major areas of the home to enhance efficient living. Small things such as:
Design Times DesignLine (AIBD) Home Home Design House Beautiful In Style Kitchen & Bath Design News Metropolitan Home
If you have access to cable or satellite television, channels such as HGTV and TLC provide an excellent selection of programs that explore architectural design, interior design, and construction. New programs are aired each season, so be sure to check program listings
or the Web sites for your favorite station for available programs. Current popular programs include: 24 Hour Design Awesome Interiors Before & After Classic Casual Living Curb Appeal Decorating Cents Decorating with Style Designed to Sell Designers’ Challenge Devine Design Dream House
House Hunters Interiors by Design Kitchen Designs Pure Design Room by Room This Old House Classics This Small Space What You Get for the Money World’s Most Extreme Homes
Information about each program can be obtained by contacting http://www.hgtv.com, http://www.tlc.discovery. com, or by using a search engine to search the Internet. Other Web sites that promote interior design include: Address www.aibd.org
Company, Product, or Service American Institute of Building Design
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www.arcadiandesign.net www.aham.org www.decoratorsecrets.com www.about.com www.iida.com www.kcma.org www.maplefloor.org www.marble-institute.com www.nspi.org
Architectural Drafting and Design
Arcadian Residential Design Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers Decorator Secrets Home-planning guide on the Internet International Interior Design Association Kitchen Cabinet Manufacturers Association Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association, Inc. Marble Institute of America National Spa and Pool Institute
www.glasswebsite.com/nsa www.wineracksamerica.com
National Sunroom Association Wine Cellar Design
The best way to improve your skills is to visit open homes. Walking through a wide variety of homes and construction sites will help you visualize the materials you will be drawing. As you walk through homes, it may be helpful to take measurements of each room and develop a list of sizes that you find pleasing or confining. Photographing homes and their decor is an additional method to help you remember fine details of interior design. Photos of each area of a home can be a valuable aid in your future as you help clients define their taste.
Room Relationships and Sizes Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 10 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it. 3. Answers should be based on the code that governs your area, unless otherwise noted.
Question 10–1 What are the three main areas of a home? Question 10–2 How much closet area should be provided for each bedroom? Question 10–3 What rooms should the kitchen be near? Why? Question 10–4 What are the functions of a utility room? Question 10–5 Give the standard size of a two-car garage. Question 10–6 List five functions of a family room. Question 10–7 What are the advantages of placing bedrooms on an upper floor? Question 10–8 What are the advantages of placing bedrooms on a lower floor? Question 10–9 List four design criteria to consider in planning a dining room.
Question 10–10 What are the service areas of the home? Question 10–11 List and describe two types of entries. Question 10–12 Using the Internet, research five sources of information about the design of a home theater. Question 10–13 Describe the use of a foyer in a home. Question 10–14 Describe the difference between a formal and a casual living room. Question 10–15 What should be considered when determining living room placement? Question 10–16 You are designing a home for a family with no children. The clients insist on having only one bedroom. How would you counsel them? Question 10–17 Visit several open homes in your area and take pictures or obtain floor plans of a minimum of five different master bedroom suites. Question 10–18 Visit several different home supply stores or use the Internet to obtain information on several different closet storage options. Question 10–19 Redesign Figure 10-32 to allow access from the entry to the dining room without passing through the living room or kitchen. Question 10–20 Use the Internet to visit builder organizations such as the National Association of Home Builders. Research current issues affecting home building in your region.
CHAPTER 11
Exterior Design Factors I
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The design of a house does not stop once the room arrangements have been determined. The exterior of the residence must also be considered. Often a client has a certain style in mind that will dictate the layout of the floor plan. In this chapter, ideas will be presented to help you better understand the design process. To design a residence properly, consideration must be given to the site, the style and shape of the floor plan, exterior styles, and the energy efficiency of the design. Site considerations will be explored in Chapter 13 and energy-efficient design will be explored in Chapter 12.
determine what may or may not be built. Although once found only in the most exclusive neighborhoods, review boards are now common in undeveloped subdivisions, recreational areas, and retirement areas. These boards often set standards for minimum square footage, height limitations, and the type and color of siding and roofing materials. A potential home owner or designer is usually required to submit preliminary designs to the review board showing floor plans and exterior elevations.
Access
SITE CONSIDERATIONS Several site factors affect the design of a house. Among the most important are the neighborhood and access to the lot. For a complete description of each item, see Section 3.
Site access can have a major effect on the design of the house. The narrower the lot, the more access will affect the location of the entry and the garage. Figure 11-1 shows typical access and garage locations for a narrow lot with access from one side. Usually only a straight driveway is used on interior lots because of space restrictions.
Neighborhood In the initial planning of a residence, the neighborhood must be considered. It is extremely poor judgment to design a $500,000 residence in a neighborhood of $150,000 houses. This is not to say that the occupants will be unable to coexist with their neighbors, but the house will have poor resale value because of the lower value of the houses in the rest of the neighborhood. The style of the houses in the neighborhood should also be considered. Not all houses should look alike, but some unity of design can help preserve high values for all the properties in the neighborhood.
Review Boards To help keep the values of the neighborhood uniform, many areas have architectural control committees. These are review boards made up of residents who
FIGURE 111 Access to an inner lot is limited by the street and garage location.
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When a plan is being developed for a corner lot, there is much more flexibility in garage and house placement. To enhance livability, some municipalities are moving away from the layouts shown in Figure 11-1. Traditional layout has produced what is referred to as a snout house, meaning a home that is dominated by a view of the garage. In a design where the home is dominated by the garage, the main entrance to the home is often secondary to the entrance for cars, and the driveway often dominates the front yard. In an attempt to eliminate barriers between homes and enhance visibility, building covenants may call for: ●
At least one main entrance to the house that meets one of the following requirements: ❍
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The main entrance can be no further than 6'–0" (1800 mm) behind the longest wall of the house that faces the street. The main entry must face the street, or be at an angle of up to 45°.
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At least 15% of the area of the street-facing facade of the home must be windows.
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The length of the garage wall facing the street may not be greater than 50% of the length of the entire facade of the home.
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A garage wall that faces a street may be no closer to the street property line than the longest street-facing wall of the home (see Figure 11-2).
SMALL REAR YARD NO PRIVACY
FIGURE 113 A pleasing relationship between the residence and the garage.
Figure 11-3 shows an example of a pleasing relationship between the garage and the balance of the home. Another popular way to make a neighborhood more livable is to remove the garage altogether from the front of the site. Many planned areas have moved the garage to the rear of the site so that no driveway or parking is provided on the entry or front side of the home. Automobile access is provided to the rear of the lot by an alley. When a residence is being planned for a rural site, weather and terrain can affect access. Studying weather patterns at the site will help reveal areas of the lot that may be inaccessible during parts of the year because of poor water drainage or drifted snow. The shape of the land will determine where the access to the house can be placed. Figure 11-4 shows a garage carefully blended into a home on a large site.
ENLARGED REAR YARD IMPROVED PRIVACY
POOR VISIBILITY IMPROVED VISIBILITY
FIGURE 112 By limiting the distance that the garage can project from the balance of the home, visibility is improved, which promotes a friendlier neighborhood atmosphere.
FIGURE 114 On larger sites, the entrance to the garage can often be moved away from the main entry. Courtesy David Jefferis.
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FIGURE 116 Horizontal lines can be used to accent the length, or hide the height, of a structure. Courtesy Western Red Cedar Lumber Association.
FIGURE 115 Curved lines are used to provide smooth transitions and accent a structure. Courtesy California Redwood Association.
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN The elements of design are the tools the designer uses to create a structure that will be both functional and pleasing to the eye. These tools are line, form, color, and texture.
Horizontal surfaces often create a sense of relaxation and peacefulness. Vertical lines create an illusion of height; they lead the eye upward and tend to provide a sense of strength and stability. Vertical lines are often used in columns, windows, trim, and siding patterns similar to the home in Figure 11-7. Diagonal lines can often be used to create a sense of transition. Diagonal lines are typically used in rooflines and siding patterns.
Form Lines are used to produce forms or shapes. Rectangles, squares, circles, ovals, and ellipses are the most common shapes found in structures. These shapes are typically three-dimensional, and the proportions between them are important to design. For the best results, the form of a structure should be dictated by its function. Forms are typically used to accent
Line Line provides a sense of direction or movement in the design of a structure and helps relate it to the site and the natural surroundings. Lines may be curved, horizontal, vertical, or diagonal and can accent or disguise features of a structure. Curved lines in a design tend to provide a soft, graceful feeling. Curves are often used in decorative arches, curved walls, and round windows and doorways. Figure 11-5 shows how curved surfaces can be used to accent a structure. Horizontal lines are typically seen in long roof or floor shapes, window layout, siding trim, balconies, and siding patterns. Horizontal features in a structure can be used to minimize the height and maximize the width of a home, as seen in Figure 11-6.
FIGURE 117 Vertical lines can be used to accent the height of a structure. Courtesy Louisiana-Pacific Corporation.
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FIGURE 118 Forms such as rectangles, circles, and ovals are used to provide interest. Courtesy Louisiana-Pacific Corporation.
specific features of a structure. Figure 11-8 shows how form can be used to break up the length of a residence. Form is also used to create a sense of security. For example, large columns provide a greater sense of stability than thinner columns.
Color Color is an integral part of interior design and decorating and helps distinguish exterior materials and accent shapes. A pleasing blend of colors creates a dramatic difference in the final appearance of any structure. Color is described by the terms hue, value, and intensity. Hue represents what you typically think of as the color. Colors are categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary on a color wheel similar to Figure 11-9. Primary colors—red, yellow, and blue—cannot be created from
any other color. All other colors are made by mixing, darkening, or lightening primary colors. Secondary colors—orange, green, and violet—are made from an equal combination of two primary colors. Mixing a primary color with a secondary color will produce a tertiary or intermediate color—for example, red-orange, yellow-orange, yellow-green, blue-green, blue-violet, and red-violet. Mixing each of the primary colors in equal amounts will produce black. Mixing black with a color will darken the color, producing a shade of the original color. White has no color pigment and gray is a mixture of black and white. Adding white to a color lightens the original color, producing a tint. Value is the darkening or lightening of a hue. Intensity is the brightness or strength of a specific color. A color is brightened as its purity is increased by removing neutralizing factors. Sports cars often have high-intensity colors. A color is softened by adding the color that is directly opposite it on the color wheel. Low-intensity colors such as mint green are used to create a calming effect. Colors are also classified as warm or cool. Colors seen in warm objects, such as the reds and oranges of burning coals, are warm colors. Warm colors tend to make objects appear larger or closer than they really are. Blues, greens, and violet are cool colors. These colors often make objects appear farther away. Most designers use neutral colors for the major portions of a home and rely on the trim and roofing for accent colors. Color can be added through landscaping and interior design features.
Texture WA RM
TERTIARY RED-VIOLET
PRIMARY RED
TERTIARY RED-ORANGE
SECONDARY VIOLET
SECONDARY ORANGE
TERTIARY BLUE-VIOLET
TERTIARY YELLOW-ORANGE
PRIMARY BLUE
PRIMARY YELLOW
TERTIARY BLUE-GREEN
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SECONDARY GREEN
TERTIARY YELLOW-GREEN
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FIGURE 119 The color wheel shows primary, secondary, and tertiary colors. These categories are then divided into warm and cool colors.
Texture, which refers to the roughness or smoothness of an object, is an important factor in selecting materials to complete a structure. Rough surfaces tend to create a feeling of strength and security—examples include concrete masonry and rough-sawn wood. Rough surfaces also give an illusion of reduced height. Resawn wood, plastic, glass, and most metals have a very smooth surface and create a sense of luxury. A smooth surface tends to give an illusion of increased height; also, it reflects more light and makes colors seem brighter.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN Line, form, color, and texture are the tools of design. The principles of design affect how these tools are used to create an aesthetically pleasing structure. The basic principles to be considered are rhythm, balance, proportion, and unity.
Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors
FIGURE 1110 Repetitive features lead the eye from form to form. Courtesy Monier.
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FIGURE 1111 Formal balance places features evenly along an imaginary center line. Courtesy Aaron Jefferis.
Rhythm Most people can usually recognize rhythm in music. The beat of a drum is a repetitive element that sets the foot tapping. In design, a repetitive element provides rhythm and leads the eye through the design from one place to another in an orderly fashion. Rhythm can also be created by a gradual change in materials, shape, and color. Gradation in materials could be from rough to smooth, gradation in shape from large to small, and gradation in color from dark to light. Rhythm can also be created with a pattern that appears to radiate outward from a central point. A consistent pattern of shapes, sizes, or material can create a house that is pleasing to the eye as well as provide a sense of ease for the inhabitants and convey a sense of equilibrium. Figure 11-10 shows elements of rhythm in a structure.
FIGURE 1112 Informal balance is achieved by moving the center line away from the mathematical center of a structure and altering the sizes and shapes of objects on each side of the center line.
Balance Balance is the relationship between the various areas of the structure and an imaginary center line. Balance may be formal or informal. Formal balance is symmetrical; one side of the structure matches the opposite side in size. The residence in Figure 11-11 is an example of formal balance. Its two sides are similar in mass. Informal balance is asymmetrical; in this case, balance can be achieved by placing shapes of different sizes in various positions around the imaginary center line. This type of balance can be seen in Figure 11-12.
Proportion Proportion is related to both size and balance. It can be thought of in terms of size, as in Figure 11-13, where one exterior area is compared with another. Many
FIGURE 1113 Shapes that are related by size and shape create a pleasing flow from form to form. Courtesy Saundra Powell.
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current design standards are based on the designs of the ancient Greeks. Rectangles using the proportions 2:3, 3:5, and 5:8 are generally considered very pleasing. Proportion can also be thought of in terms of how a residence relates to its environment. Proportions must also be considered inside the house. A house with a large living and family area needs to have the rest of the structure in proportion. In large rooms the height must also be considered. A 24' × 34' (7200 × 10 200 mm) family room is too large to have flat ceiling 8' high. This standard-height ceiling would be out of proportion to the room size. A ceiling 10' high, or a vaulted ceiling, would be much more in keeping with the size of the room.
Unity Unity relates to rhythm, balance, and proportion. Unity ties a structure together with a common design or decorating pattern. Similar features that relate to each other can give a sense of well-being. Avoid adding features to a building that appear to just be there or tacked on (see Figure 11-14). As an architectural drafter, you should be looking for these basic elements in residences that you see. Walk through houses at every opportunity to see how other designers have used these design basics. Many magazines are available that feature interior and exterior home designs. Study the photos for pleasing relationships and develop a scrapbook of styles and layouts that are pleasing to you. This will provide valuable resource material as you advance in your drafting career and become a designer or architect.
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 1115 A single-level residence is popular because it allows stair-free access to each area. Courtesy Pamela Russom, American PolySteel.
FLOOR PLAN STYLES Many clients come to a designer with specific ideas about the kind and number of levels they want in a house. Some clients want a home with only one level so that no stairs will be required. For other clients, the levels in the house are best determined by the topography of the lot. Common floor plan layouts are singlelevel, split-level, daylight basement, two-story, dormer, and multilevel.
Single-Level The single-level house (Figure 11-15) has become one of the most common styles. It is a standard of many builders because it provides stair-free access to all rooms, which makes it attractive to people with limited mobility. It is also preferred by many home owners because it is easy to maintain and can be used with a variety of exterior styles.
Split-Level
FIGURE 1114 Unity is a blend of varied shapes and sizes to create a pleasing appearance. Courtesy California Redwood Association. Waters, Cluts, and O’Brian Architects; photo by Saari Forai.
The split-level plan (Figure 11-16) is an attempt to combine the features of a one- and a two-story residence. This style is best suited to sloping sites, which allow one area of the house to be two stories and another area to be one story. Many clients like the reduced number of steps from one level to another that is found in the split-level design. The cost of construction is usually greater for a split-level plan than for a single-level structure of the same size because of the increased foundation cost that the sloping lot will require.
Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors
FIGURE 1116 Homes with split floor levels are ideal for gently sloping sites. Courtesy LeRoy Cook.
Split-level plans may be split from side to side or front to back. In side-to-side split-levels, the front entrance and the main living areas are typically located on one level, with the sleeping area located over the garage and service areas. In front-to-rear splits, the front of the residence is typically level with the street, with the rear portion stepping to match the contour of the building site.
Daylight Basement The style of house called daylight basement could be either a one-story house over a basement or garage, or two complete living levels. This style of house is well suited for a sloping lot. From the high side of the lot, the house will appear to be a one-level structure. From the low side of the lot, both levels of the structure can be seen (see Figure 11-17).
FIGURE 1117 A home with a daylight basement allows living areas on the lower level to have access to the exterior on one or more sides of the home, while looking like a one-level home on the opposite side. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
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FIGURE 1118 Two-level homes provide the maximum square footage of living area using the minimum amount of the lot.
Two-Story A two-story house (Figure 11-18) provides many options for families that do not mind stairs. Living and sleeping areas can be easily separated, and a minimum of land will be used for the building site. On a sloping lot, depending on the access, the living area can be on either the upper or lower level. The most popular feature of a two-level layout is that it provides the maximum building area at a lower cost per square foot than other styles of houses. This saving results because less material is used on the foundation, exterior walls, and roof.
Dormer The dormer style allows an upper level that is usually about half of the square footage of the lower floor. This use of dormers is best suited to an exterior style that incorporates a steep roof similar to Figure 11-19. These small dormers, often called doghouse dormers,
FIGURE 1119 Dormer-style home. Courtesy Matthew Jefferis.
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FIGURE 1120 Multilevel homes provide endless possibilities for floor-level arrangements on sloping sites.
allow space for windows into the living space in the attic. Another common type of dormer is a full dormer that allows a room with full headroom to be added to the edge of the attic space. The dormer level is formed in what would have been the attic area. The dormer has many of the same economic features as a two-story home. Chapter 22 will explore other types of dormers as roof construction is explored.
Multilevel With a multilevel layout, the possibilities for floor levels are endless. Site topography as much as the owners’ living habits will dictate this style. Figure 11-20 shows a multilevel layout. The cost for this type of home exceeds all other styles because of the problems of excavation, foundation construction, and roof intersections.
EXTERIOR STYLES Exterior style is often based on past styles of houses. New homes usually do not try to replicate the exact layout of past styles of homes, but they typically do try to copy the exterior style and charm associated with a specific historic style. The balance of this chapter will examine home styles that were common to the original settlers. Styles will be explored based on the time period of their popularity and the area of the world where the style originated.
Colonial The early colonists lived in log cabins. Many companies now sell plans and precut kits for assembling log houses. Many of the colonial houses were similar
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 1121 Dating back to historical New England, colonial homes are very symmetrical, with windows equally spaced on both sides of the main entry. Courtesy Michael Jefferis.
in style to the houses that had been left behind in Europe. Construction methods and materials were varied because of the weather and building materials available. Many colonial home styles date back to historical New England. A colonial home can be described as a home where the second-floor living area is the same size as the first-floor living area. More specifically, it was symmetrically designed with a center door with windows equally spaced on both sides and a gable roof with the ridge that runs parallel to the front side of the home. Bedrooms were usually on the second floor. Newer versions of the colonial style often have a covered front porch, attached garage, and a family room situated behind the garage. The second-floor living area frequently extends over the garage. Figure 11-21 shows an example of a home built using the colonial style. Colonial influence can still be seen in houses that are built to resemble the Georgian, saltbox, garrison, Cape Cod, Federal, Greek revival, and southern colonial styles of houses. House styles from the colonial period also include influences of the English, Dutch, French, and Spanish. Other popular styles include farmhouse, ranch, Victorian, and contemporary.
Georgian The Georgian style is an example of a basic style that was modified throughout the colonies in response to available materials and weather. The style was named for the kings of England who were in power when it flourished in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Georgian style followed the classical principles of design used by ancient Romans. This English style
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FIGURE 1123 Georgian-style homes have formal balance, with the entry on the center line. Courtesy Jordan Jefferis.
Saltbox FIGURE 1122 Dentil molding is a tooth-like trim that is often placed along the eaves of homes trying to replicate traditional styling. A Palladian window, a large window that is divided into three parts, is also a common feature of Georgian- and Federalstyle homes.
came to America by way of British pattern books and from the masons, carpenters, and joiners who emigrated from England. The style became a favorite of well-to-do colonists who wanted their homes to convey a sense of dignity and prestige. Georgian house plans were rectangular in shape, usually two or three stories in height, and usually had symmetrical floor plans. The roofs had a medium roof pitch with small overhangs. Square tooth-like trim called dentil molding, shown in Figure 11-22, was often placed along the eaves. Chimneys were placed in the sidewalls, and a central hall was typically flanked by one or two rooms. The principles of form and symmetry were most evident in Georgian style in the front elevation. The front entry was centered on the wall, and equally spaced double-hung windows with 9 or 12 windowpanes were usually placed on each side of the door. A transom window was usually placed above the door. The front entry was usually covered with a columned porch supported by pilasters or columns, and the doorway was trimmed with carved wood detailing. Windows and doors were usually surrounded by decorative framework. Georgian homes almost always featured a row of five windows on the front facade just below the eave on the second story. In the South, much of the facade was built of brick. In northern states, wood siding was the major covering. Other common exterior materials used were stucco and stone. An example of a home built following the Georgian style can be seen in Figure 11-23.
One of the most common modifications of the Georgian style is the saltbox. The saltbox maintained the symmetry of the Georgian style but omitted much of the detailing. This housing style received its name because its steep roof resembled colonial-era salt containers. A saltbox was typically a two-story structure at the front but tapered to one story at the rear. In Colonial times, the lower rear portion was often used as a partially enclosed shed, which was oriented north as a windbreak. These square or rectangular homes typically had a large central chimney and large, double-hung windows that had shutters to provide protection from winter winds. Exterior walls were covered with clapboard or shingles. Figure 11-24 shows a home that incorporates features of saltbox styling.
Garrison The garrison style combined saltbox and Georgian style with the construction methods of log buildings. Originally modeled after the lookout structures of early
FIGURE 1124 A saltbox residence has a two-level front and a one-level rear.
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FIGURE 1125 A garrison-style home has an upper level that extends over the lower level. Courtesy Matthew Jefferis.
FIGURE 1126 A Cape Cod home features the formal balance of other styles but adds dormers and shutters. Courtesy GeorgiaPacific Wood Products LLC.
forts, the upper level of a garrison-style home extended past the lower level. Originally, heavy timbers were used to support the overhang and were usually carved. Garrison-style homes were typically sided in unpainted clapboard or wood shingles, had steep gabled roofs, and small diamond-paned windows. Figure 11-25 shows the garrison-style features that have been incorporated into a modern residence.
mid-twentieth century, the small, uncomplicated Cape Cod shape became popular in suburban developments. A twentieth-century Cape Cod is square or rectangular with one or one-and-a-half stories and steeply pitched, gabled roofs. The siding is usually clapboard or brick and dormers and window shutters are also typical of the style.
Federal Cape Cod Cape Cod style consisted of a one-level boxed structure with a steep gabled roof that allowed an upper-floor level to be formed throughout the center of the house. This style of home was developed in New England during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Early Cape Cod homes were shingle-sided, one-story cottages with two basic rooms. The plan included a great room that was used for daily living, and a second room that was used as a bedroom. The central chimney had connecting fireplaces to warm each room. Over time, a kitchen was added to the back of the house with small bedrooms at the rear corners. The steep roof originally associated with the style allowed an upper-floor level to be formed throughout the center of the house. As the style advanced, dormers were placed on the front side of the roof to make the upper floor habitable. The upper floor was expanded to include bedrooms that were covered with either a shed-type dormer that covered the entire front width, or with small dormers to allow window placement. Windows on the lower floor were placed symmetrically around the door and had shutters on the lower level. An example of Cape Cod styling can be seen in Figure 11-26. An offshoot of the Cape Cod style is Cape Ann, which has many of the same features as a Cape Cod house but is covered by a gambrel roof. During the
The Federal style was popular in America between 1780–1840. Federal homes combined Georgian architecture with classical Roman and Greek styles to form a very dignified style. While Georgian homes were square and angular, a Federal-style building was more likely to have curved lines and decorative flourishes such as swags, garlands, and elliptical windows. Federal homes were built of wood or brick with low-sloped roofs with dentil moldings below the eaves. A common alternative to the dentil molding was a flat roof surrounded with a balustrade. A balustrade is a row of repetitive, small posts called balusters that support the upper railing similar to Figure 11-27.
FIGURE 1127 A balustrade is often placed around a deck sitting atop the roof of many Federal-style homes.
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FIGURE 1128 Common pediment styles found on traditional homes.
Other key features of the home style included a high, covered entry porch or portico supported on Greek-style columns centered over the front door. A semicircular fanlight window was often placed above the front door, surrounded with arched trim, and narrow side windows usually flanked the front door. Projected pediments similar to those in Figure 11-28 were another common feature of the main door. Other windows on the front elevation were arranged symmetrically around a center doorway, capped with a projected pediment, and trimmed with shutters. A Palladian window was often used in the center of the second story. A Palladian window is a large window that is divided into three parts similar to Figure 11-22. The center section is larger than the two side sections, and is usually arched. Circular and elliptical windows were often used to add variety. Figure 11-29 shows an example of a Federal-style residence.
Greek Revival The Greek revival style became the chief residential motif of wealthy landowners in the United States from 1830 through the 1850s. Homes of this style were built using classic proportions and decorations of classical Greek architecture to copy features of the
FIGURE 1129 Federal style combines features of Georgian and classical Roman and Greek architecture. Courtesy Megan Jefferis.
Parthenon. These homes were large, rectangular, and very box-like with bold, simple lines. The exterior was usually covered with clapboard siding or brick. Roofs were usually low-sloped gables or hips with small overhangs with cornices featuring wide trim band comprising frieze and architrave. A two-story portico with a low-sloped gable roof supported on Greek columns was centered on the front of the residence. The front door was usually topped with a transom window, or capped by a prominent cornice similar to those in Figure 11-28 and flanked by narrow sidelights. Figure 11-30 shows an example of Greek revival architecture.
Southern Colonial Several home styles emerged from the South as builders sought refuge from the heat, humidity, and weather of the area. One of the most popular southern styles was the Antebellum, which is Latin for “before war.” The term refers to the elegant plantation homes built in the American South in the 30 years or so preceding the Civil War. Antebellum homes used features found in the Greek revival or Federal style such as grand, symmetrical facades with evenly spaced windows, and
FIGURE 1130 Greek revival features classic Greek proportions and ornamentation. Courtesy William E. Poole, William E. Poole Designs, Inc.
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FIGURE 1131 Southern colonial or plantation-style homes reflect classic symmetry. They typically have a large covered porch to provide protection from the sun.
boxy layouts with center entrances in the front and rear, balconies, and Greek columns or pillars. Roofs were usually low-sloped gables or hips, with small overhangs with cornices featuring a wide trim band with frieze. Figure 11-31 shows an example of a southern colonial home.
English English-style houses are fashioned after houses that were built in England prior to the early 1800s. Two styles that are often copied based on their English roots are the Tudor and English cottage.
English Tudor The traditional Tudor home was made of masonry or stucco and modeled after English manor homes, but was also influenced by Dutch and Gothic styling. There are several different styles of Tudor homes, but the Elizabethan variation is most often copied in twenty-first century architecture. The traditional Tudor home featured an asymmetrical layout and walls that were two or more stories in height. Exterior walls were constructed of stone or brick set in intricate patterns, or heavy timber and plaster. The halftimbered exterior used exposed wood timbers to form the structural framework and the spaces in between were filled with brick or stucco. The roofs were typically made up of one or more steeply pitched gables. Parapeted gable end walls that extended above the roof and massive chimneys topped with decorative chimney pots were also common. Doors tops were often rounded and windows were usually multipaned casement windows with diamond-shaped glass rather than the more traditional rectangle. Half-timbered bay
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 1132 English Tudor combines half-timber with brick, stone, and plaster. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
window projections and projecting oriel windows were other common window features. Figure 11-32 shows common features of English Tudor styling.
English Cottage A subtype of the Tudor revival style is the Cotswold Cottage. With a sloping roof and a massive chimney at the front, the cottage-style home served as a model for many storybook homes. Cottage homes were patterned after the rustic cottages constructed in southwestern England since medieval times and often featured steep, half-hipped, thatched roofs. The exterior might have featured half-timbering, stone, brick, and shingle or stucco siding. Other common features included an uneven gable roof; asymmetrical shape; a prominent chimney made of brick or stone; small dormer windows; and casement windows of leaded glass.
Dutch As early as the seventeenth century, Dutch settlers in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania were building brick and stone homes with roofs that reflected their Flemish culture. The Dutch colonial style had many of the features of homes already described. The major difference was a broad two-level roof with flared eaves that were slightly rounded into barn-like gambrel shapes. The lower roof level was usually very steep and served as the walls for the second floor of the structure. The upper area of the roof was the more traditional gable roof. Early homes were a single room, but as the style developed, additions were made to each end, creating a distinctive linear floor plan. End walls were originally constructed of stone, and the chimney was usually located on one or both ends of
Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors
FIGURE 1133 Dutch colonial homes often feature a gambrel roof. Courtesy Laine M. Jones Designs.
the home. Double-hung sash windows with outward swinging wood casements, dormers with shed-like overhangs, and a central Dutch double doorway were also common. The double door, which was divided horizontally, was once used to keep livestock out of the home while allowing light and air to filter through the open top. An example of Dutch colonial style can be seen in Figure 11-33.
French Colonial Homes Colonial French influence can be seen in several common home styles found throughout the United States. These styles include French Provincial, French Normandy, French plantation, French mansard, and Second Empire. Second Empire homes will be explored later in this chapter as Victorian homes are examined.
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FIGURE 1134 French Provincial homes featured two-level brick or stucco structures with steep, hipped roofs and a square balcony and porch balustrades. Second-story windows usually had arched tops that often extended through the cornice to rise above the eaves.
French Normandy French Normandy homes are patterned after the homes in Normandy and the Loire Valley of France. Many of the original French homes had farm silos that were attached to the home. American colonial designers used the shape and style of the traditional French farmhouse and created a turret with living space where the silo would traditionally be. These homes had many of the features of a Tudor style such as decorative half timbering with stone, stucco, or brick used between the timbers. French Normandy homes were distinguished from Tudor homes by a round stone tower topped by a cone-shaped roof. The tower was usually placed near the center, to serve as the entrance to the home. French Normandy and French Provincial details are often combined to create a style simply called French Country or French Rural. Figure 11-35 shows a home with French Normandy features.
French Provincial French Provincial colonial homes had their origins in the style of the rural manor homes, or chateaus, built by French nobles during the mid-1600s. Homes patterned in this style are recognized by their balance and symmetry, which were used to create a stately, formal home. The homes were two-level brick or stucco structures with detailing in copper or slate. They generally had steep, hipped roofs and a square balcony and porch balustrades. Windows and chimneys were usually balanced on each side of the entrance. Other defining features included rectangular doors set in arched openings, and double French windows with shutters. Second-story windows usually had an arched top that extended through the cornice to rise above the eaves. Figure 11-34 shows a home with French Provincial features.
FIGURE 1135 French Normandy had a round stone tower topped by a cone-shaped roof. The tower was usually placed near the center of the home to serve as the entrance to the home.
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FIGURE 1137 French colonial homes often hide the upper floor behind a mansard roof. Courtesy David Jefferis.
FIGURE 1136 The French Normandy style evolved into the French plantation style in many southern states, incorporating two full floors and a wraparound porch covered with a hip roof. Courtesy William E. Poole, William E. Poole Designs, Inc.
French Plantation In the southern states, the French Normandy style evolved into the French plantation style. This home style incorporated two full floors and a wraparound porch covered with a hip roof. The porch was an important passageway because traditional French Colonial homes did not have interior halls. A third floor was a common component, with dormers added for light and ventilation. Figure 11-36 shows a French plantation home. This style was modified around New Orleans into what is now known as the Louisiana French style. The balcony sizes are diminished, but the supporting columns and rails have become fancier.
these homes particularly suited for warmer climates. Some Spanish colonial homes featured a Montereystyle, second-story porch. Arches and tiled roofs were two of the most common features of Spanish- or mission-style architecture. Timbers were often used to frame a flat or very low-pitched roof. Windows with grills or spindles and balconies supported on square pillars with wrought-iron railings were also common features. Round or quatrefoil windows were often used for accent. A quatrefoil window is a round window composed of four equal lobes that resemble a four-leafed clover. Figure 11-38 shows an example of Spanish-style architecture.
Italianate and Italian Villas Two common Italian home styles that are still popular in American architecture include the Italianate and the Italian villas.
Italianate French Mansard French mansard styling used a hipped or mansard roof to hide the upper floor area. A mansard roof is an angled wall and will be discussed in Section 6. Originally found in the northern states, these homes were usually a rectangle with a smaller wing on each side. The mansard roof was used to hide the upper floor, but hip roofs were also used. Figure 11-37 shows an example of French mansard styling.
Italianate-style homes were a popular housing style in the United States during the period of 1840–1885.
Spanish In Florida, California, and the southwestern United States, settlers drew upon Hispanic and Moorish building traditions. Spanish colonial buildings were constructed of adobe or plaster and were usually one story. Deeply shaded porches and dark interiors made
FIGURE 1138 Spanish-style homes typically were constructed of adobe or plaster and featured low-sloping tile roofs, arches, and window grills. Courtesy Megan Jefferis.
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FIGURE 1139 Italianate-style homes were typically large symmetrical rectangular structures covered with a low-pitched roof with wide eaves. Tall, narrow, windows placed in pairs below Roman arches were also common.
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FIGURE 1140 Homes designed to copy the Italian villa style typically include a rambling, asymmetrical floor layout, and low-pitched tile roofs with large overhangs. Villa homes usually have exteriors covered with stucco, and arched windows and doors crowned with heavy trim.
and doors crowned with heavy trim. Figure 11-40 shows an example of an Italian villa. This style was common throughout most of the country because the wide variety of materials associated with the style made it adaptable to varied budgets. Key features of this symmetrical style were the large rectangular wood-framed structure that emphasized vertical proportions and elaborate decorations. Structures usually ranged in height from two to four stories and were covered with a low-pitched roof with wide eaves featuring decorative brackets, large cornices, and a square cupola. A single-story arcade porch was centered on the front to cover heavily molded double entry doors. The porch was often topped with balustraded balconies and flanked with side bay windows. The front entry door was usually double rectangular or arched entry doors with elaborate surrounds. Tall, narrow, double-paned windows with hood moldings were often used with windows, although Roman or segmented arches above windows and doors were also common. Windows were usually placed in pairs. Figure 11-39 shows a home using Italianate features.
Italian Villa The Italian villa style remains popular in the United States and is a style often used for many large custom homes. The style became popular in America during the nineteenth century and is recognized by its rambling, asymmetrical floor layout, low-pitched tile roofs, and a tower. Large overhangs, supported on decorative brackets under the eaves were also typical of villa-style homes. Exteriors were usually covered with stucco. Villa homes usually had arched windows
Victorian Italianate-style homes gave way to the Victorian styles in the late 1800s. Victorian-style homes are still being copied in many parts of the country. These styles featured irregularly shaped floor plans and very ornate detailing throughout the residence. Victorian houses often borrowed elements from many other styles of architecture, including partial mansard roofs, arched windows, and towers. Exterior materials included a combination of wood and brick. Wrought iron was often used. Victorian-style homes can be divided into Gothic, Second Empire, Folk, and Queen Anne.
Gothic Victorian In the 1800s, fashionable houses in England began to resemble medieval Gothic cathedrals, convents, and storybook castles. The style moved to America in the period from 1840–1880. The exterior walls of these homes were typically constructed from stone or brick with an asymmetrical floor plan. Exterior walls were often topped to resemble a battlement of a castle or fort, and used to surround steeply pitched roofs. Several types of windows could be found in Gothic architecture including pointed windows with decorative leaded glass, oriel, and quatrefoil-shaped windows. An oriel window projects from the wall and forms a small turret that does not extend to the ground. Brackets or corbels usually supported the curved walls that held the windows. Figure 11-41 shows an example of a Gothic Victorian home.
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FIGURE 1141 Homes from the Gothic Victorian style often had walls that were topped to resemble a battlement of a castle or fort, and used to surround steeply pitched roofs. Victorian houses often borrowed elements from many other styles of architecture, including very ornate detailing, wrought iron fretwork, arched windows, and towers.
Second Empire Second Empire homes were inspired by the architecture in Paris during the reign of Napoleon III, and reached the height of their popularity in the United States between 1855–1885. This Victorian style shown in Figure 11-42 is easily recognizable because of its high mansard roofs that cover the upper floors. The roofs were often covered with patterned slate shingles. Although these homes are often seen in horror movies, they were thought to be very elegant when they were constructed. Walls were often covered with ornate wood trim or intricate brick patterns. Wrought iron crestings were also common above the upper cornice. Other common features of this style of home included dormer windows that projected from the roof, classical pediments above each opening, and tall double-hung windows on the first floor. Decorative brackets were used for support beneath protrusions such as eaves, window bays, and balconies.
Folk Victorian Folk Victorian homes developed for less affluent consumers during the period from 1870–1910. These homes were much simpler than the traditional Victorian homes but featured trim work made possible by mass production. Homes were traditionally square or symmetrical with porches with spindle work that wrapped the home. They are similar to
FIGURE 1142 Second Empire Victorian homes often included high mansard roofs finished with patterned slate shingles, which were used to cover the upper floors. Other common features of this style included wrought iron crestings above the upper cornice, dormer windows that projected from the roof, classical pediments above each opening, and tall double-hung windows on the first floor.
Queen Anne homes of the same time period but do not have towers, bay windows, or elaborate moldings of that style.
Queen Anne This style of home was popular during the period of 1880–1910 as the machine age was sweeping America. As a result of mass production in factories, precut architectural components were available for shipping across the country. The style was named after the eighteenth-century English queen, and was characterized by elaborate bric-a-brac, a complicated roofline, and expansive porches that wrapped around the front and side of the house. These homes usually had a round tower, turret, or a large round bay window. Elaborate moldings and trim called gingerbread were also key features of the Queen Anne style. Figure 11-43 shows an example of a Queen Anne Victorian-style home.
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the classical architecture of ancient Greece and Rome, which contain some but not all of the main features. Art Deco structures are a style of architecture originating in the 1920s that featured geometric, streamlined shapes and the use of materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, lacquer, and in-laid wood.
Farmhouse
FIGURE 1143 Queen Anne Victorian-style homes were characterized by a round tower, elaborate moldings, and gingerbread trim, a complicated roofline, and expansive porches that wrap around the front and side of the house.
The farmhouse style made use of two-story construction and was usually surrounded by a covered, wraparound porch. The roof ridge ran parallel to the front surface. A steep roof with dormers usually covered the home with a shallow pitch at the porch. The exterior material was usually clapboard siding. Trim and detail work, common in many other styles of architecture, were rarely found in farmhouse style. Figure 11-44 shows an example of this style.
American Foursquare
Prairie
The American Foursquare home style was originally popular during the period of 1895–1930. This style is recognizable because of the simplicity of the design. The style featured a simple box shape that was two stories tall with an attic and a full basement. Each floor generally had four rooms. The first floor contained an entry foyer, living room, dining room, and kitchen. The second floor was made up of three bedrooms and a bathroom. Walls were usually made of wood, but brick, stone, and stucco siding with clapboards, cedar shingles, or a combination of these materials was common. The homes were usually covered with a low-sloped hip roof. Large overhangs supported with cornice-line brackets or other details drawn from craftsman and Italian Renaissance styles were a common feature. Others features sometimes associated with a Foursquare home were a large central dormer, and a front porch that covered the majority of the front facade of the home. Surface features and limited decoration help this style to adapt to a wide range of architectural styles. A Foursquare house with white clapboard siding and black shutters is usually identified as a Colonial Revival. The style took on Queen Anne styling by adding bay windows and decorative brackets. The style was later altered again by adding stucco siding and a porch with stone columns to resemble a craftsman bungalow. Depending on the details that are added, the traditional Foursquare home may resemble Spanish Eclectic, French Provincial, Tudor Neoclassical, or Art Deco. Neoclassical is used to describe buildings inspired by
Prairie-style houses, popular in the Midwest between 1900–1920, are recognizable for their low horizontal lines, one-story projections, low-pitched hipped roofs, and large overhanging eaves that were designed to help the home blend into the landscape. Roofs were typically tile or shingles depending on the area of the country where the home was built. Made popular by Frank Lloyd Wright, the floor plan of a prairie home usually consisted of open interior spaces divided by
FIGURE 1144 Farmhouse style is used to describe a simple single-level structure with a steep roof. Dormers were usually used to provide light to an upper loft. The roof ridge was parallel to the front of the home and a roof with a shallow pitch was used to cover a front porch. Trim and detail work, common in many other styles of architecture, were rarely found in the farmhouse style. Courtesy Cardinal Homes.
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FIGURE 1145 Prairie-style houses are recognizable for their low horizontal lines, one-story projections, low-pitched hipped roofs, and large overhanging eaves that were designed to help the home blend into the landscape.
leaded or stained glass panels or built-in furniture with natural finishes that were intended to blur the distinction between indoors and outside. Rooms were arranged in square, L-shaped, T-shaped, or Y-shaped floor plans. Exterior walls varied between stuccoed masonry, or wood-frame construction covered with brick and beveled horizontal siding. Windows were typically arranged in rows of small casement windows framed in horizontal bands that accent the horizontal lines. This style of home can now be found throughout the country (see Figure 11-45).
Bungalow The bungalow style originated in India and became a popular American style between 1900–1920. Originally patterned after one-story, thatch-roofed houses in the province of Bengal, the style was converted to a oneand-a-half story home in America. The Amercian bungalow featured open, balanced but asymmetrical floor plans. Roofs were usually steep enough to hide the upper floor, or used low-sloping gables with front and rear dormers. Large extended eaves with decorative, bracketed supports were also typical. A large veranda covered by an extension of the main roof was a common feature on the front of the homes. Common exterior materials included shingles, lap siding or board, and batten siding. Windows were typically casement or double-hung with small-paned glass, trimmed with wide simple casings. The front door typically was glass-paned with double sidelights. Bungalow homes typically made extensive use of built-in furniture, shelves, seating, and wood trim throughout the house. The dining rooms, bedrooms, kitchens, and bathrooms were arranged around a central living room on the main floor. Additional bedrooms were placed upstairs in the center of the
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 1146 The bungalow style featured simple box-like structures with steep roofs that were used to hide an upper floor. Low sloping gables with front and rear dormers were a common alternative. A large veranda covered by an extension of the main roof was a common feature on the front of these homes.
gable roof. Figure 11-46 shows a home built with bungalow features.
Craftsman In the early twentieth century, the craftsman-style home became popular in America. Floor plans usually consisted of asymmetrical, free-flowing, two-story layouts. The upper level often cantilevered over the lower level. Lower levels were usually made of stone or brick, and upper levels were covered in shingles, stucco, stone, or brick. Windows were typically double-hung with grids in the upper half and were asymmetrically placed, or casement windows were placed in series. Window trim was usually plain, wide-board casings. Rectangular cantilevered bays with multiple windows were also common.
FIGURE 1147 Craftsman-style homes featured asymmetrical, free-flowing two-story layouts with an upper level that often cantilevered over the lower level. Roofs were steep gables supported by decorative brackets, with multiple perpendicular gables.
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Homes featured a large wraparound porch that was elevated several feet above the surrounding grade. Porch roofs were often supported by masonry or large decorative wood columns with wood-framed walls covered with shingles used as a railing between the columns. Open large-scale balusters were also a common alternative for porch railings. Tapered wood columns were also a common means of supporting the porch roof. The porch was typically covered at the front under a low-sloped roof that extended from the main gable. Roofs were steep gables supported by decorative brackets, with multiple perpendicular gables. A large dormer on the front and back of the gable was typical of the craftsman style.
Ranch The ranch style of construction originated in the Southwest where it became the dominant style from the mid-1930s to the present. This style is defined by a one-story, rambling layout, which was made possible because of the mild climate and plentiful land on which such houses were built. The roof was lowpitched, with a large overhang to block the summer sun. The major exterior material was usually stucco or adobe. Common features of the ranch style were long, horizontal, single-level construction covered with a low-sloped roof with large overhangs. The floor plan was usually arranged in an asymmetrical shape using a rectangle, L-shaped, or U-shaped design. No matter the shape, the floor plans usually featured simple, open spaces with very few interior walls. Figure 11-48 shows a modern adaptation of the ranch style.
Contemporary Homes
FIGURE 1149 Contemporary homes are built to meet a wide variety of needs. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
rarely would the traditional floor plan of one of those houses be desired. Quite often the floor plans of older houses produced small rooms with poor traffic flow. A designer must take the best characteristics of a particular style of house and work them into a plan that best suits the needs of the owner. Contemporary, or modern, does not denote any special style of house. Some houses are now being designed to meet a wide variety of needs, and others reflect the lifestyle of the owner. Figure 11-49 through Figure 11-53 show examples of the wide variety of contemporary houses. Some houses, such as the home in Figure 11-49, are now being designed to meet a wide variety of needs. Other homes like the home in Figure 11-50 are custom-designed to reflect the lifestyle of the owner. No matter the style that is favored, several recent trends in new-home construction are helping buyers realize their dreams. The most popular
It is important to remember that a client may like the exterior look of one of the traditional styles, but very
FIGURE 1148 Ranch-style homes feature a one-level elongated floor plan covered by a low-sloping roof. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD.
FIGURE 1150 Many contemporary homes use clean lines with little or no trim to provide an attractive structure. Design by Jack Smuckler, A.I.A.; photo by Jerry Swanson. Courtesy California Redwood Association.
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GOING GREEN Green Styles
The selection of the floor plan style will have a major impact on the efficiency of a home, and will affect the home style. The selection of one home style over another can be a major consideration in designing a home that is energy efficient. The choice of floor plan style should be influenced by the site topography and the living style of the owners. Credits are given by both Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and the National Green Building Standards (NGBS) for designing for infill sites. These sites are often difficult to build on due to steep grades. Selecting a suitable floor plan style can greatly reduce the cost of the construction, eliminate extensive grading, reduce water runoff, and help to blend the home to the existing topography. The floor plan type will also affect the home style to be used. Although a single-level home can be created with Victorian features, the style is more suited for multilevel homes. As you’ve learned in earlier chapters, multilevel homes can take advantage of the natural convection to circulate heat from the lower floors to rooms in the upper floors. Placing dormers above the upper living areas allows heated air to be exhausted from the building envelope, providing natural ventilation for summer cooling. Incorporating home styles that feature large overhangs on the south and west walls to protect fenestration from direct sunlight will also affect the style of the home to be selected. Home styles that incorporate covered porches, porticos, or decks to provide protection from the south and west summer sun are green design features that increase the livability of the home. The blending of the exterior and interior of the home can often incorporate green ideas to make homes more energy efficient. Future chapters will introduce methods of incorporating green design in the orientation of the home. The homes in Figure 11-51 are designed as zero-lot-line homes to provide all the benefits of home ownership without the problem of land maintenance. By sharing a common wall, this style of building eliminates materials by decreasing the lumber and siding materials needed to frame the sidewalls for each unit. The use of zero-lot-line construction also maximizes the use of available land. The home in Figure 11-52 uses a passive solar greenhouse on the right, and a sunroom on the left side to increase the heating efficiency of an otherwise traditional home. The home in Figure 11-53 is ideally suited to very cold climates by incorporating
FIGURE 1151 Many homes are now being constructed that have a common property line. Courtesy Western Red Cedar Lumber Association.
FIGURE 1152 Although this elegant residence reflects no particular style, it has pleasing proportions, symmetry, and balance. Courtesy BOWA Builders, Inc. Greg Hadley, photographer.
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Green Styles (Continued) a sunroom with its large use of glass for solar gain, with its subterranean design. Using concrete walls provides a storage medium for the sunlight collected through the fenestration, and the bermed earth provides protection for the walls and ceiling from harsh winter weather. The green roof also provides an effective means of reducing water runoff typically associated with a standard roof. Each of these design concepts will be explored in future chapters.
FIGURE 1153 Subterranean construction is energy efficient in severe climates. Courtesy Weather Shield Mfg., Inc.
floor plans offer flexibility, adaptability, and plenty of room to grow. A new home can usually incorporate features of any architectural style because decorative details don’t dictate the size and placement of the rooms. As you explore the design possibilities throughout this text, give consideration to the following trends that are popular in early twenty-firstcentury homes: ●
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Open, informal spaces—Because of high building costs and family lifestyles, most home buyers prefer an informal “great room” rather than formal rooms for entertaining. Combining the family room with the dining area gives the home a greater sense of spaciousness. A half wall or a work counter defines the kitchen area while allowing unobstructed views. Fewer hallways—Homes with fewer hallways have an open, airy feeling. Instead of long, dark corridors, rooms flow together with doors leading directly to a living area or other shared space. The home may appear larger because less square footage is spent on passageways. Bonus rooms—A spare room near the kitchen, over the garage, or in another area apart from the bedrooms provides extra value when a home is not designed for a specific buyer. These bonus rooms give buyers extra space that can serve many functions such as a play area, a multimedia home theater, an
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art studio, a workshop, an exercise room, a high-tech home office, or a quiet sanctuary. Spacious laundry room—No longer relegated to the garage or basement, a cleaning center should be bright, spacious, and conveniently located. Common locations include near the kitchen or bedrooms. The area should provide space for the basic appliances of a utility room in addition to space for storage of sewing or craft supplies. Some designers use this area as a multipurpose room with ample cabinets, play space for children, and room for crafts and other hobbies. Ample storage space—Walk-in closets, linen closets, dressing rooms, pantries, and easy-to-reach kitchen cabinets add enormous appeal to any home. Accessibility—Many buyers are seeking homes that can comfortably accommodate family members or guests with mobility problems or visual impairments. Fewer stairs, wider doors and hallways, and larger bathrooms make a home easier to navigate. One-story homes are increasingly popular with baby boomers. Two-story homes with the master bedroom suite on the main level and additional sleeping areas upstairs are also very popular. Spacious garages—SUVs, snowmobiles, jet skis and other recreational vehicles make spacious garages a must for many families. Two-car garages are
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considered the minimum, but many buyers opt for an even wider three-car garage. Sliding partitions—Movable partitions, sliding doors, pocket doors, or other types of movable partitions allow flexibility in living arrangements. With partitions, a great room can be transformed
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
One of the best ways to improve your ability to design pleasing homes is to view successful designs. Excellent sources for review include magazines, television, and the Internet. To increase your reading options, use your favorite search engine and research major listings such as architectural magazines, interior design magazines, and home magazines. Magazines used by designers include: Architectural Digest Architectural Record Engineering News Record Environmental Design and Construction
Old House Journal Residential Architect Traditional Home
Information about each program can be obtained by accessing www.hgtv.com, www.tlc.discovery.com, or by using a search engine to search the Internet. Other Web sites that promote interior design include: Address www.greatbuildings.com
www.homeportfolio.com www.about.com www.iida.org
If you have access to cable or satellite television, HGTV and DIY provide an excellent selection of programs that explore interior design and construction. New programs are aired each season, so be sure to check program listings or the Web sites of your favorite stations for available programs. Current popular programs include: Before and After Curb Appeal Dream Drives
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into a more intimate living area and a secluded dining room. Outdoor living—The yard and garden become a part of the floor plan when sliding glass doors lead to decks, patios, and porches. Upscale features include outdoor fireplaces, grills, and wet bars.
www.excelhomes.com
Company, Product, or Service Documents thousands of structures and offers many related links Features a home design directory Home-planning guides on the Internet International Interior Design Association Links to design-related Web sites
Dream House Extreme Homes Homes Across America
Exterior Design Factors Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 11 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 11–1 Explain how the neighborhood can influence the type of house that will be built. Question 11–2 Describe how lines can be used in the design of a structure. Question 11–3 Sketch a simple two-bedroom house in two of the following shapes: L, T, U, or V. Question 11–4 List four functions of a review board.
Chapter 11: Exterior Design Factors
Question 11–5 Describe four floor plan styles, and explain the benefits of each. Question 11–6 What factors make a two-story house more economical to build than a single-story house of similar size? Question 11–7 What house shape is the most economical to build? Question 11–8 Photograph or sketch examples of the following historical styles found in your community: a. Dutch colonial b. Garrison c. Saltbox d. Victorian
Question 11–9 What forms are most typically seen in residential design?
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Question 11–16 Sketch a Dutch colonial house. Question 11–17 Sketch or photograph a house in your community built with a traditional influence, and explain which styles this house has copied. Question 11–18 What are some of the drawbacks of a traditional style? Question 11–19 What are the common proportions of classical Greek design? Question 11–20 What style of residence has two full floors with a wraparound porch covered with a hip roof? Question 11–21 Define the following terms and list the styles with which they are associated: a. Portico b. Quatrefoil window
Question 11–10 List and define the three terms used to describe color.
c. Baluster
Question 11–11 Identify the primary and secondary colors.
e. Palladian window
Question 11–12 List the major features of the following styles: a. Ranch b. Tudor c. Cape Cod d. Spanish
Question 11–13 How is a tint created? Question 11–14 Photograph or sketch three contemporary houses that have no apparent historical style. Question 11–15 What period of architecture influenced the Georgian style?
d. Corbel
Question 11–22 List differences between the Georgian and Federal styles. Question 11–23 Explain key features of a Foursquarestyle home. Question 11–24 Explain key features of a prairie-style home. Question 11–25 Use the Internet and research a home style that is popular in your area. Explain key features of the style you selected, and explain why that style is suited to your area.
CHAPTER 12
Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction I
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Conservation design uses different technologies to improve construction methods and provide alternative energy sources. Architects, architectural designers, building contractors, and home buyers today are concerned about quality of life on the earth and in the home. Improving energy efficiency is a good way to reduce oil dependency and address environmental concerns. Throughout North America, private, local, state, and national agencies sponsor projects that provide incentives and education for architects, designers, and builders in an effort to create buildings that are good for the earth today and into the future. The terms environmentally friendly and environmentally sound refer to designing and constructing buildings with renewable materials such as wood from certified forests, earthen materials, and recycled products. These buildings are healthier because nontoxic and low-toxicity materials are used. Energy from renewable resources, such as geothermal, solar, photovoltaic, or wind energy is also taken into consideration in protecting the environment and reducing the carbon footprint. A carbon footprint, as defined by Wikipedia, is “a measure of the impact human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide.” The carbon footprint measurement is meant to be useful for individuals, nations, and organizations to conceptualize their personal or organizational impact in contributing to global warming. A theoretical tool to reduce the impact of carbon footprints, carbon offsets, are the lessening of carbon emissions through the development of alternative projects such as solar or wind energy, or reforestation. Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb global radiation and contribute to the greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone. The greenhouse effect is atmospheric heating caused by solar radiation being readily transmitted inward through the earth’s atmosphere but long-wave radiation less readily transmitted outward, due to absorption by certain gases in the atmosphere.
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purchases. Here are five ways you can reduce your carbon footprint: 1. Build an efficient home with materials that reduce or
2. 3. 4. 5.
eliminate carbon dioxide emissions; consider renewable energy to heat and cool your home. Install energy- and water-efficient appliances and mechanical systems in your home. Purchase items that have a low carbon footprint from responsible manufacturers. Carpool, use mass transit, or plan your trips to reduce driving. Participate in programs that aim to offset carbon dioxide emissions. Many companies offer programs to offset your carbon dioxide emissions, which often include donations to renewable energy or tree planting programs. (Source: Mascord Efficient Living, Building a More Sustainable Lifestyle.)
ENERGY-EFFICIENT DESIGN For decades, energy-conscious individuals have been experimenting with energy-efficient design and construction. Their goal has been to reduce home heating and cooling costs. In recent years, as a result of rising energy costs, several formal studies have been done around the country, sponsored by various private and governmental agencies that are committed to conservation. The experimental programs have included the following goals: ● ● ● ● ● ●
Conserve natural resources. Save the environment. Preserve the earth’s ozone layer. Create a better and healthier living environment. Meet consumers’ demand for more economical living. Evaluate realistic material and construction alternatives that can be used to alter building codes in the future.
Today’s home buyers are concerned about energyefficient design. They expect energy-efficient design
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An Overview A special feature called Going Green is found throughout this textbook, providing current practical and experimental energy-efficient architectural design and construction techniques resulting in a significant reduction in energy consumption. As the building industry grows to meet the demands of our increasing population, there is a strong need to take care of the environment and allow for current and future development. As a student, it is very important for you to learn what is available today and to find ways to improve energy efficiency in architectural design and construction
in the future in an effort to protect the earth. National and local programs have been established to meet this need. A leading program is often referred to as green building. The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is a key organization developed to promote building design and construction that is environmentally responsible and healthy, while allowing construction to remain profitable. Modern advances in building construction are available to designers, builders, and owners who want to “build green” and make the most of environmental protection in the architectural and construction industries.
and construction to be a part of the total home package. In many cases, green design and construction can be achieved without a great deal of additional cost. Consumers look for design and construction that uses high-quality insulation, air infiltration barriers, proper caulking, energy-rated windows, and other quality materials. Consumers also look for energy-efficient appliances and cost-saving improvements such as solar heat. These design and construction practices increase comfort while reducing energy costs. Home builders around the country have realized the advantages of energy-efficient design and construction for consumers and themselves. An energy-efficient home is easier to sell than a home built without energyefficient design and construction. In several controlled situations where energyefficient construction techniques were implemented to determine if there would be a significant reduction in energy consumption, the results clearly showed a savings. A number of techniques can be used that do not cost much more than standard construction; however, at the other extreme, some energy-conserving design and construction methods are complex and labor- and material-intensive. The following describes a variety of energy conservation architectural design and construction programs and practices.
buildings are buildings capable of maintaining their desired function into the future. LEED represents every part of the construction industry. As taken from the USGBC Web site, LEED was created to:
THE LEED PROGRAM The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) members came together to create a standard for green building, called the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System. This rating system is a national standard for developing high-performance, sustainable buildings. Sustainable
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Define “green building” by establishing a common standard of measurement.
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Promote integrated, whole-building design practices.
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Recognize environmental leadership in the building industry.
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Stimulate green competition.
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Raise consumer awareness of green building benefits. Transform the building market.
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LEED has a commercial building certification program that started in 2000 that recognizes commercial construction projects demonstrating the highest sustainability performance standards. LEED certification requires that the project meet the fundamentals, and score a minimum number of points in a LEED rating system. In the LEED program, various levels of certification are applied to new buildings and rehabilitated structures. The objective is for the building to earn enough points to qualify for Platinum, Gold, or Silver levels of certification. The LEED rating system and its relationship to national building codes is discussed in Chapter 9.
The LEED for Homes Program The LEED for Homes program started in 2007 for residential architecture. Contents of this discussion are taken in part from the LEED for Homes and the Green
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Home Guide Web sites. LEED for Homes is a rating system that promotes the design and construction of high-performance green homes. A green home uses less energy, water, and other natural resources; creates less waste; and is healthier and more comfortable for the occupants. Benefits of a LEED home include lower energy and water bills; reduced greenhouse gas emissions; and less exposure to mold, mildew, and other indoor toxins. LEED certification allows buyers to identify homes that have been third-party inspected, performance-tested, and certified as truly green homes that perform better than standard homes. Home builders using LEED are able to differentiate their homes as among the best energy-efficient homes on the market. The LEED for Homes ratings set a minimum level of performance in the following eight categories: 1. Innovation and design. This category encourages
project planning and design to improve the coordination and integration of the various elements in a green home. Credits are earned for innovative designs, exemplary performance, or regional bestpractices that can be shown to produce proven environmental and human health benefits. Innovation and design includes involving key representation from building design, energy engineering, performance testing, sustainable design, civil engineering, landscape architecture, habitat restoration, land-use planning, and a LEED representative in the preliminary and final design. 2. Location and linkages. The placement of homes in socially and environmentally responsible ways in relation to the larger community provides credits toward LEED certification. The term linkages means that the specific home site is environmentally linked to the community. Location and linkages address how builders select site locations that promote environmentally responsible land-use patterns and neighborhoods. Location and linkages credits reward builders for selecting home sites that have more sustainable land-use patterns and offer advantages over conventional developments. Land is used more efficiently, reducing the acreage needed for new housing. Division of farmland, forest, and other natural areas is minimized. Well-sited developments need fewer roads, water, and sewer lines. These developments promote a range of sustainable transportation options, including walking, cycling, and mass transit. 3. Sustainable sites. This category awards projects for minimizing site impacts allowing natural elements to have a significant environmental impact. Proper placement of the home on the site can have major long-term effects on local and regional ecosystems,
Architectural Drafting and Design
and reduce demand for water, chemicals, and pesticides for site management. Good design decisions can result in attractive, easy-to-maintain landscaping that protects native plant and animal species and contributes to the health of local and regional habitats. Erosion, chemical, and pesticide run off from rainfall are minimized, and rain can be used for potable water and to recharge aquifers. Potable water is water of a quality that is suitable for drinking. An aquifer is an underground bed or layer of earth, gravel, or porous stone that yields water. Sustainable sites offer enrichment with trees and plants that provide shade, aesthetic value, habitat for native species, and a way to absorb carbon and enrich the soil. 4. Water efficiency. LEED for Homes credits are given for the conservation and reuse of inside and outside water. The use of water-conserving plumbing fixtures and fittings can easily reduce water usage by over 30% in new homes. 5. Energy and atmosphere. Credits are available for homes built with energy-efficient construction methods and materials, and for homes that reduce CO2 emissions as a result of improving their environmental performance. According to the Green Home Guide Web site, the average certified LEED home uses 30% to 40% less electricity and saves more than 100 metric tons of CO2 emissions over its lifetime. Modest investments in energy-saving and other climate-friendly technologies can yield homes and communities that are healthier, more comfortable, more durable, energy efficient, and environmentally responsible places to live. 6. Material and resources. LEED for Homes credits are given for the use of material-efficient framing methods, environmentally preferable low-emission products, and recyclable waste management practices. Reclaimed materials can be substituted for new materials, saving costs and reducing the use of natural resources. Recycled-content materials reuse waste products that would otherwise be deposited in landfills. LEED for Homes promotes the use of local materials, which supports the local economy and reduces the harmful impact of long-distance transport. Use of third-party-certified wood promotes good stewardship of forests and related ecosystems. Use of low-emitting materials improves the indoor air quality in the home and reduces demand for materials with added volatile, toxic compounds. Additionally, the builder can separate construction debris into multiple bins or disposal areas allowing easier shipment to recycling facilities or pickup by a waste management company.
Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction
7. Indoor environmental quality. This LEED for
Homes category can provide a large number of LEED for Homes credits. This category encourages builders to prevent air pollution and improve air quality and comfort in the homes they build. Source removal is the most practical way to ensure that harmful chemical compounds are not brought into the home. Evaluating the properties of adhesives, paints, carpets, composite wood products, and furniture, and selecting materials with low levels of potentially irritating gas emissions can reduce occupant exposure. Scheduling deliveries and sequencing construction activities can reduce exposure of materials to moisture and absorption of contaminants. Source control plans focus on capturing pollutants that are known to exist in a home. For example, filtering the air supply removes particulates that would otherwise be continuously recirculated through the home. Protection of airhandling systems during construction and cleaning prior to occupancy reduces future problems. Indoor air quality also contributes to occupant comfort. The proper installation of automatic sensors and controls to maintain proper temperature, humidity and ventilation in occupied spaces helps maintain the best possible air quality. The use of outdoor air ventilation, indoor contaminant control, air filtering, and radon protection are described in Chapter 21 of this textbook. 8. Awareness and education. Credits are given for the education of the home owner or tenant, and the building manager. This category promotes broad awareness among home buyers and tenants that LEED homes are built differently and need to be operated and maintained in a manner that saves energy, water, and other resources through the lifetime of the home. The long-term benefits of LEED measures might not be achieved without proper training. LEED for Homes certification ensures that a home is designed and constructed with the highest quality of environmental and human protection possible in the industry. This is because LEED for Homes credits are given only if the design and construction meet rigid inspection and third-party testing of the various components that go into building a home. Other energy-conscious design and construction programs offer significant improvement in the environmental and sustainable quality of construction materials and practices, but they may not have the quality inspection control and testing found in LEED-certified homes. Additional resources are identified at the end of this chapter.
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NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HOME BUILDERS MODEL GREEN HOME BUILDING The National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) started a voluntary program, in 2005, called the Model Green Home Building Guidelines. This program and its effect on national building codes are described in Chapter 9. The following information was taken in part from the NAHB’s Model Green Home Building Guidelines Web site. Sustainable, environmentally friendly, and recycled building products, and the education of builders have increased the residential construction industry’s acceptance of green building. NAHB members currently build more than 80% of the homes in this country, and are incorporating green practices into the development, design, and construction of new homes. NAHB’s voluntary Model Green Home Building Guidelines are designed as a tool kit for builders who want to use green building practices, and for local home builder associations that want to start their own green building programs. The NAHB Model Green Home Building Guidelines include the following categories: ●
Lot preparation and design. Careful site planning can reduce the impact on natural features such as vegetation and soil, and improve long-term performance of a home on the site.
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Resource efficiency. Advanced framing techniques and home designs can effectively optimize the use of building materials. Careful material selection can help reduce the amount of time and money needed for home maintenance. Also, waste management practices are used to recycle construction waste materials.
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Energy efficiency. This category helps the builder create a better building envelope and incorporate more energy-efficient mechanical systems, appliances, and lighting into a home. The results are long-term energy savings and increased comfort for the home owner.
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Water efficiency and conservation. The availability of an adequate water supply is a national concern. Use of indoor and outdoor water conservation guidelines reduces water consumption and utility costs.
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Occupancy comfort and indoor environmental quality. Effective management of moisture, ventilation, and other issues can create a more comfortable and healthier indoor living environment.
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Operation, maintenance, and education. The features of this category show a builder how to educate home owners on the features of their new green home. It is important for home buyers to learn how
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to operate and maintain the green home in a manner that saves energy, water, and other resources throughout the lifetime of the home. The NAHB Model Green Home Building Guidelines help organize the green design and construction process and help the builder incorporate more green building features into homes. For more information about the NAHB Model Green Home Building Guidelines, consult the additional resources at the end of this chapter or contact: National Association of Home Builders 1201 15th Street, NW Washington, DC 20005 Web site: http://www.nahbrc.org/greenguidelines
The National Green Building Standard™ The following is taken in part from the National Association of Homebuilders Research Center (NAHBRC) Web site. In a continuing effort to advance the use of environmentally responsible technologies in residential construction, NAHB, the International Code Council (ICC), and the NAHB Research Center worked together to develop an American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard for green home building construction practices. Completed on January 29, 2009, the National Green Building Standard is for all residential construction work including single-family homes, apartments and condos, land development, and remodeling and renovation. It is a voluntary green home building standard that can be adopted by local green home building programs or local building departments as a conformance guide. The standard is publicized as a joint publication between the NAHB and the ICC. The new standard builds upon the NAHB Model Green Home Building Guidelines developed by the NAHB Research Center with participation from a stakeholder group of over 64 organizations representing various vested interests in residential construction in the United States.
ENERGY STAR Energy Star is a joint program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) created to help save money and protect the environment through energy-efficient products and practices, and through superior product energy efficiency. Energy Star–qualified homes must meet strict guidelines for energy efficiency set by the EPA. These homes are at least 15% more energy efficient than homes built to the 2004 International Residential Code (IRC), and include additional energy-saving features that typically make them 20% to 30% more efficient than standard
Architectural Drafting and Design
homes. Energy Star homes are independently verified to meet the requirements. Energy savings are based on heating, cooling, and hot water energy use and are typically achieved through a combination of: ● ● ● ● ● ●
Building envelope upgrades. High-performance windows. Controlled air infiltration. Upgraded heating and air-conditioning systems. Tight duct systems. Upgraded water heating equipment.
These features contribute to improved home quality, home owner comfort, lower energy demand, and reduced air pollution. Energy Star also encourages the use of energy-efficient lighting, appliances, and features designed to improve indoor air quality. Verification of a home’s energy efficiency by a third party is an essential step in getting the Energy Star label and certificate. Verification is generally dependent on the construction method used to build the home. Homes constructed on-site are typically verified using one of two methods: 1. Home Energy Ratings Systems (HERS) ratings. 2. Builder Option Packages (BOPs).
A HERS rating is an evaluation of the energy efficiency of a home, compared to a computer-simulated reference house of identical size and shape. The home being evaluated must meet minimum requirements of the Model Energy Code (MEC). The HERS rating results in a score between 0 and 100, with the reference house assigned a score of 80. The Energy Star–qualified new home is required to be significantly more energy efficient than the reference house, by achieving a HERS score of at least 86. A BOP is the other manner through which a home can be qualified as an Energy Star–qualified new home. A BOP represents a set of construction specifications for a specific climate zone, based on performance levels for the thermal envelope, insulation, windows, orientation, heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system, and water heating efficiency for the climate zone.
THE ENVIROHOME INITIATIVE, CANADIAN HOME BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION The following is taken in part from the EnviroHome Web site. The EnviroHome Initiative was established in 1994 by the Canadian Home Builders’ Association
Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction
(CHBA) and TD Canada Trust to recognize and support innovative new home builders who are specially trained and licensed, and committed to offering consumers homes that are “better for you, better for your community, and better for the environment.” TD Canada Trust is a full-service bank that provides home loans. Canadian Home Builders’ Association EnviroHome projects showcase the best in new home-building technology and products. EnviroHome builders are the best, highly innovative, skilled professionals who know how to construct exceptional homes that meet the needs of today’s consumers for healthy affordable homes. EnviroHomes are exceptionally comfortable, healthy to live in, more energy efficient, and better for the environment than homes not designed and built to EnviroHome standards. Each year the EnviroHome designation is given to a select number of new home projects across Canada. To qualify, each home must be certified to the R-2000 Standard and include additional air quality and environmental features beyond what the R-2000 program requires. R-2000 is a specific Canadian home building technology that has earned a worldwide reputation for quality, comfort, and environmental responsibility. Every R-2000 certification involves special measures in three main areas of construction: energy performance, indoor air quality, and use of environmentally preferred materials. R-2000 homes incorporate a range of cost-effective, energy-efficient building practices and technologies, regardless of design or size. R-2000 homes are independently certified to meet a high level of energy efficiency, beyond what building codes require. With an R-2000 certificate, home owners can have confidence in the performance of their home. Builders choose to be part of the R-2000 program because they want access to the best home building technology available so they can offer their customers a better home.
ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES The Energy-Efficient Construction Practices content on the Student CD includes information and examples about how to decrease dependency on the heating and cooling system, through the use of framing techniques such as caulking, vapor retarders, radiant barriers, and insulation. A discussion about the types of insulation is included as well. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES, for more information.
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SOLAR ENERGY DESIGN Sunlight becomes solar energy when it is transferred to a medium that has the capacity or ability to provide useful heat. This useful solar energy can be regulated in order to heat water or the inside of a building, or create power to run electrical utilities. Most areas of the earth receive about 60% direct sunlight each year, and in very clear areas, up to 80% of the annual sunlight is available for use as solar energy. When the sun’s rays reach the earth, the air and the features on the earth become heated. Certain dense materials such as concrete can absorb more heat than less dense materials such as wood. During the day the dense materials absorb and store solar energy. Then at night, with the source of energy gone, the stored energy is released in the form of heat. Some substances, such as glass, absorb thermal radiation while transmitting light. This concept, in part, is what makes solar heating possible. Solar radiation enters a structure through a glass panel and warms the surfaces of the interior areas. The glass keeps the heat inside by absorbing the radiation. Two basic residential and commercial uses for solar energy are heating spaces and hot water. Other uses are industrial and include drying materials such as lumber, masonry, or crops. Solar energy has also been used for nearly a century with desalinization plants to provide fresh water from either mineral or saltwater. Solar space heating systems are passive, active, or a combination of the two. Passive solar systems, also called architectural solar systems, use no mechanical devices to retain, store, or radiate solar heat. Active solar systems, also called mechanical solar systems, do use mechanical devices to absorb, store, and use solar heat. The potential reduction of fossil fuel energy consumption can make solar heat an economical alternative. A number of factors contribute to the effective use of solar energy. Among them are energy-efficient construction techniques and full insulation of a building to reduce heat loss and air infiltration. An auxiliary heating system is often used as a backup or supplemental system in conjunction with solar heat. The amount of heat needed from the auxiliary system depends on the effectiveness of the solar system. Both the primary and the supplemental systems should be professionally engineered for optimum efficiency and comfort. A southern exposure, when available, provides the best site orientation for solar construction. A perfect solar site allows the structure to have an unobstructed southern exposure. This topic is described further in Chapter 13. Room placement is another factor to consider for taking advantage of solar heat. Living areas, such as the
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living and family rooms, should be on the south side of the house, while inactive rooms, such as bedrooms, laundry room, and bathrooms, should be located on the north side, if a cooler environment is desirable. If possible, the garage should be placed on the north, northeast, or northwest side of the home. A garage can act as an effective barrier, insulating the living areas from cold exterior elements. The inactive rooms, including the bedrooms, bathrooms, laundry room, pantry, and garage, shelter the living area from the northern exposure. Masonry walls also allow the house to be built into a slope on its northern side, or berms to be used as shelter from the elements.
The Air-Lock Entry Another energy-efficient element of design is an air-lock entry, known as a vestibule. This is an entry that provides a hall or chamber between an exterior and interior door to the building. The vestibule should be designed so the interior and exterior doors are not open at the same time. The distance between the doors should be at least 7 feet (2100 mm), to force the occupants to close one door before they reach the other door. The main idea behind an air-lock entry is to provide a chamber that is always closed to the living area by a door. When the exterior door is opened, the air lock loses heat, but the heat loss is confined to the small space of the vestibule and the warm air of the living area is exposed to minimum heat loss.
Architectural Drafting and Design
drapes to allow sunlight to enter and heat the rooms. In the early evening, before the heat begins to radiate out of the house, the occupant should close the shutters or draperies to keep the heat within.
Codes and Solar Rights Building permits are generally required for the installation of active solar systems or the construction of passive solar systems. Some installations also require plumbing and electrical permits. Verify the exact requirements for solar installations with local building officials. During the initial planning process, always check the local zoning ordinances to determine the feasibility of the installation. For example, many areas restrict dwelling height. If the planned solar system encroaches on this zoning rule, then a different approach or a variance to the restriction should be considered. The individual’s access to sunlight is not always guaranteed. A solar home can be built in an area that has excellent solar orientation, and then a few years later, a tall structure may be built across the street that blocks the sun. A neighbor’s trees can grow tall and reduce sunlight. Determine the possibility of such a problem before construction begins. Some local zoning ordinances, laws, or even deed restrictions can protect the individual’s right to light. In the past, laws generally provided the right to receive light from above the property but not from across neighboring land. This situation is changing in many areas of the country.
Living with Solar Energy Systems Solar energy and energy-efficient construction require a commitment to conserving energy. Each individual must evaluate cost against potential savings and become aware of the responsibility of living with energy conservation. Solar systems can be designed that provide some heat from the sun and require little or no involvement from the occupant to assist with the process. Such a minimal energy-saving design is worth the effort in many cases. Active solar space heating systems are available that can provide a substantial amount of needed heat energy. These systems are automatic and also do not generally require involvement from the home owner, although the home owner should be aware of operation procedures and maintenance schedules. Alternately, some passive solar heating systems require much participation by the occupants. For example, a mechanical shade must be used by the home owner to block the summer sun rays from entering southern-exposure windows. During the winter months, when the sun is heating the living area, the heat should be retained as long as possible. In the morning the home owner needs to open shutters or
Roof Overhang The sun’s angle changes from season to season. The sun is lower on the horizon in the winter and higher in the summer. An overhang can shield a major glass area from the heat of the summer sun and also allow the lower winter sun to help warm the home. Figure 12-1 shows an example of how a properly designed overhang can aid in the effective use of the sun’s heat.
SUMMER SUN
OVERHANG WINTER SUN
FIGURE 121 Effective overhang.
Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction
An overhang that provides nearly 100% shading at noon on the longest day of the year can be calculated with a formula that divides the window height by a factor determined in relationship to latitude: Overhang =
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SUMMER
WINTER
Windowsill height F
North Latitude
F
North Latitude
F
28°
8.4
44°
2.4
32°
5.2
48°
2.0
36°
3.8
52°
1.7
40°
3.0
56°
1.4
A DROP SHADE
Example: Calculate the recommended southern overhang for a location at 36° latitude and provide for a windowsill height of 6'–8". Latitude is the angular distance between an imaginary line around the earth parallel to the equator and including the equator. B SLIDING SHADE
6'–8" (Window height) Overhang (OH)= 3.8 (F at 36° latitude) =
6.6 =1.8 ≈ 1'–10" 3.8
The recommended overhang is greater for a more northerly latitude. Overhang protection can be constructed in ways other than a continuation of the roof structure; there is a great deal of flexibility in architectural design. An awning, porch cover, or trellis can be built to serve the same function as an overhang. Alternative methods of shading from summer heat and exposing window areas to winter sun can be achieved with mechanical devices. These movable devices require the occupant to be aware of the need for shade or heat at different times of the year. Figure 12-2 shows some shading options.
C AWNING SHADE
FIGURE 122 Optional shading devices.
used individually and together, including south-facing glass, thermal storage walls, roof ponds, solariums, and envelope construction.
PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS In passive solar architecture, the structure is designed so the sun directly warms the interior. A passive solar system allows sunlight to enter the structure and be absorbed into a structural mass. The stored heat then warms the living space. Shutters or curtains are used to control the amount of sunlight entering the home, and vents help control temperature. In passive solar construction, the structure is the system. The amount of material needed to store heat depends on the amount of sunlight, the desired temperature within the structure, and the ability of the material to store heat. Materials such as water, steel, concrete, and masonry have good heat capacity; wood does not. Several passive solar architectural methods have been
South-Facing Glass Direct solar gain is a direct gain in heat created by the sun. This direct gain is readily created in a structure through south-facing windows. Large window areas facing south can provide up to 60% of a building’s heating needs when the windows are insulated at night with tight-fitting shutters or insulated curtains. When the window insulation is not used at night, the heat gain during the day is quickly lost. The sun’s energy must heat a dense material in order to be retained. Floors and walls are often covered with or made of materials other than traditional wood and plasterboard. Floors constructed of or covered with tile, brick, or concrete, and special walls made of concrete or masonry or containing
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FIGURE 123 South-facing glass provides direct gain. Courtesy Residential Designs.
water tubes, can provide heat storage for direct solar gain applications. Figure 12-3 shows a typical application of direct-gain south-facing glass. Clerestory windows can be used to provide light and direct solar gain to a second-floor living area and increase the total solar heating capacity of a house. Clerestory windows are a row of windows set along the upper part of a wall. These clerestory windows can also be used to help ventilate a structure during the summer months, when the need for cooling is greater than the need for heating (see Figure 12-4). Skylights can be used effectively for direct solar gain. A skylight is a window in a roof used to admit sunlight. When skylights are placed on a south-sloping roof, they provide needed direct gain during the winter. In the summer, skylights can cause the area to overheat unless additional care is taken to provide for ventilation or a shade cover. Some manufacturers have skylights that open and can provide sufficient ventilation. Figure 12-5 shows an application of operable skylights.
CLERESTORY WINDOWS
NORTH SIDE
COOL AIR
FIGURE 124 Clerestory circulation.
FIGURE 125 Operable skylights can provide sufficient ventilation. Courtesy VELUX America, Inc.
Thermal Storage Walls Thermal storage walls are constructed of any good heat-absorbing material such as concrete, masonry, or water-filled cylinders. The storage wall can be built inside and next to a large southern-exposed window or group of windows. The wall receives and stores energy during the day and releases the heat slowly at night. The Trombe wall, designed by a French scientist, Dr. Felix Trombe, is a commonly used thermal storage wall. The Trombe wall is a massive dark-painted masonry or concrete wall situated a few inches inside and next to south-facing glass. The sun heats the air between the wall and the glass. The heated air rises and enters the room through vents at the top of the wall. At the same time, cool air from the floor level of adjacent rooms is pulled in through vents at the bottom of the wall. The vents in the Trombe wall must be closable to avoid losing the warm air from within the structure through the windows at night. The heat absorbed in the wall during the day radiates back into the room during the night hours. The Trombe wall also acts to cool the structure during the summer. This happens when warm air rises between the wall and glass and is vented to the outside. The air currents thus created, work to pull cooler air from an open north-side window or vent. Figure 12-6 shows an example of a thermal storage wall.
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OPEN VENT TOP AND BOTTOM
WATER-FILLED STRUCTURE
SOUTH SIDE STORAGE WALL
MECHANICAL INSULATION BLANKET
LIVING SPACE
WINTER DAY USE OF STORAGE WALL
CLOSED VENTS TOP AND BOTTOM
RADIANT HEAT
SOME HEAT LOSS
WINTER NIGHT USE OF STORAGE WALL WARM AIR OUT VENT OR CLERESTORY
COOLER AIR FROM NORTH SIDE
WARM AIR VENTED OUT
SUMMER ACTIVITY OF STORAGE WALL
FIGURE 126 Thermal storage wall.
Some passive solar structures use water as the storage mass: large vertical water-filled tubes or drums painted dark to absorb heat are installed as the Trombe wall. The water functions as a medium to store heat during the day and release heat at night.
Roof Ponds Roof ponds are used occasionally in residential architecture, although they are more common in commercial construction. A roof pond is usually constructed of containers filled with antifreeze and water on a flat roof. The water is heated during the winter days, and then at night the structure is covered with insulation, which allows the absorbed heat to radiate into the living space. This process functions in reverse during the summer. The water-filled units are covered with insulation during the day and uncovered at night to allow any stored heat to escape. To assist the radiation of heat at night, the structure should be constructed of a good thermal-conducting material such as steel. Figure 12-7 shows an example of the roof-pond system.
GARAGE, CARPORT, AWNING, COVERED AREA.
FIGURE 127 Roof-pond system.
Green Roof A green roof is also known as a rooftop garden. These roofs are planted over existing roof structures to help reduce building temperatures, filter pollution, and lessen water runoff. A green roof reduces the urban heat island effect and potentially tempers heating and cooling loads in the building. The urban heat island effect means that city areas are warmer than suburbs or rural areas due to less vegetation, more land coverage, and other infrastructure. The green roof also slows stormwater runoff removing the load on the city’s wastewater system.
Solariums A solarium, sometimes called a sunroom or solar greenhouse, is designed to be built on the south side of a house next to the living area. Solariums are a nice part of the living area when designed into a home. Solariums allow plants to grow well all year. The theory behind the solarium is that a great amount of solar energy is absorbed and transmitted to the rest of the building. A thermal mass can also be used in conjunction with the solarium. Heat from the solarium can be circulated throughout the entire house by natural convection or through a forced-air system. The circulation of hot air during the winter and cool air during the summer in the solar greenhouse functions similar to a Trombe wall. The solarium can overheat during long, hot summer days. This potential problem can be reduced by mechanical ventilators or a mechanical humidifier. Exterior shading devices, which are covers that can be rolled down over the greenhouse glass area, are often advantageous. The use of landscaping with southern deciduous trees, as discussed in Chapter 13, is a possible
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VENT OPEN TOP AND BOTTOM
VENT CLOSED
SOUTH SIDE SOLAR GREENHOUSE
CIRCULATING WARM AIR
PLANTS STORAGE MASS
WINTER ACTIVITY VENT OPEN VENT CLOSED COOLER NORTH AIR
WARM AIR
SUMMER ACTIVITY
FIGURE 128 Solarium construction.
alternative. Figure 12-8 shows how a solarium operates to provide solar heat and circulate summer cooling.
ENVELOPE DESIGN The Envelope Design content on the Student CD includes information and illustrations about the function and construction of a home using the envelope design concept. Refer to the Student CD, ENVELOPE DESIGN, for more information.
local codes should be checked. Active solar systems are commonly adapted to existing homes or businesses that normally use a forced-air heating system.
Solar Collectors As the name implies, solar collectors catch sunlight and convert this light to heat. Well-designed solar collectors are nearly 100% efficient. The number of solar collectors needed to provide heat for a given structure depends on the size of the structure and the volume of heat needed. These are the same kinds of determinations made when sizing a conventional heating system. Collectors are commonly placed in rows on a roof or on the ground next to the structure, as shown in Figure 12-9. Architects and designers are integrating the solar panels into the total design in an effort to make them less obvious. The best placement requires an unobstructed southern exposure. The angle of the solar collectors should be in proper relationship to the angle of the sun during winter months, when the demand for heat is greatest. Verify the collector angle that is best suited for a specific location. Some collectors are designed to be positioned at 60° from horizontal so the winter sun hits at about 90° to the collector. Although this is the ideal situation, a slight change from this angle of up to 15° may not alter the efficiency very much. Other collectors are designed to obtain solar heat by direct and reflected sunlight. Reflecting, or focusing, lenses help concentrate the light on the collector surface. Figure 12-10 shows an example of solar collector tilt.
ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS Active solar systems are part of a group of green power systems. Green power, as defined on the Environmental Protection Agency Web site, is “electricity that is generated from resources such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydro facilities.” Active solar systems for space heating use collectors to gather heat from the sun, which is transferred to a fluid. Fans, pumps, valves, and thermostats move the heated fluid from the collectors to an area of heat storage. The heat collected and stored is then distributed to the structure. Heat in the system is transported to the living space by insulated ducts, which are similar to the ducts in a conventional forced-air heating system. An active solar heating system generally requires a backup heating system that is capable of handling the entire heating needs of the building. Some backup systems are forced-air systems that use the same ducts as the solar system. The backup system can be heated by electricity, natural gas, or oil. Some people rely on wood- or coal-burning appliances for supplemental heat, but
Photovoltaic Modules Photovoltaic technology has been developed and refined. Photovoltaic modules are now powering thousands of installations worldwide. Solar photovoltaic systems are now producing millions of watts of electricity to supply power for remote cabins, homes, railroad signals, water pumps, telecommunications stations, and utilities. Uses for this technology are continuing to expand, and new installations are being constructed. Photovoltaic cells turn light into electricity. The word photovoltaic is derived from the Greek photo, “light,” and voltaic, “to produce electricity by chemical action.” Photons strike the surface of a silicon wafer, which is a semiconductor diode, to stimulate the release of mobile electric charges that can be guided into a circuit to become a useful electric current. Photovoltaic modules produce direct current (DC) electricity. This type of power is useful for many applications and for charging storage batteries. When alternating current (AC) is required, DC can be changed to AC
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FIGURE 129 Typical applications of solar hot water collectors. Courtesy Lennox Industries, Inc.
by an inverter. Some photovoltaic systems are designed to use the energy produced immediately, as is often the case in water-pumping installations. If the energy produced by solar electric systems is not used immediately, or if an energy reserve is required for use when sunlight is not available, the energy must be stored. The most common storage devices are batteries. Although both DC and AC systems can stand alone, AC systems can also be connected to a utility grid. During times of peak power usage, the system can draw on the grid for extra electricity if needed. At other times, such a system can return extra power to the grid. In most areas of the country the utility (grid) is required to purchase excess power from private sources. Precise site selection is vitally important. The solar modules should be situated where they receive
maximum exposure to direct sunlight for the longest period of time every day. Other considerations are distance from the load (appliance); shade from trees or buildings, which changes with the seasons; and accessibility. The future looks bright for solar technologies. The costs and efficiencies of high-technology systems are improving. As home owners watch their heating and cooling costs rise and become more concerned about shortages of oil and gas, solar heating becomes an attractive alternative. In preparing a preliminary design, solar alternatives should be considered. A qualified solar engineer should evaluate the site and recommend solar design alternatives. Additional assistance is usually available from the state or national Department of Energy.
Storage
60° SOUTHERN SOLAR COLLECTOR
WINTER
SUN
COLLECTOR
80°
REFLECTOR 10°
FIGURE 1210 Solar collector tilt.
During periods of sunlight, active solar collectors transfer heat energy to a storage area and then to the living space. After the demand for heat is met, the storage facilities allow the heat to be contained for use when solar activity is reduced, such as at night or during cloud cover. The kind of storage facilities used depends on the type of collector system used. There are water, rock, and chemical storage systems. Water storage is excellent because water has a high capacity for storing heat. Water in a storage tank is used to absorb heat from a collector. When the demand for heat exceeds the collector’s output, the hot water from the storage tank is pumped into a radiator, or through a water-to-air heat exchanger for dispersal to the forced-air system. Domestic hot water can be provided by a water-to-water heat exchanger in the storage tank. Rock storage is often used when the collectors contain air rather than water. Heated air flows over a rock
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storage bed. The rock absorbs some heat from the air while the balance is distributed to the living space. When the solar gain is minimal, cooler air passes over the rock storage, where it absorbs heat and is distributed by fans to the living space. Domestic hot water may also be provided by an air-to-water heat exchanger situated in the rock storage or in the hot air duct leading from the collector. Chemicals used in collectors and in storage facilities absorb large amounts of heat at low temperatures. Many of these systems claim to absorb heat on cloudy days or even when the collectors are snow covered. Chemicals with very low freezing temperatures can actually absorb heat during winter months, when the outside temperature is low.
Solar Architectural Concrete Products Solar collectors can be built into a patio, driveway, tennis court, pool deck, or tile roof. Solar architectural concrete products make the most versatile solar collector on the market. These products can be used as a driveway, sidewalk, patio, pool deck, or roofing material, or as the side surface of a building wall or fence. The finished surface can resemble cobblestone, brick, or roof tiles. Pigments are added to the specially formulated material, giving it a lasting color that is pleasing to the eye. These solar products are completely different from all other solar collectors in that they add to the aesthetic value of the property. They are manufactured from a specially formulated mixture that is strong, dense, very conductive, and waterproof. Solar architectural cement products absorb and collect heat from the sun and outside air and transfer the heat into water, glycol, or another heattransferring fluid passing through embedded tubes.
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 1211 Groundwater system. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc.
tubing around a heat exchanger. Direct exchange represents only a small number of geothermal systems and the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute does not recognize these. A geothermal system operates by pumping groundwater from a supply well and then circulating it through a heat exchanger, where either heat or cold is transferred by a refrigerant. The water, which has undergone only a temperature change, is then returned through a discharge well back to the strata, as shown in Figure 12-11. Lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, and swimming pools may be alternate sources of water. Rather than pumping the water up to the heat exchanger, a geothermal exchanger can be inserted into a lake, river, or other natural body of water to extract heat, as shown in Figure 12-12. To cool, the geothermal heat pump extracts heat from within the structure and transfers it to the fluid, where the heat dissipates into the ground as it circulates. Another alternative is to insert a geothermal Freon exchanger directly into a well, where the natural
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS Geothermal heating and cooling equipment is designed to use the constant, moderate temperature of the ground to provide space heating and cooling, or domestic hot water, by placing heat exchangers in the ground, or in wells, lakes, rivers, or streams. The basic types of geothermal systems are water- and refrigerant-based. The water-based system has closed-loop and open-loop options. The closed-loop system has water or waterantifreeze fluid pumped through polyethylene tubes. The open-loop system has water pumped from a well or reservoir through a heat exchanger, and is then discharged into a drainage ditch, a field tile, a reservoir, or another well. The refrigerant-based system is also known as direct exchange where refrigerant flows in copper
FIGURE 1212 Geothermal Freon exchanger in a lake. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc.
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FIGURE 1213 Geothermal Freon exchanger in a well. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc.
FIGURE 1215 Ground-loop system. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc.
convection of the groundwater temperature, assisted by the normal flow of underground water in the strata, is used to transfer the hot or cold temperature that is required. Sometimes the thermal transfer must be assisted by forcing the Freon to circulate through tubes within the well by a low-horsepower pump (see Figure 12-13). A geothermal system may assist a solar system that uses water as a heat storage and transfer medium. After the water heated by solar collectors has given up enough heat to reduce its temperature to below 100°F, this water becomes the source for operating the geothermal system (see Figure 12-14). When an adequate supply of water is unavailable, the ground, which always maintains a constant temperature below the frost line, can be used to extract either heat or cold. The thermal extraction is done through the use of a closed-loop system consisting of polyethylene tubing filled with a glycol solution and circulated through the geothermal system. One such system is shown in
Figure 12-15. Another method is to use a vertical dryhole well, which is sealed to allow it to function as a closed-loop system, as shown in Figure 12-16. The geothermal system is mechanically similar to a conventional heat pump, except that it uses available water to cool the refrigerant or to extract heat, as opposed to using 90°F air for cooling or 20°F to 40°F air for heating. The conventional heat pump is described in Chapter 21. The difference between air source and ground or water sources is that air temperature can change much more than ground or water temperatures. This gives the ground or water source heat pump more capacity and makes it more efficient. Water can store great amounts of geothermal energy because of its high specific heat, which is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of any substance 1°F. The specific heat of air is only 0.018, so it can absorb and release only 1/50 of the energy that water can. To produce a given amount of heat, 50 times more air volume than water is required to pass through the unit.
FIGURE 1214 Solar-assisted system. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc.
FIGURE 1216 Vertical-dry system. Courtesy Solar Oriented Environmental Systems, Inc.
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WIND ENERGY
BIOPOWER
Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth’s surface, and the earth’s rotation. Wind turbines capture energy from the wind. A wind turbine is turned by the wind passing over propellers that power an electric generator, creating a supply of electricity. Large-scale applications use several technologically advanced turbines grouped together in what is referred to as a wind farm. This wind power plant generates electricity that is fed into a local utility for distribution to customers. Small-scale wind turbines are also available for home or business use. The wind speed in an area determines the effectiveness of possible power generation by wind. Good wind areas have an annual minimum average wind speed of 13 miles per hour. Contact your state or the U.S. Department of Energy to determine if your area is a good location for wind power. The advantage of wind energy is that the source is a free, renewable, clean resource. However, you must have a good location where wind is available, the initial cost is a factor to consider, there is some noise from the turbines, and mortality of birds flying into the turbines is a concern. The initial cost is balanced out over time when compared with the cost of fuels used for other systems. It is possible that wind power could produce over 10% of the energy needs of the United States by 2050.
The following was taken in part from the Web site of the USA Biomass Corporation. Biomass means natural material, such as trees, plants, agricultural waste, and other organic material. Organic material is any material that originated as a living organism. In this context, biomass refers to plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce biofuel, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibers, chemicals, or heat. Biomass can also include biodegradable wastes that can be burned as fuel. Biomass excludes organic material that has been transformed by geological processes into coal or petroleum, because they contain carbon that has been “out” of the carbon cycle for a very long time. Coal and petroleum combustion increases the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere. Biomass energy, also referred to as biopower, uses biomass to generate electricity in a way that is cleaner and more efficient than most other electricity generation techniques. Biomass-generating facilities typically use natural biofuels to produce steam, which drives a turbine that turns a generator to produce electricity. In addition to providing clean energy, biopower protects the environment by preventing scrap lumber, agricultural cuttings, forest debris, and other organic waste from being open-burned or dumped in landfills. The benefits of biopower include: ●
HYDROELECTRIC POWER Hydroelectric generators convert the energy from falling water into electricity. Hydroelectric power is a renewable resource, which supplies about 15% of the electricity needs in the United States and about 60% in Canada. Although hydroelectric resources are abundant, there is environmental concern about dams blocking the natural river flow. Hydroelectric power for residential and business use is dependent on a good source of flowing water. The two key factors are flow rate and the vertical distance that water falls, which is referred to as head. The site should be evaluated and tested by a hydrology engineer to determine its feasibility. Local codes and environmental regulations must be considered before planning a hydroelectric project. Power produced from hydroelectric sources is clean, and this makes it an excellent consideration when compared with power plants fired by fossil fuels. However, other environmental impacts, such as fish passage, must be considered.
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Biopower is twice as effective at reducing greenhouse gases as other forms of renewable energy, helping reduce America’s dependence on fossil fuel– generating facilities. Biopower is carbon neutral, releasing no new carbons into the atmosphere, helping to reduce the greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. Biopower reduces carbon dioxide emissions by over 15 tons annually, while diverting over 25 million tons of organic materials that would otherwise decompose, be open-burned, or accumulate in the forest as overgrowth material. Biopower improves the health of American forests and reduces fire-fighting costs by clearing millions of tons of forest waste annually, which otherwise would be fuel for deadly forest fires.
HEALTHY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Constructing a healthy building involves issues related to construction techniques, construction materials, as well as heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning design. Many of the proper construction methods have been
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discussed throughout this chapter. Techniques that result in energy-efficient construction are important because the goal is to design and build an airtight structure. The methods used to reduce outside air infiltration range from the selection and proper installation of insulation and caulking products to the installation of continuous vapor retarders. The risks involved in building an airtight structure involve air quality; these risks range from stale air to a buildup of harmful contaminants. These issues can be addressed with a well-designed and properly installed heat recovery and ventilation system. Sources of pollutants and methods used to deal with these problems are discussed in Chapter 21, with complete coverage of HVAC systems. The selection of building materials and products is also an important consideration. Avoid manufactured wood products such as fiberboard, particleboard, and plywood unless they are manufactured using environmentally safe processes and adhesives. Use water-based caulking, paint, and finishes. Keep carpeting to a minimum, or eliminate it completely for very sensitive clients. An alternative to synthetic carpeting is natural fiber products such as wool and cotton. Combustion appliances that use gas fuel, such as furnaces, ranges, water heaters, and clothes dryers, must be properly ventilated, and combustion must be complete. An electric or heat pump furnace; electric water heater, range, and dryer; or sealed combustion appliances should be considered. Avoid treated wood products in the construction of the building envelope, although they may be considered for outside use, as in decks. In regions where treated wood is commonly used for termite and rot control, steel-frame construction is a consideration. Steel-frame construction has been commonly used in commercial structures and is becoming a serious consideration for residential design and construction. The following is a checklist of features and products that can be considered for designing a healthy structure:
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Design and build with high-quality environmentally friendly insulation, caulking, and vapor barriers.
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Use airtight well-insulated wood- or metal-frame windows.
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Use unbleached plasterboard and plaster rather than chemically produced sheetrock and materials.
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Install a properly designed heat recovery ventilation system, also called an air-to-air heat exchanger. See Chapter 21 for more information.
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Install a high-performance particle air filtration system. See Chapter 21 for more information.
The following is taken in part from the National Brownfield Association (NBA) Web site. The National Brownfield Association is a nonprofit, member-based organization consisting of NBA U.S.A. and NBA Canada. The NBA is the only nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting sustainable development and encouraging green building on brownfield sites. Brownfields, as defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, are “real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant.” Brownfield sites can be found
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Use low-toxicity ceramic tiles and hardwood floors or natural fiber carpets rather than synthetic carpets. Use wood sheathing and decking such as tongueand-groove rather than plywood and particleboard. Low-formaldehyde products can be considered. Consider low-toxicity foam insulation or other nonchemical insulation products. Use water-base, solvent-free, low-toxicity paints and finishes. Construct a tightly sealed foundation to help keep out radon gas and moisture. Radon gas is discussed in Chapter 21. Use a heat pump such as a geothermal unit that produces no indoor pollutants. Heat pumps are described in Chapter 21. Install gas appliances and fireplaces that use only outdoor air and exhaust to the outside without any downdraft. Use ultraviolet (UV) lights mounted inside the duct work, so when the furnace fan circulates air from the house, the air passes across the UV light rays which neutralize up to 98% of microorganisms. Additional information about UV lights is provided in Chapter 21. Install an electrical system that is designed to reduce stray voltage. Some people are sensitive to power surges. Use a sealed and well-balanced metal duct system. Avoid fiberglass insulation ducts. Metal ducts can be insulated on the outside. Install a central vacuum system that vents particles out of the house into a filtered container in the garage. Install a garage ventilation system. Use ceramic roofing.
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GOING GREEN The Ultimate Urban Green Home
This ultimate urban green home, designed by res communis, is an almost perfect sustainable and self-sufficient design using super, energy-efficient, environmentally safe materials and clean energy technologies. The owners named this home the Commons, because the ideas used to design and build the home need to be shared and common. A goal of this home is to be a national model of the greenest self-sufficient design and construction available. The Commons is part of the Living Building Challenge. The Living Building Challenge is an initiative program developed by the Cascadia Region Green Building Council, which is the Northwest chapter of the U.S. Green Building Council. The purpose of the Living Building Challenge is to force architectural design and construction beyond the scope outlined in the highest LEED for Homes standard. The homes built in this program are tested for performance and must meet specific outcomes to be qualified. The green features found in the Commons are described below.
NET-ZERO ENERGY The home, with the help of a photovoltaic (PV) solar array is classified as net-zero energy, which means that the home generates as much or more energy than the occupants consume through the course of a year. To accomplish this, the house is grid inter-tied, which means that when the solar array is producing more energy than is needed, the energy is fed into the power grid and when the solar array is not producing enough, the home pulls power back from the grid.
SUPER INSULATED The building envelope can be the most important consideration when designing a sustainable structure, because the heating and cooling of a building are the largest energy loads. The walls for the Commons are made using a double-steel stud construction technique with an overall thickness of 12", and insulated with AirKrete cementitious foam insulation, blown-in cellulose, and clad in fiber-cement paneling. Cementitious foam insulation is an effective air barrier, nontoxic, not a petroleum product, and not susceptible to moisture damage. Blown-in cellulose is a waste product, nontoxic, and low in cost. Fiber-cement cladding is a highly durable and nontoxic material that acts as a skin for the building envelope.
life of the building, which is an important aspect of sustainability.
PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN The Commons is oriented with its longest and tallest face towards the south and the southern walls are largely glass in order to gain as much warmth from the winter sun as possible. The floors within the sunspace and greenhouse are earthen, which have high thermal mass for storing solar energy. Passive solar systems are discussed further in this chapter.
NET-ZERO WATER AND RAINWATER CATCHMENT Net-zero water means that a home collects or generates as much or more water than the occupants consume through the course of a year. All water used in the Commons, including potable water, is gathered from rainwater falling on the roof and stored in a cistern. This system removes the dependence on municipal water systems and increases awareness of usage, because the occupants can consume only the amount of water that has been supplied naturally. A cistern is a receptacle for holding water or other liquid, especially a tank for catching and storing rainwater. This is also referred to as a rainwater catchment system. Rainwater catchment systems are described further in Chapter 20.
GREEN ROOF Incorporated in the roof design is a green roof, which reduces the urban heat island effect and potentially tempers heating and cooling loads in the building. Also known as a rooftop garden, a green roof is planted over an existing roof structure to help reduce building temperatures, filter pollution, and lessen stormwater runoff, thereby lessening the load on the city wastewater system. The urban heat island effect means that city areas are warmer than suburbs or rural areas due to less vegetation, more land coverage, and other infrastructure.
SOLAR HOT WATER In addition to photovoltaic panels for electricity, the Commons has solar hot water panels to offset the water heating loads and provide warm water to radiant wall heaters. Solar hot water systems are described in Chapter 20.
CLEAR SPAN STRUCTURE
COMPOSTING TOILETS AND GRAY WATER RECLAMATION
The Commons is constructed so all interior walls are non-load-bearing, allowing for easier reconfiguration of the space in the future, which can extend the useful
The Commons has waterless composting toilets, which lower overall water requirements for the house. By using a composting system, the home can be disconnected
GOING GREEN
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The Ultimate Urban Green Home (Continued) from the municipal sewer system. Gray water processing has just recently been approved in the state of Oregon, for use in flushing toilets and irrigation. Designers are working with city and state officials to process and treat the gray water back to potable standards on-site. A goal of the Commons is to become an example project by putting the gray water through constructed wetlands in the greenhouse, onto the green roof, and then allowing it to be filtered back into the cistern for potable water. Confirm the possibility of gray water reclamation with regulations in your area. If the designers are unable to obtain the proper permits to process gray water on-site, the home will be built with rough plumbing in order to implement a gray water reuse system when permits are available. Gray water is wastewater from clothes washing machines, showers, bathtubs, hand washing, lavatories, and sinks. By removing toilets from the municipal sewer system, the home reduces the load on the system. Rough plumbing is the plumbing system found beyond the location where sinks, showers, tubs, toilets, and related fixtures connect. Composting toilets also allow for the compost waste product to be used as fertilizer for the ornamental landscaping and soil remediation around the house. Composting toilets are described further in Chapter 20.
EARTHEN FLOORS Earthen floors are a green building technology that combines the mixture of sand, clay soil, and fibers that are poured in place and sealed with linseed oils and waxes to make durable washable surfaces. The finished surface is more comfortable to walk on than concrete or tile, and can be easily repaired in case of damage. The earthen floor system allows sunlight to enter the
FIGURE 1217 A rendering of the Commons with numbers identifying sustainable features described in the text. Courtesy res communis, www.rescommunis.org.
structure and be absorbed. The stored heat helps warm the living space. The features of the Commons are shown in Figure 12-17 with the exterior rendering, and Figure 12-18 providing the upper-level and lower-level floor plans. The numbers identified on the exterior rendering and floor plans are outlined in the following: 1. Green Roof—The green roof reduces the urban heat island effect, tempers heating and cooling loads, and slows stormwater runoff. 2. Rainwater Catchment—All water used is gathered from rainwater falling on the roof and stored in a cistern. 3. Translucent Movable Roof—This portion of the roof is transparent to allow light to filter through, but
FIGURE 1218 (A) The main floor and (B) the second floor of the Commons with numbers identifying sustainable features described in the text. Courtesy res communis, www.rescommunis.org.
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GOING GREEN The Ultimate Urban Green Home (Continued)
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
keeps the courtyard below mostly dry and allows for its use during rainy weather. Movable Walls—Large glass roll-up doors on the greenhouse and sunspace blur the boundary between indoors and out. Exterior Walls—The walls for the Commons are made using 12"-thick double steel stud construction, insulated with AirKrete and clad in fiber-cement paneling. Energy Source—All power used in the home is provided by a roof-mounted solar array. The home is net-zero energy. Subterranean Shop and Garden—A subterranean shop allows the occupants to maintain a backyard space for a garden and fruit trees. Being underground, sound created from tools and activities are deadened, reducing noise pollution. Appliances—The custom refrigerator is superinsulated with a new vacuum insulation allowing R-50 in 2 inches. A washing machine that spins most of the water out, in conjunction with a clothesline, eliminates the need for a clothes drier. A built-in central vacuum cleaner results in cleaner air, exhausting dust and particulates to the exterior. Composting Toilet—Waterless composting toilets lower overall water requirements for the house. A custom bidet is installed on the toilet to prevent the need for toilet paper. Sunspace and Greenhouse—The sunspace and greenhouse capture solar heat and store it in the thermal mass of the earthen floors. The sunspace also acts as a flex space with its roll-up glass doors allowing it to bridge the gap between the kitchen and the outdoors in milder times of the year. The indoor greenhouse allows the occupants to supplement their diet with fresh, home grown foods. The plants condition the air by removing pollutants that enter the house from outside and from off-gassing electronics. Plants have also been shown to increase the productivity and happiness of occupants. In addition to offering a place to grow plants, the greenhouse also has a large quantity of glass to capture solar heat gain from the sun, which can be drawn into the living spaces. Interior Walls—Many components within the house, including the interior walls, are constructed from reused materials such as wood and glass from the previous building on the site. Floors (Office)—High-traffic areas and circulation paths, such as those in the office, are made of an earth-based “concrete” because of its durability.
Areas where the occupants spend more time standing are clad in reused wood to be warmer and more comfortable underfoot. 13. Dual Density—The house is designed with two master bedrooms in order to increase density and accommodate two families. This increased density fosters community and mutual aid, and allows the sharing of resources, which lowers the overall impact of all involved. 14. Courtyard—The courtyard provides a transition between the home and backyard and is a buffer between the two master bedrooms. Additional features found in the Commons are discussed below.
Windows The windows in the structure are oriented to the sun and have a low U-value, but in some cases, the U-value is traded for a higher solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) allowing for a greater harvest of the sun’s energy. Daylighting was also a priority in design; all living spaces have at least two walls with windows in order to balance the light.
Energy Recovery Ventilator An energy recovery ventilator (ERV) allows for an airtight house, and provides energy efficiency because the stale outgoing air is passed through a heat exchanger, where the outgoing air exchanges its conditioned state (hot or cold) with the incoming fresh air, conserving energy. ERVs also allow for humidity levels to be monitored and controlled.
Wings Wings hide the conduit for the photovoltaic system, solar hot water tubes, and rainwater conveyance.
Airlock The two successive doors at the main entrance function as an airlock.
Flex Space This space has a multitude of capacities, ranging from an entertainment space, an art space, or a guest bedroom.
Earthen Floors Earthen floors have been specified for all rooms, with the exception of the kitchen and bedrooms. Earthen floors have little to no embodied energy, are made from local materials, and are pleasant and warm underfoot.
Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction
in every state. Common examples are abandoned gas stations and dry cleaners, railroad properties, factories, and closed military bases. Brownfields can also include
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
www.airkrete.com www.ase.org www.ases.org www.usabiomass.org www.certainteed.com www.pdxlivingbuilding
www.dap.com www.earthadvantage.com www.energystar.gov www.envirohome.chba.ca
www.epa.gov www.epa.gov/greenpower www.epa.gov/iaq
properties that are under-utilized for various socioeconomic reasons, such as abandonment, obsolescence, tax delinquency, and blight.
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in environmental design and construction. Address
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Company, Product, or Service AirKrete—Manufacturer of cementitious foam insulation Alliance to Save Energy American Solar Energy Society Biopower CertainTeed (insulation) The Commons—One of the nation’s first living buildings Dap caulking Earth Advantage program Energy Star EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian Home Builders’ Association Environmental Protection Agency EPA—Green Power Partnership EPA—Indoor air quality
www.usgbc.org/leed
www.usgbc.org/leed/homes www.davelennox.com
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System The LEED for Homes program Lennox Industries, Inc.
www.nahbrc.org/greenguidelines
NAHB Green Building Guidelines www.brownfieldassociation.org
www.nahbrc.org/gbstandard www.osisealants.com www.rescommunis.org www.seia.org www.doe.gov
National Brownfield Association National Green Building Standard OSI Sealants, Inc. res communis design Solar Energy Industries Association U.S. Department of Energy
www.windpoweringamerica.gov
www.epa.gov www.usgbc.org
Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test
U.S. Department of Energy, Wind and Hydropower Technology Program, and wind resource maps U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) U.S. Green Building Council See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 12 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 12–1 List three reasons why energy-efficient construction techniques are becoming important. Question 12–2 Describe at least one factor that may be a disadvantage of energy-efficient construction. Question 12–3 What is the primary goal of energyefficient design and construction? Question 12–4 Identify at least one goal of conservation design.
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Question 12–5 Why is it possible to use energy-efficient design in any architectural style? Question 12–6 Why is it possible to implement some energy-efficient design in every new home? Question 12–7 List two site factors that contribute to energy-efficient design. Question 12–8 List two room layout factors that contribute to energy-efficient design. Question 12–9 List two window placement factors that contribute to energy-efficient design. Question 12–10 What are the two basic residential and commercial uses for solar heat? Question 12–11 Describe passive and active solar heating. Question 12–12 List and describe three factors that influence a good solar design. Question 12–13 Discuss the concept of right to light. Question 12–14 Define each of the following solar systems and make a sketch to show how it functions: a. South-facing glass b. Clerestory windows c. Thermal storage wall d. Roof pond e. Solarium
Question 12–15 Define solar collector.
Architectural Drafting and Design
STUDENT CD QUESTIONS The following questions are based on the Student CD–related content found in this chapter. These questions are optional depending on your course objectives.
Question CD 12–1 List two factors that influence a reduction in air infiltration into a structure. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–2 Identify at least two goals of an energy-efficient construction system. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–3 List three general materials for energy-efficient construction. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–4 What is caulking? Where is it typically used? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–5 What is the recommended thickness for a vapor barrier in a crawl space? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–6 Refer to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. List the typical R-value for the following uses based on the DOE recommendations:
Question 12–16 What are solar architectural concrete products, and how do they function?
a. Flat ceilings
Question 12–17 Describe three applications of geothermal heating and cooling systems.
c. Walls
Question 12–18 Describe the function of photovoltaic cells. Question 12–19 What is the recommended overhang for 36° north latitude? Question 12–20 What is the recommended overhang for 48° north latitude? Question 12–21 Define direct solar gain. Question 12–22 Give two advantages of wind power generation. Question 12–23 List at least 10 features and/or products that can be considered for designing a healthy home. Question 12–24 What are sustainable buildings? Question 12–25 Describe the green building concept. Question 12–26 Define brownfields. Question 12–27 Define green power. Question 12–28 Briefly describe the Energy Star program.
b. Floors
Question CD 12–7 Describe and show sketches demonstrating the envelope design. Refer to the Student CD: ENVELOPE DESIGN. Question CD 12–8 What are radiant barriers, and what is their function? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–9 Describe the function of insulation. Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–10 List at least four items that influence how much insulation a home should have. Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–11 What does R-value measure? Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Chapter 12: Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction
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Question CD 12–12 The ability of material to slow heat transfer is called what? Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Question CD 12–26 What is the class of a window that has a U-value of 0.40? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Question CD 12–13 What does the “R” in R-value mean? Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Question CD 12–27 Identify a foam-in-place insulation material that gives high R-values and airtight seals and provides low toxicity. Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Question CD 12–14 Briefly describe loose-fill insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–15 Give at least one advantage of loose-fill insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Question CD 12–28 Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Give the insulation code for the following building components based on sample energy code requirements: a. Walls
Question CD 12–16 Provide a brief description of batts and blanket insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
b. Flat ceilings
Question CD 12–17 Why is careful installation of batts and blanket insulation important? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
e. Basement walls
Question CD 12–18 Give at least three advantages of rigid insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGYEFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–19 Identify at least three places where rigid insulation is commonly used. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES. Question CD 12–20 Give at least two advantages of foam-in-place insulation. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
c. Vaulted ceilings d. Under floor f. Slab floor edge g. Forced-air ducts h. Windows i. Front entry door j. Other exterior doors k. Skylights
PROBLEMS Write a report of 250 or fewer words on one or more of the following topics:
Question CD 12–21 Name the only insulation that can be used in closed cavities. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Problem 12–1 U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)
Question CD 12–22 What is the R-value range per inch of thickness for fiberglass batts and blanket insulation? Refer to this chapter, to Chapter 9, and to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Problem 12–4 Energy Star
Question CD 12–23 Describe insulated windows. Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Problem 12–7 Energy-efficient construction, insulated windows
Question CD 12–24 What is the advantage of using argon gas in insulated windows? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Problem 12–9 Thermal storage walls
Question CD 12–25 What is low-e glass and what does it do? Refer to the Student CD: ENERGY-EFFICIENT CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES.
Problem 12–2 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Problem 12–3 Green Building Rating System Problem 12–5 Energy-efficient construction, caulking, vapor retarders, radiant barriers Problem 12–6 Energy-efficient construction, insulation
Problem 12–8 Solar energy design Problem 12–10 Envelope design (Refer to the Student CD: ENVELOPE DESIGN.) Problem 12–11 Active solar systems Problem 12–12 Geothermal systems Problem 12–13 Wind energy, including local projects
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Problem 12–14 Healthy design and construction
Problem 12–23 Roof ponds
Problem 12–15 Brownfields
Problem 12–24 Green roof
Problem 12–16 Green power
Problem 12–25 Solarium
Problem 12–17 The Commons
Problem 12–26 Solar collectors and storage
Problem 12–18 NAHB Green Building Guidelines
Problem 12–27 Solar architectural concrete products
Problem 12–19 Indoor air quality
Problem 12–28 Photovoltaic modules
Problem 12–20 The LEED for Homes program
Problem 12–29 Hydroelectric power
Problem 12–21 National Green Building Standard
Problem 12–30 Evaluate and describe your own principles surrounding the energy-efficient design and construction applications discovered in this chapter.
Problem 12–22 EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian Home Builders’ Association
www.kevinmillerphoto.com
SECTION 3
Site Planning
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CHAPTER 13
Site Orientation I
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Site orientation is the placement of a structure on the property with certain environmental and physical factors taken into consideration. Site orientation is one of the preliminary factors that an architect or designer takes into consideration when beginning the design process. The specific needs of the occupants, such as individual habits, perceptions, and aesthetic values, are important and need to be considered. When designing the home or business, the designer or architect has the responsibility of combining the values of the owner with other factors that influence the location of the structure. In some cases site orientation is predetermined. For example, in a residential subdivision where all lots are 50' × 100' (1524 × 3048 m), the street frontage often dictates the front of the house. The property line setback requirements do not allow much flexibility. Setback is the minimum distance required between the structure and the property line. In such a case, site planning has a minimal influence on the design. This chapter presents factors that can influence site orientation, such as terrain, view, sunlight, wind, and sound.
TERRAIN ORIENTATION The terrain is the characteristic of the land on which the proposed structure shall be placed. Terrain affects the type of structure to be built. A level construction site is a natural location for a single-level or two-story home. Some landscape techniques on a level site can allow for alternatives. For example, the excavation material plus extra topsoil could be used to construct an earth berm, which is a mound or built-up area. The advantage of the berm is to help reduce the apparent height of a second story or to add earth insulation to part of the structure (see Figure 13-1). Construction on any site requires that a slope be graded away from the house. This is to help ensure that normal rainwater drains away. Sloped sites are a natural location for multilevel or daylight basement homes. A single-level home is a poor choice on a sloped site because of the extra construction cost for excavation or building up the foundation (see Figure 13-2). Some builders have taken advantage of very
steep construction sites by designing homes on stilts. This requires careful geological and structural engineering to ensure safe construction. Figure 13-3 shows how terrain can influence housing types. Subterranean construction has gained popularity, and provides some economical advantages in energy consumption. The terrain of the site is an important factor to consider in the implementation of subterranean designs (see Figure 13-4).
VIEW ORIENTATION In many situations, future home owners purchase a building site before they begin the home design. In a large number of these cases, the people are buying a view. The view may be of mountains, city lights, a lake, a river, the ocean, or even a golf course. These view sites are usually more expensive than comparable sites without a view. The architect’s obligation to the client in this situation is to provide a home design that optimizes the view. Actually, it is best to provide an environment that allows the occupants to feel as though they are part of the view. Figure 13-5 shows a dramatic example of a view as part of the total environment.
GRADE
ONE-LEVEL HOUSE, LEVEL SITE MAIN FLOOR
GRADE
BASEMENT FLOOR
LANDSCAPE BERM, LEVEL SITE FIGURE 131 Level site. 257
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MAIN FLOOR
ORIGINAL GRADE
SECOND FLOOR LOWER FLOOR GRADE
EXCAVATION
MULTILEVEL, SLOPED SITE
EXCESS EXCAVATION FOUNDATION AND FRAMING
MAIN FLOOR GRADE
BASEMENT FLOOR
WASTED SPACE
EXCESS FOUNDATION AND FRAMING
DAYLIGHT BASEMENT, SLOPED SITE
ONE-LEVEL HOUSE, SLOPED SITE
FIGURE 132 Sloped sites.
TWO STORY
ONE LEVEL
TWO LEVEL
APPROPRIATE ON FLAT SITE WHERE SPACE IS LIMITED.
ON SLAB OR CRAWL SPACE SUITS FLAT SITE.
FULL-STORY DROP IN SITE.
MULTILEVEL
TRI-LEVEL
BI-LEVEL
APPROPRIATE FOR SLOPING SITE.
SUITABLE FOR SLOPED SITE.
SUITABLE FOR FLAT SITE. ECONOMIC USE OF FOUNDATION WALL.
FIGURE 133 Terrain determines housing types.
Chapter 13: Site Orientation
GRADE
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WINTER PATH
GLASS WALL, NATURAL LIGHT, AND VENTILATION
SUMMER PATH SPRING AND AUTUMN PATH
SOLAR ORIENTATION
SW SET WINTER
S
SUNSET
W
UNDERGROUND STRUCTURE SUBTERRANEAN, SLOPED SITE
FIGURE 134 Subterranean construction site.
NW SET SUMMER
SE RISE WINTER
E
SUNRISE
NE RISE SUMMER
N
FIGURE 136 Southern exposure.
When a site has southern exposure that allows solar orientation, a little basic astronomy can contribute to proper placement of the structure. Figure 13-6 shows how a southern orientation relative to the sun’s path provides the maximum solar exposure.
Establishing South FIGURE 135 View orientation. Courtesy Pella Windows and Doors.
View orientation can conflict with the advantages of other orientation factors such as solar or wind orientation. When a client pays a substantial amount to purchase a view site, such a trade-off may be necessary. When the view dictates that a large glass surface face a wind-exposed non-solar orientation, some energysaving alternatives should be considered, such as providing as much solar-related glass as possible. Use small window surfaces in other areas to help minimize heat loss. Use triple-glazed windows in the exposed view surface as well as in the rest of the structure if economically possible. Insulate and seal to stop air leakage.
SOLAR ORIENTATION The sun is an important factor in home orientation. Sites with a solar orientation allow for excellent exposure to the sun. There should not be obstacles such as tall buildings, evergreen trees, or hills that have the potential to block the sun. Generally, a site located on a south slope has these characteristics.
A perfect solar site allows the structure to have unobstructed southern exposure. When a site has this potential, true south should be determined. This determination should be established in the preliminary planning stages. Other factors that contribute to orientation, such as view, can also be taken into consideration at this time. If view orientation requires a structure be turned slightly away from the south, it is possible that the solar potential will not be significantly reduced. True south is determined by a line from the North Pole to the South Pole. When a compass is used to establish north–south, the compass points to magnetic north. Magnetic north is not the same as true north. True north is the same as geographic north, which is the North Pole. The difference between true north and magnetic north is known as the magnetic declination. Figure 13-7 shows the compass relationship between true north–south and magnetic north. Magnetic declination differs between locations. Figure 13-8 shows a map with lines that represent the magnetic declination at different locations throughout the United States. A magnetic declination of 18° east, which occurs in northern California, means that the compass needle points 18° to the east of true north, or 18° to the west of
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TRUE NORTH
MAGNETIC NORTH
shows how the east–west street orientation can provide the maximum solar potential. If the client loves trees but also wants solar orientation, consider a site where the home could be situated so southern exposure can be achieved with coniferous trees to the north and deciduous trees on the south side. The coniferous trees can effectively block wind without interfering with the solar orientation. The deciduous trees provide shade from the hot summer sun. In the winter, when these trees have lost their leaves, the winter sun exposure is not substantially reduced. Figure 13-10 shows a potential solar site with trees.
WIND ORIENTATION MAGNETIC DECLINATION
TRUE SOUTH
FIGURE 137 Magnetic declination.
true south. In this location, as you face toward magnetic south, true south is 18° to the left.
Solar Site–Planning Tools Instruments are available that calculate solar access and demonstrate shading patterns for any given site throughout the year. Solar access refers to the availability of direct sunlight to a structure or construction site. Some instruments provide accurate readings for the entire year at any time of day, in clear or cloudy weather.
Solar Site Location A solar site in a rural or suburban location where there may be plenty of space to take advantage of a southern solar exposure allows the designer a great deal of flexibility. Some other factors, however, can be considered when selecting an urban solar site. Select a site where zoning restrictions have maximum height requirements. This prevents future neighborhood development from blocking the sun from an otherwise good solar orientation. Avoid a site where large coniferous trees hinder the full potential of the sun exposure. Sites that have streets running east–west and lots 50' × 100' (1524 × 3048 m) provide fairly limited orientation potential. Adjacent homes can easily block the sun unless southern exposure is possible. Figure 13-9
The term prevailing winds refers to the direction from which the wind most frequently blows in a given area of the country. For example, if the prevailing winds are said to be southwesterly, that means the winds in the area generally flow from the southwest. There are some locations that may have southwesterly prevailing winds, but during certain times of the year, severe winds can blow from the northeast. The factors that influence these particular conditions can be mountains, large bodies of water, valleys, canyons, or river basins. The prevailing winds in the United States are from west to east, although some areas have wind patterns that differ from this because of geological and environmental factors. Wind conditions should be taken into consideration in the orientation of a home or business. In many cases, different aspects of site orientation may present a conflict. For example, the best solar orientation may be in conflict with the best wind orientation. The best view may be out over the ocean, but the winter winds may also come from that direction. One of the factors used to evaluate orientation can outweigh another. Personal judgment may be the final ruling factor. A good combination can be achieved if careful planning is used to take all of the environmental factors into consideration.
Site Location Wind conditions that influence site location can be found in almanacs, in the local library, and on the Internet. Look for subjects such as climate, microclimate, prevailing winds, and wind conditions. Evaluate the direction of the prevailing winds in an area by calling the local weather bureau, by discussing it with local residents, or by searching the Internet. Select an area where winter winds are at a minimum or where there is protection from these winds. Within a 25-mile
Chapter 13: Site Orientation
FIGURE 138 U.S. magnetic declination grid map. Courtesy National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC).
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GOOD VIEW UNPROTECTED FROM WINDS
N PROTECTED
WINDS
PROTECTION BEHIND A HILL
EAST–WEST STREET
PROTECTED
WINDS
PROTECTION BEHIND A FOREST
FIGURE 139 East–west street orientation.
FIGURE 1311 Locations protected from wind.
(40-km) radius of a given area, wind can be more of a problem in certain locations than it is in others. A hill, mountain, or forest can protect the building site from general wind conditions. Figure 13-11 shows some examples of site locations that may be protected from prevailing winds. It can be very difficult to avoid all the negative effects of winds in a given location. When a site has been selected and wind continues to be a concern, construction or landscaping techniques can contribute to a satisfactory environment. A subterranean structure may totally reduce the effects of wind. Underground or partial underground homes, when placed with the
below-grade portion against the wind, can create substantial wind control, as seen in Figure 13-12. When subterranean housing is not an option, some other techniques can be used. Building the structure partly into the ground with a basement or using berming can be a successful alternative. Proper foundation drainage is a factor to consider when these methods are used. Figure 13-13 shows how wind protection can be achieved with proper use of the earth. Landscaping can also make an effective break between the cold winter wind and the home site. Coniferous trees or
EXPOSED SURFACE NORTH
SOUTH
CONIFEROUS TREES N
NORTH STREET
FIGURE 1312 Subterranean wind protection.
WIND
PROTECTED
PROTECTED
DECIDUOUS TREES
DAYLIGHT BASEMENT
SPLIT ENTRY
EAST STREET
BERM
PROTECTED BASEMENT
FIGURE 1310 Solar orientation with trees.
PROTECTED BERMED FOUNDATION
FIGURE 1313 Wind protection using earth.
Chapter 13: Site Orientation
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EVERGREEN HEDGE COLD WIND
WINDS
TWO STAGGERED ROWS OF CONIFEROUS TREES
PROTECTED SOUTH OR VIEW FACING SIDE
2ND FL BERM 1ST FLOOR
DRIVE
FIGURE 1315 Roof slope with wind protection.
STREET
FIGURE 1314 Wind protection with landscaping.
other evergreen landscaping materials can provide an excellent windbreak. These trees should be planted in staggered rows. Two rows are a suggested minimum, but three rows are better. Some hedge plants can be put in one row to provide wind protection. Figure 13-14 shows how landscaping can protect a structure from cold wind. Room and construction design can also influence wind protection. Place rooms that do not require a great deal of glass for view or solar use on the north side or the side toward severe winter winds. A garage, even though unheated, is an insulator and can provide an excellent break between cold winter winds and the living areas of the home. Bedrooms with fairly small windows can be placed to provide a barrier between the wind and the rest of the home. A common method of exterior construction design that helps deflect wind is a long, sloping roof. A flat, two-story surface causes a great deal of wind resistance. A better alternative is achieved when a long, sloping roof is used to reduce wind resistance, resulting in more energy-efficient construction. Figure 13-15 shows how roof construction can effectively deflect prevailing winds.
Summer Cooling Winds Summer winds may be mild and contribute to a more comfortable living environment. Comfort can be achieved through design for natural ventilation and through landscape design. Effective natural ventilation can be achieved when a structure has openings
in opposite walls that allow for cross ventilation. In a two- or multiple-story structure, the openings can be effectively tied into the stairwells to provide for continuous ventilation. Figure 13-16 shows an example of how good natural ventilation can be achieved. A vacuum causes ventilation from the sheltered side of the house, which forces air to suck through the house, rather than wind pressure from the windward side of the structure. Landscaping can also help provide summer cooling. The discussion of wind protection showed how coniferous trees can protect against cold winter winds. These evergreen trees can also be used in conjunction with deciduous trees to help funnel summer winds into the home site and help provide natural summer cooling. Fences or other buildings can also help create a wind funnel. Deciduous trees serve a triple purpose. In the summer they provide needed shade and act as a filter to cool heated wind. In the winter they lose their leaves, thus allowing the sun’s rays to help warm the house. Figure 13-17 shows how an effective landscape plan can be used to provide a total environment.
SUMMER WIND
PATIO DOOR WINDOW ONE STORY
SUMMER WIND
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WINDOW PATIO DOOR TWO STORY
FIGURE 1316 Natural ventilation.
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HARSH WINTER NORTHEASTERLY WIND
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A few landscaping designs can contribute to a quieter living environment. Berms, trees, hedges, and fences can all be helpful. Some landscape materials deflect sounds, while others absorb sounds. The density of the sound barrier has an influence on sound reduction, although even a single hedge can help reduce a sound problem. A mixture of materials can most effectively reduce sound. Keep in mind that deciduous trees and plants help reduce noise problems during the summer, but they are poor sound insulation in the winter (see Figure 13-18). Trees can provide sound insulation. The greater the width of the plantings for sound insulation, the better the control. Trees planted in staggered rows provide the best design. Figure 13-19 shows the plan view of a site with sound barrier plants. Notice that the garage is placed between the living areas of the home and
MILD SUMMER SOUTHWESTERLY WIND
STREET HEDGE DRIVE
FIGURE 1317 Landscaping for wind control.
SOUND ORIENTATION If your construction site is located in the country near the great outdoors, sound orientation may not be a concern. The sounds that you have are singing birds, croaking frogs, chirping crickets, and possibly only a few road noises. It is very difficult to eliminate road sounds from many other locations. A site within a mile of a major freeway can be plagued by excessive droning road noise. A building site that is level with or slightly below a road can have less noise than a site that is above and overlooking the sound source.
DECIDUOUS OR CONIFEROUS TREES TALL EVERGREEN HEDGE
FENCE
FIGURE 1318 Landscaping for sound insulation.
TWO ROWS STAGGERED EVERGREENS BUSHES
PROPERTY LINE GARAGE REDUCES SOUND
FIGURE 1319 Sound reduction: home and landscape plan.
TALL FIRS SHORT CEDARS EVERGREEN BUSHES
BERM
GOING GREEN
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Environmentally Sound Landscaping Practices This Going Green feature introduces some landscaping methods that can be used to reduce your ecological footprint.
LANDSCAPE WITH LESS LAWN When designing landscaping for a new home or if you currently have a lawn, consider the following options: • Reduce the size of your existing lawn or eliminate it entirely depending on the needs of your family. Smaller lawns generate less pollution by requiring less water, fertilizer, and mowing. • Choose organic fertilizers and quality composts to help your lawn grow and build the soil. • Use a manual push-mower for small lawns or try an electric mower for larger areas. • For areas of new lawn or when replacing an existing one, choose grass mixes such as fescues or eco-mixes that require less water than traditional ryegrass. Figure 13-20 shows the before and after of a landscaping project using environmentally sound practices.
USING NATIVE AND DROUGHT-TOLERANT PLANTS Consider alternatives to landscaping plants that demand regular and frequent watering, such as the following options: • Plant drought-tolerant plants in place of ornamental plants that demand regular water throughout dry summers. Drought-tolerant plants need watering
Before
the first year or two to get their roots established but after that, their water consumption is reduced for an accumulative savings. • Use plants native to your region; they can easily adapt to hot, dry summers. Some native plants even prefer little water. • Plant drought-tolerant shade trees in areas where they shade roofs and streets from the hot sun to reduce reflected heat and make these spaces more comfortable. • You can consult your local nursery, online sources, or a landscape architect or designer to determine the best native plants for your location.
PERMEABLE SURFACES AND ON-SITE STORMWATER MANAGEMENT Avoid concrete driveways, walkways or other hardscape surfaces that do not allow rainwater to run through them. Instead, consider the following alternatives: • Remove unnecessary hardscape; keep only what you really need. • If you are replacing old hardscaping or planning new areas of hardscaping, try a new material such as Drain Pave pavers, turf stones, permeable concrete or asphalt, even gravel. • Another way to ease the burden on city stormwater drain systems is to divert downspouts to a “dry creek” bed, bio-swale or pond area that fills and slowly releases the water back into the soil during rainy periods.
After
FIGURE 1320 Landscaping methods used to reduce your ecological footprint include less grass, native plants, permeable surfaces, on-site stormwater management, and quality-zoned watering systems. Courtesy of DeSantis Landscapes. www.desantislandscapes.com.
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GOING GREEN Environmentally Sound Landscaping Practices (Continued)
INSTALL A QUALITY IRRIGATION SYSTEM Consider the following options when designing an irrigation system for your landscaping: • A properly installed irrigation system has separate zones for lawn and shrub beds that should be further broken down into those areas that have shade or full sun exposure. • Equipping your system with a rain sensor helps to conserve water by automatically shutting off the system when there is measurable rainfall. • An irrigation system delivers your plants a consistent supply of water, which helps establish and grow healthy, strong plants.
the street to help reduce sound problems substantially. Construction methods and materials can also reduce sound transmission into the building. For example, heavy construction materials such as masonry are effective. Some insulation products, discussed in Chapter 8 and Chapter 9, reduce sound transmission. Tripleglazed high-quality windows can also help reduce outside sound. A number of factors influence site orientation. Solar orientation may be important to one builder, but another
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
• Use drip irrigation instead of spray heads where appropriate. • Water in the early mornings when evaporation rates are low. • Most established shrub plantings need to be watered only two to three times per week in the summer. • Using a quality compost mulch on all shrub and tree beds helps save water. • Have an audit done with a Certified Irrigation Auditor to learn the efficiency of your irrigation system.
home owner may consider view orientation as the main priority. A perfect construction site has elements and design features of each orientation. When a perfect site is not available, the challenge for the designer or architect is to orient the structure to take the best advantage of each potential design feature. As you have seen, it is possible to achieve some elements of good orientation with excavation and landscaping techniques. Always take advantage of natural conditions whenever possible.
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you learn more about site orientation. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address
Company, Product, or Service www.desantislandscapes.com DeSantis Landscapes www.australhomes.com/orientation
Principles of good home orientation
www.hgtvpro.com www.austinenergy.com www.missourifamalies.gov www.ehow.com
Search best practices for solar site orientation Search home orientation Search housing Search how to understand your site’s solar orientation
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See CD for more information
Site Orientation Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 13 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 13–13 List at least five advantages of considering site orientation in the planning of a home. Question 13–14 Identify the type of homes that are natural for a level site. Question 13–15 Sloped sites are a natural for what type of homes?
Question 13–1 Define site orientation.
Question 13–16 Why does construction on any site require that a slope be graded away from the structure?
Question 13–2 Describe in short, complete statements five factors that influence site orientation.
Question 13–17 Give the compass orientation where the sun rises and sets in the winter.
Question 13–3 Define magnetic declination.
Question 13–18 Give at least two examples of construction methods and materials that can help reduce sound transmission into a building.
Question 13–4 What is the magnetic declination of the area where you live? Question 13–5 Name and describe two types of obstacles that can block the sun in an otherwise good solar site. Question 13–6 Describe how trees can be an asset in solar orientation. Question 13–7 What are prevailing winds? Question 13–8 Name two features that can protect a structure from wind.
Question 13–19 Define terrain. Question 13–20 Why might view orientation be more important than other orientation considerations?
PROBLEMS Use a word processor to write a report of 250 or fewer words on one or more of the following topics:
Question 13–9 Show in a sketch how landscaping can be used for winter wind protection and summer cooling.
Problem 13–1 Terrain orientation
Question 13–10 Show in a sketch how landscaping can be an effective sound control.
Problem 13–4 Solar site–planning tools
Question 13–11 List at least two factors that must be considered in subterranean construction.
Problem 13–6 Wind orientation
Question 13–12 List at least two disadvantages of a two-story house on a narrow, treeless lot.
Problem 13–2 View orientation Problem 13–3 Solar orientation Problem 13–5 Solar site location Problem 13–7 Summer cooling winds Problem 13–8 Sound orientation
CHAPTER 14
Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements R
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Metes are measurements, and bounds are boundaries. Metes and bounds are used to identify the perimeters of any property. This is referred to as the metes and bounds system. The metes are measured in feet, yards, rods (rd), or surveyor’s chains (ch). There are 3' (914 mm) in 1 yard, 5.5 yards or 16.5' (5029 mm) in 1 rod, and 66' (20 117 mm) in 1 surveyor’s chain. The boundaries can be a street, fence, or river. Boundaries are also established as bearings, which are directions with reference to 1 quadrant of the compass. There are 360° in a circle or compass, and each quadrant has 90°. Degrees are divided into minutes and seconds. There are 60 minutes (60') in 1° and 60 seconds (60") in 1 minute. Bearings are measured clockwise or counterclockwise from north or south. For example, a reading of 45° from north to west is labeled N 45° W (see Figure 14-1). If a bearing reading requires great accuracy, fractions of a degree can 268
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METES AND BOUNDS SYSTEM
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This section deals with site plan characteristics and requirements. A site is an area of land generally one plot or construction lot in size. The term site is synonymous with plot and lot. A plat is a map of part of a city or township showing some specific area, such as a subdivision made up of several individual lots. There are usually many sites or plots in a plat. Some dictionary definitions, however, do not differentiate between plot and plat. There are three basic types of legal descriptions: metes and bounds, rectangular survey system, and lot and block.
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Virtually every piece of property in the United States is described for legal purposes. These descriptions are referred to as legal descriptions. Every legal description is unique and cannot be confused with any other property. Legal descriptions of properties are filed in local jurisdictions, generally county or parish courthouses. Legal descriptions are public records and can be reviewed at any time.
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FIGURE 141 Bearings.
be used as needed. For example, S 30°20'10" E reads from south 30 degrees 20 minutes 10 seconds to east. The metes and bounds land survey begins with a monument, known as the point of beginning (POB). This point is a fixed location and in times past has been a pile of rocks, a large tree, or an iron rod driven into the ground. Figure 14-2 shows an example of a site plan laid out using metes and bounds, along with the legal description for the plot.
RECTANGULAR SURVEY SYSTEM The states in an area of the United States starting with the western boundary of Ohio to the Pacific Ocean, and including some southeastern states and Alaska, are described as public land states. Within this area the U.S. Bureau of Land Management devised a system for describing land known as the rectangular survey system. Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude were used to establish areas known as great land surveys.
Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements
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The great land surveys are broken down into smaller surveys known as townships and sections. The baselines and meridians are divided into blocks called townships. Each township measures 6 miles square. The townships are numbered by tiers running north– south. The tier numbering system is established either north or south of a principal baseline. For example, the fourth tier south of the baseline is labeled Township Number 4 South, abbreviated T. 4 S. Townships are also numbered according to vertical meridians, known as ranges. Ranges are established either east or west of a principal meridian. The third range east of the principal meridian is called Range Number 3 East, abbreviated R. 3 E. Now combine T. 4 S. and R. 3 E. to locate a township or a piece of land 6 miles by 6 miles or a total of 36 square miles. Figure 14-4 shows the township just described.
Sections BEGINNING AT A POINT 1200’ NORTH 40˚ 0' WEST FROM THE SOUTHEAST CORNER OF THE ASA STONE DONATION LAND CLAIM NO. 49, THENCE NORTH 40˚ 0' WEST 1026’ TO A PIPE, THENCE SOUTH 56˚ 45' WEST 442' TO CENTER OF ROAD, THENCE SOUTH 23˚ 15' EAST 1145', THENCE NORTH 48˚ 30' EAST 778.8' TO POINT-OF-BEGINNING.
FIGURE 142 Metes and bounds plot plan and legal description for the plot.
Lines of latitude, also called parallels, are imaginary parallel lines running east and west. Lines of longitude, also called meridians, are imaginary lines running north and south. The point of beginning of each great land survey is where two basic reference lines cross. The lines of latitude, or parallels, are termed the baselines, and the lines of longitude, or meridians, are called principal meridians. There are 31 sets of these lines in the continental United States, with 5 in Alaska. At the beginning, the principal meridians were numbered, and the numbering system ended with the sixth principal meridian passing through Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The remaining principal meridians were given local names. The meridian through one of the last great land surveys near the West Coast is named the Willamette Meridian because of its location in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. The principal meridians and baselines of the great land surveys are shown in Figure 14-3.
To further define the land within a township that is 6 miles square, the area is divided into units 1 mile square, called sections. Sections in a township are numbered from 1 to 36. Section 1 always begins in the upper-right corner, and consecutive numbers are arranged as shown in Figure 14-5. The legal descriptions of land can be carried one stage further. For example, Section 10 in the given township is described as Sec. 10, T. 4 S., R. 3 E. This is an area of land 1 mile square. Sections are divided into acres. One acre equals 43,560 sq ft, and one section of land contains 640 acres. In addition to dividing sections into acres, sections are divided into quarters, as shown in Figure 14-6. The northeast one-quarter of Section 10 is a 160-acre piece of land described as NE 1/4, Sec. 10, T. 4 S., R. 3 E. When this section is keyed to a specific meridian, it can be only one specific 160-acre area. The section can be broken down further by dividing each quarter into quarters, as shown in Figure 14-7. If the SW 1/4 of the NE 1/4 of Section 10 were the desired property, then you have 40 acres known as SW 1/4, NE 1/4, Sec. 10, T. 4 S., R. 3 E. The complete rectangular system legal description of a 2.5-acre piece of land in Section 10 reads: SW 1/4, SE 1/4, SE 1/4, SE 1/4 Sec. 10, T. 4 N., R. 8 W. of the San Bernardino Meridian, in the County of Los Angeles, State of California (see Figure 14-8). The rectangular survey system can be used to describe very small properties by continuing to divide a section of
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FIGURE 143 Principal meridians and baselines of the great land survey. Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Land Management.
Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements
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FIGURE 144 This graph shows a 36-square-mile township, which results from combining Township Number 4 South (abbreviated T. 4 S.) and Range Number 3 East (abbreviated R. 3 E.).
a township. Often the township section’s legal description can be used to describe the location of the point of beginning of a metes and bounds legal description, especially when the surveyed land is an irregular site or plot within the rectangular survey system.
LOT AND BLOCK SYSTEM
subdivided into individual building sites, the subdivision is established as a legal plat and recorded as such in the local county records. The subdivision is given a name and broken into blocks of lots. A subdivision can have several blocks, each divided into a series of lots. Each lot may be 50' × 100' (15240 × 30480 mm, 15.24 × 30.48 m), for example, depending on the zoning requirements of the specific area. Figure 14-9 shows an example of a typical lot and block system. A typical lot and block legal description might read: LOT 14, BLOCK 12, LINCOLN PARK NO. 3, CITY OF SALEM, STATE. This lot is the shaded area in Figure 14-9.
The lot and block legal description system can result from either the metes and bounds or the rectangular system. Generally, when a portion of land is
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FIGURE 145 One township comprises 36 sections. Section numbers 1 through 36 are always arranged as shown here.
FIGURE 147 Dividing a quarter section.
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SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 2.5 ACRES SW 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 SE 1/4 2.5 ACRES
FIGURE 148 Sample divisions of a section.
SITE PLAN REQUIREMENTS A site plan, also known as a plot or lot plan, is a map of a piece of land that can be used for any number of purposes. Site plans can show a proposed construction site for a specific property. Sites can show topography with contour lines, or the numerical value of land elevations can be given at certain locations. Site plans are also used to show how a construction site will be excavated and are then known as grading plans. Site plans can be drawn to serve any number of required functions, and all have similar characteristics, which include showing the following: ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
A legal description of the property based on a survey. Property line bearings and directions. North arrow. Roads and easements. Utilities. Elevations. Map scale.
As stated earlier, plats are maps that are used to show an area of a town or township. They show several or many lots and can be used by a developer to show a proposed subdivision of land.
TOPOGRAPHY Topography is a physical description of land surface showing its variation in elevation, known as relief, and locating other features. Surface relief can be shown with graphic symbols that use shading methods to accent the character of land, or the differences in elevations can be shown with contour lines. Site plans that require surface relief identification generally use contour lines. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and help show the general lay of the land. A good way to visualize the meaning of contour lines is to look at a lake or ocean shoreline. When the water is high during the winter or at high tide, a high-water line establishes a contour at that level. As the water recedes during the summer or at low tide, a new lower-level
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Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements
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FIGURE 149 Part of a lot and block subdivision. Courtesy GLADS Program.
elevations, street elevation at a driveway, and the elevation of the finished floor levels of the structure. Additionally, in some applications, slope can be identified and labeled with an arrow showing the direction of the slope.
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line is established. This new line represents another contour. The high-water line goes all around the lake at one level, and the low-water line goes all around the lake at another level. These two lines represent contours, or lines of equal elevation. The vertical distance between contour lines is known as contour interval. When the contour lines are far apart, the contour interval shows relatively flat or gently sloping land. When the contour lines are close together, the contour interval shows land that is much steeper. Contour lines are broken periodically, and the numerical value of the contour elevation above sea level is inserted. Figure 14-10 shows sample contour lines. Figure 14-11 shows a graphic example of land relief in pictorial form and contour lines of the same area. Figure 14-12 shows a site with contour lines. Site plans do not always require contour lines showing topography. Verify the requirements with the local building codes. In most instances the only contourrelated information required is property corner
SLOPE DOWN STEEP SLOPE
FIGURE 1410 Contour lines showing both gentle and steep slopes.
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be found at a local building office or building permit department. Some agencies, for example, require that the site plan be drawn on paper of a specific size, such as 8 1/2 × 14". Typical site plan items include the following: PICTORIAL 26
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FIGURE 1411 Land relief pictorial and contour lines. Courtesy U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey.
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DRAWING SITE PLANS Site plan requirements vary by jurisdiction, such as city, county, or state. Some site plan elements are similar throughout the country. Guidelines for site plans can
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FIGURE 1412 Site plan with contour lines.
Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements
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PLAN SCALE 1" = 60' FIGURE 1413 Recommended typical site plan layout.
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Setbacks—the minimum distance from the property lines to the front, rear, and sides of the structure.
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Figure 14-13 shows a site plan layout that is used as an example at a local building department. Figure 14-14 shows a basic site plan for a proposed residential addition. The method of sewage disposal is generally an important item shown on a site plan drawing. There are a number of alternative methods of sewage disposal, including public sewers and private systems. Chapter 20 gives more details of sewage disposal
methods. The site plan representation of a public sewer connection is shown in Figure 14-15. A private septic sewage disposal system is shown on a site plan in Figure 14-16.
GRADING PLAN FEATURES Grading plans are construction drawings that generally show existing and proposed topography. The outline of the structure can be shown with elevations at each building corner and the elevation given for each floor level. Figure 14-17 shows a detailed grading plan for a residential construction site. Notice that the legend identifies symbols for existing and finished contour lines. This example grading
276
Architectural Drafting and Design
60'–0"
N.E. 112th
8'–0" 11'–0"
122.50' PROPOSED ADDITION
32'
54'–0"⫾
20'–0"
PROPOSED DECK EXIST. SEPTIC TANK 66'–0"
15'–0"
EXIST. GARAGE
123.34'
PLOT 1"
PLAN 20'–0"
LEGAL: LOT #3 BLOCK F1 VIEW RIDGE MULTNOMAH COUNTY
FIGURE 1414 Sample site plan showing existing home and proposed addition.
STRUCTURE
CL
S
MH
10'
S
S
1000 GAL. SEPTIC TANK
STRUCTURE
STREET
5' MIN.
CL
STREET
FIGURE 1415 Plot plan showing a public sewer connection.
10'
125' MAX
FIGURE 1416 Plot plan showing a private septic sewage system.
Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements
277
A
PROJECT SITE S. TWAIN DRIVE
96.55'
.
70.0
MU
TH
ST
70.0
75.0 BEAVE
BIS
N
75.0
RCREE
80.0 98.69'
LEGEND
80.0 125.07'
EXISTING CONTOUR LINES
90.0 TW 98.0 BW 87.0 90.0
90.0
99.0
85.0
100
FINISH ELEVATION
100
DRAINAGE SWALE (1% MIN.) FINISHED SLOPE (11/2:1 MAX)
90.0
99.0
RETAINING WALL TOP OF WALL/BASE OF WALL
GARAGE 93.0 99.0
100
FINISH CONTOUR LINES
LOWER FLOOR 90.5 MAIN FLOOR 99.5
TW 100.0 BW 99.0
TW 100 BW 97
PROPERTY LINE
99.0 95.0
100
LEGAL DESCRIPTION
LOT 85, BLOCK 4, ANTHRACITE ESTATES, 100.0 LAWRENCE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA
100.0 104.52' EXISTING SIDEWALK EXISTING CURB 20'
A
10'
VICINITY MAP NO SCALE
89
85.0
95.0
NEW CASTLE 4 MILES
D K ROA
16'
19'
CL S. TWAIN DRIVE
N
SCALE: 1" = 30'-0"
FIGURE 1417 Grading plan.
plan provides retaining walls and graded slopes to accommodate a fairly level construction site from the front of the structure to the extent of the rear yard. The finished slope represents an embankment that establishes the relationship of the proposed contour to the existing contour. This example grading plan also shows a proposed irrigation and landscaping layout. A retaining wall is a concrete or masonry wall supported at the top and bottom, designed to resist soil loads. Grading plan requirements can differ from one location to the next. Some grading plans show a cross section through the site at specified intervals or locations to evaluate the contour more fully. This cross section is called a profile. A profile through the grading plan in Figure 14-17 is shown in Figure 14-18. Drawing a grading plan and profile is explained in Chapter 15.
SITE ANALYSIS PLAN In areas or conditions where zoning and building permit applications require a design review, a site analysis plan may be required. The site analysis provides the basis for the proper design relationship of the proposed development to the site and to adjacent properties. The degree of detail of the site analysis is generally appropriate to the scale of the proposed project. A site analysis plan, shown in Figure 14-19, typically includes the following: ●
A vicinity map showing the location of the property in relationship to adjacent properties, roads, and utilities.
●
Site features, such as existing structures and plants on the property and adjacent property.
●
Scale.
278
Architectural Drafting and Design
110
110
105
105
100
100
95
95
90
90
85
85
80
80
75
75
70
70
65
65
A
70.0
75.0
98.69'
99.0
99.0
96.55'
89
99.0
99.0
104.52'
EXISTING SIDEWALK
S. TWAIN DRIVE
A
80.0
85.0
100.0
TW 98.0 BW 87.0 90.0
10'
TW 100.0 BW 99.0 95.0
20'
A CUTTINGPLANE LINE EXISTING SIDEWALK
110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65
MAIN FLOOR ELEVATION 99.5 LOWER FLOOR ELEVATION 90.5
FOUNDATION
110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65
B FIGURE 1418 Constructing a profile from the grading plan in Figure 14-17. (A) Establish a horizontal grid with a range of elevations found in the grading plan. (B) Project where each elevation crosses the cutting-plane line perpendicular to the corresponding elevation at the horizontal grid.
Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements
279
PREVAILING S.W. WINDS
S.W./S./S.E. SOLAR GAIN ORIENTATION EXISTING WHITE OAKS
EXISTING LOMBARDY POPLARS CROSS SECTION
SMALL ACTIVE NEIGHBORHOOD GROCERY STORE
POORLY MAINTAINED COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS PROVIDE ADEQUATE SCREENING
QUALITY M.F. APARTMENT UNITS TO NORTH OF SITE PROVIDE CROSSWALK
RETAIN/SAVE ALL EXISTING LARGE WHITE OAKS SHOWN
SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCES IN POOR SHAPE
GR
OU
ND
SL OP
ES
BUS STOP – 2 MILES TO DOWNTOWN
EXISTING GAS STATION (NEW) OLD VICTORIAN NEEDS REHAB. STREET LIGHT
STOP SIGNS
WELL MARKED PEDESTRIAN CROSS WALKS
S.W. WINDS WI
SU
GENTLE SLOPING SITE STEEP SLOPE ONLY IMMEDIATELY ADJACENT TO TRORIAT CORRIDOR
NTER
M MER
EXISTING SEWAGE CAPACITY ADEQUATE FOR NEW DEVELOPMENT
SITE ANALYSIS DIAGRAM SCALE 1" = 60'-0" LEGEND: BUFFER STRIPS NEEDED WATERLINE IN ROAD SEWER LINES TRANSIT ROUTE BUS STOP
EXISTING TREES TO REMAIN STOP SIGNS PROPOSED SITE PROJECT POINTS OF ENTRY EXISTING CONTOURS
FIGURE 1419 Site analysis plan. Courtesy Planning Department, Clackamas County, Oregon.
280
Architectural Drafting and Design
●
North arrow.
●
Property boundaries.
●
Slope shown by contour lines or cross sections, or both.
●
Plan legend. Traffic patterns. Solar site information if solar application is intended. Pedestrian patterns.
●
● ● ● ● ●
SUBDIVISION PLANS
●
Local requirements for subdivisions should be confirmed because procedures vary, depending on local guidelines and zoning rules. Some areas have guidelines for minor subdivisions with few sites that differ from major subdivisions with many sites. The plat required for a minor subdivision can include the following:
●
Figure 14-20 shows a typical subdivision of land with three proposed parcels. The local planning agency determines the measurements for a minor or major subdivision. A major subdivision can require more detailed plats than a minor subdivision. Some of the items that can
SAMPLE OWNER:
JOHN DOE 940 WARNER MILNE RD OREGON CITY, OREGON 97045 655-8491
LEGAL:
T 3 S, R 4 E, SEC. 24 TAX LOT 1000
DATE: ZONING: ACREAGE: SEWAGE: WATER:
DECEMBER 3, 1999 RA-1 728 ACRES SEPTIC TANK PRIVATE WELL
T/L 200 T/L 300 T/L 400
203.87'
215'
202'
391'
●
●
2.5 Ac.
2.78 Ac.
2.0 Ac. Parcel I
Parcel III
EXISTING HOUSE
Parcel II
'
217 SCALE: 1"=100'
EL
.
100'
S.E
'
232
E
●
●
Legal description. Name, address, and telephone number of applicant. Parcel layout with dimensions. North arrow. All existing roads and road widths.
SLOP
●
●
670'
●
●
471'
●
●
Number identification of parcels, such as Parcel 1, Parcel 2. Location of well or proposed well, or name of water district. Type of sewage disposal (septic tank or public sanitary sewers). Name of sewer district. Zoning designation. Size of parcel(s) in square feet or acres. Slope of ground (arrows pointing downslope). Setbacks of all existing buildings, septic tanks, and drainfields from new property lines. All utility and drainage easements. Any natural drainage channels. Indicate direction of flow and whether drainage is seasonal or yearround. Map scale. Date. Building permit application number, if any.
555'
●
●
WELL SITE
.2
IS WE
RO
AD
60' SOIL TEST HOLES
. NO
D O. R
C
FIGURE 1420 Subdivision with three proposed lots. Courtesy Planning Department, Clackamas County, Oregon.
Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements
be included on the plat or in a separate document are the following: ●
●
Name, address, and telephone number of the property owner, applicant, and engineer or surveyor. Source of water. Method of sewage disposal. Existing zoning. Proposed utilities. Calculations justifying the proposed density. Name of the major partitions or subdivision. Date the drawing was made. Legal description. North arrow. Vicinity sketch showing location of the subdivision. Identification of each lot or parcel and block by number. Gross acreage of property being subdivided or partitioned. Dimensions and acreage of each lot or parcel. Streets abutting the plat, including name, direction of drainage, and approximate grade. Streets proposed, including names, approximate grades, and radius of curves. Legal access to subdivision or partition other than public road. Contour lines at 2' interval for slopes of 10% or less, 5' interval if slopes exceed 10%. Drainage channels, including width, depth, and direction of flow. Location of existing and proposed easements. Location of all existing structures, driveways, and pedestrian walkways. All areas to be offered for public dedication.
●
Contiguous property under the same ownership, if any.
●
Boundaries of restricted areas, if any. Significant vegetative areas such as major wooded areas or specimen trees.
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
●
Figure 14-21 shows an example of a small major subdivision plat.
281
recreational areas, open spaces, schools, libraries, churches, or convenient shopping facilities. Developers involved in these projects must pay particular attention to the impact on local existing developments. Generally, the plats for planned unit developments must include all of the same information shown on a subdivision plat, and also include these features: ●
● ● ●
Detailed vicinity map, as shown in Figure 14-22. A vicinity map shows the development or construction site in relation to the local area. Land use summary. Symbol legend. Special spaces such as recreational and open spaces or other unique characteristics.
Figure 14-23 shows a typical planned unit development plan. These plans, like any proposed site plan, may require changes before the final drawings are approved for development. There are several specific applications for a site plan. The applied purpose of each is different, although the characteristics of each type of site plan are similar. Local districts have guidelines for the type of plan required. Be sure to evaluate local guidelines before preparing a site plan for a specific purpose. To get a plot plan accepted, prepare it in strict accordance with the requirements. A variety of plot plan–related templates and CADD programs are available that can help make the preparation of these plans easier.
METRICS IN SITE PLANNING The recommended metric values used in the design and drafting of site plans based on surveying, excavating, paving, and concrete construction are as follows:
Surveying
Excavating Paving
PLANNED UNIT DEVELOPMENT A creative and flexible approach to land development is a planned unit development. Planned unit developments may include such uses as residential areas,
Concrete
Quantity
Unity and Symbol
Length
meter (m) and kilometer (km)
Area
square meter (m2), hectare (ha), and square kilometer (km2)
Plane angle
degree (°), minute ('), second ("), and percent (%)
Length
millimeter (mm) and meter (m)
Volume
cubic meter (m3)
Length
millimeter (mm) and meter (m)
Volume
cubic meter (m3)
Length
millimeter (mm) and meter (m)
Area
square meter (m2)
Volume
cubic meter (m3)
282
Architectural Drafting and Design
EWING AVENUE
15' 15'
10.00'
1/2 IRON ROD END IN CONC.
65.07'
1 100.00'
319.92'
CITY OF HOUSTON, COUNTY OF HARRIS STATE OF TEXAS FIGURE 1421 Small, major subdivision plat.
PACIFIC OCEAN
BEACH ENTRANCE
N
HWY 101
CARMEL 15 MILES VICINITY MAP
S 1°29' 48" W
R=10.00' L=13.70' =89°
SANDY ESTATES
EASTWOOD COVE
GATLIN
R=25.00' L=30.77' =71° 61.19'
N 1°29' 48" E
134.92' N 88°06' 14" W
FIGURE 1422 Vicinity map.
8
90.00'
95.00'
2
30'
STREET
R=50.00' L=22.78' =28°
79.28'
N 1°53'46" E
75.74'
129.32'
25.00'
N 88°30'12" W 106.53'
MIBRADA LOOP 66.90'
34 °0 11 9' 2 2 2. 93 " W '
7
R=10.00' L=15.17' =89° N 88°30'12" W 171.90'
R=25.00' L=7.17' =16°
20'
CL
75.00'
10'
25' 25'
R=25.00' L=32.10' =75°
3
53.58'
110.53' N 1°53'46" E
50.00'
S
118.54'
25.00'
80.00'
N 1°30'31" E
N 1°29'48" E N 88°30'12" W 117.99'
'
40.09' L =1
32° =1
L=48.39' =55°
96.07'
8'
4
L=68.92' =79°
.7
N 88°30'12" W 75.00' S 33°02'56" E
6
R =50 .00
5
10'
73.00'
16
309.98'
111.44'
130.86'
85.70'
CL
15'
10.00'
15'
20'
30'
BEACH 100'
ENTRANCE GATEHOUSE PHONE
UNOBSTRUCTED OCEAN VIEW
25
UNOBSTRUCTED OCEAN VIEW
RECREATIONAL SPACE
OPEN SPACE
50 TYPICAL SECTION
OPEN SPACE
75
OPEN SPACE
100
OPEN SPACE
LAND USE SUMMARY
125
ZONE R1 GROSS AREA 763 NET AREA 705 119 ROADS PACKING STRUCTURES (44 UNITS) 44 RECREATIONAL 4 OPEN SPACES 350 INTERFACING 1.92 DENSITY 12.24
150 150
OPEN SPACE OPEN SPACE
Chapter 14: Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements
PACIFIC OCEAN
ACRES ACRES ACRES ACRES ACRES ACRES UNITS/ACRE
100 OPEN SPACE
75
LEGEND
50
25
PROPERTY BOUNDARY CONTOURS NEW FOOT PATHS PROPOSED ROADS
0
50
100
200
EASTWOOD COVE
EXISTING TREES ONE FOURPLEX
283
FIGURE 1423 Planned unit development plan.
DEVELOPMENT PLAN
284
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Architectural Drafting and Design
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find more information about legal descriptions and site plans. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site.
Address www.blm.gov www.usgs.gov
Company, Product, or Service U.S. Bureau of Land Management U.S. Geological Survey
Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 14 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 14–1 Define site. Question 14–2 What is the difference between the terms site, plot, and lot? Question 14–3 Name the three basic types of legal descriptions. Question 14–4 How many total degrees are in a compass?
corner of Section 16, Township Number 6 North, Range Number 4 West. Question 14–18 List at least six items that are required on a site plan. Question 14–19 Define topography. Question 14–20 Define contour lines. Question 14–21 What is the purpose of a grading plan? Question 14–22 Under what conditions is a site analysis plan normally required? Question 14–23 What are setbacks? Question 14–24 Name the two main categories of sewage disposal systems. Question 14–25 Identify the type of legal description that is used for most major subdivisions.
Question 14–5 How many minutes are in 1 degree? Question 14–6 How many seconds are in 1 minute? Question 14–7 Define bearing. Question 14–8 Give the bearing of a property line positioned 60° from north toward west. Question 14–9 Give the bearing of a property line positioned 20° from south toward east. Question 14–10 Define baselines. Question 14–11 Define principal meridians. Question 14–12 Give the dimensions of a township. Question 14–13 How many acres are in a section? Question 14–14 How many square feet are in 1 acre? Question 14–15 How are sections in a township numbered?
PROBLEMS Use a word processor to write a report of 250 or fewer words on one or more of the following topics: Problem 14–1 Metes and bounds legal description Problem 14–2 Lot and block legal description Problem 14–3 Rectangular survey system for legal description Problem 14–4 Public land states Problem 14–5 Site plan requirements Problem 14–6 Topography Problem 14–7 Grading plan requirements Problem 14–8 Site analysis plan
Question 14–16 How many acres are in a quarter section?
Problem 14–9 Subdivision plans
Question 14–17 Give the partial legal description of 2.5 acres of land in the farthest corner of the northwest
Problem 14–10 Planned unit development Problem 14–11 Metrics in site planning
CHAPTER 15
Site Plan Layout T
I
O
zoning department. Figure 15-1 is a plat from a surveyor’s map that can be used as a guide to prepare the site plan. The scale of the surveyor’s plat may vary, although in this case the scale is 1" = 200' (1:1000 metric). The site plan to be drawn can have a scale ranging from 1" = 10' (1:50 metric) to 1" = 200' (1:2000 metric). The factors that influence site plan scale include the following:
N
Site plans can be drawn on media ranging in size from 8 1/2" × 11" up to 34" × 44" depending on the purpose of the plan and the guidelines of the local government agency or lending institution requiring the plan. Many local jurisdictions recommend that site plans be drawn on an 8 1/2" × 14" sheet.
●
Before you begin the site plan layout, you need some important information. This information can often be found in the legal documents for the property, the surveyor’s map, the local assessor’s office, or the local
● ● ●
Sheet size. Plot size. Amount of information required. Amount of detail required.
10.00'
75.00'
1/2 IRON ROD END IN CONC.
75.74'
129.32' N 1°53'46" E
N 1°53'46" E
40.09' L =1
25.00'
50.00'
10'
7
R=50.00' L=22.78' =28°
8
R=25.00' L=30.77' =71° 61.19'
MIBRADA LOOP 66.90'
2
134.92' N 88°06' 14" W
30'
90.00'
N 1°29' 48" E
R=25.00' L=7.17' =16°
20'
N 88°30'12" W 106.53'
R=10.00' L=15.17' =89° N 88°30'12" W 171.90'
95.00'
25.00'
53.58'
110.53'
3
34 °0 11 9' 2 2 2. 93 " W '
R=25.00' L=32.10' =75°
S
118.54'
N 88°30'12" W 117.99'
R =50 .00
111.44' 80.00'
N 1°30'31" E
N 1°29'48" E
'
32° =1
L=48.39' =55°
96.07'
8'
4
L=68.92' =79°
.7
N 88°30'12" W 75.00' S 33°02'56" E
6
16
309.98'
5
10'
73.00'
65.07'
130.86'
STREET
C
GATLIN
U
R=10.00' L=13.70' =89°
1 100.00'
319.92'
CL
D
S 1°29' 48" W
O
79.28'
R
25' 25'
T
85.70'
N
10.00'
I
20'
30'
FIGURE 151 Plat from a surveyor’s map. 285
286
Architectural Drafting and Design
Additional information that should be determined before the site plan can be completed usually includes the following: ● ● ● ● ● ●
Legal description. North direction. All existing roads, utilities, water, sewage disposal, drainage, and slope of land. Zoning information, including front, rear, and side yard setbacks. Size of proposed structures. Elevations at property corners, driveway at street, or contour elevations.
●
SITE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Several issues that can affect the quality of the construction project and adjacent properties should be considered during site design. Some of these factors are outlined as follows:
●
Provide a minimum driveway slope of 1/4" per foot. The maximum slope depends on surface conditions and local requirements. Provide a minimum lawn slope of 1/4" per foot if possible. Single-car driveways should be a minimum of 10' (3 m) wide, and double-car driveways should be a
10' MIN
●
18' MIN
18' MIN
10' MIN
10' MIN
R12'
MINIMUM ONE CAR
MINIMUM ONE CAR WITH PARKING
MINIMUM TWO CAR
24' 18'
R10' 17'
10' MIN
24'
●
●
12'
R15'
R 20'
10'
●
●
minimum of 18' (5.5 m) wide at the garage opening but can taper to 10' wide at the street entrance. Any reduction of driveway width should be centered on the garage door. A turning apron is preferred when space permits. This allows the driver to back into the parking apron and then drive forward into the street, which is safer than backing into the street. The minimum turning radius for a driveway should be 15' (4.5 m). The turning radius for small cars can be less, but more should be considered for trucks. A turning radius of 20' (6 m) is preferred if space permits. Figure 15-2 shows a variety of driveway layouts for you to use as examples. The dimensions are given as commonly recommended minimums for small to standard-sized cars. Additional room should be provided if available. Provide adequate room for the installation of and future access to water, sewer, and electrical utilities. Do not build over established easements. An easement is the right-of-way for access to property and for the purpose of construction and maintenance of utilities. Follow basic grading rules, which include not grading on adjacent property. Do not slope the site so as to cause water drainage onto adjacent property. Slope the site away from the house. Adequate drainage of at least 10' away from the house is recommended.
10' MIN
R 12' 10' TO12' MIN
TURNOUT APRON PREFERRED
SIDE GARAGE
FIGURE 152 Typical driveway layout options.
U-SHAPED DRIVEWAY
Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout
●
Identify all trees that are to remain on the site after construction. Establish retaining walls where needed to minimize the slope, control erosion, and level portions of the site.
RURAL RESIDENTIAL FIRE DEPARTMENT ACCESS AND SITE PLANNING Special considerations need to be made when designing driveways and turnarounds in rural areas. In urban and suburban areas, fire truck access is normally designed into the subdivision plan and each residence is fairly easy to access for firefighting purposes. Rural locations pose special problems for firefighting because they are often larger pieces of property that frequently have long
gravel driveways where access can be limited. Check the regulations for your location. The guidelines governing the site design can differ from one location to the next, but the following are common standards: ●
●
Road clearances: A 15' (4500 mm) minimum width all-weather surface driveway must be provided, with an additional 5' (1500 mm) width clear of vegetation. The driveway must also be clear of vegetation to a height of 13'−6" (4000 mm). All-weather means gravel or paved surface. Figure 15-3 shows several basic driveway design options. Road load capacities: The driveway must be engineered for a 12,500 lb (5680 kg) wheel load and 50,000 lb (22720 kg) gross vehicle load.
20'
20
'
90'
R2
5'
'
45
5'
R2
20'
20'
HAMMERHEAD TURNAROUND
Y TURNAROUND R4
5'
5'
45'
R2
20'
●
287
R2
5'
65'
CORNER
20'
ALTERNATE HAMMERHEAD TURNAROUND 0'
Ø9
5'
R2
20'
CUL-DE-SAC TURNAROUND
FIGURE 153 Driveway turnaround options for rural residential fire department access.
288
●
● ●
●
●
●
LAYING OUT PROPERTY LINES In Chapter 14, you were introduced to the methods for describing properties. Look at Figure 15-1 and notice that the property lines of each lot and the boundaries of the plat are labeled with distances and bearings. An example
N
W
E
112.93'
34˚9'22"
A
FIGURE 154 (A) Drawing a property line. (B) Labeling a property line with the distance and bearing.
is the west property line of Lot 2, which is 112.93' for the length and S 34°09'22" W for the bearing. This property line is set up to be drawn as shown in Figure 15-4A. After the property lines are drawn, they are labeled with the distance and bearing, as shown in Figure 15-4B. Many plats have property lines that curve, such as the lines around the cul-de-sac in Figure 15-1. For example, the largest curve is labeled R = 50.00' L = 140.09'. R is the radius of the curve, and L is the length of the curve. There are three sublengths in this curve: L = 48.39' is for Lot 4, L = 68.92' is for Lot 6, and L = 22.78' is for Lot 8. Figure 15-5A shows the setup for drawing this curve using the radius and arc lengths. Plats also typically show a delta angle for curves, which is represented by the symbol ∆. The delta angle is the included angle of the curve. The included angle is the angle formed between the center and the endpoints of the arc, as shown in Figure 15-5B. Figure 15-5C shows the final labeling of the curve. =162˚ =79˚
L=68.92'
L=22.78'
=55˚
R=50.00'
L=68.92' =79˚
CENTER ' 00 0.
L =14 0 .09'
=28˚
B L=22.78' =28˚
=
16
2
L= 4 =58.3 9 R = 5˚ ' 5
A
B
S
L=140.09'
L=48.39'
34 11 ˚09 2. '22 93 "W '
●
Grade: A 10% average minimum road grade is preferred, but up to 15% for 200' (60000 mm) is acceptable. Dead ends: Provide a turnaround if the driveway is longer than 150' (945000 mm). Turnouts: Provide a 20' (6000 mm) wide by 40' long passage space at the midpoint of every 400' (122000 mm) length. Bridges and culverts: These features must be designed to support a minimum of 50,000 lb. Fire safety zone: Provide a firebreak at least 30' (9000 mm) around all structures. A firebreak requires ground cover no more than 24" (600 mm) in height and all dead vegetation removed. Steep terrain around the structure can require a greater firebreak. Property identification: The property address shall be posted on a fire department–approved sign where the driveway meets the main road. Firefighting water supply: On-site water supplies, such as a swimming pool, pond, or water storage tank, must be accessible within 15'. A fire sprinkler system designed and installed in the home can be substituted for a water supply. Additional information about fire sprinkler systems is provided in Chapter 20. Roof coverings in wildfire zones: Wildfire zones are heavily wooded areas. The use of wood roofing material or other combustible materials is restricted in these areas.
S
●
Architectural Drafting and Design
C
FIGURE 155 Drawing and labeling curved property lines. (A) The setup for drawing the curve. (B) The included angle, the angle formed between the endpoints and the arc, is 162°. (C) Final labeling of the curve.
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CADD APPLICATIONS Using Surveyor’s Units Generally, the plat or legal description provides metes and bounds coordinates for property line boundaries. For example, the south property line for Lot 2, in Figure 15-1, has the coordinates given with the bearing and distance of N 88°06'14" W and 134.92'. CADD systems used for either general or architectural applications have a surveyor’s units setting. When the CADD system is set to draw lines based on surveyor’s units, the south property line of Lot 2 is drawn with this computer prompt: @134.92' < N 88d06'
14" W. Notice that the degree symbol (°) is replaced with the lowercase letter d when entering a bearing at the computer prompt. Most CADD programs have options for drawing arcs that allow you to create the curves in Figure 15-5. The commands typically allow you to draw arcs with a combination of radius, arc length, and included angle. This provides you with the flexibility needed to use the R, L, and ∆ information provided on the plat or in the surveyor’s notes. ■
STEPS IN SITE PLAN LAYOUT
STEP 3
Follow these steps to draw a site plan. Select the paper size. In this case the size is 8 1/2" × 11". Evaluate the plot to be drawn. Lot 2 of Sandy Estates, shown in Figure 15-1, is used for this example. Determine the scale to use by considering how the longest dimension (134.92') fits on the sheet. Always try to leave at least a 1/2" margin around the sheet. CADD scale applications are used as described in Chapter 7. STEP 2 Use the given plat as an example to lay out the proposed site plan. If a plat is not available, then the site plan can be laid out from the legal description by establishing the boundaries using the bearings and dimensions in feet. Lay out the entire site plan using construction lines. If errors are made, the construction lines are very easy to erase, or use CADD layers so construction lines can be frozen when finished with the drawing (see Figure 15-6). STEP 1
Lay out the proposed structure using construction lines. The proposed structure in this example is 60' long and 36' wide. The house can be drawn on the site plan with or without showing the roof. A common practice is to draw only the outline of the floor plan. In some cases, the roof overhang is considered in the setback. In these situations, the house outline is drawn as a dashed line under the roof and dimensions are given for the house and the overhang. The front setback is 25', and the east side is 15'. Lay out all roads, driveways, walks, and utilities. Be sure the structure is inside or on the minimum setback requirements. Setbacks are imaginary boundaries beyond which the structure may not be placed. Think of setbacks as property line offsets established by local regulations. Minimum setbacks can be confirmed with local zoning regulations. The minimum setbacks for this property are 25' front, 10' sides, and 35' back from the property lines to the house (see Figure 15-7).
SI
DE
SIDE SETBACK
SE
TB
AC
K
FRONT SETBACK
REAR SETBACK
FIGURE 156 Step 2: Lay out the plot plan property lines.
FIGURE 157 Step 3: Lay out the structures, roads, driveways, walks, and utilities. Be sure the structure is on or within the minimum required setbacks.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
MIBRADA LOOP W
R=25.00' L=7.71'
W
R=25.00' L=7.71' 18' DRIVE
EL 100'
PROPOSED 3 BEDROOM HOME EL. MAIN FL. 101.5'
5'
95.00'
60'-0"
134.92' EL 102'
N 88˚06'14" W
N 1˚29'48" W
36'-0"
34 ˚0 9'2 11 2" 2. W 93 '
E
S
66.90'
S CURB
W S
36" WALK
25'-0"
EL 100'
21' 25'
CL
EL 102'
PLOT PLAN
134.92' N 88˚06'14" W
SCALE 1"=20'
LEGAL: LOT 2 SANDY ESTATES CITY OF HOUSTON, COUNTY OF HARRIS, STATE OF TEXAS
5'
EL 101.2'
N
FIGURE 1510 Step 6: Complete the plot plan. Add title, scale, north arrow, legal description, and other necessary information, such as the owner’s name if required.
Complete the site plan by adding the north arrow, the legal description, title, scale, client’s name, and other title block information. Figure 15-10 shows the complete site plan.
STEP 6
SITE PLAN DRAWING CHECKLIST Check off the items in the following list as you work on the basic site plan, to be sure that you have included all of the necessary details. Site plans for special applications may require additional information. Refer to this chapter for features found in special plans such as a grading plan, subdivision plan, site analysis plan, planned unit development, and commercial plan. ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
EL 101.2'
FIGURE 159 Step 5: Add dimensions and elevations; then label all roads, driveways, walks, and utilities.
W S 60'-0"
STEP 4
MIBRADA LOOP
EL 100'
PROPOSED 3 BEDROOM HOME EL. MAIN FL. 101.5'
FIGURE 158 Step 4: Darken boundary lines, structures, roads, driveways, walks, and utilities.
Complete all property lines, structures, roads, driveways, walks, and utilities, as shown in Figure 15-8. Some drafters use a thick line or shading for the structure. Draw each feature on the appropriate CADD layer. STEP 5 Add dimensions and contour lines (if any) or elevations. The property line dimensions are generally placed on the inside of the line in decimal feet, and the bearing is placed on the outside of the line. The dimensions locating and giving the size of the structure are commonly in feet and inches or in decimal feet. Try to keep the amount of extension and dimension lines to a minimum on the site plan. One way to do this is to dimension directly to the house and place size dimensions inside the house outline. Add all labels, including the road name, property dimensions and bearings (if used), utility names, walks, and driveways, as shown in Figure 15-9.
66.90'
S CURB
95.00' N 1˚29'48" E
36'-0"
34 ˚0 11 9'22 2. 93 " W '
E
S
36" WALK
18' DRIVE
25'-0"
EL 100'
21' 25'
CL
❑ ❑
Site plan title and scale. Property legal description. Property line dimensions and bearings. North arrow. Existing and proposed roads with the elevation at the center of roads. Driveways, patios, decks, walks, and parking areas. Existing and proposed structures with floor-level elevations. Public or private water supplies. Public or private sewage disposal.
Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout
❑ Location of utilities. ❑ Rain and footing drains and storm sewer or drainage. ❑ Topography, including contour lines or elevations at property corners, street center line, driveways, and floor elevations. ❑ Front, side, and rear setbacks dimensioned and in compliance with zoning. ❑ Specific items on adjacent properties, if required, such as existing structures, water supply, sewage disposal, trees, or water features. ❑ Existing and proposed trees (may be required).
291
A
B
C
D
E
0+00
0+20
0+40
0+60
0+80
DRAWING CONTOUR LINES Contour lines represent intervals of equal elevation, as explained in Chapter 14. The following discussion shows you how to lay out contour lines on a construction site. Surveyors use various methods to establish elevations at points on the ground. This information is recorded in field notes. You then use the field notes to plot the contour lines. This discussion explains the grid survey method. Another common technique is the control point survey, which establishes elevations that are recorded on a map. You then lay out the elevations for the contour lines based on the given elevation points. The radial survey is also a common method, used for locating property corners, structures, natural features, and elevation points. This system establishes control points using a process called radiation in which measurements are taken from a survey instrument located at a base known as a transit station. From the transit station, a series of angular and distance measurements are established to specific points on the ground. You then establish the property lines, land features, and contours based on these points.
Using the Grid Survey to Draw Contour Lines A grid survey divides the site into a pattern similar to a checkerboard. Stakes are driven into the ground at each grid intersection. The surveyor then establishes an elevation at each stake and records this information in field notes. The spacing of the stakes depends on the land area and the topography. The stakes are placed in a grid 10', 20', 50', or 100' apart, for example. The example in Figure 15-11 shows a grid with lines spaced 20' apart. The vertical lines are labeled with letters, and the horizontal lines are labeled with numbers called stations. The station numbers are in two parts: for example, 0 + 20. The first number is hundreds of feet. Zero represents 0 hundreds, or 0'. The first number is followed
F
1+00
FIGURE 1511 Draw a grid at a desired scale. Label the vertical lines with letters and the horizontal lines with station numbers, as shown in this example.
by a plus (+) sign. This means that you add the first number to the second number to get the actual distance to this station. The second number is in tens of feet. For example, 0' + 20' = 20', or 1' + 20' = 120'. The intersection of vertical line B and station 0 + 40 is identified as station B–0 + 40. The field notes record the elevation at each station, as shown in Table 15-1. For example, the elevation at A-0 + 80 is 105'. Station
Elevation
Station
Elevation
A-0 + 00
101'
D-0 + 00
95'
A-0 + 20
104'
D-0 + 20
97'
A-0 + 40
108'
D-0 + 40
99'
A-0 + 60
112'
D-0 + 60
105'
A-0 + 80
105'
D-0 + 80
100'
A-1 + 00
102'
D-1 + 00
94'
B-0 + 00
100'
E-0 + 00
94'
B-0 + 20
102'
E-0 + 20
96'
B-0 + 40
105'
E-0 + 40
98'
B-0 + 60
110'
E-0 + 60
100'
B-0 + 80
104'
E-0 + 80
95'
B-1 + 00
100'
E-1 + 00
92'
C-0 + 00
98'
F-0 + 00
92'
C-0 + 20
100'
F-0 + 20
93'
C-0 + 40
102'
F-0 + 40
95'
C-0 + 60
108'
F-0 + 60
98'
C-0 + 80
102'
F-0 + 80
90'
C-1 + 00
95'
F-1 + 00
85'
TABLE 151 Grid Survey Field Notes
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Architectural Drafting and Design
B
C
D
100
98
95
94
104
102
100
97
108
105
102
112
110
105
102
E
A
F
92
0+00
96
93
0+20
99
98
95
108
105
100
104
102
100
100
95
94
C
D
98
95
94
104
102
100
97
0+40
108
105
102
98
0+60
112
110
95
90
0+80
105
92
85
1+00
102
Steps in Drawing Contour Lines Contour lines are drawn from grid survey field notes using the following steps: Draw a grid at a desired scale similar to Figure 15-11. Use construction lines if you are drafting manually, or establish a GRID or CONSTRUCTION layer if you are using CADD. Label the vertical and horizontal grid lines. STEP 2 Use the field notes to label the elevation at each grid intersection. The elevations, labeled on the grid in Figure 15-12, are based on the field notes found in Table 15-1. STEP 3 Determine the desired contour interval and connect the points on the grid that represent contour lines at this interval. The contour interval for the grid in Figure 15-12 is 2'. This means that you will establish contour lines every 2', such as at 92', 94', 96', and 98'. STEP 4 Establish the contour lines at the desired contour interval by picking points on the grid that represent the desired elevations. If a grid intersection elevation is 100', then this is the exact point for the 100' elevation on the contour line. If the elevation at one grid intersection is 98' and the next is 102', then you estimate the location of 100' between the two points. This establishes another 100' elevation point. STEP 5 When you have identified the points for all of the 100' elevations, then connect the points to create STEP 1
B
100
FIGURE 1512 Use the field notes in Table 15–1 to label the elevation at each grid intersection.
101
E
F
92
0+00
96
93
0+20
99
98
95
0+40
108
105
100
98
0+60
104
102
100
95
90
0+80
100
95
94
92
85
1+00
FIGURE 1513 Connect the points at the elevations for each contour interval.
the contour line (see Figure 15-13). Do this for the elevation at each contour interval. STEP 6 Darken the contour lines. The intermediate lines are thin. The index contour lines are broken and labeled with the elevation and are generally drawn thicker than intermediate lines, as shown in Figure 15-14.
98
106
98
90
A
101
FIGURE 1514 Darken the contour lines. The intermediate lines are thin, and the index contour lines are thick. The index contour lines are broken and labeled with the elevation of the contour line.
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DRAWING PROFILES
PROFILE LINE
As described earlier, a profile is a vertical section of the surface of the ground, and/or of underlying earth that is taken along any desired fixed line. The profile of a construction site is usually through the building excavation location, but more than one profile can be drawn as needed. The profile for road construction is normally placed along the center line. Profiles are drawn from the contour lines at the section location. The contour map and its related profile are commonly referred to as the plan and profile. Profiles can be used to show road grades and site excavation, among other things. Projecting directly from the desired cut location on the contour map following these steps creates the profile:
98
90
˚
106
98 90
SCALE: 1" = 20'
110
Draw a straight line on the contour map at the location of the desired profile (see Figure 15-15). STEP 2 Set up the profile vertical scale. The horizontal scale is the same as the map, because you are projecting directly from the map. The vertical scale can be the same, or it can be exaggerated. Exaggerated scales are used to give a clearer representation of the contour when needed. Establish a vertical scale increment that is above the maximum elevation and one that is below the minimum elevation. Figure 15-16 shows how the vertical scale is set up. Notice that the profile is projected 90° from the profile line on the map. STEP 3 Project a line from the location where every contour line crosses the profile line on the contour map (see Figure 15-17). STEP 1
105 100 95 90
SCALE: 1" = 100'
FIGURE 1516 Project the profile 90° from the start of the profile line. Set up the vertical scale. Label the vertical scale and the elevation of each contour along the vertical scale. Draw a horizontal line at each contour interval. Label the horizontal scale.
PROFILE LINE
PROFILE LINE
98
90
˚
106
98
98
90
SCALE: 1" = 20'
110
106
105 100
98 90
95 90
SCALE: 1" = 100'
FIGURE 1515 Draw a straight line on the contour map at the location of the desired profile.
FIGURE 1517 Project a line 90° from the location where every contour line crosses the profile line.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
EXCAVATION AT 100' ELEVATION
PROFILE LINE
98
98
90
˚
106
106
98 90
SCALE: 1" = 20'
90
98
110 105 100
FIGURE 1519 Site plan location for the desired level excavation at 100'.
95 90
SCALE: 1" = 100'
FIGURE 1518 Draw the profile by connecting the points where every two vertical and horizontal lines of the same elevation intersect.
STEP 4 Draw the profile by connecting the points where
every two vertical and horizontal lines of the same elevation intersect, as shown in Figure 15-18.
DRAWING GRADING PLANS If you have a specific location on a site where a level excavation must take place for the proposed construction, you can lay out a grading plan. The grading plan shows the elevation of the site after excavation. This plan shows where areas need to be cut and filled. This is referred to as cut and fill. Cut and fill is the excavation process involving the removal of earth, which is the cut, and moving earth to another location, which is the fill. Figure 15-19 shows the site plan location for the desired level excavation. The following steps can be used to draw the grading plan for a level construction site: Determine the angle of repose, which is the slopes of cut and fill from the excavation site measured in feet of horizontal run to feet of vertical rise.
One unit of rise to one unit of run is specified as 1:1 (see Figure 15-20). The actual angle of repose for cuts and fills is normally determined by approved soil engineering or engineering geology reports. The slope of cut surfaces can be no steeper than is safe for the intended use and cannot exceed 1 unit vertical in 2 units horizontal (1:2). Alternative designs may be allowed if soil engineering and/or engineering geology reports state that the site has been investigated and give an opinion that a cut at a steeper slope is stable and does not create a hazard
ORIGINAL PROFILE 1
LEVEL EXCAVATION
1 CUT
FILL
CUT 1 1
STEP 1
ANGLE OF REPOSE
FIGURE 1520 Angle of repose.
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EXCAVATION AT 100' ELEVATION
EXCAVATION AT 100' ELEVATION
94
94
96
96
98
104
98 94
94
106
96
106
98
102
98
102
98
96
104
98
106
106
102 104
FIGURE 1522 To establish the cut and fill, mark where the elevations of the parallel lines around the excavation match the corresponding elevations of the contour lines.
Connect the points established in Step 3, as shown in Figure 15-23. The cut and fill areas can be shaded or left unshaded.
STEP 4
EXCAVATION AT 100' ELEVATION
94
96 98
FILL FILL 98
98 94
96
CUT CUT
106
102 104 106
98
90
to property. Fill slopes cannot be constructed on natural slopes steeper than 1 unit vertical in 2 units horizontal (1:2). In order to provide a bond with the new fill, the ground surface must be prepared to receive fill by removing vegetation, previous unstable fill material, topsoil, and other unsuitable materials. Other requirements include soil engineering where stability, steeper slopes, and heights are issues. Soil engineering can require benching the fill into sound material and specific drainage and construction methods. A bench is a fairly level step excavated into the earth material on which fill is placed. Any grading plan with a cut and fill design must be properly engineered. A civil engineer is responsible for the proper design and construction. STEP 2 Draw parallel lines around the excavation site, with each line representing the elevation at the cut and fill. If the angle of repose is 1:1 and the contour interval is 2', then these parallel lines are 2' from the level excavation site. This is determined by multiplying rise times contour interval (1 × 2 = 2 in this example). Look at Figure 15-21. STEP 3 The elevation of the excavation is 100'. Elevations above this are considered cuts, and elevations below this are fills. To establish the cut and fills, mark where the elevations of the parallel lines around the excavation match the corresponding elevations of the contour lines, as shown in Figure 15-22.
98
104
FIGURE 1521 Draw parallel lines around the excavation site, with each line representing the elevation at the cut and fill.
106
102
98
106
106
90
104
90
102
FIGURE 1523 Complete the cut and fill drawing by connecting the points. The cut and fill areas can be labeled, and they can be shaded or left unshaded.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS Using CADD to Draw Site Plans INTRODUCTION There are CADD software programs specifically designed for drawing site plans. Also available are complete CADD mapping packages that allow you to draw topographic maps, terrain models, grading plans, and land profiles. It all depends on the nature of your business and how much power you need in the CADD mapping program. One of the benefits of CADD over manual drafting is accuracy. For example, you can draw a property boundary line by giving the length and bearing. The computer automatically draws the line, and labels the length and bearing. Continue by entering information from the surveyor’s notes to draw the entire
property boundary in just a few minutes. Such features increase the speed and accuracy of drawing site plans. A residential site plan, drawn using CADD mapping software, is shown in Figure 15-24. The needs of the commercial site plan are a little different from the residential requirements. The commercial CADD site plan package uses the same features as the residential application and, additionally, has the ability to design street and parking lot layouts. The commercial CADD drafter uses features from symbol libraries, including utility symbols; street, curb, and gutter designs; landscaping; parking lot layouts; titles; and scales. A commercial site plan is shown in Figure 15-25.
47' 3Ø' 35' 21' 33.25'
3Ø'-6"⫾
12Ø' 73.ØØ' 9Ø.ØØ 85.ØØ' 99.ØØ'
45'-Ø"⫾
96.Ø3' ELEVA VATION: UPPER RIDGE CORNER NORTHWEST R SOUTHWEST CORNER NORTHEAST R CORNER SOUTHEAST CORNER A AVERA GE HEIGHT
85.ØØ' LINE OF DECK
1Ø7.ØØ"⫾
102.ØØ⫾
73.ØØ'
LINE OF DECK
9'-Ø" 6'-6"
TO RESIDENCE
MIN. 13'-Ø" '
LINE OF RESIDENCE
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
6'-6"
9Ø.ØØ'
LINE OF 2Ø'-Ø" FRONT SETBACK
2Ø'-Ø" MIN.
21'-Ø"
MIN.
99.ØØ'
LINE OF FOOT BRIDGE
LINE OF P PARKING BRIDGE
PROPERTY R LINE
CL
COURT S. W. MICHAEL AARON
PLOT 1"
FIGURE 1524 A CADD-drawn site plan.
PLAN 1Ø'-Ø"
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CADD APPLICATIONS
334
336
SCALE: 1" = 40'
S.E. 122nd AVE.
PAD A PHASE 2 FF 336.0
334
PAD C PHASE 2 FF 334.0 RD
.
332 332
YS
ID
E
330
32
8
FF 327.17
32
8
32
332
6
32
8
BUILDING A RETAIL FF 330.17
330
334 332
338 336
334
330
PAD B PHASE 2 FF 335.0 340
342
S.
E.
SU
NN
FF 333.17
32
6
330
BUILDING B GROCERY FF=325.5
BUILDING E DRUGSTORE FF 330.0
BU
32 4
IL R DI FF ETA NG 32 IL D 6.6 7
BUILDING C RETAIL FF 325.5
324
322
320
FIGURE 1525 A CADD-drawn commercial site plan. Courtesy Soderstrom Architects.
6 32
298
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 1526 A topographic site plan to be used for developing a terrain model. ArchiCAD images courtesy of Graphisoft, planned by architects Csaba Szakál and Geörgy Péchy.
DEVELOPING A CADD TERRAIN MODEL CADD programs are available that allow you to include site work, landscaping, roads, driveways, retaining walls, and construction excavation as part of the project. A terrain model can be created from survey data or from a topographic site plan. A terrain model is a three-dimensional (3D) model of the earth surface or terrain, and is also referred to as a digital terrain model (DTM). A digital terrain model of a topographic surface uses information on height, slope, aspect, breaks in slope, and other topographic features. Figure 15-26 shows an example of a topographic site plan to be used for developing a terrain model. The CADD program recognizes the contour lines or survey data and creates a 3D model in wireframe or as a 3D-terrain model, as shown in Figure 15-27. The terrain model can be viewed from any angle to help you fully visualize the contours of the site. Additionally, the terrain model can be used for any of the following design applications: • Define borders and property lines. • Find the elevation at any point, contour line, surface object, or feature and modify the elevation to determine how this affects the model. • Modify the terrain model by editing the contour shapes. • Define and display building excavation sites, roads, and other features. • Show and calculate cut and fill requirements. • Display the model in plan or 3D view.
FIGURE 1527 The CADD program recognizes the contour lines from the site plan in Figure 15-26 and creates (A) a 3D wireframe model or (B) a 3D-terrain model. ArchiCAD images courtesy Graphisoft, planned by architects Csaba Szakál and Geörgy Péchy.
When the site is designed as desired, the 3D rendering of the house can be placed on the site, as shown in Figure 15-28. This is an excellent way to demonstrate how a client’s home will look when it is finished.
CADD LAYERS FOR SITE PLAN DRAWINGS The American Institute of Architects (AIA) CADD Layer Guidelines establish the Civil (C) category of layers, which uses a level-one C discipline designator. This designation is used to group civil content or drawings prepared by a civil engineering contractor, such as the objects on a site plan. For example, the C-ESMT layer is used to draw easement lines. Level-two designations are also available, and can be used to further classify specific civil drawing content. The designation CU (Civil Utilities) is used when it is necessary to place utility objects, such as sewer lines, in a specific category. An S (Site) level-two designation is also available and can be used with the Civil designator (CS) or a noncivil discipline. For example, the AS (Architectural Site) designation is used to distinguish site content drawn by the architect or architectural designer. Figure 15-29 lists several common civil drafting layers for site plan applications.
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CADD APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 1528 When the site is designed as desired, a 3D rendering of the house can be placed on the site. ArchiCAD images courtesy Graphisoft, planned by architects Csaba Szakál and Geörgy Péchy.
Additional layers are used to categorize drawing content related to, or sometimes shown on, site plans. The Survey/Mapping category uses a level-one V discipline designator to group content associated with surveying, such as the survey of a site, or drawings created by the surveyor. For example, the V-CTRL-BMRK draws a benchmark control point located during a survey. Survey and mapping layers often use the same major and minor groups as civil layers, because much of the information used to prepare a civil drawing comes from a survey.
Example
The Landscape category uses a level-one L designation to contain objects associated with a site landscape, or drawings prepared by a landscape architect or designer. For example, trees are drawn on the L-PLNT-TREE layer, an irrigation system is drawn using an L-IRRG layer, and walkways are drawn on an L-WALK layer. Landscape plans generally show the suitable plants for the site, and specify the plants by their proper Latin names and sometimes their common names. The architect or designer often sends the site plan computer drawing file to the
Purpose Name Line Type Line Weight Dimensions C-ANNO-DIMS Continuous 0.25 mm Borders and title blocks C-ANNO-TTLB Continuous 0.70 mm Buildings and primary structures C-BLDG Continuous 0.50 mm Drain fields C-DFLD DASHED 0.35 mm Driveways C-DRIV Continuous 0.35 mm Easements C-ESMT Continuous 0.35 mm Fences C-FENC FENCELINE2 0.35 mm Underground natural gas lines C-NGAS-UGND GAS_LINE 0.35 mm Power line poles C-POWR-POLE Continuous 0.35 mm Property lines C-PROP PHANTOM 0.50 mm Roads C-ROAD Continuous 0.35 mm Underground sanitary sewer lines C-SSWR-UGND DASHED 0.35 mm Index contour lines C-TOPO-MAJR Continuous 0.50 mm FIGURE 1529 Examples of common CAD site plan line formats. Based on the U.S. National CAD Standard recommended line weights and AIA CAD Layer guidelines.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS landscape architect or designer where the file is used to specify the size, type, and location of the plants. Details for maintaining the plants, such as a water sprinkler system and other care requirements, are also provided on the landscape plan. Figure 15-30
shows a CADD landscape plan without detailed plant information given on the drawing. In this case, the plant information is given in a set of written specifications. ■
curb line
LOT AREA 88321 sf.
property line retaining wall
N
1
SITE
PLAN
LANDSCAPE
1" = 5Ø'-Ø"
FIGURE 1530 A landscape plan showing the location of all trees and plantings. Plant types can be included on the landscape plan or in separate documents. Courtesy Soderstrom Architects.
GOING GREEN
301
Designing an Ecosystem The content for this Going Green feature is taken in part from Mascord Efficient Living, Building a Sustainable Lifestyle.
ECOSYSTEM The ecosystem is important to our lifestyles and it is fragile. An ecosystem is an ecological community that functions as a unit with its environment. Site disturbance from construction practices unbalance the local system in ways that may not be apparent at first glance. Minor site changes can have a large impact locally and regionally. Clearing landscape for construction can cause problems with the management of stormwater, dust, and erosion. The site can become unstable, and landslides can occur if the ground becomes saturated and cannot deal with stormwater. In addition, local stormwater systems can be flooded with runoff containing dust, debris, and silt. Plants imported for landscaping can be invasive and may not blend with local conditions, causing the home owner unnecessary maintenance costs. Plant species introduced into areas where they are not native can negatively impact local species. A strong invasive species can eradicate a more delicate native species, and possibly remove a food source for local wildlife. Care is needed when working with the site to prevent unnecessary disturbance of local systems, and to reduce costs associated with clearing and re-landscaping areas. Mature plants are well established, and need less attention than freshly planted seedlings. A well-designed, climate-appropriate landscape offers substantial environmental and economical benefits. Trees and other vegetation control erosion, protect water supplies, provide food and habitat for wildlife, and clean the air. Planting trees, shrubs, bushes and hedges can also be an effective way to provide shade and reduce your heating and cooling costs. Parallel to understanding how your landscape works as an ecosystem, approach your landscape with its unique visual appeal in mind. The sights, textures, and scents of your home’s landscape might prove to be the most beautiful and inspiring of all your home’s efficient features.
and let more heat in during the winter. Alternately, the properties of dense evergreen trees or shrubs can provide continuous shade and serve to disperse winds. Shading and evapotranspiration from trees reduce surrounding air temperatures by as much as 9°F. Because cool air settles near the ground, air temperatures directly under trees can be as much as 25°F cooler than air temperatures above. Evapotranspiration is the process by which a plant actively moves and releases water vapor.
Xeriscaping Xeriscaping is a term for low-water-use landscaping, whereas designs using native plants are called naturescaping. Xeriscape gardens have typically been implemented in areas of the country where there is a hotdry climate. However, busy home owners everywhere are finding the ease of a low-maintenance garden appealing. Xeriscaping and naturescaping reduce the need for watering, weeding, fertilizing, and spreading chemicals. Xeriscape design does not need to consist of cactus-like plants, rocks, and bark dust. Good design concentrates on locating plants where the species can thrive naturally and using defined areas of irrigation for water conservation rather than eliminating water use altogether. Mixing drought-tolerant plants with well-chosen areas of irrigated plants can produce a beautifully colored and varied garden, with low-maintenance and low-water requirement. For example, instead of a large lawn expanse with a highvolume sprinkler system, use a smaller lawn, bordered with drought-tolerant plants. Add a side flower bed planted with well-chosen species using an appropriately sized irrigation system. This provides a much more interesting landscape with a colorful array of flowers while using a lot less water—with less maintenance. Figure 15-31 shows an example of xeriscaping and naturescaping.
Shading Properly using landscape shade requires you to understand the size, shape, and location of the moving shadow that your landscaping elements cast throughout the year, and as they mature. Landscaping elements can be used to block sun from windows and shade your walls and walkways from hot summer rays, providing a method to reduce the cooling needs of your home. Trees can be selected with appropriate sizes, densities, and shapes for almost any shading application. Deciduous trees, for example, can be planted to block solar heat in the summer
FIGURE 1531 An example of xeriscaping and naturescaping. Courtesy of Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
302
GOING GREEN Designing an Ecosystem (Continued)
Naturescaping
Insects
The use of native plants in your landscape can balance the ecosystem of the garden, because native plants have evolved over time to be tolerant of their surroundings. Native plants can provide correct nutrients to balance the soil, provide food for local wildlife, prevent the intrusive behavior of weeds, and also prevent erosion. However, you do not need to limit yourself to native plants when designing a landscape. Irises, roses, lavender, lamb’s ears, Oriental poppy, Dusty Miller, and tulips are all examples of plants that should survive in a low-maintenance garden without overpowering native species. The greatest pleasure of having a xeriscaped and naturescaped garden is being able to enjoy the landscape without spending too much time mowing, pruning, weeding, and fertilizing.
Insects can be beneficial and are often an essential part of a garden ecosystem. Most plants can survive losing more than 25% of their leaf surface. If the soil is healthy, many plants outgrow the pests or diseases that afflict them, and there may be a delay between the initial damage caused by pests and the arrival of beneficial insects that can control them. To determine if an insect is a pest or a beneficial addition to your landscape ecosystem, refer to gardening books or take a sample to a nursery/garden center that has a knowledgeable staff.
Hydrozoning Hydrozoning involves arranging flowers and plants into areas that need similar amounts of water and nutrients. Watering requirements are more easily managed if plants can be placed in defined areas of foliage with similar needs. Keeping thirsty plants away from your house also prevents you from needing to soak the foundation wall when watering.
Irrigation When designing an automatic irrigation system, make sure to use smart, programmable sprinkler systems with moisture sensors that allow you to measure the amount of water your garden needs at any given time. Typically, these systems also allow you to control irrigation from a central shut-off valve. Include a reliable rain sensor so you do not water when raining. Combine this system with a rain and wastewater collection system to maximize efficiency. Choose landscaping elements that are appropriate to the local climate and require minimal additional water. The varying root systems of grass, trees, and flowers all have different water requirements. Group plants according to the amount of water they need, and design the irrigation system to accommodate the specific plants.
Pesticides Pesticides and fertilizers used on landscaping end up in the water system. Since many pesticides are highly toxic to fish and other aquatic life, even a small amount can be harmful and continues into the food chain. If you determine that a pest or disease problem requires intervention, make sure to use the safest method possible. There are many ways to control pests without using pesticides. For example, set up covers for vegetables, put out traps for slugs, and remove aphids, with water jets, while watering your plants.
Healthy Soil Healthy soil is the foundation for thriving plants and a healthy lawn. Healthy plants naturally resist diseases and pests, and require less care. Adding organic material to the soil improves drainage and provides food to the microscopic creatures that provide plant nutrients. Add 2 to 3 inches of compost or aged manure every year by turning it into the soil and reuse it as mulch around plants.
Yard Space In addition to visual appeals, your yard and garden can also serve a functional purpose by designating a section of your yard space for planting herbs, spices, fruits, and vegetables that pay back over time by reducing the amount of produce you need to buy. You can keep it simple by starting out with a few simple herbs. Your garden will mature quickly and become sustainable.
Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout
303
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to site plan layout. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.autodesk.com
Company, Product, or Service AutoCAD Civil 3D, Land Desktop, Survey, Utility Design
www.softplan.com www.eaglepoint.com www.graphisoft.com www.bentley.com www.carlsonsw.com
Building and rendering applications Civil design solutions Design building series, virtual building MicroStation, Geopak Solutions for surveying, civil engineering, building, and mining applications
See CD for more information
Site Plan Layout Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 15 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 15–9 Is it true or false that one of the advantages of CADD over manual drafting is accuracy? Question 15–10 Identify at least one difference between residential and commercial site plans. Question 15–11 Define contour lines. Question 15–12 Describe the control point survey. Question 15–13 Describe the radial survey.
Question 15–1 What influences the size of the drawing sheet recommended for site plans?
Question 15–14 What is the transit station?
Question 15–2 What four factors influence scale selection in drawing a site plan?
Question 15–16 What is the distance to station point 0 + 40?
Question 15–3 List five elements of information that should be determined before starting a site plan drawing.
Question 15–17 What is the distance to station point 1 + 60?
Question 15–4 Why are construction lines helpful in site plan layout? Question 15–5 Information used to prepare a site plan may come from one or more of several available sources. List four possible sources. Question 15–6 List at least six types of information that should be determined before the site plan can be completed.
Question 15–15 Explain how a grid survey is set up.
Question 15–18 Explain the difference between index and intermediate contour lines. Question 15–19 Define profile. Question 15–20 Why is the vertical profile scale exaggerated? Question 15–21 In addition to the elevation of the excavation site, what does the grading plan show? Question 15–22 Define angle of repose.
Question 15–7 Define setbacks.
Question 15–23 What are field notes?
Question 15–8 If you are using a CADD system to draw a site plan, what would be a typical prompt in drawing a 154.92' property line with a N 88°06'14" W bearing?
Question 15–24 Why is the horizontal scale of the profile the same as the map scale? Question 15–25 In a grid survey, what is used to label the vertical lines?
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: 1. Use an 8 1/2" × 14" drawing sheet unless otherwise specified by your instructor. 2. Select an appropriate scale. 3. Minimum front setback is 25'–0". 4. Minimum rear-yard setback is 25'–0". 5. Minimum side-yard setback is 7'–0". 6. Select, or have your instructor assign, one or more of the plot plan sketches or drawings that follow.
334 . 43'
EL 108'
Problems 15–1 through 15–7 Begin the selected site plan problem(s) by drawing the given information. The site plan will then be completed after you have selected a residential design project(s) in Chapter 18. Two evaluations are recommended: ●
Site plan without structures, drives, and utilities.
●
Complete site plan after selection and placement of structures, drives, and utilities. Structures selected in Chapter 18.
EL 86'
50° 00' 20" E A
B
AREA ACCEPTABLE FOR SEPTIC SYSTEM AREA UNACCEPTABLE FOR SEPTIC SYSTEM
E 333.44' SOUTH BROOKS LN.
R = 10'
E
147 . 8'
N
EL 104' E
54.8'
167 . 8'
A
15'
PROVIDE WATER WELL 100' MINIMUM TO SEPTIC SYSTEM 652 . 46'
N 89° 26' 35" W
652 . 65'
N 89° 31' 45" W
B
UTILITY ALLEY
15'
EL 100'
54.8' MANCHESTER DRIVE
S
TAX LOT 2300, LOT 12 CLARKES ESTATES SECTION 17, T. 4 S., R. 3E., SALT LAKE MERIDIAN, TOOELE COUNTY, UTAH
R = 10'
S
LOT 17, BLOCK 3, PLAT OF GARTHWICK, YOUR CITY, COUNTY, STATE
PROBLEM 15-1
PROBLEM 15-2 E N 0° 48' 30" W
EL 91'
E
EL 90'
138 . 83'
EL 84' S
G W
N 0° 48' 40" W JASAN ROAD
E 2'
'4 15
4.5 11
S 68' 40' 44" W
N 89' 49' 16" W
30'
G W
LOT 15 BLOCK 3 BARRINGTON HEIGHTS YOUR CITY, COUNTY STATE
LOT 7, BLOCK 2, KYLEE ESTATES SECTION 12, T. 12 N., R. 14 E., LOUISIANA MERIDIAN, RAPIDES PARISH, LOUISIANA
PROBLEM 15-3
S 86' 00' 10 "E 202.98'
209.15'
EL 86' S
'
' 59' 17" W 79.4 3'
UR
W
P.O.B.
25
9"
OL L
1'
1"
KN
NORTH
'4
7'
45
.3
ER
°
1
N2
40
14
C L RIV
S
CO
N
EL 88'
S 12
T
' 19" E N 84° 44 ' 313 . 30
219 . 64' S 85° 12' 3 7"
E
138 . 87'
PROBLEM 15-4
Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout
305
P.O.B.
S 86' 37' 50" E S
487.19'
W 4'
11
1.1
7' S2
45
24
N 44' 54' 36" W
30' '
' 29.05
2 .1
W N 12' 59' 17" E
76'
P.O.B.
LOT 25 BLOCK 4 BARRINGTON HEIGHTS YOUR CITY, COUNTY STATE
PROBLEM 15-5
PROBLEM 15-6
N 31° 59' 23" E 159.17'
PROBLEM 15-7
153.62'
E
Ø' N 34° 42' 27" E
VIEW DRIV
R 197Ø.Ø PROPERTY LINE
NORTH
HARBOR
" L 87.58' LOT 23 OF TRACT # 366Ø BLOCK # 144 HARBOR VIEW ESTATES YOUR CITY, COUNTY, STATE
d 2° 32' 5Ø
d 2° 23' 24" L 8Ø.ØØ'
R 1917.87'
PROPERTY LINE
SETTING SUN DRIVE
EAST 190.63'
W 7'25" S73'1
LOT 29 BLOCK 1 ASHDOWN WOOD YOUR CITY, COUNTY STATE
0'
0.
16
21
'
8"
.46
0' 0
324
3' 5
NORTH
42
N2
'3
0"
'
N
' 05
E DRIV ON GT IN RR 70' BA R=1 ' .25 135
"W
ST. JAMES PLACE RADIUS LENGTH: 75.31'
NORTH
44 '5 4' 51 36 .1 "E 2'
CL
N5 5' 3 7' 0 10 7" 0' W
Ø'
RT
C OU
ALLEN
'
5 97.3 L=
27.Ø R=3
73'-Ø'
SET
784.62'
1"
PLOT
3Ø'-Ø"
LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T15, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS, COUNTY OREGON
15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT
SANITARY MANHOLE
PLAN
S 71° 16' 25" E
LINE OF DECK ABOVE
57"
43' 3Ø"
1Ø' SIDE-YARD SETBACK
24" MAX DEC. RETAINING WALL
ENTRY DECK F.F. 194.88'
UPPER FIN FL. 175' ØØ"
LOWER FIN FL. 184' ØØ"
5'-Ø' RETAINING WALL
ENTRY FIN FL. 135' ØØ"
SID 1Ø'
K
15'
BAC
1° S4
RD E-YA
' .16 220
48" HIGH MAX RETAINING WALL
GARAGE FIN FL. 138' ØØ"
48" HIGH MAX RETAINING WALL
4" CONC DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL
24" MAX DEC. RETAINING WALL
CRAWL SPACE
24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE RAILROAD TIE OR DEC. STONE VERIFY WITH OWNER
DAVID CURB FACE OF
7'
2Ø' FRONT-YARD SETBACK
32'-Ø'
NOR TH 7.5 18
PROBLEM 15-8 43.47'
"W
Ø"
9 3' 4 °3
10'-
3 S4
63.15'
306 Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 15–8 Draw the complete site plan shown.
195
200
195
S 21° 16' 25" E
185
1"
1Ø'-Ø"
GRADING PLAN
264.67'
190
LINE OF DECK ABOVE
57"
43' 3Ø"
K BAC
SET
15'
1Ø' SIDE-YARD SETBACK
14" MAX DEC. RETAINING WALL
ENTRY DECK F.F. 194.88'
UPPER FIN FL. 153' ØØ"
LOWER FIN FL. 184' ØØ"
5'-Ø' RETAINING WALL
48" HIGH MAX RETAINING WALL
GARAGE FIN FL. 138' ØØ"
48" HIGH MAX RETAINING WALL
205
'
1° S4
RD E-YA SID 1Ø'
2
16 20.
24" MAX DEC. ENTRY FIN FL. RETAINING 188' ØØ" WALL
CRAWL SPACE
4" CONC DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL
185
180
24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE RAILROAD TIE OR DEC. STONE VERIFY WITH OWNER
190
2Ø' FRONTYARD SETBACK
200
RT
C OU
ALLEN DAVID
'
5' 973 L=
22.ØØ R=3
CURB FACE OF
180
43.41'
LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T15, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS, COUNTY OREGON
15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT
SANITARY MANHOLE
NOR TH W " ' 49 33
PROBLEM 15-9 3° S4
63.15'
Chapter 15: Site Plan Layout 307
Problem 15–9 Continue the drawing started in Problem 15–8 by drawing the complete grading plan using the layout for this problem as a guide.
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www.kevinmillerphoto.com
SECTION 4
The Floor Plan
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CHAPTER 16
Floor Plan Symbols I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
The floor plans for a proposed home provide the future home owner with the opportunity to evaluate the design in terms of livability and suitability for the needs of the family. In addition, the floor plans quickly communicate the overall construction requirements to the builder. Symbols are used on floor plans to describe items that are associated with living in the home, such as doors, windows, cabinets, and plumbing fixtures. Other symbols are more closely related to the construction of the home, such as electrical circuits and material sizes and spacing. One of the most important concerns of the drafter is to carefully combine all of the symbols, notes, and dimensions on the floor plan so the plan is uncluttered and easy to read.
In addition to knowing the proper symbols to use, architects, designers, and architectural drafters should be familiar with standard products that the symbols represent. Products used in the structures they design such as plumbing fixtures, appliances, windows, and doors are usually available from local vendors. Occasionally, some special items must be ordered far enough in advance to ensure delivery to the job site on time. By becoming familiar with standard products, you also become familiar with their cost. Knowing costs allows you to determine if the product you consider using is affordable within the owner’s budget.
WALL SYMBOLS Floor plans that are easy to read are also easy to build, because there is less likelihood of construction errors than with unorganized, cluttered plans. Figure 16-1 shows a typical complete floor plan. The floor plan is a representation of an imaginary horizontal cut made approximately 4' (1220 mm) above the floor line. The relationship of the structure to the floor plan is shown in Figure 16-2. This example shows projecting the bottom of the wall onto the floor plan. Residential floor plans are generally drawn at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50 metric). Architectural templates are available with a wide variety of floor plan symbols at the proper scale.
Opinions vary with regard to how walls are drawn on a floor plan. Practices range from drawing all exterior walls thicker than interior walls, for contrast, to drawing all exterior and interior walls the same thickness for convenience and because with manual drafting it is difficult to draw exact thicknesses. When the thickness of walls is drawn to the exact construction dimensions, the material used establishes these values. Exterior walls can be built using 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 studs. Exterior walls of a home are generally framed using 2 × 6 studs to accommodate insulation requirements. The garage can be framed using 2 × 6 or 2 × 4 studs depending on structural needs and desired
CADD APPLICATIONS A common practice with CADD applications is to draw the floor plan walls the exact thickness of the construction materials. This is because the CADD system is extremely accurate for drafting. Some architectural CADD programs ask you to specify the exact construction materials and then set up the wall symbols to match.
CADD programs are also valuable for establishing information from the drawings. For example, a command such as DISTANCE can be used to determine the exact dimension between walls for the length of a cabinet to be built in that location. This is another reason for making the drawing accurate. ■
311
312
FIGURE 161 Complete floor plan. Courtesy TKP Architects PC, Golden, Colorado.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
313
FIGURE 162 The floor plan is a representation of an imaginary horizontal cut made approximately 4' (1220 mm) above the floor line. This example shows the project on of the bottom of the walls onto the floor plan.
insulation thickness. Garage walls can be framed using 2 × 4 studs as a cost-saving measure for basic residential construction. Custom homes and structural requirements generally use 2 × 6 studs for garage wall framing. Studs are the vertical construction members used for framing walls and partitions, and the nominal size of the construction member before milling is 2 × 4 or 2 × 6. The milling process makes the finished member 1 1/2" × 3 1/2" or 1 1/2" × 5 1/2". The metric equivalents of these lumber dimensions are 40 × 90 mm and 40 × 150 mm. Exterior and interior construction materials are then applied to the studs. A wide variety of exterior materials are used in architectural design, including horizontal and vertical wood siding and stucco. Stucco is a type of plaster made from Portland cement, sand,
water, and coloring agents. Exterior siding materials vary in thickness, and should be determined by the specific material used. This example uses 1/2" thick exterior material. Interior finish material can also vary, though drywall and plaster are commonly used. Drywall is an interior wall covering installed in large sheets made from gypsum board. Plaster is a mixture of sand, cement, and water over a wire mesh used to cover walls and ceilings. This example uses 1/2" thick interior material. Typical exterior and interior construction is shown in Figure 16-3. This text recommends drawing exterior and interior walls with contrasting thicknesses, such as 6" (150 mm) exterior and 4" (100 mm) interior when using manual drafting; drawing the exact wall thickness is recommended
314
Architectural Drafting and Design
7"
5" 1/2" GYPSUM
EXTERIOR
INTERIOR
1/2" GYPSUM
EXTERIOR
INTERIOR 2X6 STUD (5 1/2")
2X4 STUD (3 1/2")
1/2" SHEATHING SIDING
1/2" SHEATHING
SIDING
TYPICAL 2 × 6 EXTERIOR WALL
TYPICAL 2 × 4 EXTERIOR WALL
2X6 AS NEEDED
9 1/2" 1/2" GYPSUM
EXTERIOR
INTERIOR
EXTERIOR
1/2" GYPSUM BOTH SIDES
6 1/2"
2X4 STUD 4" MASONRY
1/2" SHEATHING
TYPICAL 2X4 STUDS
1" AIR SPACE
EXTERIOR WALL WITH MASONRY VENEER
INTERIOR 4 1/2"
INTERIOR WALLS
FIGURE 163 Typical exterior and interior construction.
when a CADD system is used. The actual practice should be confirmed with your instructor or company to determine the preferred practice. The samples in this textbook are typically drawn using CADD with text that closely matches high-quality architectural hand lettering, in an effort to maintain quality and demonstrate the best possible drafting representation.
Drawing Exterior Walls Exterior wood-frame walls are generally drawn 6" thick at a 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50 metric) scale for manual drafting, and drawn at the exact wall thickness when using CADD (see Figure 16-4). The wall thickness depends on the type of construction. If the exterior walls are to be concrete or masonry construction with wood framing to finish the inside surface, they are drawn substantially thicker, as shown in Figure 16-5. The Figure 16-5 example shows a concrete construction wall with furring constructed inside for use with a finish material. Exterior frame walls with masonry veneer construction applied to the outside surface are drawn an additional 5" (approximately 125 mm) thick with the masonry veneer represented
as 4" (100 mm) thick over a 1" (25 mm) air space and 6" (150 mm) wood-frame walls, as seen in Figure 16-6. Masonry veneer walls consist of a single nonstructural external layer of masonry, such as brick or stone, separated by an air space from the structural framing such as wood, steel, or masonry. Furring is generally small strips of wood or metal that are applied to a wall or other surface to act as a fastening piece for the finishing material.
Drawing Interior Partitions Interior walls, known as partitions, are commonly drawn 4" (100 mm) thick when using manual drafting, or to the exact material dimensions, such as 4 1/2" (114 mm), with CADD. The 4 1/2" (115 mm) dimension is the 2 × 4 (50 × 100) stud with 1/2" (12 mm) drywall on each side, as shown in Figure 16-3. The wall thickness dimension is calculated with these values: 3 1/2" + 1/2" + 1/2" = 4 1/2". Drywall refers to any materials used for interior stud covering that do not need to be mixed with water before application. The terms wallboard, plasterboard, and gypsum are also used. Gypsum is commonly used to make drywall. When gypsum is heated and the
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
315
FIGURE 164 Partial floor plan showing exterior walls and interior partitions. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD.
water is removed, the resulting product is plaster of paris. This is covered by paper to make drywall sheets. Walls with 2 × 6 (50 × 150) studs are generally used behind a water closet (toilet). This wall, commonly known as an 8" nominal wall, is used to house a soil stack that is 4" in diameter. The soil stack is a vertical soil pipe carrying the discharge from the toilet fixture. The soil stack is too big to be placed in the cavity of a 2 × 4 stud wall. This applies if the water closet is on an upper floor where the soil stack must run down the
wall below. There is no need for the increase in stud size if the water closet is on the main floor, because the soil stack connects directly into the sewer line below the slab or crawl space. There is also a soil vent that runs up the wall and vents out the roof. The soil vent, also called the stack vent or waste vent, allows vapor to escape and ventilates the system. The soil vent can be in a standard 2 × 4 stud wall because it normally measures 1 1/2" in diameter. An additional plumbing discussion is provided in Chapter 20.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
8" CONC. WALL DARK-WALL SHADING
2 X 4 FURRING W/1" AIR SPACE OR 2 X 4 D.F.P.T. STUDS @ 16" O.C.
LIGHT-WALL SHADING
FIGURE 167 Wall shading.
FIGURE 165 Concrete exterior wall.
BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE W/15# FELT & 26 GA. METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD.
FIGURE 166 Exterior masonry veneer.
WALL SHADING AND MATERIAL INDICATIONS Several shading methods are used to make walls stand out clearly from the rest of the drawing. Some drafters shade walls very dark for accent; others shade the walls lightly for a more subtle effect, as shown in Figure 16-7. Other wall shading techniques include closely spaced thin lines, wood-grain effect, and the use of color. Office practice that requires light-wall shading can also use thick wall lines to help accent the walls and partitions so they stand out from other floor plan features. Thick wall lines are also used to accent walls on the plan when no wall shading is used. Figure 16-8 shows how walls and partitions appear when outlined with thick lines. This method is not
FIGURE 168 Thick lines used on walls and partitions. No wall shading is used.
used when dark wall shading is used, because the darker shading results in walls and partitions that stand out clearly from other floor plan features. Some architectural drafters prefer to draw walls and partitions unshaded with a thick outline.
Drawing Partial Walls Partial walls are used as room dividers in situations where an open environment is desired. For example, a partial wall can be used as a guardrail at balconies or next to a flight of stairs. Partial walls require a minimum height of 36" above the floor and are often capped with wood or can have decorative spindles that connect to the ceiling. Partial walls can be differentiated from other walls by drawing wood grain or by using very light shading; partial walls should be defined with a note that specifies the height, as shown in Figure 16-9.
CADD APPLICATIONS CADD drawings create different line weights by placing each drawing element on its own layer. The wall layer is then set to print or plot as thick lines. CADD programs also offer the flexibility of leaving the
walls open or filled as desired. With some architectural CADD programs, you can select either option. With a standard CADD program, you can use commands that are designed to fill areas. ■
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
317
LOFT 36" HIGH GUARDRAIL
DINING
48" HIGH ROOM DIVIDER W/ OAK CAP
OPEN TO LIVING RM. BELOW
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
GUARDRAIL AT LOFT OR BALCONY
FIGURE 169 Partial wall used as a partition wall or room divider.
4" MA X PICTORIAL
36" HIGH GUARDRAIL
4" MAX
DECK
Drawing Guardrails Guardrails are generally constructed with horizontal rails or vertical posts, and are used for safety at balconies, lofts, stairs, and decks over 30" (762 mm) above the next lower level. Residential guardrails, according to International Residential Code (IRC), should be noted on floor plans as being at least 36" (915 mm) above the floor and should include another note specifying that the intermediate rails should not have more than a 4" (100 mm) open space. The minimum space helps ensure that small children do not fall through or become trapped between the rails or posts. Decorative guardrails are also used as room dividers, especially at a sunken area or to
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
PICTORIAL
GUARDRAIL AT DECK
FIGURE 1610 Guardrail representations.
create an open effect between two rooms. Guardrails are commonly made of wood, steel, or wrought iron. Creatively designed guardrails add a great deal to the aesthetics of the interior design. Figure 16-10 shows guardrail designs and how they are drawn on a floor plan.
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Floor Plan Walls Using CADD Using CADD to lay out the walls of a floor plan is essential in the development of construction documents. Available programs range from simple CADD drafting packages that draw two-dimensional (2D) lines to represent walls to complex modeling programs that create three-dimensional (3D) wall objects. Most CADD programs provide basic tools used to create lines and arcs that are parallel, providing the representation of a wall in a floor plan view. For example, drawing a single line and copying it parallel to the initial line is a traditional method for drafting floor plan walls. As lines are drafted, the wall intersections must be manually cleaned up to give the appearance of walls in a floor plan. The addition of door and window symbols also requires that the wall lines be broken to add these symbols to the floor plan (see Figure 16-11). Many of the advanced CADD architectural programs use tools that represent real-world building objects. Oftentimes, these real-world building objects display the
FIGURE 1611 Traditional 2D CADD drafting practices use a series of parallel lines to represent walls in a floor plan. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS wall as 2D parallel lines as they appear in a typical floor plan view. These same objects include 3D properties that allow the wall to be displayed in an elevation, section, and 3D modeling view. By drawing a single wall object, multiple displays of the wall can be obtained automatically for any view, as shown in Figure 16-12. A few benefits can be obtained by using advanced CADD programs that create real-world building objects such as walls. Some of these benefits include the following: • Real-world wall types such as brick, wood, metal studs, and concrete are often available or can quickly be defined and drawn in the floor plan. • Automatic wall intersection cleanup saves time “cleaning up” the floor plans. • Ends of walls are automatically capped, eliminating the need to add a line at the end of two parallel lines. • Curved walls are quickly created with appropriate building materials.
• The insertion of doors and windows creates a relationship between the items automatically creating the “hole” where a door or window is placed. This eliminates the need for manually trimming and erasing line work. • The walls and other floor plan features are parametric, which means that changes to the wall type, materials applied, or sizes, cause the wall types to be updated automatically. • Building material lists are easier to compile when materials have been added to the walls in the floor plan. • Information about the walls such as surface area and wall height can be obtained quickly and automatically placed in a schedule. • Renderings of a building can be created by applying the desired materials. • Elevations and sections are generated automatically. ■
FIGURE 1612 Using real-world building objects, walls can be drawn to display 2D floor plan walls, 2D elevation and section walls, and 3D walls for model views. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
DOOR SYMBOL REPRESENTATIONS Exterior doors are drawn on the floor plan with the sill shown on the outside of the house. The sill is commonly drawn projected about 1/16", although it can be drawn flush depending on individual company standards. A sill
is the framing member that forms the bottom edge of an exterior door or window opening (see Figure 16-13). The main entry door is usually at least 3'−0" (915 mm) wide, although a 2'−8" (813 mm) minimum door width is allowed by code. An exterior door from a garage or utility room is usually 2'−8" (813 mm) wide, although
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
319
3" MIN.
DRAWN WITH FLUSH SILL
DRAWN WITH PROJECTED SILL
PICTORIAL
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1613 Exterior door.
3'−0" is a good width if space permits. Exterior doors are typically solid wood or hollow metal with insulation. Doors can be smooth or slab, or they can feature decorative panels on the surface or in their construction. Doors are typically 6'−8" (2032 mm) high, although 8'−0" (2438 mm) doors are available. Refer to Chapter 9 for a review of code requirements for exterior doors. The interior door symbol, as shown in Figure 16-14, is drawn without a sill. Interior doors should swing against a wall into the room being entered. Interior doors are typically placed at a minimum of 3" (80 mm) from a corner, or at a maximum of 24" (600 mm) from the corner, allowing for furniture placement behind the door, if desired. Increasing the 3" minimum from a corner is important when using wide casing, which is common in custom home design. Casing is the trim around doors and windows. Common minimum interior door sizes are: ● ● ● ●
2'−8" (800 mm): Utility rooms 2'−8" (800 mm) to 2'−6" (760 mm): Bedrooms, dens, family rooms, and dining rooms 2'−6" (760 mm) to 2'−4" (700 mm): Bathrooms 2'−4" (700 mm) to 2'−0" (600 mm): Closets (or larger for bifold and bipass doors)
Metric door sizes vary from 600 mm to 1000 mm depending on use and location. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifies a minimum opening 36" (915 mm) wide for wheelchair access. This is a clear, unobstructed dimension measured to the edge of the door at 90º, if the door does not open 180°. The larger-sized door is normally used in more expensive homes with wider halls; smaller-sized doors are usually used in homes where space is limited. Interior doors can have a flush surface or have raised panels or glass panels depending on the desired architectural design. Pocket doors are commonly used when space for a door swing is limited, as in a small room (see Figure 16-15). Pocket doors should not be placed where the pocket is in an exterior wall or there is interference with plumbing or electrical wiring. Pocket doors should follow the same size guidelines as interior swinging doors. Pocket doors are more expensive to purchase and install than standard interior doors, because the pocket door frame must be built while the house is being framed. The additional cost is often worth the results, when design factors require a pocket door. A common economical wardrobe uses the bipass door, as shown in Figure 16-16. Bipass doors normally range in width from 4'−0" through 12'−0" (1200 through 3660 mm) in 1' (300 mm) intervals. Pairs of doors are usually adequate for widths up to 8' (2400 mm). Three panels are usually provided for doors between 8' and 10' wide, and four panels are normal for doors wider than 10'. Bifold wardrobe or closet doors are used when complete access to the closet is required. Sometimes bifold doors are used on a utility closet that houses a washer and dryer or other utilities (see Figure 16-17). Bifold wardrobe doors often range in width from 4'−0" (1200 mm) through 9'−0" (2700 mm), in 6" (150 mm) intervals. Double-entry doors are common where a large formal foyer design requires a more elaborate entry than can be achieved by one door. The floor plan symbol for
3" MIN.
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
DOOR SHOULD SWING AGAINST WALL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1614 Interior door.
PICTORIAL
PICTORIAL
FIGURE 1615 Pocket door.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
LINE OF ROD BELOW SHELF
EXTERIOR
PROJECTED SILL
SHELF LINE
FLUSH SILL
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
PICTORIAL
FIGURE 1616 Bipass door.
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
PICTORIAL
FIGURE 1619 Glass sliding door with exterior sill.
PICTORIAL
FIGURE 1617 Bifold door.
double-entry and French doors is the same; therefore, the door schedule should clearly identify the type of doors to be installed. The term French doors normally refers to double exterior or interior doors that have glass panels and swing into a room (see Figure 16-18). French doors are used in place of glass sliding doors when a more traditional door design is required. Glass sliding doors are associated with contemporary design and do not take up as much floor space as French doors. French doors can be purchased with wood mullions and muntins between the glass panes or with one large glass pane and a removable decorative grill for easy cleaning, as shown in Figure 16-18. Mullions are horizontal or vertical dividers between sections of a window. Muntins are horizontal or vertical dividers within a section of a window. French doors range in
OMIT SILL LINE FOR INTERIOR DOUBLE DOORS
width from 2'–4" (700 mm) through 3'–6" (1060 mm) in 2" (50 mm) increments. Doors can be used individually, in pairs, or in groups of three or four. The threeand four-panel doors typically have one or more fixed panels, which should be specified. Glass sliding doors are made with wood or metal frames and tempered glass for safety. Figure 16-19 shows the floor plan symbols for representing a flush and a projected exterior sill. These doors are used to provide glass areas and are excellent for access to a patio or deck. Glass sliding doors typically range in width from 5'−0" through 12'−0" (1500 through 3600 mm) at 1' (300 mm) intervals. Common sizes are 6'−0" and 8'−0" (1800 to 2400 mm). Double-acting doors are often used between a kitchen and eating area, to swing in either direction for easy passage (see Figure 16-20). Common widths for pairs of doors range from 2'−6" (760 mm) through 4'−0" (1200 mm) in 2" increments. Dutch doors are used when it is desirable to have a door that may be half open and half closed. The top portion can be opened and used as a pass-through (see Figure 16-21). Dutch doors range in width from 2'−6" (760 mm) through 3'−6" (1060 mm) in 2" (50 mm) increments.
SINGLE
DOUBLE
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1618 Double-entry or French doors.
PICTORIAL
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1620 Double-acting doors.
PICTORIAL
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321
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
PICTORIAL
FIGURE 1621 Dutch doors.
DRAWN WITH DASHED LINES TO DENOTE OPEN DOOR
HEADER
FIGURE 1623 Overhead garage door.
Accordion doors can be used at closets or wardrobes, or they are often used as room dividers where an openable partition is needed. Figure 16-22 shows the floor plan symbol for an accordion door. Accordion doors range in width from 4'−0" (1200 mm) through 12'−0" (3600 mm) in 1' increments. Commercial doors are available for larger openings. Standard metric door sizes for all large openings such as sliding glass or double French doors vary from 1500 to 3600 mm. The floor plan symbol for an overhead garage door is shown in Figure 16-23. The dashed lines show the size and extent of the garage door when open. The extent of the garage door is typically shown when the door interferes with something on the ceiling. The garage door header is normally shown as a hidden line, and the size is labeled with a note. A header is a horizontal structural member that supports the ends of joists or rafters and the load over an opening. Garage doors range in width from 8'−0" through 18'−0" (2400 through 5400 mm). An 8'−0" door is a common width for a small single car. A size of 9'–0" (2700 mm) or 10'−0" (3000 mm) is common for a single door and accommodates a pickup truck or large van. A door 16'−0" (4800 mm) is a common double-car width. Doors are typically 7'−0" (2100 mm) high, although door heights of 8'−0" (2400 mm) or 10'−0" (3000 mm) are
common for campers or recreational vehicles. Standard metric sizes for door height vary from 2400 to 5400 mm.
WINDOW SYMBOL REPRESENTATIONS Window symbols are drawn with a sill on the outside and inside. A sliding window, shown in Figure 16-24, is a popular 50%-openable window. Notice that windows can be drawn with exterior sills projected or flush, and the glass pane can be drawn with single or double lines. The method used should be consistent throughout the plan and should be determined by the preference of the specific architectural office. Many offices draw all windows with a projected sill and one line to represent the glass; the type of window can then be specified in the window schedule. Windows are typically manufactured in widths ranging from 1'−0" (300 mm) through 12'−0" (3600 mm) at intervals of about 6" (150 mm). Vinyl- and aluminumframe windows generally fall within the range of these nominal sizes, but sizes of wood-frame windows are often different and should be confirmed
EXTERIOR
PROJECTED SILL
FLUSH SILL
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION WINDOWS DRAWN WITH DOUBLE LINES
PICTORIAL
FIGURE 1622 Accordion door.
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1624 Horizontal sliding window.
PICTORIAL
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Architectural Drafting and Design
with the manufacturer’s specifications. Metric window sizes also vary and should be confirmed. The location of a window in the house and the way the window opens are factors that affect the window size. A window between 6'−0" (1800 mm) and 12'−0" (3600 mm) wide is common for a living, dining, or family room. To let the occupants take advantage of a view while sitting, windows in these rooms are normally between 4'−0" (1200 mm) and 5'−0" (1500 mm) tall. Windows in bedrooms are typically 3'−0" (900 mm) to 6'−0" (1800 mm) wide. The height often ranges from 3'−6" (1060 mm) to 4'−0". The type of window used in the bedroom is important because of emergency egress requirements in most codes. See Chapter 9 for a review. Kitchen windows are often between 3'−0" (900 mm) and 5'−0" (1500 mm) wide and between 3'−0" (900 mm) and 3'−6" (1060 mm) tall. Wide windows are nice to have in a kitchen for the added light they provide, but the number of upper cabinets may be reduced to accommodate a wider window. If the tops of windows are at the normal 6'−8" height, windows deeper than 3'−6" (1060 mm) can interfere with the countertops. Bathroom windows often range between 2'−0" and 3'−0" (900 mm) wide, with an equal height. A wider window with less height is often specified if the window is to be located in a shower area. Most bathroom windows have obscure glass.
Types of Windows Casement windows can be 100% openable and are best used where extreme weather conditions require a tight seal when the window is closed, although these windows are in common use everywhere. Casement windows open from the outside vertical edge, generally using a crank mechanism (see Figure 16-25). Casement windows can be more expensive than sliding units. The traditional double-hung window has a bottom panel that slides upward, as shown in Figure 16-26, and a
EXTERIOR
PROJECTED SILL
FLUSH SILL
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
PICTORIAL
FIGURE 1626 Double-hung window.
top panel that slides downward. A double-hung window operates by means of two sashes that slide vertically past each other. The sashes form a framework that holds the panes of a window in the window frame. Double-hung wood-frame windows are designed for energy efficiency and are commonly used in traditional architectural designs. Double-hung windows are typically taller than they are wide. A double-hung window usually ranges in width from 1'−6" through 4'−0" (1200 mm). It is common to have double-hung windows grouped together in pairs of two or more. A single-hung window is drawn using the same symbol as a double-hung window. The difference in type is described in the window schedule, which is discussed later in this chapter. A single-hung window has two sashes of glass; the top sash is stationary and the bottom sash is movable. Awning windows are often used in basements or below a fixed window to provide ventilation. An awning window is a single-sash window that tilts outward and up. Another common use places awning windows between two different roof levels, providing additional ventilation in vaulted rooms. These awning windows are opened with a long pole connected to the opening device. Awning windows are hinged at the top and swing outward, as shown in Figure 16-27. Hopper windows are
EXTERIOR
EXTERIOR
PROJECTED SILL
PROJECTED SILL
FLUSH SILL
FLUSH SILL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1625 Casement window.
PICTORIAL
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1627 Awning window.
PICTORIAL
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
323
EXTERIOR
PROJECTED SILL
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION 12"-18"
FLUSH SILL FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
PICTORIAL 18"-24"
FIGURE 1628 Jalousie window.
CASEMENT/ FIXED
SLIDING/FIXED
FIXED FIXED OVER OVER SLIDING AWNING
ELEVATION VIEWS
ALUMINUM FRAME
48"-60"
DIMENSIONS FOR A COMMON SMALL-SIZE BAY WINDOW
drawn in the same manner; however, they hinge at the bottom and swing inward. Jalousie windows are used when a louvered effect is desired, as seen in Figure 16-28. A Jalousie window has overlapping narrow glass, metal, or wooden louvers, and is operated with a crank handle for adjusting the louver angle outward. Fixed windows are popular when a large, unobstructed area of glass is required to take advantage of a view or to allow for solar heat gain. A fixed window has a single nonoperable glass pane. Figure 16-29 shows the floor plan symbols for fixed windows. Bay windows are often used when a traditional architectural style is desired. Figure 16-30 shows the floor plan representation of a bay window. Usually, the sides are drawn at a 45° or 30° angle. A bay window is constructed by extending the exterior of a structure. The bay window allows more light and provides more floor space than a window flush with the wall line. A bay
DOUBLE HUNG/FIXED
6'-0"
18"-24"
3"
M
IN
.
3" MIN.
WOOD FRAME
EXTERIOR PROJECTED SILL
FLUSH SILL
PICTORIAL
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1629 Options for fixed windows. The fixed part of combination windows is shaded for reference.
PICTORIAL
FIGURE 1630 Bay window.
window can be rectangular, polygonal, or arc-shaped. An arc-shaped bay window is called a bow window. A bay window is also called an oriel window, when it projects from an upper story and is supported by corbels. Corbel refers to the stone, brick, timber, or metal projecting out from a wall to support a structure above. The depth of the bay is often between 18" and 36" (450 to 900 mm). The total width of a bay is limited by the size of the center window, which is typically either a fixed panel, double-hung, or casement window. Large bays can have more than one window at the center and sides. Bays can be either premanufactured or built at the job site. Bay windows are designed for a specific size and location. The bay window structure commonly extends from the floor to the ceiling. The roof of the house can be extended down to cover the bay window if adequate ceiling height is available. The bay window commonly has its own roof structure, which often adds to the quality of the exterior architectural design. The bay window structure can also be framed with a bench seat if it does not extend to the floor. The actual design and size depend on the purpose and the available space.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
SCHEDULES EXTERIOR
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION PICTORIAL
FIGURE 1631 Garden window.
A garden window, as shown in Figure 16-31, is generally a 90° bay window that extends beyond the exterior, with a glass front, sides, and roof to allow in extra natural light. The garden window is a popular style for utility rooms and kitchens. Garden windows usually project between 12" and 18" (300 to 450 mm) from the wall. Depending on the manufacturer, either the side or the top panels open.
Numbered symbols used on the floor plan key specific items to charts known as schedules. As defined by the U.S. National CAD Standard, a schedule is a grouping of related items with corresponding distinguishing features, with a heading and a minimum of three columns of related information. A schedule formats information into rows and columns in order to more easily present design information. Schedules are used to describe items such as doors, windows, appliances, materials, fixtures, hardware, and finishes (see Figure 16-37). Schedules help keep drawings clear of unnecessary notes because the details of an item are off the drawing or on another sheet. The schedule heading generally uses 3/16" to 1/4" (5 to 6 mm) high text, with 1/8" (3 mm) high text used in the columns and rows. The lines used to create the schedules can all be the same thickness, or varying line thicknesses can be used for borders and between columns, depending on the desired office or school practice.
Content of Schedules Skylights Consider using a skylight when additional daylight is desirable in a room, or to let natural light enter an interior room through the ceiling. Fixed or operable skylights are available. Skylights are made of plastic in a dome shape or flat tempered glass. Tempered double-pane insulated skylights are energy efficient, do not cause any distortion of view, and generally are not more expensive than plastic skylights. Figure 16-32 shows how a skylight is represented in the floor plan. Other floor plan representations and construction details are used depending on the manufacturer specifications. Confirm the correct representation with the manufacturer.
There are many different ways to set up a schedule, and a schedule can include any or all of the following product information: Manufacturer’s name Product name Model number Type
Quantity Size Rough opening size Color
Placement of quantities on schedules varies among offices, although giving quantities is the preferred practice. During the early stages of plan development, the drafter or designer refers to manufacturer catalogs for products to be used in the design and begins to establish the schedule data.
Schedule Key 24"X36" DBL GLAZE INSULATED SKYLIGHT
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1632 Skylight representation.
PICTORIAL
When doors and windows are described in a schedule, they must be keyed from the floor plan drawings to the schedule. The key may label windows with a letter and doors with a number. You can enclose the letters or numbers in different geometric figures, such as the following:
1
2 1
A 2
B
GOING GREEN
325
Windows and Energy Loss INSULATED WINDOWS Windows can be a big source of energy loss by heat escaping from the home during the winter and by allowing extra heat to enter the home during the summer. Doors can also contribute to loss of energy efficiency in the home. However, doors are generally more energy efficient than windows. There are a variety of ways to insulate windows. One common method is to use two or more panes of glass with a sealed space between. This is referred to as insulating glass. Another technique is to fill the sealed space with argon, a colorless gas that raises the window’s insulating value. Low-emissive glass, also called low-e glass, is an additional technology that improves windows’ energy efficiency. Low-e glass has a transparent coating that acts as a thermal mirror, which increases insulating value, blocks heat from the sun, and reduces fading of objects inside the house. Window frames made of wood or a combination of materials that have a thermal break installed are an advantage in terms of energy efficiency. A thermal break system is a longitudinal channel, longitudinal flange, or sidewalls that create a hollow center in which a thermal barrier is integrally formed. Insulation is rated by R-value, and windows are rated by U-value. R is the reciprocal of the U-value: 1/U = R. U-value is the coefficient of heat transfer expressed as BtuH sq ft/°F of surface area. BtuH is heat loss calculated in Btu per hour. Btu means British thermal unit, a measure of heat. The lower the U-value, the more the insulating value. The U-value of windows can also be identified by window class (CL). For example, a window with a U-value of 0.40 is CL40.
The National Fenestration Rating Council The following is taken in part from the NFRC Web site. The National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) is a nonprofit organization that administers the only uniform, independent rating and labeling system for the energy performance of windows, doors, skylights, and attachment products. The term fenestration is any opening in a building’s envelope including windows, doors, and skylights. The NFRC Label. Adopted in 2005, the NFRC energy performance label can help you determine how well a product performs the functions of helping to cool your building in the summer, warm your building in the winter, keep out wind, and resist condensation. By using the information contained on the label, builders and consumers can reliably compare one product with another, and make informed decisions about the windows, doors, and skylights they buy.
FIGURE 1633 The NFRC energy performance label. Courtesy National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC).
The NFRC label lists the manufacturer, describes the product, provides a source for additional information, and includes ratings for one or more energy performance characteristics (see FIGURE 1633). All energy performance values on the label represent the rating of windows and doors as whole systems, which includes glazing and frame. Refer to FIGURE 1633 as you review the following information found on the NFRC label: U-Factor. U-factor measures how well a product prevents heat from escaping. The rate of heat loss is indicated in terms of the U-factor (U-value) of a window assembly. U-factor ratings generally fall between 0.20 and 1.20. The insulating value is indicated by the R-value, which is the inverse of the U-value. The lower the U-value, the greater a window’s resistance to heat flow and the better its insulating value. Solar Heat Gain Coefficient. Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) measures how well a product blocks heat caused by sunlight. The SHGC is the fraction of directly transmitted and absorbed solar radiation admitted through a window and then released inward. SHGC is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The lower a window’s solar heat gain coefficient, the less solar heat it transmits in the house. Visible Transmittance. Visible Transmittance (VT) measures how much light comes through a product. The
326
GOING GREEN Windows and Energy Loss (Continued)
visible transmittance is an optical property that indicates the amount of visible light transmitted. VT is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The higher the VT, the more light that is transmitted. Air Leakage. Air Leakage (AL) is indicated by an air leakage rating expressed as the equivalent cubic feet of air passing through a square foot of window area (cfm/sq ft). Heat loss and gain occur by infiltration through cracks in the window assembly. The lower the AL, the less air that passes through cracks in the window assembly. Condensation Resistance. Condensation Resistance (CR) measures the ability of a product to resist the formation of condensation on the interior surface of the product. The higher the CR rating, the better the product is at resisting condensation formation. While this rating cannot predict condensation, it can provide a credible method of comparing the potential of various products for condensation formation. CR is expressed as a number between 0 and 100.
TUBULAR DAYLIGHTING DEVICES One of the key components of any floor plan is to determine accurate and adequate lighting needs. Daylighting is often a major consideration. Utilizing natural light in addition to or in place of artificial lighting may be a decision that is made based on safety considerations, aesthetic preferences, environmental practices, cost efficiency, or even health benefits and retail sales. However, daylight is not always readily available within every space, especially in small rooms, corridors, and multiple-story buildings. Daylighting is the use of various design techniques to enhance the use of natural light in a building. A natural lighting option that is often selected for its compact size, technologically advanced abilities, and flexibility is the Tubular Daylighting Device (TDD). Figure 16-34 shows an example of a Tubular Daylighting Device. The standard model is a passive system consisting of a transparent, roof-mounted dome with a self-flashing curb, reflective tubing, and a ceiling-level diffuser assembly that transmits the daylight into interior spaces. The following features of TDDs are particularly critical. Even though the differences in these components may seem minor, slight variances can make the difference between a poorly lit space and a well-designed, environmentally conscious interior.
Capture For the TDD to effectively bring daylight into interior spaces, sunlight capture must occur at the roof level.
FIGURE 1634 A Tubular Daylighting Device is an ideal product for bringing sunlight into any interior space. Image courtesy Solatube International, Inc.
With various technologies used to capture daylight in TDDs, the differences begin at the dome. Products can range in technology from simple thermally formed, clear plastic domes to more advanced systems that employ optics to maximize light collection.
Transfer From the dome level, daylight is captured and then transferred through optical tubing, transporting daylight from the rooftop aperture to the ceiling diffuser. TDD systems use reflective tubing to duct daylight into the buildings’ interior spaces. One benefit of TDDs, as opposed to other daylighting methods, is the flexibility of the tubing, with some models allowing angles anywhere from 0° to 90° and the tube runs in excess of 90' (27.4 m). Essentially, the goal of the tubing is to maximize the ability of the light to travel down the tube, while minimizing the light lost during transport.
Delivery Diffusion is the point where all the components of the system work together to bring the highest quality daylight into the interior space. Varying lens technologies are available for TDDs, from basic prismatic designs to highly engineered Fresnel lenses. Figure 16-35 showcases a proprietary Fresnel diffuser that evenly disperses large quantities of daylight. A Fresnel lens is
GOING GREEN
327
Windows and Energy Loss (Continued) Popular applications for Tubular Daylighting Devices include single- and multifamily residential spaces, schools and libraries, retail stores, restaurants, hotels, office buildings, industrial properties (warehouses and manufacturing), and health care and institutional facilities. With the proper use of TDDs, spaces of any size can be daylit for optimum lighting conditions, which is demonstrated in Figure 16-36.
FIGURE 1635 This TDD diffuser brings in crystal clear daylight and provides the highest light dispersion with a unique view of the sky. Image courtesy Solatube International, Inc.
a type of lens originally developed for lighthouses. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the weight and volume of material required in conventional lens design. Compared to earlier lenses, the Fresnel lens is much thinner, allowing the passage of more light over much longer distances. More advanced TDDs offer optical modulation systems, allowing users to control light output, much like they would with some electric light models. Some devices can be integrated into lighting control systems, while others offer a wall-mounted rocker switch, allowing building inhabitants to modulate the daylight themselves or set scene level controls.
Figure 16-38 shows how the symbols key to the schedules. As an alternative method, you may consider using a divided circle for the key. Place the letter D for door or W for window above the dividing line and the number of the door or window, using consecutive numbers, below the line, as shown:
W 1
W 2
D 1
D 2
The exact method of schedule presentation depends on individual company standards, but most companies use a similar format, and a consistent format should be used throughout a set of drawings.
FIGURE 1636 The Beijing Science and Technology University gymnasium installed 168 Tubular Daylighting Devices as part of the first ever “Green Olympics.” Image courtesy Solatube International, Inc.
Schedules are also used to identify finish materials used in different areas of the structure. For commercial buildings, the room is normally identified by name, by room number, or by both name and room number. Figure 16-39 shows a typical interior finish schedule. Door and window sizes can be placed on the floor plan next to their symbols. This method, shown in Figure 16-40, is used by some companies to save time. Although this method is easy, it cannot be used when specific data must be identified. The sizes are the numbers next to the windows and doors in Figure 16-40. The first two numbers indicate the width. For example, 30 means 3'−0". The second two numbers indicate the height. For example, 68 means
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Architectural Drafting and Design
WINDOW SCHEDULE 8'-0 3/4 3 5'-0 7/8
1
4' 5'
W 2 N 5 CSM.
4'-0 3/4 3 5'-0 7/8
2
4' 36
W 2 N 3 CSM.
4'-0 3/4 3 3'-6 1/2
2
36 36
2 N 3 CSM.
3'-6 1/2 3 3'-6 1/2
2
6' 4'
G 64 SLDG.
6'-0 1/2 3 4'-0 1/2
1
DINING
5' 36
G 536 SLDG.
5'-0 1/2 3 3'-6 1/2
4
FAMILY
4' 36
G 436 SLDG.
4'-0 1/2 3 3'-6 1/2
1
4' 2'
A 41 AWN.
4'-0 1/2 3 2'-0 7/8
3
PAINT
W 4 N 5 CSM.
BROCADE
8' 5'
SPRAY
2
CEIL. SMOOTH
VERIFY
TEXTURE
JOB BUILT
WALLS
PAINT
1' 5'
FLOOR
PAPER
A B C D E F G H J
ROOM
CONCRETE
QUAN.
TILE
ROUGH OPEN
HARDWOOD
SIZE
CARPET
SYM
VINYL
MODEL
INTERIOR FINISH SCHEDULE
ENTRY FOYER KITCHEN
LIVING MSTR. BATH BATH #2 MSTR. BED
A
BED #2
DOOR SCHEDULE SYM
1 2 3 4 5 6
SIZE
TYPE
BED #3 UTILITY
QUAN.
3' 68
S.C. RP. METAL INSULATED
1
3' 68
S.C. FLUSH METAL INSULATED
2
2 8 68
S.C. SELF CLOSING
2
2 8 68
HOLLOW CORE
5
2 6 68
HOLLOW CORE
5
2 6 68
POCKET SLDG.
2
FIGURE 1639 Finish schedule.
6'−8". A 6040 window specification means the window is 6'−0" wide by 4'−0" high, and a 2868 door means the door is 2'−8" wide by 6'−8" high. Standard door height is 6'−8". Some drafters use the same system in a slightly different manner by presenting the sizes as 28 × 68, meaning 2'−8" wide by 6'−8" high; or by giving
B FIGURE 1637 Window and door schedules.
20
6040
4
30
6040
B
3
2
1
68
A
28
A
68
TY
QUAN.
A
2
3° X 4°
1
1
B
1
6° X 4°
2
3
C
3
6° X 3°
3
1
D
2
3° X 4
4
2
8
DOOR S
SIZE
6 30
WINDOW SCHE QUAN.
28
SIZE
3°
FIGURE 1638 Method of keying windows and doors from the floor plan to the schedules.
FIGURE 1640 Simplified method of labeling doors and windows.
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
CLEAR ERP1
EER6*
CLEAR/ RUBY ERP2
EER41
CLEAR ERP3
EER3
AMBER ERP4
EER8 NA 2'8"
329
ERP5
EER18 NA 2'8"
ERP6
EER42*
CLEAR ERP7
EER44* NA 6'6"
*Deadlocks on 2'8" 6-panel Embossed Doors must have a 2 3/8" backset. **Deadlocks on 2'8" 6-panel Embossed Doors with half-glass lites must have a 2 3/8" backset and a 2" rose.
FIGURE 1641 Excerpt from a page of a door catalog. Courtesy Ceco Entry Systems, a United Dominion Company.
actual dimensions, such as 2'–8" × 6'–8". Metric sizes are given in millimeters (mm) and vary as discussed throughout this chapter. This simplified method of identification is better suited for development housing in which the manufacturer of doors, windows, and other items is not specified in the plans. These details are included in a description of materials or specification sheet for each individual house. The principal reason for using this system is to reduce drafting time by omitting schedules. The building contractor may be required to submit alternative specifications to the client so actual items are clarified. When you are preparing a set of residential plans, give specific details about doors and windows regarding standard size, material, type of finish, energy efficiency, and style. This information is available through vendors’ specifications. As an architectural drafter, you should get copies of vendors’ specifications from manufacturers that have products available in your local area. Figure 16-41 is a typical page from a door catalog that shows styles and available sizes. Figure 16-42 is a page from a window catalog that describes the sizes of a particular product. Notice that specific information is given for the rough opening (framing size), finish size, and amount of glass. Vendors’ catalogs also provide construction details and actual specifications for each product, as shown in Figure 16-43.
FIGURE 1642 Excerpt from a page of a window catalog. Courtesy Pella Corporation.
FIGURE 1643 Vendor catalog detail. Courtesy Pella Corporation.
330
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS U.S. National CAD Standard for Schedules The U.S. National CAD Standard recommends schedules contain the parts shown in Figure 16-44 and described as follows: Heading—The heading identifies the main subject or title of the schedule. Mark Column—The first column on the left is the mark column. The mark is the same as the key and can use the same text, number, or symbol format described earlier. Two mark columns can be used for additional identification in large or wide schedules. Item Description Column—This column provides the name or identification of each item in the schedule. Distinguishing Feature Column—Distinguishing features are characteristics that describe the items found in the schedule. There can be more than one distinguishing feature column depending on the complexity of the schedule. Notes Column—This column is usually found on the right side of the schedule and provides remarks, and unique or special descriptions about items in the schedule. A note can be descriptive words, complete sentences, or key letters or numbers referring to or
FIGURE 1644 Schedule components recommended by the U.S. National CAD Standard.
cross-referencing general notes on the drawings or in specifications. It is often best to use the key letter or number method to reference the notes to general notes or specifications in order to save space on the schedules. Schedules can be as simple or complex as needed. The example shown in Figure 16-44 is a basic schedule
FIGURE 1645 The WALLS column is expanded to identify the required finish on the north (N), east (E), south (S), and west (W) walls. The letters in the columns below refer to separate notes or specifications describing the specific finish requirements.
FIGURE 1646 Schedules can be expanded further when additional information needs to be provided. The N, E, S, and W columns expand to include material (MATL), finish (FIN), and color (CLR). The codes provided under each sub-identifier are correlated with the Material Key, Finish Key, and Color Key.
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
331
CADD APPLICATIONS format with single-column identifiers. You can expand one or more columns as needed. For example, the WALLS column in Figure 16-45 is expanded to identify the required finish on the north (N), east (E), south (S), and west (W) walls. The letters in the columns below refer to separate notes or specifications describing the specific finish requirements. Schedules can be expanded further when additional information needs to be provided. Figure 16-46 shows the N, E, S, and W columns expanded to include material (MATL), finish (FIN), and color (CLR). The codes provided under each sub-identifier are correlated with the Material Key, Finish Key, and Color Key shown in Figure 16-46.
USING CADD TO GENERATE SCHEDULES The traditional method of creating CADD schedules included the drafting of line work to create the schedule grids, and using text commands to manually place text within grid boxes to create the schedule of information. This process is a tedious drafting task that creates a schedule that must be manually coordinated, checked, and updated as the project design is developed and modified. Other methods of CADD schedule creation include the use of spreadsheet software such as Microsoft Excel. Schedules can be formatted with the
graphics and formulas within the spreadsheet program then imported into the CADD application where they become part of the construction documents. This process also requires the manual coordination and management of the information within the schedule to ensure that the information is correct on the final documents. Advanced CADD applications use object-oriented CADD, which automates the task of schedule creation. Object-oriented CADD refers to the CADD applications’ ability to create real-world building objects within a building model. From these “real-world” objects, information can be obtained by querying the objects, thus pulling out relative information and adding it dynamically into a schedule format as shown in Figure 16-47. This automatic method of schedule creation is seamless in the development of information, and provides accurate information. For example, if doors are added to a CADD building model, any information about those doors such as the door type, width, height, and material can be queried by the schedule and incorporated into the schedule table. Because of objectoriented CADD, any changes made to the doors, or the addition or deletion of a door, is automatically tracked by the schedule, constantly providing up-to-date, accurate information about the design. ■
FIGURE 1647 Advanced CADD applications use object-oriented CADD, making the creation of a schedule automatic. Information can be obtained by querying real-world objects, thus pulling out relative information and adding it dynamically into a schedule format. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
332
Architectural Drafting and Design
CABINETS, FIXTURES, AND APPLIANCES ON FLOOR PLANS
LAZY SUSAN SINK WITH GARBAGE DISPOSAL
RANGE
PARALLEL LINES UPPER CABINETS
DW
RANGE
RANGE
DW
HATCH LINES UPPER CABINETS
FIGURE 1649 Alternative floor plan symbols for upper cabinets.
5-SHELVES
PICTORIAL BRM
DISHWASHER
REFR
OBJECT LINE UPPER CABINETS
UPPER CABINETS
In conjunction with kitchen cabinets, locate fixtures such as sinks, butcher-block cutting board countertops, lighting, and appliances such as the range, refrigerator, dishwasher, trash compactor, and garbage disposal. Figure 16-48 shows the floor plan view of kitchen cabinets, fixtures, and appliances. The upper cabinets are generally shown with hidden (dashed) lines. However, this practice can vary between architectural offices. Some offices show upper cabinets using a solid line, some use a series of parallel lines, and some hatch the area where the upper cabinets are located. Each of these options is shown in Figure 16-49. This textbook prefers using the hidden line to represent upper cabinets. The range should have a hood with a light and fan. You should note how the fan vents. Some ranges do not require a hood because they vent through the floor or wall. Vent direction should be specified on the plan. Some homes have a range cooktop with a built-in oven or an oven and microwave unit. There are many options available in kitchen designing. The width of the range and refrigerator can vary between 30" and 54". Decide on the size you want from a vendor’s catalog. Label the garbage disposal with a note or with the abbreviation GD. Houses with septic tanks should review
DW
RANGE
PREFERRED HIDDEN LINE UPPER CABINETS
Kitchen Floor Plans
L.S.
DW
DW
RANGE
Cabinets are found in kitchens, baths, dressing areas, wardrobe closets, utility rooms, bars, and workshops. Specialized cabinets such as desks or built-in dressers can be found in bedrooms, kitchens, offices, and dens. In general, the cabinets drawn on the floor plans are built-in units that are permanent.
UPPER CABINETS
PANTRY W/ 5-SHELVES
UPPER CABINETS BASE CABINETS
RANGE WITH OVEN L.S.
REFRIGERATOR DASHED LINES WHEN NOT A BUILT-IN UNIT
OPTIONAL LAZY SUSAN
FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION
FIGURE 1648 Kitchen cabinets, fixtures, and appliances.
FIGURE 1650 Small kitchen pantry. Kitchen pantries can also be big enough to walk into with a standard swing interior door.
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
333
manufacturer specifications to determine if a garbage disposal is acceptable. Pantries are popular and can be drawn as shown in Figure 16-50. A pantry can also be designed to be part broom closet and part shelves for storage, or it can be large enough to walk into. The size depends on available space and the needs of the home owner. Figure 16-51 shows a typical floor plan representation and cabinet sizes for a kitchen layout.
mirror above. Bathroom sinks can be round, oval, rectangular, or other fashion shapes and designs, and they are available in a variety of materials and sizes. Confirm the desired sink specifications from manufacturer catalogs. The shower can be smaller or larger than the one shown in Figure 16-52, depending on the manufacturer. Verify the size for a prefabricated shower unit during the design process. Custom showers, built on the job, can be any size or design. They are usually lined with tile, marble, or other materials. The common size of a prefabricated tub is 30" × 60", but larger and smaller ones are available. A large variety of tub shapes and sizes are available from different manufacturers. Figure 16-53 shows a variety of products that are available for use when something special is required in a bathroom design. Verify the availability of products and manufacturer specifications as you design and draw the floor plan. Figure 16-54 shows the floor plan representation of a 60" × 72" raised bathtub in a
NOTE: The Manual of Acts and Relevant Regulations, published for the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), specifies dimensions and design for people with disabilities.
Bathroom Floor Plans Bathroom cabinets and fixtures are shown in several typical floor plan layouts in Figure 16-52. The vanity can be any length, depending on the space available. The term vanity, used in an architectural application, is generally a bathroom cabinet containing a sink with a
VERIFY AVAILABLE SIZES DOUBLE SINK 32" X 21"
32" 800mm
TC
GD
3"
15" RECOMMENDED 375 MINIMUM mm
24" 600mm
LAZY SUSAN 20" - 30"Ø
LS
FOOD BAR, HEIGHT: 30" BAR CHAIR 36" TO 42" BAR STOOLS
DW
4'-6" LUMINATED LIGHT PANEL. SEE ELECTRICAL PLAN.
DISHWASHER
12" 300mm
UPPER CABINETS
24" 600mm
TRASH COMPACTOR
COOKTOP WITH HOOD OR FLOOR EXHAUST FAN FROM 30" TO 48" WIDE, VENT ALL FANS TO OUTSIDE
300mm
VERIFY SIZES AVAILABLE
30" 760mm
12"
REFR PANTRY BROOM
PANTRY VARIABLE SIZE 12" (300mm) MIN 3" (75mm) INCREMENTS
27" 675mm
36" 900mm
30" 750mm
BASE CABINETS
REFRIGERATOR 36" WIDE MIN. 900mm
12" 300 mm
18" 450mm
PROVIDE 36" (900mm) MIN CLEARANCE TO ISLANDS
LINE OF SOFFIT
24" 600mm
DOUBLE OVEN OR MICRO OVER OVEN
VERIFY FIXTURE AND APPLIANCE DIMENSIONS WITH PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS. VERIFY DESIGN AND DIMENSIONS FOR DISABLED ACCESS WITH THE MANUAL OF ACTS AND RELEVANT REGULATIONS FOR THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT.
FIGURE 1651 Standard sizes of kitchen cabinets, fixtures, and appliances.
BUILT-IN OR FREESTANDING RANGE AND OVEN WITH HOOD AND FAN
M.C.
MIRRORS KNEE SPACE 4' X 30" HIGH COUNT.
6' X 3' FIBERGL. SPA
BENCH
S&P
LINEN WARDROBE
SEAT
S & DBL. POLE
24" X 48" TEMP. FLAT GLASS SKYLIGHT STEP
5' X 42" CER. TILE SHOWER OVER 1/2" W.P. GYP. BD. W/3 SHOWER HEADS
MEDICINE CABINET SYMBOL
8" STEPS
Architectural Drafting and Design
UP - 2
334
S&P
FULLY EQUIPPED BATHROOM WITH COMPARTMENTALIZED WATER CLOSET, TUB AND SHOWER, DOUBLE VANITY, BENCH, AND LINEN CLOSET
6Ø" X 72" WHIRLPOOL
FIGURE 1654 Raised bathtub and solarium. SMALL BATH WITH SHOWER
SMALL BATH WITH TUB OR TUB-SHOWER COMBINATION
SMALL BATH OR POWDER ROOM
18"Ø OR OVAL SINK
STANDARD TOILET WATER CLOSET SYMBOL STANDARD SHOWER SYMBOL 36" 36"
VANITY 22" DEEP
STANDARD TUB SYMBOL 5'–0" 2'–8"
solarium. Often, due to cost considerations, the space available for bathrooms is minimal. Figure 16-55 shows some minimum sizes to consider. The Manual of Acts and Relevant Regulations, published for the ADA, specifies design and dimensions for people with disabilities. For example, wheelchair access requires up to 60" (1524 mm) minimum width, depending on the design used.
TYPICAL BATHROOM
Utility Room Floor Plans FIGURE 1652 Floor plan symbols for layout of bathroom cabinets and fixtures.
FIGURE 1653 Unique bathroom products. Courtesy Kohler Co.
The utility room can be a very important room in the home, and its placement should be based on the family’s needs. The utility room is also called a laundry room, and the location is often close to bedrooms where most of the laundry items are located. The design location of the utility room was discussed in Chapter 10. The symbols for the clothes washer, dryer, and laundry tray are shown in Figure 16-56. The symbols for clothes washers and dryers are drawn with dashed lines if these items are not part of the construction contract. The symbols for clothes washers and dryers are generally drawn with solid lines if they are part of the construction contract and included with the completed home. Confirm the products included with the completed home by referring to the description of materials or the specifications. Laundry utilities can be placed in a closet when only minimum space is available, as shown in Figure 16-57. Stacked washer and dryer products are available that occupy a smaller space when design square footage is limited. Ironing
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
WATER CLOSET (TOILET)
5' MIN 1524mm
18" MIN 458mm
18" MIN 458mm
BIDET
21" MIN 534mm
24" MIN 610mm
21" MIN 534mm
15" MIN 381mm
30" MIN 762mm
24" MIN 610mm
30" MIN 762mm
335
URINAL
TOILET BIDET COMBINATION
18" MIN
BATHTUB
24" MIN 610mm
PEDESTAL SINK
SINK
30" MIN 762mm
30" MIN 534mm
21" MIN 534mm
30" 762mm
Recommended
30" MIN 762mm
458mm
POWDER ROOM HALF BATH
METRIC DIMENSIONS ARE PROVIDED FOR DESIGN REFERENCE. VERIFY FIXTURE SIZES WITH PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS. VERIFY DESIGN AND DIMENSIONS FOR DISABLED ACCESS WITH THE MANUAL OF ACTS AND RELEVANT REGULATIONS FOR THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT AND LOCAL CODE REQUIREMENTS.
FIGURE 1655 Minimum bath spaces. All dimensions are IRC minimums.
The furnace and water heater are sometimes placed together in a location central to the house. They can be placed in a closet, as shown in Figure 16-59. These
5'-6" MIN.
SHELF D
D
W
FIGURE 1656 Washer, dryer, and laundry tray.
W
36" CLEAR MIN.
boards can be built into the laundry room cabinets, into the wall, or attached to the wall surface, as shown in Figure 16-58. Provide a note to the electrician if power is required to the unit, or provide an adjacent electrical outlet. Electrical plans are described in Chapter 19.
FIGURE 1657 Minimum washer and dryer space.
336
Architectural Drafting and Design
WALL
ROD
A SECTION
A
FIGURE 1658 Ironing boards.
3" MORE OR LESS DEPENDING ON JAMB DETAIL
5'-0"-6'-0"
SURFACE MOUNT
BUILT-IN
1524-1828mm
SHELF & ROD W/ CENTER SUPPORT
24" MIN. 600mm
SHELF
W/H
RECOMMENDED CONFIRM WITH MANUFACTURER SPECIFICATIONS AND CODES
FURN. 3Ø KW
36"
FIGURE 1660 Standard wardrobe closet and a walk-in wardrobe.
