Boundaryless Careers and Occupational Wellbeing

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Boundaryless Careers and Occupational Well-Being

10.1057/9780230281851 - Boundaryless Careers and Occupational Wellbeing, Edited by Michela Cortini, Giancarlo Tanucci and Estelle Morin 9780230_236608_01_prexx.indd i

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Boundaryless Careers and Occupational Well-Being

Michela Cortini Professor of Organizational Psychology, G. d´Annunzio University of Chieti-Pescara

Giancarlo Tanucci Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Bari

Estelle Morin Professor of Organizational Behavior, HEC Montreal

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Edited by

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Selection and editorial content © Michela Cortini, Giancarlo Tanucci and Estelle Morin 2011 Individual chapters © the contributors 2011 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.

Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2011 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN: 978–0–230–23660–8 hardback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne

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No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.

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List of Tables

viii

List of Figures

xi

List of Graphs

xii

Notes on Contributors

xiii

Introduction Michela Cortini, Giancarlo Tanucci and Estelle M. Morin Part I

New Career Models

1

The Protean and Boundaryless Career in Italy: Game on? Alessandro Lo Presti, Marcello Nonnis and Jon P. Briscoe

2

The Timing of Adjustment Strategies during Work Role Transition: A Longitudinal Comparison between Newcomers and Job Changers Stefano Toderi and Guido Sarchielli

3

A Newcomer’s Career between Community and Identity Marta Traetta and Susanna Annese

4

Obscure Future? A Pilot Study on University Students’ Career Expectations Michela Cortini, Emanuela Notarangelo and Elisa Cardellicchio Part II

5

6

7

1

7

17 30

42

Occupational Well-being

What Makes Them Happy? Comparing Working and Non-Working Men and Women in Typical and Atypical Occupations Dahlia Moore Job Resources and Exhaustion at Work: The Mediating Role of Global Meaning Maria Elena Magrin, Stefano Gheno, Marta Scrignaro and Veronica Viganò Risk Perception and Safety Standards Violation: Psychosocial Antecedents of Injury in a Metalworking Factory Valeria Piras and Maria Lacasella

57

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Contents

87

100

v

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8

9

Contents

Hostile Behaviors in the Workplace: Consequences and Reactions of the Victims Marcello Nonnis, Stefania Cuccu and Stefano Porcu Occupational Stress and Job Insecurity May Reduce the Immune NK Response in Men Working in a University Laura Forcella, Angela Di Donato, Luca Di Giampaolo, Massimilano Barattucci, Angelo Turano and Paolo Boscolo

10 The Role of Empathy in Health Professions: A Study of Professional and Volunteer Operators Filomena Milena Marzano, Carmencita Serino and Gianvito D’Aprile 11 Work Experience As a Discursive Resource for Subjective Well-being Amelia Manuti, Giuseppe Mininni, Rubino Rossella and Rosa Scardigno 12 Models of Workers’ Involvement in Societas Europaea’s Governance Daniela Caterino Part III

121

132

141

158

Atypical Workers

13 Atypical Workers and Burnout: Preliminary Research Callea Antonino and Federica Ballone 14 Work Identity, Well-being and Time Perspective of Typical and Atypical Young Workers Elisabetta Crocetti, Augusto Palmonari and Barbara Pojaghi 15 Atypical Employment: An Explorative Study of the Motivations and Attitudes of Atypical Workers Emanuela Ingusci, Francesca Palano, Laura Ressa and Giancarlo Tanucci 16 Job Satisfaction and Values: A Comparison between Non-traditional Workers and Traditional Workers Silvia De Simone and Marina Mondo Part IV

112

171

181

191

203

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vi

Work–Life Balance

17 Perceived Utility of Welfare Initiatives in an Italian Multinational Corporation Simona Ricotta, Claudio G. Cortese and Chiara Ghislieri

219

18 The Role of Work–Family Spillover in Psychological Well-being and Psychological Discomfort at Work Lara Colombo and Chiara Ghislieri

230

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19 The Impact of Law 53/2000 (Regulation of Parental Leave) on Fathers: A Good Law Disregarded in Daily Life Sara Mazzucchelli

241

20 Female Participation to Labor Markets and the Role of Policy Measures in Local Performance Raffaella Patimo

256

21 Reconciling Work and Family Life: Collective Bargaining in the Local Public Services Sector Carla Spinelli

270

Part V

Organizational Efficiency

22 Promoting Psychological Health and Performance in an Educational Work Context: How the Satisfaction of Three Basic Psychological Needs Can Help Achieve Both Maryse Brien, Jean-Sébastien Boudrias, Dominic Lapointe and André Savoie 23 A Study of Willingness to Mentor: Demographic Differences, Determinants and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Usefulness Paola Gatti and Stefania Santoro

279

289

24 The Right Place for the Right Man Lucia Monacis and Maria Sinatra

301

Index

311

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Contents vii

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Tables

1.3 1.4 1.5 2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6.1

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Comparison between measurement models of PCAS Comparison between current and Briscoe et al.’s PCAS item loadings Comparison between measurement models of BCAS Comparison between current and Briscoe et al.’s BCAS item loadings Zero-order correlation between the PCAS and BCAS subscales used in the current study and those of Briscoe et al Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients for the study variables From traditional career to boundaryless career Frequency of newcomer’s non-verbal behaviors Distribution of turn taking Distribution of the newcomer’s repairs Levene’s test of equality of error variances dependent variable: career attitude Descriptive statistics Tests of between-subjects effects Cosine’s coefficient of word associations for the word “work” Analysis of variance-working and non-working men and women Scalar maximum likelihood regression estimates – men and women Scalar maximum likelihood regression estimates – non-working and working men Scalar maximum likelihood regression estimates – non-working and working women Means, Standard Deviations, internal consistencies (Cronbach’s αs on the diagonal), and correlations among the variables (N = 139) Indicators related to control of risk and gravity of risk factors Descriptive analysis concerning the risk perception construct Analysis of the latent factorial structure of the attitude towards risk construct Analysis of the latent factorial structure of the safety regulation violation construct Correlations between antecedent factors ANOVA for play risk factors vs risk control ANOVA for ethic risk factors vs risk control ANOVA for play risk factors vs risk gravity

10 11 12 13 13 24 31 36 37 38 47 48 49 51 63 67 72 74

93 103 103

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1.1 1.2

104 105 105 106 106 106

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Tables ix

7.11 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 9.1

9.2

10.1 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 14.1 14.2

14.3 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5

ANOVA for ethic risk factors vs risk gravity Linear regression for control, gravity, play risk, and ethic risk factors vs regulation violation Hierarchic linear regression of the predictor connected to rule violation behavior Oppressive actions Consequences for the worker Reactions of the worker to mobbing Contributing stress-related psychosomatic factors Contributing factors in the psychological sphere Contributing factors in the behavioral sphere Contributing factors on informal relationships outside the workplace Contributing factor on formal relationships outside the workplace STAI I, STAI II, job strain (job demand/decision latitude), social support, job insecurity, and subjective symptoms of men working in a university STAI I, STAI II, job strain (job demand/decision latitude), social support, job insecurity, and subjective symptoms of women working in a university Strengths and weaknesses of caregivers’ relationships with patients (content analysis of participants’ free answers) Means and Standard Deviations Cronbach’s alpha: emotional exhaustion Cronbach’s alpha: depersonalization Cronbach’s alpha: low personal satisfaction Pearson’s coefficient correlation Threshold values of males Threshold values of females Descriptive statistics for the variables included in the study Associations between work identity processes and satisfaction with life (standardized betas and proportions of explained variance) Distribution of typical and atypical workers across work identity statuses Sample characteristics Number of past jobs Proactivity Scale, principal components analysis (Rotated component matrix) TOM, Principal Components Analysis (Rotated component matrix) T-test for independent samples: Proactivity–Occupational situation

106 107 108 116 116 116 117 117 118 118 118

124

125 137 175 176 176 176 177 177 177 184

185 187 193 195

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7.9 7.10

197 198 199

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Tables

15.6 T-test for independent samples: Proactivity–Contract duration 15.7 T-test for independent samples: Number of past jobs 15.8 T-test for independent samples: Motivation Orientation–Gender 15.9 T-test for independent samples: Motivation Orientation–Occupational situation 16.1 Traditional workers 16.2 Atypical workers 16.3 Chart of the main characteristics of the four clusters 17.1 Perceived utility of welfare initiatives – results for each initiative (1–7 point scale) 17.2 Perceived utility of welfare initiatives – results for initiatives in categories (1–7 point scale) 17.3 Correlations between utility of welfare policies, facet job satisfaction, global job satisfaction, and work motivation 18.1 Correlations between scales (Pearson’s r); Means (M), Standard Deviation (SD) of the scales; reliability of scales (a) 18.2 Multiple Regression – Well-being at Work (Method Enter; R-squared .28) 18.3 Multiple regression – discomfort at work (Method Enter; R-squared .28) 20.1 Main labor market indicators, EU 27 (plus Norway), 2007 20.2 The inconsistency of policy targets as shown in EU* female labor market data, 2006 20.3 Main labor market indicators, Italian regions, 2007 22.1 Factor loadings, communalities (h2), and percents of variance for Principal Axis Factoring extraction and Promax rotation on Teachers’ Task Performance Questionnaire (N = 146) 22.2 Factors correlations matrix 22.3 Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables measured 23.1 Psychometric properties of scales 23.2 Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations of all variables 23.3 Multiple regression results examining interaction effect of drawbacks and organizational usefulness on willingness 23.4 DtM regression coefficients at three moderator levels (OUM) 24.1 Average performance 24.2 Post-test means for profile of mood questionnaire 24.3 Means for subjects ratings

199 199 199 200 209 209 210 224 224 225 234 236 237 262 263 264

283 284 285 293 294 295 296 306 306 307

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x

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Figures Estimated marginal mean of Career A Graph of word occurrences and co-occurrences on a multidimensional space 4.3 A multidimensional scaling using a “word × word” matrix with 2 occurrences as the lower thershold of word occurrence 5.1 Theoretical nonrecursive model 5.2 Empirical model – men in typical (male-typed) occupations 5.3 Empirical model – men in atypical (female and mixed) occupations 5.4 Empirical model – women in typical (female-typed) occupations 5.5 Empirical model – women in atypical (mixed and male-typed) occupations 9.1 STAI I and STAI II in groups with low (<16%) average (16–22%) and high (<22%) blood cytotoxic activity/ml of blood 9.2 Job insecurity and job strain ⫻ 10–3 in groups with low (<16%) average (16–22%) and high (<22%) blood cytotoxic activity/ml of blood 14.1 Z-scores for commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment for the work identity clusters 23.1 Interaction between OUM and DtM on willingness

48 50 52 66 71 76 77 77

127

127

186 296

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4.1 4.2

xi

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20.1 Female activity rate by Italian region 20.2 Female activity rate by Italian region 20.3 Total unemployment rate by Italian region

xii

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Susanna Annese is Assistant Professor of Group Psychology and Social Communication Psychology at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her research interests lie in participation and identity dynamics in real, virtual, and blended communities and in innovative methodological approaches to studying them. Callea Antonino teaches Psychometrics and the Methodology of Psychological Research at Lumsa University of Rome. He has conducted research into organizational well-being, careers, and atypical work, and he has validated a questionnaire on the precariousness of life (POL). Federica Ballone has a degree in Work and Organizational Psychology; she works in a training and communication organization. She has carried out research into atypical working and coaching. Massimilano Barattucci has a Ph.D. in Organizational Psychology from the University of Chieti-Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”. He is a psychotherapist whose main research interests are organizational psychology and work-related stress syndromes and diseases. Paolo Boscolo has a degree in Medicine from the Catholic University of Rome. He specializes in cardiovascular diseases, occupational medicine, and environmental health. Since 2001 he has been Professor of Occupational Medicine at the University of Chieti-Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”. Jean-Sébastien Boudrias is Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Montreal. His current research focuses on employee empowerment, personality and competence, and psychological health at work. Maryse Brien is studying for a in Industrial and Organizational Psychology at the University of Montreal. Her research examines how organizations affect people’s health and individual performance.

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Contributors

Jon P. Briscoe is Associate Professor of Management at Northern Illinois University. He received his DBA from Boston University. He has studied the “new” career extensively and also does research into leadership and executive development. He is a former Chair of the Careers Division of the Academy of Management and currently serves as Research Director for the 5C Group, a collaboration of researchers across the world dedicated to understanding career issues in different cultures.

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xiv Contributors

Elisa Cardellicchio is studying for a Ph.D. in Organizational Psychology at the University of Verona. Her main research interests are contingent work, career guidance, and academic socialization.

Lara Colombo is Assistant Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Turin. Her research activity focuses on work–family relations, career and family transitions, and well-being at work. Claudio G. Cortese is Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Turin. His research focuses on adult learning, training methods, teamwork, work motivation, job satisfaction, psychosocial risks, and organizational well-being. Michela Cortini is Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Chieti-Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”. She is a charter member and councillor of the Organizational Psychology chapter of the Italian Association of Psychology. Her main research interests are organizational communication, crisis management, organizational well-being, and mixed methods in industrial and organizational psychology. Elisabetta Crocetti teaches Social Psychology at the University of Macerata. Her main research interests are identity development, adjustment, and interpersonal relationships during adolescence and emerging adulthood. Stefania Cuccu is studying for a Ph.D. at the University of Turin. She is involved with projects jointly run with the Department of Psychology at the University of Cagliari. Her main research interests are work and organizational psychology, well-being, and the prevention of psychosocial uneasiness. Gianvito D’Aprile is studying for a Ph.D. in the Social Psychology of Community at the University of Salento. His doctoral project looks at corporate social responsibility and sustainability in small and medium-sized enterprises, from a socio-psychological perspective. His research interests include theories of social identity and self-categorization, sense of community, participation, and organizational culture.

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Daniela Caterino is Professor of Commercial Law and Bankruptcy Law at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her main research interests are corporate governance, antitrust law, and the European Company (Societas Europaea).

Silvia De Simone is a Researcher teaching Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Cagliari. Her main research interests are organizational well-being, innovation processes, non-traditional working, job satisfaction, the work–family interface, and balancing domestic and professional roles.

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Angela Di Donato is a Fellow in Occupational and Environmental Health at the University of Chieti-Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”. Her field of research is occupational stress, job insecurity, and lifestyle. She is currently studying a population of sanitary staff.

Laura Forcella is a Fellow in Occupational and Environmental Health at the University of Chieti-Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”. Her field of research is occupational psychology. She is currently studying a population of sanitary staff. Paola Gatti is a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Psychology at the University of Turin. Her main research interests include mentoring in organizations, newcomer socialization, and adult training. Stefano Gheno is a member of the Department of Psychology at the Catholic University of Milan. He is the founder and CEO of Well at Work & Associates, a consultancy in the field of training and organizational development. Chiara Ghislieri is Assistant Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Turin. Her research activity involves four principal subjects: leadership, work–life conflict and balance, well-being at work, and vocational guidance. Emanuela Ingusci has a Ph.D. in Work and Organizational Psychology from the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her main research interests are organizational psychology, career guidance, and student placement. Maria Lacasella has a degree in Psychology from the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her main research interests are industrial safety, attitudes toward risk, and organizational well-being. Dominic Lapointe is studying for a Ph.D. in Industrial and Organizational Psychology at the University of Montreal. His main research interests are psychological health at work and work characteristics.

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Luca Di Giampaolo is a Fellow in Occupational and Environmental Health at the University of Chieti-Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”. He holds the degree of Specialist in Occupational Medicine. His fields of research are immunotoxicology and occupational stress.

Alessandro Lo Presti is Professor of Work Psychology at the Second University of Naples. His main research interests are new career patterns, job insecurity, the job demands–resources model, and the development and validation of psychometric tools in vocational psychology and volunteerism. Maria Elena Magrin is Professor of Social Psychology at the University of Milan-Bicocca. She is an occupational health psychologist and a charter member of the Italian Association of Positive Psychology. Her research

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Contributors

focuses on identifying resilience factors that promote psychological wellbeing at work.

Filomena Milena Marzano undertook postdoctoral training in Social Psychology at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her research aims to understand group relations, intergroup conflicts, and the moderating role of empathy within these contexts. Sara Mazzucchelli works as a Researcher at the Athenaeum Centre for Family Studies and Research at the Catholic University of Milan. She is a member of the organizational and scientific committee of the Family and Work Award promoted by the Lombard Region Council, ALTIS (the Postgraduate School of Business and Society of the Catholic University of Milan), and the Agostino Gemelli Postgraduate School of Psychology. Her main research interests are social and cultural transformations of the family, company welfare, family, gender, and work. Giuseppe Mininni is Professor of Cultural Psychology and the Psychology of Communication at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. His main research interests are semiotics and the social psychology of language. Lucia Monacis is conducting postdoctoral research at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her main research interests are the psychology of communication, environmental psychology, and the history of psychology. Marina Mondo is Assistant Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Cagliari. Her main research interests are organizational disease, non-traditional workers, and career guidance. Dahlia Moore is Professor and Chair of the Behavioral Sciences Department and Head of Graduate Studies at the College of Management, Rishon LeZion, (Israel). Her teaching and research focus on work and family role conflict, work satisfaction, and the gender wage gap.

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Amelia Manuti is Assistant Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her main research interests include job flexibility and the meaning of work, occupational well-being, and professional identity.

Estelle M. Morin is Professor of Organizational Behavior and Quality of Working Life at HEC Montreal, the affiliated business school of the University of Montreal. Her main research interests are job design and the meaningfulness of work, and their impact on employees’ well-being and engagement and on organizational effectiveness. In 2002, she co-founded the Research and Intervention Center for Work, Organizational Effectiveness and Health (CRITEOS).

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Marcello Nonnis is Assistant Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Cagliari. His main research interests are organizational well-being, action research, and career development.

Francesca Palano has a Ph.D. in Community Psychology from the University of Salento. Her main research interests are organizational psychology, student attrition, worker safety, and student placement. Augusto Palmonari is Professor of Social Psychology at the University of Bologna. He is the editor-in-chief of the journal Psicologia Sociale. His main research interests are adolescent and youth development, group processes, and social representations. Raffaella Patimo is Assistant Professor of Economics at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her main research interests are labor market inequalities relating to gender and education, European employment strategy, and local development policies. Valeria Piras teaches Work and Organizational Psychology and the Psychology of Social Communication at the University of Molise – Campobasso. She also works as a trainer and psychologist. Her main research interests are career guidance and employability. Barbara Pojaghi is Professor of Social Psychology and Director of the Research Center on Adolescence and Youth at the University of Macerata. Her main research interests are political psychology, moral development, and gender differences. Stefano Porcu is a graduate in Psychology. He is involved in research at with the Department of Psychology at the University of Cagliari. His main research interests are work and organizational psychology, well-being, and the prevention of psychosocial uneasiness. Laura Ressa Ph.D. is a graduate in Psychological Sciences and Techniques from the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her thesis deals with occupational socialization, proactivity, and motivation. She is currently attending the degree course in Communication and Organizational Psychology at the University of Bari.

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Emanuela Notarangelo graduated in Psychology from the University of Rome “La Sapienza”. Her main research interests are developmental psychology and advertising research.

Simona Ricotta is a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Psychology at the University of Turin. Her research interests include organizational wellbeing, work-related stress and psychosocial risks, job satisfaction, and work– family conflict.

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Contributors

Rubino Rossella participates in the research activities of LARIM (the Laboratorio di Analisi delle Relazioni Interpersonali e Mediate) at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”.

Guido Sarchielli is a Professor at the University of Bologna, where he teaches Advanced Work Psychology. He is a former Dean of the Faculty of Psychology. His research interests are job insecurity, work socialization, and social and professional identity in the transition to retirement. André Savoie teaches Work and Organizational Psychology at the University of Montreal. His research focuses on psychological health at work, teamwork, and change management. Rosa Scardigno is studying for a Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her main research interests are cultural psychology, the psychology of meaning, subjective and organizational well-being, organizational communication, and qualitative methods. Marta Scrignaro is a postdoctoral Research Fellow in the Department of Psychology at the University of Milano-Bicocca. She is studying the role of psychosocial dimensions in fostering positive life change in the aftermath of life-threatening events. She is a councillor of the Italian Association of Positive Psychology. Carmencita Serino is a Full Professor of Social Psychology at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. She is a full member of the European Association of Social Psychology and a member of the National Committee of the Italian Social Psychology Association. She is the author of several publications, a referee for Italian and international journals, and a member of the editorial board of the journal Psicologia Sociale. She has been a visiting lecturer at several European universities, including Paris V – Sorbonne, Lausanne and Geneva. Her main research areas include personal and social identity, social categorization and inter-group relations, self/other comparison and similarity judgment, empathy, and social representations. Maria Sinatra is Professor of General Psychology at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. She is Head of the Alberto Marzi Laboratory of the History of Applied Psychology, which deals with the cataloging and digitization of scientific instruments.

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Stefania Santoro is studying for a Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of Turin. Her research focuses on well-being in organizations and adult training.

Carla Spinelli is Professor of Labor Law and Industrial Relations in the Public Sector at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. Her main research interests are public management, collective bargaining, work–life balance, collective and individual dismissal, and European labor law.

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Contributors xix

Stefano Toderi is a Researcher who teaches Work Psychology, Ergonomics, and Work Analysis at the University of Bologna. His main research interests are organizational socialization and psychological contract, working career, work stress, and organizational well-being. Marta Traetta is studying for a Ph.D. and teaches Group Psychology at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”. She is interested in the use of innovative methodologies to study psychosocial processes in communities of practice, especially blended learning communities. Angelo Turano has a degree in Medicine from the University of ChietiPescara “G. d’Annunzio”. He is currently training for the degree of Specialist in Occupational Medicine at the University of L’Aquila. His fields of research are immunotoxicology and occupational stress. Veronica Viganò is an occupational health psychologist in the Department for the Evaluation and Management of Occupational Stress at the San Gerardo Hospital in Milan. Her work and research examine the evaluation and management of occupational stress. She also trains adults in the prevention and management of stress. She is a member of the Italian Association of Positive Psychology.

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Giancarlo Tanucci is Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology and of Human Resources Management at the University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, where he served as Director of the Department of Psychology. He is a psychologist whose primary research interest is organizational behavior and career development. He leads the Società Italiana di Psicologia dell’Educazione e della Formazione (SIPEF) and is author or co-author of several books and articles.

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Introduction

This book addresses a complex issue: the relationship between so-called boundaryless careers and occupational well-being. The notion of a boundaryless career, defined as “a sequence of job opportunities that go beyond the boundaries of each single employment setting” (De Filippi & Arthur, 1994: 307), was first introduced as a response to the adopted theme of the 1993 Academy of Management Meeting, namely “the boundaryless organization”. Some of the hallmarks of this concept include portable skills, knowledge, and capabilities over multiple firms, personal identification with meaningful work experiences, on-the-job learning and training programs, the development of multiple networks and peer learning relationships and individual responsibility for career management (Sullivan, 2001). Researchers point out the fact that it would be better and clearer to talk about “boundary-crossing careers” (Inkson, 2006; King et al., 2005), since, especially for some worker groups such as women, occupational boundaries are still unavoidable – they exist and can be divided, in turn, into physical, social and mental boundaries (Hernes, 2004). Besides the mere nominal differences, we may unify boundaryless careers and boundary-crossing careers into the concept of contemporary careers (Arthur, 2008) – a meta-construct, which also includes kaleidoscope careers (Mainero & Sullivan, 2005; 2006), protean careers (Hall, 2002; 2004) and post-corporate careers (Peiperl & Baruch, 1997) – by stressing the interrelationship between career actors’ objective and subjective experiences, and suggesting that workers can both face and influence several organizational, occupational and institutional boundaries, as well as boundaries related to familial and individual circumstances. Themes related to boundaryless and protean careers are noteworthy if we consider the challenges posed by a transition to more temporary employment arrangements, as part of the shift from an industrial to a knowledgebased economy. As stated above, the main aim of this book is to reflect on individual outcomes of contemporary careers, especially on the well-being dimension.