PROVIDE 6" CLEARANCE ALL AROUND
FIGURE 1659 Furnace and water heater.
utilities can also be placed in a separate room, in the basement, or in the garage.
companies that customize the wardrobe closet to meet the specific needs of family members.
Laundry Chutes on Floor Plans When a laundry room is below the bedroom area, provide a chute from a convenient area near the bedrooms through the ceiling and into a cabinet directly in the laundry room. The cabinet should be above or next to the clothes washer. Figure 16-61 shows a laundry chute noted in the floor plan.
Wardrobes and Closets on Floor Plans Wardrobes and closets, used for clothes and storage, can be utilitarian in nature, or they can be large walk-in areas with custom cabinets and a variety of functional areas for garments and shoes. Bedroom closets should be labeled CLOSET or WARDROBE. Other closets are labeled to describe their use, such as ENTRY CLOSET, LINEN CLOSET, or BROOM CLOSET. Wardrobe or guest closets should be provided with a shelf and pole. The shelf and pole can be drawn with a thin line to represent the shelf and a center line to show the pole, as in Figure 16-60. Some drafters use two dashed lines to symbolize the shelf and pole. The pole is also referred to as a rod. The pole is placed directly below the shelf with enough space to pass the hanger through easily. The height of the shelf can vary, depending on the function of the closet. For example, a shelf height of 5'−0" (1500 mm) is fine for shirts, pants, and dresses. A shelf height of 6'−0" (1800 mm) is preferred for long gowns. Wardrobe closets designed for children have shelf and rods at lower heights that vary depending on the children’s ages. Some wardrobe closets are designed with dual shelf-and-rod combinations or a shelf and rod over a set of drawers. Closet packages are available from
LAUNDRY CHUTE TO UTILITY BELOW-LINE W/26 GA. METAL
LAUNDRY CHUTE FROM CABINET ABOVE
W
FIGURE 1661 Laundry chute.
D
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
COMMON SIZES OF ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES Generally, all walls and edges of masonry are thick lines, and all other lines are thin. Confirm the preferred practice with your office or instructional standards. The refrigerator, water heater, washer and dryer, dishwasher, trash compactor, built-in range/oven, and upper cabinets can be drawn with hidden lines or solid thin lines, depending on the specific office practice. Features such as the refrigerator, water heater, washer and dryer, dishwasher, trash compactor, and built-in range/oven can be drawn with thin solid lines when they are part of the construction contract and included in the finished home. Confirm this with the description of materials or specifications. Closet poles are 12" (300 mm) from the back wall and are usually drawn using center lines. Closet shelves are usually solid lines 15" (380 mm) from the back wall. The following features and product dimensions are based on common sizes and recommended minimums. Dimensions can vary depending on space available and manufacturer specifications. Establish the final design on the basis of the client’s needs and budget. Always determine the exact dimensions during the design process by using manufacturer specifications, and then confirm during construction on the basis of the actual product. Metric values are given where appropriate. Metric values are not provided for products that vary depending on the manufacturer.
337
●
● ● ●
●
Plumbing Fixture Dimensions ● ● ● ●
●
Room Component Dimensions ● ●
● ●
● ● ● ●
Exterior heated walls: 6" manual drafting or exact dimensions with CADD (see Figure 16-3). Exterior unheated walls (garage/shop): 4" manual drafting or exact dimensions with CADD (see Figure 16-3). Interior walls and partitions: 4" manual drafting or exact dimensions with CADD (see Figure 16-3). Interior plumbing below upper-floor water closet: 6" manual drafting or exact dimensions with CADD (see Figure 16-3). Hallways: 36" (900 mm) minimum clearance. Entry hallways: 42" to 60" (1060 to 1500 mm) recommended minimum. Bedroom closets: 24" (600 mm) minimum depth; 48" (1200 mm) minimum width. Linen closets: 14" to 24" (350 to 600 mm) deep (not over 30" [760 mm]).
Base cabinets: 24" (600 mm) deep; 15" to 18" (380 to 450 mm) deep bar; 24" (600 mm) minimum deep island with 12" (300 mm) minimum at each side of cooktop; 36" (900 mm) minimum from island to adjacent cabinet for passage, 48" (1200 mm) is better on sides with an appliance. Upper cabinets: 12" (300 mm) deep. Washer/dryer space: 36" (900 mm) deep; 5'−6" (1675 mm) minimum width. Stairways: 36" (900 mm) minimum width; 10 1/2" to 12" (260 to 300 mm) tread. See examples later in this chapter. Fireplace: See examples later in this chapter.
●
●
●
Kitchen sink: double, 32" × 21"; triple, 42" × 21". Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. Vegetable sink and/or bar sink: 16" × 16" or 16" × 21". Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. Laundry sink: 21" × 21". Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. Bathroom sink: 19" × 16", oval. Provide 9" from edge to wall and about 12" (300 mm) minimum between two sinks; 36" (900 mm) minimum width. Other sink shapes and styles are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. Water closet space: 30" (760 mm) minimum width; 24" (600 mm) clearance in front. A water closet is a toilet or a room equipped with a toilet. The abbreviation WC can be used. Tub: 32" × 60" or 32" × 72". Larger prefabricated tubs and tub–shower combinations are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications for prefabricated tubs and tub–shower combinations. Shower: 36" square; 42" square; or combinations of 36", 42", 48", and 60" for prefabricated showers. A custom ceramic tile or marble shower can have any desired specifications. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications for prefabricated showers. Washer and dryer: 2'−4" square each (approximately).
Appliance Dimensions ●
Forced-air furnace equipment: Gas, 18" square minimum with 6" space all around. The furnace cannot go under stairs. Electric, 24" × 30" with same space requirements as gas. Always confirm exact size and installation specifications with manufacturer.
338
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
● ●
Water heater: Gas, 18" to 22" diameter. The gas water heater cannot go under stairs. Always confirm exact size and installation specifications with manufacturer. Refrigerator: 36" wide space, and approximately 27" deep. Provide 4" from wall, and 1" from adjacent base cabinet. Larger refrigerators are common and can be built into the cabinetry. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. Stove and cooktop: 30" × 21" deep. Other sizes and styles are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. Built-in oven: 27" × 24" deep. Other sizes and styles are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. Dishwasher: 24" × 24". Place the dishwasher near the kitchen sink for precleaning and near upper cabinet for ease of putting away dishes. Trash compactor: 15" × 24" deep. Place the trash compactor near the kitchen sink, and away from the stove. Other sizes and styles are available. Confirm manufacturer style and specifications. Broom closet and pantry: 12" (300 mm) minimum × 24" (600 mm) deep; width increasing by 3" increments. Desk: 30" × 24" (760 × 600 mm) deep (minimum); out of main work triangle. Built-in vacuum: 24" to 30" diameter.
Door Dimensions ● ● ● ● ●
● ● ●
Entry: 36" × 6'−8"; 42" × 8'. Sliders or French: 5', 6', 8' (double); 9', 10' (triple); 12' (four-panel). Garage, utility, kitchen, and bedrooms on custom houses: 2'−8", 2'−10", or 3'−0". Bedrooms: 2'−6" or 2'−8". Closets and wardrobes: 2'−4", 2'−6", 2'−8", 2'−10", 3'−0", 4'−0", 5'−0", 6'−0", 7'−0", 8'−0", 9'−0", 10'−0", 11'−0", or 12'−0" depending on the size of the closet or wardrobe and the type of door used. Bathrooms: 2'−4" or 2'−6". Garage car door: 8' × 7', 9' × 8', 16' × 7', or 18 × 7'. Garage people door: 2'−8", 2'−10", or 3'−0".
Window Styles and Dimensions The following factors should be considered because they can influence window sizes:
Architectural Drafting and Design
●
● ●
●
●
Architectural style. For example, contemporary style often uses large fixed windows, but traditional style often uses smaller double-hung or casement windows. Amount of light desired. Desired appearance. For example, compare the look of one 8' to 10' wide window versus four to six 2' wide windows. Type of window. For example, aluminum-frame windows are commonly manufactured in nominal even measurements such as 12", 24", 36", and 48" modules. Wood-frame window dimensions vary, depending on the manufacturer. Also, sliding and fixed windows are often sized differently from casement and double-hung windows. Dimensions of these types of windows must be confirmed and based on the manufacturer’s specifications. Window location and function. For example, bedroom windows require emergency egress as explained in Chapter 9. When the kitchen window is placed in a cabinet wall, its height must be selected to maintain the window at or above the base cabinet height. ❍ Living, family: 8' to 10' suggested common width. ❍ Dining, den: 6' to 8' suggested common width. ❍ Bedrooms: 4' to 6' suggested common width. ❍ Kitchens: 3' to 5' suggested common width. ❍ Bathrooms: 2' to 3' suggested common width. ❍ Sliding: 4', 5', 6', 8', 10', or 12' suggested common width.. ❍ Single-hung: 24", 30", 36", or 42". Confirm manufacturer sizes and specifications. ❍ Casement: Same as sliding. Confirm manufacturer sizes and specifications. ❍ Fixed and awning: 24", 30", 36", 42", or 48". ❍ Fixed and sliding: 24", 30", 36", 42", or 48". ❍ Fixed picture: 4', 5', 6', or 8' suggested common width. ❍ Bay: 8' to 10' total; sides, 18" to 24" wide, with 30° to 45º sides. Bay and bow windows are generally custom and can be designed to suit specific architectural applications.
NOTE: This is a review of code requirements described in
Chapter 9 of this textbook. ACCESSIBLE ROUTES
The exterior access, or front door, cannot be located in a bedroom. At least one route is required to connect all spaces that are part of the dwelling unit. If only one route
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
is provided, it cannot pass through a bathroom, closet, or similar space. The access route is required to have a minimum width of 36" (914 mm) except at doors. Vertical changes in floor height cannot exceed 1/4" (6.4 mm). Changes in floor level up to 1/2" (13 mm) are allowed if a bevel with a slope not exceeding 1:2 is provided. Ramps cannot have a slope greater than 1:20. Floor surfaces of a turning space are allowed to have a slope no steeper than 1:48. MEANS OF EGRESS
Residences are required to have a clear passage from all levels of the home to a door that leads directly to the outside, without requiring travel through a garage. ACCESS DOORS
Each residence must have a minimum of one door that is at least 32" (813 mm) wide measured between the face of the door when open 90° and the stop. The minimum clear height of the door opening must be 78" (1981 mm) from the top of the threshold to the bottom of the stop. The designer can determine all other door sizes based on personal preferences or the client’s needs. The IRC allows the main entry door to be 32" (813 mm) wide, but common practice is to provide a 36" (900 mm) or larger door for an inviting entrance.
339
A shower or tub equipped with a shower head must also have a minimum ceiling height of 6'–8" (2032 mm) above a minimum area of 30" × 30" (762 × 762 mm) at the shower head.
FLOOR PLAN MATERIALS Finish materials used in construction can be identified on the floor plan with notes, characteristic symbols, or key symbols that relate to a finish material schedule. The key symbol is also placed on the finish schedule next to the identification of the type of finish needed at the given location on the floor plan. Finish schedules can also be set up on a roomby-room basis. When flooring finish is identified, the easiest method is to label the material directly under room designation as shown in Figure 16-62. Other methods include using representative material symbols and a note to describe the finish materials as shown in Figure 16-63.
CARPET
VINYL
TILE
FIGURE 1662 Room labels with floor finish material noted. EMERGENCY EGRESS OPENINGS
Windows are a major consideration in designing exits. Emergency egress is required in basements, habitable attics, and every sleeping room. When basements contain one or more sleeping rooms, emergency egress and rescue openings are required to be in each sleeping room. Escape can be made through a door or window that opens directly into a public street, alley, yard, or exit court. The emergency escape must be operable from the inside without the use of any keys or tools. The sill of all emergency escape bedroom windows must be within 44" (1118 mm) of the floor. Windows used for emergency egress must have a minimum net clear area of 5.7 sq ft (0.530 m2). Grade floor opening size can be reduced to 5.0 sq ft (0.465 m2). The net clear opening area must have a minimum width of 20" (508 mm) and a minimum height of 24" (559 mm).
SLATE
TILE
BATHROOM REQUIREMENTS
A distance of 21" (533 mm) is required in front of a toilet to any obstruction. A minimum clearance of 21" (533 mm) is also required in front of a bathroom sink to any obstruction, and a minimum distance of 24" (610 mm) is required in front of a shower. These sizes can often affect the layout of a small bathroom, but are rarely a problem in a custom home.
FIGURE 1663 Finish material symbols.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS Placing Material Symbols with CADD Floor plans, sections, elevations, and interior elevations often include the description of finish materials to indicate the type of material used within the building. In Figure 16-64, material patterns are displayed in the floor plan to represent wood decking, wood flooring, floor tile, and counter tile. CADD programs include tools to show these finish materials directly on a CADD drawing. These material
tools are often referred to as Hatch or Fill Patterns. Material patterns are available in a variety of symbolic patterns, which can be applied to plan, section, and elevation drawings. Many additional patterns can also be found on the Internet or from manufacturer Web sites for use in your CADD program. ■
FIGURE 1664 A CADD drawing of a floor plan with material finishes delineated to represent wood decking, wood flooring, floor tile, and counter tile.
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341
calculation. The calculations can be soft or hard conversion. A soft metric conversion is the preferred metric construction standard that rounds off dimensions to convenient metric modules. For example, stairs 36" wide are 900 mm when soft conversion is used. Inches are converted to millimeters with the formula 25.4 × inches = mm. So 25.4 × 36" = 914.4 mm. This is rounded off using soft conversion to 900 mm, because 900 is an even metric module that is commonly used in construction. A hard metric conversion is calculated close to or exactly the same as the inch equivalent. A hard conversion of 36" is 25.4 × 36" = 914.4, and is rounded to 914 mm. This formula can be used in a situation where the code requires a guardrail 36" high, because 914 mm is safely close to 36". The design of a multistory home is often made complex by the need to plan stairs. Figure 16-65 shows several common flights of stairs. Stairs should be conveniently located for easy access. Stair components and construction are shown in plan view and sectional view in Figure 16-66. Review Chapter 9 for stair code
Structural Materials on Floor Plans Structural materials are identified on floor plans with notes and symbols or on framing plans. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 32.
STAIR PLANNING AND FLOOR PLAN REPRESENTATION This section covers the design and drafting of the floor plan representation of stairs. The discussion gives you basic information about stair design and codes and shows you different types of stairs and how they are drawn. Review Chapter 9 for additional code requirements. You will also be able to make calculations for placement of stairs on the floor plan. When it is time for you to learn about drawing stair sections and details, Chapter 39 provides you with complete information on stair construction and layout. Metric dimensions are given for design reference. Metric values vary, depending on the method of
LANDING UP UP
UP
TREADS
RISER
STRAIGHT
FLIGHT OR STRAIGHT PLATFORM U-SHAPE UP
6" MIN
UP
UP
WINDERS
L-SHAPE
FIGURE 1665 Stair types.
SPIRAL
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Architectural Drafting and Design
34" HIGH HANDRAIL DN 14R
34" HIGH HANDRAIL 36" HIGH GUARDRAIL
UPPER FLOOR PLAN
34" HIGH HANDRAIL STORAGE CLOSET
UP 14R
34" HIGH HANDRAIL 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM AT ALL USABLE STORAGE
LOWER FLOOR PLAN STAIRWELL OPENING
RISER
RISERS PLATE
SHOE
TREAD SOLID BLOCK
FLOOR JOIST
HEADER NAILER 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM
HEADER
STUDS SILL ANGLE 30˚-35˚
11'-4 1/2" TOTAL RUN
STAIR SECTION A
SOLID BLOCK
TOP PLATES
STRINGERS
7 3/4" 7" MIN 8 1/4" MAX.
B
34" MIN. 38" MAX.
OF E N I L 10 1/2" 9" MIN 12" MAX
NOSING
IL
8'- 11 5/8" TOTAL RISE
TREAD
N HA
A DR
8'- 1 1/8"
RISER
RUN
6'-8" MIN.
HEADER
NOTE: THE DIMENSIONS PROVIDED IN THIS EXAMPLE ARE FOR THE STAIR DESIGNED FOR THE HOUSE DISPLAYED THROUGHOUT THIS TEXT. MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM DIMENSIONS ARE ALSO GIVEN FOR REFERENCE WHERE APPROPRIATE. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL NAMES ARE GIVEN HERE FOR REFERENCE ONLY. ACTUAL SIZES AND SPECIFICATIONS ARE GIVEN IN CHAPTER 39 “STAIR CONSTRUCTION AND LAYOUT.”
FIGURE 1666 Stair floor plan representations and stair cross section with stair components and minimum requirements labeled. This stair is also the stair design that is used in the sample architectural design displayed throughout this textbook. (A) Full stair section. (B) Partial section with the tread and riser terminology.
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
requirements. Properly designed stairs have several important characteristics, such as the following: ●
● ●
● ● ●
●
●
Minimum stair width is 36" (900 mm) but more, such as 48" to 60" (1200 to 1500 mm), is preferred if space is available. Stair tread depth should be 10" to 12" (250 to 300 mm) with 10" (254 mm) minimum. Individual risers can range between 6" and 9" (150 and 220 mm) in height. Risers should not vary more than 3/8" (10 mm). A comfortable riser height is 7 1/4". The stair angle should be between 30° and 35° when measured from the floor (see Figure 16-66). Landings at the top and bottom of stairs should be at least equal in depth to the width of the stairs. A clear height of 6'–8" is the minimum amount of headroom required for the length of the stairs. A height of 7'–0" is preferred. The stairs shall have a handrail that measures between 34" and 38" (860 and 965 mm) above the nosing, as shown in Figure 16-66. Guardrails at landings above stairs, at balconies, at lofts, or at any area above another floor shall be at least 36" (914 mm) high above the floor and have openings no greater than 4" (102 mm).
NOTE: Stair Design Calculations
The stair design shown in Figure 16-66 meets code requirements with 7 3/4" rise and 10 1/2" run. This is the same stair used in the model house in the chapters throughout this textbook. In addition to minimum and maximum code requirements, other stair design criteria are used by architectural professionals. These stair design formulas can be used as a guide to creating ideal stairs. The actual stair design depends on the available space and must be within minimum and maximum code requirements. As an architectural designer, you need to carefully balance the available space with the minimum and maximum stair design requirements. This balance is often difficult to accomplish. A sample stair design formula is 2R + T = 24" to 25" where R = riser dimension and T = tread dimension, without nosing. If the stair shown in Figure 16-66 has 7 3/4" risers and 10 1/2" treads, the formula 2 × 7 3/4" + 10 1/2" = 26" puts this stair design over the 25" recommended maximum. This is acceptable because it is within code requirements, but stairs designed with risers closer to 7 1/4" are more comfortable. Another stair design formula is R + T = 17" to 17 1/2". The stair design in Figure 16-66 is 7 3/4" + 10 1/2" = 18 1/4". This also is beyond the acceptable boundaries recommended by this formula, but inside the code requirements.
343
An additional formula can be used to check the acceptability of the stair design. This formula is R × T = 70" to 75". The stair in Figure 16-66 is 7 3/4" × 10 1/2" = 81 3/8", which is also beyond the guidelines recommended by the formula. The example stair meets code requirements but is not an ideal stair design. When space conditions cause you to design a stair that is less than perfect, then you need to decide if additional space should be designed into the building to help create better stairs. Sometimes this is possible, but in many cases the economics force you to limit square footage. These are issues that should be discussed with your clients if the home is a custom design. Even if you end up designing less than perfect stairs, you must be sure to be within the code requirements. Review Chapter 9 for code requirements. A final check of stair design can be found when you draw the stair section after studying Chapter 39. Stair characteristics, stair calculation, construction, and drawing stair sections are discussed in Chapter 39.
Handrails are placed at a blank wall along a flight of stairs to be used for support. Handrails should run the entire length of the stairs, even though the stairs are enclosed between two walls. Stairs with more than three risers require handrails. Handrails should be between 34" and 38" (860 and 965 mm) high above the nosing with 34" preferred. Guardrails are placed where there is no protective wall. They serve the dual purpose of protecting people from falling off the edge of the stairs and providing a rail for support. Stairwells, or stair openings in the floor, should be enclosed with strong railings extending 6" (150 mm) past the edge of the first step. Guardrails should be 36" (915 mm) high from the floor and have no opening over 4" (100 mm) between rails.
Stairs on Floor Plans Stairs are shown on floor plans by the width of the tread, the direction and number of risers, and the lengths of handrails or guardrails. Abbreviations used are DN (down), UP (up), and R (risers). A note of 14R means there are 14 risers in the flight of stairs. Stair layouts depend on the amount of space available, comfort, and code requirements. Use the following suggestions as you create the floor plan stair layout: ●
●
There is always one less run than rise, where the run is the horizontal distance of a set of steps or the measurement describing the depth of one step, and the rise is the amount of vertical distance between one tread and another (see Figure 16-66). The average set of stairs has 14 to 15 risers between two floors.
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●
●
●
Architectural Drafting and Design
To calculate the length of stairs, multiply the length of a tread by the number of runs. For example, stairs with 14 risers have 13 runs. If each individual run is 10" (254 mm), then 10" × 13R = 130" (254 × 13R = 3302 mm), or 10'−10" is the total run. If you use the stairs in Figure 16-66 as an example, the total run is 11'−4 1/2" (346.1 mm). This is calculated as: 13R × 10 1/2" = 11'−4 1/2" (13R × 266.7 = 3467.1 mm). Keep in mind that landings take up more space, and they should be as deep as the stairs are wide. For example, if a 36" (900 mm) wide stairway must have a landing, the landing should measure 36" × 36" (900 × 900 mm) minimum.
36"
Figure 16-67 shows a common straight stair layout with a wall on one side and a guardrail on the other side. Figure 16-68 shows a flight of stairs with guardrails all around at the top level and a handrail running down the stairs. Figure 16-69 shows stairs between two walls. Notice also that the stairs are drawn broken with a long break line at approximately midheight if you are looking at a stair that is rising or intersecting up and down stairs. If the stair is going down, as in Figure 16-67, the break line can be omitted and the stairs drawn the full extent. Figure 16-70 shows stacked stairs with one flight going up and the other down. This situation is common when access from the main floor to both the second floor and basement or second and third floors is designed for the same area.
DN 14R
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM UNDER STAIRS @ ALL USABLE STORAGE
DN 14R
34" HANDRAIL
FIGURE 1669 Stairs between two walls.
34" HANDRAIL UP 14R
DN 14R
34" HANDRAIL
FIGURE 1670 Stairs up and down in the same area.
Stairs with winders and spiral stairs can be used to conserve space. Winders are used to turn a corner instead of having a landing. Tapered winder treads must not be any smaller than 6" (150 mm). See Chapter 9 for minimum requirements. Spiral stairs and custom winding stairs can be manufactured in several designs. Figure 16-71 shows the plan view of winder and spiral stairs. A sunken or raised living room or family room is often a popular design feature. When a room is either
34" RAIL USED AS FIRE PROTECTION UNDER STAIRS
36" GUARDRAIL
U
FIGURE 1667 Stairs with a wall on one side and a guardrail on the other.
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM UNDER STAIRS @ ALL USABLE STORAGE
P 15R
36" GUARDRAIL
34" HANDRAIL 36" MIN. RAIL
FIGURE 1668 Stairs with guardrails all around.
UP 14R
SPIRAL STAIRS
DN 14R
34" HANDRAIL
STAIRS WITH WINDERS
FIGURE 1671 Winder and spiral stairs.
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345
LIVING
DINING
DOWN
STEPS
36" GUARDRAIL
UP 2
1 STEP
FIGURE 1672 Sunken or raised rooms.
sunken or raised, there is at least one step into the room. The steps are noted with an arrow, as shown in Figure 16-72. The few steps up or down do not require a handrail unless the floor levels are more than 30" (760 mm) apart. The guardrail shown in Figure 16-72 is for decoration only in this case. The ADA specifies the use of a ramp for wheelchair access. The ramp should have a slope of 1:12 for 30" (762 mm) maximum rise and 30' (9 m) of horizontal run.
HALLWAYS ON FLOOR PLANS Hallways in buildings are designed to provide access to various areas. Hallways can be long or short, depending on the area being accessed. The length and number of hallways should be kept to a minimum because they use up valuable living space. Sometimes hallways are a unique part of the design, such as an art gallery or a hallway with a sitting alcove, providing more than simple access to rooms.
CADD APPLICATIONS Designing and Drawing Stairs with CADD Standard 2D CADD programs used to draft lines can be used in a floor plan stair layout. This can be done by drawing the riser lines, copying or offsetting the risers a specified tread depth distance, and then drawing the stair edges to quickly create a 2D stair. Many specialized CADD programs for creating buildings and architecture include stair-generation tools. On many of these tools, easy-to-use stair design routines allow the quick generation of straight, U-shaped, L-shaped, spiral, and custom stair designs. Often the use of parametric design tools allows you to enter design data for the stair such as: • • • • • •
Floor-to-floor height. Tread depth. Riser height. Stair length. Railing type. Stringer specifications.
The term parametric refers to “smart” relationships between the parts of the stair such as the treads, risers, floor-to-floor height, landing, stringers, and stair width. When the values of these stair parts are adjusted, the other parts work with or react to the value modifications and make changes automatically based on set parameters or rules. For example, based on design rules used in a parametric stair, a floor-to-floor value change causes the number of risers and treads to adjust. These design rules can be developed to match local building codes. Parametric stairs often give you the ability to create a 2D stair for plan view drawings, elevations, and sections, and 3D stairs for modeling and visualization views. Figure 16-73 provides an example of a parametric stair created in 2D plan view and automatically generated into the 3D model view stair. ■
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS
UP
FIGURE 1673 Parametric stairs can be automatically drawn based on specifications that you provide. This figure provides an example of a parametric stair created in 2D plan view and automatically generated into the 3D model view stair. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
Hallways should be 36" (900 mm) minimum width. Hallways in custom homes can be as wide as 48" to 60" (1200 to 1500 mm) depending on the available space and design requirements. Hallways leading from a grand foyer entrance can be wider, depending on the custom architectural design. Metric dimensions vary, depending on hard or soft conversion as previously discussed.
FIREPLACES ON FLOOR PLANS Fireplaces are commonly constructed using masonry, but prefabricated fireplaces made of steel can be installed in a masonry or wood-frame structure. Masonry fireplaces are constructed of brick or stone and the firebox is constructed with fire brick. Fire brick is brick made of refractory ceramic material that resists high temperatures. The masonry fireplace floor plan representation uses section lines, also called hatch lines, placed at a 30º to 45º angle. Figure 16-74 shows common terminology associated with a masonry
fireplace. The dimensions shown on the fireplace floor plan symbol in Figure 16-74 are recommended minimums. Figure 16-75 shows several typical fireplace floor plan representations. Common fireplace opening sizes in inches are shown in the following table: Opening Width
Opening Height
Unit Depth
36"
24"
22"
40"
27"
22"
48"
30"
25"
60"
33"
25"
Steel Fireplaces Fireplace fireboxes made of steel are available from various manufacturers. The floor plan representation of a steel fireplace framed in masonry is shown in Figure 16-76. These prefabricated fireplaces are popular because of their increased efficiency. Some units add to
347
4'-8" TO 5'-4" 8" MIN.
15°
MASONRY
36"
12" UNLINED 8" LINED
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
FIRE BRICK
4"
18" MIN
FIGURE 1676 Manufactured firebox framed in masonry.
SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 24" FLOOR LEVEL OR RAISED HEARTH
4"
4'-0"
12"
2'-0"
3'-0"
FIGURE 1674 Single masonry common and minimum fireplace dimensions, not generally shown on the plan.
SEE MFG INSTALLATION SPECIFICATIONS. VENT-FREE GAS FIREPLACE. NOTE MAY ALSO READ: DIRECT-VENT GAS, SELF-VENTING GAS, OR VENT-FREE GAS FIREPLACE
FIGURE 1677 Manufactured firebox in wood frame.
BACK-TO-BACK DOUBLE
CORNER FIREBOX
FIREPLACE STRUCTURE
DIMENSION A OPENING SIZE IN INCHES
DOUBLE FACED SEE-THROUGH
THREE FACED
SWEDISH
FIGURE 1675 Floor plan representations of a typical masonry fireplace.
their efficiency with fans that are used to circulate air around the firebox and into the room. There are also insulated fireplace units made of steel that can be used with wood-framed chimneys. These units are often referred to as zero-clearance fireplaces, where the insulated metal fireplace unit and flue can be placed next to or with a small air space from a woodframed structure. Verify building code clearances and vendor specifications before designing a home with a zero-clearance fireplace. The popularity of steel fireplaces has increased, due to their low construction cost compared to masonry fireplace and chimney construction (see Figure 16-77). Figure 16-78 shows some common sizes of available fireplace units.
28 32 36 40 48 60
FACE BRICK A
HEARTH
FIGURE 1678 Prefabricated fireplace opening sizes. Courtesy Heatilator, Inc.
Direct-Vent, Self-Venting, and Vent-Free Gas Fireplaces Where environmental restrictions on wood-burning fireplaces exist, manufactured direct-vent, self-venting, and vent-free gas fireplaces are available for the architectural design. These fireplaces provide a gas fire around realistic-looking ceramic logs, without the mess and labor involved in burning wood. These systems are commonly designed with safety features such as control panels, thermostatic controls, and remote controls. These fireplaces do not affect indoor air quality, which makes them a good choice for energy-efficient construction. They are also economical, making them
348
Architectural Drafting and Design
a consideration when the cost of a masonry fireplace is not feasible. Direct-vent fireplace models have a chimney that is vented through the roof or out the wall and extended above the roof exposed or in a framed enclosure. Direct-vent fireplaces are generally sealed-combustion heaters. The doors open only for maintenance. The exhaust gases exit through the center, and combustion air is drawn into the fireplace through the outer chamber. The air is heated in passages behind the metal firebox, and the room air does not come into contact with the flames. Heat radiates through the glass doors and is forced by convection or fans around the firebox and into the room. The self-venting units can be vented directly out the wall behind the fireplace. The vent-free fireplaces are installed without a flue. Any zero-clearance, wood-burning, direct-vent, self-venting, or vent-free gas fireplace must be designed, installed, operated, and maintained in strict compliance with manufacturer specifications and building and fire code specifications and regulations. Information about possible code restrictions and installation requirements should be established with local building and fire officials before specifying these on the design. Automatic switches might be specified to allow shut-off if the unit overheats. Improper installation can cause an explosion, carbon monoxide poisoning, or excessive condensation inside the building. Confirm the manufacturer specifications and provide the model number and other specific information next to the fireplace symbol on the floor plan or in a general note. The gas supply should also be shown with a symbol and a note, similar to the example in Figure 16-79.
CLEANOUT ACCESS
C.O.
FIGURE 1680 Fireplace cleanout.
Fireplace Cleanout Provide a cleanout when you can have easy access to the base of the fireplace. The cleanout provides a small door in the floor of the firebox that allows ashes to be dumped into a hollow cavity built into the fireplace below the floor. Access to the fireplace cavity to remove the stored ashes is provided from the basement or outside the house. Figure 16-80 shows a fireplace cleanout noted in the plan view.
Wood Storage Fireplace wood can be stored near the fireplace. A special room or an area in the garage adjacent to the fireplace can be ideal for wood storage. A wood storage compartment built into the masonry next to a fireplace opening can also be provided for storing a small amount of wood. The floor plan representation of such a wood storage box is shown in Figure 16-81.
Combustion Air Gas-Burning Fireplace Natural gas can be provided to the fireplace, either for starting the wood fire or for fuel to provide flames on artificial logs. The gas supply should be noted on the floor plan, as shown in Figure 16-79.
Building codes require that combustion air be provided to the fireplace. Combustion air is outside air supplied in sufficient quantity for fuel combustion. The air is supplied through a screened duct that is built by masons from the outside into the fireplace combustion chamber. By providing outside air, this venting device prevents the fireplace from using the heated air from the
GAS
4 X 1Ø HDR 14" RAISED HEARTH
FIGURE 1679 Gas supply to fireplace.
WOOD STORAGE 8"
24"±
12" HIGH HEARTH
FIGURE 1681 Wood storage.
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349
room, thus maintaining indoor oxygen levels and keeping heated air from going up the chimney. Always confirm combustion air requirements and specifications with building codes. A note should be placed on the floor plan next to the fireplace that states the following: PROVIDE OUTSIDE COMBUSTION AIR TO WITHIN 24", or PROVIDE SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR WITHIN 24" OF FIREBOX.
Built-In Masonry Barbecue When a home has a fireplace in a room next to the dining room, nook, or kitchen, the masonry structure can also incorporate a built-in barbecue. The floor plan representation for a barbecue is shown in Figure 16-82. A built-in barbecue can be purchased as a prefabricated unit that is set into the masonry structure surrounding the fireplace. There can be a gas or electric supply to the barbecue as a source of heat for cooking. As an alternative, the barbecue unit can be built into the exterior structure of a fireplace for outdoor cooking. The barbecue can also be installed separately from a fireplace and located in an outside cooking area.
Multilevel Fireplaces In two- or three-story homes, it is common to have a fireplace structure that is constructed up through all levels with a chimney exiting at the roof. In this situation, a fireplace can be placed at each floor if the design is appropriate. The fireplace on the first floor is drawn similar to the example in Figure 16-74, except additional width is needed for the flues of all stacked fireplaces to extend to the top of the chimney. A flue is a heat-resistant, incombustible enclosed passageway in a chimney to carry combustion products from the fireplace. The flue lining within a chimney is made of square, rectangular, or round fire brick or fire clay products or round double- or triple-insulated steel for zero-clearance fireplaces. There must be a separate flue for each fireplace. This means that the fireplace structure and the chimney need to be sized large enough to accommodate the fireplaces and the flues running up in the same structure. Figure 16-83 shows the floor plan drawing of a fireplace at the main floor and the second floor, and the chimney beyond the second floor. If a third-floor fireplace is used, an additional flue is added
Electric Fireplaces
4"-8"
Electric fireplaces can provide the realism and ambience of conventional wood-burning and gas fireplaces with less expensive installation requirements and maintenance. These units require electrical wiring with a 110 or 220 volt outlet, depending on the unit specifications. They are generally zero-clearance, meaning they can be installed directly against wood framing. There is no ventilation required, so electric fireplaces can be designed into plans where other types of fireplaces are not suitable. Electric fireplaces are generally inexpensive to operate and are highly efficient.
KITCHEN
4"
SECOND-FLOOR FIREPLACE FLUE
MAIN-FLOOR FIREPLACE FLUE
CHIMNEY ABOVE SECOND-FLOOR FIREPLACE 4"-8"
4" FIREPLACE FLUE FROM MAIN FLOOR
SECOND-FLOOR FIREPLACE
42" BARBECUE
FLUSH HEARTH
FAMILY FIGURE 1682 Built-in barbecue in fireplace.
MAIN-FLOOR FIREPLACE
FIGURE 1683 Floor plan drawing of a fireplace at the main floor, at the second floor, and beyond the second floor.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Fireplace Opening Width
Fireplace Opening Height
Fireplace Depth
24" (600 mm)
24" (600 mm)
18" (430 mm)
8" × 12" (200 × 300 mm)
32" (800 mm)
27" (680 mm)
20" (500 mm)
12" × 12" (300 × 300 mm)
36" (900 mm)
29" (730 mm)
20" (500 mm)
12" × 12" (300 × 300 mm)
40" (800 mm)
27" (680 mm)
24" (600 mm)
16" × 16" (400 × 400 mm)
60" (1500 mm)
37" (940 mm)
24" (600 mm)
16" × 20" (400 × 500 mm)
to the structure. The size of each flue and the dimensions of the fireplace structure and the chimney should be given. The chimney above the second floor can taper to a smaller size than the fireplace structure, but it needs to be large enough to accommodate the flues with minimum masonry material surrounding. Installation of zero-clearance flues for metal fireplaces should be based on the manufacturer’s specifications. Flues must be designed to provide proper ventilation and draft for the fireplace. Draft is a current of air and gases through the fireplace and chimney. The size of the flue is determined by the size of the fireplace opening and the chimney height. The following table gives general guidelines for standard fireplace openings and chimney heights. Flues for custom designs and multistory chimney heights should be confirmed with the masonry contractor, masonry supply, or fireplace manufacturer.
SOLID FUEL–BURNING APPLIANCES
Flue Size
Floor Protection Combustible floors must be protected. Floor protection material shall be noncombustible, with no cracks or holes, and strong enough not to crack, tear, or puncture with normal use. Materials commonly used are brick, stone, tile, or metal.
Wall Protection Wall protection is critical whenever solid fuel–burning units are designed into a structure. Direct application of noncombustible materials does not provide adequate protection. When solid fuel–burning appliances are installed at recommended distances to combustible walls, a 7" air space is necessary between the wall and floor to the noncombustible material, plus a bottom opening for air intake and a top opening for air exhaust to provide positive air change behind the structure. This helps reduce superheated air next to combustible material as shown in Figure 16-84.
Solid fuel–burning appliances are items such as airtight stoves, freestanding fireplaces, fireplace stoves, room heaters, zero-clearance fireplaces, antique stoves, and fireplace inserts for existing masonry fireplaces. This discussion shows the floor plan representation and minimum distance requirements for typical installations of some approved appliances. Appliances that comply with nationally recognized safety standards are noted on the floor plan with wording such as:
General Rules for Solid Fuel–Burning Appliances Verify rules for solid fuel–burning appliances with the local fire marshal or building code guidelines. The following are some considerations.
DRYWALL WOOD FRAME AIR CIRCULATION
MASONRY OR NONCOMBUSTIBLE
5'– 0" MIN.
ICC APPROVED WOOD STOVE AND INSTALLATION REQUIRED. VERIFY ACTUAL INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS WITH VENDOR SPECIFICATIONS AND LOCAL FIRE MARSHAL OR BUILDING CODE GUIDELINES.
CEILING
1" AIR SPACE HEARTH FLOOR
FIGURE 1684 Air circulation around wall protection.
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351
Noncombustible materials include brick, stone, or tile over cement asbestos board. Minimum distances to walls should be verified in regard to vendor specifications and local code requirements.
SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 23" OF STOVE
Combustion Air Combustion air is generally required as a screened closable vent installed within 24" of the solid fuel– burning appliance. Confirm the specific requirements with manufacturer specifications and building codes. Provide an appropriate note on the drawing or in the specifications.
UL APPROVED WOOD STOVE WITH BRICK FLUE AND HEARTH
BRICK ARCH
FIGURE 1686 Masonry alcove for solid fuel–burning stove.
Air Pollution Most local areas have initiated guidelines that help control air pollution from solid fuel–burning appliances. The installation of a catalytic converter or other device is normally required. Check with local regulations and confirm manufacturer specifications. Figure 16-85 shows floor plan representations of common wood-stove installations. A design option is to construct a masonry alcove within which a solid fuel unit is installed. The floor plan layout for a typical masonry alcove is shown in Figure 16-86.
5" HIGH BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE
30"
KITCHEN BATH
FIGURE 1687 Room titles.
FA M I LY 186 X 14Ø
FIGURE 1688 Room title with room sizes noted.
20"
IRC APPROVED WOOD STOVE W/ SCRN. CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 24"
LIVING ROOM BEDROOM
ROOM TITLES ON FLOOR PLANS 5' X 5' TILE FLUSH HEARTH
STONE VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE AND 15# FELT W/ METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD
WOOD STOVE W/ SCRN. CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 24"
Rooms are labeled with a name on the floor plan. Generally, the lettering is larger than that used for other notes and dimensions. Room titles can be lettered using letters 3/16" or 1/4" (5 or 7 mm) high, as shown in Figure 16-87. The interior dimensions of the room can be lettered under the title using 1/8" (3 mm) text, as shown in Figure 16-88.
OTHER FLOOR PLAN SYMBOLS 12" RAISED STONE HEARTH 12" TYP.
FIGURE 1685 Wood stove installation.
Many additional floor plan symbols are available for placement on the floor plans. Additional electrical symbols are described and illustrated in Chapter 19, and plumbing symbols are described and shown in Chapter 20.
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Attic and Crawl Space Access H.B.
FIGURE 1689 Hose bibb symbol.
Hose Bibb Symbol A hose bibb is an outdoor water faucet to which a garden hose may be attached. Hose bibbs should be placed at locations convenient for watering lawns or gardens and for washing a car. The floor plan symbol for a hose bibb is shown in Figure 16-89. This symbol can be shown on a separate plumbing plan, as discussed in Chapter 20. This often depends on the complexity of the design and the preferred office or instructional practice.
Concrete Slab Representation Concrete slabs used for patio walks, garages, or driveways can be noted on the floor plan. A typical example is 4"-THICK CONCRETE WALK. Concrete slabs used for the floor of a garage should slope toward the front, or to a floor drain in cold climates, to allow water to drain. The amount of slope is 1/8"/ft minimum. A garage slab is noted in Figure 16-90. Calling for a slight slope on patios and driveway aprons is also common.
Access is necessary to attics and crawl spaces. An attic is a floor space consisting of an open area at the top of a building just below the roof. The attic is often used for storage. A crawl space is a space between the ground and the floor of a building in which a person cannot generally walk upright. An enclosed crawl space is not accessible from the outside of the building, but crawl space access can be provided through the foundation if the design permits. The crawl space access can be placed in any convenient location such as a closet or hallway. The crawl access should be 22" × 30" (560 × 762 mm) minimum if located in the floor, as shown in Figure 16-91. Crawl space access can be shown on the foundation plan when it is constructed through the foundation wall. When it is in the foundation wall, the minimum access is 24" × 18" (610 × 460 mm). The minimum size of the attic access is 22" × 30" (560 × 762 mm), and it must have 30" (760 mm) unobstructed headroom above as you enter the attic. The attic access is commonly placed at the end of a hallway, in a walk-in wardrobe closet, or in a utility room. Figure 16-92 shows an attic access symbol and related note. The attic access can include a fold-down ladder if the attic is to be used for storage. A minimum of 30" (760 mm) must be provided above the attic access.
22" X 30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS S&P
4" CONCRETE SLAB SLOPE 1/8" MIN/FT. TO DOOR OR TO FLOOR DRAIN.
FIGURE 1691 Crawl space access note.
22" X 30" MIN. ATTIC ACCESS
FIGURE 1690 Garage slab note.
FIGURE 1692 Attic access symbol and related note.
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A
B
FIGURE 1693 (A) Prefabricated window-well floor plan symbol. (B) Cast-in-place concrete windowwell symbol. See the foundation plan and details for construction dimensions and specifications.
Window Well A window well is generally a small retaining wall made of metal, plastic, concrete, masonry, or pressure-treated wood, and constructed around a basement window to hold earth away from the windows and allow for grading or planting around the exterior. Window wells can be constructed using concrete or masonry and can have a ladder inside for easy access through the opening above. Window wells can also be prefabricated metal or plastic, or precast concrete modules that are combined to form the desired width and height, and can also be installed with or without a ladder as needed. Refer to Chapter 9 for window-well ladder code requirements and other window-well codes. Window wells can be open, or have a cover or grate on top. The basic function of a window well is to provide safe egress from the basement through a window and out through the window well. A window well for a bedroom window must provide egress using the same code requirements for any bedroom window. Any habitable below-grade space must have two ways to escape in case of fire. Window wells are important for this purpose. Window wells also provide natural lighting and ventilation into a basement or other belowgrade space. Window-well drainage is an important consideration to keep rainwater or snow from entering the home. Confirm proper drainage requirements or recommendations with manufacturer specification and local building codes. A common recommendation is to have at least 12" (300 mm) of gravel below the base of the window well and have the grade above drain away from the building. Ideally, a window well should have a drainpipe that drains water to the footing drain or away from the foundation and to a storm sewer. Windowwell specifications can be noted on the floor plan using
specific or general notes, in specifications, or on the foundation plan, and construction details should be provided if necessary. Figure 16-93 shows the floor plan representation of a window well.
Floor Drain Symbol A floor drain floor plan symbol for a shower is shown in Figure 16-94. Floor drains should be used in any location where water can accumulate on the floor, such as the laundry room, bathroom, or garage. The easiest application for a floor drain is in a concrete slab floor. Drains can be designed in any type of floor construction, although this is more difficult in wood-frame construction. Figure 16-95 shows a floor drain in a utility room.
Cross-Section Symbols The location on the floor plan where a cross section is taken is identified with symbols known as cutting-plane lines. A cross section, also called a section, is a type of
42" FIBERGLASS SHOWER OVER 1/2" W.P. GYP. BD.
FIGURE 1694 Shower symbol showing floor drain.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
UTILITY SLOPE FLOOR TO DRAIN
68
FIGURE 1695 Floor drain symbol. This symbol can be square if the desired drain fixture is square.
CUTTING PLANE THROUGH CENTER OF CIRCLE
DRAW ARROW TANGENT TO CIRCLE AT 45°, FILL IN DARK
A 5
28
A
DRY
A 5
SHELF WASH
4' X 3' A S W/4 X 6 HDR
L/T
BASIC METHOD CUTTING PLANE AND LABEL ONLY
APPROXIMATE 1/2"Ø CIRCLE
drawing showing an object as if it has been cut through to show interior construction methods and materials. Cutting-plane lines show the location of a cut made for the purpose of creating a sectional view at the specified location. Cutting-plane lines can be placed on floor plans, foundation plans, or any place where a section needs to be drawn to show the internal construction. These symbols are described and shown in detail in Chapter 36 through Chapter 40. Figure 16-96 shows options for the cutting-plane line symbol. The method used depends on your school or office practice and the drawing complexity.
CONCLUSION Floor plans are a key element in a complete set of architectural drawings. Clients are interested in floor plans so they can see how their future home or business is laid out. As you have seen in this chapter, a large variety
A 5
LETTER DENOTES SECTION IDENTIFICATION
A 5
NUMBER DENOTES THE PAGE THE SECTION IS FOUND ON
SYMBOL DRAWN WITH FEATURES LETTERED HORIZONTALLY
OPTION 2
SYMBOL DRAWN WITH FEATURES LETTERED TO READ FROM RIGHT
OPTION 1 SHEET WITH CUTTING PLANE THAT LOCATES SECTION
SECTION
A 12 SHEET WHERE DRAWING OF SECTION IS SHOWN
OPTION 3
FIGURE 1696 Options for the cutting-plane line symbol.
of symbols and drawing techniques go into preparing a floor plan. The challenge to the architectural drafter is to be sure to include all the necessary symbols and notes needed for construction while making the plan easy to read.
CADD APPLICATIONS CADD Floor Plan Symbols INTRODUCTION Floor plans often contain many symbols beyond the standard architectural building features such as door, window, stair, and wall symbols. Symbols drawn on floor plans can also represent furniture, plumbing
fixtures, plants, and documentation symbols such as detail bubbles, keynotes, and section marks. Drawing symbols by hand requires a template in the shape of the symbol to be drawn, time to draw the symbol, and time and effort to change hand-drawn symbols
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CADD APPLICATIONS in the event of a design change. With CADD, standard symbols are available in an electronic format that can be easily and quickly added to and modified in a floor plan. Various CADD software packages are available that provide complete symbol library templates. These CADD programs usually include symbols for windows, doors, structural elements, electrical symbols, furniture shapes, appliance and plumbing fixture symbols, and site plan symbols as shown in Figure 16-97. In addition to software symbol libraries, the Internet can be used to locate CADD symbol libraries for the specific CADD programs. All CADD programs include a function for adding symbols to a drawing. Methods range from specific insert and add commands to point and click and drag and drop. Once a symbol is added to the CADD drawing, different
tools or commands can be used to modify the symbol. Tools such as moving, copying, rotating, and erasing can all be used on CADD symbols to quickly modify the floor plans. Using CADD in this manner saves time and cost when compared to the manual drafting method of adding symbols. Figure 16-98 displays some examples of a CADD floor plan with symbols added.
Manufacturer Symbol Libraries Manufacturers of many architectural products such as doors, windows, plumbing fixtures, and appliances have CADD symbol libraries available for use in CADD floor plan design and drafting. Many of these symbols include the graphical representation of the manufactured item, and additional data assigned to the symbol that can be extracted and used as a bill of materials or
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 1697 Many different CADD programs include libraries of symbols that can be added to floor plans and CADD models.
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CADD APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 1698 This floor plan includes a number of symbols that represent furniture, doors, and windows. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
compiled into schedules. Most of these product libraries allow you to create drawings quickly in floor plans, elevations, perspective views, and construction details. As technology improves, CADD drawings are beginning to evolve from 2D representations of real-world objects to 3D models of actual manufactured items. Manufacturers are beginning to follow this trend and include 2D and 3D symbol libraries for customers to use. Manufacturers such as Andersen Corporation, Woodwork Institute, USG Design Studio, Jeld-Wen, Kohler, and Herman Miller are examples of companies and manufacturers who have created symbol libraries for CADD drawings. Figure 16-99 displays a couple of manufacturer Web pages with their CADD content.
Creating Your Own Symbol Libraries In addition to symbol libraries included with software programs, libraries of symbols on the Internet, and
manufacturer-provided symbols, most CADD software programs allow you to create your own symbols. This is another benefit to CADD. A new symbol can be created, saved in a CADD library of symbols, and used later in other projects. Most architectural firms maintain libraries of custom CADD symbols that comply with company standards. In some cases, a manufacturer symbol is too specific for a design so a more generic symbol is desired. In this situation, the manufacturer symbol can be modified as needed and saved in the company symbol library to quickly create a new symbol for use on multiple drawings. Symbols are an important part of CADD drawings, whether you use symbols from the software, download symbols from a Web site, or create your own symbols. The reuse and ease of placing and modifying symbols in a CADD drawing is one of the benefits of CADD. ■
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CADD APPLICATIONS (a) (b)
FIGURE 1699 Many product manufacturers provide CADD symbols and libraries of their products for designers and drafters to use in CADD drawings.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you research available products and floor plan design options. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.kitchenaid.com www.homedepot.com
Company, Product, or Service Appliances Appliances, cabinets, plumbing fixtures
www.lowes.com www.abracadata.com www.autodesk.com www.eaglepoint.com www.graphisoft.com www.generalshale.com
Appliances, cabinets, plumbing fixtures Architectural CADD software Architectural CADD software Architectural CADD software Architectural CADD software Brick masonry products
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www.builtinvacuum.com www.aristokraft.com www.homecrestcab.com www.kraftmaid.com www.beamvac.com www.nutone.com www.solatube.com www.optiflame.com www.heatilator.com www.heatnglo.com www.whirlpool.com www.nfrc.org www.ssina.com
Architectural Drafting and Design
Built-in vacuum systems Cabinets Cabinets Cabinets Central cleaning systems Communication systems Daylighting systems and Tubular Daylighting Devices Electric fireplaces Fireplaces Fireplaces and products Home appliances National Fenestration Rating Council The Stainless Steel Information Center
Storage systems www.caddepot.com Use in assembling symbol libraries www.catalog.com Use in assembling symbol libraries www.waterfurnace.com Water Furnace International, Inc. www.jacuzzi.com Whirlpool bath fixtures www.andersenwindows.com Window and door fixtures www.crestlineonline.com Window and door fixtures www.marvin.com Window and door fixtures www.pella.com Window and door fixtures www.wellcraftwells.com Window wells www.whiteblockcompany.com Window wells www.schultestorage.com
See CD for more information
Floor Plan Symbols Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 16 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 16–1 Exterior walls for a wood-frame residence are usually drawn how thick?
Question 16–6 Sketch the following floor plan symbols: a. Pocket door b. Bifold closet door c. Casement window d. Sliding window e. Skylight f. Ceiling beam g. Single-run stairs, up h. Hose bibb
Question 16–2 Interior walls are commonly drawn how thick?
Question 16–7 Letter the note that would properly identify a wall 48" high.
Question 16–3 How does the floor plan symbol for an interior door differ from the symbol for an exterior door?
Question 16–8 What is the required minimum height of guardrails?
Question 16–4 What are the recommended spaces for the following? a. Wardrobe closet depth b. Water closet compartment c. Stair width d. Fireplace hearth depth
Question 16–5 Describe an advantage of using schedules for windows and doors.
Question 16–9 Provide the appropriate note used to identify a guardrail at a balcony overlooking the living room. Question 16–10 What type of door would you recommend when space for a door swing is not available? Question 16–11 Name the window that you would recommend when a 100% openable unit is required. Question 16–12 What does the note 6040 next to a window on the floor plan mean?
Chapter 16: Floor Plan Symbols
Question 16–13 What is the minimum crawl space or attic access required? Question 16–14 What is the abbreviation for garbage disposal? Question 16–15 When should the clothes washer and dryer be shown with dashed lines on the floor plan? Question 16–16 Identify in short, complete statements four factors to consider in stair planning. Question 16–17 Show the note used to identify the steps at a two-step sunken living room.
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2. Make exterior walls 6" thick and interior walls 4" thick if using manual drafting. Draw exact thickness if using CADD. 3. Use the line and architectural lettering methods described in this textbook. Letter only the notes that are part of the drawing. Estimate dimensions when not given and increase sizes to help fill paper when appropriate. Do not draw dimensions or pictorial illustrations.
Problem 16–1 Redraw Figure 16-5, Figure 16-6, Figure 16-8, and Figure 16-9. Problem 16–2 Redraw Figure 16-10.
Question 16–18 What is the amount of slope for a concrete garage floor and why should it have a slope?
Problem 16–3 Redraw Figure 16-13 through Figure 16-18.
Question 16–19 If you are using CADD to draw a floor plan, what dimension will you use to draw the interior walls to their exact width if 2 × 4 studs are used with 1/2" gypsum on each side? Show the calculations.
Problem 16–4 Redraw Figure 16-19 through Figure 16-22.
Question 16–20 If you are using CADD to draw a floor plan, what dimension will you use to draw the exterior walls to their exact width if 2 × 4 studs are used with 1/2" gypsum on the inside and 1/2" sheathing and siding on the outside? Show the calculations.
Problem 16–7 Redraw Figure 16-32.
Question 16–21 Define header.
Problem 16–10 Redraw Figure 16-51.
Question 16–22 How are upper cabinets normally drawn on the floor plan?
Problem 16–11 Redraw Figure 16-52.
Question 16–23 List at least four factors that can influence window sizes.
Problem 16–5 Redraw Figure 16-23. Problem 16–6 Redraw Figure 16-24 through Figure 16-28, and Figure 16-31. Problem 16–8 Redraw Figure 16-38. Draw the partial floor plan and door/window key symbols. Do not draw the door/window schedules. Problem 16–9 Redraw Figure 16-40.
Problem 16–12 Redraw Figure 16-57, Figure 16-59, and Figure 16-63.
Question 16–24 Define soft metric conversion.
Problem 16–13 Redraw Figure 16-67 through Figure 16-71.
Question 16–25 Define hard metric conversion.
Problem 16–14 Redraw Figure 16-72.
Question 16–26 How is it possible to have a satisfactory stair design that might be less than perfect?
Problem 16–15 Redraw Figure 16-74 and Figure 16-75.
Question 16–27 Why is stair design sometimes complex?
Problem 16–16 Redraw Figure 16-76 through Figure 16-82. Problem 16–17 Redraw Figure 16-83.
Question 16–28 Define flue.
Problem 16–18 Redraw Figure 16-85 and Figure 16-86.
Question 16–29 Why does the fireplace structure for multilevel construction with more than one fireplace need to be wider than a fireplace for a single-story building?
Problem 16–19 Redraw Figure 16-90.
Question 16–30 Give the flue size for a standard fireplace opening 36" W × 29" H × 20" D.
Problem 16–22 Redraw Figure 16-94 and Figure 16-95.
PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS 1. Draw the following problems manually or with CADD, depending on your course guidelines. Use a 1/4" = 1'–0" scale. Draw on 8 1/2 × 11" vellum for manual drafting and follow CADD guidelines given in Chapter 7.
Problem 16–20 Redraw Figure 16-91 and Figure 16-92. Problem 16–21 Redraw Figure 16-93. Problem 16–23 Redraw Figure 16-96. Problem 16–24 Create your own CADD symbols to match the symbol examples provided throughout this chapter.
CHAPTER 17
Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes I
N
T
R
O
D
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C
T
I
O
N
Dimensions provide the measurements used for construction. Dimensions are found on all types of architectural drawings and are presented using lines, numerical values, and symbols, or notes and specifications. Drawings must include all the dimensions needed for construction, so workers do not have to guess about the size and location of features in the building. It can be a challenge to decide what dimensions are needed, to determine the best dimension placement, and to locate dimensions in a manner that keeps the drawings uncluttered and easy to read. This chapter provides you with the dimensioning systems and techniques used to meet these objectives.
ALIGNED DIMENSIONS The dimensioning system most commonly used in architectural drafting is known as aligned dimensioning. With this system, dimensions are placed in line with the dimension lines and read from the bottom or right side of the sheet. Dimension numerals are typically centered on and placed above the solid dimension lines. Figure 17-1 shows a floor plan that has been dimensioned using the aligned dimensioning system. A dimension line is a line showing the length of the dimension, terminating at the related extension lines. Extension lines are lines showing the extent of the dimension and start with a small space from the feature being dimensioned and extend past the last dimension line.
FLOOR PLAN DIMENSIONS You should place dimensions so the drawing does not appear crowded. However, this is often difficult because of the great number of dimensions that must be placed on an architectural drawing. When placing dimensions, space dimension lines a minimum of 3/8" (10 mm) from the object and from other dimension lines. If there is room, 1/2" (13 mm) is preferred. Architectural drafters often use 1" (26 mm) or more if space is available. Other drafters place the first dimension line 1" (26 mm) away from the plan and space additional dimensions equally 1/2" (13 mm) or 3/4" 360
(20 mm) apart. The minimum recommended spacing of dimensions is shown in Figure 17-2. Confirm the recommended dimension line spacing with your office or instructional standards. Regardless of the distance chosen, be consistent so dimension lines are evenly spaced and uniform throughout the drawing. Figure 17-2 also shows the recommended 1/16" (1.5 mm) space between the start of the extension line and the floor plan or feature being dimensioned. Notice the extension lines extending 1/8" (3 mm) past the last dimension line. Extension and dimension lines are drawn thin and dark so they do not detract from the overall appearance and balance of the drawing. Dimension lines terminate at extension lines with dots, arrowheads, or slash marks that are each drawn in the same direction (see Figure 17-3). The U.S. National CAD Standard recommends slash marks or filled arrowheads. The type of dimension line terminators should be the same throughout the drawing; however, slash marks are common on dimension line terminators and filled arrowheads are used on leaders for notes as described later in this chapter. Dimension numerals are drawn 1/8" (3 mm) high and are centered above the dimension line with a 1/16" (1.5 mm) space between the dimension line and the value. For all lengths over 12", the dimension units used are feet and inches. Inches and fractions are used for units less than 12". Foot units are followed by the symbol ('), and inch units are shown by the symbol ("). For example, 14'–6" means 14 feet and 6 inches. Metric dimensions are given in millimeters (mm), as discussed later in this chapter; however, metric sizes vary, depending on hard or soft conversion. Soft conversion is the preferred method, which is explained in Chapter 16 and again later in this chapter.
PLACING EXTERIOR DIMENSIONS The overall dimensions on frame construction are given to the outside of the stud frame of the exterior walls. The reason for locating dimensions on the outside of
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FIGURE 171 Aligned dimensions on a floor plan. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
the stud frame is that the frame is established first, and windows, doors, and partitions are usually put in place before sheathing and other wall-covering material is applied. Another construction option is for the exterior dimensions to be to the outside face of the exterior sheathing. This depends on the preferred construction method. Figure 17-4A shows an example of the
construction used where the exterior dimension is to the outside face of studs. Compare this with the outside face of the sheathing in Figure 17-4B. Your floor plan dimensioning practice is the same either way. The contractor determines the actual construction method. Stud frame is the vertical construction members of a woodor steel-frame wall, where the individual members,
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16'-0" 10'-0"
6'-0" SPACE DEPENDS UPON AVAILABLE ROOM 3/8" TO 1"
EXTERIOR DIMENSION
APPROXIMATELY 1/8"
FACE OF STUDS
DIMENSION LINES
EQUAL SPACE 3/8" MINIMUM
5'-0"
5'-0" INTERIOR EXTENSION LINES, TO CENTER OF FEATURE
STUDS
1/16"
EXTERIOR EXTENSION LINE, ASSUMED TO OUTSIDE FACE OF STUDS OR SHEATHING, SEE FIGURE 17-4.
SHEATHING
SIDING FOUNDATION WALL
FIGURE 172 Recommended spacing of dimension lines, and dimensioning terminology.
FACE OF SHEATHING
A
called studs, are usually placed between bottom and top plates that are spaced every 16" or 24" apart. The first line of dimensions on the plan is the shortest distance from the exterior wall to the center of the windows, doors, and to the interior partitions. The second line of dimensions generally gives the distance from the outside walls to the interior partitions. The third line of dimensions is usually the overall distance between two exterior walls (see Figure 17-5). This method of applying all dimensions eliminates the need for workers to add dimensions at the job site and reduces the possibility of error. The three dimensioning methods commonly used by architectural offices to dimension floor plans are center line, face-of-stud, and face-of-finish-material.
EXTERIOR DIMENSION
STUDS SHEATHING
SIDING FOUNDATION WALL
B FIGURE 174 (A) An example of the construction used when exterior dimensions are to the outside face of studs. (B) Construction used when exterior dimensions are to the outside face of sheathing.
DIMENSION LINE 10'-0" EXTENSION LINE
5'-0"
5'-0"
1/8 45°
CENTER-LINE EXTENSION LINE
FREEHAND SLASH ALL IN THE SAME DIRECTION
10'-0" 5'-0"
1/8"
A THICK SLASH IS COMMON ON MANY MANUAL AND CADD DRAWINGS
SOME COMPANIES USE A DOT TO END DIMENSION LINES
TO 3/16"
5'-0" 1/16
FREEHAND ARROWHEAD
CADD ARROWHEADS MAY BE FILLED OR UNFILLED
FIGURE 173 Methods for terminating dimension lines. The slash mark and filled arrowhead are options recommended by the U.S. National CAD Standard.
Chapter 17: Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes
FACE OF STUD
363
FACE OF STUD
FACE OF STUD
9'-4 1/4" 3'-10 1/4" DOOR CENTER LINE
WINDOW CENTER LINE
Using the Center-Line Dimensioning Method The center-line dimensioning method places dimensions from the outside face of exterior stud walls to the center of interior partitions, and to the center of doors and windows. An overall dimension is placed as the last dimension. This traditional dimensioning method is shown in Figure 17-5.
Using the Face-of-Stud Dimensioning Method The traditional method of floor plan dimensioning has been from the outside face of studs to the center of partition walls, windows, and doors. More recently, architectural offices have been dimensioning to face of stud for locating interior partitions. This technique establishes where the structure of the wall is laid out. Interior wall surfaces and finishes are not typically dimensioned on floor plans, but are shown in the details. Using CADD, building component sizes are drawn accurately, for example, a 2 × 4 stud actually measures 1 1/2" × 3 1/2". Interior dimensions are to the face of the stud not the center of the stud, because dimensioning to the center splits the stud in half, giving fractional dimensions. Partition center-line and fractional dimensions require field calculations that are difficult to perform and are not generally followed by builders. Typically, when dimensioning to a face of the stud, the selected side is personal preference or an office standard. Generally, you start on one side of the building at the corner, and then pick an interior partition stud face. Then all of the dimensions in the string are consistently established to the same side throughout the plan. This technique can vary depending on the features being dimensioned. For example, dimensions can be between inside stud faces where it is important to dimension the
10'-7 3/4" 5'-4 3/4"
DOOR CENTER LINE
WINDOW CENTER LINE
FACE OF STUD
INTERIOR PARTITION CENTER LINE
FIGURE 175 Placing exterior dimensions from the outside face of exterior studs to the center of interior partitions, and the center of doors and windows.
FACE OF STUD
FIGURE 176 Placing exterior dimensions from the outside face of exterior studs to the face of studs at interior partitions, and the centers of doors and windows.
open width of an area such as the partitions between a bathtub, shower, or hallway. Some companies dimension the width of the stud, such as 3 1/2", but this is unnecessary information that can be covered in a general note that indicates stud sizes, or in sections and details. The face-of-stud dimensioning method places dimensions from the exterior face of studs, to the interior face of studs, and to the centers of doors and windows as shown in Figure 17-6.
Using the Face-of-Finish-Material Dimensioning Method The face-of-finish-material dimensioning method is typically not used in new construction. This method can be used in remodeling projects where interior dimensions are commonly related to the existing face of finish material. Dimensions to doors and windows are still given to their center lines (see Figure 17-7).
FACE OF STUD
9'-3 3/4" 3'-9 3/4"
FACE OF STUD
10'-8 1/4" 5'-5 1/4"
DOOR CENTER LINE
WINDOW CENTER LINE
FACE-OF-FINISH MATERIAL
FIGURE 177 Placing exterior dimensions from the outside face of exterior studs to the face of finish material at interior partitions, and the centers of doors and windows. This method can be used when dimensioning remodeling projects where measurements are established from existing finish material.
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PLACING INTERIOR DIMENSIONS Interior dimensions locate all interior partitions and features in relation to the face of exterior wall studs. Any of the dimensioning methods (center line, face-ofstud, or face-of-finish material) can be used for placing interior dimensions. In an effort to simplify construction and minimize field calculations, the face-of-stud method is most commonly used for new construction. Figure 17-8 shows some common interior dimensions. Notice how the dimensions relate to the face of exterior wall studs. The interior partition dimensions are given to the face of studs and can be consistently given to the same side throughout the plan. Another option is to dimension the face of studs between an opening, such as the opening framed for a bathtub, or the width of a water closet compartment as shown in Figure 17-8. When dimensioning interior features, be sure to provide workers with enough dimensions to build the house. The contractor should not have to guess where a wall or feature is located, nor should workers have to use a scale to try to locate items on a plan. Stub walls are walls that do not go all the way across a room, and are dimensioned by giving their location
INDICATES TO NEXT FEATURE
to a stud face and their length. Windows and doors are dimensioned to their centers, unless the location is assumed. Look at Figure 17-8 again for examples of dimensioning interior features.
STANDARD FEATURE DIMENSIONS Some interior features that are considered to be standard sizes may not require dimensions, even though providing dimensions is generally a good idea to help reduce construction errors. Figure 17-9 shows a situation in which the drafter elected to omit the depth of the pantry because it is directly next to a refrigerator, which has an assumed depth of 30" (760 mm), and near a base cabinet that is typically 24" (600 mm) deep. The refrigerator width should be given because there are many different widths available. The base cabinet is not dimensioned, because such cabinets are typically 24" (600 mm) deep. When there is any doubt, it is better to apply a dimension. The refrigerator and other appliances can be drawn with dashed lines or marked with the abbreviation NIC (not in contract) if the unit is not supplied according to the contract for the home’s construction. Follow the practice of the office where you work. Other situations in which dimensions can be assumed are when a door is centered between two walls as at the end of a hallway, and when a door enters a room and the minimum distance from the wall to the door is assumed. See the examples in Figure 17-10. Some dimensions can be provided in the form of a note for standard features, as seen in Figure 17-11. The walls around a shower need not be dimensioned when a note, 36" (900 mm) square shower, defines the inside dimensions. The shower must be located and actual product dimensions verified during construction. One of the best ways to learn how experienced drafters lay out dimensions is to study and evaluate existing plans. Metric dimensions can vary depending on hard or soft conversion, as discussed in Chapter 16 and later in this chapter.
BASE CABINET
PANTRY
FIGURE 178 Placing interior dimensions. Dimensions are placed from the face of exterior studs to the face of studs at interior partitions, and to the centers of doors and windows. Dimensions can be placed to establish an opening between the face of interior studs, such as for the width of a bathtub, water closet, or hallway.
REF 36 X 30
FIGURE 179 The dimension for the location of a feature such as the depth of a pantry can be assumed when it is next to a base cabinet with a known common depth.
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3" MINIMUM GARAGE DOOR OPENING
DOOR CENTERED IN HALLWAY, ASSUMED
MINIMUM DISTANCE DOOR TO WALL, ASSUMED
FIGURE 1710 Assumed location of features without dimensions given, such as a door centered in a hallway, or a door located a common minimum distance from a wall or partition.
FOUNDATION PLAN
A
FLOOR PLAN
B
36" 䡺 SHOWER LEADER LINE CURVED FREEHAND OR WITH IRREGULAR CURVE, OR STRAIGHT. CENTER AT BEGINNING OR END OF NOTE. TERMINATE WITH ARROWHEAD.
FIGURE 1711 Standard features can be dimensioned with a specific note.
GARAGE DOOR OPENING
FLOOR PLAN
C
OMITTING DIMENSIONS ESTABLISHED BY THE FOUNDATION The foundation is the system placed on the ground and used to support the building. Detailed foundation information is provided in Chapter 33 through Chapter 35. Certain features shown on the floor plan are established on the foundation plan. For example, the garage door openings are formed as a cutout in the foundation wall. The dimensions provided in the foundation plan determine the location and size of the garage door opening as shown in Figure 17-12A. The garage door opening dimensions can be omitted on the floor plan as shown in Figure 17-12B, because garage door location and size dimensions are given on the foundation plan. Some offices prefer to dimension the finish garage door openings as a reference as shown in Figure 17-12C. Another common practice is to dimension the center line of the garage door for reference as shown in Figure 17-12D.
FLOOR PLAN
D FIGURE 1712 (A) Dimensions are placed on the foundation plan to locate features that are cut into the foundation wall, such as a garage door. (B) The floor plan representation of the garage door can be left undimensioned when the dimensions are given on the foundation plan as in (A). (C) Finish opening dimensions, to a feature such as a garage door, can be given on the floor plan, even when the rough opening dimensions are provided on the foundation plan. (D) Location dimensions, to a feature such as a garage door, can be given on the floor plan, even when the rough opening dimensions are provided on the foundation plan.
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DIMENSIONING ARC AND CIRCULAR FLOOR PLAN FEATURES
LEADER LINE
Arc and circular floor plan features that originate from the foundation do not require floor plan dimensions, although providing reference dimensions on the floor plan is a good idea. Other arc and circular floor plan features are dimensioned on the floor plan by giving location and radius or diameter dimensions. A radius is the distance from the center of an arc or circle to the circumference. The diameter is the distance across an arc or circle passing through the center. The circumference is the distance around the perimeter of a circle. An arc floor plan feature, such as an arc wall, can be dimensioned giving the overall dimensions to the face of studs as shown in Figure 17-13A, or by locating the center and giving the radius using a leader line as shown in Figure 17-13B. The R preceding the radius dimension in Figure 17-13B is the abbreviation for radius. A leader line is a line that connects a note to the feature being identified. A leader line starts at the center of the beginning or end of the note and points to the feature. The start of a straight leader line has a small horizontal shoulder where the leader begins at the note and has a filled arrowhead or slash mark where it is connected to the feature. Architectural leader lines can also be drawn using a curved line (see Figure 17-13 and Figure 17-14). The note is drawn using 1/8" (3 mm) high text. This type of note is referred to as a specific note, because it dimensions a specific feature on the drawing. Specific notes are described in more detail later in this chapter. A group of circular features, such as columns, is dimensioned on the floor plan using coordinate or angular dimensions. Coordinate dimensions provide horizontal and vertical location dimensions to the center of the circular features as shown in Figure 17-14A. The size of the circular features are dimensioned with a diameter symbol (Ø) preceding the diameter value. The number of features is given followed by the multiplication symbol (×) with a space between the number of features and the diameter symbol as shown in Figure 17-14. Angular dimensions are given by locating the center of the circular feature pattern and by providing the continuous angles between features as shown in Figure 17-14B. A combination of coordinate and angular dimensions can be used depending on the application and office practice.
FIGURE 1713 Dimensioning arc features on the floor plan. (A) Using coordinate dimensions to the face of studs to locate and give the size of an arc feature on the floor plan. (B) Using a center location and a radius dimension to the face of studs to locate and give the size of an arc feature on the floor plan. A leader line is used to place the radius dimension and radius is abbreviated with the letter R.
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CURVED LEADER LINE
STRAIGHT LEADER LINE
A
B
FIGURE 1714 Dimensioning circular pattern features on the floor plan. (A) Using coordinate dimensions from the face of exterior studs to the centers of features in a circular pattern. A leader is used to specify the number of features and the diameter of the features in the circular pattern, and a diameter symbol (Ø) is used to specify the diameters of the features. (B) Using a center location dimension to locate the center of a pattern of features and a diameter dimension with a leader line to specify the diameter of the pattern. A leader is used to specify the number of features and the diameter of the features in the circular pattern.
COMMON SIZES OF ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES All walls, edges of brick, and brick fireplaces are thick lines. All other lines are thin. The refrigerator, water heater, washer and dryer, dishwasher, and trash compactor are dashed lines if the products are excluded from the building contract; otherwise they are solid lines. Under-counter appliances such as the dishwasher and trash compactor are drawn using dashed lines, because they are hidden below the base cabinet countertop. Confirm if products are part of the building contract by referring to the description of materials or the specifications. Closet poles are 12" (300 mm) from the back wall and are generally drawn using center lines. Closet shelves are solid lines and are generally 15" to 17" (380 to 430 mm) from the back wall.
Dimensions for Room Components Refer to Chapter 9 for exact code requirements. The following floor plan wall and partition dimensions are given as nominal values, followed by the exact values of construction materials as discussed in Chapter 16. For example, an exterior wall with 2 × 4 stud framing measures 3 1/2" (stud) + 1/2" (interior drywall) + 1/2" (sheathing) + (1/2" to 1" [exterior siding]).
See Figure 16-3. Floor plan space dimensions are given as recommended minimums. More space can be provided for custom architectural applications where space is available. ● ●
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Exterior heated walls: 6 1/2" (170 mm). Equation is 5 1/2" + 1/2" + 1/2" = 6 1/2". Exterior unheated finished walls in a garage or shop: 5" (130 mm). Equation is 3 1/2" + 1/2" + 1/2" + 1/2" = 5". Exterior unheated walls interior unfinished in a garage or shop: 4 1/2" (130 mm). Equation is 3 1/2" + 1/2" + 1/2" = 4 1/2". Interior partitions: 4 1/2" (100 mm). Equation is 3 1/2" + 1/2" + 1/2" = 4 1/2". Interior plumbing behind a toilet: 6 1/2" (170 mm). Equation is 5 1/2" + 1/2" + 1/2" = 6 1/2". Hallways: 36" (900 mm) minimum clearance. Entry hallways: 42" to 60" (1060 to 1700 mm). Bedroom closets: 24" (600 mm) minimum depth; 48" (1200 mm) width. Linen closets: 14" to 24" (350 to 600 mm) deep, but not over 30" (760 mm). Base cabinets: 24" (600 mm) deep; 17" to 18" (380 to 460 mm) wide bar. 24" (600 mm) deep
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island with 12" (300 mm) minimum at each side of cooktop. 36" (900 mm) minimum from island to cabinet for passage, with 48" (1200 mm) preferred on sides with an appliance. Upper cabinets: 12" (300 mm) deep. Washer/dryer space: 36" (900 mm) deep, and 5'–6" (1680 mm) wide minimum. Stairways: 36" (900 mm) minimum wide; 9" to 12" (230 to 300 mm) minimum tread. Review Chapter 16 for detailed information.
The following are suggested dimensional values for typical plumbing fixtures. Many size and shape options are available. Confirm the desired exact size and design options with manufacturer specifications, including metric values when not given here. ● ● ●
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Fireplace: Review Chapter 16 for detailed information.
Dimensions for Plumbing Fixtures
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Kitchen sink: Double, 32" × 21"; triple, 42" × 21". Vegetable sink and/or bar sink: 16" × 16", or 16" × 21". Laundry sink: 21" × 21". Bathroom sink: 19" × 16" oval. Provide 9" from edge to wall and about 12" minimum between two sinks and 36" minimum width. Toilet space: 30" minimum width and 21" minimum clearance in front. Tub: 32" × 60", or 32" × 72". Shower: 36" square; 42" square; or combinations of 36", 42", 48", and 60" for prefabricated showers. Any size and shape can be designed for a custom ceramic tile shower. Washer/dryer: Approximately 2'–4" square.
Metric values of above products vary, depending on manufacturer, and are generally in even modules.
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Metric values of above products vary, depending on the manufacturer, but are generally in even modules.
Minimum and Recommended Door Dimensions ● ● ● ● ● ●
Entry: 36" × 6'–8"; 42" × 8' for a palatial entry. Sliders or French: Double 5', 6', 8'; triple 9', 10'; fourpanel 12'. Garage, utility, kitchen, and bedrooms of custom houses: 2'–8". Bedrooms and bathrooms of typical houses: 2'–6". Bathroom closets: 2'–4". Garage doors: 8' × 7', 9' × 8', 16' × 7', 18' × 7'.
Minimum and Recommended Window Dimensions ● ●
Dimensions for Appliances
●
The following are suggested dimensional values for typical appliances. Many size and shape options are available. Confirm the desired exact size and design options with manufacturer specifications.
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Forced-air unit: Gas, 18" square (minimum) with 6" space all around. A gas furnace cannot go under stairs. Electric furnace: 24" × 30", with the same space requirements as a gas furnace.
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Water heater: gas, 18" to 22" diameter. A gas water heater cannot go under stairs.
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Refrigerator: 36" wide space; approximately 27" deep; 4" from wall; 4" from base cabinet. Many additional sizes and specifications are available. Stove/cooktop: 30" × 21" deep. Many additional sizes and specifications are available. Built-in oven: 27" × 24" deep. Many additional sizes and specifications are available. Dishwasher: 24" × 24". Place the dishwasher near the upper cabinet for easy storage of dishes. Trash compactor: 15" to 18" wide × 24" deep. Place the trash compactor near the kitchen sink, and away from the stove. Broom/pantry: 12" minimum × 24" deep, increasing by 3" increments. Desk: 30" × 24" minimum depth. Place the kitchen desk out of the main work triangle. Built-in vacuum: 24" to 30" diameter.
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Living room, family room: 8' to 10'. Dining room, den: 6' to 8'. Bedrooms: 4' to 6'. Kitchens: 3' to 5'. Bathrooms: 2' to 3'. Sliding: 4', 5', 6', 8', 10', 12'. Single-hung: 24", 30", 36", 42". Casement: (Same as sliding.) Fixed/awning: 24", 30", 36", 42", 48". Fixed/sliding: 24", 30", 36", 42", 48". Picture: 4', 5', 6', 8'. Bay: 8' to 10' total; sides 18" to 24" wide.
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MASONRY VENEER ON THE FLOOR PLAN The discussion thus far has provided examples of floor plan dimensioning for wood-frame construction. Other methods of residential construction include masonry veneer, structural masonry, concrete block, and solid concrete. Masonry veneer construction is the application of thin (4") masonry, such as stone or brick, to the exterior of a wood-frame structure. This kind of construction provides a long-lasting, attractive exterior. Masonry veneer can also be applied to interior frame partitions where the appearance of stone or brick is desired. Brick or stone can cover an entire wall that contains a fireplace, for example. Occasionally, either material can be applied extending to the lower half of a wall, with another material extending to the ceiling for a contrasting decorative effect. Masonry veneer construction is dimensioned on the floor plan in the same way as wood framing, except the veneer is dimensioned and labeled with a note describing the product (see Figure 17-15). This construction requires foundation support, which is discussed in Chapter 33 through Chapter 35.
CONCRETE-BLOCK AND STRUCTURAL MASONRY CONSTRUCTION ON THE FLOOR PLAN Concrete blocks are made from precast concrete, are available in standard sizes, and can be solid or have hollow cavities. Concrete block can be used to construct exterior or interior walls of residential or commercial structures. Some concrete blocks have a textured or sculptured surface to provide a pleasant exterior appearance. Most concrete-block construction must be covered, such as by masonry veneer, for a finished look. Some structures use concrete block for the exterior bearing walls and wood-frame construction for interior partitions. Standard concrete blocks are 8" × 8" × 16" (200 × 200 × 400 mm). Dimensioning concrete-block construction is different from wood-frame construction in that each wall, partition, and window and door openings are dimensioned to the edge of the feature or rough opening, as shown in Figure 17-16. Rough opening is the opening in a wall or framework of a building, into which a feature such as a door or window frame is installed. Verify rough openings with product specifications. Although this method is most common, some drafters prefer to dimension the concrete-block structure in the same way as wood-frame construction. To do so, they must add specific information in notes or section views about wall thicknesses and openings. Some practices use the abbreviation RO to identify rough openings, or use MO to identify masonry openings.
22'-0" 10'-0" 8'-0"
12'-0" 2'-0"
5'-6"
6'-6"
4" BRICK VENEER
DIMENSION WITH 1" AIR SPACE
3 1/2" 9'-6 3/4" 1'-10 1/4" 7'-8 1/4"
5"
22'-0" 3 1/2"
11'-6 3/4"
5'-4 1/4"
3 1/2"
6'-2 1/2"
4" BRICK VENEER
ALTERNATE DIMENSIONING PRACTICE OUTSIDE FACE OF STUDS AND OUTSIDE FACE OF BRICK VENEER
A
22'-0" 10'-0" 7'-8"
12'-0" 2'-4" 5'-5 15/16"
6'-6 1/16"
4" THICK STONE VENEER
B FIGURE 1715 Dimensioning (A) brick exterior veneer; (B) interior stone veneer.
Structural masonry, also referred to as reinforced masonry, is normally a blend of materials that are manufactured at high temperatures and generally have higher compressive strength than concrete block or poured concrete. Structural masonry is attractive in appearance and does not normally need to be covered with woodframe or other masonry products. In combination with certain insulation, the standard 8" (200 mm) reinforced masonry wall can have R-values up to 20. Structural masonry floor plan drawings are similar to those for
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Architectural Drafting and Design
22'-0" 6'-6" 4" BRICK VENEER
8"
3'-0" MO
9'-3 1/2"
22'-0"
4'-0"
4'-0" MO
3 1/2"
6'-6"
4'-6"
8"
8"
11'-1"
OPTIONAL CONCRETE BLOCK SYMBOL
6'-6"
8"
3'-0" MO
9'-5 1/4"
9'-5 1/4" OPTIONAL CONCRETE SYMBOL
22'-0" 4'-0"
4'-0" MO
4'-0"
4'-0"
4'-6"
11'-2 3/4"
8"
WOOD FURRING AND FINISH WOOD FRAME
FIGURE 1717 Dimensioning solid concrete construction.
4'-6"
11'-2 3/4"
3'-0"
8"
WOOD FRAME
MO = MASONRY OPENING
Furring attached to masonry is pressure-treated or foundation-grade wood or galvanized steel. Standard interior finish materials such as drywall or paneling can be added to the furring. Solid concrete construction is typically dimensioned the same as concrete-block construction (see Figure 17-17). More information about residential masonry and concrete construction is found in Chapter 33 through Chapter 35.
FIGURE 1716 Dimensioning concrete-block construction.
FLOOR PLAN NOTES AND SPECIFICATIONS
concrete block, except the standard structural masonry unit is 8" (200 mm) thick.
Notes on floor plans and other sheets are either specific or general. Specific notes relate to specific features on the drawing, such as the header size over a window opening or the dimensioning of column diameters as described earlier in this chapter. A specific note is normally connected to a feature with a leader line. Specific notes are also called local notes because they identify isolated items. Specific notes are generally drawn using 1/8" (3 mm) high text, unless otherwise specified in the following examples. Common information that can be specified in the form of local notes includes:
SOLID CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ON THE FLOOR PLAN Solid concrete construction is used in residential and commercial construction projects. In residential construction, solid concrete is mostly limited to foundations, basements, and subterranean homes. In solid concrete construction, concrete is poured into forms that mold the mixture to the shape and dimensions desired. When the concrete cures (hardens), the forms are removed and the structure is complete, except for any surface preparation that may be needed. Masonry veneer can be placed on either side of concrete walls for an attractive appearance. Wood framing and typical interior finish materials can also be added to the inside of concrete walls. The wood framing attached to concrete walls is in the form of furring, which is usually nailed in place with concrete nails. Furring is wood strips that are fastened to the studs or interior walls and ceilings and on which wall materials are attached. Furring is used on masonry walls to provide air space and a nailing surface for attaching finish wall materials.
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Window schedule. Place all windows in a schedule, often grouped by type and size. Window size and type can also be placed directly on the floor plan. Developing schedules and placing window sizes directly on the floor plan is described in Chapter 16. Door schedule. Place all doors in a schedule, often grouped by type and size. Door size and type can also be placed directly on the floor plan. Developing schedules and placing door sizes directly on the floor plan are described in Chapter 16. Room names. Place room names in the center of all habitable rooms using 3/16" to 1/4" (5 to 6 mm) text
Chapter 17: Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes
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with the interior finish dimension below the room title using 1/8" (3 mm) text. Appliances labels such as furnace, water heater, dishwasher, trash compactor, stove, and refrigerator. Items that can be distinguished by shape, such as toilets and sinks, do not need to be labeled with a note unless special characteristics are identified. Tub, shower, and spa labels. Give size, type, and material. Other specifications can also be given. Fireplace or solid fuel–burning appliance labels. Specify vent within 24" (610 mm), hearth, UL (Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc.) approved materials, and wood box. Confirm other requirements with local codes. Stair labels. Give direction of travel, number of risers, and rail height. Closet labels. Label all closets with name and number of shelves. Use names such as LINEN, BROOM, or PANTRY WITH FIVE SHELVES, and label shelf and pole as S & P if used. Access. Give attic and crawl space access opening sizes and specifications. Firewalls. Designate a 1-hour firewall between garage and residence with 5/8" (16 mm) type X gypsum board from floor to ceiling. Floor lines. On multilevel structures, provide a note identifying the line of the upper floor, balcony above, line of lower floor, or other projections of one level beyond another. The outline of the projected feature is generally drawn using dashed lines. Additional notes. Verify codes and construction methods for additional local notes.
General notes apply to features on the entire drawing rather than to specific items. General notes are commonly lettered in the field of the drawing. The field is any open area that surrounds the main views. A common location for general notes is the lower right or left corner of the sheet. Notes should not be placed closer than 1/2" (12 mm) from the drawing border. The word NOTES: is generally drawn using 3/16" to 1/4" (5 to 6 mm) high text, and commonly starts a list of notes. The notes follow in numbered sequence using 1/8" (3 mm) high text. Some typical general notes are shown in Figure 17-18. Use the following guidelines when placing general notes: ● ● ●
Keep notes brief and concise. Identify the materials, components, or assemblies, but do not overdescribe. Use generic terms for products, components, and materials unless a specific manufacturer name, brand, or model is required.
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GENERAL NOTES: 1. ALL PENETRATIONS IN TOP OR BOTTOM PLATES FOR PLUMBING OR ELECTRICAL RUNS TO BE SEALED. SEE ELECTRICAL PLANS FOR ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS. 2. PROVIDE 1/2" WATERPROOF GYPSUM BOARD AROUND ALL TUBS, SHOWERS, AND SPAS. 3. VENT DRYER AND ALL FANS TO OUTSIDE AIR THROUGH VENT WITH DAMPER. 4. INSULATE WATER HEATER TO R-11. W.H. IN GARAGE TO BE ON 18" HIGH PLATFORM. 5. INSTALL ALL MATERIALS PER MANUFACTURER SPECIFICATIONS.
FIGURE 1718 An example of typical general notes.
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Use correct abbreviations or use full words to describe the application. Avoid specific reference to construction sequence, unless required. Avoid repeating the same note on a sheet. Remove broad references to specifications, such as REFER TO SPECIFICATIONS.
When specific notes are too complex or take up too much space, they can be lettered with the general notes and keyed to the floor plan with a short identification such as the phrase SEE NOTE #1 or SEE NOTE or 1, or with a number within a symbol such as 1 . This triangular symbol with a number is called a delta note. The numbered delta symbol, or delta note, is placed on the drawing in the desired location, and the same delta note is placed with the general notes to correlate related information. Written specifications are separate notes that identify the quality, quantity, type of materials, and methods to be used in the project. Specifications for construction are prepared in a format different from drawing sheets. Specifications can be printed in a format that categorizes each phase of the construction and indicates the precise methods and materials to be used. Architects and designers can publish specifications for a house so the client knows exactly what the home contains, even including the color and type of paint. This information also sets a standard that allows contractors to prepare construction estimates on an equal basis. Lending institutions require material specifications to be submitted with plans when builders apply for financing. Generally, each lender has a form to be used that supplies a description of all construction materials and methods along with a cost analysis of the structure. Detailed information about specifications is found in Chapter 8.
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DESIGNING FLOOR PLANS USING STANDARD CONSTRUCTION MODULES Material conservation and construction labor simplification is important to consider when designing floor plans. Standard inch construction modules are 12", 16", and 24". When possible, it is best to design the overall building and major projections of the building using these modules. For example, it is better to design a building width at 36'–0" rather than 36'–8" if possible. Using even construction modules saves construction material, reduces waste, and can reduce construction labor costs.
USING METRIC DIMENSIONS The unit of metric measure commonly used is the millimeter (mm). Meters (m) are used for large site plans and civil engineering drawings. Metric dimensioning is based on the International System of Units (SI). Canada is one country that uses metric dimensions. When materials are purchased from the United States for use in an area that uses metric dimensions, it is often necessary to make a hard conversion to metric units. Hard conversion means that the typical inch units are converted directly to metric. For example, a 2 × 4 that is milled to 1 1/2" × 3 1/2" converts directly to 38 × 89 mm using the hard conversion method. To convert from inches to millimeters, use the formula 25.4 × inches = millimeters. The preferred method of metric dimensioning is called soft conversion. Soft conversion means that the lumber is milled or the product is manufactured directly using metric units rather than being converted to inches. For example, the 2 × 4 lumber is 40 × 90 mm using a soft conversion. This method is more convenient to use for drawing plans and measuring in construction. When plywood thickness is measured in metric units, 5/8" thick equals 17 mm, and 3/4" thick equals 20 mm. The length and width of plywood also change, from 48" × 96" to 1200 × 2400 mm. Modules for architectural design and construction in the United States are typically 12", 16", or 24". In countries using metric measurement, the dimensioning module is 100 mm. For example, construction members spaced 24" on center (O.C.) in the United States are spaced 600 mm O.C. in Canada. The spacing between studs is 16" O.C. in the United States and 400 mm O.C. in Canada. These metric modules allow 1200 × 2400 mm plywood to fit exactly on center with the construction members. Interior dimensions are also designed in increments of 100 mm. For example, the kitchen base cabinet measures 600 mm deep.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Expressing Metric Units on a Drawing When placing metric dimensions on a drawing, all dimensions specified with dimension lines are in millimeters and the millimeter symbol (mm) is omitted. When more than one dimension is quoted, the millimeter symbol is placed only after the last dimension. For example, the size of a plywood sheet reads 1200 × 2400 mm, or the size and length of a wood stud reads 40 × 90 × 2400 mm. The millimeter symbol is omitted in the notes associated with a drawing, except when referring to a single dimension, such as the thickness of material or the spacing of members. For example, a note might read 90 × 1200 BEAM, while the reference to material thickness of 12 mm gypsum or the spacing of joists of 400 mm O.C. does place the millimeter symbol after the size.
Rules for Writing Metric Symbols and Names ●
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Unit names are lowercase, even those derived from proper names, for example, millimeter, meter, kilogram, Kelvin, Newton, and Pascal. Use vertical text for unit symbols. Use lowercase text, such as mm (millimeter), m (meter), and kg (kilogram), unless the unit name is derived from a proper name as in K (Kelvin), N (Newton), or Pa (Pascal). Leave a space between a numeral and symbol, such as 55 kg, 24 m. Do not close the space like this: 55kg, 24m. Do not leave a space between a unit symbol and its prefix—for example, use kg, not k g. Do not use the plural of unit symbols—for example, use 55 kg, not 55 kgs. Use the plural of spelled-out metric measurements, such as 125 meters. Do not mix unit names and symbols; use one or the other. Symbols are preferred on drawings where necessary. Millimeters (mm) are assumed on architectural drawings unless otherwise specified.
Using Metric Scales Metric scales were introduced in Chapter 3 with respect to the use of the metric scale as a drafting tool. When drawings are produced in metric, floor plans, elevations, and foundation plans are generally drawn at a scale of 1:50 rather than the 1/4" = 1'–0" scale
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used in the imperial system. Large-scale drawings, such as those showing construction details, are often drawn at a scale of 1:5. Small-scale drawings, such as plot plans, can be drawn at a scale of 1:100 to 1:500 depending on the size. Figure 17-19 shows the model house upper floor plan completely drawn using metric dimensioning. The preferred method of soft conversion is used in this example, and the metric scale is 1:50. This example uses the dimensioning practice where dimensions are established from the face or
exterior studs to the center of interior partitions, and to the centers of doors and windows.
Using Metric Construction Dimensions The following table gives a comparison of metric and inch construction modules. These are not a direct conversion of metric and inches, but a relationship between the metric and inch standard based on soft conversion.
11400 2700
5100 1800
1500
1000
80 X 180 HDR
90 X 130 HDR
1900
90 X 250 HDR
1050 600 4
4 900 FIBERGLASS SHOWER OVER 12 W.P.GYP.
2000
700 X 700 ATTIC ACCESS 9 11
S&P S&P
4
9
S& DBL. P.
3000
S&P
5
1200 6
7
12
1700
1000
750 WIDE KNEE SPACE
BED#3 1800 SPA
S&P 90 X 250 HDR E E 800 2400
2000
1000
800
2600
90 X 130 CONT G 1400
2200 3600
11400
UPPER FLOOR PLAN SCALE : 1 = 50
FIGURE 1719 Dimensioning a floor plan with metric values.
NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS ARE GIVEN IN MILLIMETERS
3900
750
5
9100
800
1070 RAIL
870 RAIL
DN 14R
1250
200 1800
3600
BED#2 4 1050
700 700
1400
950
1500 FIBERGLASS TUB/SHOWER OVER 12 W.P. GYP. BRD.
2400
3100
6100
BED#1
1600
1700
LINEN
1800
3600
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Object
Metric (mm)
Inches or Feet
Construction modules
100 600
4" 24" or 2'
Standard brick
90 × 57 × 190
4 × 2 × 8"
Mortar joints Concrete block
10 200 × 200 × 400
3/8" and 1/2" 8 × 8 × 16"
Sheet metal Drywall, plywood, and rigid insulation
tenths of a millimeter 1200 × 2400 1200 × 3000
gage 4 × 8' 4 × 10'
Batt insulation
400 600
16" 24"
Door height
2050 or 2100 2100 750 800 850
6'–8" 7'–0" 2'–6" 2'–8" 2'–10"
Door width
Comments
Thicknesses are in inches, so fire, acoustic, and thermal ratings will not have to be recalculated. Thicknesses are in inches, so thermal values will not have to be recalculated.
900 or 950 1000 mm
3'–0" 3'–4" Cut glass feet and inches; thickness is already in mm According to the Brick Institute of America (BIA), the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM E835/E835M, Standard Guide for Modular Construction of Clay and Concrete Masonry Units) establishes dimensions for these products based on the basic 100-mm building module. Many common brick sizes are within a couple of millimeters of metric modular sizes. Nearly all common bricks can fit within a 100-mm vertical module by using a 10-mm joint. Owing to the size of concrete blocks, however, they must be resized for metric applications to a module 200 × 200 × 400 mm.
CADD APPLICATIONS Placing Architectural Dimensions with CADD INTRODUCTION Most architectural dimensions are terminated with tick marks, which are popular in architectural drafting and comply with the U.S. National CAD Standard. Many architectural drafters prefer to use tick marks for all dimensions, and an arrow for all leader line terminators. Most offices prefer to place the dimension text above the dimension line, which complies with the U.S. National CAD Standard, but a few offices like to center the dimension text on the dimension line. Figure 17-20 shows examples of different types of dimension line and leader line terminators, and dimension text placement. Architectural dimensions are commonly placed using the continuous or point-to-point dimensioning method. Many architectural CADD programs provide a tool to create a continuous string of dimensions automatically. Most CADD
software programs include a linear and aligned dimension line. Linear dimensions are horizontal or vertical dimensions. Aligned dimensions are placed in alignment with an angled feature. Once a dimension tool has been selected, you need to specify the points that are being dimensioned, and then select the dimension string location. Once these points have been selected, the CADD program automatically draws the extension lines, dimension line, and terminator marks, and places the dimension text. Figure 17-21 shows an example of selecting the points to be dimensioned, then placing the dimension line location. As long as the CADD geometry has been drawn accurately with correct sizes, lengths, and locations, the CADD dimension tool calculates the dimension values accurately. An advantage of using CADD dimensions is that they are always accurate.
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CADD APPLICATIONS Architectural Tick Oblique
Closed Arrow
Dot
Centered
Architectural Tick
30° Arrow
30° Arrow
Oblique
90° Arrow
90° Arrow
Closed Arrow
Dot
Above
Square
Custom Arrow
Centered
Square
Custom Arrow
Above
FIGURE 1720 Examples of different types of dimension line and leader line terminators, and text placement.
3. PICK LOCATION
1. PICK POINT
2. PICK POINT
FIGURE 1721 When dimensioning, select the points to be dimensioned then place the dimension line.
Standard dimension practice is the same for all CADD drawings. Typically, on the exterior of a building, the last dimension string is used to measure the overall dimension of the building. The next string is typically reserved for jogs in the building. The third string is used to dimension to any interior intersecting walls, and to the center of door and window openings. In offices where the third string is reserved for interior intersecting wall dimensions, a fourth dimension string is used to dimension to the door and window openings. For interior dimension strings, a single string is typically
placed through dimension points. Figure 17-22 shows a partial floor plan with dimensions and notes. Leader lines are typically drawn with specific notes. The leader can have an arrowhead, dot, or slash, depending on the company practice or application. Leader lines are generally drawn in CADD by picking the start point and the end point of the leader. Typically, the next step is to add text. Once the note has been entered, the leader with a note appears in the drawing. Figure 17-23 shows an architectural detail with leader lines and specific notes. ■
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CADD APPLICATIONS 50' 12'
22' 10'-3"
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3'-6" 50 5/
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FIGURE 1722 A dimensioning example using four strings of dimensions on the exterior and a single string on the interior. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
2 X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C. R21BATT A INSULATION A 1/2" GYP P. BOARD EXTERIOR SIDING 1/2" PLYWOOD L SHEA ATHING W/ 15# BUILDING P PAPER 2X6 BOTTOM PLATE 1/2" PLYWOOD L UNDERLAYMENT 5/8" PLYWOOD L SUBFLOOR 2X FLOOR JOISTS @ 16" O.C. 2X6 P.T T. MUDSILL 1/2" Ø X 10" ANCHOR BOLT L @ 48" O.C. BACKFILL
6" 1'-0" MIN.
1'-6"
8" MIN.
2X RIM JOIST
UNDISTURBED SOIL VAPOR BARRIER V 6"
#4 CONTINUOUS HORIZONTAL T REBAR
1'-0"
FIGURE 1723 Example of a construction detail using leader lines and dimensions. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
Chapter 17: Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
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See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you research available products and floor plan design options. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.kitchenaid.com www.whirlpool.com www.homedepot.com www.lowes.com www.abracadata.com www.autodesk.com www.eaglepoint.com www.graphisoft.com www.jacuzzi.com www.generalshale.com www.builtinvacuum.com
Company, Product, or Service Appliances Appliances Appliances, cabinets, plumbing fixtures Appliances, cabinets, plumbing fixtures Architectural CADD software Architectural CADD software Architectural CADD software Architectural CADD software Bath fixtures Brick Built-in vacuum systems
www.aristokraft.com www.homecrestcab.com www.kraftmaid.com www.beamvac.com www.nutone.com www.optiflame.com www.heatnglo.com www.ssina.com www.nfrc.org www.heatilator.com www.schultestorage.com www.caddepot.com www.catalog.com www.waterfurnace.com www.andersenwindows.com www.crestlineonline.com www.pella.com www.marvin.com
Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes Test
Cabinets Cabinets Cabinets Central cleaning systems Communication systems Electric fireplaces Gas fireplaces and products Information center National Fenestration Rating Prefabricated fireplaces Storage systems Use in assembling symbol libraries Use in assembling symbol libraries Water furnace Window and door fixtures Window and door fixtures Window and door fixtures Windows and doors Council
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD.
Question 17–4 Show an example of how dimension numerals that are less than 1' are lettered.
1. Letter your name, Chapter 17 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 17–6 Why are the overall dimensions on frame construction given to the outside of the stud frame at exterior walls?
Question 17–1 Define aligned dimensioning.
Question 17–8 Describe and give an example of a specific note.
Question 17–2 Why should dimension lines be spaced evenly and avoid crowding? Question 17–3 Should extension and dimension lines be drawn thick or thin?
Question 17–5 Show an example of how dimension numerals that are greater than 1' are lettered.
Question 17–7 Describe the dimensional information provided in each line when three lines of dimensions are used.
Question 17–9 What is another name for a specific note? Question 17–10 Describe and give an example of a general note.
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Question 17–11 Give at least two examples of when it might be acceptable for a dimension to be assumed. Question 17–12 Define soft metric conversion. Question 17–13 Define hard metric conversion. Question 17–14 What metric conversion method is preferred in Canada? Question 17–15 Convert the following inch dimensions to metric using soft conversion: a. 36" base cabinet b. 12" upper cabinet c. 2 × 4 stud d. 1/2" × 4' × 8' plywood
Question 17–16 Give the dimension that you would use to draw a wall thickness using CADD if the wall is constructed with the following material: 2 × 6 studs, 1/2" drywall, 1/2" exterior sheathing, 3/4" siding. Question 17–17 Give the standard wall thickness for concrete-block construction and structural masonry construction.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 17–1 Draw the following three examples of dimensioning a wood-frame structure on a floor plan. In each drawing, show at least one interior partition, one exterior door, and one window. a. Place dimensions from the face of exterior studs to
the center of interior partitions, and the centers of doors and windows. b. Place dimensions from the face of exterior studs to
the face of interior studs, and the centers of doors and windows. c. Place dimensions from the face of exterior studs to
the face of interior finish material, and the centers of doors and windows. Problem 17–2 Show an example of how masonry veneer is dimensioned on a floor plan when used with woodframe construction. Problem 17–3 Show an example of a floor plan constructed with concrete block. Show at least one wood-frame interior partition, one exterior door, and one window.
Question 17–19 What are the typical units found on a metric architectural drawing?
Problem 17–4 Show an example of a floor plan constructed with solid concrete exterior walls. Draw and dimension at least one interior wood-frame partition, one wall with interior wood furring, one exterior door, and one window.
Question 17–20 On a metric drawing, what is the metric symbol used to identify the units when the dimensions are specified with dimension lines?
Problem 17–5 Draw and dimension two partial floor plans showing a garage door similar to the examples in Figure 17-12C and Figure 17-12D.
PROBLEMS
Problem 17–6 Draw and dimension two partial floor plans showing arced features similar to the examples in Figure 17-13A and Figure 17-13B.
Question 17–18 What formula is used to convert inches to millimeters?
1. Draw the following problems using pencil on 8 1/2" × 11" vellum or with CADD, unless otherwise specified by your instructor. 2. Use architectural lettering. 3. Prepare lines and dimensions as specified in your course guidelines, or select your own preferred technique as discussed in this text.
Problem 17–7 Draw and dimension two partial floor plans showing patterns of circular features similar to the examples in Figure 17-14A and Figure 17-14B. Problem 17–8 Redraw the portion of Figure 17-19 that contains the main bathroom above the stairs and bedroom number 2. Use metric values.
CHAPTER 18
Floor Plan Layout I
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Residential plans are commonly drawn on 17" × 22", 18" × 24", 22" × 34", or 24" × 36" drawing sheets. Information about U.S. National CAD Standard recommended sheet sizes is provided in Chapter 7. The discussion in this chapter explains floor plan layout techniques using 22" × 34" sheets. The layout methods can be used with any sheet size large enough to fit the desired floor plan. A complete main floor plan for the model house is shown in Figure 18-1. This floor plan is shown without the electrical layout and without the structural elements. Designing and drawing the electrical plan is discussed in Chapter 19, and calculating and drawing the structural members is covered in Chapter 27 through Chapter 32. The step-by-step method used to draw the floor plan in Figure 18-1 provides you with a general method for laying out any floor plan. As you progress through the systematic discussion of the floor plan layout, refer back to previous chapters to review specific floor plan symbols and dimensioning practices. Keep in mind that the given layout techniques represent a suggested typical method used to establish a complete floor plan. You can alter these layout steps to suit your individual preference as your skills develop and your knowledge increases, or as directed by your instructor or supervisor.
STEPS FOR LAYING OUT A FLOOR PLAN The step-by-step floor plan layout guidelines can be used for manual drafting or computer-aided design and drafting (CADD). The following steps give you commonly used methods for each application related to completing the floor plan shown in Figure 18-1. Consider the orientation of the house or building on the sheet before you start drawing. There are two standard ways to orient the building on the sheet. A usual method is to draw the building on the sheet with the main entry door at the bottom of the sheet, as in Figure 18-1. It is common for the main entry door to be on the front of the house. If the main entry door is not on the front of the house, it is better to orient the floor plan parallel to the sheet borders, and with the longest length placed horizontally. Another method is to place the building on the sheet with the
STEP 1
north direction pointing toward the top of the sheet. This is possible only if the north orientation of the building on the construction site is known. When this is done, a north arrow is placed on the drawing in a convenient location, which is often near the drawing title. Sometimes the north orientation pointing toward the top of the sheet does not allow for a convenient positioning of the building parallel to the borderlines. In this case, it is possible to orient the building with the main entry door at the bottom and a north arrow shown pointing in the proper compass direction relative to the building on the construction site. The floor plan shown in Figure 18-1 uses this example. The north arrow is always placed on the site plan, even if it is not on the floor plan. The site plan that generally accompanies a complete set of drawings can be referred to for compass orientation. Determine the working area of the paper to be used. The working area is the distance between borders. The example 22" × 34" sheet, shown in Figure 18-2, has a 29 3/4" horizontal by 20 1/2" vertical working area. The working area can vary depending on the design of your company or school border and title block. STEP 3 Determine the drawing area, which is approximately the area the floor plan plus dimensions requires when completely drawn. Refer to the floor plan shown in Figure 18-1 to see the dimensions required on the model house. Residential floor plans are drawn at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0". The example house to be drawn is 61' long and 36' wide. At a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" the perimeter of the house can be drawn within a drawing area of 15 1/4" × 9" (61 ÷ 4 = 15 1/4 by 36 ÷ 4 = 9) (see Figure 18-2). This 15 1/4" × 9" drawing area does not take into consideration space needed for objects and annotations that extend past the perimeter of the house, including dimensions, notes, and titles. You should consider at least 2" on each side of the house for dimensions. Looking at Figure 18-2, it appears there is enough space for additional information, because the house dimensions are much less than the working area. STEP 2
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FIGURE 181 This is the complete floor plan for the model house used in the step-by-step examples provided throughout this textbook. Step 1: The main floor plan orientation has the main entry door at the bottom and a north arrow shown pointing in the proper compass direction relative to the building on the construction site. Add the title block information as described in Chapter 4.
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CADD APPLICATIONS The final CADD drawing is printed, plotted, or published within a selected sheet size at a specific scale. Most often, sheet size and drawing scale are known standards, set according to drawing and office practices. CADD offers significant flexibility when laying out a floor plan according to sheet and scale requirements. Commands and options are available that allow you to easily adjust the drawing to accommodate a specific sheet size and drawing scale. Traditional manual drafting setup tasks such as selecting drawing orientation and identifying the working and drawing areas are not as critical when using CADD. A CADD drawing can be rotated as needed to properly orient the view on the sheet. If necessary, a north arrow symbol is inserted and rotated to the exact north direction. As with manual drafting, the working area of a CADD drawing is relative to the sheet size. However, CADD allows you to select a different sheet size if the plot
When the plan does not fit within the working area, increase the sheet size or reduce the scale. Confirm this decision with your instructor or company. The floor plan scale is not normally reduced, because residential floor plans are usually drawn at 1/4" = 1'–0". Commercial applications sometimes allow for a 1/8" = 1'–0" or 3/16" = 1'–0" floor plan scale. Floor plans drawn in metric commonly use a 1:50 scale. Figure 18-2 shows the drawing area centered within the working area. Centering a drawing is important for beginning drafters, because it is frustrating to start a drawing and find there is not enough space to complete your work. Experienced drafters usually make quick calculations to determine where the drawing should be located. In actual practice, the drawing does not have to be perfectly centered, but a well-balanced drawing is important. Several factors contribute to a well-balanced drawing: ● ● ● ● ● ●
Actual size of the required drawing. Scale of the drawing. Amount of detail. Size of drawing sheet. Dimensions needed. Amount of general and local notes and schedules required.
does not fit within the working area. Alternatively, if appropriate, you can easily modify the drawing scale to fit the plot on the original sheet. Care in centering the drawing on the sheet is not as important with CADD, because the drawing can be moved at any time. Most CADD applications use a virtual drawing area that is infinite in size. This allows you to draw a floor plan at actual size, or full scale, and then scale the drawing to fit a specific sheet for plotting. When using this system, you can focus on the floor plan layout, without having to concentrate on scaling objects. CADD has transformed the traditional process of setting up and laying out a drawing, by offering significant flexibility. Still, effective layout planning and preparation is critical. Determine the proper drawing orientation, sheet size, working area, scale, and drawing area before you begin drawing to increase productivity and limit costly and time-consuming mistakes. ■
Lay out all exterior walls 6" (150 mm) wide within the drawing area. Draw all garage walls during this step. The garage should be separated from the rest of the house with 6" (150 mm) wide walls. In the example house, 4" (100 mm) wide exterior garage walls are drawn (see Figure 18-3). STEP 5 Lay out all interior partitions 4" (100 mm) wide as shown in Figure 18-3. Draw all water closet plumbing walls 6" (150 mm) wide. Most multistory houses require at least one heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) chase to be provided. There can also be at least one chase for plumbing and electrical as needed. A chase is a structure built around and enclosing electrical, mechanical, or plumbing materials, or for enclosing a chimney. The model house has an HVAC chase framed in the kitchen pantry that continues through the bedroom 2 closet above. The chase extends all the way from below the main floor through the second floor, and into the attic above. A chase is drawn with an “X” across the diagonals of the opening, which is referred to as opening indicators. Dimensions are provided for you to locate and draw the chase at this time. An architect, architectural designer, or experienced architectural drafter can accurately establish chase locations. This practice is also often drawn after the mechanical engineers or subcontractors STEP 4
5 3/4"
382
9"
APPROXIMATE DRAWING AREA
15 1/4"
7 1/4"
FIGURE 182 Step 2: Determine the working area of the selected sheet. Step 3: Calculate the approximate drawing area centered within the working area.
Architectural Drafting and Design
5 3/4"
7 1/4"
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STEP 5
STEP 4
STEP 5
STEP 5
STEP 4
STEP 5 STEP 5
STEP 4 STEP 4
FIGURE 183 Step 4: Lay out exterior walls. Step 5: Lay out interior partitions. Notice the HVAC chase framed inside the kitchen pantry.
have designed the HVAC, electrical, and plumbing systems. The model house does not have a plumbing or electrical chase. Chase requirements are described further in Chapter 21. STEP 6 Draw the fireplace shown in Figure 18-4. The single-face fireplace is 5' wide with a 36" wide opening and an 18" × 5' hearth. Include a 30" × 18" barbecue as shown. Locating the fireplace is important at this time, because its placement determines the
locations of the windows in the family room and the door in the dining room. The fireplace location and size dimensions in Figure 18-1 are for reference, because the actual fireplace location and size dimensions are provided on the foundation plan, described in Chapter 35. Although no other features exist in the model plan, this is the time to add any other objects that divide rooms and objects that affect the location of doors and windows.
CADD APPLICATIONS Floor plan walls can be drawn to their exact size when using CADD. This was explained in detail in Chapter 16 and Chapter 17. For example, exterior walls are drawn 7" wide using 2 × 6 (1 1/2" × 5 1/2") studs + 1/2" drywall + 1/2" sheathing + 1/2" siding. Interior partitions are drawn 4 1/2" wide when using 2 × 4 (1 1/2" × 3 1/2") studs + 1/2" drywall on each side of the studs. Material thicknesses vary. For example, 5/8" drywall is used in the inside of the garage between the garage and the house, and under the stairs for fire resistance. Confirm the measurements of materials before you begin drawing.
All floor plan objects and annotations, including walls, should be drawn on the appropriate layer. This was discussed in Chapter 7. The American Institute of Architects (AIA) CAD Layer Guidelines recommend using the A-WALL-FULL layer name for full-height architectural walls. If necessary, the secondary minor group –EXTR can be added to classify exterior walls, and –INTR can be added to group interior walls. Draw any necessary construction work or other non-plot information using a layer that can be turned off before plotting. For example, construction lines on architectural floor plans are drawn using an A-ANNO-NPLT layer. ■
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CADD APPLICATIONS You can create your own CADD fireplace symbols for insertion or use a custom architectural program. Programs of this type typically have automatic fireplace and chimney utilities that allow you to create fireplaces with multiple design options, such as opening, hearth, mantels, and single-story or multistory designs. Floor plan
fireplace design options are discussed in Chapter 16, and fireplace construction and layout is described in Chapter 40. The fireplace can be placed on an architectural fixed-equipment layer such as A-EQPM-FIXD or if the fireplace is masonry, it can go on a modified floor layer for masonry symbols such as A-FLOR-MSNW. ■
Draw the stair representation, providing several 10 1/2" wide treads to a long break line with the necessary handrails or guardrails (see Figure 18-4). The stair location is important to confirm that the total run fits in the available space. Refer to the stair calculations and representation information provided in Chapter 16. STEP 8 Block out all doors, windows, and openings in their proper locations. Be sure door, window, and other openings are centered within the desired areas, if appropriate, or correctly offset from walls (see Figure 18-4).
STEP 9
STEP 7
Draw doors and windows as shown in Figure 18-5. STEP 10 Draw the steps required to access the house and other floor-level changes (see Figure 18-5). Draw the step into the sunken living room. This step is represented as one line drawn at the openings to the living room. Two steps are required to access the house from the garage, the outside patio, and the front porch. Draw a single 12" tread to represent one step. The second step is made directly into the house. The number of steps needed to go from the house to the garage depends
STEP 8
STEP 8 STEP 8 STEP 6 STEP 8
STEP 8
STEP 8
STEP 8
STEP 7
STEP 8 STEP 8
FIGURE 184 Step 6: Draw the fireplace. Step 7: Draw the stair representation, providing several 10 1/2" wide treads to a long break line with the necessary handrails or guardrails. Step 8: Block out all doors, windows, and openings in their proper locations.
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CADD APPLICATIONS Standard CADD programs can be used to draw stairs by drawing one tread line and then making multiple copies with a command such as ARRAY, or you can create your own stair symbols for insertion. Custom architectural programs are available that automatically calculate and draw straight, L-shaped, U-shaped, and circular or spiral
stairs based on dimensional information and specifications that you enter. Stair design is discussed in Chapter 16, and stair construction and layout is described in Chapter 39. Stairs can be placed on an architectural floor plan layer using the layer name A-FLOR-STRS. Handrails and guardrails can be on their own layer, A-FLOR-HRAL. ■
STEP 10
STEP 9
STEP 9
STEP 9
STEP 9 STEP 9
STEP 9
STEP 10
STEP 11
STEP 10
STEP 9
STEP 9
STEP 9
STEP 10 STEP 9
FIGURE 185 Step 9: Draw all door and window symbols. Step 10: Draw the steps required to access the house and other floor-level changes. Step 11: Draw lines representing changes in ceiling elevation, such as the lines indicating the drop ceiling in the kitchen.
CADD APPLICATIONS When using CADD, you need to either create door and window symbols for insertion or use a customized architectural program that provides for automatic door and window insertion. If you insert your own doors and windows, you may need to use a command such as TRIM to remove unwanted wall lines where doors and windows are located. This process may take place during Step 8, depending on whether your door and window symbols include jamb representations.
Architectural programs are available that have any desired door and window combination available for insertion in the drawing. Some of these programs create an inventory of the items that you insert and automatically create the door and window schedules or other material lists. Doors are drawn on the A-DOOR layer and windows are drawn on the A-GLAZ layer. ■
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CADD APPLICATIONS Cabinets are drawn with CADD by using typical commands such as LINE, or they can be inserted as symbols. Architectural programs with cabinet symbols available are parametric, which means that you can specify any desired dimensions or shape. Any change to a parametric design automatically updates the entire design to match the change. Cabinets can be placed on a layer with casework and manufactured cabinets if they are built
by a cabinetmaker and delivered to the project. Casework is all of the components that make up the cabinets. The layer name for this application is A-FLOR-CSWK. If the cabinets are built on the job, they are referred to as fieldbuilt cabinets and are architectural woodwork. In this case, the layer name is A-FLOR-WDWK. The secondary minor group –UPPER can be added for drawing upper cabinets, which use a dashed or hidden line type. ■
on the distance from the finished main floor to the finished garage floor. The number of steps needed to go from the house to the outside depends on the distance from the finished main floor to the exterior concrete slab, deck, or grade. You will learn how to determine these distances in Chapter 36 through Chapter 39, which cover sectioning practices. STEP 11 Draw lines representing changes in ceiling elevation, such as the lines indicating the drop ceiling in the kitchen (see Figure 18-5).
STEP 12
Draw all cabinets and associated items, such as a lazy Susan (see Figure 18-6). Base kitchen cabinets are typically 24" (600 mm) deep; upper cabinets are 12" (300 mm) deep. Bath vanities are 22" (560 mm) deep. Utility base cabinets can be 30" (760 mm) deep to match the clothes washer and dryer depth, and accommodate larger laundry sinks. Draw all woodwork, such as shelves, poles to hang clothes, and other similar features. STEP 13 Draw all appliances and utilities (see Figure 18-6). In the example house, the refrigerator
STEP 16
STEP 13
STEP 13
STEP 12 STEP 14
STEP 17 STEP 14
STEP 15
STEP 14
STEP 15
STEP 16
STEP 12 STEP 12
STEP 13
STEP 14 STEP 12
STEP 16
STEP 13
STEP 17 STEP 17
FIGURE 186 Step 12: Draw all cabinets and associated items. Step 13: Draw all appliances and utilities. Step 14: Draw all plumbing fixtures, sinks, toilets, and the water heater. Step 15: Draw crawl space and attic access locations. Step 16: Draw exterior features such as the brick veneer found on the front face of the house and the edges of all concrete slabs. Step 17: Draw the dashed outline of the upper floor. Add the posts for the covered porch.
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CADD APPLICATIONS Appliances and utilities are generally inserted as symbols when using CADD. Appliances that are included in the contract such as the dishwasher, range, and trash compactor can be placed on the equipment layer A-EQPM that is assigned a solid, or continuous, line
type. Insert appliance symbols that are not part of the contract, such as the refrigerator and clothes washer and dryer, on an A-EQPM-X layer that is assigned a dashed line type. Use an M-HVAC or similar layer when inserting a furnace symbol. ■
is 36" × 27", range is 30" wide, the dishwasher is 24" wide, the furnace is 24" × 30", and the washer and dryer are 30" × 30" each. Metric values vary depending on the manufacturer and soft or hard conversion. STEP 14 Draw all plumbing fixtures, sinks, toilets, and the water heater as shown in Figure 18-6. STEP 15 Draw crawl space and attic access locations (see Figure 18-6). STEP 16 Draw exterior features such as the brick veneer found on the front face of the house and the edges of all concrete slabs (see Figure 18-6). STEP 17 Draw the dashed outline of the upper floor. Add the posts for the covered porch (see Figure 18-6).
close to the house, before the exterior dimensions. If necessary, use construction lines to indicate the extent of these items. Draw the first line of dimensions from the exterior face of exterior walls to the face of interior partition studs, center of interior partitions, or to the face of interior finish. These three methods are described in detail in Chapter 17. The model house, shown in Figure 18-7, uses the method where interior dimensions are placed to the face of studs. Dimension the location of the front porch posts as shown in Figure 18-7. The second row of dimensions is drawn from the exterior face of studs to the exterior face of studs at major building offsets (see Figure 18-7). Draw the overall dimensions on each side, the top, and the bottom of the model house as shown in Figure 18-7. You may not need to locate the doors in the garage on the floor plan, because the garage doors are dimensioned on the foundation plan. The garage doors can be located on the floor plan for reference as described in Chapter 17. Confirm the preferred practice with your company or school. Review Chapter 17 for complete coverage of common dimensioning practices and options. STEP 19 Lay out all interior dimensions as needed. Locate interior dimensions in relationship to the exterior dimensions where possible. Carefully evaluate the drawing to be sure that all dimensions have been established (see Figure 18-7).
NOTE: The electrical plan can be placed on the floor plan, especially if the home design is not complex. However, a separate electrical floor plan layout is normally recommended. The electrical floor plan layout for the model home is described and shown in Chapter 19. Structural information can also be drawn on the floor plan for basic structures. This textbook recommends separate structural drawings that are described and shown in Chapter 27 through Chapter 32.
Lay out all exterior dimensions. Leave enough room between the house and the first line of dimensions to accommodate notes and other symbols, such as the section indicators shown in Figure 18-1. In the example house, the section indicators are placed
STEP 18
CADD APPLICATIONS Plumbing fixtures are inserted as symbols when CADD is used. Plumbing fixtures are placed on the plumbing layer as fixtures with the layer name
A-FLOR-FIXT or P-FLOR-FIXT. The water heater can be on a separate plumbing layer with the P-HWTR name. ■
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61'-0" 1" 9'-82
38'-0" 17'-6" 3" 5'-114
17'-4"
3'-2" 5'-6 1 4"
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1" 13'-32
8'-8"
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1" 4'-82
6'-83 4"
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12'-4"
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1" 1'-62 1'-0"
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36'-0"
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4'-51 4"
36'-0"
1" 7'-10 2
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3" 6'-54
1" 6'-114 13'-5"
7'-83 4"
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1" 6'-6 2
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1" 11'-42
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1" 13'-22
STEP 18 STEP 18
STEP 18 16'-0"
11'-0"
11'-0"
6'-0"
38'-0"
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6'-0"
23'-0" 61'-0"
FIGURE 187 Step 18: Lay out exterior dimensions. Step 19: Lay out all interior dimensions as needed.
Identify all doors and windows. Door and window tags are used in the model house, as shown in Figure 18-8. These tags are keyed to door and window schedules. Schedules are explained in Chapter 16.
STEP 20
Place all specific notes using 1/8" (3 mm) high text as shown in Figure 18-8. Add notes for appliances, such as dishwasher (DW), trash compactor (TC), garbage disposal (GD or G DISP), clothes washer (W, WASH, or CL W), clothes dryer (D, DRY,
STEP 21
CADD APPLICATIONS Dimensions are easy to place and are very accurate when using CADD, as discussed in Chapter 17. Dimensions are placed on a separate annotation layer, such as A-ANNODIMS. The recommendation for manual drafting is not to place dimension numerals at this time, because all freehand lettering should be done after drawing lines.
However, with CADD, the dimension numerals are automatically placed with all elements of the dimensions at the same time. A CADD dimension value associates with the object or points from which the dimension originates. If the size of a feature changes, the associated dimension updates to display the correct size. ■
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
389
CADD APPLICATIONS Door and window tags are inserted as symbols when using CADD. Place door tags on an A-DOORIDEN layer and window tags on an A-GLAZ-IDEN layer. Attributes can be assigned to tags so you are prompted for a value, such as the door or window identification number or letter when inserted. Invisible attributes can be added to tag symbols in order to document additional door or window information
including size, model identification, material, and rough opening size. These attributes can be extracted to form a door or window schedule. Some architectural programs allow you to assign all door and window characteristics to objects. This information is used to instantly tag each door and window on the floor plan, and form parametric schedules. ■
61'-0" 1" 9'-82
38'-0" 17'-6"
17'-4"
3'-2" 5'-61 4"
8'-8"
8'-8"
STEP 23
STEP 23 B
STEP 21
S&P CLOSET 5
22'-5" X 23'-4"
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
R
GD TC
RANGE & HOOD W/ FAN, VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR
LS
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
6'-53 4"
6'-111 4"
7'-83 4" 1" 11'-42
13'-5"
G
STEP 21
A UP 1'-6" 3" 3'-74
STEP 22
G 2
1" 6'-62
6'-8"
10'-0"
A
B
2'-0"
STEP 20 GARAGE
STEP 22
DW
2
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD FROM FLOOR TO BOT OF ROOF SHTHG
REF
12'-9" X 15'-4"
STEP 21
ENTRY
STEP 21
UP 1'-2"
36'-0"
STEP 20 KITCHEN
3
11'-8"
3'-7"
BATH
10
HVAC CHASE
1" 3'-92 1" 1'-12
3'-6"
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
12'-4"
CL W CL D
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
4'-9"
STEP 21
12'-6" X 11'-5" 22" X 30" ATTIC ACCESS
3
7
UP 14R
5'-8"
DN 7 1/2"
WH
1
2'-0" 6'-0"
8'-0"
3'-6"
6'-0"
28'-0" 36'-0"
15'-10"
4" BRICK VENEER
12'-11" X 15'-4"
STEP 21 SHOP
4
1" 1'-62 1'-0"
4
22" X 30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS
STEP 22 LIVING
FURN
23'-8"
STEP 22
3'-6"
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD UNDER ALL USABLE AREA UNDER STAIRS
UTILITY
9'-5" X 7'-1"
17'-4" X 11'-5"
FLUSH HEARTH
DN 7 1/2"
STEP 21
STEP 20 DINING
1" 8'-62
SCREEN CLOSEABLE VENT WITHIN 24" OF FIREBOX
5'-0"
STEP 20 G
13 1" 7'-102
BARBECUE
34" RAIL 1" 2'-31" 3'-52 2
12'-2"
4'-51 4"
C H
SEE FDTN PLAN FOR FIREPLACE LOCATION
STEP 21
STEP 23
UP 1'-6"
C
17'-0" X 11'-5"
3" 6'-84
A
C
FAMILY
6'-63 4"
1" 4'-82
5'-0"
4" CONC FLATWORK TYP
6'-0"
PANTRY
3" 5'-114
1" 13'-32
1" 13'-22
COVERED PORCH (2) 4" X 4" POSTS
B
14 A
STEP 21 STEP 23 11'-0"
11'-0"
38'-0"
C
STEP 23
STEP 23 16'-0"
14
STEP 20 6'-0"
11'-0"
6'-0"
23'-0" 61'-0"
FIGURE 188 Step 20: Identify all doors and windows. Door and window tags are used in the model house. Step 21: Place all specific notes. Step 22: Label all rooms. Step 23: Add section indicators.
390
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS Many specific notes associated with a certain CADD symbol, such as the DW shown on a dishwasher, are best included with the symbol. This technique has been shown in the model house example. Place all other specific notes using appropriate leader or annotation commands, using an A-ANNO-NOTE layer. Room
identifiers can be constructed as symbols with attributes that prompt you for the room name and size. Some architectural programs parametrically associate the room name and dimensions with a room indicator. Add room identification symbols or text using the A-ANNO-NOTE layer or a specific A-FLOR-IDEN layer. ■
or CL D), water heater (WH), range (R), and hood with fan over range. All exhaust fans must be noted to vent to the outside. Note special material or finish requirements such as the 5/8" drywall used in the garage and under the stairs, the brick veneer found on the front face of the house, and concrete flatwork. Place fireplace specifications. Note stair direction and number of risers, handrails, and guardrails. Add notes for closets, pantries, casework, and architectural woodwork as needed. Note crawl space, attic access, and plumbing and HVAC chases. STEP 22 Label all rooms using 3/16" to 1/4" (5 to 6 mm) high text. The interior room dimensions can be placed under the room name using 1/8" (3 mm) high text if required by your instructor or company. Some offices prefer not to show interior room dimensions because they may not be as accurate as the dimensions. Other offices do show room dimensions when they can be accurately calculated, because they serve as a convenient reference. Use 1/8" (3 mm) high text for room sizes if included (see Figure 18-8). STEP 23 Add section indicators as needed. Interior elevation indicators are also normally placed at this
time, if interior elevations are part of the set of drawings. Interior elevations and cabinet elevations are described in Chapter 26. The example house shown in Figure 18-8 requires only section indicators, which are placed close to the house, between the house and the exterior dimensions. STEP 24 Add required material symbols, such as tile or stone, and patterns. Shade walls and handrails if required by your school or company. Optional woodgrain representation can be used on handrails, guardrails, and partial walls. Exterior and interior walls can be shaded or unshaded depending on school or company practice as described in Chapter 16 (see Figure 18-9). STEP 25 Place the general notes in a convenient location in the field of the drawing, or a location specified by company or school standards. The general notes for the model house are placed in the lower right corner of the drawing area (see Figure 18-9). STEP 26 Place the drawing title using 3/16" to 1/4" (5 to 6 mm) high text. Some drafters prefer to underline the title. Add the drawing scale centered below the title using 1/8" (3 mm) high text. Draw the north arrow if required.
CADD APPLICATIONS Material symbols and shading are often reserved for the last step as a manual drafting technique to avoid smudging, and in the event that object size or location requires modification. When using CADD, smudging is not a concern, and material symbols and shading can adjust to changes made to associated objects. As a result, material representations and
shading can be added earlier in the drafting process. For example, add the masonry pattern for the fireplace during Step 6 and brick veneer pattern during Step 16. CADD graphic pattern commands and options, as described in Chapter 16, can be used to quickly and accurately place any needed material symbol or shading. ■
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
61'-0"
17'-4"
A
5'-0"
12'-11" X 15'-4"
STEP 24
DN 7 1/2"
SHOP
22" X 30" ATTIC ACCESS
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
HVAC CHASE
S&P CLOSET 5
12'-9" X 15'-4"
10
1" 1'-1 2
BATH
GARAGE
22'-5" X 23'-4"
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
DW
2
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD FROM FLOOR TO BOT OF ROOF SHTHG
KITCHEN
ENTRY
3 UP 1'-2"
1" 3'-9 2
7
PANTRY
3'-6"
3
GD TC
RANGE & HOOD W/ FAN, VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR
LS
12'-4"
12'-6" X 11'-5"
4
4'-9"
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
3'-7" UP 14R
5'-8"
LIVING
G
1 A
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
B 6'-5 3 4"
6'-11 1 4"
A
G
UP 1'-6" 3" 3'-7 4
3" 7'-8 4 1" 11'-4 2
13'-5"
COVERED PORCH
16'-0"
1" 13'-2 2
STEP 27
(2) 4" X 4" POSTS
B
11'-0"
2
1" 6'-6 2
6'-8"
10'-0"
2'-0"
15'-10"
4" BRICK VENEER
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD UNDER ALL USABLE AREA UNDER STAIRS
UTILITY
1" 1'-6 2 1'-0"
3'-6"
G
9'-5" X 7'-1"
4
6'-0"
28'-0"
22" X 30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS
6'-0"
17'-4" X 11'-5"
STEP 24
3'-6"
DN 7 1/2"
36'-0"
DINING
FLUSH HEARTH
34" RAIL 1" 2'-3 1" 3'-5 2 2
12'-2"
17'-0" X 11'-5" SCREEN CLOSEABLE VENT WITHIN 24" OF FIREBOX 4'-5 1 4"
8'-0"
BARBECUE
1" 8'-6 2
SEE FDTN PLAN FOR FIREPLACE LOCATION
H
13
2'-0"
C
FAMILY
C
UP 1'-6"
1" 7'-10 2
C
6'-8 3 4"
36'-0"
B
6'-6 3 4"
1" 4'-8 2
5'-0"
8'-8"
11'-8"
8'-8"
23'-8"
3'-2" 5'-6 1 4"
6'-0"
4" CONC FLATWORK TYP
17'-6" 5'-11 3 4"
1" 13'-3 2
1" 9'-8 2
38'-0"
14
14
A
6'-0"
11'-0"
SQUARE FOOTAGE
C
11'-0"
38'-0"
23'-0" 61'-0"
MAIN FLOOR PLAN SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
N
MAIN FLOOR 1352 SQ FT UPPER FLOOR 1148 SQ FT TOTAL LIVING AREA2500 SQ FT GARAGE 556 SQ FT
6'-0"
STEP 25
GENERAL NOTES
1.ALL PENETRATIONS IN TOP OR BOTTOM PLATES FOR PLUMBING OR ELECTRICAL RUNS TO BE SEALED. SEE ELECTRICAL PLANS FOR ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS. 2.PROVIDE 1/2" WATERPROOF GYPSUM BOARD AROUND ALL TUBS, SHOWERS, AND SPAS. 3.VENT DRYER AND ALL FANS TO OUTSIDE AIR THRU VENT WITH DAMPER.
STEP 26
391
FIGURE 189 Step 24: Add required material symbols, such as tile or stone, and patterns. Step 25: Place the general notes in a convenient location in the field of the drawing, or a location specified by company or school standards. The general notes for the model house are placed in the lower right corner of the drawing. Step 26: Place the drawing title. Add the drawing scale centered below the title. Draw the north arrow if required. Step 27: Add square footage calculations.
392
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS Notes are easy to place on the drawing with CADD. An architectural CADD text style is available that closely duplicates the artistic freehand lettering that has traditionally been used on architectural drawings. Although the traditional text style is popular in many architectural offices, the U.S. National CAD Standard
recommends an easy-to-read font style such as SanSerif or Roman. Text is quickly entered by typing at the keyboard. Text is also easy to edit when corrections are needed. Notes are generally placed on an annotation layer, such as A-ANNO-NOTE. ■
NOTE: Door, window, and other schedules are commonly
STEP 28
placed with the floor plan drawings. For a single-level house design, the schedules can be added at this time if space is available on the sheet. The schedules are placed on another sheet if space is not available on the floor plan sheet. The schedules for the model house are placed with the lower floor plan, which is described later in this chapter. Most local building code departments require calculations of exterior openings to exterior wall square footages and the resulting ratio to be provided on the drawings. This requirement is described in the next Going Green feature. The calculations for the model house are placed in a table below the schedules, which are described later in this chapter. The table is often found on the same sheet as the main floor plan, and can be added at this time if space is available.
Add square footage calculations. Most architects and architectural designers calculate the square footage of each floor and the garage and place these calculations on the sheet with the main floor plan drawing, generally near the drawing title or general notes. The square footage for the main floor, second floor, partial basement, garage, and the total living area is shown in Figure 18-9. Floor plan square footage is calculated from the exterior face of studs, which includes all exterior walls. Additional floor levels may need to be drawn first in order to make accurate calculations.
STEP 27
Add the title block information as described in Chapter 4. The title block includes the project name and number, address, sheet number, scale, and other items such as company logo. Refer back to Figure 18-1.
SECOND-FLOOR PLAN LAYOUT The second-floor plan must be scaled to fit over the main-floor plan. The exterior walls, continued interior bearing partitions, and stairs must line up directly with the main floor. The only exceptions are portions of the second floor that are cantilevered or supported beyond the main floor. A bearing partition is an interior wall that supports weight from above and distributes the load to the foundation. A cantilever is a structure that projects out without support from below. A technique for aligning the second-floor drawing with the main floor when using manual drafting is to make a print of the main-floor plan and tape it to your table. Be sure to check the scale of the print for accuracy, as prints can expand or contract slightly. Place your new drawing sheet for the second-floor plan over the print, and adjust the new sheet so the drawing area for the second floor is over the firstfloor outline. Allow enough area for dimensions,
CADD APPLICATIONS Basic CADD tools are available that allow you to calculate square footage by selecting points around the perimeter of the area to measure. In some cases, the value returned can be copied and pasted to the floor plan as text. More advanced architectural programs
recognize the area of each space, and the area between exterior walls. This data can be extracted and added to the floor plan as text, or in the form of a table. Area calculations update, or can be set to update, when changes are made to the plan. ■
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
393
notes, and possible schedules. If the second-floor plan is smaller than the main-floor plan, there may be additional space on the sheet for door, window, and other schedules. Schedules should be on or near the same sheet where floor plans are placed, when
practical. Tape the second drawing sheet to the board after adjusting it to the desired position. Lay out the second-floor plan using Step 1 through Step 28 as previously described. Figure 18-10 shows a complete second-floor plan.
1" 38'-32 1" 17'-82
11'-7"
9'-0" 3" 5'-84
6'-0"
3" 3'-44
1" 5'-74
1" 5'-82
1" 5'-102
B
A D
F
3'-0"
BED#2
4 1" 2'-52
5'-10"
1" 1'-91" 3'-52 2
1" 6'-62
HVAC CHASE 11
4
6'-3" 22" X 30" ATTIC ACCESS
11
CLOSET S&P S&P CLOSET
4
5
S&P
12
S&DBL P
10'-0"
7 WALK-IN CLOSET
5
1" 6 3'-92
BATH
1" 6'-22
30" WIDE KNEE SPACE
3'-0"
E
36" FIBERGLASS SHOWER OVER 1/2" GYP BD
BED#3
10'-10" X 11'-9" 24" X 24" DBL INSULATED TEMP GLASS SKYLIGHT
6' FIBERGLASS SPA
S&P
9
G
E
B
A
3" 2'-104 7'-10"
1" 9'-42
4'-0"
2'-71 4"
9'-6"
4'-9"
6'-10" 11'-7"
1" 38'-32
UPPER FLOOR PLAN SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 1810 The complete second-floor plan for the model home used throughout this textbook.
30'-0"
36" RAIL
34" RAIL
30'-0"
DN 14R
4
1" 2'-31" 2'-32 2
24" X 36" OPENABLE INSULATED TEMP GLASS SKYLIGHT
10'-10" X 11'-5"
LINEN
12'-11" X 19'-3"
20'-0"
BATH
3'-8"
BED#1
5' FIBERGLASS TUB/SHOWER OVER 1/2" WP GYP BD 12'-2"
D
J
13'-3"
3" 5'-114
394
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS Alignment from one floor to the next is easy and accurate when preparing floor plans using CADD. Commands and options are available that can be used to control different floors, and relate multiple floors with each other. One option is to manage different floors using layers. To apply this method, once the main floor is drawn, all of the layers except the wall lines are frozen or turned off. Now, the second floor is drawn directly over the main floor with layer names that identify secondfloor features. When finished using the main-floor walls as reference, they too are turned off or frozen. If the building is two-story, then the main-floor wall layer can be named A-WALL-0001 and the second-floor wall layer can be A-WALL-0002. This -0001 and -0002 system can be used to separate all main- and second-floor layers. For example, the doors on the main floor can have the layer name A-DOOR-0001 and the second-floor door layer can be A-DOOR-0002. Another way to create the second-floor plan when using CADD is to use the main-floor plan as a
reference drawing. When creating a drawing, it is often necessary to reference a similar drawing. For example, when drawing the second floor, the main floor can be referenced as a base. Referencing a drawing is similar to inserting an entire drawing file into the current drawing. In AutoCAD, for example, reference drawings are called external references, or xrefs. A drawing that contains one or more reference drawings is called the host drawing. There are several advantages to using xrefs in drawing projects. If the original drawing being referenced is modified by another drafter while you are working on the host drawing, any changes to the file are automatically applied the next time the host drawing is opened. Another advantage is that xrefs occupy very little file space in the host drawing. The second-floor layout becomes the host drawing when the main-floor plan is referenced into the layout for the second-floor plan. The referenced main-floor plan is now used as a base for creating the second-floor plan following the steps previously discussed. ■
BASEMENT PLAN LAYOUT
When a basement is used, the floor plan is modified as shown in Figure 18-11. A home can be designed with a partial basement or a full basement. A partial basement can be designed under any desired portion of the foundation area. A full basement occupies the entire area inside the foundation walls. A basement can also be below grade, or partially below grade. Below grade is any part of the house or structure that is underground or beneath ground level. A below-grade basement requires the use of window wells located at the windows. Window wells are described in detail in Chapter 16. Window wells with a vertical depth of more than 44" (1118 mm) must be equipped with an approved permanently attached ladder or stairs, accessible when the window is in the fully open position. The clear horizontal dimension must allow the window to open fully and provide a minimum accessible clear opening of 9 sq ft (0.84 m2), and with a minimum dimension of 36" (914 mm). If the windows in the basement are the only way to get out, then they must have a minimum net operable width dimension of 20" (508 mm) and have a finish sill height of no more than 44" (1118 mm) above the floor. These codes are covered in detail in Chapter 9. Figure 18-12 shows a partial below-grade basement plan provided for the example house.
When a home has a basement, the basement plan layout is drawn using the same methods described for the firstand second-floor plan layouts. When a basement plan is very simple or when left as an unfinished basement, it can be drawn in conjunction with the foundation plan. An unfinished basement is one that has bare basement walls, with no interior partitions separating rooms, and no interior finish materials. In most cases, and especially for a finished basement, it is best to draw a separate basement floor plan so foundation and floor plan characteristics are isolated. A finished basement is one that has basement walls covered with finish materials, interior partitions designed to create rooms, and rooms that are finished as in any other living space. Basement construction is commonly concrete or concrete block with wood or steel stud framing and furring on the concrete walls for finish material to be applied. When a basement is part of the design, a stairway must be established. One of the best ways to conserve floor space is for the basement stairs to run under the stairs to the second floor. The model floor plan used throughout this textbook and shown in Figure 18-1 is for a house without a basement. This design allows for a closet or storage under the stairs.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
395
C
FAMILY
C
SEE FDTN PLAN FOR FIREPLACE LOCATION
17'-0" X 11'-5"
SCREEN CLOSEABLE VENT WITHIN 24" OF FIREBOX FLUSH HEARTH
34" RAIL DN 14R
DN 7 1/2"
7
BATH
LIVING
DN 7 1/2"
S&P CLOSET 5
34" RAIL
4" BRICK VENEER
UP 14R
12'-11" X 15'-4"
ENTRY 1
B LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
A
A UP 1'-6"
FIGURE 1811 A good way to conserve floor space is to run the basement stairs directly below the stairs to the second floor, as shown in this partial plan.
A daylight basement can be used when the ground slopes enough to provide a full wall height at the rear or side of a house. A daylight basement allows you to enter and exit the basement directly from ground level. Windows are provided for natural lighting and a door or doors can be provided for access in the daylight portion of the basement. Figure 18-13 shows an optional floor plan with a daylight basement used for the model home. A full basement can be finished or unfinished, and below grade or designed as a daylight basement when the grade slopes appropriately. Full basements are often designed below a main floor to provide a significant amount of extra square footage at a relatively
economical cost per square foot. When designing a full basement it is important to provide adequate support for the main floor structure above. This support can be designed using bearing partitions, posts and beams, or beams. A post is a vertical structural member used to support a beam and carry the load to the foundation. A beam is a horizontal structural member used to support loads above. The full basement in Figure 18-14 shows how significant extra square footage can be created. Some locations are not suitable for basements, because of excavation problems such as solid rock below grade, or excessive underground water. Excavation is the removal of material for construction purposes.
396
GOING GREEN The International Energy Conservation Code
The International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) sets code compliance by stating that buildings are limited to a glazing area that does not exceed 15% of the gross area of the exterior walls. However, the code also provides you with the opportunity to use performancebased solutions for detached one- and two-family dwellings. The IECC performance-based approach is complicated, but flexible about design choices. The IECC allows you to consider the total building performance, and energy trade-offs are permitted. For example, you can compensate for extra glazing by using more insulation
or other energy-saving design strategies to compensate for the energy lost by the additional glazing. In response to the IECC exterior wall glazing code requirement, most local building code departments mandate that drawings include the exterior openings to exterior wall square footages and the resulting ratio. If the opening to exterior wall ratio exceeds 15%, alternate energy-saving design and construction practices need to be addressed. The exterior openings to exterior wall square footages and resulting ratio for the model house are given in a table below the schedules in Figure 18-12.
18'-2" 17'-6"
8"
4 PIECE WINDOW WELL WELLCRAFT 5600 12" GRAVEL BELOW WINDOW WELL GRADE TYP
8"
STORAGE
6'-61 4"
16'-10" X 11'-2" ROUGH IN FOR STORAGE TANK FOR SOLAR WH 1" 6'-61 3'-92 4"
WH
FURN
WINDOW SCHEDULE
MARK A
SIZE 1'-0" X 5'-0"
TYPE TEMPERED
ROUGH -
QUAN 2
B
8'-0" X 5'-0"
W4N5 CSM
8'-2 3/4" X 5'-5 7/8"
1
C
4'-0" X 5'-0"
W2N5 CSM
4'-2 1/4" X 5'-5 7/8"
2
D
4'-0" X 3'-6"
W2N3 CSM
4'-2 1/4" X 3'-5 1/2"
2
E
3'-6" X 3'-6"
2N3 CSM
3'-5 1/4" X 3'-5 1/2"
2
F
6'-0" X 4'-0"
G64 SLDG
6'-0 1/2" X 4'-0 1/2"
1
G
5'-0" X 3'-6"
G536 SLDG
5'-0 1/2" X 3'-6 1/2"
4
H
4'-0" X 3'-6"
G436 SLDG
4'-0 1/2" X 3'-6 1/2"
1
J
4'-0" X 2'-0"
A41 AWN
4'-0 1/2" X 2'-0 5/8"
1
K
4'-0" X 4'-0"
G42 SLDG
4'-0 1/2" X 4'-0 1/2"
3
PARTY
12'-5" X 14'-10" 2 X 4 DFPT STUDS
MARK 1
8"
4'-23 4"
K
34" RAIL
6'-6"
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD UNDER ALL USABLE AREA UNDER STAIRS
DOOR SCHEDULE
5
UP 14R
15'-2"
K
7'-0"
3'-111 4"
8 26'-8"
28'-0"
5'-11"
11'-6"
K
WORKBENCH
5'-7"
8"
B
5 1/2" WIDE CONC LEDGE FOR BRICK VENEER
B
TYPE SC RP METAL INSULATED
2
3'-0" X 6'-8"
SC RP FLUSH METAL INSUL
2
3
2'-8" X 6'-8"
SC
2
4
2'-8" X 6'-8"
HC
6
5
2'-6" X 6'-8"
HC
4
6
2'-6" X 6'-8"
POCKET
1
7
2'-4" X 6'-8"
POCKET
2
8
PR 2'-6" X 6'-8"
HC
1
9
5'-0" X 6'-0"
BIPASS
1
10
3'-0" X 6'-8"
BIFOLD
1
11
3'-6" X 6'-8"
BIFOLD
2 1
12
3'-0" X 6'-0"
SHATTER PROOF
13
6'-0" X 6'-8"
WOOD FRAME TEMP SLDG GL
1
14
9'-0" X 7'-0"
OVERHEAD GARAGE
2
WALL AREAS (EXCLUDING BASEMENT) 8"
17'-6" 18'-2"
LOWER FLOOR PLAN
8"
QUAN 1
SIZE 3'-0" X 6'-8"
WINDOWS SKYLIGHTS DOORS TOTAL OPENINGS % OPENINGS
3249 SQ FT 286.6 SQ FT 10 SQ FT 67.4 SQ FT 354 SQ FT 11%
SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 1812 This is a partial below-grade basement plan with the door and window schedules for the entire project. Notice that window wells are required to allow egress (exit) from the basement in case of an emergency. A 44" (1118 mm) maximum sill height is required for these windows.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
397
18'-2" 17'-6"
8"
8"
8'-5"
8'-5"
8"
B 15
1" 13'-02
1" 3'-92
PARTY
5
2 X 4 DFPT STUDS
8"
4'-23 4"
K
34" RAIL
7'-0"
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD UNDER ALL USABLE AREA UNDER STAIRS
6'-6"
K
36" X 24" CRAWL ACCESS
16'-3" X 26'-1"
UP 14R
9'-101 4" 26'-8"
28'-0"
K
11'-6"
5'-7"
STEP FOUNDATION
4 PIECE WINDOW WELL WELLCRAFT 5600 12" GRAVEL BELOW WINDOW WELL GRADE TYP
B
8"
5 1/2" WIDE CONC LEDGE FOR BRICK VENEER 17'-6" 18'-2"
LOWER FLOOR PLAN SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 1813 This is a partial floor plan with a daylight basement used for the model home.
8"
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Architectural Drafting and Design
61'-0" 59'-10"
6"
1" 16'-102
3'-2"
1" 5'-32
1" 3'-82
1" 2'-32
11'-8" 3" 5'-94
5'-101 4"
4 PIECE WINDOW WELL WELLCRAFT 5600 12" GRAVEL BELOW WINDOW WELL GRADE TYP
A
C
8"
B
K
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13'-11" X 10'-11"
K
3" 7'-74
BED#5
11'-1" X 10'-6" LINEN CABINET W/ 5 SHELVES
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8"
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12'-9"
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5 3'-7"
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5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD UNDER ALL USABLE AREA UNDER STAIRS
BATH
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3'-111 4"
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ROUGH IN FOR STORAGE TANK FOR SOLAR WH
1" 3'-52
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12'-51 4"
1" 2'-32
11'-91 4"
1" 14'-62
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34" RAIL
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RECREATION EXERCISE
5 1/2" WIDE CONC LEDGE FOR BRICK VENEER 37'-2"
8"
8"
38'-6"
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A
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LOWER FLOOR PLAN SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 1814 Composite CADD floor plan. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD.
FLOOR PLAN DRAWING CHECKLIST Refer to the floor plan drawing checklist below to be sure that you have included all of the necessary items. Floor plans for special applications such as electrical, plumbing, and HVAC require additional information. Refer to Chapter 19 for electrical plans, Chapter 20 for plumbing plans, and Chapter 21 for HVAC plans. Not all items are found on every set of floor plans. Check off the features used with this floor plan drawing checklist: ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Exterior walls. Interior walls. Furring over concrete walls (if used). Masonry veneer (if used). Doors: Proper use of exterior doors; correct door swing direction; clearance from walls, cabinets, and traffic.
❑ Door sizes or symbols for door schedule key. ❑ Windows: Proper symbols; clearance from walls, cabinets, and traffic. ❑ Window sizes or symbols for window schedule key. ❑ Skylights located and specified. ❑ Base cabinets. ❑ Upper cabinets. ❑ Closets and storage: Closets and wardrobes labeled and with shelf and pole or additional shelves and drawers, storage closet, linen with shelves, pantry with shelves, special storage features noted. ❑ Appliances: Cooktop/range, hood with vent or vent, oven, double oven, microwave, refrigerator, lazy Susan, washer and dryer with vent, trash compactor. ❑ Utilities: Furnace, air conditioner, water heater with platform and straps.
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CADD APPLICATIONS Using CADD to Draw Floor Plans Procedures for laying out floor plans with CADD are similar to manual drafting. However, as described throughout this chapter, CADD provides greater drawing flexibility, and eliminates common manual drafting concerns such as smudging and poor accuracy. When using CADD, you may find that it is more productive to add symbols such as doors, windows, cabinets, and fixtures earlier in the drawing process, or area-by-area. Even dimensions, associated with objects or points, can be added earlier so you can instantly see if the drawing is correct or if it requires alteration. As soon as walls are drawn, symbols can be placed to aid in design and confirm correct wall sizes and locations. If an error is made, editing commands and options are used to correct the problem. If necessary, objects are erased from the screen and redrawn. With most architectural CADD systems, the drawing elements are placed on individual layers, so you can control the display of these items. For example, if you want the floor plan shown without dimensions, turn off the dimension layer. Refer to Chapter 7 and the CADD Application features in each chapter for discussions of drawing with CADD layers.
Some residential architects choose to display the electrical layout on the floor plan; others create the electrical layout on background drawings—a subset of the information contained in the floor plan. For example, the only information shown on the electrical background drawing is the electrical layout. This drawing is sent to the electrical contractor for bidding and construction purposes. Sending the electrical layout without unnecessary detail often reduces bidding and construction errors and simplifies the bidding process. With CADD, the drafter has the flexibility to display the floor plan with or without the background drawings. A composite drawing exists when the layer and background drawings are displayed together. A composite CADD floor plan drawing is shown in Figure 18-14. In commercial applications, the background drawings become an even more important feature of CADD capabilities. Background drawings are created for areas such as plumbing, mechanical (heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning), structural, and interior design. ■
❑ Garage floor specified and steel post in front of furnace and/or water heater when located in the garage.
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
❑ Garage door header and symbol, and side exit door. ❑ Plumbing fixtures—Kitchen: sinks, dishwasher, vegetable sink, garbage disposal; Baths: vanity, sinks, shower, tub, tub/shower, spa, toilets, bidet, urinal; Laundry: laundry tray, built-in ironing board. ❑ Hose bibbs. ❑ Attic and crawl space access. ❑ Fireplace. ❑ Stairs, risers and direction, and handrails. ❑ Sunken or raised rooms shown and specified. ❑ Exterior dimensions. ❑ Interior dimensions: Be sure all features are dimensioned without double dimensioning.
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
❑ Structural members and size specifications.
❑
❑ Changes in ceiling elevations and vaulted ceilings noted.
❑
Overhangs and cantilevers shown and specified. Decks, patios, slabs, walks, and steps. Support posts. Guardrails. Room names and sizes. Specific notes. General notes. Door and window schedules keyed to the plan. Other desired schedules, such as finish schedules. Electrical, plumbing, and HVAC schedules are described in the following chapters. Drawing title and scale. North arrow. Material symbols. Exterior wall area to opening ratio calculations and note. Floor plan square footage calculations by floor, garage, and total square footage noted. Title block information.
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GOING GREEN Living Smart
INTRODUCTION The Living Smart program, in Portland, Oregon, initiated a design competition with the goal of creating a catalog of home plans for urban neighborhoods. The resulting catalog provides the public with affordable sets of well-designed plans for narrow-lot homes called small footprint houses. Living Smart is a pilot program intended to be an incentive to build well-designed houses on narrow lots. From more than 400 local, national, and international entries, the city selected two designs that represent the right fit with the unique character of Portland neighborhoods. One of the winning homes is the topic of this Going Green feature.
THE SMALL FOOTPRINT HOME A small footprint home is a home that is generally designed for a small urban lot. A small footprint home is also referred to as a fit house, because it is designed to fit on lots where traditional designs do not fit. The term footprint is often used in reference to the foundation dimensions upon which the house is constructed. The lots where small footprint homes are built can be as small as 25' × 50'. These lots are often found in old neighborhoods where small spaces are sometimes available for new homes. Designing small footprint homes is a challenge with proportion, natural lighting, and efficient use of space being keys to a quality planning. Small footprint homes are also commonly designed using traditional architecture so they blend into older existing neighborhoods.
Historic Design The small footprint house, shown in Figure 18-15, uses characteristics of the Victorian architectural style, which is the common style in the neighborhood where this home is now constructed. The architect’s goal was to have a design that respected the character of the neighborhood, but did not try to be an exact copy of Victorian style, so the new house could have its own identity.
Living in a Small House Living in a small house means living with only what you need. Rooms can have dual functions, spaces can change with time, a library can become a child’s bedroom, and the kitchen can have a desk space for office work. A main goal of a small house is keeping the plan simple. The size of the lot, zoning setbacks, and height restrictions often determine the available dimensions.
FIGURE 1815 The exterior photograph of the small footprint Living Smart home shows the traditional Victorian architectural style. Designed by Architect Bryan Higgins, AIA, LEED AP of Portland, Oregon.
The footprint of the house shown in Figure 18-16 is 16' × 38' outside dimensions at the first floor. The planning of the house is based on a simple concept where circulation stairs are located in the center with an area on each side of the stairs. With a small lot, square footage is achieved by building up and down. Basements are great for storage, and lofts are interesting work spaces. When building up, the living spaces could be on the upper floors. Locating the living spaces on the upper floors allows for the possibility of a more interesting spatial experience. The living room can be on the second floor, which is open to vaulted ceilings that step up to the third-floor studio space, guest bedroom, or possible future master bedroom. The exterior front photograph in Figure 18-16 shows the multistory design. The roof cascades up, which closely matches the height of the house next door, and is within the 25' zoning height limit.
FIGURE 1816 The floor plans of the small footprint Living Smart home show the design characteristics. Designed by Architect Bryan Higgins, AIA, LEED AP of Portland, Oregon.
GOING GREEN 401
Living Smart (Continued)
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GOING GREEN Living Smart (Continued)
Each space in a small footprint home needs to be designed with furniture placement in mind. Tight spaces do not allow for many furniture placement options. For example, the bedroom has modular dresser furniture in the closets, eliminating the need for dresser furniture. Using built-ins allows rooms to be smaller. Using pocket doors clears floor space from door swings. The floor plans in Figure 18-17 have two pocket doors on the first-floor bathroom, one on the first-floor bedroom, and one on the third-floor bathroom. Having two doors in a small bathroom eliminates a dead end, and the circulation flows better. With limited space, the design must work with all the site features, such as sun, views, neighboring backyards and houses, historic character, and zoning regulations. A modern plan with open spaces allows for better traffic flow in the home. The stair is in the center of the house with an area on each side. The vertical circulation in the center eliminates hallways. This prevents spaces such as the living room from being located in a traffic pattern. Other areas can be less defined; for example, the dining room can accommodate two to eight people eating or groups of people gathering near the kitchen. A small efficient kitchen is designed to open to dining and living spaces. There is economy in scale with a small footprint house. For example, a smaller house allows the builder to save costs and to use better materials. The Living Smart home discussed here was able to use cedar trim, wood siding, wood-frame windows, and a copper roof canopy on the exterior. The interior has wood floors, custom-built shelving, and custom kitchen cabinets. The location and the many environmental features used in this Living Smart home create a more sustainable lifestyle for the owners: • Durable materials provide a long life cycle. • Natural ventilation eliminates the need for air-conditioning. • An in-floor radiant heating system eliminates vents and provides clean, efficient, and quiet heating.
FIGURE 1817 The Living Smart small footprint home has views through the house by designing the living areas on the second floor open to the third-floor studio. Designed by Architect Bryan Higgins, AIA, LEED AP of Portland, Oregon.
• Windows for views and extra natural light allow for energy savings by keeping light fixtures off during the day. • Close proximity to public transportation and walking distance to downtown keep automobile use to a minimum. In addition to providing outside views, this Living Smart home has views through the house by designing the living areas on the second floor open to the third floor studio as shown in Figure 18-17. This open design provides a sense of expansiveness that small houses have difficultly achieving.
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you research available products and floor plan design options. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.kitchenaid.com www.whirlpool.com www.homedepot.com www.lowes.com www.jacuzzi.com
Company, Product, or Service Appliances Appliances Appliance, cabinet, plumbing fixtures Appliance, cabinet, plumbing fixtures Bath fixtures
www.aristokraft.com www.homecrestcab.com www.kraftmaid.com www.optiflame.com www.heatnglo.com www.nfrc.org www.heatilator.com www.schultestorage.com
Cabinets Cabinets Cabinets Electric fireplaces Gas fireplaces and products National Fenestration Rating Council Prefabricated fireplaces Storage systems
www.andersenwindows.com www.marvin.com www.pella.com www.crestlineonline.com
Window and door fixtures Window and door fixtures Window and door fixtures Window and door fixtures
See CD for more information
Floor Plan Layout Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 18 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 18–1 Describe the drawing working area. Question 18–2 What size sheets are generally used for architectural drawings? Question 18–3 Residential floor plans are generally drawn to what scale? Question 18–4 Identify two alternatives that could be considered when the drawing space is not adequate to accommodate the drawing. Question 18–5 Define construction lines. Question 18–6 Identify four factors that contribute to a well-balanced drawing. Question 18–7 Describe methods to help determine the layout for a second-floor plan quickly using manual drafting, and also using CADD. Question 18–8 Why should layout work be drawn very lightly or with blue lead when using manual drafting?
Question 18–9 Discuss why formulas for centering a drawing in the working area may not always provide the complete information for laying out a drawing. Question 18–10 Describe and give an example of typical inch and metric values used when dimensioning a floor plan. Question 18–11 What scale is commonly used when floor plans are drawn with metric values? Question 18–12 Why is centering a drawing within expected borders less important with CADD than with manual drafting? Question 18–13 If you are planning to plot a CADD drawing at a 1/4" = 1'–0" scale and the proposed plot area is 20" × 16", what are the CADD drawing limits? Question 18–14 Describe two ways to orient the floor plan on the sheet. Question 18–15 Name one drawing in which the north arrow must be shown. Question 18–16 Given each of the following drawing types, name a recommended CADD layer name for use with the AIA CAD Layer Guidelines: a. Architectural walls b. Architectural doors c. Architectural windows d. Construction lines on the floor plan
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GOING GREEN
A small footprint home is also referred to as a fit house, because it is designed to fit on lots where traditional designs do not fit. The lots where small footprint homes are built can be as small as 25' × 50'. These lots are often found in old neighborhoods where small spaces are sometimes available for
e. Manufactured cabinets f. Cabinets built on the job g. Floor plan appliances h. Water heater
new homes, but they are also designed and built in new neighborhoods where space conservation, environmental planning, and energy-efficiency issues are most important. The plan used in Problem 18–1 is the focus of the Going Green that was presented on page 400.
2. Follow the steps outlined in this chapter to completely draw the floor plan or floor plans for the selected problem or problems. 3. Use one of the following layout methods for your selected or assigned floor plan problem or problems:
i. Plumbing fixtures
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Use manual drafting to draw the selected floor plan or plans by following the steps outlined in this chapter. Do not include the electrical layout. Drawing electrical plans is covered in Chapter 19.
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Use CADD to draw the selected floor plan or plans. Include all floor plan symbols, room labels, notes, and dimensions. Do not include the electrical layout. Drawing electrical plans is covered in Chapter 19. Establish layers as identified in the American Institute of Architects (AIA) CAD Layer Guidelines, discussed in Chapter 7, and identified in chapters throughout this textbook.
j. Floor plan fireplace k. Stairs l. Handrails m. Floor plan dimensions n. Floor plan lighting o. Power for appliances p. Floor plan structural q. Floor plan symbols r. Floor plan notes s. Walls on first floor t. Walls on second floor
Question 18–17 If you are using CADD to draw floor plans, what interior wall thickness would you use for 2 × 4 studs and 1/2" drywall on each side?
ADDITIONAL DIRECTIONS: Draw all floor plans using a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0". Use symbols, dimensions, and layout methods described in Chapter 16 through Chapter 18 of this textbook. ●
Include all floor plan symbols, room labels, notes, and dimensions.
Question 18–19 Define field built.
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Question 18–20 Give at least three basic requirements that relate to window wells.
Use door and window sizes and specifications when given.
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Establish your own door and window sizes and specifications when not given. Create door and window schedules with your floor plan drawings.
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Calculate the final square footage of each floor and the garage and place these calculations with the floor plans as square footage for each floor, with the garage separately, and with the total living area square footage entered last. Refer to the description provided in this chapter.
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Calculate the square footage of all exterior openings, the square footage of all exterior walls, which includes the walls between the garage and living area. Calculate the ratio of exterior openings to exterior walls. Place this information as a note as described in this chapter.
Question 18–18 Define casework.
PROBLEMS GENERAL DIRECTIONS: The given floor plan problems vary in complexity from basic to advanced. 1. Select (or your instructor will assign) one or more of the following residential projects. The basic floor plan designs are given, along with representative exterior elevations, exterior architectural renderings, or exterior photographs for reference. You need to complete the floor plan drawing(s) by adding the missing and unidentified features as described and illustrated in Chapter 16 through Chapter 18. Try to keep exterior dimensions in 1'–0" or 2'–0" (300 or 600 mm) increments as much as possible for economic construction.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
405
3
2
1
Small Footprint Plans (Problem 18–1 through Problem 18–3)
PROBLEM 18–1 Designed by Architect Bryan Higgins, AIA, LEED AP of Portland, Oregon.
406
PROBLEM 18–2 Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
PROBLEM 18–3 Courtesy of Laurel Numbers and Leann Collins.
407
408
Architectural Drafting and Design
Single-Level Plans (Problem 18–4 through Problem 18–12) The following problems are based on single-level houses that vary in complexity from basic through advanced.
PROBLEM 18–4 Courtesy Computer Aided Designs, Inc.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
PROBLEM 18–5 Courtesy Computer Aided Designs, Inc.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PROBLEM 18–6 Courtesy Computer Aided Designs, Inc.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
PROBLEM 18–7 Courtesy Computer Aided Designs, Inc.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PROBLEM 18–8 Courtesy Paul Masterson.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
PROBLEM 18–9 Courtesy SunRidge Design.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PROBLEM 18–10 Courtesy SunRidge Design.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
PROBLEM 18–11 Courtesy SunRidge Design.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PROBLEM 18–12 Courtesy SunRidge Design.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
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Multistory and Multilevel Plans (Problem 18–13 through Problem 18–21) The following problems are based on multistory and multilevel houses that vary in complexity from basic through advanced.
PROBLEM 18–13 Courtesy Home Building Plan Service, Inc.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PROBLEM 18–14 Courtesy Computer Aided Designs, Inc.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
PROBLEM 18–15 Courtesy TKP Architects, PC, Golden, Colorado (Continued ).
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PROBLEM 18–15 (Continued .)
Architectural Drafting and Design
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
PROBLEM 18–16 Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. (Continued ).
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PROBLEM 18–16 (Continued .)
Architectural Drafting and Design
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
PROBLEM 18–17 Courtesy SunRidge Design.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PROBLEM 18–18 Courtesy SunRidge Design.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
PROBLEM 18–19 Courtesy SunRidge Design.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PROBLEM 18–20 Courtesy SunRidge Design.
Chapter 18: Floor Plan Layout
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PROBLEM 18–21 Courtesy SunRidge Design.
Multifamily Plan (Problem 18–22) Problem 18–22 This problem is a multifamily duplex plan. A duplex is a residential plan divided into two separate living units. This is also an advanced redesign problem. Redesign the given plan using the following instructions:
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Design a utility/laundry room between the middle bedroom and the bathrooms of each unit. Make this new room large enough to accommodate the clothes washer, clothes dryer, water heater, and furnace. Remove the clothes washer and clothes dryer from the kitchen in each unit where they are currently located. Remove the water heater and furnace from the their current locations in the garages of each unit.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
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Move the door from the garages into the kitchens as far as possible toward the dividing wall between the units.
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Redesign the kitchens with a pantry in the location vacated by the clothes washers and clothes dryers. Expand the kitchen cabinets as much as possible. Make the kitchen design open to the dining room, and redesign the kitchen as desired.
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Move the fireplace to a location between the dining room and living room of both units. Design the fireplaces with a double opening to the dining room and the living room. Install gas-fired logs in the fireplaces.
PROBLEM 18–22 Courtesy Home Building Plan Service, Inc.
Remove the fireplaces from their current locations in the garages to make more garage space. ●
Design a small storage room between the garage and the living area of each unit. Provide a door from the garages into the storage room. Increase the garage depths to the same amount as the new storage room depths.
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Increase the depth of the covered entry by at least 4'.
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Redesign the exterior as desired to update the appearance from the current 1960s architectural style.
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Make other design changes that you think will improve the plan.
www.kevinmillerphoto.com
SECTION 5
Supplemental Floor Plan Drawings
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CHAPTER 19
Electrical Plans I
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The electrical plans display all of the circuits and systems to be used by the electrical contractor during installation. Electrical installation for new construction occurs in these three phases: ●
Temporary. The installation of a temporary underground or overhead electrical service near the construction site and close to the final meter location provides electricity during construction.
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Rough-in electrical. Also known as simply “rough-in” or prewiring, this is when the electrical boxes and wiring are installed. Rough-in happens after the structure is framed and covered with roofing. The electrical meter and permanent service can also be installed at this time.
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Finish electrical. This is when the light fixtures, outlets and covers, and appliances are installed prior to occupancy. Finish electrical is one of the last construction phases.
Electrical plans can be placed on the floor plan with all the other symbols, information, and dimensions as discussed in Chapter 16 through Chapter 18. This is a common practice on simple floor plans where the addition of the electrical symbols does not overcomplicate the drawing. Another option is to draw electrical plans on a separate sheet that displays the floor plan walls and key symbols, such as doors, windows, stairs, fireplaces, cabinets, and room labels. This chapter takes the second approach but provides a discussion on how both methods are used.
ELECTRICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS A number of terms are unique to electrical applications. It is important to be familiar with key electrical terminology to help you understand this chapter and communicate effectively. The following are terms that are commonly associated with electricity and electrical construction: Ampere: A measurement of electrical current flow. Referred to by its abbreviation amp or amps. Box: A box equipped with clamps, used to terminate a conduit. Also known as an electrical box or outlet box. Connections are made in the box, and a variety of covers are available for finish electrical. A premanufactured box or casing is installed during electrical rough-in to house the switches, outlets, and fixture mounting (see Figure 19-1 and Electrical work below). Breaker: An electric safety switch that automatically opens a circuit when excessive amperage occurs. Also referred to as a circuit breaker. Circuit: The various conductors, connections, and devices found in the path of electrical flow from the source through the components and back to the source. Conductor: A material that permits the free motion of electricity. Copper is a common conductor in architectural wiring. Conduit: A metal or fiber pipe or tube used to enclose one or more electrical conductors.
CADD APPLICATIONS CADD provides an excellent tool for creating electrical plans after the floor plans are drawn. Unneeded floor plan layers are turned off or frozen with electrical layers
turned on to create the electrical plan. It is easy to create a separate drawing from the key elements of the base drawing in this manner. ■ 431
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STUD
electrical system. The installation of the wiring is referred to as the rough-in. Rough-in takes place after the framing is completed and the structure is dried-in. Dried-in refers to installing the roof or otherwise making the building dry. The light fixtures, outlets, and all other final electrical work are done when the construction is nearly complete. This is referred to as the finish electrical. Temporary, rough-in, and finish electrical make up the electrical work.
WIRE
OUTLET BOX BOTTOM PLATE
Ground: An electrical connection to the earth by means of a rod.
A
Junction box: A box that protects electrical wiring splices in conductors or joints in runs. The box has a removable cover for easy access (see Figure 19-1).
JOIST OR RAFTER (STUD IF WALL MOUNTED)
Lighting outlet: An electrical outlet that is intended for the direct connection of a lighting fixture (see Figure 19-1).
WIRE
Meter: An instrument used to measure electrical quantities. The electrical meter for a building is where the power enters and is monitored for the electrical utility. Meter base: The mounting base on which the electrical meter is attached. It contains all of the connections and clamps. OUTLET BOX
B
Switch leg: The electrical conductor from a switch to the electrical device being controlled.
COVER JOIST OR RAFTER (STUD IF WALL MOUNTED)
JUNCTION BOX
WIRE
C
Outlet: An electrical connector used to plug in devices. A duplex outlet, with two outlets, is the typical wall plug.
CONNECTION FASTENER
FIGURE 191 Installation of outlets and junction box. (A) Outlet box. (B) Lighting outlet. (C ) Junction box.
Temporary electric service: This service is provided during construction and is used for construction electricity purposes. This service is installed on a temporary pole, which is placed near the permanent power pole or transformer. The temporary service has a meter base and meter, and usually two 20-ampere, 120-VAC, grounded, duplex outlets and one 50-ampere, four-wire, single phase, 240-VAC (208-VAC at some locations) outlet mounted in a weatherproof enclosure. Volt: The unit of measure for electrical force. Watt: A unit measure of power.
Distribution panel: Where the conductor from the meter base is connected to individual circuit breakers, which are connected to separate circuits for distribution to various locations throughout the structure. Also known as a panel. Electrical work: The installation of the wiring and fixtures for a complete residential or commercial
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT DESIGN Due to the number of electrical appliances that make modern living enjoyable, the design of the electrical circuits in a home is important. Discuss with the client any anticipated needs for electric energy in
Chapter 19: Electrical Plans
the home. Such a discussion includes the intended use of each of the rooms and the potential placement of furniture in them. Try to design the electrical circuits so there are enough outlets and switches at convenient locations. Electrical code requirements state the size of some circuits and the placement of certain outlets and switches within the home. Refer to Chapter 9. In addition to convenience and code requirements, you should consider cost. A client may want outlets 4' (1220 mm) apart in each room, but the construction budget may not allow for such a luxury. Try to establish budget guidelines and then work closely with the client to achieve desired results beyond minimum code requirements. Although switches, convenience outlets, and electrical wire and boxes may not seem to cost very much individually, their installation in great quantity can be costly. In addition, attractive and useful light fixtures required in most rooms can also be very expensive.
BASIC ELECTRICAL DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS Electrical systems should be designed for convenience of use and to meet minimum code requirements. Common codes and convenience applications to consider when designing electrical circuits are described in the following: ●
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Duplex convenience outlets should be a maximum of 12' (3657 mm) apart. Closer spacing is desirable, although economy is a factor. Duplex convenience outlets, also called duplex outlets or outlets, are a standard electrical outlet with two plug receptacles. Duplex outlets should be no more than 6' (1820 mm) from an opening. Each wall over 2' (610 mm) in length must have an outlet. Consider furniture layout, if possible, so duplex outlets do not become inaccessible behind large pieces of furniture. Place a duplex outlet next to or behind a desk or table where light is needed or near a possible reading area. Place a duplex outlet near a fireplace, for an adjacent table light, for a vacuum, or for fireplace maintenance. Place a duplex outlet in a hallway, for a vacuum. Duplex outlets should be placed close together in kitchens and installed where fixed and portable
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appliances are located for use. Outlets are required every 4' (1200 mm) of counter space, no more than 2' (600 mm) from a corner, end of counter, or appliance. Some designs include an outlet in a pantry for use with portable appliances. Kitchen, bathroom, laundry, and outdoor circuits are required to be protected by a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI or GFI), which trips a circuit breaker when there is any unbalance in the circuit current. The standard breaker condition is 0.005-amp fault in 1/40 second. This protection is required for any electric fixture within 6' of water. Fixtures and appliances produce a potential hazard for electrocution. Outlets in garages and outbuildings must be GFCI. All exterior outlets must be waterproof and GFCI. Each bathroom sink or makeup table should have a duplex outlet. Each enclosed bath or laundry/utility room should have an exhaust fan. Rooms with operable windows do not require fans, although fans are desirable. A lighting outlet with light fixture is necessary outside all entries and exterior doors. A waterproof duplex outlet should be placed at a convenient exterior location, such as a patio. This exterior outlet must have a GFCI if within direct grade level access. Ceiling lights are common in children’s bedrooms for easy illumination. Master bedrooms may have a switched duplex outlet for a bedside lamp. The kitchen may have a light over the sink, although this may be an extra light in a very well-lighted kitchen. Bathroom lights are commonly placed above the mirror at the vanity and located in any area that requires additional light. In a large bath, a recessed waterproof light should be placed in a shower or above a tub. Place switches in a manner that provides the easiest control of the lights. Locate lights in large closets or any alcove or pantry that requires light. Light stairways well, and provide a conveniently located switch at each level. Place lights and outlets in garages or shops in relationship to their use. For example, a welder or other shop equipment requires 220-volt (V) outlets. Place exterior lights properly to illuminate walks, drives, patios, decks, and other high-use areas.
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GOING GREEN Energy Conservation
Energy efficiency is a very important consideration in today’s home design and construction market. Many steps can easily contribute to energy savings for the home owner with little additional cost. Some of these energy-efficient construction applications can be explained by specific or general notes or are included in construction specifications. Other methods must be described with detail drawings. Energy-efficient considerations related to electrical design include the following: • Keep electrical outlets and recessed appliances or panels to a minimum at exterior walls. Any units recessed into an exterior wall can eliminate or severely compress the insulation and reduce its insulating value. • Fans or other systems exhausting air from the building should be provided with back draft or automatic dampers to limit air leakage. • Timed switches or humidistats should be installed on exhaust fans to control unnecessary operation. • Electrical wiring is often located in exterior walls at a level convenient for electricians to run wires. This practice causes insulation to become compacted,
HOME AUTOMATION Many modern homes are being built with automation systems. This technology is rapidly changing and requires that you continuously research the available products and installations. Designing and installing a home-automation system allows the builder to sell the same-square-footage home for more and increases marketability. Automation is a method or process of controlling and operating mechanical devices other than human power. Such operations include the computerized control of the heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, landscape sprinkling systems, lighting, and security systems. The design and drafting of the home-automation systems can be done by the product supplier or by the architect or designer. Electrical symbols and specific notes are placed on the floor plan or on separate drawings and in specifications used for construction purposes. The following briefly describes some of the many homeautomation system options and features available.
•
•
•
•
•
resulting in a loss of insulating value. Wires could be run along the bottom of the studs at the bottom plate. Preparing the studs is easily accomplished during framing by cutting a V groove in the stud bottoms while the studs are piled at the site after delivery. Select energy-efficient appliances such as a selfheating dishwasher or a high-insulation water heater. Evaluate the vendor’s energy statement before purchase. Use energy-saving fluorescent lighting fixtures where practical, such as in the kitchen, laundry/utility room, garage, or shop. Fully insulate above and around recessed lighting fixtures. Verify code and manufacturer specifications for this practice. Carefully caulk and seal around all light and convenience outlets. Also, caulk and seal where electrical wires penetrate the top and bottom plates. Use recessed lights that are IC (insulation cover) rated. This allows you to insulate around and over the recessed light to help avoid heat loss.
For example, pressing one button automatically dims the lights, opens the curtain, and begins the movie. The home theater can be part of a living or family room, or designed into a special theater room with theater-style seating. Home entertainment centers can also provide sound throughout the home using a variety of sources, such as MP3 players, DVDs, and satellite radio.
Computerized Programming Computerized programming of house functions from a personal computer allows you to use a computer to set and monitor a variety of electrical circuits throughout the home, including security, sound, yard watering, cooking, and lighting. Home-automation systems often place the computer monitors in locations such as the kitchen or office where there is frequent activity. Dedicated computer systems can be installed for this purpose, or a standard personal computer can be used with desired software and Internet access.
Entertainment Centers Entertainment centers are available to provide an inhome theater. These are fully automatic and boast the best technology in picture and sound performance.
Security Systems Home and business security systems that sound an alarm when opened can be installed indoors at doors
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and windows. Additional indoor motion sensors can sense movement inside the house when the system is activated. These security systems allow you to enter a special code at a control panel, allowing you to set the alarm when leaving, and to disarm the system when entering the house. Most systems have a night setting that allows you to arm the doors and windows but keep the motion sensors off when you are home and want the system active. Outdoor home or business security systems can also monitor the outside area. Most outdoor systems are programmed to turn on floodlights when movement is detected.
Radio Frequency Systems Radio frequency (RF) systems are available that allow you to control a variety of lighting and mechanical applications throughout the home. Radio frequency is electromagnetic radiation waves that transmit audio, video, or data signals. The Federal Communication Commission (FCC) has defined RF ranges that can be used for wireless applications, such as those used in home systems. Home RF systems allow you to design options for specific lighting applications. For example, the RF system can control security lighting inside and outside the home by the press of a button within the home or from your vehicle as you approach the home. Other lighting schemes can also be designed that provide visibility or accent lighting to various areas of the home. You can control the lighting of hallways at night, or specific light dimming applications for accent purposes.
Structured Wiring As home computer use and Internet access become common in nearly every home, structured wiring systems are part of the electrical work needed in the architectural design. Structured wiring systems are highspeed voice and data lines and video cables wired to a central service location. These wires and cables optimize the speed and quality of various communication signals coming into and going out of the house. This kind of wiring is typically used in commercial construction projects and is gaining popularity in residential design. In a system of this type, each electrical outlet, telephone jack, or computer port has a dedicated line back to the central service location. The central service location allows the wires to be connected as needed for a network configuration or for dedicated wiring from the outside. High-quality structured wiring systems use network connectors and parallel circuits, because conventional outlets and series circuits degrade the communication signal. A parallel circuit is an electrical circuit that contains two or more paths for the electricity or
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signal to flow from a common source. A series circuit is a circuit that supplies electricity or a signal to a number of devices connected so that the same current passes through each device in completing its path to the source. Structured wiring systems allow the simultaneous use of a fax machine, a multiline telephone, and computers. Additional applications include digital satellite systems (DSS), digital broadcast systems (DBS), stereo audio, and closed-circuit security systems.
ELECTRICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The discussion and many examples in this chapter provide you with the minimum requirements for the electrical design. You need to meet minimum code requirements while also considering the needs and preferences of the occupants. One way to design the electrical layout is to pretend that you are living in a home, or working in a commercial building, and plan a system based on your convenience and daily activities. The following list provides some of the basic design features to consider when creating the electrical plan. Entry. Every entry shall have at least one lighting outlet controlled by a switch on the inside of the building. There shall be at least one weatherproof GFCI outlet. Entry foyer. There is generally a light fixture centered in the entry foyer, with a single switch or two switches if necessary. Depending on the size of the foyer, there may be additional ceiling- or wall-mounted lighting outlets. The foyer should contain at least one duplex convenience outlet, with more spaced a minimum of 12' (3600 mm) apart if needed. Patios and porches. Patios and porches are generally designed with an entry and should have the same requirements. Additionally, these areas need adequate lighting. One lighting outlet per 150 sq ft (1394 sq m) should be considered. The number of duplex convenience outlets in an area depends on its use. A light fixture and weatherproof GFCI outlet should be placed at a sink, serving counter, or outside cooking area. Living area. Living rooms and great rooms should have at least one switch-controlled duplex convenience outlet. Additional outlets are needed for convenience and to meet code requirements. There is generally no central ceiling lighting outlet, but there are often accent lights such as recessed ceiling or wall lights. Dining room. Dining rooms and eating nooks should have a switch-controlled centrally located ceiling light. Outlets are needed for convenience and to meet code requirements.
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Kitchen. The kitchen is a place where lighting and convenience outlets are very important. There should be switch-controlled centrally located lighting. Many designs use ceiling fluorescent fixtures or adequately spaced recessed ceiling lights. An additional switch-controlled light is often placed over the sink and other work areas. Small, high-intensity halogen recessed light fixtures are popular because they provide excellent illumination and are energy efficient. Fixtures are available with fixed and movable lights for directional applications. Available bulbs vary in the number of degrees of illumination provided, from a narrow directional effect to wide-angle lighting. The use of these light fixtures is not limited to the kitchen; they are effectively used in hallways and other rooms. Duplex convenience outlets should be placed at least 4' (1200 mm) apart, no more than 2' (600 mm) from a fixture or appliance, and with at least one outlet at each end of an island or peninsula. Each appliance should have a separate outlet. This includes the refrigerator, range, hood light and fan, oven, microwave, dishwasher, and trash compactor. There should also be additional small appliance outlets in every kitchen, pantry, breakfast room, dining room, or similar area. A switch-controlled garbage disposal can be used. Custom kitchens can also have under- and over-cabinet lighting and portable appliance compartments or garages. An exhaust fan vented to the outside is required. The exhaust fan can be in combination with a hood and light over the range or adjacent to the range. Bedrooms. Bedrooms often have a switch-controlled central ceiling light. Bedrooms can have a recessed ceiling light next to a wardrobe closet. The master bedroom can use a switch-controlled duplex convenience outlet rather than the ceiling light. Additional duplex convenience outlets should be spaced as desired or by minimum code requirements. Walkin wardrobes should have one or more switchcontrolled ceiling lights. Bathrooms. The bathrooms should have at least one lighting outlet in the ceiling or wall above the sink mirror. There should be one light over each sink and a GFCI outlet next to each sink, at 48" above the floor and not more than 36" from the edge of the fixture. Additional convenience outlets can be placed around the room to meet personal requirements. Outlets shall not be installed faceup in the work surface or cabinet top in a bathroom sink location. If fixtures are used in an enclosed shower or spa, they should be vapor proof. Ceiling lights are often recessed and should be placed in areas such as over
Architectural Drafting and Design
the water closet, tub, spa, or sauna as needed for adequate lighting. An exhaust fan that is vented to the outside is required, unless an operable window is used. Some owners prefer an exhaust fan even if an operable window is provided. Laundry/utility room. The laundry room should have at least one switch-controlled ceiling light, with other lights considered over work areas. Washer and dryer outlets are required along with adequate duplex convenience outlets. The appliance outlet cannot be more than 6' (1800 mm) from the appliance location. Office, recreation, or hobby room. An office or other auxiliary room should have ceiling lighting placed over planned work areas, and there should be duplex convenience outlets placed as needed for the intended purpose and to meet codes. If computers are used, dedicated outlets should be provided. Hallways. Ceiling lights should be placed no more than 12' (3600 mm) apart, with a switch controlling them from each end of the hall. Duplex convenience outlets should be at least 12' (3600 mm) apart. Stairs. Place at least one ceiling light at each floor or landing and have additional lights as needed to light the stairs adequately. Convenience outlets are not required but may be considered, especially if landings are involved. Garage. At least one ceiling outlet for every two cars, but one light per bay is better. Use at least one weatherproof GFCI duplex convenience outlet of 125-V, single phase, 15 to 20 amps. Provide additional outlets and lights as needed for work areas and other conveniences. An outlet and controls should be wired for every electric garage door opener. Outdoor outlets. At least one weatherproof outlet must be installed at the front and back of each home with direct access from grade and not exceed 6'–6" (1980 mm) above grade. Crawl spaces. All outlets in crawl spaces should be GFCI, 125-V, single phase, and 15 to 20 amps. Smoke detectors. Smoke detectors are required at each sleeping area and on each additional story and basement of a living unit. Smoke detectors are generally placed in the ceiling immediately outside the entrances to bedrooms or above stairs leading to adjacent bedrooms or living areas. The type of smoke detectors can be indicated in the specifications. Smoke detectors that are wired directly into the electrical system are preferred, and some installations use additional battery backup smoke detectors.
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Telephones. Careful consideration should be given to the locations where telephones are typically used. Common locations include the kitchen, master bedroom, laundry room, and office. Telephone jacks should be placed in every desired location or rough-wired for future installations. Rough-wire means to run wiring in the walls during construction for possible future hookup and use. Another term for rough-wired is pre-wired. Wiring during construction is always less expensive and easier than wiring after the building is occupied. Television, cable, stereo, security. Wiring for planned television, DVD, sound electronics, and security systems should be designed into the project. These items should also be pre-wired for installation during or after construction. The type of television wiring depends on the hookup to an antenna, cable, or satellite. The location of television outlets depends on the needs of the occupants, but outlets are generally provided in the living room, family room, recreation room, master bedroom, and in other rooms as needed. Sound electronics installations can be wired separately for sound throughout the home or associated with the cable television. The sound system can be connected to a central system with AM/ FM, CD, satellite radio, and other devices, and can be part of an intercom system. The security system should be wired throughout the building and should be designed in cooperation with a security expert to provide the best possible installation needed to meet the owner’s requirements. Security systems can be internal or connected to a monitoring station such as a private security provider or public police department. Computers and peripherals. Wiring for computers and peripherals is becoming an important part of the electrical system, as explained earlier in this chapter. Peripherals are items outside the main computer box. These items can include printers, modems, and fax machines. Refer to the earlier discussion covering home automation and structured wiring systems.
SMOKE DETECTORS Smoke detectors and alarms provide an opportunity for safe exit through early detection of fire and smoke. A smoke alarm that meets the requirements of UL 217 (Underwriters Laboratories) must be installed per NFPA 72 (National Fire Protection Association) in each sleeping room, and at a point centrally located in a corridor that provides access to the bedrooms.
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CARBON MONOXIDE ALARMS A carbon monoxide alarm is required in all new residential construction that contains fuel-fired appliances or has an attached garage. Alarms that meet UL 2034 must be placed outside of each separate sleeping area in the immediate vicinity of the bedrooms in dwelling units. Units must be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
UNIVERSAL ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS The design of the electrical system to accommodate people of all ages and possible disabilities should be considered. The following are some possible considerations for these applications. Switch locations. Place light switches 2'−6" (760 mm) above the floor for easy use by children and people in wheelchairs. Additionally, provide an adequate turning radius next to the switch for wheelchair movement. More switches than what is considered normal should be considered for access by people with disabilities. Switches should be the type that operate by touch or can be sound- or motion-activated, and on a timer if necessary. A master switch that controls all of the lights in a home can be located in a convenient and commonly used place, such as in the master bedroom. See the earlier discussion covering radio frequency systems. Place the distribution panel in an easily accessible location and install the panel at a height lower than normal, such as 4'−6" (1320 mm), for wheelchair access. Convenience outlets. Bathroom vanity outlets should be placed in the side wall for easy access. Place outlets on the front or top surface of the base kitchen cabinets in convenient locations. Provide more than the normal number of outlets. For example, a spacing of 8' (2400 mm) is preferred over the code requirement of 12' (3600 mm). Outlets should be at least 15" (380 mm) above the floor rather than the normal 12" (300 mm). Determine the owner’s need for special medical equipment, communication systems, and emergency alarm circuits. Provide a special outlet in a ventilated area for a home owner to charge an electric wheelchair battery. Lighting. Provide specifications for wall-mounted lights to be placed within reach and ceiling fixtures that pull down for easy access from a wheelchair. Extra lighting should be considered, especially in locations where a person with disabilities might have difficulty seeing, such as a shower, bathroom, and
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D
H F L
ELECTRIC DOOR OPENER
HEAT, LIGHT, FAN COMBINATION
BELL
SPECIAL INSTRUMENT SPECIFY TYPE, I.E., INTERCOM
BELL/BUZZER
M
MOTOR
P
BUZZER
CH
PHONE
CHIME
R
RADIO OUTLET
CIRCUIT-BREAKER PANEL
SD
SMOKE DETECTOR, CEILING MOUNT
CB
RECESSED FLUSH MOUNT
CB
WALL MOUNT
SD
WALL MOUNT SPECIFY TYPE, I.E., INTERCOM WALL-MOUNTED LIGHT
C
CLOCK
D
DROP CORD
S
SWITCH LEG ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT, HIGH VOLTAGE THIN LINES CURVED OR STRAIGHT 3/16" TO 1/4" DASHES SWITCH LEG ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT, HIGH VOLTAGE THIN LINES CURVED OR STRAIGHT WITH LONG, 3/4" TO 1-1/2" AND TWO SHORT 3/16" TO 1/4" DASHES
F
TV
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT, HIGH VOLTAGE
TV
CABLE T.V. OUTLET
PC
PERSONAL COMPUTER CONNECTION
T
TRANSFORMER "T" IN CIRCLE = THERMOSTAT
S
STEREO SPEAKERS
V
FAN NOTE: VENT OUT IF REQUIRED
SPECIAL PURPOSE COMMUNICATION OUTLET, SPECIFY TYPE
VACUUM YARD LIGHTS
MULTIPLE DUPLEX CONVENIENCE OUTLET
S S3 S2 S T
4
DUPLEX CONVENIENCE OUTLET (WALL OUTLET) 110 VOLTS
S
OUTLET WITH SWITCH 110 VOLTS
GFI R
DOUBLE-POLE SWITCH THREE-WAY SWITCH SWITCH WITH TIMER CEILING-MOUNTED LIGHT
SPLIT-WIRED OUTLET, WIRE TO SWITCH
WP
SINGLE-POLE SWITCH
PS
WEATHERPROOF OUTLET 110 VOLTS
CEILING-MOUNTED LIGHT WITH PULL SWITCH (PS) CAN CEILING LIGHT FIXTURE SURFACE MOUNT FIXTURE. OUTLINE DENOTES FIXTURE SHAPE, USE DASH OUTLINES FOR RECESSED FIXTURES
BATHROOM GROUND-FAULT CIRCUITINTERRUPTER 110 VOLTS (GFI OR GFCI)
PS
RANGE OUTLET 220 VOLTS
WALL LIGHT OPTION WITH PULL SWITCH (PS)
220 220-VOLT OUTLET, USED FOR DOUBLE OVEN,
DW
FURNACE, ELECTRIC WATER HEATER, CLOTHES DRYER, SPA, WELDER; LABEL ITEMS
FLOODLIGHTS
SPECIAL CONNECTION FOR DISHWASHER, GARBAGE DISPOSAL (GD). HOT WATER HEATER (WH)
FLUORESCENT LIGHT RECESSED FLUORESCENT LIGHT. THE FIXTURE OUTLINE DENOTES THE SIZE, PROVIDE NOTE SUCH AS 24" X 48"
SINGLE SPECIAL PURPOSE OUTLET DOUBLE SPECIAL PURPOSE OUTLET
CEILING SURFACE-MOUNT FLUORESCENT LIGHT
CONTINUOUS LINE OF OUTLETS, DOUBLE OR SINGLE WITH ONE LINE EACH
SIMPLIFIED FLUORESCENT LIGHT SOLID-SURFACE MOUNT DASHED RECESSED
FLOOR OUTLET SINGLE FLOOR OUTLET DOUBLE
J G
J
T
JUNCTION BOX GENERATOR
FIGURE 192 Common electrical symbols.
S
TRACK LIGHT UNDER-CABINET LIGHT WITH SWITCH
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S3 S3
S3
S3
SINGLE-POLE SWITCH MAY BE CONNECTED TO ONE OR MORE LIGHTS.
THREE-WAY SWITCH; TWO SWITCHES CONTROL ONE OR MORE LIGHTS.
S4
Electrical symbols are used to show the lighting arrangement desired in the home. This includes all switches, fixtures, and outlets. All electrical symbols should be drawn with circles 1/8" (3 mm) in diameter, as seen in Figure 19-2. The electrical layout should be subordinate to the plan and should not clutter or detract from the other information. All lettering for switches and other notes should be 1/8" (3 mm) high, depending on space requirements and office practice. Switch symbols are generally drawn perpendicular to the wall and are placed to read from the right side or bottom of the sheet (see Figure 19-3). Also, notice that the switch relay should intersect the symbol at right angles to the wall, or the relay can begin next to the symbol. Verify the preference of your instructor or employer, and do not mix methods. Figure 19-4 shows several typical electrical installations with switches to light outlets. The switch leg or electrical circuit line is drawn using a curved dashed line.
FOUR-WAY SWITCH; THREE SWITCHES CONTROL ONE OR MORE LIGHTS.
S
SINGLE-POLE SWITCH TO WALL-MOUNTED LIGHT. TYPICAL INSTALLATION AT AN ENTRY OR PORCH.
S
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
S4
S4
kitchen. Provide extra lighting around stairs and landings. Additional lighting should be considered as occupants grow older. Lights can be controlled with dimmer switches as needed to provide varying intensity. Fluorescent lights should be avoided when designing a home for people with epilepsy, Alzheimer disease, hyperactivity, hearing aids, and cataracts. Specify natural light tubes when fluorescent lights are used. Track lighting should be considered when it is desirable to add or remove lights or change the angle of lights. Communications. Provide more than the normal number of telephone jacks when designing a home for people with disabilities. Also provide additional television and audio outlets if they are preferred by the owner. An intercom system is recommended for communication within the home.
S
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SINGLE-POLE SWITCH TO SINGLE CEILING LIGHT.
S
S
USE IRREGULAR (FRENCH) CURVE.
S
S
VERTICAL WALL READ "S" FROM RIGHT
S
HORIZONTAL WALL READ "S" FROM RIGHT
FIGURE 193 Placement of switch symbols.
SINGLE-POLE SWITCH TO SPLIT-WIRED OUTLET. COMMON APPLICATION IN A ROOM WITHOUT A CEILING LIGHT. ALLOWS SWITCHING A TABLE LAMP.
FIGURE 194 Typical electrical installations.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR
48"
T
S
F
●
Placing switches or outlets on pocket doors, where they cannot be located due to the pocket door construction.
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Locating switches or outlets at a construction corner where a box cannot be installed.
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Drawing two or more circuit legs from a single switch.
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Placing a switch behind a door swing.
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Locating an outlet too far from a location where it is needed to operate a fixture, such as a desk.
24" X 48" OUTLET HEIGHT
SPECIFIC NOTE
FIGURE 195 Special notes for electrical fixtures.
When a fixture with special characteristics is required, such as a specific size, location, or any other specification, a local note that briefly describes the situation is applied next to the outlet, as shown in Figure 19-5. Figure 19-6 shows common errors related to the placement and practice of electrical floor plan layout. The common errors encountered with electrical system design include:
Figure 19-7 shows some examples of maximum spacing recommended for installation of wall outlets. Figure 19-8 shows examples of typical electrical layouts. Figure 19-9 shows a bath electrical layout. Figure 19-10 shows a typical kitchen electrical layout
S
S
SWITCHES OR OUTLETS ON POCKET DOOR
POOR
S
S
GOOD
S
SWITCHES OR OUTLETS ON CORNER CONSTRUCTION
POOR
S
S
GOOD
S 3
S3
POOR
S3
GOOD
S 3
FIXTURE SIZE
POOR
S
GOOD
S
GOOD
DESK
GOOD
FIGURE 196 Good and poor electrical layout techniques.
SWITCH HIDDEN BEHIND DOOR
POOR
DESK
POOR
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WP GFCI 12' MAX.
S S
6' MAX.
2' FIXED PANEL
12' MAX.
FLOOR OUTLET
6' MAX.
12' MAX.
3
S 6' MAX.
12' MAX.
S3 S3
S3
6' MAX.
SHORT WALL OVER 36" LONG REQUIRES ONE OUTLET.
FIGURE 197 Maximum spacing requirements.
WP GFCI
S
VENT FAN TO OUTSIDE AIR
GFCI 48"
F H L
S
SS S
3
SD 3 3
3
S S
S
3
SS
FIGURE 198 Typical electrical layouts.
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EXHAUST FAN IS DESIRABLE BUT NOT REQUIRED WITH OPENABLE WINDOW WATERPROOF LIGHT IN SHOWER
SS
SS
SS
WP
F VENT FAN TO OUTSIDE AIR 48" GFCI
48" GFCI
F
ENCLOSED BATH AREA REQUIRES EXHAUST FAN BATH VANITY WITH TWO SINKS REQUIRES TWO DUPLEX OUTLETS
FIGURE 199 Bath electrical layout.
2' (610mm)
4' (1220mm) GFCI DW
GD
S
GFCI
S
R
2' (610mm)
4' (1220 mm) MIN ALONG OPEN COUNTER OUTLET SPACING
REFR
2'
HOOD W/ LIGHT & FAN, VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR
48" X 72" LIGHT SOFFIT W/ 5-48" FLUORESCENT FIXTURES OR 6 EQUALLY SPACED HALOGEN RECESSED LIGHT FIXTURES
S3
DBL OVEN BRM
3
S S PROVIDE SEPARATE CIRCUIT FOR MICROWAVE
FIGURE 1910 Kitchen electrical layout.
NOTE: AND FIXTURES TO BE GFCI CIRCUITS ALL KITCHEN LIGHTS
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using fluorescent fixtures; however, small, high-intensity halogen recessed light fixtures are popular because they provide excellent illumination and are energy efficient. Placement of six or more of these recessed fixtures can provide quality lighting in this kitchen. Fixtures should be carefully placed to help reduce shadows at counter areas.
LIGHT FIXTURES
CEILING
FLOOR
LIGHT FIXTURE DESIGN AND PLACEMENT The content provided in this section was taken in part from the Grand Lighting Web site. Light fixture selection and placement is important to consider when designing a home. A variety of lighting methods and arrangements can be used to create a dramatic appearance, a soft feeling, the highlighting of artwork, or light for a work area. Consider the activities that take place and the desired visual effect when designing the lighting for different rooms in the home. Many types of lighting fixtures are available, including ceiling mounted, wall mounted, recessed, track, pendant, table lamp, floor lamp, and lighting with ceiling fans. The following describes a variety of lighting design options. Light fixtures can be purchased in high-voltage or low-voltage models. Low-voltage systems require transformers that reduce the voltage to the fixtures. A transformer is an electrical device that either raises or lowers the voltage of electricity. When installing low-voltage light systems, it is necessary to reduce the voltage to the fixtures from 120 volts to 12 volts, for example.
General Lighting General lighting sets the basic ambient light level of a space, which is important for circulation and functionality. The following describes optional general lighting design applications. Ambient light is light that comes from all directions. Ceiling-mounted light fixtures are ideal for use in foyers, hallways, and bedrooms. Flush-mount are preferred on lower ceilings, whereas semi-flush lights are ideal on medium to high ceilings. Ceiling-mounted light fixtures or recessed light fixtures can be used in hallways. Hallway light fixtures should be centered on the hallway and spaced every 8' to 10' (2400 to 3000 mm) for full coverage. Additional lighting can be provided if necessary by spacing the light fixtures 4' (1200 mm) apart.
Uniform Down-Lighting Uniform lighting provides a layer of ambient light typically used to provide general lighting on horizontal
LIGHTING PATTERN
FIGURE 1911 Uniform down-lighting.
surfaces. Uniform lighting is commonly used to light an entire area, but typically has the least visual impact on a space. Figure 19-11 shows a typical uniform downlighting arrangement. Recessed lights are commonly used for down-lighting. Uniform lighting is often done with Parabolic Aluminized Reflector (PAR) or MR16 lamps spaced apart so their beams meet or overlap as desired. Spacing is a function of the selected lamp beam spread and the desired effect. PAR lights resemble car headlights. MR16 is a standard format for halogen reflector lamps made by a variety of manufacturers. MR16 lights are used for a variety of applications that require directional lighting of low to medium intensity, such as track lighting, recessed ceiling lights, desk lamps, pendant fixtures, landscape lighting, and retail display lighting. MR16 lamps are available in many power and beam combinations, other than those mentioned below. MR16 lamps are normally labeled according to the following beam spread abbreviations. The angles associated with these abbreviations vary depending on the manufacturer: ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
VNSP (Very narrow spot): less than 8° NSP (Narrow spot): 8° to 15° SP (Spot): 8° to 20° NFL (Narrow flood): 24° to 30° FL (Flood): 35° to 40° WFL (Wide flood): 55° to 60° VWFL (Very wide flood): 60° or more
Non-Uniform Down-Lighting Non-uniform down-lighting provides the appearance of pools of light and can give an interesting visual appearance. Recessed down-lights are commonly used for non-uniform down-lighting. Non-uniform downlighting is often done with PAR or MR16 lamps spaced far enough apart so their beams do not overlap as
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RECESSED LIGHT FIXTURE
LIGHT FIXTURES
LIGHT BEAM CEILING
FLOOR LIGHTING PATTERN
FIGURE 1912 Non-uniform down-lighting. INCORRECT
CORRECT
shown in Figure 19-12. A general recommendation is that recessed ceiling lights and track lights that illuminate pictures or artwork on a wall should be located at least 2' (600 mm) from the wall with a standard 8' (2400 mm) ceiling and, as the ceiling height increases, farther from the wall using the same ratio. For example, place the light fixtures 2'–6" (760 mm) from the wall for a 10' (3000 mm) ceiling, using this formula: 2/x : 8/10, 2x = (8)(10), 2x = 20, x = 2.5, 2.5 = 2'–6". The number of items and wall area to be illuminated also determine the light fixture spacing. In any given design, divide the wall length into equal spaces for light fixture placement. A wide variety of track and rail lighting is available for areas where recessed lighting is not practical, where flexibility in light placement is required, or where multiple lights are required in a small area.
Task Lighting Providing supplemental lighting over a work area, such as a kitchen counter or desk, is important to allow enough light to perform the activity accurately, efficiently, and safely.
Recessed Task Lighting Recessed down-lights are commonly used for work area lighting. For counter or work surface tasks, recessed fixtures should be placed between the cabinet face and the front edge of the counter. This position avoids casting of shadows as shown in Figure 19-13. When lighting work areas such as a desk or table, a vanity mirror, or over a sink, two down-lights should be placed above, slightly in front of the person, and on each side of the work area to provide overlapping light and minimize glare as shown in Figure 19-14. If possible, add complementary fill lighting from a diffuse source such as a wallmounted light fixture or an additional ceiling-mounted light fixture.
FIGURE 1913 Recessed down-lights are commonly used for work area lighting. For counter or work surface tasks, recessed fixtures should be placed between the cabinet face and the front edge of the counter. This position avoids the casting of shadows.
RECESSED LIGHT FIXTURE LIGHT BEAM
CORRECT
INCORRECT
FIGURE 1914 When lighting work areas such as a desk or table, a vanity mirror, or over a sink, two down-lights should be placed above, slightly in front of the person, and on each side of the work area to provide overlapping light and to minimize glare.
Decorative Pendant Task Lighting Decorative pendant lights provide both functional task lighting and add visual interest and aesthetic character to an area. A pendant light, sometimes called a drop or suspender, is a light fixture that hangs from the ceiling usually suspended by a cord, chain, or metal rod. Pendant lights are often used in multiples, hung in a straight line over kitchen countertops or islands, over a desk or other work area, over a dining or nook table, and sometimes in bathrooms. The bottom edge of the pendant lights should be mounted 30" to 36" (900 mm) above the countertop, island, or table. The light beam angle can be adjusted by using one of the available MR16 light bulbs. The light beam of multiple pendants can be designed apart or overlapping by changing the spacing of the fixtures (see Figure 19-15).
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LIGHT BEAM
LIGHT FIXTURES
ratio between the ceiling light fixture location and the wall height is also shown in Figure 19-16.
Accent Lighting of Three-Dimensional Objects
FIGURE 1915 The pendant light beam angle can be adjusted by using one of the available MR16 light bulbs. The light beam of multiple pendants can be designed apart or overlapping by changing the spacing of the fixtures.
Accent Lighting Accent lighting creates high contrast and focuses light on objects of interest such as paintings, sculptures, collectibles, and architectural details. For noticeable visual impact, accent lighting should be at least three times as bright as the surrounding area. Dramatic accent lighting requires contrast ratios of 5:1 or greater.
Accent Lighting on Flat Artwork Flat artwork is usually lighted by a light source striking its surface at a 30° angle. This angle reduces glare, and prevents the casting of the viewer’s shadow onto the artwork. Figure 19-16 shows the recommended lighting for artwork hung at a typical height. The recommended
LIGHT BEAM
LIGHT FIXTURES
Key lighting and fill lighting are effective ways to emphasize the three-dimensional character of an object such as a sculpture. This method involves the use of key and fill lighting from two sides of the object. Key lighting is a focused accent light used to create shadows and to highlight form and texture. Fill lighting is a soft light thrown from the opposite side of the object to soften the shadows, making the object appear natural. Other techniques can also be used to further accent the character of an object, such as silhouetting an object from behind.
Wall Lighting The lighting of vertical surfaces can impact the perception of a space more than any other type of lighting. Light reflecting off of walls creates a bright, spacious feel and adds visual interest.
Wall Wash Lighting Wall wash lighting provides even, diffuse lighting of vertical surfaces such as walls, large paintings, wall hangings, bookcases and shelving, cabinet fronts, or stairwells. The diffuse nature of wall wash lighting has the effect of flattening out textured surfaces. Diffuse lighting is light that is not concentrated in one place, and transmitted from a broad light source. Wall wash light fixtures are usually spaced apart equal to the distance from the wall. For example, a 10' (3000 mm) wide wall can have four ceiling recessed light fixtures spaced 24" (600 mm) apart and 24" out from the wall. Closer spacing leads to higher light levels with better lighting uniformity. As a general rule, wall wash lighting should be located at least 24" from the wall and spaced a minimum of 4' (1200 mm) apart.
CEILING
Graze Lighting
90°
WALL
Placing down-lights 6" to 12" (150 to 300 mm) from a wall provides a grazing effect where the light appears to scrape along the wall. Graze lighting can provide an accent to textured surfaces such as brick, stone, or stucco. PAR lamps are a good source to use for graze lighting.
Light Scallop
FIGURE 1916 The recommended lighting for artwork hung at a typical height, and the ratio between the ceiling light fixture location and the wall height.
Light scallop is an effect created when the light fixture is placed close to the wall resulting in a concentrated arc-shaped light pattern on the wall. Light scallop can provide a dramatic effect, but can be an undesired effect when light fixtures are improperly placed. The intensity
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Architectural Drafting and Design
WALL 4'
LIGHT BEAM
LIGHT FIXTURES 2'
4'
50º
4'
50º
FIGURE 1917 The spacing and distance from the wall, of the light fixtures, contributes to the scallop effect.
of the scallop can be increased or decreased by the type of fixture and light source used. A diffused light source creates a soft scallop and an intense-focused light source creates a bright scallop. The light fixtures’ spacing and their distance from the wall also contribute to the scallop effect as shown in Figure 19-17.
Locating Recessed Lighting Recessed light fixtures can be installed only where there is enough space to accommodate the housing. The housing is the box that contains the recessed light wiring, can, trim, and bulb. The can is the generally cylindrical unit containing the light fixture and bulb. The can is usually finished white, black, chrome, or brass and has a trim piece that covers the ceiling cutout. Recessed light fixtures can generally be installed between the joist spaces of multistory houses. Recessed fixtures cannot be located at a ceiling joist, corner, or exterior wall where rafters reduce the space available. Recessed light housings must be a minimum of 3" away from insulation or flammable material, unless an insulation contact (IC) housing is used. A heat-barrier housing cover may be required where blown-in insulation is used.
REFLECTED CEILING PLANS A reflected ceiling plan (RCP) is a drawing that shows the features located on the ceiling of a room or space. A reflected ceiling plan gets its name from a view of the
ceiling as if it is reflected onto a mirror on the floor. This way the reflected ceiling plan has the same orientation as its related floor plan. A reflected ceiling plan can be found in a set of construction drawings for a house or business. Interior designers often draw reflected ceiling plans when designing spaces. Interior designers and architects draw reflected ceiling plans and send the drawing to an electrical consulting engineering firm, where the electrical circuitry, fixtures, and other electrical applications are designed to comply with local building codes, electrical codes, and fire codes. An RCP typically contains ceiling construction and finish sections, details, and specifications. An RCP also shows special ceiling features, such as entertainment, sound, and communication system wiring and speaker locations, emergency lighting, exit signs, security devices, smoke and fire alarm placement, exhaust fans, and heating lamps. An RCP can display the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system, providing returnair grills and supply-air diffusers. Some RCP drawings show fire sprinkler head locations. Similar to the electrical plan described throughout this chapter, RCP drawings can include electrical circuit layout with the power panel, and lighting fixture and switch locations with circuit runs. The RCP drawing normally includes electrical specifications and an electrical symbol legend similar to the example shown in Figure 19-22. When an RCP is created for a commercial building, it can be referred to as a ceiling panel plan. The ceiling panel plan is generally designed as a grid of 24" × 48" (600 × 1200 mm) rectangles representing suspended or drop ceiling panels and light fixtures. The terms suspended and drop ceiling have the same meaning—a finish ceiling constructed of lightweight ceiling panels and light fixtures hung from cables, wires, or brackets from the structure above. The lighting fixtures are generally fluorescent fixtures that fit exactly into the drop-ceiling modules in desired locations for providing the needed lighting. See Chapter 44 for additional information regarding reflected ceiling plans.
ELECTRICAL SCHEDULES Schedules are described in detail in Chapter 16. Electrical fixtures can be identified in schedules, notes, descriptions of materials, or in specifications. Lightfixture schedules typically provide fixture symbol, manufacturer’s name, type, color, bulb, wattage, and remarks columns. Light fixtures are identified in a schedule by placing a letter or number key next to the floor plan symbol and correlating the same letter or number to the schedule, or fixtures can be correlated by room name in which the fixtures are located.
Chapter 19: Electrical Plans
447
FIGURE 1918 Sample electrical fixture schedule.
Electrical circuit schedules can be used to provide electrical panel, circuits, poles, and amperage requirements and specifications. An electrical panel schedule can be used to provide panel size and type, main circuit size and type, panel manufacturer and model, and wiring specifications. Figure 19-18 shows a typical light fixture schedule.
ELECTRICAL WIRING SPECIFICATIONS The following specifications describing the installation of the service entrance and meter base for a residence have been adapted from information furnished by Home Building Plan Service, Inc.
Service Entrance and Meter Base Installation Before the installation of the service entrance and meter base, the following questions must be resolved: 1. What is the service capacity to be installed? For capac-
ity of service, the average single-family residence should be equipped with a 200-amp service entrance. If heating, cooking, water heating, and similar heavy loads are supplied by energy sources other than electricity, the service entrance conductors can be sized for 100 amps, provided that local codes are not violated. Some local codes require a minimum capacity of 200 amps for each single dwelling. Local inspection authorities and the power company serving the area can be of assistance if difficulty is encountered in sizing the service entrance. 2. Where is the service entrance to be located? The service entrance location depends on whether the power
company serves the houses in the area from an overhead or underground distribution system. The underground service entrance is the most desirable from the standpoint of aesthetics and reliability. However, if the power company services the area from an overhead pole line, an underground service entrance may be impractical, prohibitively expensive, or even impossible. A combination of overhead and underground service is an option in some cases. This is possible where overhead service is provided to a specific location, such as the property line, and an underground service is provided for the remaining distance to the house. 3. Where will the meter base be located? The meter base must always be mounted so the meter socket is on the exterior of the house, preferably on the side wall of a garage. For aesthetic reasons, the meter base should not be installed on the front of the house. If the house does not have a garage, the meter base should be located on an exterior side wall as near as practical to the distribution panel. 4. Where will the distribution panel be located? The preferred location for the distribution panel is on an inside garage wall, close to the heaviest electrical loads, such as a range, clothes dryer, or electric furnace. The panel should be mounted flush unless the location does not permit a flush mount. If the house does not have a garage, the panel should be located in a readily accessible area such as a utility room or kitchen wall. In some localities the electrical power billing structure requires two meters. For example, lighting and general-use energy may be billed at a rate different from energy used for space and heating water. In such a
448
Architectural Drafting and Design
situation, provide two meter bases and two distribution panels to suit requirements.
METRICS IN ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS Electrical conduit designations are expressed in millimeters. Electrical conduit is a metal or fiber pipe or tube used to enclose a single or several electrical conductors. Electrical conduit is produced in decimal inch dimensions and is identified in nominal inch sizes. Nominal size is referred to as the conventional size; for example, a .500" pipe has a 12" nominal size. The actual size of a conduit remains in inches but is labeled in metric: Inch
Metric (mm)
Inch
Metric (mm)
1/2
16
2 1/2
63
3/4
21
3
78
1
27
3 1/2
91
1 1/4
35
4
103
1 1/2
41
5
129
2
53
6
155
Existing American Wire Gauge (AWG) sizes remain the same without a metric conversion. The diameter of wires conforms to various wire gauge systems. The AWG is one system for the designation of wire sizes. Wire gauge is a method of defining wire diameter by a number, with wire diameter increasing as the number gets smaller.
STEPS IN DRAWING THE ELECTRICAL PLAN The electrical plan is prepared as a separate floor plan drawing, labeled ELECTRICAL PLAN, for complex homes, or combined with all other floor plan information for basic homes. When drawing the electrical plan with all other floor plan information, follow the next steps after placing everything on the drawing, as explained in Chapter 18. If you are creating a separate electrical plan, draw the plan as described in the following steps and use the CADD layering system as needed. To do this, first begin with a base drawing of the floor plan, with all of the walls, doors, windows, stairs, cabinets, and the fireplace. The basic room titles are optional. A base drawing for the model
CADD APPLICATIONS CADD electrical symbol libraries provide quick insertion of these symbols. When a CADD system is used, each symbol and feature on the electrical plan can be placed on an individual layer. If you are using the American Institute of Architects (AIA) layering system, the layer names given in the following table can be applied to your electrical plan. ■
Layer Name
Description
E-LITE
Lighting system
E-POWR
Power
E-CONT
Controls and instrumentation
E-GRND
Ground system
E-AUXL
Auxiliary systems
E-LTNG
Lightning protection system
E-FIRE
Fire protection system
E-COMM
Telephone communications
E-DATA
Data and local area network (LAN) systems
E-SOUN
Sound system
E-CABL
Cable system
E-CCTV
Closed-circuit television
E-NURS
Nurse call system
E-INTC
Intercom and PA system
E-PGNG
Paging system
E-BELL
Bell system
E-CLOK
Clock system
Chapter 19: Electrical Plans
home that was first used in Chapter 18 is shown in Figure 19-19. Draw all light fixtures. Use 1/8" (3 mm) diameter circles for the light fixture symbols, which is 6" at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (150 mm at 1:50). Refer to Figure 19-20. If electrical symbols are too large, they distract from the appearance of the drawing. If they are too small, they are difficult to read.
STEP 1
Place all electrical outlets, such as duplex convenience, range, television, clock, and junction boxes. Figure 19-20 shows the placement of items for Step 2.
STEP 2
Draw all additional electrical symbols including doorbells, smoke detectors, fans, and power panels (see Figure 19-20).
STEP 3
Letter all switch locations and provide switch characteristics, such as three-way switches (see Figure 19-20). When possible, use 1/8" (3 mm) high text when adding information to symbols. You can use 3/32" (2.5 mm) high text if space is limited, such as the number 3 placed next to a three-way switch symbol. Confirm this practice with your course or company standards.
STEP 4
Draw electrical circuits or switch legs from switches to fixtures using a dashed arc line as shown in Figure 19-21.
STEP 5
Letter all notes, and the drawing title and scale, as shown in Figure 19-21.
STEP 6
This is the step where you can add general electrical notes, fixture schedules, and symbol legends. These items should be placed on the same drawing as the electrical plan when possible. There is not enough space on the sheet with the main floor electrical plan to place these items for the model house. These items are located on the upper floor electrical plan for the model house, which is described in the following section.
STEP 7
DRAWING THE UPPER FLOOR ELECTRICAL PLAN Use the same steps to draw the electrical layout for the upper floor plan. Figure 19-22 shows the upper floor electrical plan for the model home. Notice in Figure 19-22 that the general electrical notes and the electrical symbol legend features are placed in the drawing with the electrical floor plan. Not all offices display an electrical symbol legend, because standard symbols are typically used, which normally do not
449
require identification. This is also a good location for electrical fixture schedules or other electrical-related schedules. There are no electrical schedules for the model house.
ELECTRICAL PLAN DRAWING CHECKLIST Check off the items in the following list as you work on the electrical plan, to be sure that you have included everything necessary: ❑ Switch locations labeled with proper placement and identification, such as three-way, four-way, or dimmer. ❑ Inside and outside light fixture locations. ❑ Recessed light fixture locations. ❑ Fluorescent light fixtures in 24" (600 mm) modules, where used. ❑ Switch legs drawn with dashed lines. ❑ Duplex convenience outlets located based on code requirements. ❑ Kitchen and bath GFCI outlets. ❑ Exterior duplex convenience outlets, specifying weatherproof and GFCI. ❑ Outlets for refrigerator, microwave on a separate circuit, garbage disposal with switch, dishwasher, trash compactor, clothes washer. ❑ Exhaust fans. ❑ Smoke detectors. ❑ Utility and appliance outlets: Furnace, clothes dryer, range, ovens, and water heater shown and labeled. Outlets are 200-V for electric appliances as needed, or gas and 110-V outlets. ❑ Garage door junction boxes with switches for automatic door openers. ❑ Television, telephone, separate Internet jack, and computer outlets shown and labeled on separate circuits. ❑ Vacuum system outlets located and labeled. ❑ Circuit panel location, and specifications. ❑ Door buzzer and chime location. ❑ Smoke detectors at each bedroom or sleeping area. ❑ Review all specific notes. ❑ General notes. ❑ Drawing title and scale. ❑ Title block information.
450
UP 1'-6"
UTILITY
DINING
FAMILY
SHOP
9'-5" X 7'-1"
12'-6" X 11'-5"
17'-4" X 11'-5"
17'-0" X 11'-5"
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
PANTRY
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
DN 7 1/2"
BATH
UP 1'-2"
GARAGE
22'-5" X 23'-4"
ENTRY
FIGURE 1919 Base sheet for the floor plan used in Chapter 18.
12'-9" X 15'-4"
DW
GD TC
UP 1'-6"
COVERED PORCH
LS
Architectural Drafting and Design
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
DN 7 1/2"
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
34" RAIL
LIVING
12'-11" X 15'-4"
UP 14R
KITCHEN
S&P CLOSET
GFCI WP
UTILITY
9'-5" X 7'-1" GFCI
DINING
FAMILY
Chapter 19: Electrical Plans
UP 1'-6"
GFCI
SHOP
12'-6" X 11'-5"
17'-4" X 11'-5"
17'-0" X 11'-5"
GFCI LINE OF UPPER FLOOR LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
DN 7 1/2"
3
TV
3 72"
3
GFCI
BATH LF
GFCI
3
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
GFCI WP
3
GARAGE
22'-5" X 23'-4" GFCI
GFCI
GFCI
DW J
GFCI GD TC GFCILS J J 3
3
GFCI
GFCI
3
DN 7 1/2"
ENTRY
UP 1'-2"
12'-9" X 15'-4"
S&P CLOSET
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
34" RAIL
UP 14R
LIVING
3
GFCI
KITCHEN
SD
12'-11" X 15'-4"
GFCI WP
3
C
3
PANTRY
TV
CLG DOOR OPENER
CLG DOOR OPENER
UP 1'-6"
COVERED PORCH
GFCI
FIGURE 1920 Step 1: Draw all light fixtures. Step 2: Place all electrical outlets, such as duplex convenience, range, television, clock, and junction boxes. Step 3: Draw all additional electrical symbols including doorbells, smoke detectors, fans, and power panels. Step 4: Letter all switch locations and provide switch characteristics, such as three-way switches. 451
452
UP 1'-6"
GFCI WP
UTILITY
9'-5" X 7'-1" GFCI
DINING
FAMILY
GFCI
SHOP
12'-6" X 11'-5"
17'-4" X 11'-5"
17'-0" X 11'-5"
GFCI LINE OF UPPER FLOOR LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
DN 7 1/2"
3
TV
3 72"
3
GFCI
BATH LF
GFCI
3
GD J
RANGE & HOOD W/LIGHT & FAN VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR GFCI
GFCI TC LS GFCI J
CLG DOOR OPENER
CLG DOOR OPENER
UP 1'-6"
COVERED PORCH
GFCI
MAIN FLOOR ELECTRICAL SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 1921 Step 5: Draw electrical circuits or switch legs from switches to fixtures using a dashed arc line. Step 6: Letter all notes, and the drawing title and scale.
Architectural Drafting and Design
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
GFCI WP
3
DW J
GARAGE
22'-5" X 23'-4"
3
3
GFCI
GFCI
GFCI GFCI
3
DN 7 1/2"
ENTRY
UP 1'-2"
12'-9" X 15'-4"
S&P CLOSET
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
34" RAIL
UP 14R
LIVING
3
GFCI
KITCHEN
SD
12'-11" X 15'-4"
GFCI WP
3
C
3
PANTRY
TV
BATH
BED#1
12'-11" X 19'-3"
LF H
SD
BED#2
10'-10" X 11'-5" GFCI
3
24" X 36" OPENABLE INSULATED TEMP GLASS SKYLIGHT
7. 3
LINEN
36" RAIL
GFCI 34" RAIL
DN 14R
3
3 3
SD
22" X 30" ATTIC ACCESS WP
S&DBL P
S&P CLOSET
BED#3
S&P
SD
8.
9. 10. 11. 12.
BATH 30" WIDE KNEE SPACE
S&P
CLOSET S&P
10'-10" X 11'-9"
LF
WALK-IN CLOSET
3. 4. 5. 6.
SD TV
2.
GFCI
24" X 24" DBL INSULATED TEMP GLASS SKYLIGHT
GFCI
13.
14.
15.
UPPER FLOOR ELECTRICAL
ALL GARAGE AND EXTERIOR PLUGS AND LIGHT FIXTURES TO BE ON GFCI CIRCUIT. ALL KITCHEN PLUGS AND LIGHT FIXTURES TO BE ON GFCI CIRCUIT. PROVIDE A SEPARATE CIRCUIT FOR MICROWAVE OVEN. PROVIDE A SEPARATE CIRCUIT FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER. VERIFY LOCATION WITH OWNER. VERIFY ALL ELECTRICAL LOCATIONS W/ OWNER. EXTERIOR SPOTLIGHTS TO BE ON PHOTOELECTRIC CELL W/ TIMER. ALL RECESSED LIGHTS IN EXTERIOR CEILINGS TO BE INSULATION COVER RATED. ELECTRICAL OUTLET PLATE GASKETS SHALL BE INSULATED ON RECEPTACLE, SWITCH, AND ANY OTHER BOXES IN EXTERIOR WALL. PROVIDE THERMOSTATICALLY CONTROLLED FAN IN ATTIC WITH MANUAL OVERRIDE. VERIFY LOCATION WITH OWNER. ALL FANS TO VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR. ALL FAN DUCTS TO HAVE AUTOMATIC DAMPERS. HOT WATER TANKS TO BE INSULATED TO R-11 MINIMUM. INSULATE ALL HOT WATER LINES TO R-4 MINIMUM. PROVIDE AN ALTERNATE BID TO INSULATE ALL PIPES FOR NOISE CONTROL. PROVIDE 6 SQ FT OF VENT FOR COMBUSTION AIR TO OUTSIDE AIR FOR FIREPLACE CONNECTED DIRECTLY TO FIREBOX. PROVIDE FULLY CLOSABLE AIR INLET. HEATING TO BE ELECTRIC HEAT PUMP. PROVIDE BID FOR SINGLE UNIT NEAR GARAGE OR FOR A UNIT EACH FLOOR (IN ATTIC). INSULATE ALL HEATING DUCTS IN UNHEATED AREAS TO R-11. ALL HVAC DUCTS TO BE SEALED AT JOINTS AND CORNERS.
Chapter 19: Electrical Plans
ELECTRICAL NOTES
1.
SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
ELECTRICAL LEGEND
110 VOLT DUPLEX CONVENIENCE OUTLET
GFCI GFCI WP
TV
CLOCK OUTLET
CIRCULAR RECESSED LIGHT
110 VOLT GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPT DUPLEX OUTLET
DOORBELL
SQUARE RECESSED LIGHT
110 VOLT WATERPROOF GFCI DUPLEX OUTLET
SINGLE-POLE SWITCH
LF
LIGHT, FAN COMBINATION
THREE-WAY SWITCH
LF H
LIGHT, FAN, HEAT COMBINATION
220 VOLT OUTLET
CEILING-MOUNTED LIGHT
SD
CEILING-MOUNTED SMOKE DETECTOR
JUNCTION BOX
WALL-MOUNTED LIGHT
CABLE TELEVISION OUTLET
FLUORESCENT LIGHT
110 VOLT SPLIT-WIRED OUTLET
J
C
3
SD
WALL-MOUNTED SMOKE DETECTOR
453
FIGURE 1922 The upper floor electrical plan for the model home used in this textbook.
454
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Electrical Symbols with CADD As floor plans are generated for construction documents, other plans may be needed to complete the construction set of working drawings. In both residential and commercial applications, the addition of an electrical plan is normally required. Many companies provide two separate drawings for residential and commercial projects. One drawing is the floor plan completely dimensioned, and the other drawing is a floor plan that includes the walls, doors, and windows with electrical symbols added. In many cases, a base floor plan drawing is used as an underlay, and then electrical symbols are drawn over the top creating a composite electrical plan drawing. In architectural CADD programs, you can select symbols from pull-down menus, icon menus, dialog boxes, and tablet menus. These software programs provide you with maximum variety and flexibility to create a high-quality electrical plan in an efficient manner. Figure 19-23 displays examples of standard electrical symbols used in architectural projects, and Figure 19-24 shows a typical electrical plan for a residence. Most of the common electrical symbols are provided with the software of many of the CADD programs. When these symbols are available, you select the desired symbol from a menu, dialog box, palette, or library and insert the symbol into position on the drawing. In the event that a desired electrical symbol is not available, you are often given tools to create custom electrical symbol libraries.
Parametric design plays an important role in applications such as ceiling lighting grids. In these types of programs, you specify the room width, length, ceiling height, and grid size. The computer then automatically draws the entire ceiling grid. After the ceiling grid is in position, lighting fixtures can be assigned. In the event of a design change, such as the repositioning of the ceiling grid, a height change to the grid, or a room size change, the lighting fixture symbols attached to the ceiling grid are automatically adjusted, greatly reducing the amount of time it takes to revise the drawing. AutoCAD, for example, includes a powerful drawing information manager called DesignCenter. A number of symbol libraries are installed with AutoCAD that are available as drawing (.dwg) files. Numerous different files contain architectural symbols and other types of content. The symbols in each library can be accessed in DesignCenter and dragged and dropped into your drawing. Revit, an Autodesk, Inc. product, is architectural modeling software that also includes a number of parametric electrical symbols. These parametric symbols understand when they are attached to ceiling and wall objects. If the ceiling or wall objects are modified, the electrical symbols react to the changes such as moving with the wall or ceiling. There are also a number of online resources with electrical symbols in different CADD file formats for use in your floor plans. ■
COMM_TV V CONNECTION
STARTER T - COMBO
TV
CEILING FFAN 42
COMM_TV
STARTER T - MAGNETIC
S
COMM_SPEAKER
STARTER T - MANUAL
T TV
Access Panel
EXIT SIGN EXIT DIR FLUOR_1X4 EXIT_WALL W MOUNT
COMM_PHONE JACK 2 COMM_PHONE JACK B
COMM_BELL
FLUOR_2X2
FLUOR_1X4 NIGHT FLUOR_1X4 EMERGENCY
FLUOR_2X2 NIGHT
POWER_PANEL P FLUOR_1X8 Fan
PANEL BOARD P H Power_220 Recpt
FLUOR_1X8 NIGHT FLUOR_1X8 EMERGENCY
SMOKE DETECTOR
T
THERMOSTAT A
Power_Quad Recep
J
JUNCTION BOX - ROUND
TRACK_5 HEAD - 12FT
INC_EMERGENCY - WALL W
J
JUNCTION BOX - SQUARE
TRACK_4 HEAD - 10FT
INC_WALL W MOUNT
D
DIMMER
CB
CIRCUIT BREAKER
B
BUZZER
TRACK_3 HEAD - 6FT
BELL
TRACK_3 HEAD - 4FT
HORN
INC_EMERGENCY
INC_ROUND
SWITCH_SINGLE POLE
INC_EMERGENCY - SQUARE 2
SWITCH_DIMMER
INC_EMERGENCY - SQUARE 1
SWITCH_3 - WAY A
INC_EMERGENCY - ROUND
SWITCH_4 - WAY A
FIGURE 1923 Examples of electrical symbols used in CADD drawings.
FLUOR_2X2 EMERGENCY
FLUOR_2X4
Power_Duplex Recpt
B
SD
HEAT DETECTOR SPECIAL CONNECTION
H
INC_CEILING E
CEILING FFAN 48
FLUOR_2X4 NIGHT
TRACK_4 HEAD - 8FT
TRACK_2 HEAD - 3FT
FLUOR_2X4 EMERGENCY
Chapter 19: Electrical Plans
455
CADD APPLICATIONS WP
sss F
s
BEDROOM REC. ROOM
F
T
ss
s
s s
S SD
SD T TV F F
110V QUAD RECEPTA T CLE 220V RECEPTA T CLE LIGHT FIXTURE RECESSED LIGHT SMOKE DETECTOR TELEPHONE JACK CABLE TELEVISION JACK FAN F FAN/LIGHT FIXTURE
WET BAR
ss s
s
SINGLE-POLE SWITC I H THREE-WAY W SWITCH FOUR-WAY W SWITCH SWITCH WITH DIMMER SWITCH WITH TIMER 110V DUPLEX RECEPTA T CLE A COVER W 110V WITH WEATHERPROOF WP L INTERRUPT CIRCUIT GFI 110V ON GROUND FAULT FLOOR DUPLEX RECEPTA T CLE SPLIT-WIRED RECEPTA T CLE
s
ELECTRICAL INDEX s s3 s4 sD sT
BEDROOM
T F
s s
ss3
ss
s s
s T
s
ss
3
DEN
GARAGE
S SD
WP
MAIN FLOOR ELECTRIC PLAN SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 1924 Sample electrical plan for a residence. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
456
GOING GREEN Electricity Generation from Wind Power
The following information was taken in part from the Southwest Windpower Web sites located at www.windenergy.com, and www.skystreamenergy. com. Skystream 3.7, developed by Southwest Windpower in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), is the newest generation of residential wind technology. Skystream is the first fully integrated small wind generator designed specifically for the utility grid– connected market.
AWARD-WINNING TECHNOLOGY Skystream 3.7 was named a 2007 Top Green Building Product by Sustainable Industries, a magazine for green business leaders. Skystream was also awarded a 2006 Best of What’s New Award from the editors of Popular Science and was included in TIME magazine’s 2006 Best Inventions.
RESIDENTIAL WIND POWER ELECTRICITY GENERATION Skystream is the first all-inclusive wind generator with built-in controls and inverter designed specifically for utility grid–connected residential and commercial use. This small wind generator allows home and business owners to harness the free power of the wind and take control of their energy bills like never before. Early adopters have reported a savings of more than 50% on their energy bills. The Skystream 3.7 is shown in Figure 19-25.
Specifically for Grid-Connectivity The Skystream is specifically designed for utility grid– connected homes and businesses. In certain states, consumers can take advantage of “net-metering,” which is the sale of unused energy back to the power grid as shown in Figure 19-26.
How the Skystream Works Skystream offers a simple, all-in-one solution for harnessing wind energy on a residential scale. Different from all other technologies, Skystream 3.7 is the first all-inclusive wind generator with built-in controls and an inverter. An inverter is an appliance used to convert independent DC power into standard household AC current. During installation, the Skystream is connected to the electric meter, and nothing else changes inside the home. The Skystream works together with the electric utility to power the
FIGURE 1925 The Skystream 3.7 is the first residential, utility grid–connected small wind power turbine designed for residential use and commercial applications. Courtesy Southwest Windpower.
home or business. When the wind is not blowing, electricity is supplied by the utility company. When there is wind, the Skystream provides clean, quiet electricity. When the Skystream generates more electricity than needed, the meter can actually spin backwards, which means you are selling electricity back to the utility company.
Energy Production in Exceptionally Low Wind Speeds Designed for low wind speeds, Skystream 3.7 has a 2.4 kW rating and begins producing power in an 8 mph (3.5 m/s) breeze with full output achieved at 20 mph (9 m/s). Determine the average wind speed in your area by going to www.windenergy.com/globalwindmaps/ united_states.htm.
Low Profile Skystream was designed to blend in with its surroundings. When mounted on towers ranging from 33' to 60' (10.6 to
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GOING GREEN Electricity Generation from Wind Power (Continued)
Disconnect Switch
Meter
Skystream provides electricity to home
Home connected to utility grid
FIGURE 1926 How the Skystream 3.7 wind power electricity generator works. Courtesy Southwest Windpower.r
18.3 m), it has little visual or audible impact on its surroundings. Towers up to 110' (33.5 m) are also available. A site assessment is important to determine the best tower height for your specific site locations.
Quiet Operation The Skystream is exceptionally quiet during operation. In fact, Skystream’s sound is unrecognizable over trees blowing in the wind. The sound pressure level generated by Skystream is in the range of 40 to 50 decibels, which is quieter than background noise in a home or office.
RESIDENTIAL WIND POWER INSTALLATION Southwest Windpower recommends installing Skystream 3.7 at sites with the following criteria: • Adequate wind resource. Minimum average wind speed for Skystream 3.7 is 10 mph (4.5 m/s). Ideal sites have 12 mph (5.4 m/s) average wind or greater. • Site free from obstructions. Clean, unobstructed wind is best for Skystream 3.7. The top of the tower should be a minimum of 20' (6 m) above any surrounding object within a 300' (91.5 m) radius. Although the machine can be installed on smaller lots of land, properties of 1 acre or more are typically ideal and generally have unobstructed wind. • Suitable zoning. Tower installation must comply with local zoning regulations. It is also advisable to make
sure there are no Home Owner Association (HOA) regulations that prohibit the use of towers. • Interconnection with utility. The local utility must allow for interconnection. The 1979 federal Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) requires that small systems be allowed to connect to the electrical grid, but home owners should consult their local utility. • Electricity cost of $0.10/kWh or greater. Consumers should consult with their local utility or look at their electric bill.
REMOTE WIND POWER GENERATOR INSTALLATIONS The Southwest Windpower Whisper and Air series generators provide dependable energy for remote homes, telecommunications sites, water pumping, and other rural applications in moderate to extreme environments. Whisper generators provide direct current to batteries, which store the energy until it is needed. Standard residential alternating current appliances can be used if the power is run through an inverter before use. The Air series generator incorporates a microprocessor-based technology for increased performance, improved battery charging capability, greater reliability, and reduced noise. Figure 19-27 shows how the remote wind power electric generator works.
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GOING GREEN Electricity Generation from Wind Power (Continued)
Wind generator
PV array Batteries provide electricity to home Inverter
Battery bank
Whisper charge controller Whisper provides electricity to batteries
PV panels provide electricity to batteries
FIGURE 1927 How the remote wind power electric generator works. Courtesy Southwest Windpower.
TAX INCENTIVES FOR WIND POWER GENERATORS Depending on the tower and installation costs, wind speed average, rebates, and local electricity costs, the Skystream 3.7 can pay for itself in as little as five years. On October 3, 2008, the Emergency Economic
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you research available products and floor plan design options. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.avnow.com www.broan.com www.nutone.com
Stabilization Act of 2008, HR 1424, was passed, which included a new federal-level tax credit for qualified small wind turbines including consumers who purchase Skystream 3.7. Check with your tax advisor to confirm the availability in your area.
Company, Product, or Service Audio video environments Bath fans Central cleaning systems, intercoms
www.beamvac.com www.homedepot.com www.lowes.com www.squared.com www.caddepot.com
www.catalog.com
www.leviton.com
Central vacuum systems Electrical fixtures Electrical fixtures Electrical systems For use in assembling CADD symbol libraries For use in assembling CADD symbol libraries Lighting controls
Chapter 19: Electrical Plans
459
www.grandlighting.com/design
www.lutron.com
www.skystreamenergy.com
Lighting design and placement RadioRA, home lighting control system
www.windenergy.com www.alcatel-lucent.com www.onqtech.com
Skystream 3.7 small wind generator Southwest Windpower Wiring systems Wiring systems
See CD for more information
Electrical Plans Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 19 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 19–1 Duplex convenience outlets in living areas should be a maximum of how many feet apart? Question 19–2 Duplex convenience outlets in living areas should be no more than how many feet from a corner? Question 19–3 Describe at least four energy-efficient considerations related to electrical design. Question 19–4 Draw the proper floor plan symbol for: a. Duplex convenience outlet b. Range outlet c. Recessed circuit breaker panel d. Phone e. Light f. Wall-mounted light g. Single-pole switch h. Simplified fluorescent light fixture i. Fan
Question 19–5 Why is it poor practice to place a switch behind a door swing? Question 19–6 What is a GFCI duplex convenience outlet? Question 19–7 The average single-family residence should be equipped with how many amps of electrical service? Question 19–8 Define outlet box.
Question 19–9 When does rough-in of electrical wiring take place? Question 19–10 Define outlet. Question 19–11 Define lighting outlet. Question 19–12 What is the code requirement for the spacing of outlets in a kitchen? Question 19–13 Give two possible abbreviations for the ground fault circuit interrupter. Question 19–14 Define structured wiring systems. Question 19–15 Where are smoke detectors required?
PROBLEMS Problem 19–1 Draw a typical floor plan representation of the following: a. Three-way switch controlling three ceiling-
mounted lighting fixtures b. Four-way switch to a one ceiling-mounted lighting
fixture c. Single-pole switch to a wall-mounted light fixture d. Single-pole switch to a split-wired duplex conve-
nience outlet Problem 19–2 Draw a typical small bathroom layout with a tub, water closet, one sink vanity, one wall-mounted light over the sink with a single-pole switch at the door, a GFCI duplex convenience outlet next to the sink, a ceiling-mounted light-fan-heat unit with a timed switch at the door, and a proper vent note for the fan. Problem 19–3 Draw a typical kitchen layout with a double light above the sink, dishwasher, range with oven below and proper vent note, refrigerator, centered ceiling-recessed fluorescent lighting fixture, adequate GFCI duplex convenience outlets, and garbage disposal.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 19–4 Use the drawing of the house floor plan that you started in Chapter 18 and do one of the following as directed by your instructor: a. Continue by drawing the electrical plan on the
same floor plan or plans that you completed in Chapter 18. Use the steps outlined in this chapter.
b. Use the floor plan or plans that you created in
Chapter 18 as the base drawing and create a separate electrical plan as outlined in the steps provided in this chapter. c. Prepare your CADD drawing using the appropriate
electrical plan layers.
CHAPTER 20
Plumbing Plans I
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There are two classifications of piping: industrial and residential. Industrial piping is used to carry liquids and gases used in the manufacture of products. Steel pipe with welded or threaded connections and fittings is used in heavy construction. Residential piping is called plumbing and carries fresh water, gas, or liquid and solid waste. The pipe used in plumbing is made of copper, plastic, galvanized steel, or cast iron.
Copper pipes have soldered joints and fittings and are used for carrying hot or cold water. Plastic pipes can have glued joints and fittings and are used for vents and for carrying fresh water or solid waste. Many contractors are replacing copper pipe with plastic piping for both hot and cold water. One example is a plastic pipe with the chemical name of polybutylene (PB), also known as poly pipe. Some concerns have been addressed about the strength and life expectancy of PB pipe in construction. Plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe has been used effectively for cold water installations. Corrosion-resistant plastic piping is available in a thermoplastic with the chemical name postchlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC). Metal piping loses heat; CPVC pipe retains insulation and saves energy. CPVC piping lasts longer than copper pipe because it is corrosionresistant, it maintains water purity even under severe conditions, and it does not cause condensation, as does copper. Plastic pipe is considered quieter than copper pipe, and it costs less to buy and install. Another plastic plumbing product, cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) pipe, provides a flexible and durable plumbing system that can withstand high pressures and temperatures. It is also freeze-resistant because it expands and contracts to its original shape as needed to protect against freeze damage. Special fittings and tools are used for making connections when installing this product. Steel pipe is used for large-distribution water piping and for natural gas installations. Steel pipe is joined by threaded joints and fittings or grooved joints. The steel pipe used for water is galvanized. Galvanized pipe is steel pipe that has been cleaned and dipped in a bath of
molten zinc. The steel pipe used for natural gas applications is protected with a coat of varnish. This pipe is commonly referred to as black pipe because of its color. Steel pipe is strong, rugged, and fairly inexpensive. However, it is more expensive than plastic pipe, and labor costs for installation are generally higher because of the threaded joints. Corrugated stainless steel tubing (CSST) is also used for natural gas piping. CSST is a flexible piping system that is easier and less expensive to install than black pipe. This type of pipe comes in rolls that allow the plumbing contractor to run pipe through walls and under floors nearly as easily as electric wire. The flexible piping system is easy to cut with traditional pipe cutters and has easy-to-assemble fittings and fixtures. Stainless steel piping is commonly used in chemical, pollution control, pharmaceutical, and food industries because of its resistance to corrosion. Stainless steel is also sometimes used for water piping in large institutional and commercial buildings. Cast-iron pipe is commonly used to carry solid and liquid waste as the sewer pipe that connects a structure with a local or regional sewer system. Cast-iron pipe can also be used for the drain system throughout the structure to help substantially reduce water flow noise in the pipes. It is more expensive than plastic pipe, but may be worth the price if a quiet plumbing system is desired. Residential plans generally do not require a complete plumbing plan. The need for a complete plumbing plan should be verified with the local building code. In most cases, the plumbing requirements can be clearly provided on the floor plan in the form of symbols for fixtures and notes for specific applications or conditions. The plumbing fixtures are drawn in their proper locations on the floor plan at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50 metric). Other plumbing items to be added to the floor plan include floor drains, vent pipes, and sewer or water connections. Floor drains are shown in their approximate location, with a note identifying size, type, and slope to drain. Vent pipes are shown in the wall 461
462
where they are to be located and labeled by size. Sewer and water service lines are located in relationship to the position in which these utilities enter the home. The service lines are commonly found on the site plan as described in Chapter 15. In the situation described here, where a very detailed plumbing layout is not provided, the plumbing contractor is required to install plumbing of a quality and in a manner that meets local code requirements and that is installed in an economical manner. Figure 20-1 shows plumbing fixture symbols in plan, frontal, and profile views.
PLUMBING TERMS AND DEFINITIONS To understand the contents of this chapter, and to communicate effectively as an architectural designer or drafter, it is important for you to understand key plumbing terminology. Cleanout: A fitting with a removable plug that is placed in plumbing drainage pipe lines to allow access for cleaning out the pipe. Drain: Any pipe that carries wastewater in a building drainage system. Fitting: A standard pipe part such as a coupling, elbow, reducer, tee, or union; used for joining together two or more sections of pipe. Hose bibb: A faucet used to attach a hose. Lavatory: A fixture designed for washing hands and face, usually found in a bathroom. Main: The primary supply pipe, also called a water main or sewer main, depending on its purpose. Plumbing fixture: A unit used to supply and contain water, and discharge waste. Examples of fixtures are sinks, lavatories, showers, tubs, and water closets. Plumbing system: The plumbing system of a building provides all the piping and fixtures and has these elements: ●
Water supply pipes. ● Fixtures and fixture traps. ● Soil, waste, and vent pipes. ● Drain and sewer. ● Stormwater drainage. Plumbing wall: The walls in a building where plumbing pipes are installed. Potable water: Drinking water, which is free from impurities. Riser: A water supply pipe that extends vertically one story or more to carry water to fixtures.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Rough-in: Installation of the plumbing system before the installation of fixtures. Run: The portion of a pipe or fitting continuing in a straight line in the direction of flow in which it is connected. Sanitary sewer: A sewer that carries sewage without any storm, surface, or groundwater. Sewer: A pipe, normally underground, that carries wastewater and refuse. Soil pipe: A pipe that carries the discharge of water closets or other similar fixtures. Soil stack: A vertical pipe that extends one or more floors and carries discharge of water closets and other similar fixtures. Stack: A general term referring to any vertical pipe for soil waste or vent piping. Storm sewer: A sewer used for carrying groundwater, rainwater, surface water, or other nonpolluting waste. Trap: A U-shaped pipe below plumbing fixtures that holds water to prevent odor and sewer gas from entering the fixture. Valve: A fitting that is used to control the flow of fluid or gas. Vanity: A bathroom lavatory fixture that is freestanding or in a cabinet. Vent pipe: The pipe installed to ventilate the building drainage system and to prevent drawing liquid out of traps and stopping back pressure. Vent stack: See Stack. Waste pipe: A pipe that carries only liquid waste free of fecal material. Waste stack: A vertical pipe that runs one or more floors and carries the discharge of fixtures other than water closets and similar fixtures. Water closet: A water-flushing plumbing fixture, such as a toilet, that is designed to receive and discharge human excrement. This term is sometimes used to mean the compartment where the fixture is located. Water distributing pipe: A pipe that carries water from the service to the point of use. Water heater: An appliance used for heating and storing hot water. Water main: See Main. Water meter: A device used to measure the amount of water that goes through the water service. Water service: The pipe from the water main or other supply to the water-distributing pipes.
Chapter 20: Plumbing Plans
PLAN
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FRONTAL
PROFILE
PLAN
FRONTAL
PROFILE
FLOOR OUTLET IN CABINET
WALL HUNG
LAUNDRY TRAY (LT) TANK TYPE
INTEGRAL TANK SAME
SAME
DOUBLE LAUNDRY TRAY WALL HUNG TANK WATER CLOSETS (WC, TOILETS)
SINGLE KITCHEN IN CABINET BIDET (BD)
DOUBLE KITCHEN IN CABINET STALL
SINK (S)
WALL HUNG SHOWER (SH)
PEDESTAL URINAL (U)
BATHTUB (B)
DW WITH BACK DISHWASHER (DW)
SLAB TYPE WH WATER HEATER (WH) PEDESTAL LAVATORY (LAV, BATH SINK)
FIGURE 201 Common plumbing fixture symbols.
SAME
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Fixture or Pipe Size
Water Size
Distributing pipe
3/4"
Bathroom group* Plus one or more fixtures
Minimum Vent Size
1/2" 3/4"
Two fixtures
1/2"
Three fixtures
3/4"
Hose bibb
1/2"
Plus one or more fixtures
Minimum Fixture Trap and Drain Size
3/4"
Water closet (toilet)
3/8"
3"
2"
Bathtub
1/2"
1 1/2"
1 1/4"
Shower
1/2"
2"
1 1/4"
Lavatory
3/8"
1 1/4"
1 1/4"
Kitchen sink
1/2"
1 1/2"
1 1/4"
Laundry tray
1/2"
1 1/2"
1 1/4"
Clothes washer
1/2"
1 1/2"
1 1/4"
Bidet
3/8"
1 1/2"
1 1/4"
Dishwasher
3/8"
1 1/2"
1 1/4"
*The typical bathroom group consists of a lavatory, tub with shower, and toilet.
SIZING OF PLUMBING PIPING Plumbing must be large enough to allow fixtures to operate properly and for proper draining and venting. The size of water supply piping is based on these conditions: ● ● ● ● ●
Amount of water needed. Supply pressure. Pipe length. Number of stories to be supplied. Flow pressure needed at the farthest point from the source.
The size of drainage piping is based on standards established for the type of fixture and the average amount of waste that can be discharged through the fixture in a given amount of time. The size of vent pipes is based on the number of drainage fixture units that drain into the waste portion of the vent stack. The following chart lists common minimum plumbing pipe sizes for residential installations. Pipe sizes are also given in the discussions and examples throughout this chapter. Actual plumbing pipe sizes should be confirmed with local, state, and national codes that apply to your area. American National Standard taper pipe threads are the standard thread used on pipes and pipe fittings. Depending on the intended function and materials
used, these threads are designed to provide pressuretight joints. American pipe threads are measured by the nominal pipe size, which is the inside pipe diameter. For example, a 1/2" pipe size has an outside diameter of .840". Pipe threads are identified using a thread note such as 3/4-14NPT, where the 3/4 is the nominal inside diameter of the pipe, 14 is the number of threads per inch, and NPT stands for National Pipe Thread.
UNIVERSAL PLUMBING INSTALLATIONS Plumbing systems and fixtures can be designed to accommodate a variety of needs for people of all ages, and people with disabilities. Design considerations include the following: Sinks. Sinks should be approximately 6" (150 mm) deep, and be easily reachable from a wheelchair. The cabinet below the sink can be recessed for easier access with a wheelchair. The drain can have an auxiliary control that is mounted in a close, convenient place on the countertop. More than one sink should be considered, allowing placement at different heights. Stainless steel sinks might be a consideration for durability. Bathroom sinks that are either pedestal-based or wall-mounted can help provide easy access for wheelchairs. Wall-mounted sinks should
GOING GREEN
465
Energy Conservation INTRODUCTION Energy-conserving methods of construction can be applied to the plumbing installation. If such methods are used, they can be applied in the form of specific or general notes on detailed drawings or in construction specifications. Energy-conserving methods include: • Insulate all exposed hot water pipes. Cold water pipes should be insulated in climates where freezing is a problem. • Install water pipes in insulated spaces where possible. • Keep water pipes out of exterior walls where practical. • Place thermosyphon traps in hot water pipes to reduce heat loss from excess hot water in the pipes. Thermosyphon is the general term for hot fluid rising and cool fluid falling. • Locate the water heater in a heated space and insulate it well. • Select low-flow shower heads. • Use flow restrictors in faucets. • Completely caulk plumbing pipes where they pass through the plates. • Seal and cover drain penetrations in floors. • Seal all wall penetrations.
HOT WATER CIRCULATION SYSTEM Depending on the distance from the hot water heater to a faucet or shower head, it can take up to a minute for hot water to reach the fixture. This time is spent running and wasting water. A hot water circulation pump can be used to circulate water through the main hot water line and the return-line back to the water heater to keep hot water in the main line and available to the fixtures
have extra support. The height of the sink should be approximately 34" (860 mm) for convenient wheelchair access. The water pipes should be concealed behind the sink. Single-lever or automatic faucets can be provided, which allow ease of operation and better reach. The faucets can be mounted to the side rather than in the back as with most installations. Gooseneck faucets allow for easier access than regular units. A sink can also be provided in the water closet compartment for convenience and privacy. Water Closet. The water closet compartment should be designed to provide easy access and movement when a wheelchair is in use. A minimum of 42" (1070 mm) of clear space should be provided to the side of the toilet. A toilet designed for wheelchair
at all times. Water consumption is reduced, because hot water is available instantly when using a hot water circulation system. A timer, aquastat, or both can be used to control the pump operation. An aquastat is a device used in hydronic heating systems for controlling water temperature.
TANKLESS WATER HEATER Tankless water heaters, also called instantaneous or demand water heaters, provide hot water only when needed. A tankless water heater heats water directly without the use of the storage tank found with traditional water heaters. Tankless water heaters avoid the standby heat losses associated with storage water heaters. Standby heat loss is the heat lost when water is heated and waiting for use. When a hot water faucet is turned on, cold water travels through a pipe to the fixture. In a tankless water heater, an electric element or a gas burner heats the water. As a result, tankless water heaters deliver a constant supply of hot water. Typically, tankless water heaters provide hot water at a rate of 2 to 5 gallons (7.6 to 15.2 liters) per minute. Smaller tankless water heaters cannot supply enough hot water for multiple uses at the same time, such as taking a shower and running a clothes washer. To overcome this problem, you can use two or more tankless water heaters connected in parallel, or install separate tankless water heaters for appliances, such as a clothes washer or dishwater that uses extra hot water. Tankless water heaters can also be used for hot water supply at an outdoor sink, a pool shower, a remote bathroom, or a spa. Tankless water heaters are also used as a booster, eliminating long pipe runs, for solar water heating systems, dishwashers, and sanitation.
access should be wall-mounted and have an elongated bowl that is between 15" and 19" (380 to 480 mm) high. The toilet seat should be specified with a front opening. Some wheelchairs are designed for bathroom use and should be coordinated with the shower and toilet access. In some designs, a toilet inside the shower can be considered. Some home owners may want a toilet with warm water for washing and a dryer, or a bidet for washing. The toilet flush lever should be specified on the access side and can have an extension for convenient use. Grab bars should be conveniently located at the sides. Bathtubs. A bathtub can be specified with a height to match the wheelchair for easier access. Singlelever controls should be considered. A seat should
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be designed into the length of the bathtub. This allows a person to transfer from a wheelchair to the seat before entering the tub. The tub should be at least 60" (1524 mm) long with a minimum 15" (380 mm) wide seat. The clear floor space in front of the tub should be 30" (760 mm) minimum. A slant at the back of the tub and on the seat allows for easier access to the tub and serves as a headrest. Select a bathtub or design a tub area that offers easy access and comfort, and has a slip-resistant bottom and handles for getting in and out. Grab bars should be conveniently located at the sides. Showers. Showers are generally easier to access and use than bathtubs. The shower should be designed for wheelchair access by providing a minimum length and width of 60" × 30" (1524 × 760 mm). The shower should have rails and have a handheld faucet with temperature and surge controls to help maintain a constant water temperature and flow rate. The shower should have a slight ramp for easy access and have a nonslip bottom. A shower should be designed with a convenient seat when the owner does not use a shower wheelchair. Shower controls should be carefully placed at the shower entrance. Controls can be specified that start the shower and maintain the temperature automatically. Grab bars should be conveniently located at the sides.
PLUMBING SCHEDULES Plumbing schedules are similar to door, window, and lighting fixture schedules. Schedules provide specific information regarding plumbing equipment, fixtures, and supplies. The information is condensed in a chart so the floor plan is not unnecessarily crowded. A plumbing fixture schedule can provide fixture type, manufacturer’s name, model number, and color columns. Figure 20-2 shows a typical plumbing fixture schedule.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Other schedules can include specific information regarding floor drains, water heaters, pumps, boilers, or radiators. These schedules generally key specific items to the floor plan with complete information describing size, manufacturer, type, and other specifications as appropriate.
Description of Plumbing Fixtures and Materials Mortgage lenders may require a complete description of materials for the structure. Part of the description often includes a plumbing section in which certain plumbing specifications are described, as shown in Table 20-1.
PLUMBING DRAWINGS Plumbing drawings are usually not on the same sheet as the complete floor plan. The only plumbing items shown on the floor plans are fixtures, as previously explained. The plumbing drawing is generally drawn separate from the floor plan, with the floor plan used as a base drawing. The base floor plan drawing is set up to display the plumbing symbols and piping layout, with specific plumbing layers used for CADD applications. Plumbing drawings may be prepared by a drafter in an architectural office or in conjunction with a plumbing contractor. In some situations, when necessary, plumbing contractors or mechanical engineers create rough sketches, or use specialized CADD plumbing applications software. Plumbing drawings are made up of lines and symbols that show how liquids, gases, or solids are transported to various locations in the building. Plumbing lines and features are drawn as thick as wall lines or thicker than wall lines, so they are clearly distinguishable. Lateral lines are commonly broken when they cross over other lines. Symbols identify types of pipes, fittings, valves, and other components of the system. Sizes and specifications are provided in local or general notes. Figure 20-3 shows some typical plumbing symbols. Abbreviations commonly used in plumbing drawings are shown in Table 20-2.
WATER SYSTEMS
FIGURE 202 Plumbing fixture schedule.
Water supply to a structure begins at a water meter for public systems or at a water storage tank for private well systems. The water supply to the home or business, known as the main line, is generally 1" plastic pipe. This size may vary in relation to the service needed. The plastic main line joins a plastic or copper line within a few feet of the building. The rest of the water system
Chapter 20: Plumbing Plans
467
PLUMBING FIXTURE
NUMBER
LOCATION
MAKE
MANUFACTURER’S FIXTURE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER
SIZE
COLOR
Sink Lavatory Water closet Bathtub Shower over tub Stall shower Laundry trays
□ Curtain rod
□ Door □
Water Supply:
□
public; □
Sewage disposal:
public;
□
Shower pan: material
community system; □ individual (private) system. ★ □
community system; □ individual (private) system. ★
❁ Show and describe individual system in complete detail in separate drawings and specifications according to requirements. House drain (inside): Water piping:
□
□
cast iron; □ tile; □ other □
galvanized steel;
House sewer (outside):
copper tubing;
Domestic water heater: type
Gas service:
other
□
cast iron; □ tile; □ other
Sill cocks, number
; make and model gph 100° rise.
□
□
utility company;
Footing drains connected to : ;
□
□
; heating capacity
Storage tank: material
liq. pet. gas;
storm sewer;
□
;
other sanitary sewer;
capacity
Gas piping: □
;
dry well
□
capacity
cooking:
□
gallons. house heating.
Sump pump; make and model
discharges into
TABLE 201 Form for Description of Plumbing Materials.
piping is also plastic or copper pipe as described earlier in this chapter. The 1" main supply often changes to 3/4" pipe where a junction is made to distribute water to various specific locations. From the 3/4" distribution lines, 1/2" pipe usually supplies water to specific CURRENT CW HW HWR HB CO DS RD FD SD CB MH VTR
Cold water supply Hot water supply Hot water return Hose bibb Cleanout Downspout Rain drain Floor drain Shower drain Catch basin Manhole Vent thru roof
MCS WC LA B S U SH DF WH DW BD GD CW
Water closet (toilet) Lavatory (bath sink) Bathtub Sink Urinal Shower Drinking fountain Water heater Dishwasher Bidet Garbage disposal Clothes washer
TABLE 202 Some Typical Plumbing Abbreviations.
fixtures, such as the kitchen sink. Figure 20-4 shows a typical installation from the water meter of a house with distribution to a kitchen. The water meter location and main line representation are generally shown on the site plan. Verify local codes regarding the use of plastic pipe and the water meter location. There is an advantage to placing plumbing fixtures back-to-back in a common plumbing wall when possible. A common plumbing wall is a wall between rooms where plumbing fixtures are placed back-to-back. The common plumbing wall can require 2 × 6 (50 × 150 mm) stud framing for extra width to accommodate the piping. This practice saves materials and labor costs. Also, in designing a two-story building, placing plumbing fixtures one above the other is economical. If the functional design of the floor plan clearly does not allow for such economy measures, then good judgment should be used in the placement of plumbing fixtures so the installation of the plumbing is physically possible. Figure 20-5 shows
468
Architectural Drafting and Design
CWV
SOIL WASTE PIPE
COMBINATION WASTE AND VENT
SD S
VENT PIPE
STORM DRAIN OR SEWER
COLD WATER SUPPLY
SW
SOFT COLD WATER
HOT WATER SUPPLY
ICW INDUSTRIALIZED COLD WATER OR IHW, HOT WATER
HOT WATER RETURN
TEE UP
ELBOW UP
TEE DOWN
ELBOW DOWN
GATE VALVE
DWS
CHILLED DRINKING WATER
F FIRE SERVICE
CHECK VALVE
SPRINKLER LINE
G
M
GAS LINE
WATER METER
T TEMPERED WATER
90° ELBOW
45° ELBOW
REDUCER
LATERAL
TEE FLANGED COUPLING
UNION
SCREWED
BELL SPIGOT
WELDED
SOLDERED
TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
FIGURE 203 Typical plumbing pipe symbols.
HB
3/8"
DW NOTE: PROVIDE SHUT-OFF VALVES AT ALL FIXTURES HOT AND COLD
1/2" COLD WATERLINE 1/2" HOT WATERLINE DW
WATER HEATER
3/4" COPPER
UNION 1" PVC
METER TO BE INSIDE IN COLD CLIMATES CHECK WITH LOCAL CODES
VALVE M
METER VALVE
FIGURE 204 Partial water supply system.
NOTE: PROVIDE VALVES ON HOT AND COLD FOR ALL FIXTURES
FIGURE 205 Common plumbing wall with back-to-back bathrooms.
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120°
W
FIGURE 207 Hot water temperature.
D
Water Heaters
NOTE: PROVIDE VALVES ON HOT AND COLD FOR ALL FIXTURES
FIGURE 206 Common plumbing wall with a bath and laundry room back-to-back.
a back-to-back bath design. If the design allows, another common installation can be a bath and laundry room next to each other, to provide a common plumbing wall (see Figure 20-6). If a specific water temperature is required, that specification can be applied to the hot water line, as shown in Figure 20-7.
Water heaters should be placed on a platform with an overflow tray. Water heaters with nonrigid water connections and those over 4" (1200 mm) in height must be anchored or strapped to the building. If the water heater is located in the garage, it should be protected from impact by automobiles with a steel pipe placed in front and embedded in concrete. Fuel-combustion water heaters cannot be installed in sleeping rooms, bathrooms, clothes closets, or closets or other confined spaces opening into a bedroom or bathroom. Recommended water heater sizes vary, depending on the number of bedrooms, number of bathrooms, and type of water heater, such as electric, gas, or oilfired. Size specifications for water heaters can also vary, depending on the fuel type and manufacturer, but the following chart gives some basic size guidelines:
Water Heater Size (gallons) Number of Bathrooms
Number of Bedrooms
Gas
Oil
Electric
1 to 1 1/2
1
20
30
20
2
30
30
30
3
30
30
40
2
30
30
40
3
40
30
50
4
40
30
50
2 to 2 1/2
3 to 3 1/2
5
50
30
66
3
40
30
50
4
50
30
66
5
50
30
66
6
50
40
80
Hose Bibbs Hose bibbs are faucets used to attach a hose. Outside hose bibbs require a separate valve that allows the owner to turn off the water to the hose bibb during freezing weather. The separate valve must be located inside a heated area and is generally under a cabinet where a sink is located, such as in the kitchen or bathroom. This provides easy access to the valve. Frost-proof hose bibbs do not require a separate inside valve, but
the stem must extend through the building insulation into an open heated or semi-conditioned space to avoid freezing.
DRAINAGE AND VENT SYSTEMS The drainage system provides for the distribution of solid and liquid waste to the sewer line. Drainage pipes are required to have a minimum slope of 1/4" per foot (6 mm per 300 mm). The vent system allows for a
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Architectural Drafting and Design
continuous flow of air through the system so that gases and odors can dissipate and bacteria do not have an opportunity to develop. The vent system also protects drawing liquid out of the traps and stops back pressure. These pipes throughout the house are generally made of PVC plastic, although the pipe from the house to the concrete sewer pipe is commonly 3" or 4" cast iron. Drainage and vent systems, like water systems, are drawn with thick lines using symbols, abbreviations, and notes. Figure 20-8 shows a sample drainage vent system. Figure 20-9 shows a house plumbing plan.
ISOMETRIC PLUMBING DRAWINGS Isometric drawings can be used to provide a threedimensional representation of a plumbing layout, sometimes called a plumbing riser diagram. Especially
FIGURE 208 Drainage and vent drawing.
HB
1/2" WH
3/4"
3" PVC
M
METER
NOTE: METER TO BE INSIDE IN COLD CLIMATES (CHECK WITH LOCAL CODES)
1" PVC
FIGURE 209 Single-line isometric drawing of a drainage and vent system.
HB
C.O. 4" C.I.
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471
VT 11
LA 11
R
/2"
V.
4"
W
/4"
.C.
TU
2"
B
CO
4"
3"
AUTOMATIC FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
FIGURE 2010 Residential plumbing plan.
ROOF VENT
VENT FLASHING
VENT LOOP
for a two-story structure, an isometric drawing provides an easy-to-understand pictorial representation. Figure 20-10 is an isometric drawing of the system shown in plan view in Figure 20-8. Figure 20-11 shows a detailed isometric drawing of a typical drain, waste, and vent system. Figure 20-12 shows a singleline isometric drawing of the detailed isometric drawing in Figure 20-11. Figure 20-13 shows a detailed isometric drawing of a hot and cold water supply system. Figure 20-14 shows a single-line isometric drawing of that same system.
VENT LOOP
Based on the acceptance of the 2009 International Residential Code (IRC) automatic fire sprinkler systems that meet Section P2904 of the International Plumbing Code (IPC) are required for all new townhouse construction. A townhouse, also called a townhome, is one of a row of homes sharing common walls. Generally, the difference between a townhouse and a condominium is that townhouse ownership usually includes
VANITY
11/2" VENT
3" STACK ROOFLINE
LAV VENT
3" 11/2" VENT
3" COPPER PIPE
WC 3"
VENT
FIGURE 2011 Detailed isometric drawing of drain, waste, and vent system.
SINKS
11/2"
W
WASHER STAND PIPE
DRAIN
TUB
11/2"
LAV
TO CITY SEWER
CLEANOUT
WC
11/2"
11/2"
3" TO STREET C.O.
FIGURE 2012 Single-line isometric drawing of drain, waste, and vent system.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
SEWAGE DISPOSAL STOP VALVE AIR CHAMBERS
MAIN SHUTOFF VALVE
AIR CHAMBERS HOSE BIBB STOP VALVE
WATER METER FROM WATER SUPPLY
AIR CHAMBERS
RELIEF VALVE WATER HEATER
SHUT-OFF VALVE COLD WATER HOT WATER
WASHING MACHINE
DRAIN
FIGURE 2013 Detailed isometric drawing of a hot and cold water system.
individual ownership of the land. A sprinkler system is not required to additions or alterations made to existing townhomes. As part of the 2009 IRC, effective January 1, 2009, automatic residential fire sprinklers must be installed in all new one- and two-family dwellings. The fire sprinkler systems must be installed to meet Section P2904 of the IPC or NFPA13D (National Fire Protection Association).
A sanitary sewer system is a system of underground pipes designed for the collection and transfer of wastewater from domestic residences, businesses, and industries to a wastewater treatment plant, or private sewage treatment such as a septic tank or cesspool. The domestic sewage is from the bathroom, kitchen, and laundry drains. Sanitary sewers are usually not designed to handle stormwater. Stormwater is carried in a separate stormwater system. Septic tanks are used primarily for individual residences outside of public sewage districts. A septic tank is an on-site treatment system for domestic sewage, in which the sewage is held to go through a process of liquefaction and decomposition by bacterial organisms. The flow continues to be safely disposed in a subsurface facility such as a tile field, leaching pools, or buried sand filter. A cesspool is a cistern that receives untreated sewage that goes through a process of liquefaction and decomposition by bacterial organisms. The flow continues through an open bottom and perforated sides into porous soil.
Public Sewers Public sewers are available in and near most cities and towns. Public sewers are generally located under the street or an easement next to the construction site. In some situations the sewer line may have to be extended to accommodate the addition of another home or business in a newly developed area. The cost of this extension may be the responsibility of the developer. Usually the public sewer line is under the street, so the new construction has a line from the structure to the sewer. The cost of this construction usually includes installation, street repair, sewer tap, and permit fees. Figure 20-16 shows a sewer connection and the plan view usually found on the site plan.
Private Sewage Disposal: A Septic System
HW
FIGURE 2014 Single-line isometric drawing of a hot and cold water system.
A septic system consists of a storage tank and an absorption field and operates as follows. Solid and liquid waste enters the septic tank, where it is stored and begins to decompose into sludge. Liquid material, or effluent, flows from the tank outlet and is dispersed into a soil absorption field, or drain field (also known as leach lines). When the solid waste has effectively decomposed, it also dissipates into the soil absorption field. The owner should use a recommended chemical to work as a catalyst for complete decomposition of solid waste. Septic tanks can become overloaded in a period of up to 10 years and may require pumping.
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GOING GREEN Solar Hot Water Solar hot water collectors are available for new or existing residential, commercial, or industrial installations. Solar collectors can be located on a roof, on a wall, or on the ground near the building. Figure 20-15 shows a typical application of solar collectors. Solar systems vary in efficiency. The number of collectors needed to provide heat to a home depends on the size of the home and the volume of heat needed. The flat-plate collector is the heart of a solar system. Its main parts are the transparent glass cover, absorber plate, flow tubes, and insulated enclosure. Piping and wiring drawings for a complete solar hot water heating system are available through the manufacturer.
FIGURE 2015 Typical application of solar hot water collectors. Courtesy Lennox Industries, Inc.
The characteristics of the soil must be verified for suitability for a septic system by a soil feasibility test, also known as a percolation test. This test, performed by a soil scientist or someone from the local government, determines if the soil will accommodate a septic system. The test should also identify certain specifications that should be followed for installation. The
Veterans Administration (VA) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) require a minimum of 240' of field line, or more if the soil feasibility test shows it is necessary. Verify these dimensions with local building officials. When the soil characteristics do not allow a conventional system, there are some alternatives such as a sand filter system, which filters the effluent through
3" OR 4" PLASTIC (PVC) OR CAST IRON (CI)
SECTION VIEW
FIGURE 2016 Public sewer system.
PUBLIC SEWER MAIN
S
S
S
STREET
CONCRETE 3" OR 4" "Y" TAP CAST IRON 4" CONCRETE PIPE
STREET
CL
CURB
MH
CLEAN OUT (CO) THRU FOUNDATION WALL
STRUCTURE
MAIN FLOOR
PLAN VIEW
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Architectural Drafting and Design
10'
MAIN FLOOR
CLEAN OUT (CO) EFFLUENT TANK COVER
5' MIN.
2"/100'
STEEL OR CONCRETE TANK
PERFORATED PIPE
1000 GAL. SEPTIC TANK 10'
SLUDGE
DISTRIBUTION BOX
125' MAX
SLOPE
INLET
STRUCTURE
GRAVEL 3" OR 4" PLASTIC (PVC) OR CAST IRON (CI)
CL STREET
OUTLET
SECTION VIEW
PLAN VIEW
FIGURE 2017 Septic sewer system.
a specially designed sand filter before it enters the soil absorption field. Check with your local code officials before calling for such a system. Figure 20-17 shows a typical serial septic system. The serial system allows for one drain field line to fill before the next line is used. The drain field lines must be level and must follow the contour of the land perpendicular to the slope. The drain field should be at least 100' from a water well, but verify the distance with local codes. There is usually no minimum distance to a public water supply. A septic system generally has gravity feed of solid and liquid waste to the septic tank. However, if gravity feed is not possible a pump system can be installed. The pump system has a chamber with an automatic pump that receives waste from the home and sends it to the septic tank located at a higher elevation.
FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEMS Fire sprinkler systems are commonly used in commercial buildings, and are becoming a consideration in residential design. In some cases, residential fire sprinkler systems are required. The requirement is determined by the local governing agency, and may be determined by the square footage or location. Some remote locations require fire sprinkler systems due to the logistics for fighting a fire. Even if a fire sprinkler system is not required, it should be a consideration when designing a home. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), properly installed and maintained automatic fire sprinkler systems help save lives. Because fire sprinkler systems react so quickly, they can dramatically reduce the heat, flames, and smoke produced in a fire. Some of the advantages of an automated home fire sprinkler system are:
● ● ● ●
Losses are 90% lower than can be expected from a home fire without a sprinkler system. Fire sprinkler systems provide added security. Each sprinkler is individually activated by heat. A single sprinkler controls 90% of all fires. A fire can easily spread throughout the home without a fire sprinkler system, and traditional firefighting generally takes over eight times the amount of water to fight a fire when compared to a home protected with a fire sprinkler system.
Fire sprinklers activate by a water plug that releases water when the heat reaches a certain temperature. Designers and architects can create a fire sprinkler system design, or send a base floor plan drawing to a fire sprinkler consultant or a qualified plumbing contractor to complete the design. Some plumbing contractors are able to design and install fire sprinkler systems; however, a fire sprinkler specialist is used in most locations.
METRICS IN PLUMBING Pipe is made of a wide variety of materials identified by trade names, with nominal sizes related only loosely to actual dimensions. For example, a 2" galvanized pipe has an inside diameter of about 2 1/8" but is called 2" pipe for convenience. Because few pipe products have even inch dimensions that match their specifications, there is no reason to establish even metric sizes. Metric values established by the International Organization for Standardization relate nominal pipe sizes (NPS) in inches to metric equivalents, referred to as diameter nominal (DN). The following equivalents relate to all plumbing, natural gas, heating, oil, drainage, and miscellaneous piping used in buildings and civil engineering projects:
Chapter 20: Plumbing Plans
NPS (IN.)
475
DN (MM)
NPS (IN.)
DN (MM)
1/8
6
8
200
3/16
7
10
250
1/4
8
12
300
3/8
10
14
350
1/2
15
16
400
5/8
20
20
450
3/4
20
20
500
1
25
24
600
1 1/4
32
28
700
1 1/2
40
30
750 800
2
50
42
2 1/2
65
36
900
3
80
40
1000
3 1/2
90
44
1100
4
100
48
1200
4 1/2
115
52
1300
5
125
56
1400
6
150
60
1500
on 1/2" pipe reads 1/2–14NPT, where 14 is threads per inch. The metric conversion affects only the nominal pipe size—1/2 in this case. The conversion of the 1/2–14NPT pipe thread to metric is DN15–14NPT.
ADDING PLUMBING INFORMATION TO THE FLOOR PLAN Most residential floor plan drawings prepared by the architect or designer place the plumbing symbols and notes with all other floor plan content. Plumbing symbols such as the sinks and water closets aid in reading and understanding the drawing. Plumbing notes are generally minimal. The plumbing symbols and notes can also be placed on a separate drawing. Figure 20-18 shows the base floor plan drawing with the plumbing symbols and notes displayed in color.
COMMERCIAL PLUMBING DRAWINGS In most cases, plumbing drawings are found as an individual component of the complete set of plans for a commercial building. The architect or mechanical engineer prepares the plumbing drawings over the base floor plan. This method keeps the drawing clear of any unwanted information and makes it easier for the plumbing contractor to read the print. An example is shown in Figure 20-19. Notice the floor plan outline
In giving a metric pipe size, it is recommended that DN precede the metric value. For example, the conversion of a 2 1/2" pipe to metric is DN65. Standard threads for thread pipe are given in the National Standard Taper Pipe Threads (NPT). The thread
HB D W LT
32" RAIL
UP 14 R
DN 14 R
HB
DW GD
HB
FIGURE 2018 Base floor plan with plumbing layer shown in color.
476 Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2019 Architectural floor plan with the plumbing layout shown on a color CADD layer. Courtesy System Design Consultants.
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477
UP 1'-6" HB
UTILITY
9'-5" X 7'-1"
FAMILY
DINING
17'-0" X 11'-5"
SHOP
17'-4" X 11'-5"
12'-6" X 11'-5"
HB
DN 7 1/2"
UP 1'-2"
PANTRY
BATH
KITCHEN
12'-11" X 15'-4"
DN 7 1/2"
UP 14R
LIVING
S&P CLOSET
ENTRY
12'-9" X 15'-4"
GARAGE
22'-5" X 23'-4"
DW
GD
TC
LS
HB UP 1'-6"
COVERED PORCH
MAIN FLOOR PLUMBING SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 2020 Some common plumbing symbols, a schedule, and general notes. Courtesy System Design Consultants.
with unnecessary detail and information has been omitted. The plumbing plan shown in color is the only other information provided. As you can see by this example, the plumbing drawing can be fairly complex.
Common Commercial Plumbing Symbols Displaying the fixture is the most important aspect of a residential plumbing drawing. The actual piping is usually left off the residential floor plan. Commercial plumbing drawings are different, because they must clearly show the pipe lines and fittings as symbols, with related information given in specific and general notes. Some common plumbing symbols are shown in Figure 20-20. A variety of valve symbols can be used in a plumbing drawing. For example, a valve is a device used to regulate the flow of a gas or liquid. The symbols for common valves are shown in Figure 20-21. The direction in which the pipe is running is also important
to plumbing drawings. When a pipe is rising, the end of the pipe is shown as if it is cut through, and the inside is crosshatched with section lines. When a pipe is turned down, or running away from you, the symbol
SYMBOL
SYMBOL NAME
GATE VALVE
GLOBE VALVE
CHECK VALVE
RELIEF VALVE
FIGURE 2021 Common valve symbols.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PIPE FITTING
BOP EL. 24'-6"
FITTING SYMBOL PIPE RISING
SIDE VIEW
PIPE TURNING DOWN
CL EL. 23'-8"
90° ELBOW
45° ELBOW
TEE
1 1/2"
REDUCER
CAP
LATERAL
1 1/2"
FIGURE 2023 Specifying the pipe size and elevation. CROSS
UNION
FIGURE 2022 Several common piping symbols in side view, in a rising pipe view, and in a view with the pipe turning down.
appears as if you are looking at the outside of the pipe. Figure 20-22 shows several common symbols in side view, in a rising pipe view, and in a view with the pipe turning down.
Pipe Size and Elevation Shown on the Drawing The size of the pipe can be shown with a leader and a note, or with an area of the pipe expanded to provide room for the size to be given, as shown in Figure 20-23. Some plumbing installations provide the elevation of a run of pipe or the elevation of a pipe fixture when a specific location is required. Elevation is the height of a feature from a known base, which is usually given as 0 (zero elevation). The elevation of a pipe or fitting is given in feet and inches from the base. For example, EL 24'–6", where EL is the abbreviation for elevation and 24'–6" is the height from the zero-elevation base reference. Elevation can be noted on the drawing in relationship to a
construction member such as TOC (top of concrete) or TOS (top of steel). Elevation can also be related to a location on the pipe, such as BOP (bottom of pipe) or CL (center line of pipe).
Special Symbols, Schedules, and Notes on a Plumbing Drawing As with any other drawing, plumbing information can be provided in the form of special symbols, schedules, and general notes. Figure 20-20 shows special symbols in a legend, and an example of a plumbing connection schedule and general notes. Architectural and mechanical engineering offices often place a legend on the drawing for reference. The legend displays and identifies symbols used on the drawing. The legend and many general notes are often saved as a block for insertion in any drawing when needed.
PLUMBING PLAN DRAWING CHECKLIST Check off the items in the following plumbing plan checklist as you work on the plumbing plan to be sure you included all of the necessary items. ❑ Sinks: Kitchen sink, laundry tray, and vanity sinks. ❑ Dishwasher. ❑ Clothes washer.
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CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Plumbing Symbols with CADD symbol into position on the drawing. The use of parametric programs plays an important role in applications as entire supply and wastewater piping systems can be generated by automatically adjusting pipe fittings and valves, and specifying pipe sizes. Parametric tools can also be used by architects when designing multiple water closet stalls in a commercial building restroom, for example. The distance between walls or the width of each stall, the number of stalls, the stall length, and the door-swing direction are specified; then the program automatically draws the entire series of restroom stalls. AutoCAD, AutoCAD Architecture, and AutoCAD MEP have a powerful drafting information manager called DesignCenter. Several symbol libraries are available as drawing (.dwg) files within these programs. Also included are a number of different files containing architectural plumbing symbols and piping symbols such as those for valves and fittings. These symbols can be accessed in DesignCenter and dragged and dropped into your drawing. Figure 20-25 displays an example of the DesignCenter with some piping content.
In residential architecture, plumbing drawings usually involve placing symbols such as sinks, water closets, and tubs on the floor plan. With commercial architecture applications, a separate plumbing drawing shows the complete plumbing layout with symbols and pipes in relation to the floor plans. Generally, a floor plan is used as a base drawing, and then piping lines and symbols are drawn over the plan. This creates a composite plumbing sheet in the construction documents. Many companies show two separate drawings for commercial projects. One drawing is a floor plan completely dimensioned, and the other drawing is a floor plan with walls, doors, windows, and the plumbing layout. Figure 20-24 shows an example plumbing plan for a waste treatment plant. For single-family residence projects, a plumbing diagram showing supply and waste lines is generally not required. The various CADD programs include menus, palettes, dialog boxes, and libraries with symbols for use in plumbing applications. Typically, you select the desired symbol from a menu or palette and then drag or insert the
Decking
Water ffeed hoses to bottom of
FP 1
Platform Contro trol ro o Panels ls
1)Micro Filters 2)Lime(4" conduit) 3)Ferric(1"PVC) 4)Fill Line (3"PVC ins.) 5)Decant 6)Micro Filters
Filter Plates
From water tank below platform to pressurize plate lines.
to solids holding
Control Panels & Disconnects Acid
5 control valves
Blower
ffeed pump
D.E. feed tank
Micro c Filters FT 1 1)Filter Press #1 2)Lime conduit 3)Ferric 4)Fill 5)Micro Filters
FP 2
RET. WALL
Caustic Bleach c
2 on ea. pump
D.E. hopper
OLD EQ
Water - Filter Press 1&2 - NIS Fill Line
90 dayy haz. waste acc. area
FT 2 1)Fill line/Solids holding from eq. 2)Solids holding decant/recirc. 3)Clarifier 4)Filter Press pumps ffeed 5)Solids fill line
CLAR.
FILTERS L T TANK
EQ Pump Fill
Blower
RAMP
Blower line
P mp Sh Pu Shed d PVC Valve
NEW EQ LIME Over Flow
FERRIC CC CHLOR. SOLIDS FILTER L PRESS
SOLIDS HOLDING
1)Blower 2)Aerosol 3)Powders 4)Liquids 5)Filter Press sump 6)Acid 7)Recirc.
1)Fill line 2)Lime 3)Ferric
W WASTE TREATMENT FIGURE 2024 Example of a plumbing plan for a waste treatment plant. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.
1)Liquids 2)Powder 3)Filter Press #1 4)DE Slurry 5)Aerosol 6)Filter Press sump 7)Filter Press #2
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Plumbing Symbols with CADD (Continued)
FIGURE 2025 AutoCAD’s DesignCenter is a symbol manager that can be used to import plumbing symbols into your drawings.
The Autodesk, Inc., products Revit and Revit MEP are examples of programs that can be used when creating a parametric model. These types of programs apply smart symbols that are used in the model as in the examples noted previously. As drawings are created for plumbing and piping plans, the information is grouped together for ease of management. Depending on the CADD application, plumbing layers or model groups can be created to sort and manage the graphics. According to the American Institute of Architects (AIA), these layers have a P designation representing the Architectural Engineering or Construction (AEC) discipline that created the plumbing or piping documents. The P designates the plumbing discipline, followed by a four-letter abbreviation for the major layer description. The following list provides a few of the recommended layer names for CADD geometry: ■
Layer Name
Layer Description
P-ACID
Acid, alkaline, and oil waste systems
P-DETL
Plumbing details
P-DOMW
Domestic hot and cold water systems
P-ELEV
Plumbing elevations
P-EQPM
Miscellaneous plumbing equipment
P-FIXT
Plumbing fixtures
P-PPLM
Plumbing plan
P-SANR
Sanitary drainage
P-SCHD
Plumbing schedules
P-SECT
Plumbing sections
P-STRM
Storm drainage system
GOING GREEN
481
Indoor Water Use The content for this Going Green feature is taken in part from Mascord Efficient Living, Building a Sustainable Lifestyle.
INTRODUCTION Having a continuous supply of fresh, clean water is a worldwide need. Other than using water for irrigation, the majority of the water used in the home is indoors. Paying careful attention to the systems we use to deliver potable water can aid in efforts to be efficient without impacting lifestyles.
EFFICIENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS An efficient water distribution system minimizes plumbing requirements between the water source and destination. Design considerations include centrally located water heat sources, water need areas close together, and central manifold or recirculating plumbing systems. These design options reduce the time needed for hot water to appear at the faucet, the amount of water wasted waiting for hot water, and the amount of energy lost in transition.
REDUCING WATER LEAKS Surprisingly, leaks can be a significant portion of indoor water use. According to a study conducted by the American Water Works Association (AWWA), leaks make up about 14% of all indoor water use. Fixing leaks is an easy and highly effective way to save water. Check your utility bill to see if your water consumption seems realistic. If water use is high, you may have a leak. One of the most common leaks is found in the toilet. A faulty flapper can cause water loss even if there are no visible sign of water leaking from the tank to the bowl. To check for a faulty flapper, pour food coloring into the tank and wait a couple of hours to see if the water in the bowl changes color. If it does, you have a leak and need to change the flapper.
REDUCING WATER CONSUMPTION After checking that your plumbing distribution system is effective and that there are no leaks, the primary way to reduce indoor water consumption is to select efficient faucets and appliances. Selecting low-flow sink faucets and shower heads, and installing efficient toilets can reduce indoor water use by 30% to 40%. Dual-flush toilets allow occupants to select a suitable amount of water for the task. Low-flow shower heads are available that reduce the amount of water consumed
while maintaining a desired comfort level and adequate flow. Reducing the amount of hot water used in the shower also leads to significant energy savings. Lowflow shower heads alone can save 300 pounds of CO2 per year for electrically heated water, or 80 pounds for gas-heated water. For household chores, make sure you select Energy Star–rated appliances that promote water efficiency.
WATER COLLECTION AND REUSE After you have reduced your consumption of water as much as possible, the next step is to modify the source of water. This means acquiring an alternate source of water, which can be accomplished in these ways: • Collecting rainwater, which is called rainwater harvesting. • Reusing indoor wash water, called gray water.
Rainwater Harvesting Rainwater harvesting is the capture of rainwater from the roofs of residential buildings. Harvested rainwater can be used for indoor needs and irrigation. Rainwater harvesting systems can be as simple as a barrel on the end of a downspout that collects water for lawn and garden irrigation. Systems can also be as involved as collection tanks above- or below-ground that store runoff from rooftops and other collection surfaces and filter the water before directing it indoors for use with your washing machine, dishwasher, or toilets. More complex systems additionally incorporate filtration elements to make harvested water potable. When collecting rainwater for use indoors, make sure you follow the guidelines set by the local building department. Some municipalities rely on the water in your toilet tank as an emergency drinking source and require it to be potable.
Gray Water Recycling gray water can be an effective way to save water and help protect the environment. Gray water is the wastewater from sources such as baths, basins, sinks, washing machines, and dishwashers; contains no human waste; and is considered to be only mildly dirty. Redirecting gray water to a storage tank makes it available for use outdoors. However, avoid using untreated, detergent-filled water on your vegetable garden. Consider using eco-friendly cleaning materials, soaps, and detergents when using a gray water system for irrigation. Using compatible systems help keep you and the environment safe and healthy.
482
GOING GREEN Indoor Water Use (Continued)
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT With increased population and urban expansion, older stormwater sewer systems are often flooded with water during and after a heavy rainfall. When city-wide sewer systems flood, sewers quickly reach maximum capacity and can overflow and cause flooding with human waste and contaminated water. Stormwater management systems can help reduce the possibility of city storm sewer overflow during heavy rainfall.
Pervious Surfaces Rainwater runoff from driveways and walkways can be a big source of runoff. These surfaces are generally made out of impervious materials such as concrete or mortared stonework. To prevent runoff from hard surfaces, many products have been developed to be pervious to water while also retaining the original surface so that it continues to be suitable for driving and walking. Appropriately installed paving stones can be used to allow water to soak into the ground between stone sections, or special concrete mixes can be used to provide a path for water through the material. Figure 20-26 shows pervious surfaces
FIGURE 2026 Pervious surfaces to allow rainwater to be absorbed into the ground rather than runoff. A planter is also used to collect rainwater. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Photography by Bob Greenspan.
designed to allow rainwater to be absorbed into the ground rather than runoff.
Vegetative Swales A swale is a trough or trench that is dug and filled with drainage material and plant life to slowly absorb rainwater into the ground during and after a heavy rainfall. Water can also be moved from one location to another by installing a perforated pipe at the bottom of the trench. Using a swale on your site reduces the impact on stormwater systems.
Rain Gardens Rain gardens are designed to collect rainwater and let the ground absorb it slowly. Rain gardens displace the rain by using it in appropriate areas within the landscaping. Rain gardens can have water features, such as ponds with plants that incorporate ornamental features, or even original sculptures.
Planters Planters can add a botanical element to your landscape while managing stormwater. Figure 20-26 and Figure 20-27 show planters used in formal landscaping. Incorporating features from both vegetative swales and rain gardens, planters are a popular way of slowing down rainwater before it enters a sewer system.
FIGURE 2027 A planter used in formal landscaping. Incorporating features from both vegetative swales and rain gardens, planters are a popular way of slowing down rainwater before it enters a sewer system. Courtesy Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.
Chapter 20: Plumbing Plans
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
483
Garbage disposal. Toilets (bidet and urinal when used). Hose bibbs. Plumbing schedules completed as needed. All specific notes reviewed. General notes reviewed. Drawing title and scale. Title block information.
The following items are part of the water supply system checklist: ❑ Proper symbols used. ❑ All pipe sizes specified.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
www.kitchenaid.com www.aquaglass.com www.uponor-usa.com www.nibco.com
The following items are for the drainage and vent system checklist: ❑ All pipe sizes specified. ❑ Drainage and vent lines drawn. ❑ Fixtures labeled or symbols shown.
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you research available products and floor plan design options. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address
❑ Waterline from main with valve, meter, valve union to a house or building. ❑ Hot water line. ❑ Cold water line. ❑ All valves shown. ❑ Break lines that cross over other lines.
Company, Product, or Service Appliances Bath fixtures Cross-linked polyethylene plumbing systems Flow controls
Plumbing Plans Test
www.caddepot.com www.catalog.com www.homefiresprinkler.org www.nfpa.org www.flowguardgold.com www.americanstandard.com www.homedepot.com www.kohler.com www.lowes.com
For use in assembling symbol libraries For use in assembling symbol libraries Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition National Fire Protection Association Pipe and pipe fittings Plumbing fixtures Plumbing fixtures Plumbing fixtures Plumbing fixtures
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 20 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be
prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 20–1 Floor plan plumbing symbols are generally drawn at what scale? Question 20–2 Identify at least four methods that can contribute to energy-efficient plumbing.
484
Architectural Drafting and Design
Question 20–3 Define the following plumbing abbreviations: a. CO b. FD
PROBLEMS Problem 20–1 Draw the following plumbing fixture symbols in plan view:
c. VTR
a. Water closet
d. WC
b. Bathtub 5'–0" long × 2'–6" wide
e. WH
c. Shower 3'–0" × 3'–0"
f. SH
d. Urinal
Question 20–4 What information is required on a plumbing schedule?
Problem 20–2 Draw the following plumbing piping symbols:
Question 20–5 Are plumbing drawings required by all contractors? Why or why not?
a. Hot water supply
Question 20–6 List at least one advantage and one disadvantage of solar hot water systems.
c. Soil waste pipe
Question 20–7 Briefly explain how public sewer and private septic systems differ. Question 20–8 What is the name for steel pipe that has been cleaned and dipped in molten zinc? Question 20–9 Give the name of a steel pipe, protected with a coat of varnish, that is used for natural gas. Question 20–10 Briefly describe CSST. Question 20–11 Why is stainless steel pipe often used in chemical, pollution control, pharmaceutical, and food industries? Question 20–12 Define soil pipe. Question 20–13 Give the proper term for a vented fitting that provides a liquid seal to prevent the emission of sewer gases without affecting the flow of sewage or wastewater. Question 20–14 Define vent pipe. Question 20–15 List at least four factors that influence the sizing of water supply pipes.
b. Cold water supply d. Gate valve e. 90° elbow f. Tee
Problem 20–3 Make a single-line isometric drawing of a typical kitchen sink piping diagram. Problem 20–4 Make a single-line isometric drawing of a typical drain, waste, and vent system. Problem 20–5 Make a floor plan plumbing drawing of a typical back-to-back bath arrangement. Problem 20–6 Draw a partial single-line water supply system (see Figure 20-6). Problem 20–7 Draw a typical bathroom drainage and vent system (see Figure 20-10). Problem 20–8 Continue the floor plan or floor plans that you started in Chapter 18 by adding any additional symbols and notes related to the plumbing, such as hose bibbs, clothes washer, laundry trays, sinks, and water heater.
CHAPTER 21
Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) is the terminology used to refer to the industry that deals with the heating and air-conditioning equipment and systems found in a building. The HVAC system is also referred to as the mechanical system of the building, providing heat, fresh or conditioned air, and ventilation. The HVAC system is installed in a building to regulate temperature. This includes the furnace, air-conditioning equipment, and duct systems, which ensure the uniform transfer of the cold, hot, and filtered air throughout the building. Conditioned refers to a heated or cooled space. The duct system is square, rectangular, and round sheet metal pipes or plastic used to conduct hot or cold air from the HVAC system.
air is required, the return air passes over the surface of a cooling coil. Finally, the conditioned air is picked up again by the fan and the air cycle is repeated. Figure 21-1 shows the air cycle in a forced-air system. Conditioned air is air that has been heated, cooled, humidified, or dehumidified to maintain an interior space within the desired comfort zone. The comfort zone is the range of temperatures, humidity, and air velocities at which people generally feel comfortable.
SUPPLY OUTLET SUPPLY DUCT
The International Residential Code (IRC) requires a heating unit to be installed in any residence built in an area where the winter design temperature is below 60°F (16°C). Unless you are designing a home in Hawaii, plan for a heating unit capable of producing and maintaining a room temperature of 68°F (20°C) at a point 3' (914 mm) above the floor and 2' (610 mm) from exterior walls for all habitable rooms. Portable space heaters cannot be used to meet compliance with the current IRC codes. Refer to Chapter 9 for additional code requirments.
CENTRAL FORCED-AIR SYSTEMS One of the most common systems for heating and air-conditioning circulates the air from living spaces through or around heating or cooling devices. A fan forces the air into sheet metal or plastic pipes called ducts, which connect to openings called diffusers, or air-supply registers. Warm air or cold air passes through the ducts and registers to enter the rooms, heating or cooling them as needed. Air then flows from the room through another opening into the return duct, or return-air register. The return duct directs the air from the rooms over the heating or cooling device. If warm air is required, the return air is passed over the surface of either a combustion chamber, which is the part of a furnace where fuel is burned, or a heating coil. If cool
FAN
HEATING OR COOLING COIL FILTER RETURN DUCT
RETURN OUTLET
A
RETURN OUTLET RETURN DUCT
FAN FILTER HEATING OR COOLING COIL
SUPPLY DUCT SUPPLY OUTLET
B
FIGURE 211 (A) Downdraft forced-air system heated air cycle. (B) Updraft forced-air system heated air cycle. 485
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Architectural Drafting and Design
The Heating Cycle If the air cycle previously described is used for heating, the heat is generated in a furnace. Furnaces for residential heating produce heat by burning fuel oil or natural gas, or by using electric heating coils or heat pumps. If the heat comes from burning fuel oil or natural gas, the combustion (burning) takes place inside a combustion chamber. The air to be heated does not enter the combustion chamber but absorbs heat from the outer surface of the chamber. The gases given off by combustion are vented through a vent pipe or chimney. In an electric furnace, the air to be heated is passed directly over the heating coils. This type of furnace does not require a vent pipe or chimney.
CONDENSER EXPANSION VALVE EVAPORATOR COOL AIR OUT
WARM AIR IN WARM AIR OUT
FAN
COMPRESSOR
FIGURE 212 Schematic diagram of a refrigeration cycle.
The Cooling Cycle If the air from the room is to be cooled, it is passed over a cooling coil. The most common type of residential cooling system is based on two principles: 1. As liquid changes to vapor, it absorbs large amounts
of heat. 2. The boiling point of a liquid can be changed by changing the pressure applied to the liquid. This is the same as saying that the temperature of a liquid can be raised by increasing its pressure and can be lowered by reducing its pressure. Common refrigerants boil (change to a vapor) at very low temperatures, some as low as 21°F (6°C), which is below freezing. The principal parts of a refrigeration system are the cooling coil (evaporator), the compressor, the condenser, and the expansion valve. Figure 21-2 shows a diagram of the cooling cycle. The cooling cycle operates as follows: Warm air from the ducts is passed over the evaporator. As the cold liquid refrigerant moves through the evaporator coil, it picks up heat from the warm air. As the liquid picks up heat, it changes to a vapor. The heated refrigerant vapor is then drawn into the compressor, where it is put under high pressure. This pressure raises the temperature of the vapor even more. Next, the high-temperature, high-pressure vapor passes to the condenser, where the heat is removed. This is done by blowing air over the coils of the condenser. The high-pressure vapor changes to a liquid as the condenser removes heat. From the condenser, the refrigerant flows to the expansion valve. As the liquid refrigerant passes through the valve, the pressure is reduced, lowering the temperature of the liquid still further, so that it is ready to pick up more heat.
The cold low-pressure liquid then moves to the evaporator. The pressure in the evaporator is low enough to allow the refrigerant to boil again and absorb more heat from the air passing over the coil of the evaporator.
FORCED-AIR HEATING PLANS Complete plans for the heating system are normally needed when applying for a building permit or a mortgage loan, depending on the requirements of the local building department or the lending agency. If a complete heating layout is required, it can be prepared by the architectural drafter, a heating contractor, or a mechanical engineer. When forced-air electric, gas, or oil heating systems are used, the warm-air outlets and return-air locations can be shown, as in Figure 21-3. Notice the registers are normally placed in front of a window so warm air is circulated next to the coldest part of the room. As the warm air rises, a circulation action is created as the air goes through the complete heating cycle. Cold-air returns are often placed in the ceiling or floor at a central location. A complete forced-air heating plan shows the size, location, and number of Btu dispersed to the rooms from the warm-air supplies. Btu stands for British thermal unit, which is a measure of heat. The location and size of the cold-air return and the location, type, and output of the furnace are also shown. The warm-air registers are sized in inches or millimeters. For example, 4" × 12" (100 × 300 mm). The size of the duct is also given, as shown in Figure 21-4. The note 20/24 means a 20" × 24" (500 × 600 mm) register; a number 8 next to a duct means an 8" (200 mm) diameter duct. Millimeters are used for metric values.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
487
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
FAMILY
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
UTILITY
DINING
17'-0" X 11'-5"
4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
9'-5" X 7'-1"
17'-4" X 11'-5"
SHOP
24 X 10 RA
12'-6" X 11'-5"
BATH
LIVING
KITCHEN
12'-11" X 15'-4"
12'-9" X 15'-4"
GARAGE
22'-5" X 23'-4"
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
6"Ø WA(TOE KICK) 100 CFM
ENTRY
DW
GD
TC
LS
COVERED PORCH
MAIN FLOOR HVAC
A
SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
2 X 10 WA 75 CFM
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
BED#2
10'-10" X 11'-5"
4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
BATH
STORAGE
16'-10" X 11'-2"
FURN
BED#1
12'-11" X 19'-3"
BATH
2 X 10 WA 75 CFM
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
BED#3
PARTY
12'-5" X 14'-10"
10'-10" X 11'-9"
2 X 10 WA 75 CFM
4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
B
UPPER FLOOR HVAC SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
C
LOWER FLOOR HVAC SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 213 Simplified forced-air HVAC plan of the (A) main floor, (B) upper floor, and (C ) partial basement for the model home represented throughout this textbook.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FAMILY
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
UTILITY
DINING
17'-0" X 11'-5"
4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
9'-5" X 7'-1"
17'-4" X 11'-5"
SHOP
12'-6" X 11'-5"
24 X 10 RA
12"Ø SUPPLY UP FROM CRAWL TO ATTIC SPACE
BATH
LIVING
KITCHEN
12'-11" X 15'-4"
12'-9" X 15'-4"
GARAGE
22'-5" X 23'-4"
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
6"Ø WA(TOE KICK) 100 CFM
ENTRY
DW
GD TC
LS
COVERED PORCH
MAIN FLOOR HVAC
A
SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
2 X 10 WA 75 CFM
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
BED#2
6"Ø
10'-10" X 11'-5"
6"Ø
BATH
8"Ø
7"Ø
10"Ø
12"Ø
6"Ø
BED#1
12'-11" X 19'-3"
6"Ø
BATH
6"Ø
2 X 10 WA 75 CFM
BED#3
10'-10" X 11'-9"
2 X 10 WA 75 CFM
4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
B
UPPER FLOOR HVAC SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 214 Detailed forced-air HVAC plan of the (A) main floor, (B) upper floor, and (C) partial basement for the model home represented throughout this textbook.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
489
7"Ø UP
STORAGE
7"Ø UP
6"Ø UP
7"Ø
6"Ø
6"Ø UP
16'-10" X 11'-2" 4 X 10 WA 100 CFM
7"Ø FURNACE 75,000 BTU
8"Ø
16" X 10"
12" X 8" 24" X 10" 7"Ø
4 X 12 WA 125 CFM
7"Ø
6"Ø
PARTY
6"Ø
12"Ø SUPPLY UP TO ATTIC SPACE
6"Ø
GARAGE ABOVE
12'-5" X 14'-10" 7"Ø UP
C
6"Ø UP
LOWER FLOOR HVAC SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 214 Continued
This same system can be used as a central cooling system when cool air is forced from an air conditioner through the ducts and into the rooms. WA means warm air, and RA is return air. CFM is cubic feet per minute, which is the rate of airflow. Forced-air plans are discussed again later in this chapter as related to making heating and cooling thermal calculations.
Providing Duct Space The use of a duct space called a chase was introduced in Chapter 18 when laying out the floor plans. When ducted heating and cooling systems are used, the location of the ducts often becomes a serious consideration. The ducts are placed in a crawl space or attic when possible. When ducts cannot be confined to a crawl space or attic, they must be run inside the occupied areas of the home or building. The designer and building contractor try to conceal ducts when they must be placed in locations where they could be seen. There are several ways to conceal ducts. When ducts run parallel to structural members, the ducts can be placed within the space created by the structural members. This is referred to as running the ducts in the joist space, rafter space, or stud space. These terms identify the type of construction
members used. This works when the duct size is equal to or smaller than the size of the construction members. In the case of return-air ducts, the construction members and enclosing materials can be used as the duct plenum. A plenum is a chamber that can serve as a distribution area for heating or cooling systems, generally between a false ceiling and the actual ceiling, or between construction members. When a duct can be in a space created between construction members, no extra framing needs to be done to conceal the ducts. When ducts must be exposed to occupied areas, they are normally enclosed by framing covered with gypsum or other finish material. When ducts are run in an area such as an unfinished basement, it is possible to leave them exposed. When possible, ducts are run in the ceiling of a hallway, because they can be framed and finished with a lowered ceiling. The minimum ceiling height in hallways can be 7'−0" (2134 mm). Bathrooms and kitchens can also have a minimum ceiling height of 7'−0" (2134 mm), though this is normally undesirable. The typical ceiling height in habitable rooms is approximately 8' (2440 mm), but a ceiling can be as low as 7'−6" (2286 mm) for at least 50% of the room, with no portion less than 7'−0" (2134 mm). This information is valuable, because it tells you how low ceilings can be framed down to provide space for ducts when needed.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
When running ducts along a ceiling, wall framing must be designed higher to still maintain adequate floor-toceiling height. When ducts must be run vertically between floors, they need to be run in an easily concealed location, such as in a closet or in the stud space. The stud space can be used for ducts that are 3 1/2" deep for 2 × 4 (50 × 100 mm) studs, 5 1/2" deep for 2 × 6 (50 × 150 mm) studs, or 7 1/2" deep for 2 × 8 (50 × 200 mm) studs. If the duct can be run up through a closet, then it can be framed in and covered in a chase. A chase is a continuous recessed area built to carry or conceal ducts, pipes, or other construction products. If the duct cannot be located in a convenient place for concealment, then it might need to be framed into the corner of a room; however, this is normally not preferred. The framing for the chase in Figure 21-4 is shown on the floor plan as a wall surrounding the duct to be concealed, and is located in a portion of the kitchen pantry. A note is usually placed that indicates the use, such as CHASE FOR 12 X 12 RETURN DUCT.
HOT WATER SYSTEMS In a hot water system, the water is heated in an oil- or gas-fired boiler and then circulated through pipes to radiators or convectors in the rooms. The boiler is supplied with water from the fresh water supply for the house. The water is circulated around the combustion chamber, where it absorbs heat. In one kind of system, one pipe leaves the boiler and runs through the rooms of the building and back to the boiler. In this one-pipe system, the heated water leaves the supply, is circulated through the outlet, and is returned to the same pipe, as shown in Figure 21-5. In a two-pipe system, two pipes run throughout the building.
CONVECTION OUTLETS
BOILER
FIGURE 215 One-pipe hot water system.
CONVECTION OUTLETS
SUPPLY MAIN RETURN MAIN
BOILER
FIGURE 216 Two-pipe hot water system.
One pipe supplies heated water to all of the outlets. The other is a return pipe, which carries the water back to the boiler for reheating, as shown in Figure 21-6. Hot water systems use a pump, called a circulator, to move water through the system. The water is kept at a temperature between 150°F and 180°F (65.5°C and 82°C) in the boiler. When heat is needed, the thermostat starts the circulator, which supplies hot water to the convectors in the rooms. The thermostat is described later in this chapter.
HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS A heat pump is a forced-air central heating and cooling system that operates using a compressor and a circulating refrigerant system. Heat is extracted from the outside air and pumped inside the building. The heat pump supplies up to three times as much heat per year for the same amount of electrical consumption as a standard electric forced-air heating system. In comparison, this can result in a 30% to 50% annual energy saving. In the summer, the cycle is reversed, and the unit operates as an air conditioner. In this mode, the heat is extracted from the inside air and pumped outside. On the cooling cycle the heat pump also acts as a dehumidifier. Figure 21-7 shows how a heat pump works. Residential heat pumps vary in size from 2 tons to 5 tons. Some vendors carry two-stage heat pumps that alternate between 3 tons and 5 tons, for example. During minimal demand, the more efficient 3-ton phase is used, and the 5-ton phase is operable during peak demand. Each ton of rating removes approximately 12,000 Btu per hour (Btuh) of heat. Residential or commercial buildings that, because of their size or design, cannot be uniformly heated or cooled from one compressor can require a split system
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
COOLING CYCLE
COIL
BLOWER FAN
COMPRESSOR OUTDOOR UNIT
WARM COIL
BLOWER
COIL
HEATING CYCLE
491
FAN
COMPRESSOR INDOOR UNIT
COOL COIL
OUTDOOR UNIT
INDOOR UNIT
FIGURE 217 Heat pump heating and cooling cycle. Courtesy Lennox Industries, Inc.
with two or more compressors. The advantage of such an arrangement can be that two smaller units more effectively control the needs of two zones within the building. Other features, such as an air cleaner, a humidifier, or an air freshener, can be added to the heat pump system. In general, the initial cost of the heat pump is about twice as much as a conventional forced-air electric heat system. However, the advantages and long-range energy savings make it a significant option for heating. The cost difference is less if cooling is a requirement. The total heat pump system uses an outside compressor, an inside blower to circulate air, a backup heating coil, and a complete duct system. Heat pump systems move a large volume of air; therefore, the return air and supply ducts must be adequately sized. Figure 21–8 shows the relationship between the compressor and the rest of the system. The compressor should be placed in
FIGURE 218 Heat pump compressor. Courtesy Lennox Industries, Inc.
a location where some noise does not cause a problem. The compressor should be placed on a concrete slab about 36" × 48" × 6" (900 × 1200 × 150 mm) in size in a location that allows adequate service access. Do not connect the concrete slab to the building to avoid transmitting vibration. Show or note the concrete slab on the foundation plan. Verify the vendor’s specifications for exact concrete slab dimensions. Heat pumps may not be as efficient in some areas of the country as in other areas because of annual low or high temperatures. Verify the product efficiency with local heating and cooling contractors.
ZONE CONTROL SYSTEMS A zoned heating system requires one heater and one thermostat per room. No duct work is required, and only the heaters in occupied rooms need to be turned on. One of the major differences between a zonal and a central system is flexibility. A zonal heating system allows the occupant to determine how many rooms are heated, how much energy is used, and how much money is spent on heat. A zonal system allows the home to be heated to the family’s needs, whereas a central system requires using all the heat produced. If the airflow is restricted, the efficiency of the central system is reduced. There is also a 10% to 15% heat loss through ductwork in central systems. Regardless of the square footage in a house, its occupants normally use less than 40% of the entire area on a regular basis. A zoned system is very adaptable to heating the 40% of the home that is occupied. Automatic controls allow for night setback, day setback, and unheated areas to be controlled as needed. The home owner can save as much as 60% on energy costs through controlled heating systems.
492
The two types of zone heaters are baseboard and fan. Baseboard heaters have been the most popular type for zoned heating systems for the past several decades. They are used in many different climates and under various operating conditions. No ducts, motors, or fans are required. Baseboard units have an electric heating element, which causes a convection current as the air around the unit is heated. A convection current is a natural condition where warm air rises and cool air falls. The heated air rises into the room and is replaced by cooler air that falls to the floor. Baseboard heaters should be placed on exterior walls under or next to windows or other openings. These units do project a few inches into the room at floor level. Some home owners do not care for this obstruction, in comparison with the floor duct vent of a central system or the recessed wallmounted fan heater. Furniture arrangements should be a factor in locating any heating element, because furniture must be kept a safe distance from the heater. Fan heaters are generally mounted in a wall recess. A resistance heater is used to generate heat, and a fan circulates the heat into the room. These units should be placed to circulate the warmed air in each room adequately. Avoid placing the heaters on exterior walls, as a recessed unit reduces or eliminates insulation. The fan in these units causes some noise. Split systems using zonal heat in part of the home and central heat in the rest of the home are also possible. This is also an option for additions to homes that have a central system. In a building addition, zoned heat can be used effectively so the central system is not overloaded and need not be replaced.
RADIANT HEAT Radiant heating and cooling systems provide a comfortable environment by controlling surface temperatures and minimizing excessive air motion within the space. Warm ceiling panels are effective for winter heating because they warm the floor surfaces and glass surfaces by direct transfer of radiant energy. The surface temperature of well-constructed and properly insulated floors is 2°F to 3°F (−16.4°C) above the ambient air temperature, and the inside surface temperature of glass is increased significantly. Ambient temperature is the temperature of the air surrounding a heating or cooling device. As a result of these heated surfaces, downdrafts are minimized to the point where no discomfort is felt. Radiant heat systems yield annual operating cost savings of 20% to 50%, compared with conventional convective systems. This savings is accomplished through
Architectural Drafting and Design
lower thermostat settings and through the superior, cost-effective design found in radiant heating products. It is generally accepted that 3% to 4% of the energy cost is saved for each degree that the thermostat is lowered. Users of surface-mounted radiant panels take advantage of this fact in two ways. First, they are able to achieve comfort at a lower ambient air temperature, normally 60°F to 64°F (16.6°C) as compared with convection heating air temperatures of 68°F to 72°F (21°C). Second, they are able to practice comfortable day and night temperature setback of about 58°F in areas used frequently, 55°F (12.8°C) in areas used occasionally, and 50°F (10°C) in seldom-used areas. Radiant heat can be achieved with oil- or gas-heated hot water piping in the floor or ceiling, to electric coils, wiring, or elements either in or above the ceiling gypsum board, and transferred to metal radiator panels generally mounted by means of a bracket about 1" (25 mm) below the ceiling surface. Zone-radiant heating panels are an alternative when space is limited or the location of built-in zone heaters is a factor.
THERMOSTATS A thermostat is an automatic mechanism for controlling the amount of heating or cooling given by a central or zonal heating or cooling system. The thermostat floor plan symbol is shown in Figure 21-9. The location of the thermostat is important to the proper function of the system. For zoned heating or cooling units, thermostats can be placed in each room, or a central thermostat panel that controls each room can be placed in a convenient location. For central heating and cooling systems, there can be one or more thermostats, depending on the layout of the system or the number of units required to service the building. For example, a very large home or office building can have a split system that divides the building into two or more zones, each individual zone with its own thermostat. Several factors contribute to the effective placement of the thermostat for a central system. A good common location is near the center of the building and close to a return-air duct for a central forced-air system. The air entering the return-air duct is usually temperate, thus causing little variation in temperature on the
T FIGURE 219 Thermostat floor plan symbol.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
thermostat. A key to successful thermostat placement is to find a stable location where an average temperature reading can be achieved. There should be no drafts that adversely affect temperature settings. The thermostat should not be placed in a location where sunlight or a heat register causes an unreliable reading. The same rationale suggests that a thermostat not be placed close to an exterior door, where temperatures can change quickly. Thermostats should be placed on inside partitions rather than on outside walls that could lead to false temperature readings. Avoid placing the thermostat near stairs or a similar traffic area, where significant bouncing or shaking could cause the mechanism to alter the actual reading. Energy consumption can be reduced by controlling thermostats in individual rooms. Central panels are available that make it easy to lower or raise temperatures in any room where each panel switch controls one remote thermostat. Programmable microcomputer thermostats effectively help reduce the cost of heating or cooling. Some units automatically switch from heat to cool while minimizing temperature deviation from the setting under varying load conditions. These computers can be used to alter heating and cooling temperature settings automatically for different hours of the day, days of the week, or months of the year.
493
include the atmosphere, steam from cooking and showers, and individuals, who can produce up to 1 gallon (3.8 liters) of water vapor per day. ●
Incomplete combustion from gas-fired appliances or wood-burning stoves and fireplaces can generate a variety of pollutants, including carbon monoxide, aldehydes, and soot. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas, produced by incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels. Aldehydes are very reactive organic compounds that contribute to ozone production. Soot is finely divided carbon deposited from flames during the incomplete combustion of organic substances such as coal.
●
Humans and pets can transmit bacterial and viral diseases through the air.
●
Tobacco smoke adds chemical compounds to the air that can affect smokers and nonsmokers alike.
●
Formaldehyde, when present, is considered a factor in the cause of eye irritation, certain diseases, and respiratory problems. Formaldehyde is a chemical found in disinfectants, preservative, carpets, furniture, and the glue used in construction materials, such as plywood and particleboard, as well as some insulation products.
●
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that breaks down into compounds that are carcinogenic (cancer-causing) when large quantities are inhaled over a long period of time. Radon can be more apparent in a building containing large amounts of concrete or in certain areas of the country. Radon can be monitored scientifically at a nominal cost, and barriers can be built that help reduce concern about radon contamination. Radon monitoring and control are discussed later in this chapter.
●
Household products such as those available in aerosol spray cans and craft materials such as glues and paints can contribute a number of toxic pollutants.
HEAT RECOVERY AND VENTILATION A heat recovery and ventilation (HRV) system is also referred to as a heat exchanger, air exchanger, or air-to-air heat exchanger. A heat recovery ventilation system is a ventilation system that uses a counter flow heat exchanger between the inbound and outbound airflow. HRVs provide fresh air and improved climate control, while also saving energy by reducing the heating or cooling needs of the home. Energy recovery ventilators (ERV) are closely related; however, ERVs also transfer the humidity level of the exhaust air to the intake air.
Sources of Pollutants Air pollution in a building is a principal reason for installing a heat recovery and ventilation system. A number of sources contribute to an unhealthy environment within a home or business: ●
Moisture in the form of relative humidity can cause structural damage as well as health problems, such as respiratory problems. Sources of relative humidity
Air-to-Air Heat Exchangers Government energy agencies, architects, designers, and contractors around the country have been evaluating construction methods that are designed to reduce energy consumption. Some of the tests have produced super-insulated, vapor-barrier-lined, airtight buildings. The result has been a dramatic reduction in heating and cooling costs. However, the air quality in these houses has been significantly reduced and can be harmful to health. An airtight building does not breathe, so stale air and pollutants have no place to escape.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Heat passes from the outgoing to the incoming airstream through thin metal or plastic sheets. (Only one sheet shown for clarity.)
CORE
FAN
Fresh, warmed air supply to house
FRESH, DRY, COLD OUTSIDE AIR
Warm, moist, stale, polluted return air from house
COOLED, STALE EXHAUST AIR TO THE OUTSIDE FAN
Moisture in house air reaches “dew point” and condenses when cooled by losing heat to the incoming airstream.
CONDENSATE DRAIN TO SEWER Pollution stays in the outgoing airstream and is exhausted to the outside. (It does not pass through the heat exchanger core sheets.)
FIGURE 2110 Components and function of an air-to-air heat exchanger. Courtesy U.S. Department of Energy.
Air-to-air heat exchanger technology is a way to avoid this problem. In the past, the air in a building was exchanged in leakage through walls, floors and ceilings, and around openings. Although this random leakage was no insurance that the building was properly ventilated, it did ensure a certain amount of heat loss. Now, with the concern for energy conservation, it is clear that the internal air quality of a home or business cannot be left to chance. An air-to-air heat exchanger is a heat recovery and ventilation device that pulls polluted, stale, warm air from the living space and transfers the heat in that air to fresh, cold air being pulled into the house. Heat exchangers do not produce heat; they only exchange heat from one airstream to another. The heat transfer takes place in the core of the heat exchanger, which is designed to avoid mixing the two airstreams and to ensure that indoor pollutants are removed. Moisture in the stale air condenses in the core and is drained from the unit. Figure 21-10 shows the function and basic components of an airto-air heat exchanger. The recommended minimum effective air exchange rate is 0.5 air changes per hour (ach). Codes in some areas of the country have established a rate of 0.7 ach. The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE) recommends ventilation levels based on the amount of air entering a room. The recommended amount of air entering most rooms is 10 cubic feet per minute (cfm). The rate for kitchens is 100 cfm, and bathrooms is 50 cfm. Mechanical exhaust devices vented to outside air should be added to kitchens and baths to maintain the recommended air exchange rate.
The minimum heat exchanger capacity needed for a building can be determined easily. Assume a 0.5 ach rate in a 1500 sq ft single-level, energy-efficient house and follow these steps: STEP 1 Determine the total floor area in square feet. Use the outside dimensions of the living area only. 30 × 50 ft = 1500 sq ft
Determine the total volume within the house in cubic feet by multiplying the total floor area by the ceiling height.
STEP 2
1500 sq ft × 8 sq ft = 12,000 cu ft
Determine the minimum exchanger capacity in cfm by first finding the capacity in cubic feet per hour (cfh). To do this, multiply the house volume in cubic feet by the ventilation rate in air changes per hour (ach).
STEP 3
12,000 cu ft × 0.5 ach = 6000 cfh
Convert the cfh rate to cubic feet per minute by dividing the cfh rate by 60 minutes.
STEP 4
6000 cfh ÷ 60 min = 100 cfm
There is a percentage of capacity loss due to mechanical resistance that should be considered by the system designer. Most home owners are not knowledgeable about potential air pollution and how internal air can be adequately controlled by ventilation. Therefore, the architect designing an energy-efficient home must plan the proper ventilation. The ducts, intake, and exhaust for such a system should be located on the advice of a ventilation consultant or a knowledgeable HVAC contractor.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
495
EXHAUST SYSTEMS: CODE REQUIREMENTS Exhausts are part of the HVAC system. Exhaust systems are required to remove odors, steam, moisture, and pollutants from inside a building. The following are basic general code requirements that need to be considered during the design process. ●
● ●
●
●
Range hoods must be vented to the outside by a single-wall galvanized or stainless steel, or copper duct. This duct shall have a smooth inner surface, be substantially airtight, and have a backdraft damper. A damper is a movable plate that regulates the draft or airflow in a chimney or vent pipe. A backdraft damper has blades that are activated by gravity, permitting air to pass through them in one direction only. Metal or noncombustible range hoods cannot be any closer than 24" (610 mm) to the range. Clothes dryer vents must be independent of all other systems and carry the moisture outside. The vent cannot be connected with screws that extend into the vent. Exhaust vents need a backdraft damper. The vent duct should be rigid metal 0.016" (0.406 mm) thick with a smooth inside and joints running in the direction of the airflow. Approved flexible duct can be used but cannot be concealed within the construction. A 4" (100 mm) clothes dryer duct cannot be longer than 25" (7620 mm) from the dryer to the wall or roof vent and must have a full opening exhaust hood. The total length should be reduced by 2'–6" (762 mm) for each 45° bend and 5' (1524 mm) for each 90° bend. When gas clothes dryers are installed in a closet, they must be approved for such use, and no other fuelburning appliance can be in the same closet.
CENTRAL VACUUM SYSTEMS Central vacuum systems have a number of advantages over portable vacuum cleaners. These advantages include: ● ● ● ● ●
Affordability; some systems cost no more than a major appliance. Increased resale value of home. Removal of dirt too heavy for most portable units. Exhaust of dirt and dust out of the house or office. No motor unit or electric cords; however, there are often long hoses.
FIGURE 2111 Vacuum wall outlet. Courtesy Vacu-Maid, Inc.
V FIGURE 2112 Vacuum outlet floor plan symbol.
● ● ●
Less noise. Savings in cleaning time. Ability to vary vacuum pressure.
A well-designed system requires only a few inlets to cover an entire home or business, including exterior use. The hose plugs into a wall outlet and the vacuum is ready for use, as shown in Figure 21-11. The hose is generally lightweight; without a portable unit to carry, it is often easier to vacuum in hard-to-reach places. The central canister empties easily to remove dust and debris from the house or business. The floor plan symbol for vacuum cleaner outlets is shown in Figure 21–12. The central unit can be located in the garage or storage area and shown as a circle labeled CENTRAL VACUUM SYSTEM.
HVAC SYMBOLS More than a hundred HVAC symbols can be used in residential and commercial heating plans. Only a few of the symbols are typically used in residential HVAC drawings. Figure 21-13 shows some common HVAC symbols.
496
Architectural Drafting and Design
EQUIPMENT SYMBOLS
EXPOSED RADIATOR
FLUSHED ENCLOSED RADIATOR
RECESSED RADIATOR
UNIT VENTILATOR PLAN
UNIT HEATER (PROPELLER)-PLAN
PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVE
DUPLEX STRAINER
STEAM
PROJECTING ENCLOSED RADIATOR
UNIT HEATER (CENTRIFUGAL)-PLAN
AIRLINE VALVE
STRAINER
S PRESSURE GAUGE AND CLOCK
THERMOMETER
AUTOMATIC 3-WAY VALVE
RELIEF VALVE
AUTOMATIC 2-WAY VALVE
DUCTWORK
FD
12X20 DUCT (1ST FIGURE, WIDTH; 2ND FIGURE, DEPTH)
FLEXIBLE CONNECTION
DIRECTION OF FLOW
VD MANUAL VOLUME DAMPER
T
INCLINED RISE IN RESPECT TO AIRFLOW
WALL SUPPLY OUTLET
FLOOR SUPPLY OUTLET
AD
FIRE DAMPER WITH ACCESS DOOR
R
4 X 10 75 CFM
4 X 12 100 CFM AUTOMATIC VOLUME DAMPER
DUCTWORK WITH ACOUSTICAL LINING
SOLENOID VALVE PLAN
CANVAS CONNECTOR
THERMOSTAT
D
14 X 20
DUCT DIRECTION OF FLOW AND SIZE FACE X DEPTH
INCLINED DROP IN RESPECT TO AIRFLOW
HEATER SURFACE MOUNT
12 X 20 700 CFM
14 X 20
14 X 20 OUTSIDE AIR DUCT SIZE FACE X WIDTH EXHAUST OR RETURN
SUPPLY DUCT SECTION
10" 75 CFM
TURNING VANES
FLOOR REGISTER
FAN AND MOTOR WITH BELT GUARD
20" CD 1000 CFM
4 X 10 75 CFM
CEILING SUPPLY OUTLET
96X6 - LD 400 CFM
HEATER RECESSED
CEILING DIFFUSER SUPPLY OUTLET
20 X 14 CD 700 CFM
20 X 12 - L 700 CFM
CEILING DIFFUSER SUPPLY OUTLET LOUVER OPENING
DEFLECTING DAMPER
HEAT TRANSFER SURFACE (RADIANT HEAT)
HEATING PIPING MPS
MPS
HIGH PRESSURE STEAM
MEDIUM PRESSURE STEAM
BD
VPD
BOILER BLOW OFF
CONDENSATE OR VACUUM
LPS
HPR HIGH PRESSURE RETURN
LOW PRESSURE STEAM
PPD FEEDWATER PUMP DISCHARGE
FOR
FOV
A
FUEL OIL RETURN
FUEL OIL VENT
COMPRESSED AIR
MPR MEDIUM PRESSURE RETURN
LPR LOW PRESSURE RETURN
MU
V
FOS
MAKE UP WATER
AIR RELIEF LINE
FUEL OIL SUCTION
HW
HWR
HOT WATER HEATING HOT WATER HEATING SUPPLY RETURN
AIR-CONDITIONING PIPING RL REFRIGERANT LIQUID
RD REFRIGERANT DISCHARGE
RS
CWS
REFRIGERANT SUCTION
CONDENSER WATER SUPPLY
CHWR
MU
H
D
CHILLED WATER RETURN
MAKE-UP WATER
HUMIDIFICATION LINE
DRAIN
FIGURE 2113 Common HVAC symbols.
CWR CONDENSER WATER RETURN
CHWS CHILLED WATER SUPPLY
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497
REFRIGERATION SYMBOLS
H CAPILLARY TUBE
SHELL AND COIL CONDENSER WATER COOLED
EXPANSION JOINT
COMPRESSOR
FORCED AIR FINNED CONDENSER AIR COOLED
PLATE COILS HEADERED OR MANIFOLD EVAPORATOR
FLOAT VALVE, LOW SIDE
FLOAT VALVE, HIGH SIDE
P
AIR ELIMINATOR
LINE FILTER
HANGER
PA GAUGE
ANCHOR
EVAPORATOR, FINNED TYPE, NATURAL CONVECTION
COOLING TOWER
COMBINATION STRAINER AND DRYER
EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER
HEAT EXCHANGER
SIGHT GLASS
IMMERSION COOLING UNIT
T
PRESSURE SWITCH
THERMOSTAT, SELF-CONTAINED
THERMAL BULB
PRESSURE SWITCH
EVAPORATOR, FORCED CONVECTION
EXPANSION VALVE, HAND
SCALE TRAP
AIR-COOLED CONDENSING UNIT
EXPANSION VALVE, AUTOMATIC
EXPANSION VALVE, THERMOSTATIC
DRYER
FILTER AND STRAINER
WATER-COOLED CONDENSING UNIT
FIGURE 2113 Continued
UNIVERSAL HVAC DESIGN The following are a few issues that can be considered in designing a building for people with disabilities. ●
Thermostats. The thermostat should be placed between 36" and 48" (915 to 1220 mm) high. Use the higher distance or a protective cover if children are present. Thermostats are available with graduations printed in Braille or large digital numbers for
●
people with visual impairments. Some are available with clicks so the user can feel or hear the movement. Heating systems. Electric forced-air furnaces or heat pumps may be preferred by people with disabilities. However, place floor registers in places out of the traffic pattern or place them 90° to the wall so wheelchairs can cross easily. Electric radiant heat is a consideration for people with
498
allergies. Install an electronic air filter if forcedair systems are used. An auxiliary ceiling heater with a timer can be placed in a bathroom to heat the space.
HVAC CODE REQUIREMENTS The purpose of the National Energy Conservation Code is to regulate the design and construction of the exterior envelope and selection of HVAC; service water heating; electrical distribution and illuminating systems; and equipment required for effective use of energy in buildings for human occupancy. The exterior envelope is made up of elements of a building that enclose conditioned spaces through which thermal energy transfers to or from the exterior. The following are general code requirements for some common heating and cooling equipment and duct systems. Specific applications and installations must be confirmed with the exact code regulations and manufacturer specifications.
Heating and Cooling Equipment ●
● ●
●
●
●
●
Heating and cooling equipment located in a garage must be protected from impact by automobiles. This is generally done by placing a steel pipe embedded in concrete in front of the equipment. Fixed appliances need to be fastened in place. Heating and cooling equipment should be located with clearances to allow access for servicing and replacement of the largest piece of equipment. This overrides minimum requirements. A door or access at least 20" (508 mm) or large enough to remove the largest piece of equipment must be provided to access the equipment location. An unobstructed working space not less than 30" (762 mm) wide and high should be provided next to the control side of the equipment. When equipment is located in an attic, a passageway at least 22" (559 mm) wide by 30" (762 mm) high must be provided from the attic access to the equipment and controls. An electrical outlet and lighting fixture should be provided near the equipment and have a switch at the doorway or access. Equipment located in a crawl space must have access and a passageway not less than 20" (508 mm) wide by 30" (762 mm) high.
Architectural Drafting and Design
●
● ●
● ●
● ● ●
Equipment located on the ground should be supported on a concrete slab and be at least 3" (76 mm) above the ground. Suspended equipment must be at least 6" (153 mm) from the ground. When equipment is placed in an excavated (dug-out) area, there must be at least 12" (305 mm) on the sides and 30" (762 mm) in front of the controls. Excavations deeper than 12" (305 mm) need to have a concrete or masonry wall extending 4" (102 mm) above the adjoining ground. Equipment installed outdoors must be listed and labeled for such use. Fuel-burning warm-air furnaces should not be installed in a room designed for use as a storage closet. Furnaces located in a bedroom or bathroom must be installed in a sealed enclosure so that combustion air will not be taken from the living space. Combustion air is air provided at a burner for proper combustion. Direct-vent furnaces are not required to be in an enclosure. Fuel-burning warm-air furnaces must be supplied with combustion air. Return air should be taken from inside the dwelling and can be mixed with outside air. Return air cannot be taken from kitchens, bathrooms, garages, or other dwelling units. Outside air should not be taken from within 10" (3048 mm) of an appliance or plumbing vent outlet that is located less than 3" (914 mm) above the air inlet.
Duct Systems ● ● ●
●
●
Equipment connected to duct systems must have a 250°F (121°C) temperature limit control. Galvanized steel ducts should be ASTM A 525 specification. Metal ducts need the following thicknesses: ❍ Round or rectangular enclosed: 14" or less, 0.016" thick; over 14", 0.021" thick. ❍ Rectangular exposed: 14" or less, 0.021" thick; over 14", 0.022" thick. Factory-made ducts must be approved for installation and have the UL label and compliance. As described earlier, UL is the abbreviation for Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., which tests and labels products for approved uses. Gypsum products can be used as ducts if the air temperature does not exceed 125°F (52°C) and there is no condensation.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
●
● ●
●
● ● ●
●
Spaces between structural members can be used as return ducts if they are isolated from other spaces with tight-fitting sheet metal or wood at least 2" (51 mm) thick. Underground duct systems must be constructed of approved concrete, clay, metal, or plastic. Duct coverings and linings need to have a flamespread rating not greater than 25 and a smoke-development rating not more than 50, and must withstand a test temperature of at least 250°F (121°C). Insulated ducts should have a minimum thermal resistance value of R 4.2. Insulate ducts in unconditioned areas. Exterior ducts must have a weatherproof covering. Joints and seams should be made substantially airtight. Metal ducts must be supported by 18-gauge metal straps or 12-gauge galvanized wire spaced no more than 10' (3048 mm) apart and must be at least 4" (102 mm) from the ground. Nonmetallic ducts can be supported to the manufacturer’s specifications. Crawl spaces used as a supply plenum cannot have gas lines or plumbing cleanouts, should be clean of loose combustible material, and must be airtight. The ground should be covered with a 4-mil (0.102-mm) moisture barrier, and the space shall be formed by materials with a flame-spread rating of no more than 200. A plenum is an enclosed duct or area that is connected to a number of branch ducts.
THERMAL CALCULATIONS FOR HEATING/COOLING Thermal calculations are necessary to establish the correct furnace, ductwork, supply, and return register specifications for HVAC designs. Thermal calculations for heating and cooling are usually performed by a mechanical engineer or a professional HVAC contractor. Computer software applications are available that allow the designer to input specific information about the building, such as square footage, volume, exterior walls, and openings. Many HVAC companies make manual calculations using the steps provided in this content, or similar steps.
The History of Estimating Heat Loss The basic method for estimating residential heat loss today has been in use since the early 1900s. Historically, the primary use was to calculate the design heat load of houses in order to estimate the size of gas and oil
499
heating systems required. Because home designers, builders, and heating system installers did not want to receive complaints from cold home owners, they commonly designed the heating system for worst-case weather conditions, with a bias toward overestimating the design heat load to ensure that the furnace would never be too small. Consequently, many gas and oil furnaces were too large. As early as 1915, an engineer for a gas utility began modifying the design heat load with a degree day method to estimate annual energy consumption. Oil companies also began using this method to predict when to refill their customers’ oil tanks. A degree day is a measure that gauges the amount of heating or cooling needed for a building using 65° as a baseline. Data from this period, for houses with little or no insulation, indicated that the relationship between annual heating energy requirements and average outside temperature began at 65°F (18°C) in homes. This was the beginning of the 65°F base for degree days. Studies made by the American Gas Association up to 1932 and by the National District Heating Association in 1932 also indicated that a 65°F base was appropriate for houses of the period. Experience in the 1950s and early 1960s with electrically heated homes indicated that the traditional degree day procedure overestimated annual heating loads. This was due primarily to tighter, better insulated houses with balance temperatures below 65°F, and to the use of more appliances. These later studies led to a modified degree day procedure incorporating a modifying factor, C. This C factor compensates for such things as higher insulation levels and more heat-producing appliances in the house. The high insulation levels found in homes built to current codes, and those that have been retrofitted with insulation, cause even lower balance temperatures than those of houses built in the 1950s and 1960s. This history has been adapted from Standard Heat Loss Methodology, Bonneville Power Administration.
HVAC Terminology Many terms are unique to the HVAC industry. It is important to be familiar with key HVAC terminology to help you understand this chapter and communicate effectively. The following terms are commonly associated with HVAC applications: Btu (British thermal unit): A unit of measure determined by the amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit. Heat loss is calculated in Btu per hour (Btuh). Compass point: The relationship of the building to compass orientation. In referring to cooling
500
calculations, it is important to evaluate the amount of glass in each wall as related to compass orientation. This is due to the differences effected by solar gain. Solar gain is also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain, which refers to the increase in temperature in a building that results from solar radiation. Duct loss: Heat loss through ductwork in an unheated space, which has an effect on total heat loss. Insulating those ducts helps increase efficiency. Grains: The amount of moisture in the air, calculated by the grains of moisture in 1 cubic foot. A grain is a unit of weight. Air at different temperatures and humidities holds different amounts of moisture. The effect of this moisture content becomes more of a factor in the southern and midwestern states than in other parts of the country. Heat transfer multiplier: The amount of heat that flows through 1 square foot of the building surface. The result depends on the type of surface and whether it is applied to heating or cooling. Indoor temperature: The indoor design temperature is generally 60°F to 70°F. Indoor wet bulb: Relates to the use of the wet-bulb thermometer inside. A wet-bulb thermometer is one in which the bulb is kept moistened and is used to determine the humidity level. Infiltration: The inward flow of air through a porous wall or crack. In a loosely constructed home, infiltration substantially increases heat loss. Infiltration around windows and doors is calculated in cfm per linear foot of crack. Window infiltration greater than .5 cfm per linear foot of crack is excessive. Internal heat gain: Heat gain associated with factors such as heat transmitted from appliances, lights, other equipment, and occupants. Latent load: The effects of moisture entering the building from the outside by humidity infiltration or from the inside, produced by people, plants, and daily activities such as cooking, showers, and laundry. Mechanical ventilation: Amount of heat loss through mechanical ventilators such as range hood fans or bathroom exhaust fans. Outdoor temperature: Related to average winter and summer temperatures for a local area. If the outdoor winter design temperature is 20°F (−7°C), this means that the temperature during the winter is 20° or higher 97.5% of the time. If the outdoor summer design temperature in an area is 100°F (38°C), this means that the temperature during the summer is 100° or less 97.5% of the time. Values for each area
Architectural Drafting and Design
of the country have been established by ASHRAE. Verify the outdoor temperature with your local building department or heating contractor. Outdoor wet bulb: Relates to the use of a wet-bulb thermometer outside. R-factor: Resistance to heat flow. The more resistance to heat flow, the higher the R-value. For example, 3 1/2" of mineral wool insulation has a value of R-11 and 6" of the same insulation has a value of R-21. R is equal to the reciprocal of the U-factor, 1/U = R. Sensible load calculations: Load calculations associated with temperature change that occurs when a building loses or gains heat. Temperature difference: The indoor temperature less the outdoor temperature. U-factor: The coefficient of heat transfer expressed in Btuh ft2/°F of surface area.
STEPS IN FILLING OUT THE RESIDENTIAL HEATING DATA SHEET The model home main floor plan, upper floor plan, and partial basement plan shown in Figure 21-14 are used for the calculations of total heat loss. The completed residential heating data sheet, shown in Figure 21-15, is a two-page data sheet divided into several categories with calculations resulting in total heat loss for the model home. The large numbers alongside the categories refer to the following steps, used in completing the form. Notice that the calculations are rounded off to the nearest whole unit. Outdoor temperature: Use the recommended outdoor design temperature for your area. The area selected for this problem is Dallas, Texas, with an outdoor design temperature of 22°F (−6°C), which has been rounded off to 20°F to make calculations simple to understand. The proper calculations would interpolate the tables for a 22°F outdoor design temperature. STEP 2 Indoor temperature: 70°F (21°C). STEP 3 Temperature difference: STEP 1
70° − 20° = 50°F (10°C)
Movable glass windows: Select double glass; find area of each window (frame length × width); then combine for total: 292 sq ft. STEP 5 Btuh heat loss: Using 50°F design temperature difference, find 46 approximate heat transfer multiplier: STEP 4
46 × 292 = 13,432 Btuh
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
61'-0" 1" 9'-82
38'-0" 17'-6" 5'-113 4"
17'-4"
3'-2" 5'-61 4"
6'-0"
1" 13'-32
8'-8"
B
3" 6'-64
1" 4'-82
5'-0"
8'-8"
A
C
3" 6'-84
C
UP 1'-6"
C
H
G
13
BATH
DN 7 1/2"
1" 2'-32
34" RAIL
UP 1'-2"
ENTRY
12'-9" X 15'-4"
GARAGE
22'-5" X 23'-4"
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
DW
GD TC
RANGE & HOOD W/ FAN, VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR
LS
12'-4"
2
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD FROM FLOOR TO BOT OF ROOF SHTHG
KITCHEN
S&P CLOSET 5
1" 3'-52
12'-11" X 15'-4"
UP 14R
5'-8"
4" BRICK VENEER
LIVING
10
HVAC CHASE
3
36'-0"
7
1" 3'-92 1" 1'-12
3'-6"
LINE OF 7'-0" CLG
3'-7"
6'-0"
34" RAIL DN 14R
3
28'-0" 15'-10"
36'-0"
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
4'-9"
23'-8"
3'-6"
DN 7 1/2"
22" X 30" ATTIC ACCESS
4 1'-0"
2'-0"
3'-6"
1" 1'-62
11'-8"
5'-0"
SHOP
12'-6" X 11'-5"
17'-4" X 11'-5"
FLUSH HEARTH
PANTRY
12'-2"
4'-51 4"
DINING
9'-5" X 7'-1"
4" CONC FLATWORK TYP
SCREEN CLOSEABLE VENT WITHIN 24" OF FIREBOX
17'-0" X 11'-5"
UTILITY
1" 7'-102
FAMILY
BARBECUE 1" 8'-62
SEE FDTN PLAN FOR FIREPLACE LOCATION
G
3" 6'-54
6'-111 4"
3" 7'-84
A UP 1'-6" 3" 3'-74
1" 11'-42
13'-5"
G 2
1" 6'-62
6'-8"
10'-0"
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
6'-0"
8'-0"
2'-0"
1 A
B
1" 13'-22
COVERED PORCH (2) 4" X 4" POSTS
14
B
14
A
16'-0"
11'-0"
11'-0"
SQUARE FOOTAGE
C
6'-0"
11'-0"
38'-0"
23'-0"
6'-0"
MAIN FLOOR UPPER FLOOR LOWER FLOOR TOTAL LIVING AREA GARAGE
GENERAL NOTES
1.
61'-0"
MAIN FLOOR PLAN SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
N
1352 SQ FT 1148 SQ FT 448 SQ FT 2948 SQ FT 556 SQ FT
2. 3.
ALL PENETRATIONS IN TOP OR BOTTOM PLATES FOR PLUMBING OR ELECTRICAL RUNS TO BE SEALED. SEE ELECTRICAL PLANS FOR ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS. PROVIDE 1/2" WATERPROOF GYPSUM BOARD AROUND ALL TUBS, SHOWERS, AND SPAS. VENT DRYER AND ALL FANS TO OUTSIDE AIR THRU VENT WITH DAMPER.
501
FIGURE 2114 Sample floor plans for heat loss and heat gain calculations. The floor plans shown here are for the model house used throughout this textbook.
502
Architectural Drafting and Design
1" 38'-32 1" 17'-82
11'-7"
9'-0" 5'-83 4"
6'-0"
3'-43 4"
5'-71 4"
1" 5'-82
1" 5'-102
B
A D
F
3'-0" 3'-8"
1" 1'-91" 3'-52 2
1" 6'-62
HVAC CHASE 11
4
6'-3" 22" X 30" ATTIC ACCESS
11
CLOSET S&P S&P CLOSET
4
5
S&P
12
S&DBL P
10'-0"
7 WALK-IN CLOSET
5
1" 6 3'-92
BATH
1" 6'-22
30" WIDE KNEE SPACE
3'-0"
E
9
36" FIBERGLASS SHOWER OVER 1/2" GYP BD
BED#3
10'-10" X 11'-9" 24" X 24" DBL INSULATED TEMP GLASS SKYLIGHT
6' FIBERGLASS SPA
S&P
G
E
B
A
3" 2'-104 7'-10"
30'-0"
36" RAIL
DN 14R
30'-0"
34" RAIL
4
1" 2'-31" 2'-32 2
24" X 36" OPENABLE INSULATED TEMP GLASS SKYLIGHT
10'-10" X 11'-5"
1" 2'-52
5'-10"
20'-0"
BED#2
4
LINEN
BED#1
12'-11" X 19'-3"
5' FIBERGLASS TUB/SHOWER OVER 1/2" WP GYP BD
BATH
12'-2"
D
J
13'-3"
3" 5'-114
4'-0"
1" 9'-42
2'-71 4"
9'-6"
4'-9"
6'-10" 11'-7"
1" 38'-32
UPPER FLOOR PLAN SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 2114 Continued
Sliding glass doors: Select double glass; find total area of 34 sq ft. STEP 7 Btuh heat loss: STEP 6
34 × 48 = 1632 Btuh
Doors: Weather-stripped solid wood; 2 doors at 39 sq ft. STEP 9 Btuh heat loss: STEP 8
39 × 30 = 1170 Btuh
Walls: Excluding garage; perimeter in running feet 341 × ceiling height 8' = gross wall area 2728 sq ft. Subtract window and door areas: 2728 sq ft − 365 sq ft = net wall area 2363 sq ft. STEP 11 Frame wall: No masonry wall above or below grade. This does not apply to the model house. The
model house has masonry veneer on the front, but this requirement relates to a solid masonry wall. When there is masonry wall, subtract the square footage of masonry wall from total wall for the net frame wall. Fill in net amount on approximate insulation value; 2363 sq ft frame wall, R-713. (Although R-13 is given in this example, the typical code is R-19. Confirm codes with Chapter 9.) STEP 12 Btuh heat loss: 2363 × 3.5 = 8270 Btuh
STEP 10
No masonry above grade in this building. STEPS 1516 No masonry below grade in this building. STEP 17 Heat loss subtotal: Add together results from Steps 5, 7, 9, and 12; sum is 21,775 Btuh. Transfer the amount to the top of page 2 of the form. STEPS 1314
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
503
18'-2" 17'-6"
8"
4 PIECE WINDOW WELL WELLCRAFT 5600 12" GRAVEL BELOW WINDOW WELL GRADE TYP
8"
STORAGE
6'-61 4"
16'-10" X 11'-2" ROUGH IN FOR STORAGE TANK FOR SOLAR WH 1" 6'-61 3'-92 4"
WH
FURN
WINDOW SCHEDULE
MARK A
SIZE 1'-0" X 5'-0"
TYPE TEMPERED
ROUGH -
QUAN 2
B
8'-0" X 5'-0"
W4N5 CSM
8'-2 3/4" X 5'-5 7/8"
1
C
4'-0" X 5'-0"
W2N5 CSM
4'-2 1/4" X 5'-5 7/8"
2
D
4'-0" X 3'-6"
W2N3 CSM
4'-2 1/4" X 3'-5 1/2"
2
E
3'-6" X 3'-6"
2N3 CSM
3'-5 1/4" X 3'-5 1/2"
2
F
6'-0" X 4'-0"
G64 SLDG
6'-0 1/2" X 4'-0 1/2"
1
G
5'-0" X 3'-6"
G536 SLDG
5'-0 1/2" X 3'-6 1/2"
4
H
4'-0" X 3'-6"
G436 SLDG
4'-0 1/2" X 3'-6 1/2"
1
J
4'-0" X 2'-0"
A41 AWN
4'-0 1/2" X 2'-0 5/8"
1
K
4'-0" X 4'-0"
G42 SLDG
4'-0 1/2" X 4'-0 1/2"
3
PARTY
12'-5" X 14'-10" 2 X 4 DFPT STUDS
8"
3" 4'-24
K
UP 14R
6'-6"
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD UNDER ALL USABLE AREA UNDER STAIRS
DOOR SCHEDULE
5
34" RAIL
K
7'-0"
26'-8"
3'-111 4"
8
15'-2"
28'-0"
5'-11"
11'-6"
K
WORKBENCH
5'-7"
8"
B
5 1/2" WIDE CONC LEDGE FOR BRICK VENEER
B
MARK 1
SIZE 3'-0" X 6'-8"
TYPE SC RP METAL INSULATED
QUAN 1
2
3'-0" X 6'-8"
SC RP FLUSH METAL INSUL
2
3
2'-8" X 6'-8"
SC
2
4
2'-8" X 6'-8"
HC
6
5
2'-6" X 6'-8"
HC
4
6
2'-6" X 6'-8"
POCKET
1
7
2'-4" X 6'-8"
POCKET
2
8
PR 2'-6" X 6'-8"
HC
1
9
5'-0" X 6'-0"
BI-PASS
1
10
3'-0" X 6'-8"
BI FOLD
1
11
3'-6" X 6'-8"
BI-FOLD
2 1
12
3'-0" X 6'-0"
SHATTER PROOF
13
6'-0" X 6'-8"
WOOD FRAME TEMP SLDG GL
1
14
9'-0" X 7'-0"
OVERHEAD GARAGE
2
WALL AREAS (EXCLUDING BASEMENT) 8"
17'-6"
WINDOWS
8"
SKYLIGHTS DOORS
18'-2"
TOTAL OPENINGS
LOWER FLOOR PLAN
% OPENINGS
3249 SQ FT 286.6 SQ FT 10 SQ FT 67.4 SQ FT 354 SQ FT 11%
SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 2114 Continued
Ceiling: R-30 insulation (given), same square footage as floor plan 976 sq ft (given). STEP 19 Btuh heat loss: STEP 18
976 × 1.6 = 1562 Btuh
Floor over an unconditioned space: R-19 insulation (given), 97 sq ft. STEP 21 Btuh heat loss: STEP 20
976 × 2.6 = 2538 Btuh STEPS 2223
Basement floor: Does not apply to this
house. Concrete slab without perimeter system: Does not apply to this house. STEPS 2627 Concrete slab with perimeter system: Does not apply to this house. STEP 28 Infiltration/ventilation: 976 sq ft floor × 8 ft ceiling height = 7808 cu ft: STEPS 2425
0.40 × 7808 cu ft ÷ 60 = 52 cfm Infiltration = mechanical ventilation cfm = fresh air intake STEP 29
Btuh heat loss:
52 × 55 = 2860 Btuh
Heat loss subtotal: Add results from Steps 17, 19, 21, and 29; sum is 28,735 Btuh. STEP 31 Duct loss: R-4 insulation (given); determine 15% of value from Step 30: STEP 30
0.15 × 28,735 = 4310
When no ducts are used, exclude this item. Total heat loss: Add items from Steps 30 and 31; sum is 33,045 Btuh.
STEP 32
504
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2115 Completed residential heating data sheet form. Base data sheet form courtesy Lennox Industries, Inc.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
FIGURE 2115 Continued
505
506
Architectural Drafting and Design
STEPS IN FILLING OUT THE RESIDENTIAL COOLING DATA SHEET Figure 21–16 is a completed residential cooling data sheet. The two-page data sheet is divided into several categories, with calculations resulting in total sensible and latent heat gain for the model home shown in Figure 21–14. The large numbers by each category refer to the following steps used in completing the form. Outdoor temperature: 100°F (38°C). STEP 2 Indoor temperature: 70°F (21°C). STEP 3 Temperature difference: STEP 1
Sensible heat gain subtotal: Add together items from Steps 5, 9, 13, 25, 28; 19,056 Btuh heat gain. Transfer the amount to the top of page 2 of the form. STEP 32 Ceiling: R-30 insulation; 976 sq ft. STEP 33 Btuh heat gain: STEP 31
976 × 1.7 = 1659 Btuh
Floor over unconditioned space: R-19 insulation; 976 sq ft. STEP 35 Btuh heat gain: STEP 34
976 × 1.2 = 1171 Btuh
100° − 70° = 30°F (38°C − 21°C = 17°).
STEP 36
Glass, no shade: Double-glazed. STEP 4 North glass: Including sliding glass door; 172 sq ft. STEP 5 Btuh heat gain:
976 sq ft × 8 ft = 7808 cu ft
STEPS 413
172 × 28 = 4816 Btuh
NE and NW glass: None; house faces N, E, W, S. STEP 8 West glass: 48 sq ft. STEP 9 48 × 78 = 3,744 Btuh. STEPS 1011 SE and SW glass: None; house faces N, E, W, S. STEP 12 South glass: 98 sq ft. STEP 13 Btuh heat loss: STEPS 67
Infiltration/ventilation:
0.40 × 7808 cu ft ÷ 60 = 52 cfm STEP 37
Btuh heat gain:
52 × 32 = 1664 Btuh
Internal heat gain: Number of people (assume 4 for this house) 4 × 300 Btuh per person = 1200 Btuh. Kitchen allowance given 1200 Btuh. STEP 39 Sensible heat gain subtotal: Add together items from Steps 31, 33, 35, 37, and 38; sum is 24,750 Btuh. STEP 40 Duct gain: STEP 38
24,750 × 0.15 = 3713 Btuh
Total sensible heat gain: Add together items from Steps 39 and 40; sum is 28,463 Btuh. STEPS 4245 Latent load calculations. STEP 42 Determine the local relative humidity conditions, either wet, medium, medium dry, or dry. Our selected location is medium, which is 35 grains. STEP 43 Latent load infiltration: STEP 41
98 × 43 = 4214 Btuh
Glass inside shade: This house is sized without considering inside shade. If items from Steps 14–23 are used, omit items from Steps 4–13. STEP 24 Doors: Solid wood weather-stripped, 2 doors; 39 sq ft. STEP 25 Btuh heat gain: STEPS 1423
39 × 9.6 = 374 Btuh STEP 26
Walls (excluding garage walls):
0.68 × 35 grains = 52 cfm (from Step 36) = 1238 Btuh STEP 44
Latent load ventilation:
0.68 × 35 grains × 52 cfm = 1238 Btuh
Latent load people:
341 × 8 ft = 2728 sq ft − 365 sq ft = 2363 sq ft net wall area
STEP 45
Frame wall: 2363 sq ft. STEP 28 Btuh heat gain:
4 people × 230 Btuh = 920 Btuh
STEP 27
2363 × 2.5 = 5908 Btuh STEPS 2930
house.
Masonry wall above grade: None in this
Total latent heat gain: Add together items from Steps 43, 44, and 45; sum is 3396 Btuh. STEP 47 Total sensible and latent heat gain: Add together items from Steps 41 and 46; sum is 31,859 Btuh. STEP 46
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
FIGURE 2116 Completed residential cooling data sheet form. Base data sheet form courtesy Lennox Industries, Inc.
507
508
FIGURE 2116 Continued
Architectural Drafting and Design
GOING GREEN
509
Improving Indoor Air Quality The content for this Going Green feature is taken in part from Mascord Efficient Living, Building a Sustainable Lifestyle.
CLEANING THE AIR A variety of design alternatives and environmental applications can be used to improve indoor air quality. This discussion includes features that can be designed into a home to achieve better air quality, and daily applications that occupants can use to continue to improve the environment.
Ventilation and Air Filtration Air movement in and out of the home needs to be controlled for maximum efficiency. In order to achieve desired air movement control, it is important to seal the envelope tightly and control ventilation properly. An HVAC professional contractor can properly calculate the amount of air required for ventilation in the home design. This professional takes into account all the variables associated with properly sizing ventilation equipment, which includes the number of bathroom and kitchen fans, regional air pressure, size of indoor spaces, and proper heating and cooling equipment selection. To maintain adequate fresh air, the ventilation system may include heat recovery to regularly change the air within the home. This ensures that you always breathe fresh air while maintaining a high level of energy efficiency by exchanging energy from outgoing air to incoming air. The air used to ventilate a home comes from the outside, and is subjected to external pollutants. The air should run through a filtering system in order to protect the occupants from airborne pollutants. There are various types of air filters including MERV and HEPA filters. MERV stands for Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value, which refers to the filtration efficiency of an air filter. Performance is determined by comparing airborne particle counts upstream and downstream of the air filter. HEPA stands for High Efficiency Particle Arresting. HEPA filters are designed to be 99.97% effective in capturing particles as small as 0.3 microns. When designing the HVAC system, it is important to confirm that all HVAC equipment is compatible.
Ultraviolet Light Systems Certain ultraviolet (UV) light can be beneficial for improving indoor air quality. Ultraviolet energy is measured in nanometers. UV wavelengths are shorter than visible light, and are invisible to the human eye. One of the wavelengths of ultraviolet light is the C bandwidth. This desirable UV-C light has a wavelength of 253.7 nanometers, which is called the germicidal bandwidth. The home can have germs, mold, bacteria,
toxins, and gases that cause unhealthy air conditions. These contaminants can pass through the forced air heating and cooling system several times per hour, making the furnace a collection point for recirculating air. This makes the ductwork, near the furnace, an ideal place to install an indoor air cleaning system to control harmful levels of indoor air pollutants. UV-C lights are mounted inside the ductwork between the furnace filter and the exchangers for the furnace and air-conditioning. The furnace fan circulates air across the UV-C light, neutralizing up to 98% the microorganisms. Exposure to UV-C light can destroy or damage microorganisms by disrupting their reproductive code (DNA) and inhibiting them from reproducing. While there are varying opinions about the effectiveness of UV light systems for pollutant control, you should do additional research and consult with HVAC professionals.
Controlling Dust While preventing the build-up of dust may not completely reduce asthmatic or allergic symptoms, controlling dust is one of the most proactive measures you can take in keeping the interior environment healthy. The following steps can be taken to control the amount of dust that accumulates in a house: • Provide shoe storage at entrances for home owners and visitors. Removing your shoes at the door prevents tracking dust further into the home. • Install a special HEPA filter in the air conditioner or air purifier. This can help remove some allergens such as pollen, animal dander, and tobacco smoke from the air. • Limit carpet, upholstered furniture, and heavy drapes that collect dust. Upholstery and drapes should be made from a tight-weave fabric that keeps out dust. • Use hard-surfaced furniture that you can wipe clean. • Avoid wall-to-wall carpeting. Use smaller rugs made of cotton or wool that you can clean. • Use roll-down shades or washable curtains. • Damp-mop tile and hard surfaced floors rather than sweeping. Use a washable cloth, instead of disposable wipe. • Design a central vacuum system into the plan, which vents directly outdoors. If a central vacuum is not an option, use a vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter or a special double-thickness bag, which collects dust-mite particles and pollen. • Consider wet-vacuum cleaning when possible. This can help remove allergens from carpeting as it washes the carpet. Consider periodic steam-cleaning of carpets when possible. In addition to cleaning the carpet, the heat of the steam kills dust mites.
510
GOING GREEN Improving Indoor Air Quality (Continued)
Mold Prevention Exposure to mold can cause or worsen conditions such as asthma, hay fever, or other allergies. The most common symptoms of overexposure are cough, congestion, runny nose, eye irritation, and aggravation of asthma. Depending on the amount of exposure and individual vulnerability, more serious health effects can occur, such as fever and breathing problems. Mold is most likely to grow where moisture is trapped in improperly ventilated spaces such as damp crawl spaces, misty bathrooms, and defective wall systems. Because mold increases with humidity, it is important to be aware of areas that can trap humidity. The key to preventing mold from forming is to prevent weather from entering the building envelope and by controlling the humidity inside the home. In the design and construction of an energy-efficient home, the exterior building envelope must be airtight and watertight, and air movement must be controlled. To ensure that all parts of the home remain dry, it is important to include systems to supply proper ventilation throughout the home. Examples of systems used to help prevent water intrusion and mold growth include: drainage planes behind exterior finishes, properly sealed building envelopes, the use of moistureresistant building materials, heat recovery ventilation, and ventilation fans in interior spaces.
Volatile Organic Compounds Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are chemicals contained in the items used in home construction, which can emit pollutants throughout the life span of the product. It is important to specify and use products containing low or no VOCs. Products that should have low or no VOCs include paint, caulks, sealants, cabinet materials, plastics, and carpets. Reducing the amount of VOCs present improves indoor air quality of the home, and reduces exposure to toxic compounds. A healthier alternative can be achieved with the same color, texture, sheen, and quality of finish using VOC-free paint. Look for the GreenSeal and ask your paint supplier about the VOC content when purchasing paint. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a widely used building material found in products such as window frames, flooring, and shower units. Despite appearing to be an ideal building material, studies have shown that PVC has high environmental and health costs. When designing a home, consider alternatives such as wood-framed windows, natural flooring materials, non-PVC plumbing pipes, and tiled showers.
When buying or building cabinets, specify board products that contain a urea-formaldehyde-free binder. Urea-formaldehyde, found in many engineered wood products, has been classified as a toxic air contaminant by the California Air Resources Board, due to its potential to cause cancer. Water-based wood finishes, such as waterborne urethane or acrylic have decreased toxic compounds, while still providing comparable durability.
Clean But Not So Green Many home cleaning products emit synthetic chemicals, such as VOC, and irritating fragrances. These substances can have serious health issues for humans, pets, and the environment. People absorb chemicals during use, and the environment absorbs disposed products. Americans spend 90% of their time indoors, so cleaning with natural products is a huge step towards making a healthy home. Commonly found harmful substances in household cleaning products include the following: • Artificial fragrances can interfere with breathing and cause skin irritation; some products contain phthalates, which have been found to be carcinogenic in lab experiments. • Alkyphenol ethoxylates, used in detergents, have been found to be a hormone disrupter. • Butyl cellosolve, a common degreaser, can cause nausea, headaches, and more serious issues when inhaled. • Petroleum, which is frequently found in conventional cleansers and soaps, is flammable and releases unwanted fumes.
Clean and Green Alternatives Many companies make cleaning products containing natural cleaning elements that can be purchased easily. Look for products that use plant oils, grain alcohols, and natural fragrances. When reading the label, you should be able to recognize the ingredients. There are also natural products you can use as cleaning agents, including: • Vinegar and water can be used to clean bathrooms and windows. • Baking soda can replace toxic abrasive chemicals to clean toilets, tubs, and sinks. • Citrus oils can replace artificial fragrances to freshen a room without overpowering the air. Toxin-free cleaning products are usually biodegradable and do not pollute the air or water. Cleaning with natural alternatives reduces your exposure to toxins and helps to protect the environment.
GOING GREEN
511
Improving Indoor Air Quality (Continued) Radon Radon is a cancer-causing, natural radioactive gas that permeates from the ground. Radon is invisible to sight, smell, and taste. Radon is the leading cause of lung cancer among nonsmokers and is the second leading cause of lung cancer in America. Because radon enters from the ground, geological areas carry different levels of contamination. Design and construction techniques vary for different foundation types and site requirements. Common elements to prevent radon build-up include a gas permeable layer placed under the slab or flooring system to allow the soil gas to move freely beneath the house. In many cases, the material used is a 4" (100 mm) layer of clean gravel. Plastic sheeting on top of the gas-permeable layer prevents the soil gas from entering the home. A 3" (75 mm) or 4" (100 mm) gas tight vent pipe runs from the gas-permeable layer through the house and out through the roof or exterior wall. This safely vents radon and other soil gases above the house. An electrical junction box can be installed in case an electric venting fan is needed later to provide additional radon ventilation. Consult a radon professional or the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (www.epa.gov) for information on the radon risk levels in your area and for appropriate control techniques.
Sealing Your Home from the Garage Many home designs include an attached garage. An attached garage keeps you dry as you get to and from your car, and allows for ease of moving items from the car into the house. An attached garage can allow for a more compact building footprint in places where
HVAC DRAWINGS Drawings for the HVAC system show the size and location of all equipment, ductwork, and components with accurate symbols, specifications, notes, and schedules that form the basis of contract requirements for construction. Specifications are documents that accompany the drawings and contain all pertinent written information related to the HVAC system. The HVAC drawings for a central forced-air system were described at the beginning of this chapter. A simplified HVAC plan shows supply and return registers and airflow values, while the detailed HVAC plan shows the equipment, duct runs with size specifications, and register locations with airflow values. Refer back to Figure 21-3 and Figure 21-4 to see the simplified
space is at a premium. While an attached garage has advantages, there are items inside the garage that need to be isolated from the occupants. Chemicals, paints, oils, and cleaning agents stored in the garage can attribute to air quality concerns if they leak. Automobiles emit dangerous carbon monoxide (CO) gas when their engines are running. It is important to prevent dangerous gases and toxins from entering the home. An easy measure is to seal any gaps in walls that the home shares with the garage. Install a carbon monoxide monitor in any room adjacent to the garage, and consider installing a fan attached to the garage door opener to vent the garage when you leave with the automobile. Mechanical Systems and Your Garage. Mechanical systems and ductwork placed in the garage can pull air from the garage and push the air around in the house. When possible, make sure to avoid the placement of ductwork or mechanical equipment in the garage to prevent toxins from entering the HVAC system. Placing the mechanical system and related ductwork in an insulated area other than the garage also saves energy, because any loss from the system remains indoors. Detached Garages. Designing a home with a detached garage is the safest way to stop gas and chemicals from entering the home. Many factors need to be considered when designing a home with a detached garage, such as architectural style, personal preference, and available space on the building site.
and detailed HVAC plans for the model house used throughout this textbook. HVAC drawings may or may not be necessary for residential buildings, depending on the requirements of the local building department or the lending agency. Drawings can be prepared by the architect, architectural designer, or the architectural drafter, but these drawings are generally created by the heating contractor when a complete HVAC layout is necessary. For commercial buildings, the HVAC plan can be prepared by an HVAC engineer as a consultant for the architect. The engineer who designs HVAC systems is also referred to as a mechanical engineer. The consulting engineer is responsible for the HVAC design and installation. The engineer determines the placement of all equipment and the location of all duct runs and
512
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2117 Single-line HVAC plan engineer’s sketch.
components. The consulting engineer also determines the specifications for heating, cooling, and other unit and duct sizes, based on calculations of building volume, exterior surface areas and construction materials, rate of airflow, and pressure. The consulting engineer can prepare single-line sketches or submit data and calculations to a design drafter, who prepares design sketches or final drawings. Drafters without design experience work from engineering or design sketches to prepare formal drawings. A single-line engineer’s sketch is shown in Figure 21-17. The next step in the HVAC design is for the drafter to convert the rough sketch into a preliminary drawing. This preliminary drawing goes back to the engineer and architect for
5"Ø
DISPATCH 103
COND. E-1 UNIT 750 CFM #3
C-1 370 CFM TRANSITION TO 18 x 8 & RUN BETWEEN JOISTS OVER DISPATCH 103.
2. Label duct sizes within the duct when space is avail-
able. Place the note next to the duct when space is not available inside the duct, or use a note with a leader to the duct in other situations.
E-8 50 CFM
C-22 60 CFM 12 x 12
LOBBY 102
ACU-1
V.D.
CORRIDOR 135
10 x 10 E-3 240 CFM
12"Ø C-2 600 CFM
C-3 140 CFM MUNICIPAL COURT 125
1 M-3
FLOOR PLAN – MECHANICAL SCALE: 1/4" = 1"-Ø"
GENERAL NOTES: 1
VERIFY ALL EXISTING CONDITIONS AT SITE.
2
SEE ARCHITECTURAL FLOOR PLAN FOR 1-HR RATED AREAS. PROVIDE FIRE DAMPERS AS SCHEDULED AND AS REQ'D BY CODE.
ACU-2 14 x 12 8x8
V.D.
VESTIBULE 101
UP TO 18 x 18 FIBERGLASS O.S.A. VENT ON ROOF
UP TO 24 x 24 FIBERGLASS O.S.A. VENT ON ROOF
E-2 250 CFM 12"Ø 12 x 12
12 x 12 12 x 8
1. Draw duct runs using 0.5 mm line widths.
5"Ø
16 x 11
C-10 45 CFM TELECOMM 104
verification and corrections or changes. The final step in the design process is for the drafter to implement the design changes on the preliminary drawing to establish the final HVAC drawing. The final HVAC drawing is shown in Figure 21-18. When the drafter converts an engineering sketch to a formal drawing, the easiest-to-read format should be used. For example:
FIGURE 2118 HVAC plan created from the engineer’s sketch shown in Figure 21-17.
8"Ø C-4 260 CFM SARGEANT 124
14 x 12
12 x 10 1O x 8 12 x 10 E-3 240 CFM C-4 260 CFM LIEUTENANT 123
V.D.
8"Ø V.D.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
513
FORMAL HVAC PLAN DRAWINGS
ENGINEERING
E-1 800 CFM
16 24
C-1 240 CFM
14 12
S-1 450 CFM
16 12
16 12
20 12
10 10
8"Ø C-2 300 CFM 12 12 UP TO 24 24 FIBERGLASS VENT ON ROOF
16 16
ACU-1
FIGURE 2119 Examples showing engineering sketches converted to formal HVAC plan drawings.
3. Note duct sizes as 22 × 12 (550 × 300 mm) or 22/12,
where the first number, 22, is the duct width and the second number, 12, is the duct depth. 4. Place notes on the drawing to avoid crowding. Aligned dimensioning can be used, where horizontal notes read from the bottom of the sheet and vertical notes read from the right side of the sheet. Make notes clear and concise. 5. Refer to schedules to get specific drawing information that is not available on the sketch. Schedule information is found in the following discussion. 6. Label equipment with a note next to the equipment symbol or with a note and leader pointing to the equipment symbol.
Figure 21-19 shows several examples of duct system components, comparing the engineering sketch and the formal drawing.
Single- and Double-Line HVAC Plans HVAC plans are drawn over the floor plan as a layer. The floor plan layout is drawn first as a base sheet for the HVAC layout and other layers. The HVAC plan is then drawn or plotted using 0.5 mm lines for contrast with the floor plan and notes are used to label the components as previously described. The HVAC plan shows the placement of equipment and ductwork. Duct size is given in inches or millimeters, and duct shape
514
with symbols, where Ø is the symbol for a round duct, and is the symbol for a square or rectangular duct. Other ductwork and system components are placed on the drawing or keyed to schedules. Drawings can be either single- or double-line, depending on the needs of the client or how much detail must be shown. Singleline drawings are easier and faster to draw. In many situations they are adequate to provide the equipment placement and duct routing, as shown in Figure 21-20. Double-line drawings take up more space and are more time-consuming than single-line, but they are often necessary when complex systems require more detail, as shown in Figure 21-18.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Detail Drawings Detail drawings are used to clarify specific features of the HVAC plan. Single- and double-line drawings are intended to establish the general arrangement of the system, but they do not always provide enough information to fabricate specific components. When further clarification of features is required, detail drawings are made. Detail drawings are enlarged views of equipment, equipment installations, duct components, or any features that are not defined on the plan. Detail drawings can be scaled or unscaled. Detail drawings provide adequate views and dimensions for sheet metal shops to prepare fabrication patterns, as shown in Figure 21-21. Scaled details are drawn at 1/2" = 1'–0" to 1 1/2" = 1'–0".
Section Drawings Sections, also referred to as section drawings or sectional views, are used to show and describe the interior portions of an object or building that would otherwise be difficult to visualize. Section drawings provide a clear representation of construction details or a profile of the HVAC plan as taken through one or more locations in the building. Two basic types of section drawings are used in HVAC. One method is used to show the construction of the HVAC system in relationship to the building. In this case the building is sectioned, and the duct system is shown unsectioned. This drawing provides a profile of the HVAC system. There can be one or more sections taken through the building,
ACOUSTICALLY LINED BOX OVER CEILING OUTLET 14" HIGH @ NECK OPENING.
RIGID FIBERGLASS SIZE AS NOTED. 3'-Ø" MAXIMUM FLEX DUCT.
OPPOSED BLADE DAMPER
LAY-IN T-BAR CEILING
PERFORATED OUTLET
CEILING OUTLET DETAIL NO SCALE
FIGURE 2120 Single-line ducted system showing a layout of the proposed trunk and run-out ductwork. Courtesy Trane Company, La Crosse, Wisconsin.
GYPBOARD CEILING
A M-3
FIGURE 2121 Sample detail drawing. Courtesy W. Alan Gold, consulting mechanical engineer and Robert Evenson Associates, AIA Architects.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
515
14X10 RET AIR
12×12 SUPPLY
10X10
5"Ø
6"Ø
8X10
9"Ø
6"Ø
12X10
12X14
12"Ø RET AIR ACU-1
12X12 RET AIR
6X10
10X12 16X14 FROM ACU-4
FIGURE 2122 Section drawing. Courtesy W. Alan Gold, consulting mechanical engineer and Robert Evenson Associates, AIA Architects.
depending on the complexity of the project. The building structure can be drawn using thin lines, as shown in Figure 21-22. Figure 21-22 shows a section through the HVAC plan first shown in Figure 21-18. The other sectioning method is used to show detail of equipment or to show how parts of an assembly fit together (see Figure 21-23).
HVAC Schedules Numbered symbols that are used on the HVAC plan to key specific items to charts are known as schedules. Schedules were discussed in detail in Chapter 16.
ROOF MOUNTED HEAT PUMP INSTALLED AND FURNISHED BY THE SOUTHLAND CORP.
NOTE
4 NOTE
STILES MOUNTING CURB INSTALLED & LEVELED BY GENERAL CONTRACTOR
7
HP 1 ROOF NOTE
3
18"o FLEX DUCT 1Ø"o DUCT5 TO WORK RM. & LOCKED STORAGE PLENUM FURNISHED & INSTALLED BY THE SOUTHLAND CORP. NOTE
6
SECTION
A
CEILING
FIGURE 2123 Detailed section showing HVAC equipment installation. Courtesy The Southland Corporation.
Schedules describe items such as ceiling outlets, supply and exhaust grills, hardware, and equipment. Schedules are charts of materials or products that include size, description, quantity used, capacity, location, vendor specifications, and any other information needed to construct or finish the system. Schedules keep the drawing clear of unnecessary notes. Schedules are generally placed in any convenient area of the drawing field or on a separate sheet. Items on the plan can be keyed to schedules by using a letter and number combination, such as C-1 for CEILING OUTLET NO. 1, E-1 for EXHAUST GRILL NO. 1, or ACU-1 for EQUIPMENT UNIT NO. 1. The exhaust grill schedule keyed to the HVAC plan in Figure 21–18 is set up as a table as shown in Figure 21-24.
HVAC Pictorial Drawings Pictorial drawings can be isometric or oblique as shown in Figure 21–25. An isometric drawing is a pictorial drawing where length, width, and height are represented by lines 120° apart, with all measurements in the same scale. An oblique drawing has the object shown with one surface parallel to the viewing plane, and depth is represented by lines drawn, typically, at a 45° angle. Pictorial drawings are usually not drawn to scale. They are used in HVAC for a number of applications, such as visualization of the duct system and when the plan and sectional views are not adequate to show difficult duct routing.
516
Architectural Drafting and Design
EX HAUS T G RI L L S C H EDU L E DA MP E R T Y P E SYMBOL E E E E E E E E E E E E E
– – – – – – – – – – – – –
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
SIZE
CFM
24x12 18x18 1Øx1Ø 1Øx1Ø 12x12 1Øx1Ø 6x6 12x6 12x6 12x8 1Øx1Ø 9x4 9x4
75Ø 72Ø 24Ø 35Ø 28Ø 5ØØ 35Ø 5Ø 2ØØ 15Ø 29Ø 16Ø 75
LOCATION
FIRE DPR.
REMARKS
KEY OP. KEY OP. OPPBLD EXTR
NO DPR.
TYPE 4 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 1 4
HIGH WALL CEILING CEILING CEILING CEILING CEILING
HIGH WALL
24x24 PANEL
24x24 PANEL
TYPE 1: KRUGER 119Ø SERIES STEEL PERFORATED FRAME 23 FOR LAY-IN TILE.
TYPE 3: KRUGER EGC-5: 1/2"x1/2"x1/2" ALUMINUM GRID.
TYPE 2: KRUGER 119Ø SERIES STEEL PERFORATED FRAME 22 FOR SURFACE MOUNT.
TYPE 1: KRUGER S8ØH: 35° HORIZ. BLADES 3/4" O.C.
FIGURE 2124 Exhaust grill schedule.
STEAM SUPPLY AND RETURN
CIRCULATING PUMP WATER SUPPLY AND RETURN TO OTHER UNITS WATER CHILLER
WATER COOLING COIL
OUTSIDE AIR
CT
IR YA
DU
L
PP
SU
FILTER
PREHEAT RETURN AIR
FIGURE 2125 Pictorial drawings. Courtesy Trane Company, La Crosse, Wisconsin.
HVAC PLAN DRAWING CHECKLIST
❑ Provide steel post embedded in concrete in front of furnace located in garage.
Check off the items in the following list as you work on the HVAC plan, to be sure that you have included all the necessary items:
Simplified plan: ❑ Furnace shown with make and model, Btu output, and electrical requirements.
Minimum requirements: ❑ Furnace shown with make and model, Btu output, and electrical requirements.
❑ Provide steel post embedded in concrete in front of furnace located in garage. ❑ Warm air (WA) registers and sizes.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
❑ Cubic feet per minute (cfm) at each register. ❑ Return air (RA) and size specification. Detailed plan: ❑ Furnace shown with make and model, Btu output, and electrical requirements. ❑ Provide steel post embedded in concrete in front of furnace located in garage. ❑ Supply ducts and sizes. ❑ Warm-air (WA) registers and sizes.
517
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Cubic feet per minute (cfm) at each register. Return ducts and sizes. Return air and size specification. Btu heat loss for each room.
Additional items for a commercial plan: ❑ Schedules keyed to plan. ❑ Detail drawings if needed. ❑ One or more section drawings. ❑ Detailed section or sections if needed.
CADD APPLICATIONS CADD in the HVAC Industry INTRODUCTION In some HVAC CADD software, you place the duct fittings and then the software automatically sizes ducts in accordance with common mechanical equipment manufacturer specifications. The floor plan is commonly used as a background layer, and the HVAC plan is a separate layer. The following is a sample of the steps that can be used by the CADD drafter to design and draw an HVAC plan:
FD
STEP 1 For the preliminary layout, draw the duct center lines,
as shown in Figure 21-26. STEP 2 Select supply and return registers from a symbol
library, and add the symbol to the end of the center lines where appropriate, as shown in Figure 21-27. STEP 3 The CADD program then automatically identifies
and records the lengths of individual duct runs, and tags each run. Fittings are located and identified by the type
FIGURE 2127 Automatically placing supply and return registers.
of intersection, as shown in Figure 21-28. While all of this drawing information is added to the layout, the computer automatically gathers design information into a file for duct sizing based on specific mechanical manufacturer specifications that you select. STEP 4 After the fitting location and sizes are deter-
FIGURE 2126 Preliminary layout of duct center lines.
mined, the program transforms each fitting into accurate double-line symbols exactly to the ANSI Y32.2.4 standard as shown in Figure 21-29. ANSI stands for the American National Standards Institute. ANSI Y32.2.4 is titled Graphic Symbols for Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning. This standard has been developed for use on HVAC drawings as a common application throughout the industry.
518
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS CADD in the HVAC Industry (Continued)
40
50
10
50
40
40
30
111
40
150
143
50
127
50
114
110
10
111
50
111
50
107 30
81
165
30
124
118 24
24
FD
FD
20 110
30
30
116
20
162
10
116
100
30
30
100
30 68 131
40
38 40
10
50
50 40
30
24
FD
20 20
10 30 30
20
128
128
FIGURE 2130 Complete HVAC CADD layout.
FIGURE 2128 Fittings located and identified.
50
40
10
40
40
14
97
20
10
128 41
115
20
116
44
141
20
30
20
111
62 20
20 10
51 118
30
20 40
10
The increase in productivity is excellent with CADD. Also, the CADD program can automatically record information while you draw, generating a complete bill of materials. The systems that offer the greatest flexibility and productivity are designed as a parametric package. This program type allows you to set the design parameters that you want to use. Then the computer automatically draws and details according to these settings. As you draw, information is placed with each fitting, including type of fitting, cfm airflow, and material thickness.
40
HVAC PICTORIALS FIGURE 2129 Fitting symbols automatically drawn.
STEP 5 When the fittings are in place, the program calculates
and draws the connecting ducts and adds couplings automatically at the maximum duct lengths. If a transition fitting is needed in a duct run, the program recommends the location. All you have to do is pick a transition fitting from the symbol library. A transition fitting is a standard or custom duct component that connects one duct size to a different duct size, or one duct shape to a different duct shape, or both different shape and size. See Figure 21-30 for the complete HVAC layout.
CADD applications can make pictorial representations much easier to create, especially when the HVAC program allows direct conversion from the plan view to the pictorial. CADD pictorials, known as graphic models, are used to view the HVAC system from any angle or orientation. Custom HVAC CADD programs automatically analyze the layout for obstacles where an error in design can result in a duct that does not have a clear path. When changes are made to an HVAC plan, plans created in CADD offer a distinct advantage: Any changes on one drawing are corrected on all drawings, schedules, and lists of materials. Figure 21-31 shows a CADD-generated perspective of HVAC duct routing.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
519
CADD APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 2131 CADD-generated perspective of HVAC duct routing. Courtesy Computervision Corporation.
CADD LAYERS FOR HVAC DRAWINGS The American Institute of Architects (AIA) CAD Layer Guidelines establish the heading “Mechanical” as the major group identification for HVAC-related CADD layers. The following are some of the recommended CADD layer names for HVAC applications: ■
Layer Name
Description
M-CHIM
Prefabricated chimneys
M-CMPA
Compressed air systems
M-CONT
Controls and instrumentation
M-CWTR
Chilled water system
M-DETL
Details
M-DUST
Dust- and fume-collection systems
M-ELEV
Elevations
M-EMER
Emergency management systems
M-EXHS
Exhaust systems
M-FUEL
Fuel system piping
M-HOTW
Hot water heating system
M-HVAC
HVAC system
M-REFG
Refrigeration systems
M-SCHD
Schedules and title block sheets
M-SECT
Sections
M-STEM
Steam systems
520
Architectural Drafting and Design
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you research available products and HVAC design options. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.ashrae.org
Company, Product, or Service American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
www.carrier.com www.lennox.com www.trane.com
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. HVAC equipment manufacturer HVAC equipment manufacturer HVAC equipment manufacturer
Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 21 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 21–1 Describe the following heating and cooling systems:
Question 21–8 List five advantages of a central vacuum system. Question 21–9 What does the size of heating and cooling equipment have to do with providing access clearances for servicing and replacement? Question 21–10 Define combustion air. Question 21–11 List the rooms or locations where return air cannot be accessed. Question 21–12 What does the abbreviation UL stand for?
a. Central forced air
Question 21–13 Give the minimum thermal resistance value for insulated ducts.
b. Hot water
Question 21–14 Define plenum.
c. Heat pump
Question 21–15 Describe the purpose of schedules in an HVAC drawing.
d. Zoned heating
Question 21–2 Describe a type of zoned heating called radiant heat. Question 21–3 List two advantages and two disadvantages of zonal heat as compared with central forcedair heating. Question 21–4 A heat pump may supply up to how many times as much heat per year for the same amount of electrical consumption as a standard electric forced-air system? Question 21–5 Discuss four factors that influence the placement of a thermostat. Question 21–6 Describe five sources that can contribute to an unhealthy living environment. Question 21–7 Discuss the function of an air-to-air heat exchanger.
PROBLEMS Problem 21–1 Calculate the minimum heat exchanger capacity for one of the floor plans found in the floor plan problems at the end of Chapter 18. Use the formulas established earlier in the “Air-to-Air Heat Exchangers” section of this chapter. Problem 21–2 Using the residential heating engineering sketch of the main floor plan and basement provided with this problem, do the following: 1. Draw a formal double-line HVAC floor plan layout
at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0". 2. Approximate the location of undimensioned fea-
tures such as windows. 3. Use line thicknesses as described in this chapter.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
521
5'-6"
9'-Ø"
5'x4'
5'x6'-8" 4x12 5482 BTU 154 CFM
2x1Ø
6
1325 BTU 37 CFM
7
23'-Ø"
VENT OUT F
545 BTU 15 CFM
HOOD FAN VENT OUT R
6
12'-Ø"
3459 BTU 97 CFM
4'x3'-6"
4x1Ø
4'x4'
13'-Ø"
3'-Ø"
8x24
9
7
11'-Ø"
26'-Ø"
2x1Ø
7
4324 BTU 4x12 121 CFM
6
2740 BTU 77 CFM
2083 BTU 58 CFM
4x1Ø 4'x4'
11'-Ø"
2'-6"
3655 BTU 102 CFM 4x12
7
6
6x5
4x1Ø 4'x4'
1Ø'-6"
7'-Ø"
24'-Ø"
11'-Ø" 18'-Ø"
TOTAL HEAT LOSS 23,885 BTU 675 CFM
42'-Ø"
26'- Ø"
16/14
FURNACE
1Ø'-Ø"
22 x 30 CRAWL ACCESS
14/12
8"
6"
HOUSE ABOVE
U P
24'-Ø"
GARAGE
7'- Ø"
9'- Ø"
12"
BASEMENT FURNACE HEATING PLAN
Problem 21–3 Using the residential air-to-air heat exchanger ducting engineering sketch of a basement floor plan provided with this problem, do the following: 1. Draw a formal single-line air-to-air heat exchanger
floor plan layout at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0".
2. Approximate the location of undimensioned fea-
tures such as doors. 3. Use line thicknesses as described in this
chapter.
522
Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 21–4 Using the plan that you have been drawing from Chapter 18, design and draw your own simplified HVAC plan.
5. Ceiling height: 8'–0"
Problem 21–5 Using the plan that you have been drawing from Chapter 18, design and draw your own double-line HVAC plan.
7. Frame wall insulation: R-19 + 1/2" polystyrene
Problem 21–6 Using the plan that you have been drawing from Chapter 18, design and draw your own double-line air-to-air heat exchanger plan. Problem 21–7 Prepare heat loss and gain calculations for the plan that you have been drawing from Chapter 18, unless otherwise specified by your instructor. Use the residential heating data sheets and the residential cooling data sheets found on the Student CD. Complete the data sheets according to the method used in this chapter to solve for the total winter heat loss and summer heat gain. Use the following criteria unless otherwise specified by your instructor: 1. Outdoor temperature: As recommended for your
area. You need to do some research to determine this value. 2. Indoor temperature: 70°F (21°C) 3. Double-glass windows and glass doors 4. Urethane insulated metal exterior doors, weather-
stripped
6. Ceiling insulation: Confirm with your local building
department. 8. Floor insulation over unconditioned space: Confirm
with your local building department. 9. Duct insulation requirements: Confirm with your
local building department or a professional HVAC contractor. 10. Masonry above and below grade: As required in
your selected plan. 11. Basement floor or concrete slab construction: As
required for your selected plan. Verify use with your instructor. 12. Assume that the entry foyer door faces south to
establish window orientation. 13. Assume glass with an inside shade. 14. Number of occupants (optional): Select the family
size you desire or count the bedrooms and add one. For example, a three-bedroom home plus one equals four people. 15. Latent load conditions: Use typical for your local
area. Select wet, medium, medium dry, or dry as appropriate. You need to do some research to determine these values, or consult with your instructor.
Chapter 21: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning
523
Problem 21–8 Given the following:
measured the given engineer’s sketch at 1/16" = 1'–0" (1:200 metric). Now you convert the established dimensions to a formal drawing at 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50 metric). Approximate the location of the HVAC duct runs and equipment in proportion to the presentation on the sketch.
1. HVAC floor plan engineering layout at approximately
1/16" = 1'–0" (1:200 metric). The engineer’s layout is rough, so round off dimensions to the nearest convenient units. For example, if the dimension you scale reads 24'–3" (7391 mm), round off to 24'–0" (7300 mm). The floor plan does not require dimensioning; therefore, the representation is more important than the specific dimensions.
2. Prepare correlated schedules in the space available.
Set up the schedules in a manner similar to the examples below.
2. Related schedules.
3. Make a detail drawing of the exhaust hood, either
scaled or unscaled. Make the detail large enough to clearly show the features.
3. Engineer’s sketch for exhaust hood.
Do the following: 1. Make a formal double-line HVAC floor plan layout
at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50 metric). Note: You
o 1Ø" TANGENT
36"
8" 36"
(o 1Ø")
8" 24" 1Ø" EXHAUST HOOD DETAIL 18/12 RETURN DUCT DOWN IN CORNER
22 x 12 C-10 230 CFM
16 x 12
S-1 450 CFM
C-12 40 CFM 2'-6"
36 x 36 EXHAUST HOOD OVER SOLVENT TANK SEE DETAIL
12 x 12
C-14 300 CFM
INTERIOR WALLS 5" THK
20 x 12
o 1Ø"
C-13 45 CFM
2'-6"
3'-Ø" 18 x 12
E-5 1000 CFM
3'-Ø"
FROM EXIST SYSTEM
4'-Ø"
8x6
C-11 185 CFM
o 1Ø" EXHAUST DUCT UP TO REF-1
S-2 450 CFM
1Ø x 8 IN JOIST SPACE
PROPOSED ADDITION HVAC PLAN
o 9" 8 x 1Ø
DH
EXT WALLS 8" THK
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www.kevinmillerphoto.com
SECTION 6
Roof Plans
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CHAPTER 22
Roof Plan Components I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
The design of the roof must be considered long before the roof plan is drawn. The designer will consider the basic shape of the roof as the floor plan and elevations are drawn in the preliminary design stage. This does not mean that the designer plans the entire structural system for the roof during the initial stages, but the general shape and type of roofing material to be used will be planned. Often the roof can present a larger visible surface area than the walls. In addition to aesthetic considerations, the roof can also be used to provide rigidity in a structure when wall areas are filled with glass, as seen in Figure 22-1. To ensure that the roof will meet the designer’s criteria, a roof plan is usually drawn by the drafter to provide construction information. In order to draw the roof plan, a drafter should understand types of roof plans, various pitches, common roof shapes, and common roof materials.
TYPES OF ROOF PLANS The plan that is drawn of the roof area may be either a roof plan or a roof framing plan. For some types of roofs, a roof drainage plan may also be drawn. Roof framing and drainage plans will be discussed in Chapter 32.
Roof Plans
size and direction of the construction members that are required to frame the roof. Figure 22-3 shows the roof framing plan for the same home. On very complex projects, every framing member is shown, as seen in Figure 22-4. Framing plans will be discussed further in Chapter 32.
COMMON ROOF TERMS Several terms that represent common roof components must be understood before a roof plan or roof framing plan can be completed. These terms include ridge, overhang, roof pitch, eave, soffit, cornice, and fascia. Several of these terms are used interchangeably. The portions of the roof that these terms represent are shown in Figure 22-5.
Ridge The word ridge is used in several ways that relate to roof framing methods. Some of these terms include ridge board, ridge block, ridge beam, and ridge brace. Each of these terms is discussed in Chapter 23 and Chapter 27 as roof framing methods are explored. As basic roofing components are explored, the ridge needs to be understood as a specific location. A ridge is a horizontal
A roof plan is used to show the shape of the roof. Materials such as the roofing material, vents and their location, and the type of underlayment are also typically specified on the roof plan, as seen in Figure 22-2. Roof plans are typically drawn at a scale smaller than the scale used for the floor plan. A scale of 1/8" = 1'−0" or 1/16" = 1'−0" (1:100, or 1:200) is commonly used for a roof plan. A roof plan is typically drawn on the same sheet as the exterior elevations.
Roof Framing Plans Roof framing plans are usually required for complicated residential roof shapes. A roof framing plan shows the
FIGURE 221 In addition to aesthetic considerations, the roof is often used to resist wind and seismic forces when walls of the structure contain large amounts of glass. Courtesy W. Lee Roland, builder. Photo by Hayman Studios.
527
528
Architectural Drafting and Design
LINE OF LOWER ROOF
LINE OF LOWER ROOF SEE ELEVATIONS AND FRAMING
12" TYP. AT GABLES
TYP. RIDGE VENTS
12" TYP. AT GABLES LINE OF UPPER ROOF
LINE OF LOWER ROOF
TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT
ROOF PLAN
1/8"
24" TYP.
1'-0"
PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3rd. JOIST SPACE @ ALL ATTIC EAVES. USE 1/2" 'CCX' EXTERIOR PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES USE MONIER HOMESTEAD NATURAL CHARCOAL ROOF TILES OVER 15 # FELT. INSTALL AS PER MANUF SPECS. VERIFY COLOR AND STYLE W/ OWNER
24" TYP.
SUBMIT TRUSS MANUF. DRAWINGS TO BUILDING DEPT. PRIOR TO ERECTION
FIGURE 222 A roof plan is drawn to show the shape of the roof.
intersection between two or more roof planes and represents the highest point of a roof. In drawing a roof plan, the ridge is centered between the two walls that support a roof if the following two conditions are met: ● ●
The support walls must be of equal height. The angle (pitch) of the roof planes must be equal.
If wall heights or roof angles are unequal, the ridge location will be altered as seen in Figure 22-6.
Overhangs The term overhang is used to describe the portion of the roof that extends past the building envelope. The overhang is used to provide shade for wall openings
and provide protection to the walls from the weather. The historical style of the home, the amount of shade and protection desired, and the pitch of the roof influence the size of the overhang.
Roof Pitch The term pitch describes the angle of the roof by comparing the horizontal run and the vertical rise. Roof pitch is measured in the field with a framer’s square, using inches as the unit of measurement. As a drafter, you can determine the rise and run using inches, feet, millimeters, meters, or any other equal units. The roof pitch is not represented on the roof drawings, but the intersections that result from various roof pitches must be represented. It is also necessary to understand
Chapter 22: Roof Plan Components
529
6'-0" TYP.
P
HIP TRUSSES AT 24" O.C.
2
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
TRUSSES
STD. / SCISSOR TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
LIMIT OF TRUSSES HI
P
HIP TRUSSES AT 24" O.C.
X
8
HI
P
2
X
8
HI
P
P
2
X
HI
O.C.
HI
8
P
@ 24" O.C.
HI
P
2
X
8
FRAME OVER MAIN ROOF W/ 2 x 6 RAFT @
1'-0"
DESIGN STANDARDS BASED ON 2003 IRC AND 1996 OREGON RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CODE. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL#2 OR BETTER UNLESS NOTED. ALL RAFTERS TO BE 2 x 6 UNLESS NOTED. SEE ATTACHED SCHEDULE FOR MAXIMUM SPANS.
RAFTERS: TABLE 7-O 10# DEAD LOAD / 20# LIVE LOAD 2 X 6 @ 16" O.C. = 14'-4" MAX. 2 X 6 @ 24" O.C. = 11'-9" MAX. 2 X 8 @ 12" O.C. = 21'-0" MAX. 2 X 8 @ 16" O.C. = 18'-2" MAX. 2 X 8 @ 24" O.C. = 14'-10" MAX.
2x8 RIDGE
EXPOSED 6X8 R.S. BMS @ 32" O.C.
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C. LIMIT OF TRUSSES
ROOF FRAMING PLAN
1/8"
LIMIT OF TRUSSES
O.C.
2 X 6" @24"
2
X
8
LINE OF UPPER ROOF
LINE OF LOWER ROOF
LINE OF LOWER ROOF SEE ELEVATIONS AND FRAMING
8
X
HI
2 X 6" @24"
2
8
2 X 6 RAFT
LIMIT OF FULL
X
2 X 6 @24" O.C.
2
2X6 @24" O.C.
2 X 6 @24" O.C.
LINE OF LOWER ROOF
MONO TRUSSES AT 24" O.C. EA. END.
6'-0" TYP. FRAME ENDS W/ 2 X 6 RAFT. 2 X 8 HIP TO TRUSS @ 24" O.C. W/
FIGURE 223 A roof framing plan is used to show the framing members for the roof.
the effects of pitch on the size of the overhang. The roof slope is shown when the elevations and sections are drawn, and will be further explored in Chapter 23, Chapter 25, and Chapter 28. In order to correctly represent the intersection between two roof surfaces on a roof plan, it is necessary to understand how various roof pitches are drawn. Figure 22-7 shows how the pitch can be visualized. This method of using the rise and run can be used to determine any roof pitch. The roof pitch can also be drawn if the proper angle that represents a certain pitch is known. Knowing that a 4/12 roof equals 18 1/2° allows the drafter to enter the correct angle without having to plot the layout. Figure 22-8 shows angles for common roof pitches. Roof pitches can be considered as slight, gradual, moderate, or dramatic slopes. ●
Slight slopes. Roofs with a pitch of less than 2/12 are considered to have slight slopes. A roof with a slight
●
●
●
slope is often used in arid parts of the world, but is not practical for deflecting rain and snow. The development of more durable roofing materials has allowed flat roofs to become common on modern homes, with the international style and on many townhouses and condominiums. Gradual slopes. Roofs with a pitch between 2/12 to 4/12 are considered to have gradual slopes. Gently pitched roofs are characteristic of Mediterranean, Italianate, craftsman, bungalow, prairie, and ranch styles. Moderate slopes. Roofs with a pitch between 4/12 and 7/12 can be considered moderate and can be found on most home styles. Steep slopes. Most roofers consider roofs with pitches of 8/12 or greater to be considered steep. Steep gable roofs are common on the following styles: Gothic, Greek revival, Tudor, Cape Cod, French manor, colonial, and farmhouse.
530
Architectural Drafting and Design
2 x 8
SL EE PE R 2
x
8
VA LL EY
R PE EE SL
2 x 8 RIDGE
EY LL VA 2 x 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
6 x 12 EXPOSED
LINE OF EXISTING RESIDENCE SLD. BLK. @ EA. 3RD SPACE
1'-0" TYP.
RIDGE BEAM
(2) 2 x 12 2 x 12 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.
EXISTING TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
EXISTING RIDGE BLOCK
EXISTING TRUSS TAILS TO BE REMOVED FRAME FOR 36" x 24" SKYLIGHT
U210-2 HGR EA. END
2 x 8 FASCIA ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2 OR BTR.
2 x 6 OUTLOOKERS LAID FLAT @ 24" O.C. 2 x 8 BARGE RAFTER
2'-0" TYP.
ROOF FRAMING PLAN
1/4
1'-0"
FIGURE 224 For complicated roofs, a roof framing plan may be drawn to show the size and location of every structural member.
Sun Angle and Overhang Size The size of the overhang will depend on the pitch of the roof and the amount of shade desired. As seen in Figure 22-9, the steeper the roof pitch, the smaller the overhang that is required to provide the same amount of shade. If you are working on a roof plan
RIDGE PITCH OVERHANG
12 6 FASCIA
EXPOSED EAVE
SOFFIT CORNICE
FIGURE 225 Common roof terms associated with roof drawings.
for a home in a southern location, an overhang large enough to protect fenestration from direct sunlight during the summer should be provided. In northern areas, the overhang is usually restricted to maximize the amount of sunlight received during the winter months. Figure 22-10 compares the effect of an overhang at different times of the year. Another important consideration when representing the overhang is how the view from windows will be affected. As the roof angle is increased, the size of the overhang may need to be decreased so that the eave will not extend into the line of sight from a window. The designer will need to base the size of the overhang on the roof pitch so that the view is not hindered. The required length of an overhang can be determined using the formula OH = WH / F
Chapter 22: Roof Plan Components
531
COMMON ANGLES FOR DRAWING ROOF PITCHES ROOF PITCH
ANGLE
1/12 A EQUAL WALL HEIGHTS / EQUAL ROOF ANGLES
4°– 30⬘
3/12
15°– 0⬘
5/12
22°– 30⬘
7/12
30°– 0⬘
9/12
37°– 0⬘
11/12
42°– 30⬘
B UNEQUAL WALL HEIGHTS / EQUAL ROOF ANGLES
FIGURE 228 Common roof pitches and angles. Angles shown are approximate and are to be used for drawing purposes only.
24"
12"
18"
C EQUAL WALL HEIGHTS / UNEQUAL ROOF ANGLES
FIGURE 226 Three options for ridge location. (A) If the walls supporting the roof are the same height, and the angles of the roof planes are equal, the ridge will be centered between the support walls. (B) If one of the two support wall heights is altered, the ridge location will be altered. (C) If the angles of the roof planes are not the same, the ridge will no longer be centered between the support walls.
ANGLE OF SUN
4 3
ANGLE OF SUN
FIGURE 229 The steeper the roof pitch, the more shadow will be cast. Typically the overhang is decreased as the pitch is increased.
where OH is the overhang length, WH is the window height, and F is a factor that takes into account the north latitude and whether or not you desire full shading at noon on June 21 or August 1. Design factors can be seen in the table on the next page.
5
ANGLE OF SUN
JUNE 21 lat 48˚ N
JUNE 21 lat 40˚ N
DEC 21 lat 40˚ N DEC 21 lat 48˚ N
2 1 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11
12
0
4/12 PITCH
FIGURE 227 To specify the roof slope, the angle is expressed as a comparison of equal units. Units may be inches, feet, meters, and so on, as long as the horizontal and vertical units are of equal length.
FIGURE 2210 The overhang blocks different amounts of sunlight at different times of the year. Notice the difference in the sun’s angles at 40° and 48° north latitude.
532
Architectural Drafting and Design
Determining the Roof Overhang Latitude F 26°
5.6 to 11.1
32°
4.0 to 6.3
36°
3.0 to 4.5
40°
2.5 to 3.4
44°
2.0 to 2.7
48°
1.7 to 2.2
52°
1.5 to 1.8
56°
1.3 to 1.5
The F factor with the highest value for your north latitude will provide full shading at noon on June 21. The lower of the two F factors will provide full shading on August 1. These calculations assume that the structure is facing due south. If the structure is situated 15° east or west of true south, the overhang will need to be extended by 10% to ensure proper shading.
Eaves and Rakes
as Federal or Greek revival. Figure 22-11 shows the use of cornice molding. Figure 22-12 shows an example of a cornice detail completed by a CAD technician.
Fascias and Barge Rafters The fascia is the trim placed at the end of the truss or rafter tails. The fascia serves to hide the ends of the roof framing members and provides a mounting service for the gutters. A fascia runs parallel to the ridge and
12
9
GUTTER ON 1 x 6 FASCIA
Boxed and Soffited Eaves
Cornice A cornice is an ornamental molding or a combination of two or more moldings located at the top of an exterior wall just below a roof. Cornice molding is used on many homes in order to match a particular historic style such
1x4 1x8 2 1/2" COVE MOLDING 1x10
WOOD BLK.
16" +/- 8'-1", SASH HEIGHT TO MATCH EXT. DOOR HEIGHT
A boxed eave is an eave with a covering applied directly to the bottom side of the rafter or truss tails. A soffit is the enclosed area below the overhangs that is used to protect the rafter or truss tails from the elements. By enclosing the eave area, future maintenance cost can be reduced.
2" MTL. STRIP VENT
METAL DRIP EDGE
16"
The eave is the horizontal edge of a roof that overhangs the exterior wall. The eave area can be open or enclosed. When the eave is left exposed, the rafter or truss tails, the ends of the members beyond the exterior wall, are visible and require painting or other protection from the elements. Plywood on top of the rafter or truss tails that is exposed to the elements at the eave must be rated for weather exposure. When the rafter or truss tails are enclosed, interior-grade plywood or oriented strand board (OSB) can be used. Chapter 28 explores eave framing. A rake is the sloped end portion of a roof that forms at the gable end wall where the roof intersects the wall. It is the equivalent of an inclined eave.
FIGURE 2211 Cornice molding is used on many homes in order to match a particular historic style such as Federal or Greek revival.
TO FIRST FLOOR
BRICK
DETAIL SCALE: 1-1/2" = 1'-0"
H
5-9
FIGURE 2212 A detail created by a drafter to show how the cornice trim is to be installed. Courtesy Dennis Dinser, Arcadian Designs, Inc.
Chapter 22: Roof Plan Components
METAL GRAVEL STOP
533
3 LAYER BUILT-UP ROOFING MATERIAL HOT MOP BETWEEN EA. COURSE
FASCIA
SOLID BLOCK
SOLID BLOCK W/ (3)-1" DIA SCREENED HOLES FOR AIRFLOW
1/2" PLY ROOF SHEATHING
EXTRA PLATE TO PROVIDE SLOPE TO ROOF
RAFTERS / CEIL. JSTS @ 12", 16", OR 24" O.C
10" BATT INSULATION R-38 MIN W/ 2" AIR SPACE ABOVE
FIGURE 2213 Common construction components of a flat roof.
remains parallel to the floor level. When the fascia is placed parallel to the rafters or trusses, it is referred to as a barge rafter. A barge rafter is the inclined trim that hangs from the projecting edge of a roof rake. Depending on your area of the country, a barge rafter may also be referred to as a verge board, gable rafter, or gable board.
PERIMETER OF STRUCTURE
ROOF SHAPES
SLOPE INDICATOR
By changing the roof pitch, the designer can change the shape of the roof. Common roof shapes include flat, shed, gable, A-frame, gambrel, hip, Dutch hip, and mansard. See Chapter 28 for a complete discussion of roof framing terms.
OUTLINE OF ROOF
DN
FIGURE 2214 Representing a flat roof in plan view.
Flat Roofs The flat roof is a very common style in areas with little rain or snow. In addition to being used in residential construction, the flat roof is typically used on commercial structures to provide a platform for heating and other mechanical equipment. The flat roof is economical to construct because ceiling joists are eliminated and rafters are used to support both the roof and ceiling loads. Figure 22-13 shows the materials commonly used to frame a flat roof. Figure 22-14 shows how a flat roof could be represented on the roof plan. Often a flat roof has a slight pitch in the rafters. A pitch of 1/4" per foot (6/25 mm) (2% slope) is often used to help prevent water from ponding on the roof. As water flows to the edge, a metal diverter is usually placed at the eave to prevent dripping at walkways. A flat roof will often have a parapet, or false wall, surrounding the perimeter of the roof. Figure 22-15 provides an example
WALL CANT STRIP
PARAPET WALL
TRUSS LEDGER
LEDGER
SECTION
TRUSS
PLAN
FIGURE 2215 A parapet wall is often placed around a flat roof to hide mechanical roof equipment. The thickness of the wall should be represented on the roof plan.
534
Architectural Drafting and Design
PERIMETER OF STRUCTURE
DN
OUTLINE OF ROOF
DN SLOPE INDICATOR
DN
DN
FIGURE 2216 Many contemporary homes combine flat and shed roofs to create a pleasing design. Courtesy LeRoy Cook. FIGURE 2218 Shed roof shapes in plan view.
of a parapet wall. This wall can be used for decoration or for protection of mechanical equipment. When used, it must be shown on the roof plan.
Shed Roofs The shed roof, as seen in Figure 22-16, offers the same simplicity and economical construction methods as a flat roof but does not have the drainage problems associated with a flat roof. Figure 22-17 shows common construction methods for shed roofs. The shed roof may be constructed at any pitch. The roofing material and aesthetic considerations are the only factors limiting the pitch. Drawn in plan view, the shed roof will resemble the flat roof, as seen in Figure 22-18.
Gable Roofs A gable roof is one of the most common roof types in residential construction. As seen in Figure 22-19, it uses two shed roofs that meet to form a ridge between the support walls. Figure 22-20 shows common construction methods for a gable roof system. The gable can be constructed at any pitch, with the choice of pitch limited only by the roofing material and the desired effect. A gable roof is often used on designs seeking a traditional appearance and formal balance. Figure 22-21 shows how a gable roof is typically represented in plan view. Many plans use two or more gables at 90° angles to each other. The intersections of gable surfaces are called either hips or valleys.
SOLID BLOCK W/ (3)-1" DIA SCREENED HOLES FOR AIRFLOW SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3RD SPACE SCREENED ROOF VENT @10'-0" +/-
RAFTERS /CEIL. JST. @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C. 1/2" PLY ROOF SHEATHING
RAFTERS @ 12", 16", OR 24" O.C.
ROOFING MATERIAL
1/2" PLY ROOF SHEATHING
SOLID BLOCK W/ 1" DIA. SCREENED VENTS EA. RAFT. SP.
ROOFING MATERIAL SOLID BLOCK W/ SCREENED VENTS EA. 3RD SPACE
LEDGER & METAL HANGERS
12" BATT INSULATION R-38 MIN
10" BATT INSULATION R-30 MIN W/ 2" AIR SPACE ABOVE
FASCIA
CEILING JOIST @ 12" OR 16" O.C.
SHED ROOF W/ FLAT CEILING FIGURE 2217 Common construction components of shed roofs.
SHED ROOF W/ VAULTED CEILING
Chapter 22: Roof Plan Components
535
PERIMETER OF STRUCTURE
DN
DN DN
RIDGE
RIDGE
FIGURE 2219 A gable roof is composed of two intersecting planes that form a peak (the ridge) between the planes.
VALLEY
DN
DN
DN
RIDGE
45° ANGLE IN PLAN VIEW
OUTLINE OF ROOF
A-Frame Roofs An A-frame is a method of framing walls, as well as a system of framing roofs. An A-frame structure uses rafters to form its supporting walls, as shown in Figure 22-22. The structure gets its name from the letter A that is formed by the roof and floor systems (see Figure 22-23). The roof plan for an A-frame is very similar to the plan for a gable roof. However, the framing materials are usually quite different. An A-frame is represented on the roof plan similar to a gable roof.
FIGURE 2221 Gable roof in plan view.
level is covered with a steep roof surface, which connects into the upper roof system with a slighter pitch. By covering the lower level with roofing material rather than siding, the structure appears shorter than it actually is. This roof system can also reduce the cost of siding materials by using less expensive roofing materials. Figure 22-26 shows a plan view of a gambrel roof.
Gambrel Roofs A gambrel roof can be seen in Figure 22-24. The gambrel roof is a traditional shape that dates back to the colonial period. Figure 22-25 shows common construction methods for a gambrel roof. The lower
Hip Roofs The hip roof (see Figure 22-27) is a traditional shape that can be used to help eliminate some of the roof mass and create a structure with a smaller appearance.
RIDGE BOARD SCREENED ROOF VENT @10'-0" +/-
1/2" PLY ROOF SHEATHING SOLID BLOCK W/ SCREENED VENTS EA. 3RD SPACE
12" BATT INSULATION R-38 MIN. CEILING JOISTS @ 12" OR 16" O.C.
FIGURE 2220 Common construction components of a gable roof.
RIDGE BRACE @ 45 DEG. MAX. FROM VERT. @ 48" O.C. RAFTERS @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C. ROOFING MATERIAL
536
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2224 The gambrel roof is often used to enhance the traditional appearance of a residence. Courtesy Michael Jefferis.
RIDGE BOARD RIDGE BRACE @ 45˚ MAX FROM VERT. @ 48" O.C. RAFTERS @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C. ROOFING MTRL.
CEILING JOISTS @ 12" OR 16" O.C. RAFTERS @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C.
FIGURE 2222 An A-frame uses a steep roof to form the walls of the upper level. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
8 X 14 RIDGE BEAM 6 X 12 EXPOSED BEAMS @ 32" O.C. 1" ROOF DECKING 2" T.G. FLOOR DECKING 6 X 10 FLOOR BEAMS @ 32" O.C. 2 X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C. 3/4" FLOOR DECKING 2 X 10 FLOOR JOISTS @ 16" O.C.
FLOOR JOIST @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C.
RIDGE BOARD RAFTERS @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C. ROOFING MTRL. BEAM
CEILING JOISTS @ 12" OR 16" O.C.
FASCIA OR CURB KNEE WALL
LOWER RAFT. @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C. FLOOR JOISTS @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C.
FASCIA
STANDARD 1 STORY 'T' FOOTING CONCRETE FOOTING
FIGURE 2223 Common components of A-frame construction.
FIGURE 2225 A gambrel roof can be constructed with or without a fascia or curb between the upper and lower roofs.
Chapter 22: Roof Plan Components
537
DN
H
DN
IP
RIDGE
DN HI
IP
DN
DN
P
H
ROOF CURB
RIDGE
ROOF CURB
H
IP
PERIMETER OF STRUCTURE
PERIMETER OF STRUCTURE
DN OUTLINE OF ROOF
DN
OUTLINE OF ROOF
FIGURE 2226 Gambrel roof in plan view.
RIDGE
DN
VALLEY
DN
DN 45° ANGLE IN PLAN VIEW
RIDGE
A hip roof has many similarities to a gable roof but has a minimum of three surfaces instead of two. The intersection between surfaces is called a hip. If built on a square structure, the hips will come together to form a point. If built on a rectangular structure, the hips will form two points with a ridge spanning the distance between them. When hips are placed over an L- or T-shaped structure, an interior intersection called a valley is formed. The valley of a hip roof is the same as the valley of a gable roof. Hips and valleys can be seen in plan view in Figure 22-28.
FIGURE 2228 Representing hips and valleys in plan view. The labels for hip, valley, and ridge are shown to identify each member and are not placed on the roof plan.
Dutch Hip Roofs The Dutch hip roof is a combination of a hip and a gable roof (see Figure 22-29). The center section of the
FIGURE 2227 A hip roof is made of three or more intersecting planes. This home uses a combination of hip roofs with a gable roof over the entry area to create a pleasing roof structure.
FIGURE 2229 A Dutch hip is a combination of a hip and a gable roof. Courtesy CertainTeed Roofing.
538
Architectural Drafting and Design
SIDING BARGE RAFTER
GABLE END WALL HIP ROOF
FASCIA
FIGURE 2230 A wall is formed between the hip and gable roof.
roof is framed using a method similar to a gable roof. The ends of the roof are framed with a partial hip that blends into the gable. A small wall (gable end wall) is formed between the hip and the gable roofs, as seen in Figure 22-30. On the roof plan, the shape, distance, and wall location must be shown, as in the plan in Figure 22-31.
many different ways. Figure 22-33 shows two common methods of constructing a mansard roof. The roof plan for a mansard roof will resemble the two mansard styles shown in the plan view in Figure 22-34.
Mansard Roofs A mansard roof is similar to a gambrel roof but has the angled lower roof on all four sides rather than just two. A mansard roof is often used as a parapet wall to hide mechanical equipment on the roof or to help hide the height of the upper level of a structure (see Figure 22-32). Mansard roofs can be constructed in FIGURE 2232 Mansard roofs are used to help disguise the height of a structure. Courtesy Metal Roofing Alliance. PERIMETER OF STRUCTURE RAFT. / CEIL. JSTS @ 12" OR 16" O.C.
H
DN
H
IP
IP
DN
IP
ROOFING MTRL. RAFTERS @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C.
HI P
H
2x 4 BRACE @ 24" O.C.
1/2" PLY SHTG.
DN
DN
RIDGE
FLASHING
FLOOR JOISTS @ 12", 16" OR 24" O.C.
RAFT. /C.J @ 12" OR 16" O.C.
OUTLINE OF ROOF
FIGURE 2231 Dutch hip roof in plan view.
FIGURE 2233 Common methods of constructing a mansard roof.
Chapter 22: Roof Plan Components
539
RIDGE BOARD
SCREENED ROOF VENTS @10'-0" +/-
RAFT. @ 12", 16", OR 24" O.C
1/2" PLY SHEATH
ROOFING MATL.
SOLID BLOCK W/ SCREENED VENTS EA. 3RD. SPACE
CEIL. JST. @ 12" OR 16" O.C.
12" BATT INSULATION R-38 MIN
DBL. RAFT.
FIGURE 2236 Typical components of dormer construction.
common method of constructing a dormer can be seen in Figure 11-46. Dormers are most frequently used on traditional roofs such as the gable or hip. Figure 22-36 shows one of the many ways that dormers can be constructed. Dormers are usually shown on the roof plan as seen in Figure 22-37.
ROOFING MATERIALS
Dormers A dormer is an opening framed in the roof to allow for window placement. Figure 22-35 shows dormers that have been added to provide light and ventilation to rooms in what would have been attic space. Another
The material to be used on the roof depends on pitch, exterior style, the cost of the structure, and the weather. Common roofing materials include built-up roofing,
PERIMETER OF STRUCTURE SHED DORMER
DN
FIGURE 2234 The representation of a mansard roof in plan view will vary based on the construction method. The mansard on the left side of the roof plan represents a mansard constructed as shown in the left side of Figure 22-33. The mansard on the right side of the roof plan represents the mansard on the right side of Figure 22-33.
DN
RIDGE
M
HIP DORMER
OUTLINE OF ROOF GABLE DORMER
FIGURE 2235 Dormers allow windows to be added to attic areas.
FIGURE 2237 Representing gable (left), hip (right), and shed (top) dormers in plan view.
540
Architectural Drafting and Design
composition and wood shingles, clay and cement tiles, and metal panels. In ordering or specifying these materials, the term square is often used. A square is used to describe an area of roofing that covers 100 sq ft (9.3 m2). The drafter will need to be aware of the weight per square and the required pitch as the plan is being drawn. The weight of the roofing material will affect the size of the framing members all the way down to the foundation level. The material will also affect the required pitch and the appearance that results from the selected pitch.
Built-Up Roofing Built-up roofing of felt and asphalt is used on flat or low-sloped roofs below a 3/12 pitch but greater than 0.25/12 pitch. When the roof has a low pitch, water will either pond or drain very slowly. To prevent water from leaking into a structure, built-up roofing is used because it has no seams. On a residence, a built-up roof may consist of three alternate layers of felt and hot asphalt placed over solid roof decking similar to Figure 22-38. The decking is usually plywood. In commercial uses, a four- or five-layer roof is used to provide added durability. Gravel is often used as a finishing layer to help cover the felt. On roofs with a pitch over 2/12, coarse rocks 2" or 3" (50 or 75 mm) in diameter are used for protecting the roof and for appearance. When built-up roofs are to be specified on the roof plan, the note should include the number of layers, the material to be used, and the size of the finishing material. A typical note would be: 3-LAYER BUILT-UP ROOF WITH HOT ASPHALTIC EMULSION BTWN. LAYERS W/ 1/4" (6 mm) PEA GRAVEL.
Other roofing materials suitable for low-sloped (0.25/12 minimum pitch) roofs include modified bitumen, thermoplastic single-ply, sprayed polyurethane foam, and liquid applied coatings. Typical specifications for the finished roofing that might be included on a low-sloped roof plan include: MODIFIED BITUMEN SHEET ROOFING BY JOHN MANVILLE OR EQUAL OVER 2 LAYERS OF UNDERLAYMENT PER ASTM D226 TYPE I CEMENTED TOGETHER. THERMOPLASTIC SINGLE-PLY ROOF SYSTEM BY SARNAFIL OR EQUAL INSTALLED PER ASTM D4434. SPF ROOFING BY MAINLAND INDUSTRIAL COATINGS, INC. APPLIED PER ASTM 1029. GREENSEAL LIQUID WATERPROOFING MEMBRANE OR EQUAL INSTALLED PER MANUF. SPECS.
FIGURE 2238 Built-up roofing of felt and asphalt is used on flat and low-sloped roofs below a 3/12 pitch. Courtesy CertainTeed Roofing.
Material can be applied to a roof with minimum pitch of 0.25/12. Mineral surface roll roofing can be used on roofs with a minimum pitch of 1/12. The extent of the note that is placed on the drawings will vary, depending if complete specifications will be used. When specifications are provided, the notes to specify materials will be kept very generic on the drawings.
Shingles Asphalt, fiberglass, and wood are the most typical types of shingles used as residential roofing materials. Most building codes and manufacturers require a minimum roof pitch of 4/12 with an underlayment of one layer of 15-lb felt. Asphalt and fiberglass shingles can be laid on roofs as low as 2/12 if two layers of 15-lb felt are laid under the shingles and if the shingles are sealed. Wood shingles must usually be installed on roofs having a pitch of at least 3/12. Asphalt and fiberglass are similar in appearance and application. Asphalt and fiberglass shingles come in a variety of colors and patterns. Also known as composition shingles, they are typically made of fiberglass backing and covered with asphalt and a filler with a coating of finely crushed particles of stone. The asphalt waterproofs the shingle, and the filler provides fire protection. The standard shingle is a three-tab rectangular strip weighing 235 lb per square. The upper portion of the strip is coated with self-sealing adhesive and is covered by the next row of shingles. The lower portion of a three-tab shingle is divided into three flaps that are exposed to the weather (see Figure 22-39). Composition shingles are also available in random width and thickness to give the appearance of cedar
Chapter 22: Roof Plan Components
541
FIGURE 2239 Composition or three-tab shingles are a common roofing material on high-sloped roofs. Courtesy Elk Roofing. FIGURE 2241 Cedar shakes are a rustic but elegant roofing material. Courtesy Tim Taylor.
shakes (see Figure 22-40). These shingles weigh approximately 300 lb per square. Both types of shingles can be used in a variety of conditions on roofs having a minimum slope of 2/12. The lifetime of shingles varies from 20- to 40-year guarantees. Asbestos cement shingles are also available; they weigh approximately 560 lb per square, depending on the manufacturer and the pattern used. Shingles are typically specified on drawings in note form listing the material, the weight, and the underlayment. The color and manufacturer may also be specified. This information is often omitted in residential construction to allow the contractor to purchase a suitable brand at the best cost. A typical call-out would be: 235# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15LB FELT. 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15LB FELT. ARCHITECT 80 “DRIFTWOOD” CLASS A FIBERGLASS SHINGLES BY GENSTAR WITH 5 5/8" EXPOSURE OVER 15# FELT UNDERLAYMENT WITH 30YEAR WARRANTY.
Wood Shingles and Shakes Wood is also used for shakes and shingles. Wood shakes are thicker than shingles and are also more irregular in their texture (see Figure 22-41). Wood shakes and shingles are installed on roofs with a minimum pitch of 3/12 using a base layer of 15-lb felt. An additional layer of 15 lb × 18" (457 mm) wide felt is also placed between courses or layers of shingles. Wood shakes and shingles can be installed over solid or spaced sheathing. The weather, material availability, and labor practices affect the type of underlayment used. Depending on the area of the country, shakes and shingles are usually made of cedar, redwood, or cypress. They are also produced in various lengths. When shakes or shingles are specified on the roof plan, the note should usually include the material, the exposure, the underlayment, and the type of sheathing. A typical specification for wood shakes would be: MED. CEDAR SHAKES OVER 15# FELT W/15# × 18" WIDE FELT BETWEEN EACH COURSE. LAY WITH 10 1/2" EXPOSURE.
Alternative Shingle Materials
FIGURE 2240 Three-hundred-lb composition shingles are made with tabs of random width and length. Courtesy Pavel Adi Sandu.
Other materials such as Masonite and metal are also used to simulate shakes. Metal shingles similar to those in Figure 22-42 are sometimes used for roof shingles on roofs with a 3/12 or greater pitch. Metal provides a durable, fire-resistant roofing material. Metal shingles are usually installed using the same precautions applied to asphalt shingles. Metal is typically specified on the roof plan in a note listing the manufacturer, type of shingle, and underlayment.
542
FIGURE 2242 Metal shingles are usually installed using the same precautions applied to asphalt shingles and are specified on the roof plan in a note listing the manufacturer, type of shingle, and underlayment. Courtesy Metal Roofing Alliance.
Clay and Cement Tiles Tile is the material most often used for homes on the high end of the price scale or where the risk of fire is extreme. Although tile may cost twice as much as the better grades of asphalt shingle, it offers a lifetime guarantee. Tile is available in a variety of colors, materials, and patterns. Clay, concrete, and metal are the most common materials (see Figure 22-43 and Figure 22-44). Roof tiles are manufactured in both curved and flat shapes. Curved tiles are often called Spanish tiles and come in a variety of curved shapes and colors. Flat, or bar, tiles are also produced in many different colors and shapes. Tiles can be installed on roofs having a pitch of 2.5/12 if double underlayment is used. Slopes of 4/12 require only one layer of underlayment. Tiles can be placed over either spaced or solid sheathing. If solid sheathing is used, wood strips are generally added on top of the sheathing to support the tiles. When tile is to be used, special precautions must be taken with the design of the structure. Tile roofs weigh between 850 and 1000 lb (385 and 455 kg) per square. These weights require rafters, headers, and other
FIGURE 2243 Tile is an excellent choice for a roofing material because of its durability. Courtesy Tim Taylor.
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2244 Many tile patterns are made to simulate Spanish clay tiles. Courtesy Tim Taylor.
supporting members to be larger than normally required for other types of roofing material. Tiles are generally specified on the roof plan in a note, which lists the manufacturer, style, color, weight, fastening method, and underlayment. A typical note on the roof plan might be: MONIER BURNT TERRA COTTA MISSION’S ROOF TILE OVER 15# FELT AND 1 × 3 SKIP SHEATHING. USE A 3" MINIMUM HEAD LAP AND INSTALL AS PER MANUFAC TURER SPECIFICATIONS.
Metal Panels Metal roofing panels often provide savings because of the speed and ease of installation. Metal roof panels provide a water- and fireproof material that comes with a warranty for a protected period that can range from 20 to 50 years. Lapped, nonsoldered metal roofing panels with lap sealant can be laid on a roof with a pitch of 0.5/12 or greater. Nonsoldered seam metal roofing panels without a lap sealant are required to be laid on a pitch of 3/12 or greater. Standing seam metal roof systems can be laid on a roof with a pitch of 0.25/12 or greater. Panels are typically produced in either 22- or 24-gage metal in widths of either 18" or 24" (450 or 600 mm) (see Figure 22-45). The length of the panel can be specified to meet the needs of the roof in lengths up to 40' (12000 mm). Metal roofing panels typically weigh between 50 and 100 lb (23 and 45 kg) per square. Metal roofs are manufactured in many colors and patterns and can blend with almost any material. Steel, stainless steel, aluminum, copper, and zinc alloys are most typically used for metal roofing. Steel panels are heavier and more durable than other metals but must be covered with a protective coating to provide protection from rust and corrosion. A baked-on acrylic coating typically provides both color and weather protection. Stainless steel does not rust or corrode but is more expensive than steel. Stainless steel weathers to a natural matte-gray finish. Aluminum is extremely lightweight and does not rust. Finish coatings are similar to those used for steel.
Chapter 22: Roof Plan Components
FIGURE 2245 Metal is often selected for its durability and pleasing appearance. Courtesy LeRoy Cook.
Copper has been used for centuries as a roofing material. Copper roofs weather to a blue-green color and do not rust. In specifying metal roofing on the roof plan, the note should include the manufacturer, the pattern, the material, the underlayment, and the trim and flashing. A typical note would be: AMERX9 GA. 36" WIDE, KODIAK BROWN METAL ROOF ING BY AMERICAN BUILDING PRODUCTS OR EQUAL. INSTALL OVER 15# FELT AS PER MANUF. SPECS.
Metal Flashing In addition to using metal as a roof covering, metal is used as a flashing at all levels of a structure. Flashing is material used to protect material intersections and joints from moisture intrusion. Roof flashing is an underlayment used to protect joints in the roof. Major joints that must be protected include hips, valleys, and ridges. Valleys may be protected by either extra building paper or by metal flashing in high wind and snow areas. Metal flashing is also used to protect openings in the roof for chimneys and skylights, and to protect the fascia/roofing intersection. Flashing is not shown on the roof plan but the location and type of flashing is specified in general roof notes.
543
portion of the space to be ventilated. The ventilators must be located at least 36" (914 mm) above the eave or cornice vents. The ventilated attic area can also be reduced to 1/300 of the area if class I or class II vapor barrier is provided on the heated side of the attic floor. Where eave and cornice vents are provided, 1" (25 mm) minimum clearance between the insulation and the vent is required. The method used to provide the required vents varies throughout the country. Vents may be placed in the gabled end walls near the ridge. This allows the roof surface to remain vent-free. In some areas, a continuous vent is placed in the eaves, or a vent may be placed in each third rafter space. Vents placed near the ridge should be located on planes that are not visible to the line of sight when entering the residence. These vents are normally placed at approximately 10' (3000 mm) intervals, but the exact spacing will vary based on the size of the vent and the size of the attic space. In areas subject to high winds or snow pack, ridge vents can allow wind-driven moisture to enter the attic. Continuous vents can also be used at the ridge to eliminate the need to place holes in the roof. Moisture is less likely to be driven into the attic through continuous ridge vents because of their lower profile. The drafter needs to specify the proper area of vents that are required and the area in which they are to be placed. The attic area can be unvented if the area is completely contained in the building thermal envelope (see Chapter 9). This would require insulation to be placed in the rafter space, so that the attic area now becomes an air buffer between the heated air in the home and the outside air. The following conditions must also be met to have an unvented attic space: ● ●
●
ROOF VENTILATION AND ACCESS As the roof plan is drawn, the drafter must determine the size of the attic space. The attic is the space formed between the ceiling joists and the rafters. The attic space typically must be provided with vents that are covered with 1/16" (1.6 mm) minimum and 1/4" (6.4 mm) maximum screen mesh. These vents must have an area equal to 1/150 of the attic area. This area can be reduced to 1/300 of the attic area if at least 50%, but not more than 80%, of the required ventilating area is provided by ventilators located in the upper
●
No interior vapor retarders can be installed on the ceiling side of the attic floor. Where wood shingles or shakes are provided as the roofing material, a 1/4" (6 mm) minimum air space must be provided between the roofing material and the underlayment. In climate zones 5, 6, 7, and 8 any air-impermeable insulation must have a vapor retarder, or have a vapor retarder coating or covering in direct contact with the underside of the insulation. Section R806.4 contains three additional minor requirements for the insulation if an unvented attic is to be used.
Attic Access The drafter must specify how to get into the attic space if the space has an area of 30 sq ft (2.8 m2) or more and a height of 30" (762 mm) or more. The actual opening
544
GOING GREEN Green Roofing
When you think of energy-efficient roof systems, you might quickly think of gardens of flowers or freshly mown lawns growing on a roof. This image is typically referred to as a green roof. The term green roof is generally used to describe a roof system consisting of some type of vegetation growing in soil, planted over a waterproof membrane. Layers of a green roof, from top to bottom, typically include: • • • • • • • •
Vegetation in the growing medium. Filter membrane. Drainage layer. Waterproofing layer. Support panel. Thermal insulation. Vapor control layer. Structural support system.
This type of roof system has become popular in many municipal buildings, industrial facilities, offices, and other commercial property. In Europe, this type of roof is widely used for stormwater management and energy savings potential, as well as aesthetic benefits. Other benefits that may be achieved, depending on the type and design of the green roof system include: • Economic benefits achieved through longer material life span of the roof resulting in decreased maintenance and savings in replacement costs and savings on energy heating and cooling costs. • Sound insulation provided by the green roof is used to insulate from sound waves that are produced by machinery, traffic, or airplanes. Green roofs insulate for sound by absorbing, reflecting, or deflecting. The substrate tends to block lower sound frequencies and the plants block higher frequencies. Although popular, this green roof system is far from the only type of sustainable roof system. Two other categories of roofing are available to the design team to gain LEED credits. Cool roofs and sustainable roofs can be used to make a structure more earth friendly. A cool roof is a roof that features highly reflective materials. It can be something as simple as finishing the roof by painting it with a coating of light-colored water sealant. In the same way that white clothing helps keep you cool in the summertime, white roofs reflect sunlight and heat. More high-tech cool roofs feature special light-colored, reflective membranes that reflect heat from the roof surface to keep the building cool. Although not as flashy as a garden roof, asphalt, clay and composition shingles can be just as green if produced and installed to meet certain criteria. To be considered sustainable, a roofing system must meet several key criteria in the areas of energy, environment, endurance, and economics.
• Energy. High-performance roofing materials are available that can be a powerful asset in reducing energy consumption and forming an energy-efficient roof. When used with appropriate insulation on lowsloped or flat roofs, high-emissivity products can: • Reduce building energy consumption by up to 40%. • Improve insulation performance to reduce winter heat loss and summer heat gain. • Preserve the efficiency of rooftop air-conditioning and potentially reduce HVAC capacity requirements. • Decrease the effects of urban heat islands and related urban air pollution. • Environment. A roof system is generally considered to be friendly to the environment if it is designed, constructed, maintained, rehabilitated, and demolished with an emphasis throughout its life cycle on using natural resources efficiently and preserving the global environment. This would include roofing materials that are produced, applied, and reused using methods that comply with LEED guidelines. • Endurance. The amount of time a product can be used before being replaced is a key feature in its LEED certification. Endurance for a roofing component is measured in terms of reliability, water absorption, wind and fire resistance, maintenance, and repair. No matter how green a roof is, it still has to protect the building for years in all types of weather. • Economics. While some types of roofing may have lower initial costs, the true cost of a roofing system is measured over its total life cycle and must be considered to gain LEED credits. The true cost of a roof includes maintenance and repair costs, energy savings, and tear-off and disposal costs. As you work with the design team to meet these goals, key elements shown on a roof plan include the finish roofing materials, skylights, drainage systems, and mechanical equipment. Each of these products earns LEED credits primarily from the Materials and Resources division. Information to be shown on the roof plan includes credits primarily from CSI Section 07—Thermal and moisture protection. Specific areas to research include: • • • • • • • • •
07 31 13 – Asphalt shingles. 07 31 16 – Metal shingles. 07 31 19 – Mineral fiber cement shingles. 07 31 26 – Slate shingles. 07 31 29 – Wood shingles and shakes. 07 31 33 – Plastic and rubber shingles. 07 32 13 – Clay roof tiles. 07 34 00 – Building integrated photovoltaic roofing. 07 41 00 – Roof panels.
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into the attic is usually shown on the floor plan, but its location must be considered when the roof plan is being drawn. The minimum size of the access opening is 22" × 30" (560 × 762 mm) with 30" (762 mm) minimum of headroom measured from the top of the ceiling joists to the bottom of the rafters. While planning the roof shape, the drafter must find a suitable location for the attic access that meets both code and aesthetic requirements. Code requires that the access be located in a
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in roof materials. Address www.asphaltroofing.org www.calredwood.org www.cedarbureau.org www.certainteed.org www.elkcorp.com www.gaf.com
Company, Product, or Service Asphalt Roofing Manufacturers Association California Redwood Association Cedar Shake & Shingle Bureau CertainTeed Corporation (asphalt shingles) ElkCorp (asphalt shingles) GAF Materials Corporation (asphalt shingles)
www.greenbuildingsolutions.com www.greenroofs.net www.jm.com www.lpcorp.com
hallway or other accessible location. The access should be placed where it can be easily reached but not where it will visually dominate a space. Avoid placing the access in areas such as the garage; areas with high moisture content, such as bathrooms and utility rooms; or in bedrooms that will be used by young children. Walk-in closets are an excellent location for the access, but it should be placed in an area that does not require the movement of stored material.
Green Building Solutions Green Roofs for Healthy Cities Johns Manville (roofing) Louisiana-Pacific Corporation (radiant roof barriers)
Roof Plan Components Test
www.ludowici.com www.malarkey-rfg.com www.mca-tile.com www.monier.com www.nahbgreen.org www.owenscorning.com www.arcat.com www.spri.org www.stone-slate.com www.solatube.com www.sunoptic.com www.velux.com www.vinylbydesign.com www.zappone.com
Ludowici (roof tile) Malarkey Roofing Products (high-wind asphalt shingles) MCA, Inc. (tile roofing) Monier Lifetile (concrete roofing) National Green Building Green Program Owens Corning (asphalt shingles) Roofing Industry Educational Institute Single Ply Roofing Institute Slate/Select Inc. Solatube (skylights) Sunoptic (skylights) Velux (skylights) Vinyl By Design (roofing membranes) Zappone Manufacturing (copper shingles)
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 22 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question.
3. Do all lettering with vertical uppercase architectural letters. If the answer requires line work, use proper drafting tools and technique. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 22–1 List and describe three types of roof plans. Question 22–2 In describing roof pitch, what do the numbers 4/12 represent?
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Question 22–3 What angle represents a 6/12 pitch? Question 22–4 Is a surface built at a 28° angle from vertical a wall or a roof? Question 22–5 What are two advantages of using a flat roof? Question 22–6 What is the major disadvantage of using a flat roof? Question 22–7 List three traditional roof shapes. Question 22–8 Sketch and define the difference between a hip and a Dutch hip roof.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Question 22–13 What is the minimum headroom required at the attic access? Question 22–14 What is the minimum size of an attic access opening? Question 22–15 What type of roof is both a roof system and a framing system? Question 22–16 Use the Internet to determine common materials used for the waterproofing layer or the growing medium for a green roof. Question 22–17 What is a cool roof?
Question 22–9 What are the two uses for a mansard roof?
Question 22–18 List methods for a three-tab shingle to be considered a green product.
Question 22–10 List two common weights for asphalt or fiberglass shingles.
Question 22–19 What qualities does a product need to demonstrate to be considered friendly to the environment?
Question 22–11 What are two common shapes of clay roof tiles? Question 22–12 What advantage do metal roofing panels have over other roofing materials?
Question 22–20 Use the Internet to list five companies that provide green roofing products that are not already listed in this text.
CHAPTER 23
Roof Plan Layout R
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The design of a roof plan is considered early in the design process of a structure. The designer will often draw a preliminary roof plan to coordinate key design elements of the floor, roof, and elevations, and to project the preliminary elevations. The actual drawing of the roof plan for the working drawings can be completed once the design has been finalized. To complete the roof plan, a drafter must be familiar with the correct lines and symbols that are used to represent roofing material and the type of roof framing system to be used. This chapter will examine the lines and symbols that are used to represent the roof shape, structural materials, nonstructural materials, and dimensions. Roof framing systems discussed in this chapter include gable, hip, and Dutch hip drawings.
REPRESENTING ROOF PLAN COMPONENTS The steps to complete a roof plan include representing the roof shape, representing nonstructural materials, dimensioning major components, and providing text to explain the required equipment. Each area will be explored prior to the layout of the roof plan. Structural materials that are used to build the roof will be explored in Chapter 28 and Chapter 32.
ridges will need to be determined. On a rectangular structure, the ridge is usually parallel to and centered between the two longest walls. An alternative layout places the ridge centered between the two short walls of the rectangle. Figure 23-2 shows two options for placing a ridge on a rectangular shaped home and the resulting shape that would be seen when looking at the home. Several options are available for an L-shaped structure, including designs using one, two, or three ridges. Figure 23-3 shows options for the roof layout and the shapes that will result. The design that is selected will depend on the desires of the owners and the goals to be achieved. Keep in mind that the walls parallel to the ridge will be parallel to the floor level, and that the eave overhang will be useful for providing shade and protection from the weather. The walls that are perpendicular to the ridge are referred to as gable end walls. The gable end walls form a triangular wall between the top of the wall and the bottom of the roof framing. The eave at the gable end wall provides no protection to the main portion of the building envelope.
RIDGE
RIDGE
IP
EY
IP
H
H
IP
IP
H
LL
H
The lines that represent the overhangs and changes in roof shape such as ridges, hips, and valleys are drawn with bold solid lines. Lines representing walls are drawn with thin dashed lines. Each can be seen in Figure 23-1. The text placed in Figure 23-1 to describe the member is not labeled because knowledgeable print readers know what each member is. When drawing a roof plan, the first step in determining the roof shape is to trace the outline of the exterior walls and all exterior support posts. Once the walls are drawn, the shape of the roof can be explored. This exploration of roof plans assumes that a gable roof is to be drawn. To begin the drawing, the location of all
VA
Representing Basic Gable Roof Shapes
RIDGE
T
RIDGE
N
RIDGE
I
FIGURE 231 Changes in roof shape are shown with thick, solid lines. The text shown in this drawing should not be placed on the roof plan; it is placed only to aid you in identifying ridges, hips, and valleys.
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A
B
C
D
FIGURE 232 The ridge for a rectangular shaped home is usually placed parallel to the two longest walls. Placing the ridge parallel to the two shortest walls will provide a higher ridge line.
When locating the ridges of a home consisting of more than one rectangle, the easiest method to determine the shape of the roof is to trace the outline of the house and then divide the overall shape into the fewest number of boxes possible. Figure 23-4 shows two alternatives for determining the ridge locations for an irregularly shaped home. Once the structure has been broken into boxes, the ridge for each area can be located by drawing a line through the midpoint of the box. When the roof pitches are unequal or the walls are to be framed with different heights, draw a simple box similar to Figure 23-5 and represent the desired roof pitch to determine the location of the ridge. The elevation will allow you to project the ridge location to the roof plan. Once the ridges are located, the overhangs and valleys required for intersecting planes can be represented. The overhang size will be dependent on: ● ● ● ●
The style of home to be designed. The roof pitch. The area of the country and the resulting natural elements. The amount of shade desired during heating and cooling cycles.
For the examples in this chapter, a 24" (600 mm) overhang will be assumed for all eaves parallel to the ridge and a 12" (300 mm) overhang for eaves perpendicular to the ridge. Three guidelines need to be followed as valleys are drawn on the roof plan: ● ●
A valley will generally pass through the corner of two intersecting walls. A valley will always be represented on the plan view using an angle equal to half the angle of the
FIGURE 233 Common roof options for an L-shaped structure with designs using single and multiple ridges include (A) One ridge parallel to the longest wall. (B) One ridge perpendicular to the longest wall. (C) Two ridges, with the shorter ridge perpendicular to the longer ridge. (D) Two parallel ridges.
●
intersecting walls. Generally this will mean that valleys will be drawn at a 45° angle. Three lines will always be required to represent the intersections of valleys, ridges, and overhangs on a roof plan.
The valleys and overhangs that result from applying these guidelines are shown in Figure 23-6.
Representing Varied Ridge Heights The distance between supporting walls and the pitch must be considered to determine how the roof intersections are represented on the roof plan. Notice in
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RIDGE 2
BOX 2
BOX 1 RIDGE 1
BOX 3
BOX 4
RIDGE 4
RIDGE 3
BOX 2 EQUAL PITCH RIDGE CENTERED
BOX 1
UNEQUAL PITCH RIDGE OFF-CENTER
RIDGE 1 & 2
FIGURE 235 Roof pitches affect the location of the ridge. When the pitches are unequal, the ridge can be located on the roof plan by projecting the ridge location from a simple section.
BOX 3
BOX 4
RIDGE 3
RIDGE 4
FIGURE 234 Once the outline of the structure has been determined, draw lines to divide the home into the fewest number of boxes. With the boxes determined, the ridges for each box can be located. Draw several options and select the option that presents the most pleasing roof shape.
Figure 23-7 that the shape of the roof changes dramatically as the width between the walls is changed. When one roof is taller than another, the change can be made by using a wall similar to the example on the left in Figure 23-8, or by extending the lower plane, as in the example on the right in Figure 23-8. Remember that when the pitches are equal, the wider the distances between the walls, the higher the roof. When the walls are equally spaced but not perpendicular, the valley and ridge intersection will occur along a line, as shown in Figure 23-9. With unequal distances between the supporting walls, the valleys and ridges can be drawn as shown in Figure 23-10. Making such a drawing is often a difficult procedure
for an inexperienced technician. The process is simplified if you draw partial sections by the roof plan, as shown in Figure 23-11. By comparing the heights and distances in the sections, the intersections can be better visualized.
Bay Projections Parallel to the Ridge If a bay is to be included on the floor plan, special consideration will be required to draw the roof covering it. Figure 23-12 shows the steps required to lay out a bay roof. The layout of the roof can be eased by squaring the walls of the bay. Lay out the line of the ridge from the hips and valleys created by the intersecting rectangles. The true hips over the bay are drawn with a line from the intersection of the roof overhangs, which extends up to the end of the ridge.
Bay Projections Perpendicular to the Ridge The process for representing a bay parallel to the gable end wall is similar to the process just described for drawing the bay parallel to the ridge. Use the same layout procedure from the first two steps. Since the roof terminates at the gable end wall, erase all projection lines that extend past the line that
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45°
VARIES
DISTANCE
RIDGE
VA L
LE Y
RIDGE
LINE OF IMAGINARY BOX FIGURE 236 The ridges, valleys, and overhangs for a simple gable roof.
B
B
B
A
A
A
A=B
A
A>B
FIGURE 237 Although the basic shape remains the same, the roof plan and elevations change as the distance between walls varies.
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A
A
B
A
A B
B
B
A>B SIDE ELEVATION
A>B REAR ELEVATION
A>B REAR ELEVATION
A>B SIDE ELEVATION
FIGURE 238 When roof heights are unequal, the transition can be made by extending the lower roof pitch until it aligns with the upper roof (right) or by allowing a gable roof to be formed between the two roofs.
represents the gable end wall. The finished layout can be seen in Figure 23-13. RIDGE
Roof Intersections with Varied Wall Heights
FIGURE 239 When walls are equally spaced but not perpendicular, the roof surfaces occur along a line, as shown.
RIDGE A
RIDGE B
A
B
B
A
A
RI
DG
E
EY
LL
VA
X°
Another feature common to roofs is the intersection between two roof sections of different heights similar to the home in Figure 23-14. Figure 23-15 shows how an entry portico framed with a 10' (3000 mm) wall would intersect with a residence framed with walls 8' (2400 mm) high. The roof pitch must be known to determine where the intersection between the two roofs will occur. In this example a 6/12 pitch was used. At this pitch, the lower roof must extend 4' (1200 mm) before it will be 10' (3000 mm) high. A line was offset 48" (1200 mm) from the wall representing the horizontal distance. The line that represents the 10' (3000 mm)
B
P
HI
1/2X°
A
FIGURE 2310 When walls are unequally spaced, a drafter may be tempted to draw the roof as shown at (A.) The actual intersection can be seen at (B.) Remember that each valley is drawn at an angle equal to half of the angle between the supporting walls.
FIGURE 2311 The true roof shape can be seen by drawing sections of the roof. Project the heights represented on the sections onto the roof.
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FIGURE 2314 Many home styles feature homes with roofs that have varied heights. STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3
FIGURE 2312 The roof to cover a bay can be represented by drawing the outline of the bay and the desired overhangs parallel to the bay walls (Step 1). Draw construction lines to represent the roof that would be created if the bay were a rectangle. This will establish the ridge and the intersection of the ridge with the main roof (Step 2). Drawing the hips created by a rectangular bay will also establish the point where the true hips intersect the ridge. The true hips will start at the intersection of the overhangs, pass through the intersection of the bay walls, and end at the ridge (Step 3).
high plate is extended to the line that was just drawn to represent where the 8' (2400 mm) roof reaches 10' (3000 mm) high. The valley between the two roofs will occur where the lines representing the higher walls intersect the line representing the horizontal distance.
4'-0"
LINE OF 8'-0" HIGH PLATE
FIGURE 2313 A bay placed parallel to the gable end wall is drawn using the first two steps represented in Figure 23-12. The lines for each roof feature must be erased where they intersect the wall.
LINE OF 10'-0" HIGH PLATE
FIGURE 2315 The slope of the roof must be known to draw the intersection between roofs built on walls of differing heights. With a 6/12 pitch, a horizontal distance of 48" (1200 mm) would be required to reach the starting height of the upper roof (6" per foot × 4' = 24" rise). By projecting the line of the upper walls to a line offset in 48" from the lower wall, the intersection of the two roof planes can be determined. A valley will be formed between the two intersecting roofs starting at the intersection of the wall and the line representing the rise.
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Three lines will always be required to represent the intersections of hips, valleys, ridges, and overhangs on a roof plan.
The valleys and overhangs that result from applying these guidelines are shown in Figure 23-16. The hips, or external corners of the roof, are drawn in a manner similar to that used to locate the ridge. The hips represent the intersection between two roof planes and are represented by a line drawn at an angle that is one-half of the angle formed between the two supporting walls. Keep in mind that the 45° line represents the intersection between two equally pitched roof planes in plan view only. This angle has nothing to do with the actual slope of the roof. The angle that represents the slope or pitch of the roof is seen only in an elevation or section of the structure. Drawing elevations and sections will be introduced in later chapters.
Dutch Hip Roofs A Dutch hip roof is drawn by first drawing a hip, as shown in Figure 23-17. Once the hip is drawn, determine the location of the gable wall. The wall is
A
B
RIDGE
VA LL
EY
H IP 45°
IP H
●
RIDGE
H IP
●
A hip or valley will pass through the corner of two intersecting walls. A hip or valley will always be represented on the plan view using an angle equal to half the angle of the intersecting walls. Generally this will mean that hips and valleys will be drawn at a 45° angle.
45°
IP H
●
IP H
If a hip roof is to be drawn, the ridge formed between the hips is formed just as with a gable roof. Three guidelines need to be followed as the hips and valleys are drawn on the roof plan:
H IP
Representing Hip Roofs
FIGURE 2316 A valley (interior corner) or a hip (exterior corner) is formed between two intersecting roof planes. When each plane is framed from walls that are perpendicular to each other and the slope of each roof is identical, the valley is drawn at a 45° angle.
usually located over a framing member, spaced at 24" (600 mm) on center. The wall is typically located 48" or 72" (1200 or 1800 mm) from the exterior wall. With the wall located, the overhang can be drawn in a manner similar to a gable roof. The overhang line will intersect the hip lines to form the outline of the Dutch hip.
REPRESENTING STRUCTURAL MATERIALS The type of plan to be drawn will affect the method used to show the structural material. Many offices draw a separate roof framing plan similar to Figure 22-3 to show all framing materials. Chapter 29 explains how to represent structural members on a roof framing plan.
C
FIGURE 2317 Layout of a Dutch hip roof: (A) Establish the ridge and hip locations; (B) locate the gable end wall; (C) use bold lines to complete the roof.
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2 X 6 RAFT.
1 HI 8
STD ROOF TRUSSES @ 24" O.C. - SEE DRAW. BY MANUF.
HI
X
8 P
2
X
1
2
P
@ 24"O.C.
1 2 X 6 RAFTERS @ 24" O.C.
FIGURE 2318 Rafters or trusses can be represented on the roof plan by a thin line showing the proper direction and span, or by using a schedule.
Chapter 32 will discuss drawing framing plans. If framing is to be drawn on the roof plan, the rafters or trusses can be represented as shown in Figure 23-18.
REPRESENTING NONSTRUCTURAL MATERIAL Vents, chimneys, skylights, solar panels, diverters, cant strips, slope indicators, and downspouts are the most common nonstructural materials that will need to be shown on the roof plan.
Vents Vents may be either placed at the ridge, at the eave, or in the gable end walls. Ridge vents can either be a continuous vent similar to Figure 23-19 or individual vents placed near the ridge. Continuous vents can be represented as seen in Figure 23-20 or merely specified in a note and not drawn on the roof plan. Individual vents should be represented on the roof plan as close to the ridge as possible, on the side of the roof that is the least visible. The size of the vent varies with each manufacturer, but an area equal to 1/300 of the attic area must be provided for ventilation. Vents can be represented on a roof plan using a 12" (300 mm) diameter circle or a 12" (300 mm) square to approximate the size of the vent. On some custom homes designed by architects, a specific manufacturer and model number may be specified. For most designs, the type of vent is represented, but the contractor determines the manufacturer, size, and model. If the exact size and type of vent are not known, most offices place a vent at approximately 10'−0" (3000 mm) on center near the ridge, and provide a note to list the coderequired minimum areas. Figure 23-20 shows how ridge vents are represented and specified. Eave vents are not shown on the roof plan, but the size and spacing
FIGURE 2319 A continuous ridge can be used to eliminate the need for standard vents that project from the roof surface. Courtesy CertainTeed.
should be specified in a note. Gable end wall vents are not drawn on the roof plan, but should be specified by note on the roof plan and represented and specified on the exterior elevations. This is covered in more detail in Chapter 25.
Chimneys The method used to represent the chimney depends on the chimney material. Common materials include a metal chimney pipe, metal chimneys surrounded by a wood chase, and masonry chimneys. Common methods of representing chimneys can be seen in Figure 23-20. The Underwriters Laboratory standard UL-103 regulates metal chimney pipes for venting exhaust gases from solid fuel–burning appliances. If a specific manufacturer of the heating device or the chimney is not known, a note specifying the chimney to be “UL-APPROVED CLASS A CHIMNEY PIPE” will usually meet the requirements of the municipality granting the building permit. The metal chimney pipe can be represented by a 14" (350 mm) diameter circle to approximate the actual size of the chimney. The contractor will then install a chimney to meet the requirements of the manufacturer of the fuel burning appliance and the UL minimum requirements.
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24" TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT
TYP.
13'-0" MASONRY CHIMNEY
CONTINUOUS RIDGE VENT 24" X 36" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC OPENABLE SKYLIGHT
SOLAR TUBE BY VELUX OR EQUAL
7'-0"
13'-0"
12" Ø SCREENED RIDGE VENTS
3- 24" X 76" SOLAR PANELS SUPPLIED BY OWNER INSTALLED BY PLUMBING CONT.
24" X 48" CHASE & U.L. APPD METAL CHIMNEY
ROOF PLAN 1/8"
UL APPD. CLASS A METAL CHIMNEY W/ CAP
1'-0"
19'-0"
GENERAL NOTES: - PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3RD. TRUSS SPACE @ ALL ATTIC EAVES. - PROVIDE SCREENED ROOF VENTS @ 10'-0" O.C.+/- (1/300 VENT TO ATTIC SPACE ). - USE 1/2" CCX PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES - USE 300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT.
FIGURE 2320 Nonstructural materials shown on the roof plan include vents, chimneys, skylights, and solar panels.
If the metal chimney pipe is located in an area where it will be highly visible, a chase framed with wood and covered with material to match the balance of the exterior siding is typically provided. The size of the chase is based on the size of the chimney and aesthetic requirements. Masonry chimneys can range from a minimum of 16" (400 mm) square, up to matching the size used to represent the fireplace on the floor plan. Coordinate the chimney represented on the roof plan with the size of the fireplace on the floor plan, and the size of the chimney represented on the exterior elevations. Chimneys will be further explored in Chapter 40.
Skylights The location of skylights can usually be determined from their location on the floor plan. As seen in Figure 23-21, the opening in the roof for the skylight does not have to align directly with the opening in the ceiling. The skylight is connected to the ceiling by an enclosed area, called a chase or well. By adjusting the angle of the chase, the size and location of the opening in the ceiling for the skylight can be adjusted. When specifying skylights, the size and type should be specified. If the roof is to be framed with trusses,
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A
B
C FIGURE 2321 By altering the angle of the well (the enclosed space connecting the skylight to the ceiling), the location in the ceiling can be altered. Walls can be framed (A) perpendicular to the ceiling, (B) with one side perpendicular to both the roof and the ceiling, and (C) perpendicular to the roof framing.
the locations should also be given from the outer edge of the gable end wall to the center of the skylight. Dimensions are not required if rafters are used, since they can be cut as needed to locate openings. In addition to traditional skylights, round skylights are available similar to Figure 23-22 that use a reflective, flexible tube to connect the roof opening to the ceiling. To specify a circular solar tube skylight, draw a circle that approximates the required diameter. A specification to describe the solar tube should describe the manufacturer, size, and other possible material specified by the manufacturer. If solar panels are to be represented, the size, angle, and manufacturer should be specified.
Roof Drainage The amount of rainfall determines the need for gutters and downspouts. In semiarid regions, a metal strip called a diverter can be placed on the roof to route runoff on the roof from doorways. The runoff should be diverted to an area of the roof where it can
FIGURE 2322 Solar tube skylights provide diffused light without requiring a straight chase to connect the roof and ceiling surfaces.
drop to the ground and be adequately diverted from the foundation. In wetter regions, gutters should be provided to collect and divert the water collected by the roof. Local codes will specify if the drains must be connected to storm sewers, private drywell, or a splash block. The downspouts that bring the roof runoff to ground level can be represented by approximately a 3" (75 mm) circle or square. Care should be taken to keep downspouts out of major lines of sight. Each downspout can typically drain approximately 20' (6000 mm) of roof on each side of the downspout, allowing the downspouts to be spaced at approximately 40' (12 000 mm) intervals along the eave. This spacing can be seen in Figure 23-23. The distance between downspouts will vary depending on the amount and rate of rainfall and should be verified with local manufacturers. Common methods of showing downspouts can be seen in Figure 23-20. The saddle is a small gable built behind the chimney to divert water away from the chimney, as seen in Figure 23-24. Products that project from the roof such as skylights do not require the use of a saddle. The manufacturer of skylights provides flashing to provide a watertight intersection with the roof.
Chapter 23: Roof Plan Layout
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H
L
L
H
L
FLASHING
L
H
H L
L
H H
H
L
L
H
SADDLE
FIGURE 2324 A saddle is used to divert water around the chimney.
● H
H L
L
● ●
H
H
FIGURE 2323 The location of gutters and downspouts will be determined by the type of roof and amount of rainfall to be drained. Gutters must be sloped to the downspouts, which should be placed so that no view is blocked.
● ●
Material that should be specified in local notes includes the following: ●
DIMENSIONS The roof plan requires very few dimensions. Typically only the overhangs and openings in the roof are dimensioned. If trusses are to be used to frame the roof, openings in the roof must be located on the roof with modular dimensions. Providing a dimension that extends from the outer edge of an exterior wall, to the center of the opening is the best way to locate roof openings. To properly locate a skylight between trusses would require an odd whole number. Using a dimension such as 21'−0" (6300 mm) will place the center of a skylight between the trusses that are 20' and 22' (6000 and 6600 mm) from the exterior of the structure. Figure 23-25 shows how dimensions are placed on the roof plan.
ANNOTATION As with the other drawings, notes on the roof plan can be divided into general and local notes. General notes might include the following:
Vent notes. Sheathing information. Roof covering. Eave sheathing. Pitch.
● ● ●
Skylight type, size, and material. Chimney caps. Solar panel type and size. Cant strips and saddles.
13'-0"
13'-0"
28'-0"
19'-0"
24" TYP.
24" TYP.
FIGURE 2325 Dimensions should be placed by using leader and extension lines or in a note.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 6 STEP 1
STEP 4 STEP 5
STEP 3 STEP 2
FIGURE 2326 The layout of the roof plan should be done using construction lines.
In addition to this annotation, the drafter should also place a title and scale on the drawing.
DRAWING GABLE ROOF PLANS The following instructions are for the roof plan to accompany the residence that was drawn in Chapter 18. The plan will be drawn using a gable roof. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 6, which can be seen in Figure 23-26. Use the dimensions on the floor plan to determine all sizes. Locate the perimeter walls. STEP 2 Locate any supports required for covered porches. STEP 3 Locate the limits of the overhangs. Unless your instructor provides different instructions, use 1'−0" (300 mm) overhangs for the gable end walls and 2'−0" (600 mm) overhangs for the eaves. STEP 4 Locate and draw the ridge or ridges. STEP 5 Locate any hips and valleys required by the design. STEP 6 Locate the chimney. STEP 7 Using the line quality described in this chapter, draw the materials of Step 1 through Step 6. Draw the outline of the upper roof, and then work down to lower levels. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 23-27. STEP 1
Use the line quality described in this chapter to draw Step 8 through Step 13. Each of these steps can be seen in Figure 23-28. Draw any skylights that are specified on the floor plans. STEP 9 Calculate the area of the attic and determine the required number of vents. Assume that 12" (300 mm)
FIGURE 2327 Drawing the roof plan using finished quality lines.
round vents will be used. Draw the required vents on a surface of the roof that will make the vents least visible. STEP 10 Draw the saddle by the chimney if a masonry chimney or wood chase was used. STEP 11 Draw solar panels if required. STEP 12 Draw the downspouts if required. STEP 13 Add dimensions for the overhangs and skylights. STEP 14 Label all materials using local and general notes, a title, and a scale. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 23-29. STEP 15 Evaluate your drawing for completeness, and make any minor revisions required before giving your drawing to your instructor.
1'-0" TYP.
STEP 10
STEP 9 6'-0"
19'-0"
STEP 13
STEP 8
2'-0" TYP.
STEP 8 STEP 11
STEP 12
FIGURE 2328 Drawing the nonstructural material.
Chapter 23: Roof Plan Layout
1'-0" TYP.
559
TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT
STEP 6 STEP 1
LINE OF MASONRY CHIMNEY. FLASH W/ 26 GA. METAL FLASHING
24" X 36" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC OPENABLE SKYLIGHT
STEP 4 6'-0"
19'-0" 24" X 24" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC SKYLIGHT
STEP 5
SOLAR PANELS SUPPLIED BY OWNER INSTALLED BY PLUMBING CONT.
2'-0" TYP.
ROOF PLAN
1/8"
1'-0"
GENERAL NOTES: - PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3RD. JOIST SPACE @ ALL ATTIC EAVES. - PROVIDE SCREENED ROOF VENTS @ 10'-0" O.C. (1/300 VENT TO ATTIC SPACE ). - USE 1/2" CCX PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. - USE 300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT.
FIGURE 2329 The size of the overhangs and the location of all openings in the roof should be dimensioned. The roof plan is completed by adding the required local and general notes to specify all roofing materials.
DRAWING HIP ROOF PLANS A hip roof can be drawn by completing the following steps. Although drawing roof plans may prove frustrating, remember that lines will always be vertical, horizontal, or at a 45° angle. Another helpful hint for drawing a hip roof is to remember that three lines are always required to represent an intersection of hips, valleys, and ridges. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 6. Each step can be seen in Figure 23-30. Use the dimensions on the floor plan to determine all sizes. Locate the perimeter walls. STEP 2 Locate all supports required for any covered porches. STEP 3 Draw the limits of the overhangs. Unless your instructor provides different instructions, assume 24" (600 mm) overhangs. STEP 4 Locate all hips and valleys. STEP 5 Locate all ridges. STEP 6 Locate the chimney if required. STEP 7 Using the line quality described in this chapter, draw the materials of Step 1 through Step 6. Draw the upper roof, and then work down to lower roof levels. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 23-31. STEP 1
STEP 5
12"Ø SCREENED RIDGE VENTS
STEP 3 STEP 2
FIGURE 2330 Layout of a hip roof with construction lines.
Use the line quality described in this chapter to draw Step 8 through Step 13. When these steps are complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 23-32. Draw any skylights that are specified on the floor plan. STEP 9 Calculate the area of the attic, and determine the required number of vents. Assume that 12" (300 mm) round vents at 10'−0" (3000 mm) O.C. will be used. STEP 10 Draw a saddle for any chimneys. STEP 11 Draw solar panels if required. STEP 12 Draw downspouts. STEP 13 Provide dimensions to locate any roof openings and all overhangs. STEP 14 Label all materials using local and general notes, a title, and a scale. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 23-33. STEP 15 Evaluate your drawing for completeness, and make any minor revisions required before giving your drawing to your instructor. STEP 8
FIGURE 2331 A hip roof plan drawn with finished line quality.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
2'-0" TYP. STEP 10
STEP 6 STEP 1
STEP 9 STEP 5
STEP 8 6'-0"
19'-0"
STEP 5
STEP 4
STEP 13 STEP 3 STEP 2 2'-0" TYP.
STEP 11 STEP 12
FIGURE 2332 All openings in the roof, such as the chimney, skylights, and materials to be mounted on the roof, should be identified. The overhangs and the location of all openings in the roof should be dimensioned.
DRAWING DUTCH HIP ROOF PLANS A Dutch hip roof can be drawn by completing the following steps. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 6. Each step can be seen in Figure 23-34. Use the dimensions on the floor plan to determine all sizes. Locate the perimeter walls. STEP 2 Locate supports required for any covered porches. STEP 1
LINE OF MASONRY CHIMNEY. FLASH W/ 26 GA. METAL FLASHING
2'-0" TYP.
TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT
24" X 36" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC OPENABLE SKYLIGHT 24" X 24" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC SKYLIGHT 6'-0"
19'-0"
2'-0" TYP.
ROOF
1/8"
PLAN
1'-0"
FIGURE 2334 The layout of a Dutch hip roof plan should be done with construction lines.
Locate the limits of the overhangs. Unless your instructor provides different instructions, assume 24" (600 mm) overhangs for eaves and 12" (300 mm) at gable end walls. STEP 4 Locate and draw all hips, valleys, and Dutch hip locations. Hips and valleys are located by using methods used to draw a hip roof. The location of a Dutch hip is determined by the framing method. Chapter 30 will explain framing considerations that can affect the location of the Dutch hip gable end walls. STEP 5 Locate and draw all ridges. STEP 6 Locate the chimney if required. STEP 7 Using line quality described in this chapter, draw the materials of Step 1 through Step 6. Draw the upper roof, and then work down to lower roof levels. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 23-35. STEP 3
12" SCREENED RIDGE VENTS
3- 24" X 76" SOLAR PANELS SUPPLIED BY OWNER INSTALLED BY PLUMBING CONT. GENERAL NOTES: - PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3RD. JOIST SPACE @ ALL ATTIC EAVES. - PROVIDE SCREENED ROOF VENTS @ 10'-0" O.C. - USE 1/2" CCX PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. - USE 300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT.
FIGURE 2333 The roof plan is completed by adding the required local and general notes to specify all roofing materials.
FIGURE 2335 A Dutch hip roof plan drawn with finished line quality.
Chapter 23: Roof Plan Layout
561
2'-0" TYP.
6'-0" TYP.
1'-0" TYP.
2'-0" TYP.
LINE OF MASONRY CHIMNEY. FLASH W/ 26 GA. METAL FLASHING
TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT 1'-0" TYP.
6'-0" TYP.
STEP 10 24" X 36" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC OPENABLE SKYLIGHT
STEP 9 19'-0"
6'-0"
STEP 8 19'-0"
6'-0" 24" X 24" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC SKYLIGHT
STEP 13
STEP 11
2'-0" TYP.
STEP 12
FIGURE 2336 All openings in the roof, such as the chimney, skylights, and materials to be mounted on the roof, should be identified. The overhangs and the locations of all openings in the roof should be dimensioned.
Use the line quality described in this chapter to draw Step 8 through Step 13. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 23-36. Draw any skylights that are specified on the floor plan. STEP 9 Calculate the area of the attic and determine the required number of vents. Assume that 12" (300 mm) round vents at 10'−0" O.C. will be used. STEP 10 Draw a saddle for any chimneys. STEP 11 Draw solar panels if required. STEP 12 Draw downspouts. STEP 8
2'-0" TYP.
ROOF
1/8"
PLAN
1'-0"
3- 24" X 76" SOLAR PANELS SUPPLIED BY OWNER INSTALLED BY PLUMBING CONT. GENERAL NOTES: - PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3RD. JOIST SPACE @ ALL ATTIC EAVES. - PROVIDE SCREENED ROOF VENTS @ 10'-0" O.C. - USE 1/2" CCX PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. - USE 300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT.
FIGURE 2337 The roof plan is completed by adding the required local and general notes to specify all roofing materials.
Provide dimensions to locate any roof openings and all overhangs. STEP 14 Label all materials using local and general notes, a title, and a scale. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 23-37. STEP 15 Evaluate your drawing for completeness and make any minor revisions required before giving it to your instructor. STEP 13
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Roof Plans with CADD A roof plan can be drawn using a CADD program following procedures similar to those used for a manual drawing. The drawing can be created in the file containing the floor plan. Start by freezing all floor plan material except the exterior walls, fireplace, and skylights. Create layers to contain the roof plan using the ROOF prefix. Layer names such as ROOF WALL, ROOF LINE, ROOF OUTL, ROOF ANNO, ROOF DIMN, or layer names based on the NCS should be used to keep the roof information separate from the floor plan information and to ease
plotting. Draw the outline of the residence on the ROOF WALL layer by tracing the outline of the walls on the floor plan, and then freeze the walls of the floor plan. The plan can now be completed using the appropriate step-by-step process for the required roof type. Using the OFFSET command, the lines that represent the walls can be placed to represent the roof outline. Once in the proper position, the PROPERTIES command can be used to assign the lines to the appropriate layer, and to assign the required line weight and line type. Figure 23-38 is an example of a roof plan drawn by CADD. When the roof
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS plan is completed, a copy can be saved as a BLOCK with a title ROOF. This drawing eventually can be inserted into and plotted with the drawing file that will contain
the elevations. To ease development of the elevations of a structure, a copy of the roof plan is usually left as an overlay of the FLOOR drawing file. ■
NAIL FIRST SHEET OF ROOF SHEATHING ALONG BACK WALL W/ 8d @ 4" O.C. AT EDGE AND BLOCKING AND 8" O.C. @ FIELD FOR ENTIRE WALL
8'-0" PLATE
TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT DO NOT CONNECT TO FOUNDATION DRAINS 2 X 12 RAFT. / C.J. SEE FRAMING PLANS FOR SPACING INSULATE W/ 10| BATTS R-38 8'-0" PLATE 8'-0" PLATE SCREENED RIDGE VENTS @ EA. 3rd RAFTER SPACE AT VAULTED CEILINGS. NOTCH RAFTERS ABOVE INSULATION FOR AIR FLOW.
8'-0" PLATE USE A-34 ANCHORS S AT EACH RAFTER TAIL TO RIDGE D BEAMS AT ALL RIDGES
INSULATE FLAT CEILINGS W/ 12" BATTS R-38
OPEN SPACE BTWN. BMS @ COURTYARD
8'-0" PLATE
ROOF 1/8"
PLAN
1'-0"
6'-8" PLATE
BEAMS @ 32" O.C. @ ENTRY PROVIDE AN ALT. BID FOR 1 X 6 T & G ROOF DECKING AT EXPOSED EAVES AT ENTRY AND COURTYARD
1. ROOFING TO BE CONC. CLASSIC '100 ROOF TILES BY MONIER OR EQUAL INSTALLED AS PER MANUF. SPECS 2. 1/2" STD GRADE PLY. 32/16 SHEATHING LAID PERP. TO RAFT. NAIL W/ 8d @ 6" O.C.AT EDGES AND 12" O.C. @ FIELD 3. PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS AT EACH 3rd JOIST SPACE SPACE @ ALL ATTIC SPACES. PROVIDE (3) 1" DIA. SCREENED VENTS AT EACH VAULTED EAVE SPACE.
2'-0" TYP.
4. PROVIDE SCREENED RIDGE VENTS @ 10' O.C. +/-. PROVIDE 1 EA. 3rd SPACE AT VAULTED CEILINGS.
8'-0" PLATE
1'-0" TYP.
FIGURE 2338 A roof plan drawn using a computer program such as AutoCAD could be completed using similar steps required to draw a plan manually. If the drawing is completed using a program such as AutoCAD Revit or AutoCAD Architecture, the roof plan can be created from information provided as the floor plan was created.
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ROOF PLAN CHECKLIST
Annotation
Drawing Setup
❑ Specify post, and metal caps. ❑ Specify exterior header sizes provided by your instructor or based on the information provided in Chapter 18 and Chapter 30. ❑ Specify all openings, giving the size and location. ❑ Reference all downspouts. ❑ For ridge vents, provide 1 sq ft per 300 sq ft of attic. ❑ Make general notes per examples in this chapter. ❑ Label the plate heights if different from 8'−0". ❑ Provide a title and scale.
❑ Establish line scales and line weights fit for plotting at 1/8" = 1'−0". ❑ Use an architectural font for all text.
Drawings ❑ Represent the outline of the structure with thin, dashed lines. ❑ Show all exterior support posts and exterior headers. ❑ Show roof shapes including the ridge, valleys, and hips using bold continuous lines. ❑ Show all roof openings—chimney, skylights, and saddles—as necessary. ❑ Show downspouts. ❑ Show all ridge vents.
Roof Plan Layout Test
Dimensions ❑ Locate skylights from the edge of the wall to the center. ❑ Dimension each overhang size.
See CD for more information
PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS 1. Using a print of your floor plan drawn for problems from Chapter 18, use a scale of 1/8" = 1'−0" to draw a roof plan for your house. Design a roof system appropriate for your area. Sketch the layout you will use and have it approved by your instructor prior to starting your drawing.
2. Place the plan on the same sheet as the elevations if possible. If a new sheet is required, place the drawing so that other drawings can be put on the same sheet. 3. Use the information in the roof plan checklist to complete your drawing. 4. When you have completed your drawing, turn in a copy to your instructor for evaluation.
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SECTION 7
Elevations
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CHAPTER 24
Introduction to Elevations I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
Elevations are an essential part of the design and drawing process. The elevations are a group of drawings that show the exterior of a building. To communicate clearly, the drafter will need to carefully plan the number, type, and scale to be used to complete the drawings. Skill will also be needed to accurately represent materials without spending unnecessary drawing time.
MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS OF DRAWING ELEVATIONS Elevations were introduced in Chapter 5 as you explored methods of creating multiview sketches. An elevation is an orthographic drawing that shows one side of a building. In true orthographic projection, the elevations would be displayed as shown in Figure 24-1A. To ease viewing, the true projection is typically modified as shown in Figure 24-1B. No matter how they are displayed, it is important to realize that between each elevation projection and the plan view is an imaginary 90° fold line. An imaginary 90° fold line also exists between elevations in Figure 24-1B. Elevations are drawn to show exterior shapes and finishes, as well as the vertical relationships of the building levels. By using the elevations, sections, and floor plans, the exterior shape of a building can be determined. To develop exterior elevations that will be of value in the construction industry, five major areas must be considered, including: 1. The required number of elevations. 2. The type of elevations to be drawn. 3. The scale of the elevations. 4. Where the elevations will be placed. 5. How the elevations will be identified.
The information from these five points will then affect how materials are represented in the elevations.
Required Elevations Building departments typically require an elevation to be drawn of each side of the structure in order to obtain a building permit; four elevations will be required to show the features of most homes. On a very simple rectangular residence, if both ends of the structure are the same, only three elevations will be needed (see Figure 24-2). When drawing a building with an irregular shape, parts of the house may be hidden. An elevation of each surface should be drawn as shown in Figure 24-3. If a building has walls that are not at 90° to each other, a true orthographic drawing could be very confusing. In the orthographic projection, part of the elevation will be distorted, as can be seen in Figure 24-4. Elevations of this type of building are usually expanded so that a separate elevation of each face is drawn. Figure 24-5 shows the layout for a residence with an irregular shape.
Types of Elevations Elevations can be drawn as either presentation drawings or working drawings. Each type of drawing is created to display different information for different groups involved in the construction process.
Presentation Elevations Presentation drawings were introduced in Chapter 1 and will be covered in-depth in Chapter 41. These drawings are part of the initial design process and may range from sketches to very detailed drawings intended to help the owner and lending institution understand the basic design concepts (see Figure 24-6A). Because the front elevation is drawn as part of the preliminary design process, it is often drawn using rendering methods. Common elements that can be added to a rendered elevation include shade, landscaping, people, and automobiles. Each of these items can be added to a drawing using sketching 567
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Architectural Drafting and Design
PLAN PLAN
90° FOLD LINE
LINE
90° FOLD
LEFT SIDE
FRONT
RIGHT SIDE
REAR
PLAN
90° FOLD LINE
FRONT
90° FOLD LINE
PLAN
PLAN
A
B
RIGHT SIDE
REAR
LINE
90° FOLD
90° FOLD LINE
LEFT SIDE
FIGURE 241 (A) Elevations are orthographic projections showing each side of a structure. (B) The placement of elevations is usually altered to ease viewing. Group elevations so that a 90° rotation exists between views.
techniques, rub-ons, or drawing blocks developed by third-party vendors. Text and dimensions are kept to a minimum. Enough information must be provided to explain the project, but complete annotation is not provided until the working drawings are started.
FRONT
Working Elevations Working elevations are part of the drawings used in the construction process to provide information for the building team and the municipality that will oversee the project. These drawings include information on roofing,
SIDES
REAR
FIGURE 242 Elevations are used to show the exterior shape and material of a building. For a simple structure, only three views are required.
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PLAN
FRONT
RIGHT SIDE
RIGHT COURTYARD
REAR
LEFT SIDE
LEFT COURTYARD
FIGURE 243 Plans of irregular shapes often require an elevation of each surface.
siding, openings, chimneys, land shape, and sometimes even the depth of footings, as shown in Figure 24-6B. In addition to describing the exterior materials, the elevations provide information regarding vertical relationship of materials that are represented on the floor plan. The elevations also provide the information for
DISTORTED
TRUE PROJECTION
the contractor to determine surface areas. Once surface areas are known, exact quantities of materials can be determined. The elevations are also necessary in calculating heat loss, as described in Chapter 21. The elevations are used to determine the surface area of walls and wall openings for the required heat loss formulas.
TRUE PROJECTION
DISTORTED
FIGURE 244 Using true orthographic projection methods with a plan with irregular shapes will result in a distortion of part of the view.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
3
4 5
6
2
1
2
1
3
5
4
6
FIGURE 245 A common practice when drawing an irregular-shaped structure is to draw an elevation of each surface. Each elevation is then given a reference number to tie the elevation to the floor plan.
MEDIUM CEDAR SHAKES
1 x 8 FASCIA HARDIPLANK SIDING OVER TYVEK
BRICK VENEER
FIGURE 246A A presentation elevation is a highly detailed drawing used to show the exterior shapes and material to be used. Shades, shadows, and landscaping are usually added to enhance the drawing.
Chapter 24: Introduction to Elevations
571
235 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT. INSTALL AS PER MANUF. SPECS.
1 X 8 R. S. FASCIA VINYL SHUTTERS
LINE OF FINISH CEILING
8'-0"
1 X 4 R.S. CORNER TRIM
8'-0"
LINE OF FINISH FLOOR LP HORIZ. SIDING OVER TYVEK AND 1/2" WAFERBOARD LINE OF FINISH FLOOR BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE & TYVEK OVER 1/2" WAFERBOARD. USE 26 GA. METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. @ EA. STUD.
FRONT
1/4"
1'-0"
4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK SLOPE 1/4"/12" AWAY FROM STRUCTURE.
ELEVATION
FIGURE 246B Working elevations contain less finish detail but still show the shape of a structure accurately.
and will generally show just enough material to represent the material to be applied. Figure 24-7 shows the elevations for the home started in Chapter 18.
Drawing Method If the elevations are completed manually, the preliminary drawings will serve as a guide as the working drawings are projected from the roof and floor plans. When drawn using a computer, the preliminary elevation can serve as a base drawing. The layers containing the artistic material can be frozen to provide better clarity to the building team. No matter the method, additional information should be added to each note to clearly explain the application of each material. Because the front elevation is drawn to please the owner during the preliminary process, the elevation will generally show all materials. The working elevations are drawn to communicate with the building team
Elevation Scales
24" MIN.
Elevations are typically drawn at the same scale as the floor plan. For most homes, this means using a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50). This allows the elevations to be projected directly from the floor plans. Some floor plans for multifamily and commercial projects may be laid out at a scale of 1/16" = 1'−0" (1:200) or even as small as 1/32" = 1'−0" (1:400). Depending on the complexity of the project or the amount of space on a page, some professionals
235# COMPO. SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT 3
2 X 8 BARGE RAFTER
12
1x3 R.S. TRIM 5/8" T1-11 PLY SIDING OVER 15# FELT
SIDE
REAR 1/8"
SIDE
1'-0"
FIGURE 247 The working elevations for the home started in Chapter 18 were created for plotting at a scale of 1/8" = 1'−0".
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Architectural Drafting and Design
REAR
FRONT
LEFT SIDE
REAR
RIGHT SIDE
LEFT SIDE
RIGHT SIDE
FIGURE 248 A common method of elevation layout is to place a side elevation beside both the front and the rear elevations. This allows for heights to be transferred directly from one view to the other. FRONT
draw the front elevation using a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50) to create the front elevation and a smaller scale to create the remaining elevations. When a scale of 1/8" = 1'−0" (1:100) or less is used, generally very little detail appears in the drawings, as in Figure 24-7.
Elevation Placement It is usually the drafter’s responsibility to plan the layout for drawing the elevations. The layout will depend on the scale to be used, size of drawing sheet, and number of drawings required. Because of size limitations, the elevations are not usually laid out in the true orthographic projection of front, side, rear, side. A common layout method for four elevations can be seen in Figure 24-8. This layout places a side elevation by both the front and rear elevations so that true vertical heights may be projected from one view to another. If the drawing paper is not long enough for this placement, the layout shown in Figure 24-9 may be used. This arrangement is often used when the elevations are placed next to the floor plan to conserve space. A drawback of this layout is that the heights established on the side elevations cannot be quickly transferred. A print of one elevation will have to be taped next to the location of the new elevation so that heights can be transferred.
Identifying Elevations Three common methods for naming the elevations are typically used by professionals. The method that is used will depend on the client, and whether the elevations are being developed for a specific site. Common methods include: ●
Titles such as FRONT, SIDE, REAR, and SIDE are generally used below each elevation if the drawings
FIGURE 249 An alternative elevation arrangement is to place the two shortest elevations side by side.
are developed for general use when a specific site is not known. ●
If a specific site is known, the elevations can be named for their relationship to the north arrow on the floor plan. If the front wall of the floor plan faces south, instead of being labeled FRONT ELEVATION, this elevation would be labeled SOUTH ELEVATION. The remaining elevations would then be named EAST, NORTH, and WEST.
●
Irregular-shaped homes are often numbered rather than labeled. A number symbol is typically placed on the floor plan to identify each elevation plane, and the corresponding number is placed below the elevation. Figure 24-5 shows examples of elevation number symbols for the floor and elevations. A small, nonscaled floor plan is often placed on the sheet containing the elevations to aid in referencing the elevation to the structure.
REPRESENTING MATERIALS IN ELEVATION The materials that are used to protect the building from the weather need to be shown on the elevations. This information will be considered in four categories: roofing, wall coverings, doors, and windows. Additional considerations are rails, shutters, eave vents, and chimneys. The following portion of the chapter will introduce manual methods of representing each material, followed by a discussion of how to represent the materials using a computer.
Chapter 24: Introduction to Elevations
573
DRAWING ASPHALT SHINGLES
FIGURE 2410 Drawing asphalt shingles manually. FIGURE 2412 Wood shakes and shingles have much more texture than asphalt shingles.
Roofing Materials Several common materials are used to protect the roof. Among the most frequently used materials are asphalt shingles, wood shakes and shingles, clay and concrete tiles, metal sheets, and built-up roofing materials, which were introduced in Chapter 23. In order to draw these materials in a realistic style, the architectural drafter needs to have an idea of what each material looks like. It is also important to remember that the elevations are meant for the framing and roofing crews. Their jobs will not be made easier by seeing every shingle drawn or other techniques that are used on presentation drawings and renderings. The elevations need to have materials represented clearly and quickly.
Shingles
Wood Shakes and Shingles Figure 24-12 shows a roof protected with wood shakes. Other materials such as Masonite are used to simulate wood shakes. Shakes and Masonite create a jagged surface at the ridge and the edge. These types of materials are often represented as shown in Figure 24-13. When placed using AutoCAD, use the AR-RROOF hatch pattern to represent shingles. Use a thick line about 2° less than the angle used to represent the barge rafter to represent the edge of the shingles on gable end walls. Lines representing shingles will resemble Figure 24-14.
ROUGH EDGE
Asphalt shingles are typically drawn using the method seen in Figure 24-10. Notice that the line weights and lengths vary. Lines can be placed by using a back-andforth method with varied pressure. When placed using AutoCAD, use the AR-RROOF hatch pattern to represent shingles. Use a scale that places the lines in the pattern about 1/16" to 1/8" (1.5 to 3 mm) apart. The resulting pattern will resemble Figure 24-11.
FIGURE 2413 Drawing wood shakes and shingles manually.
FIGURE 2411 The AR-RROOF hatch pattern of AutoCAD can be used to represent composition shingles.
FIGURE 2414 Shakes and shingles can be represented using AR-RROOF. Notice that an inclined line is added to the eave and to the ridge to represent the contour of the roofing material.
DRAW WOOD SHAKES SIMILAR TO SHINGLES
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2415 Flat tiles are used in many parts of the country because of their low maintenance, durability, and resistance to the forces of nature. Courtesy LeRoy Cook.
Tile Concrete, clay, or a lightweight simulated tile material presents a very rugged surface at the ridge and edge, as well as many shadows throughout the roof. Figure 24-15 shows flat tiles. This type of tile is usually drawn in a manner similar to Figure 24-16A and Figure 24-16B. Figure 24-17 shows a roof with Spanish tile. This type of tile is often drawn as shown in Figure 24-18A and Figure 24-18B. Rub-on films are available for some types of tile roofs. When created using AutoCAD, tile can be drawn using drawing blocks. If blocks are not available from third-party vendors, create a block to represent a small area of the tiles. The block can then be inserted to fill the desired area. Flat tiles can be drawn as shown in Figure 24-16B. Spanish tiles can be represented as shown in Figure 24-18B.
FIGURE 2417 Curved or Spanish tiles are a traditional roofing material of Spanish and Mediterranean style homes. Courtesy Jordan Jefferis.
Built-Up Roofs Because of the low pitch and the lack of surface texture, built-up roofs are usually outlined and left blank on drawings. Occasionally a built-up roof will be covered with rock 2" or 3" (50 or 75 mm) in diameter. The drawing technique for this roof can be seen in Figure 24-19.
Skylights Skylights may be made of either flat glass or domed plastic. Although they come in a variety of shapes and
B B FIGURE 2416 (A) Flat tiles are drawn manually using methods similar to drawing shakes. (B) Representing tile using CADD may require a hatch pattern to be created.
FIGURE 2418 (A) Drawing curved or Spanish tiles manually. (B) Representing curved or Spanish tiles using CADD.
Chapter 24: Introduction to Elevations
A BUILT-UP ROOF MAY BE DRAWN WITH A PATTERN OF DOTS TO REPRESENT THE GRAVEL
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BUILT-UP ROOFS ARE OFTEN LEFT BLANK
A DOUBLE-DOMED SKYLIGHT SHOULD HAVE A SLIGHTLY CURVED SURFACE TO REFLECT THE CURVED PLASTIC. SPECIFY SIZE AND MANUFACTURER.
OR
FIGURE 2419 Drawing built-up roofs.
FRONT
SIDE
DOUBLE-DOMED SKYLIGHT THE FLAT-GLASS SKYLIGHT CAN BE DRAWN AS A RECTANGLE. SPECIFY SIZE AND MANUFACTURER.
styles, skylights usually resemble the model shown in Figure 24-20. Depending on the pitch of the roof, skylights may or may not be drawn. On very lowpitched roofs, a skylight may be unrecognizable. On roofs over 3/12 pitch, the shape of the skylight can usually be drawn without creating confusion. Unless the roof is very steep, a rectangular skylight will appear almost square. The flatter the roof, the more distortion there will be in the size of the skylight. Figure 24-21 shows common methods of drawing flat-glass and domed skylights.
FRONT
SIDE
FLAT-GLASS SKYLIGHT FIGURE 2421 Representing domed and flat-glass skylights on elevations.
Wall Coverings Exterior wall coverings are usually made of wood, wood substitutes, masonry, metal, plaster, or stucco. Each has its own distinctive look in elevation.
Wood
FIGURE 2420 Double-domed plastic skylights are a common feature of many roofs. Courtesy Duralite.
Wood siding can be installed in large sheets or in individual pieces. Plywood sheets are a popular wood siding because of their cost and ease of installation. Individual pieces of wood provide an attractive finish but usually cost more than plywood. This higher cost results from differences in material and the labor to install each individual piece. Plywood siding can have many textures, finishes, and patterns. Textures and finishes are not shown on the elevations but may be specified in a general note. Patterns in the plywood are usually shown. The most common patterns in plywood are T1–11 (Figure 24-22), board and batten (Figure 24-23), and plain or roughcut plywood. Figure 24-24 shows methods for drawing each type of wood siding.
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FIGURE 2422 T1–11 plywood is a common siding. Courtesy Ryan McFadden.
FIGURE 2423 Board and batten siding is used to highlight the horizontal siding of this home.
T1-11 CAN BE DRAWN WITH LINES PLACED AT ABOUT 8" APART.
T1-11 PLYWOOD
FIGURE 2425 Vertical siding is a common natural material for protecting a structure from the elements. Designed by Architects Knudson-Williams. Photo by T. S. Gordon. Courtesy California Redwood Association.
Lumber siding comes in several types and can be laid in many patterns. Common lumber for siding is cedar, redwood, pine, fir, spruce, and hemlock. Common styles of lumber siding are tongue and groove, bevel, and channel. Various types of wood siding can be seen in Figure 24-25, Figure 24-26, and Figure 24-27. Figure 24-28 shows common shapes of wood siding. Each of these materials can be installed in a vertical, horizontal, or diagonal position. The material and type of siding must be specified in a general note on the elevations. The pattern in which the siding is to be installed must be shown on the elevations in a manner similar to Figure 24-29. The type of siding and the position in which it is laid will affect how the siding appears
BATT-ON-BOARD MAY BE DRAWN WITH PAIRS OF PARALLEL LINES ABOUT 8" TO 12" APART.
BATT-ON-BOARD
FIGURE 2424 Drawing plywood siding in elevation.
WHEN R.C. PLY IS USED, NO SURFACE MATERIAL IS SHOWN.
ROUGH-CUT (R.C.) PLYWOOD
Chapter 24: Introduction to Elevations
FIGURE 2426 Beveled redwood siding is used on this home to create a pleasing blend of the home with the site. Designed and built by Cramer-Weir Co. Photo by Saari & Forrai Photography. Courtesy California Redwood Association.
at a corner. Figure 24-30 shows two common methods of corner treatment. Wood shingles similar to Figure 24-31 can either be installed individually or in panels. Shingles are often drawn as shown in Figure 24-32.
Wood Substitutes Hardboard, fiber cement, aluminum, and vinyl siding can be produced to resemble lumber siding. Figure 24-33 shows a home finished with hardboard siding. Hardboard siding is generally installed in large sheets similar to plywood but often has more detail than plywood or lumber siding. It is drawn using the methods similar to those used for drawing lumber siding. Each of the major national wood distributors has also developed siding products made from wood by-products that resemble individual pieces of beveled siding. Strands of wood created during the milling process are saturated with a water-resistant resin binder and compressed under extreme heat and pressure. The exterior surface typically has an embossed finish to resemble the natural surface of cedar. Most engineered lap sidings
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FIGURE 2427 Finger-jointed redwood siding is used to create the lower walls of this project by William Zimmerman, architect. Photo by Wayne LeNouve. Courtesy California Redwood Association.
are primed to provide protection from moisture prior to installation. Fiber cement siding products are a common wood substitute because of their cost and durability. Engineered to be resistant to moisture, cold, insects, salt, air, and fire, fiber cement products such as DuraPress by ABTco and Hardiplank by James Hardie are being used in many areas of the country as an alternative to wood and plaster products. Available in widths of 6 1/2", 7 1/2", and 9 1/2" (165, 190, and 240 mm) or 4' × 8' (1200 × 2438 mm) sheets, fiber cement products can reproduce smooth or textured wood patterns as well as cedar plywood panels and stucco. Products are installed similar to their wood counterparts and typically offer a 50-year warranty. Figure 24-34 shows an example of fiber cement bevel siding. Aluminum and vinyl sidings also resemble lumber siding in appearance, as shown in Figure 24-35. Aluminum and vinyl sidings are drawn similar to their lumber counterpart.
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NO CORNER TRIM, SO SIDING ANGLE MUST BE SHOWN
1 X 3 R.S. CORNER TRIM
A
B
C
D
E
OR
NOTICE THAT THE SIDING IS SHOWN OVERHANGING THE FOUNDATION
FIGURE 2430 Common methods of corner treatment to be shown on elevations.
Masonry Masonry finishes may be made of brick, concrete block, or stone. H
G
F
FIGURE 2428 Common types of siding: (A) bevel; (B) rabbeted; (C) tongue and groove; (D) channel shiplap; (E) V shiplap; (F, G, H) these types can have a variety of appearances, depending on the width of the boards and battens being used.
Brick. Brick is used on many homes because of its beauty and durability. Bricks come in a variety of sizes, patterns, and textures. When drawing elevations, the drafter must represent the pattern of the bricks on the drawing and the material and texture in the written specifications. A common method for drawing bricks is shown in Figure 24-36. Although bricks are not usually
VERTICAL
HORIZONTAL LAP
DIAGONAL
VERTICAL
HORIZONTAL LAP
DIAGONAL
A
B
FIGURE 2429 The type of siding and the position in which it is to be installed must be shown on the elevations. (A) Representing siding using manual drawing. (B) Representing siding using CADD.
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FIGURE 2431 Shingles are often used as a siding material to provide a casual or rustic finish. Courtesy ABTco, Inc.
FIGURE 2433 Hardboard can be used as a siding material if precautions are taken to protect against moisture.
drawn exactly to scale, the proportions of the brick must be maintained. When masonry is drawn using AutoCAD, it can typically be placed using a hatch pattern. In a pattern similar to Figure 24-36, the horizontal brick could be drawn using the BRICK hatch pattern. The BRSTONE pattern can also be used. Notice that two rows of decorative brick have been added to add interest to the wall. These vertical bricks were drawn using the LINE and ARRAY command.
concrete block used to form aboveground walls. A drafter must show the size and pattern of the block to be used on the elevation. If a block with texture is to be used, the texture can be specified in a local or general note. Figure 24-38 shows how concrete blocks can be represented.
Concrete Blocks. Concrete block is often used as a weather-resistant material for above- and belowgrade construction. Figure 24-37 shows two types of
DRAW SOME OF THE SHINGLES AS SINGLE LINES AND SOME AS DOUBLE WIDTH. DRAW THE HORIZONTAL LINES WITH A VARIED WIDTH.
FIGURE 2432 The AR-RSHKE hatch pattern can be used to represent shingle siding.
FIGURE 2434 Fiber cement siding provides excellent protection from moisture, insects, and other natural elements. Courtesy ABTco, Inc.
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FIGURE 2435 Vinyl and aluminum sidings are manufactured to resemble their wood counterparts. Photo supplied by Kaycan Ltd., http://www.kaycan.com.
When drawn using AutoCAD, standard blocks should be represented with the AR-816 hatch pattern. If the AR-816C pattern is used, the grout lines between the blocks are represented. Stone. Stone is often used to provide a charming, traditional style that is extremely weather resistant. Figure 24-39 shows an example of stone used to accent a home. Stone finishes also come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes, and are laid in a variety of patterns, as shown in Figure 24-40. When drawn in elevation, both artificial stone and natural stone appear the same. When drawing stone surfaces in elevation, the drafter must be careful to represent the irregular shape, as in
FIGURE 2436 Representing brick in elevation.
FIGURE 2437 Concrete block is used in many areas to provide a long-lasting, energy-efficient building material.
FIGURE 2438 Representing 8 × 8 × 16" concrete blocks in elevation.
FIGURE 2439 Stone is used on many traditional home styles.
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FIGURE 2442 Stucco, plaster, and EIFS can be installed in many different patterns and colors to provide a durable finish. Photo courtesy Dryvit Systems, Inc.
uses a method similar to drawing lumber siding and is distinguished from wood siding by annotation.
Plaster or Stucco FIGURE 2440 Stone is used in a variety of shapes and patterns. Courtesy Stucco Stone Products, Inc., Napa.
Figure 24-41. When drawn using AutoCAD, rounded stone can be represented using the GRAVEL pattern.
Metal Although primarily a roofing material, metal can be used as an attractive wall covering. Drawing metal in elevation
Plaster and stucco can be found throughout the country on many different home styles (see Figure 24-42). Similar in appearance to stucco and plaster are exterior insulation and finish systems (EIFS) such as Dryvit. Typically a rigid insulation board is used as a base for a fiberglass-reinforced base coat. A weather-resistant colored finish coat is then applied by trowel to seal the structure. Shapes made out of insulation board can be added wherever three-dimensional details are desired. Applied in many different patterns, stucco, plaster, and EIFS are typically drawn as shown in Figure 24-43. When drawn using AutoCAD, the AR-SAND hatch pattern can be used to represent stucco, plaster, or EIFS.
Doors
STONE
ROCK
FIGURE 2441 Representing stone surfaces in elevation.
Doors should be drawn to resemble the type of door specified in the door schedule. The drafter should be careful not to try to reproduce an exact likeness of a door. This is especially true of entry doors and garage doors. Typically these doors have a decorative pattern on them. It is important to show this pattern, but do not spend time trying to reproduce the exact pattern. Because the door is manufactured, the drafter is wasting time on details that add
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STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3
FIGURE 2444 Layout steps for drawing a raised-panel door.
FIGURE 2443 Representing stucco, plaster, and EIFS in elevation.
nothing to the plan. Figure 24-44 shows the layout of a raised-panel door, and Figure 24-45 shows how other common types of doors can be represented. When created in AutoCAD, doors should be drawn using the steps described in Figure 24-44. When the drawing is complete, save the drawing as a block for future insertion. Place the drawing in a file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. An insertion point will need to be
specified as a block is created. The midpoint of the sill will prove to be an excellent insertion point. The doors from Figure 24-45 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.
Windows The same precautions about drawing needless details for doors should be heeded when drawing windows. Care must be given to the frame material. Wooden frames are wider than metal frames. When the elevations are started in the preliminary stages of design, the drafter may not know what type
FIGURE 2445 Common doors represented in elevation.
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SINGLE HUNG
CASEMENT
STEP 1: OUTLINE
SLIDING STEP 2: DARKEN
FIXED / AWNING
AWNING
STEP 3: SHADE
FIGURE 2446 Layout steps for a sliding window.
PICTURE / SLIDING
of frames will be used. In this case, the drafter should draw the windows most typically used for the area. Figure 24-46 shows the layout steps for vinyl and aluminum sliding windows. Figure 24-47 shows how other common types of windows can be drawn. When windows are drawn using AutoCAD, they can be drawn using the steps described in Figure 24-46. When creating your own blocks, assign a width of 1. With a width of 1, an X factor representing the desired width can be assigned as the block is inserted into the elevation. An insertion point will need to be specified as a block before the block is saved. The midpoint of the top of the window will prove to be an excellent insertion point. When the drawing is complete, save the drawing as a block in a file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. The windows from Figure 24-47 can be found on
FIGURE 2447 Representing common window shapes on elevations.
the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.
Rails Rails can be solid to match the wall material or open. Open rails are typically made of wood or wrought iron. Vertical rails are required to be no more than 4" (100 mm) clear. Vertical wood rails are often made from decorative spindles or 2" × 2" (50 × 50 mm) material and can be drawn as shown in Figure 24-48. Although it is not necessary to measure
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2 X 6 SMOOTH RAIL 2 X 2 VERT. @ 4" O.C. MAX. CLEAR
W.I. RAILING
A
FIGURE 2448 Common types of railings.
the location of each vertical, care must be taken to space the rails evenly. The entire railing should be represented on the front elevation. On the remaining elevations, only a portion of a rail may be drawn as shown in Figure 24-49, with a single line used to represent the limits of the rail. More decorative railings similar to Figure 24-50 may be required to match a specific historic style.
1 1/2"Ø STEEL RAILING W/ 6" MAX. CLEAR LINE OF RAILING OMITTED FOR CLARITY
38" HIGH X 18" LONG WOOD WALL W/ SIDING TO MATCH RESIDENCE
1 X 4 CORNER TRIM
FIGURE 2449 Railings can often be omitted to allow materials that lie beyond the rail to be seen.
B
FIGURE 2450 Balusters and handrails are required for many home styles. To draw these using AutoCAD, (A) First draw one side of the baluster, (B) Then duplicate it using the MIRROR command to draw the other side.
When railings are drawn using AutoCAD, the verticals can be placed using the ARRAY or COPY commands. To draw vertical spindles similar to Figure 24-50, first draw one side of the baluster and then duplicate it using the MIRROR command to draw the other side. The COPY or ARRAY commands can then be used to place the verticals along the rail as seen in Figure 24-51. When a section of the rail drawing is complete, save the drawing as a block in a file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. The rail from Figure 24-50 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.
Shutters Shutters are sometimes used as part of the exterior design and must be shown on the elevations. Figure 24-52 shows a typical shutter and how it could be drawn. Although the spacing should be uniform, the drafter should try to lay out the shutter by eye rather than measure each louver. When drawn using AutoCAD, the individual slats of the shutter can be placed using the COPY or ARRAY commands. Spacing for the outer frame and the louvers was represented using a 1 1/2" (38 mm) offset. When a shutter is complete, save the drawing as a block in a
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FIGURE 2453 Common methods of representing attic vents on elevations.
Gable End Wall Vents
FIGURE 2451 When drawn with a computer program such as AutoCAD, the rail can be easily created by creating half of the baluster, and then using the MIRROR command to duplicate the other side. Once a full vertical has been created, the ARRAY command can be used to place the balance of the needed balusters.
Drawing eave vents is similar to drawing shutters. Figure 24-53 shows common methods of drawing attic vents for a gable end wall. When the drawing for the vent is complete, save the drawing as a block in a file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. The vents from Figure 24-53 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.
Chimney file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. The shutter from Figure 24-52 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder. The width of the shutter can be adjusted using the STRETCH command. The shutter length can be shortened by erasing unneeded slats, and then using the STRETCH command to shorten the exterior frame. The shutter length can be extended by using the STRETCH command to extend the frame length, and then using the COPY or ARRAY command to add the necessary slats.
FIGURE 2452 Representing shutters in elevation.
Several different methods can be used to represent a chimney. Figure 24-54 shows examples of wood and masonry chimneys. The chimneys from Figure 24-54 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.
A
B
C
D
FIGURE 2454 Common methods of drawing chimneys: (A) stucco chase with metal cap; (B) horizontal wood siding with metal cap; (C) common brick; (D) decorative masonry.
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CADD APPLICATIONS CADD Elevations and Symbols INTRODUCTION The software that is used to create the floor plan will greatly affect how the elevation drawings are created. The following discussion assumes the use of AutoCAD or a similar program. If you’re creating elevations using Revit or AutoCAD Architecture, the general steps will be the same, but the procedure will be much easier because of the software’s automation. Information that was provided as the floor plan was created will be used to generate the basic exterior elevations.
Scaling Elevations should be drawn at full scale in model space. This allows for the elevations to be projected directly from the floor plans. They are generally plotted in paper space at the same scale as the floor plan. For most plans, this means plotting at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50) with two elevations placed on a sheet. Some floor plans for multifamily projects may be laid out at a scale of 1/16" = 1'–0" (1:200) or even as small as 1/32" = 1'–0" (1:400). When a scale of 1/8" = 1'–0" (1:100) or less is used, generally very little detail appears in the drawings. Depending on the complexity of the project or the amount of space on a page, the front elevation may be drawn at 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50) and the balance of the elevations at a smaller scale. If the side, rear, side elevations are plotted at a different scale from the front elevation, the scale must be clearly indicated below each drawing.
Elevation Symbols Drawing exterior elevation features with CADD is easy. Most architectural CADD programs have a variety of elevation symbols representing doors, windows, and materials. For example, pick a DOOR or WINDOW symbol
from a menu library and a screen menu will display your options. You then choose a door style such as entrance, flush, or French and you can also add trim and doorknobs. When you pick WINDOW from the tablet menu library, you get options such as sliders, casement, double-hung, awning, and fixed. You can customize window symbols with divided lights, arrows, reflection marks, solid black glass, or hinge marks. Creating Blocks Many third-party architectural programs have a variety of elevation symbols representing doors, windows, and other common materials. If the program that you are using does not contain architectural blocks, they can easily be created using the examples that are located throughout this chapter. Each of the materials such as doors, windows, and rails can be drawn and reused. Once created, the symbol can be saved for reuse in the current drawing or in future drawings. Once a symbol such as a door has been created, the location for saving it should be given careful consideration. Creating a folder titled ELEV PROTO SYMB will make an excellent storage area for keeping symbols. Be sure to subdivide the folder for each drawing so that you can easily find the desired symbol. Subfolders such as FLOOR, ELEC, and ELEV will help organize your storage system. If you plan on creating large quantities of symbols, use titles such as ROOF, WALL, and LANDSCAPING to further divide your drawing elements. A sample title for a tree to be placed on elevations might read PROTOS/ELEV/ LNDS/TREE/OAK. Taking the time to get organized as you create symbols will greatly decrease the amount of time you spend looking for a symbol to insert into a drawing. ■
GOING GREEN
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Green Applications of Exterior Elevations Key elements shown on the exterior elevations include exterior wall finishing materials, roof materials, windows, doors, and skylights. Nearly every manufacturer of these products has introduced features to increase the environmental friendliness of their products. These changes range from changes in the manufacturing process to remove harmful chemicals, increasing the amount of recycled materials in the products, and increasing the reuse of the product once its useful life has been achieved. These products primarily earn LEED credits from the Materials and Resources division. Information to be shown on the exterior elevations includes credits from the following categories: • Resource reuse. This credit is earned for the use of materials that are salvaged from previous building sites for reuse. Common materials for reuse include concrete and wood siding. Relevant areas of CSI for research related to this area include: • 03 – Concrete • Recycled content. This credit is earned for the use of materials that are recycled or contain a high amount of recycled materials. Relevant areas of CSI for research related to this area include: • 04 – Masonry • 06 – Woods, plastics, and composites • 07 – Thermal and moisture protection • 08 – Openings
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in roofing and exterior siding materials. In addition to the listed sites, use your favorite search engine to research products from the CSI categories listed in wall materials, window materials, glazing, doors, siding, and skylights. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.abtco.com www.alcoa.com
• Local/regional materials. This credit is earned for the use of materials that are produced near the construction site to minimize damage to the environment by transportation-related factors. This allows the use of a product that receives credit for reducing damage from transportation, even though the product itself may not be typically considered “green.” • Rapidly renewable materials. This credit is earned for the use of biobased, biocomposites, and biofirers. Areas of CSI that will be needed for research related to this area include: • 03 – Concrete • 04 – Masonry • 06 – Woods, plastics, and composites • 07 – Thermal and moisture protection • 08 – Openings • 09 – Finishes • 10 – Specialties • Certified wood. This credit is earned for the use of materials such as lumber products originating in certified forests. Areas of CSI that will be useful for research related to this area include: • 01 – General requirements • 03 – Concrete • 06 – Woods, plastics, and composites • 07 – Thermal and moisture protection • 08 – Openings • 09 – Finishes
Company, Product, or Service Abtco, Inc. (hardboard and vinyl siding products) Alcoa Building Products (aluminum and vinyl siding products)
www.alsco.com
www.alside.com www.ambrico.com www.apawood.org www.brickinfo.org www.cwc.ca www.canamould.com www.caststone.org www.cedarbureau.org www.cemplank.com
Alsco Building Products (vinyl and aluminum siding products) Alside (vinyl siding, windows, trim) American Brick Company APA—The Engineered Wood Association Brick Industry Association Canadian Wood Council Canamould (exterior moldings) Cast Stone Institute Cedar Shake and Shingle Bureau Cemplank (fiber-cement siding)
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www.culturedstone.com www.eifsfacts.com www.fabral.com www.gp.com www.shakertown.com www.jameshardie.com www.nailite.com
Architectural Drafting and Design
Cultured Stone EIFS Industry Members Association Fabral (metal roofing and siding) Georgia-Pacific Corporation (siding) Hardie Building Products (cedar shingles) James Hardie Building Products Nailite International (replica brick, stone, shake products)
www.napcobuildingmaterials.com www.norandex.com www.owenscorning.com www.reynoldsbp.com www.senergyeifs.com www.vinylinfo.org www.wrcla.org www.vinylsiding.com
Introduction to Elevations Test
NAPCO Building Specialties Norandex (vinyl siding) Owens Corning Reynolds Building Products Senergy (EIFS) Vinyl Institute Western Red Cedar Lumber Association Wolverine (metal siding)
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 24 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number, and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 24–1 Under what circumstances could a drafter be required to draw only three elevations? Question 24–2 When are more than four elevations required?
Question 24–6 Describe two methods of transferring the heights of one elevation to another. Question 24–7 Describe two methods of showing concrete tile roofs. Question 24–8 What are the two major types of wood siding? Question 24–9 In drawing a home with plywood siding, how should the texture of the wood be expressed? Question 24–10 Sketch the pattern most typically used for brickwork. Question 24–11 What problems are the drafter likely to encounter when drawing stone?
Question 24–3 What are the goals of an elevation?
Question 24–12 Sketch the way wood shingles appear when one is looking at the gable end of a roof.
Question 24–4 What is the most common scale for drawing elevations? How is this different from the scale used to plot the drawings?
Question 24–13 Give the major consideration for drawing doors in elevation.
Question 24–5 Would an elevation that has been drawn at a scale of 1/16" = 1'−0" require the same methods to draw the finishing materials as an elevation that has been drawn at some larger scale?
Question 24–14 What are the two most common materials used for rails? Question 24–15 In drawing stucco, how should the pattern be expressed?
CHAPTER 25
Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques I
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Drawing elevations is one of the most enjoyable projects in architecture. As a student, though, you should keep in mind that a new employee very rarely gets to draw the main elevations. The architect or job captain usually draws the main elevations in the preliminary stage of design, and then a senior drafter gets to finish the elevations. As a beginner you may be introduced to elevations by making corrections resulting from design changes. Not a lot of creativity is involved in corrections, but it is a start. As you display your ability, you’ll most likely be involved in earlier stages of the drawing process. Elevations are drawn in three steps: layout, drawing, and lettering. When given a chance to complete the elevations, you will usually be given the preliminary design elevation or the designer’s sketch to use as a guide.
LAYOUT The layout of elevations will be similar when using manual methods or AutoCAD. The major difference is that when elevations are drawn using AutoCAD, the drawings can be drawn full-size, and aligned beside each other. The drawing sheet size will affect the scale, placement, and layout of elevations that are drawn manually. The drawing sheet should match the size used for the floor plan. Because C-sized paper is so commonly used in educational settings, these instructions will assume that the drawing is to be made on a C-sized sheet. Usually two elevations cannot be placed side by side on C-sized material. Thus, you will not be able to use a side elevation for projecting heights onto the front or rear elevations. The following instructions
will be given for drawing the front elevation at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50) and the rear and both side elevations at a scale of 1/8" = 1'−0" (1:100). Using two scales will require more steps than when all of the elevations are drawn at one scale. If you’re using a program such as AutoCAD, lay out the elevations in model space using full scale. The scale to be used when the drawings are plotted can be assigned to the viewport containing the drawings in paper space. Be sure to plan the plotting scale prior to adding annotation or dimensions to the drawings, because the scale will affect the display size of each item. The layout process can be divided into three stages: overall-shape layout, roof layout, and layout of openings. Use construction lines for each stage.
Overall-Shape Layout Use the floor and roof plans as a guide to obtain all horizontal locations. If a roof plan has not been drawn, draw the outline of the roof shape on the print of the floor plan. For this drawing it will be assumed that 24" (600 mm) overhangs and a 12" (300 mm) gable end wall overhang will be used. Each horizontal measurement can be projected as shown in Figure 25-1. See Figure 25-2 for Step 2 through Step 8. STEP 2 Lay out a horizontal baseline to represent the finish grade. STEP 3 Project construction lines down from the floor plan to represent the edges and each major jog of the house. STEP 1
CADD APPLICATIONS The layout and drawing of the elevations will be greatly affected by the method used to create the drawings. If a program such as AutoCAD Architecture or Revit is used, the elevations will be generated from information
supplied as the floor plan was drawn. The following discussion will assume the use of manual methods or AutoCAD. ■ 589
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Architectural Drafting and Design
2nd FLOOR PLAN
1st FLOOR PLAN
FIGURE 251 With a print of the floor plans above the area where the elevations will be drawn, horizontal distances can be projected down to the elevation.
STEP 3
STEP 3
STEP 7 STEP 8
8' PLATE LINE
TOP OF WINDOWS
STEP 6 STEP 5 STEP 8 STEP 4 SEE FIGURE 25-3
LINE OF FINISH FLOOR
8' PLATE LINE
TOP OF WINDOW/DOORS LINE OF FINISH GRADE
LINE OF FINISH FLOOR
STEP 3 FIGURE 252 Lay out of the overall shape of the front elevation.
STEP 2
STEP 3
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FLOOR JOIST DEPTH VARIES FROM 6"-12"
PROJECTION LINES
3/4"
8"
8"
12"
16 3/4"-22 3/4"
2"
2" 2"
SIDE VIEW OF ROOF
CEILING LINE
FIGURE 253 The height of the finish floor above grade will be determined by the type of floor-framing system. Exact framing sizes are often rounded up to the nearest inch in elevation drawings.
Establish the floor line. See Figure 25-3 for help in determining measurements if a wood floor is to be used. This home will have a concrete slab that is 8" (200 mm) above finish grade. STEP 5 Measure up from the floor line, and draw a line to represent the ceiling level. For this project a height of 8'−0" (2400 mm) will be used. STEP 6 Measure up the depth of the floor joists to establish the floor level of the second floor. If the floor joist size has not been determined, assume that 10" (250 mm) depth (2 × 10s) will be used. STEP 7 Measure up from the second-floor line, and draw a line to represent the upper ceiling level. For this residence, a height of 8'−0" (2400 mm) will be used. STEP 8 Measure up from each floor line 6'−8" (2000 mm), and draw a line to represent the tops of the windows and doors.
FIGURE 254 When elevations are drawn side by side, heights can be projected with construction lines. When only one elevation is drawn, a side elevation will need to be drawn in the middle of what will become the front elevation.
STEP 4
Roof Layout Because a side elevation is not being drawn beside the front elevation, there is no easy way to determine the true roof height. If the sections have been drawn before the elevations, the height from the ceiling to the ridge could be measured on one of the section drawings and then transferred to the elevations. Although this might save time, it also might duplicate an error. If the roof was incorrect on the section drawing, the error will be repeated if dimensions are simply transferred from section to elevation. The best procedure to determine the height of the roof in the front view is to lay out a side view lightly. This can be done in the middle of what will become
the front view (see Figure 25-4). For this home, three different roofs must be drawn: the two-story area, the garage roof, and the porch roof. It would be best to lay out the porch roof last because it is a projection of the garage roof. The upper or garage roof can be drawn by following Step 9 through Step 19, shown in Figure 25-5. Place a line 1'−0" (300 mm) from the end of each wall to represent the edge of the roof for each gable end wall overhang.
STEP 9
Place a second line, 2'−0" (600 mm) from the same end wall to represent the extent of the overhang projection.
STEP 10
Lay out a line to represent the ridge. Because the lower floor is 36' wide (10 800 mm), the ridge will be 18' (5400 mm) from the front wall. For the upper roof, the ridge will be 15' (4500 mm) from the front wall.
STEP 11
Determine the roof slope. For this home, draw the roof at a 5/12 pitch. A 5/12 slope equals 22 1/2°. For a complete explanation of pitches, refer to Section 6 of this textbook.
STEP 12
Draw a line at the desired angle to represent the roof. This line will represent the bottom of the truss or rafter (see Figure 25-6).
STEP 13
Measure up 6" (150 mm) and draw a line parallel to the line just drawn, to represent the top of the roof-framing member. On the elevations, it is not important that the exact depth of the framing members be represented, as long as a uniform depth is used on all elevations for the project.
STEP 14
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Architectural Drafting and Design
TRUE HEIGHT OF RIDGE
REPEAT STEP 10
THIS DISTANCE WILL BE EQUAL TO HALF THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE SIDE WALLS ON THE HOUSE BEING DRAWN. THE WALLS ARE 30' (9000 mm) APART, SO THE RIDGE WILL BE 15' (4500 mm) IN FROM THE END WALL.
REPEAT STEP 11 SIDE VIEW LAYOUT
REPEAT STEP 9
RIDGE LOCATION IN SIDE VIEW
STEP 17
STEP 11
STEP 18
STEP 15 STEP 9 STEP 10
STEP 19 STEP 16
STEP 18
STEP 14 STEP 13
FIGURE 255 Layout of the roof shapes. When looking at a roof from the front, the true height cannot be determined without drawing a side elevation. If the roof pitch and the ridge location are known, the true height can be drawn quickly and accurately.
Establish the top of the roof. The true height of the roof can be measured where the line from Step 14 intersects the line from Step 11 (see Figure 25-5). STEP 16 Establish the bottom of the eave. This can be determined from the intersection of the line from Step 10 with the lines of Step 13 and Step 14. STEP 17 Lay out the upper roof using the same procedure: Draw a partial side elevation and project exact heights. STEP 15
The porch roof will be an extension of the garage roof, so much of the layout work has already been done.
Because the ends of the upper and garage roof extend 12" (300 mm), this distance will be maintained. Only the left end and the upper limits of the roof must be determined. The upper edge of the roof will be formed by the intersection of the roof and the wall for the upper floor. This height can be determined by following Step 18 and Step 19. Place a vertical line on the sloped lines (the lines from Step 13 and Step 14) to represent the distance from the garage wall to the front wall on the upper floor plan. For this project, the roof will travel a distance of 6' from the garage to the upper wall. STEP 19 At the intersection of the lines from Step 14 and Step 18, project a horizontal line to represent the top of the porch roof. STEP 18
You now have the basic shape of the walls and roof blocked out. The only items remaining to be drawn are the door and window openings. 1 1/2" - 3" TYPICAL
TRUSS / WALL
RAFTER / WALL
FIGURE 256 The layout of the roof incline will vary slightly, depending on whether trusses or rafters are used to frame the roof. The incline of a truss passes through the intersection of the ceiling and walls. Because the rafter must have at least 1 1/2" of bearing surface, the intersection of the rafter and wall must be adjusted slightly. If the notch in the rafter exceeds 3" (76 mm), the rafter may not be able to support its design loads. Future chapters will explore minimum framing requirements.
Layout of Openings See Figure 25-7 for Step 20 through Step 23. Project the width of all doors, windows, and skylights from their location on the floor plan. STEP 21 Lay out the bottom of the windows and doors. The doors should extend to the line representing the finished floor. Determine the depth of the windows from the window schedule, and draw a line to represent the correct depth. STEP 20
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STEP 22 STEP 20 TYPICAL
STEP 23 STEP 21
FIGURE 257 The widths of the doors, windows, and skylights can be projected from the floor and roof plans into the elevations. Heights can be determined using the window schedule.
Determine the height of the skylights. This must be done by measuring the true size of the skylights on the line from Step 14, and then projecting this height to the proper location. STEP 23 Draw the shape of the garage doors. Remember that the height of these doors is measured from the line representing the ground, not from the floor level. STEP 22
You now have the front elevation blocked out. The same steps can be used to draw the right and left side and rear elevations. The major difference in laying out these elevations is that the widths of the walls, windows, and doors cannot be projected from the floor plan. To lay out these items, you will need to rely on the dimensions of the floor plan. Start by drawing either side elevation. The side elevation can be drawn by following the procedure for the layout of the front elevation. Figure 25-8 shows a completed side elevation. Once this is drawn, use the side elevation to establish the heights for the other side and the rear elevation, as shown in Figure 25-9.
line widths and density, a more realistic elevation can be created. A helpful procedure for completing the elevations manually is to begin to darken the lines at the top of the page first and work down the page to the bottom. You will be using a soft lead, which tends to smear easily. If the lower elevations are drawn first, prevent smearing them by covering them with a sheet of paper when they are complete. Another helpful procedure for completing the elevations is to start at the top of one elevation and work toward the ground level. Also start by drawing surfaces that are in the foreground and work toward the background of the elevation. This procedure will help cut
DRAWING FINISHED-QUALITY LINES MANUALLY After all of the elevations are drawn with construction lines, they must be completed with finished-quality lines. An H and 2H lead will provide good contrast for many of the materials. Ink and graphite will also produce a very nice effect. Methods of drawing the items required in elevations were discussed in Chapter 24. Line quality cannot be overstressed. By using varied
FIGURE 258 The layout of a side elevation is similar to the layout of the front elevation.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 259 With a side elevation drawn, heights for the rear and other side can be projected quickly.
down on erasing background items for items that are in the foreground. Figure 25-10 shows a completed front elevation. It can be drawn by following Step 24 through Step 28. STEP 24 STEP 25 STEP 26 STEP 27 STEP 28
Draw the outline of all roofs. Draw the roofing material. Draw all windows and doors. Draw all corner trim and posts. Draw the siding.
At this point your front elevation is completely drawn. The same procedures can be used to finish the rear and side elevations, shown in Figure 25-11. Note that only a small portion of the siding has been shown in these elevations. It is common practice to have the front elevation highly detailed and have the other elevations show just the minimum information for the construction crew.
FIGURE 2510 Drawing the front elevation manually using finished-quality lines. Features in the background such as the chimney are often omitted for clarity.
STEP 24 STEP 25
STEP 26
STEP 27
STEP 28
FIGURE 2511 Drawing small-scale elevations does not require drawing all of the finishing materials. The same procedures used on the front elevation can be used on the side and rear elevations.
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● 1" 25 MM EXT. STUCCO OVER 15# FELT W/ 26 GAGE
ANNOTATION With the elevations completely drawn, the material must now be specified. If the elevations are all on one page, a material needs to be specified on only one elevation. Use Figure 25-12 and Figure 25-13 as guides for placing notes and use abbreviations wherever possible to save space. The required notes include the following:
LINE WIRE AT 24" 600 MM O.C. W/STUCCO WIRE MESH, AND NO CORNER BEAD OVER . . . ● CDEIFS EXTERIOR INSULATION AND FINISHING SYSTEM BY
DRYVIT. INSTALL AS PER MANUFACTURER SPECIFICATIONS. ● MONTEREY SAND, NOVA IV VINYL SIDING BY ALSIDE OR
EQUAL INSTALLED OVER INSULATION BOARD AS PER MANU FACTURER INSTRUCTIONS. ● BRICK VENEER OVER 15# FELT OVER 1" 25 MM AIR
SPACE WITH 26 GAGE METAL TIES 24" 600 MM O.C. EACH STUD.
1. Siding. Generally the kind of siding, its thickness,
and the backing material must be specified. For each of the following siding materials, the oriented strand board (OSB) or plywood may be provided or omitted, according to regional preferences. When the OSB or plywood is omitted, the siding is installed directly over the vapor barrier and studs. Tyvek and 15# felt can be used interchangeably with the trade names of other vapor barriers. Siding examples include the following:
2. Corner and decorative trims. Common trim might
include: ● 1 × 4 25 × 100 R.S. CORNER TRIM. ● PROVIDE CORNER BEAD FOR STUCCO OR PLASTER
APPLICATIONS. ● OMIT CORNER BEAD FOR STUCCO OR PLASTER
APPLICATIONS.
3. Chimney height. An example: ● 2' 600 MM MINIMUM ABOVE ANY ROOF WITHIN 10'
● HORIZONTAL SIDING OVER 1/2" 13 MM OSB AND TYVEK. ● HORIZONTAL SIDING OVER 3/8" 10 MM PLYWOOD AND
3000 MM.
4. Flatwork. This would include any decks or concrete
● HARDIPLANK LAP SIDING OVER . . .
patios. Include rail material, vertical material, and spacing such as: no boldface
● HARDIE SHINGLESIDE W/ 8" 203 MM MAXIMUM EXPO
● 2 × 6 50 × 150 DFL SMOOTH RAIL WITH 2 × 2 50 × 50
15# FELT.
SURE OVER . . .
VERTICALS 4" 100 MM MAXIMUM CLEAR.
● LP HORIZONTAL LAP SIDING OVER . . .
● 6 × 6 150 × 150 DECORATIVE POSTS.
● 5/8" 16 MM T111 SIDING W/GROOVES 4" 100 MM
● 2 × 6 50 × 150 CEDAR DECKING LAID FLAT WITH 1/4"
6 MM GAP BETWEEN.
O.C. OVER . . .
235 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT. INSTALL AS PER MANUF. SPECS.
1 X 8 R. S FASCIA
VINYL SHUTTERS
8'-0"
LINE OF FINISH CEILING
1 X 4 R.S. CORNER TRIM
8'-0"
LINE OF FIN. FLOOR
L.P. HORIZ. SIDING OVER TYVEK AND 1/2" WAFERBOARD LINE OF FIN. FLOOR BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE & TYVEK OVER 1/2" WAFERBOARD. USE 26 GA. METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. @ EA. STUD.
FRONT 1/4"
4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK SLOPE 1/4"/12" AWAY FROM STRUCTURE.
ELEVATION
1'-0"
FIGURE 2512 Annotation and dimensions should be on the front elevation to describe each material.
Architectural Drafting and Design
24" MIN.
596
3
2X8 BARGE RAFTER
235# COMPO. SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT
12
1X3 R.S. TRIM
5/8" T1-11 PLY SIDING OVER 15# FELT
SIDE
REAR
1/8"
1'-0"
SIDE
FIGURE 2513 In addition to specifying materials in the front elevation, each feature should be specified in one of the remaining smaller elevations.
● W.I. RAILING WITH VERTICAL 4" 100 MM CLEAR MAXIMUM. ● 4" 100 MM CONCRETE FLATWORK.
5. Posts and headers. 6. Fascias and barge rafters. 7. Roof material. For example: ● 235# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT. ● 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT. ● MEDIUM CEDAR SHAKES OVER 15# FELT WITH 30# ×
18" 450 MM WIDE FELT BETWEEN EACH COURSE WITH 10 1/2" 265 MM EXPOSURE. ● METAL ROOFING BY GIVE MANUFACTURER’S NAME, TYPE
OF PRODUCT, GAGE, AND COLOR. INSTALL AS PER MANU FACTURER SPECIFICATIONS. ● CONCRETE TILE ROOF GIVE MANUFACTURER’S NAME,
STYLE, COLOR, AND WEIGHT OF TILE; E.G., CHESTNUT BROWN, CLASSIC 100 CONCRETE ROOF TILE 950# PER SQ. BY MONIER OVER 15# FELT. INSTALL AS PER MANUFACTURER SPECIFICATIONS.
8. Roof pitch. Place a roof pitch symbol in elevations
where the angle of the roof can be seen. 9. Dimensions. The use of dimensions on elevations varies greatly from office to office. Some companies place no dimensions on elevations, using the sections to show all vertical heights. Other companies show the finished floor lines on the elevations and dimension floor-to-ceiling levels. Unless your instructor tells you otherwise, place the floor-to-ceiling dimensions on the elevations.
DRAWING ROOF INTERSECTIONS The roof shape can be projected from the roof plan or from an overlay of the roof placed on the floor plan. Figure 25-4 through Figure 25-7 provide examples for projecting a simple roof. Gable roofs often have
irregular-sized overhangs, overhangs of varied shapes, and altered rooflines and roof intersections that must be represented on the elevations. Figure 25-14 shows a small overhang at the gable end wall and a larger overhang where the truss or rafter tails are perpendicular to the support wall. The elevation was created by drawing the roof on the right side first to establish the incline of the roof. The intersection of the 1' and 2' (300 and 600 mm) overhangs was established by projecting their location in the roof plan down to the incline in the elevation. A similar process can be used by projecting heights from one elevation to another. Figure 25-15 shows a portion of a roof plan with a 12" (300 mm) wide overhang at the gable end wall and a 24" (600 mm) wide overhang. Once the inclined plane is drawn, the heights of the 1' and 2' (300 and 600 mm) overhangs can be projected into other elevations. Projecting the intersection of the chimney with the roof is another matter that often frustrates new drafters. To project the true height of a chimney easily, the height must be drawn in an elevation where the angle of the roof can be seen. Figure 25-16 shows the process. The chimney must be 24" (600 mm) above any portion of the structure that is within 10' (3000 mm) of the chimney. The height is determined by measuring 10' (3000 mm) from the center of the flue, and then measuring 24"(600 mm) above this point. Once the height of the chimney above the roof has been determined, it can be projected into other elevations where the roof pitch can’t be seen. Remember that the inner face of the chimney does not align with the outer face of the structure. Figure 25-17A shows a gable roof with a modified Dutch hip. The gable wall of a full Dutch hip roof is usually set back several feet from the wall of the structure. Figure 25-17B shows methods of projecting the
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OVERHANG 1
OVERHANG 2
X
B A
1'-0"
ROOF TO WALL INTERSECTION
2'-0"
C
FIGURE 2515 The intersection of different-sized overhangs can be projected from one elevation to another. PROJECTION OF OVERHANG
FIGURE 2514 The intersection of different-sized overhangs can be projected from the roof plan to the elevations. Once the incline of the roof is established, the small overhang (represented by line A) can be projected down until it intersects the roof angle. The distance that the lower roof extends past the upper roof (A to C) will vary, depending on the design. X represents the distance between where the roof intersects the outline of the wall and the end of the eave. This overhang (X) is usually equal to overhang 1.
projection of an irregularly shaped home can be seen in Figure 25-20. See Section 6 for an explanation of how the roof plan is drawn. Once the roof plan has been determined, it can be drawn on a print of the floor plan, and the intersections of the roof can be projected to the elevation.
overhangs into an elevation. A similar projection method is used to project eaves that appear to wrap around the corner of a structure, as in Figure 25-18A. The overhangs can be projected as shown in Figure 25-18B. Figure 25-19A shows a gable modified with a small hip. Figure 25-19B shows the process for projecting the hip into the elevation. Projecting a bay roof is similar to projecting a hip roof (see Figure 25-19C).
DRAWING IRREGULAR SHAPES Not all plans will have walls constructed at 90° to each other. When the house has an irregular shape, a floor plan and a roof plan will be required to draw the elevations. The process is similar to the process just described but will require more patience in projecting all of the roof and wall intersections. The
2'-0"
10-0"
FIGURE 2516 The intersection of the chimney with the roof.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2517A Gable roof with an eave similar to a Dutch hip roof.
FIGURE 2518B Representing corner eaves.
FIGURE 2519A Gable roof with a partial hip. FIGURE 2517B Projection of a gable roof with a continuous eave.
FIGURE 2518A Gable roof with corner eaves.
FIGURE 2519B Representing a gable roof with a partial hip.
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PROJECTION ROOF
WALL PROJECTION WINDOW PROJECTION
LINE OF CEILING
SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
DISTANCE A
DISTANCE C
FIGURE 2519C Projecting a bay window is similar to projecting a hip roof.
DI
ST AN
CE
B
A
B
C
FIGURE 2520 When drawing the elevations of a structure with an irregular shape, great care must be taken with the projection methods. This elevation was prepared using the outline of the roof and the floor plan and then projecting the needed intersections down to the drawing area. Notice that on the right side of the elevation, a line at the required angle has been drawn to represent the proper roof angle for establishing the true heights.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
100.0 0
95.0 0'
100.00' 95.00'
FIGURE 2521 Projecting grades is similar to the method used to project rooflines. This elevation was drawn by using the information on the roof, floor, and grading plans. For clarity, only the projection lines for the grades are shown.
PROJECTING GRADES The term grade is used to describe the shape of the finish ground. Projecting ground levels is required on elevations when a structure is being constructed on a hillside. Figure 25-21 shows the layout of a hillside residence. To complete this elevation, a site, floor, and roof
plan were used to project locations. Usually the grading plan and the floor plan are drawn at different scales. The easiest method of projecting the ground level onto the elevation is to measure the distance on the site plan from one contour line to the next. This distance can then be marked on the floor plan and projected onto the elevation.
CADD APPLICATIONS DRAWING ELEVATIONS WITH AUTOCAD Drawing exterior elevations with AutoCAD is similar to techniques used to draw elevations manually. With manual drafting, lines are projected from the floor plan to create the shapes for the elevations. This was shown in Figure 25-1 through Figure 25-9. With CADD, the same thing is done using a computer. After the floor plan is drawn, freeze all layers that are not relevant to the exterior of the residence. Make a block of the floor plan. Set the drawing limits large enough so that the block of the floor can be
inserted and rotated; in this way, each elevation can be projected from the floor plan using techniques similar to manual methods (see Figure 25-22).
Drawing Finished-Quality Lines with AutoCAD Once the roof and wall locations have been projected, the locations of doors and windows can be determined. Windows and doors representing specific styles can be created and stored as blocks in a library and then inserted as needed. Trees and bushes can also be created as blocks and inserted as needed. Once the design is
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CADD APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 2522 Use a block of the relevant parts of the floor and roof plans to line out each of the exterior elevations. Keep the elevations aligned so that projections can be made from one elevation to the next. Once the shapes have been projected, doors, windows, and other elements can be added. The completed elevations can be moved into any position for plotting.
completed, the elevations can be moved into the desired position for presentation and plotting. Figure 25-23 shows an elevation created using AutoCAD. After the outlines for all of the elevations have been completed, objects must be assigned to various layers with varied line weights. Line variation is just as important when using a CADD program as it is when drawing manually. Using varied line widths will create a more realistic elevation. Using varied layers will help in controlling objects as the drawings are completed. Use the file from the Student CD SUPPLEMENTAL READING/ CHAPTER 7/ SUGGESTED LAYER NAMES as a guide for creating the layers for this drawing. Although not all layers listed in that file may be needed for a simple home, create the following layers for keeping track of features as the elevations are completed: ELEV ANNO ELEV DIMS ELEV FND ELEV OUTL ELEV PATT ELEV ROOF ELEV THCK ELEV WALL
Text Roof pitch and dimensions Dashed lines Use this layer as a non-plotting layer Hatch patterns for roofing, masonry and siding Roof outlines (texture added to ridge and rakes for shakes or tile) Thick, continuous line Wall outlines—Additional layers can be added if additional colors or thicknesses are to be assigned to objects.
Before starting the final drawing process, determine a method of attack. Possible drawing orders include: 1. Top to bottom: Complete the roof, walls, and foundation.
2. Front to back: Draw items closest to the viewing plane and then work into the background. 3. Materials-based: Draw in groups based on materials such as roof, walls, windows, doors, and ground. The following example will be completed by using method three by completing the front elevation, and then completing each of the remaining elevations. STEP 1 Set the ELEV PATT layer as the current layer and use
the appropriate pattern to represent the desired roofing material. If AutoCAD can’t determine the appropriate boundary, represent the desired boundary with a POLYLINE placed on the ELEV OUTL layer. STEP 2 If wood shingles or concrete tile will be used,
make the ELEV ROOF layer current and represent the material on the ridge and rake. STEP 3 Set the ELEV OUTL layer as the current layer
and provide boundaries as needed to represent any required outlines for masonry patterns. STEP 4 Set the ELEV PATT layer as the current layer and
represent all desired masonry patterns. STEP 5 Set the ELEV WALL layer as the current layer and
represent all corner trim. STEP 6 Use the OFFSET command to establish the bottom
of the siding and trim based on their position relative to the finished floor line. STEP 7 Draw all required posts, columns, railings, and
decorative trim. STEP 8 Draw lines to represent the edge of the founda-
tion below the siding. Offset the foundation edge in 1 unit from the edge of the corner trim.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS 235 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT. L INSTALL T AS PER MANUF. SPECS.
1 X 8 R. S F FASCIA
VINYL SHUTTERS
8'-0"
LINE OF FINISH CEILING 1 X 4 R.S. CORNER TRIM
8'-0"
LINE OF FIN. FLOOR L.P P. HORIZ. SIDING OVER TYVEK AND 1/2" W WAFERBOARD LINE OF FIN. FLOOR 4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK SLOPE 1/4"/12" AWAY W Y FROM STRUCTURE.
BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPA P CE & TYVEK OVER 1/2" W WAFERBOARD. USE 26 GA. METAL T TIES @ 24" O.C. @ EA. STUD.
FRONT
ELEVA VATION
1'-0" 24" MIN.
1/4"
3
2 X 8 BARGE RAFTER
235# COMPO. SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT L
12
1 X 3 R.S.. TRIM
5/8" T1-11 PLY L SIDING OVER 15# FELT
SIDE
REAR
1/8"
1'-0"
SIDE
FIGURE 2523 The completed elevations reading assembled for plotting.
STEP 9 Draw all required decorative trim such as window
or door trim, shutters, wall vents, and cupolas. STEP 10 Draw all required steps, flatwork, patios, and decks. STEP 11 Represent the finished floor and finished ceiling
lines with center or phantom lines. STEP 12 Use the ARRAY, OFFSET, or COPY commands to
represent the required siding pattern. Use the TRIM command as required to remove lines representing the siding from windows, doors, or other areas where siding is not required. STEP 13 Use the BREAK command to place breaks in the
ground line each time a different plane occurs. Extend the grade approximately 3 units past the plane closest to the viewing plane. STEP 14 Use the PROPERTIES command and assign
varied line weights to the ground lines. Use a weight
of approximately 100 for lines closest to the viewing plan, with each receding distance represented by a thinner line. At this point your front elevation is completely drawn and should resemble Figure 25-10. The same procedures can be used to finish the rear and side elevations, shown in Figure 25-11. Use the COPY command whenever possible to copy trim, siding, blocks, and hatch patterns. Note that only a small portion of the siding has been shown in these elevations.
Adding Annotation and Dimensions with AutoCAD With the elevations completely drawn, the material must now be specified. Although you’re still working in model space, it is important to remember that the drawings will be plotted in paper space. If your drawings will be
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CADD APPLICATIONS plotted at a scale of 1/4" =1'−0", use a text height of 6". Use a text height of 12" for elevations that will be plotted at a scale of 1/8" =1'−0". The local notes placed using AutoCAD will be the same notes described earlier in this chapter. If the elevations are all on one page, a material needs to be specified on only one elevation. Spread the required notes equally among each elevation. The dimensions can be placed on any of the four elevations as space allows. If the elevations are to be plotted on multiple pages, each material will need to be specified on each page. Use Figure 25-12 and Figure 25-13 as guides for placing notes and dimensions.
STEP 2 Making model space inside the viewport active.