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Michela Cortini, Giancarlo Tanucci and Estelle M. Morin

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Michela Cortini, Giancarlo Tanucci and Estelle M. Morin

When we refer to the well-being concept, we have a composite idea of wellbeing in mind. To start with, well-being can no longer be seen just as the absence of pain: as clearly stated by the World Health Organization (WHO), which describes mental health/mental functioning as a concept encompassing “subjective well-being, perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, intergenerational dependence, and self-actualization of one’s intellectual and emotional potential, among others” (WHO, 2001: 5). This definition is almost the same as the quality-of-life definition (QoL), which recently appears to converge with the concepts of psychological and subjective well-being (Camfield & Skevington, 2008). In psychological terms, wellbeing becomes a combination of feeling good and functioning effectively (Huppert, 2008). The elements of psychological well-being related to the “feeling good” state include positive emotions (contentment, happiness), but also interest and commitment, confidence, and social relations. Those related to the “functioning” concept include having a goal in life, having control, developing one’s potentials, and satisfying social relations. Two goals guided the writing and the organization of this book. First, we wanted to shed light on the relationship between contemporary careers and well-being by adopting a multidisciplinary approach. Such an approach is, on the one hand, the natural outcome of our idea of doing science, something the three of us have shared for a long time, and, on the other hand, an inner need that has arisen within the boundaryless career model (Arthur, 2008). Second, we have tried to think about the relationship between new careers and well-being in the most applied terms whether possible. The interest in boundaryless careers and well-being inspired us to set up a dedicated cultural event, the International CRITEOS Forum, which took place at the University of Bari from 10–12 December 2008. CRITEOS stands for the “Centre de Recherche et Intervention pour le Travail, l’Efficacité Organisationnelle et la Santé”, a not-for-profit organization, headed by Estelle Morin and specializing in organizational well-being and efficacy in working contexts. Every two years the research center CRITEOS organizes an International forum, aimed at providing a meeting point for scholars, researchers, business associations or public bodies concerned with occupational well-being and organizational efficiency issues. The sections of this book were drafted during the International CRITEOS Forum at Bari, entitled “Boundaryless careers and occupational well-being”. More than 100 people attended the forum but only a limited number of papers were selected for the present publication by a panel of international referees. The book is divided into five parts: new career models, occupational well-being, atypical workers, work–life balance, and organizational efficiency; these themes reflect, on the one hand, the different interests CRITEOS has developed during the last decade and, on the other, the most

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Introduction 3

References Arthur, M. B. (2008). Examining contemporary careers: A call for interdisciplinary inquiry. Human Relations, 61 (2), 163–186. Camfield, L. & Skevington, S. M. (2008). On subjective well-being and quality of life. Journal of Health Psychology, 13 (6), 764–775. DeFillippi, R.J. & Arthur, M.B. (1994). The boundaryless career: A competency-based perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 307–24. Hall, D. T. (2002). “Brand you”: Building your protean career. In A. R. Cohen (Ed.), The portable MBA in management (2nd ed., pp. 214–229). New York: John Wiley. Hall, D. T. (2004). The protean career: A quarter-century journey. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 1–13. Hernes, T. (2004). Studying composite boundaries: A framework of analysis. Human Relations, 57 (1), 9–29. Huppert, F.A. (2009). A new approach to reducing disorder and improving well-being. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4 (1), 108–111. Inkson, K. (2006). Protean and boundaryless careers as metaphors. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69 (1), 48–63. King, Z., Burke, S., & Pemberton, J. (2005). The “bounded” career: An empirical study of human capital, career mobility and employment outcomes in a mediated labour market. Human Relations, 58, 981–1007. Mainero, L. A. & Sullivan, S. E. (2005). Kaleidoscope careers: An alternate explanation for the “opt-out” revolution. Academy of Management Executive, 19, 106–123. Mainero, L. A. & Sullivan, S. E. (2006). The Opt-Out Revolt: Why People Are Leaving Companies to Create Kaleidoscope Careers. Mountain View, CA: Davies-Black. Peiperl, M. & Baruch, Y. (1997). Back to square zero: The post-corporate career. Organization Dynamics, 25 (4), 7–22. Sullivan, S. E. (2001). Careers in the 21st century: Special issue: Introduction. Group & Organization Management, 26 (3), 252–254. World Health Organization (2001). The World Health Report 2001. Mental Health: New Understanding, New Hope, WHO Publishing.

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important parts of the kaleidoscope through which it is possible to look at new careers. Finally, in order to make the book more accessible most of the concepts described in the book can be seen as continuums from a positive to a negative pole; for example, the concept of well-being goes from full well-being to extreme stress and unhealthy situations. Similarly, “occupational mobility” goes from occupational and organizational mobility at one extreme to job embeddedness at the other.

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Part I

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New Career Models

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1 The Protean and Boundaryless Career in Italy: Game on?

Introduction In the last thirty years many scholars have realized that careers have lost their linearity and associated predictability. As stated by Sullivan (1999), traditional developmental career models, which conceptualize individuals as experiencing an uninterrupted ascent up the corporate ladder, have given way to new multidirectional (Baruch, 2004) perspectives. For example, Cohen, Duberley, and Mallon (2004) proposed a social constructionist approach to careers; Inkson (2004) suggested nine metaphors through which to eclectically view careers; Hall (2004) highlights the “protean” career, and Arthur and Rousseau (1996) present the concept of the “boundaryless” career. The latter two approaches embody a proactive, autonomous, and selfdirected perspective on the way a career actor should vocationally behave to effectively cope with environmental challenges. The protean career attitude sees a worker engaged in an autonomous effort to manage his or her own career (self-directed career management) under the guidance of their own values (values-driven). This is opposed to outer-directed, organizationally sourced career development and the borrowing of external and/or organizational standards. The boundaryless career attitude refers to an individual who transcends psychological and/or physical boundaries, looking for jobs and opportunities with other colleagues and organizations, or moving across different employers (i.e. in contrast to the vision of a simple employer for life) (Sullivan & Arthur, 2006). The last three decades’ economic, social, and political changes have served to modify work relations, labor market dynamics, and careers in many Western countries. However, the scholarly literature on such dynamics has usually concentrated on the United States, while other countries remained underconsidered (i.e. American findings have simply been applied to international contexts). In particular, Italy is a country characterized by some peculiarities in its labor market. Until the eighties, most Italian middle-class workers

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Alessandro Lo Presti, Marcello Nonnis and Jon P. Briscoe

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exemplified the prototypical golden age developmental career actor: that is, someone who worked for their whole lifetime in the same organization. Since the nineties, deregulation in the local labor market (e.g. the introduction of temporary and part-time work contracts) and other changes (increased competition in core economic sectors like textiles, mechanical and electronic components, and the crisis of small family firms, etc.), shifted the established picture and obliged Italians to face new kinds of working relations. Italian workers usually use a single word to describe this situation: “precarietà” (precariousness); scholars have usually used another term: “economic anxiety” (Herzenberg, Alic, & Wial, 1998). While deregulation has involved the loss of many contractual protections and made it easier for employers to respond to external demands by varying the quality and quantity of their workforce (i.e. hiring and firing workers at will), this situation had not benefited workers. This is because the local labor market has not increased its dynamism and finding a new job has remained difficult (especially in the southern regions of Italy, where data for this study were collected). Recently, instruments have been developed that allow us to measure protean and boundaryless career attitudes (Briscoe, Hall, & DeMuth, 2006). Given the importance of careers and employment in the Italian context with the aforementioned economic context, we placed great importance on discovering and documenting whether protean and boundaryless career attitudes could successfully be measured amongst Italian workers. If they can, this may provide a valuable tool for academics and practitioners as they seek to understand and improve coping responses to new types of career. Thus, the aim of our study was to explore, test and adapt protean and boundaryless career attitudes (Briscoe, Hall, & DeMuth, 2006) in the Italian context.

Method Participants A total of 448 Southern-Italian workers were recruited via a convenience sample and responded to a self-report questionnaire (paper and pencil). In total, 250 of the respondents were male, the mean age being 37.32 years (SD 10.52 years), and the average tenure 12.66 years (SD 9.7 years). Of the respondents, 243 were married (193 were not, 12 did not respond), 252 held permanent contracts, 324 held intellectual or white-collar jobs (123 held manual or blue-collar jobs, 1 did not respond), and, finally, 169 were unionized (277 were not, 2 did not respond).

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8

Measures The copyrighted scales were originally developed in English, so they were translated (with permission) into Italian according to the procedure outlined by Brislin (1980): first they were translated from English to Italian by

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9

one translator, then another translator re-translated them from Italian to English, and finally the text was checked for possible discrepancies between the original English items and the re-translated ones. The Protean Career Attitude Scale (PCAS; Briscoe et al., 2006), is a fourteen item scale, containing two correlated subscales: Self-directed Career Management (8 items, a = .72), which refers to an autonomous and proactive way to manage one’s own career (e.g. I am responsible for my success or failure in my career), and Values Driven (6 items, a = .55), an indicator of the influence of personal and professional values in driving one’s own career management (e.g. What I think about what is right in my career is more important to me than what my company thinks). The questionnaire is on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). The total score of each subscale is equal to the sum of their items. The Boundaryless Career Attitude Scale (BCAS; Briscoe et al., 2006), is a thirteen item scale, containing two correlated factors: Boundaryless Mindset (8 items, a = .80), as an indicator of the individual’s attitude to initiating and pursuing professional relationships across physical and/or psychological boundaries (e.g. I enjoy jobs that require me to interact with people in many different organizations), and Organizational Mobility Preference (5 items, a = .76) which measures the inclination to physically crossing organizational boundaries in employment mobility (e.g. I like the predictability that comes with working continuously for the same organization). The scale is on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). The total score of each subscale is equal to the sum of their items. Biographical data were recorded as well: gender (male vs. female), age, marital status (single vs. married), tenure, type of work (blue collar vs. white collar), type of contract (permanent vs. fixed-term), union membership (yes vs. no). Data analyses With regard to the structural analysis of PCAS and BCAS (in their respective subscales) a Confirmatory Factor Analysis was run (estimation method: Weighted Least Squares, because some items have asymmetric distributions). Associations between variables were described according to mean, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations. Differences between dichotomized groups were tested through Student’s t test.

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The Protean and Boundaryless Career in Italy

Results Because each questionnaire contained two subscales, alternative measurement models (items/indicators were allowed to be estimated) were specified as follows: 1. the original hypothesized bi-factorial model: two correlated factors;

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To facilitate comparison with the results obtained by Briscoe et al. (2006), the same goodness of fit indexes were used: Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1990) which compares the observed covariance matrix and the model covariance matrix per degree of freedom; Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), a measure of the model improvement, compared to a null model; Incremental Fit Index (IFI; Bollen, 1989), and Normed Fit Index (NFI; Bentler, & Bonnet, 1980), reflecting the proportion by which the model improves fit compared to the null model. Moreover, chi-square and degrees of freedom were included to make a final selection of the more parsimonious model. It must be noted that results by Briscoe et al. (2006) use a model that tests both scales at the same time. This was not done in the present case; in fact it was preferable to run two different analyses (one for each scale) to allow the software to work on an adequate number of cases (in relation to the estimation method used). Table 1.1 shows our results compared to those of Briscoe at al. (2006) with respect to PCAS modeling. Although chi-square is sensitive to sample size, it can be considered as a means of comparing different measurement models. The chi-square difference between the bi-factorial models and the remaining two models, 35.49 per 1 degree of freedom, is significant, and allows the former model to be accepted. With regard to goodness of fit indexes, they appear to be similar to or slightly better than Briscoe et al.’s results (CFI = .91, IFI = .91, NFI = .90), except for RMSEA; in this case, a worsening (RMSEA = .116) can be observed. The correlation between the two factors appears to be very high (r = .83). We show in Table 1.2 the present item loadings compared to Briscoe at al.’s findings. Table 1.1 Comparison between measurement models of PCAS

Briscoe et al. (2006) Bi-factorial model Bi-factorial hierarchical model Mono-factorial model

Chi-square

df

RMSEA

CFI

IFI

NFI

–

–

.080

.91

.91

.88

529.36

76

.116

.91

.91

.90

564.85

77

.119

.91

.91

.89

564.85

77

.119

.91

.91

.89

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2. a bi-factorial hierarchical model: two factors referring to a higher order latent factor (e.g. Protean Career Attitude); 3. a mono-factorial model: all items loading on a single factor.

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Table 1.2 Comparison between current and Briscoe et al.’s PCAS item loadings* Briscoe et al. (2006)

Present study

.35

.43

.57

.71

.51

.68

.40

.67

.83

.76

.80

.66

.53

.47

.41

.63

.28

.49

.39

.50

.23

.49

.72

.58

.45

.68

.54

.35

Quando la mia azienda non mi ha offerto concrete opportunità di sviluppo personale, le ho cercate altrove per conto mio Sono il solo responsabile del successo o fallimento della mia carriera Dopotutto, mi sento completamente autonomo, anche nello gestire la mia carriera Uno dei miei valori personali più importanti è la libertà di dare la direzione che voglio alla mia carriera Solo io ho la responsabilità di come va la mia carriera In ultima istanza, come va la mia carriera dipende solo da me Quando si tratta della mia carriera, è come se si trattasse della vera essenza di me stesso In passato ho fatto affidamento più su me stesso che sugli altri quando si è trattato di trovare un nuovo lavoro Values Driven Gestisco io la mia carriera, basandomi sulle mie priorità personali e non tenendo in considerazione quelle del mio datore di lavoro Non mi importa granché come le altre persone giudicano le scelte che faccio riguardo la mia carriera La cosa più importante per me è come mi sento rispetto al mio successo sul lavoro, e non rispetto a cosa ne pensano le altre persone Seguirei la mia coscienza se la mia azienda mi chiedesse di fare qualcosa che va contro i miei valori Ciò che penso sia giusto per la mia carriera è più importante di quanto non pensino altri della mia azienda Nel passato ho agito secondo i miei valori quando in azienda mi è stato chiesto di fare qualcosa che potesse andare contro questi

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Self-directed Career Management

Note: * See Briscoe et al. (2006) for the original items.

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Briscoe et al. (2006) Bi-factorial model Bi-factorial hierarchical model Mono-factorial model

Chi-square

df

– 308.89 423.59

– 64 65

423.59

65

RMSEA

CFI

IFI

NFI

.080 .093 .111

.91 .96 .93

.91 .96 .93

.88 .94 .92

.111

.93

.93

.92

Loadings in almost all cases show values better than or equal to those of Briscoe et al.; in all cases they demonstrated satisfactory results. The same analysis was repeated with respect to BCAS. First of all, alternative models were tested and compared to Briscoe et al.’s results (Table 1.3). Again, in this case the bi-factorial model shows better values (the chisquare difference of 114.7 per 1 degree of freedom is significant) and the overall fit is better than that in the PCAS comparison (RMSEA = .093, CFI = .96, IFI = .96, NFI = .94). The two sub-factors are highly correlated (r = .57) and all loadings show satisfactory values (Table 1.4). To summarize, the results are satisfactory if considered as preliminary. The majority of item loadings are adequate and subscale reliabilities are over the threshold of .70 except for Values Driven (a = .55). In their paper, Briscoe et al. (2006) juxtaposed different sub-samples to describe associations between BCAS and PCAS subscales and other variables. Our subsequent concern was to compare correlations from the present sample to the most similar ones used by Briscoe et al. We were able to perform a comparison with the last sample they used (study 3; page 11): 493 MBA students (almost all of whom were full-time workers). The two protean attitudes, Self-Directed Career Management and Values Driven, look correlated both in the present sample (r = .42, p < .01) and in that of Briscoe (r = .57, p < .01). Briscoe et al. found all subscales, be they protean or boundaryless, to be positively correlated with each other, but this is not true in the present case. In the current study Self-Directed Career Management is positively correlated only modestly with Boundaryless Mindset (r = .11, p < .05), while Briscoe et al. found a higher correlation (r = .41, p < .01). Moreover the former self-directed protean factor is negatively correlated with Organizational Mobility Preference (r = −.25, p < .01), while Briscoe found an opposite positive correlation (r = .25, p < .01). The Values-Driven attitude appears to be positively correlated to Boundaryless Mindset in the present sample (r = .19, p < .01) and in Briscoe’s (r = .29, p < .01), while it showed a different association toward Organizational Mobility Preference (r = −.08, n.s.), as opposed to Briscoe’s (r = .13, p < .01).

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Table 1.3 Comparison between measurement models of BCAS

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The Protean and Boundaryless Career in Italy 13 Table 1.4 Comparison between current and Briscoe et al.’s BCAS item loadings Briscoe et al. (2006)

Present study

.56

.42

.70

.74

.77

.48

.70

.79

.84

.68

.82

.81

.65

.67

.63

.69

.50

.76

.66

.71

.44

.75

.75

.74

.71

.58

Ricerco impegni di lavoro che mi permettano di apprendere cose nuove Mi piacerebbe lavorare a più di un progetto con persone di differenti aziende Preferisco impegni di lavoro che mi portano a lavorare fuori dall’azienda Preferisco compiti lavorativi che mi portino a lavorare con persone di altri reparti dell’azienda Mi piace lavorare e/o collaborare professionalmente con persone di altre aziende Preferisco lavori per i quali è necessario interagire con persone di differenti aziende Ho cercato in passato opportunità e alternative che mi permettessero di lavorare al di fuori della mia azienda Nuove esperienze e situazioni mi danno la carica Organizational mobility preference Mi piace la routine che nasce dal lavorare sempre per la stessa azienda (R)* Mi sentirei perso se non potessi lavorare per la mia azienda (R) Preferisco lavorare per un’azienda che già conosco, piuttosto che spostarmi a lavorare altrove (R) Se la mia azienda mi assicurasse lo stesso lavoro per tutta la vita, non mi verrebbe mai in mente di cercare un altro lavoro altrove (R) La mia carriera ideale sarebbe quella di lavorare per una sola azienda (R) Note: *(R) = reverse-scored items.

Table 1.5 Zero-order correlation between the PCAS and BCAS subscales used in the current study and those of Briscoe et al.

1) 2) 3) 4)

Self-Directed Career Management Values Driven Boundaryless Mindset Organizational Mobility Preference

1

2

3

4

– .42** .11* –.25**

.57** – .19** –.08

.41** .29** – .42**

.25** .13** .27** –

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Boundaryless mindset

Note: bottom-left corner values refer to current study (N = 448), upper-right corner values refer to Briscoe et al.’s (2006) evidence (N = 493). * p < .05 ** p < .01

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Alessandro Lo Presti, Marcello Nonnis and Jon P. Briscoe

Finally, the two Boundaryless attitudes showed a higher intercorrelation in the present sample (r = .42, p < .01) than in Briscoe’s (r = .27, p < .01). Subsequently, present group means have been compared with those from the Briscoe et al. study. Italian workers have lower Self-Directed Career Management scores (M = 26.19) than those in the Briscoe study (M = 31.54; t = −19.81, p < .01), lower Boundaryless Mindset values (M = 29.44) than the other group (M = 30.65; t = −4.94, p < .01); higher Organizational Mobility Preference values (M = 15.95) than Briscoe’s (M = 14.3; t = 8.15, p < .01), and similar scores to the Values Driven scale (t = −1.2, p = .23): M = 21.35 for the Italian workers vs. M = 21.57 for those in the Briscoe study. Subsequent analyses concentrated only on the Italian sample. First, between-groups differences have been checked with regard to biographical dichotomized variables like marital status, unionization, and gender. Only significant differences are reported. With regard to gender, women show higher scores (M = 30) than men (M = 28.9; t = −2.08, p < .05) in demonstrating the Boundaryless Mindset attitude as well as Organizational Mobility Preference (women [M = 16.46]; men [M = 15.55; t = −2.23, p < .05]). Professional differences were also taken into account. Concerning type of work (manual vs. intellectual), intellectual workers show higher Boundaryless Mindset scores (M = 29.81) than manual workers (M = 28.45; t = −2.5, p < .01). With regard to type of contract (permanent vs. fixed-term), fixed-term workers have higher scores when it comes to Organizational Mobility Preference (M = 16.55) than permanent ones (M = 15.49; t = −2.59, p < .01). Additional differences were in evidence, taking into account unionization. Unionized workers showed lower scores (M = 28.32) with regard to Boundaryless Mindset than non-unionized colleagues (M = 30.17; t = −3.7, p < .01); and additionally show lower scores (M = 14.82) for Organizational Mobility Preference than non-unionized ones (M = 16.68; t = −4.53, p < .01).

Discussion and conclusions The main limitations in this study are the use of a simple means to collect data (self-report questionnaire) and the subsequent concern about common method variance, and the sampling method used. That being said, this first examination of the Italian versions of the Protean Career Attitude Scale and the Boundaryless Career Attitude Scale showed satisfactory results. Confirmatory Factor Analyses returned adequate measurement models with good goodness of fit indexes except for RMSEA. In this case further data collection is warranted to test those results with alternative samples. Item loadings are all statistically significant, and more homogenous in their scores than those obtained by Briscoe et al. (2006). That said, the Values-Driven subscale did not show adequate internal consistency, and should be used cautiously until new data is available.

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The fact that the protean and boundaryless attitudes are manifest and reliably measurable (with the exception noted) in Italy is significant. It implies that these attitudes, which have been instrumental in other Western cultures, are also relevant in the Italian context. This compels researchers to probe further as to how these attitudes may or may not assist career actors (and those who assist them in their development) to adapt to emerging employment conditions. Interestingly, while the Italian sample actually showed a slightly higher Organizational Mobility Preference than the original US sample, this preference did not correlate with Self-Directed Career Management and Boundaryless Mindset to the degree it did in the United States. Recall that Organizational Mobility Preference was negatively correlated with both Boundaryless Mindset and Self-Directed Career Management in the Italian sample. In the US sample this same preference had a positive correlation with the same attitudes. These results demand further analysis and additional samples, but we attempt to interpret them here. It seems that in the United States those who are self- directed and possess a boundaryless mindset use an independent orientation more often to seek opportunities outside current employment. In the Italian context, self-directed employees and those with a boundaryless mindset are more likely to express independence by exploring opportunities inside their current employment contexts. Why? One possibility is that they lack confidence about opportunities in the employing organization and reactively – rather than proactively – seek opportunities in other organizations. It is interesting to note that in a similar study in Germany, those with a more protean career orientation were more likely to seek experiences and employment outside their current employers than were those in the United States (Gasteiger & Briscoe, 2007). The authors interpreted this as indicating that protean workers in Germany did not feel they had as many opportunities to pursue self-directed goals within the status quo organizations as did US workers. The important point to be made from Gasteiger and Briscoe’s study and this study is that while protean and boundaryless type attitudes might be measurable and manifest across cultures, the way they are interpreted and utilized depends upon contextual variables at many levels of analysis. Thus the advice given for implementing “new” career attitudes must be tailored to a given culture – one size does not “fit all”. Making simple comparisons between the American and the Italian sample, Italian workers appear to be less self-directed and boundaryless-minded in their vocational behavior, but more willing to engage in inter-organizational mobility. The fact that different subscales behave in different ways is a further reason to identify specific factors within the more general protean and boundaryless attitudes. There are several pieces of evidence from between-groups differences in our sample and these should be taken into account in comparing future

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The Protean and Boundaryless Career in Italy

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findings or in directing surveys on specific samples (e.g. unionized or nonunionized workers). In general, unionized workers seem to be less boundaryless and protean, probably because Italian unionized organizational contexts are very protected and stable, acting as a comfortable pillow for employees, who consequently do not look to change their situation. In conclusion, we believe that the fact that protean and boundaryless career attitudes are measurable and generate important contrasts amongst and between Italian and non-Italian workers is a promising opportunity for careers research in the Italian context.

References Arthur, M. B. & Rousseau, D. M. (1996). The boundaryless career as a new employment principle. In M. G. Arthur & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.), The Boundaryless Career. A New Employment Principle for a New Organizational Era. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Baruch, Y. (2004). Transforming careers: from linear to multidirectional career paths. Organizational and individual perspectives. Career Development International, 9 (1), 58–73. Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246. Bentler, P. M. & Bonnett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structure. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588–606. Bollen, K. A. (1989). A new incremental fix index for general structural equation models. Sociological Methods and Research, 17, 303–316. Briscoe, J. P., Hall, D. T., & DeMuth, R. L. F. (2006). Protean and boundaryless careers: an empirical exploration. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69, 30–47. Brislin, R. W. (1980). Translation and content analysis of oral and written material. In H. C. Triandis & J. W. Berry (Eds), Handbook of Cross-cultural Psychology (pp. 398–444). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Cohen, L., Duberley, J., & Mallon, M. (2004). Social constructionism in the study of career: assessing the parts that other approaches cannot reach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64, 407–422. Hall, D. T. (2004). The protean career: a quarter-century journey. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 1–13. Gasteiger, R.M. & Briscoe, J.P. (2007). What kind of organizations do protean people prefer?: The case of Germany and the United States. In G. T. Solomon (Ed.), Proceedings of the Sixty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management (CD), ISSN 1543–8643. Herzenberg, S. A., Alic, J. A., & Wial, H. (1998). New rules for a New Economy: Employment and Opportunity in Postindustrial America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Inkson, K. (2004). Images of career: nine key metaphors. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 96–111. Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: an interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173–180. Sullivan, S. E. (1999). The changing nature of careers: a review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 25 (3), 457–484. Sullivan, S. E. & Arthur, M. B. (2006). The evolution of the boundaryless career concept: examining physical and psychological mobility. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69 (1), 19–29.

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The Timing of Adjustment Strategies during Work Role Transition: A Longitudinal Comparison between Newcomers and Job Changers Stefano Toderi and Guido Sarchielli

The socioeconomic context of careers has changed rapidly in recent decades, mainly because of the process of globalization (technological developments and intense competition, market requirements of flexibility and adaptability, processes of organizational restructuring, etc.). As a consequence, the nature of careers has changed as well, from “traditional” bureaucratic careers to ones described as “boundaryless” (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996) and “protean” (Hall, 2004). Even if these two concepts (metaphors) have been criticized and discussed in recent years (Arnold & Cohen, 2008), one evident feature of the new careers (mainly described by the boundaryless metaphor) is the requirement for workers to transit among different kinds of organizations and jobs. On the one hand, this high mobility requirement means that workers must be protean in adjusting to different work contexts. On the other hand, organizations need to adjust workers rapidly to the new contexts or jobs by socializing them. In other words, if work transitions are now more frequent than they used to be in the traditional career system, the same applies to the process of organizational socialization that firms must undertake.