NOTE: If you’re using AutoCAD 2008 or a newer release, use
Many homes such as those that will be constructed in a subdivision are designed to be built more than once, and they require alternative facades. Figure 25-24 and Figure 25-25 show examples of alternative elevations that were created by using the same basic floor plan, but altering the exterior materials. Minor changes would be required to the floor plan to reflect the different materials used for the columns and railings. Figure 25-26 and Figure 25-27 show examples of alternative elevations that were created using varied roof designs. Each of these drawings was created using the same step-bystep process as the elevation in Figure 25-10. If they are drawn using manual drafting, much of the information such as wall and opening locations would need to be traced from the original elevation. By using a CADD program, information common to all three drawings can be placed on a base layer, with information specific to each roof plan placed on separate layers. Figure 25-28 shows another possible elevation that could be created by altering the floor plan. To create this elevation, the bedroom and the dressing area would need to be flopped. This is a change that would be quite extensive using manual drawing, but could be completed very quickly using a CADD program. ■
the Annotative feature so that the text can be adjusted if the plotting scale needs to be altered.
Preparing For Plotting As you created the elevations you’ve been working in model space at full scale. The final stage of drawing the elevations is to place the elevations in a viewport in paper space. At least two options are available for proceeding. These include: 1. Open a viewport and move the elevations to the desired position. 2. Open a viewport and place copies of the elevations in the desired position. Option 1 is easier and faster if no changes will ever be made to the elevations. Since life is uncertain, option 2 offers future advantages if the elevations need to be changed. Keeping the elevations in their inline position will allow the future alterations to be made if the design is changed. No matter which option is selected, prepare the drawings for plotting by: STEP 1 Creating the needed number of viewports based
on the required plotting scales to be used.
STEP 3 Centering the desired elevation inside the
viewport. Repeat Step 1 through Step 3 if multiple viewports are required. Be sure to use the VIEWPORT toolbar to accurately adjust the plotting scale and to set the PSLTSCALE factor to 0 so that the appropriate line type will be displayed. Once all elevations have been displayed for plotting, return the template to paper space and verify that the scale of 1/1 is current. The drawings are now ready for plotting.
ALTERNATIVE ELEVATIONS
604
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS BURNT RED MISSION 'S' ROOF TILE BY Y MONIER
EXT. T INSULATION A & FINISHING SYSTEM BY Y DR RYVIT T. I
1 X 8 R. S FASCIA
8'-0"
FIN. CEIL.
FIN. FLR
8'-0"
FIN. CEIL.
FIN. FLR
5/8" T1-11 PLY L SIDING W/ GROOVES @ 4" O.C.
1 X 6 R. S. HORIZ. TRIM ABOVE / BELOW EA. WINDOW.
FRONT 1/4"
4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK
ELEVA VATION
1'-0"
FIGURE 2524 This alternative elevation was created by making minor changes including changing the siding, porch roof, and the type and shape of the porch support columns.
300# COMPO. SHINGLES FIN. CEILING 1 X 4 R.S. TRIM
8'-0"
1 X 6 R. S. FASCIA
FIN. FLOOR
8'-0"
FIN. CEIL.
FIN. FLOOR
4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK
FRONT 1/4"
1'-0"
ELEVA VATION
FIGURE 2525 This alternative elevation was created by making minor changes to the porch roof, and the type and shape of the porch support columns, and by adding decorative railings.
Chapter 25: Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques
605
CADD APPLICATIONS BURNT RED MISSION 'S' ROOF TILE BY Y MONIER EXTERIOR INSULATION A & FINISHING SYSTEM BY Y DR RYVIT T. 1 X 8 R. S F FASCIA 12 6
8'-0"
FIN. CEIL.
6 X 8 R.S. BEAMS @ 32" O.C. FIN. FLR
8'-0"
FIN. CEIL.
FIN. FLR
5/8" T T-1-11 PLLY SIDING W/ GROOVES @ 4" O.C.
FRONT
1/4"
1'-0"
1 X 6 R.S. HORIZ TRIM ABOVE/BELOW EA. WINDOW. W
4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK
ELEVA VATION
FIGURE 2526 An elevation with a hip roof can be created from the base elevation with minor editing using a computer program. If created manually, the entire elevation would have had to be redrawn.
300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES
1 X 8 R. S F FASCIA
VINYL SHUTTERS
8'-0"
FIN. CEILING
1 X 4 R.S. CORNER TRIM
8'-0"
FIN. FLOOR
FIN. FLOOR 4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK
BRICK VENEER
Z
FRONT 1/4"
L.P P. HORIZ. SIDING
ELEVA VATION
1'-0"
FIGURE 2527 By using AutoCAD to edit the base drawing, this elevation featuring a Dutch hip roof was created easily.
606
Architectural Drafting and Design
8'-0"
8'-0"
2'-0"
CADD APPLICATIONS
1/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 2528 Making modifications to the floor plan allowed this plan elevation to be created. Using a computer program, the master bedroom and the dressing area were flopped allowing a window to be added to the left side of the elevation. The master bath was extended to align with the lower floor, allowing the upper portion of the home to be broken into three different planes. Using a CADD program, an alternative floor plan could be quickly added to the working drawings to explain the required changes.
ELEVATION CHECKLIST Drawing Setup
❑ Siding materials: ❑ Proper hatch pattern and scale for roof. ❑ Proper hatch pattern and scale for veneer.
❑ Set up your drawings so that the front elevation is plotted at 1/4" = 1'−0" and the side/rear/side elevations are at 1/8" = 1'−0". ❑ Use an architectural font for all text. ❑ Make all notes 1/8" and all titles 1/4" high.
❑ Show ground slope and step siding when within 8" (200 mm) of grade.
Drawing
❑ Finish floor line / bottom of siding relationship (siding to overlap concrete).
❑ Proper orthographic layout. ❑ Coordination with roof plan by showing all ridges, hips, valleys, and turrets. ❑ Coordination with floor plan by showing all walls, doors, and windows. ❑ Horizontal alignment of all eaves.
❑ Veneer to extend to grade. ❑ Horizontal siding and corner trim.
❑ Show corner trim and bottom of siding on entire small-scale elevations. ❑ Show skylights. ❑ Swing direction for casement windows. ❑ Show and specify all support posts, beams, and railings for deck where required.
Chapter 25: Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques
Specifications ❑ Specify all materials in front elevations. ❑ Specify all materials on the three small elevations. ❑ Specify door and window sizes by placing the appropriate symbol on each elevation. ❑ Specify roof material. ❑ Specify fascia and barge rafter sizes. ❑ Specify siding, overlay, and trim. ❑ Specify all concrete flatwork, stairs, and patios.
607
❑ Specify decks, rails, and required support posts. ❑ Provide a title and scale for each elevation.
Dimensions ❑ Floor to ceiling (dimension an example of each plate height). ❑ Chimney: ridge 10'/2' (3000 mm / 600 mm). ❑ Roof pitch.
Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 25 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 25–1 Who typically draws the main elevations of a structure? Explain. Question 25–2 List methods of projecting heights from one elevation to another. Question 25–3 What scales are normally used to draw elevations? Question 25–4 What is the best method of determining the height of a roof when it is being viewed in a manner that does not show the pitch? Question 25–5 What lines should be drawn first when finished-line quality is being used? Question 25–6 What drawings are required to project grades onto an elevation? Briefly explain the process. Question 25–7 What drawings are required to draw a structure with an irregular shape? Question 25–8 Sketch the method of showing the chimney height, and provide the minimum dimensions that must be shown.
Question 25–9 What dimensions are typically shown on elevations? Question 25–10 What angle is used to represent a 4/12 pitch?
PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS 1. Use the sketch from Chapter 18, and draw the required elevations. The sketches do not contain all of the features represented on the floor plans and elevations. Draw the elevations so they coordinate with other drawings to be included in the drawing set. 2. Draw the required elevations using the same type and size of drawing material that you used to draw your floor plan. 3. Design the structure using materials suitable for your area. 4. Refer to your floor plan to determine all sizes and locations. If you find material that cannot be located using your floor plan, make additions to your floor plan as required. 5. Refer to the text of this chapter and notes from class lectures to complete the drawings. 6. When your drawing is complete, turn in a copy to your instructor for evaluation.
CHAPTER 26
Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout I
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Cabinet construction is an element of the final details of a structure known as millwork. Millwork is any item that is considered finish trim or finish woodwork. Millwork is available in many types of material such as wood, plastic, and ceramic. Wood millwork components are shaped using a milling process. Milling is the use of a rotating cutting tool where the tool forms the desired shape of the millwork. Plastic and ceramic millwork is generally extruded or formed into the desired shape. Extrusion is a manufacturing process used to create long objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile, where material is pressed or pushed under pressure through a desired shaped orifice. Architects, designers, and drafters do not always draw complete details of millwork items. The practice of drawing millwork representations depends on the specific requirements of the project. For example, the custom plans for a residential or commercial structure can provide very detailed and specific drawings of the finish woodwork in the form of plan views, elevations, construction details, and written specifications. Plans of a house may show only floor plan views of cabinets. The requirements of specific lenders and local codes determine the extent of millwork drawings on a set of plans. In most situations, when a set of plans is ready for construction, it must be submitted to a lender for loan approval and to code officials for a building permit. The approval of local building officials is always necessary in areas where building permits are required. Before a set of plans can be completed, verify the requirements of the client, the lender, and the local building officials.
shaped forms. In some situations, wood millwork can be replaced with plastic or ceramic products. For example, in a public restroom or in a home laundry room a plastic or rubber base strip can be used around the wall at the floor to protect the wall. This material stands up to abuse better than wood. In some cases, drafters are involved in drawing details for specific millwork applications. There are as many possible details as there are design ideas. The following discussion provides a general example of the items to help define the terms.
Baseboards Baseboards are placed at the intersection of walls and floors and are generally used for appearance and to protect the wall from damage, as shown in Figure 26-2. Baseboards can be as ornate or as plain as the specific design or location requires. In some designs, baseboards are the same shape as other millwork members, such as trim around doors and windows. Figure 26-3 shows some standard milled baseboards.
TYPES OF MILLWORK Millwork can be designed for appearance and/or for function. When it is designed for appearance, ornate and decorative millwork can be created with a group of shaped wooden forms placed together to capture a style of architecture. Shaped millwork is available in as many styles as the designer can imagine. Some vendors manufacture a wide variety of prefabricated millwork moldings, which are available at less cost than custom designs(see Figure 26-1). Functional millwork can be very plain in appearance. This type of millwork is also less expensive than 608
FIGURE 261 Prefabricated millwork. Courtesy Cumberland Woodcraft Co., Inc., Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
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609
VERTICAL RAILS OR MULLIONS
FINISHED WALL
FINISHED WALL TOP RAIL COVE MOLDING PLYWOOD WITH HARDWOOD FACE VENEER
BASEBOARD
STUD
STUD
BACKING PANEL BASEBOARD FINISHED FLOOR
FINISHED FLOOR
ELEVATION
SECTION
FIGURE 264 Plywood panel wood wainscot.
FIGURE 262 Baseboard.
wood base material. When used for millwork, the outer face can be a desired hardwood. This is a less expensive method of constructing an attractive wood wainscot than the hardwood panels shown in Figure 26-5.
Wainscots A wainscot is any wall finish where the material on the bottom portion of the wall is different from the upper portion. The lower portion is called the wainscot, and the material used is called wainscoting. Wainscots can be used on the interior or exterior of the structure. Exterior wainscoting is often brick or stone veneer. Interior wainscoting can be any material that is used to divide walls into two visual sections. For example, wood paneling, plaster texture, ceramic tile, wallpaper, or masonry can be used as wainscoting. Figure 26-4 shows the detail of wood wainscot with plywood panels. The plywood panel can have a hardwood outer veneer to match the surrounding hardwood material. Veneer is thin sheets of wood glued together to form plywood or glued to a
Chair Rails The chair rail has traditionally been placed horizontally on the wall at a height where chair backs would otherwise damage the wall (see Figure 26-6). Chair rails, when used, are usually found in dining rooms, dens, offices, or other areas where chairs are frequently moved against a wall. Chair rails can be used individually for appearance or together with wainscoting. In some applications, the chair rail is an excellent division between two different materials or wall textures. Figure 26-7 shows sample chair rail moldings.
Cornices The cornice is a decorative trim that is placed in the corner where the wall meets the ceiling. A cornice can
PLYWOOD PANEL QUARTER ROUND CAP COVE TOP RAIL COVE SOLID WOOD PANEL COVE BOTTOM RAIL BASEBOARD
ELEVATION
FIGURE 263 Standard baseboards. Courtesy Hillsdale Sash and Door Co.
FIGURE 265 Solid wood-panel wainscot.
SECTION
610
Architectural Drafting and Design
HEIGHT OF CHAIR BACKS
CHAIR RAIL
JOIST
STUD FINISHED WALL
FINISHED CEILING
STUD
FINISHED WALL
BASEBOARD
FINISHED FLOOR
FIGURE 268 Individual-piece cornice.
FIGURE 266 Chair rail.
be a single shaped wood member called cove or crown molding, as seen in Figure 26-8; or a more complex structure made up of several individual wood members, as shown in Figure 26-9. Cornice boards commonly fit into specific types of architectural styles, such as English Tudor, Victorian, or Colonial. Figure 26-10 shows some standard cornice moldings. In most construction, where contemporary architecture or cost saving is important, wall-to-ceiling corners are left square.
or window jamb and the wall. Figure 26-12 shows a variety of standard casings.
Mantels The mantel is an ornamental shelf or structure that is built above a fireplace opening, as shown in Figure 26-13. Mantel designs vary with individual preference. Mantels can be made of masonry as part
Casings Casings are the members used to trim around windows and doors. Casings are attached to the window or doorjamb (frame) and to the adjacent wall, as shown in Figure 26-11. Casings can be decorative to match other moldings or plain to serve the functional purpose of covering the space between the doorjamb
FIGURE 267 Standard chair rails. Courtesy Hillsdale Pozzi Co.
FIGURE 269 Multipiece cornice.
Chapter 26: Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout
611
FIGURE 2610 Standard cornice (cove and ceiling) moldings. Courtesy Hillsdale Sash and Door Co.
CASING
DOOR
FIGURE 2613 Mantel. Also notice the decorative cove molding where the wall meets the ceiling and custom casing around the windows. Courtesy Pella Corporation.
HEAD JAMB
JAMB
of the fireplace structure, or ornate decorative wood moldings, or even a rough-sawn length of lumber bolted to the fireplace face. Figure 26-14 shows a traditional mantel application.
CASING
DOOR
FLOOR
ELEVATION
INTERIOR DOOR SECTION
FINISHED WALL MANTEL
FIGURE 2611 Casings. COVE MOLD BACKING TRIM MOLD
MASONRY
ELEVATION
FIGURE 2612 Standard casings. Courtesy Hillsdale Sash and Door Co.
FIGURE 2614 Traditional mantel.
MANTEL SECTION
612
Architectural Drafting and Design
Bookshelves Bookshelves and display shelves can have simple construction with metal brackets and metal or wood shelving, or they can be built and detailed the same as fine furniture. Bookshelves are commonly found in the den, library, office, or living room. Shelves that are designed to display items other than books are also found in almost any room of the house. A common application is placing shelves on each side of a fireplace. Shelves are also used for functional purposes in storage rooms, linen closets, laundry rooms, and any other location where additional storage is needed.
Detailed open railings built of exotic hardwoods can be one of the most expensive and most impressive features in a building. Figure 26-16 shows some standard railing components. Newels are the posts that support the rail at the ends and at landings. Balusters are generally smaller posts placed between the newels.
CABINETS Cabinets are among the most important features for buyers of a new home. The quality of cabinetry can vary greatly. Cabinet designs can reflect individual taste, with
Railings Railings are used for safety at stairs, landings, decks, and open balconies where people can fall. Rails are recommended at any rise that measures 24" (610 mm) or is three or more stair risers in height. Verify the size with local codes. Railings can also be used as decorative room dividers or for special accents. Railings can be built enclosed or open and constructed of wood or metal. Enclosed rails are often the least expensive to build because they require less detailed labor than open rails. A decorative wood cap is typically used to trim the top of enclosed railings (see Figure 26-15). Open railings can be one of the most attractive elements of interior design. Open railings can be as detailed as the designer’s or craftsperson’s imagination.
RAILING CAP TRIM
FLOOR
FINISHED WALL
STAIRS FRAME FLOOR ELEVATION SECTION ENCLOSED RAILINGS
HAND RAIL
BALUSTERS
NEWEL POST
OPEN RAILINGS
FIGURE 2615 Railings.
FIGURE 2616 Examples of standard railing components. Courtesy Hillsdale Pozzi Co.
Chapter 26: Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout
a variety of styles available. Cabinets are used for storage and as furniture. Cabinets are commonly found in the kitchen and bath, but are also used in the laundry room, family room, walk-in closet, garage, and other storage locations. The design and arrangement of kitchen cabinets has been the object of many studies. Over the years design ideas have resulted in attractive and functional kitchens. Kitchen cabinets have two basic elements: the base cabinet and the upper cabinet, as shown in Figure 26-17. Drawers, shelves, cutting boards, pantries, and appliance locations must be carefully considered. Bathroom cabinets are called vanities, linen cabinets, and medicine cabinets (see Figure 26-18). Other cabinetry provides storage throughout a house, such as in utility or laundry rooms. For example, a storage cabinet above a washer and dryer is common.
TRASH COMPACTOR
TC
GD
613
Cabinet Types There are as many cabinet styles and designs as you can imagine. However, there are only two general types of cabinets, based on their method of construction. These are modular or prefabricated cabinets, and custom cabinets.
Modular Cabinets The term modular cabinets refers to prefabricated cabinets because they are constructed in specific sizes called modules. Modular cabinets are best used when a group of modules can be placed side by side in a given space. If a little more space is available, then pieces of wood, called filler, are spliced between modules. Many brands of modular cabinets are well crafted and very attractive. Most modular cabinet vendors offer different door styles,
DISHWASHER
DW
SINK RANGE/OVEN W/ HOOD FAN REFRIGERATOR BASE CABINETS
UPPER CABINETS
FLOOR PLAN
SOFFIT
WINDOW
SOFFIT
13"
BACKSPLASH
SINK
30"
UPPER CABINETS
12"
BASE CABINETS
36"
SHELF OR DRAWERS TOE SPACE BASE CABINETS
TRASH COMPACTOR
ELEVATION FIGURE 2617 Components of kitchen cabinets.
DISHWASHER
18"
UPPER CABINETS
24"
SECTION
614
Architectural Drafting and Design
MEDICINE CABINET (MC)
SINK
VANITY
FLOOR PLAN LINEN W/ SHELVES MIRROR AND MC MC BACKSPLASH
VANITY
SINK
21"
30"
SHELF OR DRAWERS
DRAWERS
TOE SPACE
SECTION
ELEVATION FIGURE 2618 Components of bathroom cabinets.
wood species, and finish colors. Modular cabinets are sized in relationship to standard or typical installations, although many modular cabinet manufacturers can make components that fit nearly every design situation. Modular cabinets are often manufactured nationally and delivered in modules. Good places to see modular cabinets on display are your local multi-product lumber company, Home Depot, or Lowe’s Home Improvement Center. The suppliers of modular cabinets often have detailed displays showing the available door designs and other available features. These suppliers typically have a cabinet designer on staff that can create a computer-aided design of your desired cabinets from your building plans. The computer-aided design commonly shows the floor plan and cabinet elevations, and provides a cost analysis based on your desired features (see Figure 26-19).
One of the advantages of custom cabinets is that their design is limited only by the imagination of the architect and the cabinet shop. Custom cabinets can be designed and built for any situation, such as for any height, space, type of exotic hardwood, type of hardware, geometric shape, or for any other design requirements. Custom cabinet shops estimate a price based on the architectural drawings. The actual cabinets are constructed from measurements taken at the job site after the building has been framed. In most cases, if cabinets are ordered as soon as the framing is completed, the cabinets should be delivered on time for installation as one of the last phases of construction.
Custom Cabinets
●
The word custom means made to order. Custom cabinets are generally fabricated locally in a shop to the specifications of an architect or designer, and after construction they are delivered to the job site and installed in large sections.
Cabinet Options Cabinet designs available from either custom or modular cabinet manufacturers include the following: ● ● ●
Various door styles, materials, and finishes. Self-closing hinges. A variety of drawer slides, rollers, and hardware. Glass cabinet fronts for a traditional appearance where desired.
Chapter 26: Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout
12" 24"
12"
615
24" 36"
12"
METRIC CONVERSION
30"
30"
18"
18"
84"
84"
36"
36"
24"
12" 24"
24"
24" 36"
SIDE
FRONT
SIDE
FRONT
STANDARD BASE AND UPPER CABINETS WITH DRAWERS
INCHES
MILLIMETERS
12
300
15
380
18
450
24
600
30
760
36
900
48
1200
72
1800
84
2200
STANDARD BASE AND UPPER CABINETS
18" 24"
18"
24" 30"
30" 84"
84"
36"
36"
60"
SIDE
SIDE
FRONT
UPPER CABINET OVER RANGE
FRONT UPPER CABINET OVER SINK
12" 15"
12"
18"
12" 12" 36" 24"
30" 18"
1'4" 1'8"
WHEELCHAIR ACCESS EATING BAR BASE CABINET
DROP EATING BAR
WHEELCHAIR SPACE IS 30" X 48". VERIFY DESIGN AND DIMENSIONS FOR DISABLED ACCESS WITH THE MANUAL OF ACTS AND RELEVANT REGULATIONS FOR THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT.
FIGURE 2619 Standard cabinet dimensions. Note: All metric equivalents are soft conversions.
616
● ●
●
Wood or metal range hoods. Specially designed pantries, appliance hutches, and a lazy Susan or other corner cabinet design for efficient storage. Bath, linen storage, and kitchen specialties.
Cabinets Designed for Universal Use Kitchen and bathroom access can be improved for people with disabilities by applying a few design considerations. Whether the cabinets are designed for wheelchair access or for people who need to sit, the same possibilities exist.
Kitchen Design The kitchen cabinets can be designed specifically for easy access, or they can be adjustable or removable for future needs. A versatile kitchen has at least one counter at a height of 32" (813 mm) for convenient wheelchair access. A lower cabinet or pullout shelf can be considered for heavy work that requires leaning over or down. The standard base cabinet height is 36" (914 mm), but a height of 42" (1067 mm) can be considered for very tall people. The range, sink, and workspace next to the refrigerator should be connected and on the same level to make it easier for people to slide heavy items from one workstation to the next. This design is possible in a straight, L-shaped, or U-shaped kitchen. The standard kitchen shape can be modified with angled or curved corners to provide easier access to the corners. Placing the sink between the refrigerator and the cooking center allows for the most convenient food preparation. This design can be altered on the basis of owner preference. Some designs have two kitchens when both standing and wheelchair-using members of the same family actively work. A second kitchen can be added later if enough space and rough plumbing and electrical work are considered during the design process. This second kitchen becomes useful at a later time in life or if there is a need to care for aging family members. Base cabinets can be designed for wheelchair access by providing a recessed space 27" (686 mm) high under the cabinet. These cabinets should also have a larger-than-normal toe space 10" (254 mm) high by 6" (152 mm) deep. Some of the upper cabinets can be designed down to the top of base cabinets. This allows access up to approximately 46" (1168 mm) for wheelchair use. These lower upper cabinets can be installed without doors for easier access to the contents. The clear space in front of cabinets should be at least 48" (1219 mm), but more is preferred.
Architectural Drafting and Design
The eating area should be next to the kitchen for convenience, or provide a passageway between the kitchen and dining room. Part of the kitchen cabinet can be movable to allow for transporting items to and from the eating area. Additional storage is a consideration in designing a kitchen for people who cannot go shopping frequently. Storage should also be compartmentalized for convenient organization, and provide a lazy Susan in the corners for access to under-counter items. Wire racks placed on the backs of doors are accessible, and wire shelves and drawers make it easier to see the contents. Pantries are beneficial for storage in any kitchen design. When full-extension pullout shelves are added to the pantry, items at the back of the shelves become easy to reach. All kitchen drawers should have full-extension guides for easy access. Touch latches on cabinet doors allow the doors to be opened easily. For people in wheelchairs, sliding cabinet doors allow easier access to the cabinet than swinging doors. Many modern appliances are designed with easyto-see and easy-to-use controls near the front. Doubledoor refrigerators provide easy access to the inside, and one door with ice and water dispensers can be specified.
Bathroom Design The bathroom vanity can be designed with a recessed space underneath for sitting or wheelchair access. The vanity cabinet height should be 28" to 32" (711 to 813 mm). Other cabinet design features that were discussed in the previous recommendations about kitchen design can be considered. For example, see details regarding the toe kick space, storage options, drawer guides, and door swings. A wall-mounted or pedestal sink is also a possibility for easy access, but it does not provide counter space. Grab bars should be placed to assist movement from the vanity to the shower and the water closet. The grab bars must be designed and installed to support the weight of a person. Benches can be designed in the bathroom in locations where sitting or transferring from a wheelchair is convenient.
Laundry Room Design Laundry rooms designed with base cabinets next to the clothes dryer make clothes folding convenient. The same considerations as previously discussed apply with regard to height and cabinet recessing. Foldout ironing boards are available that can be installed in a drawer or in the wall.
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information about door style, finish, hardware, and other features can be provided on the drawings and in specifications.
CABINET ELEVATIONS AND LAYOUT Cabinet floor plan layouts and symbols were discussed in Chapter 16. Cabinet elevations or exterior views are developed directly from the floor plan drawings. The purpose of the cabinet elevations is to show how the cabinet exteriors look when completed and to give general dimensions, notes, and specifications. Cabinet elevations can be as detailed as the architect or designer desires and as needed by the cabinet builder. In Figure 26-20 the cabinet elevations are very clear and well done without detail or artwork that is not specifically necessary to construct the cabinets. In Figure 26-21 the cabinet elevations are drawn more artistically. Neither set of cabinet drawings is necessarily more functional than the other. Specific
Keying Cabinet Elevations to Floor Plans Several methods can be used to key the cabinet elevations to the floor plan. In Figure 26-20, the designer keyed the cabinet elevations to the floor plans with room titles such as KITCHEN or BATH. In Figure 26-21, the designer used an arrow with a letter inside to correlate the elevation to the floor plan. For example, in Figure 26-22 the E and F arrows pointing to the vanities are keyed to letters E and F that appear below the vanity elevation in Figure 26-21.
GLASS DOOR INSERTS
SINGLE SINK BREAD BD.
TRIPLE SINK
TRAY STORAGE
KITCHEN
METAL LINED FOLD-OUT BINS W/GLASS PANELS IN DOORS
3/8" = 1'O"
LAUNDRY HAMPER
3'-0"
6'-0"
3'-0"
2'-6"
REFR SPACE
24"
BREAD BOARD
KNEE SPACE
FOYER
KITCHEN
ISLAND
MAKE-UP LIGHT - TYPICAL FOLD OUT BY SINK
SINK KNEE SPACE
BATH #2
BATH #1
FIGURE 2620 Simplified cabinet elevations. Courtesy Residential Designs, AIBD.
MIRROR SINK
2'-8"
PLASTIC LAM. COUNTERTOP & SPLASH TYP
2'-6"
SINK
BOOK SHELVES
3'-4" 2'-0"
2'-0"
3'-6"
2'-0"
BOOK SHELVES W/ LEADED BEVELED GLASS DOORS
METAL LINED LAUNDRY CHUTE
BREAD BD MARBLE COUNTERTOP 30" ABOVE FLOOR
DISH WASHER
TRASH COMP.
4-METAL LINED VEG. BINS
REFR SPACE COUNTER ON PIANO HINGE OVER MARBLE BAKE CENTER
POWDER #2
POWDER #1
3'-0"
SINK
3'-0"
SINK
8'-0"
MIRROR
8'-0"
MIRROR
5'-0"
Architectural Drafting and Design
5'-0"
618
3'-6"
5'-9"
BATH ELEVATION
E
SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"
BATH ELEVATION SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"
15'-9"
13'-2" 1'-2" 2'-9"
5'-10"
7'-4"
MICROWAVE PLANTER
SINK
3'-0"
OVEN D.W.
2'-0"
5'-0"
1'-10" 2'-0"
3'-0" 12'-0"
10'-0"
B
KITCHEN ELEVATION
A
SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"
KITCHEN ELEVATION SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"
8'-6"
1'-0"
13'-6"
8'-0' 1/2"
F
MASTER BATH ELEVATION SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"
FIGURE 2621 Detailed cabinet elevations. Courtesy Madsen Designs Inc.
DESK
5'-0"
C
3'-6"
2'-4"
REF.
3'-0"
SINKS
2'-0"
8'-0"
2'-8"
MIRROR
1'-9"
2'-9"
KITCHEN ELEVATION SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"
8'-0"
2'-6" 1'-0"
3'-0" 1'-6" 2'-6" 1'-0"
USED BRICK
1'-6"
E
Chapter 26: Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout
619
the design specifications. The sheet from a set of architectural working drawings shown in Figure 26-26 is an example of how millwork drawings can provide very clear and precise construction techniques.
WALK-IN CLOSET
Cabinet Layout 4/0 X 3/0 SHOWER
MASTER BATH
Kitchen Cabinet Layout
5/0 TUB W/ SHWR
LIN
EN
4/0 X 3/0 SHOWER
F
BATH 2
Cabinet layout is possible after the floor plan drawings are complete. The floor plan cabinet drawings are used to establish the cabinet elevation lengths. Cabinet elevations can be projected directly from the floor plan, or dimensions can be transferred from the floor plan to the elevations with a scale or dividers.
E
FIGURE 2622 Using the floor plan and elevation cabinet location symbol.
In the commercial drawing shown in Figure 26-23, notice the floor plan has identification numbers within a combined circle and arrow. The symbols, similar to the one shown in Figure 26-24, point to various areas that correlate with the same symbols labeled below the related elevations. A similar method can be used to relate cabinet construction details to the elevations. The detail identification symbol shown in Figure 26-25 is used to correlate a detail with the location from which it originated on the elevation. The number in the bottom of the symbol is the page where the elevation or detail is found. In some plans, small areas such as women’s and men’s restrooms have interior elevations without specific orientation to the floor plan. The reason is that the relationship of floor plan to elevations is relatively obvious. Various degrees of detailed representation may be needed for millwork, depending on its complexity and
The cabinet elevations are drawn as though you are standing in the room looking directly at the cabinets. Cabinet elevations are two-dimensional. Height and length are shown in an external view, and depth is shown where cabinets are cut with a cutting plane establishing the line of sight (see Figure 26-27). For the kitchen shown in Figure 26-27 there are two elevations: one looking at the sink and dishwasher cabinet group; the other viewing the range, refrigerator, and adjacent cabinets. Given the floor plan drawing shown in Figure 26-27, draw the cabinet elevations as follows: Make a copy of the cabinet floor plan area, and tape the copy to the drafting table above the area where the elevations are to be drawn. Use construction lines to transfer length dimensions from the floor plan onto the blank drafting sheet to draw the cabinet elevation in the desired location as shown in Figure 26-28. Some drafters prefer to transfer dimensions from the floor plan drawings with a scale or dividers. When the elevations are transferred from the floor plan, the scale is the same as the 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50 metric) floor plan scale. Other scales are also used, such as 3/8" = 1'−0" or 1/2" = 1'−0", when additional clarity is needed to show small detail. When the cabinet elevation scale is different from the floor plan scale, the dimensions cannot be projected. In this case the dimensions are established from the floor plan and a scale change is implemented before transfer to the elevation drawing.
STEP 1
5
6
7
3
6
2
4
1
8
9
5
REVERSE
Architectural Drafting and Design
REVERSE
620
PASS THRU
NOTE: 1. ALL WALLPAPER TO BE LAID OVER RAPID PLASTER — SMOOTH FINISH 2. PROVIDE A DUST STOP BETWEEN ALL WALL FINISHES AND EQUIPMENT BY OTHERS
8
6'-1" VERIFY
9
LINE OF 7'-0" CEILING
RAPID PLASTER SMOOTH FINISH
TYPICAL 1X12 SIDING
4'-6" VERIFY
RAPID PLASTER SMOOTH FINISH
RAPID PLASTER SMOOTH FINISH
4" WOOD COMBO BASE
5
6
7
TURNED POST 2 X 4 @16' O.C. CONT. 2 X 8 CEDAR 2 X 18 DF TRIM
LINE OF SUSPENDED CEILING
CONT. 2 X 8 CEDAR
GYP BD
2 X TRIM CEDAR ALIGN w/2 X 8
WD MOLDING WP #148
2X4@ 16' O.C.
TURNED POSTS
WD SIDING
1
2
3
4
3
3
3
3
FIGURE 2623 Commercial floor plan with cabinet identification and location symbols. Courtesy Ken Smith Structureform Masters, Inc.
FIGURE 2624 Floor plan and elevation cabinet identification and location symbol.
FIGURE 2625 Detail identification symbol.
Chapter 26: Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout
621
3 X 4 D.F. MITER @ EA. CORNER
11/2" RADIUS CORNER 1"
1" 0 HOLE X 7/8" MIN. DEEP 1" 0 CIRCLE
1" 0 X 3/4" TENNON
CL
1'-4 5/8"
TURN POST FROM 4" X 4" STOCK @ 12" O.C. EQUAL DISTANCE FROM EA. END
16d = 12" O.C. 41/4"
CL
3/4"
2"
6" X 6" X 1" SQ. PLANT. ONS
2 X 10 D.F. TURN POST BASE PLATE MITE @ EA. CORNER 1" 0 HOLE X 7/8" MIN. DEEP & 1" 0 X 3/4" TENNON ON TURN POST 2.2 X 4 D.F. TOP PLATE LAP MIN. 48"
2 X 10 D.F. CONT. FASCIA BOARD 16d = 32" O.C. MB STUCCO #94 MITER @ EA. CORNER 2 X 4 D.F. @ 16" O.C. 5/8" SHEET ROCK
FIGURE 2626 Millwork and cabinet construction details. Courtesy Structureform Masters, Inc.
CADD APPLICATIONS Options for Creating Cabinet Elevations When using CADD, the cabinets can be projected directly from the floor plan and drawn on their own layers. After drawing the cabinet elevations, the floor plan layer is turned off, leaving only the cabinet drawings. The cabinets can then be moved or scaled as needed. Another way to create the cabinet elevations, when using CADD, is to use the floor plan as a reference
drawing. When creating a drawing, it is often necessary to reference another drawing that contains the desired information. For example, when drawing the cabinet elevations, the floor plan can be referenced as a base. Referencing a drawing is similar to inserting an entire drawing file into the current drawing. The referenced floor plan is now used as a base for creating the cabinet elevations. ■
622
Architectural Drafting and Design
Establish the room height from floor to ceiling. If the floor-to-ceiling height is 8' (2400 mm), then draw two lines 8' apart with construction lines using the scale 1/4" = 1'−0" (see Figure 26-29). STEP 3 Locate and draw the portion of the cabinets where the line of sight cuts through base and upper cabinets and soffits as shown in Figure 26-30. STEP 4 Draw cabinet elevation features such as doors, drawers, and appliances (see Figure 26-31). Also draw background features, if any, such as backsplash, windows, and doors. Notice the rectangular shape drawn to the left of the dishwasher and below the countertop at the sink location. This is a false front, designed to look like a drawer. An actual drawer cannot be placed here, because it would run into the sink. A false drawer front is used to establish the appearance of a line of drawers just below the base cabinet top and above the doors. Some STEP 2
LINE OF SIGHT
FIGURE 2627 Establishing the line of sight for cabinet elevations.
CEILING LINE
FLOOR LINE
FIGURE 2628 Step 1: Transfer length dimensions from the floor plan to the cabinet elevation using construction lines.
FIGURE 2629 Step 2: Establish the floor and ceiling lines using construction lines.
Chapter 26: Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout
623
CEILING LINE
BLOCK-OUT SOFFIT
BLOCK-OUT UPPER CABINET UPPER CABINET WITHOUT SOFFIT
FLOOR LINE BLOCK-OUT BASE CABINET
FIGURE 2630 Step 3: Draw base cabinets, upper cabinets, and soffits.
designs use cabinet doors that extend from the toe kick to the base cabinet top, although this method is not as common. STEP 5 Draw the outline of the ends of the cabinets and surrounding areas with a 0.5 mm line thickness. Draw dashed lines that represent hidden features, such as sinks and shelves, using a 0.25 line weight as shown in Figure 26-32. STEP 6 Add dimensions and notes. The dimensions shown in Figure 26-32 are given in feet and inches; it is standard practice in many offices to dimension cabinetry in inches or millimeters only. Follow the same process for drawing the remaining cabinet elevations (see Figure 26-33).
BATHROOM CABINET LAYOUT The same steps can be used to draw bath vanity elevations, as shown in Figure 26-34, or other special cabinet or millwork elevations and details.
CABINET ELEVATIONS CHECKLIST Plot ❑ Prepare the drawings to be plotted at a minimum scale of 3/8" = 1'−0" on D material with a title block to match other drawing sheets in the project. ❑ Freeze all viewports and use proper text size and font for annotation and dimensions.
Drawing Technique ❑ Proper orthographic layout/fold relationship to each view to floor plan. ❑ Coordination with floor plan—walls, doors, windows. ❑ Keep cabinet widths in 3"-wide modules. ❑ Use bold lines to show outlines of floors, walls, ceilings, and cabinets. ❑ Show drawers over doors for the kitchen and bath. Represent door swings and shelves.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
RAISED PANEL BIFOLD DOORS W/ STAINED GLASS INSERT PANTRY W/ 5 SHELVES
SOFFIT
3'-0"
BREAD BOARD
8'-0"
REFR. SPACE
1'-6"
2'-6"
HOOD W/FAN VENT OUT
WINDOW
RANGE/OVEN
UPPER CABINET DOORS
5'-4"
1'-9"
2'-0"
1'-9"
2'-0"
KITCHEN CABINET ELEV.
BACKSPLASH DRAWER
DOOR
3'-0"
SCALE: 1/4"=1'-0"
FIGURE 2633 Follow Step 1 through Step 6 to draw the other kitchen cabinet elevations.
DISHWASHER
FALSE DRAWER FRONT TRASH COMPACTOR
FIGURE 2631 Step 4: Draw cabinet elevation features such as doors, drawers, and appliances. Also draw background features such as backsplash, windows, and doors.
30" WIDE KNEE SPACE
SINK
SOFFIT
4" CERAMIC TILE BACKSPLASH
2'-6"
D.W. TRASH COMP.
2'-O" 2'-O" 1'-6"
3'-2"
2'-O"
2'-O"
KITCHEN CABINET ELEV.
6'-8"
MAKE UP
8'-0"
SINK
2'-8"
3'-O" 1'-6" 2'-6"
8'-O"
MIRROR ADJ. SHELVES
BACKSPLASH 3'-4"
2'-6"
3'-4"
SCALE: 1/4"=1'-0"
MASTER BATH CABINETS FIGURE 2632 Step 5: Draw the outline of the ends of the cabinets and surrounding areas. Draw dashed lines that represent hidden features, such as sinks and shelves. Step 6: Add dimensions and notes.
SCALE: 1/4"=1'-0"
FIGURE 2634 Use cabinet layout Step 1 through Step 6 to draw all bath cabinet elevations.
Chapter 26: Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout
❑ Show fold-out bin at each sink and range. ❑ In upper cabinets, provide minimum of one bread board, one tray storage, and some optional glass doors. ❑ Provide mirror to 6'−0" high at bath vanity.
Annotation ❑ Specify all materials including counters and backsplash. ❑ Specify toe, backsplash heights, and bar heights. ❑ Specify all shelf types (fixed, pull-out, adjustable). ❑ Label all appliances. ❑ Specify door and window sizes by placing the appropriate symbol on each elevation.
Dimensions
625
❑ Backsplash height above counter. ❑ Counter to bottom of upper cabinets. ❑ Upper cabinet heights. ❑ Height of refrigerator space. ❑ Height of cabinets above range height—list actual and minimum required heights. ❑ Soffit height. ❑ Floor to top of mirrors in bathrooms. ❑ Locate any specialty appliances such as microwave, coffee makers, or wine racks.
Horizontal ❑ Width of each opening in cabinets such as the refrigerator, desks, dishwasher, stove, sinks, and trash compactor. ❑ Overall length of each block of cabinets.
Vertical ❑ Floor-to-ceiling height. ❑ Floor-to-counter height—list all special counter heights such as food bars and desks.
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Millwork and Cabinet Elevations with CADD INTRODUCTION
Layer Name
Description
A-FLOR-TPTN
Toilet partitions
A-FLOR-SPCL
Architectural specialties, such as toilet room accessories
A-FLOR-WDWK
Architectural woodwork, field-built cabinets and counters
A-FLOR-CASE
Casework, manufactured cabinets
A-FLOR-APPL
Appliances
A-FURN-FREE
Freestanding furniture
A-FURN-CHAR
Chairs and other seating
CADD LAYERS FOR CABINET DRAWINGS
A-FURN-FILE
File cabinets
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) CAD Layer Guidelines establish the heading Architectural as the major group, Interiors as the minor group, and Facilities as the modifier identification for cabinetrelated CADD layers. The following are some of the recommended CADD layer names for interior facility applications: ■
A-FURN-PNLS
Furniture system panels
CADD makes it easy to draw millwork details and sections with the use of custom menu libraries containing millwork profiles. CADD menus for cabinet floor plan layouts place base and upper cabinets on the drawing, and then add symbols for appliances and kitchen or bath features. Draw cabinet elevations with CADD by selecting cabinet module symbols from menu libraries. Upper and lower cabinet doors can be selected for drawing in 2D or 3D. A complete set of CADD cabinet elevation drawings is shown in Figure 26-35.
A-FURN-WKSF
Furniture systems work surface components
A-FURN-STOR
Furniture system storage components
A-FURN-POWR
Furniture system power designations
A-FURN-IDEN
Furniture identification numbers
A-FURN-PLNT
Plants
A-FURN-PATT
Finish patterns
626
Architectural Drafting and Design
42" TILE BACK BA CK SPLASH 24" UC LIGHT 24" UC LIGHT SPLASH T 36" DOWN-DRAFT DOWN-DRAFT COOK TOP
24" UC LIGHT HOOD W/ LIGHT
36"
36"
DOOR TO HALL 24"
REFR
18"
OVENS
69"
18"
24" UC LIGHT LIGH 24" 4" UC LIGH LIGHT
108"⫾
42"
27"
CADD APPLICATIONS
36"
90"
166"⫾
KITCHEN
KITCHEN SOFFIT
SOFFIT
42"
OPEN TO
F FAMIL LY ROOM 24" U.C. LIGHT
D.W. W
DRYER R SPAC P E
36"
OPEN SHELVES L 57"
63"
KITCHEN
TRAY A
24" U.C. LIGHT
6" B.S.
WASHER W SPAC P E
60"
18"
24" U.C. LIGHT
36"
SINK
32"
24"
24"
72"
UTILITY ROOM
OPEN ADJ. SHELVES L
MANUFA F CTURED D MANTEL
OPEN ADJ. SHELVES L
5'-0"
108"⫾
76"
MOLDING TRIM
MASTER BATH A
32"
32"
3'-0"
80"
72"
BRICK HEARTH R SURROUND
45"
BATH A #2
LIVING ROOM
CABINET ELEVA VATIONS SCALE: 3/8"=1'-0"
FIGURE 2635 CADD cabinet elevations.
18"
BEYOND Y
74"
45"
Chapter 26: Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you research available products and floor plan design options. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.enkeboll.com www.homedepot.com
627
Company, Product, or Service Architectural components Cabinet design and supplier
www.kitchen-cabinets-design.com www.lowes.com www.omegacab.com www.diamondcabinets.com www.kraftmaid.com www.qualitycabinets.com www.rivieracabinets.com
Cabinet design and supplier Cabinet design and supplier Omega Cabinetry Prefabricated cabinets Prefabricated cabinets Prefabricated cabinets Prefabricated cabinets Prefabricated cabinets
www.kitchencabinetsanddesignsonline.com
Product and service links
Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 26 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.
Question 26–1 Define millwork. Question 26–2 Give an example of when plastic or ceramic products may be used rather than wood millwork. Question 26–3 What are baseboards used for? Question 26–4 Describe wainscots. Question 26–5 Define cornice. Question 26–6 When is cornice millwork appropriate?
Question 26–13 What is another name for modular cabinets? Question 26–14 What is the most important difference between modular and custom cabinets? Question 26–15 How is it possible to compare cabinetry and millwork to fine furniture? Question 26–16 What is the purpose of cabinet elevations? Question 26–17 Why is it possible that cabinet elevations may not be part of a complete set of architectural drawings? Question 26–18 Show by sketch and/or explanation three methods of keying cabinet elevations to floor plans. Question 26–19 Make a sketch of a kitchen cabinet elevation that has the following components labeled or dimensioned:
Question 26–7 Where are casings used?
a. Drawers
Question 26–8 Where are mantels used?
b. False front
Question 26–9 Give an example of where bookshelves may be used effectively as millwork in the interior design of a structure.
c. Toe space
Question 26–10 Give two examples of where railings may be used.
d. Backsplash e. Base cabinet f. Upper cabinet
Question 26–11 Describe modular cabinets.
g. Soffit
Question 26–12 Describe custom cabinets.
h. Range and hood
628
Architectural Drafting and Design
i. Dishwasher
g. Medicine cabinet
j. Cutting board
h. Height of vanity cabinet
k. Shelves l. Base cabinet height m. Dimension from top of base cabinet to bottom
of upper cabinet n. Upper cabinet height o. Dimension from top of range to bottom of range
hood p. Cabinet doors
Question 26–20 Make a sketch of a bathroom vanity elevation that has the following components labeled or dimensioned: a. Vanity cabinet b. Backsplash c. Toe space d. Cabinet doors e. Cabinet drawers f. Mirror
PROBLEM Problem 26–1 Using the plans you started in Chapter 18, design and draw the cabinet elevations for all kitchen, bath, and specialty cabinets. The specific location of cabinet doors, drawers, and other features is flexible. Verify your cabinet designs with the contents of this chapter and your course guidelines. The placement of appliances and fixtures is predetermined by the floor plan drawing unless otherwise specified by your instructor. Use a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" or 3/8" = 1'−0" for the cabinet elevations, depending on the amount of space available on your drawing sheet. The cabinet elevations can be placed on a sheet with other drawings if convenient. Do not crowd the cabinet elevations on the sheet you select. If there is not enough area for the cabinet elevations on a sheet with other drawings, place them on a separate sheet. Avoid placing cabinet elevations on a sheet with exterior elevations or the main floor plan.
www.kevinmillerphoto.com
SECTION 8
Framing Methods and Plans
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CHAPTER 27
Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
More so than any other drawing, the structural drawings—the framing plans, sections and details, and foundation plan— require a thorough understanding of the materials and process of construction. A drafter can successfully complete the architectural drawings with minimal understanding of the structural processes that are involved. However, to work on drawings that will show how a structure is assembled requires an understanding of basic construction principles and materials.
Wood, steel, masonry, and concrete are the most common materials used in the construction of residential and small office buildings. Each material has its own green properties, and methods of achieving Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) credits. With each material, several different framing methods can be used to assemble the components. Wood is the most widely used material for the framing of houses, apartments, and condominiums. The most common framing systems used with wood are platform, and post and beam, although knowledge of older balloon framing methods is needed when completing renovations on existing structures. Several variations of platform framing can improve green building methods and increase energy efficiency. Components for each system will be introduced in Chapter 28.
WOOD FRAMING METHODS Common wood framing methods include: ● ● ● ●
Balloon framing. Western platform framing. Post-and-beam framing. Timber.
Each of these methods has many green properties that lead to LEED credits in the categories of Energy and Atmosphere and Material and Resources. Common credits gained by the use of wood framing methods include recycled content, building resource, rapidly renewable materials, and certified wood products. Division 6 of the CSI classifications covers wood framing methods.
Balloon Framing Although balloon framing is rarely used in new construction except for gable end walls, knowledge of this system will prove helpful if an old building is being remodeled. With balloon or eastern framing the exterior studs run from the top of the foundation to the top of the highest level, as in Figure 27-1A and Figure 27-1B. This is one of the benefits of the system. Wood has a tendency to shrink as the moisture content decreases, and it shrinks more in width than in length. Because the wall members are continuous from foundation to roof, fewer horizontal members are used, resulting in less shrinkage. Brick veneer or stucco is often applied to the exterior face of the wall, and the minimal shrinkage of the balloon system helps to prevent cracking in the exterior finish. Because of the long pieces of lumber needed, a twostory structure is the maximum that can be built easily using balloon framing. Floor framing at the midlevel is supported by a ledger set into the studs. Structural members are usually spaced at 12", 16", or 24" (300, 400, or 600 mm) on center (O.C.). Although the length of the stud gives the building stability, it has also caused the demise of the system. The major flaw with balloon framing is the danger of fire. A fire starting in the lower level could quickly race through the cavities formed in the wall or floor systems of the building. Blocking or smoke-activated dampers are now required by building codes at all levels to resist the spread of fire (see Figure 27-2).
Platform Framing Platform or western platform framing is the most common framing system now in use. The system gets its name from the platform created by each floor as the building is being framed. The framing crew is able to use the floor as a platform to assemble the walls for that level (see Figure 27-3). Platform framing grew out of the need for fire blocks in the balloon framing system. The fire blocks that had been put in individually between the studs in balloon framing 631
632
Architectural Drafting and Design
RAFTER RAFTER
CEILING JOISTS TOP PLATE CEILING JOISTS FULL HEIGHT STUD FROM SILL TO TOP PLATE
LEDGER FLOOR JOISTS FLOOR JOISTS
LEDGER SOLID BLOCKING SILL FLOOR JOISTS SILL
SOLID BLOCKING
FIGURE 271A Balloon framing wall members extend from the foundation to the roof level in one continuous piece.
A
FIGURE 271B Balloon framing is often used to frame gable end walls and other walls that extend past the normal plate height. The IRC requires blocking every 10' (3000 mm) to reduce the risk of a fire spreading through the wall cavity.
B
FIGURE 272 (A) The risk of fire spreading is very great with balloon framing because flames can race through the floor and wall systems. (B) Building codes require blocking, or fire blocking, to be added to the intersection of each floor and wall to resist the spread of fire and smoke through the floor and wall systems of a structure.
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
633
FIGURE 273 Western platform framing allows the framers to use the floor as a clean surface to construct the walls to support the next level.
FIGURE 275 A western platform floor system constructed using engineered floor joists. Courtesy Benigno MolinaManriquez.
became continuous members placed over the studs to form a solid bearing surface for the floor or roof system (see Figure 27-4).
shows the construction of a joist floor system. Plywood 1/2", 5/8", or 3/4" (12.7, 15.9, or 19 mm) thick can be used for the subfloor, which covers the floor joists. The plywood has a tongue-and-groove (T&G) pattern in the edge to help minimize floor squeaking. Gluing the plywood to the supporting members in addition to the normal nailing also helps eliminate squeaks. Occasionally T&G lumber 1 × 4 or 1 × 6 (25 × 100 or 25 × 150) will be laid diagonal to the floor joists to form the floor system, but plywood is primarily used because of the speed with which it can be installed. With the floor in place, the walls are constructed using the floor as a clean, flat, layout surface. Walls are typically built flat on the floor using a bottom plate, studs, and two top plates. With the walls squared, sheathing can be nailed to the exterior face of the wall, and then the wall tilted up into place. When all of the bearing walls are in place, the next level can be started. As in the balloon system, studs are typically placed at 12", 16", or 24" (300, 400, or 600 mm), with 16" (400 mm) O.C. the most common spacing. Figure 27-8 shows a building constructed with platform methods. Although in theory, the height of a structure is limitless with the platform framing method, the IRC does not allow studs for each level to be taller than 10' (3000 mm) (12' [3600 mm] under special conditions presented in Chapter 28 and Chapter 32), and does not allow a wood-framed residence to be more than three stories above grade. The height restriction is due to the risk of fire due to the combustible nature of wood and the risk of lateral failure due to high winds and earthquakes. Chapter 42 provides a further discussion of codes affecting wood construction.
Building with the Platform System Once the foundation is in place, the framing crew sets the girders and the floor members. Figure 27-5 shows a foundation and engineered floor joist. The major components of platform construction can be seen in Figure 27-6. Sawn floor joists ranging in size from 2 × 6 through 2 × 14 (50 × 150 through 50 × 350) can be used, depending on the distance they are required to span. If engineered joists are used, 9 1/2" and 11 7/8" (240 and 297 mm) are common depths. Chapter 28 will explore the use of engineered joists. Figure 27-7
STUD
SOLE PLATE FLOOR JOISTS BLOCKING OR RIM JOIST
TOP PLATES STUD
FIGURE 274 The fire blocks of the balloon system gave way to continuous supports at each floor and ceiling level.
634
Architectural Drafting and Design
RAFTER
ROOF SHEATHING
RAFTER SOLID BLOCKING CEILING JOISTS DOUBLE TOP PLATE WALL SHEATHING
SILL
STUDS
SILL SOLID BLOCK
DOUBLE TOP PLATE
SILL
FLOOR SHEATHING
SOLID BLOCK OR RIM JOIST DOUBLE TOP PLATE FLOOR JOISTS
STUDS
SILL
FLOOR JOISTS
SOLID BLOCK OR RIM JOIST
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
FLOOR JOISTS
SOLID BLOCK STEM WALL
CEILING JOISTS
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
STEM WALL
FOOTING CRAWL SPACE FOOTING
FIGURE 276 Structural members of the platform framing system.
Post-and-Beam Framing Post-and-beam construction places framing members at greater distances apart than platform methods do. In residential construction, posts and beams are usually spaced at 48" (1200 mm) on center. Although this
FIGURE 277 A joist floor system typically places support members at 16" (400 mm) O.C. Courtesy Benigno Molina-Manriquez.
FIGURE 278 A residence framed with western platform framing methods. Courtesy Southern Forest Products Association.
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
635
ROOF DECKING ROOF BEAM RIDGE BEAM
POST POST
SILL
FLOOR DECKING
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
GIRDER STEM WALL FOOTING
FIGURE 279 Structural members of a post-and-beam framing system. In residential construction, supporting members are usually placed at 4' (1200 mm) O.C. In commercial uses, spacing may be 20' (6000 mm) or greater.
system uses less lumber than other methods, it requires larger members. Sizes vary, depending on the span, but beams of 4" or 6" (100 or 150 mm) wide are typically used. The subflooring and roofing over the beams are commonly 2 × 6, 2 × 8, or 1 1/8 (50 × 150, 50 × 200, or 28) T&G plywood. Figure 27-9 shows typical construction members of post-and-beam construction. Post-and-beam construction can offer great savings in both lumber and nonstructural materials. Savings result from careful planning of the locations of the posts, and doors and windows that will be located between them. Savings also result from having the building conform to the modular dimensions of the material being used. Although an entire home can be framed with postand-beam methods, many contractors use the post-andbeam system for supporting the lower floor (when no
basement is required) and then use conventional framing methods for the walls and upper levels, as seen in Figure 27-10. Figure 27-11 shows the beams of a postand-beam floor system.
Timber Construction Although timber framing has been used for more than 2000 years, the system was not widely used for the last 100 years. The development of balloon framing methods with its smaller materials greatly reduced the desire for timber methods. Many home owners are now returning to timber framing methods for the warmth and coziness timber homes tend to create (see Figure 27-12). The length and availability of lumber affect the size of the frame. Although custom sizes are available
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Architectural Drafting and Design
WALL SHEATHING
SILL
STUDS
SOLID BLOCK
FLOOR SHEATHING
SOLID BLOCK OR RIM JOIST
SILL
DOUBLE TOP PLATE
DOUBLE TOP PLATE
FLOOR JOISTS STUDS
FLOOR JOISTS
SILL
SILL FLOOR DECKING
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
GIRDER
STEM WALL STEM WALL FOOTING FOOTING GIRDER
FIGURE 2710 Post-and-beam construction (lower floor) is often mixed with platform construction for upper floors and roof framing.
for added cost, many mills no longer stock timbers longer than 16" (4800 mm). If laminated timbers are used, spans will not be a consideration. The method for lifting the timbers into place may also affect the size of the frame. Beams are often lifted into place by brute force, by winch, by forklift, or by crane. The method of joining the beams at joints affects the frame
FIGURE 2711 Beam placement for a post-and-beam floor system. Courtesy Benigno Molina-Manriquez.
FIGURE 2712 The use of exposed timbers throughout the residence creates a warm, cozy feeling. Courtesy Ross Chapple, Timberpeg Post and Beam Homes.
GOING GREEN
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Green Framing Don’t be fooled by thinking that older methods can’t be green. The home shown below was built in the early seventeenth century but featured many green components that are considered by some as “new technology.” This home featured double wall stone construction, south-facing glazing, and a “green roof” to protect the inhabitants from the cold New England winters. Each of the construction features presented throughout this chapter has some green features and can qualify for a wide variety of LEED credits. The very nature of wood makes it a green product. Long before it became trendy, lumber producers such as Georgia-Pacific, Louisiana-Pacific, and Weyerhaeuser as well as lumber associations such as the APA—The Engineered Wood Association, California Redwood Association, Southern Forest Products Association, and the Western Wood Products Association have worked to increase the efficiency and health of America’s forests. These groups have also worked closely with major code developers such as the ICC, ICBO, SBCCI, BOCA, and CABO (see Chapter 9) to ensure that products and construction methods will produce safe homes that use materials efficiently. Homes framed with the traditional balloon, post-andbeam, or timber framing methods have stood safely and efficiently for more than 400 years in many parts of the country. Western platform construction is at the core of many energy-efficient homes. Simply changing the depth of the wall framing members from 4" to 6" (100 to 150 mm) or altering the size of the roof overhang of homes framed with western platform methods can produce tremendous benefits in heating and cooling efficiency. These methods remain the core of the home building industry and can still be used to produce a very efficient structure. In areas that are subject to high wind loads or severe seismic activity, these methods are still a preferred method of construction.
This home was built in the early seventeenth century but featured double wall construction, south-facing glazing, and a “green roof.”
Other building methods presented in this chapter, such as masonry, concrete block, and steel-framed construction, have been popular for years but are seeing renewed interest because of advances in their production and usage. Brick homes dating back to our early settlers are highly sought after, not only for their historic value, but also because of their durability and insulative qualities. Adobe masonry products have been used in similar methods as their brick counterparts for hundreds of years throughout the Southwest for the same reasons that make other masonry products desirable. Although not as old as masonry construction, concrete blocks are used in many areas because of the protection they provide from airborne objects, and their insulative qualities. Steel has long been a popular building material because of its strength. Depending on manufacturing method and construction methods, even steel can be considered a green product and gain LEED credits for its efficient use of materials, its high use of recycled content, and its ability to be completely recycled when the life of the project is through. This chapter will introduce new production methods that have enhanced the energy efficiency of each of these materials. The balance of the construction methods presented in this chapter are not new, but may be fairly new to home construction. Structural insulated panels have been used since the mid-twentieth century for commercial construction, but have only recently made a major impact in the housing market. Insulated concrete foam construction has been used since the late twentieth century, but has seen its use skyrocket with the current trend to green construction. Engineered lumber has been in use since the mid-twentieth century but continues to grow in popularity because of the shortage of quality sawn lumber, its superior building qualities over sawn lumber, its efficient use of materials, and its high LEED credit value. So if Solomon was correct when he said “There is nothing new under the sun,” why the big push toward green construction? Because we live on a planet with diminishing resources and a growing population, and we have a need to be able to breathe clean air, drink clean water, and live in an environment that can sustain us. It is with this mind-set that the chapter will conclude with green construction goals. As you enter the design field, you’ll be working in a business where some are content to maintain the status quo, and others are hoping to save the planet. Your job will be to find balance using proven methods in new ways. The ideal methods will please your client, save materials to reduce costs to the builder and home owner, produce a low impact on the environment, be energy efficient, be recyclable, be buildable by the current workforce, and not break the bank. Welcome to the challenging world of design that awaits you.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2713 Typical components of a post-and-beam home. Courtesy Timberpeg Post and Beam Homes.
size. Figure 27-13 shows common timber components. Structural insulated panels (SIP) with an expanded polystyrene (EPS) core and drywall skin are available for use with timber-frame structures.
ENERGY-EFFICIENT FRAMING METHODS In addition to the use of common wood framing methods that can be used to gain LEED credits, additional methods and materials are available to increase the sustainability of a structure. These include the use of: ● ● ● ● ● ●
Energy-efficient platform framing. Engineered lumber and materials. Structurally engineered panels. Steel framing. Concrete masonry units. Solid masonry units.
Energy-Efficient Platform Framing Standard framing methods for exterior walls feature walls framed with 2 × 4 (50 × 100) studs at 16"
(400 mm) spacing. Chapter 12 introduced energyefficient design. Since the early 1980s, many framers have substituted 2 × 6 (50 × 150) studs at 24" (600 mm) spacing to allow for added insulation in the wall cavity. Many long-held framing practices are being altered to allow for greater energy savings. These framing practices are referred to as advanced framing techniques (AFTs). Many articles related to green construction now refer to AFT as Optimum Value Engineering (OVE). AFT systems eliminate nonstructural wood from the building shell and replace it with insulation. Wood has an average resistive value for heat loss of R-1 per inch of wood compared with R-3.5 through R-8.3 per inch of insulation. Reducing the amount of wood in the shell increases the structure’s energy efficiency. Advanced framing methods usually include 19.2" or 24" (480 or 600 mm) stud spacing, insulated corners, insulation in exterior walls behind partition intersections, single top plates, and insulation headers. For multilevel construction, the studs of the upper level must be stacked over the lower studs, and a metal strap must be used to tie the top plates together. Many municipalities limit advanced framing methods to one-level construction.
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
639
INSULATION SPACE
(3) 2 X CORNER STUDS
WIDE STUD BACKING INSULATION SPACE INTERIOR FRAMING PARTITION
FLAT STUD INTERSECTION
INSULATION SPACE
THREE CORNER STUDS (EXTERIOR) FLAT BLOCKING INTERIOR FRAMING PARTITION (2) 2 X CORNER STUDS
INSULATION SPACE DRYWALL CLIP
LADDER BACKED WALL INTERSECTION
INSULATION SPACE INTERIOR FRAMING PARTITION
TWO CORNER STUDS (EXTERIOR)
DRYWALL CLIP
ONE CORNER STUD
FIGURE 2714 Reducing the amount of lumber used at wall intersections reduces the framing cost and allows added insulation to be used.
For a multilevel residence, advanced methods can be used on the upper level, and the spacing can be altered to 16" (400 mm) for the lower floor. For homes designed in high-wind or some seismic zones, AFT may not be allowed without the approval of an engineer or architect. The insulation that is added to corners, wall intersections, and headers must be equal to the insulation value of the surrounding wall. Figure 27-14 shows examples of framing intersections using AFT. Figure 27-15 shows examples of how insulated headers can be framed. Advanced framing methods also affect how the roof will intersect the walls. Figure 27-16 compares standard roof and wall intersections with those of AFT.
DBL. TOP PLATE
RIGID INSULATION 2 X NAILER
DBL. 2 X HEADER WITH RIGID INSULATION SANDWICHED BETWEEN
4" HEADER
FIGURE 2715 Rigid insulation placed behind or between headers increases the insulation value of a header from R-4 to R-11.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
BAFFLE TO PREVENT INSULATION FROM BLOCKING VENTILATION
STANDARD TRUSS
BATT OR BLOWN-IN INSULATION INSULATION IS COMPRESSED OR RESTRICTED NEAR EAVE
STANDARD FRAME CEILING
BAFFLE RAISED HEEL TRUSS
BATT OR BLOWN-IN FULL INSULATION OVER WALL
FIGURE 2717 Engineered framing materials made from the scraps created from milling other products often produce a product that is stronger than its naturally grown counterpart. Courtesy APA, The Engineered Wood Association.
ADVANCED FRAME CEILING
BAFFLE
OVERSIZED TRUSS
BATT OR BLOWN-IN FULL INSULATION OVER WALL
ADVANCED FRAME CEILING FIGURE 2716 By altering the bearing point of a truss or rafter, the ceiling insulation can be carried to the outer edge of the exterior wall and reduce heat loss.
Engineered Lumber Framing In addition to using advanced framing techniques, Figure 27-17 uses engineered materials such as joists and beams that affect both the framing method and the impact the framing system will have on the environment. Engineered lumber products are made by turning small pieces of wood into framing members. Structural engineered members are usually made from wood scraps and young, small-diameter, fast-growing tree
species grown on tree farms specifically for the purpose of being used to make structural materials. Depending on the product to be made, sawdust, wood scraps, small pieces of lumber, or whole pieces of sawn lumber can be joined by adhesives applied under heat and pressure to produce engineered building products. Framing members created from small pieces of lumber that would have been scraps are joined together with finger joints and adhesive. Once joined with finger joints, this lumber will be as strong as a standard piece of lumber of the same grade. Common engineered products found throughout a residence include framing lumber such as engineered studs, headers, girders, I-joists, trusses, and sheathing. Production of engineered framing products provides efficient use of each log that enters the mill, predictable superior structural quality, and reduced construction waste at the job site. Engineered lumber for framing consists of laminated veneer lumber (LVL), laminated strand lumber (LSL), and parallel strand lumber (PSL). The lumber is made by combining small pieces of second-growth trees to create wood that is free of knots and splits. LSL is created by assembling small sections of wood approximately 12" (300 mm) long into larger members. LVL is created by stacking thin veneers of wood peeled from a log and cutting them into lumber-sized members. PSL is created by small strands of veneers peeled from the outer portion of logs, aligned so that the strands are
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
parallel, coated with a waterproof adhesive, and pressed and cured into large members suitable for beams and girders. Engineered materials, and specific uses in the construction industry, will be explored in Chapter 28.
Structural Insulated Panels Structural insulated panels (SIPs) have been used for decades in the construction of refrigerated buildings, where thermal efficiency is important. SIPs have also been used in residential construction since the 1930s as part of research projects; their popularity increased as energy costs rose in the late twentieth century. SIPs are now a highly sought after economical method of energy-efficient construction because of their structural strength, high insulation rates, built-in vapor barriers, sound-deadening qualities, and ease of installing interior and exterior finishing materials. SIPs are composed of a continuous core of rigid foam insulation, which is laminated between two layers of structural board with an adhesive to form a single, solid panel (see Figure 27-18). Typically, expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam is used as the insulation material, and oriented strand board (OSB) is used for the outer shell of the panel. Plywood is another common material used for the exterior face. By using OSB made from fast-growing trees such as alder or aspen, SIPs are a very environmentally friendly product suitable for wall, floor, and roof construction. EPS panels are also available with a steel structural framework with no OSB facing, or panels can be shipped with 1/2" (13 mm) gypsum board preinstalled over the OSB panel. Special precautions must be specified with panels with a gypsum board face to ensure protection from the weather during storage and construction. New to the SIP market is a honeycomb panel core made of paper with OSB face
641
panels. Originally developed for use in the aeronautical engineering industry, the original concept has been modified and is being tested for home use. Honeycomb panels consist of approximately 5% paper and 95% air and offer great potential for strong, energy-efficient SIPs. No matter the materials used, walls and roofs formed of SIPs can be quickly assembled and provide excellent resistance to earthquakes, high winds, moisture, and insect infestation. EPS retains its shape throughout the life of the structure to offer uniform resistance to air infiltration and increased R-values over a similar-size wood wall with batt insulation. Although values differ somewhat for each manufacturer, an R-value of 4.35 per inch of EPS is common. In addition to the increased R-value, because the panels do not contain studs, the SIPs do not create a thermal bridge from the exterior face to the interior face. At the edge of panels, many manufacturers use steel splines or recycled plastic studs to join panels, allowing the insulation to be virtually continuous. SIPs offer the consumer a product that is very environmentally friendly. Although the foam core is made from a nonrenewable resource, it does offer a very efficient use of the resource. One quart of an oil-based product is expanded to create approximately 40 quarts of foam panel filler. SIPs offer increased construction savings by combining framing, sheathing, and insulation procedures into one step during construction. Estimates by the Natural Resources Defense Council indicate that the time used to construct the building envelope is reduced by more than one-third and the framing lumber required can be reduced by half. Panels can be made in sizes ranging from 4' through 24' (1200 through 7200 mm) long and 8' (2400 mm) high, depending on the manufacturer and design requirements. SIPs can be precut and custom-fabricated for use on the most elaborately shaped structures. Panels are quickly assembled onsite by fitting splines into routed grooves in the panel edges, as seen in Figure 27-19. Door and window openings can be precut during assembly or cut at the job site. A chase is typically installed in the panels to allow for electrical wiring.
Steel Framing
FIGURE 2718 Structural insulated panels are constructed of a continuous core of rigid foam insulation that is laminated between two layers of OSB. Courtesy Insulspan.
Lower energy cost, higher strength, and insurance considerations have helped steel framing become increasingly competitive with wood framing techniques in residential construction. Because exterior walls are wider, insulation of R-30 can be used for exterior walls. Steel-framing members are consistently straight and square and do not rot, warp, split, crack, or creep; they
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Architectural Drafting and Design
RAFTER
TRACK
CEILING JOISTS FLOOR SHEATHING
JOIST TRACK
TRACK
FIGURE 2719 Structural insulated panels are joined to each other with tongue-and-groove seams. Courtesy Insulspan.
FLOOR JOISTS
ANGLE CLIPS & ANCHOR BOLTS STEM WALL
also have excellent properties for resisting stress from snow, wind, and seismic forces, as well as termite and fire damage. Steel framing methods are referenced in Section 5 21 00 of Division 5 of the CSI classifications. Steel offers several earth-friendly benefits as a construction material and can often earn LEED credits in several categories of the Materials and Resources division. Standard steel used for construction contains approximately 50% recycled metal and is 100% recyclable. Steel can be reused if the building is altered or remodeled, or it can be recycled after the life of the structure. Although steel requires large amounts of energy in the initial manufacturing process, the recycled content value exceeds the goals of LEED. Because steel is very conductive, steel framing increases the risk of thermal bridging through the exterior walls. This conductivity can be overcome by using insulated exterior sheathing. Many residential steel structures incorporate techniques similar to western platform construction methods (see Figure 27-20). Steel studs, as shown in Figure 27-21, are used to frame walls. Walls are normally framed in a horizontal position on the floor and then tilted into place and bolted together. Steel trusses are typically used to provide design flexibility because they require no interior bearing walls.
FOOTING
CRAWL SPACE
FIGURE 2720 Structural members of a western platform framing system composed of steel members.
gained because the mass of concrete blocks acts as a reservoir to trap and store heat from the sun, so that interiors stay cooler longer. Concrete blocks have been traditionally used in warmer climates, from Florida to southern California, as an above-ground building material. Advanced manufacturing processes create CMUs that are insulated and waterproofed, which allows blocks to be used in all climate zones. Water repellants can be mixed into the blocks as they are produced, additional sealants and flashing can be applied at the job site, or cement-based paints can be used as the exterior finish, or they can be
Concrete Masonry Construction Concrete masonry units (CMUs) are a durable, economical building material that provides excellent structural and insulation values. Information related to CMUs can be found in Division 4 22 of the CSI classifications. LEED credits are typically gained in several categories of the Energy and Atmosphere and Materials and Resources division. The credits are
FIGURE 2721 A home framed with steel framing members. Courtesy North American Steel Framing Alliance.
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
covered with Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS) or stucco. Waterproof wood furring strips are normally attached to the interior side of the block to support gypsum board. Insulation can be installed to either face of the block wall at the job site or to the cavity as the block is manufactured. Cavity insulation can include foam placed into the cavities that will not require reinforcing and grout; blocks created with reduced web sizes with insulation mixed into the block at the plant; and the use of mortarless dry-stacked blocks. Blocks set in this method are typically held together by a coat of bonding cement placed on the inside and outside of the blocks.
643
DOUBLE CORNER
STRETCHER ( 3 CORE )
SOLID TOP
FULL-CUT HEADER
CORNER
HALF-CUT HEADER
BULL NOSE
LINTEL
Classifications of Concrete Blocks Four classifications are used to define concrete blocks for construction: hollow, load-bearing (ASTM C 90), solid load-bearing (ASTM C 145), and non-load-bearing blocks (ASTM C 129), which can be either solid or hollow blocks. Solid blocks must be 75% solid material in any cross-sectional plane. Blocks are also classed by their weight as normal, medium, and lightweight. The weight of the block is affected by the type of aggregate used to form the unit. Normal aggregates such as crushed rock and gravel produce a block weight of between 40 and 50 lb (18 and 23 kg) for a block 8 × 8 × 16" (200 × 200 × 400 mm). Lightweight aggregates include coal cinders, shale, clay, volcanic cinders, pumice, and vermiculite. Using a lightweight aggregate will produce approximately a 50% savings in weight.
Patterns, Colors, and Shapes of Concrete Blocks CMUs come in a wide variety of patterns, colors, textures, and shapes. The most common sizes are 8 × 8 × 16" (200 × 200 × 400 mm), 8 × 4 × 16" (200 × 100 × 400 mm), and 8 × 12 × 16" (200 × 300 × 400 mm). Nominal block widths are 4", 6", 8", 10", and 12" (100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 mm), and lengths are 6", 8", 12", 16", and 24" (150, 200, 300, 400, 600 mm). Each dimension of a concrete block is actually 3/8" (10 mm) smaller to allow for a 3/8" (10 mm) mortar joint. In addition to the exterior patterns, concrete blocks come in a variety of shapes, as shown in Figure 27-22. These shapes allow for the placement of steel reinforcement bars, but steel reinforcing mesh can also be used. Chapter 33 will provide further information on concrete reinforcement. Reinforcing is typically required at approximately 48" (1200 mm) O.C. vertically. Horizontal reinforcement is approximately 16" (400 mm) O.C., but the exact spacing depends on the seismic or wind stresses to be resisted. Reinforcement is typically specified on the framing plan and also shown in a cross section and detail. Figure 27-23 shows components of CMU construction.
HALF CORNER
STRETCHER ( 2 CORE)
JAMB
FIGURE 2722 Common shapes of concrete masonry units.
Concrete Form Masonry Units Concrete form masonry unit (CFMU) construction is a hybrid design that blends unit masonry construction and cast-in-place concrete construction into an efficient, single-process, composite wall system. CFMU walls have the outer appearance of conventional CMU surfaces, and are installed using traditional methods. After a CFMU wall has been laid to its desired height, the interior cavity is filled with concrete grout and reinforcing. The end result is a very cost effective, one-operation “sandwich wall” that has all the aesthetic possibilities of masonry and the strength of cast-in-place concrete, with superior performance characteristics.
Solid Masonry Construction The use of brick as a construction material for the building envelope can contribute greatly to the LEED sustainability properties, for which a building gains credits in the Energy and Atmosphere and Materials and Resources divisions. Unlike most construction materials, properly installed brick can last for centuries. Because of the thermal mass associated with brick construction, temperature swings within a structure are reduced. This can help reduce the size of the HVAC system required, which will help save on energy costs. The large mass also will help with soundproofing a structure. When the structure has completed its usefulness, the building can be dismantled and the materials recycled. Information regarding bricks and mortar can be found in Division 4 of the CSI classifications.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
ROOF SHEATHING
RAFTERS SOLID BLOCKING
CEILING JOISTS
HORIZONTAL BOND BEAM @ MIDWALL HEIGHT
FLOOR SHEATHING
SOLID GROUT ALL STEEL CELLS
BOND BEAM @ EA. FLOOR
FLOOR JOISTS LEDGER & ANCHOR BOLTS
LEDGER & ANCHOR BOLTS FLOOR JOISTS
FLOOR JOISTS
LEDGER & ANCHOR BOLTS FOOTING CRAWL SPACE
FIGURE 2723 Components of concrete masonry construction.
Brick Positions and Patterns In addition to these green features, one of the most attractive features of brick is the wide variety of positions and patterns in which it can be placed. These patterns are achieved by placing the bricks in various positions to each other. The position in which the brick is placed will alter what it is called. Figure 27-24 shows the names of common brick positions. Bricks can be placed in various positions to form a variety of bonds and patterns. A bond is the connecting of two wythes to form stability within the wall. The pattern is the arrangement of the bricks within one wythe.
The Flemish and English bonds in Figure 27-25 are the most common methods of bonding two wythes or vertical sections of a wall that is one brick thick. The Flemish bond consists of alternating headers and stretchers in every course. A course of brick is one row in height. An English bond consists of alternating courses of headers and stretchers. The headers span between wythes to keep the wall from separating.
Masonry Wall Construction Masonry walls must be reinforced using methods similar to those used with concrete blocks. The loads to be
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
645
COMMON BRICK WYTHE
FLEMISH BOND
HEADER COURSE
SAILOR COURSE
HALF BRICK
FLEMISH BOND FACE BRICK WYTHE
METAL TIES
ROWLOCK COURSE
STRETCHER COURSE COMMON BRICK WYTHE
SOLDIER COURSE
SHINER COURSE FACE BRICK WYTHE
FIGURE 2724 The position in which a brick is placed alters the name of the unit.
supported and the stress from wind and seismic loads determine the size and spacing of the rebar to be used and are established by the architect or engineer. If a masonry wall is to be used to support a floor, a space one wythe wide will be left to support the joist. Joists are usually required to be strapped to the wall so that the wall and floor will move together under lateral stress. The end of the joist must be cut on an angle, called a fire cut. If the floor joist is damaged by fire, the fire cut will allow the floor joist to fall out of the wall, without destroying the wall. Because brick is very porous and absorbs moisture easily, some method must be provided to protect the end of the joist from absorbing moisture from the masonry. Typically the end of the joist is wrapped with 55# felt and set in a 1/2" (13 mm) air space. The interior of a masonry wall also must be protected from moisture. A layer of hot asphaltic emulsion can be applied to the inner side of the interior wythe and a furring strip attached to the wall. In addition to supporting the gypsum board or plaster, the space between the furring strips can be used to hold batt or rigid insulation. When a roof framing system is to be supported on masonry, a pressure-treated plate is usually bolted to the brick, similar to how a plate is attached to a concrete
COMMON BRICK WYTHE
ENGLISH BOND
ENGLISH BOND
FACE BRICK WYTHE
FIGURE 2725 Brick walls can be strengthened by metal ties or bricks connecting the wythes. The most common types of brick bonds are the Flemish and English.
foundation. Figure 27-26 shows how floor and roof members are typically attached to masonry. Another method of using brick is to form a cavity between each wythe of brick. The cavity is typically 2" (50 mm) wide and creates a wall approximately 10" (250 mm) wide with masonry exposed on the exterior and interior surfaces. The air space between wythes cannot exceed 4" (100 mm) wide unless calculations
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Architectural Drafting and Design
RAFTER
2 X 8 P.T PLATE W/ 1/2"ø A.B. METAL STRAP FIRE CUT
REINFORCING MESH
FLOOR JOIST
FIGURE 2726 Attaching floor and roof framing members to a masonry wall.
for the wall ties and spacing have been provided to the building departments. The air space provides an effective barrier to moisture penetration to the interior wall. Weep holes in the lower course of the exterior wythe will allow moisture that collects to escape. Rigid insulation can be applied to the interior wythe to increase the insulation value of the air space in cold climates. Care must be taken to keep the insulation from touching the exterior wythe so that moisture is not transferred to the interior. Metal ties are typically embedded in mortar joints at 24" (600 mm) O.C. maximum vertical spacing and 36" (900 mm) O.C. horizontal spacing to tie each wythe together. Adjustable wall ties placed for each 2.67 square feet (0.248 m2) of wall space, or prefabricated joint reinforcement with at least one cross wire serving 2.67 square feet (0.248 m2) of wall space are also used to bond wythes together.
Masonry Veneer A common method of using brick and stone in residential construction is as a veneer, a nonstructural covering material. Using brick as a veneer offers the charm and warmth of brick with a lower construction cost than structural brick. If brick is used as a veneer over a wood bearing wall, for example, the amount of brick required is half that of structural brick. Care must be taken to protect the wood frame from moisture in the masonry. Typically brick is installed over a 1" (25 mm) and a maximum of 4 1/2" (114 mm) air space and a 15# layer
of felt applied to the framing. Weep holes with a minimum diameter of 3/16" (5 mm) are required by the IRC in the lowest course of the wall at 33" (833 mm) O.C. The veneer is attached to the framing with 22-gage × 7/8" (22 mm) wide corrosion-resistant metal ties at 24" (600 mm) O.C. along each stud or with 9-gage wire with a hook embedded in the mortar joint. Figure 27-27 shows an example of how masonry veneer is attached to a wood-frame wall. When veneer is placed above an opening, the IRC requires the use of a 6 × 4 × 5/16" (150 × 100 × 8 mm) steel angle with the 6" (150 mm) leg of the angle placed vertically and anchored to (2)-2 × 4 (50 × 100) studs spaced at a maximum of 16" (400 mm) O.C. with (2)-7/16" (11 mm) diameter × 4" (100 mm) lag screws.
Insulated Concrete Form Construction Originally used to form foundation walls, insulated concrete forms (ICFs) are now being used to provide an energy-efficient wall-framing system for an entire structure. Poured concrete is placed in expanded polystyrene (EPS) forms that are left in place to create a super-insulated concrete wall system that is covered in Division 3 11 of the CSI classification. ICFs generally gain LEED credits in the categories of Indoor Environmental Air Quality, Material and Resources, and Innovative Design. Forms are placed in a pattern similar to concrete blocks or bricks and then filled with steel reinforcing and concrete. Forms 6" and 8" (150 and 200 mm) wide × 16" (400 mm) high × 48" (1200 mm) long are available from most manufacturers. Figure 27-28A shows details of insulated concrete forms. An example of a concrete core and a portion of the ICF can be seen in Figure 27-28B. The concrete in the forms creates a pattern similar to post-and-beam construction. Vertical posts are created at 12" (300 mm) O.C., and horizontal beams are created at 16" (400 mm) O.C. Solid concrete webs are created between the posts and beams at the center of the forms. Expanded polystyrene forms (EPFs), which make up the shell of the ICF, provide a stable base for attaching interior and exterior finishing materials and help to create the high energy efficiency of the system. The thermal mass of the concrete and the R-20 value of the EPF give the energy efficiency. Depending on the width of the wall and finishing materials, the total R-value can range from R-30 to R-50. The system also excels by reducing air leakage and air infiltration into the structure. Structures constructed from ICF average 0.1 air exchange per hour (ACH) compared with 0.4 ACH for
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
647
STUDS SHEATHING VAPOR BARRIER
PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR
METAL TIES
SILL
FLOOR JOIST
CONCRETE FOOTING
RIM JOIST MUDSILL BRICK VENEER
STEM WALL
FIGURE 2727 Brick is typically used as a non-load-bearing veneer attached to wood or concrete construction with metal ties.
4-3/4"
8"
6"
12"
3"
6" 81/4" 3" 12"
4-1/2" 48"
3"
6-1/2" 6-15/16" 1-7/8"
3/4"
1-1/2"
TYPICAL 6" FORMS
FIGURE 2728A Insulated concrete forms: details. Courtesy American Polysteel Forms.
1-1/2"
16"
10"
16"
10" 1-1/2"
3/4"
1-1/2"
TYPICAL 8" FORMS
1-1/2"
4"
6"
12"
1-7/8"
81/4"
11"
6"
81/4"
7 7/8"
4"
6"
12"
6"
48"
3"
7 1/2"
1-1/2"
6"
1/2" TYP. 6" 81/4"
1/2" TYP.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
2" X 10" TOP PLATE WITH ANCHOR BOLTS INTO FORM CELLS AS REQ’D. BY CODE HOLD-DOWN CONNECTIO PER CODE or STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
SEE REBAR TABLES FOR VERT. and HORIZ. REBAR SIZE and SPACING.
FINISH MATERIAL SCREWED TO METAL FURRING STRIPS
EXTERIOR FINISH OVER CONCRETE FILLED POLYSTEEL FORMS
CONCRETE SLAB
FIN. GRADE
FIGURE 2728B Insulated concrete form construction is energy efficient because polystyrene forms remain in place around the concrete. Courtesy American Polysteel Forms.
wood-frame walls. Figure 27-29 shows wall construction using ICF methods.
Modular Framing Methods Many people confuse the term modular home with mobile or manufactured homes. Manufactured homes are built on a steel chassis and are governed by codes other than the IRC. Modular homes are governed by the same codes that govern site-built homes but are built off-site. Modular homes can qualify for the same LEED credits that the materials already covered in this chapter can achieve. Modular construction is a highly engineered method of constructing a building or building components in an efficient and cost-effective manner. Modular homes begin as components designed, engineered, and assembled in the controlled environment of a factory using assembly-line techniques. Work is never slowed by weather, and materials are not subject
FIGURE 2729 Components of insulated concrete form construction. Courtesy American Polysteel Forms.
to warping due to moisture absorption. A home travels to different workstations, where members of each building trade perform the required assembly. Rooms that require plumbing can be assembled in an area separate from other rooms and then assembled into a module. Modules can be shipped to the construction site, where they are assembled on a conventional foundation. Modules can be shipped complete or may require additional site constructions, depending on the complexity of the module. Figure 27-30 shows the components of a modular home being assembled at the construction site. Structures can also use preassembled components. Panelized walls, which include windows, doors, and interior and exterior finish, can be assembled in a factory but installed at the job site. Floor and roof framing
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
FIGURE 2730 Modular construction allows as much as 90% of the construction work to be completed inside an environmentally controlled factory. Courtesy J. Rouleau & Assoc.
members can be precut in a factory, numbered for their exact location, and then shipped for assembly at the job site. This system of construction can offer economical construction in remote areas where materials are not readily available.
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FIGURE 2731 Individual windows may not be earth friendly, but by careful planning, windows can be placed to maximize winter sunlight and minimize the summer sun that enters the home. Planning will also be required to determine the roof pitch and size of the roof overhang needed to block summer sun and allow winter sun to penetrate the home. Courtesy Alan Mascord, AIBD Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Bob Greenspan, photographer.
1. Can products be selected that are made from envi2.
GREEN CONSTRUCTION GOALS The final point to be considered in this chapter is not a framing method, but a framing mind-set. Whether it's called earth friendly, green, ecological, or sustainable construction, the concept is to build in a manner that will produce a structure that uses energy efficiently, that uses materials that have low impact on the environment, and that will produce a healthier place to live. Green construction was first considered in Chapter 12 as solar systems were examined. Other chapters have explored energy-efficient alternatives for heating and lighting. Environmentally friendly framing is not just a matter of selecting green materials, but once selected, these green products must be used in a manner that will reduce the environmental impact of the home. Products that are not considered green per se can be used in a home, and they may contribute to the home owner’s goals for efficiency. For example, a specific window may not be rated as a green product, but it may be installed in a location and in a manner that maximizes winter sunlight and minimizes the summer sun (see Figure 27-31). By carefully installing and caulking the window, it can become an asset. Creating an environmentally friendly home requires the matching of materials to a specific design and site that minimizes the effect on that site. Five key questions should be considered that will affect the selection of framing and finish materials to make a sustainable structure:
3. 4. 5.
ronmentally friendly materials? Can products be selected because of what they do not contain? Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact during construction? Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact of operating the building? Will the products to be used contribute to a safe, healthy indoor environment?
Environmentally Friendly Materials One of the major considerations that affect framing materials is the selection of products and construction materials that are made from environmentally friendly components. The materials used to produce a building product, and where those materials came from, is a key determinant in labeling a product a green building material. Points to consider in selecting building materials include products that can be salvaged, recycled, or certified green; quick-growth products; agricultural waste materials; and products that require minimal processing.
Salvaged Products One of the major goals of sustainable construction is to reuse a product whenever possible instead of producing a new one. When materials are recycled, savings are realized from conserving natural resources and from the energy saved from not having to produce new materials.
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Common salvaged materials used in buildings include bricks, millwork, framing lumber, plumbing fixtures, and period hardware. Each of these materials is sold on a local or regional basis by salvage yards.
Products with Recycled Content Recycled content is an important feature of many green products because these materials are likely to be diverted from landfills. Industrial by-products such as iron-ore slag can be used to make mineral wool insulation, fly ash can be used to make concrete, and PVC pipe scraps can be used to make shingles.
Certified Wood Products Third-party forest certification, based on standards developed by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), will help ensure that wood products come from well-managed forests. Wood products must go through a certification process to carry an FSC stamp. Manufactured wood products can meet the FSC certification requirements with less than 100% certified wood content. Wood that meets FSC certification can be substituted directly for standard-dimension lumber for most residential uses. Estimates by the Natural Resources Defense Council indicate that as much as $1,000 can be saved in a typical home by using certified hem-fir framing lumber, certified plywood, and reclaimed beams.
Quick-Growth and Waste By-Products The use of quick-growth products for framing materials allows old and second-growth trees to remain in the forest. Rapidly renewable materials are made from wood from tree farms with a harvest rotation of approximately 10 years. Wood products such as LVL, OSB, and laminated beams have already been considered. Interior finish products can be produced from agricultural crops or their waste products. Examples of green products made from agricultural crops include linoleum, form-release agents made from plant oils, natural paints, textile fabrics made from coir and jute, cork, organic cotton, wool, and sisal. Building products can also be produced from agricultural waste products made from straw (the stems left after harvesting cereal grain), rice hulls, and citrus oil. These products can be used to improve the interior environment and create an ecologically friendly structure.
Minimally Processed Products Products that are minimally processed can be green because of low energy use and low risk of chemical releases during manufacture. These can include wood products, agricultural or nonagricultural plant products, and mineral products such as natural stone and slate shingles.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Removing Materials to Become Earth Friendly Some building products are considered green, not because of their content, but because they allow material savings elsewhere, or they are better alternatives to conventional products containing harmful chemicals. Chemicals that deplete the ozone, CCA wood preservative, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polycarbonate are products that should be avoided in a structure, but products with these chemicals may be considered earth friendly because the product has significant environmental benefits. Some examples include drywall clips that allow the elimination of corner studs, engineered lumber that reduces lumber waste, the piers for a joist floor system that minimizes concrete use compared to a post-and-beam system, and concrete pigments that eliminate the need for conventional finish flooring by using the concrete slabs as the finished floor.
Reducing the Impact of Construction Some building products produce their environmental benefits by avoiding pollution or other environmental impacts during construction. Products that reduce the impacts of new construction include various erosioncontrol products, foundation products that eliminate the need for excavation, and exterior stains that result in lower VOC (volatile organic compound) emissions into the atmosphere. The greatest impact from construction can come from careful design that creates a home that suits the site, and a foundation system that requires minimal excavation. Review Chapter 13 and Chapter 14 for methods of reducing site impact during construction.
Reducing the Impact after Construction The ongoing environmental impact that results from operating a structure will far outweigh the impact associated with the construction phase. It is important during the design phase to select components that will reduce heating and cooling loads and conserve energy, select fixtures and equipment that conserve water, choose materials with exceptional durability or low-maintenance requirements, select products that prevent pollution or reduce waste, and specify products that reduce or eliminate pesticide treatments.
Reducing Energy Demands SIPs, ICFs, autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) blocks, and high-performance windows are examples of materials that can be used during construction to reduce
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
HVAC loads over the life of the structure. Other energy-consuming equipment such as water heaters, furnaces, dishwashers, refrigerators, washing machines, and dryers should be carefully selected for their ability to conserve energy after construction. Most home appliances are now rated by Energy Star standards that have been adopted nationally. Energy Star is a governmentbacked program designed to help consumers obtain energy efficiency. Using compact fluorescent lamps and occupancy or day-lighting control equipment can save additional energy. Installing efficient equipment as the home is constructed will reduce energy needs over the life of the structure.
Using Renewable Energy Equipment that uses renewable energy instead of fossil fuels and conventional electricity is highly beneficial from an environmental standpoint. Examples include solar water heaters and photovoltaic systems (see Chapter 12). Natural gas fuel cells or cells that use other fossil fuels such as a hydrogen source are considered green because emissions are lower than the combustionbased equipment they replace.
Conserving Water All toilets and shower heads are required to meet federal water efficiency standards. Other products, such as rainwater storage systems, will also contribute to making a residence earth friendly (see Chapter 20).
Reducing Maintenance Products that reduce maintenance make a residence environmentally attractive because they need to be replaced less frequently, or their maintenance has very low impact. Sometimes, durability is a contributing factor to the green designation but not enough to distinguish the product as green on its own. Included in this category are such products as fiber-cement siding, fiberglass windows, slate shingles, and vitrified clay waste pipes.
Preventing Pollution Methods of controlling substances from entering the environment contribute to making a home earth friendly. Alternative wastewater disposal systems reduce groundwater pollution by decomposing organic wastes more effectively. Porous paving products and vegetated roofing systems result in less stormwater runoff and thereby reduce surface water pollution. Providing convenient recycling centers within the home will allow home owners to safely store recyclables for collection. Planning for a compost system will further allow the home owners to reduce their solid-waste generation.
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Eliminating Pesticide Treatments Although they may be needed to increase livability, periodic pesticide treatments around buildings can be a significant health and environmental hazard. The use of products such as termite barriers, borate-treated building products, and bait systems that eliminate the need for pesticide application all contribute to a sustainable structure.
Contributing to the Environment Product selection has a significant effect on the quality of the interior environment. Green building products that help ensure a healthy interior living space can be separated into several categories including products that don’t release pollutants, products that block the spread of indoor contaminants, and products that warn occupants of health hazards.
Improving Interiors with Nonpolluting Products One of the dangers of modern construction is the ability to make a structure practically airtight. This in itself is not a problem, but the adhesives in most products can be harmful when constant air changes are not provided. Products that don’t release significant pollutants into a structure contribute to an earth-friendly home. Interior products that contribute to improving the interior environment include zero- and low-VOC paints, caulks, and adhesives, as well as products with very low emissions, such as nonformaldehyde manufactured wood products.
Blocking, Removing, and Warning of Contaminants Certain materials and products are green because they prevent the contaminants from entering the interior environment. Linoleum is available that helps control microbial growth. Coated duct board is available that helps control mold growth, and products are available for blocking the entry of mold-laden air into a duct system. Other products can help remove pollutants from the shoes of people entering the residence. Each of these types of products can help provide an environmentally friendly home. Several products, such as carbon monoxide (CO) detectors and lead paint test kits, can warn the home owner that contaminants have entered the residence. Once they are aware of environmental dangers, home owners can remove the contaminants by choosing from ventilation products, filters, radon mitigation equipment, and other equipment that removes pollutants or introduces fresh air.
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in framing materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.www.aci-int.com www.steel.org www.apawood.org www.alhloghomes.com www.betterbricks.com www.bia.org www.buildinggreen.com www.calredwood.org www.conservationcenter.org www.crbt.org www.cmpc.org www.eere.energy.gov www.enercept.com www.eeba.org
Company, Product, or Service American Concrete Institute American Iron and Steel Institute APA—The Engineered Wood Association Appalachian Log Homes Better Bricks Brick Industry Association BuildingGreen, Inc. California Redwood Association Center for Resource Conservation Center for Resourceful Building Technology Concrete Masonry Promotions Council DOE Integrated Building for Energy Efficiency Enercept, Inc. (SIPs) Energy and Environmental Building Association
www.energydesignresources.com www.energystar.gov www.metafore.org www.fscus.com www.generalshale.com www.gp.com www.greenbuilder.com www.haenerblock.com www.forms.org www.imiwebi.org
Energy Design Resources Energy Star (appliance energy standards) Forest Certification Resource Center Forest Stewardship Council General Shale Brick Georgia-Pacific Greenbuilder Haener Block Company Insulating Concrete Form Association International Masonry Institute
International Zinc Association (zinc and steel home construction) www.lpcorp.com Louisiana-Pacific Corporation www.masonrysociety.org Masonry Society www.modularconnection.com Modular Network www.nahb.org National Association of Home Builders www.nahbrc.org National Association of Home Builders Research Center www.ncma.org National Concrete Masonry Association www.nrdc.org Natural Resources Defense Council www.newbuildings.org New Buildings Institute www.steelframingalliance.com North American Steel Framing Alliance www.pge/pec.com Pacific Energy Center www.polysteel.com Polysteel Forms www.portcement.org Portland Cement Association www.concretehomes.com Portland Cement Association (concrete homes site) www.sfpa.org Southern Forest Product Association www.southernpine.com Southern Pine Council www.spacejoist.com SpaceJoist (open-web trusses) www.ssina.com Specialty Steel Industry of North America www.steeljoist.org Steel Joist Institute www.sipa.org Structural Insulated Panel Association www.housingzone.com Sustainable Buildings Industry Council www.thebricksite.com The Brick Site www.thermalblock.com Thermal Block Systems, LLC www.timberpeg.com Timberpeg (post-and-beam homes) www.timsys.com Timber Systems www.toolbase.org Toolbase Services www.trimjoist.com TrimJoist Engineered Wood Products www.wwpa.org Western Wood Products Association www.weyerhaeuser.com Weyerhaeuser www.wbdg.org Whole Building Design Guide www.iza.com
Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods
Framing Methods Test
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See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 27 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 27–1 Explain two advantages of platform framing.
Question 27–12 List four classifications of CMUs. Question 27–13 Sketch two methods of framing a header with advance framing technology. Label each major component. Question 27–14 What is a fire cut, and how is it used? Question 27–15 How is moisture removed from a masonry cavity wall? Question 27–16 What are two materials typically used to reinforce concrete block construction?
Question 27–2 Sketch a section view showing platform construction methods for a one-level house.
Question 27–17 What is the maximum height of studs allowed by the IRC without special framing conditions?
Question 27–3 What are the drawbacks to using balloon framing?
Question 27–18 What do the letters AFT mean in relationship to framing?
Question 27–4 List five methods that can be used to frame a residence.
Question 27–19 What makes steel such an earthfriendly material?
Question 27–5 Sketch and label a section showing a post-and-beam foundation system.
Question 27–20 Explain the difference between traditional corner framing and a corner built using AFT.
Question 27–6 How is brick typically used in residential construction? Question 27–7 What factor dictates the reinforcing in masonry walls? Question 27–8 Why would a post-and-beam construction roof be used with platform construction walls? Question 27–9 What would be the R-value for a wood wall 4" wide? Question 27–10 What is the typical spacing of posts and beams in residential construction? Question 27–11 List three qualities that make steel framing a popular residential method.
Question 27–21 Why are engineered lumber products considered earth friendly? Question 27–22 List the various parts of a tree that can be used for engineered lumber products. Question 27–23 Explain the term SIP as it relates to framing. Question 27–24 Explain the term VOC and explain how it relates to construction. Question 27–25 Use the Internet to research major environmental concerns in the region where you live.
CHAPTER 28
Structural Components of Framed Construction I
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As with every other phase of drafting, construction drawings have their own terminology. The terms used in this chapter are basic for structural components of residential construction. These terms refer to floor, wall, and roof components.
FLOOR CONSTRUCTION Two common methods of framing the floor system are conventional joist and post-and-beam. In some areas of the country it is common to use post-and-beam framing for the lower floor when a basement is not used and conventional framing for the upper floor. The project designer chooses the floor system or systems to be used. The size of the framing crew and the shape of the ground at the job site are the two main factors in the choice of framing methods. Floor joists are often used when the slope of the site or other design considerations dictate minimal pier placement for floor support. A post-andbeam system requires more concrete but eliminates the need for floor joists. Because fewer materials are involved, it is often the preferred choice of small framing crews or for flat or low-sloped building sites.
Conventional Floor Framing Conventional joist, or stick floor framing involves the use of members 2" (50 mm) wide placed one at a time in a repetitive manner. Basic terms in this system are mudsill, girder, floor joist, and rim joist. Each can be seen in Figure 28-1 and throughout this chapter.
Mudsill The mudsill, or base plate, shown in Figure 28-2 is the first of the structural lumber used in framing the home. The mudsill is the plate that rests on the masonry foundation and provides a base for all framing. Because of the moisture content of concrete and soil, the mudsill is required to be pressure-treated or made of foundationgrade redwood or cedar. Mudsills are set along the entire perimeter of the foundation and attached to the 654
foundation with anchor bolts. The size of the mudsill is typically 2 × 6 (50 × 150). Anchor bolts are required by IRC to be a minimum of 1/2" × 10" (13 × 250 mm). Bolts 5/8" and 3/4" (16 and 19 mm) in diameter are also common. Bolt spacing of 6'–0" (1800 mm) is the maximum allowed by code and is common for most residential usage. Areas of a structure that are subject to lateral loads or uplifting will require bolts at a much closer spacing based on the engineer’s load calculations. Chapter 33 and Chapter 34 will further discuss anchor bolts.
Girders With the mudsills in place, the girders can be set to support the floor joists. Girder is another name for a beam. The girder is used to support the floor joists as they span across the foundation (see Figure 28-3). Girders are usually sawn lumber, 4" or 6" (100 or 150 mm) wide, with the depth determined by the load to be supported and the span to be covered. Sawn members 2" (50 mm) wide can often be joined together to form a girder. If only two members are required to support the load, members can be nailed, according to the nailing schedule provided in the IRC (see Figure 1-19). If more than three members must be joined to support a load, most building departments require them to be bolted together so the inspector can readily see that all members are attached. Another form of built-up beam is a flitch beam, which consists of steel plates bolted between wood members. Because they are labor intensive and heavy, and because of the availability of engineered wood beams, flitch beams are becoming less popular. Chapter 31 introduces formulas that designers use to determine what beam sizes should be and whether built-up beams can be used. Laminated Girders. In areas such as basements where a large open space is desirable, laminated (glulam) beams similar to Figure 28-4 are often used. They are made of sawn lumber that is glued together under pressure to form a beam stronger than its sawn lumber counterpart. Beam widths of 3 1/8", 5 1/8", and
Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction
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WALL SHEATHING SILL SHEATHING SILL SOLID BLOCK
FLOOR SHEATHING
STUDS
FLOOR JOISTS
FLOOR SHEATHING FLOOR JOISTS
RIM JOIST
SOLID BLOCK
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS STEM WALL
GUSSET
STUDS
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
GIRDER POST
STEM WALL FOOTING
CONC. PIER CRAWL SPACE FOOTING
FIGURE 281 Conventional, or stick floor, framing at the concrete perimeter wall.
6 3/4" (80, 130, and 170 mm) are typical in residential construction. Although much larger sizes are available, depths typically range from 9" through 16 1/2" (225 through 420 mm) at 1 1/2" (38 mm) intervals. As the span of the beam increases, a camber or curve,
is built in to help resist the tendency of the beam to sag when a load is applied. Glulams are often used where the beam will be left exposed because they do not drip sap and do not twist or crack, as a sawn beam does as it dries.
FIGURE 282 The mudsill rests on the masonry foundation and provides a base for all framing. Courtesy Pavel Adi Sandu.
FIGURE 283 Girders are used to support floor joists as they span across the foundation. Courtesy Benigno Molina-Manriquez.
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FIGURE 284 Glulam beams span longer distances than sawn lumber and eliminate problems with twisting, shrinking, and splitting. Courtesy Ray Wallace, Southern Pine Council.
FIGURE 285 Engineered materials such as PSL, and LVL are common in residential construction. This four-ply LVL girder is used to support engineered floor joists.
Engineered Girders. Engineered wood girders and beams are common throughout residential construction. Unlike glulam beams, which are laminated from sawn lumber such as a 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 (50 × 100 or 50 × 150), parallel strand lumber (PSL) is laminated from veneer strips of fir and southern pine, which are coated with resin and then compressed and heated. Typical widths are 3 1/2", 5 1/4", and 7" (90, 130, and 175 mm). Depths range from 7" through 18" (175 through 450 mm). PSL beams have no crown or camber. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is made from ultrasonically graded Douglas fir veneers, which are laminated with all grains parallel to each other with exterior grade adhesives under heat and pressure. LVL beams come in widths of 1 3/4" (45 mm) and 3 1/2" (90 mm) and depths ranging from 5 1/2" through 18" (140 through 450 mm). LVL beams offer performance and durability superior to that of other engineered products and often offer the smallest and lightest wood girder solution. Figure 28-5 shows an example of an LVL girder.
weight of the beam in pounds per linear foot. Floor joists are usually set on top of the girder, as shown in Figure 28-1, but they also may be hung from the girder with joist hangers.
Steel Girders. Steel girders such as those in Figure 28-6 are often used where foundation supports must be kept to a minimum and offer a tremendous advantage over wood for total load that can be supported on long spans. Steel beams are often the only type of beam that can support a specified load and still be hidden within the depth of the floor framing. They also offer the advantage of no expansion or shrinkage due to moisture content. Steel beams are named for their shape, depth, and weight. A steel beam with the designation W16 × 19 would represent a wide-flange steel beam with the shape of an I. The number 16 represents the approximate depth of the beam in inches, and the 19 represents the approximate
Girder Supports. Posts are used to support the girders. As a general rule of thumb, a 4 × 4 (100 × 100 mm) post is typically used below a girder 4" (100 mm) wide, and a post 6" (150 mm) wide is typically used below a girder 6" (150 mm) wide. Sizes can vary, depending on the load and the height of the post. LVL posts ranging in size from 3 1/2" through 7" (90 through 175 mm) are increasingly being used for their ability to support loads. A 1 1/2" (38 mm) minimum bearing surface is required to support a girder resting on a wood or steel support, and a 3" (75 mm) bearing surface is required if the girder is resting on concrete or masonry. Steel columns may be used in place of a wooden post, depending on the load to be transferred to the
FIGURE 286 Steel girders allow greater spans with fewer supporting columns for this residential foundation. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
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FIGURE 288 Floor joists are the repetitive structural members used to support the subfloor, or rough floor.
See Chapter 30 for a complete explanation of sizing joists. Because of the decreasing supply and escalating price of sawn lumber, several alternatives to floor joists are available. Four common substitutes are I-joists, open web trusses, laminated veneer lumber, and steel joists.
FIGURE 287 Steel connectors are typically used to resist stress from lateral and uplift by providing a connection between the frame and the foundation. Courtesy Janet Helus.
foundation. Because a wood post will draw moisture out of the concrete foundation, it must rest on 55# felt. Sometimes an asphalt roofing shingle is used between the post and the girder. If the post is subject to uplift or lateral forces, a metal post base or strap may be specified by the engineer to attach the post firmly to the concrete. Figure 28-7 shows the steel connectors used to keep a post from lifting off the foundation. Forces causing uplift will be discussed further in Chapter 29.
I-Joists. I-joists similar to those in Figure 28-5 are a high-strength, lightweight, cost-efficient alternative to sawn lumber. I-joists form a uniform size, have no crown, and do not shrink. They come in depths of 9 1/2", 11 7/8", 14", and 18" (240, 300, 350, and 450 mm). I-joists are able to span greater distances than comparable-sized sawn joists and are suitable for spans up to 40' (12190 mm) for residential uses. Webs can be made from plywood or oriented strand board (OSB). OSB is made from wood fibers arranged in a precisely controlled pattern; the fibers are coated with resin and then compressed and cured under heat. Holes can be placed in the web to allow
STUDS RIM JOIST OR SOLID BLOCK
Floor Joists Once the framing crew has set the support system, the floor joists can be set in place. Floor joists are the repetitive structural members shown in Figure 28-8 that are used to support the subfloor, or rough floor. Floor joists can range in size from 2 × 6 (50 × 150) through 2 × 14 (50 × 350) and may be spaced at 12", 16", or 24" (300, 400, or 600 mm) on center depending on the load, span, and size of joist to be used. A spacing of 16" (400 mm) is most common. Floor joists usually span between the foundation and a girder, but, as shown in Figure 28-9, a joist may extend past its support. This extension is known as a cantilever.
SILL SHEATHING SOLID BLOCK OVER BEARING WALL FLOOR JOISTS
CANTILEVER STUDS DOUBLE TOP PLATE
FIGURE 289 A floor joist or beam that extends past its supporting member is cantilevered.
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FIGURE 2810 Engineered lumber is a common material for residential construction. (Top) Oriented strand board (OSB) is a common web material for residential joists. (Center) I-joists with a plywood web are popular for their uniform size, light weight, and high strength. (Bottom) Joists made of laminated veneer lumber (LVL) are used to support heavy loads. Courtesy GeorgiaPacific Wood Products LLC.
for HVAC ducts and electrical requirements based on the manufacturers specifications. Figure 28-10 shows a joist made with OSB. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is made from ultrasonically graded Douglas fir veneers, which are laminated just as LVL beams are. LVL joists are 1 3/4" (45 mm) wide and range in depths of 5 1/2" through 18" (140 through 450 mm). When compared with other engineered products, LVL joists offer superior performance and durability and are designed for singleor multi-span uses that must support heavy loads. Figure 28-10 shows an example of an LVL joist. Figure 28-11 shows an example of a floor framed with engineered joists. Figure 28-12 shows
WALL SHEATHING SILL
typical floor construction using engineered floor joists. Depending on the loads to be supported, when the joist is supported by the sill, blocks may need to be placed beside each joist to provide additional support. Figure 28-13 shows another common method of supporting engineered floor joists. It is the responsibility of the drafter to verify specific construction requirements with the manufacturer. Most joist manufacturers supply disks of standard construction details that can be modified and inserted into the construction drawings. Figure 28-14 shows an example of drawings supplied by an engineered joist manufacturer and then modified by a drafter to meet the needs of a specific project. Open-Web Trusses. Open-web floor trusses are a common alternative to using 2× (50×) sawn lumber for floor joists. Open-web trusses are typically spaced at
WALL SHEATHING SILL
STUDS FLOOR SHEATHING I-FLOOR JOISTS
RIM JOIST
FIGURE 2811 Engineered floor joists set in place to provide a residential floor system. Courtesy Paul Helus.
STUDS FLOOR SHEATHING
2 X BLOCK @ EA. SIDE OF JOIST
I-FLOOR JOISTS
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
RIM JOIST
RIM JOIST
STEM WALL
STEM WALL
FOOTING CRAWL SPACE
FIGURE 2812 Floor-joist-to-sill connections using engineered lumber.
FOOTING CRAWL SPACE
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SILL STUDS SILL MOUNTED FLUSH WITH INSIDE OF CONCRETE I-JOISTS JOIST HANGER
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
FIGURE 2813 Engineered floor joists can be supported using metal hangers.
FIGURE 2815A Open-web floor joists can be used to span large distances for residential designs. Courtesy LeRoy Cook.
24" (600 mm) O.C. for residential and 32" (800 mm) for light commercial floors. Open-web trusses are typically available for spans up to 38' (11 400 mm) for residential floors. Figure 28-15A and Figure 28-15B show examples of open-web floor trusses. The
horizontal members of the truss are called top and bottom chords respectively, and are typically made from 1.5 × 3" (38 × 75 mm) sawn lumber laid flat or from LVL material. The diagonal members, called webs, are made of wood or tubular steel approximately
PROVIDE BLOCKING AND WEB STIFFENERS PER JST. MANUFACTURER 1/2" CDX PLYWD. OR OSB. SHTH. W/ TYVEK
1/2" PARTICLE BOARD 1-1/8" STURI-FLOOR WD.DECKING 11-7/8" TJI 35'S, SEE PLAN FOR SPACING
2X6 STUDS AT 16" O.C. R-25 INSUL.
R-21 INSUL. TOP OF SLAB WHERE OCCURS
5/8"X10" A.B.'S AT 4'-0" O.C.
6"
2X6 SILL PL. W/ SILL SEALER BET. PL & CONC.
# 4 BAR CONT.
TOP FLANGE JOIST HANGER BY FLOOR JOIST MANUFACTURER
6"
8"
(2) # 4 BARS CONT.
2X6 PONY WALL, STUDS AT 24" O.C. W/ .145" POWDER DRIVEN FASTENER AT 24" O.C.
2'-6"
# 4'S AT 48" O.C. ALTERNATE HOOKS
4" DIA. DRAIN LINE ( FOR D.S. )
6 MIL. VAPOR BARRIER
(2) # 4 BARS CONT. 1'-4"
9 S2.1
18"X 8" CONT. CONC. FTG.
TYPICAL FOUNDATION / FLOOR FRAM'G. SECTION 1" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 2814 Details of common connections of I-joists are usually provided by the manufacturer, but a drafter will be required to edit the detail to meet specific aspects of a project. Courtesy Scott R. Beck, Architect.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
IRC requires a minimum of 1/2" (13 mm) diameter anchor bolts and clip angle at 6'−0" (1800 mm) O.C. to be used to attach the angle to the concrete. Eight #8 screws are required to attach the angle to the floor joist track. Floor joists are then bolted to the track using two #8 screws at each joist. Additional fasteners should be used if winds exceed 90 mph.
Floor Bracing
FIGURE 2815B Open-web floor joists with metal webs.
1" (25 mm) in diameter. When drawn in section or details, the webs are typically represented with a bold center line drawn at a 45° angle. The exact angle is determined by the truss manufacturer and is unimportant to the detail. As the span or load on the joist increases, the size increases and the type of material changes. Pairs of 1.5 × 2.3" (38 × 58 mm) laminated veneer lumber are used for the chords of many residential floor trusses. In drawing sections showing floor trusses, it is important to work with the manufacturer’s details to find exact sizes and truss depth. Most truss manufacturers supply disk copies of common truss connections. Steel Joists. When steel joists are used to support the floor, a 6" × 6" × 54 mil L-clip angle is bolted to the foundation to support the track that will support the floor joist, as shown in Figure 28-16. The
Because of the height-to-depth proportions of a joist, it will tend to roll over onto its side as loads are applied. To resist this tendency, a rim joist or blocking is used to support the joist. A rim joist, also sometimes referred to as a band or header, is aligned with the outer face of the foundation and mudsill. Some framing crews set a rim joist around the entire perimeter and then endnail the floor joists. An alternative to the rim joist is to use solid blocking at the sill between floor joists. Figure 28-17 shows the difference between a rim joist and solid blocking at an exterior wall. Blocking in the floor system is used at the center of the joist span, as shown in Figure 28-18. Spans longer than 10' (250 mm) must be blocked at center span to help transfer lateral forces from one joist to another and then to the foundation system. Another use of blocking is at the end of the floor joists at their bearing point. Figure 28-18 shows the use of solid blocking at an interior wall. Figure 28-19 shows an example of blocking for engineered floor joists. These blocks help keep the entire floor system rigid and are used in place of the rim joist. Blocking is also used to provide added support to
STUDS JOISTS TRACK FLOOR SHEATHING
RIM JOIST SOLID BLOCKING
TOP PLATES
ANGLE CLIPS & ANCHOR BOLTS
FIGURE 2816 Floor construction using steel floor joists.
FIGURE 2817 Floor joist blocking at the center and end of the span. At midspan, solid blocking or cross blocking may be used. At the ends of the floor joists, solid blocking or a continuous rim joist may be used to provide stability.
Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction
FIGURE 2818 Solid blocking is placed between floor joists to help resist lateral loads.
the floor sheathing. Often walls are reinforced to resist lateral loads. These loads are, in turn, transferred to the foundation through the floor system and are resisted by a diaphragm, a rigid plate that acts similarly to a beam and can be found in the roof level, walls, or floor system. In a floor diaphragm, 2 × 4 (50 × 100) blocking is typically laid flat between the floor joists to allow the edges of plywood panels to be supported. Nailing all edges of a plywood panel allows for approximately one-half to two times the design load to be resisted over unblocked diaphragms. The architect or engineer determines the size and spacing of nails and blocking required. Blocking is also used to reduce the spread of fire and smoke through the floor system.
Floor Sheathing Floor sheathing is installed over the floor joists to form the subfloor. The sheathing provides a surface for the base plate of the wall to rest on. When completing drawings for renovations of older structures, 1 × 4s or 1 × 6s (25 × 100s or 25 × 150s) floor sheathing laid perpendicularly or diagonally to the floor joists is often
661
FIGURE 2819 Blocking is used to provide stiffness to a floor system and to support plumbing and heating equipment. Courtesy John Black.
encountered. Drawings detailing the intersections of sawn lumber with engineered sheathing will need to be provided. Plywood and OSB are the most common materials used for floor sheathing for structures built after the mid-twentieth century. OSB is made from three layers of small strips of wood that have been saturated with a binder and then compressed under heat and pressure. The exterior layers of strips are parallel to the length of the panel, and the core layer is laid in a random pattern. Common Engineered Stamp Markings. Engineered products such as plywood and OSB are regulated by the IRC based on guidelines provided by The Engineered Wood Association (APA), which was formerly the American Plywood Association. The APA rates engineered materials by their structural grade designation, span rating, bond classification, exposure rating, and group number. These and other specifications are stamped on each piece of engineered material regulated by the APA. Stamp symbols can be seen in
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2820 Common APA specifications found in the product stamps for engineered floor sheathing, general sheathing, and siding. Courtesy APA, The Engineered Wood Association.
Figure 28-20. Major specifications that will affect referencing plywood in drawings include grade designations, span ratings, bond classifications, thickness, and group number. Grade Designations. Structural panel grades (see Figure 28-20 callout #1) are identified by a name suggesting their intended use or by a letter that represents the veneer grade used to construct the panel. Veneer grades define the appearance of the product in terms of the exposed surface veneer and the amount and size of repairs that can be made to the veneer during the manufacturing process. Common letter grades can be seen in Table 28-1. A-grade veneer is the highest veneer grade. The minimum grade allowed for use in exterior-grade plywood is C-grade. D-grade veneers are allowed only where the veneer will be protected from long-term exposure to weather. Span Rating. APA specifications for general sheathing include a number that is listed as two numbers, such as 32/16, separated by a slash (see Figure 28-20, Callout #2). These numbers are the span rating and are used to specify (in inches) the maximum allowable center-to-center spacing of the supports for the product. The first number represents the maximum recommended spacing of supporters if the panel is used for roof sheathing and the long dimension of the sheathing is placed across three or more supports. The second number represents the maximum recommended spacing of supports if the panel is used for floor
sheathing and the long dimension of the sheathing is placed across three or more supports. Floor sheathing that will support ceramic tile is typically 32/16 APA span rated 15/32" or span rated 40/20 Symbol
Description
A
Smooth, paintable, with not more than 18 neatly made repairs that are parallel to the grain permitted. Wood or synthetic repairs permitted. May be used for natural finish in less demanding applications.
B
Solid surface. Shims, sled or router repairs, and tight knots to 1" across grain permitted. Wood or synthetic repairs permitted. Some minor splits permitted.
C-Plugged Improved C veneer with splits limited to 1/8" width and knotholes or other open defects limited to 1/4" × 1/2". Wood or synthetic repairs permitted. Admits some broken grain. C
Tight knots to 1 1/2". Knot holes to 1" across grain and some to 1 1/2" if total width of knots and knotholes within specified limits. Synthetic or wood repairs. Discoloration and sanding permitted. Limited splits allowed. Stitching permitted.
D
Knots and knotholes to 2 1/2" width across grain and 1/2" larger within specified limits. Limited splits are permitted. Stitching permitted. Limited to Exposure 1.
TABLE 281 Common APA Veneer Grades. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction
and 19/32" thick. For products made for a specific application such as Sturd-I-Floor and siding, the span rating will appear as a single number. Common span ratings for Sturd-I-Floor sheathing include 16, 20, 24, 32, and 48. Common span ratings for sheathing for siding are 16 and 24. Bond Classifications. The APA bond classification of an engineered product describes the moisture resistance of the glue used to bond the fibers of the product together (see Figure 28-20, Callout #4). Bond classifications can be either Exterior or Exposure 1. ●
●
Exterior panels are suitable for long-term exposure to weather, repeated wetting and redrying, or other severe conditions. This classification is referenced by the letters EXT in the grade stamp. Exposure 1 panels are sometimes referred to as CDX or EXP1 panels and are suitable for uses not involving long-term exposure to weather. Products in this bond group can resist moisture caused by construction delays, but are not intended to be exposed to weather for the life of the product. Exposure 1 panels can be used in protected uses such as an eave where exposure to moisture is on the underside only.
Thickness. The thickness of engineered sheathing is expressed as a fraction beside the span rating. Available thicknesses for APA floor sheathing include 1/2", 19/32", 5/8", 23/32", 3/4", 7/8", 1 3/32" and 1 1/8". Available metric sizes listed by the Canadian Plywood Association (CPA) include 15.5 mm (5/8"), 18.5 mm (3/4"), 20.5 mm (13/16"), 22.5 mm (7/8"), 25.5 mm (1"), and 28.5 mm (1 1/8"). The spacing of the supports, and the load to be supported by the floor sheathing will determine the thickness to be used. By general practice, 5/8" or 3/4" (15.5 or 18.5 mm) plywood is typically used for floor sheathing supported by joists or trusses. For floors that will support tile flooring 19/32", 23/32", or 7/8" (15.1, 18.2, or 22.5 mm) thick T&G decking is recommended by the Tile Council of America (TCA). APA recommendations for panel use can be seen in Table 28-2.
Span Rating
Thickness
16
19/32", 5/8"
20
19/32", 5/8"
24
23/32", 3/4", 7/8"
32
7/8"
48
1 3/32", 1 1/8"
TABLE 282 APA-Rated Sturd-I-Floor. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
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Group Number. A group number is assigned to each product to define more than 70 species of wood that are used to create engineered materials (see Figure 28-20, Callout #10). Species are divided into one of five groups based on the strength and stiffness of the species. Species in Group 1 are the strongest and those in Group 5 are the weakest.
Finished Flooring Once the subfloor has been installed, an underlayment for the finish flooring is put down. The underlayment is not installed until the walls, windows, and roof are in place, making the house weather-tight. The underlayment provides a smooth impact-resistant surface on which to install the finished flooring. Underlayment is usually 3/8" or 1/2" APA underlayment Group 1, Exposure 1 plywood, hardboard, or waferboard. Hardboard is typically referred to as medium- or highdensity fiberboard (MDF or HDF) and is made from wood particles of various sizes that are bonded together with a synthetic resin under heat and pressure. The underlayment may be omitted if the holes in the plywood are filled. APA Sturd-I-Floor rated plywood 19/32" through 1 3/32" thick can also be used to eliminate the underlayment.
Post-and-Beam Construction Terms to be familiar with when working with post-andbeam floor systems include girder, post, decking, and finished floor. Each can be seen in Figure 28-21. Notice there are no floor joists with this system. A mudsill is installed with post-and-beam construction just as with platform construction. Once set, the girders are placed. With post-and-beam construction the girder is supporting the floor decking instead of floor joists. Girders are usually 4 × 6 (100 × 150) beams spaced at 48" (1200 mm) O.C., but the size and distance may vary depending on the loads to be supported. As with conventional methods, posts are used to support the girders. Typically a 4 × 4 (100 × 100) is the minimum size used for a post, with a 4 × 6 (100 × 150) post used to support joints in the girders. With the support system in place, the floor system can be installed. Figure 28-22A and Figure 28-22B show the components of a post-and-beam floor system. Decking is the material laid over the girders to form the subfloor. Typically decking is 2 × 6 or 2 × 8 (50 × 150 or 50 × 200) tongue-and-groove (T&G) boards or 1 3/32" or 1 1/8" APA-rated Sturd-I-Floor EXP-1 plywood T&G floor sheathing. The decking is usually finished similarly to conventional decking with a hardboard overlay.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FLOOR DECKING STUDS SILL SILL
MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS
FLOOR DECKING GIRDER
POST & GUSSET
FOOTING
STEM WALL
CONC. PIER GIRDER CRAWL SPACE
POST & GUSSET CONC. PIER
FIGURE 2821 Components of post-and-beam construction.
FRAMED WALL CONSTRUCTION As a drafter you will be concerned with two types of walls: bearing and nonbearing. A bearing wall supports not only itself but also the weight of the roof or other floors constructed above it. A bearing wall requires some type of support under it at the foundation or lower floor level in the form of a girder or another bearing wall. Nonbearing walls are sometimes called partitions. A nonbearing wall serves no structural purpose. It is a partition used to divide rooms and could be removed
FIGURE 2822A Floors built with a post-and-beam system require no floor joists to support the floor sheathing. Girders are usually placed at 48" (1200 mm) O.C. with supports placed at 8' (2400 mm) spacing along the girder.
FIGURE 2822B The crawl space for a post-and-beam floor system. Plywood gusset plates are used to connect the post to the girder and a wood brace is used to resist lateral loads for a tall post.
Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction
BEARING WALLS
NONBEARING
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BEARING WALLS
WALLS
FIGURE 2823 Bearing and nonbearing walls. A bearing wall supports its own weight and the weight of floor and roof members. A nonbearing wall supports only its own weight. The IRC allows ceiling weight to be supported on a wall, while still considering it a nonbearing wall.
without causing damage to the building. Bearing and nonbearing walls can be seen in Figure 28-23. In post-and-beam construction, any exterior walls placed between posts are nonbearing walls.
FIGURE 2824B Common components for a wood-frame wall system. Courtesy Benigno Molina-Manriquez.
Wall Construction Bearing and nonbearing walls made of wood or engineered lumber are both constructed using a sole plate, studs, and a top plate. Each can be seen in Figure 28-24A, Figure 28-24B, and Figure 28-24C.
The sole, or bottom plate is used to help disperse the loads from the wall studs to the floor system. The sole plate also holds the studs in position as the wall is being tilted into place. Studs are the vertical
DOUBLE TOP PLATE
STUDS
SOLE PLATE LINE OF FLOOR
FIGURE 2824A Standard wall construction uses a double top plate on the top of the wall, a sole plate at the bottom of the wall, and studs.
FIGURE 2824C Common components for a steel-frame wall system. The track is screwed to floor sheathing, and studs are screwed to the track.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
framing members used to transfer loads from the top of the wall to the floor system. Typically 2 × 4 (50 × 100) studs are spaced at 16" (400 mm) O.C. with a maximum height of 10' (3000 mm). Table 28-1 and Table 28-2 provide maximum heights for wall studs based on the stud size and wind conditions. The studs provide a nailing surface for the wall sheathing on the exterior side and the gypsum board on the interior side. Studs 2 × 6 (50 × 150) are often substituted for 2 × 4 studs (50 × 100) to provide added resistance for lateral loads, to hide plumbing, and to provide a wider area to install insulation. Engineered studs in 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 (50 × 100 or 50 × 150) are also available in 8', 9', and 10' (2400, 2700, and 3000 mm) lengths. Engineered studs are made from short sections of stud-grade lumber that have had the knots and splits removed. Sections of wood are joined together with 5/8" (16 mm) finger joints. The top plate is located on top of the studs and is used to hold the wall together. The top plate also provides a bearing surface for the floor joists from an upper level or for the roof members (see Figure 28-25). Two top plates are required on bearing walls, and each must lap the other a minimum of 48" (1200 mm). This lap distance provides a continuous member on top of the wall to keep the studs from separating. An alternative to the double top plate is to use one plate with a steel strap at each joint in the plate. The strap must be a minimum of 3" × 6" × 0.036" (75 × 150 × 0.914 mm) that is nailed to each plate segment with (6)-8d nails. If only one plate is provided, rafters or joists must align directly over the wall studs. If the top plate is to be notched or drilled, requiring the removal of more than 50% of the plate width, a 16-gage × 1 1/2" (38 mm) steel strap that is nailed with (8)-10d nails on
THIS LAP HOLDS INTERIOR WALLS IN POSITION TOP PLATE SPLICE
@
4 BE 8"M AR IN ING . LA WA P LL S
DOUBLE TOP PLATE STUDS
FIGURE 2825 Top plate laps are required to be 48" (1200 mm) minimum in bearing walls or held together with steel straps.
FIGURE 2826 Steel studs and joists provide the support for the upper floor.
each side of the plate opening must be provided. The strap must extend 6" (150 mm) minimum past each side of the notch or hole. When steel studs are used, a track is placed above the studs and fastened with a minimum of two #8 screws to each stud. The size of the screws will vary depending on the gage of the track and the thickness of the steel studs. Figure 28-26 shows an example of a steel-frame wall.
Wall Sheathing OSB and plywood sheathing are primarily used as an insulator against the weather and also as a backing for the exterior siding. Sheathing may be considered optional, depending on your area of the country. When sheathing is used on exterior walls, it provides what is called double-wall construction. In single-wall construction, wall sheathing is not used, and the siding is attached over a vapor barrier such as Tyvek, Pinkwrap, Typar, or the traditional 15# felt placed over the studs, as in Figure 28-27. Additional information on vapor barriers can be found later in this chapter. The cost of the home and its location will have a great influence on whether wall sheathing is to be used. In areas where double-wall construction is required for weather or structural reasons, depending on the stress to be resisted, 3/8" or 1/2" (9.5 or 12.5 mm) plywood is used on exterior walls as an underlayment. Other APA sizes that are available are 5/16", 7/16", 15/32", 19/32", 5/8", 23/32", and 3/4". CPA sizes include 7.5 mm, (1/4"), 7.5 mm (5/16"), 9.5 mm (3/8"), 12.5 mm (1/2"), 15.5 mm (5/8"), 18.5 mm (3/4") 20.5 mm (13/16"), 22.5 mm (7/8"), 28.5 mm (1 1/8") and 31.5 mm (1 1/4"). No matter the reason for using wall sheathing, plywood sheathing should be APA-rated SHEATHING, EXP 1 or 2, EXT, STRUCT 1, EXT 1, or STRUCT 1 EXT. Many builders prefer to use 1/2" (12.5 mm) OSB for sheathing in place
Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction
FIGURE 2827 The siding material can be placed directly over the vapor barrier and studs in what is referred to as single-wall construction. Courtesy APA, The Engineered Wood Association.
667
FIGURE 2828B OSB is a common alternative for the underlayment for siding materials. Courtesy Benigno MolinaManriquez.
of plywood. Figure 28-28A shows the use of plywood for wall sheathing. Figure 28-28B shows the use of OSB wall sheathing. In areas where single-wall construction is the norm, APA-rated SIDING is available with a variety of surface textures and patterns including T1-11, rough-sawn, reverse board and batten, channel groove, and brushed. APA panels are available in 4' × 8', 4' × 9', and 4' × 10' in thickness of 11/32", 3/8", 7/16", 15/32", 1/2", 19/32", and 5/8". Engineered lap siding is available in lengths up to 16' (4800 mm) and widths of up to 12" (300 mm).
FIGURE 2828A Plywood is placed over the vapor barrier and studs to provide added protection from the elements and to provide resistance to lateral forces caused by winds and earthquakes.
Structural Wall Sheathing. The design of the home may require the use of plywood sheathing for its ability to resist a wall’s twisting or racking. Racking can be caused by wind or seismic forces. Plywood used to resist these forces is called a shear panel or lateral bracing. See Figure 28-29 for an example of racking. Plywood can be used to resist this motion by keeping the studs in their intended position. When plywood is used to resist lateral forces, an architect or engineer will need to calculate the force to be resisted to determine the thickness of the sheathing and the nailing required to attach it to the wall studs based on APA and IBC requirements. Chapter 32 will introduce methods of using sheathing
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STUDS TEND TO SHIFT OR RACK WHEN PRESSURE IS APPLIED TO THEIR WIDE SURFACE
FORCE (WIND OR SEISMIC) STUDS IN NORMAL POSITION
stiffen the studs. A notch is cut into the studs, and a 1 × 4 (25 × 100) is laid flat in this notch at a 45° angle to the studs. If plywood siding rated APA Sturd-I-Wall is used, no underlayment or let-in braces are required. Prior to the mid-twentieth century, blocking was common in walls to help provide stiffness. Blocking for structural or fire reasons is now no longer required unless a wall exceeds 10' (3000 mm) in height. Blocking is often installed as a nailing surface for mounting cabinets and plumbing fixtures. Blocking is sometimes used to provide extra strength in some seismic zones.
Framing Members for Wall Openings FIGURE 2829 Wall racking occurs when wind or seismic forces push the studs out of their normal position. Plywood panels can be used to resist these forces and keep the studs perpendicular to the floor. These plywood panels are called shear or braced wall panels.
to resist lateral forces using the prescriptive methods of the IRC. Shear panels that are placed based on the prescriptive methods of the IRC are referred to as braced wall panels. Let-In Bracing and Blocking. An alternative to using engineered materials for shear panels is to use let-in braces. Figure 28-30 shows how a brace can be used to
In addition to the wall components mentioned, several other terms should be familiar to the drafter. These terms are used to describe the parts used to frame around an opening in a wall: headers, subsill, trimmers, king studs, and jack studs. Each can be seen in Figure 28-31A. Figure 28-31B shows each component in a wall made of single-wall construction.
CRIPPLE (JACK) STUDS
FLOOR SHEATHING RIM JOISTS TOP PLATES CRIPPLE (JACK) STUDS
HEADER ROUGH OPENING
TRIMMER KING STUD
HEADER
SUBSILL JACK STUDS SOLE PLATE FLOOR SHEATHING RIM JOISTS TOP PLATES
FIGURE 2831A Construction components at an opening.
FIGURE 2830 Let-in braces can sometimes be used instead of shear panels to resist wall racking. Courtesy Gang-Nail Systems, Inc.
FIGURE 2831B Framing for an opening in a wall includes the header, subsill, trimmer, king stud, and jack studs.
Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction
669
The term header is used to describe members of roof and wall construction. When used to describe a wall member, the term header describes the structural member over an opening such as a door or window. When an opening is made in a wall, one or more studs must be omitted. A header is used to support the weight that the missing studs would have carried. Each end of the header is supported by a trimmer. Depending on the weight the header is supporting, double trimmers may be required. The trimmers also provide a nailing surface for the window and the interior and exterior finishing materials. A king stud is placed beside each trimmer and extends from the sill to the top plates. It provides support for the trimmers so that the weight imposed from the header can go only downward, not sideways. In areas susceptible to seismic or wind damage, the trimmers and king stud must be anchored to the foundation. Figure 28-32A shows an example of a framing anchor attached to the trimmers and king stud. The forces of uplift that are created by seismic or wind forces are transferred from the window framing into the anchor, and then transferred through the bolt into the concrete foundation. On multilevel structures, straps such as those seen in Figure 28-32B are used to transfer FIGURE 2832B Multilevel structures require metal straps to transfer the wind and seismic forces from the upper window trimmers into the lower trimmers, and then into the foundation.
the stress from the upper window trimmers into the lower trimmers. Between the trimmers is a subsill located on the bottom side of a window opening. It provides a nailing surface for the interior and exterior finishing materials. Jack studs, or cripples, are studs that are not full height. They are placed between the sill and the sole plate and between a header and the top plates.
Modular Wall Framing
FIGURE 2832A Stresses from wind and seismic forces are transferred from the trimmers and king stud to the anchor, through the floor, and into the foundation.
Modular framing was briefly examined in the previous chapter. Similar to modular framing where a home is assembled in a factory and then transferred to the job site in modules is the use of modular framing methods that ship the components in containers. Portions of homes such as the wall assembly shown in Figure 28-33 are assembled in a clean environment, packed into a cargo container, and shipped to the job site for assembly. Drafters involved with homes assembled in modules not only have to be concerned with the overall home design, but also must consider how the home will be divided into
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Architectural Drafting and Design
and the use of caulking and weather stripping. Review Chapter 12 and Section 5 for related information.
Water Barriers
FIGURE 2833 Portions of homes can be assembled in a clean environment, packed into a cargo container, and shipped to the job site for assembly.
modules. The home in Figure 28-34 shows a different type of modular construction. Trusses have been used for years to form the roof assembly. The upper floor of this home is constructed of trusses that not only form the roof, but also combine the wall and floor members into one unit. These units can be quickly assembled allowing an entire home to be assembled in one day.
Exterior Wall Protection Prior to installing the siding material, the home must be covered with a weather-resistant exterior wall envelope. The envelope can consist of a water vapor or air barrier,
A key goal of the building envelope is to keep water out of the structure. Leaking water rots wood, grows mold, corrodes steel, and lowers insulating R-values. The IRC requires that a water barrier be provided to keep water from entering the living environment. Although many building programs focus on keeping water vapor out, most structural problems are caused by water intrusion. Water can enter the structure at any break in a wall or roof surface such as a window or skylight, butt joints in sidings, knots, and siding overlaps. Water is driven through these leakage points by wind, gravity, and capillary forces. During a storm, air pressure causes water to move up, down, and sideways moving from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The area directly behind a wind-blown wall surface is at a lower pressure than its exterior face. This pressure difference creates siphon points that pull water into the building. Once water is wicked into the wood sheathing or framing material, it can cause structural problems. The IRC requires the use of a minimum of 14# per square feet (0.683 kg/m2) of asphalt-saturated felt to resist water intrusion. Also referred to as 15# building paper, the felt must be installed in horizontal rows, with the upper layer lapped 2" (50 mm) over the lower row. In addition to carefully covering the wall, care must be taken to ensure that water can’t enter the envelope at the tops of doors or windows. Small strips of felt are generally provided along each edge of openings to provide overlapping layers of protection (see Figure 28-28B). Metal flashing to direct water outward around the tops of openings provides added protection. Grade-D kraft paper can be used to protect the structural members behind stucco, brick, stone, and other porous veneers instead of using 15# felt. Panel siding with shiplap joints, battens and paper-backed stucco lath are not required to have building paper.
Moisture and Air Barriers
FIGURE 2834 The upper floor of this home is constructed of trusses that combine the framing members of the roof, walls, and floor members into one unit.
The IRC allows other approved water-resistant materials to be used to seal the exterior envelope. Many designers use plastic house wraps that comply with ASTM standards in place of the building paper. Plastic house wraps are engineered materials that are designed to keep out liquid water and prevent air infiltration, while allowing water vapor to escape from inside of the home. Common wraps include Tyvek, Pinkwrap, and Typar, but many other brands are available. These materials are composed of microscopic pores that are small enough to resist water and air molecules, but
Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction
671
Interior Moisture Protection
FIGURE 2835 The exterior finishing material is usually installed over 15# asphaltic felt or a plastic building wrap composed of microscopic pores that are small enough to resist water and air molecules, but large enough to let smaller moisture vapor molecules pass through. Courtesy APA, The Engineered Wood Association.
A vapor barrier is a membrane that is placed on the warm side of the walls and ceilings between the drywall and the insulation. This barrier is used to prevent water vapor inside the home from entering the insulated wall cavity, where it can condense and cause structural damage. The barrier can be provided by the insulation facing, paint or primer applied to the drywall, or a sheet of 4-mil polyethylene film applied to the wall (see Figure 28-36). If a film is used, the seams between sheets should be taped. Any penetrations for electrical fixtures should also be sealed. In addition to the vapor barrier, interior caulking should be specified to reduce air infiltration. Common locations for interior caulking include: ●
large enough to let smaller moisture vapor molecules pass through. These house wraps are available in rolls up to 12' (3600 mm) wide allowing for fewer seams than with building felt. Any seams required in the house wrap are taped, providing a seamless envelope around the home. Figure 28-35 shows the application of engineered wood siding over a plastic house wrap. Equally important to specifying the underlayment to be used is to specify that the underside of the siding material is to be primed. Because water will get behind the siding, the interior side of the siding must be protected from water intrusion. Review Chapter 27 if masonry is to be used as a veneer in place of siding.
Exterior Caulking
●
●
● ● ● ● ●
Where pipes enter the structure. Especially critical are any holes placed in the sole plate. Outlets and switch plates located in exterior walls. Gaskets for outlets and switch plates can help prevent air leakage through the walls, as well as caulking holes where wiring passes through the sill or top plates. Where vents exit the structure. Provide caulking around the vent, but also provide self-sealing ducts that restrict airflow when exhaust fans are not in use. Between the fireplace and exterior walls. Between sheets of paneling. The interior side of door frames. The interior side of window frames. Baseboards (even if you have wall-to-wall carpeting).
In addition to the siding and building felt or wrap, caulking provides a third line of defense against water and air intrusion. Caulking was introduced in Chapter 12. The type and location of caulking and weather stripping are generally specified in the construction documents. The IRC requires that the following areas be filled with caulking: ● ● ●
All joints, seams, and penetrations in the exterior shell. Doors, windows, and skylight assemblies and their respective frames. Any other source of air infiltration.
Because this final category for the building code is very general, most offices provide specific locations that must be caulked or weather-stripped. A list of common caulking notes can be found on the Student CD in the BLOCKS folder.
FIGURE 2836 A sheet of 4-mil polyethylene film is applied to the wall and ceiling. The vapor barrier can also be provided by the insulation facing, paint, or primer applied to the drywall.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 2837 Joint compound is applied to hide all joints and screw heads.
Interior Finish The final element of wall construction to be considered is the interior finish. For most homes the interior finish consists of gypsum board. Gypsum board is the generic name for a family of sheet products such as Sheetrock, drywall, wallboard, or plasterboard that consist of a noncombustible core primarily of gypsum with paper surfacing. Gypsum wallboard is a type of gypsum board that is designed for walls, ceilings, or partitions and affords a surface suitable to receive decoration. Each name is used to describe a manufactured panel that is typically 1/2" (13 mm) thick, made out of gypsum plaster, and encased in a thin cardboard. Panels that are 5/8" (16 mm) thick are recommended for ceiling uses with trusses spaced at 24" (600 mm) O.C. The panels are nailed or screwed onto the framing and the joints are taped and covered with a joint compound. Figure 28-37 shows the application of joint compound. Other types of gypsum products found in a residence include green board, type X, and sounddeadening board. ●
Green board is a water-resistant material used in areas that have high moisture content, such as near a shower, tub, or spa for a backing for ceramic tile.
●
Type X gypsum board that is 5/8" (16 mm) is often used on the wall that separates the garage from the living areas. Municipalities vary on the need to use type X gypsum board. The IRC allows standard gypsum board to be used if it extends the full height of the separating wall, or if the separating wall and ceiling are covered with gypsum board. Although the use of standard gypsum board is allowed to separate the garage from the home, type X offers superior
●
fire resistance. Type X gypsum board is also used on the bottom of stairs to protect any usable space that is below the stairs. See Chapter 39 for more information on stair construction. Sound-deadening board is used in many custom homes to muffle mechanical and plumbing sounds near living and sleeping areas of the home. Specially designed drywall composed of gypsum, elastic polymers, and sound isolation layers that are used to absorb sound are often used in home theaters.
ROOF CONSTRUCTION Roof framing includes both conventional and truss framing methods. Each has its own special terminology, but many terms apply to both systems. These common terms will be described first, followed by the terms for conventional and truss framing methods.
Basic Roof Terms Roof terms common to conventional and trussed roofs are eave, cornice, eave or bird blocking, fascia, ridge, sheathing, finishing roofing, flashing, and roof pitch dimensions. The eave is the portion of the roof that extends beyond the walls. The cornice is the covering that is applied to the eaves. Common methods for constructing the cornice can be seen in Figure 28-38. Eave or bird blocking is a spacer block placed between the rafters or truss tails at the eave. This block keeps the spacing of the rafters or trusses uniform and keeps small animals from entering the attic. It also provides a cap to the exterior siding, as seen in Figure 28-39. A fascia is a trim board placed at the end of the rafter or truss tails and usually perpendicular to the
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2" AIR SPACE ABOVE INSULATION
BAFFLE BTWN EA. RAFT RAFTER
RAFTER (3)-1" SCREENED VENTS AT EACH RAFTER SPACE INSULATION
2 X 4 NAILER
RAFTER/CEILING JOIST
FASCIA TRIM NOTCH RAFTER TAIL TO MATCH FASCIA
FASCIA SCREENED VENT 1/2" "CCX" EXT. PLY BAFFLE AT VENT
RAFTER
SOLID BLOCK-OMIT EVERY THIRD FOR SCREENED VENT
G.I. FLASHING
FASCIA NOTCH RAFTER TAIL
FASCIA
SCREENED VENT
SOLID BLOCK WITH 2" AIR SPACE ABOVE
1/2" "CCX" EXT. PLY OR 1X6 T&G TYP.
FIGURE 2838 Common methods for constructing a cornice. Methods shown in each example are interchangeable. The rafter/ceiling joists could be enclosed similar to the example in the upper left corner, or the tails could be cut square similar to the example in the lower left corner.
building wall. It hides the truss or rafter tails and also provides a surface where the gutters may be mounted. The fascia can be made from either 1× or 2× (25× or 50×) material, depending on the need to resist warping (see Figure 28-39). The fascia is typically 2" (50 mm) deeper than the rafter or truss tails. At the opposite end of the rafter from the fascia is the ridge. The ridge is the highest point of a roof and is formed by the intersection of the rafters or the top chords of a truss (see Figure 28-40). Roof sheathing is similar to wall and floor sheathing in that it is used to cover the structural members.
Roof sheathing may be either solid or skip. The area of the country and the finished roofing to be used will determine which type of sheathing is used. For solid sheathing, 1/2" (13 mm) OSB or 1/2" (13 mm) thick CDX plywood is generally used. CDX is the specification given by the APA to designate standard-grade plywood. It provides an economical, strong covering for the framing, as well as an even base for installing the finished roofing. Common span ratings in inches used
RIDGE RIDGE BOARD SHEATHING EAVE GUTTER
RAFTER EAVE BLOCKING
FASCIA FULL GUTTER WITHOUT FASCIA
FIGURE 2839 Eave components.
FIGURE 2840 Ridge construction.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
RIDGE BOARD
PITCH SYMBOL
12 RISE
5
OVERHANG
RUN TOTAL SPAN
FIGURE 2841 CCX plywood with a span rating of 24/16 is typically placed over rafters to support the finish roofing material at the exposed eaves. OSB is typically used over the attic.
for residential roofs are 24/16, 32/16, 40/20, and 48/24. Figure 28-41 shows plywood sheathing being applied to a conventionally framed roof. Skip sheathing is used with tile or shake roofing. In colder climates, the skip sheathing is installed over OSB or plywood sheathing. Typically 1 × 4s (25 × 100) are laid perpendicular to the rafters with a 4" (100 mm) space between pieces of sheathing (see Figure 28-42). A water-resistant sheathing must be used when the eaves are exposed to weather. This usually consists of plywood-rated CCX or 1" (25 mm) T&G decking. CCX is the specification for exterior-use plywood. It is designated for exterior use because of the glue and the type of veneers used to make the panel. The finished roofing is the weather-protection system. Roofing might include built-up roofing, asphalt
FIGURE 2843 Roof dimensions needed for construction.
shingles, fiberglass shingles, cedar, tile, or metal panels. See Chapter 22 for more information about roof components. Flashing is generally 20- to 28-gage metal used at wall and roof intersections to keep water out. Pitch, span, and overhang are dimensions that are needed to define the angle, or steepness, of the roof. Each can be seen in Figure 28-43. The term pitch is used to describe the slope of the roof, which is the ratio between the horizontal run and the vertical rise of the roof. The run is the horizontal measurement from the outside edge of the wall to the center line of the ridge. The rise is the vertical distance from the top of the wall to the highest point of the rafter being measured. Review Chapter 22 for a discussion of roof pitch. The span is the horizontal measurement between the inside edges of the supporting walls. Chapter 29 will further discuss span. The overhang is the horizontal measurement between the exterior face of the wall and the end of the rafter tail.
Conventionally Framed Roofs Conventional, or stick, framing methods involve the use of wood members placed in repetitive fashion. Stick framing involves the use of members such as a ridge board, rafter, and ceiling joists. The ridge board is the horizontal member at the ridge that runs perpendicular to the rafters. The ridge board is centered between the exterior walls when the pitch on each side is equal. The ridge board resists the downward thrust resulting from gravity trying to force the rafters into a V shape between the walls. The ridge board does not support the rafters but is used to align the rafters so that their forces are pushing against each other.
Common Rafter Types
FIGURE 2842 Skip or spaced sheathing is used under shakes and tile roofs.
Rafters are the sloping members used to support the roof sheathing and finished roofing. Rafters are typically spaced at 24" O.C. (600 mm), but rafters spaced at 12" and 16" (300 and 400 mm) O.C. are also common.
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HIP RIDGE VALLEY RAFTERS
VALLEY
HIPS
TOP PLATES
COMMON RAFTERS HIP JACK RAFTERS
FIGURE 2844 Roof members in conventional construction.
I-joists can also be used for rafters in residential construction. There are various kinds of rafters: common, hip, valley, and jack. Each can be seen in Figure 28-44. A common rafter is used to span and support the roof loads from the ridge to the top plate. Common rafters run perpendicular to both the ridge and the wall supporting them. The upper end rests squarely against the ridge board, and the lower end receives a bird’smouth notch and rests on the top plate of the wall. A bird’s mouth is a notch cut in a rafter at the point where the rafter intersects a beam or bearing wall. This notch increases the contact area of the rafter by placing more rafter surface against the top of the wall, as shown in Figure 28-45.
Hip rafters are used when adjacent slopes of the roof meet to form an inclined edge. The hip rafter extends diagonally across the common rafters and provides support to the upper end of the rafters (see Figure 28-46). The hip is inclined at the same pitch as the rafters. A valley rafter is similar to a hip rafter. It is inclined at the same pitch as the common rafters that it supports. Valley rafters get their name because they are located where adjacent roof slopes meet to form a valley. Jack rafters span from a wall to a hip or valley rafter. They are similar to a common rafter but span a shorter distance. Typically, a section will show only common rafters, with hip, valley, and jack rafters reserved for a very complex section.
WITH NO BIRD'S MOUTH, THE RAFTER COMPRESSES FROM TOO MUCH PRESSURE OVER TOO SMALL AN AREA. HEEL
A RAFTER WITH A BIRD'S MOUTH DISTRIBUTES ROOF WEIGHT OVER THE ENTIRE WIDTH OF THE SEAT.
SEAT
NO BIRD'S MOUTH
BIRD'S MOUTH
FIGURE 2845 A bird’s mouth is a notch cut into each rafter to increase the bearing surface.
TYPICAL RAFTER-TOPLATE CONNECTION
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Architectural Drafting and Design
RIDGE BEAM METAL STRAP AT RIDGE @ 48" O.C.
RAFTERS
CEILING JOISTS
FIGURE 2846 A hip rafter is an inclined ridge board used to frame an exterior corner.
FIGURE 2848 When the ceiling joists are perpendicular to the rafters, a metal strap can be used to connect the rafters to the ridge and resist the outward force of the rafters, or a collar tie can be attached to the upper third of the rafters.
Common Rafter Supports Rafters tend to settle because of the weight of the roof and because of gravity. As the rafters settle, they push supporting walls outward. These two actions, downward and outward, require special members to resist them. These members are ceiling joists, ridge bracing, collar ties, purlins, and purlin blocks and braces. Each can be seen in Figure 28-47. When the ceiling joists are laid perpendicular to the rafters, a metal strap must be placed over the ridge to keep the rafters from separating, as shown in Figure 28-48. Ceiling joists span between the top plates of bearing walls to resist the outward force placed on the walls from the rafters. The ceiling joists also support the finished ceiling. Collar ties are also used to help resist the outward thrust of the rafters. They are usually the same cross-section size as the rafter and placed in the upper third of the roof. Ridge braces are used to support the downward action of the ridge board. The brace is usually a 2 × 4
45˚ MAX.
Vaulted Ceiling Members
RIDGE COLLAR TIES @ 48" O.C. CONTINUOUS PURLIN PURLIN BLOCK
CEILING JOISTS
(50 × 100) spaced at 48" (1200 mm) O.C. maximum. The brace must be set at 45° maximum from vertical. A purlin is a brace used to provide support for the rafters as they span between the ridge and the wall. The purlin is usually the same cross-section size as the rafter and is placed below the rafter to reduce the span. As the rafter span is reduced, the size of the rafter can be reduced. See Chapter 30 for a further explanation of rafter sizes. Purlin braces are used to support the purlins. They are typically 2 × 4s (50 × 100s) spaced at 48" (1200 mm) O.C. along the purlin and transfer weight from the purlin to a supporting wall. The brace is supported by an interior wall, or a 2 × 4 (50 × 100) lying across the ceiling joist. It can be installed at no more than 45° from vertical. A scrap block of wood is used to keep the purlin from sliding down the brace. When there is no wall to support the ridge brace, a strongback is added. A strongback is a beam placed over the ceiling joist to support the ceiling and roof loads. Figure 28-49 shows ceiling joists hung from a strongback.
PURLIN BRACE AT 48" O.C.
FIGURE 2847 Common roof supports include purlins, and purlin blocks and braces.
If a vaulted ceiling is to be represented, the terms rafter/ceiling joist and ridge beam will be used on the roof plan and sections. Both can be seen in Figure 28-50. A rafter/ceiling joist is a combination of a rafter and a ceiling joist. The rafter/ceiling joist is used to support both the roof loads and the finished ceiling. Typically 2 × 12 (50 × 300) rafter/ceiling joists are used to allow room for 10" (250 mm) of insulation and 2" (50 mm) of air space above the insulation. The size of rafter/ceiling joists must be determined by the load and span.
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677
METAL JOIST HANGERS KEEP ROOF FROM SEPARATING
TOP PLATES AND STUDS PROVIDE SUPPORT
RIDGE BEAM RAFTER/CEIL. JOIST
FLUSH RIDGE BEAM
HEADER SUPPORTS TOP PLATE
A METAL STRAP IS REQUIRED TO KEEP RAFTERS FROM SEPARATING SOLID BLOCK
BEARING WALL
RAFTER/CEIL. JOIST
HEADER RIDGE BEAM
EXPOSED RIDGE BEAM
FIGURE 2850 Common connections between the ridge beam and rafters. The beam may be exposed or hidden. NAILER
Truss Roof Construction
METAL HANGERS
FLUSH HEADER
STRONG BACK
FIGURE 2849 Common methods of supporting loads include bearing walls, headers, flush headers, and the strongback. When a header is used, the loads rest on the header. With a flush header, the ceiling joists are supported by metal hangers. A piece of scrap wood is used to hang the ceiling joist to the strongback.
A truss is a component used to span large distances without intermediate supports. Residential trusses can be as short as 15' (4500 mm) or as long as 50' (15 000 mm). Trusses can be either prefabricated
RIDGE BOARD
DOUBLE TRIMMER DOUBLE HEADER RAFTER
A ridge beam is used to support the upper end of the rafter/ceiling joist. Because there are no horizontal ceiling joists, metal joist hangers must be used to keep the rafters from separating from the ridge beam. ISOMETRIC
Framing Members Required at Roof Openings The final terms that you will need to be familiar with to draw a stick roof are header and trimmer. Both terms are used in wall construction, and they have a similar function when used as roof members (see Figure 28-51). A header at the roof level consists of two members nailed together that are parallel to the ridge to support rafters around an opening such as a skylight or chimney. Trimmers are two rafters nailed together and placed perpendicular to the ridge to support the sheathing on the inclined edge of an opening.
RAFTERS DOUBLE HEADER DOUBLE TRIMMER
PLAN
FIGURE 2851 Typical construction at roof opening.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
TOP CHORD TRUSS CONNECTORS TRUSS CLIP
WEBS BOTTOM CHORD CLEAR SPAN (INSIDE TO INSIDE) TOTAL SPAN (OUTSIDE TO OUTSIDE)
FIGURE 2852A Roofs framed with trusses are common because of the speed and ease with which they can be manufactured, shipped, and installed. Courtesy Ray Wallace, Southern Forest Products Association.
or job-built. Prefabricated trusses similar to those in Figure 28-52A are commonly used in residential construction. Assembled at the truss company and shipped to the job site, the truss roof can quickly be set in place. A roof that might take two or three days to frame using conventional framing can be set in place in two or three hours using trusses, which are set in place by crane. The size of material used to frame trusses is smaller than with conventional framing. Typically, truss members need be only 2 × 4s (50 × 100s) set at 24" (600 mm) O.C. An engineer working for the truss manufacturer will determine the exact size of the truss members. The drafter’s responsibility when drawing a framing plan for a structure framed with trusses is to represent the types of trusses to be used, the span of the trusses, and the area where a specific type of truss will be used. In sections and details the drafter must show the general truss shape and bearing points. Chapter 32 introduces framing plans, and Chapter 36 introduces sections.
FIGURE 2852B Truss construction members.
nailing surface for the roof sheathing and as a spacer in setting the trusses into position. Truss clips, also known as hurricane ties, are used to strengthen the connection between the truss and top plate or header, which is used
Terms Used to Describe Truss Roof Construction In making these drawings, it is helpful to have knowledge of truss terms, such as top chord, bottom chord, webs, ridge block, and truss clips. Figure 28-52B shows common truss components. The top chord of a truss serves a similar function to a rafter. It is the upper, inclined member of the truss that supports the roof sheathing. The bottom chord serves a purpose similar to a ceiling joist. It resists the outward thrust of the top chords and supports the finished ceiling material. Webs are the interior members of the truss that span between the top and bottom chord. They are attached to the chords by the manufacturer using metal plate connectors similar to those in Figure 28-53. Ridge blocks are blocks of wood used at the peak of the roof to provide a
FIGURE 2853 Two types of metal connectors are used with truss construction. The rectangular plate is supplied by the truss manufacturer to strengthen the connection between the top and bottom chord and does not need to be specified by the drafter. The strap is used to transfer forces of uplift created at the eave as wind attempts to lift the truss off the top plate. The strap holds the truss securely to the wall, and sends the uplift through the wall, and into the foundation. It is critical that the strap be specified on the roof plan and sections.
Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction
SCISSOR TRUSS
STANDARD TRUSS
TRUSS CLIP
TRUSS CLIP
LEDGER (MATCH RAFT/C.J. SIZE)
BIRD BLOCK
BIRD BLOCK
FASCIA
679
TOP PLATE
METAL HGR. STUB TRUSS
TOP PLATE
FASCIA
TRUSS CLIP
STUDS
STUDS RAFTER/C.J. TOP PLATE
STANDARD TRUSS TO WALL
SCISSOR TRUSS TO WALL
RAFTER/C.J. TO STUB TRUSS
FIGURE 2854 Common truss connections normally shown in the sections. Notice that the top chord aligns with the outer face of the top plate. When detailing a scissor truss, the bottom chord is typically drawn a minimum of two pitches less than the top chord.
to support the truss. Shown in Figure 28-53, the truss clips transfer wind forces applied at the eave that cause uplift, into the wall framing and into the foundation. A block is also used where the trusses intersect a support to keep the truss from sliding along the top plate when wind or seismic loads are applied perpendicular to the trusses. Common truss intersections with blocking and hurricane ties are shown in Figure 28-54. Truss Construction. The truss gains its strength from triangles formed throughout it. The shape of each triangle cannot be changed unless the length of one of the three sides is altered. The entire truss will tend to bend under the roof loads as it spans between its bearing points. Most residential trusses can be supported by a bearing point at or near each end of the truss. As spans exceed 40' (12 000 mm) or as the shape of the bottom chord is altered, it may be more economical to provide a third bearing point at or near the center. For a two-point bearing truss, the top chords are in compression from the roof loads and tend to push out the heels and down at the center of the truss. The bottom chord is attached to the top chords and is in tension as it resists the outward thrust of the top chords. Webs closest to the center are usually stressed by tension, and the outer webs are usually stressed by compression. Figure 28-55 shows how the tendency of the truss to bend under the roof loads is resisted and the loads are transferred to the bearing points.
in residential construction is a standard truss, which is used to frame gable roofs. A gable end wall truss (see Figure 28-56B) is used to form the exterior ends of the roof system and is aligned with the exterior side of the end walls of a structure. This truss is more like a wall than a truss, with the vertical supports typically spaced at 24" (600 mm) O.C. to support exterior finishing material. A girder truss is used where two perpendicular roofs intersect. To form a girder truss, the manufacturer typically bolts two or three standard trusses together. The manufacturer determines the size and method of constructing the girder truss. As seen in Figure 28-56C, the truss tails are removed by the manufacturer from the trusses to be supported, and metal hangers are used to hang the trusses to the girder truss. If a vaulted roof is desired, vaulted or scissor trusses can be used. Vaulted and scissor trusses have inclined bottom chords (see Figure 28-56D). Typically there must be at least a two-pitch difference between the top and bottom chord. If the top chord is set at a 6/12 pitch, the bottom chord usually cannot exceed a 4/12 pitch.
4000
2000
Types of Roof Trusses When they were introduced to the residential market, trusses were used primarily to frame gable roofs. Computers and sophisticated design software have enabled trusses to be manufactured easily in nearly any shape. Several of the common shapes and types of trusses available for residential roof construction can be seen in Figure 28-56A. The truss most commonly used
+
4000
+
+ –
+ –
4000
– –
+
+
2000
–
FIGURE 2855 Trusses are designed so that the weight to be supported is spread to the outer walls. This is done by placing some members in tension and some in compression. A member in compression is indicated by a plus sign (+), and one in tension is represented by a minus sign (–).
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STANDARD
CANTILEVERED
HIP
GABLE END
STUB
MONO
VAULTED
SCISSOR
DUAL PITCH
ATTIC
BROKEN PITCH
GAMBREL
HEADER
FIGURE 2856A Common types of roof trusses for residential construction.
FIGURE 2856B Gable end wall trusses can often be shipped with the wall sheathing and siding attached.
FIGURE 2856C A girder truss is used to support trusses that are placed perpendicular to the girder truss. The truss manufacturer will determine the size of the materials needed to construct the girder truss. Courtesy Lisa Echols.
FIGURE 2856D Scissor trusses (foreground) and standard trusses (background) are often combined to frame a roof. Courtesy Lisa Echols.
A section will need to be drawn to give the exact requirement for the vaulted portion of the truss, similar to Figure 28-57. If a portion of the truss needs to have a flat ceiling, it may be more economical to frame the lowered portion with conventional framing materials, a process often referred to as scabbing on. Although this process requires extra labor at the job site, it might eliminate a third bearing point near the center of the truss. Figure 28-58 shows an example of two areas with vaulted ceilings separated by a hallway with a flat ceiling. A cantilevered truss is used where a truss must extend past its support to align with other roof members. Cantilevered trusses are used where walls jog to provide an interior courtyard or patio. A stub truss can be used where an opening will be provided in the roof or the roof must be interrupted. Rooms with glass skywalls, as in Figure 28-59, can often
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681
STD./SCISSOR TRUSSES @24" O.C.
FIGURE 2857 A drawing of a standard/scissor truss is usually provided to show the manufacturer where to vault the roof.
SCISSOR TRUSSES @ 24" O.C. SOLID BLOCK TYPICAL
2 X 4 @ 24" O.C. 2 X 4 C.J. @ 24" O.C.
FIGURE 2858 An alternative to a standard/scissor truss is to “scab on" a false ceiling at the job site.
6'-0" TYPICAL VERIFY EXACT SIZE W/ MANUFACTURER.
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C
LIMIT OF HIP TRUSSES
R
HIP TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
PE
LIMIT OF FULL TRUSSES
EE
@ 24" O.C.
ER
STD. TRUSSES
SL
6
EP
CANTILEVERED TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
6
HEADER TRUSS
2
X
E SL
STUB TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
2X
FRAME AREA OVER RAFTERS @ 24" O.C. TRUSSES W/ 2 X 6
TRUSS
2X8 RIDGE
GIRDER
MONO TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
3 PANEL WINDOW SKYWALL.
FIGURE 2859 Standard, girder, stub, cantilever, hip, and mono trusses can each be used to form different roof shapes.
682
GOING GREEN Environmentally Friendly Design and Construction
Throughout this chapter, many building components have been discussed. Most of us live and work in structures that are constructed of these components and never even think about the building materials. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) lists more than 48,000 chemicals, with no information on the toxic effects of 79% of them. Of the chemicals that have been tested, many are found in the residential construction industry and can cause severe medical problems to individuals who are chemically sensitive. Allergies and diseases such as chronic fatigue syndrome are being linked to construction materials. Indoor air of new homes often contains as much as six times the acceptable outdoor levels of pollutants. The greatest indoor health risks come from airborne pollutants from products containing formaldehyde-based resins and solvents containing volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are used in the construction process. Formaldehyde is a colorless gas compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and is found in most resin-based construction products. Resin is used in products such as plywood, HDF (high-density fiberboard), MDF (medium-density fiberboard), PSL, OSB, LVL, linoleum, lacquer, gypsum board, paneling, wallpaper, caulking compounds, insulation, adhesives, upholstery, and carpet. The toxins contained in the products can be present in levels harmful to healthy adults for up to 20 years after installation. Many household cleaning products also contain small amounts of formaldehyde. Exposure to low-level concentrations can cause irritation of the nose, throat, and eyes, as well as headaches, coughing, and fatigue. Higher levels of exposure can cause severe allergic reactions, skin rash, and possibly some types of cancer. Alternatives to formaldehyde-based products are often expensive and difficult to find. The AIA is becoming a leader in providing education in environmentally friendly construction methods. Concern is now being expressed by many groups for the need to examine the effects of manufacturing, using, and disposing of specific products in relation to the environment. Pressure-treated lumber can be removed from a residence by substituting products with a natural ability to repel moisture, such as cedar or redwood. Low-toxic products such as Aqua Mix Penetrating Sealer, Protek, and Bora-Care Tim-Bor Impel can be used to protect lumber from moisture. Sheets of grass-based boards such as MeadowBoard or Medite can be used in place of plywood sheathing. These boards resemble OSB in appearance but contain no dangerous resins. If plywood must be used, exterior grades contain lower levels of formaldehyde than most interior grades. The sides, edges, and interior side of
plywoods can be sealed with sealers such as Aqua Mix Safe Seal or Crystal Aire to prevent fumes from leaking into the home. Fiberglass insulation materials are also harmful to chemically sensitive people. Products such as AirKrete can be sprayed into the stud space to provide a toxin-free insulation. Foil-based insulation materials such as K-Shield or Denny Foil, with taped joints, can also be used to shield the interior of a structure from toxins contained in wall cavity material. Adhesives, joint compound, strippers, paints, and sealants all contain volatile organic chemicals, which can be harmful for years. Such products as Aqua Mix, Murco, Crystal Aire, and Auro are nontoxic or have low toxicity. Carpeting is one of the worst causes of indoor pollution. Typically, carpeting contains more than 50 chemicals that are used as bonding and protective agents. In addition to its chemical content, carpet harbors pollutants such as dust, mold, and pet dander, which affect many people with allergies. All-natural carpets of untreated wool, cotton, or other natural blends such as coir or sea grass are the best choices for allergy-sensitive people. Nylon is the most inert of the synthetic materials used for carpets. Stain treatments, foam pads, and the adhesives used for attaching the pad must be carefully considered because of their chemical content. AFM Safecoat seals noxious fumes into most carpets. For a chemically sensitive person, hard-surface floors are a better alternative than carpet. Tile, hardwood, linoleum, and slate are safe choices. Hardwood floors made of natural wood are safe, but the protective coating should be carefully considered. Wood parquet flooring should not be used because of the resins in the products and the adhesives used to bond them to the subfloor. Vinyl flooring is typically chemically saturated. Natural linoleum made from linseed oil and wood floors with jute backing provide a nontoxic durable flooring. In addition to the material used for construction, heating equipment, appliances, and furnishings must be considered if the toxins used in construction are to be reduced. Although gas and oil furnaces are cost effective, the fumes created by the burning of fossil fuels cause allergies for many people. Electric forced air and radiant heating are nontoxic. Many appliances within a residence should also be carefully considered. Gas appliances should be avoided; they create the same problems associated with gas heaters. Ovens should not be self-cleaning and should initially be heated outside the residence to burn off oils, paints, and plastic fumes. Dishwashers and clothes dryers also typically contain materials that affect chemically sensitive users.
Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction
be framed using stub trusses. The shortened end of the truss can be supported by either a bearing wall, a beam, or by a header truss. A header truss has a flat top that is used to support stub trusses. The header truss has a depth to match that of the stub truss and is similar in function to a girder truss. The header truss spans between, and is hung from, two standard trusses. Stub trusses are hung from the header truss. A hip truss has a horizontal top chord parallel to the floor, which is used to form a hip roof. Each succeeding hip truss increases in height until the full height of the roof is achieved and standard trusses can be used. The height of each hip truss decreases as they get closer to the exterior wall, which is perpendicular to the ridge. Typically hip trusses must be 6' (1800 mm) from the exterior wall to achieve enough height to support the roof loads. Figure 28-59 shows where hip trusses could be used to frame a roof. The exact distance will be determined by the truss manufacturer and will be further explained in Chapter 32. A mono truss is a single-pitched truss used to form a shed roof, or used
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
www.hardboard.org www.alsc.org www.apawood.org www.bc.com www.canply.org www.csa.ca www.cwc.ca www.celotex.co.uk www.gp.com www.gypsum.org www.hpva.org
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
2 X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
MONO TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
U210 MTL. HGR. @ EA. TRUSS
FIGURE 2860 A mono truss is often used to blend a one-story area with a two-story area.
in conjunction with hip trusses to form the external portion of the hip roof. A mono truss is also useful in blending a one-level structure with a two-level structure, as seen in Figure 28-60.
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in building materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address
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Company, Product, or Service American Hardboard Association American Lumber Standards Commission, Inc. APA—The Engineered Wood Association Boise Cascade Canadian Plywood Canadian Standards Association Canadian Wood Council Celotex Corporation (insulating sheathing) Georgia-Pacific Corporation Gypsum Association Hardwood Plywood & Veneer Association
www.iilp.org www.internationalpaper.com
www.naad.org www.nahb.com
www.owenscorning.com www.typarhousewrap.com www.strongtie.com www.sfpa.org www.woodtruss.com www.masonrysociety.org www.tileusa.com www.trimjoist.com www.weyerhaeuser.com
International Institute for Lath, Plaster, & Drywall International Paper (highperformance building products) National Association of Aluminum Distributors National Commercial Builders Council of the National Association of Home Builders Owens Corning (house wrap and insulation) Reemay (Typar house wrap) Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Inc. Southern Forest Products Association Structural Building Components Portal The Masonry Society The Tile Council of America TrimJoist Engineered Wood Products Weyerhaeuser
684
Architectural Drafting and Design
See CD for more information
Structural Components Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows:
Question 28–13 How do ridge, ridge blocking, and ridge board differ?
1. Letter your name, Chapter 28 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 28–15 Sketch, list, and define four types of rafters.
Question 28–1 List two different floor framing methods, and explain the differences. Provide sketches to illustrate your answer.
Question 28–18 What two elements are typically applied to wood to make an engineered wood product?
Question 28–2 How do a girder, a header, and a beam differ?
Question 28–19 Define mudsill. Question 28–20 What function does a purlin serve?
Question 28–3 List the differences between a rim joist and solid blocking at the sill.
Question 28–21 Explain the difference between a bearing and a nonbearing wall.
Question 28–4 How wide are girders typically, for a residence framed with a conventional floor system?
Question 28–22 What is the minimum lap for top plates in a bearing wall?
Question 28–5 What are let-in braces and wall sheathing used for?
Question 28–23 Sketch, label, and define the members supporting the loads around a window.
Question 28–6 A let-in brace must be at what maximum angle?
Question 28–24 What is the most common spacing for rafters?
Question 28–7 Define the following abbreviations:
Question 28–25 What is the function of the top plate of a wall?
PSL
MDF
APA
OSB
EXP
EXT
LVL
HDF
STRUCT
Question 28–8 How is a foundation post protected from the moisture in the concrete support? Question 28–9 Blocking is required in walls over how many feet high? Question 28–10 List four common materials suitable for residential beams and girders. Question 28–11 What purpose does the bird’s mouth of a rafter serve? Question 28–12 What do the numbers 4/12 mean when placed on a roof pitch symbol?
Question 28–14 List three types of truss web materials.
Question 28–16 List two functions of a ceiling joist. Question 28–17 Define the four typical parts of a truss.
Question 28–26 What is the advantage of providing blocking at the edge of a floor diaphragm? Question 28–27 List the common sizes of engineered wood studs. Question 28–28 What are the common span ratings for plywood suitable for roof sheathing? Question 28–29 What grades of plywood are typically used for floor sheathing? Question 28–30 List eight qualities typically given in an APA wood rating.
CHAPTER 29
Design Criteria for Structural Loading I
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To advance in the field of architecture requires a thorough understanding of how the weight of the materials used for construction will be supported. This will require knowledge of loads and determining how they are dispersed throughout a structure. Several types of forces or loads affect structures. The most common are gravity, lateral loads, uplift, temporary loads, and moving loads. Gravity is a uniform force that affects all structures. Gravity causes a downward motion on each building component. Lateral loads produce a sideways motion on a structure. Lateral loads are caused by wind and seismic activity and vary in intensity according to the location of the structure and seismic activity. In addition to producing lateral force, wind can also produce uplift. Temporary loads are loads that must be supported for only a limited time. Storing 30 sheets of OSB roof sheathing on a few trusses is an example of a temporary load. Moving loads are loads that are not stationary. The moving loads most common in residential construction are produced by automobiles or construction equipment. This chapter will explore gravity loads, how they are transferred throughout a structure, and how to achieve equilibrium with the forces acting on the structure.
TYPES OF LOADS As a drafter, you will need to be concerned with several types of loads acting upon a building: dead, live, and dynamic loads. Because of the complexity of determining these loads exactly, building codes have tables of conventional safe loads, which can be used to help determine the amount of weight or stress acting on any given member.
Dead Loads Dead loads consist of the weight of the structure and include walls, floors, and roofs, plus any permanently fixed loads such as fixed service equipment. Building codes typically require design values to be based on a minimum dead load of 10 lb per square foot (psf) (0.48 kN/m2) for floors and ceilings. A design value of between 7 and 15 psf (0.48 and 0.72 kN/m2) for rafters is used, depending on the weight of the finished roofing.
The design load for dead loads can be verified in the design criteria section of each joist and rafter table (see Chapter 30). The symbol DL is used to represent the values for dead loads.
Live Loads Live loads are those superimposed on the building through its use. These loads include such things as people, furniture, and weather-related items such as wind, ice, snow, and water (rain). The most commonly encountered live loads are moving, roof, and snow loads. Live loads are represented by the symbol LL.
Floor Live Loads Buildings are designed for a specific use or occupancy. Depending on the occupancy, the floor live load will vary. The IRC requires floor members to be designed to support a minimum live load of 30 psf (1.44kN/m2) for sleeping rooms and 40 psf (1.92 kN/m2) for all other habitable rooms. Garage floors that will support the weight of a vehicle must be able to support a minimum live load of 50 psf (2.40 kN/m2). Exterior balconies and decks must be designed to support a minimum live load of 40 psf (1.92 kN/m2) although some municipalities require materials that can support a minimum live load of 60 psf (2.88 kN/m2). Live loads for floors will be further discussed in Chapter 42.
Moving Live Loads In residential construction, moving loads typically occur only in garage areas and are due to the weight of a car or truck. When the weight is being supported by a slab over soil, these loads do not usually cause concern. When moving weights are being supported by wood, the designer needs to take special care in the design. The IRC requires a minimum load of 50 psf (2.40 kN/m2) to be used in the design of residential garages. An elevated residential garage floor must also be able to support a 2000 (907 kg) pound load applied over a 20 sq in 1290 mm2 area. Elevated garage floors loads are typically beyond the ability level of most new designers, and should be drawn under the supervision of an architect or engineer. 685
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Roof Slope
Architectural Drafting and Design
Tributary Loaded Area In Square Feet for Any Structural Member 0–200 201–600 Over 600
Flat or rise less than 20 4" per foot (1:3) Rise 4" per foot (1:3) to 16 less than 12" per foot (1:1) Rise 12" per foot (1:1) 12 and greater
16
12
14
12
12
12
TABLE 291 Minimum Roof Live Loads in Pounds-Force per Square Foot of Horizontal Projection
Roof Live Loads Roof live loads vary from 20 to 40 psf (0.96 to 1.92 kN/m2), depending on the pitch and the use of the roof. The size of the area that will support the load, referred to as a tributary load, also affects the live load. Based on IRC requirements, these loads can be seen in Table 29-1. Some roofs also are used for sundecks and are designed in a manner similar to floors. Other roofs are so steep that they may be designed like a wall. Many building departments use 30 psf (1.44 kN/m2) as a safe live load for roofs. Consult the building department in your area for roof live load values.
Snow Loads Snow loads may or may not be a problem in the area where you are designing. You may be designing in an area where snow is something you dream about, not design for. If you are designing in an area where snow is something you shovel, it is also something you must allow for in your design. Because snow loads vary so greatly, the designer should consult tables similar to Figure 9-21 or the local building department to determine what amount of snow load should be considered. In addition to climatic variables, the elevation, wind frequency, duration of snowfall, and the exposure of the roof all influence the amount of live load design.
Dynamic Loads Dynamic loads are those imposed on a structure from a sudden gust of wind or from an earthquake.
Wind Loads Although wind design is usually designed by an architect or engineer, a drafter must understand the areas of a structure that are subject to failure. Figure 29-1 shows a partial map of minimum basic wind speeds that should be used to design a structure. This map provides general guidelines, but the local building department should be consulted for the design criteria for wind conditions for specific areas. Wind pressure creates wind loads on a structure. These loads vary greatly, depending on the
location and the height of the structure above the ground. IRC defines four basic wind exposure categories based on ground surface irregularities of the job site. Review Chapter 9 for a discussion of the four wind exposures. Figure 29-2 shows a simplified explanation of how winds can affect a house. Wind affects a wall just as it would the sail of a boat. With a boat, the desired effect is to move the boat. With a structure, this tendency to move must be resisted. The walls resisting the wind will tend to bow under the force of the wind pressure. The tendency can be resisted by roof and foundation members and perpendicular support walls. These supporting walls will tend to become parallelograms and collapse. The designer of the structure determines the anticipated wind speed and designs walls, typically referred to as shear walls, to resist this pressure. In planning for loads from wind, prevailing wind direction cannot be assumed. Winds are assumed to act in any horizontal direction and will create a positive pressure on the windward side of a structure. A negative pressure on the leeward (downwind) side of the structure creates a partial vacuum. Design pressures for a structure are based on the total pressure a structure might be expected to encounter, which is equal to the sum of the positive and negative pressure. A design value of 30 psf (1.44 kN/m2) is common for residential projects, but this value should be verified with local building departments. Thirty psf (1.44 kN/m2) equals a wind speed of 108 miles per hour (mph). Other common values can be seen in Table 29-2. Areas subject to high winds from hurricanes or tornados should be able to withstand winds of 125 mph (201 km/h), with 3-second gusts as high as 160 mph (257 km/h). Using these values, the designer can determine existing wall areas and the resulting wind pressure that must be resisted. This information is then used to determine the size and spacing of anchor bolts and any necessary metal straps or ties needed to reinforce the structure. Wind pressure is also critical to the design and placement of doors and windows. The design wind pressure will affect the size of the glazing area and the method of framing the rough openings for doors and windows. Openings in shear walls will reduce the effectiveness of the wall. Framing around openings must be connected to the frame and foundation to resist forces of uplift from wind pressure. Uplift, the tendency of members to move upward in response to wind or seismic pressure, is typically resisted by the use of steel straps or connectors that join the trimmer and king studs beside the window to the foundation or to framing members in the floor level below. Walls with large areas of openings must also have design studies to determine the amount of wall area that will be required to resist the
Chapter 29: Design Criteria for Structural Loading
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FIGURE 291 Basic minimum wind speeds for the design of wind pressure on a residence. See the IRC for complete listings. Reproduced from the International Residential Code / 2009. Copyright © 2009. Courtesy International Code Council, Inc. www.iccsafe.org.
SH
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WA
lateral pressure created by wind pressure. As a general rule of thumb, a wall section 4'–0" (1200 mm) is required for each 25 lineal feet (7500 mm) of wall. The amount of wall to be reinforced is based on the wall height, the seismic zone, the size of openings by the shear panel, and the method of construction used to reinforce the wall. Chapter 32 explores methods
LL
N N D TIO W I REC I D
SH
EA
R
L WA
L
FIGURE 292 Wind pressure on a wall will be resisted by the bolts connecting the wall sill to the foundation and by the roof structure. The wind is also resisted by shear walls, which are perpendicular to the wall under pressure.
psf kN/m2 mph
km/h
psf
kN/m2 mph
km/h
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
122 142 159 174 188 201 214
50 55 60 70 80 90 100
2.40 2.64 2.88 3.36 3.84 4.32 4.80
225 237 246 266 285 303 319
0.72 0.96 1.20 1.44 1.68 1.92 2.16
76 88 99 108 117 125 133
TABLE 292 Wind Loads
140 147 153 165 177 188 198
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Architectural Drafting and Design
4 X 6 POST HD-5A W/ 2-3/4" DIA. BOLTS THRU POST & 3/4" DIA BOLT THRU BEAM 3" CONC. FLOOR 2 X 12 F.J. @12" O.C 3 X 6 P.T. PLATE
W16 x 67
11 S-14
DBL SOLID BLK @ EA. SPACE BELOW POST
POST / WIDE FLANGE 3/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 293 Metal straps are used to transfer the loads from one floor through to another and down into the foundation. This detail will hold the wood floor system to the steel girders for the hillside home shown in Figure 28-6.
of resisting the forces of shear using the prescriptive methods of the building codes. Another problem created by wind pressure is the tendency of a structure to overturn. Structures built on pilings or other posted foundations allow wind pressure under the structure to exceed the pressure on the leeward side of the structure. Codes require that the resistance of the dead loads of a building to overturning be one and a half times the overturning effect of the wind. Metal ties are used to connect the walls to the floor, the floor joists to support beams, the support beams to supporting columns, and columns to the foundation. These ties are determined by an architect or engineer for each structure and are based on the area exposed to the wind and the wind pressure. Figure 29-3 shows an example of a detail designed by an engineer to resist the forces of uplift on a structure.
Seismic Loads Seismic loads result from earthquakes. Figure 29-4 shows a seismic map of the United States and the risk in each area of damage from earthquakes. The IRC has specific requirements for seismic design based on the location and soil type of the building site and the building shape. Chapter 32 explores building shape as it relates to construction materials. Chapter 33 discusses soil types and their effect on structures. Six seismic zones are listed in the IRC, ranging from zone A through zone F based on definitions provided in the International Building Code. Zone A is the least prone to seismic damage and structures
in zone E are most likely to be damaged by earthquakes. Zones A, B, and C do not require special construction methods. Special provisions are provided in the IRC for structures built in zones D1 and D2. Structures built in zone E and zone F are governed by the IBC. Stress that results from an earthquake is termed a seismic load and is usually treated as a lateral load that involves the entire structure. Lateral loads created by wind affect only certain parts of a structure; lateral forces created by seismic forces affect the entire structure. As the ground moves in varying directions at varying speeds, the entire structure is set in motion. Even after the ground comes to rest, the structure tends to wobble like Jell-O. Typically, structures fall to seismic forces in much the same way as they do to wind pressure. Intersections of roofs-to-wall, wall-tofloor, and floor-to-foundation are critical to the ability of a structure to resist seismic forces. An architect or engineer should design these connections. Typically, a structure must be fluid enough to move with the shock wave, but so connected that individual components move as a unit and all units of a structure move as one. Figure 29-5 shows a detail of an engineer’s design for a connection of a garage-door king stud designed to resist seismic forces. The straps that are attached to the wall cause the wall and foundation to move as one unit.
LOAD DESIGN Once the floor plan and elevations have been designed, the designer can start the process of determining how the structure will resist the loads that will be imposed on it. The goal of load design is to achieve equilibrium between the structure and the forces that will act upon the structure. For the gravity loads pushing down on the structure, an opposite and equal force or reaction must resist the gravity loads. The structural members of the home form a load path to transfer gravity loads into the foundation and then into the soil. The load path is the route that is used to transfer the roof loads into the walls, then into the floor, and then to the foundation. The structural members must be of sufficient size to resist the loads that are above the member. To determine the sizes of material required, it is always best to start at the roof and work down to the foundation. When you calculate from the top down, the loads will be accumulating; and when you work down to the foundation, you will have the total loads needed to size the footings. As a beginning drafter you are not expected to design the structural components. In most offices, the structural design of even the simplest buildings is done by a designer
Chapter 29: Design Criteria for Structural Loading
689
FIGURE 294 Seismic zone map for site Class-D can be used to determine the potential risk of damage from earthquakes. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
4 X 4 POSTS
MSTA-18 STRAP BY SIMPSON CO. ON EA. SIDE OF POST. 2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ (3)- 1/2" DIA X 10" A.B.
(1) -#4 VERT. AT EA. MTL. STRAP
Dead Load (DL)
Live Load (LL)
Total
Floors (nonsleeping) Floors (sleeping rooms) Exterior balconies Decks Walls Attics (without storage) Attics (with storage) Roofs (light coverings) Roofs (tile)
10 10 10 10 10 5 10 10 25
40 30 60 40 — 10 20 30 30
50 40 70 50 — 15 30 40 55
TABLE 293 Minimum Design Loads
# 4 CONT. 3" UP FROM BTM. OF 15" X 7" FTG. EXTEND STEEL 10'-0" AROUND FOOTING CORNER.
simple beam, the load on it is equally dispersed to each support. An individual floor joist, rafter, or truss or a wall may be thought of as a simple beam. For instance, the wall resisting the wind load in Figure 29-2 can be thought of as a simple beam because it spans between two supporting walls and has a uniform load. If a beam is supporting a uniformly distributed load of 10,000 lb (4536 kg), each supporting post would be resisting 5000 lb (2268 kg). A complex beam has a non-uniform load at any point of the beam, or supports that are not located at the end of the beam. Chapter 31 introduces methods of determining beam sizes when the loads are not evenly distributed. Table 29-3 shows a summary of typical building weights based on minimum design values from the IRC. Figure 29-6 shows the bearing walls for a one-story structure framed with a truss roof system and a postand-beam floor system. Remember that with a typical truss system, all interior walls are nonbearing. Half of
SHEAR / FND. TIE
3/4"
Member
1'-0"
FIGURE 295 Hold-down anchors are used to resist seismic forces and form a stable intersection between the floor and foundation.
or an engineer. The information in this chapter is a brief introduction into the size of structural members.
LOAD DISTRIBUTION A beam may be simple or complex. A simple beam has a uniform load evenly distributed over the entire length of the beam and is supported at each end. With a
TOTAL ROOF LOAD 1440# (32'+2'+2') X 40#
ROOF LOAD ON WALL 720#
FLOOR WEIGHT 100# (2'X 50#)
200# ( 4'X 50#)
8'-0"
WALL WEIGHT 80#
720# (ROOF LOAD ON WALL)
WALL WEIGHT 80# (8' X 10#)
FLOOR WEIGHT 100#
TOTAL LOAD SUPPORTED 900# ON FOUNDATION
4'-0" 32'-0"
TOTAL LOAD SUPPORTED ON FOUNDATION 900# (720#+80#+100#)
FIGURE 296 Loads for a one-level structure framed with a truss roof with 2' overhangs and a post-and-beam foundation system.
Chapter 29: Design Criteria for Structural Loading
32'-0"
1/4 OF TOTAL LOADS
16'-0"
8'-0"
15'-0"
1/2 OF TOTAL LOADS
8'-0"
1/4 OF TOTAL LOADS
691
16'-0"
RAFTER SPAN RAFTER SPAN
FIGURE 298 Load distribution on a simple beam.
Upper Floor 8'-0"
16'-0"
8'-0"
32'-0"
FIGURE 297 Bearing walls and load distribution of a typical home.
the roof weight will be supported by the left wall, and half of the roof weight will be supported by the right wall. For a structure 32' wide with 2' overhangs, the entire roof will weigh 1440 lb (36' × 40#). Each linear foot of wall will hold 720 lb (18' × 40# psf), which is half the total roof weight. If the walls are 8' tall, each wall will weigh 80 lb (8' × 10#) per linear foot of wall. The foundation will hold 100 lb of floor load (2' × 50#) per linear foot. Only 2' of floor will be supported, because beams are typically placed at 48" O.C. Half of the floor weight (2' × 50#) is placed on the stem wall, and half of the weight (2' × 50#) will be supported by the girder parallel to the stem wall. Each interior girder will support 200 lb (4' × 50#) per linear foot of floor weight. The total weight on the stem wall per foot will be the sum of the roof, wall, and floor loads, which equals 900 lb. Figure 29-7 shows the bearing walls of a two-level structure framed using western platform construction methods. This building has a bearing wall that is located approximately halfway between the exterior walls. For this type of building, one-half of the total building loads will be on the central bearing wall, and one-quarter of the total building loads will be on each exterior wall. Examine the building one floor at a time and see why.
At the upper floor level, the roof and ceiling loads are being supported. In a building 32' × 15', as shown in Figure 29-8, each rafter is spanning 16'. Of course the rafter is longer than 16', but remember that the span is a horizontal measurement. If the loads are uniformly distributed throughout the roof, half of the weight of the roof will be supported at each end of the rafter. At the ridge, half of the total roof weight is being supported. At each exterior wall, one-quarter of the total roof load is being supported. At the ceiling and the other floor levels, the loading is the same. One-half of each joist is supported at the center wall and half at the outer wall. Using the loads from Table 29-3, the weights being supported can be determined. Calculating the total weight that a wall supports is a matter of determining the area being supported and multiplying by the weight.
Roof The area being supported at an exterior wall is 15' long by 10' wide (8' + 2' overhang), which is 150 sq ft. The roof load equals the sum of the live and dead loads. Assume a live load of 30 psf. For the dead load, assume the roof is built with asphalt shingles, 1/2" ply, and 2 × 8 rafters for a dead load of approximately 8 psf. For simplicity, 8 can be rounded up to 10 psf for the dead load. By adding the dead and live loads, you can determine that the total roof load is 40 psf. The total roof weight the wall is supporting is 6000 lb (150 × 40 lb = 6000 lb). Because the center area in the example is twice as big, the weight will also be approximately twice as big. But just to be sure, check the total weight on the center wall.
692
You should be using 15 × 16 × 40 lb for your calculations. The wall is 15' long and holds 8' of rafters on each side of the wall, for a total of 16'. Using an LL of 40 lb, the wall is supporting 9600 pounds.
Architectural Drafting and Design
ROOF 9600 # ROOF 6000 # CEILING 3600 #
ROOF 6000 # CEILING 3600 #
Ceiling The procedure for calculating a ceiling is the same as for a roof, but the loads are different. A typical loading pattern for a ceiling with storage is 30 lb. At the outer walls the formula would be 15 × 8 × 30 lb, or 3600 lb. The center wall would be holding 15 × 16 × 30 lb, or 7200 lb.
Lower Floor Finding the weight of a floor is the same as finding the weight of a ceiling, but the loads are much greater. The LL for residential floors is 40 lb and the DL is 10 lb, for a total of 50 lb per sq ft.
Walls The only other weight left to be determined is the weight of the walls. Generally, walls are 8'−0" high and average about 10 lb psf. Determine the height
7200 # CEILING
WALL 1200 #
1200 # WALL
FLOOR 6000 #
WALL 1200 # FLOOR 6000 #
1200 # WALL
WALL 1200 #
12,000 # FLOOR
FLOOR 6000 #
24,000 #
43,200 #
WALL 1200 # FLOOR 6000 #
24,000 #
FIGURE 299 Total loads supported by footings. Using the assumed loads multiplied by 15 (the length of the building) produces the total loads.
of the wall and multiply by the length of the wall to find its area. Multiply the area by the weight per square foot, and you will have the total wall weight. Figure 29-9 shows the total weight that will be supported by the footings.
Design Criteria for Structural Loading Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements. Show all work and provide a sketch of a simple section and plan view to show how loads will be supported for the questions and problems.
Question 29–4 What factors cause snow loads to vary so widely within the same area?
1. Letter your name, Chapter 29 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 29–6 What load will a floor 15' wide by 25' long generate per linear foot on the stem wall if the floor joists are parallel to the 25'-long wall? If they are parallel to the 15' wall?
Question 29–1 What are the two major categories of loads that affect buildings? Question 29–2 What is the safe design live load for a residential floor? Question 29–3 What is the safe design total load for a residential floor?
Question 29–5 On a uniformly loaded joist, how will the weight be distributed?
Question 29–7 If the floor in Question 29–6 had a girder to support it 12'−6" in from the edge of the short wall (centered), how much weight would the girder be supporting? Question 29–8 A building is 20' wide with 2' overhangs and a tile roof supported by trusses. The roof shape is a gable, and the building is 30' long. What amount of roof weight is being supported by the walls? What
Chapter 29: Design Criteria for Structural Loading
amount of weight per linear foot is a footing at the bottom of the 8'−0"-high wall supporting? Assume a post-and-beam foundation is used, with the beams parallel to the footing in question. Question 29–9 A one-story home with a post-and-beam floor needs a foundation design. Girders will be placed at 4' O.C. with support every 8'. What weight will the girders be supporting in nonsleeping areas? What weight will the stem wall at the end of the girder be supporting in sleeping areas?
PROBLEMS Show all work and provide a sketch of the plan view and a simple section to show how the loads will be supported. Assume standard spacing for each member if the spacing is not specified.
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Problem 29–5 Steel columns will be used at each end to support a 16'-long girder with a weight of 1260 lb per linear foot. How much weight will the columns support? Problem 29–6 A residence will be built with a truss roof spanning 24', with built-up roofing and 30" overhangs. How much weight would a header over a window 8' wide in a bearing wall need to support? How much weight would an 8' header support if it were in the wall perpendicular to the ridge? Use the following information to complete Problem 29–7 through Problem 29–11. Answer the questions by providing the weight per linear foot. A one-level residence will be built using trusses with 36" overhangs. The residence will be 24' wide. The roof is 235-lb composition shingles. Floor joists will be placed at 16" O.C. with girders spaced at 12'–0" O.C. All walls will be 8'–0" high.
Problem 29–1 If a joist with a total uniform load of 500 lb is supported at each end, how much weight will each end be supporting?
Problem 29–7 How much weight will be supported by a header over a window 6' wide in an exterior bearing wall?
Problem 29–2 If a joist with a total uniform load of 700 lb is supported at the midpoint and at each end, how much weight will be supported at each support?
Problem 29–8 A wall is to be built 11'−9" from the right bearing wall. If a 2'−6" pocket door is to be installed in the wall, how long will the header need to be, and how much weight will it be supporting?
Problem 29–3 A 16' rafter/ceiling joist at a 6/12 pitch will be supporting a cedar shake roof. What will be the total weight supported if the rafters are spaced at 12" O.C.? 16" O.C.? 24" O.C.? Problem 29–4 A stub truss with a 24" overhang will span 28' over a residence and support 300-lb composition shingles. It will be supported by a wall at one end and a girder truss with a metal hanger at the other end. How much weight will the hanger need to support?
Problem 29–9 Determine the load to be supported and specify the width of footing required if a wall is placed 14' from the left bearing wall. Problem 29–10 What will be the total dead load per linear foot that the bearing wall on the right side will be supporting? Problem 29–11 What will be the total roof load that the bearing wall on the left side will be supporting?
CHAPTER 30
Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables I
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The complexity of the structure and the experience of the drafter determine who will size the framing members. Even if each framing member will be determined by an engineer, a drafter should understand how span tables are used to determine joists and rafters. Because joists and rafters are considered simple beams with uniform loads, their sizes can be determined from span tables contained in the building code.
Standard framing practice is to place structural members at 12", 16", 19.2", or 24" (300, 400, 480, or 600 mm) on center. Because of this practice, standard tables have been developed for the sizing of repetitive members. These tables are available from the International Residential Code (IRC) and from major lumber associations such as the American Forest and Paper Association, Western Wood Products Association, or the Southern Forest Products Association. To use these tables you must understand a few basic facts, including typical loading reactions of framing members and the structural capabilities of various species and grades of wood.
DETERMINING SIZE AND SPAN The IRC provides allowable span tables for floor joists, ceiling joists, and rafters. Determine how the wood is to be used and proceed to the proper table. A few simple headings must be located at the top of the table before any spans can be identified (see Figure 30-1 to become familiar with the basics of the span table). Some of the key information to be gleaned from this part of the table includes: ●
Title. The IRC includes several different span charts, and it is extremely easy to use the wrong table. Double-check the title to see that you have the right table.
●
Loads. Within some categories of tables, the values for the table are determined by the loads assumed to be supported. In Figure 30-1, the table is based on an assumed LL value of 40 psf and dead loads of 10 or 20 psf. The values in this table will work well for a residence, but not for an office.
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Deflection. The term deflection describes the stiffness of a structural member by its tendency to bend under a load. A beam will usually not fail from deflection, but the members that the beam supports will fail. When floor joists sag too much, Sheetrock will crack, or doors and windows will stick. Allowable deflection is represented by a symbol such as L/∆ = 360. Other allowable options include L/∆ = 240 and L/∆ = 180. The IRC lists the allowable deflection in the design criteria of each span table. The allowable deflection listed in the design criteria defines how much a member is allowed to sag. Deflection will be further explained in Chapter 31.
●
Size and spacing of lumber. The left side of the span table is the size and spacing of the framing lumber. In Figure 30-2, you will notice that each size of structural member has a value for a spacing of 12", 16", 19.2", and 24" O.C.
DETERMINING WOOD CHARACTERISTICS Before a span table can be used, you must be familiar with the species and grade of wood used for framing in your area. The most common types of framing lumber are Douglas fir–larch (DFL #2), Southern pine (SP #2), Spruce-pine-fir (SPF #2), and Hemlock-fir (Hem-fir #2). Notice that each species is followed by #2. This number refers to the grade value of the species. Usually only #1 or #2 grade lumber is used as structural lumber. The wood listed as #3 has too many checks and cracks to provide the needed strength for structural lumber. SS represents select structural lumber, a high-quality wood that is too expensive to be used for anything except exposed beams for the rich and famous. Once the type of framing lumber is known, the safe span can be determined.
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DEAD LOAD VALUE
LUMBER SIZE
TITLE
2X6
SPECIES
2X8
2 X 10
2 X 12 2
2X6
2X8
DEFLECTION VALUE
2 X 10
2 X 12
SPAN
FIGURE 301 Because of a wide variety of span tables with a similar appearance, it is critical that a few basic facts be studied before using each table. Before determining a span, verify the table title, the live and dead loads, the deflection limits, the lumber size, and spacing. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Sizing Floor Joists Tables divided by living areas and sleeping areas are provided by the IRC to determine floor joists. The table shown in Figure 30-2 is intended for use in determining floor joists that will be used in residential living areas. Joist spans from this table can be used in sleeping areas, but joist spans from Figure 30-3 should not be used in general living areas.
Sizing Floor Joists for Living Areas To use Figure 30-2, find the column that represents proper species and grade for the lumber used in your area. The first listing in the column is 11–4. The 11–4 represents a maximum allowable span of 11'−4". For this example, Douglas fir #2 will be used. Because the most common spacing for floor joists is 16" O.C., drop down to the 16" spacing box. Using the Douglas fir– larch #2 option of the 16" row and the 10-lb column, you will find spans listed for 2 × 6 = 9−9, 2 × 8 = 12–7, 2 × 10 = 15−5, and 2 × 12 = 17−10. If you were looking for floor joists to support a living room floor that is 14'−6" wide, the 2 × 10 floor joists would be suitable. Using 2 × 12 floor joists placed at 24" O.C. would also be suitable with a maximum span of 14'−7". Using Figure 30-2, determine the distance 2 × 8 Hem-fir #2 floor joists will span at 16" O.C. Work to the right until you come to 2 × 8. Now work down to the 16" spacing row. The span for a 2 × 8 at 16" O.C. with a dead load of 10 lb is 12'−0". Use the same procedure for determining the span for a 2 × 10 SP #2 floor joist at 16" O.C. The listed span is 16'−1". Typically, the span will be known, and the drafter will need to determine the size of member. For instance,
determine the size of floor joists needed for a living area that is 15' wide. Assume Southern pine with a dead load of 10 lb will be used. Using joists spaced at 24" or 19.2" O.C., 2 × 12 could be used. With a spacing of 16" O.C., either 2 × 10 or 2 × 12 joists could be used. Even if select structural lumber is used, 2 × 8 joists cannot be used to span 15'−0". If a girder is used at the midpoint to reduce the span, 2 × 6 SP #2 joists placed at 24" O.C. could be used safely. The designer will now need to determine if it is more cost effective to use 2 × 6 joists at 24" O.C. and a girder, or 2 × 10 joists at 16" O.C. with no girder. For most markets, the cost of labor will be the determining factor rather than the cost of the lumber. To reduce labor cost, the 2 × 10 SP #2 at 16" O.C. will be more economical.
Sizing Floor Joists for Sleeping Areas The IRC allows the floor live load of sleeping areas to be reduced from 40 to 30 lb. The table in Figure 30-3 can be used to determine floor joists with a live load of 30 psf and a dead load of either 10 or 20 psf. Values from this table are determined using the same methods that were used with Figure 30-2. Notice that to determine the DFL #2 floor joists needed to support a bedroom with a 14'−6" span, that 2 × 8 at 12" O.C. or 2 × 10 at 16" O.C. can be used.
Sizing Ceiling Joists To determine the size of a ceiling joist, use the proper table and the same procedure that was used to size floor joists. Because they are both horizontal members, they will have similar loading patterns. A table for sizing ceiling joists can be seen in Figure 30-4.
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FIGURE 302 This span table is suitable for determining floor joists for living areas with a live load of 40 psf, a deflection of L/D∆ = 360, and dead load of either 10 or 20 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Chapter 30: Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables
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FIGURE 303 This span table is suitable for determining floor joists for sleeping areas with a live load of 30 psf and dead load of either 10 or 20 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
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FIGURE 304 This span table is suitable for determining ceiling joists without storage areas with a live load of 10 psf and a dead load of 5 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Chapter 30: Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables
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For ceiling joists the live load is only 10 psf. Span tables are available for ceiling joists with and without storage. Using Figure 30-4, determine the smallest size DFL #2 ceiling joist that will span 16' at 16" O.C. You will find that a 2 × 6 at 16" O.C. will span 17'−8". Figure 30-5 shows a table for ceiling joists with limited attic storage. This table will be more realistic for most residential uses. Notice that the dead load has been increased from 5 to 10 psf. Using DFL #2 joists at 16" O.C. to span 16' will require 2 × 8 joists to be used. These joists are suitable for spanning distances of up to 16'−3".
adjustment factors provided in the table need to be applied that will reduce the allowable rafter span.
Sizing Rafters
Sizing Engineered Floor Joists
Although the selection of rafters is similar to the selection of joists, two major differences will be encountered. Tables are available for rafters with and without the ceiling attached to the rafters, and based on the ground snow load. Load tables with ground snow loads of 30, 50, and 70 psf are available in the IRC. Remember that the required load to be supported should be verified with the building department that will govern the job site. Your local building department will determine which live load value is to be used. The dead load is determined by the construction materials to be used. The table in Figure 30-6 with a dead load of 10 psf would be suitable for rafters supporting most materials except tile, with no interior finish. The column in Figure 30-6 with a load of 20 psf is suitable for supporting most tiles. Vendor catalogs should always be consulted to determine the required dead loads. Figure 30-7 shows a similar table for 30-lb loads. Once the live and dead loads have been determined, choose the appropriate table. Determine what size Hem-fir rafter should be used to support a roof over a room 18' wide framed with a gable roof. Assume the roof is supporting 235-lb composition shingles with a live load of 20 psf, a dead load of 10 psf, and 24" spacing. Because a gable roof is being framed, the actual horizontal span is only 9'−0". Using the table in Figure 30-6, it can be seen that 2 × 6 HF #2 rafters spaced at 24" O.C. are suitable for spans of up to 11'−7". If the same room were to be framed with DFL #2 lumber, 2 × 6 members would be suitable for spans of up to 11'−9". If the spacing is reduced to 16" O.C., 2 × 4 DFL #2 rafters can be used for spans of up to 9'−10". Even though they are legal, many framers will not use 2 × 4 members because they tend to split as they are attached to the wall top plates. If ceiling joists or rafters ties are located above the bottom of the attic,
Figure 30-8 shows a span table for engineered floor joists. Notice that this actually consists of two tables. The lower portion of the table describes spans based on code-allowed deflections. The upper portion of the table describes spans based on the manufacturer’s suggested deflection limits of L/480. The increased deflection limits will produce an excellent floor system with little or no vibration or squeaking. To determine the joist size required to span 16'−0", follow these steps:
WORKING WITH ENGINEERED LUMBER Determining the span of engineered lumber is similar to sizing sawn lumber, although span tables will vary slightly for each manufacturer. Most suppliers of engineered joists provide materials for determining floor joists and rafters. The balance of this chapter will explore material supplied by Weyerhaeuser.
● ● ● ●
Determine the deflection limit to be used. For this example L/360 will be used. Identify the loading condition to be used. For this example a 40 psf LL and a 10 psf DL will be used. Select the on center spacing to be used. For this example 24" O.C. will be used. Scan down the spacing column until a distance that exceeds the span is located. For this example, the first joist that meets the design criteria is the 11 7/8" TJI/210 joist with a span of 16'−10".
Compare the same joist with the top half of the table. Using the stricter deflection limits, the 11 7/8" TJI/210 joist will span 16'−5". If the spacing is changed to 12" O.C., a 9 1/2" TJI/110 could be used with a maximum span of 16'−5".
Selecting Engineered Rafters Figure 30-9 shows an example of a table that can be used to determine engineered rafter sizes. Before using the table, notice the deflections and the divisions in the table. Deflection is limited to L/180, and the table is divided into non-snow and snow load areas and low and high sloped roofs. The low listing should be used for roofs with a slope of less than
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FIGURE 305 This span table is suitable for determining ceiling joists with limited storage and a live load of 10 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Chapter 30: Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables
FIGURE 306 This span table is suitable for determining rafters that do not support ceiling loads. Design loads include a live load of 20 psf and a dead load of either 10 or 20 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
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FIGURE 306 Continued
FIGURE 307 This span table is suitable for determining rafters that do not support the ceiling loads with a ground snow load of 30 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Chapter 30: Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables
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FIGURE 307 Continued
6/12, and the high listing should be used for slopes greater than 6/12. The following steps can be used to determine the required rafter size to span 16'−0" on a 5/12 pitch supporting composition shingles: ●
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Determine the roof loading to be used. For this example, a LL of 20 lb and a DL of 15 lb with no snow will be used. Determine the appropriate slope column to be used. For this example, the low column will be used.
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Move down the 20LL + 15DL low column into a row that reflects the desired spacing until a value is found that equals or exceeds the required span. All of the values for 16" and 19.2" rafters exceed the required 16'−0" span. A 9 1/2" TJI/150 at 24" O.C. can be used for the required span.
As with other types of engineered materials, consult all of the manufacturer’s instructions.
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FIGURE 308 Engineered floor joist span tables. Courtesy Trus Joist, A Weyerhaeuser Business. All rights reserved.
Chapter 30: Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables
FIGURE 309 Engineered rafter span tables. Courtesy Trus Joist, A Weyerhaeuser Business. All rights reserved.
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current on lumber manufacturers. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.afandpa.org www.aitc-glulam.org www.awc.org www.bcewp.com
Company, Product, or Service American Forest and Paper Association American Institute of Timber Construction American Wood Council (NDS Standards) Boise Cascade (engineered wood products)
www.cwc.ca www.gp.com www.ilevel.com www.lpcorp.com www.sfpa.org www.woodtruss.com www.wwpa.org www.weyerhaeuser.com
Canadian Wood Council Georgia-Pacific Corporation I-level by Weyerhaeuser Louisiana-Pacific Corporation Southern Forest Products Association Structural Building Components Association Western Wood Products Association Weyerhaeuser (building products)
Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 30 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it. Use the type of lumber common to your area to answer the following questions. Unless something else is noted, use #2 material.
Question 30–7 Determine the floor joist size needed to span 13'−0" to support a kitchen floor. Question 30–8 Determine the smallest floor joist size needed to span 13'−0" to support a living room floor. Question 30–9 What is the smallest size floor joist that can be used to span 15'−9" beneath a kitchen? Question 30–10 What floor joist size would be needed to support a kitchen 12'−2" wide? Question 30–11 Determine the smallest floor joists that could be used to span 12'−8".
Question 30–1 List four common types of lumber used for framing throughout the country.
Question 30–12 What is deflection, and how do building codes express its limits?
Question 30–2 How is modulus of elasticity represented in engineering formulas?
Question 30–13 Use the Internet or local vendor resources to locate five or more different manufacturers of engineered floor joists that are available in your area.
Question 30–3 Determine the floor joist size that will be required to span 15'−0" if spaced at 16" O.C. Question 30–4 You are considering the use of 2 × 8 floor joists to span 14'−0". Will they work? Question 30–5 Using 2 × 6s at 16" O.C. for ceiling joists, determine their maximum safe span. Question 30–6 Determine the size of lumber required to span 16'−6" with 16" and 24" spacings for rafter/ ceiling joists.
Question 30–14 Use the tables presented in this chapter and determine the floor joist size required to span 17'−0" using L/360 and L/480 using a spacing of 16" O.C. Question 30–15 What is the advantage of using a deflection value of L/480 if the building codes allow a greater deflection?
Chapter 30: Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables
PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: Use the tables presented in this chapter to complete the following problems. Unless noted, use DFL #2 at standard spacing. Use the Weyerhaeuser Web site when necessary.
Problem 30–1 A living room is 17'−9" wide. What is the smallest size ceiling joist that could be used for an attic with no storage? Problem 30–2 A contractor has bought a truckload of 2 × 6s 18' long. Can they be used for ceiling joists with no attic storage spaced at 16" O.C.? Problem 30–3 What size rafter is needed for a home 28' wide with a gable roof, 4/12 pitch with 235-lb composition shingles if a 10# dead load and a 30# live load is assumed? Problem 30–4 What is the maximum span allowed using 2 × 10 rafters for a 3/12 pitch using built-up roofing if a 10-lb dead load and a 20-lb live load is assumed? Problem 30–5 Determine the rafter size to be used to span 14' and support a 20-lb dead load at a 6/12 pitch.
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Problem 30–6 What size engineered floor joists should be used for a floor span of 17'−9" if L /480 is to be used? Problem 30–7 A 9 1/2" TJI/110 at 24" O.C. will be used to cantilever 24". The joist will support a floor load of 45 psf and a wall that supports a truss 28' wide with 1' overhangs. How should the cantilevered joist be reinforced? Problem 30–8 If the joists in Problem 30–7 were placed at 16" O.C., how should they be reinforced? Problem 30–9 Engineered rafters are required to span 19' and support 300-lb composition shingles on a 6/12 pitch in an area where no snow is expected. What size TJI should be used if 24" spacing is desired? Problem 30–10 Engineered rafters are required to span 17'−6" and support a DL of 20 lb on a 5/12 pitch in an area where no snow is expected. What is the smallest size engineered material that can be used? What is the smallest size rafter that can be used if 24" spacing is desired?
CHAPTER 31
Determining Beam Sizes I
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As you advance in your architectural skills, the need to determine the size of structural members will occur frequently in residential design. This chapter will introduce loads that must be considered, define structural lumber, and explore how the sizes of wood beams are determined. You will need to develop several skills in order to determine the size of structural members easily. These skills include the ability to distinguish loading patterns on beams, recognize standard engineering symbols used in beam formulas, recognize common causes of beam failure, and understand how to select beams to resist these tendencies.
STRUCTURAL LUMBER No matter how the loads are placed or what size the load is, all beams will bend to some extent. How and to what extent a beam will bend depends on its natural properties. These properties vary depending on the size of the member, the type of wood to be used, the moisture content of the wood, and defects in the wood.
Lumber Sizes Lumber is described using a nominal size and a net size. Nominal size describes the width and depth of a piece of wood in whole inches, such as a 6 × 10. The 6 represents the width and the 10 represents the depth of the beam. A 6 × 12 will shrink in size as it 2" Material (in.) (mm)
Lumber Grading Most structural lumber is visually graded when it is sawn at a mill. With visual inspection methods, wood is evaluated by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Products laboratory. Some structural lumber is tested nondestructively by machine and graded as mechanically evaluated lumber (MEL). The current standard for rating lumber is the NDS 2005 standard (National Design Specifications for Wood Construction), based on destructive testing of visually graded dimension lumber. The lumber guidelines can be found on the American Forest and Paper Association Web site. With NDS guidelines, wood is given a designation such as #1 to define its quality and a base value for the species. The base value is then adjusted, depending on the size of the lumber. The grading process takes into account what portion of the tree the member was sawn from and natural defects in the wood such as knots and checks. In addition to the NDS and IRC prescriptive tables,
4" Material (in.) (mm)
(in.)
6" Material (mm)
1½" × 3½"
38 × 90
3½" × 3½"
90 × 90
5½" × 3½"
140 × 90
1½" × 5½"
38 × 140
3½" × 5½"
90 × 140
5½" × 5½"
140 × 140
1½" × 7½"
38 × 190
3½" × 7¼"
90 × 184
5½" × 7½"
140 × 190
1½" × 9¼"
38 × 235
3½" × 9¼"
90 × 235
5½" × 9½"
140 × 240
1½" × 11¼"
38 × 280
3½" × 11¼"
90 × 280
5½" × 11½"
140 × 290
1½" × 13¼"
38 × 330
3½" × 13½"
90 × 340
5½" × 13½"
140 × 340
TABLE 311 Common Net Lumber Sizes 708
dries, and it will be reduced in size as it is smoothed with a planer. The final size of wood after planing is referred to as the net size. The net next size of a 6 × 10 is 5 1/2" × 9 1/2" (140 × 240 mm). The net size is used in designing structural members. Common net sizes include widths of 1 1/2", 3 1/2", 5 1/2", and 7 1/4" (38, 90, 140, and 180 mm). The net depth will vary depending on the width. Common net sizes can be seen in Table 31-1.
Chapter 31: Determining Beam Sizes
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the NDS includes Allowable Stress Design (ASD) and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) methods that can be used by the designers. No matter how the wood is evaluated, common terms used to define it include dimension lumber, timbers, post and timbers, and beams and stringers.
Dimension Lumber
SURFACE NEAREST LOAD IN COMPRESSION
b
NEUTRAL AXIS d
Dimension lumber ranges in thickness from 2" to 4" (50 to 100 mm) and has moisture content of less than 19%. Common grades of dimension lumber include: ● ● ● ● ● ●
Stud. 2" to 6" (50 to 150 mm) width and a maximum length of 10' (3000 mm). Select structural. No. 1 and better. No. 1, 2, & 3. Construction. Utility.
Timbers Timber is both a general classification for large sizes of structural lumber and the name of a specific grade and size: structural lumber that is at least 5" (125 mm) thick. The two basic categories of timber include post and timbers and beams and stringers. ●
●
Post and timbers. This classification refers to structural lumber that is 5 × 5 and larger with a thickness and width that are the same or within 2" (50 mm) of each other such as a 6 × 6 or 6 × 8. Beams and stringers. This classification refers to structural lumber that is 5 × 5 and larger with a thickness 2" (50 mm) or greater than the width such as a 6 × 10 or 6 × 12.
Properties of Lumber In addition to the terms used to describe lumber, several key terms must be understood to determine the size of wood beams. These terms include breadth, depth, area, extreme fiber stresses, neutral axis, moment of inertia, section modulus, and grain (see Figure 31-1). Some definitions of lumber terms follow. A: Area of the beam, determined using b × d. b: Breadth of a rectangular beam in inches. d: Depth of a rectangular beam in inches. Fb: Extreme fiber stresses: As a beam deflects from the load it supports, the surface of the beam supporting the load will be placed in compression. The bottom of the beam will be placed in tension.
LOAD
SURFACE OPPOSITE OF LOAD IN TENSION
FIGURE 311 Common properties of rectangular lumber. When a load is placed on the top of a beam, the surface nearest the load is placed in compression and the surface away from the beam is in tension.
Neutral axis: The axis formed where the forces of compression and tension in a beam reach equilibrium. It is formed at the midpoint between the forces of compression and tension. Because the upper and lower surfaces of the beam resist the most stress, holes can be drilled near the neutral axis without greatly affecting the strength of the beam. This chapter will explore the placement of loads on a beam and help determine the loads that must be resisted so that equilibrium can be achieved. I: Moment of inertia is the sum of the products of each of the elementary areas of a beam multiplied by the square of their distance from the neutral axis of the cross section. This sounds technical, but a value for I is listed in tables that will be presented later in this chapter for use in deflection calculations. S: Section modulus is the moment of inertia divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber of the cross section. Once again, this sounds technical, but a value for S is listed in tables that will be presented later in this chapter for use in determining bending strength calculations. Grain: How a beam reacts will depend on the relationship of the load to the grain of the wood. Wood grain is composed of fibers that can be visualized as grains of rice that are aligned in the same direction. The wood fibers are strongest in their long direction. Common relationships of loads to grain include loads placed parallel and perpendicular to the grain. ●
When a load is applied in the same direction as the fibers of a structural member, the force is said to be parallel to the grain. Loads that are parallel to the grain are represented by the symbol //.
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COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN
BENDING MOMENT
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN
TENSION PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN
DEFLECTION
HORIZONTAL SHEAR
TENSION
COMPRESSION
VERTICAL SHEAR
FIGURE 313 Forces acting on structural members.
FIGURE 312 Forces acting on horizontal members.
●
When a load is applied across the direction of the fibers of a structural member, the force is said to be perpendicular to the grain and is represented by the symbol ⊥.
Figure 31-2 shows a force applied to a beam in each direction. Loads typically affect structural members in five different ways: bending strength, deflection, horizontal shear, vertical shear, and bearing area. These forces will create stress that affects the fibers inside the beam. The forces of tension and compression from outside of a beam will also be considered. Each force can be seen in Figure 31-3 and will be explored in the next section of this chapter.
LOADING REACTIONS OF WOOD MEMBERS For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This is a law of physics that affects every structure ever built. There are several actions or stresses that must be understood before beam reactions can be considered. These stresses include fiber bending stress, deflection, horizontal shear, vertical shear, and compression. To determine the size of a framing member using standard loading tables, you do not need to know how these stresses are generated, only that they exist. Design loads have been discussed in earlier
chapters. Review Table 29-3 for a partial list of design live loads (LL) and dead loads (DL). These design loads will be useful in determining the load on a beam. Table 31-2 shows a partial listing of base design values that are needed for the design of beams. This table includes a column of values for fiber bending stress (Fb), modulus of elasticity (E), and horizontal shear (Fv) based on the National Design Specifications for Wood Construction, published by the American Forest and Paper Association.
Fiber Bending Stress The bending strength of a wood beam is measured in units of fiber bending stress. Earlier you read about extreme fiber stress (compression) that occurs on the beam surface supporting the load. Extreme fiber stress (tension) also occurs on the surface opposite the surface in compression. Engineers use a relationship of allowable fiber bending stress to the maximum bending stress to determine the required strength of a framing member. Fiber bending stresses are represented by the symbol Fb. The values listed in beam tables are the safe, allowable fiber bending.
Bending Strength Bending strength is the determination of the beam strength required to resist the force applied to a beam measured in moments. The bending moment at any point of the beam is the measure of the tendency of the beam to bend due to the force acting on the beam.
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711
DESIGN VALUES FOR BEAMS SIZE, SPECIES, AND COMMERCIAL GRADE
EXTREME FIBER BENDING Fb
DFL #2 48 4 10 4 12
Base Value 875 875 875
DFL #1 68 6 10 6 12
1350 1350 1350
Modifier (1.3) (1.2) (1.1)
Increased Value 1138 1050 963
HORIZONTAL SHEAR Fv
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)
85 85 85
1. 6 1. 6 1. 6
85 85 85
1. 6 1. 6 1. 6
70
1. 3
Reduce the base value of all members larger than 6 12 by (12/d)1/9 = Cf. Hem-Fir 6_
1050
TABLE 312 Partial Listing of Safe Design Values of Common Types of Lumber Used for Beams. Data from Wood Structural Design Data, originally produced by the National Forest Products Association, which is now part of the American Forest and Paper Association.
The magnitude of the bending moment varies throughout the length of the beam. The maximum bending stress occurs at the midpoint of a simple beam with a uniform load. The location for maximum bending moment in complex beams will be discussed later in this chapter. The letter M represents bending moment in engineering formulas. The relationship of the allowable extreme fiber bending stress (Fb) to the maximum bending moment (M) equals the required section modulus (S) of a beam. The design equation is S = M/Fb. The Fb base design value listed in psi for various lumber species can be determined using Table 31-2. The base Fb value for 4× members varies depending on the depth of the beam. The base design value for 6× material remains fixed, up to and including 6 × 12. Determining the required section modulus of a beam will provide one of the pieces of information needed to determine the size of beam needed to support a specific load over a given span.
Deflection Deflection deals with the stiffness of a beam. It measures the tendency of a structural member to bend under a load and as a result of gravity. As a load is placed on a beam, the beam will sag between its supports. As the span increases, the tendency to deflect increases. Deflection rarely causes a beam to break but greatly affects the materials that the beam supports. When floor joists sag too much, gypsum board will crack or doors and windows will stick. Two formulas will be used to determine deflection. The first is the legal limit of deflection that determines how much the building
code will allow a specific beam to bend. Limits are set by the IRC and are expressed as a ratio of the length of the beam in inches over a deflection value. Allowable deflection for a floor beam is represented by the ratio L/360. For a 10' long floor beam, it is allowed to deflect 0.33' (120/360). The allowable deflection value defines the maximum amount of deflection (can sag). Other allowable deflections include: L/180 Roofs with a slope of 3/12 or greater with no ceiling loads L/360 Floors and plastered ceilings L/240 All other structural members
Modulus of Elasticity Modulus of elasticity also deals with the stiffness of a structural member. It is a ratio of the amount a member will deflect in proportion to the applied load. The letter E is used in beam tables and design formulas to represent the value for the modulus of elasticity. The E value represents how much the member will deflect (the “will sag” value). For a beam to be safe, the E value (will sag) cannot exceed the deflection value (can sag). Different formulas for varied loading conditions will be introduced throughout the balance of this chapter. These formulas consider the load and span of the beam, the modulus of elasticity, and the moment of inertia of the beam. Deflection is represented by the symbol ∆. The value for the modulus of elasticity is expressed as E for the species and grade of the beam to be used, and the moment of inertia is expressed as I.
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Horizontal Shear
Compression
Horizontal shear is the tendency for the wood fibers to slide past each other at the neutral axis and fail along the length of the beam. Horizontal shear is a result of forces that affect the beam fibers parallel to the wood grain. Under severe bending pressure, adjacent wood fibers are pushed and pulled in opposite directions. The top portion of the beam nearest the load is in compression. The edge of the beam away from the load is under stress from tension. The line where the compression and tension forces meet is the point at which the beam will fail. Horizontal shearing stresses are greatest at the neutral surface. The maximum horizontal shear stress for a rectangular beam is one and one half times the average unit shear stress. The design formula is v = (1.5) (V)/A, where:
Compression is the tendency to compress a structural member. Fibers of a beam tend to compress the portion of a beam resting on a column, but residential loads are usually not sufficient to cause a structural problem. Posts are another area where compression can be seen. Wood is strongest along the grain. The loads in residential design typically are not large enough to cause problems in the design of residential columns. However, the length of the post is important in relation to the load to be supported. As the length of the post increases, the post tends to bend rather than compress. Structures with posts longer than 10' (3000 mm) are often required by building departments to be approved by a structural engineer or architect. The forces of tension and compression will not be analyzed in this book.
v = maximum unit horizontal shear stress in psi V = total vertical shear in pounds A = area of the structural member in square inches Table 31-2 lists the maximum allowable horizontal shear values in psi for major species of framing lumber. The value for v must be less than the maximum safe Fv value. Horizontal shear has the greatest effect on beams with a relatively heavy load spread over a short span. Visualize a yardstick with supports at each end supporting a 2-lb load at the center. The yardstick will bow but will probably not break. Move the supports toward the center of the beam so they are 1’ apart. The beam will not bend but will be more prone to failure from breaking from the stress of horizontal shear.
Vertical Shear Vertical shear is the tendency of a beam to fail perpendicular to the fibers of the beam from two opposing forces. Vertical shear will cause a beam to break and fall between its supporting posts. Vertical shear is rarely a design concern in residential construction, because a beam will first fail by horizontal shear.
Tension In addition to the forces of tension that act within a beam, tension stresses attempt to lengthen a structural member. Tension is rarely a problem in residential beam design. Tension is more likely to affect the intersection of beams than the beam itself. Beam details typically reflect a metal strap to join beams laid end to end, or a metal seat may be used to join two beams to a column.
METHODS OF BEAM DESIGN Professionals use three methods of beam design: a computer program, wood design books, and, of course, the old-fashioned way of pencil, paper, and a few formulas. Software that will size beams is available for many personal computers. Each national wood distributor will supply programs that can determine spans, needed materials, and then print out all appropriate stresses. Software that will size beams made of wood, engineered lumber, and steel is also available through private developers. Two popular programs include StruCalc by Cascade Consulting Associates and BeamChek by AC Software, Inc. Figure 31-4 shows the prompts for solving a hip using BeamChek. Web sites for each firm are listed at the end of the chapter. These programs typically ask for loading information and then proceed to determine the span size within seconds. Using a computer program to solve beam spans is extremely easy, but you must be able to answer questions that require an understanding of the basics of beam design and loading.
Using Span Tables Another practical method of sizing beams is the use of books published by various wood associations. Two of the most common span books used in architectural offices are Wood Structural Design Data from the National Forest Products Association and Western Woods Use Book from the Western Wood Products Association. These books contain design information of wood members, standard formulas, and design tables that provide beam loads for a specific span. Table 31-3 shows a partial listing for the 8' span
Chapter 31: Determining Beam Sizes
713
FIGURE 314 Display for determining a hip beam using the program BeamChek developed by AC Software, Inc. WOOD BEAMS—SAFE LOAD TABLES Symbols used in the tables are as follows: Fb Allowable unit stress in extreme fiber in bending, psi W Total uniformly distributed load, pounds w Load per linear foot of beam, pounds Fv Horizontal shear stress, psi, induced by load W E Modulus of elasticity, 100 psi, induced by load W for l/360 limit Beam sizes are expressed as nominal sizes, inches, but calculations are based on net dimensions of S4S sizes.
Fb SIZE OF BEAM
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1800
2000
8 —0 SPAN
2 ⴛ 14
W w Fv E
3291 411 124 489
3657 457 138 543
4023 502 151 597
4389 548 165 652
4754 594 179 706
5120 640 193 760
5486 685 207 815
5852 731 220 869
6583 822 248 978
7315 914 276 1086
6 ⴛ8
W w Fv E
3867 483 70 864
4296 537 78 960
4726 590 85 1055
5156 644 93 1152
5585 698 101 1247
6015 751 109 1343
6445 805 117 1439
6875 859 125 1535
734 966 140 1727
8593 1074 156 1919
4 ⴛ 10
W w Fv E
3743 467 86 700
4159 519 96 778
4575 571 105 856
4991 623 115 934
5407 675 125 1011
5823 727 134 1089
6238 779 144 1167
6654 831 154 1245
7486 935 173 1401
8318 1039 192 1556
3 ⴛ 12
W w Fv E
3955 494 105 576
4394 549 117 640
4833 604 128 704
5273 659 140 768
5712 714 152 832
6152 769 164 896
6591 823 175 959
7031 878 187 1024
7910 988 210 1151
8789 1098 234 1279
TABLE 313 Partial Listing of a Typical Span Table. Once W, w, Fb, E, and Fv are known, spans can be determined for a simple beam. See the American Wood Council Web site at: http//:www.awc.org/pdf/wsdd. Data from Wood Structural Design Data, originally published by the National Forest Products Association, which is now a part of the American Forest and Paper Association.
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BEAM FORMULA NOTATIONS
R
R=V = w 2 2 w M max. at center = 8
R 1 2
1 2
V Shear
3V v = 2bd
V
M max.
max. at center
4 = 5w 384E
Moment
FIGURE 315 Loading, shear, and moment diagrams for simple beam with uniform loads, showing where stress will affect a beam and the formulas for computing these stresses. From Wood Structural Design Data. Courtesy National Forest Products Association.
table. By following the instructions provided with the table, information on size, span, and loading patterns can be determined. A partial listing of beam spans and values can be found on the Student CD in the USING SPAN TABLES file. The complete document can be found at the American Wood Council Web site.
Using Standard Formulas The final method of beam design is to use standard formulas to determine how the beam will be stressed. Figure 31-5 shows the formulas and the loading, shear, and moment diagrams for a simple beam. These are diagrams that can be drawn by the designer to determine where the maximum stress will occur. With a simple beam and a uniformly distributed load, the diagrams typically are not drawn because the results remain constant.
Symbols for Formulas Standard symbols have been adopted by engineering and architectural communities to simplify the design of beams. Many symbols have been introduced throughout this chapter. Table 31-4 gives a list of the notations that will be needed to design residential beams. Notice that some are written in uppercase letters and some in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters such as W and L represent measurements expressed in feet. W represents the total load in pounds per square feet; L represents the beam span in feet. Lowercase letters represent measurements expressed in inches. The letters b and d represent beam size in inches, and ℓ represents beam span in inches. As a drafter, you need not understand why the formulas work, but it is important that you know the notations to be used in the formulas.
b
breadth of beam in inches
d
depth of beam in inches
D
deflection due to load
E
modulus of elasticity
Fb
allowable unit stress in extreme fiber bending
Fv
unit stress in horizontal shear
I
moment of inertia of the section
I
span of beam in inches
l
span of beam in feet
M
bending or resisting moment
P
total concentrated load in pounds
S
section modulus
VR
end reaction of beam
W
total uniformly distributed load in pounds
w
load per linear foot of beam in pounds
TABLE 314 Common Notations Used in Beam Formulas
SIZING WOOD BEAMS USING STANDARD FORMULAS Wood beams can be determined by following these steps: 1. Determine the area to be supported by the beam. 2. Determine the weight supported by 1 linear foot 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
of beam. Determine the reactions. Determine the pier sizes. Determine the horizontal shear. Determine the bending moment. Determine the deflection.
Step 1: Determining the Area to Be Supported To determine the size of a beam, the weight the beam is supposed to support must be known. To find the weight, find the area the beam is to support and multiply by the total loads. Figure 31-6 shows a sample floor plan with a beam of undetermined size. The beam is supporting an area 10'−0" long (the span). Floor joists are being supported on each side of the beam. Chapter 29 introduced methods of load dispersal. In this example, each joist on each side of the beam can be thought of as a simple beam. Half of the weight of each joist on side A will be supported by the wall, and half
Chapter 31: Determining Beam Sizes
715
10'-0" TOTAL LOAD TO BE SUPPORTED
10'-0" TOTAL LOAD TO BE SUPPORTED
BE DETERMINED
10'-0" SPAN FOR BEAM TO
5'-0" 1/2 OF LOAD A
5'-0" 1/2 OF LOAD B
6'-6" 1/2 OF LOAD B
3'-6" 1/2 OF LOAD A
LOAD B LOAD A
LOAD B LOAD A
10'-0" SPAN A
10'-0" SPAN B
W = TOTAL LOAD TO BE SUPPORTED W = AREA × WEIGHT PER SQ.FT. 7'-0" SPAN A
FIGURE 316 Floor plan with a beam to be determined. This beam is supporting an area of 100 sq ft, with an assumed weight of 50 psf, W = 5000 lb.
13'-0" SPAN A
20'-0" TOTAL SPAN BETWEEN BEARING POINTS 10'-0" TOTAL LOAD TO BE SUPPORTED
of the weight of load A will be supported by the beam. Because the total length of the joists on side A is 10', the beam will be supporting 5' (half the length of each joist) of floor on side A. This 5' wide area that the beam supports is referred to as a tributary area. In this case, it is tributary load A. On the right side of the beam, tributary load B would be 5' wide (half of the total span of 10'). A tributary width is defined as the accumulation of loads that are directed to a structural member. The tributary width will always be half the distance between the beam to be designed and the next bearing point. A second point to remember about tributary loads is that the total tributary width will always be half the total distance between the bearing points on each side of the beam, no matter where the beam is located. Figure 31-7 shows why this is true. Once the tributary width is known, the total area that the beam is supporting can be determined. Adding the width of tributaries A + B and then multiplying this sum by the beam length measured in feet (L) will determine the area the beam is supporting. For the beam in Figure 31-6, the area would be (5' + 5')(10') = 100 sq ft. Using the loads from Table 29-3, the loads for floors can be determined. The live load for a floor is 40 lb, the dead load is 10 lb, and the total load is 50 lb. By multiplying the area by the load per square foot, the total load (W) can be determined. For this example, with an area of 100 sq ft and a total load of 50 psf, the total load is 5000 lb. The total load is represented by the letter W in beam formulas.
6'-0" 1/2 OF LOAD A
4'-0" 1/2 OF LOAD B
LOAD B
LOAD A
12'-0" SPAN A
8'-0" SPAN B
20'-0" TOTAL SPAN BETWEEN BEARING POINTS
FIGURE 317 The sum of the tributary widths is equal to half the total distance between the bearing point on each side of the beam. With a total width of 20', the tributary width supported by the beam will be 10’ no matter where the beam is placed.
If the beam size is to be determined using a computer program, the total live load and the total dead load that the beam is supporting may be required instead of the total load (W). For this example the total dead load is 10 lb × 100 sq ft, or 1000 lb. The total live load is 40 lb × 100 sq ft, or 4000 lb. Although this may seem obvious, the total live load and the total dead load must add up to the total load supported. Taking the time to check the obvious can help to eliminate human errors.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
LOAD B LOAD A 1'-0"
10'-0" SPAN FOR BEAM TO BE DETERMINED
10'-0" TOTAL LOAD TO BE SUPPORTED
w = WEIGHT PER LINEAR FOOT w= W L
FIGURE 318 Determining linear weights. For an area of 10 sq ft, with an assumed weight of 50 psf, w = 500 lb.
PRESUMPTIVE LOAD-BEARING VALUES OF FOUNDATION MATERIALSa CLASS OF MATERIAL
LOAD-BEARING PRESSURE (pounds per square foot)
Crystalline bedrock
12,000
Sedimentary and foliated rock
4000
Sandy gravel and/or gravel (GW and GP)
3000
Sand, silty sand, clayey sand, silty gravel, and clayey gravel (SW, SP, SM, SC, GM, and GC)
2000
Clay, sandy clay, silty clay, clayey silt, silt, and sandy silt (CI, ML, MH, and CH)
1500b
For SI: 1 psf 0.0479 kN/m . a. When soil tests are required by Section R401.4, the allowable bearing capacities of the soil shall be part of the recommendations. b. Where the building official determines that in-place soils with an allowable bearing capacity of less than 1500 psf are likely to be present at the site, the allowable bearing capacity shall be determined by a soils investigation. 2
Step 2: Determining Linear Weight In some formulas only the weight per linear foot of beam is desired. This is represented by the letter w. In Figure 31-8, it can be seen that w is the product of the area to be supported (the total tributary width), multiplied by the weight per square foot. It can also be found by dividing the total weight (W) by the length of the beam. In our example, if the span (L) is 10', w = 5000/10 or 500 lb.
Step 3: Determining Reactions Even before the size of a beam is known, the supports for the beam can be determined. These supports for the beam are represented by the letter R, for reactions. The letter V is also sometimes used in place of the letter R. On a simple beam, half of the weight the beam is supporting (W) will be dispersed to each end. In the example, W = 5000 lb and R = 2500 lb. At this point W, w, and R have been determined (W = 5000 lb, w = 500 lb, and R = 2500 lb).
Step 4: Determining Pier Sizes The reaction is the load from the beam that must be transferred to the soil. The reactions from the beam will be transferred by posts to the floor and then into the foundation system. Usually a concrete pier is used to support the loads at the foundation level. To determine the size of the pier, the working stress of the concrete and the bearing value of the soil must be taken into account. Usually concrete with a working stress of 2000 to 3500 psi is used in residential construction. The
TABLE 315 Safe Soil-Bearing Values. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
working stress of concrete specifies how much weight in pounds can be supported by each square inch (psi) of concrete surface. If each square inch of concrete can support 2500 lb, only 1 sq in. of concrete would be required to support a load of 2500 lb. The bearing value of the soil must also be considered. Most building departments use 2000 psf for the assumed safe working value of soil but the exact value used should be based on the local municipality. Don’t skim over these numbers. The concrete is listed in pounds per square inch. Soil is listed in pounds per square foot. The pier size is determined by dividing the load to be supported (R) by the soil-bearing pressure. Table 31-5 lists the safe soil-loading values for round and square piers based on the 2009 International Residential Code published by the International Code Council. This table will be explored further in Chapter 33 as the nature of soil is examined. A pier supporting 2500 lb must be divided by 2000 lb (the soil bearing value) to find the needed area of the pier. This will result in an area of 1.25 sq ft of concrete needed to support the load. See Table 31-6 to determine the size of pier needed to obtain the proper soil support area. Round piers should be used for interior piers. Square piers should be used to add support to the exterior foundation. Chapter 33 will provide additional information related to piers.
Chapter 31: Determining Beam Sizes
717
This formula will determine the minimum 2bd value needed to resist the load of 5000 lb. For a simple beam, V = R, and R has been determined to be 2500 lb. To determine the b and d values, use the actual size of the beam. Because you don’t know what size beam to use, the b and d values remain unknown. Dividing the 3V value, by the safe limits for the wood (85), can solve this problem and determine the needed 2bd value to resist the 5000-lb load. Use the following formula:
PIER AREAS AND SIZES ROUND PIERS (interior)
SQUARE PIERS (exterior)
15 ” DIA. 1.23 SQ FT
15 ” SQ 1.56 SQ FT
18 ” DIA. 1.77 SQ FT
18 ” SQ 2.25 SQ FT
21 ” DIA. 2.40 SQ FT
21 ” SQ 3.06 SQ FT
24 ” DIA. 3.14 SQ FT
24 ” SQ 4.00 SQ FT
27 ” DIA. 3.97 SQ FT
27 ” SQ 5.06 SQ FT
30 ” DIA. 4.90 SQ FT
30 ” SQ 6.25 SQ FT
36 ” DIA. 7.07 SQ FT
36 ” SQ 9.00 SQ FT
42 ” DIA. 9.60 SQ FT
42 ” SQ 12.25 SQ FT
TABLE 316 Common Pier Areas and Sizes. (The area of the concrete pier can be determined by dividing the load to be supported by the soil-bearing pressure. Areas are shown for common pier sizes. Round piers are typically used to support interior loads, and square piers are generally used when piers are added to support the exterior foundation.)
Step 5: Determining Horizontal Shear To compute the size of the beam required to resist the forces of horizontal shear, use the following formula. Fv =
(3)(v) = # < 85 (the safe design value for DFL lumber) (2)(b)(d)
Fv =
3V = # < 2bd (the required 2bd value to resist the load) 85
Fv =
3 x 2500 = 88.23 (the minimum 2bd value needed; the 85 2bd value of the selected beam must exceed this value)
Use the values in Table 31-7 to find a 2bd value that exceeds 88.23. A 4 × 14 or 6 × 10 could be used to meet the requirements of horizontal shear. Now you can solve the required bending moment.
Step 6: Determining the Bending Moment A moment is the tendency of a force to cause rotation about a certain point. In figuring a simple beam, W is the force and R is the point around which the force rotates. Determining the bending moment will calculate
PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL LUMBER NOMINAL SIZE
(b)(d)
(2)(b)(d)
S
A
I
(384)(E)( I) *
26
1.5 5.5
16.5
28
1.5 7.25
21.75
2 10
1.5 9.25
27.75
21.4
13.875
98.9
60,764
2 12
1.5 11.25
33.75
31.6
16.875
177.9
109,302
2 14
1.5 13.25
39.75
43.9
19.875
290.8
178,668
46
3.5 5.5
38.5
17.6
19.25
48.5
29,798
48
3.5 7.25
50.75
30.7
25.375
111.0
68,198
4 10
3.5 9.25
64.75
49.9
32.375
230.8
141,804
4 12
3.5 11.25
78.75
73.8
39.375
415.3
255,160
4 14 68
3.5 13.5 5.5 7.5
94.5 82.5
106.3 51.6
47.250 41.25
717.6 193.4
440,893 118,825
6 10
5.5 9.5
104.5
82.7
32.25
393.0
241,459
6 12
5.5 11.5
126.5
121.2
63.25
697.1
428,298
6 14
5.5 13.5
148.5
167.1
74.25
1127.7
692,859
7.6 13.1
8.25
20.8
12,780
10.875
47.6
29,245
*384 E I values are listed in units per million, with E value assumed to be 1.6 for DFL.
TABLE 317 Structural Properties of Wood Beams. (Columns (2)(b)(d) and (384)(E)(I) can be used in the horizontal shear and deflection formulas. These two columns are set up for Douglas fir–larch (DFL #2). For different types of wood, use NDS values for these columns.)
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Architectural Drafting and Design
the size of the beam needed to resist the tendency for W to rotate around R. To determine the size of the beam required to resist the force (W), use the following formula: M=
(w)(ℓ2) 8
Once the moment is known, it can then be divided by the Fb of the wood to determine the size of beam required to resist the load (S = M/Fb). This whole process can be simplified by using the formula: (3)(w)(L2) S= (2)(Fb)
Because Fb values for 4× members are sizedependent, it is important to solve for horizontal shear before solving the bending moment. If you solve for S first, you’ll need to guess a beam size for a starting point. To determine if a 4 × 10 would be suitable, use the values for Douglas fir from Table 31-2, and apply this formula to the beam from Figure 31-6: S=
(3)(500)(100) 150,000 = = 71.4 = S (2)(1050) 2100
This formula will determine the section modulus required to support a load of 5000 lb. Look at the values in Table 31-7 to determine if a 4 × 10 is adequate. A beam must be selected that has an S value larger than the S value found. By examining the S column of the table, you will find that a 4 × 10 has an S value of only 49.9, so the beam is not adequate. Because we already know that a 6 × 10 was safe for horizontal shear, check to see if it will provide the needed section modulus. The Fb value for a 6 × 10 of 1350 is determined using the value from Table 31-2. The listed S and I values are for DFL #2. See the NDS tables for values for other species of wood. Using the formula 150,000/2700 will require a minimum S value of 55.6. It can be seen in Table 31-7 that a 6 × 10 has an S value of 82.7, which is suitable to resist the forces of bending moment.
Step 7: Determining Deflection Deflection is the amount of sag in a beam. Deflection limits are determined by building codes and are expressed as a fraction of an inch in relation to the span of the beam in inches. Limits set by the IRC are: 1/360 Floors and ceilings 1/240 Roofs under 3/12 pitch, tile roofs, and vaulted ceilings 1/180 Roofs over 3/12 pitch
To determine deflection limits, the maximum allowable limit must first be known. Use the formula: Dmax =
L × 12 = maximum allowable deflection 360
This formula requires the span in feet (L) to be multiplied by 12 (12 inches per foot) and then divided by 360 (the safe deflection limit for floors and ceiling). In the example used in this chapter, L equals 10'. The maximum safe limit would be: L × 12 10 × 12 120 = =D= = 0.33" 360 360 360 = maximum allowable deflection
Dmax =
The maximum amount the beam is allowed to sag is 0.33". Now you need to determine how much the beam will actually sag under the load it is supporting. The values for E and I need to be determined before you can calculate the deflection. These values can be found in Table 31-7. You will also need to know ℓ3 and W, but these values are not available in tables. W has been determined to be 5000#. For our example: ℓ = 10 × 12 = 120 ℓ3 = (ℓ)(ℓ)(ℓ) = (120)(120)(120) = 1,728,000
Because the E value was reduced from 1,600,000 to 1.6, change the ℓ3 value from 1,728,000 to 1.728 or 1.73. Each of these numbers is much easier to use for calculating. To determine how much a beam will sag, use the following formula: D=
5(W)(ℓ3) (W)(ℓ3) or D = 22.5 (384)(E )(I) (E)(I)
The values determined thus far are W = 5000, w = 500, R = V = 2500, L = 10, ℓ = 120, ℓ3 = 1.728, and I = 393 (see Table 31-7, column I). Find the value of (384)(E)(I) for a 6 × 10 beam from Table 31-7 (241,459). Now insert the values into the formula. D=
43,200 5(W)(ℓ3) 5 × 5000 × 1.728 = = = 0.178" 384(E)(I) 241,459 241,459
Because 0.178" is less than the maximum allowable deflection of 0.33", a 6 × 10 beam can be used to support the loads.
WOOD ADJUSTMENT FACTORS Refer to the Student CD: WOOD ADJUSTMENT FACTORS to explore methods of reducing the loads to be supported.
Chapter 31: Determining Beam Sizes
719
REVIEW 20'-0"
1. Determine the values for W, w, L, ℓ, ℓ3, and R.
W = area to be supported × weight (LL + DL) w = W/L L = span in feet ℓ = span in inches ℓ3 = (ℓ)(ℓ)(ℓ) R = V = W/2 2. Determine post supports: R = W/2 3. Determine pier sizes: R/soil-bearing pressure 4. Determine Fv: Fv =
(3)(V) (3)(V) = # < 85 or = # > (2)(b)(d) (2)(b)(d) 85
5. Determine S: S=
(3)(w)(L2) (2)(Fb)
6. Determine the value for Dmax D = ℓ/360 or ℓ/240 or ℓ/180
12'-0"
In what may have seemed like an endless string of formulas, tables, and values, you have determined the loads and stresses on a 10' long beam. Seven basic steps were required, as follows: 2 X 12 DFL #2 RAFT @ 24" O.C.
FIGURE 319 Sample floor plan with a beam of undetermined size.
STEP 2
Determine reactions.
R = W/2 = 2400
Determine pier sizes, R/soil value (assume 2000 lb).
STEP 3
2400 = 1.2 sq ft 2000
According to the Table 31-6, use either a 15" diameter or 15" square pier. STEP 4
7. Determine D: (5)(W)(ℓ3) D= (384)(E)(I)
2 X 12 DFL #2 RAFT @ 24" O.C.
S=
Determine the section modulus. (3)(w)(L2) 3 × 400 × 144 172,800 = = = 96 (2)(Fb) 2 × 900 1800
Use a 4 × 14 or a 6 × 12 to determine Fv.
Practice Figure 31-9 shows a floor plan with a ridge beam that needs to be determined. The beam will be SPF with no snow loads. Using the seven steps, determine the size of the beam. Determine the values. W = 10 × 12 × 40 = 4800 lb w = W/L = 4800/12 = 400 lb R = V = 2400 L = 12' L2 = 144 ℓ = 12' × 12" = 144 ℓ3 = 2.986 Fb = 900 (see Table 31-8) Fv = 65 max (see Table 31-8) E = 1.2 max
STEP 1
Determine horizontal shear. The value from Table 31-8 is 65.
STEP 5
4 × 14Fv =
(3)(V) 3 × 2400 7200 = = = 76.19 > 65 (2)(b)(d) 2 × 3.5 × 13.5 94.5
Because the computed value is larger than the table value, the 4 × 14 beam is inadequate. Try a 6 × 12. 6 × 12Fv =
700 = 56.92 126.5
Finally, this beam works. Now solve for deflection. STEP 6
Determine Dmax.
Dmax = STEP 7
D=
ℓ 144 = = 0.8" 180 180
Determine D. (5)(W)(ℓ3) 5 × 4800 × 2.986 71,664 = = D = 0. 223 (384)(E)(ℓ) 384 × 1.2 × 697 321,178
720
Architectural Drafting and Design
BASE DESIGN VALUES FOR BEAMS AND STRINGERS SPECIES AND COMMERCIAL GRADE
EXTREME FIBER BENDING Fb
HORIZONTAL SHEAR Fv
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY E
DFL #1
1350
85
1,600,000
24 Fb V4 DF/DF
2400
165
1,700,000
Hem Fir #1
1050
70
1,300,000
24 Fb E-2 HF/HF
2400
155
1,700,000
900
65
1,200,000
2200
200
1,700,000
SPF #1 22F b E-2 SP/SP
BASE DESIGN VALUES FOR POSTS AND TIMBERS SPECIES AND COMMERCIAL GRADE DFL #1
EXTREME FIBER BENDING Fb
HORIZONTAL SHEAR Fv
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY E
1200
85
1,600,000
Hem Fir #1
950
70
1,300,000
SPF #1
800
65
1,200,000
TABLE 318 Comparative Values of Common Framing Lumber with Laminated Beams of Equal Materials. Values based on Western Wood Products Association.
SIZING BEAMS USING SPAN TABLES Refer to the Student CD: SIZING BEAMS USING SPAN TABLES to explore methods of sizing sawn beams using span tables.
SIZING LAMINATED BEAMS Two beam problems have now been solved using the tables in this chapter. Both beams were chosen from standard dimensioned lumber. Often, glu-lams are used because of their superior strength. Using a glu-lam can greatly reduce the depth of a beam as compared with conventional lumber. Glu-lam beams are determined in the same manner as standard lumber, but different values are used based on values provided by the Western Wood Products Association (see Table 31-8). Table 31-9 gives values for glu-lams made of Douglas fir. See the tables by the Western Wood Products Association for values for other species. You will also need to consult the safe values for glu-lam beams. For beams constructed of Douglas fir, the values are Fb = 2200, Fv = 165, and E = 1.7.
WORKING WITH ENGINEERED BEAMS Most manufacturers of engineered joists and rafters also supply beams made of LVL (laminated veneer lumber), PSL (parallel strand lumber), and LSL (laminated strand lumber). Figure 31-10 shows an example of a table for sizing beams made of PSL. To use this table, follow these steps: ●
Determine the roof loading (snow duration and live and dead loads) and find the appropriate section of the table that represents the design loads.
●
Find the house width from the appropriate loading section that meets or exceeds the span of the trusses.
●
Locate the opening size in the “Rough Opening” column that meets or exceeds the required window or door rough opening.
●
The beam listed at the intersection of the rough opening and the house width/roof load is the required header size.
Consult the Weyerhaeuser Web site for additional loading conditions and beam materials.
Chapter 31: Determining Beam Sizes
721
PROPERTIES OF GLU-LAM BEAMS SIZE (b)(d) 3 1/8 9.0
S
A
(2)(b)(d)
I
(384)(E)(I) *
42.2
28.1
56.3
189.8
123,901
57.4 75.0 94.9 117.2
32.8 37.5 42.2 46.9
65.6 75.0 84.4 93.8
301.5 450.0 640.7 878.9
196,819 293,760 418,249 573,746
69.2
46.1
92.0
311.3
203,217
5 1/8 10.5 5 1/8 12.0
94.2 123.0
53.8 61.5
107.6 123.0
494.4 738.0
322,744 481,766
5 1/8 13.5
155.7
69.2
138.4
1,050.8
685,962
5 1/8 15.0
192.2
76.9
153.8
1,441.4
940,946
5 1/8 16.5
232.5
84.6
169.0
1,918.5
1,252,397
6 3/4 10.5
124.0
70.9
141.8
651.2
425,103
6 3/4 12.0
162.0
81.0
162.0
972.0
634.522
6 3/4 13.5
205.0
91.1
182.6
1,384.0
903,475
6 3/4 15.0
253.1
101.3
202.0
1,898.4
1,239,276
6 3/4 16.5
306.3
111.4
222.8
2,526.8
1,649,495
3 1/8 10.5 3 1/8 12.0 3 1/8 13.5 3 1/8 15.0 5 1/8 9.0
*All values for 384 E I are written in units per million. All E values are figured for Doug fir @ E 1.7. Verify local conditions.
TABLE 319 Structural Properties of Glu-Lam Beams (Columns (2)(b)(d) and (384)(E)(I) are set up for Douglas fir. If a different type of wood is to be used, you must use different values for these columns.) (Values based on Western Wood Products Association.)
SIMPLE BEAM WITH A LOAD CONCENTRATED AT THE CENTER Often in light construction, load-bearing walls of an upper floor may not line up with the bearing walls of the floor below, as shown in Figure 31-11. This type of loading occurs when the function of the lower room dictates that no post be placed in the center. Because no post can be used on the lower floor, a beam will be required to span from wall to wall and be centered below the upper-level post. This beam will have no loads to support other than the weight from the post. In order to size the beam needed to support the upper area, use the formulas in Figure 31-12. Notice that new symbol P, has been added to represent a point, or concentrated load, in the formula used to determine the maximum bending moment (M). The point load is the sum of the reactions from each end of the beam. Figure 31-13 shows a sample worksheet for this beam. Notice that the procedure used to solve for
this beam is similar to the one used to determine a simple beam with uniform loads. With this procedure, you must determine the amount of point loads for the upper beams. The sketch shows the upper floor plan with each point load. Once the point loads are known, determine M. Once the value for M has been determined, it can be used to find the required section modulus (S). Use the formula M/Fb = S. This will provide the S value for the beam. Try to use a beam that has a depth equal to the depth of the floor joists. Notice also in Figure 31-12 that there is no formula for determining the value for Fv in this or any of the following formulas. This is because Fv is always determined using the formula 3V/(2)(b)(d) = required Fv value or 3V/max Fv value = min 2bd value. In Figure 31-13 two different beams have been selected that have the minimum required section modulus. Once the section modulus is known, the beam can be checked for horizontal shear and deflection. Because of the length of the beam, horizontal shear will not be a factor.
722
Architectural Drafting and Design
Ho
us
e
W id th
ROOF LOAD (psf)
Ro u g
HOUSE WIDTH
NON-SNOW AREA 125%
24'–0" 20LL + 15DL
30'–0" 36'–0" 24'–0"
20LL + 20DL
30'–0" 36'–0" 24'–0"
25LL + 15DL
30'–0"
SNOW AREA 115%
36'–0" 24'–0" 30LL + 15DL
30'–0" 36'–0" 24'–0"
40LL + 15DL
30'–0" 36'–0"
ening h Op
h Roug ing n e p O
ROUGH OPENING 12'–0"
14'–0"
16'–3"
18'–3"
3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4"
8'–0"
9'–3"
3 1/2" X 9 1/4"
3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4"
3 1/2" X 9 1/4"
3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4"
3 1/2" X 111/4" 7" X 91/4" 3 1/2" X 117/8" 5 1/4" X 111/4"
3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 111/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 117/8"
3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4"
3 1/2" X 9 1/4"
3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/2" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 7" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/2" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 7/8" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 7" X 9 1/4"
3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 7/8" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 7/8" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 7/8" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 7/8"
3 1/2" X 14" 7" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 7" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 7/8" 3 1/2" X 14" 7" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 14" 51/4" X 117/8" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14"
3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 7/8" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14"
3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 18" 5 1/4" X 14" 5 1/4" X 16" 7" X 14"
3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4"
10'–0"
3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/2" 3 1/2" X 11 7/8" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/2"
3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 7" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4"
GENERAL NOTES Table is based on:
BEARING REQUIREMENTS
• Uniform loads
Minimum header support to be double trimmers (3" bearing).
• Worst case of simple or continuous span. When sizing a continuous span application, use the longest span. Where ratio of short span to long span is less than 0.4, use the TJ-Beam™ software program or contact your Trus Joist MacMillan representative.
In shaded areas, support headers with triple trimmers (4 1/2" bearing).
• Roof truss framing with 24" soffits • Deflection criteria of L/240 live load and L/180 total load. All members 7 1/4" and less in depth are restricted to a maximum deflection of 5/16".
FIGURE 3110 Design tables for solving exterior headers for a single-level residence using nontreated PSL beams. Courtesy Trus Joist, A Weyerhaeuser Business. All rights reserved.
Chapter 31: Determining Beam Sizes
723
22' BEAM @ LIVING RM. P=W=5500# V=2750 L=22'
=264
3 =18.399744
5500# 132"
132" =264
R1=2750 ( P )( M= 4
R 2=2750 )
1,452,000 = ( 5500 )( 264 ) = = 363,000 = M 4 4
USE 5 1/8 X 131/2 (S = 155.7) 363,000 = S = 151.25 S= M = OR 6 3/4 X 12 (S = 162) fb 2400 fv =
(3) (2750) (3) (V) 8250 = 50 BOTH BM. OK = = 2bd = 165 165 165
Dmax. = D=
360
=
264 = .73 360
(5500) (18.4) (48 X 1.7) (972)
? 6 3/4 X 13 1/2 = ? 6 3/4 X 15 =
=
D=
(P) ( 3 ) (48) (E) ( )
=
101,200 = 1.2 > .73 = FAIL 79,315
= 1384 =
101,200 = 1.1 > .73 = FAIL 85,745
= 1898.4 = 101,200 = .65 < .73 = 154,909 USE 6 3/4 X 15 fb 2200 GLU-LAM BEAM
FIGURE 3113 A worksheet for a beam with a load concentrated at the center. When determining the size of a beam, it is a good idea to include the location of the beam, a sketch of the loading, needed formulas, and the selected beam.
FIGURE 3111 An engineer’s sketch to help determine loads on a beam, showing a load concentrated at the center.
SIMPLE BEAM WITH A LOAD CONCENTRATED AT ANY POINT
CANTILEVERED BEAMS WITH A UNIFORM LOAD Refer to the Student CD: CANTILEVERED BEAMS WITH A UNIFORM LOAD to explore methods of sizing sawn cantilevered beams.
Figure 31-14 shows a sample floor plan that will result in concentrated off-center loads at the lower floor level. Figure 31-15 shows the diagrams and formulas that would be used to determine the beams of the lower floor plan. Figure 31-16 shows the worksheet for this beam.
BEAM POST
AREA SUPPORTED BY POST 8' 10'
15'
10'
14' UPPER BEAM 4' UPPER FLOOR PLAN POST
P = 2
R=V x
P
2
SECTION
2 Mx
V
when x <
V Shear M max.
2
=
Px 2
PL 6000# 8'
P 3 max. at point of load = 48E x
Moment
LOWER BEAM SIZE TO BE DETERMINED
P M max. at point of load = 4
R
when x <
2
Px = (3 2 -4x 2) 48E
22' LOWER BEAM SIZE TO BE DETERMINED
14'
LOWER FLOOR PLAN
FIGURE 3112 Shear and moment diagrams for a simple beam with a load concentrated at the center. Data reproduced courtesy Western Wood Products Association.
FIGURE 3114 An engineer’s sketch for a beam with a load concentrated at any point on the beam.
724
Architectural Drafting and Design
R1 = V 1
R2 = V 2
x
R1
max. when a < b . . . . . . . . . = Pb max. when a > b . . . . . . . . . = Pa
P
a
R2
M max.
at point of load
Mx
when x < b
..........=
b
V1
. ............=
Pab
Pbx
V2 Shear max. at x =
a
M max.
Pab (a + 2b) 3a (a + 2b) a (a + 2b) when a > b = 27 E 3
2 2 at point of load . . . . . . . . . . = Pa b 3E
Moment x
when x < a . . . . . . . . . . . . . =
Pbx 6E
x
when x > a . . . . . . . . . . . . . =
Pa ( - x) (2 x - x 2 - a2 ) 6E
( 2 - b2 - x 2 )
FIGURE 3115 Shear and moment diagrams for a simple beam with a load concentrated at any point on the beam. Courtesy Western Wood Products Association.
22' SPAN @ LOWER FLOOR 5500# a=96"
W = (4 + 7) (5 + 7.5) (40#) = W = 5500# = 264"
b=168"
=264 R1 R1=
R2 (P)(b)
=
( 5500 ) ( 168 ) 924,000 = = 3500# = R 1 264 264
R2 = P - R1 = 5500 - 3500 = 2000 = R 2 M=
( P ) ( a ) (b)
S=
=
( 5500 ) (96) ( 168 ) 88,704,000 = 336,000 = M = 264 264 USE 5 1/8 X 13 1/2
M 336,000 = = 152.7 fb 2200
OR 6 3/4 X 12
(3) (3500) (3) (V) 10,500 = 63.6 BOTH BM. OK fv = = 165 165 = 165 D = D=
360
=
264 = .73 max. 360
E=
(P) (a) (b) (a + 2b) 3a(a + 2b) = 27(E) ( ) ( )
(5500) (96) (168) (432) (288) (432) (27) (1.7) (264) ( ) = (12118) ( )
? 5 1/8 X 13 1/2 =
=
13,516,525 12,117.6 ( ) =
13,516,525 = 106 > .73 = FAIL 12,733,174
13,516,525 ? 51/8 X 15 = = .77 > .73 = FAIL 17,466,308 13,516,525 = .58 < .73 = ok USE 6 3/4 X 15 fb 2200 ? 6 3/4 X 15 = 23,004,051 GLU-LAM BEAM
FIGURE 3116 A worksheet for a beam with a load concentrated at any point.
Chapter 31: Determining Beam Sizes
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
725
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current on lumber manufacturers. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.beamchek.com www.aitc.glulam.org www.awc.org www.bc.com www.bcewp.com www.cwc.ca
Company, Product, or Service AC Software, Inc. American Institute of Timber Construction American Wood Council (NDS Standards) Boise Cascade Boise Cascade (engineered wood products) Canadian Wood Council
Determining Beam Sizes Test
www.strucalc.com www.gp.com www.inpa.org www.lp.com www.terrabuild.com www.sfpa.org www.wwpa.org www.ilevel.com www.wii.com www.woodcom.com
CASCADE Consulting Associates Georgia-Pacific Corporation International Wood Products Association Louisiana-Pacific Corporation Software and consulting Southern Forest Products Association Western Wood Products Association Weyerhaeuser Willamette Industries Wood Industries Information Center
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows:
Problem 31–2 A 4 × 14 DFL is being used as a ridge beam. L = 12', W = 4650 lb. Will this beam have a safe deflection value? Assume Dmax = 1/360.
1. Letter your name, Chapter 31 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Problem 31–3 If the soil-bearing pressure is 1500 psf and the concrete has a strength of 2500 psi, what size pier is needed to support a load of 4600 lb?
Question 31–1 What are two features that define a simple beam? Question 31–2 Explain the difference between a uniform and a concentrated load. Question 31–3 List three common categories of stress that must be known before a beam size can be determined. Question 31–4 Define the following notations: W, w, R, L, l, E, I, S, Fv, and Fb. Question 31–5 List the values for W, w, and R for a floor beam that has an L of 10’ and is centered in a room 20' wide. Provide a sketch to show the loading.
PROBLEMS Problem 31–1 A 4 × 6 DFL beam, with an L of 6', and a W of 2800 lb, will be used to span an opening for a window. Will it fail in Fv?
Problem 31–4 What size DFL #2 girder will be required if w = 600 and L = 6'? Determine all necessary values to find the needed S, Fv, and deflection stresses. Problem 31–5 Determine the minimum size floor beam needed to span 14' with a concentrated load of 3200 lb at the center. Assume the beam to be DFL. What size piers will be needed to resist the reactions if soil loads are 2000 psf? Problem 31–6 Using SPF, determine what size floor beam will be needed to span 12' with a concentrated roof load of 2500 lb placed 3' from one end. What size piers will be required to support the loads if the soil pressure is 1500 psf? Problem 31–7 Determine the minimum size floor beam needed to span 14' with a concentrated load of 2200 lb in the center. Assume the beam to be DFL. What size piers will be needed to resist the reaction if soil loads are 2500 psf?
726
Problem 31–8 Using DFL, determine what size floor beam will be needed to span 15'−6" with a point load of 2750 lb at the midpoint. What size piers will be required to support the loads if the soil pressure is 2000? Problem 31–9 What size glu-lam beam will be required for a ridge beam with L = 14.5', W = 5500 lb, and l = 240. Use Fb = 2200. Problem 31–10 A 16'-long DFL laminated ridge beam will support 800 lb per linear foot. Determine what depth 5 1/8" beam should be used. Problem 31–11 The ridge beam in Problem 31–10 will be supported at one end by a post and at the other end by a beam 4' long over a door. The point load from the ridge beam will be 12" from one end of the 4' header. What size door header should be used? Use the formulas for solving cantilevered beams on the Student CD in the Supplemental Reading material to complete the following problems.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 31–15 A two-level residence is 28' wide with a gable roof with 2' overhangs. The roof is cedar shakes at a 5/12 pitch, and local codes require a 30-lb live load. Wall weights are 8' at the upper floor. There are several windows in the upper exterior wall that are 60" wide. A load-bearing wall will be placed 13' from the left exterior wall on the upper floor. The floor joists supporting the upper floor will cantilever 18" past the lower wall on the right side of the residence so that the lower floor is only 26'−6" wide. A bearing wall on the main floor will be 16' from the left exterior wall. Part of the wall will be an opening. The walls of the lower floor will be 10' high. The lower floor will be supported by a girder directly below the bearing wall, with supports at 5'−0" maximum spacing. The owners of the house have two children and a dog named Spot. Using span tables whenever possible, provide the size of all rafters, floor joists, beams, and piers for this residence. Use lumber common to your area for framing values.
Problem 31–12 Using southern pine, determine the size of floor beam needed to span 12' and cantilever 3.5' and support a concentrated roof load of 4000 lb at the free end.
a. Rafters =
Problem 31–13 Using DFL #2, determine what size floor joists will be needed for a span of 10'−0" and a cantilever of 18" at a deck if a spacing of 16" is used.
d. Upper floor joists (right) =
Problem 31–14 A residence has floor joists with a 24" cantilever. A wall weighing 650 lb per linear foot will be supported at the end of the floor joists. What size and spacing should be used to support this load?
g. 8'−0" headers at the lower floor =
b. Ceiling joists = c. Upper floor joists (left) = e. Lower floor joists = f. 5'−0" headers at the upper floor = h. Girder = i. The dog (an adult St. Bernard) =
CHAPTER 32
Drawing Framing Plans I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
A framing plan is a drawing used to show the dimensions, framing members, and methods of resisting gravity, seismic and wind loads for a specific level of a structure. Office practice and the complexity of the structure determine the exact contents of the plan. This chapter will introduce the major components to be represented on a framing plan, as well as methods for completing roof and level-specific framing plans.
MAJOR COMPONENTS REPRESENTED ON A FRAMING PLAN When a simple one-level house using truss roof construction is drawn, architectural and structural information can often be combined on the floor plan, as in Figure 32-1. For a custom multilevel structure, separate plans are usually developed to explain the architectural and structural requirements of each level. The floor plans similar to Figure 32-2 are typically used to explain architectural information. A framing plan similar to Figure 32-3 is used to show the location of all walls and openings, header sizes, and structural connectors. Section markers to indicate where sections and details have been drawn are also placed on a framing plan. Figure 32-3 shows the framing plan that corresponds to the floor plan in Figure 32-2. The framing plan is typically created from a copy of the floor plan showing the walls, doors, windows, and cabinets. The floor plan is completed to look as if a cutting plane passed through the structure and removed the upper portion of the structure. The floor plan is drawn as if the viewer is looking down at the floor. When the framing plan is drawn, the information is placed on the floor plan, but with the premise that the viewer is lying on the floor looking up to see the framing that supports the level above. When the main framing plan is drawn for a twolevel structure, the plan shows the walls for the main floor, and the beams and floor joists needed to frame the floor/ceiling above the main floor. The framing plan for the upper level shows the walls on the upper
floor and the members used to form the ceiling if western platform construction methods are used. Rafters and other roof members are shown on the roof framing plan. If a room has a vaulted ceiling, the rafter/ceiling joists are shown on the framing plan. If the roof system is framed using trusses, these are often shown on the upper framing plan. If a complex roof shape is used, the trusses are shown on the roof framing plan. The floor system used to support the main floor is shown on the foundation plan. Section 9 introduces the foundation and floor framing systems. Generally the framing plans are completed by drawing the upper level and then moving down to the lower level. This method allows the loads to be accumulated so that lower level support will be accurately sized. The residence that was drawn in Chapter 18 will be used later in this chapter to demonstrate this procedure.