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The importance of organizational socialization in the new career context It is well known that organizational socialization is a strategic issue for organizations, and for four main reasons (Bauer, Morrison, & Callister, 1998): unsuccessful socialization can be extremely costly for organizations (e.g. high turnover, low productivity, absenteeism); it impacts on the behaviors and attitudes of employees; it is the main way in which organizational 17

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culture is transmitted; and it determines knowledge about internal politics and power dynamics. Because this process is becoming increasingly frequent in the new career context, organizations may find it in their interest to manage workers’ organizational socialization and work-role adjustment more effectively. Many reviews on this topic have been published recently, and they confirm the current interest in the issue. Two meta-analytic reviews have considered the role of socialization tactics (Saks, Uggerslev & Fassina, 2007) and the interaction between socialization tactics and information seeking (Bauer, Bodner, Erdogan, Truxillo & Tucker, 2007) in explaining newcomer adjustments and outcomes. These two studies are consistent with the current interest of organizational socialization studies in newcomer proactivity and socialization tactics. However, in the same year, Ashforth, Sluss and Harrison (2007) furnished a comprehensive review on the theoretical approaches to organizational socialization and made suggestions regarding an integrative model. They identified the main approaches (chronologically) as follows: early roots; stage models; socialization tactics; socialization content; newcomer proactivity. Although the theoretical model is similar to the one proposed in the above-mentioned meta-analytic reviews (interactions between socialization tactics and newcomer proactivity determine newcomer learning and, as a consequence, newcomer adjustment), Ashforth et al. (2007) stress the importance of considering the process in longitudinal terms, using socialization stage models for this purpose. In fact, there is empirical evidence that proactivity, learning, and the efficacy of socialization tactics may differ according to the stage of the socialization process.

The work role transition model and adjustment strategies Different stage models have been proposed since the 1970s (Ashforth et al., 2007), but the best-known and most widely accepted is Nicholson’s Work Role Transition model (Nicholson, 1984), which has also been used by Ruble and Seidman (1996) as a theoretical basis on which to develop a general model for social transitions. Essentially, Nicholson’s model identifies four stages in a role transition: anticipation, encounter, adjustment and stabilization. The model’s main emphasis is on the adjustment stage, where role adjustment is predicted to happen through innovation of the role (adapting the role to fit oneself) or a personal change (adapting oneself to fit the new role). Role innovation consists of “moulding the new role to suit the requirements of the mover, ranging from minor initiatives such as variations in work schedules, to more dramatic role innovations such as changes in the main goals of organizational work” (Nicholson & West, 1988, 106). Personal change is defined as “reactive change in the individual, ranging from minor alterations in daily

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routines and habits, to major developments in relationship and self-image” (Nicholson & West, 1988, 106). A central assumption of the model is that two job factors are possible facilitators of the strategy adopted by the worker to adjust to the new work role. Job discretion is predicted to determine role innovation to a greater extent because incumbents are able to alter the components and relationships of the job. Furthermore, jobs with high discretion often necessitate more role innovation owing to the lack of available data for the person (Nicholson, 1984). Job novelty is predicted to determine personal change to a greater extent because of differences between the new job and the previous one. As a consequence, the employee will be less able to use prior knowledge and routines, and this will facilitate change in the person.

Previous evaluations of adjustment strategies This central assumption of the Nicholson model has been subject to empirical evaluation, mainly during the 1980s, but with contrasting results. As regards role innovation, a positive relationship with job discretion has been found by some studies (e.g. West, 1987; Nicholson & West, 1988) but not others. Black and Ashford (1995) did not find support for the relationship in a sample of 69 graduating students. Munton and West (1995) studied a 200 relocated sample immediately after a work-role transition, and three and six months afterwards (calculated as a mean). The job discretion/ role innovation relationship was found six months after transition, but not immediately after the transition or at three months. This result raises questions about the timing of role innovation, as also pointed out by Ashforth (2001), who proposed that employees innovate the role only when they have acquired confidence with the environment. Furthermore, Feldman and Brett (1983) found no stability of the role innovation scale at three and six months after a role transition, suggesting that those who innovate the role three months after transition will not do so three months after and vice versa. In this study, the authors examined (and compared) the work-role transition of 46 new hirees and 34 job changers. They reported that job changers innovate the role more than do new hirees, but the differences between the two groups were not statistically significant. The results available in the literature on personal change are rather limited. Black and Ashford (1995) studied a sample of graduating students, finding that job novelty predicted personal change, but that its effect was the opposite of the one predicted. The explanation proposed is that high novelty may be perceived as a potential threat to the individual’s sense of self-esteem and newcomers may become rigid and fixed.

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The Timing of Adjustment Strategies

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An interesting result is that reported by Munton and West (1995). In the same research as described above they found a correlation between job novelty and personal change only three months after role transition, but not three months later or immediately after the transition. In this case, too, it seems that timing has an important role in explaining the relationship. On considering these results as a whole, it appears that they may be confused by two important issues that organizational socialization studies should control for. The first issue concerns the type of transition that is investigated. Especially in the 1980s, samples have often been heterogeneous, or with no clear information about the type of transition studied, but there is now evidence that transitions differ on the basis of the same attributes (for example, Ashforth (2001), identified eight attributes, such as magnitude, desirability, and duration). The main distinction that can be drawn is between new hires and job changers within the same organization. Chao, O’Leary-Kelly, Wolf, Klein and Gardner (1994) found that the adjustment requirement and need for learning are different for these two groups and higher for those who change both job and organization. As a consequence Bauer et al. (1998) pointed out that “an important variable for socialization researchers to consider is the type of transition being made and the amount of personal change required by that transition” (1998, 158). The second issue concerns the timing of organizational socialization. Because organizational socialization is a process, research should analyze it using longitudinal designs. This has been the case mainly since the 1990s (Bauer et al., 1998). Some variables showed differences in their effects explained by time. For example, organizational socialization tactics have been found to be more influential four months after transition than later (ten months after transition; Ashforth & Saks (1996)). The explanation proposed is that newcomers are less responsive to the constrained nature of the tactics when they become comfortable with the role. Considering role innovation and personal change, the existing studies have failed to take account of differences explained by time. As a conclusion we may state that no previous research on the main assumption of Nicholson’s model has simultaneously considered these two issues, namely, the kind of transition/sample and the timing of the adjustment strategies.

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The present study The main purpose of this study is to analyze the adjustment strategies of both newcomers and job changers during organizational socialization, also considering the role of job factors as predictors (job novelty and discretion). In particular, the aim of the study is threefold. First, it seeks to determine if and how adjustment strategies change over time. As we have seen, Feldman

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Hypothesis 1: The use of adjustment strategies by newcomers and job changers changes over time Second, we propose that the use of adjustment strategies will differ between newcomers and job changers. Entry into a new organization, compared with a transition internal to it, is a more demanding transition that entails a greater need of learning (Chao et al., 1994). Job changers experience a less substantial process of learning and adjustment, they have higher perceived knowledge about the organization and their role, and they take less time to achieve proficiency in the new job (Bauer et al., 1998). Moreover, job changers should have more opportunities in their new role to structure or design their role, changing their immediate work environment (Feldman & Brett, 1983). As a consequence, we propose that: Hypothesis 2a: Newcomers change themselves and their skills more than job changers do. Hypothesis 2b: Job changers change the role more than newcomers do. Third, we are interested in the role of job factors (job discretion and job novelty) in explaining adjustment strategies. Previous studies have been inconsistent in determining the relationship between job factors and adjustment strategies. However, they have failed to make a simultaneous consideration of differences between the two samples/kinds of transition and possible differences over time, which may confound the results. Because, as we have seen, empirical research is rather scarce and with contrasting results, our aim is largely exploratory, and we shall analyze the relationships between job factors and adjustment strategies over all the periods studied, comparing newcomers and job changers.

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and Brett (1983) find a lack of reliability over time for the role innovation scale (three and six months after a role transition), and Ashforth (2001) has proposed that newcomers innovate the role only when they become confident with it. On the basis of these suggestions, we may expect the adoption of adjustment strategies to change over time (at least in the case of role innovation). However, because of a lack of previous evidence, our aim is exploratory in nature, and we generally hypothesize that the adoption of adjustment strategies differs over time.

Method Participants, study design and procedure This study consists of a secondary data analysis of research conducted in 2005 on the role of career orientation in predicting organizational socialization processes.

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A structured questionnaire was administered within a large firm in Italy to 311 employees during their role transition, at one (t1), three (t2), and six (t3) months after entry into the new role. In longitudinal socialization research, measures are usually collected at these time distances, even if no clear theoretical explanation has been given as to why. However, this tacit convention enables researchers to compare results, and following it has been suggested if no theoretical reasons exist for other points of observation (Bauer et al., 1998). For a one-year period, every month the HR department of the firm identified and contacted employees entering a new work role in that month (entering the organization or changing jobs within the organization), and asked them to participate in the research. The HR department sent them the questionnaire one, three, and six months after the role transition (via the firm’s internal mail service). With the first questionnaire, the workers received a numerical code, which they had to state on every questionnaire that they filled in. Workers returned the completed questionnaires by mail directly to the author’s university address. Of the 311 employees identified (120 newcomers and 191 job changers), 159 returned the questionnaire at t1, 114 at t2, and 85 at t3 (43 newcomers and 42 job changers). These formed the final research sample: 44 were male (51.8%), 46 were aged 20–29 (54.1%), and 39 were aged 30–49 (45.9%). Work experience was 75 months on average (S.D. = 68). Measures Role innovation. This was measured using four items developed by Jones (1986), evaluated on the basis of a 5-point scale. Higher scores indicated more role innovation. Cronbach’s alphas were .72 at t1 and t2, and .84 at t3. Personal change. This was measured using five items developed by Nicholson and Arnold (1989) to study change in personality, values, attitudes, career goals, and skills. A 5-point scale was used, with higher scores indicating greater personal change. In this case, Cronbach’s alphas were not fully acceptable, with values of .57 at t1, .61 at t2, and .65 at t3. Furthermore, the assumption of sphericity was violated on running repeated measure analyses. For this reason it was decided to use only the item referring to skills change. This choice was justified by our interest in the job level of analysis, where skills change plays a more important role than personality, values, attitudes, and career goals. Job factors. These were measured using a single item for each factor (job novelty and job discretion). This choice was determined by the need to limit the length of the questionnaire, which comprised several scales. The two items were constructed on the basis of existing scales. The job novelty 4-point format item was based on the three-item scale of West, Nicholson and Rees (1987). It asked the employee to judge the extent which the new role was a novelty for him/her in terms of task involved,

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skills required, and methods used to do the work. Higher scores indicated more job novelty. The job discretion four-point format item was based on the four-item scale of West, Nicholson and Rees (1987). It asked the employee to judge the extent to which the new role gave him/her discretion in deciding the sequence in which tasks were to be done, how to do them, and in deciding the task. Higher scores indicated more job discretion.

To evaluate hypotheses 1, 2a, and 2b we ran two General Linear Models with repeated measures (one for role innovation and one for skill change as the dependent variable). In particular, we used a mixed factorial design, with one factor within the subjects (the three times of measurement of the dependent variable) and one factor between the subjects (the kind of transition: newcomers vs. job changers). Because we measured the variable three times, the assumption of sphericity (or circularity) was evaluated. We used Mauchley’s test of sphericity (in the case of violation, the epsilon of Greenhouse and Geisser was used to correct the F value) and Box’s M test (to test for homogeneity of covariance matrices). This statistical procedure enabled us to simultaneously evaluate hypotheses 1, 2a, and 2b. In fact, in this kind of factorial design, the total variance explained is divided in variance between subjects (in our case “kind of transition”, evaluating 2a and 2b) and within subjects (in our case the threetime measurement of the dependent variable, evaluating hypothesis 1). To evaluate the role of job factors in explaining adjustment strategies, we considered all the possible combinations. For each dependent variable (role innovation and skill change) we ran six hierarchical regression analyses, using the kind of transition as moderator variable. At step 1 control variables were introduced (gender and work experience) because of their importance for organizational socialization. At step 2 we introduced the predictor (job factor) and moderator (kind of transition). Finally, at step 3, the interaction term (job factor × kind of transition) was introduced. For every dependent variable we considered all the possible interactions. For example, for role innovation we considered role innovation at t1 and the explanatory role of job discretion at t1 (one regression); role innovation at t2 and the explanatory role of job discretion at t1 and at t2 (two regressions); role innovation at t3 and the explanatory role of job discretion at t1, t2, and t3 (three regressions). We used the same procedure for skill change, with job novelty as the explanatory variable. A total of twelve regressions (six for every adjustment strategies) were run. According to Aiken and West (1991), a moderation exists if change in the variance explained as a result of the addition of the product term is statistically significant. In this case, to interpret the interaction effect, we plotted it using the procedure developed by Aiken and West (1991).

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Statistical procedure

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Stefano Toderi and Guido Sarchielli

To reduce multicollinearity, all the independent variables were standardized before introduction into the regression and calculation of the interaction term.

Table 2.1 sets out the correlation coefficients between all the studied variables and descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics on all the sample show that, for each time considered, skill change is higher than role innovation. Analysis of the correlation coefficients shows the good reliability of adjustment strategies scales over time (all the correlations are significant at the .001 probability level or less). Contrary to the results of Feldman and Brett (1983), role innovation has good reliability (r1,2 = .60; p < .001; r1,3 = .50; p < .001; r1,3 = 67; p < .001), indicating that those who use role innovation early in their jobs do so later as well. The results are less strong for skill change, even if all the correlations are highly significant (r1,2 = .34; p < .001;

Table 2.1 Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients for the study variables Variables 1. Job Novelty t1 2. Job Discretion t1 3. Role innovation t1 4. Skills Change t1 5. Job Novelty t2 6. Job Discretion t2 7. Role innovation t2 8. Skills Change t2 9. Job Novelty t3 10. Job Discretion t3 11. Role innovation t3 12. Skills Change t3

M

SD

1

3.06 2.73

.66 .66

.06

2.34

.97 –.19

3.21 1.10

.33

2

3

2.25

.88 –.11

3.28

.89

.13 –.03 –.07

2.66 2.81

.70 .61

.56 .00

.93

6

7

8

9

10

11

.08 –.01

.75 .60 –.01 .02 .64 –.02 .53 –.06

3.40

5

.02

2.76 2.78

2.33 1.03 –.05

4

.09

.28 .03 –.01

.60 –.01 .34

.07

.08

.14 –.01 –.23

.00 –.05 .23 .57 .38 –.02 –.06 –.05

.04 .59

.04 .04

.07

.05

.67 –.21 –.05 .01

.55

.10

.07

.19 –.13 –.03

.35

.12 –.15 –.25

.08 .08

.51

.04

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Results

.12 .03 –.04

Notes: rs > .21 are significant at p < .05; rs > .27 are significant at p < .01; rs > .34 are significant at p < .001. t1 = first testing period, which occurred 1 month after work role transition; t2 = second testing period, which occurred 3 months after work role transition; t3 = third testing period, which occurred 6 months after work role transition.

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r1,3 = .35; p < .001; r1,3 = 51; p < .001). These results indicate a normative stability over time in adjustment strategies. On considering the correlations between job factors and adjustment strategies, it can be seen that the only one that is significant is that between job novelty and skill change, both measured at t1 (r = 33; p = .002). Hypothesis 1 predicted some change over time in the use of adjustment strategies by employees. General Linear Models with repeated measures did not confirm this hypothesis. Both role innovation (F2 = .607; p = .546) and skill change (F1,8 = 1.29, p = .277) were stable over time, confirming for both sub-samples the results obtained from analysis of the correlation coefficients. Hypothesis 2 predicted that newcomers make more use of skill change as an adjustment strategy (Hypothesis 2a) and job changers make more use of role innovation (Hypothesis 2b). Both the hypotheses are strongly confirmed. Over time, newcomers consistently changed their skills more than job changers did (F(1,83) = 7.56; p = .007) and the reverse was the case for role innovation (F(1,83) = 12.80; p = .001). Finally, we analyzed the role of job factors in explaining adjustment strategies in the different times considered. Our aim in this case was largely exploratory. Of the twelve regressions run, only two showed a significant interaction term. First, a statistically significant interaction term (B = –.554; p = .019) emerged when we considered skills change and job novelty, both measured at t1. Analysis of the graph developed using the procedure suggested by Aiken and West (1991) showed that job changers changed their skills more at t1 if they perceived more job novelty at the same time. In particular, newcomers were higher than job changers in skills change if the job novelty was low, but in the case of high job novelty the two sub-samples changed their skills in a similar way. Second, a statistically significant interaction term (B = .498; p = .026) emerged when we considered job discretion at t2 and role innovation at t3. Analysis of the graph showed that newcomers innovated the role more at t3 if they perceived more job discretion at t2. In particular, job changers were higher than newcomers in role innovation if the job discretion was low at t2, but in the case of high job discretion at t2, the newcomers innovated the role at t3 as much as job changers.

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The Timing of Adjustment Strategies

Discussion In the new career context, employees are more likely to transition through different jobs and organizations during their working lives. From an organizational point of view this requires the closer management of socialization processes, with the risk of high costs in the case of unsuccessful or slow socialization.

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Understandably, there is a great deal of research today being conducted on organizational socialization, mainly on the theme of personal proactivity and socialization tactics. However, a central issue concerning socialization is how employees adjust to a new role, and Nicholson’s model is a classic theoretical framework in this context. This model was widely used during the 1980s, but interest in it decreased rapidly over time, perhaps because of the contrasting results that it yielded. The aim of this study has been to empirically evaluate the model’s basic assumption by considering two crucial issues highlighted in the organizational socialization literature but not previously considered when testing the model: the need to distinguish between kinds of transition and the temporal nature of socialization. Our study on 85 employees, divided into newcomers and job changers, has yielded new knowledge on this issue on the basis of the empirical results obtained. To summarize our results, it appears that: (a) adjustment strategies (role innovation and skills change) do not change over time; (b) newcomers consistently make more use of skills change, and job changers more use of role innovation compared to the other sub-sample; (c) both the sub-samples seems to use the other adjustment strategy more if they have a high job factor, but this is restricted to a particular time during the process. We find the first result – stability of adjustment strategy over time – surprising. Even if empirical results are rather scarce in the literature, several suggestions have been put forward about a change over time. One possible explanation for our result is the short timespan considered (from one to six months after role transition). Because of a lack of other useful explanatory variables in our study, it is difficult to explain this result, and future research could analyze this issue in more detail. More interesting is the result that the two sub-samples use different strategies to adjust to a new role. This result is consistent with the findings in the organizational socialization literature and with previous results on the differences between the organizational socialization of newcomers and job changers, and the need to keep these two groups separate. Although this result should be confirmed by further research, it seems to add adjustment strategies to the set of variables that differ between the two samples. In our research, personal change was limited to the skills change variable. This choice had the advantage of restricting the analysis to the job context, considering job factors and adjustment strategies at this level. However, in so doing, we did not consider other types of personal change, mainly major developments in self-image. The study by Mackenzie Davey and Arnold (2000) can help us understand what participants may indicate with their responses. These authors studied personal change in about nine hundred graduates during organizational socialization, using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. They found that graduates experienced the highest amount of change in skills (compared to personality, attitudes, values,

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and career change). Furthermore, the qualitative part of the research (comments about the kind of change) showed that by “skills change” graduates meant social skills, experience in general, specific work experiences, and technical skills. We can expect that our newcomers and job changers would use the term in the same way in their answers. Future research could analyze whether newcomers and job changers differ in the meanings that they attribute to skills change according to the different kinds of role transition. The result concerning the different uses of adjustment strategies by the two sub-samples has been enriched by the analysis of the role of job factors as explanatory variables, considered at the different times of observation. Both the statistically significant interaction terms were consistent with organizational socialization theory, raising important questions about the organizational socialization timetable. First, job changers changed their skills as much as newcomers if they perceived high job novelty one month after role transition. It appears that job novelty plays a secondary role compared with the kind of role transition: that is, newcomers used the skill change strategy in all circumstances, while job changers used it only if they perceived high novelty on entering the new role. One possible explanation is that the two sub-samples entered the new role with different expectations, with newcomers readier to change themselves. At the other extreme, job changers may experience a false confidence effect (Ashforth, 2001) concerning the new role (which is more probable when the change with respect to the previous work experience is moderate). It is possible in this case that job changers are more willing to change personally if the job novelty is perceived as high. Second, newcomers innovated the role at t3 as much as job changers if they perceived high job discretion three months before. In this case, too, job factors (job discretion in this case) seem to be secondary to the kind of role transition. This result confirms Ashforth’s (2001) finding that new incumbents innovate the role only when they have acquired confidence in the environment. Consistently, newcomers who declared high job discretion at t2 innovated the role in the same way as job changers did at t3.

Conclusion It seems possible to conclude from the results of this study that Nicholson’s basic assumption concerning the relationship between job factors and adjustment strategies may emerge after controlling for type of transition (or, more specifically, attributes of role transition), and only in a specific period of the process. In fact, it appears that the kind of transition has a primary effect in determining the kind of adjustment, but the role transition attributes (magnitude, desirability, etc.) seem not to capture per se all the psychological phenomena that characterize a role transition, especially longitudinally. In fact, new incumbents evolve their experience over time,

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and job factors may aid understanding of the timetable of organizational socialization and its processual nature. Job novelty seems to have an effect at the beginning of the process; job discretion seems to have an effect later. It is worth noting that Munton and West (1995) obtained similar results. The relationship between job discretion and role innovation was found only at six months after role transition; the relationship between job novelty and personal change was found only three months earlier. To conclude, we report the main limitations of our research. First, the focus of the research was at the job level and important variables of organizational socialization were not considered. For example, socialization tactics can influence role innovation, and we failed to control for their effect. However, Ashforth, Saks and Lee (1998) have found that job contextual factors are more important for worker adjustment than socialization tactics, because the former are more proximal to the individual. A second limitation consists in the measurement of job factors through single items. This strategy was chosen to reduce the length of the questionnaire, but it was also justified by the existing literature. The job factors studied were similar to the dimensions of decision latitude and psychological demands of the Job Strain Model of Karasek (1979). A recent study (Storms, Casaer, De Wit, Van Den Bergh & Moens, 2001) has found that a single-item measure is predictive as the scale measure of the dimensions. A third limitation consists in the context of the research, which was conducted in only one organization. On the one hand, this is a strength of the research because of the control over potentially confounding factors (e.g. organizational culture, sector, management style, etc.). On the other hand, the possibility of generalizing the results to small firms is greatly reduced. Finally, the main limitation is the lack of measurement of the efficacy of adjustment strategies (e.g. performance proficiency, affective well-being, integration). The aim of this study has been to understand the use of these strategies and their predictors. However, we recognize that understanding of their efficacy, longitudinally as well, is a fundamental research step for evaluation of the predictive power of Nicholson’s model.

References Aiken, L. S. & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Sage, Newbury Park. Arnold, J. & Cohen, L. (2008). The psychology of careers in industrial and organizational settings: A critical but appreciative analysis. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 23, 1–44. Arthur, M. B. & Rousseau, D. (Eds.) (1996). The Boundaryless Career. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ashforth, B. E. (2001). Role Transitions in Organizational Life: An Identity-based Perspective. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ashforth, B. E. & Saks, A. M. (1996). Socialization tactics: longitudinal effects on newcomer adjustment. Academy of Management Journal, 39 (1), 149–178.

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Ashforth, B. E., Saks, A. M., & Lee, R. T. (1998). Socialization and newcomer adjustment: the role of organizational context. Human Relations, 51 (7), 897–926. Ashforth, B. E., Sluss, D. M., & Harrison S. H. (2007). Socialization in organizational contexts. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 22, 1–70. Bauer, T. N., Bodner, T., Erdogan, B., Truxillo, D. M., & Tucker, J. S. (2007). Newcomer adjustment during organizational socialization: a meta-analytic review of antecedents, outcomes, and methods. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92 (3), 707–721. Bauer, T. N., Morrison, E. W., & Callister, R. R. (1998). Organizational socialization: a review and directions for future research. In G. R. Ferris, (ed). Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, Vol 16. Stamford, CT: JAI Press. Black, J. S. & Ashford, S. J. (1995). Fitting in or making jobs fit: factors affecting mode of adjustment for new hires. Human Relations, 48 (4), 421–437. Chao, G. T., O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., Wolf, S., Klein, H. J., & Gardner, P. D. (1994). Organizational socialization: its content and consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79 (5), 730–743. Feldman, D. C. & Brett, J. M. (1983). Coping with new jobs: a comparative study of new hires and job changers. Academy of Management Journal, 2, 258–272. Hall, D. T. (2004). The protean career: A quarter-century journey. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 1–13. Jones, G. R. (1986). Socialization tactics, self-efficacy, and newcomers’ adjustments to organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 262–279. Karasek, R. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285–308. Mackenzie Davey, K. & Arnold, J. (2000). A multi-method study of accounts of personal change by graduates starting work: self-ratings, categories and women’s discourses. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, 461–486. Munton, A. G. & West, M. A. (1995). Innovations and personal change: patterns of adjustment to relocation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 363–375. Nicholson, N. (1984). A theory of work role transition. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29, 172–191. Nicholson, N. & Arnold, J. (1989). Graduate entry and adjustment to corporate life. Personnel Review, 18 (3), 23–35. Nicholson, N. & West, M. A. (1988). Managerial job change: Men and women in transition. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Ruble, R. D. & Seidman, E. (1996). Social transitions: Windows into social psychological processes. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (eds.) Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles (830–856). NY, US: Guilford Press. Saks, A. M., Uggerslev, K. L., & Fassina, N. E. (2007). Socialization tactics and newcomer adjustment: A meta-analytic review and test of a model. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 70, 413–446. Storms, G., Casaer, S., De Wit, R., Van Den Bergh, O., & Moens, G. (2001). A psychometric valuation of a Dutch version of the Job Content Questionnaire and of a short direct questioning procedure. Work & Stress, 15 (2), 131–143. West, M. A. (1987). Role innovation in the world of work. British Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 305–315. West, M. A., Nicholson, N., & Rees, A. (1987). Transitions into newly created jobs. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 60, 97–113.

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3 A Newcomer’s Career between Community and Identity

The boundaryless career theory in a cultural perspective In recent years the concept of career has changed according to the social and economic setting, characterized by the introduction of flexibility in professional contexts (Arthur, Hall, & Lawrence, 1989). It assumes new perspectives and meanings by moving from a traditional and static focus to an innovative and changing dimension. In fact the model of the “boundaryless career” stresses the dynamic nature of career and its transversal evolution. Traditional theories overlook the need to consider multiple dimensions in the study of career. In contrast, interactionist theories conceive of career as a process involving individual and organizational levels, a process that develops through multiple learning experiences that each individual lives by participating in diverse organizations during his/her life. According to this approach, even the job market becomes a set of shifting and erratic job trajectories. Consequently, experts have conceptualized different models of career: the “nomadic career” (Tremblay, 2003), the “protean career” (Hall & Moss, 1998), the “portfolio career” (Templer & Cawsey, 1999), and the “intelligent career” (Arthur, Claman, & De Filippi, 1995). In particular, the “protean career” can be considered the precursor of the boundaryless career as it points to those careers moving through different organizations, without boundaries. In addition, new approaches identify three essential features to explain the concept of career (Lichtenstein & Mendenhall, 2002):

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1. absence of linearity; 2. interdependence between individual and organizations; 3. presence of social structures (networks, communities of practices). These features stress the dynamic nature of career, as they represent the negotiation process among the individual’s multiple belonging experiences in professional communities. 30

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His/her professional trajectory is always in movement; it develops through different kinds of mobility: descending/ascending or horizontal mobility, inside or outside the same organization. This shifting nature of the career responds to the individual’s need for crossing diversified professional contexts. The model of the “boundaryless career” fits this shifting dimension well by explaining the characteristics of changes such as the socialization process in the professional trajectories of individuals. Sullivan (1999) tracks the main differences between traditional and new concepts of career (see Table 3.1) by exploring the nature of “milestones” – basic transitions during an individual’s career. According to the innovative “boundaryless” perspective, the career is a personal process, depending on the direct responsibility of individuals and involving all their aspects and experiences. Indeed, wide-ranging professional and personal experiences provide extensive learning opportunities for adding to the career capital of the individual and increasing his/her professional chances (Arthur, Inkson, & Pringle, 1999). As a result, the career is the intersection of multiple and inseparable trajectories characterized by transitions in different areas of human existence such as job, personal life, family, or training. Sullivan (1999) maintains that transitions are connected with the learning process rather than being age-related; in particular, training experience is no longer based on formal programs, rather is an on-the-job situation. Learning processes play a pivotal role in the career’s development because career is just a learning trajectory made through participation in professional contexts, communities, social practices, and culture. This definition of career development overlaps with the definition of socialization process suggested by Lave and Wenger (1991) through the Legitimate Peripheral Participation model (LPP). They consider socialization to be Table 3.1 From traditional career to boundaryless career (Sullivan, 1999) Traditional Employment relationship

Boundaries Skills Success measured by Responsibility for career management Training Milestones

Boundaryless

Job security for loyalty

Employability for performance and flexibility One or two firms Multiple firms Firm specific Transferable Pay, promotion, status Psychologically meaningful work Organization Individual Formal programs Age-related

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A Newcomer’s Career between Community and Identity 31

On-the-job Learning-related

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the progressive learning process of a newcomer who moves from a peripheral and external participation in the community to a central and internal one. The increasing engagement of the newcomer is based on the growing appropriation of professional practices promoted by improved access to community resources. In this learning trajectory, peripheral participation in community practices is an introductory step that allows the newcomer to enter more specific practices and to widen his/her action horizon, in order to acquire an expertise legitimating his/her central participation. This process of acquisition connects the newcomer with old-timers within the professional community, but also with the artefacts employed in community practices. The interaction with old-timers helps the newcomer to “see” professional practices in an appropriate way (Goodwin, 1994) as he/ she can observe the professional abilities of expert members “in action”. The interaction with artefacts reifies professional practices and makes the community a learning context for each member, first of all for the newcomer (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The learning process is possible through participation, conceived as a negotiation process between newcomer and community according to a cultural and situated perspective of psychology (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Traditional theories define socialization as a linear process of social influence, an information and values transfer from the community to the newcomer. In contrast, cultural and situated theories consider the learning of new expertise primarily as a social activity, and then as a cognitive activity (Scribner, 1984). It is a social process embedded in the relational structure of individuals who participate in a community; it is a process acting in a social and cultural way (Gherardi, 2005). The introduction of the “situated curriculum” concept (Gherardini, Nicolini, & Odella, 1998) helps to explain how much learning processes are embedded in relational configuration of individuals. According to this notion, the newcomer’s learning opportunities are deeply rooted in the sociocultural framework of the specific community; learning is a process fully entrenched in the specific community’s practices; it is incorporated in the community participation. The concept of “situated curriculum” fits well with the concept of “communities of practices” (Wenger, 1998), which suggests a cultural definition of group based purely on the negotiation process of its social practices, on its participatory framework and on its intersubjective architecture which allows “a process of coordination of participants’ contributions in joint activity” (Matusov, 1996, 25). The intersubjective dimension of a community is founded on negotiation processes: each aspect of community life – culture, history, language, aims, tasks – is shared as it is continuously negotiated through practices (Ligorio, Annese, Spadaro, & Traetta, 2008). Wenger’s conceptualization

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clarifies that each community builds its peculiar practices through three dynamics: mutual engagement, joint enterprise, and shared repertoire (1998). Mutual engagement represents members’ commitment: each participant is responsible for the expected goals of the practice and accepts his/her own and others’ individuality during involvement in common practices. Joint enterprise represents the continuous negotiation process of practices: members build community practices by participating in the same activity, but above all by attributing to it the same sense. The shared repertoire represents the collection of reified objects belonging to the community: each object is socially negotiated in the community history and allows new members to appropriate community culture. Negotiation processes involve not only community practices, but also, and above all, its organizational actors and their social identity. In other words, communities of practices are an arena enabling a three-step identity project (Wenger, 1998). Firstly, each member can define “who he/she is” through his/her experience of participation in a community. Secondly, members identify themselves by categorizing as familiar/unfamiliar all their lifelong belonging experiences to communities of practices. Thirdly, community actors delineate their identity in a trajectory starting from one position and moving towards another; the variety of positions given by different memberships are coherently integrated in a unique identity. Thus the whole identity project is a process negotiating multi-memberships in a distinctive trajectory for each individual. Each experience of membership involves learning community practices and re-arranges identity on the basis of the acquisition of expertise. Socialization is therefore a negotiation process between the newcomer and the community; it doesn’t consist of sequential stages fixed in advance by the community, but is the constellation of expertise built step by step in a joint action between the two organizational actors. The construction of the newcomer’s participation triggers the construction of his/her professional identity and that of the community’s identity, too. Their joint action allows the newcomer to progressively acquire facets of his/her new identity and the community to gradually orchestrate its collective identity according to the new scenario (Annese, Ligorio & Traetta, 2006). This theoretical background and our research objective of investigating a newcomer’s career require the exploration of the socialization process through the analysis of his participation trajectory and related consequences on individual and collective identities.

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A Newcomer’s Career between Community and Identity 33

Beginning a career: a case study Our research object is the examination of a newcomer’s socialization process in a professional community of practice.

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The observed community is an engineering laboratory for testing materials at the University of Bari. Community members carry out experimental activities on building materials such as concrete or glass through resistance tests. Our research aim is to cast light on a newcomer’s career (we will call him Carlo) in the community through his progressive learning process and the subsequent development of his professional identity. The research design consists of participant observation to collect data: twenty hours’ resistance tests were videotaped in the workplace and relevant field notes were taken. In order to analyze Carlo’s socialization process, two different moments of his trajectory were compared: his entrance into the community and his later full involvement in the community’s diverse activities. During his entrance to the community, Carlo is just introduced and begins to familiarize himself with the community. He participates in a single test where his role is peripheral: he has to manage a loading machine placed far away from others’ interaction space. During his full involvement, about a month later, he becomes part of the community and can participate in many tests, for example the glass test, where he can compare himself with other members, even accessing others’ interaction space. The research design uses a comparison analysis between these two socialization moments in order to understand how different practices involving the newcomer can model his participation strategies and his identity dynamics. Methodological design According to the cultural approach to the boundaryless career, to become a community member means to appropriate community culture, to be a newcomer means to learn participation in community practices (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The newcomer therefore has to acquire the communication behaviors of the community in order to negotiate meanings with that community. Communication activities include both verbal and non-verbal behaviors: the former enable the newcomer to share the community’s practices and meanings starting on his/her socialization process; the latter, when he/she is fully integrated in the socialization process, enable him/her to enhance identity construction. Therefore our methodological design chooses to describe Carlo’s socialization dynamics and the development of his professional identity through the analysis both of his verbal and non-verbal behaviors in the community. The first step involved analysis of non-verbal behaviors, as the observed community is principally characterized by physical interactions. The second step involved conversation analysis of verbal interactions in order to support the first analysis. Non-verbal behaviors were examined through three categories: posture, gestures and facial expressions. Each category is composed of subcategories

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identified through a data-driven and a theory-driven process (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). All analysis units – i.e. minimal interactive actions – were coded according to these non-verbal categories. We also implemented two analysis levels: (1) the individual level, to assess the frequency of the newcomer’s categories in the two analyzed moments; (2) the community level, to assess the frequency of all community members’ categories in the same moments. The comparison between the above mentioned levels allows an estimation of the learning process via the non-verbal practices of the newcomer in contrast with the whole panorama of non-verbal habits of community members. Verbal behaviors were examined through two different conversational devices: turn-taking and repair mechanisms. The first of these assesses the newcomer’s verbal presence; the second describes the structure of his verbal participation. Specifically, repair mechanisms make salient empowerment indices concerning both his conversational participation and his operative identity. A repair is defined as “any intervention on a turn aimed at improving the understanding of it”; in other words, any direct or indirect procedure aimed at changing, correcting, or reformulating a previous utterance or part of it (Schegloff, Jefferson, & Sacks, 1977). Depending on which speaker begins or carries out the repair, there are different kinds of repairs: (1) self-repairs, begun and carried out by the same speaker in the same turn; (2) self-initiations, begun by the current speaker but concluded by the next interlocutor; (3) third position repairs, begun by other interlocutors (other-initiations) and completed by the first speaker; (4) other-repairs, completely accomplished by other interlocutors. Each conversational turn entails a virtual space where it can be repaired; if nobody repairs in that space the comprehension of the turn is assumed. Repair mechanisms sustain the intersubjective architecture of a community by assisting participation processes; they help in setting specific features of participatory frameworks such as the way speaker presents himself or the possible status for other interlocutors. In our research work the analysis of the newcomer’s repairs helps in determining his degree of participation and his changes in identity positionings. Results: participating for learning Our research work shows well-matched results in both steps of analysis. The first step marks a rich array of non-verbal behaviors, in two senses: the newcomer’s progressive learning of physical behaviors, usually activated in community practices, and his ability to tune his physical behaviors to different interactive situations of the community. The increasing presence of bodily categories in the second moment of Carlo’s trajectory (see Table 3.2) marks his gradual acquisition of non-verbal practices. All categories indicate a more active role in the later activities, when Carlo can access many of the community’s resources and practices.

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Table 3.2 Frequency of newcomer’s non-verbal behaviors

Early activities Later activities TOT.

28.83 71.17 100

Gestures (%) 8.79 91.21 100

Face (%) 26.73 73.27 100

Despite his progressive appropriation, some indices prove that this advance is not linear, but sometimes stops and starts again later, according to the rhythm of the negotiation process between himself and the community. Specifically, posture categories gradually increase throughout the learning process and their distribution becomes similar to the old-timers’ distribution, even if some of the newcomer’s early categories (“erect posture with hands in pockets”) persist in underlining a continuity with the beginnings of socialization. During early activities the specific task assigned to Carlo forces him to stay away from others’ space, in a marginal position and with a peripheral posture (“erect posture with hands in pockets”); during later activities the different organization of the test lets him assume a more central position similar to those of the old-timers. For example, during the glass test, he can interact with other members by directly entering their physical space where all of them take on similar postures (Scheflen, 1964). Taking on both peripheral and central postures enables the newcomer to accept positions negotiated with other community members and to underline a “mutual engagement”. Finally, posture is strictly related to the activities we are carrying out (Kendon, 1973): if early postures appear during later activity, when a larger repertoire of bodily expressions positions the newcomer as a central member, it is possible to state that central participation can sometimes revert to peripheral forms, giving life to an alternating socialization processes. Even gestures widen as Carlo’s learning trajectory progresses, but sometimes their expansion suffers an interruption because of the persistence of some of his early categories such as regulator and self-adaptor gestures. These were categories activated at the beginnings of the socialization trajectory and retained in the later phase with a different meaning. In the early stage he activates regulator gestures for showing attention and comprehension, in the later stage he activates the same gestures for managing the turntaking system, for example to express the intention of interrupting another interlocutor. The same gestures stress a passive role in some interactional contexts, and a more active and competent role in other interactive situations where Carlo exhibits his ownership of a personal space within the community. Lastly, even facial expressions broaden throughout the learning experience development; particularly the category of “reciprocal gaze” that

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Posture (%)

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denotes the newcomer’s gaining of a higher social status. In an early phase Carlo’s gaze is in one direction as he has to observe others’ activities, in a later phase his gaze becomes reciprocal as he stresses the intention of integrating and communicating with other community members. Nevertheless two early categories, “relaxed expression” and “looking at the artefact”, are kept by Carlo in the advanced phase of socialization because they are shared with all community members. In other words, all bodily categories point out a fluctuating learning trajectory: the extension of bodily expressions is related to a more central participation that sometimes goes back to a peripheral participation without breaking the continuous building of an expert identity. The second step of analysis shows complementary results in verbal behaviors. The turn-taking distribution (see Table 3.3) confirms a progressive learning trajectory that increases the newcomer’s conversational turns during later activities. His conversational participation becomes more central because he is engaged in multiple tasks that widen his observation and action “horizon” (Hutchins, 1995). Even the repair mechanisms analysis show the wavering nature of socialization dynamics. In fact, during early activities, Carlo peripherally participates in community practices by activating a large number of self-repairs (see Table 3.4). He needs to make clear the sense of his utterances even if nobody asks him to do it. For example, the newcomer spontaneously rewords his question in order to avoid a repair by an old-timer: Example 1 NEWCOMER: What can I do? Can I stop loading? The first question is indefinite, but Carlo needs a definite answer so he repairs his question himself. Even if a high frequency of self-repairs marks the peripheral position of the newcomer, his ability in avoiding old-timers’

Table 3.3 Distribution of turn taking

Newcomer Future engineer Student Expert technician Less expert technician Engineer Technician agent Administrative technician Customer TOT.

Early activities (%)

Later activities

6.70 27.27 21.03 16.09 15.61 9.83 2.66 // //

26.98 41.87 // 16.87 // // // 3.17 11.11

100

100

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A Newcomer’s Career between Community and Identity 37

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Marta Traetta and Susanna Annese

Table 3.4 Distribution of the newcomer’s repairs otherotherrepairs (the repairs (the third newcomer newcomer self- position selfis the is the object repairs repairs initiations author) of repair) 44%

12%

24%

4%

56% Later 16.67% 6.67% activities 23.34%

28% 43.33% 53.33%

100% 16%

10%

100% 23.33%

repairs directly shows his appropriation of an increasing competence. In this perspective self-repairs underline both his inexperienced role and his more and more experienced role with these coping abilities. However, his peripheral presence in the early stage is reinforced by his recurrent involvement in “schism conversations” (Sacks, Jefferson, & Schegloff, 1974), his extensive use of markers neutralizing conversational conflicts and his strong conformity to the old-timers. Nevertheless there are some indices of a central participation, such as the ability to anticipate others’ statements and the use of “polyphonic repetitions” (Bazzanella, 1993), that mark his sense of belonging to the community. During later activities Carlo participates in a more central way. A large frequency of other-repairs (see Table 3.4) indicates that he plays an expert role. In particular, other-repairs addressed to an external member (a customer) suggest that he presents himself as a spokesperson for the community, as in the following example: Example 2 1. CUSTOMER: It’s necessary to move the: if we have pressed the buttons (.) if you want to centrally place it: 2. NEWCOMER: All we have to do is to set the center again 3. CUSTOMER: Yeah! You’re right!

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Early activities

TOT.

In this excerpt, self-confidence about his knowledge and a shared repertoire with other community members enable Carlo to give specific information to an external member – the customer – by repairing him. Furthermore the use of “we“ in the pronoun choice implies that he has developed a strong sense of belonging to the community. Nevertheless in this central participation there are some signals of a persisting peripheral form of participation. These signals are a considerable use of conversational markers subduing strong statements, an enduring conformity to the

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A Newcomer’s Career between Community and Identity 39

old-timers and the increasing occurrence of other-repairs – the newcomer is the object of repair (see Table 3.4). Here is an example of this different kind of other-repairs:

In this excerpt Carlo is directly repaired by his tutor who explains to him the technical aspects of community practices. This kind of repair is usual in asymmetric interactions where the tutor’s “pedagogical role” (Norrick, 1991) turns other-repairs in socialization occasions. Following the LPP model, Carlo’s verbal and non-verbal behaviors become more and more central, even if he goes back to peripheral behaviors in specific interactive situations. His socialization trajectory shows a dynamics wavering between two movements, a flexible negotiation process leading to his identity construction.

Conclusion: learning for being The newcomer learns through participation, and the dynamic nature of socialization is strictly interrelated with the development of his/her professional identity. The shifting nature of socialization comes out through his/her progressive and non-linear participation trajectories (Lave & Wenger, 1991). In fact the learning process dynamically moves closer to or further from the community practices, between peripheral and central positions. The newcomer negotiates with the community and his/her wavering participation, tuned at each point in time to the specific social and interactive context. In this way he/she learns to participate in a competent way, and acquires verbal and non-verbal behaviors allowing him/her to construct a specific professional expertise. His/her interaction with the community context provides him/ her with learning opportunities, through which he/she gains new knowledge and skills he/she can use to determine a transition in his/her career trajectory (Sullivan, 1999). His/her professional identity is built in a dialogical movement, in a fluctuation between peripheral and central positions and in the negotiation rhythm jointly created by himself/herself and the community. The evolutionary trajectory of the newcomer’s new identity keeps the traits of flexibility and interdependence originated in the negotiation processes; his/her self representations are plastic and mutually dependent with the community. Flexibility, irregularity and interdependence between the individual and organizations are the essential features of the new boundaryless careers (Lichtenstein & Mendenhall, 2002). From this perspective,

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Example 3 1. FUTURE ENGINEER: Here there is only a: 2. NEWCOMER: An electronic connection 3. FUTURE ENGINEER: ((Disapproving expression)) A resistor, a resistance

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career is not considered as a single and linear trajectory, but as the result of multiple and interrelated trajectories, moving along a multiple set of I-positions that are influenced by interactive situations, organizational actors and technological artefacts and that can influence the professional identity construction. From this conclusion our research work provides some interesting inputs for further exploration, especially a research line crossing a cultural approach to organizational communities with the boundaryless career model. Our results outline future research perspectives as they pose new questions needing answers: – Could the organizational community facilitate newcomers’ learning processes by contextualizing knowledges and skills in the wider sociocultural framework of the community? – Could newcomers encourage organizational innovation through their active socialization process? – Do artefacts play a role as mediating objects in the negotiation between individual and organizations? This study proposes a challenge: to revise the idea of a linear socialization process defining stable careers in order to find out new ways to assist the flexible trajectory of professional identity construction.

Acknowledgment Our special thanks to Wilma Clark – London Knowledge Lab, Institute of Education, University of London – for the English revision of this paper.

References Annese, S., Ligorio, M. B., & Traetta, M. (2006). I-positioning as a participation of a newcomer in a professional community. Contributi Fourth International Conference on Dialogical Self – Braga (Portugal), 1–3 Giugno 2006, (http://www.dialogicaself2006.com) Arthur, M. B., Claman, P. H., & DeFilippi, R. J. (1995). Intelligent enterprise, intelligent careers. Academy of Management Executive, 9 (4), 7–20. Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T., & Lawrence, B. S. (1989) (Eds.). Handbook of Career Theory. New York: Cambridge University Press. Arthur, M. B., Inkson, K., & Pringle, J. K. (1999). The New Careers: Individual Action & Economic Change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Bazzanella, C. (1993). Dialogic repetition. In H. Loffler (Ed.), Dialoganalyse IV, Tubingen: Niemeyer, 285–294. Ekman, P. & Friesen, W. W. (1969). The repertoire of nonverbal behaviour. Categories, origins, usage and coding. Semiotica, 1, 49–98. Gherardi, S. (2005). Organizational Knowledge: The Texture of Workplace Learning. Oxford: Blackwell.

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Gherardi, S., Nicolini, D., & Odella, F. (1998). Toward a social understanding of how people learn in organisations: the notion of situated curriculum. Management Learning, 29 (3), 273–298. Goodwin, C. (1994). Professional Vision. American Anthropologist, 96 (3), 600–633. Hall, D. T. & Moss, J. E. (1998). The new protean career contract: Helping organizations and employees adapt. Organizational Dynamics, Winter, 26 (3), 22–37. Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the Wild. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Kendon, A. (1973). The role of visible behaviour in the organization of social interaction. In M. von Cranach & I. Vine (Eds.), Social Communication and Movement: Studies of Interaction and Expression in Man and Chimpanzee. London: Academic Press. Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lichtenstein, B. & Mendenhall, M. (2002). Non-linearity and responsibility: emergent order in 21st century careers. Human Relations, 55, 53–80. Ligorio, M. B., Annese, S., Spadaro, P. F., & Traetta, M. (2008). Building intersubjectivity and identity in on-line communities. In B. M. Varisco (Ed.), Psychological, Pedagogical and Sociological Models for Learning and Assessment in Virtual Communities of Practice. Milano: Polimetrica. Matusov, E. (1996). Intersubjectivity without agreement. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 3 (1), 25–45. Norrick, N. R. (1991). On the organization of the corrective exchanges in conversation. Journal of Pragmatics, 16, 59–83. Sacks, H., Jefferson, G., & Schegloff, E. A. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Language, 50 (4), 696–735. Scheflen, A. E. (1964). The significance of posture in communication systems. Psychiatry, 27, 316–321. Schegloff, E. A., Jefferson, G., & Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for self-correction in the organization of repair in conversation. Language, 53 (2), 361–382. Scribner, S. (1984). Studying working intelligence. In B. Rogoff & J. Lave (Eds.), Everyday Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Sullivan, S. E. (1999). The changing nature of careers: a review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 25 (3), 457–484. Templer, A. J. & Cawsey, T. F. (1999). Rethinking career development in an era of portfolio careers. Career Development International, 4 (2), 70–76. Tremblay, D. G. (2003). New Types of Career in the Knowledge Economy? Networks and Boudaryless Jobs as a Career Strategy in the Ict and Multimedia Sector. Québec: Université du Québec. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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4 Michela Cortini, Emanuela Notarangelo and Elisa Cardellicchio

Introduction Starting from a consideration of the recent changes in the workforce and working contexts in terms of boundaryless careers (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996a; 1996b) and the protean career (Hall, 1976; 2001), our concern in the present chapter is related to the study of the career expectations of university students, the workforce of tomorrow. In detail, using a mixed method of collecting and analyzing data, we would like to analyze the attitude of university students towards their future career and how they view it. We want to find out if, on the one hand, the work socialization transferred by university students and young people’s families leads them to think of the future as characterized by a single occupation, or if, on the other hand, the mass media and social discourses, in addition to state policies on flexible work (e.g. the Biagi Law in the Italian context) suggest to them the idea of flexibility and the boundaryless career. It has been interesting for us to verify at what level the idea of flexibility develops in young adults, by analyzing in detail the work and career expectations of university students and, in turn, the development of the protean career. To fulfill our aims, first of all we will propose a methodological premise with a mixed-method approach; in the following section we will introduce and sum up briefly and critically the international literature on the boundaryless career and then describe our explorative study, adding some concluding remarks on a future research agenda related to this topic.

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Obscure Future? A Pilot Study on University Students’ Career Expectations

The mixed-method approach as a methodological premise When we talk about a mixed-method approach or triangulation (Fielding & Fielding, 1986), we refer to the idea of melting different points of view and 42

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43

perspectives, using different researchers, different research paradigms or different data analysis tools. By proposing the triangulation of methods, we intend to propose a third way which is rarely approached and valued, which goes beyond qualitative and quantitative analysis. These remarks derive from the pure consideration that a sort of methodological ideology – or better, two different methodological beliefs – exists and allows the existence of only two, well separated, paradigms in psychological research: the qualitative and the quantitative. The sad consequence of this point of view is that if one tries to integrate these two distinct ways of doing research, the risk is of being recognized neither by qualitative nor by quantitative researchers. In other words, we are stating that the two distinct ways of doing research have developed and radicalized so much that the integration process has been made impossible. From our personal point of view, it seems that, paradoxically, the triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods has spread, and, according to some researchers, is becoming interesting because of the limits that the quantitative method, on the one hand, and the qualitative method, on the other hand, have shown in their closed radicalization. As far as quantitative methods are concerned, these had an incredible development during the last century, a development which occurred thanks to the stimulus of information technology in computational sciences and statistics. Such a development, positive per se, has led to the risk of reducing psychosocial research to a matter of counting and the ability to manage statistical software. In particular, some statistical techniques, which we may call discretional – for example, factorial analysis – have led to some doubts about the possibility of verifying sophisticated theories thanks to technical abilities rather than to real fit with reality. Such a quantitative boost has been threatened since the 1960s, with the development of the communication sciences – consider, for example, Speech Act Theory and the Pragmatics of Human Communication of the Palo Alto School – which, in turn, has led to the development of ethnomethodology (Garfinkel, 1967) and conversation analysis (Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974). Psychosocial researchers, during this phase of development, adopted as research methods the same methods that ordinary people use to give sense to ordinary actions, methods that have become the natural alternatives to complex and abstract statistical tools. On the other hand, the qualitative paradigm has recently suffered a drift which is paradoxically symmetrical to that already mentioned with regard to the quantitative paradigm. We refer to the so-called narrative and postmodern approach that has passed through social sciences since the 1980s. From our point of view it cannot be seen as an evolution (Weick 1995), but rather as an involution, since it inverts the power game between reality and interpretation. In other words, postmodern thought seems to have preferred

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A Pilot Study on University Students’

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a research approach that threatens the ontology of phenomena and subjects in analysis in favor of the individual who interprets; that is to say, in favor of subjectivity. From the two above-mentioned phases a deep demarcation has followed and led to a real irreconcilability between quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis.