Framing Members A key element of the framing plan is to show and specify the location of headers, beams, posts, joists, and trusses used to frame the skeleton by the use of notes and symbols. Headers are located over every opening in a wall. Headers over a door or window are typically not drawn on framing plans but are referenced by a note. A beam is placed to control the span of joists, rafters, or under a concentrated load, and is represented by parallel dashed lines. The distance between the lines is based on the thickness of the beam. If a built-up beam is to be provided, thin dashed lines representing the width of the individual members are drawn. The specification for the size and strength is placed parallel to the member. Depending on the loads to be supported, each beam and header is supported by multiple studs, a post, or a steel column. When a post or column supporting a beam is hidden in a wall, it is usually not drawn. Posts or columns inside a room must be drawn using line quality that matches the lines used to represent walls. Text indicating the post size or connecting hardware
727
728
65'-0"
" -4 4'-4"
9'-0"
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
GARAGE 31' X 23'
STD. TRUSSES @
7'-6"
6'-6"
4'-6"
1/2" PLY SHEAR PANEL A THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ PAT-28 STRAPS EA. END EA. WALL 10'-0"
2'-0" 4'-3"
9
9 32'-0"
H.B. 9 BRICK VENEER
1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE D.F.L. #2 OR BETTER. 2. ALL EXTERIOR WALLS @ HEATED LIVING AREA TO BE 2 X 6 @ 16" O.C. FRAME ALL EXTERIOR NON-BEARING WALLS W/ 2 X 6 STUDS @ 24" O.C. 3. FRAME ALL EXTERIOR OPENING W/ (2) 2 x 12 HEADERS W/ 2 x NAILER @ THE BOTTOM OF HDR. PROVIDE 2" RIGID INSULATION. 4. ALL INTERIOR HEADERS TO BE 4 X 6 UNLESS NOTED 5. BLOCK ALL WALLS OVER 10'-0" HIGH AT MID HEIGHT. 6. ALL FRAMING CONNECTORS TO BE SIMPSON STRONG-TIE OR EQUAL. 7. ALL TRUSSES TO BE @ 24" O.C. (DIRECTLY OVER STUDS). SUBMIT TRUSS CALCS. TO BUILDING DEPT. PRIOR TO ERECTION.
14'-0" 65'-0"
FIGURE 321 For a simple residence, the structural information can be shown on the floor plan.
19'-0"
57'-0"
4'-6"
FRAMING NOTES: 1/2" PLY SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ PAT-28 STRAPS EA. END EA. WALL
40'-6"
4'-4" 2'-0"
PROVIDE SCREENED CLOSEABLE VENT WITHIN 24" OF FIREBOX
FRAMING PLAN
1/4" = 1'-0"
Architectural Drafting and Design
24" O.C.
4 X 8 HDR.
FLUSH HEARTH
1/2" PLY SHEAR PANELS THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ PAT-28 STRAPS EA. END EA. WALL
16'-6"
4'-8"
19'-0"
10'-5"
-0 3' " -4 4' " 2'
-4
8'-0" 4 X 10 HDR.
2'-0"
4'-8"
K
GIRDER TRUSS
W.H.
G
18'-0" x 20'-6"
7'-6"
8'-0"
2'-0" 11'-0" x 11'6" B
4'-4"
8'-10"
J
K
LIV. 4'-0"
8'-0"
D
8
1
BED. 3
3
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM BOARD FROM FLOOR TO CEILING
7'-0"x 7'-o"
"
W
ENTRY
3'-8"
9
4
P
5
S&P
"
4' LIN.
5
FUR
PAN
GD
32 X 21" DBL SINK
2'-0"
7'-2"
-0
5'-6"
12'-0" X11'-6"
3'-6"
2'-6"
L.T.
S&P
24'-4"
KIT.
LINE OF VAULTED CEILING
5'
2
DW
BRICK VENEER
2'-2"
S&
2'-8"
2'-8"
22 x 30 ATTIC ACCESS
7
TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
SCISSOR / STUB 1'-0"
6'-6"
12'-0" x 10'-0"
D
WOOD BURNING STOVE W/ SCREENED CLOSEABLE VENT WITHIN 24" w/ FLUSH HEARTH 5'-0"
24" X 36" FLAT TEMPERED GLASS SKYLIGHT
LINE OF VAULTED CEILING
REFR.
6
BED. 2
FAM.
18'-0" x15'-0"
1'-8"
F
14'-0" x 7'-0"
4
5/0 TUB/ SHOWER
CONDENSER
4 X 8 HEADER
NOOK
8'-4"
6
4'-4"
5'-4"
M
@ 24" O.C.
S&P
22" X 34" CRAWL ACCESS
H.B.
C
2'-0"
I
STD. TRUSSES
2'-0" 3'-4"
H.B.
6'-4"
3'-10"
6
S&P 5'-4"
E
C
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
14'-0" x 16'-6"
4'-8"
2'-0" 2'-6"
1/2" PLY SHEAR PANELS THIS ENTIRE WALL 2-PAT-28 EA. END M
BED. 1
4'-4"
8'-0"
LINE OF 7'-0" CEILING
10'-2"
6'-0"
FURR CEILING TO 7'-0" @ BAY
D
36" X 36" FIBERGLASS SHOWER
3'-0"
2'-6" 2'-0"
3'-6"
FURR CEILING OVER TUB TO 7'-0"
L
32'-8"
6'-0"
11'-4"
3'-8"
4 X 8 HEADER
57'-0"
6'-0"
21'-6"
2'-0"
5'-0" FIGERGLASS TUB W. TILE SURROUND H L
2'-0"
3'-6"
15'-0"
11'-6"
6'-0"
2'-0"
15'-0"
19'-0"
10'-0"
6'-0"
25'-0"
6'-0"
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
729
36" HIGH WALL
DECK J
KITCHEN SINK TO BE FLUSH W/ COUNTERTOP. ALL KITCHEN COUNTERTOPS TO BE GRANITE TILE
BUILT-UP MICROWAVE
HB
32 X 21 DBL G.D. SINK
D.W
RANGE
DBL. OVEN
FG SINK G.D.
CUT BLK
KIT
DESK
6 SHELVES
PULL OUT COUNTER 36" HIGH RAIL
LIB
5'-0" X 7'-0" HARDWOOD 36" HIGH RAIL INSULATE W/ SOUND DEADENING BD. BRM.
8
WINE RACK
REFR.
6 L.T.
SEW.
8'-4" X 11'-0" W LINOLEUM FOLD-DN FG IRON BD. D
8" MAX. STEP 9 S&P
DINING
12'-0" X 12'-0" CARPET
UPPER CABS W/ GLASS DOORS
18'-0" X 12'-0" HARDWOOD
K
LAZY SUSAN
A
ARCH-VERIFY DESIGN W/ OWNERS.
DEC. COLUMNS 42" DIA. ARCH W/ WOOD TRIM
LIVING
14'-0" X 14'-0" CARPET SELF VENTING GAS FIREPLACE W/ MARBLE MANTLE LINE OF MARBLE FLOORING 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. UNDER STAIRS AT ALL USEABLE STORAGE.
N FLUSH MARBLE HEARTH
ENTRY MARBLE
HANDRAIL SET BTWN. 34-38" HIGH. UP 15R
N M
SEW D
COURTYARD
PROVIDE SCREENED CLOSEABLE VENT WITHIN 24" OF FIRE BOX.
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR LINE OF 8'-0" CEILING
SEAT
D
1 MAPLE STAIRS BY McCOY DOOR WITH CARPET RUNNER
PORTICO 21'-0" X 14'-0"
FIGURE 322 For a detailed set of plans, typically only architectural information is placed on the floor plan. Courtesy Residential Designs.
730
Architectural Drafting and Design
1'-0" 9'-6"
6'-0"
12'-4"
5'-4"
4'-2"
4'-6"
6'-6"
5'-10"
10" BE LO W
10'-0"
2'-0" 1'-6" 5'-0" 10'-0"
3'-6"
41'-0"
6'-0"
4'-0"
10'-0"
13'-0"
1'-0" 1/2" PLYWOOD SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ 8d NAILS @ 4" O.C. @ ALL STUDS SOLID BLOCK ALL EDGES. USE 2-2X6 STUDS @ EA. END OF EACH PORTION OF SHEAR PANEL W/ PAHD42 EMBEDDED 8" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 11-16d NAILS INTO END STUDS.
4x 4x 3/ 16 "T .S
PO ST 4X 4
32'-0"
4x 4x 3/ 16 "T .S
13'-0"
17'-10"
6 X 12 HDR.
6 X 12 HRD.
CONT.
4'-0"
1 3 1/8" X 10 1/2" GLULAM PAHD-42 STRAPS W/ 11-16d TO STUDS TYPICAL THIS PORTION. 12'-10" 5'-0"
4'-8" 2'-8"
N M
5'-2"
2'-6"
4 X 8 CONT HDR.
PO ST
9'-8"
4 X 6 FLAT BTWN. WINDOWS.
4X4 POST
1/2" PLYWOOD SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ 8d NAILS @ 4" O.C. @ ALL STUDS SOLID BLOCK ALL EDGES
3'-3"
4X8 4X 4
10 8" R.
7'-4"
2'-9"
2'-0"
4 X 6 FLAT BTWN WINDOWS.
PAHD-42 STRAPS W/ 11-16d TO STUDS
6 X 6 POST TO HDR @ ROOF LEVEL.
2'-0" 6X8 DEC. BMS @32" O.C
5'-0" 4"
PO ST
4X8
4X 6
N
D
9'-0"
5'-2"
5 1/8" X 10 1/2" FLUSH GLULAM HDR.
8'-6"
4'-0"
4 X 12
4x 4x 3/ 16 "T .S
2X6 C.J. @ 16: O.C.
4'-6"
4" PO ST
HHU5.125/12
2'-4"
2 X 12 F.J. @ 16" O.C. U210 TYPICAL
4'-2"
5 1/8"X12 CONT. FLUSH HDR.
4 X 8 CONT.
MSTI 72 STRAP TO 2-2X6 STUDS BELOW.
1'-0"
"R 60
U26 TYP.
1/2" PLYWOOD SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ 8d NAILS @ 4" O.C. @ ALL STUDS SOLID BLOCK ALL EDGES
A
4X 6
3'-10"
9
6
1'-0"
1'-0"
5 1/8" X 18 U210-2 U210 HGR. FLUSH GLULAM UP SIDE DN. 2 X 10 RIM JOIST. 1'-2"
2 X 10 F.J @ 12" O.C.
3'-4"
1'-0" FLUSH 2-2 X 10
8
4 X 8 HDR.
5 1/8" x 10 1/2 2'-4"
4X 6
PO ST
2'-4" 7'-4"
6 3/4 X 13 1/2 FLUSH GLB. U210-2
8'-4"
2'-0"
1'-4"
1'-0"
4X6 HDR.
1'-0" 1'-0" 2 X 12 F.J. @ 24" O.C. U210 HGRS. TYPICAL
2'-6"
2 X 12 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
GLULAM
5 1/8" X 10 1/2" FLUSH GLULAM
5'-0"
7'-2"
MSTI 72 STRAP TO 2-2X6 STUDS BELOW.
5 1/8" X 10 1/2" GLULAM HDR.
5 1/8" X 10 1/2" FLUSH GLULAM
37'-0"
PO ST
K
6 X 12 HDR.
5'-4"
4"
1/2" PLYWOOD SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ 8d NAILS @ 4" O.C. @ ALL STUDS SOLID BLOCK ALL EDGES. USE 2-2X6 STUDS @ EA. END OF SHEAR PANEL & PROVIDE MSTI36 STRAPS TO 2-2X6 STUDS IN WALL BELOW.
4 W X6 /M P ST OS I3 T 6 TO
4X 6
D
D= 10 .5
LINE OF UPPER FLR.
PO ST
J
HH B5
4 X 6 HDR.
4x 4x 3/ 16 "T .S
6 3/4" X 15" GLULAM HDR. 22'-0" EXCEPT FOR DESIGNATED SHEAR PANELS, BALANCE OF WALLS ON THIS FLOOR MAY BE SHEATHED W/ 1/2" WAFERBOARD.
FIGURE 323 The framing plan for the structure shown in Figure 32-2 contains only the structural information. Courtesy Residential Designs.
731
4 X 10 DFL #1 FLUSH HDR.
The severity of lateral loads will vary greatly, depending on the area of the country where you work. Typically plywood or OSB shear panels, extra blocking, metal angles, and metal connectors to tie posts of one level to members below them are common methods of resisting the forces caused by earthquakes or high winds. See
6 W/ X 6 CC DFL 51 PO /2 ST x6
SCISSOR TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
LINE OF FLOOR ABOVE
LINE OF VAULTED CEILING.
2 X 10 DFL #2 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
U M 21 TL 0 . H -3 GR .
3-2 X 10 FLUSH BM. UNDER WALL ABOVE
1/2" PLYWOOD SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ 8d NAILS @ 4" O.C. @ EDGES & 8d NAILS @ 8" O.C. FIELD. USE COMMON WIRE NAILS. PROVIDE SIMPSON CO. MSTI36 STRAPS TO 2-2X6 STUDS IN WALL BELOW ( 3 PLACES ). W/ 36 10d NAILS
5 1/8 X 15 GLULAM BM. - Fb 2200
4 X 10 DFL #1 FLUSH HDR.
2 X 10 DFL #2 F.J. @ 16" O.C. 6 W X6 /C LINE OF VAULTED C DF CEILING. 5 LP 1/ O 2 ST X SCISSOR TRUSSES @ 24" O.C. 6
MSTI48 STRAPS FROM EA. HDR. TO TOP PL
LINE OF FLOOR ABOVE
3-2 X 10 FLUSH BM. UNDER WALL ABOVE U M 21 TL 0.H 3 GR .
4 X 12 D.F.L. #1 HDR. w/ DBL KING STUDS & TRIMMERS
2 X 10 DFL #2 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
Seismic and Wind Resistance
4 X 10 DFL #1 FLUSH HDR.
Chapter 28 for a review of these terms. These members are determined by an engineer and placed on the framing plan by the drafter using methods represented in Figure 32-6.
2 X 6 DFL #2 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
specifications is often placed at a 45° angle, so it is obvious on the drawing. Figure 32-4 shows common methods of specifying beams and posts. Joists, rafters, and trusses are represented by a thin line with an arrow at each end. Many companies draw the line representing these members so that it extends from bearing point to bearing point. An alternative method is to show the joist symbol centered between the bearing points. The specification for the member is written parallel to the line and should include the size, type, and spacing of the member. If metal hangers are to be used to connect a joist to a beam, a note listing the connector is typically placed on a 45° angle and should include the size or model number and the manufacturer. If a vaulted ceiling is to be provided, the line dividing the vault from the flat ceiling must be drawn, located, and specified. Figure 32-5 shows common methods of representing joists, trusses, and vaulted ceilings.
5 1/8 X 15 GLULAM BM. - Fb 2200
FIGURE 325 Joists, rafters, and trusses are each represented by a line with an arrow to show the direction of the span. A note should be placed parallel to the direction indicator to specify the type, size, and spacing of the framing member. Annotation to describe metal connectors and posts is often specified on an angle so that the notation is obvious.
4 X 6 DFL#1 CONT. HDR.
FIGURE 324 Headers over a door or window are typically specified by note but not drawn. Framers realize that a door or window must have a header and will look for a note. Headers over a wall opening or between walls must be drawn and specified.
4 X 12 D.F.L. #1 HDR. w/ DBL KING STUDS & TRIMMERS
2 X 10 DFL #2 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
4 X 6 DFL#1 CONT. HDR.
5 1/8 X 15 GLULAM BM. - Fb 2200
6 W X6 /C C DF 51 L P /2 OS X T 6
3-2 X 10 FLUSH BM. UNDER WALL ABOVE U M 21 TL 0.H 3 GR .
4 X 6 DFL#1 CONT. HDR.
4 X 12 D.F.L. #1 HDR. w/ DBL KING STUDS & TRIMMERS
2 X 6 DFL #2 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
1 X 4 DIAG. LET-IN BRACE ACROSS 3 STUDS MIN.
FIGURE 326 Material for resisting lateral loads such as shear panels and let-in braces are specified on the framing plan by note. Bold lines can be used to represent metal straps.
732
Architectural Drafting and Design
Shear panels can be specified by a local note pointing to the area of the wall to be reinforced. If several walls are to receive shear panels, a note to explain the construction of the panel can be placed as a general note, with a shortened local note used merely to locate their occurrence. Horizontal metal straps may be required to strengthen connections of the top plate or to tie the header into wall framing. These straps can be represented by a line placed on the side of the wall with a note to specify the manufacturer, the size, and the required blocking. Where walls can be reinforced with a let-in brace, a bold diagonal line is usually placed on the wall, as shown in Figure 32-6. Vertical metal straps used to tie trimmers, king studs, or posts of one level to another can be represented on each layer of the framing plan by a bold line where they occur. This vertical strap should be shown and specified on the framing plan for each level being connected. The specification should include the manufacturer, size, and required nailing. Figure 32-6 shows how to represent shear panels, let-in braces, and metal straps. Straps similar to those in Figure 28-32A and Figure 28-32B are also shown in sections and details that are referenced to the framing plan, as in Figure 32-7, and they can be shown on the exterior elevations. When the lowest floor level is to be attached to the foundation level, a metal connector
HD2A W/ 2- 5/8"ø THRU DBL. STUD & 5/8"ø BOLT THRU HDR. BELOW
2 X 12 RIM JST.
6 X 10 HDR.
2-2 X 6 TOP PL ST6224 STRAP W/ 14- 16d NAILS
2- 2 X 6 STUDS
7 14
POST / HEADER 3/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 327 Specified on the framing plan, metal straps and hold-down anchors are typically shown in detail to show exact placement and connection methods.
FIGURE 328A Metal hold-down anchors are often used to secure posts that transfer loads from the roof or upper floors into the foundation. These anchors are used to resist the forces of uplift that may be imposed on the roof or walls. Courtesy Gisela Smith.
similar to the anchor in Figure 32-8A is often used. These anchors or hold-downs are usually represented by a cross so they can be easily dimensioned. Figure 32-8B shows common methods of representing these ties on the foundation plan. To help resist uplift or lateral loads, floors and roof members are often tied into the wall system using anchors similar to those in Figure 28-53. In addition to the common nailing used to connect each member, metal angles are used to secure the trusses or rafters to the top plate. Where lateral loads are severe, blocking is added between the trusses or rafters to keep these members from bending under lateral stress. These areas where joists or rafters are stiffened to resist bending from lateral loads are often referred to as a diaphragm. The size, location, and framing method are specified by an engineer. The angles and blocking for the diaphragm must be clearly specified on the framing plan. The angles are typically represented in a section or detail but are not drawn on the framing plan. They should be specified by a note that indicates the manufacturer, model number, spacing, and which members are to be
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
733
16'-7"
18 "D EE P 21 "X
3'-9"
HD-5A
4'-4"
10'-0" 16'-4"
7'-5"
6'-8"
4"
37'-0"
4 W 8" LO / 5 X 1 NG -#4 2" EA ø X DE . W 4 EP AY 2"
5 W '-0 LO / 6 " X NG -# 12 5 EA ø " D . W X 5 EE AY 4" P
14'-0"
1'-8"
12" WIDE X 12" DP.
13'-6"
2'-4"
2 X 12 F.J. @ 16"O.C.
5'-2"
Chapter 17 introduced the process of placing dimensions on the floor plan. The process for placing dimensions on the framing plan is exactly the same. If a separate framing plan is to be drawn, the floor plan is usually not dimensioned; instead, all dimensions are placed on the framing plans. In addition to walls, doors, and windows, the location of framing members often needs to be dimensioned. Beams that span over an opening in a wall are located by the dimensions that locate the wall. Beams placed in the middle of a room must be located by dimensions. Where joists extend past a wall, the length of the cantilever must be dimensioned. When an upper level only partially covers another level, joist size or type often varies. The limits of the placement of joists should also be dimensioned on a floor plan. Figure 32-10 shows how the location of structural members can be clarified for the framer.
2'-7"
PAT28 @ EA. PIER THIS ENTIRE WALL
8'-4"
Dimensions
3"
21 21 " X " X 18 18 " DE " D EP EE P
18 "D EE P
3'-4"
24 "X
24 "X
18 "D EE P
HD-5A
18" WIDE X 24" DP.
connected. Areas that are to receive special blocking should be indicated on the framing plan. Figure 32-9 shows how a roof diaphragm can be represented on a framing plan.
4"
FIGURE 328B Metal hold-down anchors must be located and specified on the foundation plan so that stresses from uplift and lateral loads are transferred into the concrete.
75'-0" 13'-10 1/2" 4'-0"
51'-1 1/2"
9'-10 1/2" 3'-6"
8'-8"
4'-0"
4'-0"
D
6'-4 1/2"
1/2" PLY SHEAR PANEL NAILED W/ 8d @ 4" O.C. @ EDGE & 8" O.C. FIELD THIS ENTIRE WALL- BOTH LEVELS
K
4'-0"
F
8'-0" PLATE
4'-0"
10'-11 1/2" 8'-5 1/2"
USE A-34 ANCHORS @ PLATE TO RAFTER TAILS AND @ RAFTER TO BEAMS @ ALL 2 X 12 CONN.
H
4'-0"
5'-6"
2'-6"
10'-0" 3'-8"
B
6'-4"
A
1/2" PLY SHEAR PANEL
H
H
A
8
1/2" PLY SHEAR PANEL NAILED W/ 8d @ 4" O.C. @ EDGE
X
7'-6"
RI DG E 12 X 22
2 X 12 @ 24" O.C.
6 X 10 FLUSH BM.
2 X 12 @ 24" O.C. 10'-8"
8'-6" LINE OF UPPER
4 X 10 U-210-2 HGR.
4
2 X 12 RAFT.C.J. @ 24" O.C. SEE UPPER FRAMING PLAN FOR UPPER BEARING PT.
2-2 X 12 FLUSH RAFTERS
RAFTERS 2 X 12 RAFT. / C.J. @ 24" O.C. 13 5'-2"
2-2 X 10
B
U-210-2 EA. END
FLUSH F.J. 2'-2"
2'-8"
(3) - 2 X 12
5 1/8 X 16 1/2 GLULAM BM.
5 1/8 X 12 GLULAM
5'-8"
2'-8"
M
8'-0" PLATE
2 X 12 @ 24" O.C.
4'-4"
2'-4"
2'-8"
2 -2 X 12 FLUSH
14
3'-0"
2 X 12 RAFT. /C.J. @ 24" O.C.
4
11'-0"
H
4'-0"
8'-0" PLATE W
4'-4"
E
V L
8'-2"
J
5
2 X 12 RAFT. / C.J. @ 24" O.C.
W
NAIL FIRST SHEET OF ROOF SHEATHING W/ 8d @ 4" O.C. @ EDGE & BLOCKING & 8" O.C. @ FIELD FOR ENTIRE WALL.
2 X 12 RAFT./C.J. @ 24" O.C.
9'-6"
Y
1/2" PLY SHEAR PANEL NAILED W/ 8d @ 4" O.C. @ EDGE & 8" O.C. FIELD THIS ENTIRE WALL- BOTH LEVELS
FLOOR
4 X 12 9
8
FIGURE 329 Where lateral loads are severe, blocking is added between the framing members to keep them from bending under lateral stress. Special nailing and reinforced connections between the members are used to resist lateral forces. This information must be shown on the framing plan. Because the rear face of this home has very few walls, the engineer is using the roof to keep the walls square. The walls support the weight of the roof, and the roof resists the lateral loads. Courtesy Residential Designs.
4 X 12 HDR.
4'-8"
5 1/8" x 10 1/2 GLULAM
HHU5.125/12 ST
PO 6 4X
5-'10" 6'-2" ST PO 6 4X
2 X 12
U210-2 2-2 X 12
5 1/8"X12 CONT. FLUSH HDR.
3'-6"
U210 TYP. 2'-6"
U26-2
ST 2 X 12 F.J. @ 16" O.C. PO
6 3/4" X 19 1/2 GLULAM
16'-6"
6 3/4 X 12 FLUSH GLB.
W/ 8d @ 4" O.C. EA. STUD W/ 2-2X6 DBL. STUD EA. END W/ PAHD42 EA. END.
7'-2"
6
PO
ST
8'-10"
PLACE 3/4" PLY FLOOR SHEATH OVER 2 X 12 F.J. IN ATTIC
12
4 X 8 CONT.
4 X 12 HDR.
4
PO
ST
19 1/2" PLYWOOD SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ 8d NAILS @ 4" O.C. @ ALL STUDS SOLID BLOCK ALL EDGES. USE 4 X 4 POST @ EA. END OF EACH PORTION OF SHEAR PANEL W/ PAHD42 EMBEDDED 8" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 11-16d NAILS INTO POST. 40'-0"
4X
19
2 X 12 F.J. @ 24" O.C. U210 TYPICAL 1/2" PLY SHEAR PANEL
7'-6"
4'-0"
8'-0"
6
6 3/4" x 10 f2400 GLULAM
6
14
4X
12'-0"
4X
PO
ST
ST PO
4X
4X
4'-0"
1'-8" 1'-8" 2 X 12 F.J. @ 16" O.C. U210 TYPICAL
SET FLUSH W/ FLOOR JOIST
6 3/4" X 15 GLULAM
U26 TYPICAL
ST PO 6
11'-3" 20'-8"
2 X 12 F.J. @ 24" O.C. W/U26 HGRS.
6'-0"
4 X 10
3'-4"
6 3/4 X 18 GLULAM BEAM
2 S -2 TO HEA X 4 CO R P S NC AN TUD RE EL S TE W AT FT / PA EN G. H D D4 O 2 F
5'-0"
1'-0"
1'-8"
5'-8"
3 1/8" X 9 HDR. 4
2'-0" 1'-4"
6'-1" 4'-0"
9
6
2'-8"
2 X 12 F.J. @ 24" O.C.
3-2 X 12
2 X 12 F.J. @ 24" O.C. U210 HGRS.
6'-0"
4X8
BLOCK OUT FOR STAIR. PROVIDE A MINIMUM OF 6'-4" STAIR WELL.
4X
21'-0"
1'-10" 2'-8"
5
W PLACE 3/4" PLY FLOOR SHEATH OVER 2 X 12 F.J. IN ATTIC
2-2X12 4X6 POST U210-2
2 X 12 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
3'-6" 15'-0"
41'-0"
1/2" PLYWOOD SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE 4" WALL W/ 8d NAILS @ 4" O.C. @ ALL STUDS SOLID BLOCK ALL EDGES W/ 2-2 X STUDS @ EA. END OF SHEAR PANEL W/ MSTI48 TO 2-2X6 IN WALL BELOW 4X8
4'-0"
12'-6"
Architectural Drafting and Design
20'-0"
734
5'-2"
72'-0"
FIGURE 3210 The location of beams and posts must be dimensioned on the framing plan. Courtesy Residential Designs.
Notes The use of local notes to specify materials on the framing plan has been mentioned throughout this chapter. Many professionals also place general notes on the framing plan to ensure compliance with the code that governs construction. These framing notes can be placed on the framing plan, with the sections and details, or on a separate specifications page that is included with the working drawings. Figure 32-11 shows common notes that might be included with the framing plan. A copy of these notes can be found on the Student CD and inserted into the framing plan.
explain section tags and their relationship to the sections and framing plans. Figure 32-9 shows examples of section markers.
Section References Framing plans are used as reference maps to show where cross sections have been cut. Detail reference symbols are also placed on the framing plan to help the print reader understand material that is being displayed in the sections. Chapter 36 will further
FIGURE 3211 General notes can be used to ensure that minimum standards established by building codes will be maintained. This table is based on Table R602.3(1) from the IRC. Courtesy Residential Designs.
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
735
RESISTING LATERAL LOADS USING THE PRESCRIPTIVE PATH OF THE CODE Throughout this chapter it has been assumed that someone will be calculating the exact loads on each surface of a structure. An alternative to having an engineer design the method of resisting lateral loads is to use the prescriptive path provided by the building code. Prescriptive design methods provided by the IRC are requirements for construction to ensure that a structure will be able to resist lateral loads. The prescriptive path requirements of the IRC may limit ceiling heights, restrict where an opening can be placed in walls, and also limit wall placement depending on the stress to be resisted and the method used to provide the reinforcement. The prescriptive path limits the design criteria for basic wind speeds below 110 mph. The International Building Code (IBC) provides information for structures that must resist greater wind loads, but these codes are not the subject of this chapter. Homes that must resist greater winds should be designed under the supervision of an engineer or based on specific local codes for high wind areas. When prescriptive design methods are used, wall heights are limited to a maximum of 12' (3658 mm), although depending on the bracing method this height may be reduced. Window and wall placement will be discussed throughout the balance of this chapter. Before applying the prescriptive path method, several key terms that are used by the code must be understood. NOTE: There are two key issues to understand before you start
to explore the prescriptive methods found in the IRC. 1. Depending on the municipality, prescriptive methods and specific design methods may not be allowed to be used on the same house. If a structure can’t meet all of the requirements for using the prescriptive path, a specific design to meet the lateral loads may need to be provided. Provisions for mixing wall-bracing methods will be provided later in this chapter. Because municipalities can modify the model code, the designer should verify with the local building department whether compatible conventional and prescriptive methods can be used on the same level of a structure. 2. More so than any other area of the national code, state and local municipalities have altered the contents of IRC Section 602.10—Wall Bracing. Verify what code has jurisdiction for your area with your governing building department before starting each project.
Basic Terms of Prescriptive Design Earlier in this chapter the term shear panel was introduced as a method of resisting lateral loads. Shear
WALL 3 WA
LL
4
WA
LL
2
N ND TIO WI REC I D
WALL 1
FIGURE 3212 A simple structure with four braced wall lines (exterior walls). As wind is applied to the structure, the natural tendency is for the wall to change from a rectangle into a parallelogram. If wind force is applied to wall 1, then the roof, wall line 2, and wall line 4 will be used to resist the force.
panels are used when the method of resisting lateral loads is specific to a single structure. When the lateral loads are resisted using the prescriptive method of the model code, the term braced wall panel is used rather than shear panel. The terms braced wall lines and braced wall panels are used to describe methods of resisting wall loads. Each exterior surface of a residence is considered a braced wall line. Figure 32-12 shows a simple structure with four braced wall lines (exterior walls). Because very few homes are simple rectangles, the IRC allows some modifications to braced wall lines. These modifications will be discussed later in this chapter as placement of wall bracing panels is discussed. As wind is applied to a structure such as Figure 32-12, the natural tendency is for the walls resisting the wind load to change from a rectangle to a parallelogram. If wind force is applied to wall 1, then the roof, wall line 2, and wall line 4 will be used to resist the force. Because the wind force can come from any direction, each surface must be reinforced to resist the force that may be applied to the adjoining surface. Several methods are approved by the IRC for reinforcing a braced wall line. These methods include the use of intermittent bracing and the use of continuous sheathing (see double-wall construction in Chapter 28). Intermittent bracing includes the use of braced wall panels, alternative braced wall panels, and portal frames with alternative methods of constructing, the latter two methods depend on the relationship of the bracingto-wall openings. Later portions of this chapter will deal with construction methods for each type of wall reinforcing.
736
Architectural Drafting and Design
Resisting Lateral Loads with Intermittent Braced Wall Panels
5. GB (Gypsum board): 1/2" (13 mm) thick × 4'
A braced wall panel (BWP) is a method of braced wall line reinforcement that uses panels with a minimum length of 48" (1219 mm) to resist lateral loads. The exact length depends on the design wind speed, seismic design category, the method of construction, and adjustment factors that can be applied. In addition to the minimum length, the panel must cover three studs when studs are placed at 16" (406 mm) O.C. or two studs when studs are placed at 24" (610 mm) O.C. The minimum length of braced panels can be reduced if the entire wall is continuously sheathed. The size of the panel reduction is based on the wall height and the height of the wall opening located adjacent to the braced panel.
6. PBS (Particleboard sheathing): Panels with a mini-
Components of Braced Wall Construction. Several methods are allowed for constructing the panel that will reinforce a braced wall line. IRC-approved construction and the coded designation for the construction method for a braced wall panel include: 1. LIB (Let-in brace): Nominal 1 × 4 (25 × 100) con-
tinuous diagonal let-in brace that is let into the top and bottom plates and a minimum of three studs. Braces are to be attached to each stud and plate with (2)-8d nails. The brace cannot be placed at an angle greater than 60° or less than 45° from horizontal and must extend into the top and bottom plate. An approved metal strap such as a Simpson Strong-Tie CWB, WB, WBC, TWB, or RCWB wall strap that is fastened per the manufacturer instructions can also be used. (Continuous diagonal let-in braces [method 1] are not allowed in seismic zones D1, D2, and E.) 2. DWB (Diagonal wood boards): Diagonally placed,
3/4" (19 mm) [1" (25 mm) nominal] wood boards that are applied to studs spaced at a maximum of 24" (610 mm) O.C. using (2)-8d nails per stud. 3. WSP (Wood structural panels): 3/8" (9.5 mm)
minimum thick 24/0 wood structural panels applied to studs spaced at a maximum of 16" (400 mm) O.C. using 6d nails at 6" O.C. at edges and 12" O.C. at field. 4. SFB (Structural fiberboard sheathing): Sheathing
with a minimum thickness of 1/2" or 25/32" (13 or 20 mm) over studs placed at 16" (406 mm) O.C. attached with 1 1/2" (38 mm) galvanized roofing nails or 8d common nails at 3" (75 mm) O.C. at panel edges and 6" (150 mm) O.C. at intermediate supports.
(1219 mm) wide gypsum sheets placed over studs spaced at 24" (610 mm) and nailed at 7" (178 mm) O.C. maximum at panel edges. Each wall panel must be 96" (2438 mm) long if gypsum board is used on one wall face. The length can be reduced to 48" (1219 mm) if the gypsum board is placed on each face of the stud wall. mum thickness of 3/8" or 1/2" placed over studs with a maximum spacing of 16" (410 mm) O.C. attached to studs with 1 1/2" galvanized roofing nails or 8d common nails at 3" O.C. at panel edges and 6" O.C. at intermediate supports. 7. PCP (Portland cement plaster): Plaster on studs
placed at 16" (410 mm) O.C. attached with 1 1/2" (38 mm) nails at 6" (150 mm) O.C. at each stud. 8. HPS (Hardboard panel siding): Hardboard siding
with a minimum thickness of 7/16" (11.1 mm) placed over studs at 16" (410 mm) O.C. attached with 0.092" diameter nails at 4" (100 mm) O.C. at panel edges and 8" (200 mm) O.C. at intermediate supports. 9. ABW (Alternative braced wall): Wall reinforcing
constructed to meet the requirements in Section R602.10.3.2 of the IRC. 10. PFH (Intermittent portal frames): Wall reinforcing
constructed to meet the requirements in Section R602.10.3.3 of the IRC. 11. PFG (Intermittent portal frame at garage): A
portal frame constructed beside a garage to meet the requirements in Section R602.10.3.4 of the IRC. For these conditions to be allowable, each material must be applied using the connection methods listed in the fastener schedule shown in Figure 32-13. Each panel must be a minimum of 48" (1219 mm) long covering a minimum of three studs placed at 16" (406 mm) O.C. or two studs placed at 24" (610 mm) O.C. for methods 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8. Table 32-1 shows basic design lengths for braced wall panels based on material and height. In addition to specifying how the walls are to be reinforced, one also must consider how the reinforced wall will be attached to the foundation. If the walls are made rigid to keep their rectangular shape, a second tendency will occur. The edge of the wall panel nearest the load (the wind) will start to lift and rotate around the edge of the panel that is furthest
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
NAILING
737
SCHEDULE
TAKEN FROM 1997 UBC TABLE 23-II-B-1 CONNECTION
NAILING (1)
1
JOIST TO SILL OR GIRDER, TOE NAIL
3- 8d
2
BRIDGING TO JOIST, TOENAIL EACH END
2- 8d
2. NAILS SPACED @ 6" O.C. @ EDGES, 12" O.C. @ INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS EXCEPT 6" @ ALL SUPPORTS WHERE SPANS ARE 48" OR MORE. FOR NAILING OF WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL AND PARTICLEBOARD PARTICLEBOARD SHEATHING DIAPHRAGMS AND SHEAR WALLS SEE SPECIFIC NOTES ON DRAWINGS. NAILS FOR WALL SHEATHING MAY BE COMMON, BOX OR CASING.
3
1 X 6 SUBFLOOR OR LESS TO EACH JOIST, FACE NAIL
2-8d
3. FASTENERS SPACED 3" O.C. @ EXTERIOR EDGES & 6" O.C. @ INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS SUPPORTS..
4
WIDER THAN 1 X 6 SUBFLOOR TO EA. JOIST, FACE NAIL
3-8d 3 -8d 8
5
2" SUBFLOOR TO JOIST OR GIRDER, BLIND AND FACE NAIL
2-16d
6
SOLE PLATE TO JOIST OR BLOCKING TYPICAL FACE NAIL SOLE PLATE TO JOIST OR BLOCKING, @ BRACED WALL PANELS
16d @ 16" O.C. 3- 16d PER 16"
7
TOP PLATE TO STUD, END NAIL
2-16d
8
STUD TO SOLE PLATE
4- 8d , TOENAIL OR 2- 16d , END NAIL
9
DOUBLE STUDS, FACE NAIL
16d @ 24" O.C.
10 DOUBLED TOP PLATES, TYPICAL FACE NAIL DOUBLE TOP PLATES, LAP SPLICE
1. COMMON OR BOX NAILS MAY BE USED WHERE OTHERWISE STATED.
2" SHEATHING 4. CORROSION -RESISTANT ROOFING NAILS W/ 7/16" DIA. HEAD & 1 1/2" LENGTH FOR 1/ 1/2" & 1 3/4" LENGTH FOR 25/32" SHEATHING.. 5. CORROSION-RESISTANT STAPLES W/ NOMINAL 7/16" CROWN & 1 1/8" LENGTH FOR 1/2" SHEATHING & 1 1/2" LENGTH FOR 25/32" SHEATHING.. 6. PANEL SUPPORTS @ 16" ( 20" IF STRENGTH AXIS IN THE LONG DIRECTION OF THE PANEL, PANEL, UNLESS OTHERWISE MARKED). CASING OR FINISH NAILS SPACED 6" ON PANEL EDGES, 12" @ INTERMEDIATE INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS. T AT 7. PANEL SUPPORTS @ 24". CASING OR FINISH HAILS SPACED 6" ON PANEL EDGES, 12" A INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS.
WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL
16d @ 16" O.C. 8- 16d
11 BLOCKING BETWEEN JOIST OR RAFTERS TO TOP PLATE, TOENAIL
3- 8d
12 RIM JOIST TO TOP PLATE, TOENAIL
8d @ 6" O.C.
13 TOP PLATES, LAPS & INTERSECTIONS, FACE NAIL
2-16d
14 CONTINUOUS HEADER, TWO PIECES
16d @ 16" O.C. ALONG EACH EDGE
15 CEILING JOIST TO PLATE, TOE NAIL
3-8d
16 CONTINUOUS HEADER TO STUD, TOE NAIL
4-8d
17 CEILING JOIST, LAPS OVER PARTITIONS, FACE NAIL
3-16d
18 CEILING JOIST TO PARALLEL RAFTERS, FACE NAIL
ROOF
SHEATHING NAILING SCHEDULE
(1) ROOF FASTENER ZONE 1
2
FASTENING SCHEDULE (INCHES ON CENTER) WIND REGION
NAILS
PANEL LOCATION
X 25.4 FOR MM
GREATER THAN 90 MPH (145 km/h) 8d COMMON
PANEL EDGES PANEL FIELD
(3)
6 6
6 6
4 (4) 6 (4)
GREATER THAN 80 MPH (129 km/h) 8d COMMON TO 90 MPH (145 km/h)
PANEL EDGES
(3)
3-16d
6
6
4
12
6
6
19 RAFTERS TO PLATE, TOE NAIL
3-8d
80 MPH (129 km/h) OR LESS
PANEL EDGES
6
6
6
20 1" BRACE TO EA. STUD & PLATE FACE NAIL
2-8d
12
12
12
21 1" X 8" SHEATHING OR LESS TO EA. BEARING, FACE NAIL
2-8d
22 WIDER THAN 1" X 8" SHEATHING TO EACH BEARING, FACE NAIL
3-8d
23 BUILT-UP CORNER STUDS
16d @ 24" O.C.
24 BUILT-UP GIRDER AND BEAMS
20d @ 32" O.C. @ TOP & BTM. AND STAGGERED 2-20d @ ENDS & @ EACH SPLICE
1.
8d COMMON
PANEL FIELD (3)
PANEL FIELD
APPLIES ONLY TO MEAN ROOF HEIGHTS UP TO 35 FT (10 700 MM). FOR MEAN ROOF HEIGHTS HEIGHTS 35 FEET (10 700 MM), THE NAILING SHALL BE DESIGNED.
2. ROOF FASTENING ZONES ARE SHOWN BELOW. 3. EDGE SPACING ALSO APPLIES OVER ROOF FRAMING AT GABLE-END WALLS. 4. USE 8d RING-SHANK NAILS IN THIS ZONE IF MEAN ROOF HEIGHT IS GREATER THAN 25' (7600mm).
2-16d 2" PLANKS @ EACH BEARING
(2 ((2) 2) 26 WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS AND PARTICLEBOARD D SUBFLOOR, ROOF AND WALL SHEATHING TO FRAMING: 19/32" - 3/4" 1/2" AND LESS 7/8 "- 1" 1 1/8"- 1 1/4" COMBINATION SUBFLOOR-UNDERLAYMENT TO FRAMING: 3/4" AND LESS 7/8" - 1" 1 1/8" - 1 1/4" (2 ((2) 2) 27 PANEL SIDING TO FRAMING:: 1/2" OR LESS CASING NAILS. 5/8" FIBERBOARD SHEATHING (3) 1/2" 25/32"
8d COMMON OR 6d DEFORMED SHANK 6d COMMON OR DEFORMED SHANK 8d COMMON OR DEFORMED SHANK 10d COMMON OR 8d DEFORMED SHANK
2
1
2
6d DEFORMED SHANK 8d DEFORMED SHANK 10d COMMON OR 8d DEFORMED SHANK
1
2
2
ROOF RIDGE
25
28
(2)
3
6d CORROSION-RESISTANT SIDING OR 8d CORROSION-RESISTANT SIDING OR No. 11 GA. (4) 6d COMMON NAILS No. 16 GA. (5)
5'-0" ( INCLUDING 1'-0" OVERHANG)
3
No. 11 GA. (4) 8d COMMON NAILS No. 16 GA. (5)
29. INTERIOR PANELING: 1/4"
4d (6)
25/32"
6d (7)
4'-0"
4'-0"
4'-0"
FIGURE 3213 Building codes provide specifications that regulate each connection specified on the framing plans. Providing a nailing schedule with the working drawings will eliminate having to specify nailing for each drawing. This table is based on Table 602.3.(1) of the IRC. Courtesy Residential Designs.
738
Architectural Drafting and Design
TABLE 321 Bracing Wall Panel Length Requirements Vary Depending on the Wall Height and the Seismic Design Category (Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.)
from the load. Figure 32-14 shows this tendency. Throughout the following discussion of wall panels, consideration will be given to metal connectors used to attach the wall panel to the foundation. These straps must be specified on the framing and foundation plans. The connectors are located on the foundation plan so that they can be correctly located when the concrete is poured. They must be located on the framing plan to specify how the connector will be attached to the panel end posts.
Alternative Braced Wall Panels An alternative braced wall panel (ABWP) is a method of braced wall line reinforcement
A BRACED WALL WILL FAIL BY UPLIFT UNLESS THE WALLS ARE ANCHORED TO THE FOUNDATION.
FORCE (WIND OR SEISMIC)
STUDS IN NORMAL POSITION
FIGURE 3214 If walls are made rigid to keep their rectangular shape, a second tendency will occur. The edge of the wall panel nearest the load (the wind) will lift and rotate around the edge of the panel that is farthest from the load.
that uses smaller, stronger, panels in place of a 48" (1219 mm) braced wall panel. ABWP may have a length of between 2'−4" through 3'−6" (711 through 1067 mm) to resist lateral loads. The length of the panel depends on the method of construction, the height of the wall, the seismic zone, and the wind speed of the building site and can be determined using Table 32-2. Panels for a one-level home in seismic zone D0 must be sheathed on one face with 3/8" (10 mm) minimum plywood structural panel nailed with 8d common or galvanized nails. The panel must be attached to the foundation with two 1/2" (13 mm) diameter anchor bolts placed at the quarter points of the panel. Each panel end stud must also be attached to the foundation with a hold-down anchor installed, which meets the manufacturer specifications and is capable of resisting the uplift specified in Table 32-2. The information from Table 32-2 can be combined with information from a catalog from a fastener supplier to determine the needed hold-down anchor. One such supplier source is the Simpson Strong-Tie Web site. Knowing that the IRC requires an 8' high wall to have a 2'−4" wide panel and a strap connector capable of resisting 3000 lb of uplift force, a Simpson Strong-Tie HPAHD22 strap tie with 10" embedment and an 8" end distance was selected because it can resist more than the required 3000 lb of force that can be expected. To ensure that this information is accurately presented to the construction crew, a detail similar to Figure 32-15 is usually referenced to the framing plan. A copy of this drawing can be found on the Student CD and inserted into the drawing package. NOTE: Although Simpson Strong-Tie is a widely recognized supplier of structural connectors, they are by no means the only supplier. Simpson Strong-Tie is, however, a proven leader
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
739
3/8" PLYWOOD EXT. SIDE OF STUD W/ 8d @ 3" O.C. @ ALL FRAMING. 2'-4" 2'-8" 2'-10" 3'-2" 3'-6"
FOR FOR FOR FOR FOR
8'-0" HIGH 9'-0" HIGH 10'-0" HIGH 11'-0" HIGH 12'-0" HIGH
8'-0" (12'-0" MAX.)
TABLE 322 Bracing Requirements for Alternative Braced Wall Panels Vary Depending on the Wall Height and Seismic Design Category (Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.)
12"
2 X 6 PLATE OVER 2 X 6 D.F.P.T. SILL W/ (2) 1/2" Ø A.B. @ 1/4 POINTS OF PLATE
SIMPSON OR EQ. HPAHD22 W/ (4) 3/4" Ø M.B. TO POST
5'-0"
6" X 12" SLAB EDGE
EA. WAY HORIZONTAL REINF.
ALTERNATIVE BRACED WALL PANEL SEE ATTACHED TABLE FIGURE 3215 Details are often attached to the framing plans to show connections for required wall bracing. This detail is used to show the use of an alternative braced wall panel for single-level construction.
740
Architectural Drafting and Design
minimum header. The maximum height for the assembly is 10' (3048 mm) per level. PFH panels used in one-story construction must have a minimum of one layer of 3/8" structural plywood on one panel face and a minimum width of 16" (406 mm). For two-level construction, each panel on the lower level must be 24" (610 mm) wide and the upper-level panels may be 16" (406 mm) wide. The plywood sheathing must extend over the header that joins together the two adjacent panels. The opening between the two panels must be a minimum of 6' (1829 mm) wide but not more than 18' (5486 mm). A metal strap capable of resisting a minimum load of 1000 lb (4448 N) must be used to tie the header to each supporting stud on the side opposite the sheathing. The panel must be attached to the foundation with a 5/8" (16 mm) diameter anchor bolt placed at center point of the panel. Installed to meet the manufacturer specifications, each panel end stud must also be attached to the foundation with a hold-down anchor capable of resisting 4200 lb (18 683 N) in uplift. To ensure that this information is accurately presented to the construction crew, a detail similar to Figure 32-16A is usually referenced to the framing plan. A copy of this
in the field of structural connectors. They became a leader by having the quality of their product evaluated and proven to meet the manufacturer’s claims. The International Code Council-Evaluation Services (ICC-ES) is a nonprofit, publicbenefit corporation that is a leader in evaluating building product components, methods, and materials for compliance with the code. The ICC-ES is instrumental in evaluating innovative products and providing testing and certification for compliance with the building codes. The evaluation process culminates with the issuance of reports on code compliance, which are made available free of charge to code officials, contractors, specifiers, architects, engineers, and anyone else with an interest in the building industry and construction. ICC-ES reports provide evidence that products and systems meet code requirements.
Portal Frame with Hold-Downs A portal frame wall panel with hold-down anchors (PFH) is a method of braced wall line reinforcement that uses smaller, stronger panels placed on each side of an opening in place of the 48" (1219 mm) braced wall panel. PFH panels must be placed in pairs and joined by a 3 × 12 (75 × 300)
6' MIN. / 18' MAX.
3 X 12 HEADER MINIMUM
2 X 6 PLATE OVER 2 X 6 D.F.P.T. SILL W/ (2) 5/8" Ø A.B. @ 1/4 POINTS OF PLATE
NOTE: CONCRETE TO BE 2500 MIN. PSI.
MSTA18 STRAP FROM POST/HDR. ON OPPOSITE FACE FOM PLY. SIMPSON OR EQ. HPAHD22 W/ (4) 3/4" Ø M.B. TO POST
12"
16" MIN. FOR 1 LEVEL 24" MIN. FOR 1st. LEVEL OF TWO LEVEL STRUCTURE
10'-0" (10'-0" MAX.)
3/8" PLYWOOD EXT. SIDE OF STUD W/ 8d @ 3" O.C. @ ALL FRAMING.
PLACE NAILS IN 3" GRID PATTERN FOR PLY/HDR.
6" X 12" SLAB EDGE
PORTAL FRAME WALL PANEL FIGURE 3216A Bracing for use on a portal frame wall panel for single-level construction.
2- MSTA18 STRAPS FROM HDR./HDR.
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
741
drawing can be found on the Student CD and inserted into the drawing package.
Portal Frame Adjacent to Openings at Garage A portal frame adjacent to a garage opening (PFG) is a method of braced wall line reinforcement that places panels on each side of an opening in place of the 48" (1219 mm) braced wall panels. This method of wall reinforcement can be used only for single-level construction in seismic design categories A, B, and C. Each panel must be placed in pairs and joined by a minimum of (2)2 × 12 (50 × 300) or 3 × 12 (75 × 300) glued-laminated headers. Each portion of the panel must be made using 7/16" (11 mm) minimum thick wood structural panel sheathing with a minimum width of 24" (610 mm). The maximum height for the assembly is 10' (3048 mm). The plywood sheathing must extend over the header that joins together the two adjacent panels and be attached to the header rows of 8d common nails placed at 3" O.C. each way. The header must extend between the inside faces of the first fulllength studs at the outer edge of the panels. The opening
NOTE: CONCRETE TO BE 2500 MIN. PSI.
MSTA18 STRAP FROM POST/HDR. ON OPPOSITE FACE FOM PLY. SIMPSON OR EQ. HPAHD22 W/ (4) 3/4" Ø M.B. TO POST
2- MSTA18 STRAPS FROM HDR./HDR.
12"
2 X 6 PLATE OVER 2 X 6 D.F.P.T. SILL W/ (2) 5/8" Ø A.B. @ 1/4 POINTS OF PLATE
Although not currently listed in the IRC, Simpson Strong-Tie Company provides premanufactured, steel skinned panels set in a steel frame that can be used to resist lateral loads. This innovative new series of products is approved by ICC-ES ESR 1679 with information posted on the Simpson Strong-Wall Web site. As shown in Figure 32-17, the steel skin resembles the side of a containerized cargo box. Panels with OSB skins that are set in a wood frame are also available. Panels are shipped to the job site ready to be bolted to the foundation, eliminating the placement of the hundreds of nails
PLACE NAILS IN 3" GRID PATTERN FOR PLY/HDR.
10'-0" (10'-0" MAX.)
12" MIN. WIDTH
Simpson Strong-Wall
2' MIN. / 18' MAX.
(2)-2 X12 OR 3 X 12 GLUED-LAMINATED BM.
3/8" PLYWOOD EXT. SIDE OF STUD W/ 8d @ 3" O.C. @ ALL FRAMING.
between the two panels must be a minimum of 2' (610 mm) wide but not more than 18' (5486 mm). A metal strap capable of resisting a minimum load of 1000 lb (4448 N) must be used to tie the header to each supporting stud on the side opposite the sheathing. The panel must be attached to the foundation with a 1/2" (12.7 mm) diameter anchor bolt placed at the quarter points of the panel. To ensure that this information is accurately presented to the construction crew, a detail similar to Figure 32-16B is usually referenced to the framing plan.
6" X 12" SLAB EDGE
PORTAL FRAME WALL PANEL BY OPENING FIGURE 3216B Bracing for use on a portal frame wall panel for single-level construction placed adjacent to an opening.
742
Architectural Drafting and Design
●
line can be reinforced using braced wall panels while another is reinforced using alternative braced wall panels. On single-level homes in seismic design categories A, B, and C, varied methods of intermittent bracing can be used within the same braced wall line. One end of a braced wall line can be reinforced using a braced wall panel while the other end is reinforced using alternative braced wall pane. When bracing methods are mixed, the length requirement must meet the greater requirement based on Table 32-3 and Table 32-4.
Placement of Panels within a Braced Wall Line
FIGURE 3217 Made by the Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Strong-Wall panels have been available for several years, providing an alternative for braced wall reinforcement. Courtesy Gisela Smith.
required to make a wood braced wall panel. StrongWall panels must be placed in pairs and joined by a 4 × 12 (100 × 300) DFL #1 minimum header. Because of the wide variety of conditions in which these panels can be used, you will need to consult the Simpson Strong-Tie Web site and use the information about the Strong-Wall to incorporate these panels. In addition to Simpson Strong-Tie, the APA also has supplemental framing methods that are accepted by many building departments. Consult their Web site for access to additional reinforcement options.
Combining Reinforcing Methods The IRC allows bracing methods to be combined within a structure in several different ways including: ●
●
For multilevel structures, intermittent bracing methods can be used on one level and continuous sheathing methods can be used on another level. Varied methods of intermittent bracing can be used within the same level of a residence. One braced wall
General guidelines for the length of individual panels were provided as each type of wall reinforcement was introduced. The placement and the required length of wall reinforcement must also be considered relative to the length of the entire braced wall line. Although placement may vary depending on local conditions and codes, the IRC requires the following standards for placement of reinforced wall panels in seismic design categories (SDC) A through C: ●
The wall reinforcement must be placed within 12.5' (3810 mm) of each end of the braced wall line.
●
The reinforcement required at each end panel does not have to go at the exact end of the BWL. BWP are permitted to be located away from the end of the BWL provided the total end distance from each end to the nearest BWP does not exceed 12.5' (3810 mm). If the panel at the left end of the BWL is located at the end of the wall, the reinforcing at the right end of the BWL can be 12.5' from the right end of the BWL. The total of the two end distances can’t exceed 12.5'.
●
At the corner of a structure, the walls are permitted to angle out of the plane of the BWL by 45° maximum for a diagonal length of 8' (2438 mm) and still be considered as part of the original BWL. When determining the length of bracing required, the length of each BWL is determined from the end of the inclined wall as shown in Figure 32-18. When the angled wall is built at an angle equaling 45° and does not exceed 8' in length, the angled wall may be considered as part of either of the adjoining braced wall lines, but can’t be considered a part of both adjoining walls. If the angled wall exceeds 8' in length, it must be considered as a separate braced wall line.
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
743
TABLE 323 Bracing Requirements for Structures Built to Resist Wind Speeds Up to 90 mph. The complete table found in the IRC lists Speeds Up to 100 mph (Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.)
744
Architectural Drafting and Design
TABLE 323 Continued
● ●
The maximum space between reinforcement panels within a braced wall line is 25' (7620 mm). The spacing between individual braced wall lines is limited by the wind speed (see Table 32-3). The maximum width between braced wall lines is 60' (18 000 mm). Interior braced walls must be provided to exceed the specified distance of Table 32-3.
Earlier in this chapter, a braced wall line was defined as an exterior wall, and a rectangular home was described
with four walls. As with much of life, it’s not that simple. The IRC allows several exceptions for multiple walls to be considered one braced wall line. The IRC allows for a wall with jogs to be one braced wall line as long as the walls meet the following requirements: ●
A wall may be offset up to 48" (1219 mm) and still be considered one plane. Offsets such as a recessed entry will not need wall reinforcing as long as the offset is less than 48" (1219 mm).
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
TABLE 324 Bracing Requirements for Structures Based on the Seismic Design Category (Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.)
745
746
Architectural Drafting and Design
TABLE 324 Continued
BRACED WALL LINE B BRACED WALL LINE C
" -0
8' M AX BRACED WALL LINE A 45°
LESS THAN 45°
WHEN A WALL IS 45° AND DOES NOT EXCEED 8' IN LENGTH, THIS WALL CAN BE CONSIDERED PART OF LINE A OR LINE B, BUT NOT BOTH.
WHEN THE ANGLE IS LESS THAN 45°, AND THE LENGTH IS LESS THAN 8', THIS WALL CAN BE CONSIDERED PART OF WALL LINE A.
FIGURE 3218 At the corner of a structure, walls are permitted to angle out of the plane of the BWL by 45° maximum for a diagonal length of 8' (2438 mm) and still be considered as part of the original braced wall line.
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
747
MAXIMUM OF 35'-0" BETWEEN BRACED WALL LINES
8'--0" MAX. TOTAL
3'-0"
4'-0" MAX.
BRACED WALL LINE
OFFSETS LESS THAN 48" ARE CONSIDERED TO BE IN LINE
FIGURE 3219 The IRC allows braced wall lines with offsets to still be considered as one braced wall line as long as the offset is less than 48" (1200 mm), and no more than a total of 8' (2400 mm).
●
Multiple offsets are allowed in one plane (braced wall line) provided that the total distance from each wall line is not greater than 8' (2438 mm).
❍
For one- and two-story homes, the distance between BWL can be increased to a maximum spacing of 35' (10 668 mm) O.C. to allow one room not to exceed 900 square feet (84 m2) in each dwelling unit.
❍
See the IRC section 602.10.1.5 for additional exceptions that will not be discussed in this text.
Figure 32-19 shows how these guidelines apply.
Placement of Panels Based on Seismic Risk The requirements for wall reinforcement placement in SDC D0 through D2 are more restrictive than for zones A through C. Requirements for the high-risk seismic zones include: ● ●
●
The reinforcement must be placed at each end of the wall. If the wood structural panel (WSP) method is used, the panel is permitted to be a maximum of 8' (2438 mm) from each end of the BWL provided one of the following requirements is met: ❍ A minimum 24" (610 mm) wide panel is applied to each side of the building corner using nailing described in the IRC; or ❍ The end of the braced wall panel closest to the corner must have a hold-down anchor capable of resisting 1800 lb (8 kN) in uplift that is installed to meet the manufacturer specifications fastened to the end stud closest to the corner and the foundation. Spacing between braced wall lines in each level shall not exceed 25' (7500 mm) O.C. in the longitudinal and transverse directions. The IRC allows exceptions to the requirement for spacing between BWL including:
Applying the Code Requirements to a Simple Home In addition to these minimum guidelines, specific percentages of each braced wall line must be reinforced. The required percentage of reinforcing is dependant on: ●
The seismic design category (SDC).
●
The soil class.
●
The expected wind speed.
●
The number of building levels above the braced wall line.
●
The method used to construct the panel reinforcement.
Table 32-4 lists additional requirements for panel spacing along the braced wall line based on the seismic and wind speed category and the method of panel construction. To apply the information in this table, a simple 38' × 50' (11 400 × 15 000 mm) rectangular one-level home will be examined. The home will be built in SDC D0 with a design wind speed of 85 mph.
D 0
A 1
Placement of Braced Wall Lines The previous discussion dealt with the placement of reinforcement on one braced wall line. Additional code requirements must be considered to complete the wall reinforcement for the home. Think of the 38' × 50' (11 400 × 15 000 mm) home we considered earlier. If lateral force is applied to one of the 50' (15 000 mm) long walls, the wall will bend inward. The IRC allows a maximum space of 35' (10 500 mm) O.C. in both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the structure between braced wall lines. That means that at least one interior braced wall line must be provided as shown in Figure 32-20. This can be accomplished using the GB construction method by providing a wall that is 48" (1200 mm) long placed perpendicular to the exterior braced wall line.
BWP
REQUIRED TO BE WITHIN 12'– 6" OF WALL END
BWP A 1
REQUIRED TO BE WITHIN 25'– 0" OF PANEL ON LEFT
A 1
BWP
14'-0"
24'-0"
38'-0"
FIGURE 3220 Placement of braced wall lines using prescriptive design methods. When exterior wall lines (the two vertical walls) are more than 35'−0" (10 500 mm) apart, an interior wall must be provided to reinforce the wall line that is between the two other walls. The interior braced line keeps the exterior wall from bowing in as wind pressure is applied.
Continuously Sheathed Braced Wall Lines Chapter 28 introduced the use of double-wall construction. The IRC allows the use of the sheathing used in double-wall construction to replace the use of intermittent panels as long as the sheathing meets several requirements. To be considered continuous sheathing, the sheathing must be: ●
NOTE: For those of you who are risk takers and wonder if
the expense of the extra reinforcing is worth the cost and effort, do some research at the APA Web site and examine photos of some of the homes that endured recent hurricanes. When you see blocks of homes that were destroyed with only one house standing, guess which house was built to the new code and which houses were substandard?
REQUIRED BECAUSE BRACED WALL LINES ARE GREATER THAN 35'– 0" APART.
BWP
BWP
Each one of the 50' (15 000 mm) long walls will require a 4' (1200 mm) wide BWP at each end of the braced wall line (within 12.5' [3810 mm] of each end), plus an additional 48" (1200 mm) wide BWP centered between the two end panels so that the 25' maximum distance between panels is not exceeded. Using Table 32-3, a 50' (15 000 mm) long singlelevel home built in SDC D0 will need a minimum of 6.5' (1950 mm) of wall reinforcement if wood structural panels are used, and 11.5' (3450 mm)of reinforcement if other methods are used. Using Table 32-4, a 50' (15 000) long single-level home built in an SDC of D0 will need a minimum of 10' (3000 mm) of wall reinforcement if wood structural panels are used, and 15' (4500 mm) of reinforcement if other methods are used. Remember that the IRC requires the use of the table with the stricter requirements, so the seismic requirements must be met. Notice that let-in braces are not allowed for a reinforcement method in the seismic zone, and 8.5' (2550 mm)of reinforcement would be required if the home were built with continuous sheathing. Since the amount of provided reinforcement (three 4' (1200) panels) exceeds the required minimum reinforcement, no additional panels are required. If the same home were built in an area with severe risk of damage from wind or seismic activity, such as category D2, the home would be unsafe and require an additional 2.5' (750 mm) of reinforcing to be installed.
Architectural Drafting and Design
BWP
748
●
3/8" (9.5 mm) thick sheathing nailed to the wall studs with 6d common nails at 6" (150 mm) O.C. at the panel edges and 12" (300 mm) O.C. at the intermediate supports. Sheathing must be applied to one side of the wall at all surfaces including areas above and below openings, and at gable end walls.
The IRC refers to wall panels framed with continuous sheathings as the CS-WSP (continuous sheathing-wood structural panels) framing method. Two other types of continuous sheathing panels are also recognized by the IRC including: CS-G Continuous sheathing garage. 3/8" (9.5 mm) panels that are adjacent to garage door openings that support only roof loads. This option can’t be used on two-level construction. CS-PF Continuous sheathing portal frame. 3/8" (9.5 mm) panels that are adjacent to garage door openings. CS-PF reinforcing must be placed in pairs, one on each side of the door opening, and the opening can’t exceed 22' (6706 mm). Tension straps must be used to connect the supporting studs to the header using methods similar to Figure 32-15.
PANEL
LENGTH
OPENING HEIGHT
749
CLEAR
WALL PANEL
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
PANEL
PANEL
LENGTH
LENGTH
FIGURE 3221 The length of the CD-WSP wall panel will vary depending on its location and the height of the wall.
The length of each type of panel can be determined using Figure 32-21 and Table 32-5. Because of additional requirements based on the material used, wind speed and the seismic design category, consult the IRC to research additional construction methods for CS-WSP methods that lie beyond the scope of this introductory discussion.
Support of Braced Wall Lines Previous discussions have assumed that the wall reinforcing will attach directly to a concrete slab or footing. For homes constructed with wood floor systems, the following guidelines must be met. ●
●
An exterior braced wall line must be supported over a continuous footing. When floor joists are perpendicular to a braced wall line above, solid blocking or a continuous beam must be provided below the braced wall line.
❍
Floor joists at each end of a braced wall panel must be doubled.
❍
A continuous rim joist is connected to the ends of all cantilevered joists.
❍
●
Gravity loads carried at the end of the cantilevered joist are limited to uniform wall and roof load and the reactions from headers having a span of 8' (2400 mm) or less. An interior braced wall line must be supported over a continuous footing at intervals of 50' (15 000 mm).
In a building more than one story in height, all interior braced wall panels must be supported on a continuous footing unless: ●
Cripple wall height does not exceed 48" (1200 mm).
●
First-floor braced wall panels are supported on double floor joists, continuous blocking, or floor beams.
●
The distance between braced lines does not exceed twice the building width parallel to the braced wall line.
Additional support that may be required based on seismic or wind loads includes: ●
Floors with cantilevers or setbacks not exceeding four times the nominal depth of the floor joist may support braced wall panels if the following conditions are met: ❍
Minimum joist size of 2 × 10 (50 × 250) with a maximum spacing of 16" (400 mm) O.C. must be used.
❍
The ratio of back span to cantilever is a minimum of 2:1.
Representing Wall Reinforcement on a Framing Plan One of the requirements for designing using prescriptive methods is that the location of wall panels must be clearly marked on the framing drawings. Prescriptive construction methods can be summarized and given in a table to represent the materials that will be required to reinforce the walls and foundation. Figure 32-22 shows an example of a table for specifying braced and alternative braced
750
Architectural Drafting and Design
TABLE 325 The Length Requirements for Continuously Sheathed Wall Sheathing (Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.)
walls for a one-level home. The table will allow the required framing materials to be listed once and then specified in each required location by the use of a symbol. A copy of this drawing can be found on the Student CD and inserted into the drawing package. Figure 32-23 shows how lateral materials can be referenced on a framing plan. In addition to specifying the material to brace the walls, building codes require several other types of information to be specified about the wall bracing. Required information includes: ●
Framing members to be used to reinforce the ends of the wall panel. (Show on floor and foundation plan.)
●
Methods of attaching the wall panel to the sill plate. (Show in a schedule.)
●
Methods of attaching the sill to the stem wall. (Show on foundation plan.)
●
Methods of reinforcing the foundation that will support the wall panel. (Show on the foundation plan.)
Figure 32-24 shows a one-story residence with braced wall panels built in a high-risk area (SDC D2). Compare the drawing with the home in Figure 32-1. The residence in Figure 32-1 shows lateral support that was designed by calculating the actual wind loads that will affect the structure. Comparing that home
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
751
FIGURE 3222 Tables can be established to specify the materials to be used to resist lateral shear. This table shows the material needed to resist lateral loads for a one-level residence. If a table is to be used, it should be placed with the framing plan. If space is unavailable, the upper portion of the table can be placed with the framing plan, and the lower portion can be placed with the foundation plan.
with the results of using building code prescriptive paths in Figure 32-24 will show that minor changes were required in the placement of some windows, and the addition of the storage area in the upper left corner of the home. These changes were required to
provide adequate space for braced panels. As a general rule, using the prescriptive code may save the initial cost of engineering but require more material to resist the loads.
BWP
BWP
COMPLETING A FRAMING PLAN
A 1
BWP BWP
BWP
A 1
A 1
FIGURE 3223 Material for resisting lateral loads can be specified on the framing plan and referenced to a table similar to Figure 32-22.
The order used to draw the framing plan depends on the method of construction and the level to be framed. A structure framed with trusses requires less detailing than the same plan framed with rafters and ceiling joists. Interior beams will be greatly reduced, if not entirely eliminated, when trusses are used. On multilevel structures, because a lower level is supporting more weight, beams tend to be shorter, requiring more and larger posts. Despite differences, framing plans also have similarities that
752
Architectural Drafting and Design
65'-0"
" -0 3' 2'-0"
4'-8"
4'-8" 4'-4"
9'-0"
0" -1
4'-3"
4 X 8 HDR.
A 1 STD. TRUSSES @
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
BWP
BWP A
A 1
10'-5"
40'-6"
B 2
FRAMING NOTES:
24" O.C.
1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE D.F.L. #2 OR BETTER. 2. ALL EXTERIOR WALLS @ HEATED LIVING AREA TO BE 2 X 6 @ 16" O.C. FRAME ALL EXTERIOR NON-BEARING WALLS W/ 2 X 6 STUDS @ 24" O.C. 3. USE 2 X 6 NAILER AT THE BOTTOM OF ALL 2-2 X 12 OR 4 X HEADERS @ EXTERIOR WALLS, BACK HEADER W/ 2" RIGID INSULATION.
BWP
4. USE 4 x 6 FOR ALL INTERIOR HEADERS UNLESS NOTED.
BWP
A 1
19'-0"
4'-4" 11'-6"
7'-6"
B 2
A 1
16'-6"
8'-0"
K
2'-0"
4'-4"
G
GIRDER TRUSS
BWP
A 1
K
ABWP
C
24'-4"
3'
4'-0" 3
2
BWP
7
2' -6 "
8'-0" 3'-8"
2'-8"
6'-4"
BWP
ABWP
8'-10"
1
8'-0"
5'-6"
B 2
3'-0"
8
"
57'-0"
4'-4"
9
10'-2"
4'-8"
5
D 0
4
-0
C 0
D
5
5'
A 1
BWP
LIN.
BWP
BWP
57'-0"
4' -4 "
7'-2"
J
2'-0"
3'-6"
2'-6"
4'-4"
5'-4"
6'-6" 2'-8"
B 2
2'-2"
5'-0"
LINE OF VAULTED CEILING
4
6
A 1
6'-0"
1'-0"
5'-4" 32'-8"
F
LINE OF VAULTED CEILING
1'-8"
8'-4"
6
ABWP
4 X 8 HEADER
C
21'-6"
SCISSOR / STUB
3'-4"
3'-10"
6
24" O.C.
STD. TRUSSES @
C 0
A 1
M
BWP
BWP
8'-0"
E
C
BWP
4 X 8 HEADER
I M
ABWP
2'-0"
BWP
D
2'-0"
A 1
2'-0"
4'-6"
B 2
ABWP
L
L
ABWP
6'-0"
FURR CEILING TO 7'-0" @ BAY
11'-4" FURR CEILING OVER TUB TO 7'-0"
2'-0"
ABWP
H
3'-8"
2'-6"
@ 24" O.C.
2'-0"
3'-6"
STD. TRUSSES
6'-0"
6'-0"
ABWP
2'-0"
15'-0"
6'-0"
3'-6"
15'-0"
TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
10'-0"
2'-0"
2'-8"
B 2
2'-0"
19'-0"
25'-0"
6'-0"
ABWP
9
ABWP
9
B 2
ABWP
9
5. BLOCK ALL WALLS OVER 10'-0" HIGH AT MID HEIGHT.
A 1
6. ALL FRAMING CONNECTORS TO BE SIMPSON STRONG-TIE OR EQUAL. 7. ALL TRUSSES TO BE @ 24" O.C. (DIRECTLY OVER STUDS). SUBMIT SUBMIT TRUSS CALCS. TO BUILDING DEPT. PRIOR TO ERECTION.
ABWP
B 2
6'-6"
7'-6"
32'-0"
14'-0"
4'-6"
10'-0"
4'-6"
FRAMING PLAN 1/4" = 1'-0"
19'-0"
65'-0"
FIGURE 3224 Representing the material to resist lateral loads using prescriptive design methods. The same home can be seen in Figure 32-1, where the loads were resisted by calculating the actual loads on the structure.
can help in drafting the plan, no matter what level is to be drawn. Once the walls have been located, dimensions can be placed to locate all walls and openings in them. Then individual framing members can be determined. Rafter direction is based on the shape of the roof, and its length is determined by the span for a specific size of the particular member. Rafter spans can be determined using the tables in Chapter 30. The process is similar if trusses are to be drawn, but the truss sizes are determined by the manufacturer. After the size and direction of the roof framing members are selected, load-bearing walls can be identified and headers selected for openings in the
load-bearing walls. With the structural members specified, any dimensions required to locate structural members can be completed. Materials that can be specified with local notes can be added and the drawing completed by adding general notes. Once the framing for the roof has been determined, framing for lower levels can be drawn. Bearing walls on the upper level need to have some method of supporting the loads as they are transferred downward. Support can be provided by stacking bearing walls or by transferring loads through floor joists to other walls. Figure 32-25 shows a simplified drawing of how loads can be transferred. Load-bearing walls can be offset by the thickness of the floor joists and still be considered
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
753
Roof Plan Base Drawing Draw the outline of the exterior walls. STEP 2 Draw any posts and headers required for covered porches. STEP 3 Draw the limits of the overhangs. Unless your instructor provides different instructions, use 24" (600 mm) overhangs at eaves and 12" (300 mm) overhangs at gable end walls. STEP 4 Locate all ridges. STEP 5 Locate all hips or valleys formed by roof intersections. STEP 6 Locate all roof openings, such as skylights and chimneys. STEP 7 Draw all items from Step 1 through Step 6 using finished line quality. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 32-26. STEP 1 BEARING WALL
NON-BEARING WALLS
LOAD PATH
NON BEARING WALL
BEARING WALL
FIGURE 3225 Following the load path through a structure. Bearing walls are considered to be aligned as long as the distance of the offset does not exceed the thickness of the floor joist. If the offset of the bearing walls is greater than the thickness of the floor joists, the size of the joists must be determined by using the formulas in Chapter 30.
aligned. For example, if 2 × 10 (50 × 250) floor joists are used, an upper wall could be offset 10" (250 mm) from a lower wall and still be considered to be aligned. When floor joists are cantilevered or used to transfer vertical loads to lower walls that are not aligned, the tables in Chapter 30 cannot be used to determine joist sizes. These members need to be determined using the formulas in Chapter 31. Once the bearing walls for the lowest floor level have been determined, the foundation can be completed.
ROOF FRAMING PLANS The roof plan was introduced in Chapter 23. The roof framing plan is similar, but in addition to showing the shape of the structure and the outline of the roof, it also shows the size and direction of the framing members used to frame the roof. The roof framing plan will vary depending on whether trusses or western platform construction methods are used. Depending on the simplicity of the structure, roof framing members may be drawn on the floor framing plans rather than a separate roof framing plan (see Figure 32-1). Each method will be considered for gable, hip, and Dutch hip roofs for the residence drawn in Chapter 18 using separate roof plans and framing plans. Each roof can be drawn by using the same steps to form the base drawing. If a roof plan has been drawn, it can be traced to form the base of the roof framing plan. To draw a roof framing plan, use construction lines for the following steps. Use the line quality described throughout this chapter and Chapter 23 to complete this drawing.
Gable Roof Framing Plan with Truss Framing Draw the boundaries of any areas to be vaulted. Assume the master bedroom will be vaulted. Provide dimensions to specify the limits. STEP 9 Draw and label the arrows to indicate the framing members. Assume standard/scissor trusses over the master bedroom with standard roof trusses at 24" O.C. for the balance of the upper level and over the garage. Specify 4 × 6 beams at 32" O.C. at the entry porch. Support the entry beams on 4 × 8 beams on 4 × 4 posts with PC44 post caps by Simpson Company or equal. STEP 10 Provide local notes to specify any necessary straps or metal connectors. For this residence, STEP 8
FIGURE 3226 The roof plan serves as a base for the framing plan.
754
Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 8 17'-0"
4 X 6 BMS. @ 32" O.C.
4x8
4 x 4 POST W/ PC 44 POST CAPS
STEP 11
ROOF FRAMING PLAN 1/8"
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
LINE OF VAULTED CEILING
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
STD. / SCISSOR TRUSSES @24" O.C.
STEP 9
ST6224 STRAP BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TO TOP PLATE.
1'-0"
STEP 10
1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2. 2. ALL EXPOSED EAVES TO BE COVERED W/ 1/2" 'CCX' EXT. PLY.
3. ROOF SHEATHING TO BE 1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLYL LAID PERP. TO TRUSSES NAILED W/ 8d 'S @ 6" O.C. EDGE AND 8d'S @ 12" O.C. @ FIELD. 4. SUBMIT TRUSS DRAWINGS TO BUILDING DEPT. PRIOR TO ERECTION.
FIGURE 3227 A completed roof framing plan for a gable roof framed with trusses.
provide an ST6224 tie strap from the 4 × 8 header to the garage top plate. Provide general notes to indicate any necessary framing material. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 32-27.
STEP 11
Gable Roof Framing Plan with Rafter Framing Follow Step 1 through Step 7 to draw the base for this plan. The drawing should resemble Figure 32-26. Complete the plan for a roof framed with rafters, using the following steps: Determine the location of interior walls, which are parallel to the ridge. Although the walls are not
STEP 1
drawn on the framing plan, they can be used to support purlin braces. STEP 2 Draw the boundaries of any areas to be vaulted. Assume the master bedroom will be vaulted. Provide dimensions to specify the limits. STEP 3 Draw and label the arrows to indicate the framing members. Use the span tables from Chapter 30 to determine the required size. For this residence, DFL #2 will be used. Use 2 × 6 rafters at 24" O.C. where possible. For this project the following framing will be used: 2 × 12 rafters/ceiling joists over Bedroom 1 4 × 14 DFL #1 exposed ridge beam Purlins at upper floor: 2 × 6 Purlins over garage: 2 × 8
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
755
Strongbacks over garage: 5 1/8 × 13 1/2 Fb 2400 glu-lam Beams at porch: 4 × 8 Rafters at porch: 4 × 6 @ 32" O.C. STEP 4 Provide purlins and strongbacks at approximately the midpoint of rafter spans. STEP 5 Provide local notes to specify any necessary straps or metal connectors. For this residence, provide an ST6224 tie strap from the 4 × 8 header to the garage top plate. Support the entry beams on 4 × 4 posts with PC44 post caps by Simpson Company or equal. STEP 6 Provide general notes to indicate any necessary framing material. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 32-28.
Hip Roof Framing Plan with Truss Framing Follow Step 1 through Step 7 to draw the base for this plan. The base drawing should resemble Figure 32-29. Determine the limit of the standard trusses based on the intersection of the hips with the ridge.
STEP 1
Determine the limits of any required girder trusses. Because the roof of the structure has no perpendicular roofs, no girder trusses are required.
STEP 2
Draw the boundaries, and dimension the limits of any areas to be vaulted. Because the framing members in the master bedroom will be spanning in two different directions, the room will not be vaulted for this roof plan.
STEP 3
STEP 2 17'-0"
4 X 6 RAFT. @ 32" O.C.
4 X 4 POST W/ PC 44 POST CAPS
STEP 6
ROOF FRAMING PLAN
2 X 8 RAFT, @ 24" O.C.
2 X 10 RIDGE 5 1/8" X 13 1/2" STRONGBACK Fb 2200
4X8
STEP 5
1/8"
2 X 8 PURLIN
2 X 8 RAFT, @ 24" O.C.
2 X 6 RAFT, @ 24" O.C.
2 X 6 PURLIN
2 X 6 RAFT, @ 24" O.C.
LINE OF VAULTED CEILING
2X6 PURLIN
2 X 8 RIDGE
2 X 6 RAFT, @24" O.C.
4 X 14 #1 EXPOSED RIDGE
2 X 12 R/C.J. @ 16" OC.
STEP 3
STEP 4
ST6224 STRAP BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TO TOP PLATE.
1'-0"
1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2. 2. ALL EXPOSED EAVES TO BE COVERED W/ 1/2" 'CCX' EXT. PLY. 3. ROOF SHEATHING TO BE 1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLYL LAID PERP. TO TRUSSES & NAILED NAILED W/ 8d 'S @ 6" O.C. EDGE AND 8d'S @ 12" O.C. @ FIELD. 4. SUBMIT TRUSS DRAWINGS TO BUILDING DEPT. PRIOR TO ERECTION.
FIGURE 3228 A completed roof framing plan for a gable roof with framed using rafters.
756
Architectural Drafting and Design
Draw and label the arrows to indicate the framing members. Assume standard trusses at 24" O.C. over the entire upper floor and over the garage. Specify 4 × 6 beams at 32" O.C. at the entry porch. Support the entry beams on 4 × 8 beams on 4 × 4 posts with PC44 post caps by Simpson Company or equal. STEP 6 Provide local notes to specify any necessary straps or metal connectors. For this residence, provide an ST6224 tie strap from the 4 × 8 header to the garage top plate. STEP 7 Provide general notes to indicate any necessary framing material. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 32-30. STEP 5
FIGURE 3229 The roof plan for a hip roof serves as a base for the roof framing plan.
Determine the limits of the hip trusses. This distance is typically determined by the truss manufacturer and the pitch of the roof. For this plan assume 6'−0" is required before hip trusses can be used.
STEP 4
Hip Roof Framing Plan with Rafter Framing Follow Step 1 through Step 7 to draw the base for this plan. The drawing should resemble Figure 32-29.
STEP 4
STEP 1 6'-0"
4X8
STEP 5
4 X 4 POST W/ PC 44 POST CAPS
STEP 7
6'-0"
HIP TRUSSES @ 24" O.C. LIMIT OF TRUSSES
LIMIT OF TRUSSES
HIP TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
LIMIT OF TRUSSES HIP TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
MONO TRUSSES @ 24" O.C
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
6'-0"
STEP 6 MONO TRUSSES @ 24" O.C
4 X 6 BMS. @ 32" O.C. ST6224 STRAP BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TO TOP PLATE.
ROOF FRAMING PLAN 1/8"
1'-0"
1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2. 2. ALL EXPOSED EAVES TO BE COVERED W/ 1/2" 'CCX' EXT. PLY. 3. ROOF SHEATHING TO BE 1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLYL LAID PERP. TO TRUSSES & NAILED NAILED W/ 8d 'S @ 6" O.C. EDGE AND 8d'S @ 12" O.C. @ FIELD. 4. SUBMIT TRUSS DRAWINGS TO BUILDING DEPT. PRIOR TO ERECTION.
FIGURE 3230 The completed roof framing plan for a hip roof framed with trusses.
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
757
The layout of the roof will be similar to the layout of a stick-frame gable roof.
Dutch Hip Roof Framing Plan with Truss Framing
Determine the location of interior walls that are parallel to the ridge. These walls will support purlin braces.
STEP 1
Determine the limit of the standard trusses based on the limits of the Dutch hip. For this plan, assume the gable end walls of the Dutch hip will be set 6'−0" from the end walls. STEP 2 Determine the location of any required girder trusses. Because the roof of the structure has no perpendicular roofs, no girder trusses will be required. STEP 3 Draw the boundaries, and dimension the limits of any areas to be vaulted. Because the framing members in the master bedroom will be spanning in two different directions, the room will not be vaulted for this roof plan. STEP 4 Draw and label the arrows to indicate the framing members. STEP 1
Draw the boundaries of any vaulted areas.
Markers to show rafters can be drawn and labeled using the span tables in Chapter 30.
STEP 3
Locate purlins and strongbacks where necessary based on rafter spans.
STEP 4
Provide local notes to specify any necessary straps or metal connectors.
STEP 5
Provide general notes to indicate any necessary framing material. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 32-31A. If a roof has a complicated shape, some companies will draw all framing members. Figure 32-31B shows a hip roof and all required framing members.
P HI
P
HI 8
HI 10 X P
P
HI
HI
10
8
X
4X8
4
X
2 X 8 RAFT, @ 24" O.C. 2 X 6 PURLIN TYP. @ GARAGE 2
P
4 X 6 RAFT. @ 32" O.C.
HI
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
8
8
2 X10 X
X
2 X 6 PURLIN
2
2
2 X 6 RAFT, @ 24" O.C.
2X8
2
P
2 X 8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
HI
X
8
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
2
X
2X6 PURLIN TYP.
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
2
P
STEP 6
2 X 8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
STEP 2
Follow Step 1 through Step 6 to draw the base for this plan. The base drawing should resemble Figure 32-32.
4 X 4 POST W/ PC 44 POST CAPS
ROOF FRAMING PLAN 1/8"
ST6224 STRAP BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TO TOP PLATE.
1'-0"
1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2. 2. ALL EXPOSED EAVES TO BE COVERED W/ 1/2" 'CCX' EXT. PLY.
3. ROOF SHEATHING TO BE 1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLY. LAID PERP. TO RAFT. NAILED W/ 8d 'S @ 6" O.C. EDGE AND 8d'S @ 12" O.C. @ FIELD.
4. MAXIMUM SPANS: 2 X 8 RAFTERS @ 24" O.C. = 12'-4" " " @ 16" O.C. = 15'-1" " " @ 12" O.C. = 17'-5" 2 X 6 RAFTERS @ 24" O.C. = 9'-9" " " @ 16" O.C. = 11'-11" " " @ 12" O.C. = 13'-9"
A FIGURE 3231 (A) Completed roof framing plan for a hip roof framed with rafters. (B) Some offices show all framing members to eliminate any confusion.
HI 10
P
2
P
X
HI
HI
8
8
X
X 2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
2
2
2X6 PURLIN TYP.
P
Architectural Drafting and Design
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
758
2-2X TYPICAL
P HI 8
2 X 10
2 X 6 PURLIN
2 X 6 PURLIN TYP. @ GARAGE
X 2 X
P
10
HI
2
8
X
2 X 8 RAFT, @ 24" O.C.
2
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
2x8
HI
4
X
8
HI
P
P
4 X 6 RAFT. @ 32" O.C.
4 X 4 POST W/ PC 44 POST CAPS
ST6224 STRAP BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TO TOP PLATE.
ROOF FRAMING PLAN 1/8"
1'-0"
B FIGURE 3231 Continued
Provide local notes to specify any necessary straps or metal connectors. STEP 6 Provide general notes to indicate any necessary framing material. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 32-33. STEP 5
Dutch Hip Roof Framing Plan with Rafter Framing Follow Step 1 through Step 7 for a truss roof framing plan to draw the base for this plan. The drawing should resemble Figure 32-32. Lay out interior walls that are parallel to the ridge.
STEP 1
Draw the boundaries, and dimension the limits of any areas to be vaulted. Because the framing members in the master bedroom will be spanning in two different directions, the room will not be vaulted for this roof plan.
STEP 2
Draw and label the arrows to indicate the framing members. Use the span tables in Chapter 30 to determine the required size.
STEP 3
Provide purlins and strongbacks where necessary based on rafter spans.
STEP 4
FIGURE 3232 The roof plan for a Dutch hip roof serves as a base for the roof framing plan.
Add dimensions to locate all openings, overhangs, and purlins.
STEP 5
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
759
P X 2
GABLE END WALL TRUSS
@ 24" O.C. STD. TRUSSES
P
X
10
8 X 2
HI
8
8
HI
X
P
2
STD. TRUSSES
GABLE END WALL TRUSS
P
MONO TRUSSES @24" O.C.
GABLE END WALL TRUSS
HI
@ 24" O.C.
8
MONO TRUSSES @24" O.C.
HI
X
HI
2
P
6'-0" TYP.
2
2
1/8"
P
ROOF FRAMING PLAN
HI
4 X 4 POST W/ PC 44 POST CAPS
10
4 X 6 BMS. @ 32" O.C.
4X8
X
FRAME EACH CORNER @ ENDS OF MONO TRUSSES W/ 2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
ST6224 STRAP BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL HDR. TO TOP PLATE.
1'-0"
FIGURE 3233 Completed roof framing plan for a Dutch hip roof framed with trusses. Notes similar to those in Figure 32-30 should be included to complete the plan.
Provide local notes to specify any necessary straps or metal connectors. STEP 7 Provide general notes to indicate any necessary framing material. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 32-34.
❑ Show and specify hip trusses/mono trusses in hipped area. ❑ Show and specify multiple wall plate heights.
STEP 6
ROOF FRAMING PLAN CHECKLIST Use the roof plan and convert it to a roof framing plan by adding the following information: ❑ Change title from ROOF PLAN to ROOF FRAMING PLAN. ❑ Plot to proper scale (check all line type and dimension scale factors).
Truss-Framed Roof ❑ Show trusses on roof plan. ❑ Show and specify all girder truss/exterior headers. ❑ Show and specify hip/valley sleepers. ❑ Hip roofs/truss—show and specify limit of trusses at 6' from wall.
Stick-Framed Roof ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Specify plate heights if different from 8'. Show and specify rafters, hips, valleys, and ridge. Show rafter/ceiling joists on roof plan. Create a table for 12", 16", 24" O.C. rafter size/spans.
FLOOR FRAMING PLANS The framing plan can be completed by using the base drawings for the floor plans. Ideally a Mylar copy of the floor plan should be made once the walls, doors, windows, and cabinets are drawn. If a copy of the floor plan was not made prior to completing the floor plan, the layout can be traced. The base drawing for the upper framing plan should resemble Figure 32-35. If your floor plan was dimensioned, skip to Step 9. If not, lay out all exterior dimension and extension
STEP 1
760
Architectural Drafting and Design
P HI 8
P HI 10
X
X 2
2X8 PURLIN
HI P
4 X 6 RAFT. @ 32" O.C.
8
X
2 X 6 PURLIN X
2
2 X 10 RIDGE
2
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
2 X 8 RIDGE
2X8 PURLIN
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
2
2 X 8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
P
2X6 PURLIN
2 X 8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
HI
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
2
8
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.
X
8
2
HI
P
6'-0" TYP.
X 10 HI
4X8
P
4 X 4 POST W/ PC 44 POST CAPS
ROOF FRAMING PLAN 1/8"
1'-0"
ST6224 STRAP BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TO TOP PLATE.
FIGURE 3234 Completed roof framing plan for a Dutch hip roof framed with rafters. Notes similar to those in Figure 32-30 should be included to complete the plan.
FIGURE 3235 The upper floor plan can be used as the base to draw the upper floor framing plan. On a truss-framed roof, this plan can be used in place of the roof framing plan.
lines using construction lines for each side of the structure. Establish lines for overall and major jogs from the exterior face of the wall. STEP 2 Lay out dimensions and extension lines to locate each interior wall that intersects with an exterior wall. Interior walls will be located from center to center, with center lines for extension lines. STEP 3 Lay out dimension and extension lines to locate exterior openings. Do not dimension doors in the garage on the framing plan. STEP 4 Lay out dimension and extension lines to locate all interior walls that do not intersect with an exterior wall. STEP 5 Place overall dimensions centered above each dimension line. STEP 6 Specify dimensions that must be a specific size— for example, spaces for tubs, toilets, showers, and other manufactured items. STEP 7 Specify dimensions for areas that are required to be a specific size—for example, hallways, closets, and stairwells. Dimension all major jogs. Wherever possible, try to maintain modular sizes of the material being
STEP 8
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
761
used. Although a distance from the edge of one wall to the center of the next wall may measure 12'−1" (3625 mm), 14' (4200 mm) joists would need to be purchased. Reducing the distance to 12'−0" (3600 mm) or less would allow 12' (3600 mm) joists to be used. Dimension all remaining sizes, starting from the smallest rooms and going on to the largest.
STEP 9
Coordinate all dimensions. The lines of dimensions closest to the structure should add up to the total seen on the next line of dimensions. Dimensions
STEP 10
on the interior of the structure should add up to match any exterior dimensions. Your framing plan should now resemble Figure 32-36. STEP 11 Specify door and window symbols, which were specified on the floor plan. STEP 12 Draw the boundaries of any areas to be vaulted. Assume that the master bedroom will be vaulted. Provide dimensions to specify the limits. STEP 13 Draw and label the arrows to indicate the framing members. Assume standard/scissor trusses over the master bedroom with standard roof trusses at
30'-0" 7'-6" 4'-6"
38'-6"
9'-0"
2'-6" 4'-0" 2'-6"
3'-4" 4'-0"
2'-5"
5'-8"
11" 6'-0"
5'-8" 3'-8"
9'-6"
5'-2"
3'-8"
8'-0"
4'-2"
4'-8"
3'-2" 6'-0"
8'-0"
6'-0"
2'-6"
9'-4"
5'-10"
3'-6" 2'-0"
12'-0"
6'-2"
6'-6"
12'-6" 17'-2"
12'-0"
2'-4" 2'-4"
38'-6"
12'-10" 10'-0"
20'-0" 30'-0"
FIGURE 3236 Rather than placing dimensions on a floor plan, many offices use the framing plan to display all dimensions.
762
Architectural Drafting and Design
24" (600 mm) O.C. for the balance of the upper level. If a roof other than a truss-framed gable is to be shown on this plan, review the steps used throughout the layout of the roof framing plan. NOTE: If the roof is to be stick-framed, only the members used
to show the support for the ceiling are shown on the framing plan. If a roof framing plan was drawn, do not repeat the material shown in Step 12 through Step 13 on the upper floor framing plan.
Draw and specify all beams, headers, and posts. STEP 15 Provide local notes to specify any materials needed for resisting lateral loads caused by wind or seismic forces. STEP 14
NOTE: Because requirements vary widely for each area of the
country, verify with your instructor materials that are typical for your area.
Provide local notes to specify any necessary straps or metal connectors. STEP 17 Provide general notes to indicate any necessary framing material. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 32-37. If the upper level was framed using prescriptive design methods, the plan would resemble Figure 32-38. STEP 16
The framing plan for the main floor can be completed following the same procedure that was used to draw the upper floor. Because the upper floor of the residence drawn in Chapter 18 does not completely cover the lower floor, part of the framing plan will show floor joists to support the upper floor, and part of the plan will show roof framing members. If a separate roof framing plan was drawn, all roof framing material will be omitted from this plan. Dimension the framing plan following Step 1 through Step 9 of the upper framing plan.
STEP 1
Display the door and window symbols specified on the floor plan.
STEP 2 STEP 3
If the upper level is framed using prescriptive methods to resist lateral movement, the lower floor will be affected. Support must be placed on the lower floor to resist lateral loads for that level, and to transfer the stress from the upper floor down through the lower floor. Figure 32-40A shows the changes required to the lower-floor framing plan and Figure 32-40B shows that table used to describe the wall bracing. A copy of this table can be found on the Student CD and inserted into the framing plan. The information for framing the floor will be placed on the foundation plan. Procedures for showing the support for the lower plan will be introduced in Chapter 35. Because this plan has a partial basement, the drafter will have the choice of where the floor framing over the basement can be shown. One option is to show a separate framing plan for just the basement, with the floor for the basement and the balance of the structure shown on the foundation plan. This plan would be drawn using the steps for the main framing plan and would resemble Figure 32-41. Because the plan is relatively simple, many professional offices would show the material for framing the main floor over the basement on the foundation plan.
ROOF FRAMING PLAN CHECKLIST Use the roof plan and convert it to a roof framing plan by adding the following information: ❑ Change title from ROOF PLAN to ROOF FRAMING PLAN. ❑ Plot to proper scale (check all line type and dimension scale factors).
Draw the boundaries of any areas to be vaulted.
Draw and label the arrows to indicate the framing members. Use the tables in Chapter 30 to determine the sizes of members for species of framing lumber common to your area.
STEP 4
Using the tables and formulas in Chapter 31, draw and specify all beams, headers, and posts.
STEP 5
Provide local notes to specify any materials needed for resisting lateral loads caused by wind or seismic forces. Verify with your instructor materials that are common in your area.
STEP 6
Provide local notes to specify any necessary straps or metal connectors. STEP 8 Provide general notes to indicate any necessary framing material. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 32-39. STEP 7
Truss-Framed Roof ❑ Show trusses on roof plan. ❑ Show and specify all girder truss/exterior headers. ❑ Show and specify hip/valley sleepers. ❑ Hip roofs/truss—Show and specify limit of trusses at 6' from wall. ❑ Show and specify hip trusses/mono trusses in hipped area. ❑ Show and specify multiple wall plate heights.
FRAMING NOTES:
17'-2"
NOTES SHALL APPLY TO ALL LEVELS. FRAMING STANDARDS ARE ACCORDING TO IRC.
3'-8"
5'-8"
5'-10"
6'-2"
STEP 14
1/2" PLY, SHEAR PANEL ENTIRE WALL J
D
F
4 X 6 HDR
4 x 8 HDR
12'-6"
4'-8"
3'-6" 2'-0"
6'-6"
11
10'-0"
2'-6"
8. LET-IN BRACES TO BE 1 X 4 DIAG. BRACES @ 45 DEG. FOR ALL INTERIOR LOAD-BEARING WALLS.
4x6 4 5
7 4'-0" 6
5
12
5'-8"
3'-4"
30'-0"
9
4
5
2'-4" 2'-4"
4'-2"
11" 6'-0"
2'-5"
9
12'-10"
7. BLOCK ALL WALLS OVER 10'-0" HIGH AT MID HEIGHT.
4 3'-8"
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
30'-0"
5. PLYWOOD ROOF SHEATHING TO BE 1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLY. LAID PERP. TO RAFTERS. NAIL W/ 8 d'S @ 6" O.C. EDGES AND 12" O.C. AT FIELD
STEP 13
8'-0"
20'-0"
4. ALL SHEAR PANELS TO BE 1/2" PLY NAILED W/ 8d'S @ 4" O.C @ EDGE AND BLOCKING AND 8 d'S @ 8" O.C. @ FIELD.
STD./SCISSOR TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
3'-2"
D 4 x 6 HDR
3. USE 2 X 6 NAILER AT THE BOTTOM OF ALL 2-2 X 12 OR 4 X HEADERS @ EXTERIOR WALLS. BACK HEADER W/ 2" RIGID INSULATION.
9. NOTCHES IN THE ENDS OF JOIST SHALL NOT EXCEED 1/4 OF THE JOIST DEPTH. HOLES DRILLED IN JOIST SHALL NOT BE IN THE UPPER OR LOWER 2" OF THE JOIST. THE DIAMETER OF HOLES DRILLED IN JST. SHALL NOT EXCEED 1/3 THE DEPTH OF THE JST.
5'-2"
12'-0"
STEP 15
STEP 11
2. FRAME ALL EXTERIOR WALLS W/ 2 X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C. FRAME ALL EXTERIOR NON-BEARING WALLS W/ 2 X 6 STUDS @ 24" O.C. USE 2 X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C. FOR EXTERIOR UNHEATED WALLS AND FOR ALL INTERIOR WALLS UNLESS NOTED.
6. PROVIDE 3/4" STD. GRADE T. & G. PLY. FLOOR SHEATH. LAID PERP. TO FLOOR JOIST. NAIL W/ 10d'S @ 6" O.C. @ EDGE & BLOCKING & 12" O.C. @ FIELD. COVER W/ 3/8" HARDBOARD.
6'-0"
6'-0"
1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2 MIN. ALL GLU-LAM BEAMS TO BE fb2400, V-4, DF/DF
9'-4"
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
38'-6"
STEP 17
10. PROVIDE DOUBLE JOIST UNDER AND PARALLEL TO LOAD BEARING WALLS. 11. BLOCK ALL FLOOR JOIST AT SUPPORTED ENDS AND @ 10'-0" O.C. MAX. ACROSS SPAN.
4x6 CONT. E E 2'-6" 8'-0"
9'-6"
4'-0"
4 x 8 HDR.
2'-6"
9'-0"
4'-6"
G
7'-6" 12'-0"
38'-6"
UPPER FRAMING PLAN SCALE : |" = 1'-0"
763
FIGURE 3237 Completed upper floor framing plan showing truss construction for the structure started in Chapter 18. Lateral bracing is based on the design-specific method.
764
Architectural Drafting and Design
30'-0" 2'-4"
12'-6"
12'-0"
B C 5
SCALE : |" = 1'-0"
38'-6" 8'-0"
B C
4
BWP
6
K 0
2 X 12 RAFT./C.J. @ 16" O.C.
X
BWP
2 X 6 C.J @ BWP
BWP
B C
B C
B C
BWP
BWP
9'-0"
5
4 X 6 HDR
9'-6"
BWP
6 4'-0"
FLUSH
2 2-
4
X
4
4x6
X
6 3'-2"
4 X 14 DFL # 1 EXPOSED RIDGE
4'-8"
6'-0"
UPPER FRAMING PLAN
2'-6" 4'-0"
E 2'-6"
5'-8"
E
4 X 6 CONT.
3'-4"
12
X 2 2-
2'-5" 4 K 0
3'-8" 4'-2"
D
2 X 12 RAFT. C.J @ 16" O.C.
16" O.C.
5'-2"
D
8'-0"
6'-0"
2'-6"
BWP
B C
BWP
3'-8"
4
J
7
5
11"
6'-0"
4 X 6 HDR
5'-8" 9'-4"
4'-6"
G D 0
4
4
4X6
11
5'-10"
3'-6"
BWP
F
2'-0"
2 X 6 C.J @
17'-2"
4 X 8 HDR.
16" O.C.
2 X 6 C.J @
38'-6"
7'-6"
BWP
9 4X8
BWP
K 0 9
6'-6"
16" O.C.
ABWP
B C
BWP
4 X 8 HDR
B C
B C BWP
6'-2"
BWP
E F
B C
2'-4"
12'-0"
12'-10" 10'-0"
20'-0" 30'-0"
FIGURE 3238 The completed upper floor plan using western platform construction. Lateral bracing is based on the prescriptive design-specific method.
Stick-Framed Roof ❑ Specify plate height if different from 8'. ❑ Show and specify rafters, hips, valleys, and ridge. ❑ Show rafter/ceiling joists on roof plan. ❑ Create a table for 12", 16", and 24" O.C. rafter size/spans.
FRAMING PLAN CHECKLIST Use the floor plan as a base and freeze all floor text (keep all window/door symbols).
❑ Exterior post—specify post size and CC or PC post caps. ❑ Specify all window headers (4 × 12 minimum at ABWPAO).
Braced Wall Lines Clearly represent each wall type on the framing plan and use a schedule to represent the following materials: ❑ Show and specify all braced, alternative braced walls, and alternative braced wall panels adjacent to openings. ❑ Show and specify all interior wall bracing.
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
STEP 1 61'-0" 9'-6"
38'-6" 6'-0"
17'-0"
6'-0"
9'-6"
2 x 10 F. J. @ 16" 0.C.
4 X 10 HDR
4'-6"
12'-4"
4 X 10 FLUSH
4 X 10 FLUSH
2
1 X 4 DIAG LET-IN BRACE TYP.
2'-6"
5
BSM. ONLY
4X6
6'-0"
B
6 X 10 HDR G
A
14'-0" 1/2" PLY. SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL
10'-0"
7'-0"
SOLID BLOCK BTWN. TRUSSES STRAP TO TOP PL. W/ MST48 & PROVIDE ST2115 BLK. / BLK. FOR ENTIRE WIDTH.
2
SEE DETAIL
4" X 12" CONT.
4 X 8 HDR 4 X4 POST W/ PC. 44 CAPS
16'-0"
23'-8"
STEP 7
4 X 6 CONT. 1
A
7'-0"
G
LINE OF 70 CEIL.
14 1/2" PLY. SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL
A
11'-0"
2 x 6 C. J. @ 16" 0.C.
4'-2"
2'-0"
UP 14 R
3 1/8" x 10 1/2" GLU. LAM B
13'-8"
STEP 6
10'-0"
7'-4"
10
6
3
3
36'-0"
2x6 STUDS
DN 14 R 2 x 10 F. J. @ 12" O.C.
28'-0"
6'-0"
3'-6"
4'-6"
4'-0"
4
4'-6"
4'-0"
4'-0"
RAFT. @ 32" O.C.
12'-0"
G
4 X 10 HDR
4
5'-0"
16'-0"
H
13 6 X 12 HDR
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
4 X 10 FLUSH
36'-0"
STEP 2
STEP 5
C
4 X 12
6'-8"
STEP 4
4'-6"
2'-0"
6'-4"
C
1/2" PLY. SHEAR PANEL THIS ENTIRE WALL
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
13'-0" 4'-9"
A
B
C
4'-9"
14
C
11'-0"
38'-0"
23'-0" 61'-0"
MAIN FRAMING PLAN SCALE : 1/4" = 1'-0"
765
FIGURE 3239 Main floor framing plan for the residence started in Chapter 18. By separating the structural information from the architectural information, greater clarity is achieved. Lateral bracing is based on the design-specific method.
766
61'-0" 38'-6" 6'-0"
17'-0"
9'-6"
B
BSM. ONLY
6'-0"
BWP
12'-4"
4'-6" 4'-6"
6 X 10 HDR G 10'-0"
BWP 7'-0"
C 2 2
D 3
G 5
A
11'-0"
14
ABWPAO G 5
C
36'-0"
13'-8"
BWP G
A 1
4 X 14 HEADER. ABWPAO
23'-8"
4'-1"
4 X 8 HDR
16'-0"
A 1
K 0
A
4 X 4 POST W/ PC. 44 CAPS
2
10'-0"
4 X 6 CONT. 1
10
ABWPAO 14
G 5
11'-0"
38'-0"
23'-0" 61'-0"
MAIN FRAMING PLAN SCALE : 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 3240A Completed main floor plan using western platform construction for the entire level. Lateral bracing is based on the prescriptive design method.
Architectural Drafting and Design
B
F 4 8'-0"
5 LINE OF 7 0 CEIL.
3
BWP
14'-0"
6
3
K 0
BWP
STANDARD ROOF TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
4'-2" BWP A C 2
4'-6" 4 X 10 FLUSH
(2) -2 X 10 'S UNDER BWP.
7'-4"
DN 14 R
4 X 10 FLUSH
UP 14 R
ABWP B 7'-0"
3'-6" 6'-0" 2 X 6 STUDS
4'-0"
4
(2) -2 X 10 'S UNDER BWP.
U HG 21 RS 0 .
4 LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
3 1/8" X 10 1/2" GLU. LAM
LINE OF UPPER FLOOR
BWP
K 0
4'-0" BWP
2'-0"
F 4
2 X 10 F. J. @ 12" O.C.
C 2
BWP
A 1
G 4 X 10 HDR
BWP
4'-0"
6'-8"
H 4 X 10 HDR
ABWP
4'-0"
5'-0"
C 2
ABWP
B C
(2) -2 X 10 'S UNDER BWP.
BWP
28'-0" 16'-0"
36'-0"
BWP
6'-4"
BWP
BWP
4 X 10 FLUSH C 2
4'-9"
C
13 6 X 12 HDR
2'-6"
4'-6"
4 X 12
C 2
2'-0"
12'-0"
C 2
2 X 10 F. J. @ 16" 0.C.
BWP
BWP
C
4X6 RAFT. @ 32" O.C.
C
(2) -2 x 10 'S UNDER BWP.
C 2
4'-9"
13'-0"
A
(2) -2 X 10 'S UNDER BWP.
6'-0"
9'-6"
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
767
BRACED W WALL SCHEDULE
ASSUME 8' HIGH WALLS, CONTINUOUSLY L SHEA ATHED WALLS
WALL COVERING W
EDGE NAILING
FIELD NAILING
A
48" MIN. X 1/2" CD EXT. T PLLY 1 SIDE UNBLOCKED
8d @ 6" O.C
8d @ 12" O.C.
BWP UPPER OF MULTILEVEL L
B
48" MIN. X 1/2" CD EXT. T PLLY 1 SIDE UNBLOCKED
8d @ 6" O.C
8d @ 12" O.C.
BWP LOWER OF MULTILEVEL L
C
48" MIN. X 1/2" CD EXT. T PLLY 2 SIDES UNBLOCKED
8d @ 3" O.C
8d @ 12" O.C.
D
2'-8" MIN. X 1/2" CD (3/8" MIN) EXT. PLY L 1 SIDE -BLOCKED EDGES
8d @ 6" O.C
8d @ 12" O.C.
E
2'-8" MIN. X 1/2" CD (3/8" MIN) EXT. PLY L 1 SIDE -BLOCKED EDGES
8d @ 6" O.C
ABWP LOWER OF MULTILEVEL L
F
2'-8" MIN. X 1/2" CD (3/8" MIN) EXT. PLY L EA. SIDE -BLOCKED EDGES
1-LEVEL ABWP ADJACENT TO TO OPENING
G
UPPER LEVEL ABWP ADJACENT TO TO OPENING
H
LOWER LEVEL ABWP ADJACENT TO TO OPENING
J
MARK
BWP 1 LEVEL
ABWP 1 LEVEL
ABWP UPPER OF MULTILEVEL L
INTERIOR
K
PANEL SUPPOR P RT
STRUCTURAL CONNECTORS
2 - 2 X 6 STUDS @ EA. END OF P PANEL
PAHD42 TO CONC.
2 - 2 X 6 STUDS @ EA. END OF P PANEL
MST37 UPPER TO LOWER POST
4 X 6 POST @ EA. END OF P PANEL
PAHD42 TO CONC.
2 - 2 X 6 STUDS @ EA. END OF P PANEL
HPAHD22 P TO CONC.
8d @ 12" O.C.
2 - 2 X 6 STUDS @ EA. END OF P PANEL
MST37 UPPER TO LOWER POST
8d @ 4" O.C
8d @ 12" O.C.
4 X 6 POST @ EA. END OF P PANEL
HPAHD22 P TO CONC.
1'-4" MIN. X 1/2" CD (3/8" MIN) EXT. PLY L 1 SIDE -BLOCKED EDGES
8d @ 3" O.C
8d @ 3" O.C.
2 - 2 X 6 STUDS @ EA. END OF P PANEL
HD6A TO CONC.
1'-4" MIN. X 1/2" CD (3/8" MIN) EXT. PLY L 1 SIDE -BLOCKED EDGES
8d @ 3" O.C
8d @ 3" O.C.
2'-0" MIN. X 1/2" CD (3/8" MIN) EXT. PLY L EA. SIDE -BLOCKED EDGES
8d @ 3" O.C
8d @ 3" O.C.
2 - 2 X 6 STUDS @ EA. END OF P PANEL
2 - 2 X 6 STUDS @ EA. END OF P PANEL
MST37 UPPER TO LOWER POST
HD6A TO CONC.
1/2" X 48" GYPSUM BOARD EACH SIDE OF W WALL W/ 5d COOLER NAILS @ 7" O.C. MAXIMUM W/ BLOCKED EDGES (1/2" X 96" LONG IF 1 SIDE ONLY) L .
HOLD - DOWN SCHEDULE MARK 1 STORY R BWP
2 STORY R BWP
1 STORY R ABWP
2 STORY R ABWP
1-LEVEL ABWP ADJACENT TO TO OPENING LOWER LEVEL ABWP ADJACENT TO TO OPENING
HOLD - DOWN
CONNECTIONS
FOUNDATION A REINFOR RCING PROVIDE MIN. OF (2) 1/2"Ø A. B.
1
PAHD42 STRAP P
(16) 16d OR (3) 1/2"Ø M.B.
2
HD5A
(2) -3/4"Ø M.B. THUR POST
HPAHD22 P STRAP
(23) 16d OR (3) 1/2"Ø M.B.
PROVIDE (2) 1/2"Ø A.B. @ 1/4 POINTS OF SILL W/ 1- #4 3" DN FROM TOP OF W WALL & 1 - #4 3" UP FROM BOTTOM OF FOOTING. PROVIDE 1-#4 VERT @24" O.C. IN STEM WALL.
HPAHD22 P STRAP INTO 8" WIDE STEM W WALL
(23) 16d OR (3) 1/2"Ø M.B.
PROVIDE (3) 1/2"Ø A.B. @ 1/4 POINTS OF SILL W/ 1- #4 3" DN FROM TOP OF W WALL & 1 - #4 3" UP FROM BOTTOM OF FOOTING. PROVIDE 1-#4 VERT @24" O.C. IN STEM WALL.
3
4
5
6
0
HD6A @ END POST
(2) -7/8"Ø M.B. THRU POST
PAHD43 @ INTER. P
(23) 16d OR (3) 1/2"Ø M.B.
HD6A @ END POST
(2) -7/8"Ø M.B.
PAHD43 @ INTER. P
(23) 16d OR (3) 1/2"Ø M.B.
NONE REQUIRED
PROVIDE (1) 5/8"Ø A.B. @ 1/4 POINTS OF SILL W/ 1- #4 3" DN FROM TOP OF W WALL & 1 - #4 3" UP FROM BOTTOM OF FOOTING. PROVIDE 1-#4 VERT @24" O.C. IN STEM WALL. PROVIDE (1) 5/8"Ø A.B. @ 1/4 POINTS OF SILL W/ 1- #4 3" DN FROM TOP OF W WALL & 1 - #4 3" UP FROM BOTTOM OF FOOTING. PROVIDE 1-#4 VERT @24" O.C. IN STEM WALL.
DBL JOIST OR BEAM BELOW. SEE FOUNDATION A PLAN
LISTED HORIZONTAL T STEEL TO BE IN ADDITION TO REQD. FOUNDATION A STEEL, AND RUN THE LENGTH OF THE W WALL BRACING, & LAP THE FND. STEEL 15".
FIGURE 3240B Braced wall schedule required for the framing plans in Figure 32-38 and 32-40A.
Architectural Drafting and Design
8"
768
4 X 6 HDR K
SCALE : |" = 1'-0"
LOWER FRAMING PLAN
17'-4"
K
8"
4 x 6 HDR
8"
LINE OF BLOCKING 4 X 6 HDR K
2 X 4 FURR STRIPS @ 24" O.C. W/ 1" GAP FROM WALL
2 x 10 F. J. @ 16" 0.C. 6'-4"
8 4X10 HDR W/ DBL KING STUDS & DBL TRIMMER
6'-9"
5
4'-3"
A-34 ANGLE EA. JST. TO PL.
2 X 10 F.J. @ 16' O.C.
PROVIDE 2 X 10 SOLID BLOCK @ 48" O.C. 48" OUT FROM WALL FOR ENTIRE LENGTH OF RETAINING WALL.
8"
4'-4" USE A-34 @ 16" O.C. RIM JST. TO PL. 8"
11'-4"
15'-4"
8"
FIGURE 3241 The structural information for the basement can be shown on a separate framing plan or on the foundation plan, depending on the complexity of the structure. Because the load-bearing walls are concrete, no lateral load information is specified on this framing plan. Methods of attaching the connectors specified in Figure 32-40A will be specified on the foundation plan.
Dimension Line Placement
Dimensions
❑ Line placement:
❑ If possible, arrange dimensions for major jogs in whole feet (30'−0" not 30'−2"). ❑ Dimensions close (add to match the string above). Addition from line to line: A + B = C for line/dimension placement. ❑ Text placement within dimension space; text style (7'−6"). ❑ Text orientation (viewed from bottom right side).
❑ Specify outside-to-outside for all exterior. ❑ Specify outside-to-center for all interior walls and openings. ❑ Specify exterior—overall, major jogs, wall-to-wall, wall-to-openings. (Dimensions don’t cross extension lines.) ❑ Interior: ❑ Located center-to-center, or center-to-exterior (known-to-unknown). ❑ Walls located, angled walls defined by note. ❑ Specify common groupings. ❑ Line placement should have even spacing. Text/line placement should be consistent.
Notes ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Text = 1/8" high; titles = 1/4" high. Text orientation (viewed from bottom right side). Framing notes to meet project needs. Local notes to specify all framing materials and hangers.
Chapter 32: Drawing Framing Plans
769
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Framing Plans with CADD Framing plans can be easily created using computers. The roof framing plan can be created using the roof or floor plan as a base drawing. Upper and lower framing plans are created using the floor plans for the starting points. Two major methods are available to create these drawings. Information can be added to the base drawings and controlled by layers, or information can be added to a separate drawing and referenced to the original. If the roof plan is to be controlled by layers, it is important to remember that the base floor plan is plotted at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" and the roof framing plan is usually plotted at a much smaller scale. Because you’re drawing in model space, you’re working at full size, but you will need to adjust the line scale and the text scale factors for the appropriate scale on the roof framing plan.
ROOF FRAMING PLAN Figure 22–2 and Figure 22–3 compare a roof and roof framing plans for a multilevel structure drawn using AutoCAD. The framing plan was created using the roof plan as a base. Information that pertained to making the roof weather-tight was frozen. This included removing materials and notes about finish materials, vents, downspouts, and roofing material. Another alternative for creating a roof plan is to place the needed roofing material using the floor plan as a base. This method can be especially helpful on a complicated stick-frame roof. If the floor plan is used as a base for a roof framing plan, show all of the walls printed in matted lines using grayscale, and show all roofing materials using black lines (see Figure 1-20). Once the layout method is selected, layers can be added to contain materials for the roof plan. For this example, the drawing will be controlled using layers within the base drawing. Each new layer is given the prefix of ROOF FRAM to make it easy to identify required layers for plotting. Sub-names for ANNO, DIMS, TRUSS, and BEAM are also added. Complete the drawing by working from the roof down to the foundation, and by adding major framing members first, and then working toward smaller members. Standard trusses are drawn first in the center section of the roof, and then the hip trusses are represented. Finally, the mono trusses are drawn at each edge. With all materials represented, dimensions should be placed to locate material limitations, beam locations, and overhang sizes. Once these are drawn and located, notation should be provided to specify each material and framing member size that has been represented.
FLOOR FRAMING PLANS Framing plans for each floor are drawn using the floor plan as a base. The floor plan layers that contain the walls, windows, doors, cabinets, and plumbing fixtures should be displayed, with all other floor information frozen. With the proper material displayed, complete the framing plan in the same order that was used with manual methods. Layers can be added to contain materials for the framing plan. Each new layer is given the prefix of UPPR FRAM, MAIN FRAM, or LOWR FRAM to make it easy to identify required layers for plotting. Sub-names for ANNO, DIMN, TRUSS, LATR, and BEAM layers must also be added. See the file on the Student CD, SUPPLEMENTAL READING / CHAPTER 7 / SUGGESTED LAYER NAMES for additional layer names that can be used to organize information. Complete the drawing by adding major framing members first, and then working toward smaller members. Place beams that will be required to support joists or trusses, and then place a marker to represent each joist type. The joist markers can be stored as a block, and then inserted and stretched to the needed size. Lateral bracing information can be added to the drawing using blocks. Schedules for one-level and multilevel construction bracing can be created, and the appropriate schedule can be inserted into the drawing. Symbols to represent each type of bracing can also be created as blocks and inserted into the required position throughout the drawing. Because the upperlevel materials are different from the lower braces, lateral symbols should be placed on layers that are levelspecific. This allows the lower floor lateral information to be displayed on the foundation plan without repeating the schedule. This requires the creation of layers such as UPPR FRAM LAT SYMB, MAIN FRAM LAT SYMB, or LOWR FRAM LAT SYMB. Place the symbol information on a different layer than the lateral schedule. With the framing and lateral information represented, place dimensions to represent all walls, openings, and framing materials. Dimension layers should be divided by level; some dimensions such as the overall and major jogs will be the same on all levels. This information can be placed on a layer titled BASE DIMS. Wall-to-wall, and wall-to-opening dimensions should be placed on a layer that is specific to each level of the structure such as MAIN FRAME EXT DIMS. Annotation can now be placed to locate all framing materials. Notes should also be placed on layers that are level-specific. Local notes should be divided by layers to represent title block text and text that is level-specific. ■
770
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Architectural Drafting and Design
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in framing materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site.
Address www.apawood.org www.iccsafe.org www.strongtie.com
Company, Product, or Service APA—The Engineered Wood Association International Code Council Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Inc.
See CD for more information
Drawing Framing Plans Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed. Answers should be based on the building code that governs your area. Use the tables in this chapter to answer the following questions.
Question 32–1 What are the two major methods of determining lateral loads? Question 32–2 Where should rafters be specified on the working drawing? Question 32–3 How are the alternatives for locating trusses different from the alternatives for locating rafters?
Question 32–12 What is the most common method of constructing a braced wall panel in your area? Question 32–13 What are three possible reactions walls might have as wind is applied perpendicular to the wall? Question 32–14 What is the maximum distance between braced wall lines for a wind less than 85 mph? Question 32–15 What nailing is required for interior wall braces using 1/2" gypsum board?
Question 32–4 What are the options for locating ceiling joists on the construction drawings?
Question 32–16 What size, method, and spacing are required if two studs will be nailed together to form a post?
Question 32–5 You’re looking at the main-level framing plan of a two-story residence. What framing members would you expect to see specified?
Question 32–17 What size nails are required to attach the edge of 1/2" plywood to trusses?
Question 32–6 What is the maximum basic wind speed allowed by your building code for prescriptive wall design?
Question 32–18 What is the maximum distance two bearing walls can be offset and still be considered to be aligned?
Question 32–7 An engineer has specified that a metal strap be used to tie a header to a top plate. How should the strap be represented, and what material should be specified on the framing plan?
Question 32–19 What is the maximum distance two walls can be offset and still considered to be the same braced wall line?
Question 32–8 What is the maximum wall height allowed if the prescriptive method of wall reinforcement is used? Question 32–9 List the dimensional requirements for an alternative braced wall panel adjacent to an opening. a. Minimum width: b. Minimum distance between panels: c. Maximum distance between panels:
Question 32–10 How is a braced wall panel attached to the foundation? Question 32–11 What foundation reinforcement is required for an alternative braced wall panel adjacent to an opening?
Question 32–20 Describe the requirements for offsets in a braced wall line.
PROBLEM
Framing Plan Layout Use information from the floor and roof plans and the elevations to draw the framing plan for the residence that was started in Chapter 18. Use the span tables in Chapter 30 to determine all rafter sizes and the formulas in Chapter 31 to determine all beam sizes. Verify with your instructor the risk of wind and seismic damage that should be considered in the design.
www.kevinmillerphoto.com
SECTION 9
Foundation Plans
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CHAPTER 33
Foundation Systems I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
All structures are required to have a foundation. The foundation provides a base to distribute the weight of the structure onto the soil. The weight, or load, must be evenly distributed over enough soil to prevent it from compressing the soil. In addition to resisting the load from gravity, the foundation must resist floods, winds, and earthquakes. Where flooding is a problem, the foundation system must be designed for the possibility that much of the supporting soil may be washed away. The foundation must also be designed to resist any debris that may be carried by floodwaters.
The forces of wind on a structure can cause severe problems for a foundation. The walls of a structure act as a large sail. If the structure is not properly anchored to the foundation, the walls can be ripped away by the wind. Wind tries to push a structure not only sideways but upward as well. Because the structure is securely fastened at each intersection, wind pressure is transferred into the foundation. Proper foundation design will resist this upward movement. Figure 33-1 shows an example of anchor bolts and straps used to resist uplift. Depending on the risk of seismic damage, special design considerations may be required for a foundation.
Although earthquakes cause both vertical and horizontal movement, it is the horizontal movement that causes more damage to structures. The foundation system must be designed so that it can move with the ground yet keep its basic shape. Steel reinforcing and welded wire mesh are often required to help resist or minimize damage due to the movement of the earth.
SOIL CONSIDERATIONS In addition to the forces of nature, the nature of the soil supporting the foundation must also be considered. The texture of the soil and the tendency of the soil to freeze will influence the design of the foundation system.
Soil Texture The texture of the soil will affect its ability to resist the load of the foundation. Before a foundation can be designed for a structure, the bearing capacity of the soil must be known. This is a design value specifying the amount of weight a square foot of soil can support. The bearing capacity of soil depends on its composition and the moisture content. Each of the five basic classifications for soil listed by IRC Table 401.4.1 can be seen in Table 33-1.
Class of Material
FIGURE 331 In addition to resisting the forces of gravity, a foundation must be able to resist the forces of uplift created by wind pressure acting on the structure. Anchor bolts and metal framing straps embedded in the concrete are two common methods of resisting the forces of nature.
Crystalline bedrock Sedimentary and foliated rock Sandy gravel and/or gravel (GW and GP) Sand, silty sand, clayey sand, silty gravel, and clayey gravel (SW, SP, SM, SC, GM, and GC) Clay, sandy clay, silty clay, clayey silt, silt, sandy silt (CI, ML, MH, and CH)
Load-Bearing Pressure 12,000 psf (574.8 kPa) 4,000 psf (191.6 kPa) 3,000 psf (143.7 kPa) 2,000 psf (95.8 kPa)
1,500 psf (47.9 kPa)
TABLE 331 Presumptive Load-Bearing Values of Foundation Materials (Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, D.C. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.) 773
774
Architectural Drafting and Design
First and/or Second Letter Letter
Definition
C G M O S Second Letter
Clay Gravel Silt Organic Sand
Letter
Definition
H L P W
High plasticity Low plasticity Poorly graded (uniform particle sizes) Well graded (diversified particle sizes)
TABLE 332 USCS Abbreviations
The soil types in Table 33-1 are based on studies done in the mid-twentieth century for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Now known as the Unified Soils Classification System (USCS), the system is used in engineering and geology disciplines to describe the texture and grain size of soil. Common letters used in the USCS and their definition can be seen in Table 33-2. Common groupings of letters and soils represented can be seen in Table 33-3.
Building departments use the values in these tables to classify the general soil strength for each building site. The specific allowable bearing capacity may need to be determined by a soils engineer if the building department believes soil with an allowable bearing of less than 1500 psf is likely to be present. A soil bearing pressure of 2000 psf is usually the design value used for most stock home designs when the site conditions are not known. Structures built on soils with low bearing capacity require footings that extend into stable soil or are spread over a wide area. Both options typically require the design to be approved by an engineer. In residential construction, the type of soil can often be determined from the local building department. In commercial construction, a soils engineer is usually required to study the various types of soil at the job site and make recommendations for foundation design. The soil bearing values must be determined before a suitable material for the foundation can be selected. In addition to the texture, the tendency of freezing must also be considered. Construction sites often include soil that has been brought to the site or moved on the site. Soil that is placed over the natural grade is called fill material. Fill material is often moved to a lot when an access road is
Major Divisions Coarse-grained soil more than 50% retained on No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve
Gravel >50% of coarse fraction retained on #4 (4.75 mm) sieve
Sand >50% of coarse fraction passes #4 sieve
Fine-grained soils more than 50% passes No. 200 sieve
Silt and clay liquid limit <50
Silt and clay liquid limit >50
Clean gravel <5% smaller than #200 sieve Gravel with >12% fines Clean sand
Group Symbol
Group Name
GW GP
Well-graded gravel, fine to coarse gravel Poorly-graded gravel
GM
Silty gravel
GC SW
Clayey gravel Well-graded sand, fine to coarse sand Poorly-graded sand Silty sand Clayey sand Silt Clay Organic silt, organic clay Silt of high plasticity, elastic silt Clay of high plasticity, fat clay Organic clay, organic silt Peat
Organic
SP SM SC ML CL OL
Inorganic
MH
Sand with >12% fines Inorganic
CH Organic Highly organic soils TABLE 333 Soils Symbols Chart
OH Pt
Chapter 33: Foundation Systems
775
LINE OF NATURAL GRADE FILL MATERIAL CUT MATERIAL
of 6" through 12" (150 through 300 mm). The soils or geotechnical engineer will specify the requirements for soils excavation and compaction. The drafter’s job is to place the specifications of the engineer clearly on the plans.
LINE OF FINISH GRADE
Freezing FIGURE 332 As access roads are created, soil is often cut away and pushed to the side of the roadway, creating areas of fill. Unless the foundation extends into the natural grade, the structure will settle.
placed in a sloping site, as in Figure 33-2. After a few years, vegetation covers the soil and gives it the appearance of natural grade. Footings resting on fill material will eventually settle under the weight of a structure. All discussion of foundation depths in this text refers to the footing depth into the natural grade.
Compaction Fill material can be compacted to increase its bearing capacity. Compaction is accomplished by vibrating, tamping, rolling, or adding a temporary weight. There are three major ways to compact soil. 1. Static force. A heavy roller presses soil particles
together. 2. Impact forces. A ramming shoe strikes the ground repeatedly at high speed. 3. Vibration. High-frequency vibration is applied to soil through a steel plate. Large job sites are typically compacted by mobile equipment. Small areas in the construction site are generally compacted by handheld mobile equipment. Granular soils are best compacted by vibration, and soils containing large amounts of clay are best compacted by force. Each of these methods will reduce air voids between grains of soil. Proper compaction lessens the effect of settling and increases the stability of the soil, which increases the load-bearing capacity. The effects of frost damage are minimized in compacted soil because penetration of water into voids in the soil is minimized. Moisture content is the most important factor in efficient soil compaction because moisture acts as a lubricant to help soil particles move closer together. Compaction should be completed under the supervision of a geotechnical engineer or another qualified expert who understands the measurements of soil moisture. Compaction is typically accomplished in lifts
Don’t confuse ground freezing with blizzards. Even in the warmer southern states, ground freezing can be a problem. Figure 33-3 shows the average frost penetration depths for the United States. A foundation should be built to a depth where the ground is not subject to freezing. Water in the soil expands as it freezes and then contracts as it thaws. Expansion and shrinking of the soil will cause heaving in the foundation. As the soil expands, the foundation can crack. As the soil thaws, water that cannot be absorbed by the soil can cause the soil to lose much of its bearing capacity, causing further cracking of the foundation. In addition to geographic location, the type of soil also affects freezing. Finegrained soil is more susceptible to freezing because it tends to hold moisture. A foundation must rest on stable soil so that the foundation does not crack. The designer will have to verify the required depth of foundations with the local building department. Once the soil-bearing capacity and the depth of freezing are known, the type of foundation system to be used can be determined.
Water Content The amount of water the foundation will be exposed to, as well as the permeability of the soil, must also be considered in the design of the foundation. As the soil absorbs water, it expands, causing the foundation to heave. In areas of the country with extended periods of rainfall, there is little variation in the soil moisture content; this minimizes the risk of heaving caused by soil expansion. Greater danger results from shrinkage during periods of decreased rainfall. In areas of the country that receive only minimal rainfall, followed by extended periods without moisture, soil shrinkage can cause severe foundation problems because of the greater moisture differential. To aid in the design of the foundation, the IRC has included the Thornthwaite Moisture Index, which lists the amount of water that would be returned to the atmosphere by evaporation from the ground surface and transpiration if there was an unlimited supply of water to the plants and soil. Concrete slab on grade is used primarily in dry areas from southern California to Texas, where the contrast between the dry soil under the slab and the damp soil
776
Architectural Drafting and Design
125° 5"
120° 10" 20"
115°
110°
105°
100°
95°
90°
85°
80°
75°
70°
65° 50°
30"
40"
50"
24
60"
45°
100" 90"
70" 80" 90" 100" 100" 90"
100" 90"
61
80"
45°
75
18
70"
74
31
80 60
40°
64
56
50 55
23 5
58
30
48
44
50"
44 32
36
10"
20
30
40°
40" 30" 20"
36
35°
60"
50
65
18
35°
15
0"
5"
10 12
10
18
14
20
4
30° 8 0"
6
30°
5
5"
10 5"
4
1 0"
25°
0"
EXTREME FROST PENETRATION (IN INCHES) BASED UPON STATE AVERAGES 115°
110°
105°
25° 100°
95°
90°
85°
80°
75°
FIGURE 333 Depth of freezing can greatly affect the type of foundation used for a structure.
beside the foundation creates a risk of heaving at the edge of the slab. If the soil beneath the slab experiences a change of moisture content after the slab is poured, the center of the slab can heave. Heaving can be resisted by proper drainage and reinforcing placed in the foundation and throughout the floor slab. The effects of soil moisture will be investigated in Chapter 35, which considers concrete slab construction. Surface water and groundwater must be properly diverted from the foundation so that the soil can support the building load. Proper drainage also minimizes water leaks into the crawl space or basement, reducing mildew and rotting. The IRC requires the finish grade to slope away from the foundation at a minimum slope of 6" (150 mm) within the first 10' (3000 mm). A 3% minimum slope is preferable for planted or grassy areas; a 1% slope is acceptable for paved areas. Gravel or coarse-grained soils can be placed beside the foundation to increase percolation. In damp climates, a drain is often required beside the foundation at the base of a gravel bed to facilitate drainage (see
Figure 33-4). As the amount of water in the soil surrounding the foundation is reduced, the lateral loads imposed on the foundation are also reduced. The pressure of the soil becomes increasingly important as the height of the foundation wall is increased. Foundation walls enclosing basements should be waterproofed, as in Figure 33-5. Asphaltic emulsion is often used to prevent water penetration into the basement. Floor slabs below grade are required to be placed over a vapor barrier.
Radon Structures built in areas of the country with high radon levels need to provide protection from this cancercausing gas. The IRC and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have mapped the continental United States by county and identified areas with high-risk to radon. The buildup of radon can be reduced by making minor modifications to the gravel placed below basement slabs. A 4" (100 mm) PVC vent can be placed in
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777
a minimum layer of 4" (100 mm) gravel covered with 6-mil polyethylene. The plastic barrier should have a minimum lap of 12" (300 mm) at intersections. Any joints, cracks, or penetrations in the floor slab must be caulked. The vent must run under the slab until it can be routed up through the framing system to an exhaust point, which is a minimum of 10' (3000 mm) from other openings in the structure and 12" (300 mm) above the roof. The system should include roughin electrical wiring for future installation of a fan located in the vent stack and a system-failure warning device. This can usually be accomplished by placing an electrical junction box in an attic space for future installation of a fan.
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS The foundation is usually constructed of pilings, continuous footings, or grade beams.
Pilings A piling foundation system uses beams placed between vertical supports, called a piling, to support structural loads. The columns may extend into the natural grade or may be supported on other material that extends into stable soil. Piling foundations are typically used: ●
FIGURE 334 A gravel bed and a drain divert water away from the foundation. Courtesy Boccia Inc.
● ●
FIGURE 335 A waterproof emulsion will reduce the risk of water penetrating the concrete wall.
On steep hillside sites where it may not be feasible to use traditional excavating equipment. Where the load imposed by the structure exceeds the bearing capacity of the soil. On sites subject to flooding or other natural forces that might cause large amounts of soil to be removed.
Coastal property and sites near inland bodies of water subject to flooding often use a piling foundation to keep the habitable space of the structure above the floodplain level. Typically, a support beam is placed under or near each bearing wall. Beams are supported on a grid of vertical supports, which extend down to a more stable stratum of rock or dense soil. Beams can be steel, sawn or laminated wood, or prestressed concrete. Vertical supports may be concrete columns, steel tubes or beams, wood columns, or a combination of these materials. On shallow pilings a hole can be bored, and poured concrete with steel reinforcing can be used. Figure 33-6 shows a detail for a poured-concrete footing. If the vertical support is required to extend deeper than 10' (3000 mm), a pressure-treated wood timber or steel column can be driven into the soil. Figure 33-7 shows the layout of a residential floor supported on a piling
Architectural Drafting and Design
DEC. W.I. RAILING W/ VERT. @ 4" O.C. BETWEEN 4 X 4 POST @ 48" O.C. NOTCH END OF POST 1 1/2" AND BOLT TO 2-2 X 10 RIM JOIST W/ 2- 3/8" DIA. LAG BOLTS. SOLID BLK.
2 X 4 DECKING LAID FLAT W/ 1/8" GAP
2 X 4 SMOOTH RAIL
36" MIN.
778
2 X 10 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
8" WIDE GRADE BEAM W/ 2-#4 3" UP AND 3" DN. HORIZ AND #4 VERT. @ 24" O.C. CENTERED
2 X 10 NAILER W/ U210 METAL HANGER @ EA. JST.
4 X 12 GIRDER 4 X 4 POST W/ CB44 CAP 8" MIN. ABOVE GRADE
24" MIN.
CB 44 COL. BASE
24" DIA.
60" MIN INTO UNDISTURBED SOIL OR UNTIL STRIKING SOLID ROCK
60" MIN INTO UNDISTURBED SOIL OR UNTIL STRIKING SOLID ROCK
1 #4 VERT X 24" LONG W/ 12" PROJECTION INTO BEAM AND PIER.
4-#5 HORIZ. BARS TOP & BTM. 2" CLR. W/ 2- #4 TIES.
18" DIA.
FIGURE 336 Shallow pilings are often made of concrete with steel reinforcement. The size, type, and placement of the reinforcement will vary, depending on the load to be supported, the depth of the piling, and the engineer’s design. The piling on the left is being used to support a grade beam, which is a concrete beam placed below the finished grade to span between pilings. The piling on the right is used to support a wood post.
FIGURE 337 A piling foundation is often used when a job site is too steep for traditional foundation methods. Courtesy Sara Jefferis.
foundation. Figure 33-8 shows a concrete piling and vertical supports used to support a concrete floor system. Figure 33-9 shows the components of a piling plan for a residence. In addition to the vertical columns and horizontal beams, diagonal steel cables or rods are placed between the columns to resist lateral and rotational forces. An engineer must design the piling and the connection of the pilings to the superstructure. In addition to resisting gravity loads, a piling foundation must be able to resist uplift, lateral, and rotational forces. Figure 33-10 shows a detail of a concrete piling used to support steel columns, which in turn support the floor system of the residence; and a detail of a steel piling foundation, which is used to support steel columns above grade. Notice that the engineer has specified a system that uses braces approximately parallel to the ground to stabilize the top of the pilings against
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779
2X6 P.T. BASE W/ E/8" O "J" BOLTS FLAT WASHERS & NUTS @ 4'-0" O.C. MAX @ ALL BEARING WALLS.
STUCCO BANDS (per elevations)
(+) 0'-0" 8"
2" TOPPING W/ FIBERMESH AND #5 AT EDGE
6" 2" topping
5 1/4" FINGER JOINT OR COMP. BD.
(-) 0'-8"
1'-4"
8" X 16" D. CONC. PERIMETER T.B. AND 12" X 16" D. INTERIOR CONC. T.B. SEE SH. #A-6 FOR TYPE AND LOCATIONS AND SPECS.
(-) 2'-0" 8" C.M.U. WALL AT PERIMETER OF BUILDING AT LOWER LEVEL. 12" X 12" C.M.U. COL'S. FILLED W/ CONC. AND REBARS AT INTERIOR. SEE SH. #A-5 FOR LOCATION
FINISHED GRADE AT BERM-UP
CONCRETE NOTES: ALL FTGS. DESIGNED FOR SOIL BEARING OF 2000 # SQ. FT FTGS TO BEAR ON SOLID SOIL REGARDLESS OF GIVEN DIMINSION BOTTOMS OF FTGS SHOULD HAVE (3) #5 BARS - LAP 40 DIAMETER ALL CONCRETE SHALL BE 3000 P.S.I. C 28 DAYS. ALL EXTERIOR CONCRETE SHALL BE ENTRAINED. OWNER TO VERIFY SOIL CONDITIONS (SUB STRATA). NOTE 5/8" VERTICAL BARS FOR MASONRY WALL CONSTRUCTION USE 4000 # CONCRETE FOR TIE BEAMS.
___ n.g.v.d. grade elev. to be verifird by survey.
REBARS TO BE GRADE 60 DEFORMED BARS USE 4000 # CONCRETE FOR ALL STRUCTURAL CONC. TIE BEAMS, COL'S & BEAMS. ALL VERTICAL BARS IN BLOCK WALLS TO BE FILLED WITH CONCRETE GROUT.
WATERPROOFING REQUIRED WHERE GRADE REST ON BLOCK WALLS (-) 9'-6"
(-) 10'-6"
8'-6"
tie steel conc. ribbon edge per precast manf.
(-) 10'-6"
19" ABV. CROWN OF ROAD 4 1/2" CONC. SLAB ( 3,000 PSI MIN. @ 28 DAYS) W/ 6 X 6 # 10/10 W.W.M. ON POLY VAPOR BARRIER. *note: vapor barrior under slab to be taped @ seams. SOIL UNDER SLAB TO BE POISON TREATED 20" X 16" D. CONC. GRADE BEAM W/ 3-#5 RND. TOP AND BOTTOM W/ DBL. #3 STIRRUPS, 4 AT 5" O.C. STARTING 2" EA. DIRECTION FROM EACH PILE, THEN AT 24" O.C., MAX. bottom of piling PILES TO BE 30LF TO 60LF (SEE SHEET #A-5 FOR LOADING SPECS TO DETERMINE DEPTH)
A
single story typ. piling wall section SCALE:3/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 338 Detail required to explain construction of a concrete piling and concrete floor intersection. Courtesy Eric S. Brown Design Group.
lateral loads. These braces would not be shown on the foundation plan but would be specified on the elevations, sections, and details.
Continuous or Spread Foundations The most typical type of foundation used in residential construction is a continuous or spread foundation. This consists of a footing and wall. The footing is the base of the foundation system and is used to displace the building loads over the soil. Figure 33-11 shows typical footings and how they are usually drawn on foundation plans. Footings are made of poured concrete and placed so that they extend below freezing level. Fully grouted masonry and wood foundations are
also allowed by code. The size of the footing is based on the soil-bearing value and the load to be supported. Figure 33-12 shows common footing sizes and depths required by the IRC. The strength of the concrete must also be specified; this is based on the location of the concrete in the structure and its chance of freezing. Table 33-4 lists typical minimum comprehensive strength values. For areas of soft soil or fill material, reinforcement steel is placed in the footing. Concrete is extremely durable when it supports a load and is compressed but very weak under tension. If the footing is resting on fill material, the bottom of the concrete footing will bend. As the footing bends, the concrete will be under tension. Steel is placed near the
780
Architectural Drafting and Design
6"
8 13 W 16 X 67 STEEL GIRDER W 16 X 67 STEEL GIRDER 16'-0"
1'-0" 14'-6"
17'-0"
17'-0"
17'-5"
16'-0"
FORM AN 'X' BETWEEN COLUMNS WITH 3/4" THREADED RODS W/ TURNBUCKLES. SEE ELEVATIONS FOR PATTERN PLACEMENT AND INSTALL PER DETAILS 1 2 11 11
W 16 X 67 STEEL GIRDER W 16 X 67 STEEL GIRDER 29'-3 1/2"
16'-0" 15'-0"
STEEL GIRDER
W 16 X 67 STEEL GIRDER
10'-4"
5 14
7 13 W 16 X 50 STEEL GIRDER
W 16 X 45 STEEL GIRDER
1 11
6 13
10'-4"
PILE PLAN 1/4"
1'-0" PROPERTY LINE
23'-10"
6"
LINE OF SETBACK
9'-10"
W 16 X 40 STEEL GIRDER
24'-6"
9'-6"
1'-2" 20- W 8 X 36 PILES
39'-0"
W 16 X 45
2'-0"
1'-0"
1'-0"
6"
1'-0"
LINE OF SETBACK
27'-2 1/2"
1'-0"
16'-0"
FIGURE 339 The foundation plan for a structure supported on pilings shows the location of all pilings, the beams that span between the pilings, and any diagonal bracing required to resist lateral loads. Courtesy Janice Jefferis, Residential Designs.
bottom of the footing to resist the forces of tension in concrete. This reinforcing steel, or rebar, is not shown on the foundation plan but is specified in a note giving the size, quantity, and spacing of the steel. The size of rebar is represented by a number indicating the approximate diameter of the bar in eighths of an inch. Sizes typically range from 1/4" to 2 1/2" diameter. A 1/4" diameter rebar is 2/8" or a #2 diameter; a 1/2" diameter bar is a #4. IRC allows only rebar that is a #4 diameter or larger to be considered as reinforcing; the use of smaller steel is considered non-reinforced concrete. Steel sizes and numbers and their metric equivalents can be seen in Table 33-5. Steel rebar may be smooth, but most uses of steel require deformations to help the concrete bind to the
steel. Typical steel deformation patterns can be seen in Figure 33-13. Placed between the deformations are the identification marks of the steel manufacturer. The first letter identifies the mill that produced the rebar, followed by the bar size and the type of steel. The strength of the steel used for rebar can also vary. Common grades associated with residential construction are grades 40, 50, 60, and 75. Figure 33-14A shows the forms set for a reinforced footing, and Figure 33-14B shows the completed footing. The material used to construct the foundation wall and the area in which the building is to be located will affect how the wall and footing are tied together. If the wall and footing are made at different times, a #4 bar must be placed at the top of the stem wall and
Chapter 33: Foundation Systems
3/4" TIE RODS & TURNBUCKLES
781
T.S. 6 X 6 X 1/4" STEEL COLUMN
5/16
3/4" DIA. TIE RODS & TURNBUCKLES
8" MIN.
3 X 6 X 3/8" SIDE PL. 12 X 12 X 3/4" BASE PL.
1/4
3/8
1" MORTAR BASE
T.S. 4 X 4 X 1/2" BRACE
3
4"
T.S. 6 X 6 X 1/4" STEEL COLUMN
1/4
1/4 6 X REQ'D X 1/2" SIDE PL. EA. SIDE
12 X 12 X 3/4" PL
3/8
5'-0"
12"
4- 1/2" x 10" A.B. ON 8" GRID W/ 2 1/2" PROJECTION #4 VERT. @ 9" O.C. W/ 2" CLR. #4 @ 6" O.C. EA. WAY 3" UP
1/4
4
T.S. 4 X 4 X 1/2" BRACE 6" TYP. ABOVE BASE PL.
# 3 HORIZ. @ 18" O.C. STAGGER SEAMS 180˚ HP 8 X 36 PILE 8 13
A
3/4" = 1'–0"
2 11
B
3/4" = 1'–0"
FIGURE 3310 The drafter draws details of the pilings to supplement the foundation plan to ensure that all of the engineer’s specifications can be clearly understood. (A) The concrete piling supports a steel column; (B) the piling supports a steel column that extends up to the superstructure of the residence. Because of the loads to be supported, the depth of the pilings, and a severe risk of seismic damage, the engineer has specified horizontal steel tube bracing to the top of the pilings. Courtesy Janice Jefferis, Residential Designs.
MINIMUM COMPREHENSIVE STRENGTH WEATHER POTENTIAL TYPE OR LOCATION OF CONCRETE
NEGLIGIBLE
MODERATE
SEVERE
Basement walls and foundations not exposed to weather
2500
2500
2500
Basement slabs and interior slabs on grade, except garage floor slabs
2500
2500
2500
Basement walls, foundation walls, exterior walls, and other vertical concrete work exposed to weather
2500
Porches, concrete slabs and steps exposed to the weather, and garage floor slabs
2500
LINE OF FOOTING
STEM WALL
PLAN VIEW 3000
3000 STEM WALL
3000
STEM WALL
3500
TABLE 334 Compressive Strength of Concrete, Based on the International Residential Code/2009 (Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.)
MONOLITHIC CONCRETE SLAB
CONCRETE BLOCK
POURED CONCRETE
SECTION VIEW
FIGURE 3311 A footing, used to spread building loads evenly into the soil, is represented on the foundation plan by hidden lines.
782
Architectural Drafting and Design
MINIMUM WIDTH OF CONCRETE PRECAST OR MASONRY FOOTINGS (INCHES) (A)
8" 6" MIN.
P
P
LOAD-BEARING VALUE OF SOIL (PSF) 1,500
2,000
3,000
≥4,000
D C
Conventional wood-frame construction 1-story
12
12
12
12
2-story
15
12
12
12
3-story
23
17
12
12
B
4-inch brick veneer over wood-frame or 8-inch hollow concrete masonry 1-story
12
12
12
12
2-story
21
16
12
12
3-story
32
24
16
12
8-inch solid or fully grouted masonry
FIGURE 3312B The footing projections (P) must be at least 2" (50 mm) and cannot exceed the depth of the footing.
Imperial Sizes
1-story
16
12
12
12
2-story
29
21
14
12
3-story
42
32
21
16
For SI: 1 inch 25.4 mm, 1 pound per square foot 47.88 Pa.
MINIMUM WIDTH OF STEM WALL (B) Plain Concrete
A
Minimum Width
Walls less than 4´–6˝″ (1372 mm)
6˝″ (152 mm)
Walls greater than 4´–6˝″ (1372 mm)
7.5˝″ (191 mm)
Plain Masonry Solid grout or solid units
6˝″ (152 mm)
Nongrouted units
8˝″ (203 mm)
#3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11 #14 #18 TABLE 335
3/8" 1/2" 5/8" 3/4" 7/8" 1" 1 1/8" 1 1/4" 1 7/16" 1 5/8" 2 1/4" Rebar Sizes
Metric Rebar #10M #13M #16M #19M #22M #25M #29M #32M #36M #43M #57M
9.5 mm 12.7 mm 15.9 mm 19.1 mm 22.2 mm 25.4 mm 28.7 mm 32.3 mm 35.8 mm 43 mm 57.3 mm
MINIMUM FOOTING DEPTH (C)* Minimum 1-story
6˝″ (152 mm)
Minimum 2-story
7˝″ (178 mm)
Minimum 3-story
8˝″ (203 mm)
*Values vary based on the type of soil.Verify local requirements with your building department.
MINIMUM FOOTING DEPTH INTO NATURAL GRADE (D)* Minimum code value
12˝″ (305 mm)
Recommended 2-story
18˝″ (457 mm)
Recommended 3-story 24˝″ (610 mm) *Values vary based on the frost depth and the type of soil. Verify local requirements with your building department.
FIGURE 3312A Options A and B are minimum footing requirements based on the International Residential Code/2009. Options C and D are based on common construction practice. Verify local conditions. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
a #4 bar must be placed near the bottom of the footing. A concrete slab resting on a footing must have a #4 bar at the top and bottom of the footing. The foundation wall and footing can also be strengthened by placing a keyway in the footing. The keyway is formed by placing a 2 × 4 (50 × 100) in the top of the concrete footing while the concrete is still wet. Once the concrete has set, the 2 × 4 (50 × 100) is removed, leaving a keyway in the concrete. When the concrete for the wall is poured, it will form a key by filling in the keyway. If a stronger bond is desired, steel is often used to tie the footing to the foundation wall. Both methods of attaching the foundation wall to the footing can be seen in Figure 33-15. Footing steel is not drawn on the foundation plan but is specified in a general note and shown in a footing detail similar to Figure 33-16.
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783
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT H
H
H
ANCHOR WALL TO FOOTING WITH DOWELS OF EQUAL SIZE, SPACING, AND POSITION AS VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT
H KEYWAY
4
4
4 4
N
N
N N
A
B
C
D
FIGURE 3313 Concrete construction is often strengthened by adding steel reinforcement to the face of the concrete member that is in tension. To increase the capacity of the concrete to bond to the steel, ribs or deformations are added to the bar. Between the deformations, identification marks are imprinted to designate the mill that produced the steel, the bar size, and the type of steel.
FIGURE 3315 The footing can be bonded to the foundation wall with a key or with steel.
Grade Beams To provide added support for a foundation in unstable soil, a grade beam may be used in place of the foundation, as in Figure 33-6. The grade beam is similar to a wood beam that supports loads over a window. The grade beam is placed under the soil below the stem wall and spans between stable supports. The support may be stable soil or pilings. The depth and reinforcing required for a grade beam are determined by the load to
3/8" HARDBOARD OVER 3/4" 42/16 PLY. FLOOR SHEATH. LAID PERP. TO FLOOR JOISTS. NAIL W/ 10d @ 6" O.C EDGE, BLOCKING, & BEAMS. USE 10d @ 12" O.C. @ FIELD.
HORIZ. SIDING OVER 1/2" WAFERBOARD & TYVEK
2X8 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
2X6 DFPT W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10"A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS
12"
6"
8"
FIGURE 3314A Forms set in preparation for pouring the concrete for the footing. Horizontal and vertical steel has been placed to tie the stem wall to the footing. Courtesy Tom Worcester.
#5 @ 16" O.C. 2" CLR. OF EXT. FACE
2X4 KEY 2-#5 CONT. 3" UP & DN.
6" 12"
.006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER
TYPICAL JOIST FOUNDATION DETAIL
FIGURE 3314B Once the forms are removed from the footings, the forms can be set to place the stem wall. Courtesy Tom Worcester.
FIGURE 3316 When steel is required in the foundation, it is usually specified in a general note on the foundation plan and a detail.
784
Architectural Drafting and Design
be supported and are sized by an architect or engineer. A grade beam resembles a footing when drawn on a foundation plan. Steel reinforcing may be specified by notes and referenced to details rather than on the foundation plan.
Veneer Footings If masonry veneer is used, the footing must be wide enough to provide adequate support for the veneer. Depending on the type of veneer material, the footing is widened. Figure 33-18 shows common methods of providing footing support for veneer.
Fireplace Footings
2 X 10 F.J.@ 16" O.C.
A masonry fireplace will need to be supported on a footing. IRC requires the footing to be a minimum of 12" (300 mm) deep and extend 6" (150 mm) past the face of the fireplace on each side. Figure 33-17 shows fireplace footings on a foundation plan.
6'-0" X 3'-8" X 12" DEEP CONC. FTG.
EXTERIOR CONCRETE SLAB
LINE OF CONCRETE SLAB
LINE OF HEARTH
LINE OF FIREPLACE ABOVE
EXTERIOR '0' CLEARANCE PROVIDE 2" MIN. CLEAR
PROVIDE 2" MIN. CLEAR 6'-0" X 3'-8" X 12" DEEP CONC. FTG.
EXTERIOR POST & BEAM FLOOR
INTERIOR POST & BEAM FLOOR PROVIDE 2" MIN. CLEAR LINE OF HEARTH
PROVIDE 2" MIN. CLEAR 6'-0" X 3'-8" X 12" DEEP CONC. FTG.
EXTERIOR JOISTS FLOOR
INTERIOR JOISTS FLOOR
Foundation Wall The foundation wall is the vertical wall that extends from the top of the footing up to the first-floor level of the structure, as shown in Figure 33-11, Figure 33-15, and Figure 33-18. The foundation wall is usually centered on the footing to help spread the loads being supported. The IRC requires the height of the wall to extend 6" (150 mm) above the ground, although many municipalities require 8" (200 mm). The height can be reduced to 4" (100 mm) if masonry veneer is used. This height reflects the minimum distance that is required between wood-framing members and the grade. A width of 6" (150 mm) is standard for plain concrete, and 8" (200 mm) for plain masonry walls. The required width of the wall varies depending on the wall height and the type of soil. Figure 33-12 shows common wall dimensions. Common methods of forming the footing and stem wall can be seen in Figure 33-19. Figure 33-20 shows the forms for a poured concrete stem wall. Figure 33-21 shows the completed stem wall. In addition to concrete block and poured concrete foundation walls, blocks made of expanded polystyrene foam (EPS) or other lightweight materials can be stacked into the desired position, fit together with interlocking teeth, and then filled with concrete. EPS block forms can be assembled in a much shorter time than traditional form work and remain in place to become part of the finished wall. Reinforcing steel can be set inside the block forms in patterns similar to traditional block walls. Once the forms are assembled, concrete can be pumped into the forms using any of the common methods of pouring. The finished wall has an R-value between R-22 and R-35, depending on the manufacturer. Figure 33-22 shows a foundation being built using EPS forms.
Stem Wall Construction FIGURE 3317 A masonry fireplace is required to have a 12" (300 mm) deep footing that extends 6" (150 mm) past the face of the fireplace. A wood stove, a zero-clearance fireplace, or a gas fireplace is not required to have a footing, but the outline of the unit should be represented on the foundation plan if it extends beyond the foundation.
The top of the foundation wall must be level. When the building site is not level, the foundation wall is often stepped. This helps reduce the material needed to build the foundation wall. As the ground slopes downward, the height of the wall is increased. Foundation walls
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785
FOOTING
STEM WALL
PLAN VIEW BRICK VENEER BRICK VENEER
STEM WALL WITH LEDGE
ENLARGED FOOTING
SECTION VIEW FIGURE 3318 When a masonry veneer is added to a wall, additional footing width is needed to provide support.
may not step more than 24" (600 mm) in one step. Wood framing referred to as cripple walls, which are similar to those in Figure 33-23, are used between the wall and any floor being supported. These studs may not be less than 14" (350 mm) in height. Cripple walls must be reinforced using the same materials that are specified by an engineer for any shear walls they support. Braced walls located above a cripple wall must be reinforced with the same type of reinforcement that they support, and in compliance with Table 33-3. The foundation wall will also change heights for a sunken floor. Figure 33-24 shows how a sunken floor can be represented on a foundation plan. Steel anchor bolts are placed in the top of the wall to secure the wood mudsill to the concrete. If concrete blocks are used, the cell in which the bolt is placed must be filled with grout.
Anchor Bolts Table 33-6 lists minimum anchor bolt spacing requirements. Figure 33-25 shows the use of anchor bolts
and washers in place holding the mudsill to the concrete. The mudsill is required to be a 2 × 4 (50 × 100) and be made from pressure-treated wood or to be made of some other water-resistant wood so that it will not absorb moisture from the concrete. Anchor bolts from the concrete extend through the mudsill. An anchor bolt is required to be within 12" (300 mm), but not less than 7 bolt diameters from each end of each plate section. A 2" (50 mm) round washer is placed over the bolt before the nut is installed to increase the holding power of the bolts. The mudsill and anchor bolt are not drawn on the foundation plan but are typically specified with a note, as in Figure 33-24.
Termite Protection In many parts of the country, the mudsill must be protected from termites. Among the most common methods of protection are metal caps between the mudsill and the wall, chemical treatment of the soil around the foundation, and chemically treated wood near the
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Architectural Drafting and Design
A
DECK
B
THERMAL BREAK
D C
E
F
FIGURE 3319 Common methods of forming stem walls. (A) Concrete masonry units, with a pressure-treated ledger to support wood floor joists. (B) Floor joists supported on a pressure-treated sill with concrete masonry units. (C) Floor joists supported by a pressure-treated sill with joists supporting a wood deck hung from a ledger. (D) Concrete floor slab supported on foundation with an isolation joint between the stem wall and slab to help the slab maintain heat. (E) Stem wall with projected footing. (F) Stem wall and foundation of equal width. Although more concrete is used, it can be formed quickly, saving time and material.
FIGURE 3320 Once the concrete is poured, anchor bolts are placed in preparation for placement of the wood sill. Once the floor has been placed, the soil can be placed against the stem wall to form the finish grade. Courtesy Lisa Echols.
minimum bearing surface must be provided for the beam where it rests on concrete. A 1/2" (13 mm) air space is allowed around the beam in the pocket for air
ground. The metal shield is not drawn on the foundation plan but is specified in a note near the foundation plan or in a foundation detail.
Wood Floor Support If the house is to have a wood flooring system, some method of securing support beams to the foundation must be provided. Typically a cavity or beam pocket is built into the foundation wall. The cavity provides a method of supporting the beam and helps tie the floor and foundation system together. A 3" (75 mm)
FIGURE 3321 With the wood sill held in place by the anchor bolts, framing of the floor can be started. A PAHD42 strap for the narrow wall bracing has also been placed in preparation for the framing.
Chapter 33: Foundation Systems
787
FIGURE 3322 Blocks made of expanded polystyrene foam provide both a permanent form for pouring the stem wall and insulation to prevent heat loss. Courtesy Reward Wall Systems.
FIGURE 3323 On sloping sites, the foundation and stem wall are stepped to save material. Studs that are used to extend from the stem wall to the floor level may not be less than 14" (350 mm) in length, and must be reinforced using the same methods for any shear or braced wall panels that they support.
48'-0" 6'-0"
22'-0" 6'-0"
8'-0"
4'-6"
18" X 6" SCREENED VENTS @ 10' O.C. & 3' OF EACH CORNER
20'-0" 3'-6"
3'-6"
8'-0"
LOWER THIS FLOOR 8 1/4" MAXIMUM.
12" DEEP CONC. CHIMNEY FTG.
18" MIN. CRAWL SPACE COVER W/ 6 MIL BLACK VAPOR BARRIOR THRU-OUT, LAP JOINTS 12" MIN. EXTEND UP STEM WALL & STAPLE TO MUDSILL
6'-6"
4'-0"
32'-0"
4'-0"
4'-0"
6'-6"
LINE OF SUNKEN FLOOR
4'-0"
22" X 30" CRAWL ACCESS
4'-0"
4'-0"
2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX., 7" MIN. INTO CONC. 12" MAX. FROM EA. PL. END W/ MIN. 2 BOLTS PER PLATE. USE 2" DIA. X 1/8" WASHER @ EA. BOLT. BOLTS TO BE A MAXIMUM OF 24" FROM CORNERS.
18" DIA X 8" CONC. PIERS AT LINE OF SUNKEN FLOOR
4 X 6 GIRDER AT LINE OF SUNKEN FLOOR
PROVIDE 1/2" AIR SPACE @ ENDS AND SIDES W/ 55# FELT & 3" MIN. BEARING 4 X 6 GIRDERS ON 4 X 6 POSTS ON 55# FELT ON 18" DIA. X 8" CONC. PIERS
FIGURE 3324 Common components of a foundation plan are vents, crawl access, fireplace footing, sunken floor, beam pockets, stem wall, footings, and piers.
788
Architectural Drafting and Design
PLACEMENT OF ANCHOR BOLTS
1/2" MINIMUM AIR SPACE
Min. diameter
1/2”
Min. depth into concrete or masonry
7” (175 mm)
Max. spacing (1-story)
6’—0” (1800 mm)
Max. spacing (2-story) Zone D1 and D2
4’—0” (1200 mm)
SILL
(13 mm)
GIRDER
3" MINIMUM BEARING
TABLE 336 Placement of Anchor Bolts
circulation. Figure 33-26 shows common methods of beam support at the foundation wall.
Wood Floor Ventilation and Access If the house is to have a wood flooring system, air is required to circulate under the floor system. The air circulation is usually provided by cross-ventilation from screened, closable vents installed in the stem wall or between the floor framing members (see Figure 33-23 and Figure 33-24). Vents must be provided that will provide 1 sq ft of ventilation for each 150 sq ft (0.0929 m2/14 m2) of crawl space and must be provided within 3'−0" (900 mm) of each corner to provide air current throughout the crawl space. NOTE: The requirements for placing vents often conflict with
the code requirements for shear panels or braced wall reinforcement. Place the corner vents as close as possible to the corners, but in a way that they do not interfere with the straps or hold-down anchors required for wall reinforcement.
FIGURE 3326 A beam seat, or pocket, can be recessed into the foundation wall, or the beam may be supported by metal connectors. Courtesy Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Inc.
Ventilation for the crawl space can be omitted if the following two conditions are met: 1. The exposed earth in the crawl space is covered with a continuous vapor retarder with 6" (150 mm) laps that are taped or sealed. The barrier must also extend up the stem wall 6" (150 mm) minimum and be attached and sealed to the stem wall. 2. One of the following is provided for the crawl space: a. Continuously operated mechanical exhaust ventilation that provides 1 cfm (0.47 L/s) for each 50 sq ft (4.7 m2) of crawl space floor area including an air pathway to the common area. Perimeter insulation that is permanently fastened to the stem wall that extends from the floor down the wall to the finished grade level, and then horizontally for 24" (150 mm). b. Conditioned air supply sized to deliver at a rate equal to 1 cfm (0.47 L/s) for each 50 sq ft (4.7 m2) of crawl space floor area including a return-air pathway to the common area. Perimeter insulation that is permanently fastened to the stem wall as per Option A must also be supplied.
Access must be provided to all underfloor spaces. If the access is provided in the floor of the residence, it must be a minimum of 18" × 24" (457 × 610 mm). Place the access in a closet or in an area where it will not be in a traffic path. If provided in an exterior wall, the access opening is required to be 16" × 24" (406 × 610 mm). Figure 33-24 shows how a crawl access, vents, and girder pockets are typically represented on a foundation plan.
Foundation Wall Insulation
FIGURE 3325 Anchor bolts are set in concrete to hold down the mudsill. Courtesy John Black.
When required by the IRC or if the foundation is for an energy-efficient structure, insulation is often added to the wall. Two-inch (50 mm) rigid insulation is used to protect the wall from cold weather, as with
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FIBROUS BATTS
789
●
A slab-on-grade with turned-down footings is required to have (1)-#4 horizontal bar 3" (75 mm) up from the bottom of the footing and (1)-#4 horizontal bar 3" (75 mm) down from the top of the slab.
●
On-grade slabs that are poured monolithically with the footing can have (1)-#5 or (2)-#4 bars located in the middle third of the footing.
SIDING
DRYWALL
SILL SEAL INSULATION COVERING TO GRADE LINE RIGID INSULATION FOUNDATION WALL
The required steel is not shown on the foundation plan but is specified in a local note.
Full-Height Retaining Walls
the wall shown in Figure 33-5. This can be placed on either side of the wall. If the insulation is placed on the exterior side of the wall, the wall will retain heat from the building. This placement does cause problems in protecting the insulation from damage. Figure 33-27 shows exterior insulation placement.
Retaining or basement walls are walls that extend for the full height between the basement floor and the main floor level of the structure. They are primarily made of concrete blocks, poured concrete, or concretefilled insulated concrete foam blocks. Wood walls are used in some areas. The material used will depend on labor trends in your area. The material used will affect the height of the wall. If concrete blocks are used, the wall is approximately 12 blocks high from the top of the footing. If poured concrete is used, the wall will normally be 8' (2400 mm) high from the top of the footing. This will allow 4' × 8' (1200 × 2400 mm) sheets of plywood to be used as forms for the sides of the wall. Like a foundation wall, the basement wall needs to be protected from termites. The metal shield will not be drawn on the foundation plan but should be called out in a note.
Wall Reinforcement
Retaining Wall Reinforcement
FIGURE 3327 Insulation is often placed on the foundation wall to help cut heat loss.
In addition to supporting the load of the structure, the foundation walls must also resist the lateral pressure of the soil against the wall. Although not required by the IRC, when the wall is over 24" (600 mm) in height, vertical steel is usually added to the wall to help reduce tension. Horizontal steel is also added to foundation walls in some seismic zones to help strengthen the wall. The IRC requires steel to be placed in all footings in seismic zones D1 and D2. Requirements include: ●
(1)-#4 horizontal bar, 3" (75 mm) down from the top of the stem wall.
●
(1)-#4 horizontal bar, 3" (75 mm) up from the bottom of the foundation.
●
(1)-#4 vertical bar placed at 48" (1200 mm) O.C. that has a standard hook at the low end of the bar. The bar must extend to within 3" (75 mm) of the bottom of the footing.
Regardless of the material used, full-height retaining walls serve the same function as the shorter foundation walls. Because they are anchored at the top and bottom of the wall by the main floor and the basement floor slab, they are thought of as a simple beam that will bend in the middle. As seen in Figure 33-28, lateral soil pressure bends the wall inward, placing the soil side of the wall in compression and the interior face of the wall in tension. To resist this tensile stress, steel reinforcing may be required by the building department. The seismic zone will also affect the size and placement of the steel. Figure 33-29 and Figure 33-30 show common patterns of steel placement. Figure 33-31 shows a typical foundation detail used to represent the steel placement of a retaining wall. Figure 33-32 shows an example of steel placement for a poured concrete retaining wall.
790
Architectural Drafting and Design
SOIL PRESSURE PUSHES THE WALL INWARD CAUSING A BOW IN THE CENTER
WHEN THE WALL BOWS, THE OUTSIDE FACE IS IN COMPRESSION AND THE INSIDE FACE IS IN TENSION.
BECAUSE CONCRETE HAS VERY POOR TENSILE STRENGTH, STEEL MUST BE PLACED NEAR THE INTERIOR SIDE TO RESIST THESE FORCES.
FIGURE 3328 Stresses acting on a retaining wall cause it to act as a simple beam spanning between each floor. The soil is the supported load causing the wall to bow.
Retaining Wall Anchorage The footing for a full-height retaining wall is usually 16" (400 mm) wide and either 8" or 12" (200 or 300 mm) deep. The depth depends on the weight to be supported. Steel is extended from the footing into the wall. At the top of the wall, anchor bolts are placed in the wall using the same method as for a foundation wall. Anchor bolts are placed much closer together for retaining walls than for shorter walls. Bolts spaced at 24" (600 mm) O.C. are common when floor joists are perpendicular to the wall, and at 32" (800 mm) O.C. where joists are parallel to the retaining wall. It is very important that the wall and the floor system be securely tied together. The floor system is used to help strengthen the wall and resist soil pressure. Where seismic risk is great, metal angles are added to the anchor bolts to make the tie between the wall and the floor joists extremely rigid. These connections are shown on the foundation plan in Figure 33-33.
Moisture Protection To reduce soil pressure next to the footing, a drain is installed. The drain is set at the base of the footing to collect and divert water from the face of the wall. The area above the drain is filled with gravel so that subsurface water will percolate to the drain and away from the wall. Reducing the water content of the soil reduces the lateral pressure on the wall. The drain is not drawn on the foundation plan but must be specified in a note on the foundation plan, sections, and foundation details.
No matter what the soil condition, the basement wall must be protected to reduce moisture passing through the wall into the living area. The IRC specifies two levels of basement wall protection: dampproofing and waterproofing. Each method must be applied to the exterior face of a foundation wall that surrounds habitable space. The protection must be installed from the top of the top of the footing to the grade. A masonry or concrete wall can be dampproofed by adding 3/8" (9.5 mm) Portland cement parging to the exterior side of the wall. The parging must then be protected by a bituminous coating, acrylic modified cement, or a coat of surface-bonding mortar. Materials used to waterproof a wall can also be applied. In areas with a high water table or other severe soil/water conditions, basement walls surrounding habitable space must be waterproofed. Concrete and mortar walls are waterproofed using one of the following methods: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
2-ply hot-mopped felts. 55 lb (25 kg) roll roofing. 6-mil (0.15 mm) polyethylene. 6-mil (0.15 mm) polyvinyl chloride. 40-mil (1 mm) polymer-modified asphalt. 60-mil (1.5 mm) flexible polymer cement. 1/8" (3 mm) cement-based, fiber-reinforced waterproof coating. 60-mil (1.5 mm) solvent-free liquid applied synthetic rubber.
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791
NOTE: Knockout slots may be cast in unit when molded or cut out with a masonry saw after unit has been cured. 7-5/8" or 3-5/8"
7-5/8" or 3-5/8" 15-5/8"
7-5/8" 9-5/8" or 11-5/8" a) Standard unit with end and web knockout slots.
7-5/8" 9-5/8" or 11-5/8" b) Standard unit with sections of end and cross webs removed to permit placement of reinforcing.
DETAIL 1. TYPICAL UNITS USED IN REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION. Vertical reinforcement. Set and tie in position after first course has been laid. Knockout ends of block units as required to fit around vertical bars in place.
15-5/8"
c) Open-end unit with horizontal channels.
Pea gravel concrete or grout core-fill in bond beams and reinforced vertical cells. Place as wall is laid up. Maximum height of pour not to exceed 4 feet.
Place metal lath or wire screen in mortar joint under bond beams courses over cores of unreinforced vertical cells to prevent filling with concrete or grout. Horizontal bond beam reinforcement. Set in place in bond beams as wall is laid up. Basement floor slab Horizontal bond beam in top course and intermediate courses as required by the design. See Detail 1 for typical bond beam unit. Footing
Mortar cross webs adjacent to vertically reinforced and filled cells to prevent leakage of concrete or grout into adjacent cells.
DETAIL 2. TYPICAL REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION– REINFORCEMENT AND CORE-FILL PLACED AS WALL IS LAID UP. Prefabricated trussed-type horizontal joint reinforcement with deformed high-tensile strength steel longitudinal rods in horizontal mortar joints at spacing as required.
DETAIL 3. TYPICAL REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION USING HORIZONTAL JOINT REINFORCEMENT IN LIEU OF BOND BEAMS TO PROVIDE LATERAL REINFORCEMENT.
FIGURE 3329 Suggested construction details for reinforced concrete masonry foundation walls. Courtesy National Concrete Masonry Association.
792
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 3330 Required sizes of plain and reinforced concrete and masonry foundation walls. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Additional provisions are provided by the IRC for ICF for wood foundation walls.
Foundation Windows Adding windows to the basement can help reduce the moisture content of the basement. This will sometimes require adding a window well to prevent the ground from being pushed in front of the window. Figure 33-33 shows how a window well—or areaway, as it is sometimes called—can be drawn on the foundation plan.
Treated-Wood Basement Walls Pressure-treated lumber can be used to frame both crawl space and basement walls. Treated-wood basement walls allow for easy installation of electrical wiring, insulation, and finishing materials. Instead of a concrete foundation, a gravel bed is used to support the wall loads. Gravel is required to extend 4" (100 mm) on each side of the wall and be approximately 8" (200 mm) deep. A 2× (50×) pressure-treated plate is laid on the gravel, and the wall is built of pressure-treated
Chapter 33: Foundation Systems
793
2 X 10 F.J. @ 16"O.C. 3/4" 42/16 PLY. FLOOR SHEATH. LAID PERP. TO FLOOR JOISTS. NAIL W/ 10d @ 6" O.C. EDGE, BLOCKING, & BEAMS. USE 10d @ 12" O.C. @ FIELD. A-34 ANCHORS EA. JST TO PLATE
.006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER
2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2 DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 24" O.C. MAX. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS.
2" CLEAR WATERPROOF ENTIRE WALL W/ 2 LAYERS OF HOT ASPHALTIC EMULSION
@5 REBAR @ 18" O.C. EA. WAY INSULATE TO R-21
4" DIA. FRENCH DRAIN IN 8" X 24" GRAVEL BED. 8" 2 X 4 KEY
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 2" RIGID INSULATION & 4" GRAVEL.
8" 16"
2-#5 CONT. 3" UP & DN.
FOUNDATION WALL 3/8"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3331 The components of a concrete retaining wall are specified in a section or detail. Key components are the building material of the wall, reinforcing material, floor attachment, waterproofing, and drainage method. Courtesy Residential Designs.
wood, as seen in Figure 33-34. Pressure-treated 1/2" (13 mm) thick C-D grade plywood with exterior glue is laid perpendicular to the studs, covered with 6-mil (0.15-mm) polyethylene, and sealed with an adhesive.
Partial-Height Retaining Walls As seen in Figure 33-35, when a structure is built on a sloping site, the retaining wall will not need to be full height. Although less soil is retained than with a full-height wall, more problems are encountered. Figure 33-36 shows the tendencies for bending for this type of wall. Because the wall is not supported at the top by the floor, the retaining wall is no longer a simple beam. A partial-height retaining wall acts like a cantilevered beam, and the load from the soil
FIGURE 3332 Reinforcing steel extends from the footing and ties to the wall steel to provide strength for the retaining wall. Courtesy David Jefferis.
pressure must be resisted through the footing. This requires a larger footing than for a full-height wall. If the wall and footing connection is rigid enough to keep the wall in position, the soil pressure will try to overturn the whole foundation. The extra footing width is required to resist the tendency to overturn. Figure 33-37 shows a detail that a drafter might be required to draw and how the wall would be represented on the foundation plan. Figure 33-38 shows how a partial-height retaining wall will be represented on a foundation plan. Depending on the slope of the ground being supported, a key may be required, as in Figure 33-39. A keyway on the top of the footing has been discussed. This key is added to the bottom of the footing to help keep it from sliding as a result of soil pressure against the wall. The key is not shown on the foundation plan but is shown in a detail of the wall.
794
Architectural Drafting and Design
PROVIDE SOLID BLK. @ 48" O.C.-48" FROM WALL W/A-34 @16" O.C WHERE JOIST PARALLEL WALL.
2 X 6 DFL STUDS @ 16" O.C. 6" BATTS R-21 MIN.
2 X 6 PLATE 3/8" HARDBOARD OVER 3/8" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLY.
26 GA. FLASH.
2 X 10 BLK. W/ SIMPSON CO, A-34 EA. BLK/PL.
16" X 8" DP.
LINE OF SOLID BLK.
4" DIA. DRAIN PROVIDE METAL TERMITE SHIELD AT WALL / PLATE INTERSECTION
1/2" CONC. BD.
2 X 10 F.J. @ 16" O.C. W/ SIMPSON A-34 EA. JOIST/ PL.
15" X 18" DEEP CONC. FTG.
2-2 X 6 LAP 48" MIN.
8"
2 X 6 P.T. STUDS @ 12" O.C.
BLOCK OUT FOR 3 - 4'-4" WINDOW WELLS, 5'–3" ABOVE FIN. FLOOR.
3/4" C-D EXT. 48/24 PLY LAID PERP TO STUDS CAULK ALL ' JOINTS.
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" SAND FILL W/ .006 VAPOR BARRIER & 2" X 24" RIGID INSULATION @ EDGE.
SOLID BLK. @ PLY JOINTS 6" BATTS R-25 MIN 4" DIA. DRAIN IN 12" MIN. WIDE 3/4" GRAVEL
2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 24" O.C. 7" MIN INTO CONC. & 12" MAX. FROM ANY CORNER W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS. PROVIDE A-34 JST/PLATE.
2 X 6 P.T. SILL OVER 2 X 10 P.T. SILL
4" LEDGE FOR BRICK VENEER. 4" CONC SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL BED AND 6 MIL VAPOR BARRIER
8" X 8' HIGH CONCRETE RETAINING WALL. WATERPROOF WALL WITH 2 LAYERS OF HOT ASPHALTIC EMULSION AND COVER W/ RIGID INSUL.
FIGURE 3333 Common elements that are shown on a foundation with a basement. If a window is to be placed in a fullheight basement wall, a window well to restrain the soil around the window is required. Blocking is placed between floor joists that are parallel to the retaining wall. The blocking provides rigidity to the floor system allowing lateral pressure from the wall to be transferred into the floor system.
Interior Supports Foundation walls and footings are part of the foundation system supporting the exterior of the structure. Interior loads are supported on spot footings, or piers, as seen in Figure 33-40. Piers are formed by using either preformed or framed forms, or by excavation. Pier depth is generally required to match
WOOD WALL 1/2"
1'-0"
GENERAL NOTES:
3 13 ASSUMED SOIL PRESSURE 30# PER CUBIC FOOT.
WATERPROOF EXTERIOR SIDE OF WALL WITH 2 LAYER HOT ASPHALTIC EMULSION COVERED WITH 6 MIL. VAPOR BARRIER. PROVIDE ALTERNATE BID FOR 2" RIGID INSULATION ON EXTERIOR FACE FOR FULL HEIGHT. ALL MATERIAL BELOW UPPER TOP PLATE OF BASEMENT WALL TO BE PRESSURE PRESERVATIVELY TREATED IN ACCORDANCE WITH AWPA-C22 AND SO MARKED.
FIGURE 3334 Stem walls and basement retaining walls can be framed using pressure-treated wood with no foundation. The size and spacing of members are determined by the loads being supported and the height of the wall.
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795
8" 3" 2-#4 CONT. SOLID GROUT ALL STL. CELLS 48" MAX.
#4 @ 16" O.C. BOTH WAYS BACKFILL W/ 8" WIDE X 3/4" GRAVEL
that of the footings. Although Figure 33-40 shows the piers above the finished grade, many states require the mass of the footing to be placed below grade to prevent problems with freezing and shifting from seismic activity. The placement of piers will be determined by the type of floor system to be used and will be discussed in Chapter 34. The size of the pier will depend on the load being supported and the soil-bearing pressure. Piers are usually drawn on the foundation plan with dashed lines, as shown in Figure 33-41. In addition to the exterior footings and interior piers, footings may also be required under braced walls. Braced walls and braced wall lines were introduced in Chapter 32. On the framing plan, when the
IF THE WALL AND FOOTING CONNECTION IS RIGID, THE FOUNDATION WILL RESIST THE SOIL PRESSURE.
TENSION
SOIL PRESSURE
SOIL PRESSURE COMPRESSION
FIGURE 3336 When a wall is not held in place at the top, soil pressure will attempt to move the wall inward. The intersection of the wood and concrete walls is called a hinge point because of the tendency to move.
8"
FIGURE 3335 An 8' (2400 mm) high retaining wall is usually not required on sloping lots. A partial retaining wall with woodframed walls above it is often used.
18"
3" MIN.
4" DRAIN #4Ø X 18"
3-#4 CONT.
30"
DETAIL 3/4" = 1'-0"
B 13
FIGURE 3337 Detail of a partial-height retaining wall.
distance between braced wall lines exceeds 35'−0" (10 500 mm) an interior braced wall line must be provided. A beam or double joist is required to support the interior braced wall line. At the foundation level, when the distance between the footings for braced wall lines exceeds 50'−0" (15 000 mm), a continuous stem wall and footing must be provided below the braced wall. A continuous stem wall and footing must be provided below all multilevel braced walls in seismic zones D1 and D2. A final consideration of foundation walls and footings is the placement of each by a garage door. For small openings such as a 36" (900 mm) door, the footing is continued under the door opening. The stem wall is cut to allow access to the garage without having to step over the wall each time the garage is entered. For a large opening such as the main garage door, in areas of the country with low seismic risk, the footing is not continuous across the door opening. In areas at risk of seismic activity, the footing must extend across the entire width of the door. The continuous footing helps the walls on each side of the door to act as one wall unit. The stem wall is cut to allow the concrete floor to cover the stem wall, providing a smooth entry into the garage.
796
Architectural Drafting and Design
61'-0"
26'-0"
1/2" DIA. A.B. FOR LEDGER @24" O.C. STAGGERED @ 3" UP/DN.
8'-4"
11'-0"
1'-0"
BLOCK OUT FOR 2'-8" DOOR
CB46 COL BASE
CB46 COL BASE BLOCK OUT FOR 2- 8' DOORS 10'-3"
8'-4"
25'-6"
75'-0"
1'-2"
PAT28 STRAP TYPICAL
30" DIA. X 18" DEEP CONC. PIER W/ CB66 BASE 2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. 10" A.B. @ 24" O.C.
30" X 8" CONC. FTG.
8"
23'-0"
13'-4"
9'-8"
3'-0"
16'-6"
8'-0"
2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 24" O.C.
PAT28 STRAPS
12'-0"
3'-6"
2'-6"
3'-0"
18" X 12" FOOTING & 8" X 11' HIGH RETAINING WALL
12'-0"
8"
16" X 8" FOOTING @ 8" HIGH x 8' HIGH WALLS
23'-0"
48" MAX. HIGH RETRAINING WALL
FOUNDATION PLAN 1/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3338 Full-height and partial-height retaining walls are represented similarly to footings and stem walls. Because of the added height, the width is typically specified on the foundation plan, and the building components are specified in a detail or section.
FOUNDATION WALL SOIL
FOOTING KEY
FIGURE 3339 Soil pressure will attempt to make the wall and footing slide across the soil. A key may be provided on the bottom of the footing to provide added surface area to resist sliding.
FIGURE 3340 Concrete piers can be formed by using preformed or framed forms or by excavating. Note the step in the footing to accommodate the slope of the site. Courtesy Lisa Echols.
Chapter 33: Foundation Systems
797
PLAN VIEW OF PIERS
EXTERIOR
INTERIOR
PIERS IN SIDE ELEVATION FIGURE 3341 Concrete piers are used to support interior loads. Codes require wood to be at least 6" (152 mm) above the finished grade, which means that piers must also extend 6" (150 mm) above grade.
A
B
C
FIGURE 3342 Three common types of metal connectors used on the foundation system include (A) PA post anchor straps, (B) CB column base, and (C) HD hold-down connector. Courtesy Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Inc.
4 15 X "D 4 IA W/ X PB 8" 4 CO 4 O NC N .P IE R
2 HD5A EA. SIDE
5'-10"
5 1/16"
15'-4"
8" 2'-8"
21'-2"
BLOCK OUT FOR 16' DOOR
5 1/16"
5 1/16"
5 1/16"
16'-4"
1 3/4" TYP.
36'-4"
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL FILL. SLOPE 1/4" MIN. PER FT. FOR DRAINAGE
27'-4"
Architectural Drafting and Design
9'-0"
798
3'-0"
22'-0"
64'-6"
FIGURE 3343 Metal connectors are typically used to resist the forces of uplift, shear, flooding, and seismic stresses. Drafters are often required to use vendor information when drawing foundation plans to specify the exact connector required by the engineer.
Metal Connectors Metal connectors are often used at the foundation level to resist stress from wind and seismic forces. Three of the most commonly used metal connectors are shown in Figure 33-42. The senior drafter or designer will determine the proper connector to be specified on the foundation plan. How the connector is used will determine how it is specified. Figure 33-43 shows how these connectors might be specified on the foundation plan.
DIMENSIONING FOUNDATION COMPONENTS This chapter has presented components of a foundation system and how they are drawn on the foundation plan. The manner in which they are dimensioned is equally important to the construction crew. The line quality for the dimension and leader lines is the same
as was used on the floor plan. Jogs in the foundation wall are dimensioned using the same methods used on the floor or framing plan. Most of the dimensions for major shapes will be exactly the same as the corresponding dimensions on the floor plan. When the foundation plan is drawn using a computer, the foundation plan is typically placed in the same drawing file as the floor plan. This will allow the overall dimensions for the floor plan to be displayed on the foundation plan if different layers are used to place the dimensions. Layers such as BASE DIMN, FLOR DIMN, and FND DIMN will help differentiate between dimensions for the floor and foundation. A different method is used to dimension the interior walls of a foundation than those used on a floor plan. Foundation walls are dimensioned from face to face rather than face to center, as on a floor plan. Footing widths are usually dimensioned from center to center. Each type of dimension can be seen in Figure 33-44.
Chapter 33: Foundation Systems
799
5'-0"
6"
5'-0"
FOOTINGS ARE LOCATED FROM EDGE OF SLAB TO CENTER OF FOOTING.
4'-6"
6"
5'-0"
FOUNDATION WALLS SHOULD BE DIMENSIONED FROM FACE TO FACE.
23'-0" (OVERALL WIDTH) 7'-0"
6'-0"
DIMENSIONS FOR CHANGES IN CONCRETE WALLS
10'-0" 5'-0"
5'-0"
6'-0"
2'-6"
6" 1'-0" X 6" DP.
1'-0" X 1'-0" DP. 8'-0"
13'-0"
2'-6"
DIMENSIONS FOR INTERIOR BEAMS AND PIERS
FOUNDATION WALLS ARE DIMENSIONED FROM FACE TO FACE.
18" X 8" DP. CONC. PIER
FIGURE 3344 Dimensioning techniques for foundation plans.
FOOTINGS CAN BE DIMENSIONED BY LEADER LINE OR NOTE.
800
GOING GREEN Green Foundations
The foundation can be thought of as energy-efficient because of the material and the method in which it is constructed. Concrete products for the entire structure can be found in Sections 3 and 4 of the CSI listings. A major component of any foundation, concrete is a green material in all stages of its life span, from raw material production to demolition, making it a natural choice for sustainable home construction. LEED credits for Materials and Resources can be gained in the design of the foundation. Credits for Energy and Atmosphere and Indoor Environmental Quality can be gained when concrete is used for the entire structure. No matter the use, key sustainable qualities of concrete include the efficient use of a resource, durability, heat retention, reflectivity, and minimal waste. • Resource efficiency. The predominant raw material for the cement in concrete is limestone, the most abundant mineral on earth. Concrete can also be made with fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume and other waste by-products from power plants, steel mills, and other manufacturing facilities. This efficient use of natural resources produces long-lasting structures with life spans that can be double or triple the life of structures made from other common building materials. • Thermal mass. Homes built with concrete walls, foundations, and floors can be highly energy-efficient if they are designed to take advantage of concrete’s inherent thermal mass or ability to absorb and retain heat. The mass of concrete slows down heat’s passage through the wall. With the same insulation as with other types of construction, a concrete home stays
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
www.oikos.com www.afmcorp-epsfoam.com
Other areas of the foundation that gain valuable LEED credits are the use of EPS foam blocks, wood foundations, and the use of insulation to protect the stem wall. Stem and retaining walls made of EPS blocks provide built-in insulation that will remain in place for the life of the structure. Adding wall insulation to the outside of the stem walls will allow the walls to act as a thermal mass and store heat from the living area. Insulating stem walls and eliminating the crawl space venting will allow the crawl space to be used as a plenum to circulate heated air to the living area of the home located above the crawl space.
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in foundation materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address
warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer than a wood-frame home. By efficiently using concrete mass in the design of the structure, homeowners can significantly cut their heating and cooling bills and install smaller-capacity HVAC equipment. • Reflectivity. With proper planning, concrete can also be used to reduce heat absorption in a structure and minimize the effects that produce urban heat islands. Light-colored concrete roofs absorb less heat and reflect more solar radiation than dark-colored materials, such as asphalt, reducing air-conditioning demands in the summer. Concrete can also be used to form the substructure for green roofs described in Section 6. • Minimal waste. With proper planning, concrete can be produced in the quantities needed for each project, reducing waste. After a concrete structure has served its original purpose, the concrete can be crushed and recycled into aggregate for use in new concrete pavements or as backfill or road base.
Company, Product, or Service AAB Building Systems Inc. (ICFs) AFM Corporation (structural insulated panels)
www.aci-int.org www.arxxbuild.com www.bocciabros.com www.eco-block.com www.geotechpro.com www.cement.org www.strongtie.com www.soils.org
American Concrete Institute International Arxx Building Products Boccia Inc. Eco-Block Geotechpro Portland Cement Association Simpson Strong-Tie Connections Soil Science Society of America
Chapter 33: Foundation Systems
Foundation Systems Test
801
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 33 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 33–1 What are the major parts of the foundation system? Question 33–2 What methods are used to determine the size of footings? Question 33–3 List five forces that a foundation must withstand. Question 33–4 How can the soil texture influence a foundation?
Problem 33–2 Show a typical post-and-beam foundation system. Show 4 × 6 girders at 48" O.C. parallel to the stem wall.
Question 33–5 List the major types of material used to build foundation walls. Question 33–6 Why is steel placed in footings? Question 33–7 Describe when a stepped footing might be used. Question 33–8 What size footing should be used with a basement wall? Question 33–9 What influences the size of piers? Question 33–10 Describe the difference between a retaining and a restraining wall.
PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: Unless other instructions are given by your instructor, complete the following details for a one-level house. Use the skeleton drawings that are provided on the Student CD in the Supplemental Drawing folder. Use a scale of 3/4" = 1'–0" with proper line weight and quality and provide notes required to label typical materials. Provide dimensions based on common practice in your area. Omit insulation unless specified.
Problem 33–1 Show a typical foundation with poured concrete with a 2 × 4 key, 2 × 6 floor joists at 16" O.C., and 2 × 4 studs at 24" O.C.
Problem 33–3 Draw a foundation showing a concrete floor system. Use #10 × 10–4" × 4" welded wire mesh 2" down from top surface and (2)-#4 bars centered in the footing 2" up and down. Use 2 × 4 studs at 16" O.C. for walls.
802
Problem 33–4 Draw a detail showing an interior footing for a concrete slab supporting a 2 × 4 stud-bearing wall. Anchor the wall with Ramset-type fasteners (or equal). Use the same slab reinforcing that was used in Problem 33–3.
Problem 33–5 Design a retaining wall for an 8'-tall basement, using concrete blocks. Use 2 × 10 floor joists parallel to the wall, with 5/8"-diameter anchor bolts at 32" O.C. Show typical solid blocking and anchor rim joists with A35 anchors at 16" O.C. Show #5 @ 18" O.C. each way at 2" from the tension side with (1)-#5 in footing 2" up. Use a scale of 1/2" = 1'−0".
Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 33–6 Show a detail of the intersection of a 48"high concrete retaining wall. Use a 30"-wide footing with (2)-#5 continuous 3" up at 12" O.C. and #5 at 24" O.C. in the wall 2" from tension side. Use a 4"-diameter drain in an 8" × 30" gravel bed. Use 2 × 6 sill with 5/8" anchor bolts at 24" O.C. Use an 8' ceiling with 2 × 10 floor joists at 16" O.C. Cantilever 15" past the wall with 1" exterior stucco. Use a scale of 1/2" = 1'−0".
CHAPTER 34
Floor Systems and Foundation Support I
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The foundation plan shows not only the concrete footings and walls but also the members that are used to form the floor system. Two common types of floor systems are used in residential construction: floor systems built at grade level and floor systems with a crawl space or basement below the floor system. Both on-grade foundations and crawl space floor systems have their own components and information that must be put on a foundation plan.
Control Joints As the slab contracts during the initial drying process, the lower surface of the slab rubs against the soil, creating tensile stress. The friction between the slab and the
ON-GRADE FOUNDATIONS A concrete slab is often used for the floor system of residential or commercial structures. A concrete slab provides a firm floor system with little or no maintenance and generally requires less material and labor than a conventional wood floor system. The floor slab is usually poured as an extension of the foundation wall and footing, in what is referred to as monolithic construction (see Figure 34-1). Other common methods of pouring the foundation and floor system are shown in Figure 34-2. A 3 1/2" (90 mm) concrete slab is the minimum thickness allowed by the IRC for residential floor slabs. The slab is used only as a floor surface, not to support the weight of the walls or roof. If load-bearing walls must be supported, the floor slab must be thickened, as shown in Figure 34-3. If a load is concentrated in a small area, a pier may be placed under the slab to help disperse the weight, as seen in Figure 34-4.
PLAN VIEW OPTIONAL WIRE MESH TO RESIST CRACKING
Slab Joints Concrete tends to shrink approximately 0.66" per 100' (16.8 mm/30 480 mm) as the moisture in the mix hydrates and the concrete hardens. Concrete continues to expand and shrink throughout its life, depending on the temperatures and the moisture in the supporting soil. This shrinkage can cause the floor slab to crack. To help control possible cracking, three types of joints can be placed in the slab: control, construction, and isolation joints (see Figure 34-5).
REINFORCEMENT MAY BE REQUIRED DEPENDING ON THE SOIL TYPE AND SEISMIC CONDITIONS.
SIDE VIEW FIGURE 341 The foundation and floor system can often be constructed in one pour, saving time and money. 803
804
Architectural Drafting and Design
12" X 12" DP. FOOTING
PLAN VIEW
PLAN VIEW
PLAN VIEW SIDE VIEW
PLAN VIEW
SIDE VIEW
DEPENDING ON THE WIND AND SEISMIC LOADS, METAL SHOTS MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR ANCHOR BOLTS AT INTERIOR WALLS.
PLAN VIEW
REINFORCING MAY BE REQUIRED DEPENDING ON THE SOIL AND SEISMIC CONDITIONS.
SIDE VIEW
SIDE VIEW
FIGURE 342 Common foundation and slab intersections.
soil causes cracking, which can be controlled by a control or contraction joint. Such a joint does not prevent cracking, but it does control where the cracks will develop in the slab. Control joints can be created by cutting the fresh concrete or sawing the concrete within six to eight hours of placement. Joints are usually one-quarter of the slab depth. Because the slab has been weakened, any cracking due to stress will result along the joint. The American Concrete Institute (ACI) suggests that control joints be placed a distance in feet equal to about two and a half times the slab depth in inches. For a 4"
SIDE VIEW FIGURE 343 Footing and floor intersections at an interior load-bearing wall.
(100 mm) slab, joints would be placed at approximately 10' (3048 mm) intervals. The locations of control joints are usually specified in note form for residential slabs. The spacing and method of placement can be specified in the general notes for the foundation plan.
Construction Joints When concrete construction must be interrupted, a construction joint is used to provide a clean surface where work can be resumed. Because a vertical edge
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
18" DIA. X 12" DEEP CONCRETE PIER
805
18" X 18" X 12" DP. CONCRETE PIER
mold the slab. The method used to form the joint can be specified in note form on the foundation notes, but the crew placing the concrete will determine the location.
Isolation Joints An isolation or expansion joint is used to separate a slab from an adjacent slab, wall, or column, or some other part of the structure. The joint prevents forces from an adjoining structural member from being transferred into the slab, causing cracking. Such a joint also allows for expansion of the slab caused by moisture or temperature. Isolation joints are typically between 1/4" and 1/2" (6 to 13 mm) wide. The location of isolation joints should be specified on the foundation plan. Because of the small size of residential foundations, isolation joints are not usually required. Chapter 43 discusses the drawing and specification of isolation joints in more detail.
PLAN VIEW
Slab Placement SIDE VIEW FIGURE 344 A concrete pier is poured under loads concentrated in small areas. Piers are typically round or rectangular, depending on their location. Square piers are used when the exterior footing needs to be reinforced, or if the footing is so large that it must be framed with lumber. Round piers are used when the pier is placed inside the foundation. The load to be supported and the soil-bearing capacity determine the size of each pier.
of one slab will have no bond to the next slab, a keyed joint is used to provide support between the two slabs. The key is typically formed by placing a beveled strip that is about one-fifth of the slab thickness and onetenth of the slab thickness in width to the form used to
CONTROL JOINT
The slab may be placed above, below, or at grade level. Residential slabs are often placed above grade for hillside construction to provide a suitable floor for a garage. A platform made of wood or steel materials can be used to support a lightweight concrete floor slab. Concrete is considered lightweight depending on the amount of air that is pumped into the mixture during the manufacturing process. Above-grade residential slabs are typically supported by a wood-framed platform covered with plywood sheathing. Ribbed metal decks are typically used for heavier floors found in commercial construction. The components of an above-ground concrete floor are typically noted on a framing plan but not drawn. The foundation plan shows the columns and footings used to support the increased weight of the floor. An example of a framing plan to support an above-ground concrete slab can be
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
ISOLATION JOINT
FIGURE 345 Joints are placed in concrete to control cracking. A control joint is placed in the slab to weaken the slab and cause cracking to occur along the joint rather than throughout the slab. When construction must be interrupted, a construction joint is formed to increase bonding with the next day’s pour. Isolation joints are provided to keep stress from one structural material from cracking another.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
seen in Figure 34-6. The foundation plan for the same area can be seen in Figure 34-7. The construction process will also require details similar to those in Figure 34-8. Slabs built below grade are most commonly used in basements. When used at grade, the slab is usually placed just above grade level. Most building codes require the top of the slab to be 6" (150 mm) above the finish grade to keep structural wood away from the ground moisture although 8" (200 mm) is common in areas subject to heavy rains.
will dictate the type of fill material that is typically used. The fill material provides a level base for the concrete slab and helps eliminate cracking in the slab caused by settling of the ground under the slab. The fill material is not shown on the foundation plan but is specified with a note. A typical note to specify the concrete and fill material might read: 4" CONC. SLAB OVER .006 VISQUEEN OVER 1" SAND FILL OVER 4" COMPACTED GRAVEL FILL.
Slab Reinforcement
6'-0"
1'-0"
@ 12" O.C.
6 X 14 DFL #1 GIRDER ON 6 X 6 POST W/ SIMPSON CB66 COL BASE AND CC 66 COL CAP
4 X 4 DFPT SILL W/ 3/4" DIA. X 12" A.B. @ 24" O.C. W/ SIMPSON CO. A-34 METAL ANGLES TO EA. F.J.
SIMPSON CO. U210 METAL HANGERS EA. JOIST TO PLATE.
2 X 12 DFL #1 F.J.
LINE OF DECK ABOVE
6'-0"
8'-0"
8'-0"
6'-0"
2 X 12 DFL #1 F.J.
8'-0"
2 X 12 DFPT LEDGER W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 24" O.C. STAGGER 3" UP/DN. USE 2" DIA. WASHERS @ EA. BOLT. 1'-0"
24'-0"
When the slab is placed on more than 4" (100 mm) of uncompacted fill, welded wire fabric should be specified to help the slab resist cracking. The spacing and wire sizes of welded wire fabric are identified by style and designations. A typical designation specified on a foundation plan might be: 6 × 12—W16 × W8, where: 6 = longitudinal wire spacing 12 = transverse wire spacing 16 = longitudinal wire size 8 = transverse wire size
@ 12" O.C.
When a slab is built at grade, approximately 8" to 12" (200 to 300 mm) of topsoil and vegetation is removed to provide a stable, level building site. Excavation usually extends about 5' (1500 mm) beyond the building size to allow for the operation of excavating equipment needed to trench for the footings. Once forms for the footings have been set, fill material can be spread to support the slab. Most codes require the slab to be placed on a 4" (100 mm) minimum base of compacted sand or gravel fill. The area for which the building is designed
2 X 12 DFL #1 F.J. @ 12" O.C.
Slab Preparation
COVER ENTIRE DECK WITH 1 1/2" LIGHTWEIGHT CONC. OVER 55# FELT W/ #10-10/6 X 6 WWM OVER 1 1/8" APA STURD-I-FLOOR EXP. 1 LAID PERP. TO F.J. NAIL W/ 10d @ 4" O.C. @ EDGE, BLOCKING AND BEAMS & 10d @ 8" O.C. FIELD
FIGURE 346 An above-ground concrete floor is often used for a garage floor and driveway for hillside residential construction. The framing plan shows the framing of the platform used to support the concrete slab.
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
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1'-0"
LINE OF DECK ABOVE
8'-0" 8'-0"
24'-0"
8'-0"
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL FILL W/ 2 X 24 RIGID INSULATION BELOW SLAB @ PERIMETER OVER .006 VAPOR BARRIER
6'-0"
6'-0"
6'-0"
1'-0"
6 X 6 DFPT POST W/ CB66 COL. BASE ON 24" DIA. X 12" DP. CONC. PIERS
4 X 4 DFPT SILL W/ 3/4"DIA. X 12" A.B. @ 24" O.C. W/ SIMPSON CO. A-34 METAL ANGLES TO EA. F.J.
42" X 12" DEEP X 21'-0" LONG CONCRETE FOOTING EXTEND INTO NATURAL GRADE TO PROVIDE 6" MIN. SOIL COVERAGE.
FIGURE 347 The foundation plan for an above-ground concrete slab typically shows the support piers for the framing platform.
The letter W indicates smooth wire. Deformed wire can be represented by the letter D. Typically a steel mesh of #10 wire in 6" (150 mm) grids is used for residential floor slabs. A typical note to specify reinforced concrete and fill material might read: 4" CONC. SLAB W/6 × 6 W12 × 12 WWM OVER .006 VISQUEEN OVER 1" SAND FILL OVER 4" COMPACTED GRAVEL FILL.
Figure 34-9 shows an example of the mesh used in concrete slabs. Steel reinforcing bars similar to those shown in Figure 34-10 can be added to a floor slab to prevent bending of the slab due to expansive soil. Although mesh is placed in a slab to limit cracking, steel reinforcement is placed in the concrete to prevent cracking due to bending. Steel reinforcing bars can be laid in a grid pattern near the surface of the concrete that will be in tension from bending. The placement of the reinforcement in the concrete is important to the effectiveness of the reinforcement. The amount of concrete placed around the steel is
referred to as coverage. Proper coverage strengthens the bond between the steel and concrete and also protects the steel from corrosion if the concrete is exposed to chemicals, weather, or water. Proper coverage is also important to protect the steel from damage by fire. If steel is required to reinforce a residential concrete slab, an engineer will typically determine the size, spacing, coverage, and grade of bars to be used. As a general guideline to placing steel, the ACI recommends: ●
For concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth (footings): 3" (75 mm) minimum coverage.
●
For concrete exposed to weather or earth such as basement walls: 2" (50 mm) coverage for #6–18 bars and 1 1/2" (38 mm) coverage for #5 and W31/D31 wire or smaller.
●
For concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground: 1 1/2" (38 mm) coverage for slabs, walls, and joists; 3/4" (19 mm) coverage for #11 bars and smaller; and 1 1/2" (38 mm) coverage for #14 and #18 bars.
808
Architectural Drafting and Design
5" CONC. SLAB DRIVEWAY APPROACH ON 5" COMP CRUSHED ROCK ON ROLLED SUBGRADE
5" CONC. SLAB W/ #4 DIA @12" O.C EA. WAY CENTERED IN SLAB OVER 55# FELT AND 3/4" PLY.
2 X 12 SOLID BLOCK (DFPT)
COMPACTED 1" MINUS ROCK
2 X 12 DFPT F.J. @ 12" O.C.
A-35 EA. SIDE OF EA. JST.
4 X 4 DFPT SILL W/ 3/4" DIA. A.B. @ 24" O.C. 3 X 6 DFPT SILL W 16 X 40 #4 @ 12" O.C.
2" 2" CLR.
6" MIN. SOIL COVER
1 11
3/4" ROD TS 6 X 6 X 1/4" STEEL COL. 3"
3" 1'-10"
8"
1'-0"
12"
4 X 4 STEEL BRACE BTWN. PILES. SEE FND. PLAN
3" CLR.
3'-6" #4DIA X 3'-0" @ 12"O.C. 4" DIA. DRAIN IN 1" MINUS WRAPPED IN FILTER FABRIC
8 X 36 STEEL PILE
FIGURE 348 In addition to the framing and foundation plans, details are used to clarify the concrete reinforcement.
FIGURE 349 Welded wire mesh is often placed in concrete slabs to reduce cracking.
FIGURE 3410 Steel reinforcing is used in place of welded wire mesh when the slab is placed over fill material. Courtesy Krista Herbel.
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
Wire mesh and steel reinforcement is not shown on the foundation plan but is specified by a note similar to the one shown in Figure 34-6.
809
4" CONCRETE SLAB OVER .006 PLASTIC VAPOR BARRIER OVER 1" SAND FILL OVER 4" GRAVEL BASE.
Post-Tensioned Concrete Reinforcement The methods of reinforcement mentioned thus far assume that the slab will be poured over stable soil. Concrete slabs can often be poured over unstable soil by using a method of reinforcement known as post-tensioning. This method of construction was originally developed for slabs that were to be poured at ground level and then lifted into place for multilevel structures. Adopted for use in residential slabs, post-tensioning allows concrete slabs to be poured on grade over expansive soil. The technology has advanced sufficiently so that post-tensioning is now widely used even on stable soils. For design purposes, a concrete slab can be considered as a wide, shallow beam that is supported by a concrete foundation at the edge. A beam may tend to sag at the center from loads and gravity; a concrete slab can either sag or bow, depending on the soil conditions. Soil at the edge of a slab will be exposed to more moisture than soil near the center of the slab. This differential in moisture content can cause the edges of the slab to heave, creating tension in the bottom portion of the slab and compression in the upper portion. Center lift conditions can result as the soil beneath the interior of the slab becomes wetter and expands, as the perimeter of the slab dries and shrinks, or as a combination of the two factors. As the center of the slab heaves, tension is created in the upper portion of the slab with compression in the lower portion. Because concrete is very poor at resisting stress from tension, the slab must be reinforced with a material such as steel that has high tensile strength. Steel tendons with anchors can be extended through the slab as it is poured. Usually between three and ten days after the concrete has been poured, these tendons are stretched by hydraulic jacks, which place approximately 25,000 lb of force on each tendon. The tendon force is transferred to the concrete slab through anchorage devices at the ends of the tendons. This process creates an internal compressive force throughout the slab, increasing the ability of the slab to resist cracking and heaving. Post-tensioning usually allows for a thinner slab than normally would be required to span over expansive conditions, elimination of other slab reinforcing, and elimination of most slab joints. Two methods of post-tensioning are typically used for residential slabs: flat slab and ribbed slab. The flat slab method uses steel tendons ranging in diameter from 3/8" to 1/2" (10 to13 mm). Maximum spacing of
1 15
2 15
7/16" DIA. X 270k TENDON @ 7'-0" O.C. 2" UP FROM BOTTOM OF SLAB.
FIGURE 3411 When a concrete slab is post-tensioned, the tendons and anchors used to support the floor slab must be represented on the foundation plan.
tendons recommended by the Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI) are: 3/8" (10 mm) diameter: 5'–0" (1500 mm) spacing 7/16" (11 mm) diameter: 6'–10" (2050 mm) spacing 1/2" (13 mm) diameter: 9'–0" (2700 mm) spacing The exact spacing and size of tendons must be determined by an engineer based on the loads to be supported and the strength and conditions of the soil. When required, the tendons can be represented on the foundation plan, as seen in Figure 34-11. Details will also need to be provided to indicate how the tendons will be anchored, as well as to show the exact locations of the tendons. Figure 34-12 is an example of a tendon
TENDON—SPECIFY DIAMETER, STRENGTH AND DEPTH. PLASTIC HIGH CHAIR
ANCHOR—SPECIFY DEPTH AND COVERAGE.
FIGURE 3412 Tendon details should be drawn by the drafter to reflect the design of the engineer.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
TOP OF SLAB LINE OF BTM. OF SLAB BTWN. BEAMS
3"
20"
3- 3/8" DIA. 270k TENDONS IN SLAB BTWN. BEAMS
10"
3/8"DIA. TENDON
# 3 X 1'-6" @ 5 '-0" O.C.
40" MAX. TYP. EA. END
FIGURE 3413 Concrete beams can be placed below the floor slab to increase the effect of the slab tensioning. Details must be drawn to indicate how the steel will be placed in the beam, as well as how the beam steel will interact with the slab steel.
detail. In addition to representing and specifying the steel throughout the floor system, the drafter will need to specify the engineer’s requirements for the strength of the concrete at 28 days, the duration of when the concrete is to be stressed, as well as what strength the concrete should achieve before stressing. A second method of post-tensioning an on-grade floor slab is with the use of concrete ribs or beams placed below the slab. These beams reduce the span of the slab over the soil and provide increased support. The width, depth, and spacing are determined by the engineer based on the
strength and condition of the soil and the size of the slab. Figure 34-13 shows an example of a beam detail that a drafter would be required to draw to show the reinforcing specified by the engineer. Figure 34-14 is an example of how these beams could be shown on the foundation plan.
Moisture Protection The slab is required to be placed over 6-mil polyethylene sheet plastic to protect the floor from ground moisture. When a plastic vapor barrier is to be placed over gravel, 60'-0"
20'-0" 5'-0"
5'-0"
5'-0"
5'-0"
5'-0"
20'-0" 5'-0"
5'-0"
5'-0"
20'-0" 5'-0"
1 12
5'-0" 20'-0"
5'-0"
3/8'"DIA. 270k TENDONS
2 12
3 12
20'-0"
5'-0"
5'-0"
40'-0"
5'-0"
5'-0"
5'-0"
5" CONCRETE SLAB OVER 2 LAYERS .006 PLASTIC VAPOR BARRIER OVER 1" SAND FILL OVER 4" GRAVEL BASE.
FIGURE 3414 Beams placed below the slab must be located on the foundation plan using methods like those used to represent an interior footing.
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
811
SILL SEAL
FLASHING PROTECTION BOARD
12" MAX.
C
RIGID INSULATION
C
12" MIN.
FOUNDATION PERIMETER
4" SCREENED AND WASHED GRAVEL OR CRUSHED STONE
INSULATION DETAIL
B
A
HORIZONTAL INSULATION PLAN
FIGURE 3415A Insulation placement for frost-protected footings in heated buildings. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code. Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
a layer of sand should be specified to cover the gravel fill to avoid tearing the vapor barrier. An alternative is to use 55# rolled roofing in place of the plastic. The vapor barrier is not drawn on the foundation plan but is specified with a note on the foundation plan.
Slab Insulation Depending on the risk of freezing, some municipalities require the concrete slab to be insulated to prevent heat loss. The insulation can be placed under the slab or on the outside of the stem wall. When it is placed under
the slab, a 2" × 24" (50 × 600 mm) minimum rigid insulation material should be used to insulate the slab. An isolation joint is typically provided between the stem wall and the slab to prevent heat loss through the stem wall. When placed on the exterior side of the stem wall, the insulation should extend past the bottom of the foundation. Care must be taken to protect exposed insulation on the exterior side of the wall. This can usually be done by placing a protective covering such as 1/2" (13 mm) concrete board over the insulation. Figure 34-15A and Figure 34-15B show common methods of insulating concrete floor slabs. Insulation
FIGURE 3415B Common alternatives of placing insulation for a concrete slab. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code. Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
67'-0" 6'-0"
10'-0"
4'-0"
6'-0"
2'-6"
19'-0"
2'-6"
10'-0" 2'-0"
2'-0"
6'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
3'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
11'-0"
1'-4"
5 1/16" 9'-4'
25" X 25" X 12" CONC. FTG 8"
9'-4'
8"
9'-4"
5 1/16"
1'-4"
59'-0"
10'-0"
6'-0" 5'-0"
4'-6" 14'-0"
10'-0"
16'-6"
NOTES: 1. CONC. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 2,500 P.S.I. WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 3,000 P.S.I. PORCHES, STEPS AND GARAGE SLABS TO BE 3,500P.S.I. 2. ALL FOOTING TO REST ON FIRM, NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE IS 2,OOO P.S.F. 4. SLOPE GRADE AWAY FROM FOUNDATION WALLS FOR A MINIMUM OF 6" IN 10'-0".
14'-6"
24'-0"
5 1/16"
2 3/4"
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TYP. EA. SIDE
2 3/4" 5 1/16"
2'-0"
2'-0"
4" CONCRETE SLAB W/ 6X6X10/10 W.W.M. ON 4" COMPACTED GRANULE FILL- SLOPE 1/8"/FT. REAR TO ENTRANCE
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" X 10" A.B. @ 2'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" WASHERS THIS WALL ONLY. 2'-10"
2'-0"
24'-4"
8'-0"
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. BLOCK OUT FOR OR EQUAL 3 - 9 DOORS TYP. EA. SIDE
11'-10" 2'-0"
6'-6"
3'-3"
7'-6"
12" DEEP CHIMNEY FTG.
11'-6"
3'-3"
4'-6" 7'-6"
2'-0"
DOOR CUT BUILT-UP AREA FOR CLOSET
2'-0"
6'-0 1/2" 2'-3 1/4"
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS.
1'-4"
3'-4"
18'-2"
12" DEEP CONC. CHIMNEY FTG. 2'-5 1/2"
59'-0"
1'-4"
12"
42'-6"
3'-6 1/4"
8'-4"
5'-9 3/4"
32'-8"
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" SAND FILL W/ .006 VAPOR BARRIER & 2" X 24" RIGID INSULATION AROUND ENTIRE PERIMETER
LOWER THIS FLOOR 8 1/4" MAX. @ LIVING ROOM
19'-0"
13'-9 1/4"
5 1/2" 3" DIA. FLOOR DRAIN
4'-6"
19'-0"
2'-0"
35'-0"
32'-0" 67'-0"
FOUNDATION PLAN 1/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3416 A foundation plan for a home with a concrete slab floor system.
is not shown on the foundation plan but is represented by a note, as in Figure 34-16, and specified in sections and footing details.
Plumbing and Heating Requirements Plumbing and heating ducts must be placed under the slab before the concrete is poured. On residential plans, plumbing is usually not shown on the foundation plan. Generally the skills of the plumbing contractor are relied on for the placement of required utilities. Although piping runs are not shown, terminations such as floor drains are often shown and located on a concrete slab plan. Figure 34-16 shows how floor drains are typically
represented. Figure 34-17 shows the placement of plumbing materials prior to pouring the slab. If heating ducts will be placed under the slab, they are usually drawn on the foundation plan as shown in Figure 34-18. Drawings for commercial construction usually include both a plumbing plan and a mechanical plan. Each will be presented in Chapter 43.
Changes in Floor Elevation The floor level is often required to step down to meet the design needs of the client or to allow the home to conform to the site. A stem wall similar to Figure 34-19 is formed between the two floor levels and should
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
813
MONO POUR
TWO POURS
FIGURE 3419 A stem wall is created between floors when a change in elevation is required.
FIGURE 3417 Plumbing must be placed prior to preparing for the concrete slab. The locations of plumbing fixtures and floor drains must be clearly specified on the foundation plan. Courtesy Judy Schmitke.
match the required width for an exterior stem wall. The lower slab is typically thickened to a depth of 8" (200 mm) to support the change in elevation. Steps between floors greater than 24" (600 mm) should be designed as a retaining wall and detailed using the methods described in Chapter 33 and Chapter 38. Figure 34-16 shows how a lowered slab can be represented. The step often occurs at what will be the edge of a wall when the framing plan is complete. Great care must be taken to coordinate the dimensions of a floor plan with those of the foundation plan, so that walls match the foundation.
Common Components Shown on a Slab Foundation Refer to Figure 34-16. Dimensions are needed for each of the following items to provide location information. ● ●
3'-0"
●
12" X 6" HT. REG.
● ● ● ●
4" X 12" DUCT UNDER SLAB
●
1'-6"
Outline of slab. Interior footing locations. Changes in floor levels. Floor drains. Exterior footing locations. Ducts for mechanical. Metal anchors. Patio slabs.
Common Components Specified by Note Only on a Slab Foundation See Figure 34-16.
FIGURE 3418 HVAC ducts and registers that are to be located in the floor must be shown on the foundation plan.
● ●
Slab thickness and fill material. Anchor bolt size and spacing.
814
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Wire mesh. Mudsill size. Vapor barrier. Pier sizes. Assumed soil strength. Reinforcing steel. Insulation. Slab slopes. Concrete strength.
Architectural Drafting and Design
A
CRAWL SPACE FLOOR SYSTEMS The crawl space is the area formed between the floor system and the ground. Building codes require a minimum of 18" (450 mm) from the bottom of the floor to the ground and 12" (300 mm) from the bottom of beams to the ground. Two common methods of providing a crawl space below the floor are the conventional method using floor joists and the post-and-beam system. An introduction to each system is needed to complete the foundation. Both floor systems were discussed in detail in relationship to the entire structure in Section 8.
Joist Floor Framing
B FIGURE 3420 (A) A floor framed with floor joists uses wood members ranging from 2 × 6 through 2 × 12 (50 × 150 to 50 × 300) to span between supports. Solid blocking is placed between the joists at 10'–0" (3000 mm) O.C. (B) Engineered lumber is a popular material for joist floor systems. Joists are typically placed at 16" (400 mm) O.C. Depending on the load to be supported, the allowable deflection, and the span, a 12" or 24" (300 or 600 mm) spacing may be used. Courtesy LeRoy Cook.
The most common method of framing a wood floor is with wood members called floor joists. Floor joists are used to span between the foundation walls and are shown in Figure 34-20A. Sawn lumber ranging in size from 2 × 6 through 2 × 12 (50 × 150 to 50 × 300) has traditionally been used to frame the floor platform. Most contractors are now framing with trusses or joists made from engineered lumber similar to Figure 34-20B. (These materials were discussed in Chapter 27.) The floor joists are usually placed at 16" (400 mm) on center, but the spacing of joists may change depending on the span, the material used, and the load to be supported.
Joist Framing Methods To construct a joist floor system, a pressure-treated sill is bolted to the top of the foundation wall with the anchor bolts that were placed when the foundation was formed. The floor joists can then be nailed to the sill. An alternative used to reduce the distance from the finished floor to the finish grade is to set the floor joists flush with the sill, as in Figure 34-21. This method requires the use of metal hangers to support the joists. A minimum of 18" (450 mm) must be maintained below the bottom of the joists and the finish grade in the crawl space no matter how the joists are supported.
FIGURE 3421 Although floor joists are normally placed above the sill, they can be mounted flush to the sill to reduce the distance from the finish floor to the finish grade. The weight of the joist is transferred to the sill using joist hangers. Courtesy Karen Griggs.
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
Floor Sheathing. With the floor joists in place, plywood floor sheathing is installed to provide a base for the finish floor. The size of the subfloor depends on the spacing of the floor joists and the floor loads that must be supported. The live load to be supported will also affect the thickness of the plywood to be used. The Engineered Wood Association (APA) has span tables for plywood from 7/16" through 7/8" (11 through 22 mm) to meet the various conditions that might be found in a residence. A subfloor can also be made from 1" (25 mm) material such as 1 × 6 (25 × 150) tongue-andgroove (T&G) lumber, although this method requires more labor. The floor sheathing is not represented on the foundation plan but is specified in a general note. Figure 34-22 shows common methods of drawing floor joists on the foundation plan. Joist Support with Girders When the distance between the foundation walls is too great for the floor joists to span, a girder is used to support the joists. A girder is a horizontal load-bearing member that spans between two or more supports at the foundation level. Depending on the load to be supported and the area you are in, either a wood, laminated wood, engineered wood product, or steel member may
PROVIDE METAL TERMITE SHIELD @ WALL / PL. INTERSECTION.
3" MIN. BEARING W/ 1/2" CLR. ALL SIDES. WRAP W/ 55# FELT
4 X 8 GIRDER W/ GUSSET ON 4 X 4 POST & 55# FELT ON 18" DIA. X 8" DP. CONC. PIER TYP.
3" MIN. BEARING W/ 1/2" CLR. ALL SIDES. WRAP W/ 55# FELT
4 X 8 GIRDER W/ GUSSET ON 4 X 4 POST & 55# FELT ON 18" DIA. X 8" DP. CONC. PIER TYP.
FIGURE 3423 Common methods of drawing girders, posts, and piers in plan view.
be used for the girder and for the support post. Girders may be drawn using a single bold line or pairs of thin lines similar to Figure 34-23. The girder is usually supported in a concrete beam pocket, where it intersects the foundation wall. Posts made of wood or engineered wood, or steel columns are used to support girders that span between the foundation walls. No matter what the material is, the girder must be attached to the post. When wood members are used, a gusset attaches the post and girder together, like the connection in Figure 34-24.
30" X 18" MIN. COVERED CRAWL ACCESS.
2 X 8 D.F.L. F.J.
1/2" AIR SPACE @ ENDS AND SIDES W/ 55# FELT. PROVIDE 3" MIN. BEAR.
@ 12" O.C.
6" X 12"
2 X 8 D.F.L. F.J. @ 16" O.C.
6"
18" X 6" SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT @ 10' O.C. 3' MAX FROM EA. CORNER.
815
18" MIN. CRAWL SPACE COVERED W/ .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER
4 X 10 DFL GIRDER ON 4 X 4 POST ( 4X6 @ SPLICE) ON 55# FELT & 30" DIA. CONC. PIERS.
2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. 7" MIN INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS.
LINE OF FLOOR ABOVE
FIGURE 3422 Common methods of representing and specifying floor joist components in plan view.
FIGURE 3424 A gusset is used to attach the girder to the post so that each will move together during seismic activity. The gusset can be a scrap of wood, or a prefabricated metal connector. Post-bracing may be required depending on the height of the post and the seismic zone.
816
Architectural Drafting and Design
SOLID BLOCK
FLOOR JOISTS
CONCRETE BLOCK STEM WALL
FLOOR JOISTS
FLOOR JOISTS
POURED CONCRETE STEM WALL
CANTILIVERED FLOOR JOIST
METAL FLASHING FILL MATERIAL
FLOOR JOISTS FLOOR JOISTS
FLOOR JOISTS
JACK STUDS FLOOR JOISTS
POST ON 55 # FELT
PIER
CONCRETE / JOIST CONNECTION
FLOOR JOISTS
GIRDER
CONCRETE / JOIST CONNECTION
SOLID BLOCK
FLOOR JOISTS
SOLID BLOCK
INTERIOR FLOOR CHANGE GIRDER PIER
POST ON 55 # FELT
GIRDER PIER
STEEL DOWEL
INTERIOR SUPPORT W/ STEEL ROD
POST ON 55 # FELT W/ MTL. CONNECTOR
INTERIOR SUPPORT W/ METAL POST BASE
FIGURE 3425 Common connections for a joist floor system.
A steel connector can also be used to make wood-towood connections or wood-to-steel connections. A steel girder may require no intermediate supports or can be welded to a steel column. Girder Supports. A concrete pier is placed under the intermediate girder supports to resist settling. In some seismic zones, the post must be attached to the pier. A metal rod inserted into a predrilled hole in the post can be used in areas of low seismic risk. A metal strap or
post base may be required where high winds occur or seismic risk is greater. Figure 34-25 shows common connections required for a joist floor system. Figure 34-26 shows methods of representing common floor system components on a foundation plan. Figure 34-27 shows a portion of the floor framing in place. Figure 34-22 shows methods of drawing the girders, posts, piers, and beam pocket on the foundation plan. Figure 34-26 shows a complete foundation plan using floor joists to support the floor.
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
817
67'-0" 16'-0"
25" X 25" X 12" CONC. FTG 8"
9'-4'
9'-4"
2'-0" 42'-6"
59'-0"
11'-10"
19'-0"
2'-0" 6'-0"
NOTES: 1. CONC. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 2,500 P.S.I. WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 3,000 P.S.I. PORCHES, STEPS AND GARAGE SLABS TO BE 3,500P.S.I. 2. ALL FOOTING TO REST ON FIRM, NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE IS 2,OOO P.S.F. 4. SLOPE GRADE AWAY FROM FOUNDATION WALLS FOR A MINIMUM OF 6" IN 10'-0".
5 1/16"
1'-4"
4'-6" 14'-0"
10'-0"
16'-6"
2'-0"
2'-0" 24'-0"
5 1/16" 8"
2 3/4"
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TYP. EA. SIDE
2 3/4"
9'-4'
2'-0"
2X10
24'-4"
1'-4"
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" X 10" A.B. @ 2'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" WASHERS THIS WALL ONLY.
11'-6"
4'-6" 6'-6"
12" DEEP CHIMNEY FTG.
14'-6"
2'-0"
7'-6"
3'-3"
4X12 GIRDER
FURNACE BLOCKOUT
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. BLOCK OUT FOR OR EQUAL 3 - 9 DOORS TYP. EA. SIDE
10'-0"
5'-4" 2'-0"
2'-0"
4X12 GIRDER
4" CONCRETE SLAB W/ 6X6X10/10 W.W.M. ON 4" COMPACTED GRANULE FILL- SLOPE 1/8"/FT. REAR TO ENTRANCE
5 1/16"
8'-0"
12" DEEP CONC. CHIMNEY FTG.
8'-0"
5 1/16"
2X10 @ 24" O.C.
2'-10"
20" X 20" X 10" CONC. FTG. TYP.
4'-10"
4X12 GIRDER
4X12 GIRDER
12"
5'-0"
2 X 10 D.F.L. F.J. @ 16" O.C.
16'-0" 59'-0"
DOOR CUT BUILT-UP AREA FOR CLOSET
2'-0"
8'-8" 27"X27"X12" CONC. FTG
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS.
1'-4"
3'-4"
7'-4"
8'-0"
2'-0"
32'-8"
PROVIDE \" AIR SPACE @ ENDS AND SIDES W/ 55# FELT & 3" MIN. BEARING.
5 1/2"
LOWER THIS FLOOR 8 1/4" MAX. @ LIVING ROOM
2 X 10 F.J. @ 24" O.C.
8'-0"
4 X 4 POST ( 4 X 6 @ SPLICES) W/ GUSSET ON 55# FELT TYP.
1'-4"
2'-0"
4X12 GIRDER 18" MIN. CRAWL SPACE COVER W/ .OO6 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER.
9'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
6'-0"
2X10 F.J. @ 24"OC
8'-0"
2'-0"
18" X 6" SCREENED VENTS
7'-6"
36"X24" COVERED CRAWL ACCESS
2'-6"
10'-0" 2'-0"
F.J. @ 24" O.C.
16'-8"
4X12 GIRDER
2'-6"
19'-0"
2'-0"
2X10 F.J. @ 16"OC
2'-0"
2'-0"
2X10FJ @16"OC
6'-0"
2'-0"
3'-3"
10'-0"
14'-4"
6'-0"
4'-6"
19'-0"
2'-0"
35'-0"
32'-0" 67'-0"
FOUNDATION PLAN 1/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3426 Foundation plan for a home with a joist floor system. Compare and contrast this foundation to the plan represented in Figure 34–16, and Figure 34-33A, Figure 34-33B, and Figure 34-33C.
Common Components Shown for a Joist Floor System See Figure 34-26. Unless marked with an asterisk, all components on the following pages require dimensions to provide location information. ● ● ●
FIGURE 3427 Placement of floor materials for a cantilevered bay.
● ●
Foundation walls. Door openings in foundation walls. Fireplace. Floor joists. Girders (bearing walls and floor support).
818
●
Girder pockets.
●
Crawl access.*
●
Exterior footing locations.
●
Metal anchors.
●
Fireplace footings.
●
Outline of cantilevers.
●
Interior piers.
●
Changes in floor levels.
●
Vents for crawl space.*
Architectural Drafting and Design
Common Components Specified by Note Only for a Joist Floor System See Figure 34-26. ●
Floor joist size and spacing.
●
Anchor bolt size and spacing.
●
Insulation.
●
Crawl height.
●
Assumed soil strength.
●
Subfloor material.
●
Girder size.
●
Mudsill size.
●
Vapor barrier.
●
Concrete strength.
●
Wood type and grade.
Post-and-Beam Floor Systems A post-and-beam floor system is built using a standard foundation system. Rather than having floor joists span between the foundation walls, a series of beams are used to support the subfloor, as shown in Figure 34-28. Once the mudsill is bolted to the foundation wall, the beams are placed so that the top of each beam is flush with the top of the mudsill. The beams are usually placed at 48" (1200 mm) on center, but the spacing can vary depending on the size of the floor decking to be used. The area of the country where the structure is to be built affects how the subfloor is made. Generally material 2" (50 mm) thick, such as 2 × 6 (50 × 150) T&G boards laid perpendicular to the beams, is used for a subfloor. Plywood with a thickness of 1 1/8" (29 mm) and an APA rating of STURD-I-FLOOR with an exposure rating of EXP-1 can also be used to build a post-andbeam subfloor quickly and economically. When the subfloor is glued to the support beams, the strength
FIGURE 3428 Girders are usually placed at 48" (1200 mm) O.C. with supports at 8’–0" (2400 mm) O.C. Blocking is placed between the beams to support plumbing materials.
and quality of the floor is greatly increased because squeaks, bounce, and nail popping are eliminated. The beams are supported by wooden posts as they span between the foundation walls. Posts are usually placed at 8' (2400 mm) on center but spacing can vary depending on the load to be supported. Each post is supported by a concrete pier similar to Figure 34-29. Figure 34-30 shows common components of a post-andbeam floor system. Beams, posts, and piers are drawn on the foundation plan, as shown in Figure 34-23. Figure 34-31 shows a foundation plan with a post-andbeam floor system.
Common Components Shown for a Post-and-Beam System See Figure 34-31. Unless marked with an asterisk, all components require dimensions to provide location information. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Foundation walls. Door openings in foundation walls. Fireplace. Girders (beams). Girder pockets. Crawl access.* Exterior footing locations. Metal anchors. Fireplace footings. Interior piers. Changes in floor levels. Vents for crawl space.*
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
819
● ●
Concrete strength. Wood type and grade.
Combined Floor Methods
FIGURE 3429 Posts sit on a shingle or 55# felt placed above a concrete pier. The shingle is placed to stop moisture from being drawn into the post. A vapor barrier keeps moisture from passing from the soil into the crawl space.
Common Components Specified by Note Only for a Post-and-Beam System See Figure 34-31. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Anchor bolt size and spacing. Insulation. Crawl height. Assumed soil strength. Subfloor material. Girder size. Mudsill size. Vapor barrier.
Floor and foundation methods may be combined depending on the building site. This is typically done on partially sloping lots when part of a structure may be constructed with a slab and part of the structure with a joist floor system, as seen in Figure 34-32. A residence with a basement is another example of construction that requires combined floor methods. A home with a partial basement will require the use of a concrete floor in the basement area, with either a joist or post-and-beam floor system over the crawl space. A joist floor for the crawl space is easier to match the floor over the basement area. Figure 34-33A shows a residence that has a partial basement. The right portion of the plan uses a joist floor system. The left side of the structure has a basement. Figure 34-33B shows the same residence with a full basement. The entire basement can be constructed using the methods that were introduced earlier when concrete floors were discussed. Figure 34-33C shows the residence with a daylight basement. The major difference between Figure 34-33B and Figure 34-33C is that the retaining wall does not totally enclose the basement. This type of basement is ideal for homes built on sloping sites. The basement is built on the low side of the site, allowing the lower walls to be constructed of wood. Notice on each side of the foundation that a retaining wall 48" (1200 mm) high has been added. The wall allows the length of the wall 8"–0" (2400 mm) high to be reduced, allowing the lower floor to be treated as an on-grade slab. Depending on your area, the drawings for the basement may require an engineer’s stamp. Chapter 38 will explore the drawing needed to detail the basement walls. One component typically used when floor systems are combined is a ledger. A ledger is used to provide support for floor joists and the subfloor when they intersect the concrete. Unless felt is placed between the concrete and the ledger, the ledger must be pressure-treated lumber. The ledger can be shown on the foundation plan or specified with a note.
820
Architectural Drafting and Design
CRAWL SPACE
CRAWL SPACE
CRAWL SPACE
CONCRETE / JOIST CONNECTION CONCRETE BLOCK GIRDER PARALLEL TO WALL
POURED CONCRETE STEM STEM WALL GIRDER PARALLEL TO WALL
JACK STUDS GIRDER GIRDER PIER CRAWL SPACE
POURED CONCRETE STEM WALL GIRDER PERPENDICULAR TO WALL
POST ON 55 # FELT STEEL DOWEL
INTERIOR SUPPORT
PIER
POST ON 55 # FELT
INTERIOR FLOOR CHANGE
FIGURE 3430 Common connections for a post-and-beam floor system.
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
821
67'-0" 16'-0"
10'-0" 6'-0"
2'-6"
19'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
6'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
LOWER THIS FLOOR 8 1/4" MAX. @ LIVING ROOM
8'-0"
8'-0"
8'-0"
42'-6" 2'-0"
4'-6"
2X6 D.F.P.T. SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS.
6'-6" 3'-3"
7'-6"
12" DEEP CHIMNEY FTG.
5'-0"
7'-6"
FURNACE BLOCKOUT
2'-0"
DOOR CUT BUILT-UP AREA FOR CLOSET
2'-0"
2 3/4" 5 1/16" 1'-4"
5 1/16" 9'-4'
25" X 25" X 12" CONC. FTG 8"
9'-4'
24'-0"
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TYP. EA. SIDE
5 1/16" 8"
9'-4"
2 3/4"
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. BLOCK OUT FOR OR EQUAL 3 - 9 DOORS TYP. EA. SIDE
2'-0"
4" CONCRETE SLAB W/ 6X6X10/10 W.W.M. ON 4" COMPACTED GRANULE FILL- SLOPE 1/8"/FT. REAR TO ENTRANCE
2'-0"
24'-4"
8'-0"
NOTES: 1. CONC. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 2,500 P.S.I. WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 3,000 P.S.I. PORCHES, STEPS AND GARAGE SLABS TO BE 3,500 P.S.I. 2. ALL FOOTING TO REST ON FIRM, NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE IS 2,OOO P.S.F. 4. SLOPE GRADE AWAY FROM FOUNDATION WALLS FOR A MINIMUM OF 6" IN 10'-0".
5 1/16"
1'-4"
4'-6" 14'-0"
10'-0" 19'-0" 35'-0"
32'-0" 67'-0"
FOUNDATION PLAN 1/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3431 The foundation plan for a home with a post-and-beam floor system.
4'-6" 2'-0"
16'-6"
1'-4"
3'-4"
2'-0"
3'-3"
4'-0" 4'-0"
1'-4"
6'-0"
2'-0"
4'-0"
4'-10"
2'-0"
4'-0"
5'-4"
ALL GIRDERS TO BE 4X6 DFL #2 ON 4X4 POST. UNLESS NOTED - USE 4X6 POST @ SPLICES W/ METAL TIES.
2'-8"
59'-0"
12" DEEP CONC. CHIMNEY FTG.
59'-0"
7'-4"
10'-0"
4X6 GIRDER ON 4X4 POST ON 55# FELT $ 18" DIA. X 8" CONC. PIERS
12"
8'-0"
11'-10"
8'-0"
11'-6"
4'-0"
5 1/2"
32'-8"
8'-0"
8'-0"
14'-6"
3'-0"
7'-0"
14'-4"
4'-0"
36"X24" COVERED CRAWL ACCESS
CRAWL SPACE TO HAVE 18" MIN. CLEAR-BTM. OF FLOOR TO GRADE COVER W/ .006 MIL. BLACK PLASTIC VAPOR BARRIER.
2'-10"
4'-0"
6" 12"
19'-0"
2'-0"
18" X 6" SCREENED VENTS
2'-6"
10'-0" 2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
6'-0"
822
Architectural Drafting and Design
LEDGER AND ANCHOR BOLT
METAL JOIST HANGER
FLOOR JOIST REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB FILL
FLOOR JOIST
NATURAL GRADE
GIRDER
POST CONCRETE PIER
FIGURE 3432 Concrete slab and floor joist systems are often combined on sloping sites to help minimize fill material. A ledger is used to provide anchorage to floor joists where they intersect the concrete slab. Metal joist hangers are used to join the joists to the ledger.
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
823
67'-0" 2'-6"
19'-0"
2'-6"
10'-0" 2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
6'-0"
2 3/4"
9'-4'
25" X 25" X 12" CONC. FTG 8"
9'-4'
5 1/16" 8"
9'-4"
42'-6"
59'-0"
11'-10"
19'-0"
2'-0" 6'-0" 3'-3" 3'-3"
2'-0"
5 1/16"
1'-4"
NOTES: 1. CONC. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 2,500 P.S.I. WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 3,000 P.S.I. PORCHES, STEPS AND GARAGE SLABS TO BE 3,500 P.S.I. 2. ALL FOOTING TO REST ON FIRM, NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE IS 2,OOO P.S.F. 4. SLOPE GRADE AWAY FROM FOUNDATION WALLS FOR A MINIMUM OF 6" IN 10'-0".
4'-6" 14'-0"
10'-0" 19'-0"
16'-6"
2'-0"
2'-0" 24'-0"
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TYP. EA. SIDE
2 3/4"
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. BLOCK OUT FOR OR EQUAL 3 - 9 DOORS TYP. EA. SIDE
1'-4"
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" X 10" A.B. @ 2'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" WASHERS THIS WALL ONLY. 2X10
24'-4"
4" CONCRETE SLAB W/ 6X6X10/10 W.W.M. ON 4" COMPACTED GRANULE FILL- SLOPE 1/8"/FT. REAR TO ENTRANCE
5 1/16"
6'-6"
12" DEEP CHIMNEY FTG. 5'-0"
4'-6" 7'-6"
7'-6"
8'-0"
5 1/16"
2'-0" 2X10 @ 24" O.C.
4X12 GIRDER
2'-0"
DOOR CUT BUILT-UP AREA FOR CLOSET
5'-4"
2'-0"
2'-10"
16'-0" 59'-0"
2'-0"
12"
8'-0"
12" DEEP CONC. CHIMNEY FTG.
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS.
1'-4"
3'-4"
8'-8" 27"X27"X12" CONC. FTG 4X12 GIRDER
2'-0"
20" X 20" X 10" CONC. FTG. TYP.
1'-4"
2'-0"
4'-10"
32'-8"
4 X 4 POST
4X12 GIRDER
7'-4"
8'-0"
5 1/2"
2 X 10 F.J. @ 24" O.C.
8'-0"
9'-0"
4X12 GIRDER LOWER THIS FLOOR 8 1/4" MAX. @ LIVING ROOM
F.J. @ 24" O.C.
8'-0"
LINE OF STEP
4" CONCRETE SLAB W/ 6 X 6 10/10 W.W.M. ON 4" COMPACTED GRAVEL FILL
14'-4"
18'-8"
8" X 8' CONCRETE RETAINING WALL
2X10 F.J. @ 24"OC
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
18" X 6" SCREENED VENT @ 10'' O.C.+/-
11'-6"
6'-0"
2'-0"
10'-0"
16'-0"
10'-0"
14'-6"
6'-0"
4'-6" 2'-0"
35'-0"
32'-0" 67'-0"
PARTIAL BASEMENT PLAN 1/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3433A A foundation plan for a home with a partial basement. The basement has a concrete floor, and the floor over the crawl space is supported by joists.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
67'-0" 6'-0"
16'-0"
10'-0" 6'-0"
2'-6"
19'-0"
2'-6"
10'-0" 2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
6'-0"
19'-0" 2'-0"
5'-4"
7'-6"
6'-6"
2 3/4"
24'-0"
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TYP. EA. SIDE
5 1/16" 1'-4"
5 1/16" 9'-4'
25" X 25" X 12" CONC. FTG 8"
9'-4'
5 1/16" 8"
9'-4"
2 3/4"
1'-0" 2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. BLOCK OUT FOR OR EQUAL 3 - 9 DOORS TYP. EA. SIDE
2'-0"
2'-0"
4" CONCRETE SLAB W/ 6X6X10/10 W.W.M. ON 4" COMPACTED GRANULE FILL- SLOPE 1/8"/FT. REAR TO 6" ENTRANCE
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" X 10" A.B. @ 2'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" WASHERS THIS WALL ONLY.
2'-0"
24'-4"
8'-0"
5'-0"
12" DEEP CHIMNEY FTG.
3'-3"
2'-0"
DOOR CUT BUILT-UP AREA FOR CLOSET
4'-6"
1'-4"
3'-4"
7'-6"
59'-0"
1'-4"
3'-3"
8" X 8' CONCRETE RETAINING WALL 2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS.
NOTES: 1. CONC. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 2,500 P.S.I. WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 3,000 P.S.I. PORCHES, STEPS AND GARAGE SLABS TO BE 3,500 P.S.I. 2. ALL FOOTING TO REST ON FIRM, NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE IS 2,OOO P.S.F. 4. SLOPE GRADE AWAY FROM FOUNDATION WALLS FOR A MINIMUM OF 6" IN 10'-0".
5 1/16"
1'-4"
4'-6" 14'-0"
10'-0" 19'-0"
16'-6"
2'-0"
6'-0"
12" DEEP CONC. CHIMNEY FTG.
2'-0"
16'-0"
2'-0"
20" X 20" X 10" CONC. FTG. TYP.
8'-0" 42'-6"
2'-10"
10'-8" 27"X27" X12" CONC. FTG
4'-10"
32'-8"
7'-4"
8'-0"
10'-0"
8'-0"
4 X 4 POST
11'-6"
9'-0"
1'-4"
14'-6"
8'-0"
8"
LINE OF STEP
4" CONCRETE SLAB W/ 6 X 6 10/10 W.W.M. ON 4" COMPACTED GRAVEL FILL
14'-4"
18'-8"
8" X 8' CONCRETE RETAINING WALL
59'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
4'-6" 2'-0"
35'-0"
32'-0" 67'-0"
FULL BASEMENT PLAN 1/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3433B A foundation plan for a home with a full basement. Window wells must be added using the guidelines presented in Chapter 9 if habitable space is located in the basement.
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825
67'-0" 6'-0"
16'-0"
10'-0" 6'-0"
2'-6"
19'-0"
2'-6"
10'-0" 2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
6'-0"
5'-4"
4'-6"
2 3/4"
2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL TYP. EA. SIDE
5 1/16 1'-4"
9'-4'
25" X 25" X 12" CONC. FTG 8"
9'-4'
5 1/16 8"
9'-4"
24'-0" 2 3/4"
1'-0" 2-HD5A ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. BLOCK OUT FOR OR EQUAL 3 - 9 DOORS TYP. EA. SIDE
10'-0" 5'-0"
5 1/16"
1'-4"
59'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
4" CONCRETE SLAB W/ 6X6X10/10 W.W.M. ON 4" COMPACTED GRANULE FILL- SLOPE 1/8"/FT. REAR TO 6" ENTRANCE
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" X 10" A.B. @ 2'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" WASHERS THIS WALL ONLY.
NOTES: 1. CONC. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 2,500 P.S.I. WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER TO BE 3,000 P.S.I. PORCHES, STEPS AND GARAGE SLABS TO BE 3,500 P.S.I. 2. ALL FOOTING TO REST ON FIRM, NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE IS 2,OOO P.S.F. 4. SLOPE GRADE AWAY FROM FOUNDATION WALLS FOR A MINIMUM OF 6" IN 10'-0".
4'-6" 14'-0"
10'-0" 19'-0"
16'-6"
24'-4"
8'-0"
6'-6"
3'-3"
7'-6"
12" DEEP CHIMNEY FTG.
2'-0"
2'-0"
DOOR CUT BUILT-UP AREA FOR CLOSET
7'-6"
59'-0"
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS.
1'-4"
3'-4"
3'-3"
8" X 8' CONCRETE RETAINING WALL 1'-4"
11'-6"
2'-0"
10'-0"
12" DEEP CONC. CHIMNEY FTG.
2'-0"
2'-0"
16'-0"
8'-0"
42'-6"
2'-10"
10'-8" 27"X27"X12" CONC. FTG
4'-10"
2'-6"
20"X 20"X 10" CONC. FTG. TYP.
19'-0"
7'-4"
8'-0"
14'-6"
8'-0"
4 X 4 POST
2'-6"
9'-0"
2'-0"
8'-0"
48" HIGH X 8" WIDE CONCRETE RETAINING WALL. SEE SITE PLAN
1'-4"
6'-0"
4" CONCRETE SLAB W/ 6 X 6 10/10 W.W.M. ON 4" COMPACTED GRAVEL FILL
8"
LINE OF STEP
48" HIGH X 8" WIDE CONCRETE RETAINING WALL. SEE SITE PLAN
14'-4"
18'-8"
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" A.B. @ 4'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA. WASHERS.
32'-8"
14'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
2'-0"
4'-6" 2'-0"
35'-0"
32'-0" 67'-0"
DAYLIGHT BASEMENT PLAN 1/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3433C A foundation plan for a home with a daylight basement. When a home is built on a sloping site, the low side of the basement can be constructed using slab-on-grade construction methods. The retaining walls 48" (1200 mm) high on each side of the home allow standard wood construction to be used for lower walls.
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GOING GREEN Green Floor Systems
Even something as unattractive as the floor framing can incorporate green qualities and gain LEED credits. Common materials used to form the floor system can be found in CSI listings for Division 3 Concrete; Division 5.21 Steel Framing; and Division 6 Wood. LEED credits can typically be gained in the areas of Material and Resources, Energy and Atmosphere, and Indoor Environmental Quality. The use of concrete, wood, and engineered wood products can each gain credits if used properly. Concrete mixtures incorporating recycled content, and Portlandcement-reducing admixtures such as fly ash are desirable and earn LEED credits. Recycled materials used in place of mined stone aggregate ease landfill burdens and can improve the concrete’s strength-to-weight ratio and thermal properties. Wood floor joists will receive LEED credits if they are milled in the area, or if they come from a certified forest. Reclaimed wood salvaged from demolished buildings can also be another method of gaining credits. Wood milled from disease-killed trees that have been recently harvested, or from logs that have been submerged for decades (after sinking long ago during river-based log drives) are other sources of credits. The use of engineered
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
floor joists and trusses is a much more popular method of gaining credits for use of sustainable products. Most engineered products are made from materials that come from a certified forest, or from scrap content from making other products. Many of the products that are used to attach wood framing members are capable of gaining LEED credits because of their recycled content. Although steel is an energy-intensive framing material to create, it gains credits for its recycled content. Heavygauge structural steel framing members often have greater than 90% recycled content. Lightweight steel framing used for joists typically contains 20% to 25% recycled material, although according to information provided by the Steel Joist Institute, some manufacturers have in excess of 90% recycled content. Steel framing members also gain credit for being recyclable at the end of the building’s useful life. The flooring materials can also gain LEED credits in the Energy and Atmosphere and Indoor Environmental Quality categories. Concrete floor slabs and walls gain credits because of their thermal mass. Wood, engineered framing members, and steel flooring assemblies gain credits based on the insulation that is placed in the framing cavities of each system.
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in foundation materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Company, Product, Address or Service www.aci-int.org American Concrete Institute www.apawood.org APA—The Engineered Wood Association www.concreteconstruction.net Concrete Construction Online
www.cement.org www.post-tensioning.org www.strongtie.com www.steelframing.org www.steeljoist.org www.ilevel.com
Portland Cement Association Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI) Simpson Strong-Tie Connections Steel Framing Alliance Steel Joist Institute Weyerhaeuser (structural frames)
Chapter 34: Floor Systems and Foundation Support
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Floor Systems and Foundation Support Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 34 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 34–1 Why is a concrete slab called an on-grade floor system? Question 34–2 What is the minimum thickness for a residential slab? Question 34–3 Why are control joints placed in slabs?
Question 34–4 What is the minimum amount of fill placed under a slab? Question 34–5 What thickness of vapor barrier is to be placed under a slab? Question 34–6 What is the minimum height required in the crawl area? Question 34–7 What is the purpose of a girder? Question 34–8 How are floor joists attached to the foundation wall? Question 34–9 How are girders supported at the foundation wall? Question 34–10 What is a common spacing for beams in a post-and-beam floor?
CHAPTER 35
Foundation Plan Layout I
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T
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O
D
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C
T
I
O
N
The foundation plan is drawn at the same scale as the floor plan that it will support. Although the floor plan can be traced to obtain overall sizes, this practice can lead to major errors in the foundation plan. If you trace a floor plan that is slightly out of scale, you will reproduce the same errors in the foundation plan. A better method is to draw the foundation plan using the dimensions that are found on a print of the floor plan. If the foundation cannot be drawn using the dimensions on the floor plan, your floor plan may be missing dimensions or may contain errors. Great care needs to be taken with the foundation plan. If the foundation plan is not accurate, changes may be required that affect the entire structure.
This chapter includes guidelines for several types of foundation plans, including concrete slab, joist construction, post-and-beam, and partial and full basements. Each is based on the floor plan that was used for examples in Section 4. Before attempting to draw a foundation plan, study the completed plan that follows each example so you will know what the finished drawing should look like. The foundation plan can be drawn manually by dividing the work into six stages: (1) foundation layout, (2) drawing foundation members, (3) drawing floor framing members, (4) dimensioning, (5) lettering, and (6) evaluation. As you progress through the drawing, you will use several types of line quality. For layout steps, construction lines in nonreproducible blue with a 6H lead will be best. When drawing finished-quality lines, use the following: 5-mm lead, #0 pen, or sharp 3H lead for thin lines 7-mm lead, #2 pen, or sharp H lead for bold lines 9-mm lead, #3 pen, or H lead and draw two parallel lines very close for very bold lines
CONCRETE SLAB FOUNDATION LAYOUT The following steps can be used to draw a foundation with a concrete slab floor system. Not all steps will be required for every house. When the concrete 828
slab foundation is complete, it should resemble the plan shown in Figure 35-5. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 9. Each step can be seen in Figure 35-1. Using the dimensions on your floor plan, lay out the exterior edge of the slab. The edge of the slab should match the exterior side of the exterior walls on the floor plan. STEP 2 Draw the interior side of the stem wall around the slab at the garage area. See Figure 33-12A for a review of foundation dimensions. STEP 3 Block out doors in the stem walls. Allow for the door size plus 4" (100 mm). STEP 4 Lay out a support ledge if brick veneer is to be used. STEP 5 Lay out the exterior footing width. STEP 6 Lay out the size of the fireplace based on measurements from the floor plan. STEP 7 Lay out the fireplace footing so that it extends 6" (150 mm) minimum beyond the face of the fireplace (exclude the hearth). STEP 8 Lay out interior footings. STEP 9 Lay out any exterior piers that might be required for decks or porches. STEP 1
Darken all items that were drawn in Step 1 through Step 9. Use bold lines to draw Step 1 through Step 4 with finished-line quality. Use thin dashed lines to draw Steps 5, 7, 8, and 9 with finishedline quality. Your drawing should now resemble the drawing in Figure 35-2.
STEP 10
See Figure 35-3 for Step 11 through Step 14. Because the following items are simple, they can be drawn without construction lines. These items may or may not be required, depending on your plan. Draw changes in the floor levels. STEP 12 Draw metal connectors and exterior piers. STEP 13 Draw floor drains. STEP 14 Draw heating registers if required. STEP 11
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STEP 6
STEP 8
STEP 7
STEP 3 STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 5 STEP 4
STEP 3
STEP 9
FIGURE 351 Use construction lines to lay out the location of the stem wall, footings, doors, and the fireplace for a concrete slab foundation plan.
You now have drawn all of the information that is required to represent the floor and foundation systems. Follow Step 15 through Step 20 to place the required dimensions on the drawing. Use thin lines for all extension and dimension lines. Your drawing should resemble Figure 35-4 when complete.
Draw extension and dimension lines to locate: The overall size on each side of the foundation. STEP 16 Jogs in the foundation walls. STEP 17 Door openings in the stem wall. STEP 15
FIGURE 352 Carefully darken all objects using the proper finished-line quality. Construction lines should be so light that they do not need to be erased.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 13
STEP 11
STEP 12
FIGURE 353 Add any finishing materials such as lower slabs and plumbing, electrical, and HVAC material that will be below the slab.
STEP 15 STEP 16 STEP 19
STEP 19
STEP 18
STEP 17
STEP 15
STEP 16 STEP 15 STEP 17
STEP
17
STEP 16 STEP 15 FIGURE 354 Prepare the plan to be dimensioned by adding dimension and extension lines to describe the overall, major jogs, and each opening on each side of the foundation.
Chapter 35: Foundation Plan Layout
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Interior footings (to center) and interior stem walls (to edge) for braced wall support (50' [15 000 mm] maximum between braced wall lines). STEP 19 The fireplace. STEP 20 Heating and plumbing materials. STEP 18
The final drawing procedure is to place dimensions and specify the materials that are to be used. Figure 35-5 is an example of the notes that are required on the foundation. Use the following steps to complete the foundation plan. STEP 21 Compute and neatly letter all dimensions in the appropriate location. STEP 22 Neatly letter all required general notes. STEP 23 Neatly letter all required local notes. STEP 24 Place a title and scale under the drawing. STEP 25 Using a print of your plan, evaluate your drawing using the checklist below.
SLAB FOUNDATION PLAN CHECKLIST Correct Symbol / Location
Correct Structural Materials
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Outline of slabs Walls Footings and piers Doors Ductwork Plumbing Floor slopes
Proper footing size Proper footing location Proper pier size Proper pier location Lateral bracing
Required Local Notes
Required General Notes
❑ Concrete slab thickness,
❑ Soil-bearing pressure
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
fill, and reinforcement Veneer ledges Door block outs Fireplace footings Pier sizes Footing sizes Floor drains Heat registers Lateral bracing
Required Dimensions ❑ Overall ❑ Jogs ❑ Openings
Concrete strength Anchor bolt size and spacing Vapor barriers Slab insulation Reinforcement Lateral schedules
Pier locations Metal connectors Lateral bracing locations
FOUNDATION PLAN WITH JOIST CONSTRUCTION The following steps (illustrated in Figure 35-6) can be used to draw a foundation plan showing continuous footings and floor joists. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 9. Using the dimensions on your floor plan, lay out the exterior face of the foundation wall. STEP 2 Determine the foundation wall thickness and lay out the interior face of the foundation wall. See Figure 33-12A for a review of foundation footing and wall dimensions. STEP 3 Block out doors in the garage area. Typically the door size plus 4" (100 mm) is provided as the foundation is formed. STEP 4 Block out a crawl access. STEP 5 Lay out a support ledge if you are using masonry veneer. STEP 6 Lay out the size of the fireplace excluding the hearth, using the measurements on the floor plan. STEP 7 Lay out the footing width around the perimeter walls. STEP 8 Lay out the fireplace footing so it extends a minimum of 6" (150 mm) past the face of the fireplace. STEP 9 Lay out any exterior piers required for porches or deck support. STEP 10 Lay out girder locations to support floor joists, load-bearing walls, and changes in floor elevation. STEP 11 Locate the center of all support piers. STEP 12 Darken all items drawn in Step 1 through Step 9. Use bold lines to represent the materials drawn in Step 1 through Step 6. Use thin dashed lines for Step 7 through Step 9. When you are finished with this step, your drawing should resemble Figure 35-7. STEP 1
See Figure 35-8 for Step 13 through Step 18. The items in these steps are not drawn with construction lines. Because of their simplicity, these items can be drawn using finished lines and need not be traced. Draw the girders, using thin dashed lines. STEP 14 Draw arrows to represent the floor joist direction. STEP 15 Draw the piers to support the girders. STEP 13
832 Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 355 The foundation plan for a structure with a concrete slab is finished by adding dimensions and text. For drawings completed using the prescriptive path of the IRC, add any required supports for braced walls. Notice on the north wall, because the distance between braced wall lines exceeds 50’ (15 000 mm) a stem wall and footing have been added to support the interior braced wall panel.
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STEP 2
STEP 1
STEP 4
STEP 7 STEP 6 STEP 8
STEP 3 STEP 10
STEP 11 STEP 1
STEP 2 STEP 5
STEP 3
STEP 9 FIGURE 356 Use construction lines to lay out the locations of stem wall, footings, doors, the fireplace, and girder.
Draw beam pockets. STEP 17 Draw vents in the walls surrounding the crawl space. Use bold lines to represent the edges and thin lines to represent the vent. STEP 18 Crosshatch the masonry chimney if concrete block or brick is used. STEP 16
You now have drawn all of the information that is required to represent the floor and foundation systems. Follow Step 19 through Step 24 to dimension these items. Use thin lines for all extension and dimension lines. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 35-9.
FIGURE 357 Carefully darken all objects using the proper finished-line quality. Construction lines should be so light that they do not need to be erased.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 13 STEP 15
STEP 16 STEP 14 STEP 17
FIGURE 358 Draw the girders, joists, and vents.
STEP 19 STEP 22
STEP 20
STEP 19
STEP 19 STEP 20
STEP 23
STEP 20 STEP 21
STEP 23
STEP 21
STEP 20
STEP 19
FIGURE 359 Prepare the plan to be dimensioned by adding dimension and extension lines to describe the overall, major jogs, and each opening on each side of the foundation.
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Draw extension and dimension lines to locate: The overall size of each side of the foundation. STEP 20 The jogs in the foundation wall. STEP 21 Door openings in the foundation wall. STEP 22 The fireplace. STEP 23 All girders and piers. Place extension lines on the outside of the foundation if possible. STEP 24 Metal connectors if required. STEP 19
All materials have now been drawn and located. The final drawing procedure is to place dimensions and specify the material to be used. This is done with general and local notes in a method similar to that used on the floor plan. Figure 35-10 shows how the notes might appear in the foundation plan. Use the following steps as a guideline for completing the foundation plan. Compute all dimensions and place them in their appropriate locations. STEP 26 Neatly letter all required general notes. STEP 27 Neatly letter all required local notes. STEP 28 Place a title and scale under the drawing. STEP 29 Use a print of your plan to evaluate your drawing using the following checklist. STEP 25
FOUNDATION PLAN WITH JOISTS CHECKLIST Correct Symbol and Location
Correct Structural Materials
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Stem walls Footings Crawl access Vents Doors Girders Joist
Proper footing sizes Proper stem wall size Proper beam placement Proper beam size Proper joist size and direction Proper pier locations and sizes Lateral bracing
Piers Masonry Fireplace
❑ Garage slab thickness ❑ Fill and slope direction ❑ Fireplace outline (exterior 0-clearance)
Required General Notes
Required Dimensions
❑ Soil-bearing information ❑ Concrete strength ❑ Crawl space covering
❑ Overall ❑ Jogs ❑ Openings in stem walls
❑ Framing lumber grade
❑ Girder locations
❑ Lateral schedules
❑ Pier locations ❑ Metal connectors ❑ Lateral bracings locations
and species
(excluding vents)
STANDARD FOUNDATION WITH POST-AND-BEAM FLOOR SYSTEM Use construction lines for drawing Step 1 through Step 12. Each step can be seen in Figure 35-11. When your drawing is complete, it should resemble the plan in Figure 35-14. Using the dimensions on your floor plan, lay out the exterior edge of the foundation wall. STEP 2 Lay out the interior face of the foundation wall. STEP 3 Block out doors in the garage area. STEP 4 Block out for a crawl access. STEP 5 Lay out the support ledge if masonry veneer is to be used. STEP 6 Lay out the size of the fireplace using measurements from the floor plan. STEP 7 Lay out the footing under the foundation walls. STEP 8 Lay out the footing under the fireplace. STEP 9 Lay out any exterior piers required to support porches and decks. STEP 10 Lay out the center of each load-bearing wall. STEP 11 Lay out all girders. STEP 12 Lay out the center for the piers to support the girders. STEP 1
See Figure 35-12 for Step 13 through Step 16.
Required Local Notes ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Joist size and spacing Beam sizes Beam pockets Metal connectors Anchor bolts and mudsill
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Darken all items in Step 1 through Step 12. Use bold lines to represent the material in Step 1 through Step 6. Use thin dashed lines to represent the material in Step 7 through Step 9, and Step 12. STEP 14 Use pairs of thin dashed lines or a very bold center line to represent the girders. STEP 13
Veneer ledges Door block outs Fireplace footing size (masonry) Vent size and spacing Lateral bracing
836 Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 3510 The foundation plan for a home with a joist floor system is finished by adding dimensions and text. For drawings completed using the prescriptive path of the IRC, add any required supports for braced walls. Notice on the north wall, because the distance between braced wall lines exceeds 50’ (15 000 mm) a stem wall and footing have been added to support the interior braced wall panel.
Chapter 35: Foundation Plan Layout
837
STEP 4
STEP 7
STEP 6 STEP 8 STEP 10
STEP 3 STEP 11
STEP 12
STEP 1
STEP 2 STEP 5
STEP 3
STEP 9
FIGURE 3511 Use construction lines to lay out the locations of the stem wall, footing, doors, fireplace, and girders and piers for a post-and-beam foundation plan.
The items to be drawn in these steps have not been drawn with construction lines. Because of their simplicity you can draw these items with finished lines. Draw vents in the walls surrounding the crawl space.
STEP 15
Draw beam pockets. When you are finished with this step, your drawing should resemble the drawing in Figure 35-12. STEP 17 Crosshatch materials formed using concrete blocks. STEP 16
STEP 16
STEP 14 STEP 15
FIGURE 3512 Carefully darken all objects using the proper finished-line quality. Construction lines should be so light that they do not need to be erased.
838
Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 23
STEP 21
STEP 20
STEP 23 STEP 22
STEP 18 STEP 19 STEP 20 STEP 24 STEP 19
FIGURE 3513 Draw the girders and the piers with finished-line quality. Place dimension lines to describe the overall, major jogs, and each opening on each side of the foundation.
You now have drawn all of the information to represent the floor and foundation systems. Follow Step 18 through Step 23 to dimension these items. Use thin lines for extension and dimension lines. When complete, your foundation plan should resemble Figure 35-13. Draw extension and dimension lines to locate: The overall size of the foundation. STEP 19 The jogs in the foundation walls. STEP 20 All openings in the foundation walls except for vents. STEP 21 The fireplace. STEP 22 All girders. STEP 23 All piers. STEP 24 All metal connectors. STEP 18
All materials have now been drawn to represent the floor and foundation systems. The final drafting procedure is to place dimensions and specify the material to be used. This is done by the use of general and local notes in a method similar to what was used on the floor plan. Figure 35-14 shows how notes can be placed on the foundation plan. Complete the foundation plan using the following steps. Compute and neatly letter dimensions in the appropriate places. STEP 26 Neatly letter all required general notes. STEP 27 Neatly letter all local notes. STEP 28 Place a title and scale below the drawing. STEP 29 Using a print of your plan, evaluate your drawing using the checklist. STEP 25
Chapter 35: Foundation Plan Layout 839
FIGURE 3514 The foundation plan for a home with a post-and-beam floor system is finished by adding dimensions and text. For drawings completed using the prescriptive path of the IRC, add any required supports for braced walls. Notice on the north wall, because the distance between braced wall lines exceeds 50’ (15 000 mm) a stem wall and footing have been added to support the interior braced wall panel.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FOUNDATION PLAN WITH POST-AND-BEAM CHECKLIST Correct Symbol and Location
Correct Structural Materials
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Stem walls Footings Crawl access Vents Doors Girders and piers
Proper footing sizes Proper stem wall size Proper beam placement Proper pier placement
Required Local Notes
Required General Notes
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Metal connectors Anchor bolts and mudsills Garage slab thickness, fill, slope direction
❑ Fireplace note ❑ Vent size and spacing ❑ Veneer ledges
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Overall Jogs Wall openings Lateral bracing locations
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Girder locations Pier locations Metal locations Masonry fireplace location
COMBINATION SLAB AND CRAWL SPACE PLANS FOR A PARTIAL BASEMENT
Lateral bracing
Masonry fireplace and footing
Beam pockets
Required Dimensions
Veneer ledges
Line of slabs
Beam size
❑ Door block outs ❑ Fireplace outline (exterior 0-clearance) ❑ Lateral bracings
Soil-bearing values Concrete values Crawl space covering Crawl space insulation Framing lumber grade and species
❑ Lateral schedules
A structure may require a combined slab and floor joist system. The foundation plan will have similarities to both a foundation with joist and a slab foundation system. Figure 35-19 is an example of a foundation plan with a basement slab and a crawl space with joist construction. The following steps can be used to draw the foundation plan. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 12. Each step can be seen in Figure 35-15. Using the dimensions on your floor plan, lay out the exterior face of the foundation walls. STEP 2 Determine the wall thickness and lay out the interior face of the foundation walls. STEP 1
STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 4
STEP 6
STEP 8
STEP 7
STEP 8
STEP 3
STEP 9 STEP 10
STEP 11 STEP 12
STEP 3
STEP 1
STEP 2 STEP 5
STEP 3
STEP 10
FIGURE 3515 Use construction lines to lay out the location of the stem wall, retaining walls, footings, door locations, and the fireplace for a foundation plan with a partial basement.
Chapter 35: Foundation Plan Layout
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FIGURE 3516 Carefully darken all objects using the proper finished-line quality. Construction lines should be so light that they do not need to be erased.
Block out door and window openings in the foundation walls.
STEP 3 STEP 4
Block out a crawl access.
Lay out a support ledge if masonry veneer is to be used.
STEP 5
Lay out the size of the fireplace based on the size drawn on the floor plan.
STEP 6
STEP 7
Lay out the footing under the fireplace.
Lay out the footing width under all foundation walls.
STEP 8
Lay out the footing width under all interior loadbearing walls.
STEP 9
Lay out any exterior piers required for porches and deck support.
STEP 10
Lay out girder locations to support the floor and load-bearing walls.
STEP 11
STEP 12
Locate the center of all interior support piers.
Darken all items drawn in Step 1 through Step 10. Use bold lines for Step 1 through Step 6. Use thin dashed lines for items in Step 7 through Step 10 and Step 12. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 35-16.
STEP 13
See Figure 35-17 for Step 14 through Step 19. These items have not been drawn with construction lines. Each can be drawn using finished-quality lines and need not be traced.
Draw the girders using dashed lines. STEP 15 Draw piers with thin dashed lines. STEP 16 Draw vents in the crawl area only. STEP 17 Draw windows with thin lines. STEP 18 Draw window wells using thin lines. STEP 19 Crosshatch materials if concrete blocks are used. STEP 14
You now have drawn all of the information that is needed to represent the floor and foundation systems. Follow Step 20 through Step 23 to dimension these items. Use thin lines for all extension and dimension lines. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 35-18. Draw extension and dimension lines to locate: Overall size on each side of the foundation. STEP 21 Jogs in the foundation walls. STEP 22 All openings in the foundation walls except for vents. STEP 23 All girders and piers. STEP 20
All materials have now been drawn and located. The final drawing procedure is to place dimensions and specify the materials that were used. Materials may be specified with general and local notes. Figure 35-19 is an example of the notes that can be found on the foundation plan. Use the following steps as guidelines to complete the foundation plan.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 16
STEP 17
STEP 14 STEP 15
STEP 18
FIGURE 3517 Draw all girders, piers, windows, and window wells.
STEP 22
STEP 23
STEP 23 STEP 21 STEP 20
FIGURE 3518 Prepare the plan to be dimensioned by adding dimension and extension lines to describe the overall, major jogs, and each opening on each side of the foundation.