The first proposal of triangulation was, at least to our knowledge, that of Wilson (1981), who states: “qualitative and quantitative approaches are complementary rather than competitive methods ( ... and the) use of a particular method ( ... ) rather must be based on the nature of the actual problem at hand” (1981, 58). In 1990 Patton deepened this idea with so-called methodological appropriateness, according to which the choice for a specific analysis tool or technique has to respond not to the researcher’s limits but rather to reality; in other words, it is up to the object of analysis to suggest the right method. In our case, university students’ expectations regarding their occupational future is a pretty new issue, since, in general, boundaryless career models have been investigated in samples of workers. As this is a new construct under analysis, we have preferred to adopt a mixed-method approach which, on the one hand, consists of interviews (with the positive feature of an in-depth analysis) and, on the other hand, a questionnaire through which we have tested the boundaryless and protean career attitudes of students, the workforce of the future. The quantitative study aims, in addition, to test the ecological validity of the main boundaryless career model which, as we have already said, has been investigated primarily in adult workers.

The “New Science” perspective on third millennium careers A growing body of literature, on the basis of a wider debate on new organizational forms (Child & McGrath, 2001), stresses the idea that careers are no longer something clear and predictable at a certain level but rather something less organizationally dependent and thus more boundaryless (Dany et al., 2003). Other chapters in this book review the literature on boundaryless career models which arose in the seminal works of Hall; we prefer here to give that literature a frame related to the so-called new science, a frame within which it is possible to understand the rationale of the methodological choice for mixed-methods. If we consider the latter, a recent special issue of M@n@gement (5 (1)) is devoted to “Careers and New Science”, with the general aim of exploring the

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The methodological appropriateness approach

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potential contribution to careers scholarship that may emerge from applying constructs derived by the so-called new science, a term used to denote a large area of investigation in the physical and complexity sciences. From the new science perspective, it is clear that careers are approached as extremely complex social phenomena which can and must be studied from many different points of view. Furthermore, new careers seem to be characterized by a perennial change process as a result of the widespread change happening in the larger socioeconomic system of which careers are an integral part, and “this combination of complexity and change is a theme that can be found in a great deal of turn-of-the-century writing in the social sciences, and an increasing number of scholars have turned to the physical sciences to look for approaches that may help them make sense of it all” (Bird et al., 2002). Actually, such a new perspective on careers, derived from the new science, stressing the complexity of career, is not really new; in fact, if we look to the seminal works on career of the group of Chicago sociologists led by Hughes, we find the suggestion of career as a Janus-like concept, with an ontological duality according to which “on one hand, careers pointed to those institutional forms of participation characteristic of some social world: a stream of more or less identifiable positions, offices, statuses, and situations that served as landmarks for gauging a person’s movement through the social milieu ( ... ). On the other hand, the notion pointed away from the career’s structure toward the individual’s experience of the career’s unfolding. This, the so-called subjective face of the career, consisted of the meanings individuals attributed to their careers, the sense they made of their becoming” (Barley, 1989, 49). It is just such a special mixture of sociological and subjective meanings attached to work careers that calls for a mixed-method approach, able to capture at the same time both the universal aspects of career development and the subjective meanings associated with it. For this reason we have chosen to analyze this phenomenon adopting both a questionnaire with international and validated measures on career attitudes and a semi-structured interview on how young adults, as university students are, view their occupational future.

Do boundaries for boundaryless careers models exist? A pilot study on university students’ expectations

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A Pilot Study on University Students’

Protean careers (Hall, 1976; 2001) and boundaryless careers (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996a; 1996b) are well studied in the adult population but unfortunately, less well-investigated in the adolescent and late adolescent targets, who are the work force of tomorrow. Starting from this consideration, our concern is related to the study of career expectations in university students.

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This unexplored population within the boundaryless career literature allows a first attempt to test the ecological validity of the general model.

In detail, we wanted to analyze, using a mixed-method approach (explained in the first section of this paper) of collecting and analyzing data (Patton, 1990; Flick, 1992), the attitude of university students towards their future career and how they figure it out. The sample is made up of 121 university students, belonging to the University of Bari (Faculty of Social Sciences), who have filled in a special questionnaire related to career self-efficacy, protean and boundaryless career attitudes projected in the future. In addition, we interviewed the students with a series of open questions related to the effort of imagining their own occupational future. For this part of our investigation, we have carried out a content analysis of the transcribed interviews by means of T-Lab software (Lancia, 2004). We have analyzed the questionnaire data in statistical terms, using SPSS 13 software. In particular, in the quantitative part of our research, in line with the ELSIN group of research, we wanted to analyze cognitive processing styles in young adults and their influence on career attitude and working expectations. We hypothesize that the way of processing the information related to occupational career may influence the attitude of young adults towards the professional career itself, with the result that some of them will show a deep protean career attitude and others a passive way of managing their occupational future. Personality classifications focusing on cognitive style (tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking) have been usually referred to as need for cognition (NFC) (Cacciopo & Petty, 1982). The NFC scale allows researchers to distinguish between two groups of individuals, high and low NFC individuals. Therefore, we propose the following explorative hypothesis: higher levels of positive and proactive career attitude are associated with high NFC individuals, compared to low NFC individuals. In addition to cognitive processing style, we wanted to test a “classical” influence, that of gender, on career attitude, taking into consideration the growing literature which marks the differences between males and females in terms of work expectations and attitude (for a review, see Gysbers et al., 2001).

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Research design and aims

Design and subjects 121 undergraduate students were recruited on a voluntary basis to take part in the study (11 male and 110 female subjects; age mean: 21, 6; S.D.: 3,2). We have run a 2 × 2 (between subjects) factorial design, comprising two levels of (high and low) cognitive processing and gender, to test the study hypotheses.

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Measures

Results Quantitative analysis Multiple-item scales were averaged and reliability was high for both individual characteristics and career attitude scales (Need For Cognition alpha = .80; Boundaryless Career Attitude alpha = .78). Furthermore, the sample has been divided into high cognitive and low cognitive style people. As for the first hypothesis, we found neither meaningful differences nor interaction effects of gender and cognitive style in terms of boundaryless career attitude. This result, associated to the qualitative part of the study, suggested that we should test the influence of working condition on boundaryless career attitude; in this sense we may formulate a second hypothesis where working experiences influence career attitude, specifically, working experiences amplify a boundaryless career attitude. Prior to running the two-way ANOVA, Levene’s test of Equality of Error Variance was not significant, thus satisfying the assumption of homogeneity of variance (Table 4.1). In addition, statistics for skewness and kurtosis indicated normal distributions for all variables used in the analyses. Looking at descriptive statistics (Table 4.2), it seems that working people, whether male or female, do show higher levels of career attitude. To examine Hypothesis 2 (the influence of work experience and gender), a 2 (gender) × 2 (work condition) factorial ANOVA was carried out (Figure 4.1; Table 4.3). According to our analysis of the main effects, only the working condition factor shows meaningful differences in terms of career attitudes, given

Table 4.1 Levene’s test of equality of error variancesa dependent variable: career attitude F .653

df1

df2

Sig.

3

88

.583

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Our dependent variable is related to the concept of work attitude and is measured via the Boundaryless Career Attitude Scale (Briscoe, Hall, & Frautschy De Muth, 2006). According to our study project, we have two independent variables: NFC and gender of respondents. NFC has been measured via an 18-item scale developed by Cacciopo and Petty (1982) to identify a person’s inherent desire to engage in elaborate cognitive processing.

Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal across groups. a

D esig n: I ntercept + work _ cond it ion + gender + work _ condition* gender.

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48 Michela Cortini, Emanuela Notarangelo and Elisa Cardellicchio

Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics

work_condition

gender

Mean

Std. Deviation

N

no workers

male female Total male female Total male female Total

3.0513 3.3859 3.3695 4.0000 3.6296 3.6774 3.5934 3.4633 3.4732

.16013 .50606 .49947 .36080 .42511 .43078 .57515 .49269 .49707

3 58 61 4 27 31 7 85 92

workers

Total

Work_condition

4,20

No workers Norkers

Estimated marginal mean

4,00

3,80

3,60

3,40

3,20

3,00 Male

Female Gender

Figure 4.1 Estimated marginal mean of Career A

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Dependent variable: career attitude

that the working people show a higher level of career attitude (in other words, career proactivity), in comparison with students who study and do not work, F = 9.94, p = .002, h² = .10, power = .87. If we consider the interactional effects between gender and working condition (Figure 4.1; Table 4.3), the graphic seems to suggest an interaction which, in fact, through the analysis of F statistics, is not significant (F= 3.47, p = .06, h² = .038, power = .45); it is clear that this result, which is not remarkable in statistical terms, would require an additional investigation.

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Table 4.3 Tests of between-subjects effects Dependent variable: career attitude

F

Partial Eta Noncent. Observed Sig. Squared Parameter Powera

Corrected 2.746b 3 .915 4.082 .009 Model Intercept 310.340 1 310.340 1383.620 .000 work_ 2.230 1 2.230 9.942 .002 condition gender .002 1 .002 .009 .925 work_ .780 1 .780 3.476 .066 condition* gender Error 19.738 88 .224 Total 1132.320 92 Corrected 22.484 91 Total a

.122

12.245

.830

.940 .102

1383.620 9.942

1.000 .877

.000 .038

.009 3.476

.051 .454

Computed using alpha = .05. R-Squared = .122 (Adjusted R-Squared = .092).

b

According to descriptive statistics and the ANOVA run, the highest rate of boundaryless career attitude is shown by male workers, followed by female workers (without an interaction effect between gender and working occupation), and this leads to the provisional conclusion that the working experience allows young adults’ attitude to differ from a stereotyped idea of career which describes (as interviews show) career and work as something that happen to you in a more proactive perspective, considering career as something the individual may fulfill through a personal path, recalling the idea of the protean career. Qualitative analysis To start with, it is important to remark that by “qualitative analysis” we mean a content analysis of the interview transcripts. More precisely, by the term “qualitative” we mean the data under analysis, namely discourses, while the technical tool of analysis is still quantitative (the content analysis is in fact based on statistical computations). The content analysis of interviews has been run through the T-Lab software (analysis of word occurrence and co-word mapping). Before going into deep analysis details, it is important to remark that we have prepared our text analysis through “lemmatization”, a reorganization of the T-Lab database by the creation of different tables used to analyze

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Source

Type III Sum of Mean Squares df Square

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Michela Cortini, Emanuela Notarangelo and Elisa Cardellicchio

Analysis of word occurrence and co-occurrence It should be obvious, considering the question-stimuli of the interviews, that the most cited word is “work” (lavoro) (Figure 4.2). The most interesting observation (Figure 4.2: where the more frequently two words co-occur, the closer they are in a dimensional space) is that when respondents refer to work, the most frequently used discursive words in the context are family (famiglia) and familial roles (sposato) married, marito, (husband) figli sons), suggesting it would be impossible to develop a career without taking into consideration the development of one’s private life. All the terms related to family show quite a good index of association (Cosine’s coefficient from 0.55 to 0.19), as shown in Table 4.4. It is interesting to point out, on the other hand, that despite a sort of psychological terrorism in the media regarding the occupational future, the young adults we interviewed still seem to be optimistic, because when

FELICE

VITA FUTURO SPERARE

ANNI

REALIZZARE CASA LAVORO IMPEGNATO VEDERE

FIGLI

TRENT

SPOSATO FAMIGLIA

MARITO

Figure 4.2 space.

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data; in particular the idea is to cluster together words with the same root meaning (e.g. “training” and “to be trained”). This operation has, of course, been done for the words (lemmas or categories) considered interesting for our analyses, such as “work” and “training”.

IMMAGINARE

Graph of word occurrences and co-occurrences on a multidimensional

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LEMMA Home Family Happy Sons Future To imagine Busy Husband To achieve To hope Married

COEFF

OCC

CO-OCC

CHI²

0.351 0.458 0.175 0.555 0.196 0.248 0.196 0.196 0.263 0.294 0.261

5 9 5 18 4 10 4 4 5 4 9

4 7 2 12 2 4 2 2 3 3 4

3.861 6.649 0.003 8.045 0.225 0.007 0.225 0.225 1.022 2.347 0.139

they talk about their future they use terms like felice (happy), sperare (to hope), realizzare (to achieve) with a cosine coefficient of 0.17, 0.29, and 0.26 respectively. Results of concept mapping By T-Lab concept mapping, we mean a co-occurrence (word x word) matrix, which computes the association indexes (Cosine index) and outputs (see Figure 4.3) a graphic representation through a multidimensional scaling. This analysis, which we have run using a two-times occurrence-point (i.e. our “word x word” matrix consists of the words that are present at least twice in our corpus; this choice is made in order to facilitate the interpretation of the results), and using the Sammon Method (stress 0.127) the analysis shows two different categorical factors that we have marked in yellow and green (Figure 4.3). The first factor refers to the idea and domain of family (“life” “family”, “wife”, etc.); the second refers to the domain of work (“career”, “work”, etc.); the result interestingly echoes the first coword analysis. The latter multidimensional scaling enriches the results of the first quantitative analysis and calls for additional investigation. It seems, in fact, that young adults, in thinking and worrying (in some sense) about their occupational future, have to make reference to the life domain. Up to now, boundaryless career models, which are deeply individualistic, have emphasized the personality and individual characteristics related to career attitudes; our results suggest we should go on and analyze how work– life conflict (or more precisely, how people imagine their affective future) influences the boundaryless career attitude.

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Table 4.4 Cosine’s coefficient of word associations for the word “work”

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Michela Cortini, Emanuela Notarangelo and Elisa Cardellicchio 1,5

CARO CRESCI

DEDICARE

TEMPO VITA

PENSIONE STABILE

PRIVATO

CIRCONDARE

MOGLIE

AMBITO SOCIALE

CONTESTO

PERSONE NUOVO 0,5

DONNA

SODDISFATTO

SICOLOGO

FAMIGLIA

REALIZZARE −1,5

FELICE

MATRIMONIO

0,0 −1,0

−0,5 SPERARE

IMPEGNATO

0,0

1,0 LAVORO

1,5

NIPOTI PREFERIRE −0,5

NONNO

RIUSCIRE

FIGLI TRENT

IMMAGINARE

SPOSATO −1,0

GUARDARE FUTURO

CEMENTE

GRANDE

MARITO

ANNI CASA SACRIFICIO

−1,5

Figure 4.3 A multidimensional scaling using a “word × word” matrix with 2 occurrences as the lower threshold of word occurrence.

The adoption of a new science perspective, with its stress on complexity, is the right one; one that has pushed us towards multiple research approaches.

Study limits and future research agenda It would be interesting to go on with our research, first of all by enlarging our sample. This would imply the application of more powerful statistical analysis for the investigation of the relations among the variables under investigation. In terms of content analysis, it would be interesting to perform a sequence analysis (focused on the term “career”), which would allow a Markovian analysis of the sequences, which calculates the transition probabilities (Markov chains) among the lexical units analysed. Such an analysis would help us to understand the ideas associated with career in terms of causes and effects. Finally, this emphasis on family roles (derived from the qualitative part of our research), which seems to be connected to the idea of career development, has persuaded us to re-consider the influence of gender, and has led

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VEDERE CARRIERA

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to some doubts about the first results of our ANOVA, performed in order to test correctly the influence of gender. To talk in mixed-methods terms, the different analysis approaches used in the present research seem to produce inconsistent results, so it would be useful to retest the first hypothesis with a larger sample and also enlarge the qualitative part of the study with additional in-depth interviews.

Arthur, M. B. & Rousseau, D. M. (1996a). A career lexicon for the 21st century, Academy of Management Executives, 10 (4). Arthur, M. B. & Rousseau, D. M. (1996b). Conclusion: A lexicon for the new organizational era. In M. B. Arthur & D. M. Rousseau, The Boundaryless Career: A New Employment Principle for a New Organizational Era. New York: Oxford University Press. Barley, S. R. (1989). Careers, identities, and institutions: The legacy of the Chicago School of sociology. In M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (eds.), Handbook of Career Theory. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 41–65. Bird, A., Gunz, H. P., & Arthur, M. B. (2002). Careers in a complex world: The search for new perspectives from the “New Science”, M@n@gement, 5 (1), 1–14. Briscoe, J. P., Hall, D. T., & Demuth, R. L. F. (2006). Protean and boundaryless careers: an empirical exploration. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69 (1), 30–47. Cacioppo, J. T. & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116–131. Child, J. & McGrath, R. G. (2001). Organizations unfettered: organizational form in an information-intensive economy. Academy of Management Journal, 44 (6), 1135–1148. Dany, F., Mallon, M., & Arthur, M. B. (2003). The odyssey of career and the opportunity for international comparison. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14, 705–12. Fielding, N. & Fielding, J. (1986). Linking Data: The Articulation of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Social Research . London and Beverly Hills: Sage. Flick, U. (1992). Combining methods. Lack of methodology: discussion of Sotirakopoulou & Breakwell, Ongoing Production on Social Representations, 1 (1), 43–48. Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. Gysbers, N., Heppner, M., & Johnston, J. (2001). L’orientamento professionale, Giunti, Firenze. Hall, D. T. (2001). Careers In and Out of Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hall, D. T. (1976). Careers in Organizations. Pacific Palisades: Goodyear. Lancia, F. (2004). Strumenti per L’Analisi dei Testi. Introduzione all’Uso di T-LAB. Milano: Franco Angeli. Patton M. Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Newbury Park: Sage. Sacks, H., Schegloff, E., & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation, Language 50, 696–735. Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in Organizations. London: Sage. Wilson, T. (1981) Qualitative “versus” quantitative methods in social research. In M. Küchler et al. Integration von qualitativen und quantitativen Forschungsansätzen. Mannheim: ZUMA.

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References

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Part II

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Occupational Well-being

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What Makes Them Happy? Comparing Working and NonWorking Men and Women in Typical and Atypical Occupations Dahlia Moore

The search for happiness is essential for most individuals in Western societies, as in many others, and the understanding of what makes people content with their lives is of growing importance, as the many studies examining this issue indicate (Diener, 1984, 2000); Klonowicz, 2001; Pavot; 2008; Oishi, Koo & Akimoto, 2008). Life satisfaction (LS) tends to remain stable over time (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003), fluctuating around a “set point” of happiness (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005, but see Lucas, 2007). One possible explanation for this stability is that LS is linked to personality traits and dispositions, which tend to be stable over time (Diener, Suh, Lucas & Smith, 1999). Researchers addressed diverse aspects of personality that influence LS: locus of control (Spector et al., 2001, Wardle et al., 2004), self-esteem (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008), depression (Hong & Giannakopoulos, 1994), instrumental and expressive traits (Moore, 2007), or trust (Lucas & Fujita, 2000). This study uses Diener’s (1984) measure of (LS) and focuses on three questions: Are working individuals more satisfied with life than non-working ones? Are workers in gender-typical occupations more satisfied with their lives than workers in atypical occupations, and what are the factors that influence the life satisfaction of men and women who work in typical or atypical occupations?

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5

Traits, locus of control and life satisfaction For about 30 years, Sandra Bem’s Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) scale (Bem, 1981) has been widely used. Her purpose was to assess how cultural definitions of desirable female and male attributes are reflected in individuals’ self-descriptions. Since then, researchers have found greater variability 57

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in the personality traits that men and women self-attribute (Bozionelos & Bozionelos, 2003; Spence & Buckner, 2000). Still, in most studies, the strongest factors are the instrumental factor (more typically attributed to men) and the expressive factor (more typically attributed to women) (e.g. Moore, 2003). According to these studies, women today may see themselves as highly feminine but also as ambitious, decisive, and independent, whereas men may see themselves as highly masculine but also as loyal, sensitive, and compassionate (e.g. Auster & Ohm, 2000; Lengua & Stormshak, 2000; Moore, 2006). Self-attribution of instrumental traits has been associated with more effective coping behaviors than self-attribution of expressive traits (Leung & Moore, 2003). Therefore, women’s tendency to self-attribute instrumental traits (as well as expressive traits) more than men’s tendency to self-attribute expressive traits is not surprising (Moore, 2003; Twenge 1999). The combination of instrumental and expressive traits is advantageous for two reasons. First, it denotes individuals who are more flexible and adaptable than those who are either instrumental or expressive (Smith, Ellis, & Benson, 2001; Woodhill & Samuels, 2003). Second, it incorporates two routes for attaining control over life situations. The prevalent approaches to locus of control assume that internal control is based on stable instrumental traits (Lefcourt, 1981; Mirowsky, Ross, & Willigen, 1996), and researchers have demonstrated that internal locus of control is a powerful predictor of LS; its predictive power ranges from 4.6% to 23% (Hong and Giannokopoulos, 1994). Evidence concerning the effects of external control on well-being has not been reported. However, Moore (2007) shows that although there are no gender differences in the levels of LS reported by men and women (also Prenda & Lachman, 2001), expressive traits (like empathy or ability to rely on friends to attain one’s goals) may be an alternative means of attaining control for men. For women, instrumental traits exert a salient influence on locus of control and LS. Moore’s (2007) study also indicates that whereas instrumental traits affect the well-being of both men and women, expressive traits positively influence only men’s locus of control and LS. These studies did not distinguish between working and non-working individuals, as this study aims to do.

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Work and life satisfaction Are employed individuals more satisfied with their lives than non-working individuals? And does employment influence the LS of men and women in the same way? Studies of these issues provide unclear, even contradictory answers to these questions. Schoon, Hansson and Salmela Aro (2005), studying Estonia, Finland, and the UK find that working individuals report higher LS than non-working individuals; women tend to be more satisfied with their lives than men, and those who work in professional jobs tend

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to be happier with their lives than those who work in unskilled jobs. Their findings are supported by Klonowicz (2004) who studies Poland and shows that unemployment reduces LS of both men and women, and Bergman and Daukantaite (2006) who showed that unemployment had the strongest negative effect on LS in Sweden. Similarly, van Daalen, Sanders and Willemsen (2005) show that while women in the Netherlands report greater LS than men, men report higher psychological well-being than women. In contrast, Hill (2005) shows that in the United States, men are more satisfied with their lives than women, and working fathers report higher satisfaction than working mothers. Another contrast is reported by Eggers, Gaddy and Graham (2006) in their analysis of these processes in Russia, showing that unemployment increases LS, which they explain as a comparative process (i.e. because so many are unemployed, a person may feel – in comparison to others who are also unemployed – that his/her situation is not so bad, and thus report LS). On the basis of these contradictory findings, it is difficult to predict whether working individuals in Israel will be more or less satisfied with their lives than non-working individuals, and whether working men and women will report different levels of LS.

Sex typing of occupations and life satisfaction A less examined influence on LS is that of sex typing of occupations. Femaletyped occupations (FTOs) are those in which the proportion of women is greater than two thirds, and male-typed occupations (MTOs) are those in which men are over-represented (over two thirds) Hence, occupational sexsegregation means that there exist separate and characteristic occupations for men and women (Yankelovitch et al., 1985). The effect of occupation types on opportunities and rewards of men and women in the labor market is well documented (England, 2000; Ruble, Cohen & Ruble, 1984), showing that occupation types influence worker attitudes and behavior both within and outside the context of work (Izraeli, 1990). Female-typed occupations tend to be more “female friendly” in terms of flexibility, less compulsory overtime, and adjusting working hours to women’s needs than male-typed occupations, because of their reliance on women workers (Moore, 1992). The potential breaks in women’s employment for childbearing force many women to choose occupations in which the cost of such interruptions is lower, usually those in which little on-the-job training is necessary, knowledge gets outdated more slowly, and the returns for experience are lower (Hoffman & Reed, 1981). Moreover, women seek advancement less than men in order to avoid increased responsibility and time-consuming obligations (Eriksen & Klein, 1981). However, these occupations pay lower wages (England, 2000; Janman, 1989), and status enhancement in them is more difficult to attain (Stier & Lewin-Epstein, 2000) because they tend

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What Makes Them Happy?