Chapter 35: Foundation Plan Layout
FIGURE 3519 The foundation plan with a crawl space and partial basement is finished by adding dimensions and text. For drawings completed using the prescriptive path of the IRC, add any required supports for braced walls. 843
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Compute all dimensions and place them in the appropriate location. STEP 25 Neatly letter all required general notes. STEP 26 Neatly letter all required local notes. STEP 27 Place a title and scale under the drawing. STEP 28 Using a print of your plan, evaluate your drawing using the following checklist. STEP 24
CHECKLIST FOR FOUNDATION PLANS WITH PARTIAL SLAB AND FLOOR JOISTS Correct Symbol and Location
Correct Structural Materials
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Stem walls Footings Crawl access Vents Doors Girders and joist Piers Slabs Window wells
Footing size Stem wall sizes Beam placement Beam sizes Joist sizes Pier locations Beam locations Pier sizes Lateral bracing
Required Local Notes
Required General Notes
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Joist size and spacing
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Anchor bolts
Beam size Beam pockets Metal connectors
Mudsill Slab thickness Fill Slope direction of slab Window wells Lateral bracing
Overall sizes Jogs Openings in stem walls Interior footing locations Girder locations Pier locations Metal connectors Lateral bracing locations
Concrete strength Crawl space covering Framing lumber grade and species
❑ Slab insulation ❑ Lateral schedule
Required Dimensions ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Soil-bearing value
FULL BASEMENT The foundation plan for a home with a full basement will have similarities to a slab foundation system. Figure 35-22 is an example of a foundation plan with a basement slab and a crawl space with joist construction. The following steps can be used to draw the foundation plan. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 12. Each step can be seen in Figure 35-20. Using the dimensions on your floor plan, lay out the exterior face of the foundation walls. STEP 2 Determine the wall thickness and lay out the interior face of the foundation walls. STEP 3 Block out openings in the foundation walls. STEP 4 Lay out a support ledge if masonry veneer is to be used. STEP 5 Lay out the size of the fireplace based on the size drawn on the floor plan. STEP 6 Lay out the footing under the fireplace. STEP 7 Lay out the footing width under all foundation walls. STEP 8 Lay out the footing width under all interior loadbearing walls. STEP 9 Lay out any exterior piers required for porches and deck support. STEP 10 Darken all items drawn in Step 1 through Step 9. Use bold lines for Step 1 through Step 6. Use thin dashed lines for items in Step 7 through Step 9. STEP 1
See Figure 35-21 for Step 11 through Step 13. These items have not been drawn with construction lines. Each can be drawn using finished-quality lines and need not be traced. Draw window wells using thin lines. STEP 12 Draw windows with thin lines. STEP 13 Crosshatch any materials where concrete blocks are used. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 35-21. STEP 11
You now have drawn all of the information that is needed to represent the foundation system. Follow Step 14 through Step 16 to dimension these items. Use thin lines for all extension and dimension lines. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 35-22. Draw extension and dimension lines to locate: Overall size on each side of the foundation. STEP 15 Jogs in the foundation walls. STEP 16 All openings in the foundation walls except for vents. STEP 14
Chapter 35: Foundation Plan Layout
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STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 5
STEP 7
STEP 6 STEP 7
STEP 8
STEP 3
STEP 3
STEP 1
STEP 2 STEP 4
STEP 3
STEP 9
FIGURE 3520 Use construction lines to lay out the locations of retaining walls, footings, doors, and the fireplace for a full basement foundation plan.
STEP 12 STEP 11
STEP 16
STEP 15 STEP 14
FIGURE 3521 Carefully darken all objects using the proper finished-line quality. Construction lines should be so light that they do not need to be erased. Add any finishing materials such as window wells. Add dimension and extension lines to describe the overall, major jogs, and each opening on each side of the foundation.
846 Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 3522 The foundation plan for a full basement is finished by adding dimensions and text. For drawings completed using the prescriptive path of the IRC, add any required supports for braced walls.
Chapter 35: Foundation Plan Layout
All materials have now been drawn and located. The final drawing procedure is to place dimensions and specify the materials that were used. Materials may be specified with general and local notes. Figure 35-22 is an example of the notes that can be found on the foundation plan. Use the following steps as guidelines to complete the foundation plan.
847
Compute all dimensions and place them in the appropriate location. STEP 18 Neatly letter all required general notes. STEP 19 Neatly letter all required local notes. STEP 20 Place a title and scale under the drawing. STEP 21 Using a print of your plan, evaluate your drawing using the checklists that were used to complete a partial slab/joist foundation. STEP 17
CADD APPLICATIONS Using CADD to Draw Foundation Plans The six steps used to draw a foundation plan manually are similar to the steps used when drawing with AutoCAD. The first step in using CADD is to plan your drawing. This includes planning where the drawing will be created and stored, the needed layers, line types, and what loads will need to be supported. Because you do not have the same kind of accuracy problems when working with CADD as you have with manual drafting, the CADD floor plan may be used as an accurate basis for drawing the foundation plan. Display the floor plan, and then begin the foundation drawing directly over the floor plan on another layer. Use layers with prefixes such as FND and create layers for WALL, FOOT, JSTS, ANNO, SYMB, OUTL, and DIMS to keep the foundation plan separate from the floorplan files. By using the OSNAP command, the line representing the outer side of the stem walls can be drawn, using the outer edge of the exterior walls of the floor plan as a guide. Once the outline of the floor plan has been traced, freeze all floor-related information. The guidelines given earlier in this chapter can now be used as guidelines for creating the desired foundation type. Once the outline of the exterior walls has been established, the OFFSET command can be used to lay out the thickness of the stem walls and footings. Corners can be adjusted by using the FILLET or TRIM command. The CHANGE PROPERTIES command can be used to change the lines representing the footings from continuous to hidden. By following the step-by-
step instructions for a particular foundation type, the plan can be completed. Many of the dimensions used on the floor or framing plan can also be used on the foundation plan (see Figure 35-23). Thaw the existing dimensions so that they are displayed on the foundation drawing, or use the COPY command to place the needed dimension in the drawing. A layer such as BASE DIM can be used for placing dimensions required by the floor and foundation plans. Place any dimensions that were not placed on previous plan views as needed on the foundation plan. This will include the locations of openings in the stem wall for any doors into the garage, foundation supports, and braced wall anchor locations. Openings in the exterior envelope that will be above a wood floor system do not need to be located on the foundation plan. General notes can be typed and stored as a WBLOCK and reused on future foundation plans. Many drafters also store lists of local notes required for a particular type of foundation as a WBLOCK and insert them into a drawing. Once inserted into the foundation plan, the notes can be moved to the desired position. When completed, the foundation plan can be stored separately from the floor plan to make plotting easier. Storing the foundation plan with the floor and framing plan will save disk space, and proper use of layering can ease plotting. All foundation walls, bearing footings, and support beams will be in their correct locations. ■
848
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS 51'-2 1/2" 29'-6"±
21'-8 1/2" GENERAL NOTES:
16'-0"
4" CONC. SLAB OVE 4" MIN. GRAVEL. SLOPE 1/4" MIN. PER FOOT. PROVIDE 6 X 6 -#10 X #10 WELDED WIRE MESH.
2'-8"
12'-0"±
BLOCK OUT FOR 9'-0" WIDE DOORS
2'-0"
2'-0"
NEW 30" X 24" CRAWL ACCESS
8" WIDE STEM WALL TYP. W/ 2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" Ø X 10" AB. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. - 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/2" Ø WASHERS.
2 X 8 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
25'-6" ±
2 X 8 DFPT LEDGERS
4'-0"
18" MIN. CRAWL SPACE COVER W/ 6 MIL. BLACK VAPOR BARRIER THROUGHOUT. LAP JOINTS 12" MIN. & EXTEND UP STEM WALL & STAPLE TO MUD BILL.
9'-4"
EXISTING CRAWL SPACE
8-SIMPSON CO. PAT 28 STRAPS
30" X 18" EXIST. CRAWL ACCESS
PROVIDE CONT. FOOT @ GARAGE DOOR
1. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE OF 2,000 PSF 2. ALL CONCRETE TO BEAR ON FIRM, NATURAL, UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH @ 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER - 2500 P.S.I. WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER - 3000 P.S.I. GARAGE SLABS, PORCHES, & STEPS 3500 P.S.I. 4. EXTEND ALL FOOTINGS 18" INTO NATURAL GRADE. FOOTINGS TO BE 6" THICK FOR 1 STORY/ 7" THICK @ 2 STORY. ALL STEM WALLS TO BE 8" WIDE UNLESS STEEL IS PROVIDED WITHIN 2" (1" MIN. FROM THE FACE OF WALL AWAY FROM THE SOIL. STEEL TO BE 2– #3'S HORIZ. 5. FINISH GRADE TO SLOPE AWAY FROM THE FOUNDATION WALL. SLOPE TO BE A MINIMUM OF 6" WITHIN 10'–0" OF WALL. 6. PROVIDE POSITIVE DRAINAGE AT ALL CRAWL SPACES. 7. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE D.F.L. #2.
8" 7'-6"±
BLOCK OUT FOR 2'-8" WIDE DOOR
5 1/2"
24" X 6" SCREENED VENTS @ 10'-0" O.C.± 3'-0" MAX FROM EACH CORNER
3'-0" 21'-6 1/2"
22'-2"±
NTS
51'-2 1/2"
FOUNDATION PLAN 1/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3523 Tracing the outline of the walls on the floor plan is an excellent method to create the foundation plan. Most other materials and notes can be created using the OFFSET command, or by inserting blocks.
Chapter 35: Foundation Plan Layout
849
See CD for more information
Foundation Plan Layout Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 35 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 35–1 At what scale will the foundation be drawn? Question 35–2 List five items that must be shown on a foundation plan for a concrete slab. Question 35–3 What general categories of information must be dimensioned on a slab foundation?
Question 35–9 What type of line quality is typically used to represent beam pockets? Question 35–10 What are the disadvantages of tracing a print of the floor plan to lay out a foundation plan?
PROBLEMS 1. Draw a foundation plan that corresponds to the
floor plan problem from Chapter 18 that you have drawn. Draw the required foundation plan using the guidelines given in this chapter. Design a floor system that is suitable for the residence and your area of the country. 2. Draw the foundation plan using the same type and
Question 35–4 Show how floor joists are represented on a foundation plan.
size of drawing material that you used for the floor plan.
Question 35–5 How large an opening should be provided in the stem wall for a garage door 8’–0” wide?
3. Use the same scale that was used to draw the floor
Question 35–6 How much space should be provided for a 3’ entry door in a post-and-beam foundation? Explain your answer.
4. Refer to your floor plan to determine the dimen-
Question 35–7 How are the footings represented on a foundation plan? Question 35–8 Show two methods of representing girders.
plan. sions and position of load-bearing walls. 5. Refer to the text of this chapter and class lecture
notes for complete information. 6. When your drawing is complete, turn in a print to
your instructor for evaluation.
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www.kevinmillerphoto.com
SECTION 10
Wall Sections and Details
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CHAPTER 36
Sectioning Basics Sections are drawn to show the vertical relationships of the structural materials called for on the floor, framing, roof, and foundation plans. The sections show the methods of construction for the framing crew. Before drawing sections, it is important to understand the different types of sections, their common scales, and the relationship of the cutting plane to the section.
is being viewed. Figure 36-2 shows an example of a framing plan with section markers. Figure 36-3 shows the section that is specified by the section marker AA/3. Notice that material the cutting plane passes through on the floor plan is represented on the section. Material in the background such as doors, windows, and cabinets can be shown or omitted depending on office practice.
SECTION ORIGINATION
SECTION ALIGNMENT
The use of a viewing plane was introduced in Chapter 5. Building sections are the result of passing the viewing plane through a structure to reveal the construction methods being used. Material that is in front of the viewing plane cannot be seen. Material that is behind the viewing plane is projected to the plane and reproduced in the section. Another method of visualizing a section is to think of the viewing plane as a giant saw that slices vertically through a structure and divides it into two portions. One portion is removed to allow viewing of the portion that remains. Using the saw analogy, the viewing plane is referred to as a cutting plane. The location of the cutting plane is shown on the floor or framing plan using symbols similar to those shown in Figure 36-1. Notice that with each symbol, an arrow is included to indicate which portion of the structure
In drawing sections, as with other parts of the plans, the drawing is read from the bottom or right side of the page. The cutting plane on the framing plan shows which way the section is being viewed. The arrows of the cutting plane should be pointing to the top or left side of the paper, depending on the area of the building being sectioned (see Figure 36-4). Where possible, the cutting plane should extend through the entire structure. The cutting plane can be broken for notes or dimensions to maintain clarity. On complex structures, the cutting plane can be jogged to show material clearly and avoid having to draw a second section.
I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
TYPES OF SECTIONS Three types of sections may be drawn for a set of plans: full sections, partial sections, and details.
A A-12
1 A-301
FIGURE 361 The location of a section is shown on the floor plan by the use of a cutting plane. The upper text represents the specific section, and the lower text represents the page number where the detail can be found.
Full Sections Full sections are the views that result from passing the cutting plane through the entire structure. Full sections are meant to give an overall view of a specific area of the structure and may be either longitudinal or transverse. A transverse section is produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the short axis of the structure (see Figure 36-4A), and it is often referred to as a cross section. The cutting plane for a transverse section is usually parallel to the materials used to frame the roof, ceiling, and floor systems and generally shows the shape of the structure better. 853
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 362 Cutting-plane markers may extend through a structure, may be broken at a text or dimensions to provide clarity, or may be jogged to eliminate a second section.
A longitudinal section (see Figure 36-4B) is produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the long axis of the structure. It is generally perpendicular to most structural materials used to frame the roof, ceiling, and floor systems. Because the framing members are perpendicular to the cutting plane, they are seen as if they had been cut. Longitudinal sections are rarely drawn in residential construction. Chapter 43 will further explore longitudinal sections. No matter the type of section, a building section should include the following components: ●
Room names and numbers of the areas cut by the cutting plane.
● ● ● ● ●
Floor-to-floor dimensions. Finish elevations. Ceilings and partitions that are cut by the cutting plane. Major materials, symbols, and lists of abbreviations. Other building section references that intersect the building section.
A full section can be seen in Figure 36-3. Notice that the roof is framed with standard/scissor trusses, the exterior walls are framed with 2 × 6 (50 × 150) studs, and the floor system is post-and-beam with a 7 3/4" (195 mm) step. Vertical relationships for the roof pitch,
Chapter 36: Sectioning Basics
855
SOLID BLOCK @ RIDGE
1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLY. ROOF SHEATHING, LAID PERP. TO TRUSSES. NAIL W/ 8d @6" D.C. @ EDGE, & 12" O.C. @ FIELD.
PLYWOOD BAFFLES AT EAVE VENTS.
12
12" SCREENED VENTS @ 10' O.C. MED. CEDAR SHAKES OVER 15# FELT W/ 30# X 18" WIDE FELT BETWEEN EACH COURSE W/ 10\"EXPOSURE. STD. SCISSORS TRUSSES @24"O.C. SEE DWG. BY MANUF.
6
TRUSS CLIPS @ EA. TAIL TO PLATE.
2'-0" TYP. 1/2" GYP. BD. WALLS AND CEIL.
2-2 X 12 HEADER W/ 2" RIGID INSULATION W/ 2 X 6 NAILER 2 X 6 SILL
10" BATTS R-38 MIN. PAPER FACE @ HEATED SIDE.
8'-1 1/8"
6'-10" TYP.
2-2X6 TOP PLATES LAP 48"MIN.
SOLID BLOCK OMIT EA. 3RD. FOR SCREENED VENTS. 4 12
10" BATTS, R-30 MIN. PAPER FACE @ HEATED SIDE.
7 3/4" MAX. 18" MIN.
12"MIN.
8" 1'-0"
3/8" HARDBOARD UNDERLAY 2-4-1 T&G PLY. SHEATH.
6"
6"
18" X 8" CONC. PIER
2 X 4 KEY
36" X 8" CONC. PIER
1'-0"
SECTION A-A 3/8"
1/2" 'CCX' EXT PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. 2 X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
6" BATTS, R-25 MIN. HORIZ. SIDING OVER 1/2" WAFERBOARD & TYVEK
2X6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER.
4 X 6 GIRDERS w/ GUSSET ON 4 X 4 POST ON 55# FELT .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER
6" BATTS, R-21 MIN. PAPER FACE @ HEATED SIDE.
2 X 6 DFPT W/ 1/2" X 10"A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" WASHERS
1'-0"
FIGURE 363 A full section shows framing members used in a specific area of a structure.
wall height, window and door header heights, foundation, and crawl heights are also provided. For a simple home, only one section might be required to explain fully the types of construction to be used. Each major structural material must be drawn and specified as well as providing the vertical dimensions. For a more complex structure, more than one section may be required to specify each major type of construction. Some offices use a combination of partial and full sections to explain the required construction procedures.
Partial Sections A partial section is a section that does not go completely through the structure. Partial sections are used to show construction materials for specific areas of the structure that are not seen in other sections. A partial section will show only typical roof, wall, floor, and foundation information for one typical wall rather than the full structure. An example of a partial section can be seen in Figure 36-5. The partial or wall section
is typically used to supplement the full sections. Only material that has not been specified on the partial section is noted on the full sections. The use of partial sections is popular in many professional offices using computers. Several different partial sections can be created to reflect major types of construction—for example, one- or two-level construction, truss or stick roof, post-and-beam or joist foundations, and various wall coverings. All common materials are specified on these drawings. These partial sections can be stored and inserted into each set of plans as needed. When partial and typical wall sections are provided, the full section will now need to specify only materials not represented in the partial section. Partial sections can also be used on complex structures to serve as a reference for details of complicated areas.
Details Details are enlargements of specific areas of a structure and are typically drawn where several components intersect or where small members are required.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
RAFTERS & CEIL'G JOISTS AS NOTED ON PLANS
12 9
24" H.S. TAPERED CEDAR SHAKES - 10" EXP. W/ 30# X18" FELT BTWN EA. COURSE ON 1 X 6 SPACED SHEATHING - 10" O.C. PLYWOOD INSUL. BAFFLES SOLID BLOCKING 2 X 4 BLOCKS @ RAFTER SPACING
B
9'-0" TYPICAL (11'-0" @ ENTRY)
DRIP FLASHING INSULATION 1/2" GYPSUM B'D. 'SIMPSON' H-2.5
GUTTER ON 1 X 10 FASCIA 1X4 T&G SOFFIT w/ CONTIN. 2" SCREENED VENT BRICK VENEER SIDING ( SECURE w/ CORROSION RESIST. METAL TIES @ 16" O.C. EA. WAY) OVER 15# A.S. FELT OVER 1/2" CD EXTERIOR GLUE PLYW'D (32/16) SEE ELEVATIONS.
DBL 2X6 PLATE 1/2" GYPSUM B'D. 2X6 STUDS @ 16" O.C. INSULATION 1" MIN.
PRESS. TR. 2X6 SILL W/ 1/2" DIA. X 10" ANCH. BOLTS @ 6'- 0" O.C.
2X6 SOLE PLATE 1/2" UNDERLAYMENT ON 3/4" C-D EXT. PLYW'D FLOOR JOISTS SEE FOUND. PLAN
1/2"Ø WEEP HOLES @ 24" O.C. FLASHING
A
B
FIGURE 364 Cutting planes on the framing plan show the direction from which the section is to be viewed. Always try to keep the cutting-plane arrows pointing to the left or to the top of the page. (A) A transverse section, or cross section, is produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the short axis of the structure (B) A longitudinal section is produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the long axis of the structure.
Figure 36-6 shows an example of a partial section of a structure built on a piling foundation. Figure 36-7 shows two of the details that are referenced to the partial section in Figure 36-6. Some offices have stock details. These are details of items such as footings that typically remain the same. Using a stock footing detail saves time: the drafter need not relabel all of this information each time this part is drawn in section (see Figure 36-8). By combining the information on the framing plans and the sections, the contractor should be able to make accurate estimates of the amount of material required and the cost of completing the project. To make the sections easier to read, sections have become somewhat standardized in several areas, including scales and alignment.
DRAWING SCALE Sections are typically drawn at a scale of 3/8" = 1'–0". Scales of 1/8" or 1/4" may be used for supplemental sections requiring little detail. A partial section may be
N 4
6" 1'-6"
10"
6"
A
6MIL BLACK POLYETHYLENE GOUND COVER
( MINIMUMS )
B
18" ( MINIMUM)
A
1'-8"
TYPICAL WALL SECTION SCALE
3/4"
1'-0"
FIGURE 365 A partial section can be used to show typical roof, wall, floor, and foundation construction materials of a specific structure. Courtesy Piercy & Barclay Designers, Inc., CPBD.
drawn at a scale of 3/8" = 1'–0", 1/2" = 1'–0", or 3/4" = 1'–0, depending on office procedure and the complexity of the material to be drawn. Details are typically drawn at a scale of 1/2" = 1'–0" through 3" = 1'–0", depending on the complexity of the intersection. Several factors influence the choice of scale in drawing sections: 1. Size of the drawing sheet to be used. 2. Size of the project to be drawn. 3. Placement of the section. 4. Purpose of the section.
Factors 1 and 2 need little discussion. The floor plan determines the size of the project. Once the sheet size is selected for the floor plan, that size should be used throughout the entire project. The placement of the section as it relates to other drawings should have only a minor influence on the scale. It may be practical to put a partial section in a blank corner of a drawing, but don’t let space dictate the scale. The most important factor should be the purpose of the section. If the section is merely used to show the shape of the project, a scale of 1/8" = 1'–0" would be
Chapter 36: Sectioning Basics
SIMILAR 2 13
857
2 X 12 F.J. @ 16" O.C. FIN. FLOOR 100.00
W 16 X 45 FIN. FLOOR 91.00 3 11 SIMILAR
2 X 12 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
W 16 X 67
1 SIMILAR 13 W 16 X 67
W 16 X 45 5 13
1 14
9 13
3/4"Ø ROD & TURNBUCKLE T.S. 4 X 4 X 1/4" STEEL BRACE
5 13 SIMILAR HP 8 X 36 STEEL PILES
3 11 SIMILAR
SECTION G-G
1/4"
1'-0"
8 13 24"Ø X 60" DEEP CONC. PIERS
FIGURE 366 This partial section for a hillside residence can be used to provide supplemental information about an area of a structure. Courtesy Residential Designs.
2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" X 10 A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. THRU 2"Ø WASHERS.
5/16
SOLID BLOCK W/ A-35 ANGLE @ EA. JOIST AND BLOCK TO PL. 6 X 6 X 3/8" SIDE PLATE TYP. UNLESS NOTED
3/8
4
1/4 3/4"Ø TIE RODS & 3/4" TURNBUCKLES
1 13
T.S. 6 X 6 X 1/4" STEEL COLUMNS TYPICAL
3/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 367 Details provide information about a small, complicated area of a structure, such as the intersection of various materials. This detail is referenced to the partial section in Figure 36-6. Courtesy Residential Designs.
7"
12 X 12 X 3/4" STEEL TOP PL.
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" SAND FILL OVER .006 VAPOR BARRIER
8" MIN.
3 1/2" MIN
1/2" FIBER INSULATION JOINT
INTO NAT. GRADE OR COMP. FILL
2 X 6 DFL STUDS @ 16" O.C.
18" MIN
3 X 6 PT SILL W/ 1/2" M.B. @ 24" O.C. STAGGER
3 1/2" CONC. SLAB W/ 10-10/4-4 WELDED WIRE MESH
8"
2" X 24" RIGID DOW 'BLUEBOARD'
15"
TYP. SLAB DETAIL 3/4"
1'-0"
2 LEVEL FOOTING
FIGURE 368 Details of common areas of construction such as a footing are often referred to as a stock detail. A stock detail can be inserted into a drawing to save the time that would be required to draw it for each application.
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fine. This type of section is rarely required in residential drawings but is often used for drawing apartments or office buildings and will be discussed in Chapter 43. When used for residential projects, this type of section is used as a reference map to locate structural details. The primary section is typically drawn at a scale of 3/8" = 1'–0". This scale provides two benefits, one to the print reader and one to the drafter. The main advantage of using this scale is the ease of distinguishing each structural member. At a smaller scale, separate members such as the finished flooring and the rough flooring are difficult to draw and read. Without good clarity, problems could arise at the job site. At 3/8" scale, the drafter will have a bigger drawing on which to place the notes and dimensions. A scale of 1/2" = 1'–0" is not widely used in most offices. This scale is very clear, but sections are so large that a great deal of paper is required to complete the project. Often, if more than one section must be drawn, the primary section is drawn at 3/8" = 1'–0", and the other sections are drawn at 1/4" = 1'–0". By combining drawings at these two scales, typical information can be placed on the 3/8" section, and the 1/4" sections are used to show variations with little detail.
REPRESENTING AND LOCATING MATERIALS The type of section to be drawn will dictate the amount of information to be displayed and how the material will be represented. The smaller the drawing scale, the less information will be presented and the fewer number of line types will be used. In addition to using larger plotting scales, details require more attention to line contrast and the use of more varied line weights. Careful consideration must also be given to how materials will be represented.
Using Line Contrast Although standards vary, some details such as foundation details will require a minimum of four different line weights to provide contrast between materials. Unfortunately there is no standard of “always use this line weight.” The line weights used will vary depending on the scale at which the detail will be reproduced, and the materials that must be represented. The goal of each type of section is to have good contrast. Use thin lines to represent most construction materials, and thicker lines to represent structural materials such as beams and plates that have been cut by the cutting plane. When drawing foundation details, use a thicker line than was used for the structural materials to represent the outline
Architectural Drafting and Design
of concrete, and an even thicker line to represent the finished grade. NOTE: The goal of any detail is to clearly represent material.
Because there is no set standard for line weight, draw a few lines using varied line weights and then make a test print. Lines should be thick enough to provide contrast, but not so thick that the lines bleed into other objects.
Representing Material The method used to represent each material will vary depending on the drawing scale that is used. Different methods are also used to represent materials that are continuous and are cut by the cutting plane or are intermittent and beyond the cutting plane. Although the method of representing materials may vary with each office, it is critical that each material be distinguished from other materials to provide drawing clarity. Common materials displayed in section are shown in Figure 36-9. It is also important not to spend more time than necessary detailing materials. If a product is delivered to the site ready to be installed, minimal attention representing the product is required. If a component must be constructed at the job site, the drawings must provide enough information for all of the different trades depending on the drawings.
Wood, Timber, and Engineered Products Notice in Figure 36-3 that thin lines represent studs that lie beyond the cutting plane and thick lines represent the plates. On small-scale sections, the lumber and timber products can be drawn using their nominal size. Thin materials such as plywood in Figure 36-9K may have to be exaggerated so that they can be clearly represented. Trusses perpendicular to the cutting plane can be represented by thick lines showing the shapes of the truss. When parallel to the cutting plane, the chords and webs can be represented by thin lines similar to those in Figure 36-9V. In partial sections and details, the actual size of lumber and timber should be represented. In addition to using thick lines to outline members shown in end views, several methods can be used to represent the material. Figure 36-9P and Figure 36-9S show common methods to represent materials such as plates, ledgers, and beams. Plywood, gypsum board, and other finishes are represented by hatch patterns similar to those shown in Figure 36-9A, Figure 36-9K, and Figure 36-9L.
Steel The size of the drawing will affect how sectioned steel members are represented. At small scale, a solid, thick
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A.
B.
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C.
D.
E.
line represents the desired shape of steel members (see Figure 36-9Q). As the scale increases, pairs of lines can represent the desired shape of sectioned members. In details, pairs of thin lines represent sectioned steel with a hatch pattern consisting of pairs of parallel diagonal lines (see Figure 36-9R). Thin lines representing the nominal thickness are used to represent steel columns, beams, or trusses that are beyond the cutting plane. Steel trusses are represented much like wood trusses.
Unit Masonry F.
G.
H.
K.
J.
M.
L.
N.
Methods of representing brick and masonry products vary as the scale of the drawing increases. In small-scale sections, units are typically hatched with diagonal lines and no attempt is made to represent cavities or individual units. As the size of the drawing increases, individual units are represented, as well as cavities within the unit and grouting between the units. Individual hatch patterns are used to differentiate between the masonry unit and the grout. Steel reinforcing can be represented by either a hidden or continuous polyline. Figure 36-9B, Figure 36-9C, and Figure 36-9D show examples of a wall section representing unit masonry and brick veneer.
Concrete P.
Q.
R.
The edges of poured members are represented by thick lines and a hatch pattern consisting of dots and small triangles (see Figure 36-9G). Because of the complexity of concrete construction, the section depends on many details to show construction of each concrete member.
Glazing S.
T.
U.
Glass is represented in sections by a single line or pairs of lines depending on the drawing scale. In full and partial sections, glass is generally represented by thin lines, with little attention given to intersections between the glazing and window frames. As the drawing scale is increased, the detail in representing the glass and the frame also increases.
V.
Insulation FIGURE 369 Common symbols for representing materials in sections and details. Materials include (A) wood-framed wall; (B) small-scale masonry; (C) double-wythe brick wall; (D) concrete masonry units; (E) steel tubes; (F) steel I or W shapes; (G) poured concrete walls; (H) batt insulation; (J ) rigid insulation; (K) smallscale plywood; (L) large-scale plywood; (M) soil; (N) gravel; (P) wood and timber in end view (blocking and two methods of showing continuous members); (Q) small-scale steel shapes in end view; (R) large-scale steel shapes in end view; (S) laminated timbers in end view; (T ) wood member supported by a metal hanger in side view on a laminated member in end view; (U ) solid-web trusses in side and end view; and (V ) open-web trusses in side and end views.
The type of insulation will dictate how it is drawn. Batt insulation is generally represented as shown in Figure 36-9H. Depending on the complexity of the section, the insulation may be shown across its entire span or in only one portion of the section. When only a portion of the insulation is drawn, notes must be placed that clearly define the limits of the insulation. Rigid insulation can be represented as shown in Figure 36-9J with the same considerations as in showing batt insulation. As the scale increases, insulation should be shown throughout the entire detail.
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Locating Materials with Dimensions Dimensions are an important element of full, partial, and wall sections. Both vertical and horizontal dimensions may be placed on sections, whereas partial sections and details generally show only vertical dimensions. On small-scale sections, the use of dimensions depends on the area being represented.
Vertical Dimensions Vertical heights can be represented by using typical dimension methods or elevation symbols from a known point. Each type of dimension is usually placed on the outside of the section. Dimensions are generally given from the bottom of the sole plate to the top of the top plate for wood-frame structures. This dimension also provides the height from the top of the plywood floor to the bottom of the framing member used to frame the next level. Other common vertical exterior dimensions include: Steel stud walls: from plate to top of channel. Structural steel: to top of steel member. Masonry units: to top of unit with distance and number of courses provided. Concrete slab: from top of slab or panel. The job captain will generally provide the exact dimensions for inexperienced drafters on a check print. Once the major shapes of the structure have been defined, dimensions should be provided to define openings, floor changes, or protective devices. Openings are located by providing a height from the top of the floor decking or sheathing to the bottom of the header. Changes in floor height and the height of landings are dimensioned in a similar method as changes in height between floor levels. Other common interior dimensions that should be provided include height of railings, partial walls, balconies, planters, and decorative screens.
Horizontal Dimensions The use of horizontal dimensions on full sections varies greatly for each office. With the exception of footing widths, horizontal dimensions are usually not placed on partial sections or details. When provided, horizontal dimensions generally are located from grid lines to the desired member. Exterior wood and concrete members should be referenced to their edge. Interior
Architectural Drafting and Design
wood members are referenced to a center line. Interior concrete members are referenced to an edge. Steel members are referenced to their centers. The distance for roof overhangs and balcony projections also may be placed on sections.
Drawing Symbols The sections use symbols that match those of the floor, roof, and elevation drawings to reference material. Symbols that might be found on the section include: Grid markers. Elevation markers. Section markers. Detail markers. Room names and numbers. Grid markers are not often used in residential drawings but are very common in large structures. Chapter 43 will explore the use of grid markers. Elevations that are specified on the floor plan and elevation drawings should also be referenced on the section by use of a datum line or an elevation placed over a leader line.
Drawing Notations Annotation on each type of section is used to specify materials and explain special installation procedures. As with other drawings, notes may be placed as either local or keyed notes. Most offices use local notes with a leader line that connects the note to the material. Local notes should be aligned to be parallel to the drawing to aid the print reader. On full sections, notes need to be placed neatly throughout the entire drawing. Wherever possible, notes should be placed on the exterior of the building. For wall sections, aligned notes can greatly add to drawing neatness. The smaller the scale, the more generic the notes tend to be on a section. For instance, on a full section, roofing that might be specified as: 300# COMP. ROOF SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT OVER 1/2" OSB
would be referenced by complete notes for the roofing, insulation, and roof sheathing in the roofing details. Related notes should be grouped together within the same area of a section.
Chapter 36: Sectioning Basics
Sectioning Basics Test
861
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 36 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 36–1 What is a full section?
Question 36–5 What is the most common scale for drawing full sections? Question 36–6 What factors influence the scale of a detail? Question 36–7 What is a cutting plane, and how does it relate to a section? Question 36–8 In which directions should the arrows on a cutting plane be pointing?
Question 36–2 When could a partial section be used?
Question 36–9 What type of section might be drawn at a scale of 1/8" = 1'−0"?
Question 36–3 What is a stock detail, and when would it be used?
Question 36–10 What factors influence the choice of scale for the section?
Question 36–4 From which drawings does a drafter get the needed information to draw a section?
CHAPTER 37
Section Layout I
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Drawing sections will be accomplished in seven major stages. By following the step-by-step procedure for each stage, sections can be easily drawn and understood. Read through each stage, and carefully compare the step-by-step instructions with the corresponding illustrations.
STAGE 1: EVALUATE NEEDS Using a print of the floor and foundation plans of the home started in Chapter 18, evaluate the major types of construction needed on the project. Differences in the required construction include the following: ● ● ●
The right side of the plan is one story, and the left side is two story. The rear at right is a stick floor, and the front is a concrete slab. The left side of the roof is a vaulted truss, and the right side is a standard truss.
To provide the needed information to the framing crew, a minimum of two full sections is required. One section will cut through the family room and kitchen and show the concrete floor, walls, upper-floor cantilever, and truss roof. A full section will also be needed through the garage area in order to show the concrete and wooden floor construction. Partial sections should also be provided in order to show the stairs and the vaulted roof over bedroom 1.
STAGE 2: LAY OUT THE SECTION Use construction lines for this entire stage. Use a nonreproducible blue pencil or a 6H lead to draw all construction lines. If you’re working with AutoCAD, place the materials described in this section on a layer such as OUTL. Having determined which sections need to be drawn, lay out the primary section at 3/8" = 1'−0". To determine sizes and locations of structural members, refer to the floor and foundation plans. For the layout of a floor joist, post-and-beam, or basement foundation, see Chapter 38.
Concrete Slab Foundations: Structural Layout Use light construction lines for Step 1 through Step 11. If you’re using AutoCAD, place the following objects on a layer titled OUTL (see Figure 37-1). Lay out the width of the building. STEP 2 Lay out a baseline for the bottom of the footings. STEP 1
Before laying out Step 3 through Step 8, it may be necessary to review the basics of foundation design in Section 8. All sizes given in the following steps are based on the minimum standards of the International Residential Code (unless otherwise noted) and should be compared with local standards.
STEP 1 STEP 10
STEP 5
STEP 4
STEP 6
STEP 9 STEP 3 STEP 7
STEP 2 STEP 11
STEP 8
FIGURE 371 Initial steps for the layout of a section for a structure with a concrete slab. 862
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Lay out the footing thickness. STEP 4 Lay out the finish grade. STEP 5 Locate the top of the slab. Building codes typically require all wood to be 6" (150 mm) minimum above the finish grade. STEP 6 Lay out the bottom of the 4" (100 mm) slab. STEP 7 Lay out 4" (100 mm) of fill material under the slab. STEP 8 Lay out the width of the stem wall. STEP 9 Lay out the width of the footings. STEP 10 Lay out the 4" (100 mm) wide ledge for brick veneer. STEP 11 Block out the interior footings for load-bearing walls. STEP 3
Wall Layout With the foundation and floor system lightly drawn, proceed now to lay out the walls for the main level using construction lines. See Figure 37-2 for the layout of Step 12 through Step 18. Locate the top of the top plates. Measure up 8'–0" (2400 mm) above the floor. Draw a line to represent the top of the top plate. The walls can be drawn at 8'–0" (2400 mm) high, but this is not their true height. The true height is the sum of the thickness of two top plates, the studs and the base plate. The plates are made from 2" (50 mm) material, which is actually 1 1/2"(38 mm) thick. The studs are milled in 88 5/8" or 92 5/8" (2215 or 2316 mm) lengths. Check with your instructor to see which size you should use. See Table 37-1 to determine the true height of the walls. In a two-level house, this would also represent the bottom of the floor joist. In a onelevel house this line will represent the bottom of the ceiling joist.
STEP 12
Long Stud (in.) 3 92 5/8 ⫹1 1/2 97 1/8 8’–1 1/8”
Short Stud (in.) 2 Top plates Stud height Base plate
3 88 5/8 ⫹1 1/2
Total height
93 1/8
Dimension to
7’–9 1/8”
appear on section
TABLE 371 Determining Floor-to-Ceiling Dimensions. (Add the depth of the top plates, the base plate, and the height of the studs. Notice that the heights for the two common precut stud lengths are given.)
STEP 13
Locate the interior side of the exterior walls.
STEP 14
Locate the interior walls.
After locating the interior walls, make sure that any interior bearing walls line up over a footing. If they do not line up, there is a mistake in your measurements or math calculations or a conflict between the dimensions of the floor and foundation plans. Lay out the tops of doors and windows. Headers for doors and windows are typically set at 6'−10" (2000 mm) above the floor. Measure up from the top of the slab to locate the bottom of the header. The top will be drawn later.
STEP 15
Lay out the subsills. To establish the subsill location, you must know the window size. This can be found on either the floor plan or the window schedule. Measure down the required distance from the bottom of the header to establish the subsill location.
STEP 16
Lay out the 7'−0" (2100 mm) ceilings for soffits in areas such as kitchens, baths, or hallways.
STEP 17
STEP 18
Lay out the patio post width and height.
STEP 12
STEP 18
STEP 13
STEP 15 STEP 17 STEP 16
FIGURE 372 Layout of the ceiling level.
STEP 14
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STEP 22
STEP 25
STEP 24 STEP 21
STEP 23 STEP 19
STEP 20
FIGURE 373 Layout of the upper floor level.
Lay out the upper floor area following the same steps that were used for the lower level. See Figure 37-3 for Step 19 through Step 25.
STEP 29 STEP 30
Lay out the roof sheathing.
Lay out exterior walls. Remember the 2'−0" (600 mm) cantilever of the upper floor past the lower-level walls. STEP 20 Locate the depth of the floor joists. STEP 21 Draw the plywood subfloor. STEP 22 Lay out the ceiling 8'−0" (2400 mm) above the floor. STEP 23 Lay out the interior side of exterior walls. STEP 24 Lay out the interior walls. STEP 25 Lay out the windows.
STEP 31
Lay out the top side of the bottom chord.
STEP 19
Truss Roof Layout Step 26 through Step 33 can be seen in Figure 37-4. For the layout of other types of roofs, see Chapter 38. Locate the ridge. STEP 27 Locate the overhang on each side (see the roof plan). STEP 28 Lay out the bottom side of the top chord. Starting at the intersection of the outer wall and the ceiling line, draw a line at a 5/12 pitch to match the pitch shown in the elevations. Do this for both sides. The lines should intersect at the ridge. A 5/12 pitch can be drawn at an angle of 22 1/2°. STEP 26
Lay out the top side of the top chord. Assume chords to be 4" (100 mm) deep.
Lay out the patio roof. Starting at the intersection of the inner wall and the ceiling, draw a line at a 5/12 pitch to represent the rafter.
STEP 32
Lay out the 1" (25 mm) tongue-and-groove roof sheathing.
STEP 33
The entire section has now been outlined.
STAGE 3: FINISHED-QUALITY LINES FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ONLY When drawing with finished-quality lines, start at the roof and work down. This will help you keep the drawing clean. The steps followed will be divided into truss roof, walls, upper walls and floor, lower walls, and foundation. Continuous members shown in section are traditionally drawn with a diagonal cross (X) placed in the member. Blocking is drawn with one diagonal line (/) through the member. This method of representing sectioned members is time-consuming to draw and may be difficult to read on small-scale sections. Rather than drawing symbols, the members can be drawn much more easily with different line qualities, as shown in Figure 37-5.
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STEP 26
STEP 30 STEP 28
STEP 31 STEP 29
STEP 27 STEP 33
STEP 32
FIGURE 374 Truss roof layout. The truss webs can be omitted, because the truss manufacturer will design and specify the required materials.
Three types of lines are used to draw structural material for the sections: ● ● ●
Thin. Use a 5-mm lead, a #0 pen, or a sharp 3H lead. If you are using AutoCAD, use a 0.00 line weight. Bold. Use a 9-mm lead, a #2 pen, or an H lead with a wedge tip (0.024). Very bold. Use a 9-mm lead, and draw two parallel lines with no white space between them, or use a #4 pen or an unpointed H lead (0.047).
As you read through these steps, you will be asked to draw items that have not been laid out. These are
items that can be drawn by eye and need not be traced. Just be careful to keep 2" (50 mm) members uniform in size so that they do not become 4" (100 mm) members. When finished, your drawing should look like Figure 37-6.
Roof To save time, draw all parallel lines on one side of the roof before drawing the opposite side. Roof Step 1 through Step 7 are shown in Figure 37-7. STEP 1
Use thin lines to draw the sheathing.
STEP 2
Draw the top chord with thin lines.
STEP 3
Draw the eave blocking with bold lines.
Repeat Step 1 through Step 3 on the opposite side of the roof. If you’re working with AutoCAD, complete Step 5 through Step 7 before creating the opposite side of the roof.
STEP 4
FIGURE 375 Finished-quality lines for structural members. Lines to represent the blocking can be omitted for clarity when scales smaller than 3/4" = 1'−0" are used.
STEP 5
Draw the fascias with bold lines.
STEP 6
Draw the bottom chord with thin lines.
Draw the ridge blocking with a bold line. If you’re working with AutoCAD, use the MIRROR command to create the other side of the roof.
STEP 7
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FIGURE 376 All structural members drawn with finished-quality lines.
STEP 1
STEP 7
STEP 2
STEP 4
STEP 3
STEP 6 STEP 5
FIGURE 377 Truss-roof construction drawn with finished-quality lines.
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STEP 8
STEP 11 STEP 14
STEP 10
STEP 12
STEP 9 STEP 16
STEP 13 STEP 15
STEP 18 STEP 17
FIGURE 378 Upper-floor structural members drawn with finished-quality lines.
Upper Walls and Floor
Foundation
See Figure 37-8 for Step 8 through Step 18.
STEP 22
Draw all double top plates with bold lines. STEP 9 Draw walls with thin lines. STEP 10 Draw all headers with bold lines. STEP 11 Draw all subsills with bold lines. STEP 12 Draw all bottom plates with bold lines. STEP 13 Draw exterior sheathing with thin lines. STEP 14 Draw the porch rafters and decking with thin lines. STEP 15 Draw the fascia, block, header, and ledger for the porch roof with bold lines. STEP 16 Draw the subfloor with thin lines. STEP 17 Draw floor joists with thin lines. STEP 18 Draw floor blocks with bold lines.
All structural members are now drawn. Your drawing should resemble Figure 37-9.
STEP 8
Lower Level Walls
Draw the outline of the concrete using bold lines. STEP 23 Draw the 4" (100 mm) fill material with a thin line. STEP 24 Draw the mudsills and anchor bolts with bold lines. STEP 25 Draw the finished grade with a very bold line.
STAGE 4: DRAWING FINISHING MATERIALS The material drawn in this stage seals the exterior from the weather and finishes the interior. Start at the roof and work down to the foundation to keep the drawing clean. Use thin lines for this entire stage unless otherwise noted. See Figure 37-10 for Step 1 through Step 13.
See Figure 37-9 for Steps 19 through 25. Draw furred ceiling with thin lines. STEP 20 Draw all blocks and ledgers for ceiling with bold lines. STEP 21 Draw all exterior wall sheathing with thin lines. STEP 19
Roof Draw hurricane ties approximately 3" (75 mm) square. STEP 2 Draw baffles with a bold line. STEP 1
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STEP 21
STEP 19 STEP 24
STEP 22
STEP 23 STEP 25
FIGURE 379 Structural members of the main-floor level drawn with finished-quality lines.
STEP 5 STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 4
STEP 8
STEP 9
STEP 3 STEP 6 STEP 11 STEP 7
STEP 10 STEP 13
STEP 12
FIGURE 3710 Cross section with all the finishing materials for the roof, walls, and floors.
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STEP 3
Draw the finished ceiling. STEP 4 Draw insulation in the ceiling approximately 10" (250 mm) deep. STEP 5 Draw ridge vents. STEP 6 Draw gutters.
dimensions. All leader lines should be thin, similar to those used on the floor and foundation plans. All lettering should be aligned. If you’re using AutoCAD, place the following dimensions using the DIM command and the ANNOTATIVE feature. Place the required leader and dimension lines to locate the following dimensions:
Walls and Floor
STEP 1
Draw the exterior siding. STEP 8 Draw all windows. STEP 9 Draw all interior finishes and insulation. STEP 10 Draw and crosshatch the brick veneer. STEP 11 Draw the hardboard underlayment. Note that the subfloor extends under all walls, but the hardboard underlayment does not go under any walls. STEP 12 Draw floor insulation. STEP 13 Draw the metal connectors and flashing for the porch. STEP 7
STAGE 5: DIMENSIONING Now that the section is drawn, all structural members must be dimensioned so that the framing crew knows their vertical location. Figure 37-11 shows the needed
Floor-to-ceiling: Place a dimension line from the top of the floor sheathing to the bottom of the floor or ceiling joist. STEP 2 Specify the floor-to-floor dimensions. STEP 3 Floor to bottom of bedroom windows, 44" (1100 mm) maximum. STEP 4 Finished grade to top of slab. STEP 5 Depth of footing into grade. STEP 6 Height of footings. STEP 7 Width of footings. STEP 8 Width of stem wall. STEP 9 Eave overhangs. STEP 10 Cantilevers. STEP 11 Header heights from rough floor. STEP 12 Height of brick veneer if necessary. STEP 13 Lean back and relax! You’re almost done.
STEP 9
2'-0" TYP.
8'-1 1/8"
STEP 10
6'-10" TYP.
44" MAX.
STEP 11 STEP 1 STEP 3
STEP 2 STEP 4 8" MIN.
STEP 6
7"
1'-6"
8'-1 1/8"
7'-0"
3'-0"
8'-1 1/8"
6" MIN.
2'-0"
8"
STEP 12
1'-4"
1'-3"
STEP 5 STEP 7
FIGURE 3711 Cross section with all of the required dimensions.
STEP 8 STEP 7
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be found on the Student CD and inserted into sections drawn using a computer program. The general notes that may appear on sections are as follows:
STAGE 6: LETTERING NOTES Everything that has been drawn and located must be explained. Place guidelines around the perimeter of the drawing and align the required notes on the guidelines, as seen in Figure 37-12. Doing so will help make your drawing neat and easy to read. Not all of the following notes will need to go on every section you draw. Typically, the primary section will be fully notated, and then other sections will have only supplemental notes. You will notice as you go through the list of general notes that some are marked (*). For the marked items, there are several options. Ask your instructor for help in determining which grade of material to use. Remember that the following list is just a guideline. You’ll need to evaluate each section prior to placing the required notes; use abbreviations whenever possible to save space. In an office setting, your supervisor might give you a print with all of the notes that need to be placed on the original. As you gain confidence, you’ll probably be referred to a similar drawing for help in deciding which notes are needed. Eventually you will be able to draw and provide annotation for a section without any guidelines. Copies of common notes can
Roof *1. RIDGE BLOCK, OR 2 × __ RIDGE BOARD. *2. SCREENED RIDGE VENTS 10' O.C. ±. PROVIDE 1 SQ FT PER EACH 300 SQ FT OF ATTIC SPACE. *3. 1/2" STD GRADE 32/16 PLY ROOF SHEATH. LAID PERP. TO TRUSSES. NAIL W/ 8d 6" O.C. EDGE AND 8d 12" O.C. FIELD. or 1 × 4 SKIP SHEATHING W/ 3 1/2" SPACING. *4. 235# OR 300# COMPO. ROOF SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT. or MED. CEDAR SHAKES OVER 15# FELT W/ 30# × 18" WIDE FELT BETWEEN EACH COURSE W/10 1/2" EXPOSURE. or CONC. ROOF TILES BY GIVE MANUFACTURER’S NAME, AND COLOR, WEIGHT OF TILES, AND UNDERLAYMENT. INSTALL AS PER MANUF. SPECS. 5. METAL ROOFING BY GIVE THE MANUFACTURER’S NAME, TYPE OF PRODUCT, GAGE, AND COLOR. INSTALL AS PER MANUF. SPECS. 6. STD. ROOF TRUSSES 24" O.C. SEE DRAW. BY MANUF. SUBMIT TRUSS DWGS. TO BLDG. DEPT. PRIOR TO ERECTION.
SOLID BLOCK @ RIDGE
1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLY. ROOF SHEATHING, LAID PERP. TO TRUSSES. NAIL W/ 8d @ 6" O.C. @EDGE, & 12" O.C. @ FIELD. 12
235# COMPO. SHINGLE OVER 15# FELT. STD. ROOF TRUSSES @ 24" O.C. SEE DRAWN BY MANUF. 12" BATTS-R-38 MIN. PAPER FACE 1-SIDE
5
2'-0" TYP.
12"Ø SCREENED VENTS @ 10' O.C.; PROVIDE 1 SQ. FT. PER 300 SQ. FT OF ATTIC.
TRUSS CLIPS @ EA. TAIL TO PLATE. SOLID BLOCK. OMIT EA. 3RD. FOR SCREENED VENTS.
HORIZ. SIDING OVER 1/2" WAFERBOARD & TYVEK
1" T & G DECKING
8'-1 1/8"
6'-10" TYP.
44" MAX.
2X 8 LEDGER W/ METAL HGRS.
5
2X 6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER
1/2" SHEETROCK
26 GA. G.I. FLASH. 12
PLYWOOD BAFFLES
3/8" R.S. PLY
3/8" MIN. HARDBOARD OVER 3/4" PLY, LAID PERP TO FL. JST. W/ 10d @ 6" O.C. EDGE, BLOCKING & BEAMS; W/ 10d @ 12" O.C. FIELD.
1/2" 'CCX' EXT PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. 6" BATTS-R21 PAPER FACE 1-SIDE 2X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
2X 10 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
EXTERIOR FINISH OVER TYVEK 2X 6 SILL 2X 10 RIM JST.
4X 6 RAFT. @ 32" O.C.
BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR 1'-4" SPACE W/ TYVEK & 26 GA METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD
2X 4 FURR STRIPS @ 16" O.C.
2-2X 6 TOP PLATES LAP 48" MIN. 4X 10 HDR.
2" RIGID INSULATION
2X 6 NAILER
2X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
2X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2"¯ X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX.-7" MIN. INTO CONC.
2" RIGID INSULATION
8" MIN.
4" CONC. SLAB OVER .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER & 4" GRAVEL FILL
1'-6"
8'-1 1/8"
7'-0"
2'-0"
8"
7"
12" X 12" DEEP PIER
3'-0"
6" MIN.
4X 10 HDR 4X 4 POST W/ PB44 BASE
8'-1 1/8"
P.C 44 POST CAP
2X 8 FASCIA
1'-3"
SECTION 'A-A' 3/8"
1'-0"
ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2 OR, BETTER
FIGURE 3712 Cross section completed with all structural and finishing material drawn, dimensioned, and lettered.
Chapter 37: Section Layout
*7. __ BATTS, R__ PAPER FACE HEATED SIDE. or __ BLOWNIN INSULATION R__ MIN. 8. BAFFLES AT EAVE VENTS. 9. SOLID BLOCKOMIT EA. 3RD FOR SCREENED VENTS.
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8. GIVE THE SECTION A TITLE SUCH AS SECTION “AA." 9. GIVE THE DRAWING A SCALE SUCH AS 3/8" = 1'0". 10. LIST GENERAL NOTES NEAR THE TITLE OR NEAR THE TITLE BLOCK.
10. TRUSS CLIPS EA. TAIL TO PLATE.
*ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2 OR BETTER. YOU MAY NEED TO SUBSTITUTE A DIFFERENT TYPE OF WOOD.
11. __ × __ FASCIA W/ GUTTER.
SEE SECTIONS “BB” & “CC” FOR BALANCE OF NOTES.
*12. 1/2" ‘CCX’ EXT. PLY ALL EXPOSED EAVES. or 1 × 4 T & G DECKING ALL EXPOSED EAVES.
Walls *1. 22 × __ TOP PLATES, LAP 48" MIN. *2. 2 × __ STUDS __" O.C. *3. 2 × __ SILL FILL IN THE BLANK. *4. EXT. SIDING OVER 1/2" OSB & TYVEK. SEE ELEVATIONS. or EXT. SIDING OVER 3/8" PLY & 15 FELT. *5. 3 1/2" FIBERGLASS BATTS, R11 MIN.PAPER FACE ONE SIDE. or 6" FIBERGLASS BATTS, R19, PAPER FACE ONE SIDE. or 6" FIBERGLASS BATTS R21. *6. __ × __ HEADER. or 22 × 12 HDRS W/ 2 × 6 NAILER & 2" RIGID INSULATION. 7. LINE OF INTERIOR FINISH. 8. SOLID BLOCK AT MIDHEIGHT FOR ALL WALLS OVER 10'. 9. 5/8" TYPE ‘X’ GYP. BD. FROM FLOOR TO BOTTOM OF ROOF SHEATH. or 1/2" GYP. BD. WALLS AND CEIL. 10. BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE & TYVEK W/METAL TIES 24" O.C. EA. STUD. PROVIDE 3/16 Ø MINIMUM WEEP HOLES AT 33" O.C. MAXIMUM.
Upper Floor and Foundation 1. 3/8" MIN. HARDBOARD UNDERLAYMENT. *2. 3/4" 42/16 PLY. FLOOR SHEATH. LAID PERP. TO FLOOR JOISTS. NAIL W/10d 6" O.C. EDGE, BLOCKING, & BEAMS. USE 10d 12" O.C. FIELD. 3. SOLID BLOCK 10' O.C. MAX. 4. __ BATTSR__ MIN. OR R21. 5. 2 × 6 PT. SILL W/1/2" ∅ × 10" A.B. 6'0" O.C. MAX. W/ 2 BOLTS PER SILL MIN.7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2" DIA WASHERS. 6. 4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL, 6 MIL VAPOR BARRIER, AND 2" SAND FILL. or 4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL FILL OVER 55# FELT. 7. 2" × 24" RIGID INSULATION.
Give your eyes and fingers a well-deserved rest. You now have 99% of the section complete.
STAGE 7: EVALUATING YOUR WORK Don’t assume that because you did the work and it took a long time, the drawing is complete. Run a print, and evaluate your work for accuracy and quality. Don’t just compare it with someone else’s drawing. Use the checklist, and make sure your section matches the material and location that you have specified on the floor and foundation plans. Your best chance of finding your own mistakes is to get away from your drawing for an hour or two before checking it.
SECTION—TRUSSES CHECKLIST Plot the section and the details not shown in the section to scale on size D material. Include lateral details as indicated on the framing plan. Use stock details from Chapter 38 to complete a wall section showing typical construction and additional sections as required to show each major type of construction.
Plotting ❑ Assume a scale 3/8" = 1'–0" minimum unless your instructor provides other instructions. ❑ Text: Assume all text to be 1/8" high, neatly aligned in columns. ❑ Titles: to be 1/4" high text minimum. ❑ Leader length/Leader location: Center of top line on left/center of bottom line on right. ❑ Insert drawings into a drawing sheet with completed title block. ❑ Freeze viewport.
Drawing ❑ Show and specify roof trusses: ❑ Solid blocks at ridge. ❑ Ridge vents.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
❑ Provide a section/detail to represent each type of required truss.
❑ Proper mudsill/stem wall/footing/key relationships.
❑ Load path for roof and floor loads through to the soil.
❑ Proper footing/finish grade/crawl space relationships.
❑ Show and specify truss/wall intersection: ❑ Truss/wall/blocking/anchors. ❑ Fascia/gutter/plywood/eave. ❑ Insulation/baffle/hurricane tie. ❑ Wall construction: ❑ Show and specify an exterior wall, and an exterior wall with an opening. ❑ Represent interior walls per floor plan. ❑ Correct wall/floor intersection. ❑ Proper relationship of underlayment/wall.
Dimensions Roof ❑ Show roof pitch. ❑ Bottom chord pitch for vaulted ceiling if required.
Walls ❑ Dimensions from finish floor/ceiling. ❑ Plate heights / header heights.
❑ Specify all window/door headers, and required beams and girders for construction.
Footings
❑ Exterior post: Specify post size and required post caps/bases.
❑ Finish grade/ bottom of footing.
❑ Show and specify foundation: decking under walls, overlay stops at wall. ❑ Proper floor/mudsill relationship.
❑ Finish grade/finish floor. ❑ Footing width/depth. ❑ Stem wall width/height. ❑ Finish floor/excavated grade at crawl space.
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Sections and Details with CADD The steps for drawing sections presented in this chapter are used for both manual and computer-aided drafting. However, using the computer has some advantages: standard sections and details can be brought into the drawing from a library and placing notes on the section is easy with CADD. Also, some architectural CADD packages automatically draw a preliminary section from information you provide in relationship to the floor plan. This type of parametric design requires that an imaginary cutting-plane line be placed through the floor plan in the desired section location. This is followed by computer prompts requesting information such as roof pitch and structural floor thicknesses. In programs of this type, the floor plan walls are drawn with heights established, so these dimensions automatically convert to wall height information in the sectional view. All you do to complete the section is add material symbols, dimensions, and notes. Some architectural CADD packages contain typical section elements such as details, materials, and tags. After architects have used the CADD system for a while,
they begin to save all typical or standard construction details as BLOCKS. These BLOCKS are commonly placed in a library manual for easy reference and can be called up and displayed at any time in any drawing. The standard details should be clearly labeled with an identification code for easy reference. Each CADD user should have a copy of the library reference manual, and every time a new detail is drawn, the reference manual should be updated with a drawing of the detail and the reference code. Figure 37-13 shows two standard details. Stock details can be merged to form a partial section. The partial section shown in Figure 37-14 was created by aligning the roof/wall detail directly above the post-and-beam detail. The line representing the top of the floor decking was offset to determine the location of the top of the wall. With the top of the wall located, the roof/wall detail was inserted into the required position. Many building departments will accept a partial section when an application is submitted for a building permit for a simple residence.
Chapter 37: Section Layout
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CADD APPLICATIONS
2X6 DFPT W/ 1/2"Ø X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2"Ø WASHERS
EXTERIOR FINISH OVER TYVEK
6" BATTS-R-21 PAPER FACE 1-SIDE
6" 4X6 GIRDERS ON 4X 4 POST ON 55# FELT & 15" X 8" CONC. PIERS.
6"
1/2" 'CCX' EXT PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES.
2X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
12"
2X 6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER
1/2" SHEETROCK
12"
POST & BEAM FND
TRUSS / WALL 3/8"
3/8" HARDBOARD OVERLAY & 1 1/8" STURD-I-FLOOR 48/24 PLY SUBFLOOR
8"
1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLY. ROOF SHEATHING, LAID PERP. TO TRUSSES. NAIL W/ 8d @6" D.C. @EDGE, & 12" O.C. @FIELD. 300# COMPO. SHINGLE 12 OVER 15# FELT. .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER PLYWOOD BAFFLES 5 TRUSS CLIPS @ EA. 6" BATTS TAIL TO PLATE. R-25MIN. SOLID BLOCK. OMIT EA. 3RD. FOR SCREENED VENTS.
3/8"
1'-0"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3713 CADD details can be saved as blocks and reused with other similar structures. 1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLY. ROOF SHEATHING, LAID PERP. TO TRUSSES. NAIL W/ 8d @ 6" D.C. @EDGE, & 12" O.C. @ FIELD. 300# COMPO. SHINGLE OVER 15# FELT. PLYWOOD BAFFLES 12
TRUSS CLIPS @ EA. TAIL TO PLATE.
5
SOLID BLOCK. OMIT EA. 3RD. FOR SCREENED VENTS.
2X 6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER
1/2" SHEETROCK
1/2" 'CCX' EXT PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. 2X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C. W/ 6" BATTS-R21 PAPER FACE 1-SIDE
EXTERIOR FINISH OVER TYVEK
3/8" HARDBOARD OVER & 1 1/8" STURD-I-FLOOR 48/24 PLY SUBFLOOR
2X6 DFPT W/ 1/2"Ø X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2"Ø WASHERS
6"
12"
8"
6" BATTS R-25MIN.
4X6 GIRDERS ON 4X 4 POST ON 55# FELT & 15" x 8" CONC. PIERS.
6" .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER 12"
TYPICAL WALL SECTION 3/8"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3714 Details can be joined together to form a partial wall section.
A partial section can be used to form a full section. The line that represents the outside edge of the stud can be offset a distance equal to the required width of the house. The partial section can then be mirrored to form the opposite side of the structure, and then lines from one side can be extended to the opposite side. The FILLET, EXTEND, and STRETCH commands of AutoCAD are excellent for connecting the two partial sections. Once the shell of the structure has been drawn, the interior walls and girders are added using the COPY and ARRAY commands. The location of the interior walls can be determined using the dimensions of the framing plan, and the girders are placed according to their location on the foundation plan. Figure 37-15 shows a full section created using the stock details from Figure 37-14. ■
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS SCREENED RIDGE VENT RIDGE BLOCK
STD. TRUSS @ 24" O.C. INSTALL AS PER MANUF. SPECS. PROVIDE BLDG. DEPT WITH TRUSS DWGS. PRIOR TO ERECTION.
1/2" STD. GRADE 32/16 PLY. ROOF SHEATHING, LAID PERP. TO TRUSSES. NAIL W/ 8d @ 6" D.C. @ EDGE, & 12" O.C. @ FIELD.
PLYWOOD BAFFLES
300# COMPO. SHINGLE OVER 15# FELT. PLYWOOD BAFFLES
12
TRUSS CLIPS @ EA. TAIL TO PLATE.
TRUSS CLIPS @ EA. TAIL TO PLATE.
5
SOLID BLOCK. OMIT EA. 3RD. FOR SCREENED VENTS. 2X 6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER 1/2" SHEETROCK
2X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
2X6 DFPT W/ 1/2"Ø X 10" A.B. @ 1/2"Ø 6'-0" O.C. MAX. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2"Ø 2"Ø WASHERS
6" BATTS R-25MIN.
12"
18"
8"
6" BATTS R-25MIN.
12"
EXTERIOR FINISH OVER TYVEK
3/8" HARDBOARD OVER & 1 1/8" STURD-I-FLOOR 48/24 PLY SUBFLOOR
2 X 4 SILL
6" 4X6 GIRDERS ON 4X 4 POST ON 55# FELT & 15" x 8" CONC. PIERS.
.006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER
TYPICAL SECTION 3/8"
1/2" 'CCX' EXT PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES.
2X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C. W/ 6" BATTS-R21 PAPER FACE 1-SIDE
6"
8'-1 1/8"
2 2 X 4 TOP PLATES
12"
.006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER
1'-0"
FIGURE 3715 A partial wall section can be used to form a full section.
See CD for more information
Section Layout Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 37 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 37–1 Define the following terms: a. Rafter b. Truss
c. Ceiling joist d. Collar tie e. Jack stud f. Rim joist g. Chord h. Sheathing
Question 37–2 On a blank sheet of paper, sketch a section view of a conventionally framed roof showing all interior supports.
Chapter 37: Section Layout
Question 37–3 Give the typical sizes of the following materials: a. Mudsill b. Stud height c. Roof sheathing d. Wall sheathing e. Floor decking f. Underlayment
875
Question 37–4 List three common scales for drawing sections, and tell when each is best used. Question 37–5 List the seven stages of drawing a section. Question 37–6 List two different types of drawings for which stock details are typically used.
CHAPTER 38
Alternative Layout Techniques I
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D
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Chapter 37 presented the basic methods for drawing a section with a concrete slab and truss roof. Those methods will not meet the needs of all construction projects because of variations in the job site, the contractor’s personal preference for framing, or the area of the country in which the house is to be built. This chapter provides you with other common construction methods to meet a variety of needs.
Residential Code (IRC) (unless otherwise noted) and should be compared with local standards. Measure up from the baseline the required thickness for a footing. STEP 4 Locate the finished grade. STEP 5 Locate the top of the stem wall. All wood should be 8" minimum (200 mm) above finished grade. STEP 3
See Figure 38-2 for Step 6 through Step 15.
FLOOR JOIST/FOUNDATION Chapter 37 introduced methods of drawing a section with a concrete slab. This chapter will introduce methods of drawing a section with a joist floor system.
Joist Floor Layout Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 15. See Figure 38-1 for Steps 1 through 5. Lay out the width of the building. STEP 2 Establish a baseline about 2" (50 mm) above the border. STEP 1
Before laying out Step 3 through Step 8, it may be necessary to review the basics of foundation design in Section 8. All sizes given in the following steps are based on the minimum standards of the International
Block out the width of the stem wall. STEP 7 Block out a ledge 4" (100 mm) wide for brick veneer. STEP 8 Block out the required width for footings. Center the footing below the stem walls. STEP 9 Add 4" (100 mm) in width to the footing to support the brick ledge. STEP 10 Locate the depth for the 2 × 6 (50 × 150) mudsill. The top of the mudsill also becomes the bottom of the floor joists. STEP 11 Locate the depth of the floor joists. STEP 12 Lay out the subfloor. Draw a line as close to the floor joist as possible to represent the subfloor while still leaving a gap between the subfloor and the joist. STEP 13 Lay out required girders beneath load-bearing walls and as needed based on the span of the floor joist. STEP 6
STEP 1
STEP 5 STEP 4
STEP 2
FIGURE 381 Layout for the joist floor system using construction lines. 876
STEP 3
Chapter 38: Alternative Layout Techniques
877
STEP 12
STEP 7
STEP 11 STEP 10 STEP 13 STEP 9
STEP 14 STEP 6
STEP 15
STEP 8
FIGURE 382 Layout of the interior supports for a joist floor and foundation.
Lay out posts to support girders. STEP 15 Lay out concrete piers centered under the post. STEP 14
Finished Line Quality—Structural Materials Unless otherwise noted, use the line weights and methods described in Chapter 37 to draw structural materials for a joist floor system and foundation with finished line quality. See Figure 38-3 for Step 16 through Step 23. Draw mudsills with bold lines. STEP 17 Draw girders with bold lines. STEP 18 Draw support post with thin lines. STEP 19 Draw all exterior wall sheathing with thin lines. STEP 16
STEP 19 STEP 22
Draw stem walls and footings with very bold lines. STEP 21 Draw the piers with very bold lines. STEP 22 Draw anchor bolts with bold lines. STEP 23 Use a very bold line to draw the finished grade. STEP 20
All structural material is now drawn.
Finished-Quality Lines—Finishing Materials Use Figure 38-4 as a guide to add the finishing materials. Draw the hardboard underlayment. Note that the subfloor extends under all walls, but the hardboard underlayment does not go under any walls.
STEP 24
STEP 17
STEP 16 STEP 23
STEP 21 STEP 20
STEP 18
FIGURE 383 Finished-quality lines on the structural members of a joist floor and foundation system. Varied line weights should be used to represent concrete, sectioned continuous materials, and the material that lies beyond the cutting plane.
STEP 27
STEP 24 STEP 25
STEP 26 FIGURE 384 Finish materials for a joist floor and foundation system include the floor overlay, insulation, metal connectors, and vapor barrier.
12" MIN.
STEP 33
STEP 28
18"
18" MIN.
8" MIN.
Architectural Drafting and Design
6" MIN.
878
STEP 29
7"
8" 15"
STEP 30
STEP 32 STEP 34
STEP 31
FIGURE 385 Dimensions are required for a joist system to describe minimum clearances.
Draw the floor insulation. STEP 26 Draw the vapor barrier, leaving a small space between the ground and the barrier. STEP 27 Draw the metal connectors and flashing for the porch. STEP 25
Floor and Foundation Notes Letter the floor and foundation notes as shown in Figure 38-6. Typical notes should include the following: 1. 3/8" MIN. HARDBOARD UNDERLAYMENT.
Dimensioning
*2. 3/4" 42/16 PLY. FLOOR SHEATH. LAID PERP. TO FLOOR JOISTS. NAIL W/ 10d 6" O.C. EDGE, BLOCKING, & BEAMS. USE 10d 12" O.C. FIELD.
All structural members must be dimensioned so that the framing crew knows their vertical location. Figure 38-5 shows the needed dimensions. Place the required leader and dimension lines to locate the following dimensions:
STEP 31 STEP 32 STEP 33 STEP 34
*6. 4 × 4 POST, 4 × 6 SPLICES, W/ GUSSET TO GIRDER ON 55# FELT ON __ × __ DEEP CONC. PIERS. 7. .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER OR 55# ROLLED ROOFING. *8. 2 × __ PT SILL W/ 1/2" ∅ A.B. 6'−0" O.C. MAX.7" MIN. INTO CONC. W2" ∅ WASHERS. 9. GIVE THE SECTION A TITLE SUCH AS SECTION “AA." 10. GIVE THE DRAWING A SCALE SUCH AS 3/8" = 1'−0".
3/8" HARDBRD. OVER 3/4" PLYWOOD
2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2"Ø X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX.-7" MIN. INTO CONC.
2 X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C. 6" BATTS-R 21 MIN.
SOLID BLOCK
2 X10 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
4 X 4 POST W/ PB44 BASE .006 BLACK VAPOR BARR.
6 X 10 GIRDER ON 4 X 6 POST & 55# FELT 12" MIN.
18" MIN.
6" MIN.
BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE W/ 15# FELT & 26 GA METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD
12"Ø X 12" DEEP PIER
SECTION 'A-A' 3/8"
8" MIN.
STEP 30
*5. __ × __ GIRDERS. FILL IN THE BLANKS. SEE FOUNDATION PLAN TO VERIFY SIZE.
Finished grade to top of stem wall. Depth of footing into grade. Height of footing. Width of footing. Width of stem wall. Depth of crawl space. Bottom of girders to grade.
18"Ø X 8" DEEP CONC. PIER W/ 8"X 8 PRECAST PAD. TYP.
18"
STEP 29
4. __ BATTSR__ MIN.
7"
STEP 28
3. SOLID BLOCK 10' O.C. MAX.
8" 15"
2X4 KEY
1'-0"
ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2 OR, BETTER
FIGURE 386 Notes for a joist foundation system are required to describe all structural and finish materials. Some companies use generic notes for structural material such as joists and girders and refer the print reader to other plans for specific sizes. Instead of marking the girder as 6 × 10, a reference such as “GIRDER—SEE FOUNDATION PLAN” could be used.
Chapter 38: Alternative Layout Techniques
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STEP 1
STEP 5
STEP 10
STEP 4 STEP 6 STEP 8 STEP 9 STEP 2
STEP 7
STEP 3
FIGURE 387 Layout methods for a post-and-beam floor and foundation system. 11. LIST GENERAL NOTES NEAR THE TITLE OR NEAR THE TITLE BLOCK. *ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL #2 OR BETTER.
Add 4" (100 mm) width to the footing to support the brick ledge. STEP 10 Locate the 2× (50×) mudsill. STEP 9
INSTEAD OF DFL YOU MAY NEED TO SUBSTITUTE A DIFFERENT TYPE OF WOOD. SEE SECTIONS “BB” & “CC” FOR BALANCE OF NOTES.
Lay out the depth of the 2" (50 mm) floor decking. STEP 12 Lay out the girders and the support posts. STEP 13 Lay out the concrete support piers centered under the posts. Lay out the width first for each pier, and then draw one continuous guideline to represent the top of all piers. STEP 11
Complete the section as in Chapter 37.
POST-AND-BEAM FOUNDATIONS Section 8 introduced post-and-beam construction. This chapter will describe post-and-beam construction as it applies to the foundation and lower floor system.
Layout Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 14. See Figure 38-7 for Step 1 through Step 10. Lay out the width of the building. STEP 2 Lay out a baseline for the bottom of the footings. STEP 3 Lay out the footing thickness. STEP 4 Lay out the finished grade. STEP 5 Locate the top of the stem wall. STEP 6 Block out the width of the stem wall. STEP 7 Block out the width of the footings, centered under the stem wall. STEP 8 Block out a 4" (100 mm) wide ledge for the brick veneer. STEP 1
See Figure 38-8 for Step 11 through Step 13.
Finished-Quality Lines—Structural Material For drawing structural members with finished-quality lines, use line quality as described in Chapter 37 unless otherwise noted. See Figure 38-9 for Step 14 through Step 22. You will notice that some items will be drawn that have not been laid out. These are items that are simple enough to draw by estimation. With thin lines, draw the tongue-and-groove (T&G) decking. Do not show the actual T&G pattern. This is done only when details are shown at a larger scale such as 3/4" = 1'−0". STEP 15 Draw the mudsills using bold lines. STEP 16 Draw anchor bolts with bold lines. STEP 14
STEP 11 STEP 12
STEP 13
FIGURE 388 Interior girders, post, and piers are located for a post-and-beam floor system.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 15
STEP 14
STEP 18 STEP 17
STEP 21
STEP 16
STEP 22 STEP 19
STEP 20
FIGURE 389 Structural materials for post-and-beam floor system represented using finished-quality lines.
Draw all posts with thin lines. STEP 18 Draw all girders with bold lines. STEP 19 Draw the stem walls and footings with very bold lines. STEP 20 Draw piers with very bold lines. STEP 17
interior. Use thin lines for each step, unless otherwise noted. See Figure 38-10 for Step 23 through Step 25. Draw the hardboard subfloor from wall to wall. STEP 24 Draw the insulation. STEP 25 Draw the vapor barrier freehand. STEP 23
Draw the post pads freehand with bold lines. STEP 22 Draw the finished grade with very bold lines.
Dimensioning
Finished-Quality Lines—Finishing Material
See Figure 38-11 for Step 26 through Step 32. Place the needed leader and dimension lines to locate the following dimensions:
STEP 21
The materials in this section will be used to seal the exterior walls from the weather and to finish the
Finished grade to the top of the stem wall. STEP 27 Depth of the footing into grade. STEP 26
STEP 23 STEP 24
STEP 25 FIGURE 3810 Materials such as the floor overlay, insulation, metal connectors, and vapor barrier are added using finished-quality lines.
STEP 31 STEP 32
8"
STEP 30 STEP 29
FIGURE 3811 Required dimensions for a post-and-beam floor and foundation system.
7"
1'–6"
12"
18"
8"
STEP 26
1'–3"
STEP 27 STEP 28
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2X6 DFPT W/ 1/2"Ø X 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. W/ 2"Ø WASHERS
3/8" HARDBOARD OVERLAY 1 1/8" STURD-I-FLOOR 48/24 PLY SUBFLOOR 6" BATTS. R-25 MIN.
4X6 GIRDERS ON 4X 4 POST ON 55# FELT
7"
1'-6"
12"
18"
8"
6X 10 GIRDER
8"
.006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER 18"Ø X 8" CONC. PIER
1'-3"
FIGURE 3812 Typical notes for a post-and-beam floor and foundation system.
Height of the footing. STEP 29 Width of the footing. STEP 30 Width of the stem wall. STEP 31 Depth of the crawl space, 18" (450 mm) minimum. STEP 32 Bottom of girders to grade, 12" (300 mm) minimum. STEP 28
Floor and Foundation Notes Letter the floor and foundation notes as shown in Figure 38-12. Typical notes should include the following:
STEP 33
to be designed, the formulas to determine the size, and the solution. The drafter does not need to understand the formulas that are used but must be able to convert the solution into a drawing. The solution in Figure 38-13 is the series of notes that are listed under the heading USE. For an entry-level drafter, the engineer will usually provide a sketch similar to the drawing in Figure 38-14 to explain the calculations. By using the written calculations and the sketch, a drafter can make drawings similar to Figure 38-15A and Figure 38-15B. The basement can be drawn by following Step 1 through Step 13 (see Figure 38-16). STEP 1
Lay out the width of the building.
B. 2 × 6 T & G DECKING OR 1 1/8" STURDIFLOOR.
STEP 2
Lay out a baseline for the bottom of the footings.
C. ___" BATTS. R___ MIN.
STEP 3
A. 3/8" HARDBOARD OVERLAY.
D. __ × __ GIRDERS. E. 4 × 4 POST 4 × 6 SPLICES ON 55# FELT W/ GUSSET. F. __" DIA × __" DEEP CONC. PIERS. G. .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER OR 55# ROLLED ROOFING. H. 2 × 6 PT SILL W/ 1/2" DIA × 10" A.B. 6'−0" O.C. MAX.7" MIN. INTO CONC. THRU 2" DIA WASHERS. STEP 34
Complete the section as in Chapter 37.
Measure up from the baseline for the footings. Footings are typically 8" (200 mm) deep for a onestory building and 12" (300 mm) deep for two or more stories.
STEP 4
Lay out the 4" (100 mm) concrete slab.
Lay out the 2" (50 mm) mudsill. The height of the basement will vary.
STEP 5 STEP 6
Lay out the wooden floor.
Lay out the finished grade 8" (200 mm) below the mudsill.
STEP 7
BASEMENT WITH CONCRETE SLAB For the basement layout, use light construction lines. Depending on the seismic zone for which you are drawing, an engineer’s drawing may be required for this kind of foundation. If so, you will need to follow engineers’ design standards similar to those shown in Figure 38-13. Trying to understand engineers’ design standards, or calculations (calcs), can be very frustrating. Calcs are generally divided into the areas of the item
Block out the width of the retaining wall. See Figure 33-30 for required wall thickness.
STEP 8
Block out the width of the footing. Footings for this type of wall are usually 16" (400 mm) wide, centered under the retaining wall.
STEP 9
Lay out the 4" (100 mm) ledge and add 4" (100 mm) to the footing to support the brick veneer. An alternative to the ledge method is to form the wall
STEP 10
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Architectural Drafting and Design
DESIGN TYPE- 8' BEAM TYPE BLOCK RETAINING WALL M=(0.1283) (960) (8) = 985'# TRY #5 ¯ 16" O.C. VERT. PLACED 2" FROM
320 #
INSIDE FACE OF 8" BLOCK np=
(43) (0.31) (16) (5.62)
fm =
(1.33) (12) (985) (558) (16) (562) 2
fs =
= J=861 2/KJ=558
(12) (1.33) (985) (0.31) (.861) (5.62)
V = (1.33) (640) (16) (.861) (5.62)
8'
KENNETH D. SMITH - ARCHITECT El Cajon, Ca. 92020
8' HIGH BEAM TYPE BLOCK RETAINING WALL
640 #
= 174.5 p.s.i.
= 10,500 p.s.i.
= 11.0 p.s.i.
240 #ft.
U= (11.0) ht =
16 =88.5 p.s.i. 1.963
96 = 12 8 f a = (135) (.94) = 127 p.s.i.
ALLOW FOR ROOF, 2nd FLOOR, & 1st. FLOOR LOADING OF WALL FOR f a fa =
(40)(40)+(8)(32)+(2)(8)(16)+(4)(137)+(8)(63)+(8)(63)=(92)(5)
f a = 29.4 p.s.i.
(7.62) (12)
MIN. HORIZ. STEEL= (0.007)(8)(96)=0.54in.2
174.5 29.4 + = 1.00 225 127 o.k.
USE: # 5 ¯ VERT. @ 16" O.C. PLACED 2" FROM FACE OF BLOCK AWAY FROM SOIL. USE 8" GRADE 'A' CONC. BLOCK- SOLID GROUT ALL STEEL CELLS. INTERMEDIATE GRADE DEFORMED BARS LAP 40 DIA. @ SPLICES. DBL. ALL VERT. STEEL BESIDE OPENINGS & WALL ENDS & MATCH ALL DOWEL STEEL OUT OF FTGS. FOR SIZE & POSITION. USE 2-#4 ¯ UNDER & OVER ALL OPENINGS (UNLESS NOTED OTHERWISE) & EXTEND 24" BEYOND OPENINGS. PLACE 1 1/2" - 2" UP FROM BTM. OF LINTEL IN INVERTED BOND BEAM BLOCK OR EQUAL & GROUT LINTEL CELLS SOLID. USE 4-#4 ¯ CONT @ TOP OF WALL IN 8" X 16" BLOCK BOND BM. & 2-#4 ¯ CONT. IN BOND BLOCK @ MIDHEIGHT (4'MAX.) GROUT AS PER SECTION 609 & MORTAR AS PER SECTION 607 2003 IRC W/ CENTERING BRACKET @ TOP & BTM. PROVIDE CLEANOUT HOLES @ BTM. OF STEEL CELLS WHERE WALLS ARE GROUTED IN MORE THAN 4' LIFTS. AT TOP OF WALLS, USE 4" X 3" X 1/4" X 3" LONG (OR EQUAL) W/ 3/4"Ø X 10" A.B. THRU 3" LEG & PLATE INTO WALL & 3/4" 3/4"Ø BOLT THRU 4" LEG @ JOIST (OR BLOCK WHERE TO WALL W/ 2"Ø WASHERS AGAINST WOOD WHERE JOIST WALL BLOCK OUT 4' @ 32" O.C. & USE 10d @ 4" O.C. FOR SUBFLOOR. WATERPROOF ENTIRE WALL & USE 4"Ø DRAIN TILE & GRAVEL @ BTM. OF WALL. DO NOT BACK FILL UNTIL FLOOR IS IN PLACE.
FIGURE 3813 A drafter is often required to work from engineers’ calculations when drawing retaining walls. Calculations usually show the math formulas to solve a problem and the written solution to the problem. The drafter must create a drawing from the written solution to the problem. Each of the materials in the “USE” portion of the calculations must be shown and specified in the section. Courtesy Kenneth D. Smith Architects & Associates, Inc.
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SOLID BLOCK @ 32" 0.C.-48" OUT FROM WALL WHERE JST. ARE PARALLEL TO WALL.
2 X 10 RIM JST W/ A 34 BY SIMPSON CO OR EQUAL @ 16" O.C. 2 X 6 D.F.P.T. SILL W/ 1/2"Ø X 10" A.B. @ 24" O.C. W/ 2"Ø WASHERS.
8"
2X 10 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
4-#4 CONT. 2" RIGID INSULATION
8" CONCRETE RETAINING WALL
2 #4 @ MID HEIGHT
WATER PROOF THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ 2 LAYERS OF HOT ASPHALTIC EMULSION
8"
4" DIA. DRAIN IN 8"X 24" GRAVEL BED
1'-4"
FIGURE 3814 A sketch is often given to the drafter to help explain the written calculations. Many of the written calculations appear on the sketch but are not written in proper form.
2X10 RIM JST W/ A 34 BY SIMPSON CO OR EQUAL @ 16" O.C.
8"
2 X 10 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2"Ø X 10" A.B. @ 24" O.C. W/ 2"Ø WASHERS.
4-#4 CONT. 2" RIGID INSULATION
8 X 8 X 16 GRADE 'A' CONC BLOCK W/ #4 @ 16" O.C. EA. WAY-SOLID GROUT ALL STEEL CELLS 2 #4 @ MID HEIGHT
WATER PROOF THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ 2 LAYERS OF HOT ASPHALTIC EMULSION
8"
4" DIA. DRAIN IN 8" X 24" GRAVEL BED
16"
3"
12"
2" MIN
2 X 4 KEY
FIGURE 3815A A section of an 8' (2400 mm) high concrete block retaining wall based on the specification shown in Figure 38-13. Courtesy Dean Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects & Associates, Inc.
3"
8"
2" MIN
2X4 KEY
FIGURE 3815B A section of an 8' (2400 mm) high poured concrete retaining wall with joist parallel to the retaining wall. Courtesy Ginger Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects & Associates, Inc.
4" (100 mm) out from the face of the exterior wall to support the brick (see Figure 38-17). STEP 11 Draw a line to show the 4" (100 mm) fill material under the slab. STEP 12 Lay out the interior footings for bearing walls. STEP 13 Lay out the steel reinforcing for the wall per Figure 38-13. This will vary greatly, depending on the seismic area you are in, and how the wall is to be loaded. One typical placement pattern puts the vertical steel 2" (50 mm) from the inside (tension) face, and the horizontal steel 18" (450 mm) O.C. starting at the footing.
Finished-Quality Lines—Structural Material Only See Figure 38-18 for Step 14 through Step 21. Draw the plywood flooring with thin lines. STEP 15 Draw the floor joists with thin lines. Use bold lines to draw blocking, and the floor joists that are perpendicular to the wall. STEP 16 Draw the mudsills and anchor bolts with bold lines. STEP 14
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 1 STEP 6 STEP 5
STEP 13 STEP 8 STEP 10 STEP 4
STEP 7 STEP 1
STEP 3 STEP 11 STEP 9
STEP 2
STEP 12
FIGURE 3816 The initial layout of a full basement with concrete-block retaining walls.
Draw the walls with bold lines. If concrete blocks are used, draw the division lines of the blocks and crosshatch the blocks with thin lines.
STEP 17
8" WALL WITH 4" LEDGE FOR FLOOR SUPPORT AND 4" LEDGE FOR BRICK SUPPORT ALLOWING BRICKS TO EXTEND BELOW GRADE.
8" WALL WITH 4" LEDGE FOR FLOOR SUPPORT AND 4" LEDGE FOR BRICK.
STEP 18
Draw the footings with bold lines.
STEP 19
Draw the concrete slab with bold lines.
STEP 20
Draw the wall steel with bold dashed lines.
STEP 21
Complete the section as in Chapter 37.
Finishing Materials See Figure 38-19 for Step 22 through Step 28. STEP 22
Draw the floor insulation with thin lines.
STEP 23
Draw the finished grade with very bold lines.
Draw the 4" (100 mm) diameter drain with thin lines.
STEP 24
Draw the 8" × 24" (200 × 600 mm) gravel bed at the base of the wall.
STEP 25
Draw the 4" (100 mm) fill materials with thin lines.
STEP 26 12" WALL WITH 8" LEDGE FOR FLOOR SUPPORT AND 4" LEDGE FOR BRICK.
8" WALL WITH 4" CORBEL FOR BRICK SUPPORT.
Draw the brick veneer and the crosshatching with thin lines.
STEP 27
Draw the welded wire mesh with thin dashed lines.
STEP 28 FIGURE 3817 Common methods used for supporting brick veneer.
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STEP 14
STEP 16
STEP 15 STEP 17
STEP 20
STEP 19
STEP 18 FIGURE 3818 Finished-quality lines of the structural material for a basement foundation system. The left wall is drawn showing a poured concrete wall. The right wall is drawn showing 8" × 8" × 16" (200 × 200 × 400 mm) concrete blocks. The two wall systems are not used together but are shown here to illustrate construction methods.
Dimensions
Notes
See Figure 38-20 for Step 29 through Step 35. Place the needed leader and dimension lines to locate the following dimensions:
STEP 36
STEP 29 STEP 30 STEP 31 STEP 32 STEP 33 STEP 34 STEP 35
Floor to ceiling. Top of wall to finished grade. Height of footing. Footing steel to bottom of footing. Width of footing. Width of wall. Edge of wall to vertical steel.
Letter the section notes as shown in Figure 38-21. Remember that these notes are only guidelines and may vary slightly because of local standards. Typical notes should include the following: A. 2 × __ FLOOR JOIST __" O.C. B. SOLID BLOCK 48" O.C.48" OUT FROM WALL WHERE JOISTS ARE PARALLEL TO WALL. C. 2 × __ RIM JOIST W/A34 ANCHORS BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL.
D. 2 × 6 PT SILL W/ 1/2"∅ × 10" A.B. 24" O.C. W/2"∅ WASHERS.
STEP 27
STEP 23 STEP 22
STEP 25 STEP 24
STEP 26 FIGURE 3819 Finishing materials for a basement foundation system.
STEP 28
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Architectural Drafting and Design
8"
STEP 30
2" MIN
STEP 29 STEP 35 STEP 34
8'-0"
12"
STEP 34
8"
15"
18" MIN
20"
3"
12"
STEP 31
16"
STEP 33 STEP 32 FIGURE 3820 Required dimensions for a basement foundation system. E. 8" CONC. WALL W/ #4 18" O.C. EA. WAY. 8 × 8 × 16 GRADE “A” CONC. BLOCKS W/ #4 16" O.C. EA. WAYSOLID GROUT ALL STEEL CELLS.
NOTE: Wire mesh is often placed in the concrete slab to help control cracking. This mesh is typically called out on the sections and foundation plan as 6" × 6"—#10 × #10 W.W.M.
F. WATERPROOF THIS WALL W/ HOT ASPHALTIC EMULSION. G. 4"∅ DRAIN IN 8" × 24" MIN. GRAVEL BED. H. 2 × 4 KEY. I. 4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL FILL AND 55# ROLLED ROOFING. or 4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" SAND FILL AND 6 MIL VAPOR BARRIER, AND 2" SAND FILL.
CONVENTIONAL (STICK) ROOF FRAMING The two types of conventional roof framing presented are flat and vaulted ceilings. You will notice many similar features between the two styles.
SOLID BLOCK @ 32" 0.C.-48" OUT FROM WALL WHERE JST. ARE PARALLEL TO WALL.
2X 10 RIM JST W/ A 34 BY SIMPSON CO OR EQUAL @ 16" O.C.
2X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2"Ø X 10" A.B. @ 24" O.C. W/ 2"Ø WASHERS.
2X10 F.J. @ 12" O.C.
4-#4Ø CONT. 2" MIN 2 #4 @ MID HEIGHT RAM SET TYPE FASTENERS OR EQUAL @ 16" O.C.
2X 4 DFPT STUDS OR 1" AIR SPACE & 2X 4 NON-TREATED STUDS W/ 31/2" BATTS R-11 MIN
2" RIGID INSULATION 8X 8X 16 GRADE 'A' CONC BLOCK W/ #4 @ 16" O.C. EA WAY-SOLID GROUT ALL STEEL CELLS.
8"
2X4 KEY
15" 4" CONC SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL FILL & .006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER
18" MIN
20"
3"
12"
WATER PROOF THIS ENTIRE WALL W/ 2 LAYERS OF HOT ASPHALTIC EMULSION 4" DIA. DRAIN IN 8"X 24" GRAVEL BED
2X 10 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
8'-0"
12"
8" CONC WALL W/ #4Ø @ 18" O.C. EA. WAY W/ 4" ADDED FOR BRICK VENEER
8"
SOLID BLOCK
FIGURE 3821 Typical notes required to describe the materials for a full basement.
16"
NOTE: ALL BEARING WALLS @ THIS LEVEL TO BE 2X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
Chapter 38: Alternative Layout Techniques
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STEP 1
STEP 6 STEP 4
STEP 2 STEP 7 STEP 5
STEP 3
FIGURE 3822 Layout of a conventionally framed roof.
Flat Ceilings Use light construction lines to lay out the drawing. See Figure 38-22 for Step 1 through Step 7. Place a vertical line to represent the ridge. STEP 2 Locate each overhang. STEP 3 Lay out the bottom side of the rafter. Starting at the intersection of the ceiling and the interior side of the exterior wall, draw a line at a 5/12 pitch. Do this for both sides of the roof. Both lines should meet at the ridge line. STEP 4 Lay out the top side of the rafters. STEP 1
Lay out the top side of the ceiling joist. STEP 6 Lay out the ridge board. STEP 7 Lay out the fascias. STEP 5
Lay Out the Interior Supports See Figure 38-23 for Step 8 through Step 12. Lay out the ridge brace and support. STEP 9 Lay out the purlin braces and supports. STEP 10 Lay out the strongbacks. STEP 11 Lay out the purlins. STEP 12 Lay out the collar ties. STEP 8
STEP 8
STEP 11
STEP 9 STEP 10 STEP 12
FIGURE 3823 Layout of interior supports for a conventionally framed roof. The strongbacks (Step 10) can be used in place of a bearing wall or a flush header.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 19 STEP 13 STEP 16
STEP 14
STEP 15
STEP 18
STEP 20
STEP 17 FIGURE 3824 Finished-quality lines of structural materials for a conventionally framed roof.
Finished-Quality Lines—Structural Members Only See Figure 38-24 for Step 13 through Step 20. STEP 13
Draw the roof sheathing with thin lines.
STEP 14
Draw the rafters with thin lines.
STEP 15
Draw the eave blocking with bold lines.
Repeat Step 13 through Step 15 for the opposite side of the roof or use the MIRROR command if you’re drawing with AutoCAD.
Interior Support—Finished-Quality Lines See Figure 38-25 for Step 21 through Step 24. Draw all plates with bold lines. STEP 22 Draw all braces with thin lines. STEP 23 Draw all purlins with bold lines. STEP 24 Draw the collar tie with thin lines. STEP 21
STEP 16
STEP 17
Draw the fascias with bold lines.
STEP 18
Draw the strongbacks with bold lines.
STEP 19
Draw the ridge board with bold lines.
STEP 20
Draw blocking with bold lines.
Dimensions Usually, no dimensions are required for the roof framing.
Finishing Materials See Figure 38-26 for Step 25 through Step 29. Draw the baffles with bold lines. STEP 26 Draw the finished ceiling with thin lines. STEP 25
STEP 24 STEP 23
STEP 21
STEP 22
FIGURE 3825 Finished-quality lines represent the interior supports. The purlin, purlin brace, and collar ties may or may not be required, depending on the width of the structure and the rafter material and size.
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STEP 29
STEP 28 STEP 25
STEP 27
STEP 26
FIGURE 3826 Finishing materials for a conventionally framed roof include materials such as ridge vents, insulation, and metal hangers.
Draw joist hangers with thin lines. STEP 28 Draw the 10" (250 mm) thick insulation. STEP 29 Draw the ridge vents. STEP 27
Notes See Chapter 37 for a complete listing of notes that apply to the roof. In addition to those notes, see Figure 38-27 for the notes needed to describe the interior supports. Roof notes should include the following: A. 2 × __ RIDGE BOARD. B. 2 × __ RAFTERS __" O.C. C. 2 × __ COLLAR TIE 48" O.C. MAX.
Vaulted Ceilings If the entire roof level is to have vaulted ceilings, the process of laying it out is very similar to the procedure for laying out a stick roof with flat ceilings. Usually, though, part of the roof has 2 × 6 rafters with flat ceilings and a vaulted ceiling using 2 × 12 rafter/ceiling joists. In order to make the two roofs align on the outside, the plate must be lowered in the area having the vaulted ceilings. See Figure 38-28 for Step 1 through Step 7 of laying out the vaulted ceiling. Use construction lines for all steps. Lay out the overhangs. STEP 2 Lay out the bottom side of the 2 × 6 rafter. STEP 3 Lay out the top side of the 2 × 6 rafter. STEP 1
D. 2 × __ PURLIN. E. 2 × 4 BRACE 48" O.C. MAX.
2X8 RIDGE 12
1/2" STD. GRADE PLY 235 # COMPO. SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT SOLID BLOCK OMIT EA. 3RD FOR SCREENED VENTS
SCREENED RIDGE VENTS @ 10' O.C. ± 2X 6 RAFTERS @ 24" O.C. TYP. 2X 6 COLLAR TIES @ 48" O.C. MAX.
5
2X 6 PURLIN SOLID BLOCK 2X 4 BRACES @ 48" MAX.
1/2" CCX EXT. PLY. @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES.
2X 6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.
FIGURE 3827 Notes are required to describe all materials for a conventionally framed roof.
BAFFLES
10" BATTS-R-38 MIN. 4X 12 STRONGBACK W/ U.26 HANGERS EA. SIDE.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 6 STEP 4 STEP 3
STEP 5
STEP 2 STEP 1
STEP 7
FIGURE 3828 Layout of a stick-frame vaulted ceiling.
Measure down from the top side of the rafter drawn in Step 3 to establish the bottom of the 2 × 12 rafter/ceiling joist. Notice that the 2 × 12 extends below the top plate of the wall. STEP 5 Repeat Step 2 through Step 4 for the opposite side of the roof. STEP 6 Lay out the ridge beam. STEP 7 Lay out the fascias and the rafter tail cut for the 2 × 12 rafter/ceiling joists. STEP 4
Finished-Quality Lines—Structural Members Only See Figure 38-29 for Step 8 through Step 12. Draw the roof sheathing with thin lines. STEP 9 Draw the rafter/ceiling joist with thin lines. STEP 8
Draw all blocks, plates, and fascias with bold lines. STEP 11 Draw the ridge beam with bold lines. STEP 12 Repeat Step 8 through Step 10 for the opposite side of the roof. STEP 10
Finishing Materials See Figure 38-30 for Step 13 through Step 16. Draw the baffles with bold lines. STEP 14 Draw the insulation with thin lines. STEP 15 Draw the ceiling interior finish with thin lines. STEP 16 Draw the ridge vents and notches with thin lines. STEP 17 Draw metal hangers and crosshatch with thin lines. Depending on the ridge beam option that you drew, joist hangers may not be required. STEP 13
STEP 11 STEP 8
STEP 10
STEP 9 STEP 12
FIGURE 3829 Structural materials for a vaulted roof represented with finished-quality lines.
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STEP 16
STEP 15
STEP 13
STEP 14
FIGURE 3830 Finishing materials for a vaulted roof include ridge vents, insulation, and metal hangers.
Dimensions No dimensions are needed to describe the roof. You will need to give the floor-to-plate dimension. List this dimension as 7'−6" ± VERIFY AT JOB SITE. By telling the framer to verify the height at the job site, you are alerting the framer to a problem. This is a problem that can be solved much more easily at the job site than at a CADD station.
describe the roof completely. The notes should include the following: A. __ × __ RIDGE BEAM. B. 2 × __ RAFT./C.J. __" O.C. C. U210 JST. HGR. BY SIMPSON CO. OR EQUAL. D. SCREENED RIDGE VENTS EA. 3RD. SPACE. NOTCH RAFT. FOR AIRFLOW. E. SOLID BLOCK W/ 31" DIA SCREENED VENTS EA. SPACE.
Notes See Chapter 37 for a complete listing of notes that apply to the roof. In addition to those notes, see Figure 38-31 for the notes needed to
F. NOTCH RAFTER TAILS AS REQD. G. LINE OF INTERIOR FINISH. H. __ BATTSR__MIN.
SCREENED VENTS @ 6'-0" O.C.+ 2 X 12 RAFT/C.J. @ 24" O.C.
SOLID BLOCK 2 X 12 RAFT./C.J. @ 24" O.C. 10" BATTS R-30 1 X 4 SKIP SHEATH @ 7" O.C.
2 X 6 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. LAP 24" MIN. @ SPLICE
MED. CEDAR SHAKES OVER 15 # FELT & 30 # X 18" WIDE FELT BTWN EA. COURSE W/ 10-1/2" EXP.
12 4 X 14 RIDGE
5
2-2 X 4 TOP PLATES 6" BATTS R-21 SOLID BLOCK 2 X 6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 2-2 X 6 TOP PLATES
2 X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C. 10" BATTS-R-38 MIN.
1 X 6 T&G FIN. CEIL. SOLID BLOCK W/ 3-1"Ø SCREENED VENTS. 2 X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
FIGURE 3831 Notes for a vaulted ceiling.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
SECTION—RAFTERS CHECKLIST
❑ Wall construction: ❑ Show and specify an exterior wall, and an exterior wall with an opening.
Plot the section and the details not shown in the section to scale on size D material. Include lateral details as indicated on the framing plan. Use stock details to complete a wall section showing typical construction and additional sections as required to show each major type of construction.
❑ Represent interior walls per floor plan. ❑ Correct wall/floor intersection. ❑ Proper relationship of underlayment/wall. ❑ Specify all window / door headers, and required beams and girders for construction. ❑ Exterior post—specify post size and required post caps / bases.
Plot ❑ Assume a scale 3/8" = 1'−0" minimum unless your instructor provides other instructions.
❑ Show and specify foundation: decking under wall, overlay stops at wall. ❑ Proper floor / mudsill relationship.
❑ Text: Assume all text to be 1/8" high, neatly aligned in columns.
❑ Proper mudsill / stem wall / footing / key relationships.
❑ Titles: Assume to be 1/4" high text minimum.
❑ Proper footing / finish grade / crawl space relationships.
❑ Leader length / Leader location: Center of top line on left/center of bottom line on right. ❑ Insert drawings into a drawing sheet with completed title block. ❑ Freeze viewport.
Drawing ❑ Show and specify roof trusses: ❑ Solid blocks at ridge. ❑ Ridge vents. ❑ Provide a section / detail to represent required rafters, and rafter support including purlins, purlin bracing, strongbacks, and ceiling joists. ❑ Load path for roof and floor loads through to the soil. ❑ Show and specify rafter / wall intersections: ❑ Rafter / wall / blocking / notched rafters. ❑ Rafter / ridge and rafter / ceiling joists / ridge beam connections. ❑ Fascia / gutter / plywood / boxed eaves. ❑ Insulation / baffle.
Dimensions Roof ❑ Show roof pitch.
Walls ❑ Dimensions from finish floor/ceiling. ❑ Plate heights/header heights.
Footings ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
Finish grade/finish floor. Finish grade/bottom of footing. Footing width/ depth. Stem wall width/height. Finish floor/excavated grade at crawl space.
GARAGE/RESIDENCE—SECTION Drawing this section is similar to drawing the sections just described, because it is a combination of several types of sections. The steps needed to draw this section can be seen in Figure 38-32 through Figure 38-35.
Chapter 38: Alternative Layout Techniques
FIGURE 3832 Layout of a section drawn through the garage and the living area framed with a joist floor system.
FIGURE 3833 Finished-quality lines for structural materials.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 3834 Representing insulation, vapor barrier, and Sheetrock.
12 5
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL-SLOPE 1/4"/12" FOR DRAINAGE.
8"
THICKEN SLAB TO 8" @ EDGE
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. FOR 1-HR WALL & CEIL.
3/8"
1'-0"
6" 1'-0"
1'-0"
SECTION 'C-C'
6"
1'-6"
7'-0"
4X 14 HDR.
8'-1 1/8"
STD ROOF TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.-SEE DRAWN BY MANUF.
SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES.
FIGURE 3835 The completed section through the garage and living area. Although the IRC allows the garage wall and ceiling to be covered with 1/2" gypsum board, many companies provide the extra security of using 5/8" type X gypsum board.
Chapter 38: Alternative Layout Techniques
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See CD for more information
Alternative Layout Techniques Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 38 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
1 2 3 18
4 5 6
Question 38–1 Sketch and dimension an exterior footing for a concrete slab supporting two floors. Question 38–2 What thickness of floor decking is typically used for floors using the post-and-beam method?
21
Question 38–4 How are stem walls represented on the finished drawing?
22
Question 38–6 The top of the concrete slab must be __" above the finished grade.
8
20
Question 38–3 What type of line quality is used to represent the mudsill?
Question 38–5 What is the thickness of the vapor barrier used under a crawl space?
7
19
9 10 11
23 24
12 13
25
14 15 16
Question 38–7 Basement walls are typically __" wide. Question 38–8 What determines the amount of structural steel placed in a retaining wall? Question 38–9 Describe a common blocking pattern that is used to support the top of a concrete retaining wall. Question 38–10 Sketch and label the framing for a stickframed roof showing rafters, ceiling joists, ridges, purlins, purlin blocks, and braces. Question 38–11 On a separate sheet of paper, identify each part of the drawing for this question.
17 QUESTION 3811
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Question 38–12 On a separate sheet of paper, identify each part of the drawing for this question.
in a library for use on future projects. When needed, the detail can be edited to meet the needs of a specific project. Use the following minimum sizes and materials to complete the drawings.
1
Minimum Drawing Standards
2 3 16
4 5
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Unless noted, draw all details using a minimum scale of 1/2" = 1'−0". Bigger is OK; smaller is not. NO ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS ARE TO BE DRAWN. Convert isometric drawings to 2D details using the appropriate line weight. Save each drawing as an individual drawing file. Use the problem number as the file name. ●
All text to be StylusBT or other architectural style font with 1/8" text.
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Place leaders with a shoulder using the LEADER command. Keep arrows approximately the same size as the text.
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Text may be placed inside of details where space allows. Maintain a 3/4" cleareance between the drawing and dimensions or text. Never label material twice when more than one view is provided.
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Use dimensions for locations where possible rather than notes.
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Use side-by-side fractions (1/2), not top-over-bottom.
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Provide detail markers with 1/4" text (detail # over page #). Your text should fit neatly in the circle without touching the circle. The detail number should match the problem number.
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Provide a title (1/4" text) over the scale (at 1/8" text) for all details. Provide a block reference for all details (detail the number from the book).
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Draw all material sizes to meet or exceed IRC minimum requirements.
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Assume all floor joists to be 2 × 10 and all I-joists to be 9 1/2" TJI pro150 joists by Weyerhaeuser. Use appropriate Simpson hangers for each type of joist. Specify floor joists with a generic note such as:
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
24 25
13
26
14 15
QUESTION 3812
PROBLEMS Problem 38–1 through Problem 38–22. Using a print of your floor and foundation plans, evaluate the construction methods used and determine which sections and partial sections need to be drawn. Lay out a freehand sketch of the sections you will need, showing all wall locations, floor supports, and roof construction. Include sections showing stair, retaining walls, cantilevers, and masonry fireplace construction if required. Use a drawing sheet that will match the floor plan to lay out and draw all needed sections. Choose a scale based on the reading material in this section and use the examples given in each chapter to help you complete your drawings.
Additional Drawing Problems The following details will be completed as generic details. They are not drawn for a specific project but will be saved
● FLOOR JOISTSSEE FOUNDATION PLAN FOR SIZE AND
SPACING. ●
●
Provide #4 diameter steel 3" up from bottom of the footing and 3" down from top of stem wall with a # 4 vertical bar placed at 48" O.C. maximum from the footing to the stem wall. (The vertical reinforcement is not required for monolithic pours.) Assume all rafters are to be 2 × 6 at 24" O.C. with 24" overhangs and 2 × 8 fascias and barge rafters. All ceiling joists are to be 2 × 6 at 16" O.C. Provide minimum required bearing for rafters at plate connection.
Chapter 38: Alternative Layout Techniques
Specify rafters and ceiling joists with generic notes such as: ● 2× RAFTERSSEE ROOF FRAMING PLAN FOR SIZE AND
SPACING. ● 2× CEIL. JSTSSEE FRAMING PLAN FOR SIZE AND SPACING. ● ●
●
●
●
●
●
Assume all beams are 4 × 12 DFL #2 unless noted. Assume all girders to be 4 × 8 on 4 × 4 post (4 × 6 at splices) on 4 × 4 post on 15"Ø × 8"-deep concrete piers. Provide 18"-minimum clearance below the floor joists and 12"-minimum clearance below girders to finish grade. Floor decking over floor joists to be 3/4" plywood. Decking for post-and-beam systems to be 1 1/8" Sturd-I-Floor. Provide all insulation to meet minimum code standards. Use a distance of 3/4" for the OFFSET command when representing 1/2" material or smaller. Show and specify finishing materials with generic notes such as: ● EXTERIOR SIDINGSEE ELEVATION. ● INTERIOR FINISHSEE FINISH SCHEDULE.
●
Show and specify a lightweight roofing material over solid roof sheathing.
Foundation Problems Unless told otherwise by your instructor, base all foundation sizes on the minimum sizes required by the IRC. See Figure 33-12 for required foundation sizes. Create a drawing template suitable for all foundation details using appropriate layers, line weight, text, and dimension sizes. Place all annotation and dimensions to explain all construction. Show and specify required insulation.
Concrete Slab Details Problem 38–1 Using Figure 33-19E as a guide, create a detail showing the foundation for a one-level concrete floor system. Show and specify #10 × 10, 4 × 4 welded wire mesh 2" down from the top of the slab. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Show a wall framed with 2 × 6 studs at 16" O.C. Problem 38–2 Use the drawing created in Problem 38–1 to create a detail showing the foundation for a twolevel concrete floor system. Problem 38–3 Using Figure 33-19F as a guide, draw a detail showing a monolithic footing for a one-level residence. Assume a 2 × 6 stud wall with HardiPlank siding over 1/2" OSB underlayment. Problem 38–4 Edit the drawing created in Problem 38–3 to create a detail showing the foundation for a one-level
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concrete floor system. Provide 2" rigid insulation on the outer side of the foundation. Cover the insulation with 1/2" concrete board and use metal flashing to protect the insulation. Show a 6"-wide wood-framed wall flush with the edge of the concrete. Make a second copy showing a two-level footing. Problem 38–5 Create a detail showing the foundation for a one-level concrete floor system. Provide 2" rigid insulation on the outer side of the foundation. Cover the insulation with 1/2" concrete board and use metal flashing to protect the insulation. Show a 6"-wide woodframed wall with a 2" projection past the slab edge. Make a second copy showing a two-level footing. Save the drawings for future use. Problem 38–6 Using Figure 33-19D as a guide, draw a detail showing monolithic footing for a one-level residence with a 4"-thick independent slab. Assume a 2 × 4 stud wall with 1" exterior stucco. Problem 38–7 Using Figure 34-3 as a guide, draw a detail showing an interior one-level concrete floor system. Show a 4" stud wall anchored to the concrete with Ramset-type fasteners. Select a strike anchor that will have a 1 1/2"minimum embedment. Make a second copy showing a two-level footing. Save the drawings for future use. Problem 38–8 Using the left portion of Figure 34-19 as a guide, draw a detail of a concrete slab with a 7 3/4" step. Provide a minimum concrete thickness of 8" at the step. Provide WWM set 2" down from the top of the upper slab. Show a 2 × 4 stud wall bolted to the upper slab. Problem 38–9 Use the drawing created in Problem 38–1 to create a detail showing a one-level concrete footing supporting brick veneer. Extend the footing to be 16" wide. Edit the detail so that a two-story footing is also created.
Floor Joists Details Problem 38–10 Use the example in Figure 34-25 to create a detail showing a one-level poured concrete T footing supporting a joist floor system. Show and specify a 2 × 6 stud wall with double-wall construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Save the drawing for future use. Problem 38–11 Use the drawing created in Problem 38–10 to create a detail showing the foundation for a twolevel footing for a joist floor system. Problem 38–12 Use the drawing created in Problem 38–10 to create a detail showing a one-level footing for a joist floor system constructed using engineered lumber. Problem 38–13 Create a detail showing a two-level footing for a joist floor system constructed using engineered lumber. Problem 38–14 Create a detail showing a one-level concrete footing with a 6"-wide CMU stem wall
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supporting a joist floor system. Show and specify a 2 × 4 stud wall with double-wall construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Problem 38–15 Create a detail showing a two-level concrete footing with an 8"-wide CMU stem wall supporting a joist floor system. Show and specify a 2 × 6 stud wall with double-wall construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Problem 38–16 Using Figure 34-25 as a guide, draw a detail showing a joist floor system supported on an interior girder and a concrete pier. Problem 38–17 Using Figure 34-25 as a guide, draw a detail showing an I-joist floor system with an 18" step between floor levels. Support each floor with a girder placed below the lower floor level. Problem 38–18 Using Figure 34-25 as a guide, draw a detail showing an I-joist floor system with a 7 3/4"maximum step between the floor levels. Support the upper floor joists on the girder and hang the lower joists from the girder. Use appropriate joist hangers for the lower joists. Problem 38–19 Using Figure 34-25 as a guide, draw a detail showing a joist floor system intersecting a 4"concrete garage slab. Assume the top of the slab is 8" below the wood floor level. Use 26-gauge flashing to protect the wood framing. Thicken the slab as required at the edge. Problem 38–20 Using Figure 34-25 as a guide, draw a detail showing a joist floor system with an 18" cantilever measured from the outside edge of the wall to the outside edge of the stem wall. Show a 2 × 6 stud wall with double-wall construction. Problem 38–21 Create a detail showing a two-level concrete footing with an 8"-wide CMU stem wall supporting engineered floor joists. Show and specify a 2 × 6 stud wall with double-wall construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Increase the footing as required to support 4" brick veneer that extends 48" above the finish grade. Problem 38–22 Using Figure 34-32 as a guide, draw a detail showing the intersection of a joist floor system and a concrete slab. Extend the concrete footing 24" into the grade. Use a 3 × 10 DFPT ledger bolted to the concrete with 1/2" A.B. at 32" O.C. staggered 3" up/ down. Specify appropriate metal joist hangers. Reinforce the slab with the appropriate WWM and specify steel in the footing and stem wall as per minimum standards presented earlier. Problem 38–23 Using Problem 38–10 as a base, draw a detail showing the floor joists parallel to the stem wall. Show at least three joists.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 38–24 Create a detail showing engineered floor joists parallel to the stem wall. Show at least three joists. Problem 38–25 Create a detail showing the intersection of a wood deck with a wood floor supported on a concrete stem wall. Frame the floor using sawn lumber. Use a continuous rim joist with solid blocking between the floor joists. Set the top of the deck so that it is 2" below the finish floor level of the residence. Build the deck using 2 × 4 decking laid flat with a 1/4" gap supported on 2 × 8 treated floor joists. Hang the floor joists from a 2 × 10 treated ledger. Attach the ledger to the residence using nailing from the standard nailing schedule. Problem 38–26 Create a detail showing the intersection of a wood deck with a wood floor supported on a concrete stem wall. Frame the floor using engineered lumber. Use a continuous rim joist with solid blocking between the floor joists. Set the top of the deck to be 2" below the finish floor level of the residence. Build the deck using 1 1/2" lightweight concrete over 30# felt over 3/4" plywood decking supported on 2 × 10 treated floor joists. Hang the floor joists from a 3 × 10 treated ledger. Attach the ledger to the residence using 3/8"Ø lag bolts set at 24" O.C. staggered 3" up/down.
Post-and-Beam Details Problem 38–27 Using Figure 34-30 as a guide, create a detail showing a one-level concrete T footing supporting a post-and-beam floor system. Show the beams parallel to the stem wall. Show and specify a 2 × 6 stud wall with double-wall construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Problem 38–28 Create a detail showing a one-level concrete footing with a 6"CMU stem wall supporting a post-and-beam floor system. Show the beams parallel to the stem wall. Show and specify a 2 × 4 stud wall with single-wall construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Problem 38–29 Create a detail showing a two-level concrete T footing supporting a post-and-beam floor system. Show the beams parallel to the stem wall. Show and specify a 2 × 6 stud wall with double-wall construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Problem 38–30 Create a detail showing a two-level concrete footing with an 8"CMU stem wall supporting a post-and-beam floor system. Show the beams parallel to the stem wall. Show and specify a 2 × 6 stud wall with double-wall construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Problem 38–31 Create a detail showing a one-level concrete T footing supporting a post-and-beam floor system. Show the beams perpendicular to the stem wall. Show and specify a 2 × 6 stud wall with double-wall
Chapter 38: Alternative Layout Techniques
construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Problem 38–32 Create a detail showing a two-level concrete T footing supporting a post-and-beam floor system. Show the beams perpendicular to the stem wall. Show and specify a 2 × 6 stud wall with doublewall construction and generic finishing materials. Provide steel as required for your seismic zone. Problem 38–33 Using Figure 34-30 as a guide, show a post-and-beam floor with a 7 3/4" step.
Retaining Wall Details Problem 38–34 Using Figure 38-15A as a guide, draw a detail of an 8' retaining wall made of CMUs to support a floor and upper-level wood wall made of 2 × 6 studs. Show the use of I-joists that are perpendicular to the retaining wall for the upper floor system and use a 4" concrete slab with no WWM for the lower floor. Provide a 4"Ø French drain at the footing in a 12" wide gravel bed. Reinforce the wall with a #5 vertical rebar set 2" clear of the interior face. Extend a #5 × 18" L rebar from the footing into the wall at 48" O.C. Provide (2)-#5 continuous rebars 3" up from the bottom of the footing. Reinforce the wall with a #5 horizontal rebar at 16" O.C. with (2)-#5 at midheight of wall, and (4)-#5 at the top of the wall. Provide a #5 vertical rebar at 48" O.C. Attach the mudsill to the wall with 1/2"Ø A.B. at 24" O.C. and use Simpson Company A-34 anchors at each joist-to-plate connection. Provide two layers of hot asphaltic emulsion on the exterior face of the wall. Problem 38–35 Using Figure 38-15B as a guide, draw a detail of an 8' retaining wall made of poured concrete to support a floor and upper-level wood wall made of 2 × 6 studs. Show the use of engineered floor joists that are parallel to the retaining wall for the upper floor system and use a 4"-concrete slab with no WWM for the lower floor. Show at least four joist spaces and show solid blocking placed between the joists. Place the blocks at 48" O.C. and show the blocks extending 48" out from the wall. Provide a 4"Ø French drain at the footing in a 12"-wide gravel bed. Reinforce the wall with a #5 vertical rebar set 2" clear of the interior face. Extend a #5 × 18" L rebar from the footing into the wall at 48" O.C. Provide (2)-#5 continuous rebars 3" up from the bottom of the 16" × 12" footing. Provide a #5 horizontal rebar at 16" O.C. with (2)-#5 at midheight of wall, and (4)-#5 at the top of the wall. Provide a # 5 vertical rebar at 48" O.C. Attach the mudsill to the wall with 1/2"Ø A.B. at 24" O.C. and use a Simpson Company A-34 anchor at 16" O.C. along the rim joist to the plate. Provide two layers of hot asphaltic emulsion on the exterior face of the wall. Cover the exterior wall with 2" rigid insulation and protect the insulation with 1/2" concrete board to a depth of 18". Extend the protection to the mudsill and protect with 26-gauge flashing.
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Problem 38–36 Using the sketch with Problem 33–6 as a guide, create a detail showing the intersection of a 48"-poured concrete retaining wall and a 2 × 4 stud wall. The height of the wall (48" max.) is determined from the top of the 4" concrete floor slab to the line of the finish grade. Extend the wall 6" above the finish grade. Provide a 30"-wide × 8" deep footing with (2)-#5Ø continuous bars 3" up from the bottom of the footing. Provide a #5Ø 15" × 18" L at 18" O.C. extending from the footing into the wall. Reinforce the wall with #5Ø at 18" O.C. 2" from the tension side of the wall. Provide a 4"Ø drain in an 8" × 30" gravel bed. Use a 2 × 6 DFPT sill with 1/2" A.B. placed at 24" O.C. Show the wood wall supporting an engineered joist floor system. Cover the exterior wood with 5/8" T1-11, over 5/8" type X gypsum board and 1/2" Sheetrock on the interior side.
Wall Construction Problem 38–37 Using Figure 27-15 as a guide, draw the header over an opening in a 2 × 6 stud wall with double top plates, a 4 × 8 header, and a 2× nailer. Assume that the top of the top plates is set at 8' and the bottom of the header is set at 6'−8". Problem 38–38 Using Figure 27-15 as a guide, draw the header over an opening in a 2 × 6 stud wall with double top plates, (2)-2 × 12 headers, and a 2 × 6 nailer. Provide 2" rigid insulation on the interior side of the wall. Problem 38–39 Using Figure 27-14 as a guide, draw a plan view of an exterior corner formed with (3)-2 × 6 studs. Show the exterior side using single-wall construction. Problem 38–40 Using Figure 27-14 as a guide, draw a plan view of an exterior corner formed with (2)-2 × 6 studs. Show the exterior side using double-wall construction. Problem 38–41 Using Figure 27-14 as a guide, draw a plan view of a 2 × 4 interior wall intersection with an exterior wall formed with (2)-2 × 6 studs. Use a flat-stud intersection. Show the exterior side using double-wall construction. Problem 38–42 Using Figure 28-31A as a guide, draw an elevation and a section of (2)-2 × 6 king studs and a single trimmer supported on a 4 × 6 post at the lower level. Frame the upper wall with 2 × 6 studs resting on a joist floor system that is supported on a lower wall made of 2 × 6 studs. Tie the trimmers to the post below with a Simpson Company HD-5A connector. (Show just enough framing to explain the connection from the upper to the lower floor.) Problem 38–43 Use the information from Figure 32-22 to draw an elevation and a section of one side of a braced wall panel. Problem 38–44 Use the information from Figure 32-15 and Figure 32-22 to draw an elevation and a section of one side of a one-level alternative braced wall
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panel. Copy and edit the drawing to create a detail showing the lower level of a multi level ABWP. Problem 38–45 Use the information from Figure 32-14 and Figure 32-16B to draw an elevation and a section of one side of the intersection of a portal frame braced wall panel adjacent to an opening.
Roof-to-Wall Connections Problem 38–46 Using Figure 28-60 as a guide, draw a detail showing the intersection of a standard truss with a 6/12 pitch to a 2 × 6 stud wall. Problem 38–47 Draw a detail showing the intersection of a standard truss with a 6/12 pitch to a 2 × 6 stud wall. Show an enclosed soffit using 1 × 4 T&G cedar. Create a cornice detail using at least three pieces of trim. Problem 38–48 Draw a detail showing the intersection of a standard truss with a 6/12 pitch to an 8" CMU wall. Use a 2 × 6 DFPT sill with 1/2"Ø A.B. at 48" O.C. Problem 38–49 Draw a detail showing the intersection of a standard truss with a 6/12 pitch to a 2 × 6 stud wall. Provide enclosed soffits. Use advanced framing techniques and assume the use of an 8' plate height and a 9' top chord height to complete the drawing. Provide solid blocking between the top chords. Problem 38–50 Draw a gable end-wall truss resting on a 2 × 4 stud wall covered with double-wall construction. Assume a 12" overhang and a 2 × 6 barge rafter. Problem 38–51 Draw the intersection of a scissor truss with a 6/12 pitch to a 2 × 6 stud wall. Show the bottom chord with a 4/12 pitch. Problem 38–52 Draw a detail showing the intersection of rafters placed at a 6/12 pitch to the top plate of a 2 × 6 stud wall. Assume the use of ceiling joists. Problem 38–53 Draw a detail showing the intersection of rafters placed at a 4/12 pitch to a 2 × 6 top plate on an 8" CMU wall. Assume the use of ceiling joists.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 38–54 Draw a detail showing the intersection of 2 × 12 rafters/ceiling joists set at an 8/12 pitch with the top plate of a 2 × 6 stud wall. Problem 38–55 Draw a detail showing the intersection of 2 × 12 rafters/ceiling joists set at a 7/12 pitch with the top plate of a 2 × 6 stud wall. Use an enclosed eave with a 2 × 6 fascia. Cut the rafter tails as required. Problem 38–56 Draw a detail showing the intersection of 2 × 12 rafters/ceiling joists set at a 7/12 pitch with a 2 × 6 stud wall built with double-wall construction. Support the rafter/ceiling joists with the appropriate metal hangers and with a 2 × 12 ledger that is laid over the OSB sheathing. Provide 26-gauge flashing. Problem 38–57 Draw a gable end wall showing the rafters and ceiling joists resting on a 2 × 6 stud wall covered with double-wall construction. Assume a 12" overhang and a 2 × 6 barge rafter. Problem 38–58 Draw a detail showing the intersection of 2 × 12 rafters/ceiling joists set at a 2/12 pitch with the top plate of a 2 × 6 stud wall. Notch the rafter tails to 3 1/2" and provide a plumb cut. Do not provide a fascia. Problem 38–59 Draw a detail showing the intersection of 2 × 6 rafters with a gable end wall and a flush barge rafter. Problem 38–60 Draw a detail showing two options for the intersection of 2 × 12 rafters/ceiling joists to a 6 × 14 ridge beam. Show one option with the rafters resting on the top of the ridge beam. Provide solid blocking between each rafter and provide screened roof vents for each third rafter. Notch each rafter 1 1/2" deep × 3" for airflow. Draw a second option with the rafter/ceiling joists hung from the ridge beam using appropriate metal joist hangers.
CHAPTER 39
Stair Construction and Layout I
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More than a means of traveling from floor to floor, stairs can provide an elegant focal point, as seen in Figure 39-1. Stairs were introduced with floor plans in Section 4. Minimal information was provided in that section—only enough so that you could draw stairs on floor plans. This chapter will show you how to draw stairs in section. Step-by-step instructions will be given for drawing straight run, open, and U-shaped stair layouts.
STAIR TERMINOLOGY There are several basic terms you will need to be familiar with when working with stairs. Each can be seen in Figure 39-2:
VERTICAL RAILS (4" CLEAR MAX.)
RAIL HEIGHT (36" MIN.)
LINE OF GUARDRAIL IN BACKGROUND
SOLID BLOCKING
FIRE RETARDANT GYPSUM BOARD (TYPE 'X') @ ALL USABLE SPACE UNDER STAIR
HANDRAIL 34" MINIMUM 38" MAXIMUM ABOVE NOSING
STRINGERS
6'-8" MINIMUM
INDIVIDUAL RUN
INDIVIDUAL RISE
TOTAL RISE
●
Run: Horizontal distance of the stairs from end to end. Rise: Vertical distance from top to bottom of the stairs.
( FINISH FLOOR TO FINISH FLOOR )
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FIGURE 391 In addition to providing access from one level to another, stairs can be used to add elegance to a home. Courtesy BOWA Builders, photograph by Bob Narod.
TREAD RISER KICKBLOCK
TOTAL RUN
FIGURE 392 Common stair terms. 901
902
Architectural Drafting and Design
Stair Type
IRC
Straight stair Max. rise
7 3/4” (195 mm)
Min. run
10” (250 mm)
Min. headroom
6’–8” (2000 mm)
Min. tread width
3’–0” (900 mm)
Handrail height
34” (850 mm) min. 38” (950 mm) max.
Guardrail height
36” (900 mm) min.
Winders
FIGURE 393 Stairs with stringers in place, ready for the treads and risers.
Min. tread depth
6” (150 mm) min. 10” (250 mm) @ 12” (300 mm)
Spiral
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Tread: Horizontal step of the stairs. It is usually made from 1" (25 mm) material on enclosed stairs and 2" (50 mm) material on open stairs. Tread width is the measurement from the face of the riser to the nosing. The nosing is the portion of the tread that extends past the riser. Riser: Vertical backing between the treads. It is usually made from 1" (25 mm) material for enclosed stairs and is not used on open stairs. Stringer or stair jack: Support for the treads. A 2 × 12 (50 × 300) notched stringer is typically used for enclosed stairs. For an open stair a 4 × 14 (100 × 350) is common, but sizes vary greatly. Figure 39-3 shows the stringers in place with temporary treads provided for the construction crew. Kickblock or kicker: Used to keep the bottom of the stringer from sliding on the floor when downward pressure is applied to the stringer. Headroom: Vertical distance measured from the tread nosing to a wall or floor above the stairs. Building codes will specify a minimum size. Handrail: Railing that you slide your hand along as you walk down the stairs. Guardrail: Railing placed around an opening for the stairs.
Min. width
26” (650 mm)
Min. tread depth
7 1/2” (190 mm) @ 12” (300 mm)
Max. rise
9 1/2” (240 mm)
Min. headroom
6’–6” (1950 mm)
TABLE 391 Basic Stair Dimensions According to the IRC
covering. The total rise can then be divided by the maximum allowable rise to determine the number of steps required, as shown in Table 39-2. Once the required rise is determined, this information should be stored in your memory for future reference. Of the residential stairs you will lay out in your career as a drafter, probably 99% will have the same rise. So with a standard 8'−0" (2400 mm) ceiling, you will always need 14 risers.
Step 1.
3/4 9 1/4 3 92 5/8 1 1/2 107.125” Step 2.
Gypsum (GYP.) board 1/2" (13 mm) thick is required by the IRC for enclosing all usable storage space under the stairs. Table 39-1 shows common stair dimensions based on the IRC that relate to each of these terms.
DETERMINING RISE AND RUN Building codes dictate the maximum rise of the stairs. To determine the actual rise, the total height from floor to floor must be known. Review Chapter 37. Total rise can be found by adding the floor-to-ceiling height, the depth of the floor joist, and the depth of the floor
Determine the total rise in inches. 19 235 76 2353 38 2721 mm
plywood floor joist top plates studs bottom plate total rise
Find the number of risers required. Divide the total rise of 107.125” (2721 mm) by the maximum individual riser height of 7 3/4” (197 mm). 13.8 7 3/4 )107.125
13.8 197 )2721
Because you cannot have .8 risers, the number will be rounded up to 14 risers. Step 3.
Find the number of treads required. Number of treads equal Rise run. 14 1 13 treads required.
Step 4.
Multiply the run of each tread by the number of treads to find the total run.
TABLE 392 Determining the Rise and Run for a Flight of Stairs
Chapter 39: Stair Construction and Layout
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Once the rise is known, the required number of treads can be found easily, because there will always be one fewer tread than the number of risers. Thus, a typical stair for a house with 8'−0" (2400 mm) ceilings will have 14 risers and 13 treads. If each tread is 10 1/2" (265 mm) wide, the total run can be found by multiplying 10 1/2" (265 mm) (the width) by 13 (the number of treads required). With this basic information, you are now ready to lay out the stairs. The layout for a straight stairway will be described first.
STRAIGHT STAIR LAYOUT The straight-run stair is a common type of stair that will need to be drawn. It is a stair that goes from one floor to another in one straight run. An example of a straight-run stair for the residence shown in Chapter 18 can be seen in Figure 39-4. Figure 39-5 shows the stair section for the same house with the basement option. See Figure 39-6 for Step 1 through Step 4. If you’re completing the stair section manually, use construction
34" HIGH HANDRAIL DN. 14 R
4
34" HIGH HANDRAIL 36" HIGH GUARDRAIL
UPPER FLOOR PLAN 34" HIGH HANDRAIL
UP 14 R
4
34" HIGH HANDRAIL
1/2" GYP BD. AT ALL USABLE STORAGE
LOWER FLOOR PLAN MSTR. BATH 6'-8" MIN.
2-2 X 10 W/ U210 HGR.
2-2 x 6 RIP AS REQD. 2- 2 X 6 TOP PLATES LAP 48" MIN.
IL RA ND A H 10 1/2" TYP.
BED #1
2 x 10 F. J. @ 16" O.C.
2-2 x 4 TOP PLATES 4 x 6 HDR. 2 x 4 NAILER
7 3/4" MAX.
3/4" RISERS 2 X 4 PLATE
2 x 6 DFPT W. 3 RAMSET FASTENERS
1" TREAD MAT'L
2 x 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C. 2 x 4 DFPT SILL
11'-4 1/2"
STAIR SECTION 1'-0"
FIGURE 394 Straight-run enclosed stairs.
8'- 1 1/8"
1/2" GYP. BD. 3- 2 x 12 STRINGERS
SOLID BLOCK
LINE OF WALL BEYOND
3/8"
34" MIN. 38" MAX.
SOLID BLOCK
FAMILY
904
MSTR. BATH
BED #1
2-2 X 6 RIP AS REQD.
IL
RA
ND
HA
34" MIN. 38" MAX.
2-2 X 10 W/ U210 HGR.
6'-8" MIN.
SOLID BLOCK
10 1/2" TYP.
2 x 10 F. J. @ 16" O.C.
2-2 X 4 TOP PLATES
2- 2 X 6 TOP PLATES LAP 48" MIN.
4 X 6 HDR. 2 X 4 NAILER SOLID BLOCK 8'- 1 1/8"
7 3/4" MAX.
LINE OF WALL BEYOND
3/4" RISERS
FAMILY
1" TREAD MAT'L 2 X 6 KICKER SOLID BLOCK
6'-8" MIN.
L
AI
DR
N HA
34" MIN. 38" MAX.
3- 2 X 12 STRINGERS 2 2 X 10 W/ U210 HGR.
10 1/2" TYP.
2 X 10 F. J. @ 16" O.C.
2-2 X 4 TOP PLATES
SOLID BLOCK 2 X 4 NAILER 3/4" RISERS
STORAGE
11'-5" TOTAL RUN 2 X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C. 3- 2 X 12 STRINGERS
STAIR SECTION 1'-0"
FIGURE 395 Straight-run stairs for a multilevel home.
2 X 4 DFPT SILL
Architectural Drafting and Design
2 X 6 DFPT W. 3 RAMSET FASTENERS
3/8"
1/2" GYP. BD. @ ALL USABLE STORAGE
8'- 0"
7 3/4" MAX.
1" TREAD MAT'L
Chapter 39: Stair Construction and Layout
STEP 1
905
STEP 2
STEP 4
STEP 7
STEP 2 STEP 1
STEP 3
FIGURE 398 Outline the treads, stringer, and risers. FIGURE 396 Lay out the walls, floor, and each end of the stairs.
lines. If you’re completing the drawing using AutoCAD, complete the steps by placing the following items on the OUTL layer: Lay out walls that may be near the stairs. STEP 2 Lay out each floor level. STEP 3 Lay out one end of the stairs. If no dimensions are available on the floor plans, scale your drawing. STEP 4 Figure and lay out the total run of the stairs. STEP 5 Lay out the required risers (see Figure 39-7). STEP 6 Lay out the required treads (see Figure 39-7). STEP 7 Lay out the stringer, and outline the treads and risers, as shown in Figure 39-8.
STEP 10
STEP 1
Drawing the Stairs with FinishedQuality Lines Use a thin line to draw the stairs unless otherwise noted. See Figure 39-9 for Step 8 through Step 11. If you’re using AutoCAD, use the PROPERTIES command to place the material on a layer such as DETL MBND
STEP 8
STEP 9
FIGURE 399 Finished-quality lines for treads, risers, and the stringer.
(material beyond cutting plane) or DETL MCUT (material cut by cutting plane). STEP 8
Draw the treads and risers.
STEP 9
Draw the bottom side of the stringer.
Draw the upper stringer support or support wall where the stringer intersects the floor.
STEP 10
STEP 11
10
11
12
13
See Figure 39-10 for Step 12 through Step 17. STEP 5
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Draw metal hangers if there is no support wall.
14
8
11 10
9
12
STEP 6
0
FIGURE 397 Layout of the risers and treads.
13
STEP 12
Draw the kickblock with bold lines.
STEP 13
Draw any intermediate support walls.
STEP 14
Draw solid blocking with bold lines.
Draw the gypsum board in all usable storage below the stairs.
STEP 15 STEP 16
Draw any floors or walls that are over the stairs.
STEP 17
Draw the handrail.
906
Architectural Drafting and Design
AutoCAD. Use thin lines similar to those introduced in Chapter 17. Place the required leader and dimension lines to locate the following needed dimensions: STEP 16 STEP 17 STEP 15 STEP 14 STEP 13
STEP 18
Total rise.
STEP 19
Total run.
STEP 20
Rise.
STEP 21
Run.
STEP 22
Headroom.
STEP 23
Handrail.
See Figure 39-12 for typical notes that are placed on stair sections. Have your instructor specify local variations.
STEP 12 FIGURE 3910 Finishing materials include the kickblock, support walls, blocking, fire-rated gypsum board, and handrails.
OPEN STAIRWAY LAYOUT An open stairway is similar to a straight enclosed stairway. It goes from one level to the next, usually in a straight run. As seen in Figure 39-13, the major difference is that with the open stair, there are no risers between the treads. This allows for viewing from
Dimensions and Notes See Figure 39-11 for Step 18 through Step 23. Use the DIM command to place the following dimensions if you’re completing your drawing with
10 1/2" TYP.
8'- 1 1/8"
7 3/4" MAX.
STEP 22
STEP 23 34" MIN. 38" MAX.
6'-8" MIN.
STEP 21
STEP 20 STEP 18
11'-4 1/2"
STEP 19 FIGURE 3911 Stair dimensions are required to show the individual and total rise and run, the location of the handrail, and the height between floors.
Chapter 39: Stair Construction and Layout
907
MSTR. BATH
BED #1
2-2 X 6 RIP AS REQD.
IL
RA
ND
HA
34" MIN. 38" MAX.
2-2 X 10 W/ U210 HGR.
6'-8" MIN.
SOLID BLOCK
2 X 10 F. J. @ 16" O.C.
10 1/2" TYP.
2- 2 X 6 TOP PLATES LAP 48" MIN.
2-2 X 4 TOP PLATES 4 X 6 HDR. 2 X 4 NAILER 1/2" GYP. BD.
SOLID BLOCK
3- 2 X 12 STRINGERS 3/4" RISERS 1" TREAD MAT'L
2 X 4 PLATE 2 X 4 DFPT W. 3 RAMSET FASTENERS
8'- 1 1/8"
7 3/4" MAX.
LINE OF WALL BEYOND
FAMILY
2 X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C. 2 X 4 DFPT SILL
11'-4 1/2"
STAIR SECTION 3/8"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3912 The stair drawing is completed by adding notes to describe all materials.
one floor to the next, creating an open feeling. See Figure 39-14 for an open stairway. See Figure 39-15 for Step 1 through Step 3. Lay out the stairs following Step 1 through Step 4 of the layout for the enclosed stair.
STEP 1
STEP 2
Lay out the 3 × 12 (75 × 300) treads.
Lay out the 14" (350 mm) deep stringer centered on the treads.
STEP 3
Finished-Quality Lines Use thin lines for each step unless otherwise noted. See Figure 39-16 for Step 4 through Step 9.
FIGURE 3913 An open stair is usually made of 3× (75×) or thicker tread material with no risers. The treads of this stair are made from laminated material. Courtesy Lee Gleason.
STEP 4
Draw the treads with a bold line.
STEP 5
Draw the stringer.
STEP 6
Draw the upper stringer supports with bold lines.
STEP 7
Draw the metal hangers for the floor and stringer.
STEP 8
Draw any floors or walls that are near the stairs.
STEP 9
Draw the handrail.
Place the required leader and dimension lines to provide the needed dimensions. See Step 18 through
STEP 10
908
Architectural Drafting and Design
34" HIGH HANDRAIL DN. 14 R
4
34" HIGH HANDRAIL 36" HIGH GUARDRAIL
UPPER FLOOR PLAN
UPPER FLOOR
34" HIGH HANDRAIL
LINE OF
UP 14 R
34" HIGH HANDRAIL
LOWER FLOOR PLAN
MSTR. BATH 6'-8" MIN.
2-2 X 10 W/ U210 HGR.
2-2 X 6 RIP AS REQD. 2- 2 X 6 TOP PLATES LAP 48" MIN.
L
AI
DR
N HA
2 X 10 F. J. @ 16" O.C.
10 1/2" TYP.
3 X 12 OAK TREADS WRAPPED W/ CARPET W/ 4" EXPOSURE EACH END
3" X 3" X 3/16" METAL TURNED UNDER STRINGER
11'-4 1/2"
STAIR SECTION 1'-0"
8'- 1 1/8"
7 3/4" MAX.
4 X 14 OAK STRINGER
2" X 3" X 3/16" METAL EA. TREAD TO STRINGER
FIGURE 3914 Open stairway layout.
BED #1
LINE OF WALL BEYOND
LINE OF WALL BEYOND
3/8"
34" MIN. 38" MAX.
SOLID BLOCK
FAMILY
Chapter 39: Stair Construction and Layout
909
STEP 9
STEP 8
STEP 1
STEP 7 STEP 6 STEP 5
STEP 8
STEP 4
STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 7
FIGURE 3915 Lay out the open-tread stairs.
FIGURE 3916 Finished-quality lines for structural material on open stairs.
Step 24 of the enclosed stair layout for a guide to the needed dimensions (see Figure 39-17). STEP 11 Place the required notes on the section. Use Figure 39-17 as a guide. Have your instructor specify local variations.
landing is usually located at the midpoint of the run, but it can be offset, depending on the amount of room allowed for stairs on the floor plan. Figure 39-18 shows what a U-shaped stair looks like on the floor plan and in section. The stairs may be either open or enclosed, depending on the location. The layout is similar to the layout of the straight-run stair but requires a little more planning in the layout stage because of the landing. Lay out the distance from the start of the stairs to the
U-SHAPED STAIRS The U-shaped stair is often used in residential design. Rather than going up a whole flight of steps in a straight run, this stair layout introduces a landing. The
MSTR. BATH 6'-8" MIN. 2-2 X 6 RIP AS REQD. 2- 2 X 6 TOP PLATES LAP 48" MIN.
10 1/2" TYP.
2 X 10 F. J. @ 16" O.C.
4 X 14 OAK STRINGER 3 X 12 OAK TREADS WRAPPED W/ CARPET W/ 4" EXPOSURE EACH END 2" X 3" X 3/16" METAL EA. TREAD TO STRINGER 3" X 3" X 3/16" METAL TURNED UNDER STRINGER
11'-4 1/2"
STAIR SECTION 3/8"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3917 Completed open stair with dimensions and notes added.
8'- 1 1/8"
LINE OF WALL BEYOND
7 3/4" MAX.
LINE OF WALL BEYOND
IL
RA
ND
HA
34" MIN. 38" MAX.
SOLID BLOCK
2-2 X 10 W/ U210 HGR.
910
Architectural Drafting and Design
12
13
14
34" HIGH HANDRAIL DN. 14 R
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
34" HIGH HANDRAIL
7
34" HIGH HANDRAIL
5
6
36" HIGH GUARDRAIL
3
4
UPPER FLOOR PLAN
1
2
1/2" GYP BD. AT ALL USABLE STORAGE 34" HIGH HANDRAIL
0
UP 14 R
FIGURE 3919 Layout of U-shaped stair runs. 34" HIGH HANDRAIL
LOWER FLOOR PLAN
2 X 6 SMOOTH OAK RAIL 36" MIN.
34" MIN. 38" MAX. OF
HA
1/2" GYP. BD. @ ALL USABLE STORAGE
RA
7 3/4" MAX.
2- 2 X 4 TOP PL. 2 X 8 LEDGER W/ U210 HGR.
LINE OF STAIRS IN BACKGROUND
ND
IL
1" TREAD MAT'L
8'- 1 1/8"
E
10 1/2" 2 X 6 LEDGER W/ U26 HGR.
2 X 10 F. J. @ 16" O.C.
2 X 10 W/ U210 MTL. HGR.
LIN
2 X 6 F. J. @ 16" O.C. @ LANDING
2 X 2 OAK VERT. @ 4" CLEAR MAX.
3- 2 X 12 STRINGERS 2 X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
2 X 4 DFPT SILL
3/4" RISERS
2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 3 RAMSET FASTENERS
STAIR SECTION 3/8"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3918 U-shaped stair.
landing, based on the floor plan measurements. Then proceed using a method similar to that used to draw the straight-run stair. See Figure 39-19 for help in laying out the section.
L-SHAPED STAIRS The layout of an L-shaped stair has similarities to the layout of a straight-run and a U-shaped stair. The layout of treads and risers is similar to the methods used in Figure 39-7 for a straight-run stair. The
drawing is similar to a U-shaped stair in that a landing must be shown. An L-shaped stair has two major differences from the U-shaped stair. With an L-shaped stair, the landing can be placed at any point of the stair run. The second major difference is that a portion of the L-shaped stair will be shown in elevation, and a portion will be shown in section. The placement of the cutting plane will determine the resulting views, requiring some material to be labeled as MATERIAL IN BACKGROUND or MATERIAL IN FOREGROUND. Figure 39-20 shows an example of an L-shaped stair section.
EXTERIOR STAIRS It is quite common to need to draw sections of exterior stairs on multilevel homes. Figure 39-21 shows two different methods for construction of exterior stairs— concrete stairs and wood stairs. Although there are many variations, these two options are common. Both can be laid out by following the procedure for straightrun stairs. When the concrete exterior stairs and wood exterior stairs are compared, the finishing materials have major differences. Notice that there is no riser on the wood stairs, and the tread is thicker than the tread of an interior step. Usually the same material that is used on the deck is used for treads. In many parts of the country, a nonskid material should also be called for to cover the treads. The concrete stair can also be laid out by following the procedure for straight-run stairs. Once the
Chapter 39: Stair Construction and Layout
911
36" HIGH GUARDRAIL DISPLAY AREA ABOVE CLOSET BELOW
OPEN
E LIN
OF
L AI DR N HA
4" CONC. FLATWORK W/ EXP. AGG. FINISH OVER 4" GRAVEL FILL
12"
34" HIGH HANDRAIL
7 1/2"
34" MIN. 38" MAX.
DN. 14 R
THICKEN SLAB TO 8" AT EDGE & PROVIDE # 4 TOP & BTM. OF STAIR RUN
4" MIN.
UPPER FLOOR PLAN
# 4 @ EA. TREAD
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP BD. AT ALL USABLE STORAGE
7'-0" TOTAL RUN LINE OF FLOOR ABOVE
STAIR SECTION
3/8"
2 X 4 REDWOOD DECKING LAID FLAT W/ 1/4" GAP
2 X 8 W/ U26 MTL. HGR. 2 X 8 F.J. @ 16" O.C.
34" HIGH HANDRAIL
LIN E
OF HA ND RA IL 10 1/2"
7 3/4" MAX.
LOWER FLOOR PLAN
6'-1 1/2" TOTAL RUN 34" MIN. 38" MAX.
UP 14 R
1'-0"
2 X 6 SMOOTH OAK RAIL
2 X 12 STRINGERS @16" O.C.
2 X 10 W/ U210 MTL. HGR. LINE OF WALL BEYOND LIN E OF HA ND RA IL
8'- 1 1/8"
2- 2 X 4 TOP PL.
3 - 2 X 4 TREADS LAID FLAT W/ 1/4" GAP
2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ 3 RAMSET FASTENERS
7 3/4" MAX.
6'-8" MIN.
2 X 10 F. J. @ 16" O.C.
34" MIN. 38" MAX.
2 X 6 F. J. @ 16" O.C. @ LANDING 2 X 6 LEDGER W/ U26 HGR.
2 X 2 OAK VERT. @ 4" CLEAR MAX.
36" MIN.
LINE OF STAIRS IN BACK GROUND
STAIR SECTION 3/8"
1'-0"
4" CONC. FLATWORK W/ EXP. AGG. FINISH OVER 4" GRAVEL FILL
1" TREAD MAT'L
2 X 8 LEDGER W/ U210 HGR.
3/4" RISERS 2 X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
FIGURE 3921 Common types of exterior stairs.
10 1/2"
3- 2 X 12 STRINGERS
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. @ ALL USABLE STORAGE
2 X 4 D.F.P.T. SILL
2 X 6 D.F.P.T. SILL W/ 3 RAMSET FASTENERS
STAIR SECTION 3/8"
1'-0"
FIGURE 3920 An L-shaped stair combines elements of a straight-run and a U-shaped stair. Depending where the cutting plane is placed, one portion of the stair run will be seen in section and one portion of the stair will be seen in section. Always show the landing in section so that construction and fire-resistance methods can be shown.
risers and run have been marked off, the riser can be drawn. Notice that the riser is drawn on a slight angle. It can be drawn at about 10° and not labeled. This is something the flatwork crew will determine at the job site, depending on their forms.
SECTION—STAIR CHECKLIST Plot this section and any required details using an appropriate scale and place on size D material with other sections. Use stock details from Chapter 38 to complete the section showing the following items.
912
Plot ❑ Assume a scale of 3/8" = 1'–0" minimum unless your instructor provides other instructions. ❑ Text: Assume all text to be 1/8" high, neatly aligned in columns.
Architectural Drafting and Design
❑ Wall construction surrounding the stairwell. ❑ Correct wall–floor intersection. ❑ Show required beams and girders for construction. ❑ Show and specify floor/foundation supports.
❑ Titles: Assume to be 1/4" high text minimum.
Annotation
❑ Leader length/leader location: Center of top line on left/center of bottom line on right.
❑ Specify all materials including:
❑ Insert drawings into a drawing sheet with a completed title block.
❑ Stringer size and material.
❑ Freeze viewports.
Drawing ❑ Show and specify the required material to construct the stair including: ❑ Coordination with floor plan representation. ❑ Stair tread and riser construction. ❑ Connection at the stair to upper floor. ❑ Connection at the stair to lower floor/kickblock. ❑ Upper floor support over stairwell/headroom. ❑ Guardrail location/support around stairwell.
❑ Tread and riser size and material. ❑ Kickblock size and material (PT for concrete slabs). ❑ Headers, required metal hangers, and blocking. ❑ Fireproofing. ❑ Hand and guardrail size and material.
Dimensions ❑ Total rise and run. ❑ Individual rise and run—List actual and code-required minimum sizes. ❑ Headroom—List actual height and code-required minimum headroom.
❑ Connection of stringer to support walls.
❑ Handrail and guardrail heights—List actual height and code-required minimum height.
❑ Fireproofing of usable storage.
❑ Handrail and guardrail spacing of balusters.
❑ Solid block at midspans.
❑ Clearances of treads to any walls if required.
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Stairs with CADD Some CADD systems can generate stair sections based on the information provided on the floor plan. Other CADD programs can generate a stair section once some basic information is provided. All you have to do is pick the starting point of the stairs, specify the number of steps required, give the stair width and direction, and give the total rise; the program then automatically calculates the rise of each step. The program asks you to provide handrails with or without balusters and provides you with several options for handrail ends. After you have given the required information, the stair is drawn automatically. CADD stair detailing systems can reduce detailing time from hours to minutes. The CADD program uses
your specifications for type of stair construction, total rise, and total run. It then automatically calculates the individual rise and run. You specify the tread, riser type, thickness, stringer dimensions, and railing specifications. After all design variables are input, the computer automatically draws, completely dimensions, and labels the stair section. A stair section can be drawn using the AutoCAD system by following the manual layout procedure. As with other sections, the assigning of layers such as MCUT (materials cut by cutting plane) and MBND (materials behind cutting plane) is useful when placing materials. Other layers such as ANNO, DIMS, and OUTL should be used to separate drawing components.
Chapter 39: Stair Construction and Layout
913
CADD APPLICATIONS Commands such as ARRAY, OFFSET, TRIM, and FILLET will quickly reproduce repetitive elements of the stair. Once the floor levels have been determined, the starting point can be established. Each tread and riser can then be located using the OFFSET or ARRAY command so that the layout would resemble Figure 39-8. The thickness of the treads and risers shown in Figure 39-9 can be created using the OFFSET command.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in stair materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.arcways.com www.southernstaircase.com
Once one tread and riser have been created, they can be copied throughout the rest of the run. The balance of the stair section can be created following the straight-run stair procedure. Annotation can be placed using either the TEXT or MTEXT commands and dimensions should be placed using the DIM command. ■
www.stairwaysinc.com www.theironshop.com www.yorkspiralstair.com
Stairways, Inc. The Iron Shop York Spiral Stair
Company, Product, or Service Arcways, Inc. Southern Staircase
Stair Construction and Layout Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 39 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 39–1 What is a tread? Question 39–2 What is the minimum headroom required for a residential stair? Question 39–3 What is the maximum individual rise of a step? Question 39–4 What member is used to support the stairs?
Question 39–5 What spacing is required between the verticals of a railing? Question 39–6 Describe the difference between a handrail and a guardrail. Question 39–7 How many risers are required if the height between floors is 10' (3048 mm)? Question 39–8 Sketch three common stair types. Question 39–9 If a run of 10" (250 mm) is to be used, what will be the total run when the distance between floors is 9' (2740 mm)? Question 39–10 What is a common size for treads in an open-tread layout?
CHAPTER 40
Fireplace Construction and Layout I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
Thought was given to the type and location of the fireplace in Chapter 18 when the floor plan was drawn. As the sections are being drawn, consideration must be given to the construction of the fireplace and chimney. The most common construction materials for a fireplace and chimney are masonry and metal. The metal, or zero-clearance, fireplace is manufactured and does not require a section to explain its construction. A metal fireplace is surrounded by wood walls that can be represented on the floor or framing plans. Figure 40-1 shows a metal fireplace installed in a wood-frame chase. The interior can be covered in masonry, stone, tile or some other noncombustible material, as in Figure 40-2. Metal fireplaces are available that do not require a chimney. Notice in Figure 40-1 that a side-venting metal chimney has been provided. This vent functions more like a dryer vent than a chimney, providing an outlet for exhaust gases. Figure 40-3 shows a gas-burning fireplace that is vented through the wall.
FIREPLACE ALTERNATIVES Three common alternatives to a masonry fireplace include direct-vent, top-vent, and vent-free fireplaces. Direct-vent fireplaces vent out the back of the appliance and through the house wall to outside air as shown in Figure 40-3. Top-vent fireplaces can be used as a fireplace insert or as a freestanding unit as seen in Figure 40-1. When used as an insert, the unit is installed in an existing masonry fireplace, and it vents through the fireplace’s existing chimney. When installed as a fireplace, a metal chimney is provided, and both are enclosed with a wood-frame chase. A vent-free fireplace has no exhaust vent. A gas line is connected to the unit and the flame burns inside the fireplace without a vent. Not all states allow the use of vent-free gas fireplaces because of conflicts with building codes that require airtight, energy-efficient construction. Although exterior air is required to be provided for factory-built fireplaces, the IRC allows the use of vent-free units if the room is mechanically ventilated and controlled so that the indoor air pressure is either positive or neutral. Many vent-free fireplaces are equipped with an oxygen-depletion sensor that 914
FIGURE 401 Metal fireplace insert encased with standard wood framing.
FIGURE 402 Metal fireplace units can be covered in masonry, stone, tile, or some other noncombustible material.
Chapter 40: Fireplace Construction and Layout
915
SPARK ARRESTER SCREEN
CLAY FLUE LINER 2" MORTAR CAP
METAL FLASHING
1 1/2" (40 mm) MIN. GROUT BTWN. 4" CMU & FLUE LINER
CRICKET
4" (100 mm) CMU IF LINED / 8" (200 mm) IF UNLINED STEEL ANCHOR STRAP
VERT. STEEL REINFORCING
2" MIN
HORIZ. STEEL REINFORCING MORTAR FILL
SMOKE CHAMBER
DAMPER SMOKE SHELF THROAT FIREBRICK LINER
26"
LINTEL ASH DUMP 8"
terminates the gas supply to the fire if it senses a lack of oxygen in the room. When working with factory-built fireplaces, several items must be specified. The IRC requires the chimney for direct- and top-vent fireplaces to conform to UL standard 127. Factory-built fireplaces producing gases with a temperature above 1000°F (540°C) at the chimney entrance must meet UL 959. Although a section is not required, each of these chimney specifications should be provided on the floor plan or interior elevations, along with instructions to provide and install all materials per the manufacturer’s specifications.
FIREPLACE TERMS Fireplace construction has its own vocabulary, which a drafter should know in order to draw a section. Although some of these terms apply to prefabricated fireplace units, they primarily relate to masonry fireplaces. Figure 40-4 shows the major components of a masonry fireplace and chimney. Terms are grouped by components in the firebox and the chimney to aid in learning their location and function.
Terms Related to the Firebox The fireplace opening is the area between the side and top faces of the fireplace that serves as the front of the firebox. The firebox is the area where the combustion
18" MIN.
CLEAN OUT
12"
FIGURE 403 Exterior view of a self-venting gas fireplace; it requires a vent similar to a dryer.
20" MIN .
6"
4" (100 mm) MIN. THICK HEARTH
FIGURE 404 Parts of a masonry fireplace and chimney.
occurs and will be explored shortly. The size of the fireplace opening is important for the appearance and operation of the fireplace. If the opening is too small, the fireplace will not produce a sufficient amount of heat. If the opening is too large, the fire could make a room too hot. Common design guidelines suggest that the opening be approximately 1/30 of the room area for small rooms, and 1/65 of the room area for large rooms. Table 40-1 shows suggested fireplace-opening sizes relative to the room size. The ideal dimensions for a single-face fireplace have been determined to be 36" (900 mm) wide and 26" (650 mm) high. These dimensions may be varied slightly to meet the size of the brick or to fit other special dimensions of the room. The fireplace opening is the front of the firebox where the combustion of the fuel occurs. The opening to the firebox may be on one, two, or three sides of the fireplace. The more openings that are provided, the more decorative and less efficient the unit becomes. Units can also be constructed so that the firebox is covered with a hood allowing it to be totally open. Totally open fireplaces are typically used outside on
916
Architectural Drafting and Design
Suggested Width of Fireplace Openings Appropriate to Room Size SIZE OF ROOM
IF IN SHORT WALL
IF IN LONG WALL
(FT)
(MM)
(IN.)
(MM)
(IN.)
(MM)
10 ⫻ 14
(3048 ⫻ 4267)
24
(610)
24–32
(610–813)
12 ⫻ 16
(3658 ⫻ 4877)
28–36
(711–914)
32–36
(813–914)
12 ⫻ 20
(3658 ⫻ 6096)
32–36
(813–914)
36–40
(914–1016)
12 ⫻ 24
(3658 ⫻ 7315)
32–36
(813–914)
36–48
(914–1219)
14 ⫻ 28
(4267 ⫻ 8534)
32–40
(813–1016)
40–48
(1016–1219)
16 ⫻ 30
(4877 ⫻ 9144)
36–40
(914–1016)
48–60
(1219–1524)
20 ⫻ 36
(6096 ⫻ 10 973)
40–48
(1016–1219)
48–72
(1219–1829)
TABLE 401 The Size of the Fireplace Should Be Proportioned to the Size of the Room (This will give both a pleasing appearance and a fireplace that will provide sufficient heat without overheating the room.)
a patio or as a divider between rooms. For a fireplace with only one opening, the sides should be slanted slightly to radiate heat into the room. The rear wall is inclined to provide an upward draft into the upper part of the fireplace and chimney. The firebox is usually constructed of fire-resistant brick set in fire-resistant mortar. Figure 40-5A and Figure 40-5B show minimum wall thickness for the firebox and other fireplace components. The minimum depth of the firebox is required to be 20" (500 mm). The firebox depth should be proportional to the size of the fireplace opening. Providing a proper depth ensures that smoke will not discolor the front face (breast) of the fireplace. With an opening of 36" × 26" (900 × 650 mm), a depth of 20" (500 mm) should be provided for a single-face fireplace. Table 40-2 lists recommended fireplace openingto-depth proportions. The hearth is the floor of the firebox and consists of an inner and outer hearth. The inner hearth is the floor of the firebox. The hearth is made of fire-resistant brick and holds the burning fuel. The structural portion of the hearth must be made of 4" (100 mm) minimum reinforced masonry or concrete, but the portion that extends in front of the fireplace can be a minimum of 2" (50 mm) thick. The hearth is required to extend 16" (400 mm) in front of the fireplace opening and 8" (200 mm) beyond each side of the fireplace. If the size of the fireplace opening is
greater than 6 sq ft (0.557 m2), the hearth extension must be increased to be 20" (500 mm) minimum with 12" (300 mm) minimum side extensions. An ash dump is usually located in the inner hearth of a masonry fireplace. The ash dump is an opening in the inner hearth into which ashes can be dumped. The ash dump is covered with a small metal plate, which can be removed to provide access to the ash pit. The ash dump must be located so that the ash removal will not create a hazard to combustible materials. The ash pit is the space below the fireplace where the ashes can be stored. The outer hearth may be made of any noncombustible material. The material is usually selected to blend with other interior design features and may be brick, tile, marble, or stone. The outer hearth protects the combustible floor around the fireplace. Above the fireplace opening is a lintel. The lintel is a reinforced masonry or steel angle that supports the masonry above the fireplace face. The minimum required bearing length for the lintel at each end of the fireplace is 4" (100 mm). The throat of a fireplace is the opening at the top of the firebox that opens into the chimney. The throat must be at least 8" (203 mm) above the fireplace opening and must be a minimum of 4" (100 mm) in depth. The cross-sectional area of the passageway above the firebox, including the throat, damper, and smoke chamber, can’t be less than the cross-sectional area of the flue. The throat should be closable when the
Chapter 40: Fireplace Construction and Layout
917
General Code Requirements ITEM
LETTER
UNIFORM BUILDING CODE* 1997
Hearth Slab Thickness
A
4”
Hearth Slab Width (Each side of opening)
B
8” Fireplace opg. ⬍ 6 sq. ft. 12” Fireplace opg. ⱖ 6 sq. ft.
Hearth Slab Length (Front of opening)
C
16” Fireplace opg. ⬍ 6 sq. ft. 20” Fireplace opg. ⱖ 6 sq. ft.
Hearth Slab Reinforcing
D
Reinforced to carry its own weight and all imposed loads.
Thickness of Wall or Firebox
E
10” common brick or 8” where a fireback lining is used. Jts. in fireback 1/4” max.
Distance from Top of Opening to Throat
F
6”
Smoke Chamber Edge of Shelf Rear Wall—Thickness Front & Side Wall—Thickness
G
Chimney Vertical Reinforcing
H
Four #4 full length bars for chimney up to 40” wide. Add two #4 bars for each additional 40” or fraction of width or each additional flue.
Horizontal Reinforcing
J
1/4” ties at 18” and two ties at each bend in vertical steel.
Bond Beams
K
No specified requirements.
Fireplace Lintel
L
Noncombustible material.
Walls with Flue Lining
M
Solid masonry units or hollow masonry units grouted solid with at least 4” nominal thickness.
Walls with Unlined Flue
N
8” solid masonry.
Distance between Adjacent Flues
O
4” including flue liner.
Effective Flue Area (Based on Area of Fireplace Opening)
P
See Figure 40–6. Verify with local code.
Clearances Wood Frame Combustible Material
R
1” when outside of wall or 1/2” gypsum board. 2” when entirely within structure. 6” min. to fireplace opening. Combustible material within 12” (305 mm) of the fireplace opening can’t extend more than 1/8” for each inch (3/25 mm) distance from the opening. 2’ at 10’
6” 8”
Above Roof Anchorage Strap Number Embedment into Chimney Fasten to Bolts
S
Footing Thickness Width
T
Outside Air Intake
U
Glass Screen Door
3/16” ⫻ 1” 2 12” hooked around outer bar w/6” ext. 4 joists Two 1/2” dia. 12” min. 6” each side of fireplace wall. Optional Optional
FIGURE 405A General code requirements for fireplace and chimney construction. The letters in the second column will be helpful in locating specific items in Figure 40-5B.
918
Architectural Drafting and Design
E BRICK
BLOCK
10'-0' MIN. CLEARANCE
K BOND BEAM
J
R 8"
B
10'-0' MIN. CLEARANCE
FLASHING
EFFECTIVE FLUE AREA
WIDTH OF FIREPLACE OPENING
MORTAR CAP
HORIZONTAL
R
2'-0" MIN.
P
L
2'-0" MIN.
MORTAR OR MASONRY CAP
BOND BEAM
K
4" CMU ANCHORAGE
S
FLUE LINING
FLASHING P 6" MIN.
EFFECTIVE FLUE AREA
J
K
BOND BEAM
WALL THICKNESS M PARGE w/ MORTAR N
R
ANCHOR STRAP
R
S
FLUE LINER
G
4" MIN.
VERTICAL REINFORCING 8" . IN M
SMOKE CHAMBER
F
21" MINIMUM THERMAL DISTANCE
H
8" MIN.
A
HEARTH SLAB THICKNESS
20" MIN.
32"
L FIREBOX WALL THICKNESS
C
BOND BEAM
1 1/2" MIN. GROUT BTWN. 4" CMU & CLAY FLUE LINING G H
F LINTEL
E
K
HORIZONTAL REINFORCING TIES
SMOKE CHAMBER VERT. REINF. 20" LAP IF SPLICED TO FTG. DOWELS
L
HEARTH EXTENSION C
E
FIREBOX WALL THICKNESS
A
HEARTH SLAB THICKNESS
NATURAL GRADE BARS IN CONCRETE FOOTING
OPTIONAL CLEAN OUT
FOOTING T DEPTH
HEARTH SLAB D REINFORCEMENT OPTIONAL ASH DUMP
T
4" (100mm) MIN. THICK HEARTH
BRICK FIREPLACE & CHIMNEY
FOOTING WIDTH 6" AROUND FREE STANDING FIREPLACE
T
BRICK FIREPLACE / BLOCK CHIMNEY
FIGURE 405B Brick fireplace and chimney components. The circled letters refer to item references in Figure 40-5A.
fireplace is not in use. The flow of air through the fireplace throat is controlled by a damper. The damper must be made of ferrous metal that extends the full width of the throat to prevent heat from escaping up the chimney when the fireplace is not in use. When fuel is being burned in the firebox, the damper can be opened from inside the room that contains the fireplace to allow smoke from the firebox into the smoke chamber of the chimney.
Chimney Terms The smoke chamber acts as a funnel between the firebox and the chimney. The shape of the smoke chamber should be symmetrical so that the chimney draft pulls evenly and creates an even fire in the firebox. The smoke chamber should be centered under the flue in the chimney and directly above the firebox. The overall size of the smoke chamber is regulated by the IRC.
Chapter 40: Fireplace Construction and Layout
919
Width of Opening (W)
FIREPLACE TYPE Single face
Two faces adjacent ”L” or corner type Two faces* opposite look-through Three face* 2 long, 1 short 3-way opening Three face* 1 long, 2 short 3-way opening
Height of Opening (H)
Depth of Opening (D)
(IN.)
(MM)
(IN.)
(MM)
(IN.)
(MM)
28 30 30 36 36 40 48 34 39 46 52 32 35 42 48 39 46 52 43 50 56
700 760 760 900 900 1000 1200 865 990 1170 1320 800 890 1070 1200 990 1170 1320 1090 1270 1420
24 24 26 26 28 28 32 27 27 27 30 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 27 27 30
600 600 660 660 700 700 800 685 685 685 760 530 530 530 530 530 530 530 685 685 760
20 20 20 20 22 22 25 23 23 23 27 30 30 30 34 30 30 34 23 23 27
500 500 500 500 560 560 635 585 585 585 635 760 760 760 865 760 760 865 585 585 686
*Fireplaces open on more than front and one end are not recommended. TABLE 402 Guide for Fireplace Opening-to-Depth Proportions
The inside height of the chamber can’t be greater than the inside width of the fireplace opening. The walls of the smoke chamber must be made of solid masonry units, stone, concrete, or hollow masonry units that have been filled with grout. The material is corbelled to form the tapered shape, but the IRC requires that the interior surface of the masonry units should not be exposed to the smoke chamber. The walls of the smoke chamber can’t be greater than 30° when formed from corbelled masonry units, but can be inclined up to 45° if prefabricated linings are used. If the walls of the chamber are made with a lining of 2" (50 mm) firebrick or of 5/8" (16 mm) vitrified clay, each of the four chamber walls must have a minimum thickness of 6" (150 mm), including the liner. If no lining is provided, the four chamber walls must each be a minimum of 8" (200 mm) thick. A smoke shelf is located at the bottom of the smoke chamber behind the damper. The smoke shelf prevents downdrafts from the chimney entering the firebox.
The chimney is the upper extension of the fireplace and is built to carry off the smoke from the fire. The main components of the chimney are the flue, lining, anchors, cap, and spark arrester. The wall thickness of the chimney will be determined by the type of flue construction. Masonry chimneys are not allowed to change in size or shape within 6" (150 mm) above or below any combustible floor, ceiling, or roof component penetrated by the chimney. Figure 40-5A shows the minimum wall thickness for chimneys. The flue is the opening inside the chimney that allows smoke and combustion gases to pass from the firebox away from the structure. A flue may be constructed of normal masonry products or may be covered with a flue liner. The size of the flue must be proportional to the size of the firebox opening and the number of open faces of the fireplace. A flue that is too small will not allow the fire to burn well and will cause smoke to exit through the front of the firebox. A flue that is too large for the firebox will cause too great a draft through
920
Architectural Drafting and Design
3000 2800 2600
MIN. CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA (SQ. IN.)
2400 224
2200
269
2000 187
214
140
168
110
124
1800 1600 1400 1200 1000
76
91
800
70
82
600
53
58
32
37
400
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
HEIGHT, MEASURED FROM FLOOR OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER TO TOP OF FLUE (FT.)
FIREPLACE OPENING AREA (SQ. IN.)
SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR FLUES
ROUND FLUES
200
FOR SI: 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 square inch = 645.16 mm2.
FIGURE 406 Flue sizes for masonry chimneys based on the IRC. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
the house as the fire draws its combustion air. Flue sizes are generally required to equal either 1/8 or 1/10 of the fireplace opening. Figure 40-6 shows required flue sizes based on the IRC. Figure 40-7 shows recommended areas for residential fireplaces based on the size and number of openings. A chimney liner is usually built of fire clay or terracotta. The liner is built into the chimney to provide a smooth surface to the flue wall and to reduce the width of the chimney wall. The smooth surface of the liner will help reduce the buildup of soot, which could cause a chimney fire. The chimney cap is the sloping surface on the top of the chimney. The slope prevents rain from collecting on the top of the chimney. The flue normally projects 2" to 3" (50 to 75 mm) above the cap so that water will not run down the flue. The chimney hood is a covering that may be placed over the flue for protection from the elements. The hood can be made of either masonry or metal.
The masonry cap is built so that openings allow for the prevailing wind to blow through the hood and create a draft in the flue. The metal hood can be rotated by wind pressure to keep the opening of the hood downwind and thus prevent rain or snow from entering the flue. A spark arrester is a screen placed at the top of the flue inside the hood to prevent combustibles from leaving the flue.
Chimney Reinforcement In areas subject to seismic damage, a minimum of four vertical reinforcing bars 1/2" (13 mm) in diameter (#4) must be used in the chimney, extending from the foundation up to the top of the chimney. These vertical bars are supported at 18" (450 mm) intervals with a 1/4" (6 mm) horizontal rebar. Two additional #4 bars are required for each additional 40" (1000 mm) of width, or fraction thereof, or for each additional flue that is added to the chimney.
Chapter 40: Fireplace Construction and Layout
TYPE OF FIREPLACE
921
WIDTH OF OPENING W IN.
HEIGHT OF OPENING H IN.
DEPTH OF OPENING D IN.
AREA OF FIREPLACE OPENING FOR FLUE DETERMINATION SQ IN.
FLUE SIZE REQUIRED AT 1/10 AREA OF FIREPLACE OPENING
28 30 30 36 36 40 48 60
24 24 26 26 28 28 32 32
20 20 20 20 22 22 25 25
672 720 780 936 1008 1120 1536 1920
34 39 46 52 64
27 27 27 30 30
23 23 23 27 27
1107 1223 1388 1884 2085
32 35 42 48
21 21 21 21
30 30 30 34
1344 1470 1764 2016
13 ⫻ 17 or 10 ⫻ 21 17 ⫻ 17 or 13 ⫻ 21 17 ⫻ 21 17 ⫻ 21
17 ⫻ 17 or 13 ⫻ 21 17 ⫻ 21 17 ⫻ 21 21 ⫻ 21
39 46 52
21 21 21
30 30 34
1638 1932 2184
13 ⫻ 21 or 17 ⫻ 17 17 ⫻ 21 17 ⫻ 21
17 ⫻ 21 21 ⫻ 21 21 ⫻ 21
43 50 56 68
27 27 30 30
23 23 27 27
1782 1971 2490 2850
13 ⫻ 21 or 17 ⫻ 17 17 ⫻ 21 21 ⫻ 21 13 ⫻ 21 & 䊱 10 ⫻ 21
17 ⫻ 21 17 ⫻ 21 21 ⫻ 21 or 2—1 0 ⫻ 21 䊱 2—1 3 ⫻ 21 or 2—1 7 ⫻ 17 or 䊱 10 ⫻ 18 & 17 ⫻ 21
8 1/2 ⫻ 13 8 1/2 ⫻ 17 8 1/2 ⫻ 17 10 ⫻ 18 10 ⫻ 18 10 ⫻ 18 13 ⫻ 21 17 ⫻ 21 10 10 10 13 17
⫻ ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
18 21 21 21 21
FLUE SIZE REQUIRED AT 1/8 AREA OF FIREPLACE OPENING 8 1/2 ⫻ 17 13” round 10 ⫻ 18 13 ⫻ 17 10 ⫻ 21 10 ⫻ 21 10 ⫻ 21 21 ⫻ 21 10 13 13 17 21
⫻ ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
21 21 21 21 21
䊱 Rather than using two flue liners in chimney, the flue is often left unlined with 8˝ masonry walls. Unlined flues must have a minimum area of 1/8 fireplace opening.
FIGURE 407 Recommended flue areas for residential fireplaces.
Two #4 rebar are also installed when the vertical steel is bent for a change in chimney width. In addition to the reinforcement in the chimney, the chimney must be attached to the structure in some seismic areas. This is done with steel anchors that connect the fireplace to the framing members at each floor and ceiling level that is more than 6' (1800 mm) above the ground. Two 3/16" × 1" (5 × 25 mm) steel straps must be embedded 12" (300 mm) minimum into the chimney, and they must be hooked around the outer steel rebar and extend 6" (150 mm) beyond the bend. The straps must attach to four floor or ceiling joists with two 1/2" (13 mm) bolts. These straps can be omitted if the chimney is built completely within the exterior walls.
DRAWING THE FIREPLACE SECTION The section for a masonry fireplace can be a valuable part of the working drawings. Although a fireplace drawing is required by most building departments when a home has a masonry fireplace and chimney, a drafter may not be required to draw a fireplace section. Because of the similarities of fireplace design, a fireplace drawing is often kept on file as a stock detail at many offices. When a house that has a fireplace is being drawn, the drafter needs only to get the stock detail from a file, make the needed copies, and attach them to the prints of the plans. If the drafter is using AutoCAD, the stock drawing can be inserted into the working drawings. A stock detail can be seen at the end of the chapter.
922
GOING GREEN Goals of an Energy-Efficient Fireplace
INTRODUCTION Heating and air quality are major considerations in gaining LEED credits. A standard fireplace will provide very little assistance in heating a home or in gaining LEED credits in the categories of Indoor Environmental Quality or Energy Atmosphere. To greatly increase the efficiency of a masonry fireplace, add glass doors, ductwork that will circulate the heated air through the lower portion of the chimney, and mechanical blowers. Using a UL-approved cast-iron stove or heating unit will add to the efficiency and may qualify for LEED credits. Materials listed in CSI Division 10.35 can be used to provide supplemental heat to a residence. The efficiency of the heating unit will also depend on the choice of fuel. Common fuels include wood, gas, and pellets.
Choosing Fuels Burning wood to produce heat creates significant pollution; emissions of particulates, carbon monoxide, VOCs, and methane are significantly greater from wood stoves than from any other common heating fuel. If sustainable wood is locally available, using it as a fuel has no net impact on global warming. Burning wood from sustainable forest compensates for the carbon emissions caused from combustion. If wood is burned in an efficient cast-iron stove or fireplace that minimizes pollution, it can be a good fuel choice. Products such as pellets or natural gas have superior burning efficiencies and reduced particulate emissions in comparison to even the best wood stoves. Multi-fuel stoves have the capacity to efficiently burn pellets or other solid fuels such as wood, corn, or coal. However, combustion in interior spaces, particularly in a tight house, can be an indoor air-quality concern due to leakage of flue gases and particulates. New wood stoves are much more efficient than old ones, but pellet stoves are less polluting than even the best EPA-certified wood stoves.
Providing Air Supply In addition to adding charm and elegance to a room, a fireplace also needs to be functional. No matter what the material is, consideration must be given to the air that will be used by the fireplace. Three points to consider are how air will be supplied to the fire, how to use the heated air created by the fire, and how to minimize heated air escaping through the chimney. Introduced in Chapter 12 and Chapter 27, newer construction methods can greatly reduce the amount of air that enters the structure. When a fireplace is added to a relatively airtight residence, the fireplace can actually cool a room if proper precautions are not taken. Air must be provided to the fireplace for combustion, and air is
expelled up the chimney after combustion. As the air is expelled after combustion, new air must be drawn into the fire. If the air for combustion is taken from the room being heated, a draft will be created. To reduce drafts and maximize the heat produced by the fire, combustion air must be taken from an outside source or from spaces in the residence that are ventilated with outside air such as non-mechanically-ventilated crawl or attic spaces. The restrictions by the IRC specify that the exterior air intake can’t be located in a basement or garage, and the air intake can’t be placed at an elevation higher than the firebox. When the floor plan was completed, a note was placed on the plan reading: Provide a Screened, Closable Vent Within 24" Of the Firebox. Providing the note on the floor plan will help ensure that a draft is not created. As the fireplace section is drawn, the vent for air intake should be indicated. The vent should be placed on an exterior wall or in the back of the fireplace in a position that is high enough above the ground so that it will not be blocked by snow. Combustion kits are available that can be installed in the duct, to heat the outside air before it enters the firebox. Another alternative to drawing air from the outside is to draw combustion air from the cold-air return ducts of the heating system. The HVAC contractor can calculate the needed size and provide a duct that takes the necessary cool air from inside the home to supply the fireplace.
Using the Heated Air Efficiently Once the fire has heated the air in the firebox, that air must be used efficiently to heat the structure. Chapter 12 introduced passive solar heating and the use of a masonry mass to store heat. A masonry fireplace and chimney will provide mass to absorb, store, and radiate the heat back into the room long after the fire is out. When a fireplace is built on an outer wall, the mass of the fireplace is often outside the structure, to increase the usable floor space. With the chimney outside the structure, the interior face of the fireplace is the only surface that radiates heat back into the room. The amount of heat radiated into a room is increased as more of the fireplace and chimney mass is located inside the structure. Placing the fireplace and chimney totally within a structure will allow all surfaces of the masonry to radiate heat into the structure. Altering the shape of the firebox will also increase the amount of air radiated back to the room. Table 40-1 shows common sizes of fireplace openings. Increasing
923
GOING GREEN Goals of an Energy-Efficient Fireplace (Continued)
DECREASED DEPTH 12" MIN.
20"
ANGLE
INCREASED
the width and height of the opening and decreasing the depth of the fireplace will increase the amount of heat in the room. This altered firebox shape is based on the Rumford design that was popular through the mid1800s. It has been reinvented and has become popular in many areas, and is now permitted by the IRC. Increasing the length of the sidewalls and decreasing the length of the rear walls will also increase the heat returned to the room. Figure 40-8 shows the difference between a Rumford-type firebox and traditional designs. A third method of increasing the heat returned to the room is a mechanical blower.
If you are required to draw a fireplace section, a print of the floor plans will be needed to help determine wall locations and the size of the fireplace. As the drawing for the fireplace is started, use construction lines. See Figure 40-9 for Step 1 through Step 4.
Layout of the Fireplace Lay out the width of the fireplace: 20" (500 mm) for the firebox and 8" (200 mm) for the rear wall.
STEP 1
Lay out all walls, floors, and ceilings that are near the fireplace. Be sure to maintain the required minimum distance from the masonry to the wood as determined by the code in your area.
STEP 2
RUMFORD FIREBOX
32" TYP.
The traditional means of reducing heat loss up the chimney has been a damper. The damper is opened while the fire is burning and closed when the fire is out. Because the damper is not airtight, warm air from the room will rise and be drawn up the chimney. As the air in the chimney cools, it will start a reverse current, drawing cold air into the heated room. Placing a chimney on an outer wall will increase this tendency, because the chimney will be cooler. In very cold climates, the reverse convection current can be reduced by an additional damper at the top of the chimney.
INCREASED HEIGHT
Decreasing Chimney Heat Loss
TYPICAL FIREBOX
FIGURE 408 Comparison of a Rumford-style firebox and traditional construction. The Rumford style, popular through the mid-1800s, has been reinvented to increase the amount of heated air that is returned to the room containing the fireplace.
Lay out the foundation for the fireplace. The footing must be 6" (150 mm) wider on each side than the fireplace and 12" (300 mm) deep. STEP 4 Lay out the hearth to be 16" (400 mm) in front of the fireplace. The hearth will vary in thickness, depending on the type of finishing material used. If the fireplace is being drawn for a house with a wood floor, the hearth will require a 4" (100 mm) minimum concrete slab projecting from the fireplace base to support the finished hearth. STEP 3
See Figure 40-10 for Step 5 through Step 8. Lay out the firebox. Assume that a 36" × 26" × 20" (900 × 650 × 500 mm) firebox will be used. See Figure 40-11 for guidelines for laying out the firebox.
STEP 5
924
Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 8
STEP 2 STEP 7
STEP 2
STEP 1
STEP 6 (STEP 6 REQUIRES NO DRAWING. SEE FIGURE 40.12 TO DETERMINE THE FLUE SIZE.)
STEP 5
STEP 4 STEP 2
STEP 3
FIGURE 409 Fireplace layout using construction lines.
Determine the size of flue required. A 36" × 26" (900 × 650 mm) opening has an area of 936 sq in. By examining Figure 40-12 you can see that a flue with an area of 91 sq in. is required. The flue walls can be constructed using either 8" (200 mm) of masonry or 4" (100 mm) of masonry and a clay flue liner. If a liner is used, a 13" (325 mm) round liner is the minimum size required.
FIGURE 4010 Layout of the firebox and flue using construction lines.
STEP 6
Lay out the flue with a liner. Draw the interior face of the liner. The thickness will be shown later.
60˚
8" 200 mm
4" 100 mm
Determine the height of the chimney. The IRC requires the chimney to project 2' (600 mm) minimum above any construction within 10' (3000 mm) of the chimney (see Figure 40-13).
26" TYP. 650 mm
STEP 7
STEP 8
4" MIN. W/ LINER 100 mm
4" 100 mm
20" MIN. 500 mm
4" FIREBRICK 100 mm
4" 100 mm
FIGURE 4011 Minimum sizes required for firebox layout.
Chapter 40: Fireplace Construction and Layout
925
48 46
1 :1
) N. Z E Q. I SI S U E 69 (2 FL " 21 ) N. "x .I 21 SQ 3 22 "( 21 .) "x . IN .) 17 IN SQ . 73 ) SQ . .) " (1 71 21 IN . IN 1 ( "x SQ Q. 7" 1 13 8 4S "x (1 3 13 17 1" "( x2 17 1 0" "x 13 .) .) . IN ) . IN SQ N. I SQ 91 Q. 112 D( S 8" ( UN (8 7 x1 3" RO 7" 1 0" x1 13 " x1 /2 " . I N . ) 81 SQ ( 69
42 40
34
1: 1
TO
/2"
32
W ID TH
3/ 4
36
RA TI O )
1: 1
1/ 2
38
81
30
(H EI G H T
HEIGHT OF FIREPLACE OPENING (INCHES)
44
1: 2
28 26 24
24
28
32
38 40 44 48 52 56 60 WIDTH OF FIREPLACE OPENING (INCHES)
64
68
72
GRAPH TO DETERMINE THE PROPER FLUE SIZE FOR A SINGLE-FACE FIREPLACE, BY MATCHING THE WIDTH AND HEIGHT OF THE FIREPLACE OPENING, THE MINIMUM FLUE SIZE CAN BE DETERMINED. ONCE THE MINIMUM FLUE SIZE HAS BEEN DETERMINED, THE CHIMNEY SIZE CAN BE DETERMINED.
Nominal Dimension of Flue Lining
Actual Outside Dimensions of Flue Lining
8 1/2" Round 8 1/2" x 13" oval 8 1/2" x 17" oval 13" Round 10" x 18" oval 10" x 21" oval 13" x 17" oval 13" x 21" oval 17" x 17" oval 17" x 21" oval 21" x 21" oval
8 1/2" Round 8 1/2" x 12 3/4" 8 1/2" x 16 3/4" 12 3/4" Round 10" x 17 3/4" 10" x 21" 12 3/4" x 16 3/4" 12 3/4" x 21" 16 3/4" x 16 3/4" 16 3/4" x 21" 21" x 21"
Effective Flue Area
Max. Area of Fireplace Opening
Minimum Outside Dimension of Chimney
39 sq. in. 69 sq. in. 87 sq. in. 91 sq. in. 112 sq. in. 138 sq. in. 134 sq. in. 173 sq. in. 171 sq. in. 223 sq. in. 269 sq. in.
390 sq. in. 690 sq. in. 870 sq. in. 1092 sq. in. 1120 sq. in. 1380 sq. in. 1340 sq. in. 1730 sq. in. 1710 sq. in. 2230 sq. in. 2690 sq. in.
17" x 17" 17" x 21" 17" x 25" 21" x 21" 19" x 26" 19" x 30" 21" x 25" 21" x 30" 25" x 25" 25" x 30" 30" x 30"
FIGURE 4012 Common flue and chimney sizes based on the area of the fireplace opening.
10' - 0"
Drawing with Finished-Quality Lines Use bold lines to outline all framing materials, as shown in Figure 40-14.
2'-0" MIN.
STEP 9
Use bold lines to outline the masonry, flue liner, and hearth.
STEP 10
Use thin lines at a 45° angle to crosshatch the masonry.
STEP 11
Crosshatch the firebrick with lines at a 45° angle so that a grid is created (Figure 40-15).
STEP 12
Draw all reinforcing steel with bold lines. Check local building codes to determine what steel will be required.
STEP 13
FIGURE 4013 The chimney is required to extend 2' (600 mm) above any part of the structure that is within 10’ (3000 mm).
STEP 14
Draw the lintel with a very bold line.
926
Architectural Drafting and Design
STEP 10 STEP 9
STEP 11
STEP 9
STEP 12
FIGURE 4014 Draw all framing members with finished-quality lines.
FIGURE 4015 Darken all masonry materials.
Draw the damper with a very bold line (Figure 40-16).
SECTION—MASONRY FIREPLACE CHECKLIST
STEP 15
Dimension the drawing. Items that must be dimensioned include the following:
STEP 16
A.
Height above roof.
B.
Width of hearth.
C.
Width and height of firebox.
D.
Width and depth of footings.
E.
Wood-to-masonry clearance.
Place notes on the drawing using Figure 40-17 as a guide. Notes will vary, depending on the code that you follow and the structural material that has been specified on the floor, framing, and foundation plans.
STEP 17
Plot this section and any required details using an appropriate scale on size D material and place with other sections. Use stock details from Chapter 38 to complete the section showing.
Plot ❑ Assume a scale 3/8" = 1'−0" minimum unless your instructor provides other instructions. ❑ Text: Assume all text to be 1/8" high, neatly aligned in columns.
Chapter 40: Fireplace Construction and Layout
927
2" MORTAR CAP CHIMNEY TO EXTEND 2'-0" ABOVE HIGHEST POINT OF BUILDING WITHIN 10'-0"
(2) #4Ø BOND BM. 26 GA. FLASH.
STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.
STEP 13
3/16" X 1" STRAP OVER 4 TRUSSES MIN. W/ (2) 1/2" DIA. LAGS EA. END
(4) #4Ø/40" WIDTH W/ (2) #4 EA. ADD. 40" / FLUE.
1" MIN. CLR. # 4Ø @ 18" O.C. MAX.
CLAY FLUE LINER
SOLID BLK. FOR ANCHORAGE
(2) #4 TIES @ EA. FLOOR, CEIL, ROOF & EA. BEND IN VERT. REBAR.
4 X 12 HDR.
STEP 15
STEP 14
8" MIN.
21" MINIMUM
#4 TIES @ 18" O.C. 8 MI " N.
PARGED SMOKE SHELF C. I. DAMPER FIREBRICK LINER
26"
4"X 3"X 3/16" LINTEL
STEP 13
C. T. HEARTH
16" MIN.
20" MIN.
8" MIN.
2"MIN. CLR. 3"
FIGURE 4016 Draw all reinforcing steel.
❑ Titles: Assume to be 1/4" high text minimum. ❑ Leader length/Leader location: Center of top line on left/center of bottom line on right. ❑ Insert drawings into a drawing sheet with a completed title block. ❑ Freeze viewports.
Drawing ❑ Show the required material to construct the fireplace and chimney including: ❑ Coordination with floor plan representation. ❑ Wall construction surrounding the chimney. ❑ Floor/foundation support that matches the foundation plan.
4" MIN. THICK HEARTH (4) #4 EA. WAY
8"
1'-0"
STEP 13
(2) 3/16" X 1" STRAPS EMBEDDED 12" MIN. INTO CHIMNEY & HOOKED AROUND OUTER BAR W/ 6" MIN. BEND. FASTEN TO 4 JST. MIN W/ (2) 1/2" M.B MIN.
6"
3'-8"
FIREPLACE SECTION
1/2"
=
1' - 0"
FIGURE 4017 Place the notes and dimensions.
❑ Show required beams and girders for construction of roof, walls, and floor systems. ❑ Spark arresters or chimney caps. ❑ Flue lines and chimney materials. ❑ Chimney reinforcement. ❑ Headers, required metal hangers, and required blocking.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
❑ Firebox/combustion chamber construction. ❑ Smoke shelf, damper, lintel, firebrick. ❑ Hearth including ash dump, and cleanout.
STEP 1 STEP 2
Annotation ❑ Specify all materials including:
STEP 2
❑ Spark arresters or chimney caps.
STEP 1
❑ Flue lines and chimney materials.
STEP 4 STEP 3
❑ Chimney reinforcement. ❑ Headers, required metal hangers.
FIGURE 4018 Fireplace elevation layout.
❑ Firebox/combustion chamber materials. ❑ Smoke shelf, damper, lintel, firebrick thickness. ❑ Hearth material, ash dump size, and cleanout size.
Elevation Layout Lay out the size of the wall that will contain the fireplace.
STEP 1
Dimensions ❑ Floor to ceiling heights.
STEP 2
❑ Firebox opening height.
STEP 3
❑ Firebox depth. ❑ Hearth extension in front of firebox. ❑ Height of hearth above the finish floor.
Lay out the width of the chimney.
Lay out the height and width of the hearth if a raised hearth is to be used.
STEP 4
Lay out the fireplace opening.
❑ Thickness of hearth is cantilevered.
Finished-Quality Lines
❑ Throat clearance.
Usually the designer will provide the drafter with a rough sketch similar to Figure 40-19 to describe the finishing materials on the face of the fireplace. By using this sketch and the methods described in Chapter 24, the fireplace elevation can be drawn (see Figure 40-20). Once the finishing materials have been drawn, the elevation can be lettered and dimensioned as in Figure 40-21. Notes will need to be placed on the drawing to describe all materials. Dimensions will be required to describe:
❑ Chimney height above roof 10' / 2' minimum. ❑ 2" clearance of chimney/wood framing at roof/wall and wood floor assemblies. ❑ Foundation size/depth and 6" minimum extension beyond chimney.
FIREPLACE ELEVATIONS The fireplace elevation is the drawing of the fireplace as viewed from inside the home. Fireplace elevations typically show the size of the firebox and the material that will be used to decorate the face of the fireplace. Fireplace elevations can be drawn by using the following steps. See Figure 40-18 for Step 1 through Step 4.
1. Room height. 2. Hearth height. 3. Fireplace opening height and width. 4. Mantel height.
Chapter 40: Fireplace Construction and Layout
929
FIGURE 4019 The drafter can often use the designer’s preliminary sketch as a guide when drawing the finishing materials for a fireplace elevation.
8"
2'-0"
RECESS THIS AREA 4" MIN.
3'-0"
1'-0" MIRROR BY OWNER
1'-0"
4 X 12 OAK MANTEL
FIGURE 4020 Drawing the elevation with finished line quality.
4'-6"
2'-2"
3'-6"
OPEN TO DINING ROOM
3'-0"
LINE OF HEARTH JUMBO PAVERS ON EDGE
USED BRICK
LIVING ROOM 1/2"
1'-0"
FIGURE 4021 Lettering and dimensions for a fireplace elevation.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Fireplace Sections and Elevations with CADD INTRODUCTION By following the steps that were provided for drawing using manual methods, a fireplace section can be drawn with AutoCAD. Start by placing the lines required in Step 1 through Step 8 on the DETL OUTL layer. Once the major components have been outlined, the PROPERTIES command can be used to assign the desired line weight and color, and to place objects on the desired layer. Layers such as DETL MBND (material beyond cutting plane), DETL MCUT (material cut by the cutting plane), and DETL PATT can
CLAY FLUE LINER 2" MORTAR CAP
* CHIMNEY TO EXTEND 2'-0" ABOVE HIGHEST POINT OF BUILDING WITHIN 10'-0" METAL FLASHING CRICKET SEE PLAN FOR SIZE & SPACING REINFORCING (SEE NOTE BELOW)
TYPICAL ANCHORAGE. SEE ATTACHED NOTE. SEE PLAN FOR HEADER MANTEL - VERIFY STYLE & FINISH w/ OWNER
26"
PARGED SMOKE SHELF CAST IRON DAMPER 16" MIN.
8" FIREBRICK LINER
4"X3"X 1/4" STEEL LINTEL
be used to organize materials. Once all objects have been assigned to the desired layers, dimensions and annotation can be assigned using the guidelines in Step 16 and Step 17. In many cases the architectural firm draws a number of standard fireplace sections and details similar to Figure 40-22. These typical sections are then saved in the CADD symbols library and called up when necessary to insert on a drawing. The standard sections may be completely dimensioned and noted, or the dimensions and specific notes may be added after the section is brought into the drawing.
FIREPLACE ELEVATIONS Drawing fireplace elevations with AutoCAD is easy because a fireplace elevation is normally either a fireplace box and a surrounding mantel, or a fireplace box and a masonry wall. In either case the job is simple. If you are drawing fireplace elevations with a surrounding mantel, draw a few standard applications and add one of them to the drawing at any time. Figure 40-23 shows a standard mantel in a fireplace elevation. With most CADD programs, these symbols are dragged onto the drawing, and the computer gives you a chance to scale the display up or down. This provides maximum flexibility for inserting the drawing. Once the standard mantel has been added to the drawing, it can be increased or decreased in size with commands such as SCALE, TRIM, or STRETCH. If the fireplace elevation is a masonry wall, all you do is define the area with lines and add elevation symbols such as stone or brick. ■
TILE OR BRICK HEARTH (VERIFY)
2" WIDE OAK TRIM W/ DEC CORNER SQUARES
6"
OAK CROWN MOLDING
VINYL S.H. WINDOWS
8"
MIRROR W/ OAK TRIM
3'-8"
3'-0 3 '-0"" '-0
12"
4" PRECAST HEARTH W/ #3 BARS @ 9" O.C. EA. WAY.
9'-0"
REINFORCING: ( SEE 2003 I.R.C. R1003.1)
-HORIZONTAL: 1/4" TIES @ 18" o.c. w/ (2) TIES @ EA. BEND IN VERT. BARS.
5'-0"
-VERTICAL: A MINIMUM OF (4) #4 FULL LENGTH BARS FOR CHIMNEYS UP TO 40". (2) ADDITIONAL BARS FOR EA. ADDITIONAL 40" ( OR FRACTION) OF WIDTH.
CERAMIC TILE TRIM
FLUSH TILE HEARTH
ANCHORAGE: (2) 3/16" X 1" STEEL STRAP EMBEDDED INTO CHIMNEY 12" MIN. HOOK AROUND OUTER VERT. BARS W/ 6" HOOK. FASTEN TO FRAMING w/ (2) 1/2"¯ M.B. @ EA. STRAP.
FIREPLACE SECTION 1/2"
=
1' - 0"
FIGURE 4022 A CADD fireplace section can be created as a stock detail.
2'-8"
8" HIGH BUILT-UP OAK BASE MOLDING
5'-4"
CAMBRIDGE DVL DIRECT VENT FIREPLACE INSERT BY AVALON. INSTALL VENTING PER MANUF. INSTRUCTIONS
LIVING - EAST WALL 1/2"
1'-0"
FIGURE 4023 CADD representation of a fireplace with a masonry front.
Chapter 40: Fireplace Construction and Layout
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
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See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in fireplace materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.arcat.com www.avalonfirestyle.com www.gobrick.com
Company, Product, or Service ARCAT, Inc. (building product information) Avalon Brick Industry Association
www.rumford.com www.centralfireplace.com www.comfortglow.com www.hearthstonestoves.com www.heatilator.com www.jotul.com www.majesticproducts.com www.maconline.org www.vermontcastings.com
Fireplace Construction and Layout Test
Buckley Rumford Company (fireplaces) Central Fireplace (gas fireplace) Comfort Glow HearthStone Heatilator Jøtul Majestic Masonry Advisory Council Vermont Castings
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 40, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 40–1 What purpose does a damper serve? Question 40–2 What parts does the throat connect? Question 40–3 What is the most common size for a fireplace opening?
Question 40–4 What is the required flue area for a fireplace opening of 44" × 26" (1118 × 660 mm)? Question 40–5 What flues could be used for a fireplace opening of 1340 sq in. (864 514 mm2)? Question 40–6 How is masonry shown in cross section? Question 40–7 Why is a fireplace elevation drawn? Question 40–8 Why is fireplace information often placed in stock details? Question 40–9 Where should chimney anchors be placed? Question 40–10 How far should the hearth extend in front of the fireplace with an opening of 7 sq ft (0.65 m2)?
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www.kevinmillerphoto.com
SECTION 11
Presentation Drawings and Renderings
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Chapter 41: Presentation Drawings
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CHAPTER 41
Presentation Drawings I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
The term presentation drawings was introduced during the discussion of the design sequence in Chapter 1. As the residence was being designed, the floor plan and a rendering were drawn to help the owners understand the designer’s ideas. Presentation drawings are the drawings that are used to convey basic design concepts from the design team to the owner or other interested persons. Presentation drawings are a very important part of public hearings and design reviews as a structure is studied by government and private agencies to determine its impact on the community. In residential architecture, presentation drawings are frequently used to show compliance with review board standards and to help advertise existing stock plans.
Your artistic ability, the type of drawing to be done, and the needs of the client will affect how the presentation drawings will be done and who will produce them. In some offices, an architectural illustrator creates all presentation drawings. An illustrator combines the skills of an artist with the techniques of drafting. Other offices allow design drafters to make the presentation drawings. A drafter may be able to match the quality of an illustrator but not the speed. Many of the presentation drawings throughout this book would take an illustrator only a few hours to draw.
structure. The term rendering can be used to describe an artistic process applied to a drawing. Each of the presentation drawings can be rendered using one of the artistic styles soon to be discussed. Rendering can also refer to a drawing created using the perspective layout method, which will be presented in the supplemental reading material on the Student CD. Although rendering is the artistic process used in a perspective drawing, the term is also often applied to the drawings themselves. Figure 41-1 shows an example of a rendering. A rendering is used to present the structure as it will appear in its natural setting. Exterior renderings are typically drawn using two-point perspective. A rendering can also be very useful for showing the interior shape and layout of a room, as seen in Figure 41-2. Interior renderings are usually drawn using one-point perspective. Information about methods of creating renderings can be found on the Student CD in the Supplemental Reading folder.
Elevations A rendered elevation is often used as a presentation drawing to help show the shape of the structure. An
TYPES OF PRESENTATION DRAWINGS The same types of drawings that are required for working drawings can also be used to help present design ideas. Because the owner, user, or general public may not be able to understand the working drawings fully, each can be drawn as a presentation drawing to show basic information. The most common types of presentation drawings are renderings, elevations, floor plans, site plans, and sections.
Renderings Renderings are the best type of presentation drawing for showing the shape or style of a
FIGURE 411 The most common type of presentation drawing is a rendering, or perspective drawing. A rendering presents an image of how the structure will appear when the structure is complete. Courtesy Jonathan Cutler, Architectural Art.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
preliminary floor plan in the design process, a presentation floor plan is used to show room relationships, openings such as windows and doors, and basic room sizes. Furniture and traffic patterns are also usually shown. Figure 41-4 provides an example of a presentation floor plan.
Site Plans
FIGURE 412 Renderings are often helpful for showing the relationships of interior spaces. Courtesy Jonathan Cutler, Architectural Art.
example of a presentation elevation can be seen in Figure 41-3. This type of presentation drawing gives the viewer an accurate idea of the finished product, whereas the working drawing is aimed at giving the construction crew information about the materials that they will be installing. The rendered elevation shows the various changes in surface much better than the working elevation. Although the rendered elevation does not show the depth as well as a rendering does, it gives the viewer a clearer understanding of the project without requiring the time or money needed for a rendering. A rendered elevation usually includes all of the material shown on a working elevation with the addition of shades and plants. Depending on the artistic level of the drafter, people and automobiles are often shown as well.
Floor Plans Floor plans are often used as presentation drawings to convey the layout of interior space. Similar to the
A rendered site plan is used to show how the structure will relate to the job site and to the surrounding area. The placement of the building on the site and the north arrow are the major items shown. As seen in Figure 41-5, streets, driveways, setbacks, walkways, decks, patios, pools, and plantings are usually shown. Although most of these items are also shown on the site plan in the working drawings, the presentation site plan shows this material more artistically.
Sections Sections are often part of the presentation drawings, to show vertical relationships within the structure. As seen in Figure 41-6, a section can be used to show the changes of floor or ceiling levels, vertical relationships, and sun angles. Working sections show these same items with emphasis on structural materials. The presentation sections may show some structural material, but the emphasis is on spatial relationships.
METHODS OF PRESENTATION No matter what type of drawing is to be made, it can be drawn on any one of several different media. Drawings are made using different materials and line techniques.
Common Media
FIGURE 413 A presentation elevation helps show the shape of the structure without taking as much time as a rendering. Courtesy Design Basics, Inc.
Common media for presentation drawings include sketch paper, vellum, Mylar, illustration board, and CADD. Sketch paper is often used for the initial layout stages of presentation drawings, and some drawings are even done in their finished state on sketch paper. Most drawing materials will adhere to sketch paper, but it is not very durable. Drafting vellum can be a durable drawing medium but will wrinkle when used with some materials. Vellum is best used with graphite or ink. Polyester film is often used in presentation drawings because of the ease of correcting errors. Polyester film provides both durability and a
Chapter 41: Presentation Drawings
937
COVERED PATIO SEW RM.
11'-0" X 12'-6"
GREAT RM.
BUILTINS
SUNKEN 21'-8" X 22'-9"
MAST. SUITE
DN. 3 R
19'-0" X 20'-7"
DN. 3 R
DN. 2 R.
GD DW
LS
NOOK
11'-0" X 13'-4" LINEN
MICRO
BED 2
16'-5" X 11'-0"
KITCHEN DESK
WALK-IN CLOSET
BED 3
13'-2" X 11'-0"
W
D
UTILITY STUDY
14'-0" X 11'-8"
DO
ENTRY
DINING RM.
PANTRY
11'-10" X 15'-3"
GARAGE
22'-4" X 33'-0"
FIGURE 414 A floor plan is often part of the presentation drawings and is used to show room relationships.
good-quality surface for making photographic reproductions. Ink is the most common element used on polyester film, but some types of watercolors and polyester leads can also be used. Illustration board is extremely durable and is a suitable surface for all types of drawing materials. When the materials are to be photographed, a white board is usually used. Beige, gray, and light blue board also can give presentation drawings a pleasing appearance. Because of the difficulty of correcting mistakes, illustration board is not usually used by beginners. Until experience is gained, presentation drawings can be drawn on vellum and then mounted on illustration board. When drawing on illustration board, the drafter must plan the arrangement of the entire layout carefully prior to placing the first lines. Drawings are usually done on
sketch paper first and then transferred to the illustration board. To transfer a drawing onto the board, lightly shade the back side of the sketch with a soft graphite lead, which will act as carbon paper when the original lines are traced to transfer them onto illustration board. To avoid smearing, graphite should be placed only over each line to be transferred, not over the entire back side of the drawing. A pleasing effect can be achieved by combining media. A rendering can be drawn using overlay principles and combining vellum or polyester film and illustration board. For example, a structure may be drawn on illustration board with landscaping in color drawn on polyester film. Because of the air space between the polyester film and the illustration board, an illusion of depth is created.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
125.00'
PROPERTY LINE SET BACK
5'-0"
96.50'
98.75'
115.00'
BRICK DRIVEWAY
CL HAPPINESS COURT
115.00'
20'-0"
20'-0"
5'-0"
STONE WALKWAY
98.25'
100.00' 125.00'
FACE OF CURB
CL PROSPERITY LANE
PROPOSED SITE PLAN
1/8"
1'-0"
FIGURE 415 A rendered site plan is used to show how structures relate to the job site.
Drawing Materials Common materials used for presentation drawings are graphite, ink, colored pencil, felt-tip pens, watercolor, and CADD-generated drawings. Because of the ease of correcting errors, graphite is a good material for the beginning drafter to experiment with. Common leads used for presentation work are 4H or 5H for layout work and 2H, H, F, HB, and 4B for drawing object lines. The choice of lead depends on the object to be drawn and the surface of the media being
drawn upon. Figure 41-7 shows different qualities that can be achieved with graphite on vellum. Figure 41-8 shows a rendering completed with graphite. Because of its reproductive qualities, ink is commonly used for presentation drawings. Ink lines have a uniform density that can be easily reproduced photographically. Careful planning is required when working with ink to ensure that the drawing is properly laid out prior to inking and to determine the order in which the lines will be drawn. With proper planning, you can draw in one area while the ink dries in another area.
Chapter 41: Presentation Drawings
939
FIGURE 416 Presentation sections are used to show vertical relationships. Courtesy Home Planners, Inc.
4H 4H 2H H F
4H
H
HB F 2H POCHÉ
H HB HB
FIGURE 417 Types of graphite lines that are typically used on renderings.
The complexity of a drawing affects the size of the pen points to be used. The technique to be used dictates which pen points will be used. Common points used for presentation work are numbers 0, 1, and 2. Many drafters and illustrators also add 000, 00, and number 4 points to get a greater variation in line contrast. Figure 41-9 shows examples of various line weights available for ink work. Figure 41-10 shows a residence rendered in ink. Color is often added to a presentation drawing by the use of colored pencils, markers, or pastels. The skill of the drafter and the purpose of the drawing will affect where the color is to be placed. Color is usually added to the original drawing when the illustration is to be reproduced. When the drawing is to be displayed, color is often placed on the print rather than on an original drawing. Best results are achieved when color is used
PEN SIZE
1
000 2 00
2 4
0 1 2 4
FIGURE 418 Graphite can be used to achieve a wide range of styles when color is not required. Rich textures are provided through the use of gray scales. Courtesy Keith Schmidt.
2 1
1 00
0 000
FIGURE 419 Common pen point sizes used for presentation work. The size of the drawing and the amount of detail to be shown affect the size of point.
940
FIGURE 4110 Renderings drawn with ink with varied line widths provide excellent drawings for reproduction. Courtesy Jonathan Cutler, Architectural Art.
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 4112 Renderings drawn with tools to provide straight lines.
to highlight a drawing rather than for every item in the drawing. The use of watercolors is common among professional illustrators because of the lifelike presentations that can be achieved (see Figure 41-11).
Line Techniques Two techniques commonly used for drawing lines in presentation drawings are mechanical and freehand. They use the same methods for layout but vary in the method of achieving finished line quality. Figure 41-12 shows an example of a rendering drawn mechanically using a straightedge to produce lines. If a more casual effect is desired, initial layout lines can be traced without using tools. Figure 41-13 shows an example of a freehand rendering. In addition to line methods, many styles of lettering are used on presentation drawings. Lettering may be placed with mechanical methods such as a lettering guide or rub-ons. Many illustrations are lettered with freehand lettering similar to Figure 41-14.
FIGURE 4111 Watercolors can be used to enhance a rendering. Compare this drawing with the art in Figure 41-8. Courtesy Keith Schmidt.
FIGURE 4113 Presentation drawings are often drawn using freehand methods. Lenox Retreat, Plan 146 © 1988. Courtesy Stephen Fuller American Home Gallery.
FIGURE 4114 Lettering can be drawn by using mechanical methods such as a LeRoy lettering set or rub-ons, or with freehand techniques.
Chapter 41: Presentation Drawings
RENDERING PROCEDURE FOR DRAWINGS Because of the number of steps required to make a perspective drawing, one- and two-point perspective will be covered in the supplemental reading on the Student CD. Other drawings can be rendered as follows.
Elevations Presentation elevations can be drawn by following the initial layout steps described in Chapter 24. The elevations are usually drawn at the same scale as the floor plan. Once the elevation is drawn with construction lines, the drafter should plan the elements to be included in the presentation. For our example, these will be limited to plants and shading. Care must be taken to ensure that the surroundings in the drawing do not overshadow the main structure.
941
The method of drawing plantings should match the method used to draw the structure. No matter what method is used, plants are typically kept very simple. The area of the country where the structure will be built determines the types of plants that are shown on the elevation. Common types of trees that can be placed on the elevations can be seen in the example in this chapter. Be sure to use plants that are typically seen in your area. Start the presentation elevations using the same methods as on the working drawings. Sketch the area where the plants will be placed, as in Figure 41-15. Plants that will be in the foreground should be drawn prior to drawing the structure with finished-quality lines. Figure 41-16 shows the foreground planting in place. Once the foreground trees have been drawn, the material on the elevations can be drawn by following the same steps as for the working drawings. The elevation should now resemble the drawing in Figure 41-17.
Shading Plants Your artistic ability will determine how plants are to be drawn. Rub-on plants are a great time-saver, but they should not be your only means of representing plants because they are expensive and offer only a limited selection.
Shadows are often used on presentation drawings to show surface changes and help create a sense of realism. Before shadows can be drawn, a light source must be established. A light source should be selected that will give the best presentation. The source of light will be influenced by the shape of the building. This can be
FIGURE 4115 With the elevation drawn with construction lines, trees in the foreground should be drawn. Be sure to draw trees that actually grow in the vicinity.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 4116 Plantings that will be in the foreground should be drawn before drawing the elevation.
FIGURE 4117 The presentation elevation can be completed using steps similar to those used to draw elevations in Chapter 25. For clarity, material in the background, such as a chimney, is often omitted.
Chapter 41: Presentation Drawings
2'-0"
SHADE SHADE
LIGHT SOURCE
LIGHT SOURCE LIGHT SOURCE
2'-0"
LOWER FLOOR UPPER FLOOR 6'-0"
LIGHT SOURCE
943
OVERHANG 2'-0"
FIGURE 4118 The shape of the structure influences the selection of the light source. Select a source that will accent depth but will not dominate a surface.
seen in Figure 41-18. Even though the sun may strike the structure as shown on the right, so little of the structure remains unshaded that it is hard to determine the appearance of the building. By moving the light source to the other side of the drawing, as seen at the left, more features of the building surface are identified. Once the light source has been selected, the amount of shadow to be seen should be determined. Figure 41-19 shows the effect of moving the light source away from the horizon. Determine where shadows will be created and the amount of shade that will be created by projecting a line from the light source across the surface to be shaded, as in Figure 41-20. If you are not happy with the amount of shade, raise or lower the light source. Once the first shadow is projected, the proportions of the other shadows must be maintained. Be sure to use a very light line as you are lining out the location of shadows. If you are using CADD, freeze the layer containing the outline. Shade can be drawn using several different methods. Figure 41-21 shows common methods of using graphite or ink. Shade can be applied by CADD using a hatch pattern consisting of vertical parallel lines. Determine the method of shading you will be using, and then lay out the area where the shadows will be placed. The final procedure is to draw the
LIGHT SOURCE
LIGHT SOURCE
FIGURE 4119 As the light source is moved above the horizon line, the depth of the shadow will be increased.
LIGHT SOURCE SHADOW CAST BY 2'-0" OVERHANG X' SHADOW CAST BY 6'-0" OVERX' HANG 3X
FIGURE 4120 Shadows are placed by determining a light source. The depth of the shadow can be determined by the illustrator. Select a depth that does not obscure important information. Once the first shadow has been drawn, keep other shadows in proportion. Keep shadow outlines very light.
small shadows created by changes in surface material. Figure 41-22 shows common areas that should receive shading. With all material now drawn and rendered, basic materials should be specified. Complete specifications do not need to be given for the products to be used, but general specifications should be included. Figure 41-23 shows examples of notes that are often placed on the elevations.
Floor Plan The purpose of the presentation floor plan will determine the scale at which it will be drawn. If the plan is to be mounted and displayed, the layout space will determine the scale to be used. When the plan will be reproduced, it is typically drawn at a scale of either 1/4" = 1'−0" or 1/8" = 1'−0" and then photographically reduced. The presentation floor plan can be drawn using many of the same steps that were described in Chapter 18. Once the walls are drawn, the symbols for plumbing and electrical appliances can be drawn. Closets and storage areas are usually represented on the floor plan. These symbols can be seen in Figure 41-24. Furniture is often shown on the floor plan to suggest possible living arrangements. Furniture can be sketched, drawn with templates, put in place with rub-ons, or inserted using computer blocks. When brick, stone, or tile is
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FREEHAND GRAPHITE
FREEHAND INK
GRAPHITE CROSSHATCH
INK CROSSHATCH
GRAPHITE POCHÉ
ZIP-A-TONE
FREEHAND INK W/GRAPHITE BACKGROUND
INK WASH
FIGURE 4121 Shading can be drawn using several methods.
TRIM CASTS SHADOW ONTO SIDING
POCHE ADDED TO GLASS AREAS
ROOFING CASTS SHADOW ONTO FASCIA
WINDOW FRAME CASTS SHADOW ONTO GLASS
RECESSED PANELS ARE SHADED BY DOOR SURFACE FASCIA CASTS SHADOW ONTO SIDING
FIGURE 4122 Shading can affect the realism of a drawing. Shadows will be cast at each surface change.
Chapter 41: Presentation Drawings
945
MEDIUM CEDAR SHAKES
1 X 8 FASCIA
HARDIPLANK SIDING OVER TYVEK
BRICK VENEER
FIGURE 4123 Notes are added to the presentation elevation to explain major surface materials but are not as specific as the notes on the working elevation.
used for a floor covering, it is often shown on the floor plan. A directional arrow should be shown on a floor plan to help orient the viewer to the position of the sun or to surrounding landmarks. The symbols for brick and tile floor covering have been added to the floor plan of Figure 41-25.
Annotation on the floor plan is usually limited to room types and sizes, appliances, and general titles. Landscaping, decks, and walkways are usually represented on the floor plan to help show how the home will relate to the building site. Figure 41-26 shows the completed presentation floor plan for the plan that was drawn in Chapter 18.
FIGURE 4124 With the walls, doors, and windows drawn, the cabinets, stairs, and other interior features can be added to the presentation floor plan.
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FIGURE 4125 Floor materials are drawn to help clarify the design.
DINING
SHOP
FAMILY
124 X 114
170 X 114
LIVING
124 X 154
KIT.
128 X 154
MAIN FLOOR PLAN SCALE : 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4126 The completed presentation floor plan is useful for showing the arrangement of interior space.
Chapter 41: Presentation Drawings
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MIBRADA LOOP
4'-0"
25'-0"
C
S
34
36'-0"
11 2 ˚ 0 .93 ' 9' 22 "W
25'-0"
66.90'
PROPOSED 2 STORY S.F.R. F. F. ELEV 101.50'
95.00' N 1˚ 29' 48" W
5'-0" 61'-0"
134.92' N88° 06' 14" W
FIGURE 4127 Landscaping, decks, walkways, and any other outdoor materials should be included on the presentation site plan to show how the structure will blend with its surroundings.
SITE PLAN 1/8"
1'-0"
FIGURE 4128 Major items should be specified on the site plan to help the viewer better understand the project.
Site Plan The site plan can be drawn by following many of the steps in Chapter 15. Once the lot and structure have been outlined, walks, driveways, decks, and pools should be drawn. Once the structure is located, plantings and walkways are usually indicated on the plan, as shown in Figure 41-27. As with the other types of presentation drawings, basic sizes are specified on the site plan, as shown in Figure 41-28.
FIGURE 4129 The initial layout of the section can be drawn using procedures similar to those used for the layout of the working sections in Chapter 37 and Chapter 38.
Sections NE
JU 21
Section presentation drawings are made by using the methods described in Chapter 37 and Chapter 38. Sections are usually drawn at a scale similar to the presentation floor plan. The initial section layout for the house discussed in Chapter 18 can be seen in Figure 41-29. Lines of sun angles at various times of the year and lines of sight can be indicated on the section. Room names (numbers for commercial structures) and ceiling heights are also specified on the section. Methods of presenting this type of information are shown in Figure 41-30.
DE
C.
21
BED. 1
BATH
LIVING
FAMILY
SECTION
FIGURE 4130 The presentation section is often used to show sun angles and views. Label rooms so that the viewer will understand which areas are being shown.
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CADD APPLICATIONS Using CADD to Make Presentation Drawings When CADD is used to draw elevations (Chapter 24 and Chapter 25), the material representations look so realistic that they may also be used as presentation drawings. Most architectural drafters add materials such as trees and cars to the drawings, because with CADD these items can be placed on the drawing in seconds. You simply pick a symbol from a library, add it to the elevation in the desired location, and select the desired size. This process is so easy that elevation drawings often contain such presentation features as landscaping and shading. Preparing three-dimensional (3D) drawings is easy with CADD. Some of the powerful CADD packages, such as AutoCAD Architecture, Revit Architecture, and RealDWG allow you to automatically generate a 3D drawing from the floor plan layout. Wall and header heights are established as you draw the floor plan. When it is complete, you can view the drawing in 3D from any selected point in space. You can change the viewpoint until you find the view that best displays the building. Some architects have found that a combination of 3D CADD presentation of the building and the artistic addition of landscaping features creates beautiful presentation drawings in less time.
Presentation Drawings Test
Some CADD rendering programs can turn 3D line drawings into realistically shaded pictures. You can create a drawing that looks like a photographer’s image by adjusting camera and lighting locations. You can produce both color and black-and-white drawings with this process. Figure 41-31 shows a drawing rendered with computer software. ■
FIGURE 4131 Renderings using third-party software create a realistic drawing using AutoCAD. Courtesy Graphics Software, Inc.
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows:
Question 41–3 What are some factors that might influence who will draw the presentation drawings?
1. Letter your name, Chapter 41, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 41–4 List and describe the major information found on each type of presentation plan. Question 41–5 What type of drawing is best used to show the shape and style of a structure?
Question 41–1 What is the use of presentation drawings?
Question 41–6 List four media that are often used for presentation drawings.
Question 41–2 What is the major difference between the information provided on a presentation drawing and that provided on a working drawing?
Question 41–7 Which drawing material is most often used for presentation drawings?
Chapter 41: Presentation Drawings
Question 41–8 What common methods are used to add color to a drawing? Question 41–9 At what scale are sections usually drawn? Question 41–10 What scale is typically used when a floor plan will be reproduced photographically?
PROBLEMS PRESENTATION DRAWINGS DIRECTIONS: Select one of the homes from Chapter 18 and develop the preliminary drawings to explain construction. Unless your instructor provides other instructions, plan your design assuming a budget of $550,000 excluding property. Unless additional information is provided by your instructor, assume the following costs as you plan for the size of your project. ●
New construction of living areas @ $125.00 per square foot.
●
New bathrooms @ $150.00 per square foot.
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New kitchen area @ $200.00 per square foot.
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New garage area @ $75.00 per square foot.
Modify the home you selected in Chapter 18 as needed to meet the following criteria: ●
Your client is a couple in their late thirties with a 14-year-old son and a 12-year-old daughter. Each child must have a separate bedroom (11' × 12' minimum); a guest room (hobby room) would be helpful. Separate bathrooms would be appreciated for the children. The kids appear to be real slobs, so please don’t have guests use the bathroom(s) provided for the children.
●
The family loves to entertain and needs an open floor plan that allows for good circulation during parties. Provide separate areas for quiet conversations as well as louder activities.
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An entertainment center with surround sound will be placed in the area for louder activities.
●
The master bedroom should be a minimum of 16' × 14' with a walk-in closet, as well as a master bath with two sinks, a tub, a shower, and the water closet in a separate room. Provide access from the master bedroom to a patio or deck area that is separate from other outdoor areas.
●
Provide a microwave, cooktop, and double oven, and a side-by-side refrigerator with an ice maker in the kitchen. The sink should be a triple sink (vegetable sink in center). The clients want an island or peninsula with a seating bar suitable for four people.
Your plan must include a masonry fireplace on an outside wall, as well as a zero-clearance fireplace in the master bedroom.
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Provide at least one room with a vaulted ceiling, a room with a sunken floor, and a utility room that has a laundry sink and a sewing area with a fold-down ironing board.
Problem 41–1 PRELIMINARY SITE PLAN—Use a suitable site from Chapter 15 and research on the Internet all yard setbacks required by the governing agency in your area. Draw a site plan to fit the home started in Chapter 18 that can meet the criteria listed above. Verify local requirements for maximum height restrictions, lot coverage, and minimum setbacks. Clearly indicate setbacks on your drawings and place your floor plan so it fits within the permitted building envelope of your site. Show the relationship of the residence to the site and exposure to sun. Include a north arrow, vehicle access to the residence, walkways, patios and/or deck, and possible planting areas. Plot the site plan to meet any specific requirements your building department may have. Problem 41–2 PRELIMINARY FLOOR PLAN DESIGN— Complete a presentation floor plan for the house started in Chapter 18 that meets the minimum standards presented earlier in this chapter as well as the material in Chapter 9 and reflects common design standards introduced in Chapter 10. The drawing must include walls, cabinets, windows and doors, room names and sizes, ceiling heights, and sunken floors. Include representative furniture symbols that illustrate a possible furniture arrangement for each habitable room. Determine and list the square footage totals for the habitable space, the garage, and total building areas. Problem 41–3 PRELIMINARY ROOF PLAN—Design and draft a hip roof plan using Section 6 as a guide. Unless your instructor provides other instructions, the roof MUST include two different plate heights and must include at least one hip and one gable roof on areas other than the main roof. Plot the drawing at 1/8" = 1'–0" and display the roof plan on the same sheet containing the elevation drawings. Problem 41–4 PRELIMINARY ELEVATIONS—Use the guidelines presented in Section 7 to draw and label the front elevation and one side exterior elevation. Do not provide detailed text on the drawings other than brief, generic labels. Elevations must accurately reflect the floor and roof designs, and site grades. Problem 41–5 PRELIMINARY SECTIONS—Plan your section location and then confer with the instructor to verify the location of the section lines. Draw two preliminary sections (if necessary) to show the floor and roof systems and other major structural components used to build your residence. Draw all major materials, but do not label specific material sizes. At least one section will pass through and
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show two different plate heights. Estimate structural component sizes so that required beams and joists can be represented, but do not give specific sizes. Your section must include: ●
All wall, roof, floor, and foundation materials.
●
Room titles for each space the section line cuts through (exclude closets).
●
Dimensions from the subfloor to the top plate heights.
Problem 41–6 PRESENTATION OF PRELIMINARY DESIGN—On a day and time selected by your instructor, using no more than 20 minutes, present to your clients (your classmates and your instructor) a preliminary design package that consists of a site plan, the floor plan, roof plan, sections, and two elevations. Explain how your project fits the needs and budget of the clients (based on the class outline). Come prepared to demonstrate how your project meets common standards presented in Chapter 9, Chapter 10, and Chapter 41 as well as Sections 4, 6, and 7.
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SECTION 12
Commercial Drafting
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CHAPTER 42
Building Codes and Commercial Design I
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One of the biggest differences you will notice between residential and commercial drafting is that you will depend more on building codes on the commercial side of things. You were introduced to the International Residential Code in Chapter 9 and have seen its effect on construction throughout this textbook. As you draw commercial projects such as the structure shown in Figure 42-1, the building code will become much more influential. Typically this will mean working with the International Building Code or a local code based on the IBC. To be an effective drafter, you must be able to properly use the code that governs your area.
EXPLORING BUILDING CODES Formerly there were four model building codes used in the United States—the Uniform Building Code (UBC), National Building Code (NBC), Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA), and Standard Building Code (SBC). These three code groups have merged to develop the International Building Code (IBC) published by the International Code Council (ICC). They combined their extensive knowledge to produce a comprehensive and well-researched model code that is used as a model code by much of the nation and by many different countries. The IBC has incorporated (by reference) recommendations from other organizations that are experts in their own fields such as the American Concrete Institute (ACI), the Steel Joist Institute (SJI), and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). This allows the code to be kept current with input from very qualified sources. The disadvantage is that not all the information you might need is actually contained in the code that you purchase. You may need to purchase standards from the sources listed in the code. Addresses for each major contributing organization can be found in the Additional Resources section at the end of the chapter. The most recent release of the IBC is the 2009 edition. The International Building Code is part of a family of codes that includes structural, plumbing, mechanical,
fire, and residential. These codes are performance-based codes that describe the desired results, not the exact method used to achieve those results. Other codes in the family of International Codes published by the ICC include: fuel gas, energy conservation, private sewage disposal, performance for buildings and facilities, property maintenance, zoning, existing buildings, and wild land–urban interface. Handbooks, commentaries, interpretive manuals, and learning aids are available for most of these codes. The interpretive manuals are very useful in helping to understand the intent of the code. The building code has an influence over every aspect of a construction project. Its influence extends from the very beginning of design by controlling the location, size, and construction type of the building, through engineering and the working drawing phase. Familiarity with the code and an understanding of the intent of its
FIGURE 421 Working on drawings for commercial structures will require extensive knowledge of the building code that governs the project. Courtesy APA—The Engineered Wood Association.
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sections are important attributes for every member of the drawing team. The code book should be used as a drafting tool just as a keyboard and mouse are. It should be at your workstation and referred to frequently. It should be marked in and tabbed so that you can easily find information such as frequently needed tables and formulas. If possible, purchase the loose-leaf version of the code so that it will be easier to add updates and local amendments, as well as your own comments, formulas, and notes. The IBC Handbook: Fire and Life Safety, which explains nonstructural aspects of the code, is another excellent source of information. If you haven’t done so already, check with the building department in your area and determine the code that will cover your drafting. Typically you will spend approximately $150 to purchase a code book. This may seem like a large expenditure to you now, but it will be one of your most useful drafting tools. NOTE: The International Code Council released the 2009 edi-
tion of the International Building Code in the spring of 2009 with the 2012 edition to be released in the spring of 2012. Many municipalities adopt the code and make revisions based on local conditions. These local codes are often a year or more behind the national code. You will need to verify with your local building department to determine if the new edition has been adopted or if local variations are in force. You should also visit the International Code Council Web site to keep current with code updates and changes that may affect your projects. You may register your code with the ICC at www.iccsafe.org/ CodesPlus to receive automatic updates and other features.
Exploring the IBC Each national code consists of several related books that regulate design, electrical, energy, fire, mechanical, plumbing, structural, and zoning. This chapter will examine only portions of the International Building Code (IBC) that regulate the design of a project. Building codes do not dictate the style to be used for the structure, but they do regulate the location, size, and type of materials that can be used; these are based on the size of the building and on how it will be used. The project architect will initially make each of the code decisions that affect the project. Understanding the structure of the codes and how each aspect of the code defines the structure will make you a better drafter and will increase your ability to advance. To develop your skills, purchase a code book as a student, and don’t hesitate to mark or place tabs on certain pages to identify key passages. You won’t need to memorize the book, but you will need to refer to certain areas again and again. Page tabs will help you find needed tables or formulas quickly.
Architectural Drafting and Design
The IBC is broken down into 35 chapters and 11 appendixes. To become familiar with the code, start by reading the chapters that deal with general building limitations of the code. Chapter 3 provides information regarding the use and occupancy classification of structures. Chapter 5 provides information related to the general building height and floor area. Chapter 6 of the code discusses types of construction as classified by the model codes. Construction types are numbered from I to V. Type I is the most fire-resistive, providing the most protection from fire for the occupants of the structure because of the use of noncombustible materials for the frame. Type V construction provides the least fire resistance, enabling the use of all materials allowed by code for more flexibility. Each construction type has restrictions on the structural frame, exterior walls, interior walls, openings in walls, stair construction, and roof construction. Construction type will be used later in this chapter to calculate allowable building size. Building construction types regulate the area and height of buildings such that all buildings would be at an equivalent level of fire hazard risk.
Safety Requirements Once you feel comfortable with general guidelines that govern placement and types of structures that are allowed in a specific area, read Chapter 7 through Chapter 12 of the IBC. Chapter 7 discusses the materials required to obtain a specific fire rating. Although the drafter will not determine the fire rating, you must understand fire ratings to effectively research materials that will need to be shown in detail. Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 define flame spread and smoke classification of interior finishes, and discuss information about fire suppression and detection systems, as well as smoke control and venting. Consultants specializing in this field prepare the plans for fire-sprinkler and fire-detection systems. The project architect frequently locates wet and dry standpipes. Standpipes are the systems that fire hoses connect to. Dry standpipes are dry until a fire truck connects to them and pumps water through them. The code specifies when these systems are required and gives criteria for locating them. Chapter 10 of the IBC addresses means of egress; this is one of the most important chapters for a space planner to understand. Although the drafter is not usually responsible for the placement of walls, knowledge of code requirements will aid in understanding the building design. Placement of hallways and exits will be discussed later in this chapter. Chapter 11 addresses accessible routes into and throughout a structure, parking requirements, dwelling and sleeping units,
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and special occupancies. Chapter 12 contains the minimum requirements for light and ventilation including natural, artificial, and mechanical types. It also discusses minimum room sizes, ceiling heights, interior space dimensions, and access to spaces. A drafter must have a good understanding of each of these areas to advance in an engineering office.
Building Systems Several chapters in the code deal with roof, wall, and floor systems. Chapter 14 of the IBC deals with performance of exterior wall systems, construction materials, and combustible materials to be used in wall construction. The focus of Chapter 15 is roof assemblies and coverings. Minimum roof slope, maximum exposure to the weather, the fire classification of the roof, roof flashing, and roof drainage are discussed. Chapter 16 lists loads and loading conditions that a building must be designed to resist. The chapter is primarily intended for the engineer, but knowledge of the loads acting on each portion of the structure will add to the drafter’s understanding of the project. Chapter 18 of the code is about soils, foundations, and retaining walls. Foundation investigations, which are usually done by a soils lab, are discussed. Requirements for standard foundations, such as minimum thickness of foundation walls and allowable foundation loads, are also addressed (see Figure 42-2). Much of a drafter’s workload will usually consist of editing details related to these chapters.
Building Materials Once you feel at ease with the guidelines of building systems, work through the chapters that deal with specific types of materials. Wood is one of the most common materials of light construction and is covered in Chapter 23. Although you may be familiar with parts of these chapters from experience with residential construction, commercial construction will require a greater depth of understanding. This chapter is filled with technical design information for the engineer, but it also has many prescriptive tables and standard construction provisions that can be used by the drafter. A very complex chapter, Chapter 19 deals with concrete and its reference standards. That chapter sets the rules for the use of concrete and discusses highly technical subjects such as concrete mixes and seismic performance of concrete. Minimum required slab thickness, formwork, and durability are also addressed. Structural design of masonry construction is addressed in Chapter 21 of the IBC. Required reinforcing, grout and mortar strength, and construction
FIGURE 422 Each area of a structure is regulated by the building code to ensure the protection of the occupants. Chapter 14 through Chapter 16 of the IBC deal with building systems, and Chapter 18 deals with soils and foundation design. Courtesy Tereasa Jefferis.
with glass block and screen block are examined. Chapter 22 of the code is a very technical chapter intended for the engineer involved with the structural steel and its reference standards. Chapter 24 of the code deals with structural requirements for glass and glazing. It covers vertical and sloped glazing, as well as unusual uses for glass such as glass handrails and racquetball courts. Chapter 35, REFERENCED STANDARDS, provides a list of the standards referenced throughout the building code. See the Additional Resources section at the end of this chapter for a partial list of these resources.
DETERMINING DESIGN CATEGORIES To use a building code effectively during the initial design stage, you must determine classifications used to define a structure: the occupancy group, type of construction,
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floor area, height, building location and size, and the occupant load. There is no set order for determining these classifications when designing a building. The starting point depends on what is already known about the project; however, the IBC does include an “Effective Use of the International Building Code” after its Preface.
are exceptions listed in the code. Two other things to consider when determining occupancy:
Occupancy Groups
The code that you are using will affect how the occupancy is listed. The letter of the occupancy listing generally is the first letter of the word that it represents. Basic occupancy classifications for the model codes lump various uses into categories (classifications) such as:
The occupancy group specifies by whom or how the structure will be used. To protect the public adequately, buildings used for different purposes are designed to meet the hazards of each usage. Think of the occupancy group with which you are most familiar, the R occupancy. The R grouping not only covers the single-family residence but also includes duplexes that are outside the scope of the IRC, apartments, lodging areas, and hotels. This one group covers single-family residences that are outside the scope of the IRC, and multistory apartments with hundreds of occupants. Obviously, the safety requirements for a multilevel apartment with hundreds of occupants should be different from those of a single-family residence. Basic occupancy classifications are listed in Chapter 3, USE AND OCCUPANCY CLASSIFICATION. The IBC defines ten major occupancy classifications, and then breaks these classifications into sub-classifications. All uses within a building must be categorized as one of these sub-classifications as shown in Table 42-1. Remember that the following list is a summary of an entire chapter of the IBC; it is not all-inclusive—there
● ●
If a use is not listed then it must be classified in the group that the occupancy most nearly resembles. Buildings may have more than one occupancy classification.
Code
Use
A
Assembly-type uses such as theaters and churches.
B
Business, such as office buildings and buildings for service-type uses.
E
Educational buildings.
F
Factories—industrial.
H
Hazardous uses such as cabinet shops or areas where large volumes of flammable liquids are stored.
I
Institutional uses such as hospitals and jails.
M
Mercantile uses such as department stores and markets.
R
Single-family or multifamily Residential.
S
Storage of moderate- and low-hazard materials.
U
Utility and miscellaneous.
Group & Division Description of Occupancy Assembly Group A Occupancies—include but are not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for gathering groups larger than 50 people. A room used for assembly purposes by less than 50 and accessory to another occupancy shall be included as part of that occupancy. A-1
Assembly uses, usually with fixed seating, including but not limited to: Theaters, concert halls, TV and radio studios with an audience.
A-2
Assembly uses intended for food and or drink consumption including but not limited to: Banquet halls, nightclubs, restaurants, taverns and bars.
A-3
Assembly uses intended for worship, recreation or amusement and other assembly uses not classified elsewhere in Group A including, but not limited to: Amusement arcades, art galleries, bowling alleys, churches, community halls, courtrooms, dance halls, exhibition halls, funeral parlors, gymnasiums without spectator seating, indoor swimming pools without spectator seating, lecture halls, libraries, museums, waiting areas in transportation terminals, and pool and billiard parlors.
A-4
Assembly uses intended for viewing of indoor sporting events and activities with spectator seating including but not limited to: Arenas, skating rinks, swimming pools, and tennis courts.
See the IBC Section 303.1 for a complete list of occupancies considered in type A. Business Group B occupancies—include but are not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for office professional or service-type transactions, including storage of records and accounts. Business occupancies shall include, but are not limited to the following: Airport traffic control towers, animal hospitals and pounds, banks, barber and beauty shops, car wash, civic administration, dry cleaning, educational occupancies above the 12th grade, electronic data processing, motor vehicle showrooms, outpatient clinics, post offices, print shops, professional services (such as architects, attorneys, dentists, physicians, and engineers), radio and TV stations, telephone exchanges, and testing and research laboratories. See the IBC Section 304.1 for a complete list of occupancies considered in type B. TABLE 421 Summary of IBC Occupancy Groups
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Group & Division Description of Occupancy Educational Group E Occupancies—include but are not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used by 6 or more people at any one time for educational purposes through the 12th grade. This category also includes buildings or portions of structures used for day care for 5 or more children older than 2 1/2 years of age. This category excludes religious educational rooms and auditoriums with occupant loads of less than 100, which are accessory to churches. These classrooms are considered A3 rather than E. See the IBC Section 305.1 for a complete list of occupancies considered in type E. Factory Industrial Group F—Include but are not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for assembling, disassembling, fabricating, finishing, manufacturing, packaging, repair or processing operations that are not classified as group H (hazardous) or group S (storage occupancy). F-1
Moderate Hazard Occupancy shall include but are not limited to the following: Aircraft, appliance, athletic equipment, bakeries, beverages over 12% alcohol content, bicycles, boats, brooms, brushes, business machines, cameras and photo equipment, canvas and similar fabrics, carpet and rugs, clothing, construction and agricultural machinery, disinfectants, dry cleaning and dyeing, electric generating plants, electronics, engines, food processing, furniture, laundries, machinery, metals, millwork, motion picture and television filming, motor vehicles, optical goods, paper mills or products, photographic film, plastic products, printing, publishing, refuse incineration, shoes, soaps and detergents, textiles, tobacco, trailers upholstering, and woodworking. See the IBC Section 306.2 for a complete list of materials in this group.
F-2
Moderate Hazard Occupancy shall include uses that involve the fabrication or manufacturing of noncombustible materials that during finishing, packing or processing do not involve a significant fire hazard. These uses shall include, but are not limited to the following: Beverages up to and including 12% alcohol content, brick and masonry, ceramic products, foundries, glass products, gypsum, ice, and metal products. See the IBC Section 306.3 for a complete list of materials in this group.
High-Hazard Group H—Includes but are not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for manufacturing, processing, generation or storage of materials that constitute a physical or health hazard in quantities in excess of limits listed in Section 307.7.2 of the IBC. As you read the code that defines high-hazard groups, you see terms such as corrosive, detonation, explosive, mass-detonating, fireworks, flammable gas, flash point, oxidizer, pyrotechnic composition, and reactive material. Each of the terms represents a highly hazardous material or reaction that will require careful consideration as the structure is designed. H-1
High-hazard group 1 occupancies are for structures that contain materials that present a detonation hazard. See the IBC Section 307.3 for a complete list of materials in this group.
H-2
High-hazard group 2 occupancies are for structures that contain materials that present a deflagration hazard. The IRC defines deflagration as an exothermic reaction, such as the extremely rapid oxidation of a flammable dust or vapor in the air, in which the reaction progresses through the unburned material at a rate less than the velocity of sound. This includes such materials as Class I, II or IIIA flammable or combustible liquids that are used or stored in normally open containers, or in closed containers pressurized at more than 15 psi (103.4kPa) gage. Other materials in this group include combustible dusts, cryogenic fluids, flammable gases, and oxidizers. See the IBC Section 307.4 for a complete list of materials in this group.
H-3
High-hazard group 3 occupancies are for structures that contain materials that readily support combustion or present a physical hazard. Such materials include but are not limited to: Class I, II or IIIA flammable or combustible liquids that are used or stored in normally closed containers, or in closed containers pressurized at less than 15 psi (103.4kPa) gage. Other materials in this group include combustible fibers, consumer fireworks, cryogenic fluids, flammable solids, class II and III organic peroxides, oxidizing gases and class 2 unstable materials. See the IBC Section 307.5 for a complete list of materials in this group.
H-4
High-hazard group 4 occupancies are for structures that contain materials that are health hazards. Such materials include but are not limited to: Corrosives, highly toxic materials, and toxic materials. See the IBC Section 307.6 for a complete description of this group.
Institutional Group I—Includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure in which people are cared for or live in a supervised environment because of physical limitations, health or age, or for medical treatment. I-1
This occupancy covers residents who are able to respond to an emergency situation without physical assistance from staff members. This group shall include, but is not limited to: Alcohol and drug centers, assisted living facilities, congregate care facilities, convalescent facilities, group homes, halfway houses, residential board and care facilities, and social rehabilitation facilities with more than 17 people. Facilities with 6, but less than 17 people care considered R-4. A facility with less than five or fewer people is considered a type R-3. See the IBC Section 308.2 for a complete description of this group.
I-2
This occupancy includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for medical, surgical, psychiatric, nursing or custodial care on a 24-hour basis for more than 5 people who are not capable of responding in an emergency. This group shall include, but is not limited to: Detoxification centers, hospitals, and nursing homes. A child care facility that provides 24-hour service to more than 5 children that are 2 1/2 years of age or less is also in this group. Facilities that care for less than five or fewer people is considered as group R-3. See the IBC Section 308.3 for a complete description of this group.
TABLE 421 Continued
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Group & Division Description of Occupancy I-3
This occupancy includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for five or more people who are under restraint or security. This group shall include, but is not limited to: Correctional facilities, detention centers, jails, prerelease centers, prisons, and reformatories. See the IBC Section 308.4 for a complete description of this group.
I-4
This occupancy includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for five or less people of any age who receive custodial care for less than 24 hours by individuals who are not parents or guardians, or related in some other way. This also includes facilities that provide services for more than 5 children younger than 2 1/2 years of age. A child care facility that provides for more than five, but less than 100 children 2 1/2 years of age or less is classified as a group E occupancy. See the IBC Section 308.5 for a complete description of this group.
Mercantile Group M—This occupancy includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for the display and sale of merchandise and involves stocks of goods, wares or merchandise related to the business that is open to the public. This group shall include, but is not limited to: Department stores, drug stores, markets, motor fuel-dispensing facilities, retail or wholesale stores, and sales rooms. See the IBC Section 309.1 for a complete description of this group. Residential Group R—This occupancy includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for sleeping purposes when not classified as an Institutional Group I. See the IBC Section 310.1 for a complete description of this group. R-1
Residential occupancies where occupants are primarily transient in nature including: Boarding houses, hotels and motels.
R-2
Residential occupancies containing sleeping units or more than two dwelling units where occupants are primarily permanent in nature including: Apartment houses, boarding houses, convents, dormitories, fraternities, monasteries, sororities, vacation timeshare properties, and hotels and motels that are non-transient.
R-3
Residential uses where the occupants are mostly permanent in nature, that are not classed as R1, R2, R4, or I, and where buildings do not contain more than two dwelling units.
R-4
Residential uses arranged for residential care or assisted living facilities with more than five but less than 16 occupants excluding staff. This group must comply with the IBC standards for group R-3 and also meet the standards of Section 101.2 of the IBC.
Storage Groups S—This occupancy includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for storage that is not classified as a hazardous occupancy. See the IBC Section 311.1 for a complete description of this group. S-1
Moderate-hazard storage. This occupancy includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for storage that is not classified as Group 2. This group shall include, but is not limited to: Aircraft repair hangars, bulk storage of tires, burlap, cloth, and paper bags, bamboo and rattan, books, baskets, cardboard and cardboard boxes, clothing, furniture, furs, glues, grains, leather, level 2 & 3 aerosols, linoleum, lumber, mattresses, motor vehicle repair garages, paper in rolls or packs, photo engravings, resilient flooring, silks, soaps, sugar, tobacco products, upholstery, and wax candles. See the IBC Section 311.2 for a complete description of this group.
S-2
Low-hazard storage. This occupancy includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for storage of noncombustible materials such as products on wood pallets or in paper cartons. This group shall include, but is not limited to: Aircraft hangars, asbestos, beverages up to and including 12% alcohol in metal glass or ceramic containers, cement in bags, chalk and crayons, dairy products in non-waxed coated paper containers, dry cell batteries, electrical coils, electrical motors, empty cans, food products, foods in noncombustible containers, fresh fruits and vegetables in non-plastic trays or containers, frozen foods, glass, gypsum board, inert pigments, meats, metal cabinets, mirrors, oil-filled and other types of distribution transformers, parking garages, stoves, talc and soap stones, washers and dryers. See the IBC Section 311.3 for a complete description of this group.
Utility and Miscellaneous Group U—This occupancy includes but is not limited to structures or a portion of a structure used for an accessory character and miscellaneous structures not classified in any specific occupancy shall be equipped and maintained to conform to this group. Group U shall include, but is not limited to: Agricultural buildings, aircraft hangars accessory to a one- or two-family residence, barns, carports, fences more than 6' (1800 mm) high, grain silos accessory to a residential occupancy, greenhouses, livestock shelters, private garages, retaining walls, sheds, stables, tanks and towers. See the IBC Section 312.1 for a complete description of this group. Note: All portions of the above occupancies are based on Chapter 3 of the International Building Code, Copyright © 2009, with the permission of the publishers, the International Conference of Building Officials, under license from the International Code Council. The 2009 IBC is a copyrighted work of the International Code Council. TABLE 421 Continued
These uses may be further broken down into subcategories for factors such as the number of occupants or the degree of hazardous material used. Table 42-1 shows a detailed listing of occupancy categories from the IBC. A structure often has more than one occupancy group. Separation must be provided at the wall or floor dividing these different occupancies or other options such as nonseparated, accessory, or incidental use options may need
to be used. Figure 42-3 (Table 508.4) shows a listing of mandatory separations based on IBC requirements. If you are working on a structure that has a 10,000-sq-ft office area over an enclosed parking garage, the two areas must be separated. By using the table presented earlier in this chapter, you can see that the office area is a B occupancy and the garage is an S-2 occupancy. By using the table in Figure 42-3, you can determine
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959
FIGURE 423 If a structure contains more than one occupancy grouping, the areas will need to be separated by protective construction methods to reduce the spread of fire. The fire rating of the separating construction can be determined by comparing the occupancy of each type of construction. Courtesy 2009 International Building Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
that a floor with a 2-hour rating must be provided between these two areas if sprinklers are not provided. The floor assembly can be reduced to 1-hour construction if sprinklers are provided. The hourly rating is given to construction materials specifying the length of time that the item must resist structural damage that would be caused by a fire. Various ratings are assigned by the codes for materials ranging from non-rated to a 4-hour rating. The footnotes of Figure 42-3 provide alternatives for reducing the fire separation. Remember that the codes often provide alternative methods of construction to achieve a solution. If the solutions you find on drawings don’t seem to match your understanding of the code, either search the code for exceptions, or talk to the engineer as time permits to further your understanding of the codes. Whole chapters are assigned by each code to cover specific construction requirements for various materials. Chapter 7 of the IBC serves as an introduction to the fire resistance of materials. Once the occupancy grouping is determined, turn to the section of the building code that introduces specifics of that occupancy grouping. Students often become frustrated with the amount of page turning that is required to find particular information in the codes.
Often you will look in one section of the code only to be referred to another section of the code and then to another. It may be frustrating, but the design of a structure is often complicated and requires patience.
Group R Occupancy Categories In previous chapters of this textbook, the term occupancy was not used as you worked with the IRC. The IRC regulates the design and construction of single-family residences, duplexes, and buildings containing three or more dwelling units (townhouses). Each of these types of construction must be limited to three stories above the grade line. A single-family residence, duplex, or townhouse that consists of four or more levels above grade must be built to comply with the restrictions of the IBC. The IBC divides structures into different categories or occupancies. Houses are considered a group R occupancy by the IBC. The R occupancy is further divided into four categories, including: R-1 Residential occupancies containing 10 or more sleeping units where the occupants are primarily transient in nature such as boarding houses, hotels, and motels.
960
R-2 Residential occupancies containing sleeping units or more than two dwelling units where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature including: apartment houses, boarding houses, dormitories, fraternity and sorority houses, hotels, motels, and vacation property. R-3 Residential occupancies where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature, and are not classified as R-1, R-2, R-4, or I including: ● Buildings that do not contain more than two dwelling units. ● Adult-care facilities that provide accommodations for five or fewer persons of any age for less than 24 hours. ● Child-care facilities that provide accommodations for five or fewer persons of any age for less than 24 hours. ● Building or parts of buildings that contain sleeping units where residents share bathroom and or kitchen facilities with 16 or fewer persons. R-4 Residential occupancies that meet the requirements for construction as defined in R-3 except as otherwise provided in the IRC and are equipped with an automatic sprinkler system installed in accordance with Section 903.2.7 of the IBC.
Architectural Drafting and Design
the type of construction. Specific areas of the code must now be researched to determine how these requirements can be met.
Building Area Once the type of construction has been determined, the size of the structure can be determined. Figure 42-5 (Table 503) shows a listing of allowable floor area based on the type of construction to be used. These are basic square-foot sizes, which may be altered depending on the different construction techniques that can be used. If you are working on the plans for a multilevel office building with 20,000 sq ft per floor, this table can be used to determine the type of construction required. First determine the occupancy. By using the information from Chapter 3 of the IBC you can find that the structure is a type B occupancy. Enter Figure 42-5 on the right side using type V-B. For a group B occupancy using type V-B construction, the structure would be limited to 9000 sq ft. Type IV, III-A, II-B, or higher construction methods would need to be used unless the structure is divided into smaller segments by fire-rated walls. You will now need to turn to the areas of the code that cover these types of construction to determine types of materials that could be used.
Type of Construction
Determining the Height
Once the occupancy of the structure has been determined, the type of construction used to protect the occupants can be determined. The type of construction will determine the kind of building materials that can or cannot be used. The kind of material used in construction will determine the ability of the structure to resist fire. Building codes typically specify five general types of construction, which are represented by the Roman numerals I through V. Construction of buildings of type I and type II requires the structural elements of the walls, floors, roofs, and exits to be constructed or protected by approved noncombustible materials such as steel, iron, concrete, and masonry. Sections 603 and 703 of the IBC introduce materials that can be used for type I and type II construction. Construction of type III, type IV, and type V can be steel, iron, concrete, masonry, or wood. In addition to specifying the structural framework, the type of construction will also dictate the material used for interior partitions, exit specifications, and a wide variety of other requirements for the building. Figure 42-4 (Table 601) shows the construction requirements for various areas of a structure, based on
The occupancy and type of construction will determine the maximum height of the structure. Figure 42-5 can also be used to determine the allowable height of a structure. The theoretical 20,000 sq ft office building could be five stories (or 65') high if constructed of type II-A construction materials, or of unlimited height if built with type I-A materials. Remember that this height is based on building requirements governing fire and public safety. Zoning regulations for a specific area may further limit the height of the structure.
Building Location and Size Zoning ordinances and how the structure will be used have a significant impact on where the building is located on the property. Where the building is located on the site will also have an impact on the construction of the building. The location of the building in relationship to other buildings or the property lines is very important in regard to fire safety and will affect the requirements for the fire resistance of exterior walls and the openings in those walls. As the distance between two buildings is decreased, the probability
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FIGURE 424 Construction requirements for various parts of a structure, based on the IBC. The black bar on the right side is how each code indicates material revised from previous editions. The arrow is an indication of a deletion from the previous edition of the code. Courtesy 2009 International Building Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
that a fire in one will damage the other increases. Increasing the space between buildings also provides greater access for firefighting equipment. Each model code has provisions for increasing the allowable size of a building when large yards are provided. In determining floor area increases, a yard includes adjacent public streets, alleys, or courtyards, but yards on adjacent lots do not count. Figure 42-6 (Section 506) shows increases that can be applied to the base floor size, based on the number and size of the yards around the building. Increasing the size of a yard improves fire safety, and the code allows larger buildings to be built. It may be beneficial to increase the size of a yard to avoid required fire-resistant construction. Figure 42-7 (Table 602) lists the required fire resistance for walls based on the size of the yard.
Increasing the Allowable Floor Area The next challenge is to find an allowable way to construct the building. The IBC classifies a building
according to the materials it is built with. Buildings made with a wood frame are not allowed to be as large or as tall as buildings built of noncombustible materials such as concrete and steel. Buildings that have their structural members protected from fire are allowed to be larger and taller than buildings without such fire protection. The IBC has tables that specify allowable areas for a variety of construction types. Referring to Figure 42-5, it can be seen that construction types with an A are required to be more fire resistant than those with a B. Figure 42-5 shows the basic square footage allowed by the IBC for each occupancy group and each construction type. According to that table, a B occupancy of type V-A construction has a basic allowable area of 18,000 square feet. If the B occupancy is built of type IV construction, its basic allowable area is increased to 36,000 square feet. Why would anyone build with type V construction instead of type IV construction? Because type V-A is less expensive to build than type IV. Notice that the allowable building sizes listed above were referred to as “basic allowable area.” These values
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 425 Basic allowable height and floor area of a structure, based on the IBC. Once the occupancy group is determined, the basic allowable floor area can be determined; this is based on the fire resistance of the construction materials to be used. Type I material has the highest resistance to fire. Type V-N construction is most susceptible to damage from fire. The allowable height in floors is above each listing of floor area. Courtesy 2009 International Building Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Chapter 42: Building Codes and Commercial Design
FIGURE 426 The basic floor size of a structure can often be increased based on the number and size of the yards surrounding the structure or by a sprinkler system. Courtesy 2009 International Building Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
963
964
Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 427 The occupancy classification and the fire separation distance determine the required fire resistance of exterior walls. Courtesy 2009 International Building Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
118'-0"
160-00'
10'-0"
PROPOSED 2 LEVEL OFFICE 20,000 sq. ft ea.
CL ANDREA AVENUE
32'-0"
38 '-0"
170'-0"
30'-0" CL DANIELLE DRIVE
170'-0"
45'-0"
118'-0"
225.00'
4'-0"
are a starting point for planning. The IBC allows a larger building to be constructed based on the size of the yards around the building and if fire sprinklers are added as described in Figure 42-6. The information that has just been described can be applied to the site plan in Figure 42-8. The building is to be a professional office building, two stories high, with 20,000 sq ft on each floor that is a B occupancy. It must be determined how to achieve 20,000 sq ft per
FIGURE 428 The site plan for a proposed structure can be used to visualize the side yard setback and to determine the maximum building area. Courtesy Dean Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects & Associates, Inc.
floor when 18,000 is the basic allowable square footage. Referring to Figure 42-5 (Table 503), in the group B entry, it can be seen that type I-A and I-B, type II-A and II-B, type III-A, and type IV construction have a large enough basic allowable area for this building. Because these types of construction are relatively expensive, a less costly answer will be sought. If Figure 42-6 (Section 506 of the IBC) is explored, you will see that the building size can be increased if it has enough of its walls fronting on yards larger than 20' (6000 mm). The building in Figure 42-8 has 406' of wall facing a yard larger than 20' (170' of south wall + 118' of east wall + 118' of west wall). Equation 5-2 of Section 506.2 in Figure 42-6 gives the formula for a frontage increase; for our example, 406' will be F. The building has a total of 576' of exterior wall (perimeter). In the formula, 576' will be P. Next, the smallest of the three yards that are being used for the area increase needs to be determined. Because the full width of the street is allowed as a side yard, the 45' west side yard is the smallest. Again referring to Equation 5-2 of Section 506.2 in Figure 42-6, W will be 45'. By doing the calculations in Figure 42-9, it can be seen that the basic allowable floor area can be increased by 67.5%. Because the W cannot exceed 1 (45/30 = 1.5) the increase was determined to be 45%. By multiplying the allowable area of a type V-A building by 1.45, a 26,000 sq ft area is allowed (18,000 × 1.45); with type V, 26,100 square feet per floor level are allowed. Using the
Chapter 42: Building Codes and Commercial Design
F ⫽ 406 P ⫽ 576 W ⫽ 45 If If If If If
⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽
100 100 100 100 100
[F/P ⫺ .25] W/30 [406/576 ⫺ .25] 45/30 [.70 ⫺ .25] 1.5(W/30 ⫽ l max) [.45] 1.5 ⫽ 67.5 [.45] 1 ⫽ 45% floor increase
FIGURE 429 The basic allowable area of a building can be increased if unoccupied yards greater than 20' (6000 mm) are provided around the building. The formula from Section 506 of the IBC and the percentage of increase for the building in Figure 42-8 are shown. The west yard can be counted as greater than 20' (6000 mm) because the IBC allows the full width of the street to be considered as a side yard.
same process with III-B and V-B results in 27,550 and 13,050 allowable square feet respectively per floor. Now go back to Figure 42-5 (Table 503) and look at the available options. There are now eight construction types to choose from, with only type V-B excluded. Installing a fire sprinkler system is another option for increasing the allowable area of the building. Using Equation 5-1 in Section 506.3 from Figure 42-6 will determine the maximum allowable area after considering yard increases and fire sprinkler increases. Figure 42-10 illustrates the calculation for the least restrictive construction method, type V-B construction. By providing sprinklers, the allowable floor area for a type V-B structure can be increased from 9,000 to 31,050 (9000 + (9000 × 0.45) + (9000 × 2) = 31,050) square feet. Reading Figure 42-7 (Table 602) for a B occupancy classification, it can be seen that walls facing a yard smaller than 10' (3000 mm) will have to be built of fire-resistive construction, no matter what construction type the building is. This means that the north wall of the building will have to be fire resistive.
Aa ⫽ At ⫹ [At If/100] ⫹ [At Is/100] At ⫽ 9000
from Figure 42.5 for a B occupancy of Type V-B construction from Figure 42.9 If ⫽ .45 Is ⫽ 200 from Figure 42.6 (IBC 506.3 for a multistory building) Aa ⫽ 9000 ⫹ [9000 (45)/100] ⫹ [9000 (200)/100] Aa ⫽ 9000 ⫹ [4050] ⫹ [18,000] Aa ⫽ 31,050
FIGURE 4210 The basic allowable area of a building can also be increased if fire sprinklers are installed. The formula and the allowable area for the building in Figure 42-8 are shown.
965
Openings in the north wall are allowed, but they must be fire resistant (protected). Chapter 43 will introduce methods to achieve specific fire ratings. Because the street can be counted as part of the yard, the east wall is not required to be fire resistant even though it is only 10' (3000 mm) from the property line. Unprotected openings are allowed on the east wall because the street can be considered part of the required yard. For exterior wall and opening protection purposes, open yards can include up to the center line of a public street or alley.
Determining the Occupant Load You have determined how the structure will be used and established the allowable size. Now you must determine a number referred to as the occupant load (OL) which is the number that is used to describe how many people may use the structure. The number of occupants in the building is determined by a ratio of the room area to the code specified area per person, as shown in Figure 42-11 (Table 1004.1.1), or in some cases by the number of fixed seats in the room. Theaters and churches are examples of spaces in which the number of occupants is determined by the number of seats. In most other spaces, the area of the room is divided by the factor shown in Figure 42-11 to determine the occupant load. In each occupancy, the intended size of the structure is divided by the occupant load factor to determine the occupant load. In a 20,000 sq ft office structure, the occupant load is 200. This is found by dividing the size (20,000 sq ft) by the occupant factor (100) listed in Figure 42-11. The occupant load will be needed to determine the number of exits, the size and locations of doors, and many other construction requirements.
Exits After the basic exterior shape of the building has been determined, the interior layout can be designed. One of the most important steps in this process is to determine the exit paths.
Exit Paths The number and size of exits will be determined in most cases by the number of occupants in the building. After determining the number of occupants in the building, determine the number and width of the required exits. Figure 42-12 (Table 1015.1) lists the IBC requirements under most conditions. Three exits are required if the building has 501 to 1000 occupants, and four exits are required for 1001 or more occupants.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 4212 If a large number of people occupy a space, more than one exit will be required. Courtesy 2009 International Building Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Determining Exits A single-story building with 40,000 sq ft of office space and a 1000-sq-ft conference room will be considered. Figure 42-11 (Table 1004.1.1) requires that for the purpose of calculating exits you are to use 1 occupant for every 100 sq ft for office use, and 1 occupant for every 15 sq ft of conference room. Dividing 40,000 by 100 results in 400 occupants for the office area. Dividing 1000 by 15 results in 67 occupants, for a total of 467 occupants. The IBC requires 0.2" of exit width for every occupant. Multiplying 0.2" by 467 requires 94" (7'−10" [2350 mm]) of exit width. This building requires only two exits, but two 3'−0" (900 mm) doors will not provide the proper exit width. The code also states that if multiple exits are required, each exist must be sized so that the loss of one exit will not reduce the available capacity to less than 50% of the required capacity. This means that if you provide only two exits, a 3'−6" (1050 mm) door and a 4'−6" (1350 mm) door or a pair of 3'−0" (900 mm) doors at the other will not be acceptable. The codes outline minimum requirements for hall and door widths. Exit doors a minimum of 3'−0" (900 mm) wide are required for most conditions. Most uses require a minimum hall width of 44" (1100 mm), but a width of 36" (900 mm) is acceptable for some limited uses. Stairways have required minimum widths and a required minimum width per occupant. FIGURE 4211 The occupant load of a structure is determined by dividing the intended size of the structure by the occupant load factor. Courtesy 2009 International Building Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.
Exit Locations The location of the exits is also an important factor to be considered. If more than one exit is required, the IBC requires at least two of the exits to be separated by one-half of the diagonal of the area served. This separation ensures that a fire will not block two exits. If the exits are not reasonably separated, there
967
. A.S
OF
1/2
OF
M. D.
20'-0" MAX.
MI NIM UM
MA XIM UM
DIA
GO N
AL
OF
AR EA S
ER VE D( M. D.
A.S
.)
Chapter 42: Building Codes and Commercial Design
FIGURE 4213 If more than one exit from a structure is required, the distance between the exits must be equal to or greater than one-half of the area served. Courtesy Ginger Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects & Associates, Inc.
Type A and type B units are to be designed and constructed to meet ICC/ANSI A117.1–2003 standards published by the ICC. Major sections of this standard include accessible routes, general site and building elements, plumbing elements and fixtures, communication elements and fixtures, special rooms and spaces, and built-in furnishing and equipment. Chapter 10 of the ICC A117.1 Standard applies specifically to access within units, with Section 1003 devoted to type A units and Section 1004 devoted to type B units. Major guidelines apply to bathroom and kitchen design. The main consideration in bathroom design is wheelchair access (see Figure 42-14). A major consideration in kitchen design is access to work areas. Figure 42-15 shows counter requirements. Type B units are allowed to substitute for type A units in certain cases based on Section 1107 of the IBC. Consideration is given in each code to accessible routes; operating controls for electrical, environmental, intercom, and security devices; doorways; kitchens; and bath design.
Accessible Routes is a chance that a fire might block multiple exits, denying people an escape route. Figure 42-13 shows how these requirements are applied. A second consideration of exit design is dead-end corridors. If the occupants of a building run down a long dead-end corridor, they will lose valuable time retracing their steps to get out of the building. Dead-end corridors over 20' (6000 mm) in length in an unsprinklered building for most occupancies (see Figure 42-13) are not allowed. The length of a dead-end corridor can be extended to 50' (15 000 mm) for some occupancies if the building is fully sprinklered.
An accessible route is the walking surface from the exterior access through the living unit. The exterior access (the front door) cannot be located in a bedroom. At least one route is required to connect all spaces that are part of the dwelling unit. If only one route is provided, it cannot pass through a bathroom, closet, or similar space. The access route is required to have a minimum width of 36" (914 mm) except at doors. Vertical changes in floor height cannot exceed 1/4" (6.4 mm). Changes in floor level up to 1/2" (13 mm) are allowed if a bevel with a slope not exceeding 1:2 is provided. Ramps cannot have a slope greater than 1:20. Floor surfaces of a turning space are allowed to have a slope no steeper than 1:48.
Accessibility Requirements for Type R Occupancies
Operating Controls
In addition to the occupancy and exit requirements, one of the key considerations of group R occupancies is the type of living units based on the level of accessibility to be provided. The IBC defines accessible living units as type A or type B units. Section 1107.6 of the IBC outlines the specific number of type A or type B units to be provided for a project such as a motel, hotel, or publicly funded housing project. Although the standards for these units are not mandatory for single-family dwellings, the access provided by these requirements is desirable to many home buyers.
This portion of the building code regulates placement of and access to the electrical, environmental, security, and intercom controls. Guidelines for placement of controls can be seen in Figure 42-16. The control should be centrally located in a clear floor space measuring a minimum of 30" × 48" (762 × 1219 mm), and should be no more than 48" (1219 mm) and no less than 15" (381 mm) from the finished floor. Exceptions to these locations include: ●
Electrical receptacles serving a dedicated use (i.e., a 110 c.o. for a refrigerator).
●
Appliance-mounted controls or switches.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
60" MIN.
18" MIN. 455 mm
16"-18" 405-455 mm
LOCATION OF TOILET AND GRAB BARS
FORWARD APPROACH 60" MIN. 1525 mm
56" MIN. 1420 mm
56" MIN. 1420 mm
60" MIN. 1525 mm
18" MIN. 455 mm
66" MIN. 1675 mm
42" (1065 mm) LONG GRAB BAR
36" (955 mm) LONG GRAB BAR
12" 300 mm
6" 150 mm
1525 mm
PARALLEL APPROACH
PARALLEL AND FORWARD APPROACH
FIGURE 4214 Water closet clearance in type A dwelling units.
●
● ●
A single receptacle located above a portion of a countertop uninterrupted by a sink or appliance (this need not be accessible as long as one receptacle is provided). Floor electrical receptacles. Plumbing fixture controls.
Doorways All doors in type A units are required to provide a minimum clear opening of 32" (815 mm), as shown in Figure 42-17. Although maneuvering space is not required on the dwelling unit side of the door, good
design dictates that space be provided for turning a wheelchair. Figure 42-18 shows required clear access for type A units.
Kitchens Figure 42-19 shows the required minimum clearances for kitchen base cabinet placement. A clear floor area of 30" × 48" (762 × 1219 mm) is required for the cooktop, dishwasher, freezer, oven, range, refrigerator, sink, and trash compactor when provided. Toilet and Bathing Facilities. Figure 42-20 shows a typical bathroom layout. Doors are not allowed
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969
LINE OF UPPER CABINET
48" MAX. 1120 mm
6 1/2" MIN. 165 mm
865 mm
34" MAX.
TYPICAL COUNTER HEIGHT AT APPLIANCE
30" MIN. 760 mm
FIGURE 4215 A major consideration of kitchen guidelines for type A dwelling units is access to work areas.
to swing into the clear floor space required for any fixture unless a clear floor space of at least 30" × 48" (762 × 1219 mm) is provided beyond the swing of the door. This space allows a person to enter, close the door, and then move to a fixture. If this space is
provided, the door may swing into the required space for each bath fixture. Figure 42-21 shows the required space for a lavatory. As shown in Figure 42-22, a water closet must have a minimum of 18" (457 mm) from the center line of the fixture and a minimum of
30" X 48" (762 X 1219 mm) CLEAR FLOOR SPACE
90°
S CONTROL TO BE 15" (381 mm) MIN. 48" (1219 mm) MAX. ABOVE FLOOR
CLEAR FLOOR SPACE
OBSTRUCTION SUCH AS A CABINET
12" (305 mm) MAX. OFFSET
32" MINIMUM (815 mm)
S 30" X 48" (762 X 1219 mm) CLEAR FLOOR SPACE
OBSTRUCTED FLOOR SPACE
FIGURE 4216 A clear floor area of 30" × 48" (762 × 1219 mm) must be provided to access controls.
32" MINIMUM (815 mm)
FIGURE 4217 Doorways must have a minimum clear opening of 32" (815 mm) measured between the face of the door when open 90° and the stop. A maximum tolerance of 1/4" (6.4 mm) is allowed.
Architectural Drafting and Design
36" MIN. (915 mm)
18" MIN. (445 mm)
HINGE APPROACH PULL SIDE
48" MIN. (1220 mm)
54" MIN. (1370 mm)
FRONT APPROACH PULL SIDE
12" MIN. (305 mm)
21" MINIMUM (533 mm)
60" MIN. (1525 mm)
60" MIN. (1525 mm)
970
MINIMUM BATHROOM SIZE 42" MIN. (1065 mm)
FRONT APPROACH PUSH SIDE
HINGE APPROACH PULL SIDE
PROVIDE 30" X 48" (762 X 1219 mm) CLEAR FLOOR SPACE
42" MIN. (1065 mm)
*42" MIN. *(1065 mm)
54" MIN. 1370 mm
48" (1220 mm) IF *CLOSER IS PROVIDED
HINGE APPROACH PUSH SIDE
LATCH APPROACH PUSH SIDE 24" MIN. (610 mm)
LATCH APPROACH PULL SIDE
FIGURE 4218 Clear floor spaces required for group R-1, type A units. For exterior swinging doors, a threshold cannot exceed a maximum height of 1/2" (12.7 mm). Sliding exterior doors are allowed to have a beveled threshold with a maximum height of 3/4" (19 mm). The bevel cannot exceed 1 vertical unit per 2 horizontal units (50% slope).
FIGURE 4220 A typical bathroom layout (top) is often too small to provide accessibility. Doors in a type A unit are not allowed to swing into the clear floor space required for any fixture unless a 30" × 48" (762 × 1219 mm) minimum clear floor space is provided beyond the swing of the door.
PROVIDE 30" X 48" (762 X 1219 mm) CLEAR FLOOR SPACE
15" MINIMUM EA. SIDE OF C L (381 mm)
48" MIN. (1220 mm)
MINIMUM ACCESSIBLE BATHROOM
CLEAR FLOOR SPACE PROVIDE 30" X 48" (762 X 1219 mm) 40" MIN. (1016 mm)
LAVATORY ACCESS 60" MIN. (1524 mm)
FIGURE 4219 Clear floor spaces required between cabinets in a kitchen for type A units.
FIGURE 4221 Required space for a lavatory. A water closet must be at least 18" (457 mm) from the center line of the fixture and 15" (381 mm) on the other side when located between a bathtub or lavatory. When it is located by a wall, a distance of 18" (457 mm) must be provided from the center line of the fixture to the wall.
Chapter 42: Building Codes and Commercial Design
971
48" MIN. (1219 mm)
18" MIN. (457 mm)
18" MINIMUM ONE SIDE OF C L (457 mm)
PARALLEL APPROACH
FIGURE 4222 In a standard bathroom, a water closet must be 18" (457 mm) from the center line of the fixture and 15" (381 mm) minimum on the other side when located between a bathtub or lavatory. When it is located by a wall, a distance of 18" (457 mm) must be provided from the center line of the fixture to the wall. In a type A or B unit, the toilet must be located per Figure 42-23.