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Dahlia Moore

to contain no-mobility jobs, with more routine tasks that require less work commitment. Consequently, women who turn to these occupations mostly espouse a “limited work role” strategy and remain economically dependent on their spouses even when they work full-time jobs (Reynolds, 2003). Male-typed occupations (MTOs) are constructed to accommodate the “breadwinner” or “careerist” roles rather than the “homemaker” role and demand more rigid, longer working hours and greater work commitment than FTOs (Grandey, Cordeiro & Michael, 2007; Ilies et al., 2007; Reynolds & Aletraris, 2007). Therefore, they are less restricted by time-bound family obligations than female-typed occupations, and workers in these occupations (whether men or women) are more likely to be under pressing time obligations at work. Consequently, they will have less time for domestic responsibilities than workers (both men and women) in FTOs (Kessler-Harris, 2003). Women who join MTOs seem to choose a “limited family role” strategy, i.e. tend to be less home-oriented and attribute less importance to their traditional gender roles (Kessler-Harris, 1990). They also perceive less conflict between home and work (Izraeli, 1990; Moore, 1995). The number of women who choose this strategy is increasing, indicating a significant change in gender roles and may be attributed – at least in part – to greater professionalization and the increase in academic education that is noticeable among women (Kulik & Rayyan, 2003). In traditional societies, like Israel, this strategy in which work demands supersede family obligations is a problematic option for women (Izraeli, 1990). In most cases, MTOs require stereotypical instrumental traits and FTOs require expressive traits. A major consequence of this stereotyping is the occupational orientation it creates, leading young persons to aspire to gender-typical occupations, believing that they will be less successful in atypical ones (Moore, 1992). Those who aspire to atypical occupations risk social disapproval (of family, friends, teachers, and/or other workers) and the invoking of negative social sanctions. This may very well be too heavy a price to pay and those who fear the consequences of such choices will avoid contradicting social expectations. An additional option exists today: Choosing work in mixed-gender occupations. Most of these occupations are considered professions (e.g. psychologists, biologists, lawyers, high-school teachers) that require advanced (academic) education and enable higher status and income than femaletyped occupations (though not as high as male-typed occupations). These occupations were male-typed until the 1990s. Since then, a growing number of women are entering these occupations, turning them into mixed-gender ones. Many of these women emphasize the importance of their work roles as a source of satisfaction in their lives as much as (or even more than) their domestic roles (Moore, 1996). Mixed occupations appeal not only to women who value their work, but also to men who place great importance on their family life. Those who

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turn to mixed-gender professions seem to find an “in-between” strategy that does not diminish the value of the domestic sphere, but raises the value of the work sphere. It remains to be seen how occupation type influences the LS of men and women.

Gender stereotypes, like all stereotypes, are created by cognitive processes of categorizing social groups. They derive from cultural values, attitudes, and norms, and they also strengthen the hold of these values, attitudes, and norms on society. The stereotypes are often clear and obvious, but they may also be hidden or implied, and hard to pin down (as is the case with the “well-meaning liberal male”1). Although in many Western societies stereotypes against working women and their ability to successfully combine family responsibilities and work obligations are less relevant today than they were in the past, these stereotypes are still prevalent (Diekman & Murnen, 2004; Lyness & Terrazas, 2006), especially among the more tradition-oriented segments in societies. It seemed logical to assume that as more women entered male-typed occupations, and the division of labor became more egalitarian, the stereotypes would weaken, diminishing the actuarial basis of the stereotypical perceptions of women’s work. The change is rather slow (Diekman & Murnen, 2004; Mueller & Yoder, 1997), and diverse explanations were suggested for their perseverance (e.g. Cleveland, Stockdale & Murphy, 2000; Eckes, 2002). Many of the explanations present the tendency to accept the traditional division of labor as the basis for agreement with the stereotypes against working women and the devaluation of their work investments, especially against women who are mothers and wives (Hill, 2005; Spence & Buckner, 2000). Orthodox women tend to support libertarian, egalitarian ideologies less than secular and non-traditional women (Moore, 1996; Poloma & Pendleton, 1990). Such women, who strongly support the traditional gendered division of labor, tend to have heavier family responsibilities than women who do not support that division (i.e. the former get married more, and have more children than the latter (Reynolds & Aletraris, 2007). Because accepting the stereotype means lowering expectations regarding women’s ability to succeed at work, those who accept the stereotypes tend to believe that it is still difficult (or even impossible) for women to successfully combine family and career. This belief is expected to hinder the ability of women to succeed in the labor market. In contrast, women who do not accept the stereotypes are expected to believe that role combination is possible, and as a result, will express greater LS. This is expected to be most salient among women in FTOs as they are in jobs that enable them to combine the roles more easily.

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Stereotypes and belief in the possibility of role combination

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62 Dahlia Moore

In addition, because the influence of factors such as education, age, religiosity, and ethnicity was found to be weak (Suh, Diener, Oishi & Triandis, 1998, but see also Mirowsky, 1995) and the findings concerning their impact are contradictory (McLeod & Owens, 2004); they were included in the present analysis together with family characteristics.

The study deals with three questions: Are working individuals more satisfied with life than non-working ones? Are workers in gender-typical occupations more satisfied with their lives than workers in atypical occupations? And what are the factors that influence the LS of men and women who work in typical or atypical occupations? H1: Working men report higher LS than non-working men, but working women report lower LS because for women working creates a heavier burden. H2: Workers in gender-typical occupations report higher LS than workers in atypical occupations because these occupations are better suited to their gendered needs and obligations. H3: The process that leads to LS of non-working and working men and women in typical and atypical occupations is different: H3a: Being married and having children increase LS of both men and women, but the effect is stronger for women, especially for women who work in female-typed occupations, for whom family is the primary role. H3b: Internal control strengthens LS for all individuals, but its influence is more significant on the LS of men and women in atypical occupations who chose non-traditional paths to self-fulfillment. H3c: Instrumental traits strengthen LS for all individuals, but their influence on workers will be more noticeable than on non-workers. Their influence on the LS of women in atypical occupations will be stronger than on that of women in typical ones. H3d: Expressive traits strengthen LS for men, but their influence on men who turned to atypical occupations will be stronger than on that of men in typical occupations. H3e: The weaker the gender stereotypes, the stronger the belief that combining family and work is possible, and that will strengthen LS for both men and women. Hence, stereotypes are expected to have only an indirect effect. The belief in role combination will influence the LS of women in typical occupations more strongly than the LS of workers in atypical occupations.

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Hypotheses

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The representative sample (N = 803) of working and non-working men and women was drawn from the Israeli (Jewish) population in 2007. The respondents’ ages ranged from 20–70 years. The sample includes 462 women and 341 men, 37% of them religious or tradition-oriented and the remaining 63% secular. About 40% of the sample defined themselves as having above-average income, another 40% have about average income, the remaining 20% are of below-average income. The average education is 13.5 years of schooling. No significant differences in age, religiosity, income, or education were found between men and women in the sample (see Table 5.1). Table 5.1 Analysis of variance – working and non-working men and women Women

Men

Main effects

Not Not Working Working Working Working (N = 202) (N = 260) (N = 93) (N = 248) Marital Status 6766 (Married = 1) Have .4975 Children Age 52.1587 Ethnicity.3571 Euro Religiosity .5000 Education 13.2619 Expressive 6.2447 traits Instrumental 5.9732 traits Stereo12.0492 Stereotype against working women Stereo23.8834 General Stereotype Internal 4.5171 control Belief in role .5389 combination Life 5.1989 satisfaction a

Sex

Work

Interaction

.675

.197

.263

.6783

.6237

.6626

.6589

.3441

.5610 10.770a 25.048a

.544

42.5593 .2797

53.5897 .4359

42.2156 .3486

.024 65.476a 3.760b 4.179b

.468 .015

.4153 14.8432 6.0430

.3590 14.1667 6.0323

.3624 4.213b 1.365 14.6009 .138 14.663a 5.8462 14.261a 12.815a

5.9135

5.7834

5.7355

7.351a

.649

.007

1.7840

2.2771

2.0987 11.084a

6.955a

.224

3.4602

3.5924

3.3056

7.834a 25.963a

.808

4.4685

4.5441

4.4436

.015

1.189

.161

.4942

.6237

.5761

5.217 b

1.504

.001

5.0547

5.0596

5.0055

.810

1.525

.233

1.094 3.797 b .019

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Method

p ≤ .01. p ≤ .05.

b

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Data were collected by telephone interviews (conducted at the respondents’ homes) within one month in order to limit possible biases caused by national and political changes that might have sensitized respondents to the analyzed issues. Incomplete questionnaires (3%) and refusals to respond (6%) were excluded from further analysis and replaced by data from others. The proportions of gender, ethnic origin, and geographic location categories in the sample correspond to those of the entire population in 2005, as reported by the Israeli Bureau of Statistics (2006). In addition to measures of life satisfaction, relative deprivation, and perceptions of gender roles, the questionnaires contained questions regarding locus of control, instrumental and expressive traits, and demographic characteristics. Variables and measures Life Satisfaction – examined by Diener’s (1984) 5-item measure. Respondents were asked to indicate their agreement with each item on a 7-point Likert scale with 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree: 1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal. 2. The conditions of my life are excellent. 3. I am satisfied with my life. 4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. 5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. A varimax rotated factor analysis (using Kaiser’s Normalization) revealed a single factor in which the higher the value, the higher the LS (Cronbach a = .78).2 Internal control – ten items were drawn from Paulhus (1983) spheres of control scale. The items were selected from each subscale on the basis of the part–whole correlation between the item and its subscale. Respondents were asked to indicate how appropriate they considered each item to be for them on a 6-point Likert scale with 1 = totally inappropriate and 6 = totally appropriate. A varimax rotated factor analysis using Kaiser’s Normalization revealed two distinct factors3: Internal Control includes five items: 1. Even in difficult situations I always find diverse ways to act. 2. I can learn almost anything, if I only decide to do it. 3. I can determine most of the things in my life. 4. Usually, I succeed in attaining what I want. 5. I can always find solutions to problems I encounter (Cronbach a = .75). Instrumental and expressive traits – Twenty items were drawn from the list of traits provided in Bem’s Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1981). Ten items represent instrumental traits, and ten items represent expressive traits. The items were selected from each subscale on the basis of the part–whole correlation between the item and its scale, and their values were combined. Respondents were asked “In your opinion how well does each characteristic fit you?” Items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale with 1 = does not fit at all and 7 = fits very well. The instrumental traits were: ambitious, analytical, competitive, decisive, leadership ability, independent, strong personality, willing to take risks, assertive and forceful (Cronbach a = .82). The expressive traits were: considerate, understanding, warm, eager to soothe feelings, sensitive to others, sympathetic, soft-spoken, yielding, loyal and optimistic

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64

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65

(Cronbach a = .79) (Bem, 1987). The items were mixed when presented to respondents in order to avoid biases. In accord with Spence and Helmreich (1978), the responses to items were added for each scale separately, but each item was weighted first according to its loading in a varimax rotated factor analysis (using Kaiser’s Normalization) to force a two-factor solution. In each factor, the higher the value, the more appropriate the traits. All items represent the trait, not the adjective (i.e. decisiveness rather than decisive), as adjectives in Hebrew are gendered.4 Stereotypes – Seven items were presented to respondents, drawn from often-heard statements concerning the gendered division of labor in Israel. Respondents were asked to indicate their agreement with each item on a 6-point Likert scale with 1 = strongly disagree and 6 = strongly agree. A varimax rotated factor analysis using Kaiser’s Normalization revealed two distinct factors5: (1) stereotype1-against working women includes two items: “working women are worse mothers than non-working mothers” and “working women are worse partners than non-working mothers” (Cronbach a = .80). (2) stereotype2-general attitudes includes five items: “For most men, a successful career woman is a less preferred spouse”, “men are more loyal to the workplace than women because they are the breadwinners for their family”, “for most women, having a family is more important than a professional career”, “men get most of their satisfaction from work and less from their family” “raising children hinders women’s advancement at work, not men’s” (Cronbach a = .65). Belief in Role Combination – this was examined by a direct question: There is a lasting debate concerning women’s ability to combine family and a career successfully. Here are five often-heard claims. With which of them do you agree?: 1. There is no problem today in combing family and a career – many women do it successfully; 2. It is possible to combine family and career – each woman finds her own solutions if she encounters difficulties; 3. Women with both a career and a family have to deal with unending pressures; 4. It is very difficult to combine family and a career. Women can develop careers until they have children, but when they become mothers, they must limit their work obligations; 5. It is impossible to combine the two – the idea that like men, women can develop careers when they have families is an illusion. The question was recoded so that 1 (responses 1 or 2) = combining family and work is seen as possible, even beneficial; and 0 (answers 3, 4, or 5) = combining family and work is seen as stressful or impossible. Occupation type – three occupation types were defined, according to the percentage of men and women in each occupation: Male-typed occupations (MTOs), in which 66% of all workers or more are men; female-typed occupations (FTOs), in which 66% of all workers or more are women, and mixed-gender occupations, in which more than 33% and less than 66% of all workers are men. The categories were than combined according to gender so that atypical occupations for men include both mixed-gender

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What Makes Them Happy?

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Dahlia Moore

occupations and FTOs, and for women, the category includes both mixedgender occupations and MTOs. The categories were combined because of the small numbers of respondent in atypical occupations. Only 12% of the men in the sample were in FTOs, and an additional 19% in mixed occupations (the rest – 69% – were in MTOs). Among women, 23% were in mixed occupations and 25% in MTOs.

Age – continuous. Education – continuous (formal number of years). Ethnic origin – three groups were defined: European-American origin (for respondents or their fathers), Asian-African origin (for respondents or their fathers) and second-generation Israeli born. Only the first category is included in the analyses. Religiosity – measured on a 4-point scale with 1 = orthodox, 2 = religious, 3 = tradition-oriented and 0 = secular. Responses were then recoded so that religious = 1, secular = 0. Family status – Married = 1; Other = 0. Children – Have children = 1; No = 0. Gender: men = 1; women = 0. Analyses First, the differences among working and non-working men and women with respect to all the measures – LS, gender stereotypes, internal locus of control, instrumental and expressive traits, marital status, age, ethnicity, education and religiosity were examined (see Table 5.1). Second, a recursive structural equation model (SEM) for each analyzed group (Fox, 1980) was used to examine the theoretical model (see Figure 5.1). After the examination of LS in each gender group (see Table 5.2), differences between working and non-working in each gender group were examined (see Tables 5.3 and 5.4). Finally, the analysis focused on working individuals only, examining differences between those who work in gender-typical occupations and those who work in atypical ones (see Figures 5.2–5.5).

Demographic Characteristics • Age • Religiosity • Ethnicity • Family

Belief in possibility of role combination

Subjective wellbeing

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Demographic characteristics

Internal Control

Traits: • Instrumental • Expressive

Figure 5.1 Theoretical nonrecursive model

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<– <– <– <– <– <–

<– Age

Expressive Expressive Expressive Instrumental Instrumental Instrumental

Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control .045

.040

.041

.090

.129

2.598

–.300

–.430

–.984

.300

.002 –1.201

.003 2.255 .098 –1.047 .121 3.486 .003 1.823 .090 –.460 .111 2.399

.055 –.356 .171 –2.482 .052 –.280 .162 –2.169

.003 4.169 .003 –2.946 .054 7.280 .003 4.306 .099 25.160

C.R.

.128

–.014

–.036

–.049

.026

–.058

.121 –.057 .196 .099 –.025 .136

–.033 –.233 –.027 –.214

.222 –.153 .376 .140 .809

Standardized Regression Weights

–.078 .080

.009a

–.003

.022

–.055

.764

.667

.325

.764

–.003

.003 –.071 .332 –.007 –.075 .354

.024b .295 .000a .068 .646 .016b .230

–.032 –.047 –.039 –.117

.006 –.010 .255 –.024 2.445

.722 .013a .779 .030b

.000a .003a .000a .000a .000a

P C.R.

–.667 –.357 –.842 –.913

–.083

.279

–.549

.037

2.164

.034 –2.299

.037

.078

.101

.002 –1.293

.003 .984 .051 –1.390 .104 3.177 .003 –2.501 .044 –1.692 .090 3.940

.048 .131 .047 .128

.003 1.988 .003 –3.071 .047 5.485 .003 –7.053 .054 44.886

Regression Weights Estimate S.E.

.095

–.096

–.010

.013

–.063

–.058

.046 –.065 .162 –.115 –.079 .198

–.080 –.043 –.103 –.114

.093 –.139 .247 –.144 .906

Standardized Regression Weights

Women (N = 462)

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.117

<– stereo2

–.018

<– Education

–.012

–.088

<– Religiosity

<– stereo1

.039

–.003

.007 –.103 .420 .005 –.041 .265

–.020 –.425 –.015 –.351

.013 –.010 .395 .014 2.489

<– Ethnicity

Age Ethnicity Religiosity Age Ethnicity Religiosity

Education Ethnicity Education Ethnicity

<– <– <– <–

stereo1 stereo1 stereo2 stereo2

Age Age Married Age Ethnicity

<– <– <– <– <–

Married Children Children Education Education

Regression Weights Estimate S.E.

Men (N = 341)

Table 5.2 Scalar maximum likelihood regression estimates – men and women

.030b

.021b

.934

.780

.583

.196

.325 .164 .001a .012a .091 .000a

.505 .721 .400 .361

.047 b .002a .000a .000a .000a

P

Continued

8.897a

17.609a

–3.805a

–12.937a

8.044a

0

13.243a –4.166a 7.725a 39.730a 4.912a –8.727a

2.302a –24.617a 4.797a –15.888a

23.176a 0 27.392a 125.814a 5.588a

Comparison t

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<– <– <– <– <– <– <– <– <–

<– <– <– <– <– <– <– <–

Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief

–.080 .003 –.005 –.074 –.145 –.055 .059 .150

.002 .219 –.027 .026 –.011 –.057 –.074 .014 –.023

.491

–.025

–.634

C.R.

.024 .056 .015 .025 .028 .025 .027 .085

–3.302 .058 –.329 –2.984 –5.175 –2.197 2.177 1.765

.056 .044 .054 4.084 .104 –.265 .123 .215 .055 –.194 .063 –.904 .055 –1.353 .070 .199 .076 –.299

.043 11.410

.040

Regression Weights Estimate S.E.

–.166 .003 –.017 –.154 –.273 –.114 .111 .087

.002 .229 –.015 .012 –.011 –.052 –.074 .013 –.019

.535

–.030

Standardized Regression Weights

Men (N = 341)

.018 .138 .098 –.066 –.027 –.082 –.083 .013 .011 –.064 .038 –.020 –.089 –.098 –.025 .030 .053

.000a .953 .742 .003a .000a .028b .030b .078

.394

.000a .965 .000a .791 .830 .846 .366 .176 .843 .765

.046

.526

P

9.973

1.345

C.R.

.022 .051 .009 .022 .024 .022 .026 .070

–2.920 .744 –2.165 –4.021 –4.012 –1.111 1.162 .751

.048 .381 .046 2.991 .053 1.853 .108 –.609 .047 –.575 .042 –1.956 .047 –1.755 .061 .222 .066 .167

.040

.034

Regression Weights Estimate S.E.

–.130 .038 –.100 –.180 –.189 –.051 .054 .032

.018 .140 .089 –.032 –.027 –.086 –.082 .012 .009

.430

.057

Standardized Regression Weights

Women (N = 462)

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Married Religiosity Education stereo1 stereo2 Expressive Instrumental Internal control

Married Children Ethnicity Religiosity stereo1 stereo2 Expressive Instrumental Internal control

<– Instrumental

<– Expressive

Working Working Working Working Working Working Working Working Working

Internal control Internal control

Table 5.2 Continued

.004a .457 .030b .000a .000a .267 .245 .453

.703 .003a .064 .542 .565 .053a .079 .824 .868

.000a

.179

P

–6.887a –6.475a 12.185a 6.309a –17.851a –12.619a 10.854a 12.341a

–3.038a 15.994a –15.436a 7.873a 3.097a 4.659a 1.742 0.150 –4.731a

23.152a

–18.943a

Comparison t

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CMIN/DF RMSEA Adjusted R 2

–.982

3.030

6.211

2.466

–.091

–.045

.145

.332

.132

–.004

–.074

.023

.011

.111

.013

.333

.104

–.096

–.035

.000a

.471 .263

.000a .002a

8.473 .119 .251

–.106

.201

.014a

.326

–.029

.017

–.012

.928

.123

.625

.041

.235

.022b .894

–.113

.872

.028

.210

–.061 b

.061

2.663

7.112

3.299

–.619

.328

–.246

.859

2.173

–.859

–.748

4.383

.047 –2.273

.099

.066

.061

.047

.052

.047

.048

.108

.132

.047

.048

.045 –1.364

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8.233 .136 .245

.054

–.053

.070

.055

<– working

–.005

<– Expressive

.489

.134

2.285

.161

6.850

2.191

.063 –1.542

.120

–.097

<– stereo2

.055

.364

.027

<– stereo1

.055

.076

.007

<– Education

.123

.474

.282

<– Religiosity

.175

<– Internal control <– Belief

.028

<– Ethnicity

.055

.174

.377

<– Children

.057

.051 –1.874

<– Instrumental

.124

<– Married

Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction Lifesatisfaction

–.095

<– working

Belief

–.095

.114

.332

.155

–.026

.014

–.010

.090

.101

–.092

–.032

.183

–.064 a

9.095a 10.369a

.023b

0.417

–4.073a

4.646a

–19.551a

7.550a

–6.523a

4.022a

9.028a

79.766a

–16.165a

–7.002a

.008a

.000a

.000a

.536

.743

.805

.390

.030b

.390

.454

.000

.172

70

Dahlia Moore

According to Byrne (1998), structural equation models have two advantages. First, the causal processes under study are represented by a series of structural (i.e. regression) equations. Second, the structural relations can be presented graphically. The hypothesized model can be tested statistically in a simultaneous analysis of the entire system of variables to determine the extent to which it is consistent with the data.6

The examination of the basic differences between working and non-working men and women shows that there are no significant differences in the life satisfaction (LS) of any of the groups (see Table 5.1). Thus, men and women are equally satisfied with their lives whether they work or not. Still, we need to examine these relationships more closely to see whether the finding holds when other factors are controlled. Analysis of differences in the mean scores of the other measures used in the model shows that women in the sample are more religious than men, and fewer among them are of European origin. They also support gender stereotypes less than men, and self-attribute both instrumental and expressive traits more than men, indicating that a significant change has occurred in Israel, similar to changes in diverse Western societies (Bozionelos & Bozionelos, 2003; Stake, 2000). As expected, there were significant differences between working and nonworking individuals, the most relevant to the present analysis being that working men and women support gender stereotypes less than non-working ones. They are also less expressive than non-working individuals but are not more (or less) instrumental. The study’s findings seem to indicate that expressive traits contribute less to labor market integration, perhaps even hindering it, but further analyses are necessary to determine whether this applies to both male- and female-typed occupations. In addition to the differences found in the means of some of the measures, these variables were expected to have a different impact on the LS of working and non-working men and women, who are employed in gender-typical or atypical occupations. To test this assumption, the theoretical model (Figure 5.2) was first examined empirically for men and women (see Table 5.2). The examination of the two groups shows that married and religious individuals tend to report higher levels of LS, especially when they have strong internal control and believe that role combination is possible. The LS of both men and women is also influenced by their instrumental traits so that the higher the instrumentality, the stronger the LS. It is interesting to note that for both genders, expressive traits have no such effect on LS. For men, children also increase LS. Strangely enough, the only significant negative impact found on LS is that of work for women. The analysis shows that although no differences were found in the LS of working and non-working individuals (see Table 5.1), when other factors are controlled for (like religiosity, family status, traits, and internal control), work decreases the LS of women. This may be due to

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Results

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What Makes Them Happy?

71

Children Married .39 −.15

.25

.25

Age Belief in possibility of role combination

Ethnicity .18 .25

Instrumental Traits

Internal Control

Subjective well being

.41

.59

Expressive Traits

Figure 5.2 Empirical model – men in typical (male-typed) occupations

work adding a burden to women’s existing obligations. It is necessary to further examine this finding to determine whether the impact is found for both working and non-working women. Are working men and women more satisfied with life than non-working ones? Turning to the examination of gender differences in the process leading to LS, two differences become immediately apparent. First, in contrast with all theories and expectations, children increase the LS of both working and non-working men, not women’s! Second, working indeed decreases only the LS of women, so it may be deduced that for most women working is still more of a burden than a source of pleasure, self-fulfillment and status as it is for many men (see Table 5.3). Therefore, the analysis now turns to compare working and non-working men and women. The LS of both working and non-working men (see Table 5.3) is influenced by locus of control so that the stronger the internal control, the greater the LS. Similarly, children increase both groups’ LS, and so does the belief that combining roles is possible for women nowadays. For working men only, being married also increases LS. A very different picture is found when working and non-working women are compared (see Table 5.4). Of all the factors included in the model, the LS of non-working women is influenced only by internal control. The LS of working women, on the other hand, is positively influenced – in addition to internal control – by being married and being religious. It is also strengthened by their belief that women can successfully combine family and work. Also, although they are not more instrumental than non-working women (see Table 5.1), instrumental traits influence only the LS of working women.7 Thus, Moore’s (2007) finding according to which instrumental traits significantly enhance the LS of women should be limited only to working women.

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Religiosity

.14

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<– <– <– <– <– <–

<– Age

Expressive Expressive Expressive Instrumental Instrumental Instrumental

Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control

–.024

<– Education .080

.083

.181

.230

.004

.005 .175 .233 .005 .162 .217

1.170

–.286

1.118

.415

–.285

.930 –.527 1.855 1.392 –.448 1.012

.276 –1.152 .098 –.106 .248 –2.242 .089 –.192

.005 2.501 .005 –.725 .104 1.219 .005 4.727 .179 11.418

C.R.