48" MIN. (1219 mm)
15" MINIMUM ONE SIDE OF CL (381 mm)
18" MIN. (457 mm)
56" (1422 mm)
USING THE CODES Determining the five classifications of a building may seem senseless to you as a beginning drafter. Although these are procedures that the architect or engineer will perform in the initial design stage, the drafter must be aware of these classifications as basic drafting functions
FORWARD APPROACH
60" MIN. (1524 mm)
15" (381 mm) on the other side when located between a bathtub or a lavatory. When it is located by a wall, a distance of 18" (457 mm) must be provided from the center line of the fixture to the wall. Figure 42-23 shows access methods and clear floor space required for a toilet. For each access method, vanities or lavatories located on a wall behind the water closet are permitted to overlap the clear floor space. Where a tub and/or shower is provided, it must comply with Figure 42-24. If a separate shower and tub are provided, the guidelines apply to only one of the fixtures. Figure 42-25 shows the clear floor requirements when only a shower is provided.
18" MIN. (457 mm)
66" (1676 mm)
56" (1422 mm)
PARALLEL OR FORWARD APPROACH FIGURE 4223 Access methods and clear floor space required for a toilet. For each access method, vanities or lavatories located on a wall behind the water closet are permitted to overlap the clear floor space.
972
Architectural Drafting and Design
48" MIN. (1219 mm)
60" MIN. 1524 mm)
36" X 36" MIN. (914 X 914 mm) SHOWER
30" (762 mm)
PARALLEL APPROACH 30" (762 mm)
48" MIN. (1219 mm)
MINIMUM CLEAR FLOOR AREA
FIGURE 4225 If a separate shower and tub are provided, the guidelines apply to only one of the fixtures. If only a shower is provided, minimum clear floor requirements must be met.
30" (762 mm)
48" (1219 mm)
PARALLEL APPROACH
60" MIN. (1524 mm)
FORWARD APPROACH FIGURE 4224 Where a tub and/or shower is provided, it must have a clear floor area of 30" × 60" (762 × 1524 mm). A lavatory placed at the control end of the tub may extend into the clearance if a 30" × 48" (762 × 1219 mm) clear area is maintained. When the forward approach is used, the floor space must be 48" × 60" (1219 × 1524 mm). A toilet placed at the control end of the tub may be placed in the clear floor area as long as the minimum requirements for the toilet are still met. Access to the toilet can be achieved using the parallel or the parallel/forward approach.
are performed on the project. Many of the problems that the drafter will need the code to solve, will require knowledge of basic code limitations. Practice using the tables presented in this text as well as similar tables of the code that govern your area. Once you feel comfortable determining the basic categories of a structure, study the chapter of your building code that presents basic building requirements for a structure. Chapter 7 through Chapter 9 of the IBC introduce fire protection, and Chapter 10 through Chapter 12 introduce occupant needs. Once you feel at ease reading through the chapters dealing with general construction, work on the chapters of the code that deal with use of different types of material. Start with the chapter that deals with the most common building material in your area. For most of you, this will be Chapter 23, which governs the use of wood. Although you will be familiar with the use of wood in residential structures, the building codes will open many new areas that were not required in residential construction.
Chapter 42: Building Codes and Commercial Design
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CADD APPLICATIONS The Code and Computers Because there is a lot of flipping back and forth between chapters, starting to use the code can be a lot of work. This work is necessary because a thorough code check is important to the safety of the building’s occupants. As your familiarity of the code increases, its use will become easier. You will remember what areas of the code to check. It is important that you check the code thoroughly, rather than try to commit it completely to memory, because the code is revised every three years. Your memory may dredge up an outdated version
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in the major national building codes. Take time to register to receive the ICC newsletter. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Company, Product, or Service www.iccsafe.org 2009 IBC (International Building Code), written by the International Code Council www.thegreendestination.com The Green Destination: Essential Information for Green Building Address
The following is a partial listing of the sites referred to in IBC Chapter 35, REFERENCED STANDARDS. See the IBC for additional references. Address www.aamanet.org www.aci-int.org www.afandpa.org www.aisc.org
of the code section. As you become familiar with the code, you may want to use the CD-ROM version of the code. Once you have a basic knowledge of the layout of the code, the CD version will be easier to maneuver through. There are also computer-based code-checking systems available for each of the model building codes. These range from a simple computerized checklist to a comprehensive analyst program. These programs can greatly speed code checking and increase your confidence in the adequacy of your design. ■
Company, Product, or Service American Architectural Manufacturers Association American Concrete Institute American Forest and Paper Association American Institute of Steel Construction
www.aitc-glulam.org www.steel.org www.ansi.org www.asce.org www.asme.org www.aws.org www.awpa.com www.apawood.org www.astm.org www.cedarbureau.org www.gypsum.org www.iso.org www.masonrysociety.org www.mhia.org
www.naamm.org
American Institute of Timber Construction American Iron and Steel Institute American National Standards Institute American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Welding Society American Wood Protection Association APA—The Engineered Wood Association ASTM International Cedar Shake and Shingle Bureau Gypsum Association International Organization for Standardization Masonry Society Material Handling Industry of America (rack manufacturing) National Association of Architectural Metal Manufacturers
974
www.nahb.org www.ncma.org www.nfpa.org www.post-tensioning.org www.pci.org www.spri.org www.steeljoist.org
Architectural Drafting and Design
National Association of Home Builders National Concrete Masonry Association National Fire Protection Association Post-Tensioning Institute Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute Single Ply Roofing Industry Steel Joist Institute
www.seinstitute.org www.tpinst.org www.ul.com www.usgbc.org www.wdma.com
Structural Engineering Institute Truss Plate Institute Underwriters Laboratories U.S. Green Building Council Window and Door Manufacturers Association
www.wirereinforcementinstitute.org
Wire Reinforcement Institute
Building Codes and Commercial Design Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 42 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 42–1 What is the occupancy rating of a room used to train 50 or more junior college drafters? Question 42–2 What fire rating would be required for a wall separating a single-family residence from a garage? Question 42–3 What is the height limitation on an office building of type II-B construction? Question 42–4 What is the maximum allowable floor area of a public parking facility using type IV construction methods? Question 42–5 What fire resistance is required for the exterior walls of a structure used for full-time care of children that is within 5' of a property line? Question 42–6 What fire rating is required between a wall separating an A-1 occupancy from a B occupancy?
Question 42–7 What is the maximum height of a residence of type II through type V construction? Question 42–8 You are drafting a 12,000-sq-ft retail sales store. Determine the occupancy, the least restrictive type of construction to be used, maximum height and square footage, and the occupant load for each possible level. Question 42–9 What occupancy classification would a ten-unit apartment building be? Question 42–10 What occupancy classification would a clothing store be? Question 42–11 What fire-resistance rating is required for type III-A floor construction? Question 42–12 A building will be used to store type II combustible liquids. What is the base allowable floor area and height if the building is a type III-B? Question 42–13 The owner of a building designed to be a type M occupancy would like to place the building within 3' of the side yard. Are there any conditions that will allow this? Question 42–14 How many square feet per occupant should be planned for a warehouse? Question 42–15 What is the maximum occupant load for a B occupancy with only one exit?
CHAPTER 43
Common Commercial Construction Materials I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
As you work on commercial projects, you will be exposed to new types of structures and codes different from the ones you were using with residential drawing. You will also be using different types of materials from those used in residential construction. Most of the materials used in commercial construction can be used in residential construction, but they are not because of their cost and the cost of labor associated with each material. Wood and lightweight steel are the exceptions. Common materials used in commercial construction are wood, concrete block, poured concrete, and steel.
wood-framed walls may require a special finish to achieve the required fire protection. Figure 43-1 shows several different methods of finishing a wood wall to achieve various fire ratings.
Roofs Wood is also used to frame the roof system of many small commercial projects. Joists, trusses, and panelized systems are the framing systems most typically
1/2" GYP. BD. 2 X 4 STUDS
WOOD Wood is used in many types of commercial buildings in a manner similar to its use in residential construction. The western platform system, which was covered in Chapter 27, is a common framing method for multifamily and office buildings as well as others. Heavy wood timbers are also used for some commercial construction. As a drafter, you will need to be familiar with both types of construction.
5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM BD.
TRUE 1-HOUR WALL
RESIDENTIAL 1-HOUR WALL 7/8" EXTERIOR CEMENT PLASTER
EXTERIOR SIDING MATL.
2 X 4 STUDS 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM BD.
1/2" GYPSUM BOARD
Platform Construction Platform construction methods in commercial projects are similar to residential methods. Wood is not used at the foundation level but is a common material for walls and intermediate and upper-level floor systems. Trusses and I-joists are also common floor joist materials for commercial projects. Although each is used in residential construction, their primary usage is in commercial construction.
Walls Wood is used to frame the walls in many Type IV and Type V commercial projects. The biggest difference in wood wall construction is not in the framing method but in the covering materials. Depending on the type of occupancy and the type of construction required,
1-HOUR WALL STUCCO SIDING 2 LAYERS OF 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYPSUM BOARD. EA. LAYER
1-HOUR WALL WOOD SIDING
EXT. SIDING MATL. OVER 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD.
2 X 4 STUDS
2-HOUR INTERIOR SIDING
2-HOUR EXTERIOR STUCCO SIDING
FIGURE 431 Walls often require special treatment to achieve the needed fire rating for certain types of construction (see Figure 42-4). Consult your local building code for complete descriptions of coverings. 975
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Architectural Drafting and Design
used, for economic reasons. Heavy timber is used for both appearance and structural reasons. Heavy timber construction has excellent structural and fire-retardant qualities. In a fire, heavy wood members will char on their exterior surfaces but will maintain their structural integrity long after an equal-sized steel beam will have failed.
Representing Timber Members
FIGURE 432 Trusses are used throughout commercial construction to span large distances. Common truss spacing includes 24" (600 mm), 32" (800 mm), and 48" (1200 mm) O.C. Courtesy Southern Forest Products Association.
used. Both joist and truss systems have been discussed in Section 7 and Section 8. These systems usually allow the joists or trusses to be placed at 24" or 32" (600 or 800 mm) O.C. for commercial uses, as in Figure 43-2. An example of representing a truss system can be seen in Figure 43-3. The panelized roof system uses beams placed approximately 20' to 30' (6000 to 9000 mm) apart. Smaller beams called purlins are then placed between the main beams, typically using 8' (2400 mm) spacing. Figure 43-4 shows a panelized roof framed with laminated beams and trusses. Joists that are 2" or 3" (50 or 75 mm) wide are then placed between these purlins at 24" (600 mm) O.C. The roof is then covered with plywood sheathing. Figure 43-5 shows an example of a roof framing plan for a panelized roof system. The availability of materials, labor practices, and the use of the building determine which type of roof will be used.
Heavy Timber Construction In addition to standard uses of wood in the western platform system, large wood members are sometimes used for the structural framework of a building. This method of construction consists of wood members that range from 5 × 5 through 12 × 12 (125 × 125 through 300 × 300). Structural members larger than 12 × 12 (300 × 300) are available but are not often
The size and location of beams and posts are specified on the floor or framing plans. Posts are represented using lines similar to those used to represent walls. Post sizes are often specified using diagonal text, so that the specification will be clear. Beams are typically represented using dashed lines. Text to describe the beam is normally placed parallel to the beam. Figure 43-6 shows an example of specifying beams on a framing plan. Decking is typically specified in details and sections. Details showing the connection of post to foundation, post to beams at floor and roof levels, beam-to-beam connections, and decking to beams are typically required.
Laminated Beams Because of the difficulty of producing beams in long lengths from solid wood, large beams are often constructed from smaller members laminated together to form the larger beam. Laminated beams are a common material for buildings such as gymnasiums and churches that require large amounts of open space. Laminated beams are used for their appearance, their fire resistance, and the wide variety of shapes that can be created. Three of the most common types of laminated beams are the single span, Tudor arch, and three-hinged arch. Examples of each can be seen in Figure 43-7. Single-span beams similar to those in Figure 43-8 are often used in standard platform framing methods. These beams are typically referred to as glu-lams. Because of their increased structural qualities, a laminated beam can be used to replace a much larger sawed beam. A typical sawn beam has a fiber bending strength of 1350, compared with laminated beams with a bending strength of between 2000 and 2400. Laminated beams often have a built-in curve, or camber. The camber is designed into the beam to help resist the loads to be carried. The Tudor and threehinged arch members are a post-and-beam system combined into one member.
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
1
977
2
3
4
5
A
TO CENTER LINE OF WEST SIDE TRUSS TYP. SIMPSON ST6224 NAILED EQUALLY TO BLOCKINGEACH SIDE OF TRUSS TYP.
B 2 X 4 FLAT BLOCKING TYP. FIRST (3) TRUSS SPACES AT 8'-0" O/C. MAX.
0 J6 "T 32
8 S-4 ROOF T-2
ER NT CE
DOUBLE TRUSS
T-2
ON 0" 4'T A
2 X 4 AT 24" O/C. TYP. AT GLU-LAMS. AND DOUBLE JOISTS - USE SIMPSON F24N HANGERS
15 S-4 SKYLIGHT
TS 6 X 3 X 3/16" ABOVE TS 5 X 3 X 3/16" BELOW
T-2
(3) 2 X 10 (2) 2x10
E
2 X 6 AT
GLU-LAM 5 1/8"x12" C=3/4"
D
2 X 8 AT
14 S-4
T-2 DOUBLE TRUSS
24" ON CENTER CEILING 24" ON CENTER ROOF GLU-LAM. 5 1/8" X 12" C=1/2"
2 S-4
(3) 2x10
C
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16" TS 5 X 3 X 3/16" TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
OPEN
11 S-6
ROOF " ON CENTER 2 X 10 AT 32 CENTER CEILING ON ' 24 AT 2X6 (3) 2 X 6
F
(3) 2 X 6
(3) 2 X 6
(3) 2 X 10 ABOVE 4 S-6
W 18 X 35
G NTER N CE 2" O AT 3 L J T 22"
3 S-4
3 S-6
1 S-4
H A
J
3 S-5
K
GLU-LAM 5 1/8"x16 1/2" C=7/8" CONCRETE SPANDREL A SB-1 CONCRETE WING WALL
O.H.
GLU-LAM 5 1/8"x16 1/2" C=7/8" B
CONCRETE SPANDREL SB-2
5 TYP. S-5
CONCRETE WING WALL
5 S-5
1 S-3 1
B 2 S-5 O.H. 3 S-2
ROOF FRAMING PLAN 1/8" = 1'-0"
" A " OR " B " INDICATES SPANDREL CONNECTION TYPE (RIGID OR FLEXIBLE). SEE DETAILS.
2
"T - #" INDICATES SKYLIGHT TRUSS TYPE - SEE 2/S3.
3
"SB-#" INDICATES SPANDREL TYPE - SEE SHEET S-5.
4
TYPICAL ROOF SHEATHING BETWEEN GRIDS 3 AND 4 FROM B TO E : 3/4" APA RATED SHEATHING , TONGUE AND GROOVE OR BLOCKED, SPAN INDEX 48/24, NAILED WITH 10d AT 6" O/C. TO ALL SUPPORT AT TRUSSES 4'-0" ON CENTER AND NAILED WITH 10d AT 6' ON CENTER SUPPORTED EDGES AND 12" TO INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS AT TRUSSES 32" ON CENTER. TYPICAL SHEATHING AT REMAINDER OF ROOF: 5/8" APA RATED SHEATHING, T AND G OR BLOCKED. CEN SPAN INDEX 40/20, NAILED WITH 10d AT 6" ON CENTER SUPPORTED EDGES AND 12" ON CENTER TO INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS.
FIGURE 433 Roof plan using trusses to span between supports. Lines are drawn to represent the span of each truss. A diagonal line is placed across the trusses to represent the extent of their placement. Courtesy Van Domelen/Looijenga/McGarrigle/Knauf Consulting Engineers.
Architectural Drafting and Design
DFL #1 1 S3
4 X 12 DFL #2
6 X 14"
FIGURE 434 This panelized roof is framed with laminated beams at 32' (9600 mm) O.C., trusses placed at 8'–0" (2400 mm) O.C., and 2 × 6 members placed at 24" (600 mm) O.C. Courtesy APA—The Engineered Wood Association.
6 x 14
DFL #1
4 X 12 DFL #2
4 X 12 DFL #2
4 X 12 DFL #2
978
1 S1
FIGURE 436 Representing wood beams in plan view.
Representing Beams Beams drawn in end view can be represented using different methods, as shown in Figure 43-9. At a scale of 3/4" = 1'−0" or larger, the X is usually placed to help define the beam. The X is also used to represent
STRAIGHT LAMINATED BEAM
A 1
SUBPURLIN / 3" X DFL #1 TOP PLATE / CONNECTION
10 12
6 SUBPURLIN / PURLIN 12 CONNECTION
SKYLIGHT
3 LOCATIONS 11 ALONG LINE #2 12
PURLIN / LEDGER 2 CONNECTION 12
GLB 3
the end view of a continuous member such as a beam. One diagonal line is used to represent the end view of noncontinuous members such as blocking placed between beams. Many offices use a thick line around
GLB 4
P2
P2
16 HERE 13 ONLY
FIGURE 437 Common shapes of laminated beams.
8'-0"
1
THREE-HINGED ARCH
A
8'-0"
16 LINE "A" 12 BEAM SEAT
TUDOR ARCH INSIDE F.O.C.
2
8'-0"
3
B
7 13
HERE ONLY
TYPICAL 1 U.N.O.
12 13 2
A
4 13
8'-0"
11 13
3'-0"
6" X 16" DFL #1 CARRIER PURLINS
15 HERE 13 ONLY
C
1 SUBPURLIN / LEDGER 12 CONNECTION
FIGURE 435 Panelized roof framing plan. Courtesy Gisela Smith, Kenneth D. Smith, Architect, and Associates, Inc.
FIGURE 438 Laminated beams similar to those in this panelized roof are used because of their ability to span large distances. Courtesy APA—The Engineered Wood Association.
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
A
B
C
979
D
FIGURE 439 Common methods of representing various types of wood members in end view include: (A) end grain; (B) continuous sawn beam; (C) blocking; and (D) laminated beam.
the perimeter to help distinguish beams. Thin lines are placed at 1 1/2" (38 mm) O.C. in laminated beams to represent each lamination. When a side view of a laminated beam is shown, thin, light lines should be used to represent the lamination lines. Varied line weights will ensure that laminations are not confused with other materials. Figure 43-10A shows a detail of a laminated beam connection. Figure 43-10B shows the resulting connection. Laminated beams are represented in plan view just as sawn beams are, with the required text parallel to the beam. Depending on the complexity of the plan, a schedule may be used to list the specifications for laminated timbers. If a schedule is used, a beam symbol is placed near the beam so that appropriate material
FIGURE 4310B The connection that results from the drawing in Figure 43-10A. Courtesy Matthew Jefferis.
can be easily referenced. In Figure 43-11, many of the specifications are given in a general note. Sections and details may refer only to the beam size, grade, and material. Like sawn lumber, laminated beams will require many details to explain connection. Typically, details showing beam-to-beam, beam-to-post, truss- or rafter-to-beam connections, and column-to-support connections are required.
CONCRETE BLOCK 1/2"
(4)- 3/4"Ø X 9" A 307 BOLTS W/ STD WASHERS CENTERED IN SHORT SLOTTED HOLES
43 1/2"
1/2" X 3" X 19 1/2" STRAP PL EA. SIDE OF BEAM. PROVIDE 15/16" X 1" SHORT SLOTTED HORIZ. HOLES.
In commercial construction, concrete blocks are used to form the wall system for many types of buildings (see Figure 43-12). Concrete blocks are durable and relatively inexpensive to install and maintain. Blocks are typically manufactured in 8 × 8 × 16 (200 × 200 × 400) modules.
6 3/4" X 43 1/2" GLB. Fb 2400 V4 DF/DF
4"
4"
3/16" TS 6" X 6" X 1/4" COL.
1 1/2"
5/16"
12"
1 1/2"
1 1/2"
(4)- 3/4"Ø X 8 1/2" A-307 BOLTS.
3/4" X 12" X 19 1/2" SIDE PL
7/8" X 6 7/8" 19 1/2" BEARING PL 6
6 S-3
BEAM/COL 1" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4310A When a prefabricated connector is unavailable in the proper size, a drafter will need to work from an engineer’s sketches to draw the required connectors.
Sizes The sizes listed are width × height × length. Other common sizes are 4 × 8 × 16, 6 × 8 × 16, and 12 × 8 × 16 (100 × 200 × 400, 150 × 200 × 400, and 300 × 200 × 400). The actual size of the block is smaller than the nominal size so that mortar joints can be included. Although the person responsible for the design determines the size of the structure, it is important that the drafter be aware of the modular principles of concrete block construction. Lengths of walls, locations of openings in a wall, and heights of walls and openings must be based on the modular size of the block being used. Failure to maintain the modular layout can result in a
3 S3
3 S3
6 3/4" X 27 GLULAM
Architectural Drafting and Design
6 3/4" X 27 GLULAM
980
8 3/4" X 45" glu-lam
6 3/4" X 27 GLULAM
8 3/4" X 45" GLULAM
2 S3
8'-0"
6 3/4" X 27 GLULAM
2 S3
GL-1 2 S3
3 S3
B 1 S3
GL-4
GL-4
GL-4
concrete masonry unit (CMU) is used, structures that are an even number of feet long should have dimensions that end in 0" or 8". For instance structures that are 24'−0" or 32'−8" are modular. Dimensions for walls that are an odd number of feet should end with 4". Walls that are 3'−4", 9'−4", and 15"−4" are modular, but a wall that is 15'−8" will require blocks to be cut.
4 S3
GL-4
8'-0"
GL-3
8'-0"
GL-4
8'-0"
GL-2
FIGURE 4312 Concrete blocks are used to form the wall systems of many commercial structures. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.
Masonry Representation
GL-4 6 S3
8'-0"
5 S3
C
GLULAM BEAM SCHEDULE GL-1
8 3/4" X 45" GLULAM
DF/HF 24fb-V5
GL-2
8 3/4" X 37" GLULAM
DF/HF 24fb-V5
GL-3
6 3/4" X 27 GLULAM
DF/DF 20fb-V7
GL-4
5 1/8 X 15 GLULAM
DF/DF 20fb-V7
MANUFACTURER TO CERTIFY IN WRITING PRIOR TO INSTALLATION OF GLU-LAMINATED BEAMS THAT MINIMUM DESIGN VALUES HAVE BEEN PROVIDED. ALL BEAMS UNLESS NOTED SHALL BE Fv=165, Fc=450, fb AS NOTED, INDUSTRIAL APPEARANCE WITH EXTERIOR GLUE. PROVIDE "A.I.T.C. CERTIFICATE OF CONFORMANCE TO BUILDING DEPT. PRIOR TO ERECTION.
FIGURE 4311 Representing laminated beams in plan view. For a simple structure, the size of the beam can be specified beside the beam. A beam schedule can simplify a drawing if several different sizes are required.
tremendous increase in the cost of labor to cut and lay the blocks. To minimize cutting and labor cost, concrete block structures should be kept to the modular size of the blocks. When the standard 8 × 8 × 16 (200 × 200 × 400)
Concrete blocks are represented in plan view as shown in Figure 43-13. Type, size, and reinforcement are specified on the plan views, with bold lines to represent the edges of the masonry. Thin lines for hatching are placed at a 45° angle to the edge of the wall. The size and location of concrete block walls must be dimensioned on the floor plan. Concrete block is dimensioned from edge to edge of walls. Openings in the wall are also located by dimensioning to the edge. Masonry is also shown in sections and details, but the scale of the drawing will affect the drawing method. At scales under 1/2" = 1'−0", the wall is typically drawn just as in plan view. At larger scales, details typically reflect the cells of the block. Figure 43-14 shows methods of representing concrete blocks in cross section. When CMUs are required to support loads from a beam, a pilaster is placed in the wall to carry the loads. A pilaster is a thickened area of wall. Pilasters are also used to provide lateral support to the wall when the wall is required to span long distances. Figure 43-15 is an example of a detail that would be required to show the size and thickness of a pilaster. When a wood floor or roof is to be supported by the block, a ledger similar to Figure 43-16 is bolted to the block. Holes are punched in the block to allow an
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
981
8- #5Ø 1 1/2" CLR. OF EACH FACE. SOLID GROUT ALL STEEL CELLS
8 X 8 X 16 GRADE 'A' C.M.U. W/ #4 VERT. @48" O.C. & #4 HORIZ. @24" O.C. SOLID GROUT ALL STEEL CELLS.
PLAN VIEW 4" BRICK VENEER W/ 26 GA. MESH @ 24" O.C
8 X 8 X 16 PILASTER BLOCK OVER 16 X 8 X 16 OPEN CENTER PILASTER BLOCK
#3 HORIZ. TIES @ 16" O.C.
2 X 6 STUDS @ 16" O.C.
24" 8-#5Ø 4" MASONRY VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE & TYVEK
12"
FIGURE 4313 Representing masonry products in plan view.
anchor bolt to penetrate into the cell, where it is wired to the wall reinforcing and held firmly by filling the cell solid with grout. Figure 43-17 shows examples of details for connecting a mezzanine floor to a block wall. Care must be taken to tie the ledger bolts into the wall reinforcement, and to tie the floor joist to the ledger.
MASONRY
REINFORCED MASONRY
FIGURE 4314 Representing concrete blocks in section view.
SECTION
#5Ø HORIZ. CONT.
FIGURE 4315 A detail must be drawn to represent a pilaster for concrete block construction.
FIGURE 4316 A pressure-treated ledger is bolted to the wall to support the roof members. Straps are attached to the concrete blocks to keep the trusses that will rest on the ledger from pulling away from the wall. Courtesy David Jefferis.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
8 X 8 X 16 CONC. BLK. W/ #5φ @ 32" O.C. VERT. & #5φ @ 16" O.C. HOR. SOLID GROUT ALL STEEL CELLS. 3" X 4" X 3/4" PLATE W/ 3/4"φ A.B. @ 32" O.C. SIMPSON CO. MST27 STRAP @ 32" O.C.
1/8
2 X 12 DFL #1F.J. @ 16" O.C.
English Bar Size
Metric Bar Size
Nominal Diameter in Inches
#3 #10 0.375" or 3/8" #4 #13 0.50" or 1/2" #5 #16 0.625" or 5/8" #6 #19 0.75" or 3/4" #7 #22 0.875" or 7/8" #8 #25 1.00" or 1" #9 #29 1.13" or 1 1/8" #10 #32 1.27" or 1 1/4" #11 #36 1.41" or 1 3/8" #14 #43 1.69" or 1 3/4" #18 #57 2.26" or 2 1/4" TABLE 431 Common Reinforcement Sizes
U210 JST. HGR. 3 X 12 DFPT LEDGER W/ 3/4"φ X 12" A.B. @ 32" O.C. STAGGERED 2" UP/DN.
FLOOR / WALL 3/4"
1'-Ø"
FIGURE 4317 A detail must be drawn for the intersection of each material. The drafter must represent each material clearly.
the wall flexes under pressure. Deformations consist of small ribs that are placed around the surface of the bar. Deformed bars range in size from 3/8" through 1 3/8" diameter. Inch sizes do not readily convert to metric sizes. Bars are referenced on plans by a number rather than a size. A number represents the size of the steel in approximately 1/8" increments. Common sizes of steel are listed in Table 43-1.
Steel Placement
Steel Reinforcement Masonry units are excellent at resisting forces from compression but are very weak at resisting forces in tension. Steel is excellent at resisting forces of tension but tends to buckle under forces of compression. The combination of these two materials forms an excellent unit for resisting great loads from lateral and vertical forces. Reinforced masonry structures are stable because the masonry, steel, grout, and mortar bond together effectively. Loads that create compression on the masonry are effectively transferred to the steel. If the steel is carefully placed, the forces will result in tension on the steel and will be safely resisted.
Reinforcing Bars Steel reinforcing bars, called rebar, are used to reinforce masonry walls. Each code sets specific guidelines for the size and spacing of rebar based on the seismic zone of the construction site. Reinforcement will be specified by the engineer throughout the calculations and sketches and must be represented accurately by the drafter. Reinforcing bars can be either smooth or deformed. Smooth bars are used primarily for joints in floor slabs. Because the bars are smooth, the concrete of the slab does not easily bond to the bar, allowing the concrete to expand and contract. Bars used for reinforcing masonry walls are usually deformed so that the concrete will bond more effectively with the bar and not allow slippage as
Wall reinforcing is held in place by filling each masonry cell containing steel with grout. When exact locations within the cell are required by design, the steel is wired into position, so that it can’t move as grout is added to the cell. The placement of steel varies with each application, but steel reinforcement is typically placed on the side of the wall that is in tension. Because a wall will receive pressure from each side, masonry wall construction usually has the steel centered in the wall cavity. For retaining walls, steel is normally placed near the side that is opposite the soil. The location of steel relative to the edge of the wall must be specified in the wall details.
Rebar Representation The drafter will need to specify the quantity of bars, the bar size by number, the direction that the steel runs, and the grade of steel on the drawings where steel is referenced. ●
●
On drawings such as the framing plan, walls will be drawn, but the steel is not drawn. Steel specifications are generally included in the wall reference. When shown in section or detail, steel is represented by a bold line that can be solid or dashed, depending on office practice. ❍ Steel is represented by a solid circle when shown in end view. ❍ In detail, steel is often drawn at an exaggerated size so that it can be clearly seen. It should not be
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
so small that it blends with the hatch pattern used for the grout, or so large that it is the first thing seen in the detail. Figure 43-17 shows how steel can be represented in detail.
Locating Steel Dimensions will be required to show the location of the steel from the edge of the concrete. The engineer may provide a note in the calculations such as: #6 HORIZONTAL @ 3" UP/EA WAY.
Although this note could be placed on the drawings exactly as is, a better method can be seen in Figure 43-18. The quantity and size of the steel are specified in the detail, but the locations are placed using separate dimensions. This requires slightly more work on the part of the drafter, but the more visual specifications will be less likely to be overlooked or misunderstood. Depending on the engineer and the type of stress to be placed on
2" CLR. 2" CLR
PLAN
983
CONCRETE BLOCK 1. DESIGN F'M = 1500 PSI FOR SOLID GROUTED WALLS, 1350 PSI FOR WALLS WITH REINFORCED CELLS ONLY GROUTED. 2. ALL CMU UNITS TO BE GRADE N TYPE 1 LIGHTWEIGHT UNITS PER ASTM C90 DRY TO INTERMEDIATE HUMIDITY CONDITION PER TABLE NO. 1. 3. MORTAR TO BE PER IBC TABLE 2103.7(1), TYPE S OR PER MANUFACTURER'S RECOMMENDATION TO REACH CORRECT STRENGTH. GROUT TO HAVE MINIMUM STRENGTH TO MEET DESIGN STRENGTH AND MADE WITH 3/8" MINUS AGGREGATE. 4. CONTRACTOR TO PREPARE AND TEST 3 GROUTED PRISMS AND 3 UNGROUTED PRISMS PER EVERY 5000 SQUARE FEET OF WALL, DURING CONSTRUCTION. 5. ALL WORK SHALL CONFORM TO SECTION 2104 THROUGH SECTION 2109 OF THE INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE. 6. REINFORCING FOR MASONRY TO BE ASTM A615 GRADE 60 PLACED IN CENTERS OF CELLS AS FOLLOWS (UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED): A. VERTICAL: 1- #5 @ 48" O.C. PLUS 2- #5'S FULL HEIGHT EACH SIDE OF OPENINGS, UNLESS SHOWN OTHERWISE ON DRAWINGS. B. HORIZONTAL: 2- #4'S @ 48" O.C. (FIRST BOND BEAM 48" FROM GROUND FLOOR) PLUS 2- #4'S AT TOP OF WALL AND AT EACH INTERMEDIATE FLOOR LEVEL. C. LINTELS: LESS THAN 4'-0" WIDE---2- #4'S IN BOTTOM OF 8"DEEP LINTEL. 4'-0" TO 6'-0" WIDE----2- #4'S IN BOTTOM OF 16" DEEP LINTEL. D. CORNERS AND INTERSECTIONS: 1- 24" X 24" CORNER BAR AT EACH BOND BEAM SAME SIZE AS HORIZONTAL REINFORCING. 7. GROUT ALL CELLS FULL AT EXTERIOR OR LOAD-BEARING WALLS. GROUT ALL CELLS THAT CONTAIN REINFORCING OR EMBEDDED ITEMS. 8. ELECTRICAL BOXES, CONDUIT AND PLUMBING SHALL NOT BE PLACED IN ANY CELL THAT CONTAINS REINFORCING. 9. SEE DRAWINGS FOR ADDITIONAL REINFORCING. REINFORCING 1. ALL REINFORCING STEEL TO BE ASTM A615 GRADE 60, EXCEPT TIES, STIRRUPS, AND DOWELS TO MASONRY TO BE GRADE 40. WELDED WIRE FABRIC SHALL CONFORM TO ASTM A185 AND SHALL BE 6X6-W1.4XW1.4 WWF MATS. 2. FABRICATE AND INSTALL REINFORCING STEEL ACCORDING TO THE "MANUAL OF STANDARD PRACTICE FOR DETAILING REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES" ACI STANDARD 315. 3. PROVIDE 2'-0" X 2'-0" CORNER BARS TO MATCH HORIZONTAL REINFORCING IN POUREDIN-PLACE WALLS AND FOOTINGS AT ALL CORNERS AND INTERSECTIONS. 4. SPLICES IN WALL REINFORCING SHALL BE LAPPED 30 DIAMETERS (2'-0" MINIMUM) AND SHALL BE STAGGERED AT LEAST 4' AT ALTERNATE BARS. 5. ALL OPENINGS SMALLER THAN 30" X 30" THAT DISRUPT REINFORCING SHALL HAVE AN AMOUNT OF REINFORCING EQUAL TO THE AMOUNT DISRUPTED PLACED BOTH SIDES OF OPENING AND EXTENDING 2'-0" EACH SIDE OF OPENING. 6. PROVIDE THE FOLLOWING REINFORCING AROUND WALL OPENINGS LARGER THAN 30" X 30": A. (2) #5 OVER OPENING X OPENING WIDTH PLUS 2'-0" EACH SIDE. B. (2) #5 UNDER OPENING X OPENING WIDTH PLUS 2'-0" EACH SIDE. C. (2) #5 EACH SIDE OF OPENING X FULL STORY HEIGHT. D. PROVIDE 90 DEGREE HOOK FOR BARS AT OPENINGS IF REQUIRED EXTENSION PAST OPENING CANNOT BE OBTAINED. 7. PROVIDE (2) #4 CONTINUOUS BARS AT TOP AND BOTTOM AND AT DISCONTINUOUS ENDS OF ALL WALLS. 8. PROVIDE (2) #5 X OPENING DIMENSION PLUS 2'-0" EACH SIDE AROUND ALL EDGES OF OPENINGS LARGER THAN 15" X 15" IN STRUCTURAL SLABS AND PLACE (1) #4 X 4'-0" AT 45 DEGREES TO EACH CORNER. 9. PROVIDE DOWELS FROM FOOTINGS TO MATCH ALL VERTICAL WALL, PILASTER, AND COLUMN REINFORCING (POURED-IN-PLACE COLUMNS AND WALLS). LAP 30 DIAMETERS OR 2'-0" MINIMUM. 10.. ALTERNATE ENDS OF BARS 12" IN STRUCTURAL SLABS WHENEVER POSSIBLE. 10 11.. ALL WALL REINFORCING TO BE PLACED IN CENTER OF WALL UNLESS SHOWN OTHERWISE 11 ON THE DRAWINGS.
3" CLR.
T.S. 26.0'
#3 TIES @ 5"/10" O.C. AS SHOWN ALT. TIE HOOKS @ 180˚
FIGURE 4319 Written specifications for concrete block and steel reinforcing are often placed with the structural drawings. Standard notes are often stored in a library and inserted and modified as needed for each job. Courtesy Van Domelen/Looijenga/ McGarrigle/Knauf Consulting Engineers.
(8) X #5Ø
VARIES
PED. HEIGHT VARIES
(8) X #5Ø
@ EA. PED. 21"
3" CLR.
14"
RE-BAR BOTH WAYS SEE SCHEDULE
EQUAL
1'-2"
EQUAL
SEE SCHEDULE
B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5
PED HEIGHT 7.50 6.75 5.91 5.00
SIZE F 7'-0" 6'-6" 6'-6" 7'-0"
REINFORCING STEEL #6 @10" O.C. #6 @12" O.C. #6 @12" O.C. #6 @10" O.C.
FIGURE 4318 Representing steel placement in detail. The thickness of the steel is exaggerated so that it can be easily seen.
the masonry, the location may be given from edge of concrete to edge of steel or from edge of concrete to center of steel. To distinguish the edge of steel location, the term clear or CLR is added to the dimension. Figure 43-18 shows examples of each method of locating steel. In addition to the information placed in the details, steel will also be referenced in the written specifications. The written specifications will detail the grade and strength requirements for general areas of the structure such as walls, floors, columns, and retaining walls. Figure 43-19 shows an example of steel specifications that accompany a small office structure.
POURED CONCRETE Concrete is a common building material composed of sand and gravel bonded together with cement and water. One of the most common types of cement is Portland cement. Portland cement contains pulverized particles of limestone, cement rock, oyster shells, silica sand,
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Architectural Drafting and Design
shale, iron ore, and gypsum. The gypsum determines the time required for the cement to set. Concrete can be poured in place at the job site, formed off-site and delivered ready to be erected into place, or formed at the job site and lifted into place. Your area of the country, the office that you work in, and the type of structure to be built dictate which of these concrete construction methods you will be using.
Cast-in-Place Concrete Cast-in-place concrete was introduced as methods of forming residential foundations and retaining walls were explored. Commercial applications are similar, but the size of the casting and the amount of reinforcing vary greatly. In addition to foundation and floor systems, concrete is often used for walls, columns, and above-ground floors. Walls and columns are usually constructed by setting steel reinforcing in place and then surrounding it by wooden forms to contain the concrete, as in Figure 43-20. Once the concrete
FIGURE 4321 Wood forms can be removed once the concrete has set. Metal form ties are removed as the concrete hardens. Courtesy Tom Worcester.
FIGURE 4320 Reinforcing steel is placed between wooden forms when concrete is cast in place. Courtesy Michael Jefferis.
has been poured and allowed to set, the forms can be removed (see Figure 43-21). As a drafter, you will be required to draw details, showing not only sizes of the part to be constructed but also steel placement within the wall or column. This will typically consist of drawing the vertical steel and the horizontal ties. Ties are wrapped around the vertical steel to keep the column from separating when placed under a load, as in Figure 43-22. Figure 43-23 shows two examples of column reinforcing methods. Figure 43-24 shows the drawings required to detail the construction of a rectangular concrete column. Depending on the complexity of the object to be formed, the drafter may be required to draw the detail for the column and for the forming system. Concrete is also used on commercial projects to form an above-grade floor. The floor slab can be supported by a steel deck or be entirely self-supporting. The steel deck system is typically used on structures
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
985
1'-0'' 2"
1/
R
CL
1'-0''
1
1 1/2" CLR. TYP. COLUMN TYPE A
COLUMN TYPE B
TYP. COLUMN SECTIONS
3 S10
N.T.S.
SPIRALS AS SHOWN ON COL. SECTION. SPACING PER COLUMN SCHEDULE.
(i)
SEE NOTE (2) (TYP.)
(i)
TIES AS SHOWN ON COL. CROSS SECTION. SPACING ''S'' PER COL. SCHEDULE.
hn
S
(i)
TIES AS SHOWN ON COL. SECTION. SPACING @ ''S''/2 (TYP.)
FIGURE 4322 Steel reinforcement for a concrete column. Notice that horizontal ties are placed around the vertical bars to keep the vertical bars from separating. Courtesy Tereasa Jefferis.
constructed with a steel frame. Figure 43-25 shows an example of ribbed decking used to support a concrete floor slab. Two of the most common poured-inplace concrete floor systems are the ribbed and waffle floor methods. The ribbed system is used in many office buildings. The ribs serve as floor joists to support the slab but are actually part of the slab. Spacing of the ribs depends on the span and the reinforcing material. The waffle system
COLUMN TYPE A 2 S10
TYP. COLUMN ELEVATIONS N.T.S.
FIGURE 4324 Common methods of reinforcing poured concrete columns. The horizontal or spiral ties are attached to the vertical reinforcement with metal ties to resist movement as the concrete is placed. Courtesy Van Domelen/Looijenga/McGarrigle/ Knauf Consulting Engineers.
is used to provide added support for the floor slab and is typically used in the floor system of parking garages. Figure 43-26 shows the forms for a waffle floor system.
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT
SPIRAL TIES
HORIZONTAL TIES VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT A SQUARE COLUMN TIES
COLUMN TYPE B
B ROUND COLUMN SPIRAL TIES
FIGURE 4323 Common methods of reinforcing poured concrete columns include (A) vertical steel held in place with horizontal ties and (B) vertical steel held in place with spiral ties. Notice in option A that the horizontal ties are lapped around a vertical bar. Specifications often require that the laps in steel be placed at opposite pieces of steel.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 4326 Forms for a waffle floor system are used to provide support for the floor slab.
Precast Concrete
framing plan for a precast floor system. Figure 43-28A and Figure 43-28B show examples of precast floor panels. In addition to detailing how precast members will be constructed, drawings must also include methods of transporting and lifting the part into place.
Precast concrete construction consists of forming walls or other components off-site and transporting the parts to the job site. Figure 43-27 shows an example of a
1 S8
8"
C
B-1
8'-6''
4'-3''
2'-10''
B-2
5'-0''
2'-1''
17'-0"
6''
5'-0''
12 S13
(2) #14 13 S13
B-2 10 12
8''
10 S13
D
B-1 11 S13
OPP.
14 S13 SIM. 5'-0''
2 S6
16'-4"
1 S6
8'-3''
B-2
49'-10"
B-2
3 S8
8'-3''
FIGURE 4325 Ribbed metal decking is often used to support above-ground poured concrete slabs. Courtesy Sara Jefferis.
TYP.
5'-0''
4 S12 14 S13
6''
8''
1 S7
5
6''
2'-11'' 4'-0"
6
NORTH
3 S12
7
SECOND FLOOR FRAMING PLAN 1/4" = 1'-0"
E
8 NOTES: 1.)
INDICATES SPAN DIRECTION OF 8'' DEEP, PRECAST PRESTRESSED FLOOR PLANKS W/ 2i'' TOPPING
2.)
B-X
3.)
SEE S10 FOR COLUMN SCHEDULE.
INDICATES BEAM TYPE. SEE S11.
FIGURE 4327 A framing plan for a precast concrete structure shows the location of all concrete beams and panels. The plan serves as a reference map for detail markers. Courtesy KPFF Consulting Engineers.
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
987
LOCATE CONNECTION AT MID-HEIGHT AND 1'-0" BELOW TOP OF FRAMING (2 CONNECTIONS PER PANEL JOINT) WHERE PANEL JOINT OCCURS AT BEAM LINE, LOCATE ONE PANEL CONNECTION AT MID-HEIGHT ONLY. 3" X 3/8" X 1'-0" FLAT BAR WITH 2- 1/2" DIA. x 1'-6" NELSON DEFORMED BARS BENT AROUND EXTRA VERTICAL #4 BAR BY 4'-0" LONG.
1/4"
8"
EACH SIDE. DO NOT OVERHEAT.
0'-8" LONG FILLER ROD BY JOINT WIDTH + 1/8" 2 1/2" X 2 1/2" X 3/8" X 1'-0" ANGLE WITH 2- 1/2" DIA. BY 1'-6" NELSON DEFORMED BARS BENT OVER EXTRA #4 BY 4'-0" VERTICAL
EXTERIOR FACE U. O. N. ADDITIONAL NOTES AT DETAIL
Precast parts typically have an exposed metal flange so that the part can be connected to other parts. Figure 43-29 shows common details used for wall connections. In addition to being precast, many concrete products are also prestressed. Concrete is prestressed by placing steel cables held in tension between the concrete forms while the concrete is poured around them (see Figure 43-30). Once the concrete has hardened, the tension on the cables is released. As the cables attempt to regain their original shape, compression pressure is created within the concrete. The compression in the concrete helps prevent cracking and deflection and often allows the size of the member to be reduced. Figure 43-31 shows common shapes that are typically used in prestressed construction.
0'-1" CLEAR CRITICAL
3/4" TYPICAL
FIGURE 4328A Precast concrete members are cast off-site and delivered to the site as needed. Courtesy Portland Cement Association. 9 S-2
8 S-2
PANEL CORNER CONNECTION DET17
1 1/2" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4329 A detail showing the connection of two precast wall panels must clearly represent the steel connectors that join the panels together. Courtesy Van Domelen/Looijenga/McGarrigle/ Knauf Consulting Engineers.
Tilt-Up Tilt-up construction is a method using preformed wall panels, which are lifted into place. Panels may be
FIGURE 4328B Precast hollow-core slab units. Courtesy Portland Cement Association.
FIGURE 4330 Concrete for commercial projects is often reinforced by putting tension on steel cables placed in the concrete. The process is known as post tensioning when the cables are tensioned after the concrete has cured. Courtesy Portland Cement Association.
988
Architectural Drafting and Design
COLUMNS & PILES HOLLOW CORE SLABS
BOX GIRDER "I" GIRDER
MONOWING "F" SECTION
SINGLE TEE
DOUBLE TEE
INVERTED "T" BEAM
CHANNEL SLAB
FIGURE 4331 Common precast concrete shapes.
formed at the job or off-site. As seen in Figure 43-32A, forms for a wall are constructed in a horizontal position, and the required steel is placed in the form. Concrete is then poured around the steel and allowed to harden. Once the panel has reached its design strength, it can be lifted into place, as shown in Figure 43-32B. In this type of construction, in addition to a floor plan, the drafter will usually be required to draw a plan view to specify the location and size of each panel, as in Figure 43-33. Figure 43-34 shows a panel elevation that is required to show the size and location of each opening as well as the placement for reinforcing steel.
FIGURE 4332A Wood forms are used to outline the shape of concrete tilt-up panels as well as for the openings in the panel. Notice that a steel frame for a personal door has been placed on the left, and wood has been used to form the opening on the left. Additional steel reinforcement has also been placed beside the doors. Courtesy Zachary Jefferis.
Lightweight Steel Framing Lightweight structural members include studs, joists, open-web trusses, space frames, and decking.
STEEL CONSTRUCTION Steel construction can be divided into three categories: lightweight structural members, prefabricated steel structures, and steel-frame structures.
FIGURE 4332B Tilt-up concrete panels are used as an alternative to concrete block construction. Panels are poured at the job site and lifted into position once they have cured. Courtesy Constructionphotographs.com.
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
989
Steel Studs 3 20
2 19'-11 1/2" 1/2"
21
1/2"
Prefabricated steel studs are used in many types of commercial structures to help meet the requirements of Type I, Type II, and Type III construction methods. Steel studs offer lightweight, noncombustible, corrosionresistant framing for interior walls, and for load-bearing exterior walls up to four stories high. Steel members are available for use as studs or joists. Members are designed for rapid assembly and are predrilled for electrical and plumbing conduits. The standard 24" (600 mm) spacing reduces the number of studs required by about one-third, compared with common stud spacing of 16" (400 mm) O.C. Widths of studs range from 3 5/8" to 10" (90 to 250 mm) but can be manufactured in any width. The material used to produce studs ranges from 12- to 20-gage steel, depending on the loads to be supported. Figure 43-35 shows steel studs as they are typically used. Steel studs are mounted in a channel track at the top and bottom of the wall. This channel is similar to the top and bottom plates of a standard stud wall. Horizontal bridging is placed through the predrilled holes in the studs and then welded to the stud, serving a function similar to solid blocking in a stud wall. Figure 43-36 shows components of steel stud framing.
1 21'-11 1/2"
22
1/2"
5 1/2"
A
1/2"
18'-8 1/2"
1
6 14
10 14
1/2"
18'-8 1/2"
2
12 14
6 14
10 14
1/2"
6 14
21'-5 1/2"
3
B
C 1/2" 19'-2 3/4"
5
21'-5 1/2"
4
FIGURE 4333 A plan view is used to show the location of precast panels. Panels are also referenced to the exterior elevations. Courtesy Kenneth D. Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architect, and Associates, Inc.
1'-0"
5 1/2" THICK THICK PANEL TYP. TOP OF FRAMING, BOTTOM OF PLYWOOD
2 #4 CONTINUOUS AROUND PERIMETER OF PANEL TYPICAL PANEL REINFORCING FOR 5 1/2" THICK PANEL #4 AT 1'-0" ON CENTER EACH WAY - U. O. N. TWO CONNECTIONS FOR EACH SIDE OF PANELS AT MID HEIGHT AND 1'-0" BELOW TOP OF FRAMING
A
8 S-2
11 S-2
8 S-5
9 S-2
2 #5 FULL HEIGHT AT EACH SIDE OF OPENINGS. AT OPENINGS LESS THAN 3'-0 X 7'-0 STOP REINFORCING 2'-0" BEYOND OPENING A WHERE 2'-0" EXTENSION IS NOT POSSIBLE PROVIDE 90˚˚ HOOK x 0'-6" 90
11 S-2
S-2
OR
A
5 S-2
2 #5 AT TOP AND BOTTOM OF ALL OPENINGS. EXTEND 2'-0" BEYOND SIDES OF OPNG. A WHERE 2'-0" EXTENSION IS NOT POSSIBLE PROVIDE 90˚˚ HOOK x 0'-6" 90 FINISH FLOOR N.T.S.
TYPICAL PANEL ELEVATION
PAN-1
1/4" = 1'-0"
NOTE: COORDINATE BLOCKOUTS AND SLEEVES IN PANELS WITH ELECTRICAL, PLUMBING AND MECHANICAL DRAWINGS - SHOW SUCH OPENINGS ON PANEL SHOP DRAWINGS.
FIGURE 4334 Steel reinforcing in panels is shown in a panel elevation and referenced to a plan view. Courtesy Van Domelen/Looijenga/McGarrigle/Knauf Consulting Engineers.
990
Architectural Drafting and Design
Stud Specifications. Section properties and steel specifications vary among manufacturers, so the material to be specified on the plans will vary. Catalogs of specific vendors must be consulted to determine the structural properties of the desired stud. The architect or engineer will determine the size of stud to be used, but the drafter will often need to consult vendors’ catalogs to completely specify the studs. As a minimum, the gage and usage are specified on the framing plan, details, and sections. If a manufacturer is to be specified, the callout will typically include the size, style, gage, and manufacturer of the stud. An example of a steel stud specification would read: 362SJ20 STEEL STUDS BY UNIMAST.
FIGURE 4335 Steel studs are often used where noncombustible construction is required. A channel track is attached to the structural frame, and used to attach the studs. Predrilled holes are provided to allow for installing electrical conduit Courtesy Sam Griggs.
V-Bracing Joist Hanger
SJ style Stud/Joists
Cold-Rolled Channel
Type S-12 Pan Head Type S-4 Hex Washer Head
CS style Channel Studs
Type S-12 Low Profile Head Joist Web Stiffener
Type S Bugle Head Type S-12 Bugle Head
Type S-12 Bugle Head
Foundation Clip
C-closure
Type S-12 Bugle Head–Pilot Point USG Screws
11/2" X 4" web cutout on center line
hole optional
cL 12"
holes punched 24" o.c.
varies 12" to 59"
hole placement
FIGURE 4336 Common components of steel stud construction. Courtesy United States Gypsum Company.
12"
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
991
1 1/2" DEEP NARROW RIB
2" DEEP WIDE RIB
FIGURE 4337 Open-web steel trusses can be used to support larger floor or roof loads over a longer span than their wood counterparts. In this structure, steel trusses are used as support beams that run through the center of the structure and as the roof support members placed at 48" O.C. to support the metal roof decking. Courtesy APA—The Engineered Wood Association.
Steel Joists Steel joists provide the same advantages over wood as steel studs. The gage and yield point for joists is similar to stud values. Many joists are manufactured so that a joist may be placed around another joist, or nested. Nested joists allow the strength of a joist to be greatly increased without increasing the size of the framing members. A nested joist is often used to support a bearing wall placed above the floor. Joists are available in lengths up to approximately 40' (12 000 mm), depending on the manufacturer.
Open-Web Steel Joists Open-web steel joists are manufactured in the same configurations as open-web wood trusses. Open-web steel joists offer the advantage of being able to support greater loads over longer spans than their wood counterparts with less dead load than solid members. Figure 43-37 shows an example of steel trusses used to support floor and roof loads. Open-web joists are referred to by series number, which defines their use. The Steel Joist Institute (SJI) designations include K, LH, and DLH. All sizes listed below are based on SJI specifications for steel joists. The K-series joists are parallel web members that range in depth from 8" through 30" (200 through 750 mm) in 2" (50 mm) increments for spans up to approximately 60' (18 000 mm). Steel joists are specified on the framing plans, structural details, and sections by providing the approximate depth, the series designation, the chord size, and the spacing. An open-web steel joist specification would resemble: 14K4 OPEN WEB STEEL JOIST @ 32" O.C.
3" DEEP WIDE RIB
FIGURE 4338 Common corrugated decking shapes.
Just as with a wood truss, span tables are available to determine safe working loads of steel joists. The engineer will determine the truss to be used, but the drafter will often be required to find information to complete the truss specification.
Steel Decking Corrugated steel decking is used for most lightweight floor systems supported by steel channels or openweb joists. Decking is produced in a variety of shapes, depths, and gages. The three most common shapes are shown in Figure 43-38. Common depths include 1.5", 3", and 4.5" (38, 75, and 115 mm), with lengths available up to 30' (9000 mm). The engineer will determine the required rib depth, based on the load to be supported and the lateral load to be resisted. Steel decking is attached to the floor or roof framing system with screws or welds. Decking is usually covered with a minimum of 1 1/2" (38 mm) of concrete above the ribs to provide the finished floor. Decking is specified in the project manual and in sections and details by giving the manufacturer, type of decking, depth, and gage. A typical specification would resemble: METAL DECKING TO BE VERCO, TYPE ‘N’, 3"-20GA. GALV. DECKING.
Space Frames A space frame is a three-dimensional spatial grid that can be used to span distances up to 80' (24 000 mm). Figure 43-39 shows an example of the use of a space frame for supporting the exterior shell of a structure. Drafters working for the architect, the structural engineer, and the fabricator will be involved in the detailing of space frames.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 4339 Three-dimensional trusses form a lightweight metal support system referred to as a space frame. Courtesy Novum Structures, LLC.
Prefabricated Steel Structures Prefabricated or metal buildings have become common for commercial uses in many parts of the country. The frame, roof, and wall components are standardized and sold as modular units with given spans, wall heights, and lengths to reduce cost and eliminate wasted materials. Figure 43-40 shows a steel-frame structure being erected.
Typical Components The structural system comprises a frame that supports the walls, the roof, and all externally applied loads. Figure 43-41 shows the two most common frame shapes. The size of the members to be used is determined by engineers working for the fabricator. Tapering of members allows the minimum amount of material to be used, while still maintaining the required area to resist the loads to be supported. End plates are welded or bolted to each end of the vertical members. The plate at the base of the wall member is predrilled to allow for bolting the steel to the concrete support. The plate at the top of the frame is used to bolt the vertical to the inclined member. The vertical wall member is bolted to what will become the inclined roof member to form one rigid member. This frame member is similar to the three-hinged laminated arch discussed earlier in the chapter. The wall system is made of horizontal girts attached to the vertical frame. Usually the girts are a channel or a Z, which is welded to the frame. Girts can be seen in Figure 43-40. Metal siding is screwed to the girts to complete the wall. The roof is made with steel purlins that provide support for the roofing material. The spacing of the purlins will depend on the sheet metal material
FIGURE 4340 A rigid-frame structure consists of the wall and roof frame, girts, and metal decking siding. Courtesy Aaron Jefferis.
used to complete the roof. The roof and wall frames are both reinforced with steel cable X bracing to resist lateral loads.
Representation on Drawings The engineering team working for the fabricator will complete the structural drawing required to build the structure. This would include drawings showing exact
FIGURE 4341 Common shapes of rigid-frame structures.
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
2
C 10 X 25 C 10 X 25 C 10 X 25 C 10 X 25 C 10 X 25 C 10 X 25
B
W 12 X1 2
B
C 10 X 25
8 S-9 32LH12
C 10 X 25
W 12 X 27
C 10 X 25
32G4N2
UP
4 S-11
W 12 X 27
W 12 X 27
C 10 X 25
6 S-9
12 S-9
C 10 X 25
C 10 X 25
TYP.
L 6" X 4" X 3/8" (LLV)
HORIZONTAL BRIDGING AT TOP & BOTTOM CHORDS L 1 1/2" X 1 1/2" X 7/64" - TYPICAL
. '-0" O.C 9 AT 7
24LH0
18G4N5
1 S-11
D
locations of all framing members and connections, as in Figure 43-42.
1
2
PROJECT NORTH
Steel-Frame Buildings Steel-frame buildings require engineering and shop drawings similar to those used for concrete structures. As a drafter in an engineering or architectural firm, you will most likely be making engineering drawings similar to the one in Figure 43-43. An engineer or drafter working for the steel fabricator will typically develop the shop drawings, such as the one in Figure 43-44. As a drafter working on steel-frame structures, you will need to become familiar with the Manual of Steel Construction, published by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). In addition to your building code, this manual will be one of your prime references, since it will be helpful in determining dimensions and properties of common steel shapes.
C5 X 6.7
C.9
32G4N14
W18 X 35
3 S-11
C5 X 6.7
C.8
32G4N14 C5 X 6.7
FIGURE 4342 Framing plan for a prefabricated metal structure.
12 S-12
C
C5 X 6.7
2 BAYS @ 20'-0" = 40'-0"
W18 X 35
W 12 X1 2
W 12 X1 2
C 10 X 25 W 12 X1 2
C
W/ OD L L R PICA E E Y ST LE T 6 CK -3 " A NBU 2 / 1 TUR
W 12 X 27
W 12 X 27
C 10 X 25
6 S-9
3
W 12 X1 2
A
W 12 X 27
W 12 X1 2
1
993
1 THIRD FLOOR FRAMING PLAN S-5
1/8" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4343 Structural steel engineering drawings. Courtesy Van Domelen/Looijenga/McGarrigle/Knauf Consulting Engineers.
Structural steel is produced in the shapes shown in Figure 43-46. M, S, and W are the names that are given to steel shapes that have a cross-sectional area in the shape of the letter I. The three differ in the width of their flanges. The flange is the horizontal leg of the I shape, and the vertical leg is the web. In addition to varied flange widths, S-shaped flanges also vary in depth.
Common Steel Products 3/16"
6" TYP. EA. END
1 1/2"
3"
4"
+ 113'-0"
3"
Structural steel is typically identified as a plate, as a bar, or by its shape. Plates are flat pieces of steel of various thickness used at the intersection of different members. Common plates include, top, bottom, side, and gusset. Figure 43-45A shows a steel connector that uses top, side, and bottom plates. Figure 43-45B shows a similar connector used at a beam splice. Plates are specified on a drawing by giving the thickness, width, and length, in that order. The symbol (PL) is often used to specify plate material. Bars are the smallest structural steel products. Bars are round, square, rectangular, or hexagonal when seen in cross section. They are often used as supports or braces for other steel parts.
W 16 X 67
3/8"
15'-3 1/2" TLTS BEAM A-6
3/8"
FIGURE 4344 Structural steel fabrication drawings are made for each steel component to specify exact size, drilling, and cutting locations.
994
Architectural Drafting and Design
7/8" X 6 3/4" X 7 1/4" TOP DAP INTO BEAM
3/16 3/16
6 6
WIDE FLANGE W SHAPE
AMERICAN STD BEAM S SHAPE
ANGLE EQUAL LEGS
5/16" X 7" SIDE PL @ EA. SIDE OF BM. PL
37 1/2" OR 43 1/2" GLU-LAM BM.
1
8" @ 37 1/2" BM 12" @ 43 1/2" BM
1
8"
MISC SHAPES M SHAPES
BEARING PILE HP SHAPE
ANGLE UNEQUAL LEGS
(3)- 3/4"¯ X 8 1/2" A-307 BOLTS TOP & BTM.
7 1/4" 3/16"
25 1/2"
3 1/2" TYP.
(2) 5/16" X 3" STRAP EA. SIDE OF BM. @ TOP & BTM.
3" 3"
1 1/2"
26 S15
7/8" X 6 3/4" X 7 1/4" BASE PLATE
BM/BM
AMERICAN STD CHANNEL C SHAPE
MISC CHANNEL MC SHAPE
PIPE
1" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4345A Steel plates are often used to fabricate beam connectors. Courtesy Jordan Jefferis.
Angles are structural steel components that have an L shape. The legs of the angle may be either equal or unequal in length but are usually equal in thickness. Channels have a squared C cross-sectional area and are represented by the letter C when they are specified in note form. Structural tees are cut from W, S, and M steel shapes by cutting the webs. Common designations are WT, ST, and MT. Structural tubing is manufactured in square, rectangular, and round cross-sectional configurations. These members are used as columns to support loads from other members. Tubes are specified by the size of the outer wall followed by the thickness of the wall.
Representing Steel on Framing Plans As with other methods of construction, plans are required to show the location and size of each steel
FIGURE 4345B Steel plates fabricated to make a beam hanger at a beam splice. Courtesy Megan Jefferis.
SQUARE TUBING
STRUCTURAL TEE (Cut from W Shape)
RECTANGULAR TUBING
STRUCTURAL TEE (Cut from S Shape)
CIRCULAR TUBING
STRUCTURAL TEE (Cut from M Shape)
FIGURE 4346 Standard shapes of structural steel.
column, girder, beam, and joist. An example of a steel framing plan can be seen in Figure 43-43. Columns are usually W-shaped, but M and S shapes are also used. Steel columns are shown on the framing plan by representing the proper shape, providing the location from center to center, and specifying the size and strength to be used. TS tubes can be used for columns for heights below three stories, depending on the loads to be supported. Steel studs are often used to frame between vertical supports but are not load-bearing when used in conjunction with steel columns. Girders are normally formed from W shapes because of the ease of making connections. Intermediate beams may be either W, S, M, or C. Depending on the loads to be supported, girders can be built-up to increase the bearing capacity. A built-up girder can be composed of standard shapes or fabricated from steel plates. On the framing and floor plans, girders are usually represented by a single line placed between, but not touching, the columns that will be used for support. The size and spacing of the girders are typically specified by notes. Steel joist and decking covered with lightweight concrete can be used to span between intermediate beams to form floor and roof levels. Reinforced concrete slabs are also used to span between intermediate support beams.
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
COMMON CONNECTION METHODS
CL OF COLUMN
"W" COLUMN SEE SCHEDULE
1'-4"
3/16 3/16
3/16 3/16 3/8" STIFFENER PL EACH SIDE (FIT TO BEAR)
1'-2" 3" 3"
TYP.
1/4
PL 1" X 14" X 1'-2" W/ (4) 3/4"Ø A325 BOLTS
BEAM GAGE 1 S-12
TYP.
"W" BEAM - SEE PLAN
1'-2"
CL of COLUMN & BEAM
995
BASE PLATE TYPE TG-1
BASETG-1 3/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4347 Detail of a steel column and beam intersection, showing bolted and welded connections. Courtesy Van Domelen/ Looijenga/McGarrigle/Knauf Consulting Engineers.
The stress to be resisted and the materials to be connected will determine which connection method will be used. Common connection methods include nails, staples, power-driven studs, screws, metal connectors, bolts and washers, and welds.
Nails Nailing as it applies to residential construction was introduced in Chapter 32. Nails are the common connector for wood-to-wood members with a thickness of less than 1 1/2" (40 mm). A nail is required by code to penetrate into the supporting member by half the depth of the supporting member. If two 2× (50×) members are being attached, a nail would be required to penetrate 3/4" (20 mm) into the lower member. Thicker wood assemblies are normally bolted. The type and size of nails to be used, as well as the placement and nailing pattern, will all affect the joint. Each building code provides a schedule for specifying the method, quantity, and size of nailing to be used. A nailing schedule was introduced in Figure 32-11.
Representing Steel in Details
Types of Nails
Details are required to show each intersection of structural members, and the method of connecting various materials to the steel frame. A common connection detail can be seen in Figure 43-47. Details showing the connections of structural materials will be referenced on the framing plan and sections. Joints for steel construction are either bolted or welded. Bolting and welding methods and symbols will be discussed later in this chapter.
The most common nails specified by engineers in the calculations for framing include common, deformed, box, and spikes. Most nails are made from stainless steel, but copper and aluminum are also used. Figure 43-48 shows common types of nails used for construction. A common nail is typically used for most rough framing applications. Box nails are slightly thinner and have less holding power than common nails. Box nails are used because they generate less resistance in penetration and
RING SHANK
ASPHALT SHINGLE NAIL
TRUSSED RAFTER NAIL
SHANKED SHINGLE NAIL
POLE-CONSTRUCTION NAIL
WOOD SHINGLE FACE NAIL
FLOORING NAIL
ENAMELED FACE NAIL FOR INSULATED SIDING, SHAKES
UNDERLAY FLOOR NAIL
NAIL FOR APPLYING SIDING TO PLYWOOD
DRYWALL NAIL
NAIL FOR APPLYING ROOFING TO PLYWOOD
NEOPRENE WASHER DUPLEX-HEAD NAIL SHANKED ROOFING NAIL
FIGURE 4348 Common types of nails used in construction.
996
Architectural Drafting and Design
4"
3-16d's
3 1/2" 3" 2 1/2" 2"
FACE NAILING
1 1/2" 1"
3-16d's
SIZE
20d
16d
12d
10d
8d
7d
6d
5d
4d
3d
2d
TOE NAILING
FIGURE 4349 Standard sizes of common and box nails. The letter d is used to refer to penny.
are less likely to split the lumber. Box nails come in sizes up to 16d. Spikes are nails larger than 20d. Nailing specifications are found throughout the written specifications, on the framing plan and details.
3-16d's
END NAILING
Nail Sizes Nail sizes are described by the term penny, which is represented by the symbol d. Standard nails range from 2d through 60d. Penny is a weight classification; it compares pounds per thousand nails. For instance, 1000 8d nails weigh 8 pounds. Figure 43-49 shows common sizes of nails. The size, spacing, and quantity of nails to be used are typically specified in structural details.
Nailing Specifications Nails smaller than 20d are typically specified by penny size and by spacing for continuous joints, such as attaching a plate to a floor system. An example of a nailing note found on a framing plan or detail is: 2 × 6 DFL SILL W/ 20d’s @ 4" O.C.
Nails are specified by a quantity and penny size for repetitive joints such as a joist to a sill. The specification on a section or detail would simply read (3)–8d’s and would point to the area in the detail where the nails will be placed. Depending on the scale of the drawing, the nails may or may not be shown. Specifications for spikes are given in a manner similar to those for nails, but the penny size is replaced by spike diameter.
2-8d's
BLIND NAILING FIGURE 4350 Methods of placing nails for framing connections.
Figure 43-50, include face, end, toe, and blind nailing. The type of nailing to be used is determined by how accessible the head of the nail is during construction and by the type of stress to be resisted. The engineer will specify if nailing other than that recommended by the nailing schedule of the prevailing code is to be used. Nails that are required to resist shear are strongest when perpendicular to the grain. Nails that are placed parallel to the end grain, such as end nailing, are weakest and tend to pull out as stress is applied. Common nailing placement includes: ●
Nailing Placement Nailing placements are described by the manner in which they are driven into the members being connected. Common methods of driving nails, shown in
●
Face nailing—Driving a nail through the face or surface of one board into the face of another. Face nailing is used to connect sheathing to rafters or studs, nail a plate to the floor sheathing, or to nail a let-in brace to a stud. End nailing—Driving a nail through the face of one member into the end of another member. A plate is end-nailed into the studs as a wall is assembled.
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
●
●
997
Toe nailing—Driving a nail through the face of one board into the face of another. With face and end nailing, nails are driven in approximately 90° to the face. With toe nailing, the nail is driven in at approximately a 30° angle. Connections of rafters to top plates or a header to a trimmer are toe-nailed joints. Blind nailing—Used where it is not desirable to see the nail head. Attaching wood flooring to the subfloor is done with blind nailing. Nails are driven at approximately a 45° angle through the tongue of tongue-and-groove flooring and hidden by the next piece of flooring.
INTERMEDIATE PANEL SUPPORTS 12" O.C. NAILING UNBLOCKED AREA 6" NAILING
Nailing Patterns Nail specifications for sheathing and other large areas of nailing often refer to nail placement along an edge, boundary, or field. Figure 43-51 shows an example of each location. Common placements include: ● ● ●
Edge nailing—Nails placed at the edge of a sheet of plywood. Field nailing—Nails placed in the supports for a sheet of plywood, excluding the edges. Boundary nailing—Nailing at the edge of a specific area of plywood.
BOUNDARY OF BLOCKED ROOF - 4" NAILING PANEL EDGES @ 6" NAILING
5/8" STD. GRADE C-D, 42/20 INT. APA PLY W/ EXT. GLUE. LAY PERP. TO TRUSSES, STAGGER SEAMS @ EA. TRUSS. NAIL W/ 10d COMMON NAILS @ 4" O.C. @ ALL PANEL EDGES & BLOCKED AREAS, 6" O.C. ALL SUPPORTED PANELS EDGES @ UNBLOCKED AREAS & 12" O.C @ ALL INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS.
Staples Hammer-driven nails have been used for centuries. Power-driven nails have greatly increased the speed and ease with which nails can be inserted. As technology advanced, staples started to replace nailing for some applications. Staples are most often used for connecting asphalt roofing and for attaching sheathing to roof, wall, and floor supports.
PLYWOOD SPECIFICATION
FIGURE 4351 Nail specifications often refer to nail placement by edge, boundary, and field locations.
Power-Driven Studs Metal studs can be used to anchor wood or metal to masonry. These studs range in diameter from 1/4" through 1/2" (6 through 13 mm) and in length from 3/4" to 6" (20 to 150 mm). Power-driven studs are made from heat-treated steel and inserted by a powder charge from a gun-like device. They are typically used where it would be difficult to insert the anchor bolts at the time the concrete is poured. Studs can also be used to join wood to steel construction.
Screws Screws are often specified for use in wood connections that must be resistant to withdrawal. Three common screws are used throughout the construction industry.
Each is identified by its head shape (see Figure 43-52). Common screws include: ●
●
●
Flathead (countersunk) screws: Specified in the architectural drawings for finish work where a nail head is not desirable. Roundhead screws: Used at lumber connections where a head is tolerable. Roundhead screws are also used to connect lightweight metal to wood. Lag screws: Have a hexagonal or square head that is designed to be tightened by a wrench rather than a screwdriver. Lag screws are used for lumber connections 1 1/2" (40 mm) and thicker. Lag bolts are available with diameters ranging from 1/4" to 1 1/4" (6 to 30 mm). A washer is used with a lag bolt to guard
POLYURETHANE SEALANT OVER 5/8"Ø BACKER ROD
PHILLIPS
ROBERTSO
SLOT
LAG BOLT
HEAD SHAPES
3/4" X 3/4" CHAMFERS
6 3/4"
CROSS
9"
Architectural Drafting and Design
5" 1 1/2"
998
1 1/2"
METAL SCREWS
WOOD SCREWS
FIGURE 4352 Common types of screws used in construction.
against crushing wood fibers near the bolt. A pilot hole that is approximately 3/4 of the shaft diameter is often specified to reduce wood damage and increase the resistance to withdrawal. Flathead and roundhead screws are designated by the gage, which specifies a diameter; by length in inches; and by head shape. A typical specification for a flathead wood screw might be: #10 × 3" F.H.W.S.
Lag screws are designated by their length and diameter. A typical specification might be: 5/8"Ø × 6" LAG SCREW THROUGH 1 1/2"Ø WASHER.
Metal Framing Connectors Premanufactured metal connectors by companies such as Simpson Strong-Tie are used at many wood connections to strengthen nailed connections. Joist hangers, post caps, post bases, and straps are some of the most common lightweight metal hangers used with wood construction. Each connector comes in a variety of gages of metal with sizes to fit a wide variety of lumber. Metal connectors are typically specified on the framing plans, sections, and details by listing the model number and type of connector. A metal connector specification for connecting (2) 2 × 12 joists to a beam would resemble: SIMPSON CO. HHUS212-2TF JST.HGR.
9 S-4
(1) -3/4" X 9" A307 BOLT W/ STD. WASHERS CENTERED IN SLOTTED HOLE 6 3/4" X 43 1/2" GLU-LAM BEAM
3"
BOTH SIDES
43 1/2"
3/4"Ø X 4 1/8" TAPER BOLT @ EACH ANGLE
1'-3 1/2"
HEAD PROFILES
1 1/2"
LAG BOLT
8" X 8" X 1/2" X 3" ANGLE EACH SIDE OF BEAM W/ 13/16" X 1 7/8" LONG SLOTTED HOLE HORIZONTAL IN 8" LEG.
3"
ROUNDHEAD
8" 1/4"11/2"
4 1/2" 3"
FLAT OVAL COUNTERSUNK
1 1/2"
PLAN VIEW (LOWER ANGLE ONLY)
5/16
9 1/2" X 9" X 5/16" X 1'-3 1/2" EACH SIDE OF BEAM 6" 9 1/2"
BEAM/WALL 1" = 1'-0"
(3)-3/4"Ø X 9 A307 BOLTS W/ STD. WASHERS 7/8" X 6 7/8" X 9 1/2" BEARING PL
FIGURE 4353 Metal connectors can be fabricated from steel plates that are welded together. Beams are bolted to the connector.
The supplier is typically specified in general notes or within the written specifications. Depending on the connection, the nails or bolts used with the metal fastener may or may not be specified. If no specification is given, it is assumed that all nail holes in the connector will be filled. This can be specified using the abbreviation FAH (fill all holes). If bolts are to be used, they will normally be specified with the connector, based on the manufacturer’s recommendations. Nails associated with metal connectors are typically labeled with the lowercase letter n instead of d. The diameters of these nails are equal to their d counterpart, but their length has been modified by the manufacturer to fit the metal hanger. If pre-manufactured connectors that can support the required loads are not available, the engineer must design a steel connector to be fabricated for a specific joint. These connectors are assembled in a shop and shipped to the job site. The drafter will need to specify the material, welds, and exact bolt locations. Figure 43-53 shows a fabricated metal connector.
Bolts and Washers Bolts used in the construction industry include anchor bolts, carriage bolts, and machine bolts. Each can be seen in Figure 43-54. Washers are used under the head
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
A
B
C
D
999
F
E
G
FIGURE 4354 Common types of bolts used in commercial construction: (A) Anchor bolt, (B) Carriage bolt, (C) Machine bolt, (D) Drift bolt, (E) Expansion bolt, (F) Toggle bolt, and (G) Turnbuckle and threaded rods.
and nut for most bolting applications. Washers keep the bolt head and nut from pulling through the lumber and reduce damage to the lumber by spreading the stress from the bolt across more wood fibers. Typically a circular washer, specified by its diameter, is used.
Anchor Bolts An anchor bolt is an L-shaped bolt, inserted into concrete, that is used to bolt lumber to the concrete (see Figure 43-54A). The short leg of the L is inserted into the concrete to resist withdrawal. The upper end of the long leg is threaded to receive a nut. A 2" (50 mm) washer is typically used with anchor bolts. Anchor bolts are represented in structural drawings with the letters A.B. along with a specification including the size of the member to be connected, the bolt diameter, length, embedment into concrete, spacing, and washer size. A typical note might resemble: 2 × 6 DFPT SILL W/ 5/8"Ø × 12" A.B. @ 48" O.C. W/ 2"Ø WASHERS. PROVIDE 9" MIN. EMBEDMENT.
When anchor bolts are used to attach lumber to the side of a concrete wall, a specification is typically given to stagger the bolts in relation to the edge of the lumber to be attached as well as the bolt spacing. The specification might resemble: 3 × 12 DFPT LEDGER W/ 3/4"Ø × 12" A.B. @ 32" O.C. STAGGERED 3" UP/DN WITH 2"Ø WASHERS.
Carriage Bolts A carriage bolt is used for connecting steel and other metal members as well as timber connections (see
Figure 43-54B). Carriage bolts have a rounded head with the lower portion of the shaft threaded. Directly below the head, at the upper end of the shaft, is a square shank. As the shank is pulled into the lumber, it will keep the bolt from spinning as the nut is tightened. Diameters range from 1/4" to 1" (6 to 25 mm), with lengths typically available to 12" (300 mm). The specification for a carriage bolt will be similar to that for an anchor bolt, except for the designation of the bolt type.
Machine Bolts A machine bolt is a bolt with a hexagonal head and a threaded shaft (see Figure 43-54C). Machine bolts are divided into two classifications: unfinished or highstrength. Common bolts are used for attaching steel to steel, steel to wood, or wood to wood. Common bolts are often used in steel joints to provide a temporary connection while field welds are completed. Bolts are assumed to be common unless high-strength bolts are specified. They are referred to with a note such as: USE (3)–3/4"Ø × 8" M.B. @ 3" O.C. W/ 1 1/2"Ø WASHERS.
The strength of bolts should be specified in a general note on the framing plans or on pages of details containing bolted connections. The engineer will determine the bolt locations based on the stress to be resisted. Common spacings are: 1 1/2" (40 mm) in from an edge when parallel to the grain. 3" (75 mm) minimum from the edge when perpendicular to the grain. 1 1/2" (40 mm) from the edge of steel members. 2" (50 mm) from the edge of concrete. Bolts used for connecting structural steel are referred to as high-strength bolts and come in three common compositions. These bolts are manufactured with an ASTM International (formerly known as the American Society for Testing and Materials) or Institute of Steel Construction Specifications grading number on the head. Common specifications used in commercial construction include: A-325: High-strength bolts. A-490: High-strength bolts, medium carbon. A-441: High-strength, low-alloy steel bolts. A-242: Corrosion-resistant high-strength low-alloy steel bolts. High-strength bolts are normally specified to be tightened with a pneumatic impact wrench.
1000
Architectural Drafting and Design
Miscellaneous Bolts 3"X DFL#1 PLATE W/ 1/2"Ø STUD BOLT ANCHORS AT 24" O.C. NAIL PLY SHT'G. W/ 8d COMMON SHORTS AT 4" O.C.
Several other types of bolts are used in special circumstances. These include studs, drift bolts, expansion bolts, and toggle bolts. ●
1/8"
Stud: A bolt similar to a machine bolt that is manufactured with no head. A common use for a stud is to attach a wood plate to a steel beam. The stud is welded to the flange of a steel beam so that a wood plate can be bolted to the beam. A typical specification for a stud would resemble:
●
●
Drift bolt: A steel rod that has been threaded (see Figure 43-54D). Threaded rods can be driven into one wood member with another member bolted to the threaded protrusion. Threaded rods may also be used to span between metal connectors on two separate beams. Expansion bolt: A bolt with a special expanding sleeve (see Figure 43-54E). These bolts are designed so that the sleeve, once inserted into a hole, will expand to increase holding power. Expansion bolts are typically used for connecting lumber to masonry. Toggle bolt: A bolt that has a nut designed to expand when it is inserted through a hole, so that it cannot be removed. Toggle bolts (see Figure 43-54F) are used where one end of the bolt may not be accessible because of construction parameters.
Welds Welding is the method of providing a rigid connection between two or more pieces of steel. In welding, metal is heated to a temperature high enough to cause melting. The parts that are welded become one, with the welded joint actually stronger than the original material. Welding offers better strength, better weight distribution of supported loads, and a greater resistance to shear or rotational forces than a bolted connection. The most common welds in construction are shielded metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, and gas metal arc welding. In each case, the components to be welded are placed in contact with each other, and the edges are melted to form a bond. Additional metal is also used to form a sufficient bond. Welds are typically specified in details as shown in Figure 43-55. A horizontal reference line is connected to the parts to be welded by an inclined line with an arrow.
TUBE CONN 3/16" CLOSURE PLATE
T.S. 5" X 5" X 3/16"
3 × 4 DFPT PLATE W/ 7/8"Ø STUD W/ 1/8" FILET WELD, ALL AROUND AT 24" O.C. ●
3/16"
8" X 8" X 1/4" STEEL GUSSET PLATE 3/16"
15 S7
T.S. 5" X 5" X 1/4" STEEL TUBE COLUMN
BEAM/COLUMN
1"=1'-0"
FIGURE 4355 Welds are specified in details by the use of specialized symbols that are referenced to the area to receive the weld.
The arrow touches the area to be welded. It is not uncommon to see a welding line bend to point into difficult-to-reach places, or to see more than one leader line extending from the reference line. Information about the type of weld, the location of the weld, the welding process, and the size and length of the weld is all specified on or near the reference line. Figure 43-56 shows a welding symbol and the proper location of information.
Welded Joints The way that steel components intersect greatly influences the method used to weld the materials together, and is often included in the specification. Common methods of arranging components to be welded are butt, lap, tee, outside corner, and edge joint (see Figure 43-57).
Types of Welds The type of weld is associated with the weld shape or the type of groove in the metal components that will receive the weld, or both. Welds typically specified on structural and architectural drawings include fillet, groove, and plug welds. The method of joining steel and the symbol for each method can be seen in Figure 43-58. ●
Fillet weld: The most common weld used in construction, a fillet weld (see Figure 43-58A) is formed
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
1001
FINISH SYMBOL
GROOVE ANGLE; INCLUDED ANGLE OF COUNTERSINK FOR PLUG WELDS
CONTOUR SYMBOL ROOT OPENING; DEPTH OF FILLING FOR PLUG AND SLOT WELDS
LENGTH OF WELD PITCH (CENTER TO CENTER SPACING) OF WELDS
EFFECTIVE THROAT
TAIL
T
(TAIL OMITTED WHEN REFERENCE IS NOT USED.)
(N)
(OTHER SIDE)
SIDES)
S (E)
(BOTH
SPECIFICATION, PROCESS, OR OTHER REFERENCE
FIELD WELD SYMBOL
L-P
NUMBER OF SPOT OR PROJECTION WELDS BASIC WELD SYMBOL OR DETAIL REFERENCE
ARROW CONNECTING REFERENCE LINE TO ARROW SIDE MEMBER OF JOINT
(ARROW SIDE)
F A R
DEPTH OF PREPARATION; SIZE OR STRENGTH FOR CERTAIN WELDS
ELEMENTS IN THIS AREA REMAIN AS SHOWN WHEN TAIL AND ARROW ARE REVERSED.
WELD ALL AROUND SYMBOL
REFERENCE LINE
FIGURE 4356 Common locations of each element of a welding symbol. AWS A2.4: 20097, reproduced with permission from the American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
at the internal corner of two intersecting pieces of steel. The fillet can be applied to one or both sides and can be continuous or a specified length and spacing. ●
●
Square-groove weld: Applied when two pieces with perpendicular edges are joined end-to-end. The spacing between the two pieces of metal is called the root opening. The root opening is shown to the left of the symbol in Figure 43-58B. V-groove weld: Applied when each piece of steel to be joined has an inclined edge that forms a V. The included angle is often specified, as well as the root opening (see Figure 43-58C).
BUTT
LAP
TEE
EDGE
FIGURE 4357 Types of welded joints.
OUTSIDE CORNER
●
Beveled weld: Created when only one piece of steel has a beveled edge. An angle for the bevel and the root opening is typically given.
●
U-groove weld: Created when the groove between the two mating parts forms a U (see Figure 43-58D).
●
J-groove weld: Results when one piece has a perpendicular edge and the other has a curved grooved edge (see Figure 43-58E). The included angle, the root opening, and the weld size are typically given for Uand J-groove welds.
Welding Locations and Placements Welds specified on structural drawings may be done away from the job site and then shipped ready to be installed. Large components that must be assembled at the job site are called field-welded. Two symbols used to refer to a field weld can be seen in Figure 43-59. The placement of the welding symbol in relationship to the reference line is critical in explaining where the actual weld will take place. Figure 43-60 shows three examples and the effects of placing a fillet weld symbol on the reference. The distinction of symbol placement can be quite helpful to the drafter if adequate space for a symbol is not available on the proper
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIELD WELD SYMBOLS
A FILLET
B SQUARE
FIGURE 4359 The welding symbol can be used to represent on-site (field) or off-site welding. If no symbol is added to the reference line, it is assumed the parts can be welded before being shipped to the job site.
C V-GROOVE
A
D U-GROOVE
FIGURE 4358 The type of weld required by the engineer is represented by the shape of the material to be welded. ●
●
All-around: Used for circular and rectangular parts to indicate that a weld is to be placed around the entire intersection. A circle placed at the intersection of the
C
FIGURE 4360 The welding symbol can be used to describe the placement of the weld. (A) Symbol below the line places the weld on this side. (B) Symbol above the line places the weld on the other side. (C) Symbol on each side of the line places the weld on each side of the material.
E J-GROOVE
side of the detail. The welding symbol can be placed on either side of the drawing, and the relationship to the reference line can be used to clarify the exact location. Options include:
B
leader and reference line indicates that a feature is to be welded all-around. Figure 43-55 shows a column– beam intersection joined with welds requiring an all-around weld. Weld length and increment: If a weld does not surround the entire part, the length and spacing of the weld should be placed beside the weld symbol. The number preceding the weld symbols indicates the size of the weld. The number following the weld symbol indicates the length each weld is to be. The final size indicates the spacing of the weld along a continuous intersection of two mating parts.
GOING GREEN
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Green Design Considerations INTRODUCTION Throughout this text, green concepts have been presented as each major building component has been explored. A green, or sustainable, building is a structure that is designed, built, renovated, operated, or reused in an ecological and resource-efficient manner. Green buildings are designed to meet certain objectives such as protecting the health of the occupants; using energy, water, and other resources more efficiently; and reducing the overall impact to the environment. As a drafter working on commercial projects, much of your time will be spent investigating the use of environmentally friendly products suitable for each specific project. This will require good use of the Internet, good research skills, and a thorough understanding of the project to determine a product’s compatibility with the project. As a new technician, one of your main responsibilities will be to become familiar with the LEEDS Green Building Rating System and certification process for each project you work on. To be an asset to your team, you’ll also need to become aware of the environmental risks and benefits of the products that will be used in each project. This will include the benefits of using wood, engineered wood, steel, concrete and concrete blocks.
Assessing Wood Products When you think of wood, you might be tempted to think of the depletion of old-growth timber by large money-grabbing corporations. That would be a mistake. Each major lumber supplier is involved in developing lumber and timber products from sustainable forests. To determine if wood products meet the requirements of the LEED design standards, the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) provides certification for wood that is harvested from a certified forest. Certified forest products are those products originating in a forest that an independent third party has certified to be well-managed and sustainable. Representatives of conservation groups, the timber industry, economic development organizations, and the general public developed FSC standards. A forestry operation that meets FSC standards protects forest ecosystems, water quality, wildlife habitats, and local communities. To ensure the integrity of the certification, the wood and fiber from certified forests are tracked through the commercial chain from logging sites to retailers and to the end user. Engineered Wood Products In addition to sawn lumber grown in sustainable forests, engineered lumber products provide many environmentally friendly materials for the construction industry. Engineered wood products are manufactured from fast-growing, underutilized, and less expensive wood species and from by-products from other production processes.
This includes the use of sawdust, small chips, and unusable bits of wood created from cutting logs. By using many of the production scraps from making sawn lumber products to make engineered wood, many of the natural defects found in wood are eliminated, making the engineered material stronger than natural lumber. Another important factor that makes engineered material an earth-friendly product is the energy-efficient methods by which they are manufactured.
Green Properties of Steel Steel is a considered a sustainable product because it is completely recyclable, and when compared to other materials, requires relatively low amounts of energy to produce. The steel industry has made immense efforts in the last few decades to limit environmental pollution that used to be associated with its production. Energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions have been greatly reduced during the production process. But the main sustainable qualities of steel come from its compliance with two key concepts introduced in Chapter 1: Reduce and recycle. Steel-framed construction greatly reduces the support members required when compared to other building materials. The use of steel reinforcing also allows for a reduction of other products such as concrete. Steel qualifies for LEED credits because of the high recycle rate of steel building products. It is cheaper to recycle steel than to mine iron ore and then go through the production process to form new steel. Steel does not lose any of its inherent physical properties during the recycling process, and has drastically reduced energy and material requirements than refinement from iron ore.
Sustainable Qualities of Concrete Concrete is an environmentally friendly product in all stages of its life span, from raw material production to demolition. Key benefits of concrete products include resource efficiency, life span, thermal mass, and afterlife. The predominant raw material for the cement in concrete is limestone, the most abundant mineral on earth. Concrete can also be made with fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume, all waste by-products from power plants, steel mills, and other manufacturing facilities. Concrete is ordered and placed as needed and does not need to be trimmed or cut after installation. Wash water is frequently recycled using trucks equipped with devices that collect wash water and return it to the drum where it can be returned to the ready-mix concrete plant for recycling. Extra concrete is often returned to the readymix plant where it is recycled or used to make jersey barriers or retaining wall blocks; or it can be washed to recycle the coarse aggregate.
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GOING GREEN Green Design Considerations (Continued)
Insulating Concrete Forms Insulating concrete forms (ICFs) provide a labor-efficient means of making insulated poured-concrete walls, floors, and roof decks. ICFs are permanent forms that are left in place after the concrete has cured. Most of these products are made from expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam produced with a non-ozone-depleting blowing agent. Some ICFs are made from a composite of wood waste or EPS beads and Portland cement. The environmental advantages of ICF walls include higher R-values, and their use can result in reduced concrete content compared with conventionally formed concrete walls. Once concrete is made, it provides durable, long-lasting structures that will not rust, rot, or burn. Life spans for concrete building products can be double or triple those of other common building materials. Concrete structures are not only long lasting; they are efficient. Structures built with concrete walls, foundations, and floors are highly energy-efficient because of their ability to absorb and retain heat. With careful planning, occupants can significantly cut their heating and cooling bills and install smaller-capacity HVAC equipment. Once a concrete structure has served its purpose, the usefulness of the concrete can continue. After a concrete structure has served its original purpose, the concrete can be crushed and recycled into aggregate for use in new concrete, or used as backfill. Recycling concrete from a demolition project can result in considerable savings because it saves the costs of transporting concrete to the landfill and eliminates the cost of disposal. Crushed concrete may be reused as an aggregate in new Portland cement concrete or any other structural layer. Generally it is combined with a virgin aggregate when used in new concrete. However, recycled concrete is more often used as aggregate in a sub-base layer. Precast Concrete Products Precast concrete products are friendly to the environment because they have optimized geometries, and contribute to reduced environmental damage on the construction site compared with pouring concrete on-site. Waste from overage is also eliminated through precasting at a plant. Through aeration, the weight of precast concrete components is reduced by up to a third while improving its insulation value. Some panels are cast with integral foam insulation that adds to the insulation value.
Clay and Adobe Bricks Clay, adobe, and concrete masonry units are key components of green building and sustainable design. Brick is made primarily from clay and shale, two of the most abundant natural resources. In addition to using readily
available resources, brick manufacturing incorporates many sustainable practices of its own and has captured great production efficiencies that reduce its environmental impact. Brick also contributes to sustainable design through its long life span, energy efficiency, durability, recycled content, local availability, acoustic insulation, low construction waste, and potential for reuse. Adobe is a natural building material common to the southwest United States. Made from soil that has suitable sand and clay content and then air-dried in the sun, adobe bricks typically have extremely low greenhouse gas emissions and embodied energy. Most commercially available adobe bricks are “stabilized” with cement or asphalt additives, but adobe bricks are very commonly made on-site without stabilizers.
Concrete Blocks Like many conventional products, CMUs can be a green product by the manner in which they are produced, by the amount of material used, or by the efficiency they provide to the finished structure. Some blocks earn LEED green points by using post-industrial recycled content such as fly ash or ground blast-furnace slag to produce the blocks. CMUs are also available with specially designed expanded polystyrene insulation inserts that reduce the use of natural materials, and increase the energy performance of the blocks. Other concrete products provide superior energy performance by using innovative web designs. Many CMUs are able to use fewer materials in the production process by way of a finished exterior face such as split-faced block, or other decorative patterns.
Miscellaneous Products The major materials presented thus far are the easy products to identify for their green qualities. Consideration must also be given to every product that will go into the structure, from the roofing material, staples, nails, elevators, and foundation vents. Would you think that a metal joist hanger could receive LEED credits? Is the asphaltic coating that is used to seal built-up roofing products or waterproof a basement wall eligible for LEED credits? As a CAD technician working with the architectural or structural team, you’ll often be asked to determine and document the environmental qualities of these and similar products. To help verify the sustainability of a product, the ICC-ES (International Code CouncilEvaluation Services) started a program in the fall of 2008 that can help. The SAVE (Sustainable Attributes Verification and Evaluation) program can be used to provide independent confirmation that a product meets the requirements of LEED, Green Globes, or the National Green Building Standards.
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
See CD for more information
The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in commercial building materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.aluminum.org www.aamanet.org www.ambrico.com www.concrete.org www.aceee.org www.acec.org www.americanfastener.com www.afandpa.org www.aia.org www.aibd.org/ www.aisc.org www.aitc-glulam.org www.steel.org www.alsc.org www.ansi.org www.itsrecycled.com www.asce.org www.ashrae.org
www.asla.org www.asme.org www.aspenational.com
1005
Company, Product, or Service Aluminum Association, Inc. American Architectural Manufacturers Association American Brick Company American Concrete Institute American Council for Energy-Efficient Economy American Council of Engineering Companies American Fastener Technologies Corporation American Forest and Paper Association American Institute of Architects American Institute of Building Designers American Institute of Steel Construction American Institute of Timber Construction American Iron and Steel Institute American Lumber Standard Committee, Inc. American National Standards Institute American Recycled Plastic, Inc. (landscaping products) American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirConditioning Engineers American Society of Landscape Architects American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Society of Professional Estimators
www.aws.org www.awc.org www.awpa.com www.apawood.org www.aeinstitute.org www.archprecast.org www.awa-la.org www.astm.org www.athenasmi.ca www.atlasfasteners.com www.bcewp.com www.bc.com www.boltdepot.com www.boltproducts.com www.gobrick.com www.buildinggreen.com www.canadianforestry.com www.tbsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca www.cssbi.ca www.csa.ca www.cwc.ca www.canam-steeljoists.ws www.cedarbureau.org www.crbt.org www.cfsei.com www.pbmdf.com www.confast.com www.cmpconline.org www.concretenetwork.com
American Welding Society American Wood Council American Wood Protection Association APA—The Engineered Wood Association Architectural Engineering Institute Architectural Precast Association Association for Women in Architecture ASTM International Athena Institute (sustainable building) Atlas Fasteners for Construction Boise Cascade (engineered wood products) Boise Cascade Corporation Bolt Depot Bolt Products Inc. (metric bolts) The Brick Industry Association Building Green Inc. Canadian Forestry Association Canadian General Standards Board Canadian Sheet Steel Building Institute Canadian Standards Association Canadian Wood Council Canam (steel trusses) Cedar Shake and Shingle Bureau Center for Resourceful Building Technology Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute Composite Panel Association Concrete Fastening Systems, Inc. Concrete Masonry Promotions Council Concrete Network
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www.crsi.org www.corrim.org
www.thebluebook.com www.nibs.org/pubscmc.html www.csc-dcc.ca www.csinet.org www.coolroofs.org www.dfi.org www.forestdirectory.com
Architectural Drafting and Design
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute Consortium for Research on Renewable Industrial Materials Construction Information Network Construction metrication Construction Specifications Canada Construction Specifications Institute Cool Roof Rating Council Deep Foundations Institute Directory of products, wood science, and marketing
www.energydesignresources.com www.eeba.org www.energystar.gov www.ei.org www.gpoaccess.gov www.firefree.com www.fscus.org www.generalshale.com www.gp.com www.thegbi.org www.greenglobes.com www.greengridroofs.com www.greenroofs.com www.gypsum.org www.ilevel.com www.iesna.org www.industrial-fasteners.org www.ieee.org www.paintoprotect.com www.imiweb.org www.iso.org www.internationalpaper.com
Energy Design Resources Energy and Environmental Building Alliance Energy Star (appliance energy standards) Engineering Information Federal Register—The Government Printing Office Firefree Coatings, Inc. Forest Stewardship Council General Shale Brick Georgia-Pacific Corporation Green Building Initiative Green Globes Design Green Grid Roofs GreenRoofs.com (Green Roof Council newsletter) Gypsum Association iLevel by Weyerhaeuser Illuminating Engineering Society of North America Industrial Fasteners Institute Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. International Fireproof Technology Inc. International Masonry Institute International Organization for Standardization International Paper
www.iwpawood.org www.invisiblestructures.com www.lpcorp.com www.maconline.org www.masonrydetails.com www.masonryinstitute.org www.masonrysociety.org www.masonrystandards.org www.mbma.com www.metalroofing.com www.mhia.org www.nahbrc.org www.naamm.org
www.ncma.org www.nfpa.org www.nfba.org www.nibs.org www.nist.gov www.nlga.org www.precast.org www.nrmca.org www.nspe.org www.naima.org www.cement.org www.post-tensioning.org www.pci.org www.rmmi.org http://www.raic.org www.strongtie.com www.spri.org
International Wood Products Association Invisible Structures, Inc. (stormwater management) Louisiana-Pacific Corporation Masonry Advisory Council MasonryDetails.com Masonry Institute of America Masonry Society Masonry Standards Joint Committee Metal Builders Manufacturing Association Metal Roofing Alliance Material Handling Industry of America NAHB Research Center National Association of Architectural Metal Manufacturers National Concrete Masonry Association National Fire Protection Association National Frame Building Association National Institute of Building Sciences National Institute of Standards and Technology National Lumber Grades Authority National Precast Concrete Association National Ready Mixed Concrete Association National Society of Professional Engineers North American Insulation Manufacturers Association Portland Cement Association Post-Tensioning Institute Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute Rocky Mountain Masonry Institute Royal Architectural Institute of Canada Simpson Strong-Tie Co., Inc. Single Ply Roofing Industry
Chapter 43: Common Commercial Construction Materials
www.sfpa.org www.southernpine.com www.ssina.com www.stainless-fasteners.com www.sdi.org www.steelframing.org www.steeljoist.org www.steellinks.com www.spfa.org www.recycle-steel.org www.steelroofing.com www.ssma.com www.sbcindustry.com www.seaint.org www.seinstitute.org www.sweets.com www.tilt-up.org
Southern Forest Products Association Southern Pine Council Specialty Steel Industry of North America Stainless Fasteners Steel Deck Institute Steel Framing Alliance Steel Joist Institute Steel links search engine Steel Plate Fabricators Association Steel Recycling Institute Steel roofing Steel Stud Manufacturers Association Structural Building Components Association Structural Engineers Association—International Structural Engineers Institute Sweets Building Product Information Tilt-Up Concrete Association
1007
www.tfguild.org www.timberpeg.com www.trimjoist.com www.tpinst.org www.eere.energy.gov
www.epa.gov www.usgbc.org www.metric.org www.ussteel.com www.brick-wscpa.org www.wwpa.org www.weyerhaeuser.com www.wdma.com
Timber Framers Guild Timberpeg TrimJoist Engineered Wood Products Truss Plate Institute U.S. Department of Energy—Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy U.S. Environmental Protection Agency U.S. Green Building Council U.S. Metric Association U.S. Steel Western States Clay Products Association Western Wood Products Association Weyerhaeuser Window and Door Manufacturers Association
www.wirereinforcementinstitute.org
www.worldsteel.org
Wire Reinforcement Institute World Steel Association
Common Commercial Construction Materials Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 43 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 43–1 Under what conditions can wood be used to frame a wall that requires a 2-hour fire rating? Question 43–2 Why are the materials used to frame commercial buildings not typically used on residential projects?
Question 43–5 Why is heavy timber a better construction material than steel in areas of high fire risk? Question 43–6 Describe two types of drawings typically required for steel and concrete projects. Question 43–7 How is concrete prestressed? Question 43–8 How are precast concrete panels usually connected to each other? Question 43–9 What is the recommended height limit for load-bearing steel studs? Question 43–10 Sketch the proper symbol for a 3/16" fillet weld, opposite side, field weld. Question 43–11 List the nominal diameter of #4, #8, and #14 steel bars.
Question 43–3 Describe how a panelized roof is framed.
Question 43–12 What is a nested joist?
Question 43–4 How does the Fb value for a DF/DF glu-lam beam compare with a 6× DFL #1 beam?
Question 43–13 How are members of a rigid-frame structure connected?
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Question 43–14 List five pieces of information that might be included in a bolt specification. Question 43–15 What type of nail is most typically used for wood framing?
Architectural Drafting and Design
Question 43–29 Sketch the symbol for a 1/8" fillet weld applied all around a column that is applied at the job site.
Question 43–16 Describe how rebar is represented in end view in a section. How is it represented on the floor plan?
Question 43–30 Explain methods for representing a sawn continuous beam, a non-continuous beam, and a laminated beam.
Question 43–17 List the names of the following bolts: A.B. C.B. H.S. M.B.
Question 43–31 List five types of joints where welds can be applied.
Question 43–18 How long is an 8d nail?
Question 43–32 Sketch the symbol used for a 3/16 × 3"long V-groove weld applied to this side.
Question 43–19 What is the common location of steel reinforcement in a concrete block wall? Question 43–20 What information is required to describe an open-web steel joist? Question 43–21 Use the nailing schedule in Chapter 32 to determine how a rafter will be connected to a top plate; to secure 3/4" plywood to the floor joists. Question 43–22 List the three possible locations for placing a weld and give the symbol that represents each location. Question 43–23 Describe the differences among the terms field, edge, and boundary. Question 43–24 What shapes are typically used to form a steel frame? Question 43–25 What information is required to describe a steel stud? Question 43–26 Why is a washer used in placing a bolt? Question 43–27 List two types of reinforcing bars and explain the difference between them. Question 43–28 What information is required, and where is the information placed to describe a steel decking?
Question 43–33 What are the most common methods of connecting large steel shapes to each other? Question 43–34 Why are laminated beams used instead of steel or sawn beams? Question 43–35 Explain the difference between representing poured concrete and representing concrete blocks in plan view. Question 43–36 The following note is located on a sketch of a pier detail: #6Ø @ 8" O.C. E.W /T & B Sketch and describe what the steel would look like. Question 43–37 Sketch the symbol for a 1/8"-field fillet weld on both sides. Question 43–38 Use research material to determine the size of common glu-lam beam widths. Question 43–39 Use the Internet to obtain material related to steel framing. Question 43–40 Determine what code regulates commercial construction in your area.
CHAPTER 44
Commercial Construction Projects I
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The field of commercial drawing has similarities to residential drawing, in the same way that a Volkswagen bug is similar to a high-performance racing car. Both have four tires and a steering wheel, but that’s about all they have in common. Commercial drafting offers so many more opportunities in a wide variety of fields than residential; it’s really a whole new world. From office practice to the types of drawings required, the field of commercial drawing will introduce you to a whole new world of design and drafting.
One of the first major differences you’ll find regarding commercial drafting is that it is a team effort. You have to enjoy working with other people to be successful in commercial drafting. This will include both a team effort within your office, as well as working with designers and drafters from consulting firms. You’ll also be exposed to a wider variety of materials, with much more emphasis on environmentally friendly materials. This chapter will introduce you to common office practices you can expect to encounter, as well as typical types of drawings that you will be required to work with in a commercial setting.
OFFICE PRACTICE Although the design process is similar for residential and commercial projects, actual office practice is different. As a new employee, you will be given jobs that are typically not the office favorites. These might include making corrections to drawings that were drawn by others on the staff. As your drafting ability and quality improve, so will the variety of drafting projects that you work on. No matter what your drawing level, you will be required to research your drawing project. The two major tools that you will be using will be the Sweets Network and the building code covering your area. Chapter 42 introduced you to building codes as they apply to commercial projects. Sweets Network is an online collection of vendor materials that are arranged according to the MasterFormat 2004 numbering system that is used in nearly every
architectural and engineering office. In residential construction, a drafter may be required to conduct a limited amount of research. With commercial projects, because of the various materials that are available, the drafter usually spends several hours a week researching product information. One of the most common catalogs that you’ll use is the material supplied by the Simpson Strong-Tie catalog. Simpson has a series of paper and electronic catalogs showcasing metal connectors that are used throughout the construction industry. Figure 44-1 shows an example from the Simpson catalog. This column cap (CC) is a common connector used to fasten beams to wood posts to resist gravity, uplift, and lateral loads. A common method of specifying this connection in the calculations might include only the use of a CC cap that can resist a specific uplift load. The drafter would be required to determine the size of the post and the size of the beam to be supported, and then select the proper cap to fit the structural members and provide the needed resistance to uplift.
Calculations One of the prime differences between commercial and residential drafting is your need to work with engineer’s calculations. No matter if you work for a designer, architect, or engineer, you will need to use a set of calculations as you draw the plans for a commercial project. In residential drafting, engineer’s calcs are used to determine sizes of retaining walls and seismic and wind loads. In commercial drafting, a set of calculations is provided for the entire structure, detailing everything from roof sheathing and beam sizes to the size and number of nails to use to attach wall sheathing to the studs. Although called “engineer’s calcs,” these calculations may be prepared by an engineer or an architect. By state law, commercial calculations are required to be signed by a licensed architect or engineer. Because of the complexity of many concrete and steel structures, architects typically design and coordinate the design and drafting of the project but hire a consulting engineer to design 1009
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Architectural Drafting and Design
FIGURE 441 Vendors’ catalogs are needed to determine many components shown on details. This table from the Simpson Strong-Tie Company can be used to determine the cap dimensions at post-to-beam details.
the structural members. The architect typically designs the structure and decides where structural columns and beams will be located, and an engineer determines the stress and the member required to resist this stress. Figure 44-2 shows a page from an engineer’s calcs. Most calcs are divided into three areas. The calc for a specific area usually begins with a statement of the problem. In Figure 44-2 the engineer is determining the size of the roof sheathing to be used for a warehouse. The second area of the calcs is the mathematical formula used to determine the stress and the needed reaction to that stress. This area of the calculations is of little meaning to the inexperienced drafter. You will note that since the part of the calcs you will need is the solution
area, the engineer has placed the solution to the math problem in a box for easy reference. This is the information that the drafter will place on the plans. Most calculations start at the highest level of the structure and work down to the foundation level. This allows loads to be accumulated as formulas are worked out so that loads from a past solution can be used on a lower level. Figure 44-3 shows the calculations that were used to determine the loads on a column. Figure 44-4 shows the drawing that the drafter produced from the calcs. Notice that some items on the drawing were not in the specifications. This is where experience of the construction process is used. On the basis of past drawing experience and knowledge
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
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ENGINEER'S GOAL
SIMPSON MST27 TIE STRAP @ EA. SIDE W/ (30)-16d
7"
WV = 25 PS F L W = 88658 = 363 #1 OR 59124 = 92 #2 (2) (391) (2)(122)
SIMPSON HW412 W/(14) 16d NAILS
3/16" PLY SHIM EA. SIDE OF GLU-LAM & HAND NAILED W/ 4 ROWS OF (8) 10d COMMON
ASSUME TRUSSES @ 32" O.C. CHECK 5/8" C-D 42/20 PLYWOOD w= V= = =
35 PSF 425 363 @ BLOCKED AREAS 285 #1 UNBLOCKED 215 # 2 UNBLOCKED 92 @#1
6 X 16 DFL#1
DESIGN METHOD 5 1/8 X 31 1/2 GLU-LAM
DETERMINE BLOCKING TERMINATION
4 X 12 DFL #2 SIMPSON A35
x = (285) (160.5) = 126.1' 363 d = 160.5-126=35.50= 37.33' FROM EA. END WALL USE: 5/8" C-D, 42/20, INTERIOR APA PLYWOOD W/ EXTERIOR GLUE. PROVIDE BLOCKING @ 37. 33' ADJACENT TO END WALLS. NAIL W/ 10 d COMMON NAILS @ 4" O.C. @ ALL PANEL EDGES @ BLOCKED AREAS, 6" O.C. @ ALL SUPPORTED PANEL EDGES @ UNBLOCKED AREAS & 12"O.C. @ ALL INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS.
THIS IS WHAT THE DRAFTER IS TO PUT ON THE WORKING DRAWINGS
FIGURE 442 Calculations for a structure typically include a problem to be solved, the mathematical solution, and the specification to be placed on the drawing by a drafter. Courtesy Kenneth D. Smith Architect & Associates, Inc.
P 1
LINE (3): TA= 8 X 10 X 3 + 5X10=290#
P2
L=18.5
P1 = (10+16) 8X20=1600 +3200=4800 P = (10+16) 8X 10 + (10+16) 5 X 10= 2080 + 1300=3380 2 RB = ( 1600 + 3200) 11+ (1300+2080)3 = 1162 + 2240 = 3402 18.5 R C ( 1600 + 3200) 7.5 + (1300+2080)15.5 = 1738 + 3040 =4778 18.5 M= 3402 X 7 .5 = 25515
6 X 16= S= 220
S= 25515 X 12 =188.4 1.25 X 1300
6 X 16 DFL #1
LINE (3): TA= 8 X 10 X 2 + 5 X 10=260# 1= 4800 ( SEE ABOVE ) P = (10+16) 5X 20 =( 1000 + 1600 = 2600 2 ( 1600 + 3200) 11+ (1000+1600)3 = 1114 + 2162 = 3276 R B= 18.5 R C ( 1600 + 3200) 7.5 + (1000+1600)15.5 = 1486 + 2638 =4124 18.5 6 X 16 DFL #1 M= 3275 X 7 .5 = 24562
FIGURE 443 An example of calculations to determine loading criteria at a beam connection over a column. The drafter draws the detail, using proper line and lettering quality. Courtesy Kenneth D. Smith Architect & Associates, Inc.
8"
6X8 POST
16 S-3
SIMPSON CC68 CAP W/ 6- 3/4"Ø M.B.
BEAM / BEAM / POST 1" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 444 Detail drawn to convey the information in the engineer’s calculations shown in Figure 44-3. Courtesy Dean Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects & Associates, Inc.
of the construction process, the drafter is able to draw such items as the shim without having it specified. Depending on the engineer and the experience of the drafting team, the calcs may or may not contain sketches. If the engineer is specifying a common construction technique for a skilled drafting team, usually a sketch would not be required. The information needed to draw this detail was compiled from the foundation, grading, roof, and floor plans, as well as the sections and other areas of the calcs.
DRAWING ORGANIZATION Because of the complexity of commercial drawings, the drafter needs to consider where drawings will originate, how drawing sheets will be numbered, and how information will be organized within a drawing sheet.
Drawing Origination Because of their simplicity, residential drawings are typically the first construction drawings that students are introduced to. Most residential plans consist of a site plan, floor plan, elevations, foundation plan, and sections and construction details. Commercial drawings
1012
often include more than 100 sheets of 24" × 36" (600 × 900 mm) or 30" × 42" (750 × 1050 mm) drawings. Because of the size and scope of most commercial projects, plans are arranged into seven major groups. Drawing groups include site, civil, structural, architectural, plumbing, mechanical, and electrical. On a simple project the architectural team, working with input from various consultants, may prepare the entire project. On a large project, many more types of drawings will be required. Separate consulting firms that are coordinated by the architectural team prepare these drawings. Based on the National CAD Standards, these drawing groups and their order within the drawing set include: G—General H—Hazardous Materials V—Survey / Mapping B—Geotechnical W—Civil Works C—Civil L—Landscape S—Structural A—Architectural I—Interiors Q—Equipment F—Fire Protection P—Plumbing D—Process M—Mechanical E—Electrical T—Telecommunications R—Resource X—Other Disciplines Z—Contractor / Shop Drawings O—Operations The letter that precedes each subset name will be used in the page numbering system to reference the subset. The NCS refers to this letter as the sheet type designator. Not all of these subsets will be required for each project, and some projects may require additional subsets depending on the scope, size, and complexity of the project. NOTE: Even though the NCS recommends that structural drawings be placed before the architectural drawings, in order to help better explain the process, the architectural drawings will precede the structural drawings in Section 3 and Section 4 of this textbook.
Architectural Drafting and Design
Regardless of the source of origination, drafters will be employed to develop each type of drawing. The first page of most commercial plans is a title page. The title page is often labeled sheet T-1 and generally contains: ● ● ● ● ● ●
A table of contents. A list of each consulting firm responsible for some aspect of the plans. A list of abbreviations used throughout the drawings. Project data such as the street address and a location map. General notes that apply to the entire project. Zoning and building classifications.
Drawing Set Page Designators For a very simple project that will be completely drawn by the architectural team, drawings within the project can be numbered in successive order using a designator such as A-1, A-2, A-3. Most projects require a more thorough system of sheet designators. Common sheet designators for a single-level structure include: 0—General information such as symbols, legends, and notes specific to the subset. 1—Plan views. 2—Elevations. 3—Sections. 4—Large-scale views such as plans, elevations, stair sections, or sections that are not details. 5—Details. 6—Schedules and diagrams. 7—User-defined sheets that do not fall into other categories such as typical detail sheets. 8—User-defined sheets that do not fall into other categories. 9—Three-dimensional drawings including isometric, perspectives, and photographs. This numbering system would be used for each of the subsets used throughout the project. For multilevel structures, a modified version of this system is used. The categories remain the same, but instead of using a single digit, a number based on 100 is used. Floor plans for a three-level structure would be numbered: 101—First-floor plan. 102—Second-floor plan. 103—Third-floor plan.
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
With this expanded system, 1 represents a floor plan, and the 01 represents the first floor. A number starting with 00 is not permitted by the NCS. These numbers are also used throughout each of the subsets to aid in coordination. Sheet A-102 would contain the architectural floor plan for the second level; sheet S-102 would contain the second-floor structural framing plan; and sheet E-102 would contain the electrical plan for the second level.
Drawing Placement General office practice is to plan the drawing requirements and placement prior to starting the working drawings. Even with the ease of inserting and moving drawings with computers, the placement of drawings on the page should be carefully considered. Great care must be taken, however, when several drawings will be placed on the same sheet. The project coordinator will typically provide new drafters with a sketch of the intended page layout along with individual sketches of each drawing to be placed on the page. These sketches of the proposed project are similar to an outline that is developed for a written project. The sketches provide a tentative layout for the placement of each plan, elevation, section, schedule, and detail that is anticipated. When all of the drawings are complete and printed, they will be assembled into a set and bound along the left-hand margin. The larger the sheets used, the more likely that drawings, notes, or parts of drawings placed on the left side of the sheet will not be seen. Whenever only one drawing is to be placed on a sheet, it should be placed near the right margin, leaving any blank space on the left or binding side. This same guideline should be used if smaller drawings, such as details, are to be placed with a large drawing. With the details placed on the right side they can be clearly seen while the reader thumbs through the drawing. When placing details, try to place them as close as possible to the section or plan view where they occur, but still being careful that small drawings will not be lost on the page. Wherever possible on symmetrical drawings, place the detail symbol where the right side can be seen. In positioning drawings together, it is important that the limits of each drawing not interfere with their neighboring drawing. Some offices share text between two drawings. Most offices place details in neat rows with no shared text (see Figure 44-5). Another consideration in placing details throughout the drawing set is to place them in groups according to the labor force that will do the work. Roof drawings should not be mixed with concrete drawings because
1013
two completely different work crews will complete those jobs. If possible, place all concrete details with the foundation plan, or on a separate sheet following the foundation, and all roof details with the roof plan or very close to it.
SITE DRAWINGS Drawings that are related to the construction site typically follow the title page. Each drawing is usually numbered in successive order starting with L-1 (for Land) or C-1 (for Civil) or A-100 when placed with the architectural drawings. Figure 44-6 shows an example of a commercial site plan. Depending on the complexity of the project and the site, the site drawings might include an existing site plan, a demolition plan, a proposed site plan, a grading plan, a utility plan, an irrigation or sprinkler plan, and a landscape plan. The site plan for a commercial project is the basis for all other site-related drawings. It shows the layout and size of the property, the outline of the structure to be built, north arrow, ground and finish floor elevations, setbacks, parking and access information, and information about utilities. The results of engineering studies and soils reports related to the site may be summarized on the site plan similar to the drawing in Figure 44-6. On complex building sites, a separate site plan will be developed to show existing structures or permanent features that are to remain, and how they relate to new features. An additional site plan showing material to be removed and its relationship to the new features can also be provided if the demolition is substantial. When large amounts of soil are to be moved, a grading plan similar to Figure 44-7 is provided. The grading plan is used to show existing soil contours, and any changes that must be made to the site to accommodate the structure and any related improvements. Finish-grade contours representing 1' and 5' (300 and 1500 mm) intervals are typically shown along with retaining walls and underground drainage facilities. When substantial amounts of soil will be moved, grading plans can be divided into separate plans, with one plan showing existing topography and a separate plan showing the finished proposed structure and the finished grade contours and required drainage equipment. Drafters working for the architect will typically use a base site plan created by the civil engineer to complete the site plan. Drafters working for the civil engineer would then use the information about the structure and the field notes to complete the landrelated drawings.
1014
Architectural Drafting and Design
GRID
8|"
8|" INSUL. GLASS
}" PT. PLYWD. UNDER STOREFRONT-TYP.
2" HORIZ. REVEALSHOWN DASHED
WALL LINE BEYOND
3'-0"F.F. 15'-0" S.F. \" SEALANT JOINT W/ BACKER ROD BOTH SIDES 1\" E.I.F.S. (WRAP EDGES- TYP.) OVER }" GYP. SHTG. (}" PLYWD. AT SHEAR WALLS- (SEE STRUCT.) & FIRERATED }" PLYWD. AT GRID 1NORTH ELEVATION)
6"
STOREFRONT FRAMESHIM AS REQUIRED SETBACK \" FROM FIN. FACE OF E.I.F.S.
INSUL. GLASS 15'-0" CENTER OF FRAME \" SEALANT JOINT W/ BACKER ROD BOTH SIDES 2" HORIZ. REVEALSHOWN DASHED
P.LAM. WINDOW SILL (ALL SURFACES) |" OVERHANG 2x6 WOOD STUDS W/ R-19 BATT INSULATIONTYPICAL
12'-0"
GYP. BD. W/ METAL EDGES- TYP.
}" PT. PLYWD. BLKG. BEHIND STOREFRONTTYP.
1\" E.I.F.S. OVER }" GYP. SHTG.
3]" 6"
STOREFRONT FRAMESHIM AS REQUIRED SETBACK \" FROM FIN. FACE OF E.I.F.S.
\"
GRID
6"
2|"
3]"
1 TYP. STOREFRONT SILL A9 9-STSILL
<
6 STOREFRONT SILL AT STAIR 228 1 1/2" = 1'-0" A9 9STSILL1
1 1/2" = 1'-0"
GRID
2x6 WOOD STUDS W/ R-19 BATT INSULATION
TS. COL.- SEE STRUCT. DRAWINGS EDGE OF WALL BELOW P.LAM. WINDOW SILL
1
GRIDAT 2nd. FLOOR
4
2x6 WOOD STUDS GYP. BD. W/ MET. EDGES- TYP. SEE WALL LEGEND FOR WALL TYPE
<
2
2
6
6
<
\"
2x6 PT. PLATE
6"
2["
}" GYP. BD. W/ METAL EDGES- TYP. 4" CARPET BASE (NIC.) |" SEALANT JOINT 1" GYPCRETE OVER [" T&G. PLYWD.
F.O.F.
1}"
6"
5 A6
3]"
4]"
12'-0" S.F. A.F.F.
8|"
8|"
1\" E.I.F.S. (WRAP EDGES- TYP.) OVER }" GYP. SHTG. (}" PLYWD. AT SHEAR WALLS- (SEE STRUCT.) & FIRERATED }" PLYWD. AT GRID 1NORTH ELEVATION)
FLOOR JST. SEE STRUCT. DRAWINGS FOR SIZE & SPACING
INSUL. GLASS
TJI JOISTSEE STRUCT.
STOREFRONT FRAMESHIM AS REQUIRED SETBACK \" FROM FIN. FACE OF E.I.F.S.
BATT INSUL.
}" PT. PLYWD. BLKG. BEHIND STOREFRONT-TYP. \" SEALANT JOINT W/ BACKER ROD BOTH SIDES
1\" E.I.F.S. (WRAP EDGES- TYP.) OVER }" GYP. SHTG. (}" PLYWD. AT SHEAR WALLS- (SEE STRUCT.) & FIRE RATED }" PLYWD. AT GRID 1- NORTH ELEVATION)
2 WALL BASE AT SECOND FLOOR A9 9-WBASE
1 1/2" = 1'-0"
7 STOREFRONT JAMB AT TS. COLUMN 1 1/2" = 1'-0" A9 9STJAMB1
FIGURE 445 Details are typically arranged in neat rows and columns. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
Most municipalities require drawings for commercial sites to demonstrate how the site will be landscaped and maintained. Drafters working for the landscape architect will usually complete the landscaping and irrigation plans. On small projects, drafters working under the supervision of the architect may complete these drawings. The landscape plan shows the proposed structure, the limits of parking and paving areas, walkways, and all required planting areas. Plants are
shown and specified by their size, type, and quantity. Sizes are generally listed in gallons or height, and the plant type is usually listed by the Latin name. Figure 44-8 shows an example of a simple landscape plan. In arid climates, methods of maintaining the landscape must also be provided. A sprinkler plan will be provided to show how irrigation and drainage will be completed. Feeder lines, sprinklers, and the location of all required controls, timers, and valves may
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1015
KEY NOTES
S 89 45' 00" E 162.50'
111'-0"
35.00'
24' CLEAR EXISTING
EDGE OF EXIST. PAVING- PROVIDE NEW ASPH. PAVING AND BASE PER CITY STANDARDS AND TRANSITION FLUSH W/ EXIST. PAVING VERIFY GRADE ELEVATIONS 5 4" STEEL PIPE BOLLARD- PAINT TO MATCH BLDG. TRIM A1
3
4" WIDE PAINTED STRIPES- WHITE COLOR
4
HCAP PARKING SIGN- TYP.
5
NEW 4'-6" WIDE CONC. WALK
6
NEW ASPHALT PAVING OVER COMPACTED GRAVEL BASE
7
NEW CONC. ISLAND ( WALK ) PROVIDE CONTROL JOINTS ( CJ ) AT MAX 5'-0" O.C. ALIGN W/ WINDOW MULLION AS NOTED ON PLANS W/ EXPANSION JOINTS ( EJ ) AT MAX. 25'-0" O.C. UNLESS NOTED OTHERWISE ON PLANS
8
OPENING THRU CURB FOR DRAINAGE SEE CIVIL & GRADING PLANS
(CURB TO CURB)
5'-0"
7'-6"
3'-0"
PLANTING
14 EJ. E MATCH EXISTING CURB ELEVATION
CB EJ.
LINE OF EXISTING STREET TO BE REMOVEDSHOWN DASHED
4
5'-0"
4 PLANTING
COLLINS WAY
EJ.
12
EJ.
EJ.
5'-0"
EJ.
EJ.
7
3 16'-0"
PLANTING
12
NEW CONC. CURB, GUTTER AND SIDEWALK PER CITY STANDARDS
13
"COMPACT" PAINTED ON PARKING STALL- WHITE COLOR
14
RED COLOR PAINTED CURB (TOP & SIDE) & WHITE COLOR LETTERS STATING "NO PARKING FIRE LANE" ON CURB FACE.
SITE LEGEND
ASPH.
CONC.
EXIST. LIGHT POLE AND BASE TO REMAIN
EXIST.
8'-0"
TRANSITION CURB TO SIDEWALK
CB.
11
PAINTED PAVEMENT MARKINGS- TYP. TRANSITION CURB TO SIDEWALK
PLANTING 3'-0" RAD.
CJ
CONTROL JOINT SEE DETAIL
2 A1
EJ
EXPANSION JOINT SEE DETAIL
2 A1
A1
EXTRUDED CONC. CURB
6'-6"
COMPACT
3
NEW
TYP.
44'=0"
ASPHALT PAVING
EXIST.
COMPACTED SUB GRADE
7 A1
3'-0" RAD.
5'-0"
PLANTING 5'-0"
1" = 1'-0"
24'-0" CLEAR
3'-0"
CURB TO CURB
1.
10'-0"
SEE SHEET #A2 FOR NEW AND EXISTING GRADES. COORDINATE ALL STREET WORK WITH THE CITY OF LAKE OSWEGO ALONG S.W. LANA DRIVE- ALL STREET WORK TO CONFORM TO APPLICABLE CITY STANDARDS.
12
N 89 45' 00" W 160.00'
5.
COORDINATE ALL WORK IN THIS CONTRACT WITH WORK DONE BY OTHERS.
6.
THE CONTRACTOR IS NOT TO USE COLLINS WAY TO THE WEST OF THE SITE FOR SITE ACCESS, PARKING FOR HIS EMPLOYEES AND SUBCONTRACTORS, STAGING AREA OF ANY KIND, OR DELIVERY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.
2
MAINTAIN 20' MIN. PAVEMENT WIDTH TO DOUGLAS WAY INTERSECTION (TRANSITION PAVEMENT @ INTERSECTION AS REQUIRED BY CITY OF LAKE OSWEGO)
; 177'-6"
1
TO DOUGLAS WAY PROPERTY LINE
NEW ASPH. PAVEMENT TRANSITION TO EXISTING AS REQ'D. BY CITY TO DOUGLAS WAY INTERSECTION
COORDINATE ALL WORK UNDER THIS CONTACT WITH EXISTING UTILITIES AND STREET WORK ON AND OFF THE SITE. MAKE ALL ADJUSTMENTS REQUIRED FOR CONNECTIONS OR ALTERATIONS CAUSED BY WORK UNDER THIS CONTRACT. PATCH ALL PAVING (ASPHALT, CONC.,ETC.) WHERE UTILITIES ARE ADDED OR MOVED. SAWCUT EDGES WHERE EXISTING PAVING IS REMOVED. PATCH IN A SMOOTH, EVEN MANNER AS DIRECTED BY ARCHITECT.
3.
1 A1
SP-ECURB
SITE PLAN NOTES 14'-6"
A.D.
8
EXTRUDED CURB
137.50'
N 00 11' 00" W
7 A1
E.J. 7 A1
COMPACTED GRAVEL BASE
E.J.
COMPACT COMPACT
8 8 SPACES @ 9'-0"= 72'=0"
1"
MATCH EXIST. ASPHALT ELEVATION W/ NEW ASPHALT TYP.
13
20'-0"
6
FINISH GRADE 6"
1
COMPACT
7 SPACES @ 9'-0"= 63'-0"
8'-0"= 40'-0"
3'-3" RAD.
COMPACT
5 SPACES AT
7 A1 TYP.
6" 1"
BOND TO PAVING W/ EPOXY RESIN
E.J.
3
NEW AREA DRAIN SEE CIVIL DRAWING C-
8'-0"
7
3'-6" RAD.
4 A1
NEW PAINTED HANDICAP PARKING SYMBOL
AD.
8'-0"
7'-0"
7 A1
EXISTING CATCH BASIN TO REMAIN
NEW VEHICLE DIRECTION ARROW PAVEMENT MARKING
12'-6"
3 SPACES @ 9'-0"= 27'-0"
8'-0"
26'-0"
VAN
E 14
SIM
8'-0" (H.C.)
EJ.
3'-0" RAD.
NEW
3 A1
A1 10'-0"
4 A1
4 A2 NEW LIGHT POLE AND BASE (KIM # 1A-EKG401-150HPS 120 -BLE OR APPROVED SUBSTITUTE MOUNT AT 16' ABOVE LIGHTED SURFACE
26'-0"
14
3
3 A1
NEW DRIVEWAY & CURB CUT PER CITY STANDARDS
7 A1
10
8'-0"
PAINTED HCAP. PARKING SYMBOL- BLUE COLOR
EXISTING MAN HOLE TO REMAIN
10
SIM
2 A1
11
A1
PLANTING
8'-0"
SIM.
REMOVE EXIST. AC PAVING AND CONC. CURBS & GUTTERS, ETC. ( SEE DEMO. SITE PLAN / SURVEY FOR ADDITIONAL NOTES )
3 A1
SIM 3 A1
3 A1
SIM
3 A1
9
EJ.
DRIVEWAY
EJ.
EJ. 7
2 A1
10
LANA DRIVE
PLANTING
9
PLANTING
PLANTING
EXISTING LIGHT POLE AND BASE TO REMAIN
5'-0"
6'-0" MIN. TRANSITION OF SIDEWALK CURB FROM LEVEL WITH ASPHALT PAVING TO +6" ABOVE ASPHALT PAVING
6 A1
24'-0" EXISTING
EJ.
SYMBOL )
2
1
EXISTING CURB TO REMAIN
A.D. N 00 11' 00" W
A.D. PLANTING
(
LOT COVERAGE LEGEND BUILDING AREA
: 4,542 SQ. FT.
=
16.4%
PARKING/ SIDEWALK AREA
: 14,477 SQ. FT.
=
52.3%
LANDSCAPING AREA
: 8,668 SQ. FT.
=
31.3%
=
100% :
SITE AREA
27,687 SQ. FT.
SITE PLAN SCALE: 1" = 10'-0"
FIGURE 446 A site plan for a commercial project is similar to a residential plan. Information about parking is a major addition to a commercial plan. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
1016
Architectural Drafting and Design
5.7
217
216.5
21
4.
7
21
4.
214.2
214.1
215.9
162.50'
S 89 45' 00" E
21
7
214.7
216.3
216 RELOCATED LIGHT POLE AND B A S E COORD. LOCATION AND REQUIREMENTS W/ CITY
215
214.8
214.8 H.P.
214.7
RIM
H.P.
RIM
FIELD
FIELD
INLET
INLET
214.7
RIM
FIELD INLET
214.90
214.90
214.90
35.00'
214.7
N 00 11' 00" W
216.0
214.2
21
3.7
21
5
214.2 EXIST.
NEW
215.7
21
FIRST FLOOR SLAB ELEVATION 215.35
214.5 214.0
216.0
5
TC BC
E
215.0 2 1 5 . 3 5 FF 215.33 SW
CONC.
214.0 C
ASPH 213.7
. C.B. EXISTING
4 21
.7
213.6 G
N 89 45' 00"W 2.50
C
2
.9 G 13
4 21
.3 C
213.4 G
'
214
6'-0" MIN. TRANSITION OF SIDEWALK CURB FROM LEVEL WITH ASPHALT PAVING TO ;6" ABOVE ASPHALT PAVI N G
214
.0 C 213.8 213.3
214
TC BC
COLLINS WAY
2 1 5 . 3 5 FF
TYP. AT A L L EXT. DOORS
215.33 SW
213.75 213.25
.3
TC BC 213.5
213.8 RIM
214
TC BC
214.5 214.5
TC BC
214.5 214.5
TC BC
.1
214
215.10 214.60
TC BC
RIM
1 G.
214.7 214.7
213.3 ;
3.
TC BC
TC BC
213.3 ;
21
214.7 214.7
213.55 213.05
M
21
.1
213
3
.7 C
21
213.0
3.0
G
213.4 C
M 214.5 214.5
TC BC
TC BC
214.3 213.8
213.03 212.95
TC BC
213.6
ASPH.
21
212.7G
TC BC
212.73 T C 212.65 B C
213.3
213.1 213.1 212.6
TC BC
214.3 213.8
TC BC
LANA
214
214.6 214.1
2.
2.
HP
214
7
7
214.3 213.8 213.8
21
TC BC
CONC.
4
21
215.0 214.5
TC BC
213.6
DRIVE
214.5 214.5
TC BC
21
2.8 C
214.1 213.3
213.8
21
2.
3
4 21
212.7
NEW
EXIST.
137.50'
212.8 213.5 213.0
ASPH .
N 00 11' 00" W
2
CONC.
13
212.0 G
TC BC
214.15 213.65
OPENING IN CURB
TC BC
214 213.5
213.5
21
2
TC BC
1.
A.D.
OPENING IN CURB
212.2
212
213.5 213.0
21
21
1.
9
9
213
212.5 RIM
213 213.5
212.3 211.8
TC BC
213
N 89 45' 00" W 160.00'
5
2.
2.
21
0
3
3.
3.
21
21
21
2
SITE GRADING PLAN NOTES 1.
FIELD VERIFY ALL ELEVATIONS PRIOR TO START OF WORK.
2.
PROVIDE SUBGRADE IN PLANTING AREAS TO ALLOW FOR PLACEMENT OF TOPSOIL BY LANDSCAPE CONTRACTOR. COORDINATE DEPTH W/ LANDSCAPE DRAWINGS REMOVE ALL ROCK, RUBBLE AND OTHER DEBRIS. SLOPE AWAY FROM BUILDING AT 2:1 SLOPE, MAXIMUM.- SEE SHEET # L1 FOR LANDSCAPE LOCATIONS IN THIS CONTRACT.
LEGEND 213.00
213.00
EXISTING ELEVATION
213 213 C.B.
1 A2
NEW ELEVATION
EXISTING CONTOUR AND ELEVATION NEW CONTOUR AND ELEVATION CATCH BASIN
TC.
TOP OF C U R B
BC.
BOTTOM OF CURB
HP
H I G H POINT
FF
FINISH FLOOR
SW
SIDEWALK
AD
AREA DRAIN (NEW)
M
WATER METER
SITE GRADING PLAN SCALE: 1" = 10'-0"
FIGURE 447 Grading information is often placed on an overlay of the site plan to show cut and fill requirements of a job site. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1017
(12) PITTOSPORUM TOBIRA VARIEGATA
FILL IN WITH GRASS
(4) 15-GAL. LIQUIDAMBER STYRACIFLUS
A
(2) MAGNOLIA GRANDIFLORA
A A
A
A A
CL FLOYD MILLER BLVD.
A
(4) RAPHIOLEPIS OVATA-YEDDO
A
A
FILL IN WITH 1-GAL. HEDERA HELIX
CL ALLEY
(5) 15-GAL. LIQUIDAMBER STYRACIFLUS
A
A
(10) NANDINA DOMESTICA-HEAVENLY
FILL IN WITH 1-GAL. HEDERA HELIX
A A FILL IN WITH GRASS (9) RAPHIOLEPIS OVATA-YEDDO
A
A
A
A
(4) PITTOSPORUM TOBIRA VARIEGATA
FILL IN WITH 1-GAL. HEDERA HELIX
PLANTING LEGEND A
A
= LIQUIDAMBER STYRACIFLUS (SWEET GUM)
LANDSCAPE PLAN
= MAGNOLIA GRANDIFLORA (SOUTHERN MAGNOLIA)
= PITTOSPORUM TOBIRA VARIEGATA (MOCK ORANGE VARIGATE)
1/8"
1'-0"
= RAPHIOLEPIS OVATA-YEDDO (HAWTHORNE) = NANDINA DOMESTICA-HEAVENLY (HEAVENLY BAMBOO)
NORTH
(5) 15-GAL. LIQUIDAMBER STYRACIFLUS
= HEDERA HELIX'HAHNII'-HAHN'S (HAHN'S IVY) = GRASS
FIGURE 448 A landscaping plan is provided to show the proposed structure, the limits of parking and paved areas, walkways, and all required planting areas. Plants are shown and specified by their size and Latin name.
be indicated on this plan as well. Generally a drafter working for the landscape architect will complete this drawing. Figure 44-9 shows an example of the sprinkler plan for the landscape plan in Figure 44-8.
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS The architectural drawings are the drawings that describe the size and shape of a structure. They are prepared by, or under the direct supervision of, an architect. Common architectural drawings for a commercial project include floor plans, enlarged floor plans, elevations, wall sections, roof plan, reflected ceiling plan, interior elevations, finish schedules, and interior details.
Floor Plans and Schedules The A-100 sheets contain the plan views and schedules for the proposed structures, although on a large project, the schedules may be found in the A-600 sheets. For a multilevel structure, the ground floor will be referred to as the first floor in the drawing title; each floor above the first floor should be successively numbered with numbers increasing for each upper floor. Floors below the first floor should be titled B1, and numbered sequentially as they move downward. Mezzanines, a nonhabitable floor area with limited size and egress, should be numbered as M-1, in the title. The floor plan of a commercial project is used to show the locations of materials in the same way that
1018
Architectural Drafting and Design
P
P
P P
CL FLOYD MILLER BLVD.
P
P
b b P P
P
P
b P
P
H.B.
P
P
P
b
b
CONTROL BOX
1/8"
b
1'-0"
= FULL HEAD
= 1/2 NARROW STRIP HEAD
= 1/2 HEAD
= GATE VALVE
= 1/4 HEAD
= BACKFLOW PREVENTER
= BUBBLER
= 1" PVC SUPPLY LINE IN SLEEVE
P = POP UP HEAD
= NARROW STRIP HEAD
= 3/4" PVC FEEDER LINE
NORTH
SPRINKLER PLAN
= 1/2" PVC LINE
FIGURE 449 A sprinkler plan will be required in arid regions to maintain landscaping. A sprinkler plan is provided to show how irrigation and drainage will be provided. Feeder lines, sprinklers, and the location of all required controls, timers, and valves may be indicated on this plan.
a residential floor plan does. The difference in the floor plan comes in the type of material being specified. A commercial floor plan should provide information related to partition types and locations, dimensions to locate all features, room and door numbers, window types, references to interior and exterior elevations, identification of building and wall sections, enlarged plans for stairs, bathrooms or elevators, and schedule reference symbols for all related schedules. Figure 44-10 shows a floor plan for college classrooms.
Floor Plan Symbols Floor plans for commercial structures are similar to residential floor plans, but they also contain several
features not found in residential drawings. Common symbols shown on a floor plan include the north arrow, grid markers, section markers, detail markers, elevation symbols, and finish symbols. Because there are many variations to symbols used on the floor plan, a legend similar to Figure 44-11 is usually included with a commercial floor plan.
North Arrow The NCS recommends that a north arrow be placed on the floor plan, and on each of the other plan views to help orient the structure to the site. The north arrow is often placed near the drawing title as in Figure 44-10. Drawings are usually arranged so that north is placed at the top of the page if possible, although the arrow can
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
25'-0" (PANEL)
FACE OF TILT- UP PANEL & INT. G.B.
8'-2"
5'-6"
F.O.F.
14a,b a7
6 a10
1'-6"
LOBBY 15
43
44
CARPET A (INSET)
4'-4"
STAFF 19
9'-9"
6'-0" 12'-0" 6'-0"
COAT HOOKS (N.I.C.)
12'-0"
5 a10
18 a7
3'-8"
F.O.F.
F.O.F.
F.E.C.
31
HALLWAY 28
ENTRY MAT
35
36
37
CLASSROOM 29
10 a10
40
12'-0"
14a,b a7
ENTRY MAT
12 a10 STORAGE 21
41
2x6 STUDS
< OF STUDS
38
2" RAD.
7 a10
42
34
33
OFFICE 24
OFFICE 23
5 a7
SIM.
OFFICE 25
OFFICE 26
12'-0"
OFFICE 22
20
OFFICE 27
5 a7
F.O.F. 3"~ D.S
F.O.C.
6'-0"
5'-3" 22'-6"
3'-9"
F.O.C. & F.O.F.
F.O.C. & F.O.F.
F.O.C.
6"
6"
6"
6"
4'-0"
3'-6"
7'-6"
6" 6"
4'-3"
8'-0"
6"
6" 3'-6" 1'-0"
3'-6" 7'-0"
6"
6" 3'-6" 1'-0"
8'-0"
3'-6"
6"
6" 3'-6" 1'-0"
7'-0"
8'-0"
3'-6" 7'-0"
8'-0"
20'-0"
6"
6" 3'-6" 1'-0"
3'-6" 7'-0"
8'-0"
6" 6"
6"
1'-0"
6"
6"
3'-6"
3'-6" 7'-0"
1'-0"
8'-0"
3'-6" 7'-0"
8'-0"
H 1'-0"
3"~ D.S.
F a4
E a4
2'-0"
17 \" PLYWD SHTG. ON THIS SIDE OF WALL UNDER G.B.- SEE STRUCT.
4"
ALIGN
F a4
SECRETARY
EQ.
ALIGN
10'-0"
OUTSIDE FACE OF SKYLIGHT & STUDS
12'-1" R.O. COVERED ENTRY
G
32
1 EQ.
E F
OPP. HAND
4"
70'-0"
4'-4" ALIGN
39
F.O.C. & F.O.F. ALIGN
CLR.
2x6 STUDS
6'-0 CLR.
1'-6"
1'-6"
TEL.
WORKROOM 18
OFFICE 16
FACE OF INT. G.B.
30
3a,b a11
CORRIDOR 34
6'-0"
INSULATED SKYLIGHT ABOVE- SEE CEILING PLAN
2x6 STUDS W/ 1/2" PLYWD SHTG ON THIS SIDE OF WALL UNDER GBSEE STRUCT.
3'-0" 3'-0"
1'-2"
CARPET B (BORDER)
2
HCAP. TEL.
CARPET A ALIGN W/ FOF
3'-6"
" 1 '- 6
CARPET A ALIGN W/ FOF
18 a10
6'-4" ALIGN
5'-3" 10'-6"
FOF 6'-4"
16 a7
70'-0"
30
4'-0"
CLASSROOM
12'-0"
F.E.C .
ENTRY MAT
07
11"
CORRIDOR
D
4'-4"
19
18
4'-9"
F.E.C.
5'-3"
2'-4"
2x6 STUDS AT GRID 10
F.O.F.
5'-2"
16
2'-2" 2'-2"
29
20'-0"
12 a7
CER. TILE
17 a10 OPP. HAND
CLASSROOM 31
C C a4
28
2'-4"
ENLARGED PLAN
17
RECESSED ENTRY MAT (VERIFY DEPTH)
MEN 09
3" D.S.
CORR. 33
16 a7 19'-3" (PANEL)
WOMEN 08
7'-0"
RECESSED ENTRY MAT (VERIFY DEPTH)
LAB. 14
47
FACE OF INT. G.B.
FOF
ENTRY MAT
5'-9"
1 a2
23
27
F.E.C .
26
B
5'-3"
21'-4"
BOILER RM. PLAN ABOVE LANDING & DOOR ABOVE SHOWN DASHED
CLASSROOM 32
6'-0"
3'-6"
MEN SHOWER 35
15
17 a7
5'-0"
19'-3" (PANEL)
14
8'-0"
20
11
WOMEN SHOWER 36
2 a2
11 a7
STOR.
8'-3"
10
10'-6"
25 STOR.
12 ONE HOUR FIRE RATED WALL
5'-3"
4"~ D.S.
21
3'-8"
22
1'-0"
3" D.S.
24
6'-0"
13
13
6'-0"
12
A
1 a3
15'-0"
COMM.
15'-0"
JAN.
11
5'-6"
FACE OF TILT- UP PANEL
NONINSULATED FIBERGLASS CANOPY ABOVE- SEE CEILING PLAN
3" D.S.
5'-6"
1'-10"
1'-10"
4" STL. BOLLARDSSEE 'L' DRAWINGSFOR DET. (TYP. FOR 11)
3" D.S.
9'-6"
7"
1'-10"
23'-8" 1-1/2"
25'-0" (PANEL)
10'-0"
5'-0"
10
10'-0"
40'-0"
25'-0" (PANEL) 10'-0"
11 12
10
F.O.F.
20'-0"
9
F.O.F.
30'-0"
8
7
B a4
196'-0"
F.O.F.
6
1019
6"
6"
3'-6" 1'-0"
3'-6" 7'-0"
6"
6"
3'-6" 1'-0"
8'-0"
3'-6" 7'-0"
8'-0"
J K
6"
6"
4'-0"
3'-6" 1'-0"
7'-6" 6"
8'-0"
5'-6"
40'-0"
196'-0"
CL OF TILT- UP COLUMNS (PIER)
< OF TILT- UP COLUMNS (PIER)
< OF TILT- UP COLUMNS (PIER)
B a4
PLAN NOTES 1. VERIFY ALL CONDITIONS, DIMENSIONS AND LOCATIONS. 2. PERFORM ALL WORK IN COMPLIANCE WITH APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS. 3. COORDINATE AND INSTALL ALL NECESSARY BLOCKING, SHIMS AND BACKING FOR FIXTURES, EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES.
4. COORDINATE ALL WORK WITH STRUCTURAL, MECHANICAL, CIVIL, LANDSCAPE AND ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS.
7.
5. PROVIDE 2x FIRE STOPPING PER UBC. SECTION 2516 (f). 6.
SEE STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS FOR SHEAR WALL LOCATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS- TYP. (SEE SHEET No.2 FOR WALL LEGEND)
8.
EXTERIOR DIMENSIONS ARE TO FACE OF FINISH (F.O.F.), OR FACE OF CONCRETE (F.O.C.), UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED ON PLAN- INTERIOR DIMENSIONS ARE TO CENTERLINE OF STUDS & FACE OF STUDS AT OPNG. (ROUGH OPENINGS) UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED ON PLANS. WRAP BACK OF F.E.C. W/ (2) LAYERS OF G.B.- TYP. FOR FIRE RATING OR ACOUSTICAL RATING INTEGERITY.
9.
10.
SEE 'L' DRAWINGS FOR FINISH GRADES AND PAVING BEYOND BUILDING LINE & INSIDE GARBAGE ENCLOSURE & AT COVERED ENTRIES- TYP.
SEE DOOR AND ROOM FINISH SCHEDULE ON SHEET # 2.
FLOOR PLAN 1/8" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4410 The floor plan for a structure shows all wall and opening locations, as well as a reference map to help the print reader understand the relationship of other drawings to the floor plan. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
Architectural Drafting and Design
A. NORTH ARROWS
A
REF. NORTH
1020
T NO RUE RT H
4 A-6
1
B. GRID MARKERS
6 A-2
D. DETAIL MARKER
C. SECTION MARKER
F.F. 100.75'
E. ELEVATION REFERENCE
FIGURE 4411 Standard symbols used on commercial floor plans.
be rotated to the right side of the drawing sheet due to project and sheet size limitations. True north and magnetic north can also be indicated if the orientation is skewed by use of a north reference arrow. Examples of each are shown in Figure 44-11A.
items that lie between grids. The grids are useful for coordinating one plan with another, or for locating information in a specific area of a drawing. Figure 44-10 shows grid references 6 through 12 and A through K. The print reader can use these references to relate each drawing and detail back to the floor plan. Figure 44-11B shows an example of grid reference symbols.
Section Markers Section markers and section lines are used to indicate where each building and wall section is cut. A small circle is typically used to identify the section and a phantom line is used to indicate where the cutting plane has passed through the structure. An arrow is placed around the circle to indicate the viewing direction. As seen in Figure 44-11C, the circle is divided into two portions, with a number representing a specific section (section 4) placed over the page number where the section is located (sheet A-6).
Detail Markers Detail markers are used to reference construction details to a drawing. A small circle is typically used to identify each detail with a thin line used to reference where the detail occurs. The circle referencing the detail is divided into two portions, with a number representing a specific detail (detail 6) placed over a number representing where the detail can be found (sheet A-2). Figure 44-11D shows an example of a detail marker. Notice on the right side of the reference circle is a partial circle that would be used to partially encircle the item shown in the detail. Other options include the use of a dashed rectangle to indicate the material included in the detail, or the use of a line with an arrow to indicate the direction the print reader is looking when viewing the detail.
Grid Markers Because most commercial projects are so complex, grid reference markers are used to identify specific areas of the structure. The NCS recommends a small circle with a number or letter in it to represent the grid and column lines of a structure. A medium-width center line extends from the circle through the drawing. Either text or numbers are used to define each grid. Numbers should be used to define the vertical grids with numbers increasing from the left to right. Consecutive letters of the alphabet are used to define the horizontal grids, starting with grid A at the bottom of the drawing and progressing through the alphabet as grids progress to the top. The letters I and O are not used. In addition to referencing steel and timber columns, grid markers are used to reference each major change in shape of the structure, as well as interior bearing columns. Additional grids such as 2.5 can be assigned to locate
Elevation Symbols An elevation symbol is used to represent changes in height of a specific material. On plan views, the symbol consists of the elevation placed above a horizontal line, which is connected to the material by an inclined line with an arrow terminator. An elevation symbol can be seen in Figure 44-11E. Elevation symbols are used on floor, framing, site, foundation, and exterior elevations. Elevation symbols are used to specify vertical locations on elevations, sections, and details.
Schedules Schedules communicate information about a related group of objects such as doors, windows, hardware, or finishes. They are used on most drawings to reduce the information that must be placed in and around the
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1021
If you were in a hallway, and needed to represent a door going into office 102, the door would receive a symbol of 102. If more than one door enters office 102 from the hall, the doors could be referenced with the symbols 102a and 102b. Although material will vary depending on the occupancy and complexity of a structure, a schedule will normally contain information related to:
a
2 A. DOOR SYMBOL
9 A-5
b
c
A
C. INTERIOR FINISH SYMBOL
B. WINDOW SYMBOL
● ● ●
OFFICE
●
5 .4 .4 .2
●
102 CEIL
WALL
FLOOR (#1) ROOM (#2)
BASE
FLOOR
●
D. FINISH SYMBOLS WALL TYPE
32 A
FURRING TYPE
X
WALL HEIGHT
E. WALL CONSTRUCTION MARKER FIGURE 4412 Symbols are often developed by an office to relate information presented in schedules to the floor plan.
drawing. Schedules add clarity to a drawing by removing notations and placing the notations either at the edge of the floor plan or on another sheet. Symbols used on the floor plans to relate information to schedules can be seen in Figure 44-12.
●
Figure 44-13 shows a portion of the door schedule, the notes, and door drawings for the doors on the floor plan shown in Figure 44-10. Doors that require details to show how the door frame relates to the exterior finish or the skeleton of the structure are placed with other interior details on the A-600 drawing sheets.
Window Schedules and Symbols The use of a window schedule varies with each office, depending on the type of window to be installed and the amount of detailing provided. On simple structures no window schedule is provided. Sizes would be determined based on the dimensions provided on the floor plan; the exterior elevations; and jamb, header, and sill details. If a window schedule is used, it will normally include: ● ● ● ● ●
Door Schedules and Symbols A door is referenced on the floor plan to a schedule by the use of a hexagon containing a number (see Figure 44-12A). Depending on office procedure, the number may either be sequential or related to the room containing the door. With sequential numbering, the main entry door is usually assigned the number 1. Other doors are usually numbered as they would be encountered if you were to walk through the building. Interior doors are often listed in the schedule from largest to smallest for each specific type. Doors can also be assigned a number based on the location of the door.
The reference number. The width, height, and thickness. Door type and UL rating. Door and frame material. Door and frame finish. References for details showing the jamb, header, and threshold construction. Notations to clarify door operation, location, or construction.
● ●
The reference letter. The width and height. Type of window. Type of glass to be used. Frame material and finish. References for details showing the jamb, header, and sill construction. Notations to clarify operation, location, or construction.
Figure 44-14 shows an example of a window schedule with drawings to represent the type of windows.
Interior Finish Symbols Interior reference markers like those (at C in Figure 44-12C) are used to reference interior elevations to the floor plan. A 3/8" to 1/2" (9 to 13 mm)
1022
Architectural Drafting and Design
1
12'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
D
ALUM.
CLR. ANOD.
2
3'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
A
SC.
S & V.
3
3'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
A
SC.
S & V.
4
3'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
A
SC.
S & V.
5
3'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
A
SC.
S & V.
6
3'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
A
SC.
S & V.
7
7'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
D
ALUM.
CLR. ANOD.
8
3'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
B
SC.
S & V.
B
HM.
P.
STL.
P.
9
PR. 5'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
10
10'-0"
10'-0"
1-3/4
11
3'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
B
HM.
P.
12
3'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
B
HM.
P.
13
3'-0"
7'-0"
1-3/4
B
HM.
P.
ALUM.
- ALUMINUM
HM. P.
- HOLLOW METAL - PAINT
PR.
- PAIR
S & V.
- STAIN & VARNISH
SC. TEMP.
- SOLID CORE - TEMPERED
GL.
- GLAZING
MFR.
- MANUFACTURED
ANOD. PSDF. 20M.
- ANODIZED - PACKAGED STEEL DOOR FRAME - 20 MINUTE RATED
1 HR. SS.
- ONE HOUR RATED -STAINLESS STEEL
GALV.
-GALVANIZED
7-1/2'
4"
FINISH
H
J
J
T
CLR. 20 14 14 ALUM. ANOD. 20 a7 a7 a7 a7 5b 5b 5b PSDF. MFR. a11 a11 a11 5b 5b 5b PSDF. MFR. a11 a11 a11 5b 5b 5b PSDF. MFR. a11 a11 a11 5b 5b 5b PSDF. MFR. a11 a11 a11 5b 5b 5b PSDF. MFR. a11 a11 a11 CLR. 15 15 20 ALUM. ANOD. 20 a7 a7 a7 a7 10 10 10 4 PSDF. MFR. a7 a7 a7 a11 9 9 9 HM. P. a7 a7 a7 5 7a 7b 6 STL. P. a6 a6 a6 a6 11 11 7b 8 HM. P. a7 a7 a6 a7 6b 6b 6b PSDF. MFR. a11 a11 a11 5b 5b 5b PSDF. MFR. a11 a11 a11
AUTO. SLIDING DOOR W/ SENSOR
1 2
20M.
3
20M.
3
20M.
2
20M.
3
20M.
1 4
REMARKS
AUTO. SLIDING DOOR W/ SENSOR 1-HR. SOUND DOOR
5
GARBAGE ENCLOSURE
1
COILING DOOR
6 18 8
DOOR TYPES
FLUSH DOORS
2'-1"
DOOR SCHEDULE ABBREVIATIONS
MATERIAL
TH.
DETAILS
7-1/2"
WIDTH HEIGHT
FINISH
NO.
MATERIAL
SIZE
TYPE
FRAME
RATING
DOOR
HARDWARE GROUP
DOOR SCHEDULE
PAIR SHOWN DASHEDTYP.
1/4" WIRE GL. W/ WD. FRAME AT RATED DOORS1/4" TEMP. SAFETY GL. AT NONRATED DOORS
TYPE 'A'
SLIDE
TYPE 'C'
TYPE 'B'
1/4" TEMP. GL.
AUTOMATIC SLIDING (CLR. ANOD.) ALUM. DOOR
3'-0"
SLIDE
FLUSH POCKET TYPE DOOR
1/4" TEMP. GL.
NARROW STILE (CLR. ANOD.) ALUM DOOR
SOLAR TINTED GLASS- TYP.
TYPE 'D'
(DOOR ONLY)
TYPE 'E'
FIGURE 4413 A door schedule with elevations and notes can be used to remove information from the floor plan and increase clarity. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
diameter circle is used to identify each detail. The circle with an arrow is placed in the room to indicate which direction the marker is referencing. Four arrows can be placed around the circle to represent each wall of the room. If an arrow is not placed on a specific side of a circle, then no elevation is to be drawn for that wall. The page number where the detail is drawn is placed in the circle. Each arrow is numbered to represent a specific elevation.
Finish Symbols and Schedules Figure 44-15 shows an example of a finish schedule. This schedule represents each finish with a specific number, and then provides a legend of finishes below the schedule. Another common format is to have a column to represent each finish, and provide a check in a box of required finishes. This schedule format would require six columns for the floor to represent each material. Notice in Figure 44-15 that the walls
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1023
WINDOW SCHEDULE MK
SIZE WIDTH X HEIGHT
MATERIAL FRAME
TYPE
NOTES
AA
18'-0" X 6'-11 1/2" M.O. M.O.
ALUM.
FIXED
AB
16'-0" X 6'-11 1/2" M.O. M.O.
ALUM.
FIXED
AC
2'-6" X 13'-9" M.O. M.O.
ALUM.
FIXED
AD
6'-0" X 6'-11 1/2" M.O. M.O.
ALUM.
AE
6'-0" X 3'-10" M.O. M.O.
AF
1'-11 1/2" X 8'-0 1/4" R.O. R.O.
AG
7'-9 1/2" X 8'-0 1/4" R.O. R.O.
ALUM.
HEAD
JAMB
SILL
3/A18
9/A18
9/A18
3/A18
9/A18
9/A18
3/A18
22/A19 28/A19
16/A18
FIXED
3/A18
9/A18
9/A18
ALUM.
FIXED
3/A18
9/A18
9/A18
TEMPERED GLASS ALUM.
FIXED
SEE ELEVATION, SEE SILL DTL.
10/A18 6/A18
27/A18
16/A18
FIXED
SEE ELEVATION, SEE SILL DTL. SEE DTL. 5/A18 FOR MULLION
10/A18 6/A18
26/A18 28/A18
16/A18
SEE ELEV., SEE JAMB, SILL
REVEAL ELEVATIONS AT CORRIDOR WALL TO CORRESPOND TO STOREFRONT MULLIONS. BOTTOM OF REVEALS TO FLUSH OUT W/ TOP OF FRAME OF DOOR & RELITE TYP.
TYPE A
TYPE B
1'-0"
FIXED FIXED GLASS GLASS TEMP. TEMP.
FIXED GLASS
FIXED GLASS
FIXED GLASS
TYPE D
TYPE C
WIDTH 4"
1'-0"
WIDTH FIXED GLASS TEMP.
HEIGHT
HEIGHT
FIXED GLASS TEMP.
WIDTH HEIGHT
FIXED GLASS TEMP.
WIDTH
HEIGHT
1'-0" MIN.
WIDTH
HEIGHT
1'-0" MIN.
FIXED GLASS TEMP.
TYPE E
FIGURE 4414 A window schedule is used to keep the floor plan from becoming cluttered. Courtesy Michael & Kuhns Architects, PC.
columns are referenced to N, E, S, and W. Several walls also have notations for two types of materials on the same wall.
Symbols to Clarify Materials To supplement the interior elevations contained in the A-200 pages, the use of finish symbols (Figure 44-12D) referenced to a finish schedule can be used to specify interior finishes. When several options for construction material must be specified, finish symbols can be used to add clarity. No matter what the symbol, it is typically placed near the room title or room number. Within the symbol, references for the floor, base, wall, and ceiling material should be given. This information is then specified in a finish schedule. The finish schedule typically includes information concerning: ● ● ●
The room number and name. Columns for the floor, base, each wall, and the ceiling. Wall height.
Wall Construction Symbols An additional symbol that may be shown on the symbol legend is a symbol for wall construction.
When required, this symbol will reference several details of wall construction to a specific wall represented on a floor plan. Figure 44-12E shows one option for creating a wall construction symbol. This particular symbol references several different wall details, which are shown in Figure 44-15.
Roof Plans Roof and roof drainage plans are a common component of commercial drawings. Each of these drawings can be found in the A-100 page series following the floor plans and schedules. The roof plan is used to show the shape, the roofing materials, the direction of slope, and the drainage method of each roof surface. Specific features that the NCS recommends be shown on the roof plan include: ●
The extent and direction of slope to roof drains, and overflow drains or scuppers.
●
The elevations of roof or wall high points, ridges, low points, and drains.
●
The location and elevation of each penthouse.
1024
Architectural Drafting and Design
ROOM FINISH KEY FLOORS
WALLS
1.
ENTRY MAT
1.
GYPSUM BOARD PAINT
2.
CARPET 'A'
2.
WATER RESISTANT GYPSUM BOARD PAINT
3.
CARPET 'B'
3.
EXPOSED CONCRETE- ELASTOMERIC PAINT
4.
SHEET VINYL
4.
EXPOSED CONCRETE W/ SEALER
5.
CERAMIC TILE (COLOR No.1)
5.
6.
SEALED CONC.
5'-0" HIGH P.LAM. WAINSCOT OVER W.R. G.B. W/ METAL EDGES
CEILINGS BASE
BASE
4 1 2
1
1
1
02 CORRIDOR
1
1
03 LAB
1
1
3
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
ROOM NAME
01 LOUNGE
04 VOCAT. CLASSROOM 05 CLASSROOM
6 2 2
2 1 5
1
08 WOMEN
5
2
09 MEN
5
2
10 STORAGE
6
1
11 STORAGE
6
1
6
1
06 CLASSROOM 07 CORRIDOR
12 JANITOR 13 COMMUN. ROOM 14 LAB 15 LOBBY 16 OFFICE
6 1 6 2 1 3 3
1 1 1 1
E
S 1
1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1
1
2
2 2
1 1
1
1 1 4
1
1
4 VARIES BASE AT G.B. WALLS ONLY
SEE INT. ELEVATIONS
9'-0"
NO WORK REQUIRED
9'-0"
1
2
9'-0"
3
7'-6"
2
1
2
2
7'-6" 8'-8" 7'-6" 8'-8"
1
1 1
8'-8"
1
8'-8"
1
VARIES
6
VARIES
1
2
9'-0"
1
1
1
1
1
1
9'-0"
1
1
1
1
1
2
9'-0"
19 STAFF
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
9'-0"
20 LIBRARY
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
9'-0"
21 STORAGE
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
9'-0"
22 OFFICE
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
9'-0"
23 OFFICE
3 3
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
2 2
9'-0"
24 OFFICE 25 OFFICE
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
9'-0"
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
9'-0"
27 OFFICE
3 1 2 2
1
1
1
1
1
2
9'-0"
1
1
1
1
1
1
9'-0"
1
1
1
1
1
2
9'-0"
2 2
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
2
9'-0"
1
2
9'-0"
2 1 2 2
1
1
1
1
1
2
9'-0"
1
1
1
1
1
3 3 1
8'-0"
1
8'-0"
33 CORRIDOR 34 CORRIDOR
GYPSUM BOARD ON 2x FRAMING AT 16" OC.(1 HOUR FIRE RATED & WATER RESISTANT G.B. AT ROOMS 08, 09, 35 & 36)
2.
2'X4' SUSP. ACOUSTIC TILE (NONRATED)
3.
GYPSUM BOARD ON EACH SIDE OF 2x CEILING JOISTS AT 24" OC. (ONE HOUR FIRE RATED AT CORRIDORS)
4.
EXPOSED ROOF STRUCTURE- PAINT
5.
(2) LAYERS OF 5/8" GYPSUM BOARD OVER MET. HAT CHANNELS AT 16" OC.- (ONE HOUR FIRE RATED)
6.
INSULATED FIBERGLASS SKYLIGHT
7 a11
EXTERIOR WALLS 1.
EXTERIOR INSULATION & FINISH SYSTEM (EIFS.) OVER 1/2" PLYWD. WALL SHTG., OVER 2X6 STUDS AT 16" OC. W/ R-19 FOILFACE FIBERGLASS INSUL. & 5/8" GYP. BOARD INTERIOR FINISH (CONTINUE DOUBLE LAYER OF FINISH FROM INTERIOR WALLS AT OFFSETS IN EXTERIOR WALLS)
2.
EXTERIOR INSULATION & FINISH SYSTEM (EIFS.) OVER 5-1/2" TILT-UP CONC. WALLS W/ PAINTED EXPOSED CONC. ON GARBAGE ENCLOSURE SIDE ONLY- (8'-10" HIGH WALL)
3.
EXTERIOR INSULATION & FINISH SYSTEM (EIFS.) OVER 5-1/2" TILT- UP CONC. WALLS W/ SEALED OR PAINTED INTERIOR FINISH
ENTRY KIOSK
14 a5
19 a6 8 a5 4.
12" TILT-UP CONC. COLUMNS- PAINT ALL EXPOSED SURFACES
1
2
3
a5
a5
a5
9'-0"
26 OFFICE
32 CLASSROOM
1.
WALL LEGEND
VARIES 4 VARIES BASE AT G.B. WALLS ONLY
4
31 CLASSROOM
ENTRY KIOSK
1
2
30 CLASSROOM
NOTES
2
18 WORKROOM
29 CLASSROOM
5" COVED CER. TILE (SEE INTERIOR ELEVATIONS) THINSET OVER WR. G.B. (COLOR No.2)
2
17 SECRETARY
28 HALLWAY
4" COVED RUBBER BASE
2.
1 1 1
1
1.
3
1 4 1 1 2 2 2 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1
REMARKS
1 6 VARIES 7'-6" 3 9'-0"
2
1
1 2
W
HEIGHT
FLOOR
WALLS N
NO.
CEILING
ROOM FINISH SCHEDULE
9'-0" 7'-6" 9'-0" 7'-6"
35 MEN SHOWER
5
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
36 WOMEN SHOWER
5
2
2
2
2
2
37 BOILER ROOM
6
1
4
4
2
2
5 VARIES
38 ELECTRICAL ROOM
6
1
4
2
2
4
5 VARIES
INTERIOR WALLS 5.
2X4 STUDS AT 16" OC. W/ 3" ACOUSTIC INSUL. IN STUD CAVITY G.B. ON ONE SIDE (LEAVE AIR SPACE BETWEEN STUDS AND/OR TILT- UP CONC. WALL) EXTEND FROM FLOOR LINE UP TO ROOF FRAMING (ONE HOUR FIRE RATED CONSTRUCTION)
7 a5
6
6.
5-1/2" TILT- UP CONC. WALL W/ EXTERIOR INSUL. & FINISH SYSTEM (AT EXTERIOR) ABOVE ALL LOW ROOF AREAS-SEAL OR PAINT ALL EXPOSED CONC. SURFACES
a5
7.
2X4 STUDS AT 16" OC. W/ 3" ACOUSTIC INSUL.- (2) LAYERS OF G.B. ON BOTH SIDES EXTEND FROM FLOOR LINE UP TO ROOF FRAMING (END SECOND LAYER OF G.B. 6" ABOVE CEILING LINE)- 2X6 STUDS AS NOTED ON FLOOR PLAN (ONE HOUR FIRE RATED CONSTRUCTION AT LOBBY (15) & CORRIDORS)
a11
8.
2X4 STUDS AT 16" OC. W/ 3" ACOUSTIC INSUL.- G.B. ON BOTH SIDES OF WALL EXTEND FROM FLOOR LINE UP TO FLOOR FRAMING, UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED (ONE HOUR FIRE RATED AS NOTED ON PLANS)
9.
2X4 STUDS AT 16" OC. W/ 3" ACOUSTIC INSUL.- (1/2" RESILIENT CHANNELS AT 16" OC. W/ G.B. ON ONE SIDE & (2) LAYERS OF G.B. ON OPPOSITE SIDE- EXTEND FROM FLOOR LINE UP TO 6" ABOVE CEILING LINE
10.
METAL HAT CHANNELS AT 16" OC. FURRING OVER CONC. WALL OR CONC. CONDUIT ENCASEMENT W/ G.B. FINISH- EXTEND FROM FLOOR LINE UP TO FLOOR FRAMING
11.
2X4 STUDS AT 16" OC. W/ 3" ACOUSTIC INSUL. & (2) LAYERS OF G.B. ON ONE SIDE (LEAVE AIR SPACE BETWEEN STUDS) EXTEND FROM FLOOR LINE UP TO ROOF FRAMING (ONE HOUR FIRE RATED CONSTRUCTION)
19
12 a7
16a,b a11 12 a7
16 a7
FIGURE 4415 Schedules, notes, and special symbols are used to keep a floor plan from becoming cluttered. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
● ●
● ●
Walking surfaces, changes in material, and control or seismic joints. Antennas and supports, lightning arresters (coordinate with the electrical plan), major roof penetrations such as vents and HVAC shafts, roof-mounted window-cleaning equipment, and other miscellaneous roof-mounted equipment. Skylights. Size and location of downspouts.
●
Roof-mounted splash blocks at downspouts that discharge water onto a lower roof.
●
Roof access ladders.
●
Roof crickets.
●
References to roof-related details.
Although many commercial structures have a roof with a slight slope, each of the shapes traditionally associated with light-frame construction can also be used
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1025
FIGURE 4416 Simple structures often use a single-slope roof to divert water off the roof.
with commercial structures. On simple structures, the plan may be drawn at a small scale such as 1/8" = 1'–0" (1:100 metric) or smaller. On more complicated structures, the roof plan is drawn at the same size as the floor plan, and divided into sections by match lines that match the floor plan and elevations.
Low-Sloped Roofs Low-sloped roofs are divided into two categories by the IBC. The IBC requires a minimum slope of 1/4 / 12 (2% slope) for drainage. Manufacturers of roofing material typically consider roofs with a slope of less than a 2/12 (17% slope) pitch as a low-sloped roof. A second category of material can be used for roofs with slopes that range from 2 1/2 / 12 (21% slope) to 4/12 pitch (33% slope). Because of the size of many commercial structures, a flat, low-sloped roof is the only practical shape that can economically be used. The method of framing the roof will depend on the size of the structure and the arrangement of space. For a simple structure, a single-sloped shed roof similar to Figure 44-16 can be
used. In locations that do not receive much rain, any water collected on the roof may be allowed to drain off the low edge of the roof directly to the ground. In moister regions, water will be diverted to one or more collection points and then removed from the roof by a series of drains. Water removal methods are discussed later in this chapter. Many low-sloped roofs are surrounded by parapet walls, which are exterior walls that extend above the roof. Parapet walls are provided for low-sloped roofs to hide mechanical equipment from public view. Depending on the location of the structure to the property line, building codes generally require a minimum of a 30" (750 mm) high parapet wall regardless of the pitch. This is to protect the roof from a fire on adjoining property, or vice versa. The parapet wall location and height must be specified on the roof plan. Wall construction is specified in details similar to Figure 44-17, which must be referenced to the roof plan. The parapet wall creates a dam effect, trapping water on the low side of the roof. Lightweight metal
1026
Architectural Drafting and Design
1/2" P.T. PLYWD AT CONC. PARAPET NOTEELEV. ARE DISTANCE ABOVE MAIN FL. SLAB- TYP. 2" RIGID INSUL
1/2" 4" 3/4"
High-Sloped Roofs
NOTEEXTEND MEMB. ROOFING 4" ABOVE TOP OF CANTTYP.
9
3-1/2"
SEALANT JOINTS
2"
CONT. CLEAT
6"
SOLID BACKING- TYP. FOR SLOPE 21'-6"
3
GALV. S.M. COPING W/ 1" STANDING SEAMS @ 10'-0" O.C. MAX.- SPACE EVENLY BETWEEN CORNERS- TYP.SLOPE 1/2"- TYP. SEE DETAIL # 4 / a5. GASKETED SCREWS AT MAX. 24" OC. MEMB. FLASH OVER TOP OF PARAPET 4" CANT STRIP (5) COURSE MEMB. FLASH TO MEMB. ROOFING OVER FIBER BOARD
VARIES- VERIFY
B
P.T. 3X6 W/ A.B.SEE STRUCT.
P.T. NAILER AT ALL EDGES OF INSUL. STL. OR WOOD LEDGERS- SEE STRUCT.- TYP. 1-1/2" E.I.F.S. OVER 5-1/2" TILT-UP CONC. WALL- SEE STRUCT.
ROOFING SYSTEM OVER 1/2" WOOD FIBER BD. ROOF JOISTSSEE STRUCT.
FIGURE 4417 A parapet wall that surrounds the roof must be referenced on the roof plan. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
flashing is used to protect each wall/roof intersection from water seepage. Flashing is also used on the tops of parapet walls and at each penetration of the roof. The type and gage of the metal, and the type of lap are specified on the roof details. A cant strip is a small block of wood that is placed below the roofing material where the parapet wall intersects the roof. The cant strip provides support to the flashing and roofing. The cant strip is a piece of wood that is cut to provide an inclined surface to slope water away from the intersection. The cant strip is not always specified on the roof plan, but is generally referenced in details similar to Figure 44-17. As the length of the structure increases, a singledirection slope can still be used, but additional measures are required to distribute rainwater. As the distance between roof drains is increased, the cant strip is replaced by a cricket. A cricket or saddle is a small “fake roof” built to divert water. The cricket is built over the roof on its low side to divert water to roof drains. It can be constructed of plywood or sheet metal depending on the size. Smaller crickets are also framed on the upper edge of any roof penetrations such as skylights and HVAC equipment. An alternative to framing crickets is to alter the slope of the entire roof by using a framing system, typically referred to as a butterfly roof. With a single-sloped roof, framing members hang from a ledger that is attached to the exterior wall. The ledger is parallel to the floor. With a butterfly roof, the ledger is set on an incline, which provides additional slope to what is normally considered a flat roof.
High-sloped roofs are considered to be any roof with a slope greater than a 4/12 pitch (33% slope). Many of the roof shapes found in residential construction are also used in light construction and small commercial uses. The most common high-sloped roof shapes include mansard, gable, hip, Dutch hip, and gambrel roofs. Each was introduced as residential plans were discussed. The mansard roof is a very common shape in commercial construction because of its use for hiding roof-mounted equipment. A mansard roof is an inclined roof that is used to cover one or more full stories of a structure. A partial mansard can be used as a visual screen, as a shading device, or as a decoration to break up a parapet wall. When shown on the roof plan, the mansard must be located by dimension and referenced to construction details.
Roof Materials The type of material used for weather protection must be specified on the roof plan. Common materials for residential roofs were introduced in Chapter 22. Common commercial roofing materials include single-ply and built-up roofs, shingles, metal slate, and tile roofs. Roof materials are described by their weight per square. A square of roofing is equal to 100 sq ft (9.3 m2). Single-Ply Roofs. Single-ply roofs can be applied as a thin liquid or sheet made from ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), which is an elastomeric or synthetic rubber material. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE), and polymer-modified bitumens are also used. These materials are designed to be applied to roof decks ranging with a minimum slope 1/4 / 12 (2% slope). In liquid form, these materials can be applied directly to the roof decking with a roller or sprayer to conform to irregular-shaped roofs. Singlesheet roofs are rolled out and bonded together to form one large sheet. The sheet can be bonded to the roof deck by mechanical fasteners. Some applications are not attached to the roof deck and are held in place by gravel material that is placed over the roofing material to provide ballast. A typical specification for a single-ply roof would specify the material, the application method, and the aggregate size with the complete description provided in the written specifications. Details are also typically supplied with the roof plan to show how roof intersections and sheet seams will be flashed. Built-Up Roofs. Built-up roofs consist of two or more layers of bituminous-saturated roofing felt cemented together with bitumen and surfaced with a cap sheet,
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
mineral aggregate, or similar surfacing material. The bitumen material used to bond the layers together is usually tar or asphalt. In addition to the roofing felts and bitumens, a gravel surfacing material is used to protect the exposed surface from abrasions. Built-up roof systems can be applied over any type of roof deck and are suitable for low- or high-sloped roofs. Generally they are to be applied to roofs with a minimum slope of 1/4 / 12 (2% slope) but less than a 2/12 pitch (17% slope). Seamed Metal. A sheet metal roof made of copper, zinc alloy, or galvanized or coated stainless steel is a common alternative for a commercial roof when a 3/12 or greater pitch (25% slope) is used. A pitch as low as 1/4 / 12 (2% slope) can be used depending on the type of seam used to join the metal sheets. A print reader can expect to find the metal gage, panel size, material, and seam pattern when metal sheets are specified on the roof plan. Corrugated Metal. Corrugated steel sheets can be used for either a siding or roofing material. Metal sheets in either rounded or angular bent patterns are available and can be installed on roofs with a pitch of 3/12 (25% slope) or greater. In addition to steel, panels are also available in aluminum, galvanized steel, fiberglass, and corrugated structural glass. When specified, the manufacturer, material, panel size and weight, required lap, finish, and fastening method must be placed on the plans. Details of installation are also referenced to the roof plan.
Common Roof Plan Components Although the plan of a low-sloped roof looks different from a high-sloped roof plan, many of the components are the same. Common components include changes in roof shape, roof openings, drainage methods, notations, and dimensions. Changes in Roof Shape. Changes in roof shape are shown on the roof plan with continuous object lines. A ridge, hip, and valley are the most common changes of roof shape. When one gable or hip roof intersects another gable roof, a valley is created. Roof Openings. Each penetration of the roof such as skylights, chimneys, vent pipes, and openings for HVAC ducts are usually represented on a commercial roof plan. Individual skylights are shown on the roof plan by a rectangle that represents the size of the skylights. On plans with a large number of skylights, the
1027
size and type of the skylight can be shown in a schedule. In addition to showing the location, the method of protecting the opening from water must also be shown. The waterproofing method is shown in details, which are referenced on the roof plan. Because of the risk of leaking, plumbing vents are shown on most low-pitched roof plans. Circles or squares, depending on their shape, represent vents and exhaust flues. Their location is determined by their location on the floor plan and is generally not located by dimensions on the roof plan. Details to show waterproofing methods are referenced to the roof plan. Because openings for mechanical equipment must be shown on the roof framing drawing, they may or may not be shown on the roof plan. The location of equipment is generally shown and specified in relation to surrounding walls or screens on the roof plan. Both the screens and curbs for mounting the equipment are referenced on the roof plan. Roof Drainage. A key requirement of any roof plan is to show how water will be diverted from the surface. To indicate drainage, slope indicators, elevation markers, drains, and overflow drains must all be shown to indicate how water will be removed from the roof. Each is shown in Figure 44-18. A slope indicator is an arrow that indicates the flow of water on the roof. Arrows are generally placed so that they point away from the ridge to the low points of the roof. Elevations for the roof are represented with symbols similar to those used on the floor and site plans. Elevations for the roof are generally given from either the finished floor level or from the height of the ridge. The base point for the elevations is usually indicated on the roof plan in either a legend or in general notes. Figure 44-18 shows elevations that are based on the finished floor. Gutters. The roof system is designed to direct water from the ridge downward. For sloped roofs built in areas of the country that receive large amounts of rain, gutters are placed on the low edge of the roof to collect the water. The gutter has a slight slope to direct water to a downspout. The downspout transfers the water from the roof level to grade level. Depending on the area of the country and the rain to be dispersed, gutters may be connected to a dry well or to a storm sewer. The location of the gutter is usually specified on the roof plan but not drawn. The location, size, and material of the downspouts are also usually indicated on the roof plan. Construction of the gutter and downspouts is shown in details that are referenced to the roof plan.
1028
Architectural Drafting and Design
6
13 a5
8
16 a6
8 a6
14'-7 1/2"
14'-2 1/2"
9
11 12
10
CONDUCTOR HEAD & DS
NONINSULATED FIBERGLASS CANOPY W/ S.M. GUTTER (PAINT)
8 a6
13 a5
16 a6
SIM.
A
13 a6 21'-6" VERIFY
14'-1" S
S
12 a6
FLAT
STANDING SEAM COPING JOINTS SPACED EQUALLY BETWEEN CORNERS- TYP.
S
S
20'-0"
9 a6
SCUPPER
19'-5" 14 a6
NOTE
11 a6
15 a6
C
TYPICAL
6'-0" OC.
13'-8" 5 a5
ROOF VENT -TYP.
S 1 a6
BUILT-UP ROOFING SYSTEM OVER 2" RIGID INSUL. OVER PLYWD. SHTG.
ROOF TOP AT SKYLIGHT MECHANICAL 15 UNIT a5
5 a5
8 a6
15'-6"
D 13 a5
20'-9" FLAT
20'-0" (COORD. W/ STRUCT.) FLAT
14'-10"
14'-10"
16 a6
6 a5
OPEN UNDER MECH. SCREEN 4 a6
CONDUCTOR HEAD & D.S.
TOP OF PARAPET
2 a6
FLAT
12 a6
ROOF TOP MECHANICAL UNIT
ROOF BREAK
GAS VENT
14'-10"
SCUPPER
UNIT SIZE & DROPS MAY VARY W/ MECH. UNIT MFR.- VERIFY & UNIT REQUIREMENTS
B
WALL LINE BELOW SHOWN DASHED- TYP.
19'-11"
AT CANOPY
ROOF TOP MECHANICAL UNIT
S
FLAT
SIM. 6 a6
4 a6
S
S
11 a6
14'-10"
S
;14'-8"
TOP OF PARAPET
FLAT
S
S
5'-4"
10b a6
S
14'-7 1/2"
7
BUILT-UP ROOFING SYSTEM OVER 2" RIGID INSUL. OVER PLYWD. SHTG.
E
FLAT RIDGE
14'-10"
14'-10" S
3 a6 TYP. MECH. SCREEN CORNER
F
18 a5
3/4" PLYWD. ON 2x FRAMING AT 16" OC. CRICKET- SLOPE 1/4" PER/ FT. MIN. (FEATHER EDGES- TYP.)
18 a5
4 a8
13 a5 SIM.
SCUPPER 11 a6
SCUPPER
12 a6
11 a6
12 a6
13'-6" 14'-0"
13'-6"
14'-0"
13 a5
13'-10" S
G
14'-6" TOP OF CRICKET
S
S.M. GUTTER W/ 3"~ D.S. DOWN TO SPLASHPAN
ROOF BREAK
S
S
BUILT-UP ROOFING SYSTEM OVER PLYWD. SHTG.
S
S
14'-0" S
H
SIM. 19 a5
3 a5
3 a5
1 a5
S.M. GUTTER (PAINT)
S.M. GUTTER (PAINT)
CONDUCTOR HEAD & D.S.
11a a5
8 a6
INSULATED FIBERGLASS SKYLIGHT SYSTEM
16 a6
2 a5
CONDUCTOR HEAD & D.S. TYP.
8 a6
(9) S.S. WIRE CABLES AT 6" OC.- TYP.
J K
16 a6
ROOF PLAN
FIGURE 4418 A roof plan is used to show construction components at the roof level. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
Drains, Overflow Drains, and Scuppers. Low-sloped roofs are often enclosed by a parapet wall that traps water on the low side of the roof. Drains are placed in the roof to remove water from the roof wherever the water cannot run over the edge of the roof. The drain directs water to a funnel-like collector called a scupper that is placed on the outside of the parapet wall to funnel water
from the roof to a downspout. A scupper can be represented on the roof plan as shown in Figure 44-16 and would be shown in details referenced to the roof plan. An overflow drain must also be provided to drain water from the roof in case the drain becomes blocked. The overflow drain must be the same size and be installed 2" (50 mm) above the roof drain. The overflow drain
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
E 5
LIGHT FIXTURESEE ELEC.
ALIGN SIDING BUTT JOINT W/ E.I.F.S. JOINT
3 a6
2a REVEAL a8 JOINTS FLOOR LINE
EAST ELEVATION
18 a7 7
13 a,b a7
1
10
7'-0"
19 a7
6 a7
1 a7
31
8 a7
TYP. CORNER
COLOR # 2
4
5'-6"
AT SKY- 18 LIGHT a5
REVEAL 2b JOINTS a8
3
COLOR # 1
3'-0"
19 a5
A
6" MIN. CONCEALED BUTT STRAP 3 a6 SET SIDING EDGES IN SEALANT- TYP.
8
15 AT SKYa5 LIGHT
2
3
B
27'-6"
9 a5
C
D
6'-0"
F
6'-0"
G
H
J
15'-6"
K
1029
7 a7
14 a7 1/8" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4419 Elevations for commercial projects are similar to the elevations for residential projects. This elevation is the east side of the floor plan shown in Figure 44-10.
is connected to a separate drain that often connects to a hole in the wall. Water flowing from this drain indicates that the drainage system requires maintenance.
Exterior Elevations The exterior elevations are the first portion of the A-200 pages. The exterior elevations are used to show the exterior of the structure as projected from the floor plan. A symbol similar to Figure 44-12C should be placed on the floor plan to represent each exterior elevation. In addition to showing the exterior shapes and finishes of a structure, these drawings also show vertical relationships of the materials shown in the plan views. Figure 44-19 shows an example of an exterior elevation. If the elevations for the construction drawings are developed from the elevations used in the preliminary design stage, all graphics showing people, cars, landscaping, shades, and shadows should be deleted. Elevations are generally drawn at the same scale as the floor plan. Some offices provide elevations at a smaller scale to show the basic shape of the structure, with an enlarged set of elevations to provide details for construction. The method for representing materials varies depending on the scale of the drawing, the type of material, and the elevation being represented. As the scale of the drawing increases, so will the amount of detail used to represent each material. Notes and dimensions are used to explain the materials shown on the elevations. Notes can be placed throughout the drawings or by using reference notes. When reference notes are used, the notes are numbered and written near the drawing. The number
representing the note is then placed in the drawings to reduce clutter. The use of dimensions varies for each office and depends on the complexity of the structure. Typically the heights from floor to ceiling and floor to wall are indicated on the elevations. Other dimensions that should be placed on the elevations include: ● ● ● ● ●
Floor to ceiling for multilevel structures. Floor to rails at balconies or above-ground decks. Window height and size. Height and width of exterior finishes. Roof pitches.
The elevations use symbols to keep the drawing uncluttered. Common symbols include: ● ● ● ● ● ●
Finished floor lines. Match lines. Grid line markers. Elevation symbols. Section markers. Detail markers.
Floor and ceiling lines are often represented by a longshort-long pattern. If the elevation must be split because of length, a match line is placed in the same location that was used on the floor plan. Grid lines are placed on the elevations to match those used on the floor plan. Because the elevation is seen from the exterior of the structure, and the floor plan is seen when looking down on the structure, the grid lines will be opposite on the elevations as they are on the floor plan. Heights
1030
Architectural Drafting and Design
A
B
ROOFING SYSTEM OVER 2" RIGID INSULATION OVER 3/4" PLYWD. ROOF SHTG.
6 A8
C
6 A8 SIM.
A A7
ROOF TRUSSES AS PER STRUCT. DRAWINGS
VERTICAL & HORIZ. GLASS & FRAME SYSTEM BY SKYLIGHT MANUF.
5 A9
6d A10
22
OFFICE 104
18
21
JANITOR 104
ELEV. EQUIP. 105
STAIR 102
45
ACCOUNTING 232
BUILDING SECTION
43
41
6 A8
COMP. STORAGE 229
2 A9 SIM
OFFICE SPACE 106
8
GALV. STEEL LADDER ON SIDE WALL (PAINT)
B A7
OFFICE 231
DRAG STRUTSEE STRUCT.
ELEV. SHAFT 104 3'-6" MIN.
OFFICE SPACE 106
CONF. 104
12'-6"
6b A10 SIM
DRAG STRUTSEE STRUCT.
28'-9"
6b A10
D
15 A9
PIT FOR SUMP PUMP
SCALE: 1/8"= 1'-0"
FIGURE 4420 Passing the cutting plane parallel to the long axis of the structure will produce a longitudinal section. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
that are specified or dimensioned on the elevations may be highlighted by an elevation symbol. Section markers like those used on the floor plan can also be placed on the elevations. Detail markers to represent exterior treatment, window or door construction, and special construction are also referenced on the elevations.
Sections The building sections comprise the second half of the A-300 pages. Building sections are drawn to show the vertical relationships of materials represented on each of the plan views, and the exterior elevations. Sections show the materials used to construct the walls, floors, ceilings, and roof components and their vertical relationships to each other. In addition to considering the different types of sections, this chapter also examines partial sections, and details that supplement each type of section. Just as with residential construction presented in Chapter 36, commercial building sections are the result of passing a viewing plane through a structure to reveal the construction methods being used. Material that is in front of the viewing plane cannot be seen. Material that is behind the viewing plane is projected to the plane and reproduced in the section. The location of the cutting plane is shown on the floor plan using a symbol with an arrow to indicate which portion of the structure is being viewed. Material the cutting plane passes through on the floor plan is represented on the section. Background items such as doors, windows, and cabinets are also usually shown on commercial drawings.
Types of Sections Full sections, partial sections, and details may be used to represent a structure. Each has a specific use in representing how walls are constructed and how walls intersect with floor and roof systems. Full Sections. Full sections are the views that result from passing the cutting plane through the entire structure, giving an overall view of a specific area of the structure. Full sections may be either longitudinal or transverse. A longitudinal section is produced by a cutting plane that is parallel to the long axis of the structure and is generally perpendicular to most structural materials used to frame the roof, ceiling, and floor systems. Because the framing members are perpendicular to the cutting plane they are seen as if they had been cut. Figure 44-20 shows an example of a longitudinal section. A transverse section is produced by a cutting plane that is parallel to the short axis of the structure, and is often referred to as a cross section. The cutting plane for a transverse section is usually parallel to the materials used to frame the roof, ceiling, and floor systems, and generally shows the shape of the structure better. Figure 44-21 shows a transverse section for a structure. Material recommended by the NCS to be specified on a full section includes: ● ● ● ● ●
A key plan showing building section cutting planes. Grid lines that match those used on the floor plan. Match lines if used. Room numbers Finish grade.
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
J
H
1031
G MEMB. ROOFING SYTEM OVER PLYWD. SHTG.
1 a5
FLOOR LINE
13 a5
'TRUS- JOIST' ROOF FRAMING
E
D
NOTE HOLD ALL MECH. DUCTWORK TIGHT TO WALL OR WITHIN JOIST SPACE AT LABS -TYP.-SEE MECH. (PAINT)
C
6 a7 7 a7
6 a5 R-19 FOILFACE FIBERGLASS INSUL.- TYP.
CLASSROOM 05
0'-0" 14 a5
7 a11
7 a5
CORRIDOR 02
ENGINEERED FILL- TYP.
A BUILDING SECTION a4
21'-6" 5 a5
13'-6" 8'-6"
B
MEMB. ROOFING SYSTEM OVER RIGID INSUL. OVER PLYWD. SHTG.
5 a5
VERIFY W/ ELEC.
CONC. SPANDREL BM.- PAINT
15'-6"
OPP. 19 HAND a11
F
LAB. 03
ELEC. BUSWAY -SEE ELEC.
EIFS. OVER CONC. TILT-UP WALL
FLOOR LINE 8 a5
CONC. SLAB OVER 2" MIN. SAND OVER VAPOR RETARDER
8" MIN. COMPACTED GRAVEL FILL
0'-0"
SEE 'L' DRAWINGS FOR PAVING BEYOND EXTERIOR WALLS- TYP.
1/8" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4421 Sections for commercial projects are often drawn at a small scale to show major types of construction. Specific information is usually shown in details. This section is referenced to the floor plan in Figure 44-10. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
● ● ●
Ceilings and partitions that the cutting plane passes through. Materials, symbols, and abbreviation lists. Dimensions as discussed later in this chapter.
Wall Sections. A wall section is used to show specific wall construction. Wall sections can be referenced to the floor plan or to other sections. Wall sections are drawn at a larger scale than a full section and are drawn to provide information on one specific type of wall. The NCS recommends the use of a scale that will allow the section to be drawn without the use of break lines. When more than one section is on a sheet, the floor levels of each section should align. The NCS recommends the following items be included in a wall section: ● ● ● ●
Exterior and interior materials. Detail references. Finish grade. Floor levels and floor-to-floor dimensions.
Material Representation One of the biggest differences between residential and commercial drawings is the wide variety of construction materials. The method used to represent each material will vary depending on the scale that is used. Different methods are also used to represent materials that are continuous and those that are cut by the cutting plane or are intermittent and beyond the cutting plane. Refer to Figure 36-9 to see how common materials can be represented in sections. Although the method of representing materials may vary with each office, it is
critical to distinguish each material shown in the section to provide drawing clarity.
Dimensions Dimensions are an important element of sections. Both vertical and horizontal dimensions may be placed on sections, whereas partial sections and details generally show only vertical dimensions. On small-scale sections, the use of dimensions depends on the area being represented. Vertical heights are represented using typical dimension methods or elevation symbols based on a known point. For wood-frame structures, dimensions are generally given from the bottom of the sole plate to the top of the top plate. A common alternative is to provide a height from the top of the floor sheathing to the top of the next level of floor sheathing. Other common vertical exterior dimensions include: ●
Steel decking: From the top of decking.
●
Steel stud walls: From plate to top of the channel.
●
Structural steel: To top of steel member.
●
Masonry units: To top of unit with distance and number of courses provided.
●
Concrete slab: From top of slab or panel.
In addition to defining the major shapes of the structure, dimensions are also provided to define openings, floor changes, or protective devices. Openings are located by providing a height from the top of the floor decking, or sheathing to the bottom of the header. Changes in floor height and the height of landings are dimensioned in a similar method as changes in height
1032
Architectural Drafting and Design
between floor levels. Inclined floors are defined by either a slope indicator or by a vertical dimension that defines the total height difference. Other interior dimensions that are usually provided include height of railings, partial walls, balconies, planters, and decorative screens. The use of horizontal dimensions on full sections varies greatly for each office. When provided, horizontal dimensions are generally located from grid lines to the desired member. Exterior wood and concrete members are usually referenced to their edge. Interior wood members are referenced to a center line, whereas interior concrete members are referenced to an edge. Steel members are referenced to their centers. The distance for roof overhangs and balcony projections also may be placed on sections.
Drawing Symbols The sections use symbols that match those of the floor, roof, and elevation drawings to reference material. Symbols that might be found on the section include: ● ● ● ● ●
Grid markers. Elevation markers. Section markers. Detail markers. Room names and numbers.
Examples of each are shown in Figure 44-20 and Figure 44-21. Grid markers will match those used on other drawings so the sections can be easily matched to other drawings. Elevations that are specified on the floor plan and elevation drawings should also be referenced on the section using a datum line or an elevation placed over a leader line. Each section is referenced to other drawings by a section marker, which defines the page the section is drawn on, and which section is being viewed. A reference such as 3 over A-7 would indicate that the section is drawing number 3 on page A-7. Detail markers are especially prevalent on sections to provide enlarged views of intersections.
Drawing Notations Lettering on each type of section is used to specify material and explain special insulation procedures. As with other drawings, notes may be placed either as local or keyed notes. Most offices use local notes with a leader line that connects the note to the material. The smaller the scale, the more generic the notes tend to be on a section. For instance, on a full section, roofing might be specified as: MEMB. ROOFING SYSTEM OVER RIGID INSUL. OVER PLYWD. SHTG.
The note would be referenced by complete notes for the roofing, insulation, and plywood in the roofing details. The use of a project manual will also affect the contents of notes.
Enlarged Floor Plans The A-400 sheets of a drawing set contain the enlarged floor plans for commercial drawings. These are drawings such as lobbies, stairwells, kitchens, bathrooms, and typical units for apartment projects that must be displayed at a larger scale to provide more detailed information than can be provided in the normal building floor plan. Mechanical rooms, electrical rooms, laboratories, elevator shafts, and auditoriums are other rooms for which the NCS recommends providing an enlarged floor plan. Enlarged plans are used in any area that contains a large amount of information that cannot be clearly represented in the normal plan. Notice in Figure 44-10 that the bathroom area between grids 6–7 and grids A–F is outlined by a dashed rectangle with a detail marker labeled 1/A2. Figure 44-22 shows the enlarged floor plan (drawing 1/A2) that is used to describe interior finishes. The drawing provides a location for marking interior elevations as well as a means of specifying interior finishes. Be careful not to duplicate information in the small-scale floor plan that is shown in the enlarged floor plan. The grid symbols that are used on the small-scale floor plan should be displayed on the enlarged floor plan.
Interior Elevations The interior elevations are placed behind the exterior elevations in the A-200 sheets of a drawing set. Interior elevations are drawn to show the shape and finishes of features that are built into a wall. Elevations are referenced to the floor plan by use of a title or a symbol. Titles such as North Lobby Elevation can be used to reference an elevation to a floor plan if only a few elevations are provided. An elevation symbol is placed on the floor plan when any possibility of confusion exists. Interior reference markers (see Figure 44-12C) are used to reference interior elevations to the floor plan. The symbol is placed in the room to indicate which direction the marker is referencing. Four arrows can be placed around the circle to represent each wall of the room. If an arrow is not placed on a specific side of a circle, that indicates no elevation is to be drawn for that wall. The page number where the detail is drawn is placed in the circle. Each arrow is numbered to represent a
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1033
6 6" TYP.
(6)- 3/4" EDGE-BANDED PLYWD. SHELVES ON 7'-0" LONG STANDARDS & BRACKETSSTANDARDS AT MAX. 16" OC- MOUNT TO STUDS- PAINT TO MATCH WALL 10'-0"
F.O.F.
FOS
CARPET 'A' CARPET "B" BORDER 6'-4"
ENLARGED FLOOR PLAN
SEALED CONC.
8'-9" 6"
5'-6"
STOR. UNIT 16 a10 RECESSED ENTRY MAT (VERIFY DEPTH)
F.O.F. 19 ENTRY MAT
16 a11
H.CAP. D.F.
D.F
CARPET 'A' 4'-0"
4'-0"
4'-0"
4'-0"
12'-0" 4 a10
4'-9"
11 a10
CARPET 'A'
1 a2
SURFACE MOUNTED P.T.D. (P.T.R. BELOW)
11"
ALIGN W/ FOF
5'-4" 5'-9"
17
11"
E
47 MEN 09
OPP. HAND
5'-0"
STOR. 16 UNIT a10
LANDING AND DOOR TO BOILER ROOM ABOVE SHOWN DASHED
ALIGN W/ FOF
S.D.
H.CAP. FD. DEPRESS UR. 1/4" TYP. S.D.
17 a10
2'-10" DOOR
LAV. 1'-8" LAV. 4'-2" 5'-0" F.O.S. S.D. 3'-4" 3'-4" S.D. 5'-10" a. LAV LAV. 1 . b. a10 d . c. DOOR OPERATION PUSH PAD 12 LOCATIONS 16 a7 CER. TILE
5'-10"
CORRIDOR 07 SKYLIGHT ABOVE SHOWN DASHED
1'-0"
9'-6" W.C.
STEEL LADDER TO BOILER ROOM
2'-4" 1'-0"
ALIGN
W/ FOF
T.P.D.
18
16 a7 SIM.
2'-0" DOOR
5'-0"
RECESSED ENTRY MAT (VERIFY DEPTH)
F.E.C.
T.P.D.
W.C.
W.C.
15
GRAB BARS
S.C.D.
S.C.D.
T.P.D. S.S.
LAB 14
MEN SHOWER 35
F.E.C.
30'-0" 5'-0"
4'-2"
H.CAP. W.C.
H.CAP. W.C.
1 b. 2'-0" a10 DOOR SIM. c. FD. 2'-0" DOOR WOMEN F.N.R. 08
SEALED CONC.
4'-9"
2 a10
d.
SURFACE MOUNTED S.N.D. SURFACE MOUNTED P.T.D. (P.T.R. BELOW)
20
(2) GARMENT HOOKS AT EA. SHOWER
T.P.D.
a.
23
FACE OF G.B. FINISH
F.N.R. T.P.D. S.S. 2'-10" GRAB DOOR BARS
21 10 (6)" 3/4" EDGE-BANDED PLYWD. SHELVES ON 7'-0" LONG STANDARDS & BRACKETSSTANDARDS AT MAX. 16" OC- MOUNT TO STUDS- PAINT TO MATCH WALL
FOS
LANDING AND DOOR TO BOILER ROOM ABOVE SHOWN DASHED
F.O.F.
STOR. 11
2'-7"
14
STEEL LADDER TO BOILER ROOM 17 a10
2'-0"
RECESSED 3'-0"X3'-0" FIBERGLASS HCAP SHOWER STALLS W/ ROD & CURTAIN (VERIFY R.O. DIM.) 2 SIM. a10
NOTE- SEE INTERIOR EL. FOR GRAB BAR DIM.s
11 a7 5'-0"
2'-7"
LAB 03
2'-0"
1'-0"
12
WOMEN SHOWER 36
C
24
PIPE SPACE
6" TYP. 10'-0"
ONE HOUR FIRE RATED WALL BETWEEN STOR. ROOMS & SHOWERS
13
ELEC. CONDUITS IN 12"X 24" CONC. ENCASEMENT- SEE ELEC.- VERIFY LOCATION W/ ELEC. EQUIP. ABOVE STOR. 10
7 a6
22
1'-3"
;10" 3 a10
NON-INSULATED FIBERGLASS CANOPY ABOVE- SEE CEILING PLAN
S.SK.
11
10
3" D.S.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER & BRACKET
P.LAM. WAINSCOT (5'-0" HIGH)
12'-0" RA D.
10'-0"
EQUAL
COMMUNICATIONS ROOM 13
MOP HOLDER
5'-4"
JAN. 12
3" D.S.
F.O.F.
B
2'-0"
6" TYP.
A
4" STL. BOLLARDSSEE 'L' DRAWINGSFOR DET.TYP. FOR (11)
3" D.S.
10'-0"
7
12 a11
CARPET 'A'
4'-0"
6'-4" 1'-6" TYP. BORDER CARPET 'B' 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4422 Portions of a floor plan are often enlarged for clarity. This drawing was provided to clarify the floor plan shown in Figure 44-10. The grids can be used to correlate the two drawings. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
1034
Architectural Drafting and Design
7
METAL TOILET PARTITION
LIGHT SWITCHES SEE ELEC.
SS GRAB BARS
METAL TOILET PARTITIONS SHOWN DASHED
6"
6"
TOP OF TILE
3'-0" a. - LOOKING NORTH
1 a10
CER. TILE WAINSCOT OVER WR. G.B.
MEN 09
LAV.
LAV.
TPD
H.CAP. UR.
EQ
2'-6"
b. - LOOKING EAST HOSE BIBB SEE MECH.
14 a10
EQ
W.C.
TPD H.CAP. WC.
W.C. SHOWN DASHED AT WOMEN 08
7'-0"
17 16
6"
3'-0"
3'-0"
2'-6"
H.CAP W.C.
FNR AT WOMEN O8 SHOWN DASHED
SS GRAB BARS
S.C.D.
1'-5"
TPD
4'-6" WIDE x 3'-0" HIGH MIRROR
4'-0"
SLIDE
5a a11
5"
3'-6"
6'-3" TILE WAINSCOT
1'-0"
9b a11
4"
15 14
1'-5"
1'-0" 4'-10" TYPICAL 1'-0"
LIGHT FIXTURES SEE ELEC.
1'-6"
2'-6" WIDE X 4'-0" HIGH METAL URINAL SCREEN P.LAM. COUNTERTOP SPLASHES & EDGES
(WOMEN 08 SIMILAR)
1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4423 The drafter will be required to draw interior elevations and details. These elevations are referenced to the enlarged floor plan in Figure 44-22. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
specific elevation. Figure 44-23 shows the interior elevation for the Men’s Room (room 09) referenced on the small-scale floor plan and referenced to detail 1/A10 in the enlarged floor plan. The NCS recommends the following information be placed on enlarged floor plans: ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Access panels including those specified on the mechanical and electrical plans. Casework, equipment, furnishings and other materials where the location is critical. Changes in wall material should be shown and dimensioned. Door heights. Electrical fixtures and panels and dimensions to locate each. Large pipes and duct penetrations. Power, telephone, data, and other outlets.
Reflected Ceiling Plans The reflected ceiling plans for each level of the structure are usually placed in the A-100 sheets of a drawing set after the floor plans or in the A-700 sheets. A reflected ceiling plan shows the ceiling of a specific level of a structure. The floor plan is created by the cutting plane passing through the walls 5' above the floor, allowing the viewer to see the floor. The reflected ceiling plan is a reflection of the ceiling on the floor plan, which is the source of the drawing title. The view of the ceiling is created as if the floor is mirrored. Overhead items that are
represented on the floor plan with dashed lines should be represented in the reflected ceiling plan with continuous lines. Acoustical ceiling panels supported by wires are used on commercial structures to hide the structural material. These ceilings are often referred to as T-bar ceilings because of the lightweight metal frames that support the ceiling tiles. A reflected ceiling plan shows the location, starting point, and type of material used to form the ceiling. The plan may also show the location of light panels and ceiling-mounted heat registers. These features may also be shown on a separate plan supplied by the mechanical engineer. Figure 44-24 shows the reflected ceiling plan for the floor plan shown in Figure 44-10.
Vertical Circulation Drawings Changes in floor elevation are accomplished by using a ramp, stairs, elevators, escalators, or a combination of each. The drawings that represent these features are contained in the A-400 sheets of the drawing set following the enlarged floor plans or on the A-700 sheets.
Ramps A ramp is an inclined surface that connects two different floor levels. Design and construction is regulated by both the building code and Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements. The IBC requires ramps to have a minimum width equal to the required width for the corridor and a minimum clear width of 36" (914 mm) for the ramp and clear width between the handrails. Handrails are allowed to project into the required ramp width a maximum of 4 1/2" (114 mm) on each side provided the
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
5'-0"
TYPE 1 CLG. HT. VARIES
JAN. 12
9
11 12
10
COMM. 13
EXPOSED DUCTSSEE MECH.
20'-0" 5'-0"
8
7
NON-INSULATED FIBERGLASS CANOPY W/ S.M. GUTTER
NONINSULATED FIBERGLASS CANOPY W/ S.M. GUTTER
20'-0" 5'-0"
5'-0"
5'-0"
5'-0"
CLASSROOM 32
A
13 a6
GYPSUM SOFFIT BOARD- PAINT AT =11'-0" HT.
SCUPPER SUMPSEE ROOF PLAN
EQ.
6
1035
1 a11
LAB
10a a6
14
B
TYPE 2 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT.
STOR
STOR. 10
11
EQ.
19 a11
SIM.
C TYPE 2 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT.
19 a11
;2'-4"
TYPE 3 CLG. AT +7'-10" HT.
CLASSROOM
EQ .
MEN 09
TYPE 1 CLG. AT +7'-6" HT.
G.L.B MECH. SCREEN SUPPORTSEE STRUCT.
2 a6
TYPE 3 CLG. AT +7'-6" HT.
EQ .
TYPE 3 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT. 6 a5
ALIGN
31
EQ .
6"
18 a6
12'-6"
TYPE 1 CLG. AT +8'-6" HT.
SUSP. ELEC. BUSWAYSSEE ELEC.
;2'-4"
6"
WOMEN 08
12'-6"
35
36
7 a11
TYPE 4 CLG. HT. VARIES
EQ.
MEN SHOWER
WOMEN SHOWER
ALIGN
EQUAL
EXPOSED DUTWORKSEE MECH.- PAINT
TYPE 1 CLG. AT + 8'-6" HT.
CORR. 33
D
8 a11
OFFIC E 16
7 a11
6'-0" EQ .
SIM.
SIM.
BOTH SIDES OF SKYLIGHT
6'-0"
EQ .
EQ .
EQ.
EQ .
7 a11
TYPE 1 CLG. AT +7'-6" HT.
CLASSROOM
18
EQ .
TYPE 2 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT.
EQ.
EQ. EQ.
EQ.
EQ. EQ.
EQ.
TYPE 2 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT.
EQ .
4'-0"
EQ .
20
EQ .
16 a6
4'-0"
TYPE 2 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT.
EQ.
(TYP. OFFICE)
EQ .
ALIGN
OFFICE 27
EQ.
EQ. EQ .
ALIGN
LIBRARY
EQ .
G TYPE 1 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT.
16'-0" EQ .
EQ .
TYPE 1 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT.
28
EQ .
4'-0" TYP.
EQ .
11b a5
EQ.
HALLWAY
14'-6"
17
15
EQ
EQ .
EQ . EQ .
EQ . SECRETARY
F EQ .
EQ .
STAFF 19
ALIGN
LOBBY
E 29
STORAGE 21
WORKROOM
EQ.
EQ .
TYPE 3 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT.
6'-0"
TYPE 2 CLG. AT +9'-0" HT.
19 a11
ALIGN
EQ. CORR . 34
EQ .
8 a11
20 a11
SIM.
EQ .
EQ .
13 a11
EQ .
SIM.
EQ .
20 a11
CLASSROOM 30
SIM.
07
EQ .
6'-0"
EXPOSED DUTWORKSEE MECH.- PAINT
CORR.
1'-0"
1'-0" EQ.
EQ .
EQ EQ . .
EQ .
TYPE 1 CLG. AT +7'-6" HT.
EQUAL
19 a11
ALIGN
H TYP. OFFICE CEILING LAYOUT
OFFICE
19 a5
INSULATED FIBERGLASS SKYLIGHT SYSTEM OVER PAINTED T.S. SUPPORTS
12x24 ACCESS PANELCOORD. LOCATION W/ MECH. EQUIP.
11a a5
EQ.
EQ.E Q.E Q.
EQUAL
OFFICE 26
26
EQUAL
EQUAL
OFFICE 26
OFFICE
TRELLIS BEAMTYP.
J K
TILT-UP CONC. SUNSCREEN & SPANDREL BEAM (PAINT)
2 a5
EQUAL
OFFICE
EQUAL
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN 1/8" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4424 The reflected ceiling plan for the structure shown in Figure 44-9. The ceiling plan is used to show the layout for the suspended ceiling system. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
minimum clear width of 36" (914 mm) is maintained. The rise of ramps is restricted to 30" (762 mm) total with a maximum slope of 1 vertical unit per each 8 horizontal units or a 12.5% slope (1/12, 8% slope for means of egress). The cross slope of a ramp, measured perpendicular to the direction of travel, cannot be greater than 1 vertical unit per each 48 horizontal units (2% slope). If a door swings over an egress ramp, the door when opened in any position cannot reduce the
width of the ramp to less than 42" (1067 mm). A minimum of 80" (2032 mm) of headroom must be provided above a ramp. Except in some residential uses, a landing with a length of 60" (1525 mm) measured in the direction of the ramp is required at the top and bottom, points of turning, doors, and the entrance and exit of all ramps. Residential units can have a landing with a minimum length of 36" (914 mm). The landing width must be as wide as the widest ramp that connects to the
1036
Architectural Drafting and Design
ramp. The slope of a landing cannot be greater than 1 vertical unit per each 48 horizontal units (2% slope). Because of the many laws governing ramps, several drawings are usually required to represent a ramp. The width and length of a ramp is represented on the floor plan using thin lines. The angle can be represented by either listing the slope or the elevation of each end. The slope and construction method must be represented by means of a section or detail that is referenced to the floor plan.
Stairs Basic stair construction was introduced in Chapter 39. Although many of the terms are the same, commercial stairs are made from a wider variety of materials and have different size requirements. Minimum requirements for stairs in commercial structures (except Group R-3 occupancies) include: Maximum riser height Minimum riser height Tread depth Winder tread depth
7" (178 mm) maximum 4" (102 mm) minimum 11" (279 mm) minimum Minimum tread depth of 10" (254 mm), 11" (279 mm) minimum measured at right angles to the tread’s leading edge measured at a point 12" (305 mm) from the narrow side of the tread
One key word relating to commercial stairs is the term stairwell. A stairwell is the vertical shaft where the stairs are to be placed. Depending on the height of the structure, the occupancy, and fire-resistive construction used, stairs usually need to be separated from the balance of the structure by using an enclosed stairwell. To control the spread of smoke and flames throughout a structure, access to the stairwell is restricted to doors that have a minimum 1-hour fire rating. Stair Material. In commercial construction, the occupancy and type of construction will dictate the material used to form the stairs. Wood, timber, steel, concrete, or a combination of steel and concrete are used to form the stair. Timber can be used to form open stairs. A 3 × 12 (75 × 300) or larger is used for the stringer. The stringer size is based on the span and load to be supported. Stringers are attached to the floor platform by use of a metal angle at each end of the stringer. Treads are generally made of 2" or 3" (50 or 75 mm) material and are attached to the stringer by use of a metal angle or let into the stringer.
Steel stairs are found in many types of commercial and light industrial construction because of the need for noncombustible construction. Steel stairs can be built similar to wood stairs using a channel as the stringer and steel plates for the risers and treads. Stringers are attached to each floor system using a steel angle. Handrails are generally made of 1 1/4" (32 mm) diameter metal pipe, and are supported on metal uprights called balusters. Balusters are welded to the channel stringer. Steel treads can be made in several configurations. For exterior applications, plates forming a grating or made from extruded metal are used to shed water. Metal is also used to form a pan to support concrete steps. The combination of a metal frame and concrete steps is quite common in many office structures. Because of cost, concrete stairs are used in the most restrictive fire ratings. Concrete stairs can be cast after the wall and floor systems have been cast, or at the same time. Details explaining reinforcing, railings, and other major connections will also be represented in details that are associated with the stair drawings. Stair Sections. Similar to a stair section drawn for a residence, the layout of stair section for a commercial structure should show the number of risers, headroom dimensions, and details for hand and guardrails. Figure 44-25 shows the stair section referenced in Figure 44-20. Although the process is similar to the information presented in Chapter 39, several additional items should be represented. The NCS recommends the following items be represented on a stair section: ● ● ● ●
Show and dimension the heights and location of fire hose cabinets. Draw details of handrails and guardrails. Indicate a ladder or roof hatch to provide roof access if indicated on the floor plan. Place sections for concrete stairs with the structural drawings.
Elevator Drawings. The use of elevators requires representation on the floor plan, section, and details. The elevator manufacturer will provide information related to the size and construction of the equipment. The architectural team will need to provide drawings that locate the equipment on the floor plan and sections. The elevator can be represented on a floor or enlarged floor plan as any other fixture. Sections and details similar to Figure 44-26 also need to be provided to show vertical heights between floors around the elevator shaft, the depth of the elevator pit, and the height
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1037
C STAIR 102
1 A3
GYP. BD.
8 A5
CARPET (NIC.) OVER 1" GYPCRETE OVER [" PLYWOOD SHTG. 1 A9
6 A9
ROUNDED 1X WD. NOSING AT TOP TREAD
12'-0" SECOND FLOOR 12'-0"
2 A9
8 A5
(2) 2X10 HEADERSEE STRUCT.
2X RISER- TYP. 6'-3 7/16"
12d AT 6" OC.- TYP. 2X12 NOTCHED LEDGER W/ (3) 16d TO EACH STUD
7 A9
SEE FLOOR PLAN FOR WALL TYPE
CARPET (NIC.) OVER 2X12 TREADS W/ ROUNDED NOSINGSTYP.
0'-0" 3a A9
4 A9
11" TR.-TYP.
10 EQ. RISERS AT 6]" EACH
2 A9
3b A9
STAIR 102 SECTION
W-STAIR1
1/4" = 1'-0"
6 A9
STAIR 102 AT TOP
7-STAIRT
1 1/2" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4425 Stair sections for a commercial structure will be similar to those drawn for a residence, but more details will be required to show each area of the stairwell. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
of the elevator loft. The elevator pit is the area below the lowest floor required to provide clearance for the elevator and the shaft mechanism. The elevator loft is provided at the upper end of the shaft for the same purpose. Specifications provided by the manufacturer to detail installation are usually included with the elevator drawings. For custom elevators, elevations of the cab are drawn so that the interior of the elevator matches the building interior. These drawings would be placed with other interior elevations and must show finish materials and dimensions for all materials and trim. The NCS recommends drawing the following items in the elevator shaft section: ● ● ● ●
Required vents for the shaft and pump room. Methods of attaching the elevator guide rails. References to door head and sill details. References to enlarged details to describe the door sill, the elevator pit, and the pit access ladder.
Escalator Drawings. The manufacturer of the escalator provides the bulk of the drawings required to install escalators. The width, length, and location is indicated on each plan view based on the design of the architect and is represented on an enlarged floor
plan with sections and details provided to explain all construction methods.
Exterior Details The A-500, A-700, and A-800 sheets of the drawing set contain the exterior details. These sheets can contain details related to any of the other architectural sheets. Figure 44-27 shows a detail provided to explain the construction of a door opening. This is just one detail taken from several pages of details related to the project, all related to exterior joints and intersections of various materials. Additional details are also included with each of the other architectural drawings as space allows. As a print reader, it is important to start with an overall view of the project, then move to specific plans and finally to details that cover a specific area of construction.
Interior Details The A-500, A-700, and A-800 sheets of the drawing set contain the details that relate to the interior of the structure. These sheets can contain details related to any of the other architectural sheets. Two of the most common types of details placed with the interior details are door
1038
Architectural Drafting and Design
ALUM. STOREFRONT FRAME (OMIT AT DOOR 7) 10'-0" TOP OF STEEL STEEL TRUSSES - SEE STRUC. R-19 BATT 1" FURRING @ 36" o.c. SPAN BETWEEN TRUSSES
1-1/2" E.I.F.S. OVER 1/2" PLYWD. SHTG.
METAL FURRING CHANNEL 8" CMU 6" CMU
8'-6"
11'-4"
1/2" SEALANT JT. BOTH SIDES OF FRAME- TYP. SHIM AS REQD.
SOLAR TINTED GLASS-TYP. AT DOORS
JAMB
CONC. SLAB
7'-6"
FILL CELL SEE STRUC.
1-1/2" RIGID INSUL. DOWN TO 2'-0" MIN. BELOW FL. SLAB
3"X 3"X e" ANGLE 2"
G.B. W/ METAL EDGESTYPICAL ALUM. STOREFRONT FRAME (OMIT AT DOOR 7) CEILING CONDITION AT DOOR 7 SHOWN DASHED
1/8" ALUM. PLATE FILLER EA. SIDE OF 3/4" PT PLYWD. PANEL- MATCH STOREFRONT FINISH (OMIT AT SIM. CONDITION)
7'-0"
DOOR
HEAD
1/2" SEALANT JT. BOTH SIDES OF FRAME- TYP. SHIM AS REQD. WD. HEADER- SEE STRUCT.- SHIM AS REQ'D.
5/8" PLYWD. UNDER STOREFRONT- TYP.
1" CEMENT BOARD SYSTEM
1" INSUL. GLASS (OMIT AT DOOR 7)
SECOND FLOOR EL. 375.958'
4" CONC. SLAB OVER 2" COMPACTED GRAVELSEE 'L' DRAWINGS
JOIST - SEE STRUC. STEEL BEAM - SEE STRUC.
AUTOMATIC SLIDING GLASS DOOR & FRAME ALUMINUM. THRESHOLDSET IN SEALANT 5" CONC. SLAB OVER 2" SAND OVER VAPOR BARRIER OVER 2" MIN. OVER 8"COMPACTED GRAVEL BASE
1/2" MAX.
8" CMU 6" CMU
12'-5 1/2"
FLOOR FIMISHSEE ROOM FINISH SCHEDULE
HEAD
AUTOMATIC DOOR SECTION 8712\7-ADR1A
1 1/2" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4427 Exterior details are usually supplied to explain the construction of all exterior features of a structure. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
7'-0"
DOOR
ELEVATOR CAR
LEAVE OUT FRONT WALL UNTIL ELEVATOR DOOR FRAME IS SET - TYPICAL
20 a7
JAMB
5X5 ANGLE 7X1 ANCHOR BY G.C.
2"
FIRST FLOOR EL. 363.5'
4'-0"
CONCRETE, ROCK SMOOTH LADDER BY G.C.
and finish details. Details are generally referenced on the floor plan or interior elevations to show jamb, sill, and header joints for each type of material that will be required. Details are also provided to ensure that each fixture or special appliance will be installed properly. Figure 44-28 shows details for mounting handrails for a structure.
HYDRAULIC TUBE
STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS CONCRETE KEYWAY GROUT & WATERPROOF AFTER JACK IS SET BY G.C. SUMP PUMP
4 A8.3
ELEVATOR SECTION SCALE: 1/2"
= 1'-0"
FIGURE 4426 Drawings are provided by the elevator supplier to show how the elevator is constructed. Sections are required by the architectural team to show how an elevator will impact the structure.
The structural drawings are a major supplement to the architectural drawings. Understanding the major concepts contained on these drawings as well as how the drawings are integrated into the entire set of plans will greatly increase your drawing ability. As their name implies, these drawings are used to construct the skeleton of the structure. A team working under the supervision of a structural engineer prepares the
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1039
1/4" REVEAL
5/8" GYP. BD. W/ METAL EDGESTYP. (PAINT- NIC.) SEE DETAIL FOR ADDITIONAL NOTES 2 A9
2'-10" TO STAIR NOSING & FINISH FLOOR
3'-6" TO NOSING & FINISH FLOOR
1X HARDWOOD CAP
1 A9
PROVIDE SOLID WD. STUD BLKG. AT BRACKETS- TYP.
RAILING CAP
2'-10" TO STAIR NOSINGS OR FIN. FLOOR
1 1/2" 1 1/2" 1/4"
2 A9
STAINLESS STEEL BRACKETS AT 4'-0" O.C. MAX.SPACE EVENLY BETWEEN CORNERS
HCAP RAILING
3-RAILC
3" = 1'-0"
GYP. BD. OVER 2X STUD WALL 11/2" OUTSIDE DIA. S.S. STEEL PIPE HANDRAIL- RETURN TO WALL OR PIPE RAIL AT ENDS PROVIDE SOLID WD. STUD BLKG. AT BRACKETS- TYP.
3-HRAIL
3" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4428 Interior details are supplied to explain the construction of all interior features of a structure.
structural drawings. The major drawings include the framing plans, foundation plan, and related details, but the same types of drawings used to present the architectural information can also be used to present structural information. The structural drawings could include elevations, sections, details, schedules, and written specifications. No matter the content, the framing plans are numbered in successive order starting with S-1. The area of the country you are in, the type of building to be erected, and the occupancy of the structure dictate what materials are to be used. Common materials used to form the shell of the structure include sawn lumber, heavy timber, poured concrete, and concrete block. With the exception of concrete block, each of these materials can be used to frame the roof and floor systems represented on the framing plan. Typically, several of these materials may be incorporated into the framework and reflected on the framing plan.
Framing Plans Framing plans are drawn at a scale that matches the scale used for other plan views. The architectural team will usually supply a base floor plan, and the structural information is attached to the drawings using external referencing. If a large complex is being drawn, the plan may be divided into zones and placed on two or more sheets. Zones must always match those used for the architectural drawings. Framing plans are drawn for each level of the structure. For a one-level structure, the material used to frame the roof system is shown on a plan that resembles the roof plan. Because the framing for the first-level floor is shown on the foundation, no framing plan for the floor is required. The framing plan for a simple one-level wood-frame structure will resemble the framing plan for a residence. See Chapter 32. For a multilevel structure, a plan is provided for each level. A three-level structure requires plans for the lower, second, and upper levels. Plans are generally arranged within the drawing set from the ground level to the roof, reflecting how the structure will be built. The lowest level of the structure is represented on the foundation plan followed by succeeding floor levels. Figure 44-29 shows a portion of the framing plan for the floor plan shown in Figure 44-10. The main goal of the framing plan is to represent the location and size of framing members such as beams, joists, posts, and columns, which resist the stresses applied to the structure. These are the major elements that make up the skeleton of a structure and transfer the weight of vertical loads into the supporting foundation. Framing plans are also used to show the materials that are used to resist the horizontal stress from forces caused by wind, flooding, and seismic activity. Information regarding nailing, bolting, and welding to resist these stresses is also found on the framing plan.
Wood and Timber Framing Plans Major materials represented on a wood framing plan are studs, posts, sawn and glu-lam beams, joists, engineered joists, trusses, and plywood. Shear walls, diaphragms, and drag struts are also specified on framing plans with wood members. Stud walls and wood posts appear on the framing plan just as they do on a floor plan. Walls that have special construction such as an extra base or top plate or plywood panels for resisting shear will be noted and detailed on the framing plan. Sawn
1040
Architectural Drafting and Design
6 4'-0"
8
7
11
10
9
2 S-4
4'-3"
12
3 S-4
A
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
12 S-6
T-3
16 S-4
GLU-LAM 5 1/8"x9" C=0"
1 S-4 T-3
SIM.
6 S-4
(3) 2 X 6
(3) 2 X 6
SB-6
7 S-4
ER ENT NC 2" O AT 3
GLU-LAM 5 1/8"x9" C=0"
C=0"
GLU-LAM 3 1/8"x12"
(3) 2 X 6
5 S-4
GLU-LAM. 5 1/8" X 12" BELOW T-1 GLU-LAM. 5 1/8" X 16 1/2" ABOVE DOOR
22"
TJL
AT
32"
ON
C
12 S-4
ER ENT
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 6 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
12
1 S-4
A
"T
JI
2 T3
35
"O
0X
N
CE
NT
T-1
W 8 X 10
(3) 2 X 8
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 6 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
(3) 2 X 8
W 8 X 10
O.H. SIM.
(3) 2 X 6
(3) 2 X 10
(3) 2 X 10
(3) 2 X 10
(3) 2 X 10
A
B
SB-4 3 CONCRETE SPANDREL S-5 SIM
(3) 2 X 10
(3) 2 X 10
(3) 2 X 10
ER
3 S-4 SIM.
(3) 2 X 10
H
(3) 2 X 6 4 S-4
A
SB-5 5 S-5
TYP.
2 S-5
CONCRETE WING WALL
CONCRETE SPANDREL
O.H.
CONCRETE WING WALL
3 S-5
.
10 S-6
10 S-6 O.H.
1 S-3
F
G
(2) 2 X 10
13 S-4
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 6 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
T-1
T-1
3 S-5
D
E
(3) 2 X 6
(3) 2 X 6
12 ROOF CENTER S-6 2 X 10 AT 32" ON ILING NTER CE 24" ON CE 2 X 6 AT
T-1
A
C
BELOW
GLU-LAM 5 1/8"x15" TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 6 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
.
ABOVE
T-1
13 S-4
SIM
TJL
ER NT CE 60
ON
TJ
0" 4'-
8 S-4
1 S-5
5 S-4
B
DBL. JOIST
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 6 X 3 X 3/16"
TS 5 X 3 X 3/16"
(3) 2 X 6
32"
DOUBLE TRUSS
AT
DOUBLE TRUSS
DOUBLE TRUSS
GLU-LAM
DOUBLE TRUSS
DOUBLE TRUSS
11 S-4
SB-7 CONCRETE SPANDREL BEAM
12 S-6
BELOW 7 S-4
GLU-LAM 5 1/8"x9" C=0"
DOUBLE DOUBLE JOIST 2 X 12 IN SIMPSON WNP212-2 HGR.
8 S-4
22"
DOUBLE JOIST
ABOVE
1 S-4
2 X 6 AT 32' ON CENTER ROOF 2 X 4 AT 24" ON CENTER CEILING (3) 2 X 6 (3) 2 X 6
END OF SPANDREL
DOUBLE TRUSS
TJI
9 S-4
18"
GLULAM. 3 1/8" X 10 1/2" END OF SPANDREL
DOUBLE TRUSS
32" AT
9 S-4
6 3/4" X 24" C = 1 1/4"
TER CEN
ON
MECH. DUCTS VERIFY WITH MECH. FOR EXACT LOCATION
5 1/8" X 18" C = 1/2" GLU-LAM
6 3/4" X 24" C = 1 1/4" GLU-LAM
(2) 2 X 12
GLU-LAM 5 1/8"x9" C=0"
T-3
2 S-3 T-3
T 10 A 7 8 2X BELOW S-4 S-4 ABOVE (SIM.) CONCRETE SPANDREL BEAM
.
T-3
.
T-3
O/C 32"
T-3
3 S-4 SIM
J K
CONCRETE WING WALL
ROOF FRAMING PLAN 1/8" = 1'-0"
1
" A " OR " B " INDICATES SPANDREL CONNECTION TYPE (RIGID OR FLEXIBLE). SEE DETAILS.
2
"T - #" INDICATES SKYLIGHT TRUSS TYPE - SEE 2/S3.
3
"SB-#" INDICATES SPANDREL TYPE - SEE SHEET S-5.
4
TYPICAL ROOF SHEATHING BETWEEN GRIDS 3 AND 4 FROM B TO E : 3/4" APA RATED SHEATHING , TONGUE AND GROOVE OR BLOCKED, SPAN INDEX 48/24, NAILED WITH 10d AT 6" O/C. TO ALL SUPPORT AT TRUSSES 4'-0" ON CENTER AND NAILED WITH 10d AT 6' ON CENTER SUPPORTED EDGES AND 12" TO INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS AT TRUSSES 32" ON CENTER. TYPICAL SHEATHING AT REMAINDER OF ROOF: 5/8" APA RATED SHEATHING, T AND G OR BLOCKED. SPAN INDEX 40/20, NAILED WITH 10d AT 6" ON CENTER SUPPORTED EDGES AND 12" ON CENTER TO INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS
FIGURE 4429 A roof framing plan is used to show structural components at the roof level. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
and laminated beams are usually represented by thin, dashed lines. Beams are located by dimensions from the edge of an exterior wood or masonry wall and from the center of wood interior walls to the center of the beam. When a beam cantilevers past a supporting post, the end of the beam should be dimensioned from the end to the center of the supporting post. The locations of main
support columns and beams are usually dimensioned from exterior walls or grid lines. Several methods are used to represent the joists or trusses on a framing plan. Chapter 32 provided examples of placing a symbol that can be used on simple structures to locate the size, direction, and type of member to be used. A second method of representing
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1041
PROVIDE 2"X DFL SOLID BLOCKING AT ALL 3/4" PLY SUBFLOOR EGES FOR THIS PORTION OF FLOOR
FRAMING MEMBER LEGEND NOTES:
SOLE PLATE NAILING THIS WALL USE: 16d COMMON NAILS AT 6"O.C. INTO UPPER & LOWER PLATES.
FLAT BLK'G.
SOLE PLATE NAILING THIS WALL USE: 20d COMMON NAILS AT 3"O.C. STAGGERED INTO UPPER & LOWER PLATES.
HOLDOWN AT FLOOR
HOLDOWN AT FLOOR
2 S2
1
1 SIMPSON #TS18 DBL. TOP PLATE TO 6"X14"
SIMPSON #TS18 DBL. TOP PLATE TO BLK'G. CONNECTION
SIMPSON #TS18 DBL. TOP #L PLATE TO 2"X14" CONN. B2 14
3
SYMBOL
SIZE
SPACING
GRADE
4
2 X 14
16" O.C.
DFL#1
2
32" DEEP
16" O.C
4
19.2" O.C.
4
24" O.C.
1
REMARKS
'TRUS-JOIST' 16" O.C.
SOLE PLATE BOLTING THIS WALL SEE DETAIL 20 S3 3 HOLDOWN S2 AT FLOOR SOLE PLATE NAILING THIS WALL USE: 16d COMMON NAILS AT 4" O.C. STAGGERED INTO UPPER & LOWER PLATES.
#L B2 14
6 S2
HOLDOWN AT FLOOR
SIMPSON #TS18 DBL. TOP PLATE TO 2"X14" CONN.
34 S2
21 S3
1. ALL JOISTS ARE DOUGLAS FIR / LARCH 2. ALL METAL HANGERS SHALL BE "STRONG TIE" BY SIMPSON COMPANY.
6"X14" DFL #1
1
SIMPSON #ST6224 DBL. TOP PLATE TO 6"X14" CONN.
NAIL PLY SUBFLOOR THIS CROSS HATCHED PORTION OF FLOOR w/ 10d COMMON
4"X6" DFL #1 DRAG
4 HOLDOWN 30 AT FLOOR S3
12 S2
30 S4
27 S4
HOLDOWN AT FLOOR
HOLDOWN AT FLOOR
HOLDOWN AT FLOOR
C2
FIGURE 4430 The framing plan is used to show the structural materials that make the skeleton of the structure. Courtesy Kenneth D. Smith Architect & Associates, Inc.
framing members is to place the span and the area of placement similar to Figure 44-30. A third method is to show every framing method similar to Figure 44-31. Details that show how forces will be transferred from the roof or floor system through walls to other areas of the structure are referenced on the framing plan. Structures framed with wood typically require details showing beam-to-beam, beam-to-wall, joist-to-beam, and joist-to-wall connections.
Structural Steel Framing Plans Figure 44-32 shows the framing plan for a multilevel steel-framed structure. The framing plans for steel structures typically show steel columns represented by a thick line, and dimensioned from center to center of columns. Exterior columns are normally dimensioned from the face of the exterior shell to the center of the column. Beams are usually represented by center lines, solid lines, or hidden lines and are located using center line dimensions from one member to the next.
Steel framing members are specified using methods similar to those used with wood members. On complicated plans, framing members are labeled using tables to help the print reader understand the location and quantity required for construction. Steel columns are usually represented in a table, separate from beams to provide better clarity. Beams of different materials are also typically kept in separate beam tables. Depending on the complexity of the structure, a separate plan can be provided for vertical supports and horizontal steel to provide clarity. Steel framing often requires the elevation of a specific member to be shown on the plan. The height above a specific point, or surface, such as a finish floor level, is noted near the beam or listed in the table specifying the member size. Steel decking is often used to form a diaphragm in horizontal surfaces. Poured concrete floors placed over the steel deck can also be used to provide rigidity. Steel cables and turnbuckles, steel rods, or steel tubing are used between major supports to resist sheer and rotational stresses.
T.O.Steel 350'-6"
BIRDSMOUTH CUT @ BRG. LINE
5 S2.1
WALL TO BOTT. OF ROOF STRUCT. TYP.
W 12 X 65
97
36'-0"
W 12 X 19
W 12 X 65
W
3'-9" 3'-9"
< of JOIST
7 S-11
< of JOIST
4'-3"
B
8'-0"
W 12 X 14
8'-0"
< of BEAM
74'-0"
4'-3"
< of JOIST W 12 X 40
W 12 X 40
< of BEAM
< of JOIST
IS
EV
CL
BRICK MASONRY COLUMNS COLUM S TYP.
W
(2 X
2"
1/
18
N)
97
PI
11 S-12 TYP.
BE
T.O.Steel 350'-6"
W 12 X 14
< of BEAM
FACE of FINISH
- FULL HT. WALL, 2x4 STUDS @ 16" O.C. 1/2" GYP BD., BLOCK EDGES, NAIL. 8d COOLER NAILS @ 4" O.C. EDGES AND FIELD.
1 S-6
ROOF / ROOF FRAMING PLAN 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4431 Most structural drawings show the majority of repetitive members to avoid confusion during the construction process. Courtesy Scott R. Beck, Architect.
ROOF FRAMING PLAN
C C.8 D
SEE ARCH.
W 12 X 14
W 12 X 14
W 12 X 14
LE
W 12 X 14
CK
BU
RN
TU
12 S2.1
W 12 X 65
VERIFY 5'-10 3/8" W/ ARCH.
&
W 12 X 65
6x6 BEAM TOP & BOTT.
3 A3.1
30'-1 5/8"
W 12 X 19
W 12 X 65
5
/#
BO
W
&
D
6
TO
RO
P
AM
6 A3
T.
T
4 A3.1
~ 4" 3/
12 S2.1
SOLID BRG. BELOW.
6X
1 S1.1
A
1
4X12 BM.
24LH07 12"CONC. CURB COORD. W/ MECH. 24LH07
6x6 HDR.
SCREENED SOFFIT VENT TYP.
9 S-11
ROOF TRUSS
D.S.
24LH07 (LLV)
2X12 RAFTERS @ 24" O.C.
2X12 RAFTERS @ 24" O.C.
2 A3.1
L 6" X 4" X 3/8" (LLV)
2X12 RIDGE BD.
D.S.
24LH07
AM BE
6:12
W 12 X 14
SIMPSON P HI
SIMPSON H210 TYP.
10 S-11 TYP.
12
SIMPSON HUTF412
6X
ROOF RIDGE VENTS.
SIMPSON HUTF 412 4x12 BM.
BM .
6:12
ELEVATOR SHAFT
12
< of BEAM
W 12 X 65
EAVE
4x4 POST BELOW BEAM.
FACE of FINISH
X
SOLID BRG. BELOW
13 S-9
18
SIMPSON HUTF 412
W 12 X 14
W 12 X 14
W 12 X 14
W 12 X 14
BEARING ON TOP OF DBL. PL.
4X12 BM.
4X
SEE ARCH.
SEE ARCH.
28'-0"
< of BEAM
2X12 RAFTERS @ 24" O.C.
4X4 KING POST FROM HIP DOWN TO BEAM.
7
28'-0"
VERIFY W/ ARCH.
6 6x8
2X12 RIDGE BD.
ROOF RIDGE VENTS.
SEE ARCH.
Architectural Drafting and Design
FACE of FINISH
1042
1/8" = 1'-0"
PROJECT NORTH
FIGURE 4432 The framing plan for a multilevel steel-framed structure. Courtesy Van Domelen/Looijenga/McGarrigle/Knauf Consulting Engineers.
Precast Concrete Framing Plans Precast concrete structures offer exceptional strength and resistance to seismic stresses as well as a high degree of fire safety. Concrete is also widely used because it can be cast into almost any shape. Concrete structures require drawings to represent the walls, beams, and columns for each specific level. Figure 44-33 shows an example of a framing plan for a concrete structure. Depending on the complexity of the project, framing plans for concrete structures can be divided into column, beam, wall, and floor and roof plans. Walls are located to their edges, and columns are located to their center in a method similar to that used in steel structure.
Structural Elevations Drawings similar to the exterior elevations used in the architectural drawings can also be used in the structural
drawings to describe structural materials. Structural elevations are generally associated with structural steel and concrete tilt-up construction. Structural sections or details can be used with any type of building material to show complicated framing intersections.
Structural Steel Elevations Three common types of elevations are used to explain structural steel. Elevations similar to Figure 44-34 can be used to show the vertical relationship of major framing members shown on the framing plans without showing any architectural information. Elevations can also be used to show how the steel framework relates to the architectural members of the structure. A third type of steel elevation is used to show major steel components such as a major truss that is used as a beam to support other trusses.
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1043
7
8 20'-10"
12'-4"
6''
6''
16'-10''
3'-0"
A B
2
5'-0''
S9
8'-3''
5'-0''
13'-6"
(2) #4
8i''
C
B-1
49'-10"
5'-0''
17'-0"
5'-0''
8'-6''
B-2
13 S13
8i''
10 S13
B-2
D
B-1 11
14
S13
5'-0''
8'-3''
S13 SIM.
14 S13 TYP.
8i''
6''
5'-0''
16'-4"
(2) #4
E 3 2'-11''
S12
NOTES:
4'-0"
1.)
NORTH
INDICATES SPAN DIRECTION OF 8'' DEEP, PRECAST, PRESTRESSED FLOOR PLANKS W/ 2i'' TOPPING
2.)
B-X
3.)
SEE S10 FOR COLUMN SCHEDULE.
INDICATES BEAM TYPE. SEE S11.
TYPICAL FLOOR FRAMING PLAN (3-6) 1/4" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4433 The framing plan for a concrete structure. Depending on the complexity of the project, framing plans for concrete structures can be divided into column, beam, wall, and floor and roof plans. Courtesy KPFF Consulting Engineers.
1044
Architectural Drafting and Design
4
3 ROOF DECKING W14
TOP OF ROOF 165.58'
W14 W14X43
W14X43 (FLAT)
< BRACING
TS 10X8X] BRAC'G TYP 14 3.10 TYP W14X61 (FLAT)
2ND FLOOR MEZZANINE 151.77'
W14X61
ENTRY LEVEL 147.0'
W14X34 (FLAT)
SECOND FLOOR 138.8'
6 3.8
2
W14X34
8 3.8
WEST STRUCTURAL ELEV. SCALE: 1/8" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4434 Structural elevations are used to show how the framework relates to the architectural members. Courtesy Charles J. Conlee, P.E., Conlee Engineers, Inc.
Poured Concrete Elevations The elevations for poured concrete are similar to those used for structural steel. Drawings show the location of structural beams and columns along a specific grid in the structure, as shown in Figure 44-35. In addition to describing distances between members, the elevation also serves as a reference map for listing beam sizes and for connection details. Elevations can also be more focused and show only specific types of construction, such as column elevations.
Tilt-Up Concrete Elevations Elevations for a tilt-up structure are used to show the size, shape, opening locations, and reinforcing for each panel of a structure. Elevations are drawn for
tilt-up construction using two common formats; the format used depends on the size and complexity of the structure. One method of showing the construction of panels is to show an entire face of a structure similar to the architectural elevations (see Figure 44-36). An alternative to drawing all of the panels along one grid line as a whole unit is to draw each panel as an individual panel elevation similar to the panel seen in Figure 44-34. Using this method, a large-scale elevation is drawn of each panel. One elevation can be used to describe several panels if the panels are exactly the same in every respect. Details are typically included with each panel elevation to show and specify typical reinforcing steel. Panels can be referenced to other drawings by referring to the grids located at each end
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1045
C
2
B
A
(2) #6 EACH FACE T & B
ROOF
#5 @
#4 EA FACE #4
15''o.c.
EL. 182.50'
@ 7'o.c.' #5 @ 15'' o.c. (4) #5 o.c. #5 @ 15''
(4) #5
2
(2) #6 EACH FACE T & B
SIXTH FLOOR
#5 @
#4 EA FACE @ 7'o.c.'
#5 @ 15'' o.c.
#4
15''o.c.
EL. 173.50'
(4) #5
(4) #5 #5 @ 15'' o.c.
2
(2) #6 EACH FACE T & B
FIFTH FLOOR
#5 @
#4 EA FACE @ 7'' o.c.
#5 @ 15'' o.c.
#4
15''o.c.
EL. 164.50'
(4) #5
(4) #5 #5 @ 15'' o.c.
2
(2) #6 EACH FACE T & B FOURTH FLOOR #5 @
#4 EA FACE #4
15''o.c.
EL. 155.50'
@ 7'' o.c.
2
7H TYP.
THIRD FLOOR
#5 @ 15'' o.c.
(6) #5 (6) #5
1
1
7H #5 @ 15'' o.c.
S12
S12 OPP. TYP.
(2) #6 EACH FACE T & B
#5 @
#4 EA FACE
TYP.
#4
1
@ 7'' o.c.
1 7K
(3) #5 EA.FACE
(3) #5 EA. FACE
#5 @ 15'' o.c. EA. FACE
2 S13
15''o.c. EA. FACE
EL. 146.50'
7K
#5 @ 15'' o.c. EA. FACE
S12
S12 TYP.
1 SECOND FLOOR EL. 137.50'
#5
@ 10'' o.c.
EA. FACE
SIM.
#5 @ 12'' o.c.1
2 S13
3'-8'' 12 S12
TYP.
#5 @ 15'' o.c.
(3) #8 EA. FACE
#5 @ 15'' o.c.
6'-6''
(6) #8 TOP AND BOT.
1'-6''
MAIN FLOOR EL. 125.50' EXISTING FOUNDATION APPROX. EL. 124.00'
2 S8
WALL ELEVATION AT GRID 6
5
6
6
S13
S13
S13
3/8" = 1'-0"
FIGURE 4435 Elevations for poured concrete show the location of each beam and column. Courtesy KPFF Consulting Engineers.
1046
Architectural Drafting and Design
RELIEVING ROOM WALL PANELS SEE ,
B S6
4
3 24'-0"
24'-0"
C S6
5
24'-0"
24'-0" 4 3/4"
TYPICAL PANEL GRID 2.2 TO 6
#4 @ 12" o/c VERT. CENTERED #4 @ 16" o/c HORIZ.
#4 X 4'-0" DIAG. TYP.
5
5
5
5
8"
1'-8"
5
8"
1'-8"
5
5
8"
(2) # 5 TYP.
5
4'-2"
5
1'-8"
5
NORTH ELEVATION
1/8"= 1'-0"
FIGURE 4436 Depending on the complexity of the panels, elevations can be drawn for an entire face of a structure or for each individual panel. Courtesy Bill Berry, Berry-Nordling Engineers, Inc.
of the panel. Panels can also be referenced to the framing plan by using an elevation reference symbol. This method is similar to the way interior drawings are referenced to the floor plan.
Structural Sections Sections are drawn by the engineering team to show any number of material intersections. When drawn, sections are created using the same guidelines used to create architectural sections. Although referred to as sections on the project title page, structural sections are usually details of a specific area rather than of an entire wall, or a portion of the structure. Structural sections similar to Figure 44-37 show how each component is to be constructed. The architectural sections are used to show how each component relates to others in size and location.
Structural Details Structural details are a key component of the structural drawings. General components are represented on the plan views, elevations, and sections, but it is the details that provide the information to make all of the required connections. Sections may show how two beams intersect, but the details will provide all of the needed dimensions and specifications to place hangers, bolts, welds, and other information needed to make the connection. No one set of guidelines can be used to complete each detail. The drafter must be careful to distinguish between each material with varied line quality and hatch patterns. Generally, several line weights will be required to complete a detail. Thin lines can be used to represent studs, interior finishes, and thin materials such as plywood. Thicker lines can be used to represent materials cut by the cutting plane. Outlines of concrete
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1047
"X L EE ST 6" /1 X3 ACE 5" BR
BE TU
T.S. 5"X5"X 1/4" STEEL TUBE COLUMN FULL HEIGHT
4 1/2" 4-7/8" A-325N BOLTS
W 18 x 35
5/8"Ø M.B. FOR PLACEMENT ONLY
5/8" M.B. FOR PLACEMENT ONLY
W 16 x 40 3/8"
3 1/2"
3/16"
4"
3/16"
4-7/8"Ø A-325N BOLTS W 18X35
18"x24"x1/4" STEEL GUSSET PLATE
3"X DFL#1 PLATE T.S. 5 x5"x 1/4" STEEL TUBE COLUMN
T.S. 5"X5"X3/16"
.5
S T.
TT
ST 6" /1 X3 CE 5" A BR
BE TU
1/4"
S.
T.
W18X35
5"
RR
L
E
EE
AC
ST
BR
4"
3"
1/
BE
"X
TU
X5
3"
3"
SS
M4
NOTE: STEEL TUBE BRACE SYSTEM LOCATED WITHIN 2"X8" DFL STUD WALL.
3 1/2" 3/8"
4"x 12"x 1/4" STEEL CONN. PLATE W/ 4-7/8" A-325N BOLTS W18X35
W 18 x 35 STEEL WIDE FLANGE
1/8"=1'-0"
1/2"
SS 1"=1'-0" NOTE: PROVIDE 2 1/8" MIN. EDGE DISTANCE FOR STEEL BASEPLATE BOLTS.
1/2"
T.S. 5"x5"x1/4" STEEL TUBE COLUMN 3/16"
1 1/2"
ZZ
1/2"
T.S. 5"x5"x1/4" STEEL TUBE BRACE
3" MIN.
W 18X35
12\"X22"X1/4" STEEL GUSSET PLATE
NOTE: #A=325N HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS REQUIRE SPECIAL INSPECTION -SECTION 306 (2) 5, 1997 UBC
L
V2
4 1/2"
12"x10"x1/4" STEEL GUSSET PLATE 12"
W 16X40
1"=1'-0"
EE
3"X DFL#1 PLATE
WW
T.S. 5"x5"x1/4" STEEL TUBE BRACE
"X
WW
3/16"
2 1/2"
1/2" MIN. CLAER
4"X12"
T.S. 5"X5"X1/4" STEEL TUBE COLUMN
T.S. 5"x5"x3/16" TUBE BRACE
V2 1\"=1'-0"
5/8" M.B. FOR PLACEMENT ONLY TOP OF FOOTING 12"x12"x1" STEEL BASEPLATE W/ 4-7/8" x18" LONG M.B. 1/2" 12" 3 1/2" WIDE X 5 1/2" DEEP CONTIN. KEYWAY X 18" LONG FILL COMPLETELY W/ DRYPACK
4 9" SIDES
1" MAX. DRYPACK
UU
.5
XX
1 7/8" 3-7/8" A-325N BOLTS
T.S. 5"X5"X3/16" (SLOPE W/ ROOF) S T.
T.S. 5"X5"X 1/4" STEEL TUBE COLUMN FULL HEIGHT
2 1/2"
1 1/2"
4"X12"
1/2"
3" 3" 3" 3"
YY
3 1/2"
3" 3" 3" 3"
2 1/2" 3"X DFL#1 PLATE W/ 1/2"¯ STUD BOLTS ANCHORS AT 24" O.C. - TYPICAL FOR ALL HORIZONTAL BRACE SYSTEM COMPONENTS.
1 1/2"x4"x12" LONG SHEAR PLATE
RR 1"=1'-0"
FIGURE 4437 Structural steel elevations are used to show the vertical relationship of major framing members shown on the framing plans, or to show how the steel framework relates to the architectural members of the structure. This section serves as a reference map for the details used for lateral bracing.
features are often drawn with a line slightly thicker than the line used to represent sectioned material. The thickest lines are generally used to represent the ground. Detailed hatch patterns should also be used to distinguish among materials. Examples of the varied line work and hatch patterns used on details are shown throughout this chapter and in Figure 44-37.
Foundation Plans In commercial work, foundations are typically concrete slabs because of their durability and low labor cost. As
seen in Figure 44-38, the foundation for a commercial project is similar to that of a residential project. The size of the footings will vary, but the same type of stresses that affect a residence affect a commercial project. They differ only in their magnitude. In commercial projects it is common to have both a slab and a foundation plan. The slab plan, or slab-on-grade plan, as it is sometimes called, is a plan view of the construction of the floor system and specifies the size and location of concrete pours. A slabon-grade plan can be seen in Figure 44-39. The foundation plan is used to show below-grade concrete work. A foundation plan can be seen in Figure 44-40.
1048
Architectural Drafting and Design
6
8
7
9
10
12
11
196'-0" 30'-0"
20'-0"
25'-0" (PANEL)
20'-0"
40'-0"
10'-0"
25'-0" (PANEL)
6'-4"
23'-8"
5'-6"
1-1/2"
25'-0" (PANEL)
4
6 S-2
4
A 5 S2
4
4
6 S-2
A 5 S-2
A
15
5
JOINT
POUR
POUR JOINT
1 S-2
C.J.
POUR JOINT
POUR JOINT
SIM. 4
4
1 S-2
6" CONCRETE SLAB WITH #4 AT 32" ON CENTER EACH WAY OVER 2" SAND OVER VAPOR RETARDER OVER 8" MINIMUM COMPACTED CRUSHED ROCK
17
DEEPEN AND RECESS SLAB AT SHOWER PANS AS REQUIRED
12 S-2
B
C.J.
4
5
SIM.
C
A
6
C C.J .
2 S-2
5" CONCRETE SLAB WITH #4 AT 48" ON CENTER EACH WAY OVER 2" SAND OVER VAPOR RETARDER OVER 8" MINIMUM COMPACTED CRUSHED ROCK
4
C.J.
C.J.
C.J.
C.J.
C
5
A
18
RECESS SLAB FOR ENTRY MAT TYP.
4" CONCRETE SLAB WITH #3 AT 32" ON CENTER EACH WAY OVER 2" SAND OVER VAPOR RETARDER OVER 8" MINIMUM COMPACTED CRUSHED ROCK
D
2 S-2
C
7
POUR JOINT
8
9
5
7 S-2
C.J
A
C.J.
C.J.
C.J.
E
C.J.
C.J.
C.J.
C.J.
70'-0"
16
6 S-2
C.J.
C.J.
RECESS SLAB FOR ENTRY MAT TYP.
4
A
5
C.J.
1 S- 2
A
C.J.
A
4
POUR JOINT
POUR JOINT 4
12 S-2
7 S-2
4
C.J
B
C
F
C
4
C 7
SIMPSON PA28
C.J.
A
S- 2
7 S-2
G
C.J.
7 S-2
C.J.
5" CONCRETE SLAB WITH #4 AT 48" ON CENTER EACH WAY OVER 2" SAND OVER VAPOR RETARDER OVER 8" MINIMUM COMPACTED CRUSHED ROCK
C.J.
B
SIMPSON MPAHD
C.J.
C.J.
C.J.
4
C
4
4
C.J.
7 S-2
B
B
6
SIMPSON PA28
20'-0"
4
S-2
A
SIM.
SIMPSON MPAHD
SIMPSON PAHD42
SIMPSON PA23
4
1'-0"
6 S-2
SIM.
1'-0"
6" 3 S-2
J K
1
1
6" 4 S-2
1
3
H 4'-0"
4
SIMPSON PAHD42
A
10'-0"
A
2'-0"
4
1'-6"
A
SIMPSON PA23
3'-6"
6 S-2
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
SIM.
20'-0"
40'-0"
40'-0"
5'-6"
196'-0"
FOUNDATION PLAN 1/8" = 1'-0"
SHEAR WALL SCHEDULE MK . A
FOOTING SCHEDULE NAILING
1/2" PLYWOOD ONE SIDE
8d AT 6" ON CENTER EDGES, 12" ON CENTER IN FIELD
MK . 1
B
1/2" PLYWOOD ONE SIDE
8d AT 4" ON CENTER EDGES, 12" ON CENTER IN FIELD
2
6'-6" X 10'-0" X 20" THICK
C
5/8" GYP. WALLBOARD ONE SIDE
6d COOLER OR WALLBOARD NAILS AT 7" ON CENTER TO ALL SUPPORTS (UNBLOCKED)
3
6'-6" X 12'-0" X 20" THICK
LONGIT. : (6) #4 TOP, (7) #7 BTM. TRANS. : (11) #4 TOP, (11) #5 BTM.
4
18" WIDE x 12" THICK X CONTINUOUS
(2) #4 CONTINUOUS BOTTOM
5
24" WIDE x 16" THICK
(2) #5 CONTINUOUS TOP AND BOTTOM
6
2'-0" X 2'-0" X 18" THICKENED SLAB
NOTES
SHEATHING
1. USE COMMON NAILS U.O.N. 2. PROVIDE BLOCKING AT ALL UNSUPPORTED PLYWOOD EDGES. 3. WALLS NOTED ON PLAN ARE TYPE NOTED FULL LENGTH OF WALL (OR LENGTH SHOWN BY DIM. LINES)
SIZE
REINFORCING
6'-6" X 9'-0" X 20" THICK
LONGIT. : (6) #4 TOP, (7) #5 BTM. TRANS. : (8) #4 TOP, (8) #5 BTM. LONGIT. : (6) #4 TOP, (7) #5 BTM. TRANS. : (9) #4 TOP, (9) #5 BTM.
UNREINFORCED
FIGURE 4438 A concrete slab foundation is typically used for commercial structures. This plan supports the floor plan shown in Figure 44-10. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA.
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
28'-0"
8" 4'-0"
1049
32'-0"
32'-0"
32'-0"
32'-0"
7/8" STEEL 'L' INSERTS W/ 3/4"7/8" X 25" COIL RODS @ 60" O.C. 2 DOORS
5" SLAB OVER 4" BASE MINIMUM OF 3/4" MINUS CRUSHED ROCK. REINFORCED W/ 12/12- 4/4 W.W.M. OR GRADE 40, #3 @ 15" O.C. EACH WAY, 3" CLEAR OF BASE.
GENERAL NOTES:
1. ALL SLAB ON GRADE CONCRETE SHALL BE 5" THICK F'c = 3500 P.S.I. @ 28 DAYS. 2. ALL TARGET STRENGTHS SHALL BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH CHAPTER 4 OF ACI 318 BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE. 3. REINFORCE WITH 12 X 12- W4 X W4 OR GRADE 40, #3 @ 15" O.C. EACH WAY CENTERED IN SLAB.
1/4" FIBER ISOLATION JOINTS AROUND ENTIRE PEDESTAL @ ALL PEDESTALS.
B S3
FIGURE 4439 A slab-on-grade plan shows the size and location of all concrete pours. Courtesy Gisela Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects & Associates, Inc.
E 6
B/F 21.35 B
G 6
48'-0"
2'-2"
B/F 21.62
B/F 21.35
B/F 22.29
B/F 20.348
B/F 20.97
GENERAL NOTES: 1. ALL FOUNDATION, PEDESTAL AND RETAINING WALL CONCRETE SHALL BE F'c 3000 PSI AT 28 DAYS. 2. ALL STEEL BAR REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE ASTM A615, GRADE 40, DEFORMED BARS UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED IN DRAWINGS OR DETAILS. B/F 22.50
B/F 23.65
B/F 22.50
B/F 21.25
C 6'-6" B/F 23.65 32'-8" 11
5'-0" 32'-0" 10
9
5'-0"
4'-0" 16'-0"
32'-0" 8
32'-0"
16'-0" 7.5
7
6
FOUNDATION PLAN SCALE: 3/32"=1'-0"
FIGURE 4440 A foundation plan is used to show below-grade concrete work. Courtesy Ginger Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects & Associates, Inc.
1050
Architectural Drafting and Design
6
7
8
9
11 12
10
3/4"C, #6CU GND TO MAIN BLDG SERVICE GROUND. SECONDARY CONDUITS TO "MSB" AT MEZZANINE. CONCRETE ENCASE PER NEC REQ'MTS.
8'HX3/4" PLYWOOD COMMUNICATIONS BACKBD "TTB" ON THREE SIDES TELEPHONE AND COMMUNICATIONS STUBUPS
WP 1.
H
18.
2B
12. F
2E 2. 4. 6.
WOMEN SHOWER
MEN SHOWER 35
D
36
2
1"C
2D
LAB.
20. 18. 20. 18.
2B I
14
1"C, 3#6
GND 27.29.
277/480V PLUG-IN BUSWAY
W.P.
2
24.
2A
3
1"C, 2#4& #10GND 39.41.
4B
W.P .
2A
2B
2E
RTU-3 SEE ONE LINE
24.
WOMEN 08
F
J H
SDP #3 2E
7.
3.
1.
GFI
9
MEN 09
GFI
4.
2E
120/208V PLUG-IN BUSWAY
SEE ONE LINE
4B
2 E4
7.9.11.
MSB
D
W.P.
W.P .
SEE ONE LINE
9
HEAT TAPE
3.
4.
8.
6.
07
1.
J
F
TTB 24.
2
10
2B
+96"
+60" 19. 21.
+42"
2-2"C
16
4.
2. 4.
I
I
19.
J I
17.
16.
STORAGE 21
2.
21.
4.
STAFF
WORK 18
LOBBY 15
16.
CLASSROOM 29
13.
5.
1"C, 3#6
GND
15.
3/4"C
E
16. CORRIDOR 34
I
15.
17.
13.
14.
T V
12
2B
OFFICE
13. 15. 17.
14.
30
16.
8.
COILING FIRE SHUT TER
6
2B
I
2A TTB
11
CLASSROOM 14.
CORR. 33
10.
J
2-2"C
RTU-1 SEE ONE LINE
D 8. 10.
1"C
2.
6.
18.
2E I
1
I
F
14.16.
10.
2E
TYPICAL
1"C, 2#4& #10GND 39.41.
9.
3
20.
J
2B SDP #3
4B 2B
18.
6
J
20.
20.
1"C
H
7. 9.
CLASSROOM 31
1"C, 3#6
GND
4B
J
C
18.
T V
+96"
J
J
19
14. 4.
+96"
4.
14.
3
T V
2A FIRE ALARM REMOTE ANNUNCIATOR PANEL 1"C, 3#6
GND 27.29.
15.
2B
G
16.
4.
11
2B
HALLWAY 28
6.8.
2B
10.12.
11.
1.
F
2-2"C ABOVE CEILING FOR COMM.
J
13.
B
F
1
SEE ONE LINE
MSB
2.
W.P . 2C
20.
12.
D
MSB
1.3. MSB
14.
J
14.
2E
3.
STOR. 10
W.P .
J
12.14.
H
H
MSB
CLASSROOM 32
10
5.7. STOR. 11
A
20.
T V
WP 1.
6 J
1.
F
18. +96"
H
3.
2B
WIREMOLD 2100 WITH OUTLETS 12"O.C. MOUNT ABOVE BACKBOARD
COMM. 13
JAN 12
F
1"C F
3
6.
3. +96"
6.
10.
6.
10.
10.
15.
3 4
8
OFFICE
17.
22
15.
OFFICE 23
OFFICE 24
8.
8.
OFFICE 25
OFFICE 26
OFFICE 27
W.P.
T V
8.
13.
12.
12.
12.
H SECRETARY 17
1 E2
LIBRARY 20
J K POWER & SIGNAL PLAN 1/8" = 1'-0"
PLAN NOTES 1. ALL OUTLETS AND JUNCTION BOXES ON THIS WALL TO BE MOUNTED AT +48" AFF.
6. PROVIDE FLUSH J-BOX WITH CONDUIT AND PULL STRING TO INDICATED PANEL FOR FUTURE USE. PROVIDE LABEL ON J-BOX COVER WITH PANEL DESIGNATION.
10.
7. PROVIDE TWO-PIECE METAL RACEWAY, WIREMOLD #6000 SERIES WITH OUTLETS AS REQUIRED BY OWNER. PROVIDE TWO STACKED LENGTHS AT LOCATIONS AS SHOWN ON PLAN (1)POWER & (1)COMMUNICATIONS. MOUNT AT HEIGHT SPECIFIED BY OWNER.
11.
8. CONNECT AUTO DOOR OPERATOR, 120V. COORDINATE REQUIREMENTS WITH EQUIP. SUPPLIER.
12.
2. RECEPTACLE LOCATED ON ROOF. MOUNT ON EQUIPMENT ENCLOSURE. 3. PROVIDE RECEPTACLE FOR "SPIDER BOX", HUBBELL #SR50. 4. GENERAL NOTE: PROVIDE TWO HUBBELL #SB101 "SPIDER BOXES" AECH WITH #SCB50 CABLE AND PLUG TO MATCH #SR50 RECEPTACLE. 5. PROVIDE AITKEN #QHL326 INFRARED HTR. W/ (2)1600WATT QUARTZ LAMPS, 277V. STEM SUSPEND AT MINIMUM 6" FROM CEILING. INSTALL PER MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS. SEE DETAIL #3/E4 FOR CONTROL SCHEMATIC.
PROVIDE 60A/2P RECEPTACLE WITH GROUND FOR WELDER, MATCH EQUIPMENT CORD CAP. PROVIDE 12" X 12" X 4"D J-BOX WITH COVER FOR COMMUNICATIONS CABLING. MOUNT ABOVE ACCESSIBLE CEILING. CONNECT TIME DELAY RELEASE DEVICE ASSOCIATED WITH COILING SHUTTER LOCATED ABOVE CEILING OF STORAGE 21. COORDINATE REQUIREMENTS WITH EQUIPMENT SUPPLIER.
9. CONNECT HANDICAP ACCESS DOOR OPERATOR AND ASSOCIATED PUSH PADS. COORDINATE REQUIREMENTS WITH EQUIPMENT SUPPLIER.
FIGURE 4441 A plan is drawn to show power supplies. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA; and Rob Connell of MFIA, Inc., Consulting Engineers.
ELECTRICAL DRAWINGS On a set of residential plans, an electrical plan is drawn to provide information about the locations of outlets, switches, and light fixtures, and other related information, for the electrician. A similar electrical plan is provided
for a set of commercial drawings. Information for the electrical plans is usually specified by the owner or by major tenants. This information is given to an electrical engineer, who will specify how the circuitry is to be installed. The engineer typically marks the needed information on a print of the floor plan.
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
6
1051
8
7
9
11 12
10
MOUNT UNDER CANOPY AS HIGH AS POSSIBLE.
JAN .12
A
COMM 13 D
CLASSROOM 32
D b A1
SEE 2/E1 S C 1.S3K
STOR. 10
J
H
7 S 3K
X
16.
J
J SEE 2/E1
1 WOMEN SHOWER
B3
S
S
J
11.9.7.
S2
c
S2
B1
X J
S KS KS 3K 11.9.7.
S3K SK SK 1.3.5. TO EF-1 SEE 1/E2
1
c
J
11
a b c
9
a J
11
c
a
a
X
4A
b
K 8. F
3
c
4A
a
J
c
a
c
c
4
d
16.
d A1
J
B2
K
J
f
A1
f
A1
e
J
F
J
d A1
a
a
d A1
c
c
e
CLASSROOM 29
a b c d
A5
J
A5
A6
A5
28
a
A4
J
ab
ab
C
G
+10'-0"AFF
1 J
a SS b
A6
J
X
J
A5
HALLWAY
1 J
ab
c
A5
SS b
a
SS
a
b
A4
SSb
aS
Sb
a
SS b
A4
A4
a
SS
A4
b
A4
ab a
a
a
a
a
a
d
J
+10'-0" AFF
+10'-0" AFF
a
A2 STAFF
a b c
E
d A1
c
b A1
J
A2
J
19
S SS
bc
A6
e
S3
b J
A2 a
18 a
A6
a
B2
A1
A2
1
SSSS
d
b
A2 WORK
S SS
A5
E
x
J
c
A2 J
a
16
c
c
F
A2 b
S3
+10'-0" AF F
4A
d
STORAGE 21
L
a b c
A1
A1
Sb J
b
A1
J
F
c c
J
A4
OFFICE aS
d
A1
b A1
F
c
L
1
c d
F
c
c b
LOBBY 15
f
S S SS S S
c
B
J
J
D
A1
J
CLASSROOM 30
34
J
+10'-0" AFF
f
b
F A4 b
f e
A1 d
e fd
a
E5 ed c b
10.
S S S S S Sa
A1
1
6.
SSSS
c
X
c J
CORRIDOR
B2
STEM SUSPEND @+13'-0"
B2
c
B
4A
a
A1 d
1 a b c
b
J
B
+12'-0" M AFF
07
SK SK SK
e
d
d c
A1 b
b c
f
c
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b 4.
J
7
B
c
S S SS SS 4A
J F
f e
J
d
c
TYPICAL
B3
d c
S S SS SS
LAB. 14
E5
A1
J
d
a
STEM SUSPEND TO BOTTOM OF JOISTS. TYPICAL.
2
F
d c
b 11 9
4A
C
CLASSROOM 31 A1
J
J
7
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B2 4A
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MEN SHOWER
WOMEN
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b
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cd
22
e
23
24
25
26
27
f
B3 +10'-0" AFF
1 E1
H
STEM SUSPEND @+13'-0"
3 E5 a
K
LIBRAR Y 20
SECRETARY 17
J K
B3 +10'-0" AF F
LIGHTING PLAN 1/8" = 1'-0"
PLAN NOTES 1. PROVIDE BODINE B-50 EMERGENCY BATTERY BALLAST IN THIS FIXTURE FOR ALL LAMPS. CONCEAL TEST SWITCH AND CHARGE LIGHT BEHIND LENSE.
4. CONNECT TO DESIGNATED PANEL VIA EXTERIOR LIGHTING CONTROL "ELC". 5. MOUNT FIXTURE ON WALL AT +7'-0" ABOVE FINISHED FLOOR.
2. GENERAL NOTE: CORNER MOUNT TYPE "B" & "B1" FIXTURES AT CEILING UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED.
6. PROVIDE BODINE B-50 EMERGENCY BATTERY BALLAST IN THIS FIXTURE. CONNECT TO UNSWITCHED LEG OF CIRCUIT.
3. LIGHT FIXTURES AT COVERED ENTRY ARE TO BE PROVIDED WITH "0" DEGREE COLD WEATHER BALLAST.
FIGURE 4442 Lighting equipment and fixtures are shown using an overlay of the floor plan. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA; and Rob Connell of MFIA, Inc., Consulting Engineers.
This print is then given to a drafter who transfers the information to an electrical plan. Because of the complexity of the electrical needs of commercial projects, a separate plan is drawn to show power outlets (see Figure 44-41) along with a plan for
lighting (see Figure 44-42). A plan is typically provided for roof-mounted or other exterior equipment. Schematic drawings may also be provided by the electrical engineer and must be incorporated into the working drawings (see Figure 44-43).
1052
Architectural Drafting and Design
13 TERMINAL WEATHERPROOF METER SOCKET W/ TEST SWITCH AND KWH/KW DEMAND METER. PER UTILITY REQUIREMENTS
NOTES:
M MAIN SERVICE BOARD "MSB" 1200A
(100% RATED)
1 1/2"C
PANEL 2B
PANEL 2E
112 1/2 KVA, 480-208Y/120, 3ph 4w DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER.
5
500 KVA, 480-208Y/120, 3ph 4w DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER.
6
CONDUCTOR LENGTH NOT TO EXCEED 10'-0".
480Y/277, 3ph
600A BUS
6
100 3
200 3
150 3
100 3
SPARE
4 T
2 1/2''C, 4#3/0 & 1#4 GND (CONDUCTOR LENGTH NOT TO EXCEED 10 FEET)
CODE GND 6320A SYM
PANEL PANEL 4A 4B
225A/3P SPACE
2''C, 3#1/0 & 1#6 GND
2''C, 4#1 & 1#6 GND
2''C, 4#1 & 1#6 GND
SPARE
200A W/200A FUSES 2 1/2''C, 4#3/0 & 1#4 GND PANEL PANEL 2C
2D
SUB DISTRIBUTION PANEL "SDP #2" 600A BUS 225 3
150 3
480Y/277, 3ph 125 3
(2)225A/3P SPACES
100 3
LOAD SUMMARY CONNECTED LOAD (KVA)
DESCRIPTION
LIGHTING RECEPTACLES MISC EQUIPMENT HVAC ELECTRIC HEATING TOTAL
42.65 51.38 26.957 8.8 478.4 8.535
DEMAND LOAD (KVA)
X 1.25 (41.38 X 5) + 10000 X 1.0 X 1.0 (1.25 X LARGEST) + FLA X 1.0
616.722 KVA
53.319 30.69 26.957 8.8 503.3 8.535 631.601 KVA
@480V, 3ph = 761.0A LARGEST MOTOR = 50 HP
SPARE 1 1/2''C, 3#1 & 1#6 GND
200 3
2 1/2''C, 4#3/0 & 1#4 GND
BUSWAY BUSWAY PANEL LAB 2A LAB 03 14
200 3
2 1/2''C, 4#3/0 & 1#4 GND
200 3
2 1/2''C, 4#3/0 & 1#4 GND
& 1#1/0 GND
400 3
4
SUB DISTRIBUTION PANEL "SDP #1"
100 3
T 4130A SYM
208Y,120, 3ph
4''C, 3#500 KCmil & 1#3/0 NEUTRAL & 1#1/0 GND
400 3 4''C, 3#500 KCmil & 1#3/0 NEUTRAL
(4)225A/3P SPACES
ALL FUSES TO CLASS R UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED.
CODE REQUIRED GROUND
1 1/2''C, 3#1 & 1#6 GND
1200A BUS
SURGE SUPRESSOR, SQUARE D #J9200-10, 2 PER PANEL
3
9200A SYM
& 1#2 GND
SUB DISTRIBUTION PANEL "SDP #3"
2
5
& 1#1/0 GND
BUSWAY LAB 14
9200A SYM
2"C, 3#3/0 & 1#4 GND
CODE GND
600 LPS RK
2-3 1/2"C, EACH W/4#350KCMIL
5200A SYM
600 3 600 LPS RK
600 3
& 1#3 GND
7000A SYM
(3) 4''C, EACH W/ 4#500 KCmil
BUSWAY LAB 03
700
4''C, 3#500 KCmil & 1#3/0 NEUTRAL & 1#1/0 GND 2-2 1/2"C, EA W/ 3#250KCMIL
TO UTILITY TRANSFORMER
400 LPS RK
& 1#1/0 GND
SEE SITE PLAN SHT L5
4''C, 3#500 KCmil & 1#3/0 NEUTRAL
7000A SYM
12747A SYM
800 3
400A/3P SPACE
& 1#2 GND
400 3
(2) 3 1/2''C, EACH W/ 4#350 KCmil
400 3 400 LPS RK
CT COMPARTMENT PER UTILITY REQUIREMENTS
INTERNAL ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT FOR THIS DEVICE TO BE 22KAIC RATED
1
208Y/120/480Y/277/230
, 3PHASE
ONE LINE DIAGRAM
2 RTU-1 179.6 MCA
RTU-2 121.9 MCA
RTU-3 96.4 MCA
SCALE: NONE
FIGURE 4443 A drafter is often required to draw schematic diagrams to help explain electrical needs. Courtesy Architects Barrentine, Bates, & Lee, AIA; and Rob Connell of MFIA, Inc., Consulting Engineers.
FIXTURE DRAWINGS On structures such as a restaurant or a medical facility that will contain a large number of specialty cabinet or trim drawings, these drawings will be in their own
section and be in successive order starting with F-1 (for Fixtures). This section will also include details covering interior trim and specialized equipment, as well as cabinets. These drawings can be completed for a drafter working for either the architectural team, an
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1053
EQUIPMENT SCHEDULE ITM DESCRIPTION
41 39
38
43
42
40
44
45 35
36
37
46 #
32 31
33
6 20
28 27 30 29 26 25 24 21 20 30
11
18
17 15
14
19
3 18
4
5
6
7
8
13
9
16
10
# 2 35
PLATFORM PLATFORM PLATFORM 1
7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
DRY STORAGE SHELVING DESK & CHAIR SOILED DISH TABLE W/PASS-THRU DISPOSER DISHWASHER DISHWASHER CANOPY HOOD CLEAN DISH TABLE ICE MACHINE REFRIGERATOR FREEZER HAND SINKS SPARE NUMBER VEGETABLE PREP SINKS WORK TABLE SLICER W/MOBILE CART 20-QUART MIXER W/MOBILE CART WORK TABLE WASTE RECEPTACLES CORNER & CHANNEL GUARDS CANOPY HOOD W/FIRE PROTECTION SYS. STAINLESS STEEL WALL FLASHING SPARE NUMBER SPARE NUMBER CONVECTION OVEN COOKING COUNTER GRIDDLE/OPEN BURNERS FRYER COOKS REFRIGERATOR SANDWICH REFRIGERATOR COOKS TABLES BEVERAGE COUNTER COFFEE MAKER MILK DISPENSER SPARE NUMBER CARBONATED BEVERAGE SYSTEM FOOD WARMER PASS-THRU SHELF BACK-UP COUNTER REFRIGERATOR SERVING COUNTER ICED DISPLAY PAN HOT FOOD UNIT SOUP WARMERS CASH REGISTER HOT DOG GRILL/BUN WARMER SANDWICH REFRIGERATOR
QTY REMARKS: LOT LOT 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 --1 1 1 1 1 2 LOT LOT LOT ----1 1 1 1 1 1 LOT 1 1 1 --1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
BY OWNER EXISTING/MODIFY/REINSTALL EXISTING/REINSTALL
EXISTING/MODIFY/REINSTALL EXISTING\REINSTALL
REQUIREMENTS BY DIVISION 15 EXISTING\REINSTALL EXISTING\NEW EXISTING\NEW
BY PURVEYOR EXISTING\REINSTALL BY PURVEYOR
BY OWNER
FIGURE 4444 Using a portion of the floor plan to serve as a base drawing, specific information can then be attached using external referencing to explain special equipment. Courtesy Halliday Associates.
interior designer, or for an equipment supplier. No matter which team does the drawing, the architectural team will usually supply a floor plan or enlarged floor plan to serve as a base drawing for the information. Specific information can then be attached to the base
drawings using external referencing. Figure 44-44 shows an example of a base floor plan that was used to reference the cabinet material. Figure 44-45 shows a portion of the interior drawings for the commercial kitchen.
1054
Architectural Drafting and Design
EXISTINTG S.S. SINK WITH ADAPTER FLANGE FOR DISPOSER & (2) REMOVABLE 14 GA. S.S. RACK GUIDES HELD IN PLACE WITH S.S. PINS WELDED TO SINK SIDES
REUSE EXISTING S.S. SHUTTER. VERIFY CONDITIONS
PITCH
VERIFY
2'-0"
5
LEG BRACES 7 4'-0" (VERIFY)
6
5'-2"
18 LEG BRACE
PLAN VIEW
# # 7
18
DISH-TABLE ASSEMBLY
3/4"=1'-0"
S.S. CASE OPENING
VARIES: 2" MIN. 3" MAX.
4
3'-1" (VERIFY)
3
3'-7" (VERIFY)
DISPOSER SWITCH
1 3
SECTION 3/4"=1'-0"
14'-6" (VERIFY)
3"
EQ.
16'-9" (VERIFY)
EQ.
EQ.
BUILDING WALL
1 40
FOOD GUARD STRUCTURE 1"
REMOTE HEAT LAMP CONTROL
41
HEAT LAMP 43
42
2 40
OPEN
1-1/2"
ADJ. SHELF
ADJ. SHELF
OPEN
NOTCH BASE FOR FLOOR SINK
45
44
ADJ. SHELF
4'-11-1/2" 1-1/2"
(VERIFY)
PITCH
(VERIFY)
PITCH
2'-0"
2'-6"
OPEN
6"
VERIFY VACUUM BREAKER
3'-0"
2'-7" LONG SHELF UNDER
FINISHED BASE MATERIAL BY G.C. 5'-0-1/2" 1-1/2"
2'-0" 1-1/2"
40
REAR ELEVATION
OPEN
OPEN
OPEN OPEN
3'-0" 1-1/2"
3'-1" 1-1/2"
1'-6" 1-1/2"
1'-5-3/4" 1-1/2"
1-1/2"
1'-6" 1-1/2"
SERVING COUNTER
3/4"=1'-0"
FIGURE 4445 A portion of the interior drawings for the commercial kitchen shown in Figure 44-44. Courtesy Halliday Associates.
MECHANICAL DRAWINGS The drawings that are used to show the movement of air throughout the structure make up the mechanical drawing portion of a project. These drawings will be successively arranged starting with M-1. Mechanical drawings show the location of heating and cooling
equipment as well as duct runs. The drawings will be completed by a drafter working for the architectural team or for the mechanical engineer. As with other drawings, the architectural team will supply the needed base drawings, and the HVAC information can then be referenced to the drawings. The mechanical engineer will typically design the system and mark all equipment
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1055
120X12 10 925 20X20 CR-1
14
12
12
150 6X6-4 CS-1
80 6X6 CR-1
140 8X8 CR-1 675 16X16 CR-1
WARRANTY
330 10X10-4 CS-1
330 10X10-4 CS-1 10 660 16X16 CR-1
6 CASHIER 100 6-3 CS-1 8
14
8 14X12
220 10-4 CS-1 TYP.3
SALES MANAGER
SERVICE WRITER SUPPORT
8 12
175 10X10 CR-1
150 6 6-3 CS-1
24X12
8
8
12 580 14X14 CR-1
8
24X16
150 6-2 CS-1 200 8-4 CS-1 TYP.3
WARRANTY & PARTS 14
10
8 ACU-1
140 8-4 CS-1 10
10
SERVICE AREA
6
170 8-4 CS-1
8
10
22X18 22X18
250 10X10 CE-1 8
75 6X6 CE-2 6
10
8X10 UP
75 6X6 CE-2 250 10-2 CS-1
20X12 1250 22X22 CR-1 TYP.2
10
CUSTOMER LOUNGE 10
16X14
10
300 12X12 CS-1 TYP.6
FIGURE 4446 A mechanical plan is drawn to show heating and air-conditioning requirements.
sizes and duct runs on a print, and a drafter will then input the information using CADD. Figure 44-46 shows a mechanical plan; Figure 44-47 and Figure 44-48 show details and specifications that are usually required to supplement the plan.
PLUMBING DRAWINGS The plumbing drawings are used to show how fresh water and wastewater will be routed throughout the structure. Plumbing drawings, schedules, and details
1056
Architectural Drafting and Design
GENERAL NOTES RIGID METAL ELBOW
1
INFORMATION PERTAINING TO EXISTING HVAC EQUIPMENT, MEDICAL GAS AND VACUUM, AND PLUMBING PIPING, FIXTURES, ITEMS, ETC., SHOWN ON THESE DRAWINGS HAS BEEN TAKEN FROM VARIOUS RECORD DRAWINGS AND SOME INVESTIGATION BUT ALL INFORMATION HAS NOT BEEN VERIFIED AT THE SITE. VERIFY ALL EXISTING CONDITIONS WHERE POSSIBLE, RELATIVE TO SCOPE OF WORK, PRIOR TO SUBMITTING BID.
2
SOME CONCEALED DUCTS, PIPING, AND OTHER ITEMS HAVE BEEN SHOWN IN AN ASSUMED LOCATION BUT NOT VERIFIED. CONTRACTOR SHALL VERIFY.
3
PRIOR TO INSTALLATION OF ANY NEW PIPING, EXPOSE ALL POINTS OF CONNECTION AND VERIFY EXACT SIZE, LOCATION, ELEVATION, AND TYPE OF MATERIAL. DETERMINE THAT EXISTING PIPE IS CORRECT SIZE AND MATERIAL AND THAT THE ELEVATION IS LOW ENOUGH TO ACHIEVE REQUIRED SLOPE BEFORE NEW PIPING IS CONNECTED. IF NOT, NOTIFY THE ARCHITECT AND DO NOT PROCEED WITH INSTALLATION UNTIL INSTRUCTED TO DO SO.
4
EXISTING DUCTS AND PIPING ENCOUNTERED DURING CONSTRUCTION WHICH ARE NO LONGER REQUIRED SHALL BE REMOVED AND BE DISPOSED OF AS SPECIFIED. CAP PIPING IN A CONCEALED LOCATION AND AS CLOSE TO SERVING MAIN AS POSSIBLE TO LIMIT CAPPED DEAD END RUNS TO 2'-0" MAXIMUM FOR ALL SERVICES, EXCEPT AS NOTED.
5
PRIOR TO DISCONNECTING, REMOVING, OR CAPPING EXISTING PIPING, VERIFY THAT IT DOES NOT SERVE EXISTING FIXTURES OR EQUIPMENT TO REMAIN. IF IT DOES, LEAVE SYSTEM INTACT OR CONNECT TO CLOSEST NEW SERVICES. RECORD ON AS-BUILT DRAWINGS.
6
REMOVE EXISTING FIXTURE, EQUIPMENT, AND RELATED PIPING, FITTINGS, AND APPURTENANCES WHERE INDICTATED AND AS REQUIRED. CAP SERVICE PIPING IN A CONCEALED LOCATION. EXISTING MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT, PLUMBING FIXTURES, AND APPURTENANCES WHICH ARE REMOVED AND NOT RELOCATED OR REINSTALLED SHALL BE DISPOSED OF AS SPECIFIED.
7
ALL DEVIATIONS FROM CONTRACT DRAWINGS, INCLUDING EXISTING, SHALL BE RECORDED ON AS-BUILT DRAWINGS.
8
REFER TO ARCHITECTURAL DOCUMENTS FOR EXACT LOCATION AND HEIGHT OF ALL PLUMBING FIXTURES AND MEDICAL GAS OUTLETS. COORDINATE WITH OTHER TRADES.
9
BECAUSE OF THE SMALL SCALE OF THE DRAWING, IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO INDICATE ALL PIPING RUNS, OFFSETS, FITTINGS, VALVES, AND ACCESSORIES WHICH MAY BE REQUIRED. CAREFULLY INVESTIGATE CONDITIONS SURROUNDING INSTALLATION OF THE WORK AND FURNISH NECESSARY FITTINGS, VALVES, TRAPS, ETC. , WHICH MAY BE REQUIRED TO COMPLETE THE INSTALLATION IN A SATISFACTORY AND CODE APPROVED MANNER.
FLEXIBLE DUCT 5'-0" MAXIMUM LENGTH CEILING
(RETURN OR EXHAUST ONLY)
NECK SIZE PLUS 3" TURNING VANES
12" STRAIGHT RIGID DUCT (SUPPLY ONLY) BAND CLAMP
FLEXIBLE DUCT, 5'-0" MAXIMUM LENGTH
DUCT SIZE PLUS 3" ROUND SPIN-IN FITTING DIFFUSER OR GRILLE
CEILING (SUPPLY, RETURN OR EXHAUST)
DETAIL - CEILING OUTLET CONNECTIONS NO SCALE
FIGURE 4447 Details are required to show how HVAC equipment is installed. Courtesy Manfull Curtis Consulting Engineering.
are successively arranged starting with page P-1. These drawings will be completed by a drafter working for the architectural team or for the mechanical engineer. The engineer will design the system and mark all fixtures, valves, and water and waste lines on a print, and a drafter will then input the information using CADD. Information related to the plan view is generally placed using external referencing. Figure 44-49 shows an example of a simple plumbing plan that shows the fresh water and wastewater information in one drawing. Figure 44-50 shows an example of a schematic plumbing diagram.
10 RELOCATE TO NEAREST ACCEPTABLE LOCATION AND RECONNECT EXISTING PIPING REQUIRED TO REMAIN WHICH INTERFERES WITH NEW CONSTRUCTION. 11 ALL SERVICE DISRUPTIONS SHALL BE SCHEDULED AT LEAST 24 HOURS IN ADVANCE WITH USER STAFF AND ENGINEERING SERVICES. 12 LOCATION AND ROUTING OF SERVICES FOR SOME EXISTING FIXTURES IS UNKNOWN. VERIFY IN FIELD AND REMOVE AND CAP AS REQUIRED. 13 EXISTING MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT, PLUMBING FIXTURES, AND APPURTENANCES WHICH ARE TO BE FURNISHED BY OWNER, RELOCATED AND/OR REINSTALLED UNDER THIS CONTRACT SHALL BE COMPLETELY CLEANED AND INSPECTED. IF REPAIR IS REQUIRED TO PUT THEM IN SATISFACTORY WORKING CONDITION, NOTIFY OWNER BEFORE REINSTALLING.
FIGURE 4448 A drafter will need to update standard notes for each HVAC project. Courtesy Manfull Curtis Consulting Engineering.
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1057
41'-6" 18'-0" 15'-6" SEE 6'-11 5/8" DET.
2" VTR
P-7
3"
4"
4" 9'-2"
P-8
1'-6"
P-7 1 1/2" VTR
1 1/2" VTR MIN. 4'-0" FROM OUTSIDE OF BLDG. TYPICAL P-7
1/2"CW UNDER SLAB
3/4" CW DN.
3/4" HW DN
1 1/2"VTR 1/2" CW 1 1/2"VTR
P-5
1"
PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVE REQUIRED WHERE WATER PRESSURE AT SITE IS GREATER THAN 80 PSI & NOT PROVIDED AT THE WATER METER. SEE DETAIL 3 M-1
1/2" CW UNDER SLAB 1/2" VALVED CONN. GV-1 SEE DETAIL 4 M-1
CW W&V P-6 HW P-5 1/2" VALVED CONN. FOR SLURPEE
SEE NOTE 1
2'-6" 1'-9"
WH-1
P-8 1/2"
2 - 1/2" VALVED CONN. GV-1 SEE DETAIL 4 M-1
1 1/2"VTR SEE NOTE 1
10'-10"
3/4" 9'-6"
P-4 1 1/2" VTR
HW W&V CW
SHUT-OFF VALVE: LOCATE AS DIRECTED BY THE SOUTHLAND CORP. (LABEL 'BUILDING SHUT-OFF VALVE'.) 4"Ø
FREEZE-PROOF HOSE BIBB WITH VACUUM BREAKER
4" CLEAN OUT SEE DETAIL
1" COLD WATER SERVICE
1 M-1
RUN CAST IRON TO 5' BEYOND BUILDING
FLOOR PLAN PLUMBING 1/4"
3"
2 M-1
7'-10"
5'-10"
2-'0" 2'-5"
4'-0"
20'-1"
RL
6'-10"
1/2"
CONNECTION TO EQUIPMENT DRAIN TO INSTALLATION BY CONTRACTOR. SEE DETAIL
2" P-7 3" DN SEE DETAIL
11'-4"
11'-8"
3" ROOF DRAIN
2" C.O.
2'-0"
1/2"CW UP
9'-11"
2 M-1
HW,W&V,CW
1'-7"
1 1/2"VENT DOWN IN WALL TYP.
1'-0"
FIGURE 4449 Required plumbing information is usually shown on an overlay of the floor plan.
RL
6 M-1
Architectural Drafting and Design
PA
1058
AS TO BLDG SPRINKLER 8
AS
4
2i"CW TO BLDG FIXTURES 1"PCW TO MECH EQ.
2 9
CKV
11 DRAIN
3 6 5
DRAIN TO OUTSIDE ABV GRADE PREACTION RISER
WFS
TS
7
5
TS
10
FLOOR
F WET SPRINKLER RISER S
SOV
RPBP
AGD TPV
F
1
12
S
W
6"F
W
SCREWDRIVER STOP
2i"CW
DIAGRAM - FIRE & DOMESTIC WATER HEADER NO SCALE NOTES 1 DELUGE SYSTEM CONTROL PANEL SUPERVISORY AIR PANEL MANUAL PULL STATION
2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
LOW PRESSURE ALARM SWITCH
INDICATING TYPE VALVE WITH T.S. DELUGE VALVE SOLENOID VALVE PRIMING CUP GLOBE VALVE & DRAIN PIPE STAND TEST & DRAIN VALVE W/SIGHT GLASS 3-WAY VALVE W/PRESSURE GAUGE
FIGURE 4450 A schematic plumbing diagram will be designed by an engineer and completed by a drafter. Courtesy Manfull Curtis Consulting Engineering.
CADD APPLICATIONS Commercial Drawings USING CADD TO DRAW COMMERCIAL DRAWINGS It would be hard to find a successful office drawing a commercial structure without the use of computers. Partly because of speed, but mostly due to collaboration, CADD skills are a must in all fields of commercial architecture. One firm usually creates the design and working drawings for a residence. It’s not unusual for a drafter to complete an entire small residential project. A multitude of CAD technicians will be required to work under the supervision of the architect to complete the architectural drawings for a set of commercial drawings. In addition to the drafters who are part of the architectural team, drafters who work for the structural engineer and other consultants on the project will also play a substantial role. Consultants for the project may include a civil engineer, landscape architect, electrical engineer, plumbing and mechanical engineers, and interior design firms.
These consultants, and their drafters, will work on drawings created by the architectural team. This basic design information from the consultants will then be returned to the architect so that any necessary adjustments can be made. This collaboration can be accomplished quickly only with the help of CADD. No matter which of the design professionals you work with, computers will generally affect the mathematical examination of loads and stresses acting on a structure, the development of the working drawings, the development of details, the development of 3-D models and diagrams, and the development of written specifications.
Mathematical Calculations Third-party software programs that work within AutoCAD or a related drawing program are available to provide many of the mathematical calculations required for structural analysis. Programs are available to design
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
1059
CADD APPLICATIONS wood, steel, and concrete beams and supports. Computer models of a structure can also be created to analyze how specific features of a structure, and the entire structure as a whole, will react under various loading conditions. These studies can be used to determine how a structure will respond to wind pressure, floodwater, or an earthquake of a specific magnitude. Software programs are also available for designing static and fatigue calculations to predict repair and maintenance costs. Third-party software is available to provide computer analysis of heat loss. Many programs will also show the average outdoor temperature and the average amount of energy needed to reach specific temperatures within the structure. Cost comparisons can be determined based on predicted weather patterns, cost of a specific fuel, and predicted efficiency of a heating unit. As a drafter you will generally not be involved with using the software that performs the structural studies for a project, but you will be involved with placing the requirements of these studies into the working drawings.
Working Drawings The use of computers in the construction industry has had a substantial impact on the documentation of a structure. Given the magnitude of the project size and the number of professionals to be coordinated, the use of computers has greatly aided the management and production of architectural projects. Once all the adjustments have been incorporated into the preliminary drawings, the technician will begin preparing the working drawings. Most likely the first thing to be done is issuing new base sheets to the consultants. Getting the revised base sheets out to the consultants first will allow them to be developing their drawings while the architectural technician is completing the architectural drawings. The goal is to have the consultants’ drawings completed simultaneously while staff members at the architect’s office complete the architectural drawings. After the consultants’ drawings have been distributed, the technician can continue developing all the architectural working drawing sheets. During this process, changes may develop that impact the information that has been sent to the consultants. It is very important to keep communication lines open, informing the consultants of these changes and distributing new base sheets if necessary. Information may also flow the other way. The consultants may need updates to be made to the design to make their system work. The mechanical engineer may need a shaft added to adequately distribute the HVAC; the structural engineer may need to add a shear wall or column. This information will need to be incorporated into the
drawings and distributed to the other consultants. The use of external referenced drawings can greatly aid in this communication. Depending on the size and complexity of the project, a structural engineering firm will work in conjunction with the architectural firm to analyze the forces that will be imposed on the structure. The structural engineer might provide calculations, framing plans, structural elevations and sections, and details for the architectural firm to use to complete the project or might provide a complete set of structural drawings to accompany the architectural drawings. In either case, drafters will be required to ensure that materials required to meet all of the mathematical calculations of the engineer have been incorporated into the drawings. Drafters will also be required to incorporate information supplied by other consulting firms.
Using CADD to Draw Structural Details CADD has increased productivity in drawing structural details. One advantage is the use of standard details. Once a detail has been drawn, it may be automatically inserted into any drawing at any time. The detail may be inserted and used as is, or it may be inserted and modified to provide specific information that changes from one drawing to the next, similar to the details in Figure 44-51. Every time a CADD drafter draws a detail, it is saved in a drawing file for later use. With this process it is not necessary to render the same drawing more than once. CADD structural packages are available that provide a variety of standard structural details. Most of these packages are based on parametric design, which means that the standard structural detail may be altered by supplying the computer with data. For example, a set of structural stairs may be drawn automatically by providing the computer with total rise, number of risers, tread dimension, reinforcing size and spacing, and railing information. Even for creating nonstandard original drawings, CADD is easier than manual drafting. Many CADD software packages have custom structural tablet menu overlays that provide standard structural shapes that may be inserted on the drawing at any time. This saves time, because the drafter need not draw these symbols individually with a pencil and manual template.
Three-Dimensional Drawings Software innovations by AutoCAD and third-party developers provide the ability to draw 3D drawings similar to Figure 44-52. These drawings can be used to help develop the working drawings as well as the artistic drawings for preliminary planning. In addition to 3D and
1060
Architectural Drafting and Design
CADD APPLICATIONS TOP OP O OF FC COLUMN OLUMN AT TOP OP O OF F JJOIST O ST AT SIM. S IM. M C CONDITIO CONDITION ON T ON C 5 x 6.7 BET BETWEEN BETWEE WEEN JOISTS O S S ((TYPICAL C L AT GIRDE GIRDERS) GIRD RDERS) RDER RS
1/4 1/4 4 1/4 1 /4 4
GRID
TOP OP O OF FC COLUMN OLUMN AT TOP OP O OF F JJOIST O ST AT SIM. S IM. M C CONDITIO CONDITION OND T ON
8"
JOIST OS G GIRDER R R TOP OP o of JOIST OS SEE SEE PLAN P LLAN
6 6 8"
""W" W W"" C COLUMN OLU N OLUMN SEE S EE ES SCHED SCHEDULE CHEDULE ON NS SHEET S S-3 S3
1/2 1 /2 1/2 1/2
1/4 1/4 4 1/4 1 /4 4
TYP. P
NOTE: NOTE: OTE: 1.) .)) DO O NO NOT WELD WEL BO B BOTTOM BOTTO TT TOM C CHORD HORD ORD ORD D TO TO K KNIFE FE PLAT PLATE PL 2.) .)) METAL MET DEC DECK DE &S SL SLAB NO NOT OT S SHOWN OWN FO FOR RC CLARITY L R
TYP. P. JOIST S G GIRDER/COL. RDER/COL CO C CONN. CO ONN. S9-11 9
8"
JOIST OS G GIRDER R R
3/8 3 /8 8"
P /4 4"" x 6 6"" x 6 6"" L 3/4" TYPICAL TYPICA PC L
3/4" 3 /4 4"" = 1'-0" ' "
CP P 7/ 7/8" 8" x 8 8" 8"" x 10"" TYP. P. (U (US (USE P 7/8" 8"" X 8 8"" X 8 8"" L 7/ AT GRIDS RIDS R S 1 AND AN 7)
7 7
WT 6 x 4 43. 43.5 35 (TYPICA (TYPICAL PIC L AT GIRDE GIRDERS) GIRD RDERS) RDER RS
JOIST OS G GIRDER R R
11 1 1 S-9 9
C 5 x 6.7 BETWEE BETWEEN W N JOISTS O S S ((TYPICAL C L AT GIRD GIRDERS) GIRDE RDERS) RDER RS
TYP. P
3/8 3 /8 8
GRID
WT 6 x 4 43.5 43. 35 (TYPICA (TYPICAL PIC L AT GIRD GIRDERS) GIRDE RDERS) RDER RS
JOIST OS G GIRDER R R ""W" W W"" C COLUMN OLU N OLUMN SEE S EE ES SCHEDUL SCHEDULE CHEDULE ON NS SHEET S S-3 S3
1/2 1/2 1/2 1 /2
P 7/8" 8"" x10"" x10" 0" L 7/8 TYPICAL TYPICA PC L 7 7 CP
NOTE: N O E: OTE: METAL ALL DECK DECK & S SL SLAB NOT O S SHOWN OWN FO FOR RC CLARITY L R TY
12 1 2 S-9 9
TYP. P. JOIST S G GIRDER GIRDE RDER / C COL COL. O S9-12 9 MOMENT OM N C OMENT CONN. ONN
3/4" 3 /4 4"" = 1'-0" ' "
NOTE: O : C COORDINATE OORDINATE ORDINATE NATE ALL DIMENS DIMENSIO DIMENSIONS ONS WITH ARCHITECTURAL RC C URAL RA DRAWING DRA DRAWINGS. S VERIFY RIFY ALL DISCREPANCIES SCR NC S WITH W ARCHITECT RCHITECT HIT ITECT ECT C PRIO PRIOR R RT TO O FABRICAT FA FABRICATION FABRICATION. FABRICATIO BRICAT R C ION. O
FIGURE 4451 Details are often grouped together by types of information to be shown. Courtesy Van Domelen/Looijenga/McGarrigle/Knauf Consulting Engineers.
FIGURE 4452 Software innovations by AutoCAD and thirdparty developers provide the ability to draw 3D drawings that can be used to help develop the working drawings as well as the artistic drawings for preliminary planning. Courtesy Kenneth D. Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects and Associates, Inc.
wire-frame drawings, one of the biggest advances in the architectural field is the use of solid models. Once drawn, the structure can be rotated so that the client can view the structure at any angle; also, the drawing can depict the shade that would be generated at specific times of the day, at any specified time of the year. Three-dimensional models can also be used to provide the client a walk-through of the structure before the working drawings are even started. These models can save huge amounts of time by providing insight to placement of heating ducts, electrical conduits, and various piping runs. Placement problems, which may not be easily identified in 2D drawings, often can be identified in 3D drawings. ■
Chapter 44: Commercial Construction Projects
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Commercial Construction Projects Test
See CD for more information
QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 44 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.
Question 44–1 List three types of offices in which you might be able to work as a drafter doing commercial drawings. Question 44–2 List two major research tools that you will be using as a commercial drafter.
Question 44–15 List two reasons for using a parapet wall. Question 44–16 You need to place information about the material that will bind together the layers of a built-up roof. Where should you place this information? Question 44–17 List the two common methods of specifying vertical heights on elevations. Question 44–18 What information would you place on a wall section that might not be described on a full section? Question 44–19 Describe symbols that are common to commercial sections.
Question 44–4 What are engineer’s calculations?
Question 44–20 Describe differences between notes that you might place on a detail, as compared to a section of a similar area.
Question 44–5 What two types of plumbing plans may be drawn for a commercial project?
Question 44–21 Describe two methods of referencing cabinet drawings to other drawings.
Question 44–6 Describe two methods of drawing sections in commercial drawings.
Question 44–22 Where are interior elevations usually placed?
Question 44–7 List and describe two types of plans that are usually based on the site plan.
Question 44–23 What restrictions will influence stair and ramp details?
Question 44–8 What are the three parts of a set of calcs? How do they affect a drafter?
Question 44–24 Where would you typically place information related to the interior finish of an elevator car?
Question 44–3 What is a reflected ceiling plan?
Question 44–9 Describe three plans that can be used to describe site-related material. Question 44–10 Explain the difference between two types of plans that are used to describe work done at or below the finished grade.
Question 44–25 Describe how grids are used in commercial drawings. Question 44–26 What is the main goal of a framing plan?
Question 44–11 What drawings typically make up the architectural drawings?
Question 44–27 What are two common uses for tables on the framing plans for a steel-frame structure?
Question 44–12 List three types of floor plans that might be encountered in commercial construction.
Question 44–28 What is the purpose of structural steel elevations?
Question 44–13 Describe the relationship between a floor plan and a reflected ceiling plan.
Question 44–29 What is the advantage of individual panel elevations for concrete tilt-up construction?
Question 44–14 Describe information that is represented by symbols on an elevation.
Question 44–30 List four common symbols that you might use on a commercial floor plan.
CHAPTER 45
Structural Drafting I
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This chapter introduces basic concepts and drawing methods expected of an entry-level drafter in an architect’s or engineer’s office. The project example at the end of this chapter will be working drawings for a concrete tilt-up warehouse.
The project has two main objectives: to coordinate various plans and to draw coordinated details that correspond to different areas of the building.
PLAN THE DRAWING Before you begin drawing, search all plan views for similarities. Start with the floor plan and get a general understanding of the structure. Then move to the upper level and work to the lowest. This should show you the loads that must be supported as your work progresses. As you work from top to bottom, you should see beams in the roof supported by columns on the floor plan, pedestals on the slab plan, and footings at the foundation. Had you begun at the foundation level, it might not have been clear why a given pier was in a particular location. As you work on the various plans, you should also be studying details that relate to the plan. Details will give you a better understanding, which should result in faster drawing production. As you draw, you may not be able to get your questions answered as quickly as they arise. This is typical of work situations; it is often difficult to find an engineer to answer your questions. Keep a list of questions on a sheet of paper or a separate layer in your drawing file.
PROCEDURE—FROM CALCULATIONS TO WORKING DRAWING As you work on projects for an architect or engineer, you will be given a set of calculations, sketches, and similar drawings that have been done by the office. The calculations are the mathematical solutions to particular problems. Calculations are printed following the related problem. As a drafter, you will be given a set of specifications and will be expected to determine the goal of the 1062
engineer. You will then translate the results into working drawings. Typically, this will mean skipping over the math work. For the project you will be working on, the math has been omitted and only the material to be placed on the drawings has been shown. Sketches an engineer provides are tools to help solve calculations. A drafter is expected to use the sketch as a guide to help determine the size and material to be used. NOTE: The sketches in this chapter are to be used as a guide
only. As you progress through the project, you will find that some parts of a drawing do not match things that have already been drawn. It is your responsibility to coordinate the material that you draw with other drawings for this project. If you are unsure of what to draw, consult your instructor.
In addition to the calculations and sketches for a specific job, a drafter is expected to study similar jobs and details for common elements that can be used in the new drawing. This includes many common notes as well as common connection methods. A drafter would also be expected to consult vendors’ catalogs for specific details of prefabricated material.
Drawing Layout There is no one totally correct layout for this project. Usually a project will be drawn so details and plans that relate to a given construction crew will be grouped together. Therefore, the roofer will never see the foundation plan. Often this technique of grouping details and plans requires material to be specified on plans more than once. As you lay out this project, two common methods might be used. 1. Group all plan views together, then all roof details,
all concrete details, and so on, in the same order in which the plan views are presented. 2. Group a plan view with all related details; for instance, show the roof plan and then the roof details; the slab plan and then the slab details. The layout format will not really be important until you have the plan views complete and you start to lay
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
out details. By that time, you should have a much better understanding of the project. One frustration associated with this project and this type of drawing is that it cannot be completed without interruptions. You will be required to draw the basic drawing, stop, then solve a related problem at another level. You will be working on several drawings at the same time. The good news is that all drawings belong to the same project. It is common in an office to switch from one job to another several times a day, depending on an engineer’s or a client’s appointments. On this project, you will be expected to shift from one drawing to another, keep them all coordinated, and still keep your sanity.
Assembling a Project Drafters in architectural and structural firms typically work with CADD. The plan views, elevations, and panel elevations are well-suited to CADD drafting because there are so many layering possibilities. A second method of assembling the project is to develop a base drawing and use external referencing to bind material to the base drawing. Verify the method of assembling the drawing with your instructor before you start a drawing. No matter how you assemble the projects, the method is not as important as the end result. Excellent line contrast is a must for a structural detailer. Many of the details in this text are similar to what you will be drawing. The details feature several different line weights, as should your drawings.
Common Commercial Layer Names Use the following layer names as you create the drawings for this chapter. Create a base drawing that will be suitable for all of the plan view drawings. Because the electrical, fixture, mechanical, and plumbing plans will not be drawn as part of the project in this chapter, suggested layer names will not be listed here. See the National CAD Standards for suggested layer names for these drawings.
Civil Drawing Layer Names C-BLDG C-COMM C-COMM-OVHD C-COMM-UNDR C-FIRE C-NGAS C-NGAS-UNDR C-PKNG C-PKNG-CARS
Proposed building footprints Site communications Overhead communications lines Underground communications Fire protection Natural gas Underground natural gas lines Parking lots Graphic illustrations of cars
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C-PKNG-DRAN C-PKNG-ISLD C-PKNG-STRP C-PROP C-PROP-BRNG C-PROP-CONS C-PROP-ESMT C-ROAD C-ROAD-CNTR C-ROAD-CURB C-SSWR C-SSWR-UNDR C-STRM C-STRM-UNDR C-TOPO C-TOPO-RTWL C-TOPO-SPOT C-WATR C-WATR-UNDR
Parking lot drainage slope indications Parking islands Parking lot striping, handicapped symbols Property lines Bearings and distance labels Construction controls Easements, rights-of-way, and setback lines Roadways Center lines Curbs Sanitary sewer Underground sanitary sewer lines Storm drainage catch basins and manholes Underground storm drainage pipes Proposed contour lines and elevations Retaining walls Spot elevations Domestic water, manholes, pumping stations, storage tanks Domestic water—underground lines
Architectural Layer Names Floor Plan A-FLOR-EVTR A-FLOR-FIXD A-FLOR-FIXT A-FLOR-HRAL A-FLOR-NICN A-FLOR-OVHD A-FLOR-PFIX A-FLOR-STRS A-FLOR-TPTN
Elevator car and equipment Fixed equipment Floor information Handrails Equipment not in contract Overhead items such as skylights Plumbing fixtures Stair treads Toilet partitions
Roof Plan A-ROOF A-ROOF-LEVL A-ROOF-OTLN A-ROOF-PATT
Roof Roof level changes Roof outline Roof patterns
Elevation A-ELEV A-ELEV-FNSH A-ELEV-IDEN
Elevations Finishes, trim Component identification numbers
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A-ELEV-OTLN A-ELEV-PATT A-SECT A-SECT-IDEN A-SECT-MBND A-SECT-MCUT A-SECT-PATT
Architectural Drafting and Design
Building outlines Textures and hatch patterns Sections Component identification numbers Material beyond section cut Material cut by sections Textures and hatch patterns
Structural Layers General Layers S-ABLT S-BEAM S-COLS S-DECK S-GRID S-GRID-DIMS S-GRID-EXTR S-GRID-IDEN S-JOIS S-METL S-WALL
Anchor bolts Beams Columns Structural floor decking Column grids Column grid dimension Column grid outside building Column grid tags Joist Miscellaneous metal Structural bearing or shear walls
line is used to connect the text to the drawing. The leader line can be either a straight line or an arc depending on office practice. Much of the text used to describe a drawing can be standardized and placed in a template drawing. In school, you might develop a template for each class. In a professional office, a master template can be developed for the discipline, and other templates can be developed for each type of drawings associated with the subset. General notes associated with a floor plan can be typed once and saved and the layer containing the notes can be frozen, thawed when needed, and then edited to make minor changes based on specific requirements of the job. General notes can also be saved as a block and stored with attributes that can be altered for each usage. On details, text can be placed within the detail if large open spaces are part of the drawing. It is preferable to keep text out of the drawing. Text should be aligned to enhance clarity and can be either aligned left or right. The final consideration for text placement is to decide on layer placement. Text should be placed on a layer with a major group code of ANNO. Minor group codes include:
Foundation/Slab Plans S-FNDN Foundation S-FNDN-PILE Piles, drilled piers S-FNDN-RBAR Foundation reinforcing S-SLAB Slab S-SLAB-EDGE Edge of slab S-SLAB-JOIN Slab control joints S-SLAB-REBAR Slab reinforcing
KEYN (keynotes) LEGN (legends and schedules) NOTE (general notes) NPLT (non-plotted text) REDL (redline) REVS (revisions) SYMB (symbols) TEXT (local notes) TTLB (border and title block)
Annotation Text is an important part of every drawing. Before text is placed on a drawing, several important factors should be considered. Each time a drawing is started, consider who will use the drawing, the information the text is to define, and the scale factor of the text. Once these factors have been considered, the text values can be placed in a template and saved for future use.
Text Placement Text placement refers to the location of text relative to the drawing and within the drawing file. Care should be taken with the text orientation so that it is placed parallel to the bottom or parallel to the right edge of the page. When structural material shown in plan view is described, the text is placed parallel to the member being described. On plan views, text is typically placed within the drawing, but arranged so that it does not interfere with any part of the drawing. Text is generally placed within 2" of the object being described. A leader
Types of Text Text on a drawing is considered to be a title, general notes, reference keynotes, or local notes. ● ●
Title: Used to identify each drawing, such as FIRST FLOOR PLAN. General notes: Notes that refer to an entire project or to a specific drawing within a project. Depending on the size of the project, three types of general notes can be found on commercial projects, including: ❍ General project notes: These are notes that apply to the entire project including all subsets within the project. These notes are located on the G subset of drawings (general drawings sheet types). These notes are typically developed by the architectural team and then coordinated with other consultants to avoid repetitive notes and conflicts.
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
❍
●
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General discipline notes: These are notes that apply only to a specific subset of the drawings, such as the general structural notes, general architectural notes, or general mechanical notes. General discipline notes should be placed on the first or 0-series sheet of each subset, so that the general architectural notes will be placed on sheet A-001. Any notes found in the general discipline notes should not be repeated on sheets within the subset. ❍ General sheet notes: General notes provide sheet-specific information. They should be placed sequentially in a note block that is located adjacent to the title block. ❍ Reference keynotes: Notes that are used to identify drawing items and reference the item to a specific section of the specifications. Keynotes can either be referenced to the specifications using CSI MasterFormat numbers or to a note block placed on the same sheet as the drawing containing the reference. Reference keynotes should be placed adjacent to the title block. A simplified keynote can be as simple as a number referenced to a drawing object. Referenced keynotes explaining the number in the drawings should be listed sequentially in a note block that is placed below the general discipline or general sheets notes. Local notes: Notes that refer to specific areas of a project.
Managing Drawings at Multiple Scales One of the most valuable computer skills needed to complete commercial drawing projects is the ability to combine drawings to be plotted at multiple scales. Drawing sheets can be assembled for plotting using layouts and viewports. Each time you enter a layout, you’re working with a floating viewport. The viewport allows you to look through the paper and see the drawing created in model space and to display the drawing in the layout for plotting. An unlimited amount of viewports can be created in paper space. Most professionals work in model space and arrange the final drawing for output in paper space. While working in a layout, with the viewport in paper space, any material added to the drawing will be added to the layout, but not shown in the model display. This will prove useful as the final plotting layout is constructed.
Detail Coordination As you draw each detail, provide room for a title, scale, and detail marker under the detail. The title will
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typically tell the function of the drawing, such as BEAM/ WALL CONNECTION, and should be neatly printed using lettering 1/4" (6 mm) high. The scale should be placed under the title in lettering 1/8" (3 mm) high. A line should separate the two, and there should be a detail reference circle on the right end of the line. The reference circle should be about 3/4" (19 mm) in diameter with the line passing through the center of the circle. There will eventually be a detail number on the top of the line. On the bottom of the line, place the page number where the detail was drawn. Do not fill in the circles until all of the drawing is complete. Throughout the plans, you will be referring to a specific detail location for more information. Typically, circles 3/8" to 1/2" (9 to13 mm) in diameter are used so the reference circle does not totally dominate the plan.
ORDER OF PRECEDENCE This project may be unlike others you have done. Not only does it have sketches and engineer’s calculations (calcs), it also has some very large errors. Most are so obvious (at the beginning) that you will have no trouble finding them. They get tougher as you gain more knowledge. The errors are here to help you learn to think as a drafter. The sad truth of American education is that many people can use a computer to make pretty drawings, but few can really think through a project and coordinate each aspect of the project. If you think you have found an error, do not make changes in the drawings until you have discussed them with the engineer. (In this case, discuss them with your instructor.) NOTE: Because engineers are not perfect, you sometimes need
to sort through conflicting information to solve a problem. Usually though, the engineer is correct, and you will find that you have misinterpreted the information. To sort through conflicting information, use the following order of precedence. 1. Written changes by the engineer (your instructor) as 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
change orders. Verbal changes given by the engineer (your instructor). Engineer’s calcs. Information written in the goals, project, and method is more reliable than sketches. Sketches by the engineer (sketches provided in the text). Lecture notes and sketches. Your own decision. Should it come to this, please check with your instructor.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
See CD for more information
Structural Drafting Project QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Students do not usually have adequate time to draw the entire set of plans required to construct this building. Your instructor may wish to add or delete drawings or have you work individually or in teams. Verify with your instructor what problems will be drawn.
THE PROJECT Use the attached drawings to complete the floor plan for the concrete tilt-up warehouse to be used by a cabinet manufacturer. Part of the structure will be used by the sales staff, for display, and for assembly and storage of units to be delivered to the job site. Although there will be no hazardous manufacturing on-site, varnish and other types of stains will be applied to cabinets on-site in the northeast portion of the storage area. Determine the occupancies of each portion of the structure and any required fire ratings. No matter the rating, provide a 2-hour firewall at what is currently listed as grid 7.5 to meet future plans.
MINIMUM PROJECT STANDARDS You will act as the project manager and will be required to make decisions about how to complete the project. Any information not provided must be researched and determined by you unless your instructor (the project architect and engineer) provides other instructions. Use the reference material from preceding chapters, local codes, and vendor catalogs to complete the following projects. The skeleton for some drawing problem can be found on the Student CD in the CHAPTER 45 DRAWING PROBLEMS folder. Use these drawings as a base to complete the assignment with the following assumptions: ●
Use appropriate symbols, line types, dimensioning methods, and notations to complete the drawing.
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Unless a specific scale is provided for a project, establish drawing parameters to allow for the plotting of the drawing at the largest scale possible on a D-size template. With the exception of the site plan, draw all plan views at the same scale.
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Provide dimensions to locate all features.
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Hatch materials with the appropriate hatch pattern.
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Use an appropriate architectural text font to label and dimension each drawing as needed.
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Use schedules when possible to keep the drawing from being cluttered.
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Refer to the Sweets Catalog , vendor catalogs, or the Sweets Catalog Online Web site to research needed sizes and specifications.
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Keep all text 3/4" minimum from the object being described, and use an appropriate architecturalstyle leader line to reference the text to the drawing.
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Provide a detail marker, with a drawing title, scale, and problem number below each drawing.
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Assign each drawing an appropriate A or S and a page number and compile a complete drawing set.
NOTE: Use these drawings as a base to complete the assign-
ment. These base drawings are to be used as a guide only. Keep in mind that the technician who started these drawings was fired. It is your responsibility to verify that the scale, line type, and accuracy of the drawings meets the engineer’s sketch and to ensure that all objects in a drawing meet the minimum company standards. Submitting drawings that do not meet the minimum standards may earn you the wrath of your supervisor, slow your progress in achieving a pay raise, or lead to your dismissal. Remember these are minimum standards. Your drawings should exceed them. Problem 45–1 Site Plan Goal The purpose of this drawing is to ensure that the structure fits within the legal setbacks, verify that required parking has been provided, and show the outline of the structure to be built.
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Specify all unspecified materials based on common local practice.
Problem The site for the proposed project is unimproved with all utilities located in the street to the north of the project. The site is sloping from north to south with 6' of cross-fall. A combination of retaining walls and fill will be required to support the floor.
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Use separate layers for each major feature, text, and dimensions. Create a layer titled MISC for random features.
Method Use the drawing on the next page to complete the required site plan. Coordinate the parking areas between door openings and ensure that no overhead
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
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doors will be blocked by public parking. Provide curved corners on all planting curbs. Locate each catch basin centered in each driveway. Provide the following minimum materials for each site plan: ●
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Provide and number the specified parking spaces. Areas in front of all overhead doors (coordinate with the floor plan) to be marked “loading zone, no parking.” Insert the standard notes from the Student CD, CHAPTER 45 RESOURCE MATERIAL, into your site plan. Unless your instructor gives you other instructions, edit the notes to meet your specific project and your area of the country. Assume all utilities to be in ROWELL DRIVE unless noted at the following distances from the property line:
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Storm sewer: 3'
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Sewer: 6'
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Water: 15'
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Telephone: 18'
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Specify a clean-out 24" from the structure in the sewer line.
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Specify that all utilities are to be underground.
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Establish swales to provide drainage to catch basins that drain to the storm sewer.
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Provide 14'-high light standards to light all public parking areas.
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Create a vicinity map for your project assuming that it will be built at the current location of your school.
32'-0"
ROWELL DRIVE
55'-0"
6'-0"
26'-0" 26.60'
PLANTING
25'-0" CURB CUT & DRIVEWAY
7 PARKING SPACES
2 PARKING SPACES
48'-0" LOADING DOCK 3 PARKING SPACES
9'-4" X 6'-0" X 5'-0" C.M.U. TRASH ENCLOSURE
LOADING ZONE
32'-0" MIN.
CATCH BASIN
8 PARKING SPACES
PLANTING
87'-6"
3" ASPHALTIC PAVING OVER 4" COMPACTED GRAVEL
CATCH BASIN
DRAINAGE GRATE
5' CONC. FLATFORK 169'-0"
190.00'
TOM WHORCHESTER PARKWAY
51'-6"
SIGN UNDER SEPARATE CONTRACT
24.7'
PLANTING STRIP
8 PARKING SPACES
190.00'
25'-0" CURB CUT & DRIVEWAY
5'-0"
390.00'
26.50'
26.50'
24.35'
16'-0" HIGH LIGHT STANDARD TYPICAL
PROPOSED WAREHOUSE
100'
PLANTING
FINISH FLOOR 27.00'
6"
25.25'
300' 390.00'
23.00' 6'-0"
5'-0"
65'-0"
18'-6"
32'-0" N.T.S. N
PROBLEM 451
SITE PLAN
6"
42'-6"
4 PARKING SPACES
10 PARKING SPACES
25'-0" CURB CUT & DRIVEWAY
23.00'
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 45–2 Base Drawing
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Goal Save time, work smart, enable yourself to take long breaks without feeling guilty.
Adjust all scale, line weights, text, and dimension factors as required for the selected scale.
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Specify all material based on common local practice.
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Provide access that complies with the information provided in Chapter 42.
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Use separate layers for each major drawing component based on the recommended NCS guidelines.
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Use dimensions to locate features as required by common practice.
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Provide annotation to specify all materials.
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Provide section and elevation markers for the related drawings.
Problem Many of the plan views will contain the exact same information. Develop a means of reproducing this information easily to save time and your sanity. Method Determine and compare the plan views to be created and items that must be shown on each plan. Based on the reading material in this textbook, develop a base drawing that contains the material that is required on all plan views (excluding the site plan). The minimum material to be shown must include: ●
Use separate layers for each major drawing component based on the recommended NCS guidelines.
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Establish grids that are 30' on center from east to west and assign numbers based on the NCS guidelines presented in the reading assignment.
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Establish grids that are 50' on center from north to south and assign letters based on the NCS guidelines presented in the reading assignment.
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Provide dimensions to locate each grid.
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Provide dimensions to locate the overall dimensions of the structure.
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Use attributes to provide a generic title such as XXXX PLAN, over a scale, and problem number (45-X) to be edited for each plan view.
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Create a north arrow.
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Establish all drawing variables for plotting the plan views at the largest possible scale on D-size material. Include dimensions, text, line types, line weights, PSLTSCALE, and LTSCALE factors for the selected scale. Establish base layers with varied colors and appropriate line weight and line type for annotation, title block annotation, grids, titles, wood walls, concrete walls, and other items that will be included in the plan views.
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Establish suitable architectural-style fonts for all text and dimensions. Problem 45–3 Floor Plan
Design Criteria In addition to the minimum standards presented in the general directions, your solution should meet the following minimum criteria: ●
Draw a floor plan showing all walls, openings, and columns at a scale of 3/32" = 1'–0".
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Construct the exterior walls of the warehouse and office using 6"-thick concrete panels.
Method Use the attached drawing, the drawing provided on the Student CD, and the information provided with other related problems to complete the required building floor plan for the project.
The east/west walls of the warehouse are to be constructed of four panels that are approximately 25' wide and extend the full width of the building (101').
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The north/south wall joints to match grids.
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Dimension the location of all openings in the concrete walls on separate panel elevations that will be completed later.
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Provide a row of 6 × 6 × 3/16 TS columns to be located along grid B at the grids 1 through 10 with an additional column located 12" to the east and west of the wall at grid 7.5. (Note: All listed grid numbers and letters are based on the existing grids on the engineers sketch. Label grids to meet NCS requirements.)
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Assume all interior wood walls will be 2 × 4 stud walls. Use 2 × 6 studs for the firewall at grid 7.5.
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Place a nonbearing wall running east/west 32' north of the south exterior wall between grid 7.5 through grid 11. Use the area on the north side of this wall as display, sales, and offices area. Use the south side of the wall for a break room on the west end, and storage on the east end. The storage area will be used for storage of all chemical materials. Cover each side of the wall with 1/2" gypsum board.
●
Research and specify an 8' × 8' service elevator capable of lifting 4000 pounds that will not interfere with the roof framing. Locate the elevator in the storage area. Prior to completing the floor plan, copies of vendor material showing requirements for the elevator should be submitted to your instructor.
●
Provide at least one 44"-wide stairway to this area. Verify with local codes to see if another exit
Goal The purpose of this drawing is to show and specify the location of all walls, wall openings, columns, fixtures, plumbing fixtures, cabinets, and appliances. Use schedules whenever possible. Problem The building you are working on is approximately 300' long × 100' wide × 27' high. The exterior walls will be constructed with 6" thick concrete tilt-up walls. Provide doors and windows per the sketches for the floor plan and panel elevations.
❍
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
is required. Locate the stair on the east side of grid 7.5 in the northeast corner of the mezzanine (see Problem 45–4). Provide a landing at the top of the stairs, and provide a 36"-wide, 1-hour rated door into the mezzanine area.
Sales/Office Area Provide a sales counter between the reception area placed in the northwest corner as well as room for some floor display and public access. ●
Use the area between grid 7.5 through grid 11 on the north side of the wall for display, sales, and offices.
●
The northwest portion of this area (approximately 35') will be used for reception. The southwest area will be used for three, 11'-wide × 12' offices. The east side of this area will be used for display.
●
●
●
Provide a wall running north/south in the display area 16' to the east of the exterior wall at grid 11 to form a hallway on the east side of the offices. Extend a 24"-wide counter (running north/south) from the wall forming the hall to the north exterior wall to divide the sales/display area. Provide 18' of floor space in the sales area north of the office. Provide access from the north office to the sales areas, and two means of access through the counter mounted on piano hinges.
1069
Alternate OFFICE/DISPLAY Layout Design and draw the bathrooms as described, providing all information for their installation. Specify all other interior information for the OFFICE/DISPLAY areas to be provided by the tenant. If your instructor allows this option to be used: ●
With the exception of the three bathrooms, do not provide a slab west of grid 7.5 when the foundation plan is completed.
●
Do not show any interior walls or doors unless they are required for the construction of the bathrooms.
●
Specify all of the doors and windows as indicated in the exterior walls.
Glazing, Skylights, and Door Requirements In addition to any glazing that may be specified on the elevations or panel elevations, provide the following glazing: ●
All glazing to be 84"-high storefront glazing along the north and west walls of the sales area. ❍
Provide two restrooms that are open to the public in the southwest corner of the display area. Place the restrooms along the east/west wall near the hallway. Provide access off a small hallway and provide a 3"diameter drain for each restroom. Provide a unisex rest room in the northwest corner of the storage area on the south side of the wall, and a second rest room in the warehouse area on the east side of the wall at grid 7.5. Verify the exact location based on the stair and elevator placement. Provide each area with its own water heater, lavatory, and toilet.
❍
●
West wall: ◆
12' wide centered in break room.
◆
8' wide centered in each office.
◆
10' wide centered in reception area.
◆
10' wide at display, 24" south of grid A.
◆
12' wide at mezzanine centered above break room glazing.
North wall: ◆
10' wide at display, 24" east of grid 11.
◆
9' wide (glazing/double 3'–0" × 7'–0" glass doors), 24" west of grid 10.
◆
13' wide, 24" east of grid 10.
Provide (4)-22" × 48" skylights per each grid over the warehouse and upper-level office areas.
●
Provide for a gas water heater in the storage area.
●
Provide roof-mounted heating and cooling units for the display and the warehouse areas.
In addition to the doors specified on the panel elevations, provide the following doors:
●
Provide a suspended ceiling for the offices/sales/display areas, which is to be at 9' above the floor.
●
Provide an 8'–0" roll-up door (2-hour rated), and a 3'–0" self-closing (1-hour) door in the wall between the display area and the warehouse.
●
Provide an 8'–0" roll-up door (2-hour rated), and a 3'–0" self-closing (1-hour) door in the wall between the storage area and the warehouse.
Draw an enlarged floor plan of the office/bath areas at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" to locate all walls and fixtures.
●
Provide an 8'–0" roll-up door, and a 3'–0" metal door in the wall between the storage area and the display area on the west side of the elevator.
❍
●
Provide (1)-36" metal door between the storage area and the break rooms.
❍
●
Verify that a minimum distance of 18" will be provided above the suspended ceiling to the bottom of any structural members to provide space for HVAC ductwork.
Install counters in the break room to allow for a stove, refrigerator, and double sink.
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Architectural Drafting and Design
●
Provide (1)-36" h.c. door from the display to the bathroom hallway.
Loading Dock
●
Provide a 32" h.c. door to each rest room.
●
●
Provide a 36" s.c. door from the sales area to the office hallway and from the hallway to the break room.
●
Provide a 32" s.c. door to each office.
Provide (2) loading docks on the north side of the building, centered on each set of 8' doors in the storage area. ❍
The dock must be centered on the three doors.
❍
The 3' door should not be in the loading dock.
❍
Indicate a 36"-high rail made of 1 1/2"Ø steel where the wall exceeds 30" above slab in the loading dock.
A
D
B
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 A
SALES
DISPLAY
O-1 B O-2 O-3
C
BRK
STORAGE C
11
PROBLEM 453
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3
2
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Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
1071
Problem 45–4 Mezzanine A mezzanine floor system is to be placed above the storage area from grid 7.5 through grid 11 and from grid B to grid C. The public will not have access to this area. ●
Assume 12' from the finish floor of the display area to the finish floor of the mezzanine.
●
The east portion of the area will be used for storage of lightweight assembled units.
●
The west portion will be used as occasional office space and will have a suspended ceiling at 8'.
11
10
9
❍
Verify that a minimum distance of 18" will be provided above the suspended ceiling to the bottom of any structural members to provide space for HVAC ductwork.
●
Provide (1)-36" solid core, self-closing (2-hour) door from the landing to the mezzanine.
●
Locate windows in the west that align with the lower windows.
8
7
6 A
DISPLAY BELOW
B
OPEN
MEZZANINE C 11
PROBLEM 454
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6
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 45–5 Roof Drainage Plan Goal The purpose of this drawing is to show the elevations of the roof supports. By changing the elevation of supports, you can control the flow of water and direct it to downspouts. Problem The building on which you will work will be nearly as large as a football field. Therefore, you have a large area that collects water. If the water is not quickly drained from the roof, it must be treated as a live load, and the beam sizes must be increased. This plan will show the slope of structural members and the roof, and it will show overflow drain locations. Use the sketch as a guide and assume a minimum roof slope of 1/4" per foot from ridge to wall, and from high to low points along each wall. Method Use the base drawing created in Problem 45–3 to create the drawing to be plotted at a scale of 1/16" = 1'–0". Draw: 1. The outline of the entire structure with walls
6" wide. Determine size of building from other sketches. 2. The center of the glu-lams at grid B will be level
with the height as indicated in the sections and elevations.
PROBLEM 455
3. Four roof drains, overflow drains, and scuppers
equally spaced on grid A and grid C; assume drains to be 8" in diameter. 4. Dimension the location of each high/low point of
the roof. 5. Specify all drain elevations. 6. Specify drains, overflows, and scuppers. 7. General notes: a. Roof and overflow drains to be general-purpose
type with nonferrous domes and 4"-diameter outlets. b. Overflow drains to be set with the inlet 2" above
the drain inlet and shall be independently connected to drain lines. c. Scuppers to be 4"-high × 7" wide with 4"-
rectangular corrugated downspouts. d. Provide a 6" × 9" conductor head at the top of
the downspouts.
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
Problem 45–6 Roof Framing Plan Goal The purpose of this drawing is to show the roof framing used to support the finished roofing. This structure will have a series of laminated beams, which extend through the center of the structure at grid B from grid 1 through grid 11. It will also have a wood ledger bolted to each wall at grid A and grid C. Trusses will span between the ledger and the glu-lams. Blocking will be shown at each end of the roof between the trusses. Above the trusses will be sheets of plywood. Four skylights will be equally placed in each bay. This plan will also show how the separation wall intersects the beams. Problem The building on which you are working is approximately 300' long × 100' wide × 27'+/– high. The walls will act like a sail. To keep the structure rigid, the roof framing will be connected to the walls to form a rigid connection. In addition, a diaphragm will be built into each end of the structure. As the walls bend from wind or seismic pressure, the roof will shift in the direction of the pressure. As the pressure is decreased, the walls will return to their original shape. The rigid connections ensure that when the walls spring back to their original position, the roof will also return to its original position. If the connections at this level fail, the roof will fall from its supports. The roof framing plan is used to show how and where these items are located. The two ends of this structure are to be symmetrical. Use the sketches of the roof as a guide. Method Use a scale of 3/32" = 1'–0". If you’re unsure of what you are drawing, look through the roof framing and truss details. 1. Draw the exterior walls. 2. Draw the locations of beams. 3. Dimension and label all grids.
PROBLEM 456A
1073
4. Lay out the truss, blocking, skylights, strap ties, and 4
× 8 plywood as per sketch and roof details. Assume all trusses are to be provided by Weyerhaeuser. 5. Draw plywood over blocking and trusses and strap
ties and skylights. 6. Locate the 2-hour wall and provide roof protection
to the roof area for 60" minimum on each side of the wall. 7. Locate detail reference bubbles for all roof fram-
ing details referenced in Problem 45–10 and Problem 45–11. 8. Letter general notes: (1) Beam sizes. Specify beam
size and type by beam, or provide a beam schedule. See engineer’s calcs for size of beams 1–3. (2) Bay referencing. Use 1/4" hex and print letter or number centered in hex. (3) Do not place detail markers on your plan at this time. These markers should be added to each plan as the details are drawn. 9. Local notes (verify notes with calculations). a. Bristolite 3069-A.S.-DD-CC/WTH-C.P. double
domed curb-mounted skylights with 4 per bay (80 total). b. 45" TJI/HS90-24 trusses at 32" O.C. c. 3 × 4 dfl std. and better solid blocking at 48"
O.C. at 36' minimum out from each end wall. d. Simpson MST 27 strap ties at 8'–0" O.C. for
entire perimeter. See Detail ???. (Place detail marker in note for future reference. Use ??? as a detail number to remind yourself to supply a number once a detail can be assigned.) e. 5/8" C-D 42/20. (See engineer’s calcs for com-
plete specifications and provide required information on drawing.)
1074
Architectural Drafting and Design
PROBLEM 456B
PROBLEM 456C
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
1075
Problem 45–7 Mezzanine Floor Plan
scale that was used to create the other plan views to complete this drawing. If you are unsure of what you are drawing, look through the roof framing and truss details. When complete your drawing should include:
Goal The purpose of this drawing is to show framing used to support the mezzanine floor. This floor will have a series of laminated beams, which extend through the center of the structure at grid B from grid 1 through grid 11. It will also have a wood ledger bolted to the exterior wall at grid C. Trusses will span between the ledger and the glu-lams. Blocking will be shown at the west end of the floor between the trusses. Above the trusses will be sheets of plywood.
1. The exterior walls and the 2-hour wall at grid 7.5. 2. The locations of all beams. Use 6 3/4 × 37 1/2"
glu-lams between each 6 × 6 column.
3. The use of TJI HS90 /30 trusses at 24" O.C.
Assume that trusses are to be provided by Weyerhaeuser.
Problem Specify materials used to construct the floor and reference details that will be used to show beamto-wall, beam-to-column, and beam-to-beam details, as well as all needed truss connections to support the floor.
4. Dimensions and labels on all grids. 5. A layout of the blocking, strap ties similar to the
roof layout. 6. Detail reference bubbles located for all floor fram-
ing details referenced in Problem 45–12.
Method Use a copy of the appropriate portion of the floor plan to complete this drawing. Use the same
11
10
9
8
7
6 A
SOLID BLOCKING TJI HS90/30 TRUSSES
B
C 11
PROBLEM 457
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8
7
6
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 45–8 Slab-on-Grade Plan Goal This drawing will provide directions for pouring the concrete floor. Major items shown on this plan include the floor slab and control joints, pedestal footings to support steel columns, loading docks, and doors. Problem The concrete slab is so large that the concrete crew will pour it in stages. This will account for the 30' × 25' grids. These control joints will also serve to minimize cracking. The 4' wide strip at the perimeter is to allow for movement of the concrete walls. The small squares at grid B are to allow for movement of the slab from the steel Method Your goals on this drawing are to show the door locations in the walls, slab control joints, and L connectors that will support the slab where it is over fill. Use a scale that will match the other plan views. Use the sketch as a guide for your drawing. Use the base drawing and the floor plan created in Problem 45–2 and Problem 45–3 to create this drawing. 1. Lay out grid A and grid C and grids 1 through 11.
6. Draw the structural connectors using bold lines.
Provide structural connectors wherever the slab sits on 6 or more feet above the foundation. 7. Dimension as per sketch. 8. Label the grids, elevations, and notes. 9. General notes: a. All slab-on-grade concrete shall be 5" thick
F’c = 3500 psi @ 28 days. b. All target strengths shall be in accordance
with Chapter 4 of ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for reinforced concrete. c. Reinforce with 12 × 12- w 4 × w 4 or grade 40,
#3 @ 15" O.C. each way centered in slab. 10. Local notes:
On Sketch
Note Should Read
Doweled joints . . .
Doweled joints with #5 × 15" smooth dowels @ 12" O.C.
1/4" joint . . .
1/4" fiber isolation joints around entire pedestal.
5" slab . . .
5" slab over 4" base minimum of 3/4" minus crushed rock. Reinforce w/12/12-4/4 welded wire mesh or grade 40, # 3 @ 15" O.C. each way, 3" clear of base.
L connectors . . .
3/4" diameter “L” structural connection inserts w/ 3/4" diameter × 25" coil rods @ 5'–7" O.C. Provide 2" minimum rod penetration into inserts 2 3/4" from top of slab.
2. Lay out the exterior walls. Keep the drawing in the
upper right corner of the page to allow for possible detail placement around the plan. 3. Lay out the exterior door openings using sketches
of the floor plan and the panel elevations for locations. 4. Locate the loading docks per the floor plan, but
show the entire dock on this plan. See slab details for the wall thickness. Locate the dock so that there is an equal amount of space at each side of the door and the dock walls. This is not the same as centering the dock on the center of the doors. 5. Lay out control joints at grid B, grids 2 through 10,
4' perimeter, and pedestals. See wall details for the pedestal size.
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
Problem 45–8 (Continued)
PROBLEM 458
1077
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 45–9 Foundation Plan Goal The purpose of this drawing is to show concrete supports for the walls and columns. Supports will consist of a continuous footing at the perimeter of the structure and individual piers placed under the pedestals that support the columns. Problem This drawing will show the size and location of the footings, as well as any change in their elevation. All elevations should be given using the proper symbol. Method Use a scale that will match the other plan views to create this drawing. Use the sketch of the foundation as a guide. 1. Lay out grid A through grid C, and grid 1 through
grid 11. 2. Lay out the exterior face of the concrete walls and
loading docks. Represent the walls using grayscale. 3. Determine the size of the exterior footing, and lay
it out in the proper location. Refer to the foundation details for size information.
PROBLEM 459
4. Draw the location of all elevation changes in the
footing. 5. Determine the size of the pedestal footings. Because
all footings are close in size, given the scale of the drawing, lay out all footings at the average size. 6. Draw all footings. In addition to the listed foot-
ings, provide (2) 15" × 12" deep concrete piers for column support at each stair. 7. Dimension drawing as per sketch. 8. Label all grids, elevations, and notes. 9. General notes: a. All foundation, pedestal, and retaining wall con-
crete shall be F’c 3000 psi at 28 days. b. All steel reinforcement shall be ASTM A615,
Grade 40, deformed bars unless otherwise specified in drawings or details. 10. Local notes. None required.
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
Problem 45–10 Roof Beam Details Goal The purpose of these details is to show how the glu-lam beams are attached in end-to-end connections, to columns, and to the wall at grid 1 and grid 11. Use the sketches and calcs as a guide for your drawings. ●
●
DETAIL A: BEAM TO BEAM. Use of a saddle to hang 25.5" beam from the larger beams. DETAIL B: BEAM TO WALL. Beams supported on columns with 2-hour wall between. Gypsum board to remain unbroken.
●
DETAIL C: WALL TO ROOF. Similar to detail B, but shows roof between beam and concrete walls.
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DETAIL D: BEAM TO WALL. Top and side views to show plates for beam support.
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DETAILS E AND F: BEAM TO COLUMN. Both show bearing-plate connections to steel column.
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DETAIL G: BEAM TO COLUMN. Intersection of two beams over a steel column. All other beam intersections are in mid-span and are not over a column.
Method These drawings should be done in two stages: layout, then final drawing with lettering and dimensions. Use the calcs, the sketches, and material from vendors’ brochures. 1. Determine the location of details. Details should
be drawn either with the roof framing plan or on
PROBLEM 4510A
1079
a separate sheet. In addition, determine in what order the details will be presented. Place the details in an order that reflects their relationship to the building, not the order in which the engineer thought of them. 2. Block out each detail, allowing approximately 15
minutes per detail. Given this brief amount of time, draw only major features, such as beam sizes, metal brackets, and bolt center lines. 3. Draw beams with finish-line quality. Use several
line types or colors. Draw steel plates and brackets as boldest lines and beam outlines slightly thinner, followed by bolts or other connectors, followed by glu-lam lines. 4. Dimension all information from the sketch or calcs.
Interrupt glu-lam lines as required for easy reading. 5. Place weld information on details as required. Be
sure you understand what you are connecting before you order a weld. Also, be mindful of symbols for “this side” or “opposite side.” 6. Notes. Place notes in or near the drawing as
required. Similar information in two details can be covered in one note carefully placed between the two details. 7. Place detail markers, title, and scale below each detail.
Do not place any information in the circle yet.
1080
PROBLEM 4510B
Architectural Drafting and Design
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
1081
Problem 45–10 (Continued)
ROOF / BEAM-BEAM ASSUMPTIONS:
ALL BOLTS TO BE 3/4" DIA. @ 3" O.C. UNLESS NOTED PROVIDE 1 1/2" MIN. PLATE EDGE TO BOLT CENTER TYP. UNLESS NOTED ALL BOLTS TO BE 3 1/2" FROM TOP AND BOTTOM OF BEAMS. ALL WELDS AT BM CONNECTIONS TO BE 5/16" UNLESS NOTED. PROVIDE 3/8" FILLET WELD @ COL / PL. UNLESS NOTED
HINGE CONNECTORS USE: 5/16" SIDE PLs w/ 7/8" X 6 7/8" X 7 1/4" BEARING PL's @ TOP AND BOTTOM. USE 5/16" SIDE STRAPS W/ (3) 3/4" DIA. BOLTS.
BEAM / TILT UP WALL USE 9 1/2 X 1'-3 1/2" X 5/16 FABRICATED SIDE ANGLES W/ 7/8" X 6 7/8" X 9 1/2" BEARING PL. USE (6) 3/4" DIA. X 4 1/8" TAPERBOLTS @ 5" O.C. EA. SIDE OF ANGLE & (4) 3/4" DIA. BOLTS @ 5" O.C. THRU
BEAM / FIREWALL USE: 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. MIN 5' EACH SIDE OF WALL. VERIFY TRUSS LOCATION AND DIMEN. DETAIL ACCORDINGLY. PLACE MST 48 @ 3" MAX. FROM BOTTOM OF PL.
BEAM / COLUMN
(3,4,8,9)
USE: 5/16 X 10 X 22 SIDE PL. W/ 7/8" X 6 7/8" X 22 BEARING PL (4) 3/4" DIA. BOLTS @ 6 1/4" O.C. USE A TS 6 X 6 X 1/4" COLUMN W/ 1/4" FILLET TO PL.
BEAM / COLUMN ( 2,5,7,10) 5/16" X 10 X 24 1/2" SIDE PL. W/ 7/8" X 6 7/8" X 24 1/2" BEARING PL. W/ (4) 3/4" DIA. BOLTS @ 7" O.C. USE A TS 6 X 6 X 5/16 COLUMN W/ 1/4" FILLET TO PL.
BEAM / COLUMN ( 6) 5/16 X 10 X 19 SIDE PL. W/ 7/8" X 6 7/8" 19 1/2" BEARING PL. (4) 3/4" DIA. BOLTS TOP > TO BE 1/2" X 19 1/2" X 3 STRAP PL. W/ 13/16 X 1" SHORT SLOTTED HORIZ. HOLES ( EA. SIDE OF BEAM) W/ (4) 3/4" DIA. W/ STD WASHERS CENTERED EA. SIDE. USE A TS 6 X 6 X 5/16 COLUMN W/ 1/4" FILLET TO PL.
PROBLEM 4510D
PROBLEM 4510C
1082
Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 45–11 Truss Details
●
Goal The purpose of these details is to show how the trusses are connected in end-to-end connections, to beams, to ledgers, and to the wall at grid 1 and grid 11 at A and C.
Method Use the calculations and the vendor’s material to supply needed information.
NOTE: The sketches that the engineer provided are from a
recent project that is very similar to your project. Edit each detail to reflect the trusses that are specified on the roof framing plan. ●
DETAIL H: Truss-to-beam at a column. Braces are added from the truss to the glu-lam so that the beam will not roll off the column as a result of wind pressure against the walls at grid A and grid C.
●
DETAIL I: (Remember that I, O, and Q are never used in the final detail callouts.)
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DETAIL J: Basic truss-to-beam connection. Information in this detail should be reflected in all roof details.
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DETAIL K: Truss-to-truss connection at the inner edge of the roof diaphragm. This bolting will, in effect, make two trusses function as one. Make use of vendor specs for sizes.
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DETAIL L: Ledger splice at grid A and grid C.
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DETAIL M: Ledger splice at grid 1 and grid 11.
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DETAIL N: Truss-to-ledger connection at grid A and grid C, perpendicular.
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DETAIL O: (Remember that I, O, and Q are never used in the final detail callouts.)
PROBLEM 4511A
DETAIL P: Truss-to-ledger connection at grid 1 and grid 11, parallel.
1. Determine the location of details. Details should be
drawn with the beam details or on a separate sheet. Place the details in an order that reflects their relationship to the building. 2. Lay out each detail, allowing approximately 15 minutes
per detail. Assume the web is 1" diameter aluminum placed at a 45° angle, starting 6" from the end of the truss. The bottom chord of the truss never touches the beam. Also, carefully study the truss diagram provided by the vendor. The top chord, which supports the entire load on the truss, never touches the beam. The truss is supported by a metal connector. 3. Use several line types, weights, and colors to represent
the materials. Draw steel plates and brackets as boldest lines and beam outlines slightly thinner, followed by bolts or other connectors, followed by glu-lam lines. 4. Dimension all information from the sketch or
calculations. 5. Place weld information on details as required. 6. Notes. Place notes in or near the drawing as
required. 7. Place detail markers and title and scale below each
detail.
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
1083
Problem 45–11 (Continued)
TRUSS / BEAM DETAILS ROOF LEDGERS: USE 4X12 D.F.L. # 2 LEDGER SPLICES: USE (2) 1/2" X 3 STRAP PL. EXTENDING 4 BOLTS ON EACH SIDE OF SPLICE. USE 3/4" DIA. X 8" BOLTS @ 20" O.C. W/ 2 ROWS @ 3 1/2" O.C.
LEDGER SPLICE/NONBEARING WALLS ( 1 & 11):
USE (3) SIMPSON MST48 STRAP TIES CENTERED OVER SPLICE @ 3 1/2" O.C. - 1 3/4" DOWN FROM LEDGER TOP. PROVIDE (4) 3/4" X 8" BOLTS THRU 1/4" X 3" WASHERS CENTERED BETWEEN PL's.
TRUSSES: USE 45" DEEP TJ/60 TRUSSJOIST @ 32" O.C. ASSUME: 2.3" DEEP TOP AND BOTTOM CHORD. 1" DIA. ALUM. WEBS @ 45 DEGREES; 6" IN FROM END OF TOP CHORD. BTM. CHORD TO BE 2" MIN. CLEAR OF BM.
TRUSS/BM CONNECTION: PROVIDE 2X4 SOLID BLOCKING BTWN. TRUSSES OVER BEAM. ATTACH TO GLU-LAM W/ SIMPSON CO. A-35 @ 32" O.C. @ EA. BLOCK ALTERNATE SIDES & PROVIDE (2) EA. BLK. NAIL W/ n8 ALL HOLES.
TRUSS-BM/COLUMN: PROVIDE 2X4 BRACE ALONG BEAM FOR (2) TRUSS SPACES EA. SIDE OF COLUMN. USE 3X4 SOLID BLOCK BTWN. BRACES. NAIL BLOCK TO BRACE W/ (5)-16d NAILS. PROVIDE 3X4X10' NAILER @ TRUSSES. NAIL W/ (2)-16d'S EA. TRUSS. USE SIMPSON U-24 HGR. 2" UP FOM BTM. OF BEAM TO BRACE. SET BRACE AT 45 DEGREES MAX. FROM BEAM.
TRUSS-BM @ BLOCKING EDGE: USE (2) SIMPSON HD-2
HOLD DOWNS EITHER SIDE OF SPLICE W/ (2)-5/8" X 4 1/2"Ø 1/2"Ø BOLTS THRU TRUSS, AND 5/8" X 15"Ø 15"Ø BOLTS ACROSS SPLICE.
TRUSS/WALL (A & C): USE 4X12 DFL #2 TREATED LEDGER W/
3/4" X 8" BOLTS @ 48" O.C. THRU 1/4"X 3" WASHERS. SOLID BLOCK BTWN. TRUSSES @ LEDGER W/ 2X4 BLOCKS W/ (2) SIMPSON A-35 EA. BLK. PROVIDE 3/4" X 3" X 4" PL. ABOVE PLY. SHEATH. BOLT TO WALL W/ (1) 3/4" X 4 1/8"Ø 1/8"Ø BOLTS AT EA. 3rd TRUSS. WELD MST 27 STRAP TO PL. W/ 1/8" FILLET WELD AND NAIL TO TRUSSES W/ n8 EA. HOLE.
TRUSS/WALL ( 1, 11): USE 4X12 DFL TREATED LEDGER W/ 3/4"X 8" BOLTS @ 6'-0" O.C. THRU 1/8" X 3" WASHERS. USE 3 X 4 PL. (SEE ABOVE) @ EA. 3rd TRUSS W/ MST STRAP. PROVIDE 3X4 SOLID BLOCK @ 48" O.C. FOR 37.3' OUT FROM WALL (SEE PLYWOOD DIAPHRAM SPECS.) CONNECT BLOCK TO TRUSS W/ SIMPSON Z-38 HGR.
PROBLEM 4511C
PROBLEM 4511B
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 45–12 Floor Details Goal The purpose of these details is to show how the floor trusses are connected in end-to-end connections, to beams, to ledgers, and to the wall at grid 1 and grid 11 at A and C. Show the use of 1 1/8" STURD-IFLOOR plywood sheathing in all floor details. ●
●
DETAIL FLOOR A: BEAM TO CONCRETE WALL. Copy and edit the roof beam/wall detail (Roof Detail A) as required to reflect the floor conditions using: ❍
●
beam connection. Use Roof Detail J as a guide to support the floor trusses. Support the top chord of the truss on the glu-lam beam. Provide 2 × 4 solid block laid flat between the trusses.
6 3/4 × 37 1/2" glu-lam beam.
DETAIL FLOOR B: BEAM TO COLUMN. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the intersection of the 6 3/4 × 37 1/2" glu-lam beams to the steel columns. The detail will be similar to Roof Detail B, but will have a steel column that extends to the roof instead of the concrete wall. Use the following materials to make the connection. ●
LOWER CONNECTION ●
Provide 1/4" clear between the beam and the column.
●
Support the glu-lam beam with a 3/4 × 9 × 6 7/8" bearing plate.
●
Provide a 7/16 × 9 × 15" side plate that laps each side of the base plate.
●
Provide a 7/16 × 15 × 6 7/8" end plate. ❍
Weld side plates to the base and end plates, and to 6 × 6 column with 3/8" fillet welds at each connection.
●
Bolt the side plates/beam with (4) 3/4" bolts that are 1 1/2" down from the top of the side plate, and 1 1/2" in from edge of plate and 3" O.C.
●
Provide a 9 × 9 × 3/8" gusset with 1/4" fillet weld each side to CCO/TS
UPPER CONNECTION ●
●
●
Provide an 8 × 3 × 6 7/8" U × 7/16" strap w/ (1)-3/4"Ø bolt through the beam and U strap. ❍
Place the center line of the bolt/strap 3" down from top of beam.
❍
Set bolts 1 1/2" from end of strap.
Weld the side of the U plate to the TS w/ 3/16" fillet weld. DETAIL FLOOR C: TRUSS TO BEAM. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the truss to
●
DETAIL FLOOR D: BEAM TO COLUMN AT WOOD WALL. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the beam-to-column connection at grid 7.5. This detail will be similar to Roof Detail B with a beam on only one side of the wall. Beam supported on column with center of 2-hour wall 12" from the center of column. Copy and edit the floor beam detail (Floor Detail B) as required to reflect the beam to column and ledger at wall using: ❍
Provide 3 × 12 DFPT ledger over 5/8" gypsum board to support the floor decking.
❍
Provide solid blocking in the wall behind the ledger.
DETAIL FLOOR E: TRUSS TO WALL LEDGER—PERPENDICULAR. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the truss-toledger (perpendicular) connection. Use the drawing created in Problem 45–11N as a base to complete this drawing. ❍
Provide 4 × 12 DFPT ledger w/ 3/4"Ø bolts at 24" O.C. staggered 3" up/down.
❍
Provide 3 × 4h × 3/4" plate with 3/4"Ø × 4 powerdriven bolt.
❍
Weld an MST36 strap to plate w/ 1/8" fillet weld at 8'–0" O.C.
❍
Provide 2 × 4 blocking laid flat between the trusses.
DETAIL FLOOR F: TRUSS TO WALL LEDGER—PARALLEL. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the truss-to-ledger (parallel) connection. Use the drawing created in Problem 45–11P as a base to complete this drawing. ❍
Provide 4 × 12 DFPT ledger with 3/4"Ø bolts @ 48" O.C. staggered 3" up/down.
❍
Provide a 3 × 4h × 3/4" plate w/ 3/4"Ø × 4 powerdriven bolt.
❍
Weld an MST36 strap to the plate with 1/8" fillet weld at 8'–0" O.C.
❍
Provide 2 × 4 blocking between the ledger and the truss @ 8'–0" O.C.
❍
Select suitable U hangers for the block.
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
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Problem 45–13 Slab Details
2. Lay out each detail, allowing approximately 15
Goal These drawings will provide information required to complete the floor slab, showing intersections in the concrete slab and door joints, and elevations.
3. Draw all lines. Be careful that all rebar is drawn
Method Use a scale as indicated on each detail. Place details on the same sheet as the slab, on grade plan, or on a separate sheet with all other concrete details.
4. Dimension as per sketches.
1. Determine in what order the details will be
presented.
minutes per detail. with the same type of line quality. Draw mesh as a thin line with the X spaced at 4" O.C. 5. Place detail markers on the slab plan and section. 6. Label as required.
PROBLEM 4513A
SLAB/ DOCK SLAB:
ALL SLAB ON GRADE CONC. TO BE F'c = 3500 PSI @ 28 DAYS. ALL TARGET STRENGTHS SHALL BE IN ACCORDANCE W/ CHAPTER 4 OF ACI 318 BUILDING CODE REQUREMENTS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE. SLABS TO BE 5" THICK UNLESS NOTED W/ WWF 12X12 -W4xW4 OR GRD 40 # 3 @ 15" O.C. EA. WAY CENTERED IN SLAB.
JOINTS:
PROVIDE 1/4" FIBER ISOLATION JOINTS W/ NEOPRENE JOINT SEALANT OVER 3/8" BACKER BEAD AT ALL CONTROL JOINTS AND AROUND ALL FOUNDATION PEDESTALS. PROVIDE # 5 X 15" LONG SMOOTH DOWELLS @ 12"O.C. @ ALL CONTROL JOINTS UNLESS NOTED ( SEE PER. JTS.) COVER W/ PAPER SLEEVES ON EA SIDE OF JOINT. KEEP WWM 2" MIN. CLEAR OF JOINT. KEEP # 5's 2 1/2" CLR. OF BOTTOM OF SLAB.
PERIMETER JOINTS:
SAME AS ABOVE EXCEPT: ALL SMOOTH DOWELLS TO BE # 5X 30" LONG. PROVIDE 3/4" DIA. 'L' STRUCTURAL CONNECTION INSERTS W/ 3/4" DIA. X 25" LONG COIL RODS @ 5'-7" O.C. PROVIDE 2" MIN. ROD PENETRATION INTO INSERTS.
DOORS: PROVIDE 3" WIDE X 3/4" X 3/4" CHAMFER IN SLAB AT ALL DOORS. THICKEN SLAB AT ALL DOORS TO 10" AND PROVIDE (2) #4 BARS 2" CLR OF BTM. OF SLAB.
LOADING DOCK:
PROVIDE 12' WIDE BASE PLATFORM W/ 1/4" X 12" SLOPE TO DRAIN. DRAIN TO BE 8" X 12" DEEP POLYESTER CONC DRAIN W/ C.I. GRATE. THICKEN SLAB @ GRATE TO 18" DP. W/ 2 # 4 @ 15" O.C. 3" CLR OF BOT. OF FTG. PROVIDE 20" MIN SLOPE IN DOCK. THICKEN SLAB TO 10" @ ENTRY W/ (2) #4 DIA. @ 6" O.C. 3" CLR. OF BTM OF FTG.
PROBLEM 4513B
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 45–14 Foundation Details
2. Determine the missing dimensions from the calcu-
Goal These details will provide information about the concrete at the foundation level, showing either the exterior foundation or the pedestals.
3. Lay out each detail. Be sure to allow room for
Method Use a scale as indicated on each detail. Place details on the same sheet as the foundation plan or on a separate sheet with all other concrete-related details. Use the sketches and the calcs as a guide for your drawing.
4. Dimension as per sketches.
1. Determine in what order the details will be
presented.
lations prior to layout work. schedules where they are required. Be careful that all rebar is drawn with the same type of line quality as used in the slab details. 5. Place detail markers on the foundation plan and
section. 6. Label as required.
PROBLEM 4514A PROBLEM 4514B
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
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Problem 45–14 (Continued)
FOUNDATION ASSUME:
ALL FOUNDATION, PEDESTAL, AND RETAINING WALL CONC. TO BE F'c =3000 PSI @ 28 DAYS. ALL STEEL BAR REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE ASTM A615, GRADE 40, DEFORMED BARS UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED IN DRAWINGS OR DETAILS.
PEDESTALS:
USE 14" W/ (8)- GRADE 40 #5 VERT. RE-BAR 1 1/2" CLR. OF PEDESTAL FACE (HEIGHT VARIES, SEE FOUNDATION PLAN AND D COMPLETE SCHEDULE). SCHEDULE) USE # 3 HORIZ. TIES W/ TOP AND BTM. (3) TIES @ 5" O.C. & INTERMEDIATES @ 10" O.C. HORIZ. TIES TO PROVIIDE (4) 3/4" X 10" PROV BE WITHIN 1 1/2" OF TOP AND BOTTOM. A.B. IN 6 1/2" GRID W/ 2 1/2" BOLT PROJECTION.
PEDESTALS: (@ 7.5)
SIMILAR TO TYPICAL PEDESTALS (ABOVE) UNLESS NOTED. PROVIDE # 3 HORIZ TIES (2) @ 5"O.C. WITHIN TOP OF 1 1/2" OF PEDESTAL, AND BALANCE @ 10"O.C. W/ LAST TIE WITHIN 1 1/2" OF BTM OF PED. USE 5'-6" X 3'-6" X 18" DP. FTG.
PROBLEM 4514C
PEDESTAL FOUNDATIONS: (@ B-6)
USE A 6" X 14" DP. W/GRD. 40, # 5 @10"O.C. EA.WAY 3" CLEAR OF BASE
PEDESTAL FOUND. (@ 2,5,7,10)
USE 7' X 14" DP. W/ GRD. 40, # 6 @ 10"O.C. EA.WAY 3" CLR. OF BASE.
PEDESTAL FOUND. (@ 3,4,8,9,)
USE 6.5' X 14" DP. W/ GRADE 40, # 6 @ 12"O.C. EACH WAY 3" CLEAR OF BASE.
FOUND.- LOAD BEAR:
36" X 14" DP. W/ (3) GRD. 40,#5@ 9"O.C. 3" CLR. OF FTG. BTM.
FOUND.- NON-BEAR: ON-BEAR: (1& 11)
USE SE 26" X 14" DP. FOOTING W/ (2) GRD. 40, #5 @ 12"O.C. 3" CLR. OF FTG. BTM.
RETAINING TAINING AINING WALL: WALL
USE SE 8" THICK WALL W/GRD. 40, #4 @ 10" O.C. EA. WAY, 2" CLR. OF SOIL SIDE OF WALL. USE 14" THICK FTG X 4.5' WIDE W/ GRADE 40, #4 @ 10" O.C. EA. WAY, 2" CLR OF TOP OF FTG. PROVIDE #5 @ 10" O.C. EA. WAY 3" CLR. OF BTM OF FTG. W/ #5 @ @10" O.C. 'L' SHAPED BAR W/ 24" MIN. PROJECTION INTO FOOTING. USE #4 CONT. @ "L". FOOTING TO TAPER FROM 8"-12" PROJECTION FROM WALL ON SOIL SIDE AND BTWN. 1'-2"- 2'-10" ON DOCK SIDE. PROVIDE 4" DIA. DRAIN IN 2" X 24" MIN. 3/4" MINUS GRAVEL BED.
PROBLEM 4514D
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Problem 45–15 Typical Cross Sections Show the vertical relationship of all structural members. NOTE: Keep in mind that your engineer has given you a sketch
from a similar, but former, project. Verify the vertical heights for these sections with other drawings for the project. Goal The purpose of this drawing is to show the vertical relationship of structural members. It functions as a reference map and is not intended to provide a detailed explanation of the connections. Most of the details that will be drawn will be referenced on this drawing. Method Using a scale of 3/16" = 1'–0", and the attached sketch, draw the sections represented on the floor plan. 1. Place section markers in the same location on the
roof drainage, roof framing, slab, and foundation plans before starting the drawing. 2. Establish baselines to represent the top of the slab
floor and the wall at C and the beams at B. 3. Determine the elevations of the footings at the
wall and pedestal from the foundation plan. Your
PROBLEM 4515
detail must match your reference marker, not your neighbor’s or the engineer’s sketch. The location of the reference marker will affect your wall heights. 4. Establish vertical heights at A, B and C, based on
the panel elevations. 5. Lay out the ledger, trusses, and beams. 6. Draw all items. Be careful to distinguish between
concrete and wood members. 7. Dimension as per the sketch. 8. Label grids and local notes. On Problem
Note Should Read
5/8" ply . . .
See note on roof calcs.
T.J.I. . . .
TJI HS 90/24 trusses at 32" O.C. (roof).
T.J.I. . . .
TJI HS 90/30 trusses at 24" O.C. (floor).
6" walls . . .
6" tilt-up conc. walls.
Roofing . . .
4-ply built-up asphaltic fiberglass class ‘A’ roofing.
Beam . . .
6 3/4" × 25.5, 37.5, or 43.5 glu-lam beam.
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
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Problem 45–16 Exterior Elevations
4. Establish finish-grade elevations.
Goal These drawings will provide an external view of the building to be constructed.
5. Lay out all door locations using the locations
Method Typically, an elevation of each side of a structure would be drawn. Verify with your instructor which elevations will be drawn for your project. Use a scale of 3/32" = 1'–0" and follow the procedures outlined in Chapter 24 and Chapter 25. For best use of a page, place the elevations in the upper portion of a sheet to allow room for other drawings.
6. Locate loading docks according to the foundation
Layout 1. Draw a reference line to represent the top of the
slab. This line will never be on the finished drawing but will help locate the bottom of all doors. 2. Establish each end of the structure and each grid. 3. Establish the top of the walls using information on
the typical cross sections and details.
PROBLEM 4516
shown on the panel elevation sketches. plan. 7. Determine the locations of three strips, and sign as
per sketch. 8. Draw the grade and loading dock using bold lines. 9. Draw the outline of the structure. 10. Draw grid lines as thin parallel lines. 11. Draw doors. 12. Draw strips and sign. 13. Draw concrete symbols on some of the walls. 14. Label as per sketch.
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Problem 45–17 Panel Elevations Goal These drawings will provide an internal view of the walls to be constructed, showing wall shape and openings. Method Typically, an elevation of each panel of a structure would be drawn. Verify with your instructor if more than the north face will be drawn for your project. Use a scale of 3/32" = 1'–0". Because of the length of the structure, the sketch of the north panel elevations is shown on two separate drawings. Your drawings should reflect the true layout of the structure and include all information specified in the calcs. Place this drawing on the same sheet as the elevations. Use a copy of the elevations to speed the layout, and establish layers to be used on the exterior elevations. Layout Represent and locate every opening in the exterior walls. Be sure that the floor plan and elevations are coordinated.
PROBLEM 4517
Architectural Drafting and Design
1. Draw a reference line to represent the slab. This
line will never be on the finished drawing but will help locate the bottom of each panel. 2. Establish each end of the structure and each grid. 3. Establish the top of the walls using information on
the sections and elevations. 4. Determine the foundation elevations and lay out
the top of the footing. 5. Lay out all door locations. 6. Draw the outline of the panels. 7. Draw the grid lines. 8. Draw door openings. 9. Provide dimensions to describe all wall shapes and
all door openings. Keep size location separate from location dimensions. 10. Print all notes.
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
Problem 45–18 Panel Details Goal The purpose of these drawings is to show steel placement around any openings in the tilt-up walls. Steel could be shown on the panel elevations, but more clarity is gained by providing details. Method A detail will be provided for each size opening, to show typical steel placement. Be aware that all steel specified by the doors is in addition to any steel specified in the general note for the walls. Typical wall steel is usually specified in a note only and not shown. This allows special steel patterns to be shown and easily
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specified. Use a minimum scale of 1/4" = 1'–0". Place these details on the same sheet as the panel elevations. Reference these details to the panel elevations. 1. Draw the door opening allowing approximately
7'–0" on all four sides. 2. Lay out steel placements based on dimensions
specified on the panel elevation sketches and calcs. 3. Draw the steel much bolder than the opening outline. 4. Dimension each opening as per the sketch. 5. Label all steel.
WALL PANELS PANELS:
ALL WALLS TO BE 6" THICK, 4000 PSI CONCRETE W/ GRADE 60-# 5 @ 10"O.C. VERT. & GRADE 40-# 4 @ 12" O.C. HORIZONTALLY CENTERED IN WALL. EXTEND ALL WALL STEEL TO WITHIN 2" OF TOP AND BOTTOM. ALL PANELS TO HAVE EXPOSED AGGREGATE FINISHED UNLESS NOTED PROVIDE (2) GRADE 40, # 5 X 4'-0" 45 DEGREE DIAG. STEEL TYP. TOP AND BOTTOM OF ALL DOORS. TIE FIRST DIAG. TO INTERSECTION OF HORIZ. AND VERT. STEEL. W/ SECOND BAR AT 8" O.C.
PANEL/PANEL:
USE (2) 3/4" X 2 1/2" COIL INSERTS THRU 1" HOLES IN 11"h X 10"w X 3/8" INSERTS TO BE 1 1/2" MIN. FROM PL. EDGES, 8"O.C. AND 3" MIN. FROM EDGE OF CONC. PANEL.
PROVIDE 3 X 13 X 3/8" PL. INSET FLUSH INTO CONC. 3" MIN. FROM PANEL EDGE W/ (2) 3/4" X " HEADED CONC. ANCHORS @ 10" O.C. 1 1/2" MIN. FROM PL. EDGES. WELD TO PL. W/ 1/8" FILLET ALL AROUND @ FIELD. PROVIDE 11/2" MIN. LAP OF 11 X 10 PL. OVER 3X13 PL. & WELD W/ 1/4" FILLET WELD. ALL CONNECTOR PL. TO BE @ 5'-0" O.C. MAX. 12" MIN. FROM TOP AND BTM OF PANELS.
PANEL CORNERS:
SIMILAR TO PANEL/PANEL JOINT
UNLESS NOTED. USE 3/8" X 5" X 3" X 11" PL. ALL CORNER PL"s TO BE @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. 12" MIN. FROM TOP AND BTM. OF PANEL EDGES.
PANEL/ FND:
7/8" DIA. X 14" STRUCTURAL CONNECTOR BY RICHMOND OR EQUAL, 8" MIN. INTO FND. WITH 5" MIN WALL PENETRATION. SET IN NON-SHRINK GROUT IN 3 X 9 ANCHOR SLEEVE IN FOUNDATION. USE: 6 PER PANEL @ GRID 11 9 " " @ " 1 8 " " @ " C 8 " " @ " 1-4 7 " " @ " 4-7 6 " " @ " 7-11
11'-0" DOOR:
IN ADDITION TO WALL STEEL PROVIDE: (2) GRADE 60, # 6 @ 8"0.C. 1" CLEAR OF EACH FACE VERT. FOR FULL HEIGHT OF WALL. (3) GRADE 60, # 4 @ 12" O.C. HORIZ. ABOVE AND BELOW DOORS, EXTEND 24" MIN EA. SIDE OF DOOR. ABOVE AND BELOW DOOR PROVIDE GRD. 40, # 4 @ 12"O.C VERT. EXTEND VERT. 36" ABOVE AND BELOW DOOR..
**** ALL STEEL PATTERNS TO START WITHIN 1 1/2" OF WALL OPENINGS.
8'-0" DOOR:
IN ADDITION TO WALL STEEL PROVIDE: (3) GRADE 40, # 5 @ 8" O.C. @ 1" CLR. OF EACH FACE VERT. FOR FULL HEIGHT OF WALL. (3) GRADE 60, # 4 @ 12" O.C. HORIZ. ABOVE AND BELOW DOORS, EXTEND 24" MIN EA. SIDE OF DOOR. ABOVE AND BELOW DOOR PROVIDE GRD. 40, # 4 @ 12" O.C. VERT. EXTEND VERT. 36" ABOVE AND BELOW DOOR..
**** ALL STEEL PATTERNS TO START WITHIN 1" OF WALL OPENINGS.
3'-0" DOOR:
IN ADDITION TO WALL STEEL PROVIDE:
(2) GRADE 60, # 6 @ 6" O.C. 1" CLR. OF EA. FACE VERT. FOR FULL HEIGHT OF WALL. (2) GRD 40, # 5 X 7'-0" TOP AND BTM. @ 8" O.C.
PROBLEM 4518
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 45–19 Wall Details Goal The purpose of the wall details is to aid in the erection and connection of the concrete wall panels and to show connections between the steel columns and pedestals. Method Use the scale as indicated on each sketch. Place the details with the panel elevations, with a section, or with other concrete details. 1. Determine in what order the details will be pre-
sented. Place the details in an order that reflects their relationship to the building. 2. Lightly block out each detail. Draw only major
items such as concrete, steel connector, and column outlines.
PROBLEM 4519A
3. Draw details with finish line quality. Use several
line types or colors to distinguish clearly concrete, steel plates, and bolts. 4. Dimension all information based on sketches and
calcs. Do not share dimension locations of bolts. 5. Place all weld symbols as required. 6. Place notes as required. Notes can be shared
between details. 7. Place detail markers, title, and scale below each
detail. Do not place information in the circle.
Chapter 45: Structural Drafting
Problem 45–19 (Continued)
PROBLEM 4519B
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Architectural Drafting and Design
Problem 45–20 Project Coordination
4. Assign a reference letter to all details. Two methods
may be used. Step (a) is the same for each method.
Goal Up to this point, you have drawn plan views, elevations, sections, and details. These drawings must now be placed in a logical presentation order and be referenced to one another.
a. Starting on page 1, label each detail A, B, C,
and so on, until all details on page 1 have been assigned a letter. Start in one corner and work across or up and down the page. Do not skip all over the page as you assign reference letters.
Method 1. Place all drawings in the order described in
b. On page 2, assign each detail a letter starting
Chapter 44.
with the letter A, and work through the alphabet. Use the same pattern that was used on page 1. Repeat this process for all pages with details.
2. Once the page order has been determined, place a
page number in the title block. Structural drawings will always reflect the total number of pages in the title block as well as the actual page being viewed. In the title block, the numbers S-2 of 7 would be placed on the second of seven pages. 3. Assign a page number to all details. All details
drawn on page 1 would have an S-1 placed in the lower half of the detail reference circle. All details drawn on page 2 would have an S-2 placed in the lower half of the reference circle. This pattern should be repeated until all details have a page number.
OR c. On page 2, instead of starting over at A, use the
letter that would follow the last letter used on the preceding detail. Never use the letters I, O, or Q. After detail Z, use AA, BB, and so on. d. After all details have been referenced, make sure
that each detail referenced on the plan views and sections, and so on, has the correct reference symbol. Some details will be referenced on more than one plan. Most will be on the section.
Glossary Preface A Absolute coordinate entry A Cartesian coordinate point
entry system where points are always measured from the origin (0,0). Accessibility Ability to go in, out, and through a building and its rooms with ease regardless of disability. Acoustics The science of sound and sound control. Active solar system System that uses mechanical devices to absorb, store, and use solar heat. Also called mechanical solar system. Adobe Heavy clay used in many southwestern states to make sundried bricks. Aggregate Stone, gravel, cinder, or slag used as one of the components of concrete. Air duct A pipe, typically made of sheet metal, that carries air from a source such as a furnace or air conditioner to a room within a structure. Air leakage (AL) Indicated by an air leakage rating expressed as the equivalent cubic feet of air passing through a square foot of window area (cfm/sq ft). Air trap A U-shaped pipe placed in wastewater lines to prevent backflow of sewer gas. Air-dried lumber Lumber that has been stored in yards or sheds for a period of time after cutting. Building codes typically assume a 19% moisture content when determining joist and beams of air-dried lumber. Air-lock entry See Vestibule. Air-to-air heat exchanger A heat recovery and ventilation device that pulls polluted, stale, warm air from the living space and transfers the heat in that air to fresh, cold air being pulled into the house. Alcove A small room adjoining a larger room often separated by an archway. Aligned dimensioning A dimensioning system with dimensions placed in line with the dimension lines and read from the bottom or right side of the sheet. Alternative braced wall panel (ABWP) A method of braced wall line reinforcement that has a length of between 2'−4" through 3'−6" (711 through 1067 mm) to resist lateral loads. Ambient air temperature The temperature of the air surrounding a heating or cooling device. Ambient light Light that comes from all directions. American National Standard taper pipe threads The standard thread used on pipes and pipe fittings. Ampere (amp) A measure of electrical current. Anchor A metal tie or strap used to tie building members to each other. Anchor bolt A threaded bolt used to fasten wooden structural members to masonry. Angle iron A structural piece of steel shaped to form a 90° angle.
Angle of repose The slopes of cut and fill from the excavation site
measured in feet of horizontal run to feet of vertical rise. Angular dimensions Given by locating the center of the circu-
lar feature pattern and by providing the continuous angles between features. Annotation Commonly used in architectural CADD applications to refer to any text, notes, dimensions, and text symbols on a drawing. Antebellum Latin for “before war,” the term refers to the elegant plantation homes built in the American South in the years preceding the Civil War. Appraisal The estimated value of a piece of property. Apron The inside trim board placed below a windowsill. The term is also used to apply to a curb around a driveway or parking area. Aquifer An underground bed or layer of earth, gravel, or porous stone that yields water. Architect A licensed professional who designs commercial and residential structures. Architectural solar system See Passive solar system. Archive Usually defines old drawings that are no longer in use and are stored for possible future use or reference. Areaway A subsurface enclosure to admit light and air to a basement. Sometimes called a window well. Art Deco A style of architecture originating in the 1920s that featured geometric, streamlined shapes and the use of materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, lacquer, and in-laid wood. Asbestos A mineral that does not burn or conduct heat; it is usually used for roofing material. Ash dump An opening in the hearth into which ashes can be dumped. Ash pit An area in the bottom of the firebox of a fireplace to collect ash. Ashlar masonry Squared masonry units laid with a horizontal bed joint. Asphalt An insoluble material used for making floor tile and for waterproofing walls and roofs. Asphalt shingle Roof shingles made of asphalt-saturated felt and covered with mineral granules. Asphaltic concrete A mixture of asphalt and aggregate that is used for driveways and parking areas. Assessed value The value assigned by governmental agencies to determine the taxes to be assessed on structures and land. Atrium An inside courtyard of a structure that may be either open at the top or covered with a roof. Attic A floor space consisting of an open area at the top of a building just below roof. The attic is often used for storage. Automatic pencil A pencil with a lead chamber that, at the push of a button or tab, advances the lead from the chamber to the writing tip. Awning window A single-sash window that tilts outward and up. 1095
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B Back draft damper A damper with blades that are activated
by gravity, permitting air to pass through them in one direction only. Backfill Earth, gravel, or sand placed in the trench around the footing and stem wall after a foundation has cured. Baffle A shield, usually made of scrap material, to keep insulation from plugging eave vents. Also used to describe windor sound-deadening devices. Balance A principle of design dealing with the relationship between the various areas of a structure as they relate to an imaginary center line. Balcony A deck or patio that is above ground level. Balloon or eastern framing A building construction method that has vertical wall members extending uninterrupted from the foundation to the roof. Balusters Generally smaller posts placed between the newels. Balustrade A row of repetitive, small posts (balusters) that support the handrailing. Band joist A joist set at the edge of the structure that runs parallel to the other joist (also called a rim joist). Banister A handrail beside a stairway. Barge rafter Inclined trim that is placed parallel to the rafters or trusses, which hangs from the projecting edge of a roof rake. Also referred to as a verge board, gable rafter, or gable board. Base cabinets Cabinets in a kitchen or bathroom that sit on the floor. Base course The lowest course in brick or concrete masonry unit construction. Base plate See Mudsill. Baseboard The finish trim where the wall and floor intersect, or an electric heater that extends along the floor. Baseline A reference line. Basement A level of a structure that is built either entirely belowgrade level (full basement) or partially below-grade level (daylight basement). Batt Strip of insulation usually made of fiberglass to be used between framing members. Batten A board used to hide the seams when other boards are joined together. Batter board A horizontal board used to form footings. Bay A division of space within a building usually divided by beams or columns. Bay window A window constructed by extending the exterior of a structure. Beam A horizontal structure member that is used to support roofs or wall loads (often called a header). Beamed ceiling A ceiling that has support beams that are exposed to view. Bearing partition An interior wall that supports weight from above and distributes the load to the foundation. Bearing plate A support member, often a steel plate, used to spread weight over a larger area. Bearing wall A wall that supports vertical loads in addition to its own weight. Bearings Directions with reference to one quadrant of the compass. Below-grade A description for any part of the house or structure that is underground or beneath ground level. Bench A fairly level step excavated into the earth material on which fill is placed. Benchmark A reference point used by surveyors to establish grades and construction heights.
Glossary
Bending One of three major forces acting on a beam. It is the ten-
dency of a beam to bend or sag between its supports. Bending moment A measure of the forces that cause a beam to
break by bending. Represented by M. Berm A mound or built-up area. Beveled siding Siding that has a tapered thickness. Beveled weld A weld created when one piece of steel has a beveled
edge and the mating steel has a square edge. Bibb An outdoor faucet that is threaded so that a hose may be
attached. Represented by H.B. on floor plans. Bidding requirements The construction documents issued to bid-
ders for the purpose of providing construction bids. Bill of material A part of a set of plans that lists all of the material
needed. Biodegradable wastes Type of waste, typically originating from
plant or animal sources, which may be broken down by other living organisms. Biofuel Biomass used to generate electricity, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibers, chemicals, or heat. Biomass Natural material, such as trees, plants, agricultural waste, and other organic material. Organic material is any material that originated as a living organism. Biomass energy See Biopower. Biopower Using biomass to generate electricity in a way that is cleaner and more efficient than most other electricity generation techniques (also called biomass energy). Bird or eave blocking A spacer block placed between rafters to maintain a uniform spacing and to keep animals out of the attic. Bird's mouth A notch cut into a rafter to provide a bearing surface where the rafter intersects the top plate. Blind nailing Driving nails in such a way that the heads are concealed from view. Blocking Framing members, typically wood, placed between joist, rafters, or studs to provide rigidity (also called bridging). Blue-line prints See Diazo prints. Board and batten A type of siding using vertical boards with small wood strips (battens) used to cover the joints of the boards. Board foot The amount of wood contained in a piece of lumber 1" thick by 12" wide by 12" long. Bond The mortar joint between two masonry units, or a pattern in which masonry units are arranged. Bond beam A reinforced concrete beam used to strengthen masonry walls. Bond paper A strong, durable paper especially suitable to electronic printing and use in office machines including copiers and desktop printers. Bottom chord The lower, usually horizontal, member of a truss. Bounds Another term for boundaries. Bow window An arc-shaped bay window. Box A box equipped with clamps, used to terminate a conduit (also known as an electrical box or outlet box). Box beam A hollow built-up structural unit. Boxed eave An eave with a covering applied directly to the bottom side of the rafter or truss tails. Braced wall line Each exterior surface of a residence. Braced wall panel A method of reinforcing a braced wall line using 48" wide panels to resist lateral loads. Break lines Lines added to a drawing in order to remove a portion of an object, to show a partial view, or to shorten a long object. Breaker An electrical safety switch that automatically opens the circuit when excessive amperage occurs in the circuit.
Glossary
1097
Breezeway A covered walkway with open sides between two dif-
Carbon offsets The lessening of carbon emissions through the
ferent parts of a structure. Bridging Cross blocking between horizontal members used to add stiffness (also called blocking). Broker A representative of the seller in property sales. Brownfields Properties that are contaminated or perceived to be contaminated. They may also include properties that are underutilized for various socioeconomic reasons, such as abandonment, obsolescence, tax delinquency, and/or blight. Btu British thermal unit. A unit used to measure heat. Building code Legal requirements designed to protect the public by providing guidelines for structural, electrical, plumbing, and mechanical areas of a structure. Building life cycle The observation and examination of a building over the course of its entire life. Building line An imaginary line determined by zoning departments to specify on which area of a site a structure may be built (also known as a setback). Building model An electronic representation of a building, with elements graphically representing the building drawn with realworld size in their real-world units. Building paper A waterproofed paper used to prevent the passage of air and water into a structure. Building permit A permit to build a structure issued by a governmental agency after the plans for the structure have been examined and the structure is found to comply with all building code requirements. Built-up beam A beam built of smaller members that are bolted or nailed together. Built-up roof A roof composed of three or more layers of felt, asphalt, pitch, or coal tar. Bullnose Rounded edges of cabinet trim. Butt joint The junction where two members meet in a square-cut joint, end to end, or edge to edge. Buttress A projection from a wall often located below roof beams to provide support to the roof loads and to keep long walls in the vertical position.
development of alternative projects such as solar or wind energy or reforestation. Carport A covered automobile parking structure that is not fully enclosed. Carriage The horizontal part of a stair stringer that supports the tread. Cartesian coordinate system A point entry system based on selecting points that are a given distance from the horizontal and vertical axes, known, respectively, as the X and Y axes. Also referred to as rectangular coordinates. Casement window A hinged window that opens from the outside vertical edge, generally using a crank mechanism. Casework All of the components that make up the cabinets. Casing The metal, plastic, or wood trim around a door or a window. Catch basin An underground reservoir for water drained from a roof before it flows to a storm drain. Cathedral window A window with an upper edge that is parallel to the roof pitch. Caulking A soft, waterproof material used to seal seams and cracks in construction. Cavity wall A masonry wall formed with two wythes with an air space between each face. Ceiling joist The horizontal member of the roof that is used to resist the outward spread of the rafters and to provide a surface on which to mount the finished ceiling. Cement A powder of alumina, silica, lime, iron oxide, and magnesia pulverized and used as an ingredient in mortar and concrete. Cementitious foam insulation Non-toxic insulation that is not a petroleum product, and not susceptible to moisture damage. Central heating A heating system in which heat is distributed throughout a structure from a single source. Cesspool A cistern that receives untreated sewage that goes through a process of liquefaction and decomposition by bacterial organisms. The flow continues through an open bottom and perforated sides into porous soil. Chair rail Molding placed horizontally on the wall at the height where chair backs would otherwise damage the wall. Chamfer A beveled edge formed by removing the sharp corner of a piece of material. Channel A standard form of structural steel with three sides at right angles to each other forming the letter C. Chase A recessed area of column formed between structural members for electrical, mechanical, or plumbing materials. Check Lengthwise cracks in a board caused by natural drying. Check valve A valve in a pipe that permits flow in only one direction. Chemicals Material with specific chemical composition. Chimney An upright structure connected to a fireplace or furnace that passes smoke and gases to outside air. Chimney cap The sloping surface on the top of the chimney. Chimney hood A covering placed over the flue for protection from the elements. Chimney liner A liner built into the chimney usually made of fire clay or terra-cotta to provide a smooth surface to the flue wall and to reduce the width of the chimney wall. Chord The upper and lower members of a truss that are supported by the web. Cinder block A block made of cinder and cement used in construction. Circuit The various conductors, connections, and devices found in the path of electrical flow from the source through the components and back to the source.
C Cabinet work The interior finish woodwork of a structure, espe-
cially cabinetry. CADD Computer-aided design and drafting. Camber A curve built into a beam to help resist the tendency of
the beam to sag when a load is applied. Can Part of the housing for a recessed lighting fixture. Cant strip A small built-up area between two intersecting roof
shapes to divert water. Cantilever A structure that projects out without support from
below. Cantilevered truss. A pre manufactured truss that is designed to
extend past its bearing point. Carbon dioxide (CO2) A gas at standard temperature and pressure
that exists in Earth’s atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is generated as a by-product of the combustion of fossil fuels or the burning of vegetable matter, among other chemical processes. Carbon footprint A measure of the impact that human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide. Carbon neutral The reduction of emissions from all greenhouse gas sources to produce a neutral result through energy efficiency, renewable energy purchases, and carbon-offset purchases.
1098
Circuit breaker A safety device that opens and closes an electrical
circuit.
Glossary
Condensation The formation of water on a surface when warm air
comes in contact with a cold surface.
Circumference The distance around the perimeter of a circle. Cistern A receptacle for holding water or other liquid, especially a
Condensation resistance (CR) The ability of a product to resist the
tank for catching and storing rainwater. Civil engineer A professional who works with the design and structural teams and who is responsible for the design and supervision of a wide variety of construction projects, such as highways, bridges, sanitation facilities, and water treatment plants. Clapboard A tapered board used for siding that overlaps the board below it. Cleanout A fitting with a removable plug that is placed in plumbing drainage pipelines to allow access for cleaning out the pipe. Clearance A clear space between building materials to allow for airflow or access. Clerestory window A window or group of windows that are placed above the normal window height, often between two roof levels. Code A performance-based description of the desired results with wide latitude allowed to achieve the results. Code inspection Code enforcement inspections that take place at various times during construction. Collar ties Horizontal ties between rafters near the ridge to help resist the tendency of the rafters to separate. Colonial A style of architecture and furniture adapted from the American colonial period. Column A vertical structural support, usually round and made of steel. Combustion air Outside air supplied in sufficient quantity for fuel combustion. Common plumbing wall A wall between rooms where plumbing fixtures are placed back-to-back. Common rafter Structural roof members that run perpendicular to both the ridge and the wall supporting them, they span and support the roof loads from the ridge to the top plate. Common wall The partition that divides two different dwelling units. Community Group of interacting people living in a common location. Compass Tools used to draw circles and arcs. Compass point Any of 32 horizontal directions indicated on the card of a compass. Completion notice A document that notifies all parties involved in the project that work has been substantially completed. Complex beam Beam with a non-uniform load at any point on it, which has supports that are not located at its end. Composition The spacing, layout, and appearance of lettering. Compression A force that crushes or compacts. Computer input Information placed into a computer. Computer mainframe The main computer that controls many smaller desk terminals. Computer output Information that is displayed or printed by a computer. Computer software Programs used to control a computer. Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) Using a computer for a design tool, and for drafting aid. Computer-aided drafting (CAD) Using a computer as a drafting aid. Concentrated load A load centralized in a small area. The weight supported by a post results in a concentrated load. Concrete A building material made from cement, sand, gravel, and water. Concrete blocks Blocks of concrete that are precast. The standard size is 8 × 8 × 16".
Conditioned A heated or cooled space. Conductor Any material that permits the flow of electricity. A
formation of condensation on the interior surface of the product.
drainpipe that diverts water from the roof (a downspout). Conduit A bendable pipe or tubing used to encase electrical wiring. Construction bids Part of the construction estimate process when
an architect, designer, or general contractor seeks estimates from subcontractors covering the materials and cost of their part of the project. Construction documents Drawings and written specifications prepared and assembled by architects and engineers for communicating the design of the project and administering the construction contract. Construction estimating Determines the total costs of labor, materials, capital, and professional fees required for a proposed product. Construction joint A joint used when concrete construction must be interrupted to provide a clean surface when work can be resumed. Construction lines Lines used for laying out a drawing. Construction loan A mortgage loan to provide cash to the builder for material and labor that is typically repaid when the structure is completed. Construction types Divisions in the building code numbered from I to V, with type I being the most fire-resistive and type V being the least fire-resistive. Continuous beam A single beam that is supported by more than two supports. Contour A line that represents land formations. Contour interval The vertical distance between contour lines. Contour lines Lines that connect points of equal elevation and help show the general lay of the land. Contract documents The legal requirements that become part of the construction contract. Contractor The manager of a construction project, or of one specific phase of it. Control or contraction joint An expansion joint in a masonry wall formed by raking mortar from the vertical joint. Control point survey A survey method that establishes elevations that are recorded on a map. Convenience outlet An electrical receptacle though which current is drawn for the electrical system of an appliance. Cool roof A roof that features highly reflective materials that are used to reflect heat. Coordinate dimensions Dimensions that provide horizontal and vertical location dimensions to the center of the circular features. Coordinate display Coordinates appear on-screen as you move the cursor to various positions. Coping A masonry cap placed on top of a block wall to protect it from water penetration. Corbel A projection of stone, brick, timber, or metal projecting out from a wall to support a structure above. Corner bead A strip of wood or metal used to protect external corners of plastered walls. Cornice The part of the roof that extends out from the wall. Sometimes referred to as the eave. Cost-plus contract A type of contract in which the contractor agrees to complete the work for the actual cost, plus a percentage for overhead and profit.
Glossary
Counterflash A metal flashing used under normal flashing to pro-
vide a waterproof seam. Course A continuous row of building materials such as shingles, stone, or brick. Court An unroofed space surrounded by walls. Cove lighting Concealed light source behind a cornice or horizontal recess that directs the light on a recessed ceiling. Covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&R) Limitations and rules placed on a group of homes by a builder, developer, neighborhood, or home-owner association. All condominiums and townhomes, and most planned-unit developments and established neighborhoods have CC&Rs. Crawl space A space between the ground and the floor of a building in which a person cannot generally walk upright. Cricket A diverter built to direct water away from an area of a roof where it would otherwise collect, such as behind a chimney. Cripples Cut-off vertical framing members above and below the window. Cross bracing Boards fastened diagonally between structural members, such as floor joists, to provide rigidity. Cross section See Section. Crosshatch Thin lines drawn about 1/16" apart, typically at 45°, to show masonry in plan view or wood that has been sectioned. Cul-de-sac A dead-end street with no outlet that provides a circular turn around. Culvert Underground passageways for water, usually part of a drainage system. Cupola A small structure built above the main roof level to provide light or ventilation. Cure The process of concrete drying to its maximum design strength, usually taking 28 days. Curtain wall An exterior wall that provides no structural support. Cut and fill The excavation process involving the removal of earth, which is the cut, and moving earth to another location, which is the fill. Cutting-plane lines Lines that show the location of a cut made for the purpose of creating a sectional view at the specified location. Cutting-plane lines can be placed on floor plans, foundation plans, or any place where a section needs to be drawn to show the internal construction.
D Damper A movable plate that regulates the draft or air flow in a
chimney or vent pipe. Dashed lines Also considered hidden lines, these lines are used
to show drawing features that are not visible in the view or plan. Datum A reference point for starting a survey. Daylight basement A basement that allows you to enter and exit from ground level directly into or from the basement floor. Daylighting The use of various design techniques to enhance the use of natural light in a building. Dead load The weight of building materials or other immovable objects in a structure. Deadening A material used to control the transmission of sound. Deck Exterior floor that is supported on at least two opposing sides by adjoining structures, piers, or posts. Decking A wood material used to form the floor or roof. Deed restrictions Written statements in a deed that outline the limits of use of a property. Default Any value that is maintained by the computer for a command or function that has variable parameters.
1099
Deflection The tendency of a structural member to bend under a
load as a result of gravity. Degree day A measure that gauges the amount of heating or cool-
ing needed for a building using 65°F (18°C) as a baseline. Delta note Triangular symbol with a number inside, placed on the
drawing in the desired location. The same delta symbol and number is placed with the general notes to correlate related information. Density The number of people allowed to live in a specific area of land or to work in a specific area of a structure. Dentil molding Square tooth-like trim that is often placed along the eaves of traditional homes. Depreciation Loss of monetary value. Designer A person who designs buildings but is not licensed as an architect. Detail drawings (HVAC) Enlarged views of equipment, equipment installations, duct components, or any features that are not defined on the plan. Detail files A specific type of model file that can include plans, elevations, sections, and details. Details Enlargements of specific areas of a structure that are drawn where several components intersect or where small members are required. Diameter The distance across an arc or circle passing through the center. Diaphragm A rigid plate that acts similar to a beam and can be found in the roof level, walls, or floor system. Diazo prints made by passing an ultraviolet light through a translucent original drawing to expose a chemically coated paper or print material underneath. Also known as blue-line prints. Digital terrain model (DTM) A model of a topographic surface that uses information on height, slope, aspect, breaks in slope, and other topographic features. Dimension line Line showing the length of the dimension and terminating at the related extension line with slashes, arrowheads, or dots. Dimension lumber Lumber ranging in thickness from 2" to 4" and having moisture content of less than 19%. Dimensions Numbers that provide the measurements used for construction. Direct solar gain A direct gain in heat created by the sun. Directories See Folders. Disbursement inspections Requested at various times, such as monthly, or they can be related to a specific disbursement schedule, such as four times during construction to get the builder payment for that portion. Disk Computer storage unit that stores information or programs used to run a computer. Distribution panel Panel where the conductor from the meter base is connected to individual circuit breakers, which are connected to separate circuits for distribution to various locations throughout the structure. Diverter A metal strip used to divert water. Dividers A manual drafting tool used to transfer dimensions or to divide a distance into a number of equal parts. Documents A general term that refers to all drawings and written information related to a project. Dormer A structure that projects from a sloping roof to form another roofed area. This new area is typically used to provide a surface to install a window. Double glazing A windowpane formed of two layers of glass with a sealed air space between the layers.
1100
Glossary
Double-hung windows Windows with moveable upper and lower
Easement An area of land that cannot be built upon because it
sashes, which slide vertically past each other. Double-wall construction Walls that have sheathing placed on the exterior side of the wall to support the exterior siding, and to provide additional energy efficiency over standard construction. Downspout A pipe that carries rainwater from the gutters of the roof to the ground. Draft A current of air and gases through the fireplace and chimney. Drafter A person who makes drawings and details from another person’s creations. Drafting A universal graphic language that uses lines, symbols, dimensions, and notes to describe a structure to be built. Drafting machine Maintains a horizontal and vertical relationship between scales, which also serve as straightedges, by way of a protractor component. Drain A collector for a pipe that carries water. Drainage system Provides for the distribution of solid and liquid waste to the sewer line. Drawing content The variety of information in the drawing, such as layers, layouts, line types, text styles, and symbols. Drawing limits The specified drawing area, which can be set to create a virtual drawing area according to sheet size and drawing scale. Drawings Store and catalog information that is distributed through the project cycle. Dressed lumber Lumber that has been surfaced by a planing machine to give the wood a smooth finish. Dried-in Construction covered to protect against weather. Drift bolt A steel rod that has been threaded and that is often used to span between metal connectors on two separate beams. Drip A projecting portion of the cornice that sheds rainwater. Drop ceiling See Suspended ceiling. Dry rot A type of wood decay caused by fungi that leaves the wood a soft powder. Dry well A shallow well used to disperse water from the gutter system. Drywall An interior wall covering installed in large sheets made from gypsum board. Duct systems The design, installation, and control systems are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. Ducts Pipes used to conduct hot or cold air of the HVAC system. Duplex convenience outlet A receptacle outlet. Duplex outlet A standard electrical convenience outlet with two receptacles. Dutch door A type of door that is divided horizontally in the center so that the top or bottom half of the door may be opened separately. Dutch hip A type of roof shape that combines features of a gable and a hip roof. Dynamic loads The loads imposed on a structure from a sudden gust of wind or from an earthquake.
provides access to a structure or to utilities, such as power or sewer lines. Eave The lower part of the roof that projects from the wall. Also see Cornice. Ecosystem A complex set of relationships of living organisms functioning as a unit and interacting with their physical environment. Effluent Treated sewage from a septic tank or sewage treatment plant. Egress A term used in building codes to describe access. Elastic limit The extent to which a material can be bent and still return to its original shape. Elbow An L-shaped plumbing pipe. Electrical box See Box. Electrical conduit A metal or fiber pipe or tube used to enclose a single or several electrical conductors. Electrical engineer A professional who works with the design and structural teams and who is responsible for the design of lighting and communication systems. Electrical work The installation of rough-and-finish electrical systems in a building. Electricity Energy made available by the flow of electric charge through a conductor. Elevation The exterior views of a structure. Elevation (Related to surveying, site planning, and disciplines such as plumbing and HVAC.) The height of a feature from a known base, which is usually given as 0 (zero elevation). Elevation views Two-dimensional views looking at the outside of the building or interior features. Ell An extension of the structure at a right angle to the main structure. Eminent domain The right of a government to condemn private property so that it may be obtained for public use. Enamel A paint that produces a hard, glossy, smooth finish. End-result specifications Specifications that provide final characteristics of the products and methods used in construction, and the contractor can choose a desired method for meeting the requirements. Energy Star A joint program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Energy designed to help save money and protect the environment through energy efficient products and practices. Engineer A licensed professional who applies mathematical and scientific principles to the design and construction of structures. Entourage The surroundings of a rendered building consisting of ground cover, trees, people, and automobiles. Envelope design Design method based on the idea of constructing an envelope or continuous cavity around the perimeter of a structure. Environmentally friendly Designing and constructing buildings with renewable materials such as wood from certified forests, earthen materials, and recycled products. Environmentally sound See Environmentally friendly. Equity The value of real estate in excess of the balance owed on the mortgage. Erasing shields Thin metal or plastic sheets with a number of differently shaped holes. Ergonomics The study of human space and movement needs as they relate to a given work area, such as a kitchen.
E Earnest money A good-faith sum of money given to bind a con-
tract, for example, an agreement to purchase real property, or a commitment fee to ensure an advance of funds by a lender. In a real estate transaction, the money is applied to the purchase price and can be forfeited if the purchaser fails to carry out the terms of the agreement. Earthen floors A green building technology that combines the mixture of sand, clay soil, and fibers that are poured in place and sealed with linseed oils and waxes to make durable washable surfaces.
Glossary
Evapotranspiration A term used to describe the sum of evapora-
tion and plant transpiration from the Earth’s land surface to the atmosphere. Excavation The removal of soil for construction purposes. Expansion bolt A bolt with a special expanding sleeve that is designed so that the sleeve, once inserted into a hole, will expand to increase the holding power of the bolt. Expansion joint A joint installed in concrete construction to reduce cracking. Extension lines Lines showing the extent of a dimension that are generally thin, dark lines. Exterior envelope The elements of a structure that enclose heated and cooled air through which thermal energy transfers to or from the exterior. Extrusion A manufacturing process used to create long objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile, where material is pressed or pushed under pressure through a desired shaped orifice.
F Fabrication Work done on a structure away from the job site. Facade The exterior covering of a structure. Face brick Brick that is used on the visible surface to cover other
masonry products. Face grain The pattern in the visible veneer of plywood. Facility A physical structure or group of structures, including site construction, serving one or more purposes. Facility model An information model related to a specific structure that is integrated with data and documents about that structure. Fascia A horizontal board nailed to the end of rafters or trusses to conceal their ends. Federal Housing Administration (FHA) A governmental agency that insures home loans made by private lending institutions. Felt A tar-impregnated paper used for water protection under roofing and siding materials. Sometimes used under concrete slabs for moisture resistance. Fenestration Openings in the building envelope including glazed blocks, glazed doors, opaque doors, roof windows, skylights, vertical windows including fixed and movable, or any products with glass or other types of glazing. Fiber-bending stress The measurement of structural members used to determine their stiffness (Fb). Fiber-cement cladding A highly-durable and non-toxic material that acts as an effective barrier for insulation from the elements. Fiberboard Fibrous wood products that have been pressed into a sheet. Typically used for the interior construction of cabinets and for covering the subfloor. Field Any open area that surrounds the main views. Field-built Cabinets or other features built on the job. File As related to manual drafting, the storage of drawings in standard file cabinets. Fill lighting Light from a light fixture that fills an area. Fill material Used to raise an area for construction. Typically gravel or sand is used to provide a raised, level building area. Filled insulation Insulation material that is blown or poured into place in attics and walls. Fillet weld A weld between two surfaces that butt at 90° to each other with the weld filling the inside corner. Final inspection The last inspection of a building construction project prior to occupancy. Finish electrical The light fixtures, outlets, and all other final electrical work that is done when the construction is nearly complete.
1101
Finished lumber Wood that has been milled with a smooth finish
suitable for use as trim and other finish work. Finished size Sometimes called the dressed size, the finished size
represents the actual size of lumber after all milling operations and is typically about 1/2" smaller than the nominal size, which is the size of lumber before planing. Nominal Size (inches)
Finished Size (inches)
1
3/4
2
1 1/2
4
3 1/2
6
5 1/2
8
7 1/4
10
9 1/4
12
11 1/4
14
13 1/4
Fire brick A refractory brick capable of withstanding high tempera-
tures and used for lining fireplaces and furnaces. Fire cut An angular cut on the end of a joist or rafter that is sup-
ported by masonry. The cut allows the wood member to fall away from the wall without damaging a masonry wall when wood is damaged by fire. Fire door A door used between different types of construction that has been rated as being able to withstand fire for a certain amount of time. Fire rated A rating given to building materials to specify the amount of time the material can resist damage caused by fire. Fire wall A wall constructed of materials resulting in a specified time that the wall can resist fire before structural damage will occur. Fire-stop Blocking placed between studs or other structural members to resist the spread of fire. Firebox The combustion chamber of the fireplace where the fire occurs. Fireplace opening The area between the top and side faces of the fireplace; it is the front of the firebox. Fireproofing Any material that is used to cover structural materials to increase their fire rating. Fit house See Small-footprint home. Fitting A standard pipe used for joining two or more sections of pipe. Fixed window A window that is designed without hinges so it cannot be opened. Fixed-sum contracts Sometimes called lump-sum contracts, these contracts are used when the contractor agrees to complete the project for a certain amount of money. Flagstone Flat stones used typically for floor and wall coverings. Flashing Metal used to prevent water from leaking through surface intersections. Flat roof A roof with a minimal roof pitch, usually about 1/4" per 12". Flathead (countersunk) screws Screws used for finish work where a protruding head is not desirable Flitch beam A built-up beam that consists of steel plates bolted between wood members. Floor joists Structural members made from sawn or engineered lumber used to span between the foundation walls and support the floor decking. Floor plan Architectural drawing of a room or building as if seen from above.
1102
Floor plug A 110-V convenience outlet located in the floor. Flue A passage inside of the chimney to conduct smoke and gases
away from a firebox to outside air. Flue liner A terra-cotta pipe used to provide a smooth flue surface so that unburned materials will not cling to the flue. Folders Also known as directories, the folders on your computer allow you to store and organize computer files. Font A complete assortment of any one size and style of lettering or text. Footing The lowest member of a foundation system used to spread the loads of a structure across supporting soil. Footing form The wooden mold used to give concrete its shape as it cures. Footprint Often used in reference to the foundation dimensions upon which the house is constructed. Foundation The system used to support a building’s loads and made consisting of the footings, stem walls, and piers. The term is used in many areas to refer just to the footing. Frame The structural skeleton of a building. French doors Exterior or interior doors that have glass panels and swing into a room. Fresnel lens Type of lens originally developed for lighthouses. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the weight and volume of material required in conventional lens design. Compared to earlier lenses, the Fresnel lens is much thinner, allowing the passage of more light over much longer distances as with Tubular Daylighting Devices described in this textbook. Frost line The depth to which soil will freeze. Full basement Occupies the entire area inside the foundation walls. Full sections Drawing views that result from passing the cutting plane through the entire structure. Full sections are meant to give an overall view of a specific area of the structure. Functional elements Often referred to as systems or assemblies, these are major components, common to buildings that perform a known function regardless of the design specification, construction method, or materials used. Furnace Mechanism that produces heat by burning fuel oil or natural gas, or by using electric heating coils or heat pumps. Furring Wood strips attached to structural members that are used to provide a level surface for finishing materials when different sized structural members are used.
G Gable A type of roof with two sloping surfaces that intersect at the
ridge of the structure. Gable end wall The triangular wall that is formed at each end of a
gable roof between the top plate of the wall and the rafters. Galvanized pipe Steel pipe that has been cleaned and dipped in
molten zinc to provide protection from rusting. Gambrel A type of roof formed with two planes on each side of
the ridge. The lower pitch is steeper than the upper portion of the roof. Garden window Generally a 90° bay window that extends beyond the exterior, with a glass front, sides, and roof to allow in extra natural light. General contractor Person responsible for working directly with the architect, designer, or property owner to complete the entire project in a quality and professional manner. General notes Notes that apply to features on the drawing rather than to specific items.
Glossary
Geothermal system Heating and cooling system that uses the
constant, moderate temperature of the ground to provide space heating and cooling, or domestic hot water, by placing a heat exchanger in the ground, or in wells, lakes, rivers, or streams. Ghost A line that should have been eliminated but still shows on a print. Girder A horizontal structural member made of wood, laminated wood, engineered wood, or steel that spans between two or more supports at the foundation level. Girder truss A truss used where two perpendicular roofs intersect typically created by bolting two or three standard trusses together. Glu-lam See Glued-laminated beam. Glued-laminated beam (glu-lam) A structural member made up of layers of lumber that are glued together. Gothic A style of architecture originating during the medieval period and typically seen in cathedrals that featured pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses (exterior wing walls placed to resist the outward thrust of arches). Grade The designation of the quality of a manufactured piece of wood. Grading The moving of soil to affect the elevation of land at a construction site. Grading plans Information showing how a construction site will be excavated; construction drawings that generally show existing and proposed topography. Grains A unit of weight measure. Graphic scale Similar to a small ruler that represents the numeric scale. The divisions on the graphic scale represent increments of measure that can be easily applied to the drawing. Gravel stop A metal strip used to retain gravel at the edge of built-up roofs. Gravity Uniform force that affects all structures due to the gravitational force from the earth. Gray water Wastewater from clothes washing machines, showers, bathtubs, hand washing, lavatories, and sinks. Green board A water-resistant material used in areas that have high moisture content, such as the areas by a shower, tub, or spa. Green home A home that uses less energy, water, and natural resources; creates less waste; and is healthier and more comfortable for the occupants. Green lumber Lumber that has not been kiln-dried and still contains moisture. Green power Electricity that is generated from resources such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydro facilities. Green roof A roof system consisting of some type of vegetation growing in soil, planted over a waterproof membrane. Greenhouse effect Atmospheric heating caused by solar radiation being readily transmitted inward through the Earth’s atmosphere but long-wave radiation less readily transmitted outward, due to absorption by certain gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases Gases that absorb global radiation and contribute to the greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone. Grid inter-tied A system setup whereby if a solar array is producing more energy than is needed, the energy is fed into the power grid. Likewise, when a solar array is not producing enough energy, the home pulls power back from the grid. Grid survey Locations on a survey established in a grid. Ground An electrical connection to the earth by means of a rod. Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI or GFI) A 110-V convenience outlet with a built-in circuit breaker.
Glossary
Ground line A line that represents the horizontal surface at the
base of a perspective drawing. Grout A mixture of cement, sand, and water used to fill joints in masonry and tile construction. Guardrail A horizontal protective railing used around stairwells, balconies, and changes of floor elevation greater than 30". Guidelines Lines drawn to guide your manual lettering. Gusset A metal or wood plate used to strengthen the intersection of structural members. Gutter A channel at the edge of the eave for moving rainwater from the roof to downspouts. Gypsum board An interior finishing material made of gypsum and fiberglass and covered with paper that is installed in large shapes.
H Half-timbered A construction method that originated in medieval
Europe that featured wood framing members with the space between members filled with plaster, brick, or stone. Halftone The reproduction of continuous-tone artwork, such as a photograph, by converting the image into dots of various sizes. Handrail Railing that you slide your hand along as you walk down the stairs. Hanger A metal support bracket used to attach a structural member to a larger member. Hard conversion Typical inch units are converted directly to metric. Hardboard Sheet material formed of compressed wood fibers. Head The upper portion of a door or window frame. Header A structural member used at the roof level that consists of two or more members nailed together, laid parallel to the ridge board to support rafters around an opening such as a skylight or chimney. Header course A horizontal masonry course with the end of each masonry unit exposed. Header truss A truss that has a horizontal top chord that is used to support stub trusses. Headroom The vertical clearance over a stairway. Hearth The fire-resistant floor extending in front of the firebox. Heartwood The inner core of a tree trunk. Heat transfer multiplier The product of the heat transfer coefficient of the material (U factor = 1/R value) and the design temperature difference. Heat pump A unit designed to produce forced air for heating and cooling. Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) The terminology used to refer to the industry that deals with the heating and airconditioning equipment and systems found in a building. The HVAC system is also referred to as the mechanical system. Heel The end of a rafter that rests on the wall plate. Hidden lines See Dashed lines. Hip The exterior edge formed by the intersection of two sloping roof surfaces. Hip rafters Structural roof members used when adjacent slopes of the roof meet to form an inclined edge. The hip rafter extends diagonally across the common rafters and provides support to the upper end of the rafters. Hip roof A roof shape with four sloping sides. Hip truss A truss that has a horizontal top chord that is parallel to the floor that is used to form a hip roof. Each succeeding hip truss increases in height until the full height of the roof is achieved and standard trusses can be used. Hopper window A window that is hinged at the bottom and swings inward.
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Horizon line A line drawn parallel to the ground line that repre-
sents the intersection of ground and sky. Horizontal shear One of three major forces acting on a beam, it is
the tendency of the fibers of a beam to slide past each other in a horizontal direction (Fv). Hose bibb A water outlet that is threaded to receive a hose. Housing Structures collectively in which people are housed. Housing development A residential area of similar dwellings built by property developers and usually under a single management. Housing subdivision Synonymous with housing development low-density development in suburban and the fringe of urban areas. Characteristics include distance from employment and commercial centers, dependence on automobile travel, and extended public infrastructure. Hue A particular gradation of color; a shade or tint. Humidifier A mechanical device that controls the amount of moisture inside of a structure. Hydroelectric power Electricity generated by the conversion of the energy created by falling water. Hydrozoning A landscape practice that groups plants with similar water requirements together in an effort to conserve water.
I I Beam The generic term for a wide flange or American standard
steel beam with a cross section in the shape of the letter I. Included angle The angle formed between the center and the end-
points of an arc. Indirect lighting Mechanical lighting that is reflected off a surface. Individual appraisal A real estate property appraisal required when
a person or persons want to obtain financing to purchase or build a home or other building. Indoor temperature The design temperature for the space inside a building. Indoor wet bulb The bulb of which is enclosed in wetted material so that water is constantly evaporating from it and cooling the bulb. Industrial piping Piping used to carry liquids and gases used in the manufacture of products. Infiltration Outside air that enters a building through uncontrolled locations. Insertion point Location where text is started when using a computer program. Insulated concrete form (ICF) An energy-efficient wall framing system in which poured concrete is placed in polystyrene forms that are left in place to create a super-insulated wall. Insulating glass Two or more panes of glass with a sealed space between. Insulation Material used to restrict the flow of heat, cold, or sound from one surface to another. Intensity The brightness or dullness of a specific color. Interface Also called user interface, the term describing the tools and techniques used to provide and receive information to and from a computer application. Interior decorator Professional who decorates the interiors of buildings, with the aim of making rooms more attractive, comfortable, and functional. Interior designer Professional who works with the design team to optimize and harmonize the interior design of a structure in regard to how space will be used, the amount of light that will be required, acoustics, seating, storage, and work areas. Internal heat gain The total value of internal heat gains should be the gain occurring at the time of maximum heat gain to the space taking into account solar, infiltration, and internal gains.
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Glossary
International Residential Code (IRC) A national building code for
Lateral bracing Reinforcing placed in a structure to keep it from
one- and two-family dwellings. Irregular curves Commonly called French curves, irregular curves are used to draw arcs having no constant radii. Isolation joint A joint installed in concrete construction to reduce cracking and to provide workable areas. Isometric A drawing method that enables three surfaces of an object to be seen in one view, with the base of each surface drawn at 30° to the horizontal plane. Isometric lines Lines on or parallel to one of the three original isometric axes. Isometric sketches Freehand drawings of objects in an isometric view that display the objects at approximately a 30° angle.
moving from side to side as a result of wind or seismic forces applied to the structure. Lateral loads A load which causes objects to move sideways. Lath Wood or sheet metal strips that are attached to the structural frame to support plaster. Latitude The angular distance between an imaginary line around the earth parallel to the equator and including the equator. Lattice A grille made by criss-crossing strips of material. Lavatory A bathroom sink, or a room that is equipped with a washbasin. Layers In CADD, details of a design or different drafting information that are separated so that one type of information is over the other. Leach lines Soil-absorbent field used to disperse liquid material from a septic system. Leader line A line that connects a note to the feature being identified. Ledger A horizontal member that is attached to the side of wall members to provide support for rafters or joists. Legend An area on a drawing that displays and identifies symbols used on the drawing. Lender inspections Inspections done to ensure the materials and methods described in the plans and specifications are being used. Lettering The term used to describe the traditional handmade letters and numbers on a drawing. Liability insurance Protects the contractor against being sued for accidents occurring on the site. Lien A monetary claim on property. Light scallop An effect created when the light fixture is placed close to the wall resulting in a concentrated arc-shaped light pattern on the wall. Lighting outlet An electrical outlet that is intended for the direct connection of a lighting fixture. Limits See Drawing limits. Lintel A horizontal steel member used to provide support for masonry over an opening. Lisp A programming language used to customize CADD software. Live load The load from all movable objects within a structure including loads from furniture and people. External loads from snow and wind are also considered live loaded. Load path The route that is used to transfer the roof loads into the walls, then into the floor, and then to the foundation. Load-bearing wall A support wall that holds floor or roof loads in addition to its own weight. Local notes See Specific notes. Longitude Also called meridians, imaginary lines running north and south. Longitudinal section A section produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the long axis of the structure, used to frame the roof, ceiling, and floor systems. Lookout A beam used to support eave loads. Loose-fill insulation Fibers or granules made from cellulose, fiberglass, rock wool, cotton, or other materials. Lot An individual construction site or piece of property that has a defined legal description. Lot plan The drawing of a lot. Louver An opening with horizontal slats to allow for ventilation. Low-e glass Low-emissivity glass that has a transparent coating on its surface that acts as a thermal mirror. Lump-sum contract Written agreement under which a customer or owner agrees to pay a contractor a specified amount, for completing a scope of work without requiring a cost breakdown.
J J-groove weld A weld that results when one piece has a perpen-
dicular edge and the other has a curved grooved edge Jack rafter A rafter that is cut shorter than the other rafters to
allow for an opening in the roof. Jack stud A wall member that is cut shorter than other studs
to allow for an opening such as a window (also called a cripple stud). Jalousie window A type of window that has overlapping narrow glass, metal, or wooden louvers, operated with a crank handle for adjusting the louver angle outward. Jamb The vertical members of a door or window frame. Joist A horizontal structural member used in repetitive patterns to support floor and ceiling loads. Junction box A box that protects electrical wiring splices in conductors or joints in runs. Justify, justified, or justification To align text. Several lines of text that are left-justified are aligned along the left side, for example.
K Key lighting Stage light that sets the overall level of light intensity
for something that is being filmed. Kickblock or kicker A block used to keep the bottom of the stringer
from sliding on the floor when downward pressure is applied to the stringer. Kiln A heating unit for the removal of moisture from wood. Kiln dried A method of drying lumber in a kiln or oven. Kiln-dried lumber has a reduced moisture content when compared to lumber that has been air-dried. King stud A full-length stud placed at the end of a header. Kip Used in some engineering formulas to represent 1000 lb. Knee wall A wall of less than full height. Knot A branch or limb of a tree that is cut through in the process of manufacturing lumber.
L Lag screws Large screws used for attaching wood to wood or steel
to wood. Lally column A vertical steel column that is used to support floor
or foundation loads. Laminated Several layers of material that have been glued together
under pressure. Landing A platform between two flights of stairs. Latent load The heat released when water vapor in the saturated
air condenses. Lateral Sideways motion in a structure caused by wind or seismic
forces.
Glossary
M Magnetic declination The difference between true north and
magnetic north. Magnetic north The compass points to magnetic north. Main The primary supply pipe, also called water main or sewer
main, depending on its purpose. Mansard A four-sided, steep-sloped roof. Mantel A decorative shelf above the opening of a fireplace. Manual drafting The term used to describe traditional pencil or
ink drafting. Market value The amount that property can be sold for. Masonry Walls built using brick, stone, concrete blocks, or other
similar materials. Masonry veneer Walls that consist of a single non structural
external layer of masonry, such as brick or stone, and separated by an air space from the structural framing such as wood, steel, or masonry. Master appraisal The listing of models covering types of individual homes proposed for construction. The information collection sets forth the general and specific conditions that must be met before mortgage insurance, prepared by participating lenders working with developers. MasterFormat A list of numbers and titles that are created to organize information into a standard sequence that relates to construction requirements, products, and activities. Matte Surface texture that is not glossy. Mechanical engineer Professional who works with the design and structural teams who is responsible for the sizing and layout of heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems (HVAC) and who plans how treated air will be routed throughout the project. Mechanical pencil A pencil that requires a piece of lead to be manually inserted. Mechanical solar systems See Active solar system. Mechanical system See Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC). Mechanical ventilation Building ventilation provided by mechanical means such as a fan or air-to-air heat exchanger. Meridian See Longitude. Mesh A metal reinforcing material placed in concrete slabs and masonry walls to help resist cracking. Metal tie A manufactured piece of metal for joining together two structural members. Metal wall ties Corrugated metal strips used to bond brick veneer to its support wall. Meter Instrument used to measure electrical quantities. The electrical meter for a building is where the power enters and is monitored for the electrical utility. Meter base The mounting base to which the electrical meter is attached. It contains all of the connections and clamps. Metes Measurements. Method specifications Outline material selection and construction operation process to be followed in providing construction materials and practices. Milling The use of a rotating cutting tool where the tool forms the desired shape of the millwork. Millwork Finished woodwork that has been manufactured in a milling plant. Examples are window and door frames, mantels, moldings, and stairway components. Mineral wool An insulating material made of fibrous foam. Model files Contain the individual elements that make up the final drawing of the building model, such as the walls, doors,
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windows, dimensions, and the various drawing features on their own layers. Modular cabinets Prefabricated cabinets that are constructed in specific sizes called modules. Module A standardized unit of measurement. Modulus of elasticity (e) The degree of stiffness of a beam. Moisture barrier Typically a plastic material used to restrict moisture vapor from penetrating into a structure. Molding Decorative strips, usually made of wood, used to conceal the seam in other finishing materials. Moment The tendency of a force to rotate around a certain point. Mono truss A single-pitched truss (one-half of a standard gable truss). Monolithic Concrete construction created in one pour. Monument A boundary marker set to mark property corners. Mortar A combination of cement, sand, and water used to bond together masonry units. Mortgage A contract pledging the sale of property upon full payment of purchase price. Mortgagee The lender of the money to the mortgagor for the purchase of property. Mortgagor The buyer of property who is paying off the mortgage to the mortgagee. Moving loads Loads that are not stationary, such as those produced by automobiles and construction equipment. Mudroom A room or utility entrance where soiled clothing can be removed before entering the main portion of the residence. Mudsill The horizontal wood member that rests on concrete to support other wood members. Also called base plate. Mullion A horizontal or vertical divider between sections of a window. Multiview drawing A drawing that shows up to six views, including the top, front, right side, left side, rear, and bottom views of an object. Multiview projection The views of an object as projected upon two or more picture planes in orthographic projection. Muntin A horizontal or vertical divider within a section of a window.
N Nailer A wood member bolted to concrete or steel members to
provide a nailing surface for attaching other wood members. Naturescaping A method of landscaping that allows people and
nature to coexist. By incorporating certain plants, especially native ones, into one’s yard, one can attract beneficial insects, birds, and other creatures, and help keep our rivers and streams healthy. Neoclassical Building style inspired by the Classical architecture of ancient Greece and Rome and contains some, but not all, of the main features. Nested joists Steel joist placed around another joist to allow the strength of a joist to be greatly increased without increasing the size of the framing members. Net size Final size of wood after planing. Net-zero energy A home generates as much as or more energy than the occupants consume through the course of a year. Net-zero water A home generates as much as or more water than the occupants consume through the course of a year. Neutral axis The axis formed where the forces of compression and tension in a beam reach equilibrium. Newel The end post of a stair railing. Nominal size An approximate size achieved by rounding the actual material size to the nearest larger whole number.
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Nonferrous metal Metal, such as copper or brass, that contains
no iron. Nonisometric lines Lines on an isometric sketch or drawing that
do not fall on one of the isometric planes. Nosing The rounded front edge of a tread that extends past the riser.
O Object lines Lines used to define the outline and characteristic
features of architectural plan components. Object-oriented CADD A new idea for modeling physical objects
such as building components. Elements of a building are represented as objects, containing the physical geometry as well as many other kinds of attributes. Obscure glass Glass that is not transparent. Occupancy group A specification that indicates by whom or how the structure will be used. On center A measurement taken from the center of one member to the center of another member. Online Communicating with other computers or with devices such as printers or file servers through your modem or network. Operating system A master program that controls a computer’s basic functions and allows other programs to access the computer’s resources such as the disk drive, printer, keyboard, and monitor. Organic material Any material which originated as a living organism. Oriel window A window located in a round, turret-like projection from the main wall of Gothic Victorian style homes. The turret does not extend to the ground and is supported by brackets or corbels. Orientation The locating of a structure on property based on the location of the sun, prevailing winds, view, and noise. Origin The intersection of the X = 0 and Y = 0, or 0,0 axes. Orthographic projection Any projection of the features of an object onto an imaginary plane called a plane of projection, and the projection of the features of the object is made by lines of sight that are perpendicular to the plane of projection. Outdoor temperature The temperature outside of the building. Outdoor wet bulb The lowest temperature at which water being cooled can reach the outside temperature. Outlet An electrical receptacle that allows for current to be drawn from the system. Outlet box See Box. Outrigger A support for roof sheathing and the fascia that extends past the wall line perpendicular to the rafters. Outsourcing The practice of sending out parts of the project to subcontractors for completion. Overhang The horizontal measurement of the distance that the roof projects from a wall. Overlay drafting The practice of drawing a structure in several layers that must be combined to produce the finished drawing.
P Pad An isolated concrete pier. Palladian window A large window that is divided into three parts,
with the center section that is usually arched and larger than the two side sections. Panel See Distribution panel. Parallel bar A manual drafting tool used for drawing straight lines that slides up and down the drafting board on cables that are attached to pulleys mounted at the top and bottom corners of the table.
Glossary
Parallels See Latitude. Parametric Able to specify any desired dimensions or shape. Any
change to a parametric design automatically updates the entire design to match the change. Parapet A portion of wall that extends above the edge of the roof. Parging A rough coat of mortar applied to a masonry wall as a protective finish. Parquet flooring Wood flooring laid to form patterns. Partial basement Can be designed under any desired portion of the foundation area. Partial section A section that does not go completely through the structure that is used to show construction materials that are not seen in other sections. Partition An interior wall. Party wall A wall dividing two adjoining spaces such as apartments or offices. Passive solar gain See Solar gain. Passive solar system System that uses natural, architectural means to radiate, store, and radiate solar heat. Also called architectural solar system. Patio Ground-level exterior entertaining area that is made of concrete, stone, brick, or treated wood. Pendant light A light fixture that hangs from the ceiling usually suspended by a cord, chain, or metal rod. Sometimes called a drop or suspender. Penny The length of a nail represented by the lowercase letter d; “16d” is read as “sixteen penny.” Percolation test Test used to determine if the soil could accommodate a septic system. Performance bond Guarantee that the contractor will complete the work in a professional and timely manner or the insurance company covers the cost. Perspective A drawing method that provides the illusion of depth by the use of vanishing points. Photo drafting The use of photography to produce a base drawing on which additional drawings can be made. Photocopy A photographic reproduction of printed or graphic material, especially by xerography. Pictorial drawing A drawing that shows an object in a threedimensional format. Picture plane The plane onto which the view of the object is projected in a perspective drawing. Pier A concrete or masonry foundation support. Pilaster A reinforcing column built into or against a masonry wall. Piling A vertical foundation support driven into the ground to provide support on stable soil or rock. Pitch A description of roof angle comparing the vertical rise to the horizontal run. Plank Lumber that is 1 1/2" to 2 1/2" in thickness. Planned unit development A creative and flexible approach to land development, which can include such uses as residential areas, recreational areas, open spaces, schools, libraries, churches, or convenient shopping facilities. Plaster A mix of sand, cement, and water used to cover walls and ceilings. Plat A map of an area of land that shows the boundaries of individual lots. Plate Horizontal pieces of wood at the top of a wall to hold the studs in position. Platform or western platform framing A building construction method where each floor acts as a platform in the framing.
Glossary
Plenum A chamber which can serve as a distribution area for heat-
ing or cooling systems, generally between a false ceiling and the actual ceiling, or between construction members. Plot A parcel of land. Plotter An output device used in computer-aided drafting to draw lines and symbols. Plumb True vertical. Plumbing See Residential piping. Plumbing fixture A unit used to supply and contain water, and discharge waste. Examples of fixtures are sinks, lavatories, showers, tubs, and water closets. Plumbing system All the piping and fixtures in a structure. Plumbing walls The walls in a building where plumbing pipes are installed. Plywood Wood composed of three or more layers with the grain of each layer placed at 90° to each other and bonded with glue. Poche A shading method using graphite applied with a soft tissue in a rubbing motion. Pocket door A door that slides into a pocket that has been built into the wall. Point entry The process of specifying points to create and edit objects, such as locating line endpoints. Point of beginning (POB) Fixed location on a plot of land where the survey begins. Pointing Placing of mortar in the joints of masonry walls to improve the appearance and increase weather protection. Polar coordinate entry Used when points are located from the previous point at a specified distance and angle. Polyester film Also known by its trade name, Mylar; polyester film is a plastic manual drafting material that offers excellent dimensional stability, erasability, transparency, and durability. Polyester lead Plastic drafting pencil lead for use on polyester film. Porch A covered entrance to a structure. Portico A roof supported by columns instead of walls. Portland cement A hydraulic cement made of silica, lime, and aluminum that has become the most common cement used in the construction industry because of its strength. Post A vertical wood structural member usually 4 × 4 or larger. Post and beam A method of framing that places larger framing members at greater distances from each other than that used with traditional framing methods. Post-tensioning Concrete slabs that are poured over unstable soil by using a method of reinforcement. Potable water Water of a quality that is suitable for drinking. Pre-wire See Rough-wire. Precast A concrete component that has been cast in a location other than the one in which it will be used. Prefabricated Buildings or components that are built away from the job site and transported ready to be used. Presale An exclusive or private sale that is made before the construction begins. Presentation drawings Drawings used to convey basic design concepts. Prestressed A concrete component that is placed in compression as it is cast to help resist deflection. Prevailing winds Direction from which the wind most frequently blows in a given area of the country. Principal The original amount of money loaned before interest is applied. Profile Vertical section of the surface of the ground, and/or of underlying earth that is taken along any desired fixed line.
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Program A set of instructions that controls the functions of a
computer. Project A set of related activities taking place at a facility and can
include planning, design and construction documents, consulting, purchasing, construction, and post-construction activities. Proportion A principle of design that deals with size and shape of areas and their relationship to one another. Proportional dividers Used to reduce or enlarge an object without mathematical calculations or scale manipulations. Proprietary product specification Provides specific product names and models for desired applications. Prototype See Template drawing. Protractor A manual drafting tool used to measure angles. Public land states The states in an area of the United States starting with the western boundary of Ohio to the Pacific Ocean, and including some southeastern states and Alaska. Puck A pointing device with multiple buttons used to issue commands or pick items from a menu. Purlin A horizontal roof member that is laid perpendicular to rafters to help limit deflection. Purlin brace A support member that extends from the purlin down to a load-bearing wall or header.
Q Quad A courtyard surrounded by the walls of buildings. Quarry tile An unglazed, machine-made tile. Quarter round Wood molding that has the profile of one-quarter
of a circle. Quatrefoil window A round window composed of four equal lobes
that resemble a four-leafed clover.
R R-factor A unit of thermal resistance applied to the insulating
value of a specific building material. R-value Measurement of thermal resistance used to indicate the
effectiveness of insulation. Rabbet A rectangular groove cut on the edge of a board. Radial survey A survey method used to locate property corners,
structures, natural features, and elevation points. Radiant barrier Material made of aluminum foil with backing and
is used to stop heat from radiating through the attic. Radiant heat Heat emitted from a particular material such as
brick, electric coils, or hot water pipes without the use of air movement. Radio frequency Electromagnetic radiation waves that transmit audio, video, or data signals. Radius The distance from the center of an arc or circle to the circumference. Radon A naturally occurring radioactive gas, usually found in a basement, that breaks down into compounds that are carcinogenic when inhaled over long periods of time. Rafter The inclined structural member of a roof system designed to support roof loads. Rafter/ceiling joist An inclined structural member that supports both the ceiling and the roof materials. Railings Used for safety at stairs, landings, decks, and open balconies where people can fall. Rain gardens A planted depression or planting area or island that allows rainwater runoff from impervious urban areas like roofs, driveways, walkways, and compacted lawn areas the opportunity to be absorbed. Rainwater catchment system See Cistern.
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Glossary
Rainwater harvesting The gathering, or accumulating and storing,
Roof sheathing Similar to wall and floor sheathing, it is used to
of rainwater. Rake The sloped end portion of a roof that forms at the gable end wall where the roof intersects the wall. It is the equivalent of an inclined eave. Rake joint A recessed mortar joint. Reaction The upward forces acting at the supports of a beam. Rebar Reinforcing steel used to strengthen concrete. Rectangular coordinates See Cartesian coordinate system. Reference bubble A symbol used to designate the origin of details and sections. Reference keynotes Notes that are used to identify drawing items and reference the item to a specific section of the specifications using CSI MasterFormat numbers or to a note block placed on the same sheet as the drawing containing the reference. Register An opening in a duct for the supply of heated or cooled air. Reinforced concrete Concrete that has steel rebar placed in it to resist tension. Reinforced masonry See Structural masonry. Relative coordinate entry Used when points are located a specified distance on the X and Y axes from the previous point. Relative humidity The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere compared to the maximum possible amount at the same temperature. Rendering An artistic process applied to drawings to add realism. Residential piping Also called plumbing, it is the system that carries freshwater, gas, or liquid and solid waste. Retaining wall A masonry wall supported at the top and bottom, designed to resist soil loads. Rheostat An electrical control device used to regulate the current reaching a light fixture. A dimmer switch. Rhythm A principle of design related to the repetitive elements of a design that bring order and uniformity to it. Ribbon A structural wood member framed into studs to support joists or rafters. Ridge The uppermost area of two intersecting roof planes. Ridge beam A structural member used to support the upper end of the rafter/ceiling joist. Ridge blocks Blocks of wood used at the peak of the roof to provide a nailing surface for the roof sheathing and as a spacer in setting the trusses into position. Ridge board A horizontal member that rafters are aligned against to resist their downward force. Ridge brace A support member used to transfer the weight from the ridge board to a bearing wall or beam. The brace is typically spaced at 48" O.C. and may not exceed a 45° angle from vertical. Rim joist A joist at the perimeter of a structure that runs parallel to the other floor joist. Rise The amount of vertical distance between one tread and another. Riser The vertical member of stairs between the treads. Roll roofing Roofing material of fiber or asphalt that is shipped in rolls. Roof drain A receptacle for removal of roof water. Roof framing plans A plan created to show the size and direction of the construction members that are required to frame the roof. Roof plan A drawing created to show the shape of the roof, it is the equivalent to the top view of the structure. Roof pond Usually constructed of containers filled with antifreeze and water on a flat roof. The water is heated during the winter days, and then at night the structure is covered with insulation, which allows the absorbed heat to radiate into the living space.
cover the structural members. Roof sheathing may be either solid or skip. Rooftop garden See Green roof. Rough floor The subfloor, usually plywood, that serves as a base for the finished floor. Rough hardware Hardware used in construction, such as nails, bolts, and metal connectors, which will not be seen when the project is complete. Rough lumber Lumber that has not been surfaced but has been trimmed on all four sides. Rough opening The opening in a wall or framework of a building, for a feature such as a door or window frame to be installed. Rough-in Installation of the electrical boxes and wiring and the plumbing system before installing electrical and plumbing fixtures. Rough-wire Means to run wiring in the walls during construction for possible future hookup and use. Also called pre-wire. Roundhead screws Screws used at lumber connections where a visible head is tolerable. Rowlock A pattern for laying masonry units so that the end of the unit is exposed. Run (plumbing) Portion of pipe continuing in a straight line in the direction of flow in which it is connected. Run (stair design) The horizontal distance of a set of steps or the measurement describing the depth of one step.
S Saddle A small gable-shaped roof used to divert water from behind
a chimney. Sanitary sewer A sewer that carries sewage without any storm,
surface, or groundwater. Sanitary sewer system A system of underground pipes designed
for the collection and transfer of wastewater from domestic residences, businesses, and industries to a wastewater treatment plant, or private sewage treatment such as a septic tank or cesspool. Sash (plural sashes) A framework that holds the panes of a window in the window frame. Scab A short member that overlaps the butt joint of two other members used to fasten those members. Scale A measuring instrument used to draw materials at reduced size. Scale (drafting convention) The ratio of measuring units expressing a proportional relationship between a drawing and the fullsize item it represents. CADD drawings are created at full scale and plotted at the selected scale. Scale factor Establishes the relationship between the drawing scale and the desired feature height. Schedule A grouping of related items with corresponding distinguishing features, with a heading and a minimum of three columns of related information. A schedule formats information into rows and columns in order to more easily present design information. Scissor truss A truss with inclined bottom chords. Scotia A concave molding. Scratch coat The first coat of stucco that is scratched to provide a good bonding surface for the second coat. Seasoning The process of removing moisture from green lumber by either air (natural) or kiln drying. Secondary or second-generation original A print of an original drawing that can be used as an original.
Glossary
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Section A type of drawing showing an object as if it had been cut
Small-footprint home A home that is generally designed for a
through to show interior construction. Sections Smaller surveys of a township, with 36 sections in one township. Seismic Earthquake-related forces. Sensible load calculations Calculations that changes the temperature of a material without a change in state, such as that which would lead to increased moisture content. Sepias Diazo materials that are used to make secondary originals. Septic system Consists of a storage tank and an absorption field in which solid and liquid waste enters, is stored, and then decomposes into sludge. Septic tanks Used primarily for individual residences outside of public sewage districts. A septic tank is an on-site treatment system for domestic sewage, in which the sewage is held to go through a process of liquefaction and decomposition by bacterial organisms. The flow continues to be safely disposed in a subsurface facility such as a tile field, leaching pools, or buried sand filter. Service connection The wires that run to a structure from a power pole or transformer. Setback Minimum distance required between the structure and the property line. Sewer A pipe, normally underground, that carries wastewater and refuse. Shake A hand-split wooden roof shingle. Shear The stress that occurs when two forces from opposite directions are acting on the same member. Shearing stress tends to cut a member just as scissors cut paper. Shear panel A wall panel designed by an engineer to resist wind or seismic forces. Sheathing A covering material placed over walls, floors, and roofs that serves as a backing for finishing materials. Sheet grid coordinates A system of numbers along the top and bottom margins and letters along the left and right margins, allowing a drawing to read like a road map. Shim A piece of material used to fill a space between two surfaces. Shiplap A siding pattern of overlapping rabbeted edges. Sill The framing member that forms the bottom edge of an exterior door or window opening. Simple beam Beam with a uniform load evenly distributed over its entire length and supported at each end. Single-hung window Two sashes of glass, with the top sash stationary and the bottom sash movable. Single-wall construction Exterior walls constructed without the use of sheathing and placing the siding over a vapor barrier and the wall studs. Site An area of land generally one plot or construction lot in size. Site orientation Placement of a structure on a property with certain environmental and physical factors taken into consideration. Site plan Drawing describing how a parcel of land is to be improved, including the outlines of all structures and site improvements, such as driveways, parking lots, landscaping, and utility connections. Sketching Freehand drawing, that is, drawing without the aid of drafting equipment. Skip sheathing Typically 1 × 4s (25 × 100) laid perpendicular to the rafters with a 4" (100 mm) space between each piece. Skylight A window in a roof used to admit sunlight. Slab A concrete floor system typically poured at ground level. Sleepers Strips of wood placed over a concrete slab in order to attach other wood members.
small urban lot. A small-footprint home is also referred to as a fit house, because it is designed to fit on lots where traditional designs do not fit. Smoke chamber The portion of the chimney located directly over the firebox that acts as a funnel between the firebox and the chimney. Smoke shelf A shelf located at the bottom of the smoke chamber to prevent downdrafts from the chimney from entering the firebox. Soffit A lowered ceiling, typically found in kitchens, halls, and bathrooms, to allow for recessed lighting or HVAC ducts. Soft conversion The product is manufactured directly using metric units rather than being converted to inches. Soft metric conversion The preferred metric construction standard that rounds off dimensions to convenient metric modules. Softwood Wood from a cone-bearing tree. Soil pipe A pipe that carries the discharge of water closets or other similar fixtures. Soil stack The main vertical wastewater pipe. Soil vent Vent that runs up the wall and vents out the roof, allowing vapor to escape and ventilates the system. Solar access Refers to the availability of direct sunlight to a structure or construction site. Solar collectors Catches sunlight and converts this light to heat. Solar gain Refers to the increase in temperature in a building that results from solar radiation. Solar heat Heat that comes from energy generated from sunlight. Solar heat gain Solar heat gain includes solar energy that is transmitted directly through the fenestration and energy that is absorbed radiation. Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) Measures how well a product blocks heat caused by sunlight. Solar panel Solar cells that convert sunlight into electricity. Solarium Glassed-in porch designed on the south side of a house that is in direct exposure to the sun’s rays. Soldier A masonry unit laid on end with its narrow surface exposed. Sole plate The plate placed at the bottom of a wall. Solid concrete construction Concrete is poured into forms that mold the mixture to the shape and dimensions desired. Solid fuel–burning appliances Such items as airtight stoves, freestanding fireplaces, fireplace stoves, room heaters, zero-clearance fireplaces, antique stoves, and fireplace inserts for existing masonry fireplaces. Sound-deadening board Specially designed drywall composed of gypsum, elastic polymers, and sound isolation layers that are used to absorb mechanical and plumbing sounds near living and sleeping areas. Spackle The covering of Sheetrock joints with joint compound. Span The horizontal distance between two supporting members. Spark arrester A screen placed at the top of the flue to prevent combustibles from leaving the flue. Specific notes Relate to specific features on a drawing. Specification An exact statement describing the characteristics of a particular aspect of the project. Splice Two similar members that are joined together in a straight line usually by nailing or bolting. Split-level A house that has two levels, one about half a level above or below the other. Square An area of roofing covering 100 sq ft. Square-groove weld The resulting weld created when two pieces with perpendicular edges are joined end-to-end. Stack A vertical plumbing pipe.
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Glossary
Stairwell The vertical shaft where a stair will be framed. Standpipe The plumbing system that the fire hoses connect to.
Surfaced lumber Lumber that has been smoothed on at least
It is a dry system until a fire truck connects to it and pumps water through the system for fire suppression. Statement of probable construction cost A forecast of construction costs prepared by the architect or designer during the design process to give the client an approximation of the expected cost to construct the building. Station point The position of the observer’s eye in a perspective drawing. Stations Numbers given to the horizontal lines of a grid survey. Stile A vertical member of a cabinet, door, or decorative panel. Stirrup A U-shaped metal bracket used to support wood beams. Stock Common sizes of building materials. Stop A wooden strip used to hold windows in place. Storm sewer A sewer used for carrying groundwater, rainwater, surface water, or other nonpolluting waste. Stress A live or dead load acting on a structural member. Stress results as the fibers of a beam resist an external force. Stressed-skin panel A hollow, built-up member typically used as a beam. Stretcher A course of masonry laid horizontally with the end of the unit exposed. Stringer or stair jack The inclined support member of a stair that supports the risers and treads. Strongback A beam placed over the ceiling joist to support the ceiling and roof loads. Structural masonry Normally a blend of materials that are manufactured at high temperatures and generally have higher compressive strength than concrete block or poured concrete. Also referred to as reinforced masonry. Structured wiring systems High-speed voice and data lines and video cables wired to a central service location. Stub truss A truss that has a similar shape to a standard truss except that one end of the truss has been removed so that the truss can be supported by a header truss. Stub walls Walls that do not go all the way across the room. Stucco A type of plaster made from Portland cement, sand, water, and a coloring agent that is applied to exterior walls. Stud The vertical framing member of a wall that is usually 2 × 4 or 2 × 6. Stud frame The vertical construction members of a wood- or steelframe wall, where the individual members, called studs, are usually placed between bottom and top plates that are spaced every 16" or 24" apart. Stylus A pen-like device used for transferring information to a computer by writing, moving, or selecting on an electronic tablet. Subcontractors Tradespeople who complete specific aspects of the project. Subdivision Divides land into pieces, also known as plots or lots, that are easier to develop and sell. Also called a plat. Subfloor The flooring surface that is laid on the floor joists and serves as a base layer for the finished floor. Subfolder A folder placed inside another folder that contains files related to the folder where it resides. Subsill A sill located between the trimmers and bottom side of a window opening. It provides a nailing surface for interior and exterior materials. Sump A recessed area in a basement floor to collect water so that it can be removed by a pump.
Survey map Map of a property showing its size, boundaries, and
one side. topography. Suspended ceiling A finish ceiling constructed of lightweight
ceiling panels and light fixtures hung from cables, wires, or brackets from the structure above. Swale A recessed area formed in the ground to help divert groundwater away from a structure. Switch leg The electrical conductor from a switch to the electrical device being controlled. Systems or assemblies See Functional elements.
T Takeoff An estimate of materials. Tamp To compact soil or concrete. Template (CADD) A pattern of a standard or commonly used feature. Template drawing The basis for starting a drawing. A template
drawing contains all of the standard elements you need in the drawing format—for example, a border, title block, text style, and scale factor, and drawing default values. A template is also referred to as a prototype in CADD terminology. Templates Plastic sheets with standard symbols cut through them for tracing. Temporary electric service The electrical service to a construction site for construction purposes and is removed after the permanent electrical service is connected to the building. Temporary loads The loads that must be supported by a structure for a limited time. Tensile strength The resistance of a material or beam to the tendency to stretch. Tension Forces that cause a material to stretch or pull apart. Termite shield or carrier A strip of sheet metal used at the intersection of concrete and wood surfaces near ground level to prevent termites from entering the wood. Terra-cotta Hard-baked clay typically used as a liner for chimneys. Terrain Characteristic of the land on which a proposed structure is to be built. Terrain model A 3D model of the earth surface or terrain. Also referred to as a digital terrain model (DTM). Text The term for lettering that is done using CADD. Text style A set of text characters, such as font, height, width, and angle. Texture The roughness or smoothness of a material. Thermal break A longitudinal channel, longitudinal flange, or sidewalls that create a hollow center in which a thermal barrier is integrally formed. Thermal conductor A material suitable for transmitting heat. Thermal resistance Represented by the letter R, resistance measures the ability of a material to resist the flow of heat. Thermal storage walls Walls constructed of any good heatabsorbing material such as concrete, masonry, or water-filled cylinders. Thermostat A mechanical device for controlling the output of HVAC units. Threshold The beveled member directly under a door. Throat The narrow opening to the chimney that is just above the firebox. The throat of a chimney is where the damper is placed. Tile field Open-joint drain tiles laid to distribute septic tank effluent over an absorption area or for providing subsoil drainage in wet areas.
Glossary
Tilt-up A method of construction in which concrete walls are cast
in a horizontal position and then lifted into place. Timber Lumber with a cross-sectional size of 4 × 6 or larger. Toe nail Nail driven into a member at an angle. Toggle bolt A bolt used where one end of the bolt may not be accessible because of construction parameters, they are designed to expand when it is inserted through a hole, so that it cannot be removed. Tongue and groove A joint where the edge of one member fits into a groove in the next member. Top chord The upper member of the truss that supports the roof sheathing. Topography Physical description of land surface showing its variation in elevation and location of features such as rivers, lakes, or towns. Townhouse One of a row of homes sharing common walls. Townships Six-mile square surveys of the great land surveys. Traffic flow Route that people follow as they move from one area to another. Trammel An instrument used for making circles. Transformer An electrical device that either raises or lowers the voltage of electricity. Transition fitting (HVAC) A standard or custom duct component that connects one duct size to a different duct size, or one duct shape to a different duct shape, or both different shape and size. Transom A window located over a door. Transverse section A section, often referred to as a cross section, produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the short axis of the structure. Trap A U-shaped pipe below plumbing fixtures that holds water to prevent odor and sewer gas from entering the fixture. Tread The horizontal member of a stair on which the foot is placed. Tributary width The accumulation of loads that are directed to a structural member. It is always half the distance between the beam to be designed and the next bearing point. Trimmer At the roof level, a trimmer is a structural member made up of two rafters nailed together to support the sheathing on the inclined edge of an opening. Trombe wall A massive dark-painted masonry or concrete wall situated a few inches inside and next to south-facing glass. True north The same as geographic north, which is the North Pole. True-height line The true height line is formed where the object touches the picture plane. Objects that are on this line are seen at their true height. Truss A prefabricated or job-built construction member formed of triangular shapes used to support roof or floor loads over long spans. Truss clips Metal fasteners used to strengthen the connection between the truss and top plate or header, so that wind forces applied to the roof are transferred down through the wall framing and into the foundation. Also known as hurricane ties. Truss, cantilevered A truss used where a truss must extend past its support to align with other roof members. Truss, girder A truss used to hold trusses that are perpendicular to the girder truss. Truss, header A truss with a similar function to a girder truss. It has a flat top that is used to support stub trusses. Truss, hip A truss with a top chord that is parallel to the floor that is used to form a hip roof. Each succeeding truss increases in height until the full height of the roof is achieved and standard trusses can be used.
1111
Truss, mono A single-pitched truss used to form a shed or to form
the outer edges of a hip roof. Truss, stub A truss that does not extend the full length of other
trusses because an opening will be provided in the roof, or the roof must be interrupted. Tubular Daylighting Device (TDD) Captures sunlight on the rooftop and redirects it down a reflective tube into interior spaces. Type X gypsum board Specially designed drywall composed of gypsum, elastic polymers, and sound isolation layers that are used to absorb sound.
U U-factor A measure of heat flow through a material. It is the
inverse of the R-Value (1/R Value). U-groove weld A welded joint created by grinding the ends of
two pieces of steel together so that a U is formed at their intersection. U-value Defined as the coefficient of heat transfer expressed as BTUH sq ft/°F of surface area. Ultimate strength The unit stress within a member just before it breaks. UniFormat An arrangement of construction information based on physical parts of a facility called systems and assemblies. Unit stress The maximum permissible stress a structural member can resist without failing. Unity A principle of design related to the common design or decorating pattern that ties a structure together. Uplift The tendency of structural members to move upward due to wind or seismic pressure. Urban heat island effect City areas are warmer than suburbs or rural areas due to less vegetation, more land coverage, and other infrastructure.
V V-groove weld A weld created when each piece of steel to be joined
has an inclined edge that forms a V. Valley The internal corner formed between two intersecting roof
structures. Valley rafter Similar to a hip rafter, it is inclined at the same
pitch as the common rafters that it supports and gets its name because it is located where adjacent roof slopes meet to form a valley. Value The effect of changing the darkness or lightness of a color by adding black or white to a color. Valve A fitting that is used to control the flow of fluid or gas. Vanishing point The point at which an extended line intersects the horizon line. Vanity Used in an architectural application, generally a bathroom cabinet containing a sink with a mirror above. Vapor barrier Material that is used to block the flow of water vapor into a structure. Typically 6-mil (0.006") black plastic. Vault An inclined ceiling area. Vellum Drafting paper that is specially designed to accept pencil or ink. Veneer Thin sheets of wood glued together to form plywood or glued to a wood base material. When used for millwork, the outer face can be a desired hardwood. Vent pipe The pipe installed to ventilate the building drainage system and to prevent drawing liquid out of traps and stopping back pressure. Vent stack A vertical pipe of a plumbing system used to equalize pressure within the system and to vent sewer gases.
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Vent system Allows for a continuous flow of air through the
system so that gases and odors can dissipate and bacteria do not have an opportunity to develop. Ventilation The process of supplying and removing air from a structure. Verge or barge rafter An inclined fascia. Vernier scale An auxiliary scale sliding alongside a main scale to allow reading of fractional values during measurement. Vertical shear A stress acting on a beam, which causes a beam to drop between its supports. Vestibule A small entrance or lobby. Vicinity map Shows the development or construction site in relation to the local area. Villa A term used to define an upper-class country home. Virtual reality A computer-simulated world that appears to be a real world. Visible Transmittance (VT) Measures how much light comes through a product. Volt The unit of measure for electrical force.
W Wainscot Paneling applied to the lower portion of a wall. Wall wash lighting Provides even, diffuse lighting of vertical
surfaces. Wallboard Large, flat sheets of gypsum, typically 1/2" or 5/8" thick,
used to finish interior walls. Warp Variation from true shape. Waste pipe A pipe that carries only liquid waste free of fecal material. Waste stack A vertical pipe that runs one or more floors and
carries the discharge of fixtures other than water closets and similar fixtures. Water closet A water-flushing plumbing fixture, such as a toilet, that is designed to receive and discharge human excrement. This term is sometimes used to mean the compartment where the fixture is located. Water distributing pipe A pipe that carries water from the service to the point of use. Water heater An appliance used for heating and storing hot water. Water main See Main. Water meter A device used to measure the amount of water that goes through the water service.
Glossary
Water service The pipe from the water main or other supply to the
water-distributing pipes. Waterproof Material or a type of construction that prevents the
absorption of water. Watt A unit measure of power. Weather strip A fabric or plastic material placed along the edges of
doors, windows, and skylights to reduce air infiltration. Webs Interior members of the truss that span between the top and
bottom chords. Weep hole An opening in the bottom course of masonry to allow
for drainage. Welding A method of providing a rigid connection between two or
more pieces of steel. Wet-bulb temperature A measurement of the environment that
reflects the physical properties of the surrounding air based on the use of a thermometer that has its bulb wrapped in cloth that draws moisture from the surrounding air. Window wells Metal or concrete structures that allow access to a below-grade window. Wire gauge A method of defining wire diameter by a number, with wire diameter increasing as the number gets smaller. Work results Traditional construction practices that typically result from an application of skills to construction products or resources. Work triangle The triangular area created in the kitchen by drawing a line from the sink, to the refrigerator, and to the cooking area. Wythe A single unit thickness of a masonry wall.
X Xeriscaping Landscaping and gardening in ways that reduce or
eliminate the need for supplemental irrigation.
Z Zero-clearance fireplaces An insulated metal fireplace unit and
flue can be placed next to a wood-framed structure. Zoning (sheet format) In reference to drawing sheet format, zoning
is a system of numbers along the top and bottom margins and letters along the left and right margins, allowing a drawing to read like a road map. Zoning (land use planning) An ordinance that regulates the location, size, and type of a structure in a building zone.
Preface Index A AAC. See Autoclaved aerated concrete Absolute coordinate entry, 93 ABTco, 577 ABWP. See Alternative braced wall panels AC Software, 712 Accent lighting, 445 Accessibility requirements, 157–160, 967–972. See also Universal design Accessible routes, 967 Accordion doors, 321 ACEC. See American Consulting Engineers Council ACI. See American Concrete Institute Active solar systems, 237 photovoltaic modules, 242–243 solar architectural concrete products, 244 solar collectors, 242 storage facilities for, 243–244 ADA. See Americans with Disabilities Act Adobe bricks, 1004 Advanced framing techniques (AFT), 638–639 AEC. See Architectural Engineering or Construction AFM Safecoat, 682 A-frame roofs, 535–536 AFT. See Advanced framing techniques AIA. See American Institute of Architects Air circulation clerestory windows and, 240 healthy buildings and, 247 Air conditioning. See Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 244 Air filtration, 509 Air leakage (AL), 326 Air pollution, 493 Air quality, indoor, 509–511 AirKrete, 682 Air-lock entry, 238, 250. See also Vestibule Air-supply registers, 485
Air-to-air heat exchangers, 493–494 AISC. See American Institute of Steel Construction AKBD. See Associate Kitchen & Bath Designer AL. See Air leakage Aligned dimension, 360 Aligning floors, 392, 394 Allergies, 682 Allowable floor area, 961–962, 964–965 Alternative braced wall panels (ABWP), 738–739 Aluminum siding, 577 Ambient air temperature, 492 Ambient light, 443 American Concrete Institute (ACI), 953 American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), 10 American Design and Drafting Association, 8 American Forest and Paper Association, 694, 708 American Foursquare style, 225 American Gas Association, 499 American Institute of Architects (AIA), 3, 9, 108, 119, 298, 383, 480, 682. See also CAD Layer Guidelines American Institute of Building Design, 6 American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), 993 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 12, 51, 60, 236, 517 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 708 American Society of Architectural Illustrators (ASAI), 11 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 10, 953 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), 10, 494 American Society of Interior Designers (ASID), 7 American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), 9 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 94
American Wire Gauge (AWG), 448 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 156, 319, 333, 334, 1034 Ampere, 431, 447 Anchor bolts, 773, 785–787, 790, 999 Anchor straps, 797 Anchors, 669, 732, 740 Andersen Corporation, 356 Angle of repose, 294 Angular dimensions, 366 Annotation, 94, 97 with AutoCAD, 602–603 on cabinet elevations, 625 on elevations, 595–596 on roof plans, 557–558 on sections, 860 text placement of, 1064 ANSI. See American National Standards Institute Antebellum style, 219 APA. See The Engineered Wood Association Appliances, 33 in CADD, 387 common sizes of, 337–338 dimensions for, 368 kitchen, 198–199 laying out, 386–387 solid fuel-burning, 350–351 symbols for, 332–337 Aqua Mix Penetrating Sealer, 682 Aqua Mix Safe Seal, 682 Aquastat, 465 ArchiCAD, 105 Architects certification of, 8 levels of, 9 Architect’s scale, 53 Architectural concrete, solar, 244 Architectural drawings for commercial projects, 1017–1038 exterior elevations, 19 floor plan, 21 folding, 61–63 grading plan, 18 roof plan, 20, site plan, 17–18 zoning on, 61 Architectural Engineering or Construction (AEC), 480
Architectural features common sizes of, 337–339, 367–368 dimensioning, 367–368 Architectural firms, positions in, 8–9 Architectural Graphic Standards, 14 Architectural lettering in CADD, 94, 97–100 height of, 96 legibility of, 96 rules for, 96–97 on sections, 870–871 single-stroke, 95–96 slanted, 96 styles of, 95 terminology of, 94 Architectural lines break, 91, 92 in CADD, 92–94 construction, 87 dashed, 90 as design elements, 211 dimension, 90, 91 extension, 90, 91 finished-quality, 593–594, 600–602, 864–867, 877–880, 883–884, 925–926 guidelines, 87 leader, 90–91 object, 87, 89 in presentation drawings, 940 styles and weights of, 88 techniques for, 91 thickness of, 89, 117 types of, 87–91, 118 weights of, 117–118 Architectural solar systems. See Passive solar systems Architecture areas of study for, 9 related fields, 9–11 Archive drawings, 60 ASAI. See American Society of Architectural Illustrators ASCE. See American Society of Civil Engineers Ash dump, 916 ASHRAE. See American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers ASID. See American Society of Interior Designers
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ASLA. See American Society of Landscape Architects ASME. See American Society of Mechanical Engineers Assemblies, 148 Associate Kitchen & Bath Designer (AKBD), 6 Association of Model Makers, 10 ASTM. See American Society for Testing and Materials Attics access to, 543, 545 on floor plans, 352 storage in, 172 ventilation of, 543 Auro, 682 AutoCAD, 105, 108, 109, 394, 454, 479–480, 562, 586, 589, 1059 annotation/dimensions with, 602–603 cursor modes in, 93 drawing content reuse/sharing in, 119 drawing finished-quality lines with, 600–602 drawing foundation plan in, 847 fonts in, 97 line formatting in, 94 model space/layout space in, 127 plotting and, 127 symbols in, 119–120 Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), 650 Autodesk, 105, 129 Autodesk Ecotect, 131–133, 135 Autodesk Green Building Studio, 131–132, 135 Autodesk Revit, 105, 131–133, 480, 562, 586 Automatic fire sprinklers, 162, 471–472 Automatic pencils, 45 AWG. See American Wire Gauge Awning windows, 322
B Balance, 213 Balconies, 205, 206 Balloon framing, 631–632, 637 Balusters, 612 Balustrades, 218 Barbecues, 349 Barge rafters, 532–533 Base plate. See Mudsill Baseboards, 608 Baselines, 269 Basement plan layout, 394–398 Basement walls IECC rules for, 172 treated-wood, 792–793 Basements daylight, 215, 395, 397, 825 on foundation plan, 823–825 foundation plan for full, 844–847
Index
foundation plan for partial, 840–844 framing plan for, 768 full, 824 partial, 823 section layout for, 881, 883–886 unfinished, 394 Basic pencil motions, 45, 46 Bathrooms. See also Water closet accessibility in, 616 accessibility requirements for, 968–972 cabinets in, 623 electric layout for, 442 electric outlets in, 433 floor plans of, 333–334 lighting/outlets in, 436 location of, 191 types of, 190–191 Bathtubs, universal design and, 465 Batt insulation, 641 Bay projections, 549, 551 Bay windows, 323, 599 Beam formulas, 714 BeamChek, 712 Beams, 395, 727. See also Girders; Post-and-beam framing cantilevered, 723 complex, 690 design methods for, 712–714 engineered, 720 in framing plans, 978–979, 1039–1041 grade, 783–784 hip, 712, 713 laminated, 976, 978–979 ridge, 527, 676–677 simple, 690 simple with load concentrated at any point, 723 simple with load concentrated at center, 721 single span, 976 sizing laminated, 720 sizing with span tables, 720 sizing wood, 714–718 three-hinged arch, 976 Tudor arch, 976 Bearing partitions, 392 Bearing walls, 664–665 Bearings, 268 Bedrooms, 187–189 lighting/outlets in, 436 window planning for, 189 Below grade, 394 Bench, 295 Bending moment, 710, 717–718 Bending strength, 709, 710 Bentley Systems, 105 Berms, 257 BidBuilder, 105 Bidding requirements, 149 Bifold doors, 319 BIM. See Building information modeling Biofuel, 246 Biomass, 246
Biopower, 246 Bipass door, 319 Bird blocking, 672 Bird’s mouth, 675 Black pipe. See Galvanized pipe Blind nailing, 997 Block technique, 69–71 Blocking, 668 BOCA. See Building Officials and Code Administrators International Bolts, 773, 785–787, 790, 998–1000 Bond classifications, 663 Bond paper, 62 Bonds, 644 Bonneville Power Administration, 499 Bonus room, 201–202 Bookshelves, 612 BOP. See Builder Option Packages Bora-Care Tim-Bor Impel, 682 Borate, 651 Boundary nailing, 997 Bounds, 268 Bow window, 323 Box (electrical), 431 Boxed eaves, 532 Braced wall construction, 736, 738–739 Braced wall line (BWL), 735, 744 applying code requirements to, 747–748 continuously sheathed, 748–750 on framing plan, 749–751 placement of panels in, 742, 744, 747 seismic risk and, 747 support of, 749 Braced wall panels (BWP), 668, 735, 736, 738–739 Braced wall schedule, 767 Bracing let-in, 668 by seismic design category, 745–747 wind speeds and, 743–744 Break lines, 91, 92 Breaker, 431 Brick, 314. See also Solid masonry construction adobe, 1004 clay, 1004 fire, 1004 positions/patterns of, 644 wall covering with, 578–579, 580 British thermal unit (Btu), 325, 486, 499 Brownfield sites, 247, 251 Btu. See British thermal unit Bubble drawings, 14, 104 Builder Option Packages (BOP), 236 Building Blocks technology, 105 Building codes, 152. See also specific codes braced wall lines and, 747–748
CADD and, 973 choosing, 156 fireplace requirements in, 917 HVAC requirements in, 498–499 location on property and, 157 model, 155–156 national, 155–156, 953–954 solar energy design and, 238 using, 971–972 Building contracts, 35 Building envelope determining, 169–170 general requirements for, 170–171 specific requirements for, 172 Building information modeling (BIM), 105, 130–131 Building life cycle, 148 Building model, 110 Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA), 156, 953 Building orientation, 379 Building paper, 670 Building Performance products, 105 Building permits, 34–35 Building planning design criteria for, 156–163 egress/accessibility requirements, 157–160 heating requirements and, 162 light/ventilation requirements and, 161–162 location on property, 157 room dimensions, 160–161 safety equipment requirements and, 162–163 sanitation requirements and, 162 Building standards, in framing plans, 23, 27 Built-in masonry barbecues, 349 Built-up roofing, 540 Bungalow style, 226 BWL. See Braced wall line BWP. See Braced wall panels
C Cabinets, 612 annotations for, 625 in CADD, 386, 621 construction details for, 621 custom, 614 dimensions for, 625 drawing in CADD, 625–626 elevations of, 617–619, 624–625 field-built, 386 on floor plans, 619–620 kitchen, 197–198 laying out, 386, 617, 619, 622–623 modular, 613–614 options for, 614, 616 standard dimensions of, 615 symbols for, 332–336 types of, 613–614 for universal use, 616 CABO. See Council of American Building Officials
Index
CAD. See Computer-aided drafting CAD Layer Guidelines, 3 layer names in, 122–124 site plan drawings in, 298–300 walls in, 383 CAD technician. See Drafter CADD. See Computer-aided design and drafting CADD layers commercial project layer names, 1063–1064 drawing in, 120–121 for HVAC, 519 landscape plans in, 299–300 naming standards for, 122–124 plumbing in, 480 for site plan drawings, 298–300 using, 124–126 CADD/GIS Technology Center (CGTC), 108 Calculations CADD and, 1058–1059 drawings from, 1010–1011 requirements for, 1009 residential v. commercial projects and, 1009 California Redwood Association, 637 Canadian Home Builders’ Association (CHBA), 236–237 Cantilevered beams, 723 Cantilevered truss, 680 Cape Ann style, 218 Cape Cod style, 218 Carbon dioxide, 232, 235 Carbon footprint, 232 Carbon monoxide, 348, 493, 511 Carbon monoxide detectors, 163, 437, 651 Carbon neutral, 232 Carbon offsets, 232 Carpeting, indoor pollution and, 682 Carport, 202–203 Carriage bolts, 999 Cartesian coordinate system, 92 Cascade Consulting Associates, 712 Cascadia Region Green Building Council, 248 Casement windows, 322 Casework, 386 Casing, 319, 610, 611 Cast-in-place concrete construction, 984–985 Cast-iron pipe, 461 Caulking, exterior, 671 CBD. See Certified Bathroom Designer CCA wood preservative, 650 CC&R. See Covenants, conditions, and restrictions CCX plywood, 674 Ceiling joists, 676 sizing, 695, 698–700 vaulted ceilings and, 676–677
1115
Ceilings drop, 446 elevation changes in, 386 IECC rules for, 172 insulation of, 172 load distribution on, 692 reflected, 446 section layout and, 887, 889 suspended, 446 vaulted, 676–677 Cement roof tiles, 542, 574 Center-line dimensioning method, 363, 364 Central forced-air systems, 485–486 cooling cycle in, 486 heating cycle in, 486 Central vacuum systems, 495 Certified Bathroom Designer (CBD), 6–7 Certified Kitchen Designer (CKD), 6–7 Certified Master Kitchen & Bathroom Designer (CMKBD), 7 Certified wood products, 650 Cesspool, 472 CFMU. See Concrete form masonry units CGTC. See CADD/GIS Technology Center Chair rails, 609 Change orders, 34 Chase, 489 CHBA. See Canadian Home Builders’ Association Chemical sensitivity, 682 Chimneys, 554–555 decreasing heat lost through, 923 on elevations, 585 reinforcement of, 920–921 terms for, 918–920 Chronic fatigue syndrome, 682 Circuit, 431 Circuit breaker, 431 Civil engineers, 10 Civil engineer’s scale, 53–55 CKD. See Certified Kitchen Designer Clay bricks, 1004 Clay roof tiles, 542, 574 Cleaning agents, 46–47, 510 Cleanouts, 348, 462 Clear span structures, 248 Clerestory windows, 240 Client, 13 Climatic/geographic design criteria, 163–168 Closets, 189, 336 CMKBD. See Certified Master Kitchen & Bathroom Designer CMU. See Concrete masonry units Coast Guard, 3 Code inspections, 37 Collar ties, 676
Colonial style, 216–220 Dutch, 220–221 English, 220 French, 221–222 Color, 212 Columns, 727 Combined reinforcing methods, 742 Combustion air, 348–349, 351 Commercial buildings architectural drawings for, 1017–1038 CADD drawings for, 1058–1060 calculations for, 1009–1011 concrete block construction, 979–983 connection methods for, 995–1002 drawing organization for, 1011–1013 electrical plan for, 1050–1052 exterior details for, 1037 exterior elevations of, 1029–1030 fixture drawings for, 1052–1054 floor plan symbols for, 1018–1020 floor plans for, 1017–1020, 1032 foundation plan for, 1047–1049 framing plans for, 1039–1042 grading plans for, 1013, 1016 heavy timber construction, 976 interior details for, 1037–1038 interior elevations of, 1032, 1034 laminated beam construction, 976, 978–979 landscape plans for, 1014, 1017 layer names for, 1063–1064 mechanical plans for, 1054–1055 office practices for, 1009–1011 platform construction, 975–976 plumbing plans for, 1055–1058 poured concrete, 983–988 reflected ceiling plans for, 1034 roof plans for, 1023–1029 schedules for, 1020–1023 sections for, 1030–1032 site drawings for, 1013–1017 stairs in, 1036 steel construction, 988–995 structural details for, 1046–1047 structural drawings for, 1038–1049 structural elevations for, 1042, 1044, 1046 structural sections for, 1046 vertical circulation drawings for, 1034–1037 Common plumbing wall, 467 Common rafter, 675 Community, 34 Compass points, 499–500 Compasses, 47–48 Completion notices, 35–36
Complex beam, 690 Composition, 94 Composting toilets, 248–249 Compression, 712, 781 Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), 56 accuracy of, 311 aligning floors in, 394 appliances/utilities in, 387 archives and, 60 building codes and, 973 cabinets in, 386, 621 commercial drawings with, 1058–1060 composite floor plan in, 398 conceptual design/presentation sketches with, 80–83 construction lines in, 87 dimensions in, 374–376, 388, 602–603 door/window symbols in, 385, 389 drawing elevations with, 600–606 drawing finished-quality lines in, 600–602 drawing fireplaces with, 930 drawing floor plans with, 317–318, 399 drawing foundation plan with, 847–848 drawing framing plans with, 769 drawing lines in, 92–93 drawing millwork/cabinets with, 625–626 drawing roof plans with, 561–562 drawing sections with, 872–874 drawing site plans in, 296–300 drawing stairs with, 912–913 electrical symbols in, 448, 454–455 elevation symbols in, 586 elevations in, 586 fireplace symbols in, 384 floor plan symbols in, 354–357 floor plan walls in, 383 fonts in, 97, 98 generating schedules with, 331 HVAC and, 517–519 interface of, 80 justified text in, 99–100 layer names in, 122–124 layers in, 120–121 lettering in, 94, 97–100 line format in, 94 line weights in, 117–118, 316 materials symbols in, 340, 390 mathematical calculations and, 1058–1059 model/sheet layout in, 127, 128 notes in, 392 pictorials in, 518 plotting guidelines for, 125, 127–129 plumbing symbols in, 479–480 presentation drawings with, 948 productivity with, 107
1116
Computer-aided design and drafting (continued) scale factor in, 97, 99 schedules and, 116, 324, 330–331 software products for, 104–105 square footage calculations in, 392 stairs in, 345–346, 385 structural details in, 1059 surveyor’s units in, 288 symbol libraries for, 355–357 symbols in, 118, 119–120 templates for, 107–108 terrain models in, 298 text styles in, 97 virtual buildings in, 106 working area in, 381 working drawings in, 1059 Computer-aided drafting (CAD), 4 Concentrated load, 721 Concrete. See also Poured concrete construction compressive strength of, 781 post-tensioning reinforcement of, 809–810 solar architectural, 244 solid construction, 370 sustainable qualities of, 1003–1004 Concrete blocks, 642–643 classification of, 643 commercial building construction with, 979–983 on floor plan, 369–370 green, 1004 patterns/colors/shapes of, 643 sizes of, 979–980 steel reinforcement for, 982–983 wall covering, 579–580 Concrete form masonry units (CFMU), 643 Concrete masonry construction, 642–643 for foundation walls, 791, 792 Concrete masonry units (CMU), 642, 980 Concrete slab on floor plans, 352 foundation plan checklist for, 831 foundation plan layout for, 828–832 foundation plan layout for combination slab/crawl space, 840–844 section layout and, 862–863 Condensation resistance (CR), 326 Conditioned air, 485 Conduit, 431, 448 Connection methods bolts/washers, 998–1000 metal framing connectors, 998 nails, 995–997 power-driven studs, 997 screws, 997–998 staples, 997 welds, 1000–1002
Index
Conservation design, 232 Construction bids, 36–37 Construction documents, 149 Construction drawings, 149 Construction estimating, 36–37, 38–39 Construction inspections, 37 Construction joints, 804–805 Construction lines, 87 Construction Specifications Canada (CSC), 11, 141 Construction Specifications Institute (CSI), 3, 11, 108, 112, 141 Construction types, 954, 960 Contemporary style, 227, 229–230 Continuous foundations, 779–780, 782 Continuously sheathed braced wall lines, 748–750 Contour interval, 273 Contour lines drawing, 291–292 on topographic map, 272–273 Contract documents, 149 Contracts, 35 Control joints, 803–804 Control point survey, 291 Convenience outlets, 432, 433, 435–437 Conventional floor framing, 654–663 Cool roofs, 544 Cooling cycle, 486 Coordinate dimensions, 366 Coordinate display, 93 Coordinate entry, 93 Coordinating drawings/ specifications, 149 Copper pipes, 461 Copyright protection, 5 Corbels, 323 Cornice, 527, 532, 609–611, 672–673 Corrugated stainless steel tubing (CSST), 461 Cost-plus contracts, 35 Cotswold Cottage, 220 Council of American Building Officials (CABO), 156 Counters, arrangements of, 196–197 Covenants, 34 Covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&R), 34, 177 CPVC. See Postchlorinated polyvinyl chloride CR. See Condensation resistance Craftsman style, 226–227 Crawl space combined floor methods, 819, 822 on floor plans, 352 foundation plan for combination slab/crawl space, 840–844 joist floor framing, 814–818
post-and-beam floor systems, 818–819 walls of, 172 Cripples, 669. See also Jack studs Cross sections, 353–354, 853 Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), 461 Crystal Aire, 682 CSC. See Construction Specifications Canada CSI. See Construction Specifications Institute CSST. See Corrugated stainless steel tubing Custom cabinets, 614 Cut and fill, 294 Cutting-plane lines, 353–354
D Damper, 918 Daylight basements, 215, 395, 397, 825 Daylighting, 250, 326–327 DBS. See Digital broadcast systems Dead loads, 685 Decking, 663, 991 Decks, 205, 206 Decorative pendant task lighting, 444–445 Deed restrictions, 34 Deflection, 694, 711, 718 Degree days, 499 Delta notes, 371 Den, 183, 185 Denny Foil, 682 Department of Energy (DOE), 171, 236, 243 Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 33, 156 Department of Labor, 8 Description of Materials, 141–145 Design basics client, 13 criteria for building planning, 156–163 design process, 16–17, 19, 23, 27, 31 elements of design, 211–212 financial considerations, 12–13 principles of design, 212–214 Design categories, 955 accessibility requirements, 967–971 building area, 960 building height, 960 building location/size, 960–961, 964–965 construction types, 960 exits, 965–967 occupancy groups, 956–960 occupant load, 965–966 zoning and, 960–961 Design criteria for building planning, 156–163 climatic/geographic, 163–168 Design process final design considerations, 17 initial contact, 13–14
initial working drawings, 16–17 preliminary design studies, 14 room planning, 14, 16 site considerations, 209–210 working drawings, 17–31 Design studies, preliminary, 14 DesignCenter, 119, 454, 479–480 DesignCenter Online, 119 Designers, 6 Detail coordination, 1065 Detail files, 112 Detail markers, 1020 DetailPro, 105 Details, 855–856, 995, 1037– 1038, 1059 Diameter dimensions, 366 Diameter nominal (DN), 474–475 Diaphragm, 661, 732, 1039 Diazo machine, 45 Diazo reproduction, 62 Diffusers, 485 Digital broadcast systems (DBS), 435 Digital Canal, 105 Digital satellite systems (DSS), 435 Digital Takeoff, 105 Digital terrain model (DTM), 298 Dimension lines, 90, 91, 360 Dimension lumber, 709 Dimensions, 118 aligned, 360 angular, 366 arc/circular features, 366–367 with AutoCAD, 602–603 for cabinets, 625 in CADD, 374–376, 388 center-line method for, 363, 364 of common architectural features, 367–368 coordinate, 366 defined, 360 diameter, 366 exterior, 360–363 face-of-finish-material method for, 363, 364 face-of-stud method for, 363, 364 in floor plans, 360 foundation and, 365 for foundation components, 798–799 in framing plans, 733 interior, 364 locating materials with, 860 metric, 372–374 radius, 366 of roof plans, 557 for room components, 367–368 section layout and, 869, 878, 880–881, 885 on sections, 860 standard feature, 364–365 Dining room, 183, 185, 186, 435 Direct solar gain, 240 Disbursement inspections, 37 Distribution panel, 432
Index
Diverter, 556 Dividers, 48 Documents, 149 DOE. See Department of Energy DOE-2, 131 Doors accessibility requirements for, 968 accordion, 321 bifold, 319 bypass, 319 CADD symbols for, 385, 389 casing around, 319 dimensions of, 338, 368 double-acting, 320 double-entry, 319–320 Dutch, 320–321 egress requirements and, 157–158 on elevations, 581–582 French, 320 garage, 321 keying, 328 laying out, 384–385 laying out on elevations, 592 pocket, 319, 402 schedule for, 328 sill of, 318 symbol representations for, 318–321 width of, 319 Dormer floor plan, 215–216 Double-acting doors, 320 Double-entry doors, 319–320 Double-hung windows, 322 Double-wall construction, 665 Down-lighting non-uniform, 443–444 uniform, 443 Downspouts, 556 Draft, 350 Drafter beginning, 3–4 educational requirements for, 4–5, 8 employment opportunities for, 6–8 experienced, 4 personal requirements for, 5 Drafting basic pencil motions for, 45, 46 defining, 87 erasing in, 45–47 furniture for, 44 pencils/leads for, 44–45 supplies for, 44 Drafting conventions, 116 Drafting film. See Polyester drafting film Drafting instruments architectural templates, 49 compasses, 47–48 dividers, 48 irregular curves, 50 parallel bar, 48–49 triangles, 49
1117
Drafting machines arm, 50 track, 50–51 Drafting media selection of, 58 sheet sizes for, 60 Drag struts, 1039 Drain fields, 472 Drainage systems, 469–470, 556 Drains, 462 Drawing. See also specific drawings finished-quality lines, 593–594 irregular shapes, 597 layout of, 1062–1063 managing multiple scales, 1065 roof intersections, 596–597 Drawing area, 379, 382 Drawing area coordinate system, 114. See also Zoning Drawing borders, 61 Drawing content, 119 Drawing information managers, 119 Drawing limits, 93 Drawing organization drawing placement, 1013 origination, 1011–1012 page designators, 1012–1013 Drawing reproduction Diazo, 62 manual, 59 photocopy, 62, 938 Drawing sheets drawing area on, 379, 382 sizes of, 60, 379 Drawing title, 390 Drawing Web format (DWF), 129 Dried-in, 432 Drift bolts, 1000 Driveways, layout of, 286 Drop ceilings, 446 Drought-tolerant plants, 265 Drywall, 313, 315 Drywells, 556 DSS. See Digital satellite systems DTM. See Digital terrain model Duct loss, 500 Duct plenums, 489 Duct space, 489–490 Duct systems, 485, 498 Ducts, 485 Duplex convenience outlets, 432, 433, 435–437 Durapress, 577 Dust control, 509 Dusting brushes, 47 Dutch colonial style, 220–221 Dutch doors, 320–321 Dutch hip roofs, 537–538, 552, 560–561, 757–760 DWF. See Drawing Web format DWF Viewer, 129 Dynamic loads seismic, 688–690 wind, 686–688
E Earnest money, 33 Earthen floors, 249–250 Earth-friendly construction, 12 Earthquakes, 688 Easements, 286 Eastern framing. See Balloon framing Eave vents, 585 Eaves, 527, 532, 672 Ecological construction, 12 Ecosystem, 301 Edge nailing, 997 Educational requirements, 4–5, 8 Egress requirements doors for, 157–158 emergency openings, 158 halls, 158–159 handrails/guardrails and, 160 means of, 157 stairs, 159–160 EIFS. See Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems 8" nominal wall, 315 Electric erasers, 46 Electrical box, 431 Electrical circuit design, 432–433 Electrical conduit, 448 Electrical design considerations in, 435–437 energy efficiency and, 434 layout techniques, 440 maximum spacing requirements, 440, 441 recommendations for, 433 special notes for, 440 typical installations, 439 typical layouts, 440, 441 universal design and, 437, 439 Electrical drawings, 17, 22–23 Electrical engineers, 9 Electrical plan, 387 for commercial projects, 1050–1052 drawing, 448–453 drawing checklist for, 449 drawing in CADD, 431 drawing upper floor, 449 placement of, 431 Electrical schedules, 446–447 Electrical service entrance, 447–448 Electrical symbols, 438–440, 443, 448, 454–455 Electrical terms/definitions, 431–432 Electrical wiring specifications, 447–448 Electrical work, 432 Elevation change symbols, 1020 Elevations, 19 alternative, 603–604 annotations on, 595–596 bathroom, 618 of cabinets, 617–619, 624–625 in CADD, 586, 600–606 CADD symbols for, 586 chimneys on, 585
for commercial projects, 1029–1030, 1032, 1034 considerations of drawing, 567–572 doors on, 581–582 drawing method for, 571 eave vents on, 585 fireplace, 928 front, 15 green applications of, 587 identifying, 572 kitchen, 617–618 laying out, 589 for loan application, 33 as multiviews, 76–77 openings layout of, 592–593 overall-shape layout of, 589–591 placement of, 572 plants in, 941 presentation, 567–568, 570, 935–936, 941–943 rails on, 583–584 rendered, 935–936 representing materials in, 572–585 required, 567 roof layout of, 591–592 roofing materials on, 573–575 scales of, 571–572, 586 shutters on, 584–585 skylights on, 574–575 structural, 1042, 1044, 1046 types of, 567–571 windows on, 582–583 working, 23, 568–569, 571 Elevator drawings, 1036–1037 Elizabethan style, 220 Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, 458 Emergency openings, 158 Employment opportunities, 6–8 End nailing, 996 End-result specifications, 146 Energy conservation, 434, 465, 650–651 Energy efficiency construction practices and, 237 electrical design and, 434 Energy Star program and, 236 healthy buildings and, 247 solar energy design and, 237 verification of, 236 water consumption and, 481 Energy Information Administration, 130 Energy recovery ventilator (ERV), 250, 493 Energy Star, 236 Energy-efficient design, 232–233 Energy-efficient framing methods, 638–649 concrete masonry units, 642–643 engineered lumber framing, 640–641 insulated concrete forms, 646–648
1118
Energy-efficient framing methods (continued) platform framing, 638–639 solid masonry construction, 643–646 steel framing, 641–642 structural insulated panels, 641 Energy-efficient platform framing, 638–639 Engineered beams, 720 Engineered lumber, working with, 699, 703 Engineered lumber framing, 640–641 Engineered stamp markings, 661–663 Engineered Wood Association (APA), The, 637, 661, 663 Engineered wood products, 1003 Engineers, 9–10 Engineer’s calculations, 1009–1011 English bond, 644 English Cottage, 220 English Tudor, 220 Entertainment centers, automation and, 434 Entries foyer, 179 lighting in, 435 main, 178 service entry, 179 EnviroHome Initiative, 236–237 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 236, 247, 682, 776 Environmentally friendly materials, 649–650, 682 EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency EPS. See Expanded polystyrene Erasers, 45 cleaning agents, 46–47 dusting brushes for, 47 tips for, 46 types of, 46 Erasing shields, 46 ERV. See Energy recovery ventilator Escalator drawings, 1037 Ethics, 5 Evapotranspiration, 301 Excavation, 395 Exercise center, 202 Exhaust fans, 433 Exhaust systems, 495 Exits determining, 966 locations of, 966–967 paths to, 965 Expanded polystyrene (EPS), 641, 646, 784 Expansion bolts, 1000 Extension lines, 90, 91, 360 Exterior caulking, 671 Exterior design factors elements of design for, 211–212 principles of design for, 212–214 site considerations, 209–210
Index
Exterior dimensions, 360–363 laying out, 387–388 Exterior envelope, 169. See also Building envelope HVAC requirements and, 498 Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS), 643 Exterior styles American Foursquare, 225 Bungalow, 226 colonial, 216–220 contemporary, 227, 229–230 Craftsman, 226–227 Dutch, 220–221 English, 220 Farmhouse, 225 French colonial, 221–222 green, 228–229 Italianate/Italian Villas, 222–223 Prairie, 225–226 ranch, 227 Victorian, 223–224 Exterior walls drawing, 314–316 laying out, 381, 383 moisture/air barriers for, 670–671 protection for, 670–671 water barriers for, 670 Extreme fiber stresses, 709 Extrusion, 608
F Face nailing, 996 Face-of-finish material dimensioning method, 363, 364 Face-of-stud dimensioning method, 363, 364 Facility model, 109 Family room, 180, 182–184 Farm Home Administration (FmHA), 141 Farmhouse style, 225 Fascia, 527, 532–533, 672–673 Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC), 141 Federal Housing Administration (FHA), 13, 33–34, 141, 156 bedroom requirements of, 188 closet recommendations of, 189 septic system requirements of, 473 Federal style, 218–219 Felt, 665, 671 Fenestration, 169, 171, 325, 530 FHA. See Federal Housing Administration FHA Description of Materials, 141–145 FHLMC. See Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation Fiber cement siding, 577, 579 FIC. See NIBS Facility Information Council Field, 371 Field nailing, 997
File management, 113, 114 Fill lighting, 445 Final inspection, 36 Financial considerations, 12–13 Finish electrical, 432 Finish schedules, 328, 330 Finished flooring, 663 Finished roofing, 674 Finished-quality lines drawing with AutoCAD, 600–602 fireplace and, 925–926 manually drawing, 593–594 section layout and, 864–867, 877–880, 883–884 Fire blocks, 631 Fire brick, 346 Fire cuts, 645 Fire department access, rural residential, 287–288 Fire sprinkler systems automatic, 162, 472–473 residential, 473 Firebox, 915 Fireplace opening, 915 Fireplaces air supply to, 922 alternatives for, 914–915 CADD symbols for, 384 cleanouts for, 348 code requirements for, 917 combustion air for, 348–349 components of, 918 direct-vent, 347–348, 914 drawing, 383, 384 drawing section for, 921, 923–926 drawing with CADD, 930 electric, 349 elevations for, 928–929 energy-efficient, 922–923 on floor plans, 346–350 footings for, 784 fuels for, 922 gas-burning, 348 multilevel, 349–350 section checklist for, 926–928 size of, 916 steel, 346–347 terms for, 915–916, 918 top-vent, 914 vent-free, 348, 914 wood storage for, 348 zero-clearance, 347 Fit house, 400 Fixed windows, 323 Fixed-sum contracts, 35 Fixtures for commercial projects, 1052–1054 common sizes of, 337 dimensions for, 368 symbols for, 332–337 Flashing, 543, 642 Flat artwork, lighting of, 445 Flat roofs, 533–534 Flathead screws, 997 Flemish bond, 644
Flex space, 250 Flood hazard, 165 Floor bracing, 660–661 Floor construction conventional framing, 654–663 post-and-beam construction, 663 Floor diaphragms, 661, 732, 1039 Floor drains, 353, 461 Floor framing plans, 759–766, 769 Floor joists components for, 817–818 crawl space systems and, 814–818 engineered, 699, 704 floor sheathing and, 815 foundation plan checklist for, 835 foundation plan layout for, 831, 833–835 girder support for, 815–816 green, 826 I-joists, 657–658 open-web trusses, 658–660 section layout for, 876–879 sizes of, 657 sizing, 695–697, 699, 704 steel joists, 660 Floor live loads, 685 Floor plan, 21, 380, 450 additional symbols on, 351–354 architectural feature sizes for, 337–339 architectural information on, 729 attics on, 352 basement layout, 394–398 bathroom, 333–334 cabinets in, 619–620 CADD symbols for, 354–357 closets on, 336 commercial, 1017–1020, 1032 composite, 398 concrete slab representation on, 352 concrete-block construction on, 369–370 crawl spaces on, 352 cross-section symbols on, 353–354 design considerations for, 177 dimensioning of, 118, 360 drawing checklist for, 398–399 drawing with CADD, 317–318 enlarged, 1032 extension lines in, 360 fireplaces on, 346–350 floor drains on, 353 halls on, 345–346 heat loss/gain calculations and, 501–503 kitchen, 332–333 laundry chutes on, 336 laying out, 379, 381–392 for loan application, 33 masonry veneer on, 369 materials in, 339–341 notes/specifications on, 370–371
Index
plumbing information in, 475, 476 presentation, 936, 943, 945 room labels in, 390 room titles on, 351 scale on, 381 second-floor layout, 392–394 solid concrete construction on, 370 stairs on, 343–345 structural information on, 728 structural masonry on, 369–370 styles of, 214–216 symbols for commercial, 1018–1020 symbols in, 311 using standard construction modules in, 372 utility room, 334–336 wall symbols in, 311, 313–314 wardrobes on, 336 window wells on, 353 Floor sheathing stamp markings on, 661–663 types of, 661 Flooring, 663, 682 Floors earthen, 249–250 insulation of, 172 Flue, 349–350, 919, 921 Fly-through, 106–107 FmHA. See Farm Home Administration Folk Victorian style, 224 Font, 94, 97, 98, 118 Footings, 774, 781, 784, 795 Footprint, 400 Forest certification, 650 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 650, 1003 Form, 211–212 Formal balance, 213 Formaldehyde, 493, 682 Foundation, 365 anchor bolts in, 785 continuous/spread, 779–780, 782 dimensioning components of, 798–799 fireplace footings, 784 grade beams, 783–784 green, 800 metal connectors in, 797, 798 on-grade, 803–814 pilings, 777–779, 781 section layout and, 865 termite protection in, 785–786 windows in, 792 wood floor support, 786, 788 Foundation plan, 27, 30, 768 above-ground slab on, 806–807 for commercial projects, 1047–1049 components of, 787 drawing with CADD, 847–848 full basement on, 824 laying out for combination slab/crawl space, 840–844
1119
laying out for concrete slab, 828–832 laying out for full basement, 844–847 laying out for joist construction, 831, 833–835 laying out for post-and-beam construction, 835, 837–840 partial basement on, 823 post-and-beam floors on, 821 retaining walls in, 796 Foundation wall code requirements for, 784 insulation of, 788–789 interior supports for, 794–795 reinforcement of, 789 stem wall construction, 784–786 types of, 784 Four-center method, 74–75 Foyer, 179 Foyer lighting, 435 Framed wall construction, 664 frame construction, 665–666 let-in bracing /blocking, 668 modular framing, 669–670 openings in, 668–669 structural wall sheathing, 667–668 wall sheathing, 666–667 Framing lumber determining characteristics of, 694 size/span determination for, 694 types of, 694 Framing members, 727, 731 Framing methods energy-efficient, 638–649 green, 637 lightweight steel, 988–991 metal connectors for, 998 modular, 648–649 space frames, 991 steel, 993–995 wood, 631–638 Framing plans, 26. See also Roof framing plans braced wall lines on, 749–751 building standards in, 23, 27 checklist for, 764, 768 for commercial projects, 1039–1042 completing, 751–753 dimensions on, 733 drawing with CADD, 769 framing members on, 727, 731 laminated beams in, 978–979 major components on, 727, 731–734 notes for, 23, 24, 27, 734 roof structure, 25 section references, 734 section views, 23, 28, 29 seismic/wind resistance on, 731–733 steel on, 994 structural information on, 730 Freeze depth, 775, 776
French colonial style, 221–222 French curves, 50. See also Irregular curves French doors, 320 French Mansard style, 222 French Normandy style, 221 French plantation style, 222 French Provincial style, 221 Fresnel lenses, 326–327 Front elevation, 15 Frost line depth, 165 Frost penetration, 775 Frost-protected footings, 172, 173 FSC. See Forest Stewardship Council Full basement, 394 Full sections, 853–855 Functional elements, 148 Furnace, 486, 499. See also Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Furniture common sizes of, 182 in living areas, 181 room planning and, 14, 16 Furring, 314, 370
G Gable end wall truss, 679 Gable end wall vents, 585 Gable roofs, 534–535, 547–552, 558, 598, 753–755 Galvanized pipe, 461 Gambrel roofs, 535–537 Gambrels, 220 Garage, 202–203 doors of, 321, 365 electric outlets in, 433 lighting/outlets in, 436 portal frame adjacent to, 741 retaining walls and, 795 sealing from home, 511 solar energy design and placement of, 238 Garbage disposal, 332 Garden windows, 324 Garrison style, 217–218 General contractors, 36 General lighting, 443 General notes, 371, 390 Generative Design, 105 Geographic/climatic design criteria, 163–168 Georgian style, 216–217 Georgia-Pacific, 637 Geothermal systems, 244–245 GFCI. See Ground fault circuit interrupter GFI. See Ground fault circuit interrupter Gingerbread, 224 Girder truss, 679 Girders engineered, 656 floor joist support with, 815–816 laminated, 654–655 steel, 656, 994 supports for, 656–657
Glass, insulating, 325 Glass box viewing method, 77–79 Glass sliding doors, 320 Glu-lams, 976, 1039 Google, 105 Google Earth, 82 Google SketchUp, 80–83, 105 Gothic Victorian style, 223 Grade beams, 783–784 Grades, projecting, 600 Grading plan, 18, 23, 272 for commercial projects, 1013, 1016 drawing, 294–295 features of, 275, 277–278 Grains, 500 Grand Lighting Web site, 443 Grand room, 186 Graphic models, 518 Graphic scales, 116 Graphic Symbols for Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (ANSI), 517 Graphisoft, 105 Gravity, 685 Gray water reclamation, 248–249, 481 Graze lighting, 445 Great land surveys, 268–270 Great room, 186 Greek Revival style, 219 Green board, 672 Green building guidelines, 152–155, 173, 233 Green construction goals construction impact reduction, 650 environmentally friendly materials, 649–650 key questions for, 649 material savings, 650 reducing impact after construction, 650–651 Green design, 12. See also Sustainable design exterior styles and, 228–229 indoor water use and, 481–482 material considerations for, 1003–1004 planning and, 207 urban homes and, 248–250 Green floor systems, 826 Green foundations, 800 Green framing, 637 Green Globes, 1004 Green Home Guide Web site, 234 Green homes, 234 Green power systems, 242 Green roofs, 241, 248, 544, 637 GreenFormat, 148 Greenhouse gases, 232 Grid markers, 1020 Grid survey, 291 Ground, 432 Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFI/GFCI), 433, 449 Ground snow load, 163
1120
Group R occupancy categories, 959–960 Grout, 643 Guardrails, 160, 385, 902 for decks/patios/balconies, 206 drawing, 317 on elevations, 583–584 Guidelines, 87 Gutters, 556 Gypsum, 314 Gypsum board, 645, 672
H Habitable space, 157 Half-timbered exterior, 220 Halftone, 62 Halls egress requirements and, 158–159 on floor plans, 345–346 lighting/outlets in, 436 traffic patterns in, 203 Hand-compass method, 68 Handrails, 160, 343, 385, 583–584, 902 Hard metric conversion, 341, 372 Hardboard, 577, 579 Hardie, James, 577 Hardiplank, 577 HDF. See High-density fiberboard Header truss, 683 Headers, 668–669, 677, 727, 731 Headroom, 902 Health center, 202 Healthy buildings construction of, 246–247, 251 designing, 246–247 Healthy soil, 302 Hearth, 916 Heat loss, estimating, 499 Heat pumps, 245, 490–491 Heat recovery and ventilation (HRV), 493–494 Heat transfer multiplier, 500 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), 9, 485 air filtration in, 509 CADD and, 517–519 CADD layers for, 519 CADD symbols for, 517 central forced-air, 485–486 chases for, 381 code requirements for, 162, 498–499 for commercial projects, 1054, 1056 detail drawings, 514 double-line plans, 513–514 drawing checklist for, 516–517 drawings for, 511–516 energy efficiency and, 236 energy use modeling and, 132 heat pumps, 490–491 hot water systems, 490 IECC and, 169 mold prevention in, 510 pictorial drawings, 515–516, 518
Index
plans for, 485, 487–489, 512–514 radiant heat, 492 RCP and, 446 reducing load on, 650–651 schedules for, 515, 516 section drawings, 514–515 single-line plans, 512, 513–514 specifications for, 511 symbols for, 495–497 terminology for, 499–500 thermal calculations for, 499 universal design for, 497–498 UV light systems in, 509 water use modeling and, 130 zoned heating systems, 491–492 Heating cycle, 486 Heating plan, for loan application, 33 Heavy timber construction, 976 Heels, 679 Herman Miller, 356 HERS. See Home Energy Ratings Systems High-density fiberboard (HDF), 682 High-performance windows, 650 Hinge point, 795 Hip beams, 712, 713 Hip rafters, 675 Hip roofs, 535, 537–538, 552, 559, 755–757 Hip truss, 683 Hold-down anchors, 740, 797 Home automation, 434–435 Home Depot, 614 Home Energy Ratings Systems (HERS), 236 Home networking, 435 Home office, 183, 185 Home theaters, 185, 187 Hopper windows, 322–323 Horizontal shear, 712, 717 Hose bibb, 352, 462, 469 Hot water circulation systems, 465 Hot water heating systems, 490 House wraps, 670–671 Housing development, 34 Housing subdivision, 34 HRV. See Heat recovery and ventilation HUD. See Department of Housing and Urban Development Hue, 212 Hurricanes, 686 HVAC. See Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Hydroelectric power, 246 Hydrozoning, 302
I IBC. See International Building Code ICBO. See International Conference of Building Officials ICC. See International Code Council
ICC-ES. See International Code Council-Evaluation Services Ice barrier underlayment, 165 ICF. See Insulated concrete form IECC. See International Energy Conservation Code IESNA. See Illuminating Engineering Society of North America IGCC. See International Green Construction Code IIDA. See International Interior Design Association Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), 10 Illustrators, 11 Inclined planes, projection of features from, 79–80 Included angle, 288 Individual appraisal, 33 Indoor air pollution, 493, 682 Indoor air quality, 509–511 Indoor environmental quality, 235 Indoor temperature, 500 Industrial piping, 461 Infiltration, 500 Informal balance, 213 Initial working drawings, 16–17 Insects, 302 Inspections code, 37 disbursement, 37 final, 36 lender, 37 Inspectors, 11 Insulated concrete form (ICF), 172, 646–648, 650, 1004 Insulated windows, 325 Insulating glass, 325 Insulation of basement walls, 172 batt, 641 of ceilings, 172 of floors, 172 foil-based, 682 of foundation wall, 788–789 frost-protected footings, 172, 173 green homes and, 248 International Energy Conservation Code and, 171 of mass walls, 172 minimum requirements for, 170, 172 of on-grade slabs, 811–812 of plumbing, 465 structural insulated panels, 641, 650 of windows, 325 Intensity, of colors, 212 Interface, 80 Interior architecture, 9 Interior decorators, 6 Interior designers, 7–8 Interior dimensions, 364, 387–388 Interior finish, 672
Interior moisture protection, 671 Interior walls drawing, 314–315 laying out, 381, 383 International Building Code (IBC), 156, 953 accessibility and, 157, 967–971 allowable floor area in, 961–962, 964–965 building materials in, 955 building systems in, 955 exits and, 965–967 organization of, 954 prescriptive path method and, 735 residential categories in, 959–960 safety requirements in, 954–955 using, 971–972 International Code Council (ICC), 11, 12, 152, 155, 173, 236, 953 International Code CouncilEvaluation Services (ICC-ES), 1004 International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), 156 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC), 156 building envelope requirements and, 170 determining building envelope and, 169–170 fenestration and, 169, 171 glazing area in, 396 insulation and, 171 International Green Construction Code (IGCC), 152 International Interior Design Association (IIDA), 7 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 60, 474 International Plumbing Code (IPC), 162, 471 International Residential Code (IRC), 12, 155–156, 236, 959 accessibility and, 157 automatic fire sprinklers in, 471 bedroom requirements of, 189 braced wall lines in, 748 chimney height in, 924 decks in, 205 floor joist sizing and, 695 foundation wall in, 784 guardrails in, 317 heating requirement in, 485 maximum stud height in, 633 prescriptive path method and, 735 span tables by, 694 steel joists and, 660 International System of Units (SI), 51, 372 IPC. See International Plumbing Code IRC. See International Residential Code
Index
Irregular curves, 50 Irregular shapes drawing, 597 sketching, 71 Irrigation, 266, 302 ISO. See International Organization for Standardization Isolation joints, 805 Isometric circles/arcs, 74–75 Isometric lines, 74 Isometric sketches, 73–75 Italian villa style, 223 Italianate style, 222–223
J Jack rafters, 675 Jack studs, 668–669 Jalousie windows, 323 Jefferson, Thomas, 155 Jeld-Wen, 356 Job supervision, 31 Joist space, 489 Joists floor framing with, 814–818 on framing plan, 731 open-web steel, 991 sizing, 695–699 steel, 953, 991 Junction box, 432 Justified text, 94, 99–100
K Key lighting, 445 Kickblock, 902 Kicker, 902 King studs, 668–669 Kitchen accessibility requirements for, 616, 968–969 appliance arrangement, 198–199 cabinets in, 619, 622–623 cleaning center, 194–195 counter arrangements in, 196–197 counter/cabinet sizes, 197–198 electric layout for, 442 electric outlets in, 433 floor plans of, 332–333 lighting/outlets in, 436 placement of, 191–192 preparation areas, 192, 194 size of, 192 storage areas, 192, 193, 616 traffic flow in, 196 work areas of, 192, 193–195 work triangle, 195–196 Kitchen and bath designers, 6–7 Kohler, 356 K-Shield, 682
L Lag screws, 997 Laminated beams, 976, 978–979 Laminated strand lumber (LSL), 640 Laminated veneer lumber (LVL), 640
1121
Landscape architecture, 9 Landscaping, 206 CADD plans for, 299–300 commercial project planning and, 1014, 1017 environmentally sound practices for, 265–266 sound control with, 264 wind control with, 262–263 Lateral bracing, 667 Lateral load resistance braced wall panels for, 736, 738–739 combined reinforcement for, 742 portal frame adjacent to garage opening, 741 portal frame with hold-downs, 740 prescriptive path method for, 735 Simpson Strong-Wall for, 741–742 Lateral loads, 685, 732, 733 Lath, 670 Latitude, 239, 269 Laundry chutes, 336 Laundry rooms, 336 accessibility in, 616 electric outlets in, 433 lighting/outlets in, 436 Lawns, environmentally sound practices and, 265 Layers, 104 drawing on, 120–121 naming standards for, 122–124 using in CADD, 124–126 Layout space, 127, 128 Leach lines, 472 Lead paint test kits, 651 Leader lines, 90–91 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Green Building Rating System (LEED), 12, 132, 152–154, 228, 587, 631, 637 fireplaces in, 922 floor framing and, 826 foundations and, 800 goals of, 233 wood product standards of, 1003 Leads grades of, 45 line quality and, 593 polyester, 45 for presentation drawings, 938 special, 45 Ledgers, 819, 980–981 LEED. See Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Green Building Rating System LEED for homes, 233–235, 248 Legibility, 96 Lender inspections, 37 Lettering in CADD, 94, 97–100 height of, 96
legibility of, 96 rules for, 96–97 on sections, 870–871 single-stroke, 95–96 slanted, 96 styles of, 95 terminology of, 94 Liability insurance, 35 Library files, 112 Light scallop, 445–446 Light switches, placement of, 437 Lighting accent, 445 ambient, 443 electrical design considerations for, 435–436 fill, 445 of flat artwork, 445 general, 443 graze, 445 key, 445 low-voltage, 443 non-uniform down-lighting, 443–444 placement of, 433 recessed, 443, 444, 446 task, 444–445 uniform down-lighting, 443 universal design and, 437, 439 wall, 445 Lighting outlet, 432 Lighting requirements, 161–162 Line contrast, 858 Linear weight, 716 Lines. See also Finished-quality lines break, 91, 92 in CADD, 92–94 construction, 87 dashed, 90 as design elements, 211 dimension, 90, 91 extension, 90, 91 finished-quality, 600–602, 864–867, 883–884, 925–926 guidelines, 87 leader, 90–91 object, 87, 89 in presentation drawings, 940 styles and weights of, 88 techniques for, 91 thickness of, 89, 117 types of, 87–91, 118 weights of, 117–118 Linkages, 234 Lintel, 916 LISP. See List-processing language List-processing language (LISP), 3 Live loads floor, 685 moving, 685 roof, 686 snow, 686 Living area, 177 arrangement of, 177, 184 den/study/office, 183, 185 dining room, 183, 185, 186
entries, 178–179 family room, 180, 182–184 furniture in, 181 great/grand room, 186 home theater, 185, 187 lighting/outlets in, 435 living room, 180, 182 nook, 183 sizing floor joists for, 695 solar energy design for, 237–238 sunroom, 186 Living Building Challenge, 248 Living room, 180, 182, 384 Living Smart program, 400–402 Load design, 688, 690 Load distribution, 690 ceiling, 692 lower floor, 692 roof, 691–692 upper floor, 691 walls, 692 Load path, 688 Load-bearing walls, 721, 752. See also Bearing walls Loads. See also Lateral load resistance concentrated, 721 lateral, 685, 732, 733 occupant, 965–966 seismic, 688–690 snow, 163, 686, 702–703 span tables and, 694 types of, 685–690 Loan applications, 33–34 Local notes, 370 Longitude, 269 Longitudinal section, 854–855 Lot and block system, 271 Lot plan. See Site plan Lots, 34 Louisiana-Pacific, 637 Low-emissive glass, 325 Lowe’s Home Improvement Center, 614 Low-impact construction, 650 Low-voltage lighting systems, 443 LSL. See Laminated strand lumber Lump-sum contracts. See Fixedsum contracts LVL. See Laminated veneer lumber
M Machine bolts, 999 Magnetic declination, 259–261 Magnetic north, 259 Main entry, 178 Maintenance reduction, 651 Mansard roof, 222, 224, 538–539 Mantels, 610–611 Manual drawing reproduction, 59 Manual of Acts and Relevant Regulations, 333, 334 Manual of Steel Construction (American Institute of Steel Construction), 993
1122
Masonry, 314. See also Solid masonry construction concrete, 642–643 structural, 369–370 wall covering, 578–581 Masonry veneer, 314, 369, 646 Masonry wall construction, 644–646 Mass walls, IECC rules for, 172 Master appraisal, 34 Master suites, 188–189 MasterFormat, 1009 LEED and, 153 numbering system of, 11, 112 specifications system of, 141, 146–148, 149 Material indications, 316, 390 Material symbols, 390 Matte, 59 Maximum bending stress, 711 MDF. See Medium-density fiberboard MeadowBoard, 682 Mean annual temperature, 165 Measurement lines/proportions, in sketching, 68–71 Mechanical drawings, 1054–1055 Mechanical engineers, 9–10 Mechanical pencils, 44 Mechanical solar systems. See Active solar systems Mechanical system, 485 Mechanical ventilation, 500 Mechanically evaluated lumber (MEL), 708 Medite, 682 Medium-density fiberboard (MDF), 682 MEL. See Mechanically evaluated lumber Meridians, 269 Metal flashing, 543 Metal framing connectors, 998 Metal roofing panels, 542–543 Metal ties, 646 Metal wall covering, 581 Meter (electrical), 432 Meter base (electrical), 432, 447–448 Metes, 268 Metes and bounds system, 268 Method specifications, 141 Metric conversion, 341, 372, 475 Metric dimensions on drawing, 372 in plumbing, 474–475 rules for writing, 372 using, 373–374 Metric scale, 51–53, 372–373 Microfilm, 62 Microsoft Excel, 331 Microsoft Word, 129 MicroStation, 105, 109, 129 Milling, 608 bookshelves, 612 railings, 612
Index
Millwork baseboards, 608 casings, 610, 611 chair rails, 609 construction details for, 621 cornices, 609–611 drawing in CADD, 625–626 mantels, 610–611 types of, 608–612 wainscots, 609 Minimally processed products, 650 Model codes, 155–156 Model files, 110–112 Model Green Home Building Guidelines, 235–236 Model makers, 10 Model space, 127, 128 Modular cabinets, 613–614 Modular framing methods, 648–649 Modular wall framing, 669–670 Modulus of elasticity, 711 Moisture barriers, 670–671, 810–811 Mold prevention, 510 Moment, 717 Mono truss, 683 Monolithic construction, 803 Monuments, 268 Moving loads, 685 MR16 lamps, 443 Mudroom, 179, 199. See also Service entry; Utility room Mudsill, 654, 663, 785 Mullions, 320 Multilevel floor plans, 216 Multiview alignment, 72 Multiview projection, 71, 75 elevations in, 76–77 glass box viewing method and, 77–79 inclined planes in, 79–80 view selection in, 79 Multiview sketches, 71–72 Muntins, 320 Murco, 682 Mylar, 45, 59. See also Polyester drafting film
N NAHB. See National Association of Home Builders Nail-and-string method, 68 Nails patterns for, 997 placement of, 996–997 sizes of, 996 specifications for, 996 types of, 995–996 National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), 12, 152. See also Model Green Home Building Guidelines National Association of HomeBuilders Research Center (NAHBRC), 236
National Brownfield Association (NBA), 247 National Building Code (NBC), 156, 953 National building codes, 155–156 National CAD Standard. See U.S. National CAD Standard National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ), 7 National District Heating Association, 499 National Energy Conservation Code, 498 National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC), 325 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 162, 474 National Forest Products Association, 712 National Green Building Standards (NGBS), 12, 152, 154–155, 173, 228, 236, 1004 National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), 3, 108 National Kitchen & Bath Association (NKBA), 6–7, 192 counter recommendations of, 197 sink recommendations of, 195 storage area recommendations of, 192 National Standard Taper Pipe Threads (NPT), 475 Natural light, 161 Natural Resources Defense Council, 641 Naturescaping, 301–302 NBA. See National Brownfield Association NBC. See National Building Code NCIDQ. See National Council for Interior Design Qualification NCS. See U.S. National CAD Standard Nestled joists, 991 Net size, 708 Net-zero energy, 248 Neutral axis, 709 Newels, 612 NFPA. See National Fire Protection Association NFRC. See National Fenestration Rating Council NFRC labels, 325 NGBS. See National Green Building Standards NGBS-ICC 700, 152, 154–155 NIBS. See National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS Facility Information Council (FIC), 108 NKBA. See National Kitchen & Bath Association Nominal size, 708 Nonbearing walls, 664–665 Nonhabitable space, 157
Nonisometric lines, 74 Non-uniform downlighting, 443 Nook, 183 North arrow, 1018, 1020 Note block, 116 Notes in CADD, 392 delta, 371 for electrical fixtures, 440 in framing plans, 23, 24, 27, 734 general, 370, 390 lettering, 870–871 local, 370 section layout and, 878, 881, 885 on sections, 870–871 specific, 370
O Object lines, 87, 89 Object-oriented CADD, 331 Occupancy groups, 956–960 Occupant load, 965–966 Office, 183, 185 Office lighting/outlets, 436 Office of Education, 8 Office practice drawing placement, 1013 residential v. commercial projects and, 1009 On-grade foundations components of, 812–814 floor elevation changes and, 812–813 moisture protection, 810–811 plumbing/heating requirements, 812–813 post-tensioned concrete reinforcement, 809–810 slab for, 803 slab insulation, 811–812 slab joints, 803–805 slab placement, 805–806 slab preparation, 806 slab reinforcement, 806–809 Open railings, 612 Open-web steel joists, 991 Open-web trusses, 658–660 Optimum Value Engineering (OVE), 638 Oriel window, 323 Oriented strand board (OSB), 641, 661, 667, 682 Origin, 93 Orthographic projection, 71, 75, 76. See also Multiview projection OSB. See Oriented strand board Outdoor area design, 203–206 Outdoor outlets, 436 Outdoor temperature, 500 Outlet box, 431 Outsourcing, 129 OVE. See Optimum Value Engineering Overall-shape layout, 589–591
Index
Overhangs, 527, 674 roof pitch and, 528–529 size of, 530–532 sun angle and, 530–532 Ozone, 650
P Palladian windows, 219 Pantries, 333, 616 PAR. See Parabolic Aluminized Reflector Parabolic Aluminized Reflector (PAR), 443 Parallel bar, 48–49 Parallel circuit, 435 Parallel strand lumber (PSL), 640 Parallels, 269 Parametric symbols, 386, 454 Partial basement, 394, 396 Partial sections, 855 Partial walls, 316–317 Partial-height retaining walls, 793 Partitions, 314. See also Interior walls; Nonbearing walls Passive solar gain, 500 Passive solar systems, 237, 248 green roofs, 241 roof ponds, 241 solariums, 241–242 south-facing glass, 239–240 thermal storage walls, 240–241 Patios, 205, 206, 435 PB. See Polybutylene Pencil motions, basic, 45, 46 Pencils/leads automatic pencils, 45 basic motions for, 45 establishing measurements with, 69 lead grades, 45 mechanical pencils, 44 polyester/special leads, 45 for sketching, 66 Pendant light, 444–445 Penny, 996 Percolation test, 473 Performance bond, 35 Permeable surfaces, 265, 482 Permit procedures, 31 Perspective layout method, 935 Pesticides, 302, 651 PEX. See Cross-linked polyethylene PFG. See Portal frame adjacent to garage opening PFH. See Portal frame with hold-downs Photocopy reproduction, 62, 938 Photorealistic rendering, 106 Photovoltaic modules, 242–243, 248 Pier sizes, 716–717 Pilaster, 980 Piling foundation systems, 777–779, 781 Pinkwrap, 665
1123
Piping, 461 in CADD, 479 elevation of, 478 sizes of, 474–475, 478 Pitch, 528, 674. See also Roof pitch Plan examiners, 11 Plane of projection, 71, 75 Planned unit development, 281, 283 Plants, 941 Plaster, 313, 581 Plasterboard, 314 Plastic leads. See Polyester leads Plate, 665 Platform framing, 631, 633–634, 637–639, 975–976 Plats, 34, 272 Plots, 34, 268. See also Site plan Plotting CADD guidelines for, 125, 127–129 to files, 129 model/sheet layout and, 127, 128 preparing for, 127, 129, 603 scale factor and, 125, 127 Plumbing, 461. See also Piping CADD symbols for, 479–480 drawings for, 466 energy conservation and, 465 of insulation, 465 isometric drawings of, 470–471 metrics in, 474–475 on-grade slabs and, 812–813 piping sizes, 464 schedules for, 466 symbols for, 463, 468, 477–478 terms/definitions for, 462 universal installations, 464–466 Plumbing plans checklist for, 478 commercial drawings, 475, 477–478 for commercial projects, 1055–1058 in floor plan, 475, 476 need for, 461 Plumbing riser diagram, 470 Plumbing wall, 462, 467 Plywood siding, 575 Plywood subfloors, 633, 661 POB. See Point of beginning Pocket doors, 319, 402 Point entry, 92 Point of beginning (POB), 268 Polar coordinate entry, 93 Poly pipe, 461. See also Polybutylene Polybutylene (PB), 461 Polycarbonate, 650 Polyester drafting film, 45, 59 Polyester leads, 45 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 461, 650 Porches, 205 lighting/outlets on, 435 Portal frame adjacent to garage opening (PFG), 741
Portal frame with hold-downs (PFH), 740 Porticos, 219 Portland cement, 983 Post-and-beam floor systems, 818–821, 835, 837–840, 879–881 Post-and-beam framing, 634–636, 637, 638, 663 Postchlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), 461 Posts, 395, 727 Post-tensioning, 809 Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI), 809 Poured concrete construction, 983 cast-in-place, 984–985 precast, 986–987 structural elevations for, 1044 tilt-up, 987–988 Power-driven studs, 997 Prairie style, 225–226 Precast concrete construction, 986–987, 1004, 1042 Prefabricated joint reinforcement, 646 Prefabricated steel structures, 992–993 Preliminary design studies, 14 Preliminary floor plan, 14 Presale, 33 Prescriptive design, basic terms of, 735 Presentation boards, for interior details, 16 Presentation drawings with CADD, 948 drawing materials for, 938–940 elevations, 935–936, 941–943 floor plans, 936, 943, 945 line techniques, 940 media for, 936–937 methods of presentation, 936–940 plants in, 941 rendering procedure for, 941–947 sections, 936, 947 site plans, 936, 947 types of, 935–936 Presentation elevations, 567–568, 570 Prevailing winds, 260 Principle meridians, 269, 270 Prints folding, 61–63 for loan applications, 33 Private sewage systems, 472–474 Probable construction cost, 36 Professional certifications architects, 8 designers, 6 interior designers, 7–8 kitchen and bath designers, 6–7 Profiles, drawing, 293–294 Project cycle, 109 Property lines, laying out, 288 Proportion, 213–214
Proportional dividers, 48 Proprietary product specifications, 141 Protek, 682 Protractors, 54 PSL. See Parallel strand lumber PTI. See Post-Tensioning Institute Public land states, 268 Public sewers, 472, 473 Public Utility District (PUD), heat loss calculation from, 33 PUD. See Public Utility District Purlin, 676, 976 Purlin braces, 676 PVC. See Polyvinyl chloride
Q Queen Anne style, 224, 225 Quick-growth product, 650
R R-2000 Standard, 237 Radial survey, 291 Radiant heating/cooling systems, 492 Radio frequency systems (RF), 435 Radius dimensions, 366 Radon, 493, 511, 776–777 Radon mitigation, 651 Rafter space, 489 Rafter/ceiling joist, 676–677 Rafters engineered, 699, 703, 705 on framing plan, 731 sizing, 699, 701–703, 705 supports for, 676 types of, 674–675 vaulted ceilings and, 676–677 Railings, 612 Rails. See Guardrails; Handrails Rain gardens, 482 Rainfall, 234 Rainwater catchment, 248 Rainwater harvesting, 481 Rakes, 532 Ramps, 1034–1036 Ranch style, 227 Ranges, 269 RCP. See Reflected ceiling plans Rebar, 982–983 Recessed lighting down-lighting with, 443 locating, 446 task, 444 Rectangular coordinates, 92 Rectangular survey system, 268–269, 271 Recycled content, 650 Reference bubble, 112 Reflected ceiling plans (RCP), 446, 1034 Refrigerants, 486 Reinforced masonry, 982. See also Structural masonry Relative coordinate entry, 93 Renderings, 106, 935, 941–947 Renewable energy, 651
1124
Reproduction of drawings Diazo, 62 manual, 59 photocopy, 62, 938 Residential cooling data sheet, 506–508 Residential description of materials, 141 Residential heating data sheet, 500, 502–505 Residential piping, 461 Residential wind power, 456–458 Retaining walls, 277 anchorage of, 790 components of, 793 in foundation plan, 796 framing, 794 garage doors and, 795 materials in, 789 moisture protection for, 790, 792 partial-height, 793 reinforcement of, 789 Review boards, 209 RF. See Radio frequency systems R-factor, 500 Rhythm, 213 Ridge, 527–528, 531 bay projections parallel to, 549 bay projections perpendicular to, 549, 551 representing varied heights of, 548–549 Ridge beam, 527, 676–677 Ridge board, 527, 674 Ridge brace, 527, 676 Riser, 902 Roof construction conventionally framed roofs, 674–677 terms for, 672–674 truss roofs, 677–680, 683 Roof framing plans, 527, 529, 530 base drawing for, 753 checklist for, 759, 762, 764 drawing with CADD, 769 Dutch hip roof with rafter framing, 758–760 Dutch hip roof with truss framing, 757–758 gable roof with rafter framing, 754–755 gable roof with truss framing, 753–754 hip roof with rafter framing, 756–757 hip roof with truss framing, 755–756 section layout for, 886–891 Roof intersections, 596–597 Roof live loads, 686 Roof pitch, 527–539, 674 Roof plan, 20, 528 annotation on, 557–558 chimneys on, 554–555 for commercial projects, 1023–1029
Index
dimensions on, 557 drainage on, 556 drawing Dutch hip, 560–561 drawing gable, 558 drawing hip, 559 drawing in CADD, 561–562 Dutch hip roofs on, 553 framing for, 25 for loan application, 33 representing basic gable shapes on, 547–552 representing hip roofs on, 553 representing nonstructural materials on, 554–557 representing structural materials on, 553–554 roof intersections with varied wall heights on, 551–552 skylights on, 555–556 types of, 527 vents on, 554 Roof ponds, 241 Roof sheathing, 673–674 Roof slopes, 529, 531 Roof tiles, 542, 574 Roofing materials, 539, 674 built-up, 540, 574 clay/cement tiles, 542, 574 on elevations, 573–575 green, 544 metal, 542–543 shingles, 540–542 Roofs A-frame, 535–536 common terms in, 527–533 cool, 544 drainage of, 556 drawing finishing materials for, 867, 869 Dutch hip, 537–538, 757–759 elevation layout of, 591–592 flat, 533–534 gable, 534–535, 753–755 gambrel, 535–537 green, 241, 248, 544, 637 hip, 535, 537–538, 755–757 load distribution on, 691–692 mansard, 222, 224, 538–539 openings in, 677–678 overhang of, 238–239 section layout and, 865 shapes of, 533–539 shed, 534 ventilation/access to, 543, 545 Room components, 367–368 Room dimensions minimum, 177 requirements for, 160–161 Room planning, 14, 16, 237–238 Room titles, 351 Rough opening, 369 Rough-in, 432 Roundhead screws, 997 Rub-ons, 16, 941 Rural residential fire department access, 287–288 R-value, 171, 369, 641
S Safety equipment, code requirements for, 162–163 Saltbox style, 217 Salvaged products, 649–650 San Bernardino Meridian, 269 Sanitary sewer system, 472 Sanitation requirements, 162 SAVE. See Sustainable Attributes Evaluation Services SBC. See Standard Building Code SBCCI. See Southern Building Code Congress International Scabbing on, 680, 681 Scale factor, 97, 99, 125, 127 Scales Architect’s, 53 civil engineer’s, 53–55 of elevations, 571–572 graphic, 116 metric, 51–53, 372–373 in NCS, 116 notation for, 51 for section drawings, 856, 858 selection of, 116 shapes of, 51 Schedules, 116, 370 for commercial projects, 1020–1023 content of, 324 electrical, 446–447 HVAC, 515, 516 key to, 324, 327–329 NCS and, 116, 324, 330–331 plumbing, 466 Scissor trusses, 679, 681 Screws, 997–998 SDC. See Seismic design category Second Empire style, 224 Second-floor plan layout, 392–394 Section markers, 1020 Section views, 23, 28, 29 Sections, 269, 271–272. See also Cross sections aligning, 853 commercial building stairs, 1036 for commercial projects, 1030–1032 details, 855–856 dimensioning, 869 drawing finishing materials on, 867–869 drawing notations on, 860 drawing scale of, 856, 858 drawing symbols on, 860 drawing with CADD, 872–874 evaluating needs for, 862 exterior stairs, 910–911 finished-quality lines for structural members in, 864–867 fireplace, 921, 923–926 full, 853–855 laying out for basement with slab, 881, 883–886
laying out for concrete slab foundation, 862–864 laying out for conventional (stick) roof framing, 886–891 laying out for garage/residence, 892–894 laying out for joist floor, 876–879 laying out for post-and-beam foundation, 879–881 lettering notes on, 870–871 locating materials on, 860 longitudinal, 854–855 L-shaped stairs, 910 open-layout stairs, 906–909 origination of, 853 partial, 855 presentation, 936, 947 representing materials on, 858–859 straight-layout stairs, 903–906 structural, 1046 transverse, 853 types of, 853–856 U-shaped stairs, 909–910 Security systems, 434–435 Seismic design category (SDC), 165, 742, 745–747 Seismic loads, 688–690 Seismic resistance, 731–733 Septic systems, 472–474 Septic tank, 472 Service areas bathrooms, 190–191 bonus room, 201–202 exercise center, 202 garage/carport, 202–203 kitchen, 191–199 placement of, 190 utility room, 200–201 wine cellar, 199–200 Service entry, 179 Setback, 257, 280, 289 Sewage disposal, 472–474 Sewer lines, 462 Shading, 301, 941, 943, 944 Shading devices, 239 Shakes, 541 Shear, 712 Shear panel, 667, 732, 735 Shear walls, 686, 1039 Sheathing, 633 double-wall construction and, 665–666 floor, 815 roof, 673–674 structural, 667–668 Shed roofs, 534 Sheet files, 110, 111, 113 Sheet grid coordinates, 112 Sheet identification, 113 Sheet layout, 114–116, 127, 128 Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA), 108 Sheet names, 113 Sheet organization, 113–116
Index
Sheet sizes, 60, 114, 589 Sheetrock, 672 SHGC. See Solar heat gain coefficient Shingles, 540–542, 573 Showers, 333 Shutters, on elevations, 584–585 SI. See International System of Units Siding. See also Wall coverings aluminum, 577 fiber cement, 577, 579 installation of, 667 plywood, 575 vinyl, 577, 580 Sills, 318 Simple beams, 690 Simpson Strong-Tie, 738, 741–742, 998, 1009 Simpson Strong-Wall, 741–742 Single-span beams, 976 Single-stroke lettering, 95–96 Single-wall construction, 665 Sinks, universal design and, 464–465 SIP. See Structural insulated panels Site analysis plan, 277, 279–280 Site considerations access, 209–210 neighborhood, 209 review boards, 209 Site orientation solar, 259–260 sound, 264, 266 terrain, 257–258 view, 257, 259 wind, 260, 262–264 Site plan, 17–19, 23 CADD layers for, 298–300 for commercial projects, 1013–1017 contour lines in, 291–292 design considerations for, 286–287 drawing, 274–275, 276 drawing checklist for, 290–291 drawing in CADD, 296–300 laying out property lines in, 288 layout of, 285–286, 289–290 maximum building area in, 964 metrics in, 281 presentation, 936, 947 profiles in, 293–294 requirements for, 272 solar considerations for, 260 Sites, 268 SJI. See Steel Joist Institute Sketching block technique for, 69–71 circular lines, 67–68 irregular shapes, 71 isometric, 73–75 measurement lines/proportions in, 68–71 multiview technique for, 72 straight lines, 66–67 tools and materials for, 66
1125
Skip sheathing, 674 Skylights, 240, 324 on elevations, 574–575, 592 on roof plans, 555–556 Skystream 3.7, 456–458 Slab-on-grade floors, insulation of, 172 Slabs, 803 Slanted lettering, 96 Sleeping area, 185–186 bedrooms, 187–189 closets, 189 master suites, 188–189 sizing floor joists for, 695 Sliding doors, glass, 320 SMACNA. See Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association Small footprint home, 400–402 Smoke chamber, 918 Smoke detectors, 33 code requirements for, 162–163 electrical design considerations for, 436 requirements for, 437 Smoke shelf, 919 Snout house, 210 Snow loads, 163, 686, 702–703 Soffit, 527 Soffited eaves, 532 Soft metric conversion, 341, 372 SoftPlan Architectural Design, 105 SoftPlan Systems, 105 Soil classification of, 773–774 compaction of, 775 freezing, 775, 776 healthy, 302 radon and, 776–777 texture of, 773–775 water content of, 775–776 Soil absorption fields, 472 Soil stack, 315 Soil vent, 315 Solar access, 260 Solar collectors, 242 Solar energy design active systems, 237, 242–244 building codes and, 238 elements of, 237–238 living with, 238 passive systems, 237, 239–242 roof overhang in, 238–239 sun orientation and, 237 Solar greenhouse, 241 Solar heat gain, 171 direct, 239 passive, 500 Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), 171, 250, 325 Solar hot water collectors, 473 Solar orientation, 259–260 Solar rights, 238 Solar site location, 260 Solar space heating, 237 Solariums, 204, 241–242 Sole, 665 Solid concrete construction, 370
Solid fuel-burning appliances, 350–351 Solid masonry construction, 643–646 SolidBuilder, 105 Sound orientation, 264, 266 Sound-deadening board, 672 Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI), 156 Southern colonial style, 219–220 Southern exposure, 259 Southern Forest Products Association, 637, 694 Southwest Windpower, 456–458 Space frames, 991 Span ratings, 662–663 Span tables, 694, 695, 712–714, 720 Spanish colonial style, 222 Spark arrester, 920 Specific heat, 245 Specific notes, 370 Specification writers, 11 Specifications for commercial construction, 146–149 defining, 141 general construction, 141, 146 for HVAC, 511 for loan applications, 33 for nailing, 996 for residential design, 146 Splash blocks, 556 Split-level floor plans, 214–215 Spread foundations, 779–780, 782 Sprinkler systems, 162, 471–472 Square footage calculations, 392 Stack vent, 315 Stainless steel piping, 461 Stair jack, 902 Stairs in CADD, 345–346, 385 in commercial buildings, 1036 design calculations for, 343 drawing with CADD, 912–913 egress requirements and, 159–160 exterior, 910–911 floor plan representation of, 343–345 as focal point, 204 laying out, 384 lighting/outlets in, 436 L-shaped, 910 open layout of, 906–909 planning, 341–343 rise/run determination for, 902–903 storage space under, 902 straight layout of, 903–906 terminology for, 901–902 traffic patterns in, 203 U-shaped, 909–910 Stairwells, 1032 Stamp symbols, 661–663 Standard Building Code (SBC), 156, 953
Standard construction modules, 372 Standard feature dimensions, 364–365 Standard Heat Loss Methodology (Bonneville Power Administration), 499 Standby heat losses, 465 Standpipes, 954 Staples, 997 Statement of probable construction cost, 36 Steel construction green properties of, 1003 lightweight steel framing, 988–991 prefabricated steel structures, 992–993 space frames, 991 steel-frame buildings, 993–995 Steel decking, 991 Steel framing, 641–642 for commercial projects, 1041 structural elevations for, 1042 Steel Joist Institute (SJI), 953, 991 Steel joists, 953, 991 Steel studs, 989–990 Steel-frame buildings, 993–995 Stem wall construction, 784–786, 794 Stilts, 257 Stock plans, 13 Stone, 314, 580–581 Storm sewers, 556 Stormwater management, 265, 482 Stringer, 902 Strongback, 676 StruCalc, 712 Structural details, 1046–1047, 1059 Structural drawings, 19, 1038–1049. See also Framing plans; Roof framing plans Structural elevations, 1042, 1044, 1046 Structural insulated panels (SIP), 641, 650 Structural lumber grading of, 708–709 loading reactions of, 710–712 properties of, 709–710 sizes for, 708 Structural masonry, on floor plan, 369–370 Structural wall sheathing, 667–668 Structured wiring systems, 435 Struts, drag, 1039 Stub walls, 364 Stucco, 313, 581, 670 Stud bolts, 1000 Stud frame, 360–361 Stud space, 489 Studs, 313, 362, 631, 665–666, 727 jack, 668 king, 668–669 maximum height of, 633 power-driven, 997 steel, 989–990
1126
Study, 183, 185 Subcontractors, 36 Subdivision, 33 Subdivision plans, 280–282 Subfloors, 633, 661 Subsill, 668–669 Subterranean construction, 229 terrain orientation and, 257, 259 wind protection with, 262 Sun angle, 530–532 Sun orientation outdoor area design and, 206 roof overhang and, 239 solar energy design and, 237 Sun studies, 107 Sunroom, 186, 204, 241 Supported area, 714–715 Surveyor’s units, in CADD, 288 Surveys, 35 control point, 291 great land, 268–270 grid, 291 radial, 291 rectangular system, 268–269, 271 Suspended ceilings, 446 Sustainable Attributes Evaluation Services (SAVE), 1004 Sustainable buildings, 233 Sustainable construction, 12 Sustainable design, 130–135 Sustainable energy use, 130 Sustainable Industries (magazine), 456 Sustainable material use, 130–131 Sustainable water use, 130 Swales, 482 Sweets Catalog, 4 Sweets Network, 1009 Switch leg, 432 Switches, placement of, 433 Symbol libraries, 355–357, 479 Systems, 148
T Takeoff, 105 Tankless water heaters, 465 Task lighting, 444–445 Tax incentives, for wind power, 458 TD Canada Trust, 237 Technical pens, 45 Telephones, electrical design considerations for, 436 Temperature, 500 Temperature difference, 500 Template drawings, 107–108 Templates architectural, 49 in CADD, 107–108 for furniture, 16 Temporary electric service, 432 Temporary loads, 685 Tension, 712 Termite barriers, 651, 785–786 Termite susceptibility, 165 Terrain models, 298 Terrain orientation, 257–258
Index
Text, 94, 1064–1065 Text files, 112 Text style, 94, 97, 118 Texture, 212 Thermal brake, 325 Thermal calculations, 499 Thermal resistance, 171 Thermal storage walls, 240–241 Thermostats, 492–493, 497 Thermosyphon traps, 465 Three-dimensional drawings, 1059–1060 Three-hinged arch beams, 976 Throat, 916 Tile roofing, 542, 574 Tilt-up concrete construction, 987–988, 1044, 1046 Timber framing, 635–638, 976, 1039–1041 Timbers, 709 Title blocks, 61, 114 Toe nailing, 997 Toggle bolts, 1000 Topography, 272–273 Tornadoes, 686 Townhouses, 471 Townships, 269, 271 Traffic flow, 203 Traffic patterns interior, 203 between interior and exterior, 203–206 vertical circulation drawings for, 1034–1037 Trammel, 67–68 Transfer shapes, 16 Transformers, 443 Transit stations, 291 Transition fittings, 518 Transverse sections, 853 Tread, 902 Triangles, 49 Tributary width, 715 Trimmers, 668–669, 677 Trombe, Felix, 240 Trombe wall, 240 True north, 259 Truss roofs, 677–680, 683 section layout and, 864 terminology in, 678–679 types of, 679–681, 683 Trusses, 677–678 construction of, 679 on framing plan, 731 Tubular daylighting devices, 326–327 Tudor arch beams, 976 Tudor style, 220 Typar, 665 Type X gypsum board, 672 Tyvek, 665
U UBC. See Uniform Building Code UDS. See Uniform Drawing System U-factor, 500 Ultraviolet light systems, 509
Unfinished basement, 394 Uniform Building Code (UBC), 156, 953 Uniform down-lighting, 443 Uniform Drawing System (UDS), 3, 108, 109–110 UniFormat, 112, 148–149 Unity, 214 Universal design, 464–467, 469, 616 Universal electrical installations, 437, 439 Uplift, 685, 686, 732 Urban design, 9 Urban green homes, 248–250 Urban heat island effect, 241 Urban planning, 9 U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), 130, 153, 173, 233 U.S. National CAD Standard (NCS), 3, 108–109, 120 CADD graphics, 117–118 commercial layer names in, 1063–1064 dimensions in, 360, 362, 374 drafting conventions, 116 drawing groups in, 1012 file management, 113 interior elevations and, 1034 layer names in, 122–124 model and sheet file-naming standards, 110–113 schedules, 116, 324, 330–331 sheet identification, 113 sheet organization, 113–116 Uniform Drawing System, 109–110 User interface, 80 USG Design Studio, 356 USGBC. See U.S. Green Building Council Utilities in CADD, 387 laying out, 386–387 Utility room, 200–201, 334–336 U-value, 325
V VA. See Veterans Administration Valley rafters, 675 Value, of colors, 212 Vanity, 333 Vapor barriers, 665, 671 Vaulted ceiling members, 676–677 Vaulted trusses, 679 Vellum, 58–59 Veneer, 610–611 grades of, 662 masonry, 314, 369, 646 Vent pipes, 461 Vent stack, 462 Vent systems, 469–470, 554 Ventilation. See Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Ventilation requirements, 161–162 Venting roofs, 543, 545 Vernier scale, 50–51
Vertical circulation drawings, 1034–1037 Vertical shear, 712 Vestibule, 238 Veterans Administration (VA), 13, 33, 141, 473 Vicinity map, 281–282 Victorian style, 223–224 View orientation, 257, 259 View selection, 79 Villas, Italian, 223 Vinyl siding, 577, 580 Virtual Building, 105, 106 Virtual reality (VR), 106–107 Visible transmittance (VT), 325–326 VOCs. See Volatile organic compounds Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 510, 682 Volt, 432 VR. See Virtual reality VT. See Visible transmittance
W Wainscots, 609 Walk-in closets, 189 Walk-through, 106, 1060 Wall coverings brick, 578–579, 580 concrete blocks, 579–580 in elevations, 575–581, 595 masonry, 578–581 plaster/stucco, 581 stone, 580–581 wood, 575–577 wood substitutes, 577 Wall lighting, 445 Wall shading, 316 Wall sheathing, 665–666 Wall symbols, 311, 313–314 Wall wash lighting, 445 Wallboard, 314, 672 Walls bearing, 664–665, 752 load distribution on, 692 load-bearing, 721 nonbearing, 664–665 section layout and, 863–864 sheathing of, 633 sole/plate of, 665 Wardrobes, on floor plans, 336 Washers, 998–999 Washington, George, 155 Waste vent, 315 Waste by-products, 650 Water barriers, 670 Water closet, 462, 465 Water conservation, 651 Water consumption, 481 Water heaters, 469 solar, 473 tankless, 465 Water service lines, 462 Water systems, 466–469 Watt, 432 Weathering damage susceptibility, 165–166
Index
Web-based architectural collaboration, 129 Weep holes, 646 Weight room, 202 Welding, 1000–1002 Western platform framing, 631, 633–634 Western Wood Products Association, 637, 694, 712 Western Woods Use Book (Western Wood Products Association), 712 Wet-bulb temperature, 169 Weyerhaeuser, 637, 699 Williamette Meridian, 269 Wind bracing requirements, 743–744 Wind conditions, 260 Wind design, 165, 167–168 Wind energy, 246 Wind farms, 246 Wind loads, 686–688 Wind orientation, 260, 262–264 Wind power generation, 456–458 Wind protection, 262–263 Wind resistance, 731–733 Wind turbines, 246 Window wells, 353, 394 Windows. See also Skylights awning, 322 bay, 323, 599 in bedrooms, 189 bow, 323
1127
CADD symbols for, 385, 389 casement, 322 clerestory, 240 dimensions of, 338, 368 double-hung, 322 efficiency ratings of, 325–326 elevation layout and, 592 on elevations, 582–583 fixed, 323 garden, 324 high-performance, 650 hopper, 322–323 insulated, 325 Jalousie, 323 keying, 328 laying out, 384–385 oriel, 323 schedule for, 328 symbol representations for, 321–324 types of, 322–324 Wine cellar, 199–200 Winter design temperature, 163–164 Wire gauge, 448 Wood adjustment factors, 718 Wood beams, sizing, 714–718 Wood characteristics, determining, 694 Wood floors foundation support for, 786, 788 ventilation/access for, 788
Wood framing methods balloon, 631–632, 637 for commercial projects, 1039–1041 platform framing, 631, 633–634 post-and-beam, 634–636, 637, 638 timber, 635–638, 976 Wood grain, 709–710 Wood member loading reactions bending strength, 709, 710–711 compression, 712 deflection, 711 fiber bending stress, 710 horizontal shear, 712 modulus of elasticity, 711 tension, 712 vertical shear, 712 Wood parquet flooring, 682 Wood shingles, 541, 577, 579 Wood storage, 348 Wood Structural Design Data (National Forest Products Association), 712 Wood structural panel (WSP), 747 Wood substitutes, in wall covering, 577 Wood wall covering, 575–577 Woodwork Institute, 356
Work results, 146 Work triangle, 195–196 Workers’ compensation, 35 Working area, 379, 382 Working drawings, 17–31, 1059 Working elevations, 23, 568–569, 571 Workplace ethics, 5 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 225 WSP. See Wood structural panel Wythes, 644, 646
X Xeriscaping, 301
Y Yard space, 302
Z Zero-clearance fireplaces, 347 Zone control systems, 491–492 Zoned heating systems, 491–492 Zoning on architectural drawings, 61 design category and, 960–961 hydro, 302 setbacks and, 289 site plan layout and, 285 of subdivisions, 280