.103

–.043

.104

.063

–.028

.095 –.055 .201 .143 –.047 .111

–.191 –.017 –.358 –.030

.252 –.077 .130 .309 .744

Standardized Regression Weights

.242

.775

.263

.678

.776

.352 .598 .064 .164 .654 .311

.249 .915 .025 .848

.012 .469 .223 .000 .000

P

–.054

–.007

–.157

–.028

–.005

.007 –.099 .408 .004 –.019 .280

–.487 –.022 –.262 –.008

.017 –.013 .501 .019 2.656

C.R.

1.604 –.820 2.897 .993 –.175 2.178

–.181

–.152 .045 –1.201

.046

.100 –1.573

.152

.003 –1.500

.005 .121 .141 .004 .110 .128

.209 –2.324 .063 –.350 .197 –1.333 .059 –.143

.004 3.747 .005 –2.857 .064 7.862 .005 4.051 .121 21.954

Regression Weights Estimate S.E.

–.067

–.015

–.089

–.018

–.083

.102 –.052 .191 .064 –.011 .145

–.253 –.038 –.155 –.016

.234 –.168 .460 .151 .812

Standardized Regression Weights

Working Men (N = 248)

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.094

.203

<– Religiosity

<– stereo1

.096

–.001

.005 –.092 .433 .006 –.073 .220

–.318 –.010 –.557 –.017

.013 –.004 .127 .025 2.045

<– Ethnicity

Age Ethnicity Religiosity Age Ethnicity Religiosity

Ethnicity Education Ethnicity Education

<– <– <– <–

stereo1 stereo1 stereo2 stereo2

Age Age Married Age Ethnicity

<– <– <– <– <–

Married Children Children Education Education

Regression Weights Estimate S.E.

Non-working Men (N = 93)

Table 5.3 Scalar maximum likelihood regression estimates – non-working and working men

.230

.879

.116

.856

.134

.109 .412 .004 .321 .861 .029

.020 .727 .183 .886

.000 .004 .000 .000 .000

P

23.032

–2.562

24.906

6.350

11.230

–3.973 0.463 1.303 4.377 –3.887 –3.388

6.850 1.456 –13.055 –1.189

–8.755 17.878 –43.440 11.9198 –39.875

Comparison t

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CMIN/DF RMSEA Adjusted R2

Well-being

<– <– <– <– <– <– <– <– <– <–

Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being

Married Religiosity Education stereo1 stereo2 Expressive Instrumental Internal control

4.252 .114 .136

.554

.023 .258 .047 .366 –.002 –.029 –.078 .104 .197 .373

–.242 –.092 –.009 –.067 –.170 –.122 .171 .165

.501

–.174

.035

.360

.257

.120 .104 .288 .244 .098 .109 .132 .112 .139 .140

.042 .099 .027 .043 .049 .043 .046 .165

.089

2.153

.194 2.478 .163 1.499 –.017 –.266 –.594 .933 1.422 2.668

–5.791 –.929 –.328 –1.539 –3.504 –2.841 3.734 1.003

5.638

.081 –2.148

.097

.249

.020 .212 .024 .142 –.002 –.024 –.061 .087 .152 .283

–.454 –.080 –.027 –.124 –.294 –.227 .294 .098

.510

–.192

.036

.031

.846 .013 .870 .134 .986 .790 .553 .351 .155 .008

.000 .353 .743 .124 .000 .004 .000 .316

.000

.032

.719

4.577 .106 .245

.290

.212 .391 –.020 .250 .018 .102 –.033 –.010 .133 .493

–.024 .045 –.004 –.082 –.140 –.050 .028 .149

.501

.029

.172 .640

3.267

.139

.069 .063 .214 .144 .064 .065 .078 .065 .085 .094

2.080

3.086 6.231 –.093 1.731 .281 1.565 –.424 –.148 1.557 5.243

.029 –.848 .066 .682 .017 –.211 .029 –2.803 .034 –4.171 .030 –1.680 .033 .871 .096 1.549

.049 10.280

.045

.053

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Married Children Ethnicity Religiosity Education stereo1 stereo2 Expressive Instrumental Internal control <– Belief

<– <– <– <– <– <– <– <–

<– Instrumental

<– Expressive

<– stereo2

Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief

Internal control Internal control Internal control

.113

.172 .346 –.009 .095 .025 .084 –.024 –.008 .097 .329

–.051 .044 –.013 –.173 –.261 –.104 .053 .087

.549

.035

.186

.037

.002 .000 .926 .083 .779 .118 .672 .882 .119 .000

.397 .495 .833 .005 .000 .093 .384 .121

.000

.522

.001

12.951

–19.467 –15.532 2.622 5.825 –2.414 –14.675 –4.175 12.542 5.574 –10.037

–60.160 –16.248 –2.219 4.078 –7.083 –19.332 35.516 1.193

0

–31.327

–17.749

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–.051

<– stereo1

–.177 –.338 –.737 –.164

.053

.062

.130

.157

–.967

–.831

–1.196

.492

.004 –.245 .064 –.665 .175 1.391 .004 –2.837 .059 –1.797 .163 1.436 .003 –1.229

.216 .086 .220 .088

.004 1.346 .004 –1.966 .071 3.458 .005 .478 .074 31.004

C.R.

–.061

–.171

–.091

.104

–.017 –.048 .120 –.197 –.127 .122 –.077

–.043 –.081 –.189 –.041

.095 –.135 .237 .015 .934

Standardized Regression Weights

.334

.406

.232

.622

.807 .506 .164 .005 .072 .151 .219

.859 .735 .461 .870

.178 .049 .000 .633 .000

P

–.083

.017

.127

–.102

.006 –.024 .362 –.006 .128 .435 –.003

.104 –.037 –.009 –.036

.008 –.012 .270 –.010 2.255

C.R.

.583 –.575 –.055 –.605

.373

1.322

–.812

.044 –1.899

.045

.096

.125

.005 1.170 .102 –.232 .131 2.757 .004 –1.535 .081 1.583 .104 4.183 .004 –.811

.178 .064 .167 .060

.005 1.590 .005 –2.323 .062 4.339 .005 –1.948 .103 21.880

Regression Weights Estimate S.E.

–.107

.037

.080

–.081

.072 –.014 .175 –.093 .096 .259 –.046

.065 –.063 –.006 –.069

.099 –.140 .260 –.073 .811

Standardized Regression Weights

Working Women (N = 260)

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–.052

<– Education

–.001 –.042 .244 –.011 –.106 .235 –.004

–.155

Age Ethnicity Religiosity Age Ethnicity Religiosity Age

–.038 –.029 –.162 –.014

<– Religiosity

<– <– <– <– <– <– <–

Expressive Expressive Expressive Instrumental Instrumental Instrumental Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control

Ethnicity Education Ethnicity Education

.005 –.008 .244 .002 2.290

.077

<– <– <– <–

stereo1 stereo1 stereo2 stereo2

Age Age Married Age Ethnicity

<– Ethnicity

<– <– <– <– <–

Married Children Children Education Education

Regression Weights Estimate S.E.

Non-working Women (N = 202)

Table 5.4 Scalar maximum likelihood regression estimates – non-working and working women

.058

.709

.186

.417

.242 .816 .006 .125 .113 .000 .418

.560 .565 .957 .545

.112 .020 .000 .051 .000

P

6.507

–12.658

–24.508

12.502

–15.582 –2.192 –7.577 –12.415 –33.603 –14.635 –2.868

–7.107 1.047 –7.773 2.911

–6.678 8.904 –3.863 23.838 3.977

Comparison t

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Model Fit Summary CMIN/DF RMSEA Adjusted R2

Well-being

2.847 .122 .244

.256

.102 .051 –.117 .047 .039 .060 .057 .026 .163 .502

6.522

3.630

1.441

.156

.072 .070 .217 .181 .086 .073 .080 .075 .088 .102 1.647

1.403 .730 –.540 .261 .453 .823 .717 .340 1.839 4.929

.032 –.969 .082 –.608 .012 –1.178 .033 –3.342 .035 –2.932 .033 –2.661 .035 3.527 .112 1.181

.058

.053

.057

.112

.088 .046 –.116 .020 .095 .053 .049 .022 .135 .367

–.062 –.049 –.079 –.217 –.201 –.174 .233 .079

.427

.228

.096

.099

.161 .466 .589 .794 .651 .411 .473 .734 .066 .000

.332 .543 .239 .000 .003 .008 .000 .238

.000

.000

.150

6.450 .137 .223

.278

.277 .022 –.053 .347 .050 –.031 .048 –.053 .214 .423

–.103 .104 –.018 –.081 –.117 .024 –.067 –.002

.386

–.055

.083

1.638

.132

.065 .062 .179 .139 .064 .064 .073 .063 .087 .090

.029 .065 .017 .029 .033 .030 .037 .090

.055

2.102

4.240 .349 –.294 2.501 .783 –.481 .651 –.834 2.459 4.671

–3.517 1.599 –1.033 –2.746 –3.495 .802 –1.804 –.022

6.974

.044 –1.251

.050

.096

.121

.240 .019 –.028 .148 .074 –.026 .037 –.046 .153 .285

–.204 .101 –.061 –.159 –.209 .048 –.110 –.001

.409

–.071

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Married Children Ethnicity Religiosity Education stereo1 stereo2 Expressive Instrumental Internal control <– Belief

<– <– <– <– <– <– <– <– <– <–

Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being

–.031 –.050 –.014 –.109 –.103 –.087 .123 .132

.377

<– Instrumental

Married Religiosity Education stereo1 stereo2 Expressive Instrumental Internal control

.191

<– Expressive

<– <– <– <– <– <– <– <–

.082

<– stereo2

Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief

Internal control Internal control Internal control

.036

.000 .727 .769 .012 .433 .631 .515 .404 .014 .000

.000 .110 .302 .006 .000 .423 .071 .982

.000

.211

.101

–1.507

–25.277 4.344 –3.187 –18.440 –1.440 13.129 1.164 11.297 –5.786 8.135

23.360 –20.630 2.776 –8.927 4.080 –34.875 52.533 13.070

–1.579

50.028

–0.184

76

Dahlia Moore

There are no significant differences in the LS of men and women in typical and atypical occupations (x¯(Men in FTOs) = 5.12; x¯(Men in MTOs) = 4.92; x¯(Women in FTOs) = 5.13; x¯(Women in MTOs) = 4.86; F(sex) = .316, F(occupation type) = 2.48, F(interaction) = .152). The more complex analyses focused on the factors that contribute to the shaping of LS of those who joined gender-typical occupations with those who joined occupations which are not typical for their gender. The LS of men in both MTOs and atypical occupations is positively influenced by being married and having children so that for both categories of workers, having a family increases LS (see Figures 5.3 and 5.4)8. The belief that women can combine family and work successfully has a similar effect. In contrast, the analysis shows that for men in atypical occupations only, expressive traits reduce LS, while instrumental traits increase LS. Perhaps men in atypical occupations feel that emphasizing their expressive traits may increase their similarity to female workers in these occupations, a similarity they may wish to avoid, and so they emphasize their instrumental traits instead, increasing the dissimilarity between them and women. Moreover, men in atypical occupations are the only groups for which internal control had no significant influence on LS. Neither set of traits has significant influence on the LS of men in MTOs. For them, internal control enhances LS, and so does the belief that women can combine family and work successfully. One possible explanation is that this reduces the burden they carry for providing for their families. The LS of working women in both FTOs and atypical occupations is positively influenced by being married (see Figure 5.5). Similarly, the stronger

Children Married .61 −.21 Age Ethnicity

.24

.20

.46 .17

.29 −.30

Belief in possibility of role combination

.23

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Are workers in gender-typical occupations more satisfied with their lives than workers in atypical occupations? And what are the factors that influence the life satisfaction of men and women who work in typical or atypical occupations?

Subjective well-being

Internal Control

Religiosity Instrumental Traits

.48

−.15

Expressive Traits

Figure 5.3 Empirical model – men in atypical (female and mixed) occupations

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Children Married .21 −.16

.26

−.18

Age

.17 .20 Internal Control

Religiosity .23

Instrumental Traits

Subjective well-being

.23

.28

Expressive Traits

Figure 5.4 Empirical model – women in typical (female-typed) occupations

Children Married .2 .16

−.24

Age Ethnicity

.30

Belief in possibility of role combination

−.19 Internal Control

.17 Religiosity .26 .19

Instrumental Traits

.50

Subjective well-being

.35 .16

Expressive Traits

Figure 5.5 Empirical model – women in atypical (mixed and male-typed) occupations

the internal control of both groups of working women, the stronger their LS. However, having children has significant effects in opposite directions: it decreases the LS of women in FTOs, but increases the LS of women in atypical occupations. Another difference may be seen in the finding that only for women in FTOs it is important to believe that women can nowadays combine family and work. This factor does not influence women who turn to atypical occupations, perhaps because they have already proven that the combination is possible. Women’s LS does not benefit from their expressive traits (although these traits were more strongly attributed by women than by men). Instead, women who work in MTOs increase their LS through self-attribution of instrumental traits, as well as their internal control. We may conclude that women’s instrumental traits serve two purposes: On the one hand, they

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Ethnicity

Belief in possibility of role combination

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Dahlia Moore

strengthen their sense of control over their lives, and, on the other hand, they enhance life satisfaction (i.e. the traits have both direct and indirect effect on LS). Hence, in this more detailed analysis, Moore’s (2007) finding that instrumental traits increase LS is found to be true only for working women, and among them, only for women in atypical occupations. Further distinctions (e.g. between women in mixed-gender and in maletyped occupations, and between men in mixed-gender and in female-typed occupations) are impossible in the present data set as the number of men and women in these occupational categories is too small. It seems logical to assume that further differences may be found.

Discussion No differences were found in the means of life satisfaction (LS) of the different groups: non-working and working men and women, in typical and atypical occupations, in contrast with H1 and H 2 . The direct effect found for working (vs. non-working) is more complex than simple regressions indicate, and the factors that lead to the LS of each group are different, indicating that for each group a different process produces LS, as H3 predicted. Thus, although all the examined groups report similar level of LS, the combination of factors that contribute to the LS of each group varies: LS of men in typical (male-typed) occupations is directly influenced by being married and a parent, having a strong internal control and the belief that combining family and work is possible. These men seem to enjoy all the benefits of working in occupations that are suited to their main role: Breadwinning. It may be that belief in the possibility of role combination contributes to their LS because the few women they encounter in these occupations have found individual solutions to combining the two roles, and, therefore, these men assume that all women can do the same if they want to have both a job and a family. This maintains their belief that the world is just, which, in turn, provides them with justification for the advantages in the labor market that men enjoy, especially in MTOs. Women in these MTOs, which are atypical occupations for them, face a different situation. These occupations provide higher wages, advancement opportunities and status, but they are more demanding than female-typed occupations (FTOs) as far as time and commitment are concerned. Like men in these occupations, being married and a parent increase LS, and so does internal control. However, in contrast with the LS of their male colleagues, the LS of women in MTOs is not influenced by their belief that combining family and work is possible (although they believe it as much as men). This may be due to their knowledge of the heavy price women have to pay in order to succeed at work, especially when they work in MTOs. Hence, they

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79

report the same level of LS that men report, but they reach it regardless of the belief in role combination. It is interesting to note that for these women, instrumental traits have a significant influence on LS (which was not found for their male colleagues). It seems that women in atypical occupations not only report higher levels of these traits than women in typical occupations, these traits also directly increase their LS (for men in these MTOs and women in FTOs there are only minor indirect effects). Men in atypical (female-typed) occupations also benefit from being married and a parent, but the impact of parenthood on LS is stronger than it is for any other group. Whether they chose FTOs in order to have more time for their children, or they discovered that they have more time after they joined them, these men seem to benefit from parenthood more than other groups and it increases their LS more than it does for all other groups. This is the only group for which internal control does not directly increase LS (though their internal control is not lower than that of other groups). Instead, their LS is influenced by instrumental traits like the LS of atypical women and in contrast with both “typical” groups, for which such influence was not found. Moreover, it is the only group for which expressive traits reduce LS. This may be due to their need to suppress these traits in order to maintain their masculinity in a mostly female environment, but these men seem to loose LS when they are more considerate, sensitive, understanding and so forth. Although the LS of women in FTOs also benefits from their being married, quite unexpectedly, and in contrast with all other groups, having children at home reduces the LS of these group. Hence, women who joined these occupations that are more flexible and better able to accommodate family obligations report lower LS when they have children. This may be due to their realization that despite occupational flexibility (or because of it?), they still have a heavy domestic burden (and perhaps less support and help from their spouses) than women in atypical occupations. Still, like men in typical occupations (MTOs), these women believe that combining the roles is possible for women. A possible explanation is that the occupations they chose are considered suited to the domestic burden of women and, therefore, these women find it difficult to complain; an alternative explanation is that because these occupations really lead to less role conflict and fewer stress and time pressure situations, women perceive that combining roles is possible, and beneficial. Internal control also influences their LS, but the effect is much weaker than it is for men and women in MTOs. This may indicate that being in a typical occupation, where most workers are of the same sex as the individual, is considered a safer, more controlled environment, in which social expectations are clearer and individuals believe they can fulfill them. (Women in MTOs seem to

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What Makes Them Happy?

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have gone against social expectations by their occupational choice, and therefore their strong internal control is the result of the ability to go their own way.) The fact that only instrumental traits affected the LS of both men and women, and expressive traits negatively influenced only the LS of men in MTOs seems to indicate that the traditional clear-cut distinction between men’s and women’s attitudes is blurring. The change may be associated with normative changes in gender role attitudes and in the division of labor between men and women (Jackson, Hodge, & Ingram, 1994): It is related to women’s increased labor market participation that both reflects and enhances these shifts, and to men’s greater tendency to share domestic responsibility. Women’s tendency to self-attribute instrumental (“masculine”) traits such as rationality, assertiveness, and decisiveness seems a realistic adjustment to the requirements of the public sphere, as instrumental traits are considered preferential or superior in Western societies in the sense that they increase locus of control, LS, and other measures that indicate effective coping with life experiences. These changes in women’s gender schema (Bem, 1987) indicate that, although it is true that men and women often behave in gender-typical ways, their gender scheme is more flexible than previously assumed, and it allows for variation in both sexes (Moore, 2006). The results of the present study show similar changes in women’s gender schema, but the findings of the present study also reveal something new: that women’s instrumentality exerts the most salient influence on their LS. Thus, we may conclude that the more flexible gender schema legitimizes the self-attribution of gender-atypical traits. Women benefit from this change in the sense that instrumental traits strengthen their internal locus of control and LS. Men have not reached the same flexibility yet, perhaps because expressive traits are less valued in Western societies. Further research is necessary to examine these explanations. It is also necessary to ascertain the changes in self-attribution of traits and their influence – together with the impact of the belief in role combination – on LS. Additional societies, some more traditional and others less traditional than Israeli society, should be examined to determine whether the same processes and gender difference are occur in diverse societies. In addition, new measures of how individuals attain control should be developed, validated and used in the examination of how men and women apply them in the evaluation of how satisfied with their lives they are. Such measures might enrich both our understanding of how people attain locus of control in different societies and whether these measures create and/or reflect gender differences. In addition, further research may also reveal the levels of LS of more specific (e.g. ethnic, religiosity and nationality) groups and the process by which they attain these levels.

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Appendix 1 Comparison t* Women

Working Working Men Women

Non-working Non-working FTOs vs. vs. Working vs. Working MTOs

FTOs vs. MTOs

Married Children Children Education Education

<– <– <– <– <–

Age Age Married Age Ethnicity

–8.755a 17.878a –43.440a 11.9198a –39.875a

–6.678a 8.904a –3.863a 23.838a 3.977a

15.441a –11.230a 31.104a 44.920a 6.096a

–11.351a –5.675a –7.230a –2.635a –47.311a

stereo1 stereo1 stereo2 stereo2

<– <– <– <–

Ethnicity Education Ethnicity Education

6.850a 1.456 –13.055a –1.189

–7.107a 1.047 –7.773a 2.911a

–7.131a 10.705a 11.342a 2.515a

11.510a –11.758a –6.327a –3.338a

Expressive Expressive Expressive Instrumental Instrumental Instrumental

<– <– <– <– <– <–

Age Ethnicity Religiosity Age Ethnicity Religiosity

–3.973a 0.463 1.303 4.377a –3.887a –3.388a

–15.582a –2.192b –7.577a –12.415a –33.603a –14.635a

32.286a –14.067a –12.886a 27.791a –19.869a –4.866a

–5.675a –9.108a –6.596a 21.520a –19.223a –10.511a

Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control Internal control

<– Age

11.230a

–2.868a

5.308a

–1.986b

6.350a

12.502a

5.598a

–13.524a

<– Religiosity

24.906a

–24.508a

5.934a

–1.317

<– Education

–2.562a

–12.658a

–2.591a

10.044a

<– stereo1

23.032a

6.507a

<– stereo2

–17.749a

–0.184

22.565a

<– Expressive

–31.327a

50.028a

–2.945a

0.331

–1.579

–9.112a

–26.474a

<– Ethnicity

<– Instrumental

0

0

–11.034a –30.458a

Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief Belief

<– <– <– <– <– <– <– <–

Married Religiosity Education stereo1 stereo2 Expressive Instrumental Internal control

–60.160a –16.248a –2.219b 4.078a –7.083a –19.332a 35.516a 1.193

23.360a –20.630a 2.776a –8.927a 4.080a –34.875a 52.533a 13.070a

36.497a 1.924 –8.268a –3.234a 10.315a 0.462 –4.904a –2.179b

12.434a 20.258a 1.181 15.504a 2.491b –7.651a 5.459a –21.134a

Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being

<– <– <– <–

Married Children Ethnicity Religiosity

–19.467a –15.532a 2.622a 5.825a

–25.277a 4.344a –3.187a –18.440a

0.649 25.102a –1.495 2.551a

10.282a –64.788a 15.370a –8.295a

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Men

Continued

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82 Dahlia Moore

Appendix 1 Continued Women

Working Working Men Women

Non-working Non-working FTOs vs. vs. Working vs. Working MTOs Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being Well-being

<– <– <– <– <– <–

Education stereo1 stereo2 Expressive Instrumental Internal control <– Belief

FTOs vs. MTOs

–2.414b –14.675a –4.175a 12.542a 5.574a –10.037a

–1.440 13.129a 1.164 11.297a –5.786a 8.135a

–1.742 0.206 11.059a –31.501a 17.005a –29.653a

–5.651a –7.627a 10.084a –6.889a –9.710a –13.394a

12.951a

–1.507

–10.460a

11.452a

*Similarity was examined by comparison of regression coefficients, based on the test used by Gottfredson (1981), but with corrections for degrees of freedom reflecting unequal sample sizes (Hays, 1966): Comparison T 5

(B12B2 )

(SE12 /n11SE22 /n2 )

Notes I wish to thank Ed Diener, Joan Chrisler, and the Research Authority of the College of Management-Academic Studies for financing the research, and Mina Tzemach, Head of Dahaf Research Institute, for her assistance in constructing the questionnaire and collecting the data. 1. The well-meaning liberal male (WMLM) is a man who expresses liberal ideas but behaves inconsistently with his professed beliefs (Gackenbach and & Auerbach, 1975). 2. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis may be obtained from the author. 3. Only internal control was used in this study. External control (Cronbach a = .61) was not used, to simplify the model further. Factor analyses may be obtained from the Author. 4. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis may be obtained from the author. 5. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis may be obtained from the author. 6. According to Byrne (1998): Bh = G j 1 z Where h (eta) represents the set of endogenous variables, j (xi) represents the set of exogenous (latent) variables, B (Beta) represents the set of regression coefficients that relate the endogenous variables to each other, G (gamma) represents the set of regression coefficients that relate endogenous variables to exogenous ones, and z (zeta) represents the set of disturbance terms (residuals) for each equation. The analysis was performed separately for each group to determine if the factors that influence LS for all groups are the same. Analyses are based on minimization of discrepancy functions (Browne, 1982):

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Men

 G ( g ) ( g ) ( g ) ( g ) ( g )   ∑ N f ( m , ∑ ;x ,S )   g =1  = [ N − r ] F ( a, a ). C( a, a ) = [ N − r ]    N   

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where N(g) = the number of observations in group g; N = ∑ N(g) = total of observations in g=1 all groups combined; µ(g) = the mean vector for group g; ∑(g) = population covariance matrix for group g; S(g) = sample covariance matrix for group g; a = vector of order p containing the sample moments for all groups; a = vector of order p containing the population moments for all groups; F(a, a) = function minimized in fitting model to sample. 7. Whether instrumental women choose to work more than the less instrumental women, or their instrumental traits are strengthened by their need to combine family and work, is beyond the scope of this study. 8. In accord with Nicol and Pexman (1999), the Table presenting Maximum Likelihood Estimates, Standard Deviations, P values and so forth is not included. All criteria of the analyses are available from the Author.

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6 Job Resources and Exhaustion at Work: The Mediating Role of Global Meaning

During the past three decades, many studies have shown that unfavorable job characteristics may have a negative impact on stress and burnout. Influenced by dominant psychological work models, like Karasek’s job demands-control model (JD-C, Karasek, 1979), the research on this topic attributes employee well-being to the balance between job demand and job control (Van Yperen & Snjiders, 2000). More recently, Demereouti et al. (Demereouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001) extended the JD-C model with the job demands-resources (JD-R) model. The central hypothesis of the model is that well-being is the result of a balance between job demands and resources and that different job resources may buffer the impact of job demands on stress reactions (Bakker, Demerouti, & Euwema, 2005). The JD-R model assumes that several different job and personal resources are relevant to promoting employees’ well-being. The specific job and personal resources examined in a particular organization differ from time to time and partly depend on the specific job characteristics that prevail (Bakker et al., 2005). More recently, the model has been expanded by examining how personal resources operate in determining employees’ adaptation to the work environment (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti & Schaufeli, 2007). In line with this approach, the present study investigates the joint contribution of both external (organizational and social) and internal (psychological) resources in promoting health in the work setting. Job and personal resources are selected using insight from Positive Human Health Theory (Ryff & Singer, 1998), which describes the main features of positive well-being and health.

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Maria Elena Magrin, Stefano Gheno, Marta Scrignaro and Veronica Viganò

Background The JD-R model More specifically, the central tenet of the JD-R model (Bakker, Demerouti, De Boer, & Schaufeli, 2003) relies on the assumption that the risk factors 87

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associated with job stress and burnout can be classified into two general categories, namely job demands and job resources. The former refer to those physical, social or organizational aspects of the job that are associated with physiological and psychological costs; the latter refer to those physical, psychological, social or organizational aspects of the job that reduce job demands and the associated physiological and psychological costs, stimulate personal growth and development, and sustain the achievement of work goals (Demerouti et al., 2001). Resources may be located at the following four levels: the organization (e.g. career opportunities), the interpersonal and social relations (e.g. supervisor support), the organization of work (e.g. participation in decision making), and the task (e.g. performance feedback) (Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti & Xanthopoulou, 2007). Job demands and job resources activate two relatively independent psychological processes. According to the health impairment process, high demands may exhaust employees’ resources and lead to health problems (Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison & Pinneau, 1975). On the contrary, according to the motivational process, the presence of job resources leads to organizational commitment and work engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). In addition to these two main effects, the JD-R model hypothesizes that job resources buffer the relationship between job demands and exhaustion (Bakker et al., 2005). Several studies in different organizations have confirmed this hypothesis by showing that high job demands lead to a health impairment process, whereas the lack of job resources undermines motivation and work engagement (Bakker, Demerouti & Verbeke, 2004; Bakker et al., 2007). More recently, the same authors of the JD-R model extended their investigations into the role of personal resources in the model. Starting from the assumptions of the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 2002), they defined personal resources as aspects of the self that are related to resiliency, assuming that resources tend to generate other resources which may foster better coping and well-being (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). Although previous researchers proposed that personal resources may function either as moderators or as mediators in the relationship between environmental factors and organizational outcomes (Judge, Locke & Durham, 1997), in relation to the motivational process of the JD-R model, the authors, at present, assume that personal resources play a mediating effect between job resources and well-being (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). Results of previous studies have shown that organization-based self-esteem mediates the relationship between resourceful work characteristics (e.g. influence, fairness, support) and employees’ satisfaction (Pierce & Gardner, 2004). Similar evidence was found by Luthans et al. (Luthans, Avey, Avolio, Norman & Combs, 2006).

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The hypothesis of the extended JD-R model was tested on different psychological resources such as general self-efficacy (Chen, Gully, & Eden, 2001), organization-based self-esteem (Pierce, Gardner, Cummings, & Dunham, 1989), and optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985). The present study uses the extended JD-R model as a starting point, and thus focuses on work characteristics as antecedents of personal resources.

According to the assumptions of the multidimensional model of health and well-being formulated by Carol Ryff and Burton Singer (1998), it has been proposed that “the key goods in life central to positive human health are, primarily, having purpose in life and quality connections to others; and secondarily, possessing self-regard and mastery (Ryff & Singer, 1998, 3). Purpose in life The concept of purposeful living has been largely accounted for by the philosophical literature (Becker, 1992). Social scientific literature underscores and operationalizes these philosophical themes. In psychology, much attention has been paid to the goals and objectives that are typical of people’s lives, as in research on personal projects (Little, 1989), personal strivings (Emmons, 1991), life meaning (Baumeister, 1991), and purpose in life and personal growth (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Such topics were rarely connected to human health until the last decade, a period during which empirical work on meaning in the context of study on stress and coping proliferated. A crucial contribution was proposed by Park and Folkman (1997). The authors enriched stress and coping theory by making more explicit the roles of beliefs and goals and the functions of meaning in the processes through which individuals appraise and cope with stressful life events and circumstances. In their model, they distinguish two levels of meaning, namely global meaning and situational meaning. Global meaning encompasses a person’s enduring beliefs and valued goals. Situational meaning is formed in the interaction between an individual’s global meaning and the circumstances of a particular person–environment transaction. Purposeful living can be expressed in many contexts, a relevant one of which is work (Frankl, 1963). However, the linkage between the appraisal of personal work as meaningful and the enhancement of individuals’ health has rarely been addressed (Ryff & Singer, 1998).

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The positive human health theory

Belongingness hypothesis A second tenet of the Positive Psychology perspectives on human health concerns the belongingness hypothesis (Ryff & Singer, 1998), according to which the need to belong is a relevant stress buffer variable. Numerous theories of psychological functioning highlight the importance of trusting interpersonal relations for health and well-being (Allport, 1961; Erikson,

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1959; Maslow, 1955). Within the stress paradigm the researchers have examined extensively the role of social support in preventing job stress and burnout (Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt-Glaser, 1996; Van der Doef & Maes, 1999). More specifically, instrumental support from colleagues and relationships with one’s supervisor have been studied. The question of supervisor support is strictly connected to research on the quality of leadership. The leader’s appreciation and support put demands in another perspective and also aid the worker in coping with job demands, facilitate performance, and act as protectors against ill health (Bakker et al., 2005). The way subordinates perceive their managers’ leadership has been shown to be related to how they rate their own stress and well-being. Managers’ behaviors may influence the amount of demands put on employees, the level of employee control allowed, and the extent to which the climate in the work group is experienced as supportive (Gilbreath & Benson, 2004; Van Dierendonck, Haynes, Borrill, & Stride, 2004). The contribution of managerial leadership to employees’ psychological well-being, independently of stressful work events and the level of social support, has been established in previous studies (Gilbreath & Benson, 2004). However, the evidence for the contribution of this dimension is mixed. The researchers agree that the structural and functional components of social support play a different role in promoting well-being, and that the results are somewhat inconsistent (Cohen, 2004; Helgeson, 2003). In contrast, there are not many studies on belongingness, either in general or in the work setting. The more relevant work on this topic is that of Baumeister and Leary (1995), which showed that a deficit in belongingness is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment and well-being. In a study on the quality of life in first responders, Cowman et al. (Cowman, Ferrari, & Liao-Troth, 2004) found a correlation between the perception of belonging to a community of coworkers and low levels of distress and high levels of job satisfaction. Most authors generally analyze the concept of belongingness as referring to a geographically defined community and to the ties that link people to their place of residence. Results of some empirical research show that sense of community is associated with a range of positive psychological outcomes (Davidson & Cotter, 1991; Fisher, Sonn, & Bishop, 2002). Nevertheless, recently, some researchers in the field of social identity theory highlight the crucial role of groups in providing individuals with a sense of meaning, purpose, and belonging, and point out the relevance of a positive sense of social identity in promoting health and well-being (Haslam, Jetten, Postmes & Haslam, 2009). They propose that the notion of “us-ness” is central to health and well-being (Haslam et al., 2009, 3) in many different ways and contexts. One of the most studied contexts in which they tested their “us-ness” hypothesis is the work environment (Ellemers, De Gilder, & Haslam, 2004; Haslam, 2004).

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Although global meaning and belongingness are the primary features of positive human health, self-mastery and control are qualities that work interactively with these two dimensions in enhancing psychological and physiological well-being (Ryff & Singer, 1998). The dimension of control has been mainly studied in the context of job stress and burnout. In the domain of job stress, one of the most influential approaches that underscores the importance of control is the abovementioned Job-Demand-Control model (Karasek, 1979). The central tenet of the model is that job control can weaken the negative effects of demands on strain. Different empirical results and theories about occupational stress have regarded job autonomy as crucial for the health of employees, mainly because greater autonomy is associated with more opportunity to cope with stressful situations (Karasek, 1979). In the context of the JD-R model, autonomy means independence from other workers while carrying out tasks, and decision latitude concerning one’s work pace and phases (Bakker et al., 2005). According to the Positive Human Health Theory, the present study aims to investigate the joint contribution of the following resources: (a) Personal resource: global meaning (b) Job resources: (i) quality of leadership and sense of belongingness in the work group as resources at the interpersonal level, (ii) job autonomy at the work level.

Study hypothesis On the basis of the previous theoretical analysis, in our study we considered both personal (global meaning) and job resources (belongingness, quality of leadership, job autonomy). We hypothesized as follows: Hypothesis: Global meaning – as personal resource – would partially mediate the relationship between job resources (belongingness, quality of leadership, job autonomy) and exhaustion.

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Control

Partial mediation was expected because the study does not include all possible mediators of the process under investigation. Method Participants and procedure Participants were 139 care-workers taking part in an organizational wellbeing survey. They were randomly selected from the entire hospital

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care-worker population. The procedure allowed the selection of a representative casual sample. All selected participants received both an email and a call during which the purpose of the project was briefly described, and they were asked to participate. The confidentiality and anonymity of their answers was emphasized and assured. For those who agreed to participate, an appointment for the compilation of the questionnaire was fixed. The majority of the participants were female (N = 105; 76%). Their mean age was 40 years (SD = 8.7). For most, the length of organizational tenure was included in the category 10–20 years (N = 53; 38%). Participants had a medium level of education, with 50.7% holding a senior high school degree. The majority of participants were nurses (48%); 20% were auxiliary technicians, 15% were head physicians, 10% were laboratory technicians and 7% were coordinators. Measures Job resources Belongingness was operationalized by the three-item “Sense of Community Scale” developed by Kristensen et al. (2005), which assessed the personal belongingness in the work place (e.g. “Do you feel part of a community at your place of work?”). The participants responded on a 5-point always/never scale. Quality of leadership was measured by the four-item scale developed by Kristensen et al. (2005), which assessed the competence of leaders in solving conflicts (i.e. “To what extent would you say that your immediate superiors are good at solving conflicts?”) or planning work (i.e. “To what extent would you say that your immediate superiors are good at work planning?”). The participants responded on a 5-point to a very large/very little extent scale. Job autonomy was measured by the four-item scale developed by Kristensen et al. (2005), which assessed the subjects’ degree of influence on what to do (i.e. “Do you have any influence on what you do at work?”) or on the amount of work (i.e. “Can you influence the amount of work assigned to you?”). The participants responded on a 5-point always/never scale.

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Personal resource Global meaning was operationalized by the Italian version (Barni & Tagliabue, 2005) of a shortened thirteen-item “Sense of Coherence Scale” developed by Antonovsky (1987). Respondents were asked to select a response on a 7-point semantic differential scale with two anchoring phrases. The scale has five items about comprehensibility (e.g. “Do you have very mixed-up feelings and ideas?”: 1 = very often to 7 = very seldom or never), four about

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Exhaustion Exhaustion was measured with a subscale of the Italian version (Sirigatti & Stefanile, 1993) of the Maslach Burnout Inventory. This subscale included five items, such as “I feel emotionally drained by my work”. The subjects responded on a 6-point never/every day scale. Results The SPSS.14 software was used for statistical analysis. Means and standard deviations were calculated with standard methods; the reliability index for each variable was calculated with Cronbach’s α. Correlations between variables were calculated with Pearson’s r. All the regression models were estimated based on standardized variables (Aiken & West, 1991). For the mediation analysis Baron and Kenny’s approach (1986) was followed. The significance of mediation effect was tested by Sobel’s test (Sobel, 1982). Descriptive statistics Means, standard deviations, and correlations between the variables, as well as internal consistencies of the scales are presented in Table 6.1. In general, the correlations of the studied variables were in the expected direction. Both job resources and global meaning correlated with exhaustion. In addition all the three job resources correlated significantly with each other. The stronger correlation was between belongingness and quality of leadership. Furthermore, both job autonomy and belongingness correlated with global meaning. Unexpectedly, quality of leadership didn’t correlate with global meaning. Table 6.1 Means, Standard Deviations, internal consistencies (Cronbach’s αs on the diagonal), and correlations among the variables (N = 139) M 1. Global meaning 2. Job autonomy 3. Quality of leadership 4. Belongingness 5. Exhaustion

66.9 44.3 57.3 70.2 16.9

SD

1

2

3

4

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manageability (e.g. “Has it happened that people whom you counted on disappointed you?”: 1 = never to 7 = always), and four about meaningfulness (e.g. “Do you have the feeling that you don’t really care about what goes on around you?”: 1 = very seldom or never to 7 = very often).

5

10.5 (0.79) 17.9 0.20* (0.64) 24.2 0.08 0.26** (0.90) 17.2 .21* .23** .44** (0.79) 0.42 –.47** –.32** –.25** –.28** (0.87)

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001.

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In order to test the mediation effect formulated in the hypothesis, Baron and Kenny’s approach (1986) was followed. According to their approach, there are four steps in establishing a significant mediation effect. First, there must be a significant relationship between the predictor and the outcome. Second, the predictor must be significantly related to the mediator. Third, the mediator should be significantly related to the outcome variable. Finally, there is a significant mediation effect when the relationship between the predictor and the outcome becomes significantly weaker (partial mediation) or non-significant (full mediation) after the inclusion of the mediator. Before testing whether global meaning is a partial mediator of the relationship between job resources (belongingness + quality of leadership + job autonomy/3) and exhaustion, the three prerequisite conditions were checked. Preliminary results indeed showed that job resources were related to both exhaustion (β = –.38***; R² = 14.5) and global meaning (β = .21*; R² = .05 ), and that global meaning was related to exhaustion (β = –.47***; R² = .48 ), allowing us to proceed with the test of the hypothesis. Exhaustion was regressed – using the stepwise method – onto both job resources and global meaning. The effect of job resources dropped markedly (β = –.29**), whereas global meaning dropped only slightly (β = –.42**). Corroborating this analysis, Sobel’s test indicated that the mediation effect was significant (z = 2.52 p < .01). Thus, global meaning mediated the association between job resources and exhaustion.

Discussion The purpose of the present study was to investigate the role of global meaning in the JD-R model (Demerouti et al., 2001; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Coherently with the JD-R model (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007), the results confirm a significant process, namely from job resources to exhaustion through personal resources, and thus suggest that job resources can play an active role in the prevention of exhaustion since, through the activation of employees’ personal resources, they can lead to more positive appraisals of stress situations. The specific contribution of this research consists in the study of global meaning as a personal resource. The above findings support the hypothesis of the Positive Human Health Theory that the dimension of meaning in life is a relevant resiliency belief for the employees’ well-being. “The cognizance of order, coherence, and the purpose in one’s existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals” (Reker & Wong, 1988, 221) influence employees’ appraisal of the strain situations and allow them to perceive less stress and exhaustion.

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Results of mediation analyses

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More specifically, the study confirms the salutogenic role of the sense of coherence (SOC; Antonovsky, 1987) in the work context. It has been found that a strong SOC is negatively associated with perceived work stress (Ryland & Greenfeld, 1991), emotional exhaustion at work (Gilbar, 1998), and burnout (Baker, North & Smith, 1997). In a longitudinal study that aimed to explore work and personal resources as predictors of wellbeing, Kalimo et al. (Kalimo, Pahkin & Mutanen, 2002) found that SOC seemed to be a superior determinant of future strain. It seems that strong SOC helps a person to see the work more positively, and gives a sense of control over the job, which increases resistance to stress and well-being in the long run. Furthermore, the results are in line with previous studies, both cross-sectional and longitudinal, that specifically tested the mediating effect of SOC in explaining the relationship between psychosocial work environment and distress (Albertsen, Nielsen, & Borg, 2001; Feldt, Kinnunen, & Mauno, 2000; Söderfeldt, Söderfeldt, Ohlson, Theorell, & Jones, 2000). Moving from these results, it seems fruitful for a deep understanding of the role of the meaning’s dimension that future researchers investigate the contribution of situational meaning. According to the assumptions of the stress and coping model proposed by Park and Folkman (1997), the interaction between, on the one hand, personal goals and beliefs and, on the other hand, the circumstances of a particular person–environment transaction, namely situational meaning, plays a crucial role in the subjective appraisal of stressful circumstances. Moreover, the results confirmed the crucial role of the work environment in enhancing employees’ well-being through personal resources. The results are coherent with the extended JD-R model and confirm its relevant contribution in pointing out that a resourceful work environment enhances employees’ psychological capital, namely a positive appraisal of circumstances and hope for success based on motivated effort and perseverance (Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007). In general, these data are coherent with the “emerging positive agenda in organizations” (Wright & Quick, 2009, 147) that proposes a more positivebased, proactive approach to organizational research (Roberts, 2006). The agenda involves the micro- and the meso-levels of analysis, within the frame of positive organizational behavior (POB) (Luthans, 2002; Nelson & Cooper, 2007), and the organizational level, within the frame of positive organizational scholarship (POS) (Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003).

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Practical implications From a practical point of view, the present study highlights the fact that the mobilization of job resources may be of value if employees are to thrive, since it fosters personal resilience.

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More specifically, the results suggest that well-being in the workplace can be increased if there is an adequate development of the work characteristics at the different levels, namely organizational and interpersonal, that shape individuals’ global meaning, and thus their health and well-being. Furthermore, this evidence highlights the need to consider a new positive way to perform risk-assessment procedures and to prevent illness in the work environment. It is not so simple, nor is it always possible, in fact, to reduce job demands in some occupational environments characterized per se by high levels of demands and potential stressors. In these and similar contexts, however, it is always possible to empower both job and personal resources.

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Judge, T. A., Locke, E. A., & Durham, C. C. (1997). The dispositional causes of job satisfaction: A core evaluations approach. Research in Organizational Behavior, 19, 151–188. Little, B. R. (1989). Personal projects analysis: Trivial pursuits, magnificent obsession and the search for coherence. In D. M. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality Psychology: Recent Trends and Emerging Directions (15–31). New York: Springer-Verlag. Luthans, F. (2002). The need for and the meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 695–706. Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Norman, S. M., & Combs, G. J. (2006). Psychological capital development: Toward a micro-intervention. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 387–393. Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60, 541–572. Maslow, A. (1955). Deficiency motivation and growth motivation. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium of Motivation (1–30). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Nelson, D. L. & Cooper, C. L. (2007). Positive Organizational Behavior. London: Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage. Park, C. L. & Folkman, S. (1997). Meaning in the context of stress and coping. Review of General Psychology, 1 (2), 115–144. Pierce, J. L. & Gardner, D. G. (2004). Self-esteem within the work and organizational context: A review of the organizational-based self-esteem literature. Journal of Management, 30, 591–622. Pierce, J. L., Gardner, D. G., Cummings, L. L., & Dunham, R. B. (1989). Organizational based self-esteem: Construct definition, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 622–648. Reker, G. T. & Wong P. T. P. (1988). Aging as an individual process: Toward a theory of personal meaning, In J. E. Birren & V. L. Bengston (Eds.), Emergent Theories of Aging, (214–246). New York: Springer Publishing Co. Roberts, L. M. (2006). Shifting the lens of organizational life: The added value of positive scholarship. Academy of Management Review, 31, 292–305. Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of Psychological Well-being Revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69 (4): 719–27. Ryff, C. D. & Singer, B. (1998). The contours of positive human health. Psychological Inquiry, 9 (1), 1–28. Ryland, E. & Greenfeld, S. (1991). Work stress and well-being: An investigation of Antonovsky’s sense of coherence model. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6, 39–54. Schaufeli, W. B. & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 293–315. Scheier M. F. & Carver C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalised outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219–247. Sirigatti, S. & Stefanile, C. (1993). The Maslach Burnout Inventory: Adattamento e taratura per l‘Italia. Firenze: OS Organizzazioni Speciali. Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Sociological Methodology (290–312). Washington DC: American Sociological Association.

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Söderfeldt, M., Söderfeldt, B., Ohlson C., Theorell, T., & Jones, J. (2000). The impact of sense of coherence and high-demand/low-control job environment on self-reported health, burnout and psychophysiological stress indicators, Work & Stress, 14, 1–15. Uchino, B. N., Cacioppo, J. T., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (1996). The relationship between social support and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 488–531. Van Dierendonck, D., Haynes, C., Borrill, C., & Stride, V. (2004). Leadership behavior and subordinate well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 9, 165–175. Van der Doef, M. & Maes, S. (1999). The Job Demand-Control(-Support) model and psychological well-being: A review of 20 years empirical research. Work & Stress, 13, 87–114. Van Yperen, N. W. & Snjiders, T. A. B. (2000). A multilevel analysis of the demandscontrol model: Is stress at work determined by factors at the group level or the individual level? Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 182–190. Wright, T. A. & Quick, J. C. (2009). The emerging positive agenda in organizations: Greater than a trickle, but not yet a deluge. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 147–159. Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2007). The role of personal resources in the Job Demands-Resources Model. International Journal of Stress Management, 14, 121–141.

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7 Valeria Piras and Maria Lacasella

The incidence of accidents during work is an important dimension of wellbeing, especially in the context of the boundaryless career (De Cuyper, Isaksson, & de Witte, 2005). The risk of accidents among temporary and permanent workers has been studied by several authors (Zimerman, Maqueda, Almodovar & de la Orden, 1996; Boix & Orts, 1997) and their results underline that the risk of being involved in accidents during work is higher for temporary workers than for permanent workers. There are three fundamental psychological variables – risk perception, risk attitude, and inclination to rule violations – which are considered psychosocial antecedents of the accidents that occur. (Slovic,1987; Rosenstock, 1974; Weber, Blais, & Betz, 2002). In strictly automated organizational frameworks, we deduce, on the part of workers, a different risk perception in the working environment, related to attitude towards the risk. Some workers have a low risk perception and tend to undertake risky activities, others have a very high risk perception that makes them avoid risky situations. Self-protective behavior depends mostly on a personal risk evaluation, in fact, in an organizational framework, workers who do not perceive risks connected to the situation they do not observe safety procedures, which leads to very serious consequences for themselves, and also for the organization they work with (Rosenstock, 1974). This work inquires into the correlation between risk perception, attitude towards risk and violation of the safety regulations. It intends to verify whether a correlation between attitude and perception exists and if both variables have an influence on behaviors concerning safety standards violations. Risk perception is defined as the ensemble of human reactions concerning a situation involving a risk (Vlek & Stallen, 1981). It represents a multidimensional concept that includes different risks with specific meanings awarded by different social groups. The expressed preference model deals

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Risk Perception and Safety Standards Violation: Psychosocial Antecedents of Injury in a Metalworking Factory

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with the evaluation of the differences in risk perception by ordinary people compared to specialists’ judgments (Slovic, Fischhoff & Lichtenstein, 2000). The model asserts that risk perception derives from qualitative factors (fear factors and the level of familiarity with the risk), as a result of the integration between the evaluation of possible health damages and fatality. People have different ways of facing decisions concerning personal or working sphere, including risk and uncertainty. Those differences are often described in relation to different attitudes towards risk (Weber, Blais & Betz, 2002). Attitude towards risk is a descriptive label useful for analyzing the psychosocial foundation of subjective choices. It is a personal connotation. The relation between behavior and attitude has been the subject of very accurate investigation by social psychology (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). The best known model of correlation is the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977) and its elaboration within the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991). In this theory, individual actions are the result of three different determinants: attitude, social rule, and self-efficacy. Violations are defined as intentional infringements of safety rules and procedures by workers. Sabotage, for example, is the intention to cause damage to oneself and to others. But safety procedures may be ignored for many other reasons. Workers might not adhere to safety rules because they do not perceive the risk associated with the situation they’re involved in. This orientation recalls some health studies that consider the influence of subjective beliefs concerning risk to be very important. Rosenstock (1974) stated that the possibility of someone taking a preventive attitude is related to: risk perception present within an activity, belief that the consequence can be more or less serious and the thought that it is possible to intervene in order to prevent negative consequences.

Methodology The research was carried out in an engineering department in Bari (Italy). The main aims of the research were: (a) exploration of the structure of the constructs of risk perception, attitude towards risk, and violation of safety rules, in order (1) to verify the congruence between the factorial structure of the construct of risk perception by Slovic and that resulting from the research; (2) to verify the congruence between the latent factorial structure of the attitude towards the construct of risk by Weber, Blaits, and Betz and that resulting from the research; (3) to analyze the latent factorial structure of the violation of the safety rules construct; (b) analysis of the relation between the antecedent variables in order to verify the presence of a connection between the attitude towards risk factors and those of the risk perception; (c) analysis of the relation between antecedents and consequent variables, in order to verify the influence of attitude towards risk and the risk perception related to the regulation of violation behavior factors.

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The sample, exclusively male, is composed of 170 subjects aged between 36 and 54, and 12.21 years of service. The scholastic level is represented by 60% secondary school diploma; 35.3% junior secondary school; 2.9% primary school, and 1.8% university degree. The work duties are mainly factory workers (92.4%) but there are also clerks (4.1%), foremen (2.9%), and foreman assistants (0.6%). A questionnaire of four sections was created. The first section is about the collection of personal and social data. The second section aims to detect attitude towards risk: an adapted version of Weber, Blaits and Betz’s questionnaire (2002) was used, originally made up of 50 items distributed in five different dimensions. The items, reduced to 30, have been taken into account using a 5 points Likert scale. The third section is dedicated to risk perception. The scale was built referring to the classic factorial analysis of risk perception made by Slovic (1987), where two general factors emerge consisting of under-factors expressed in a dichotomous way. For each of the twelve main under-factors a random extreme was chosen and then expressed as an adjective. The subject was required to evaluate out of five considered risks how accurate a description each adjective was. The risks (push, cut, smoke, noise, and risk associated with means of transport) were chosen according to the factory duties. In total the scale consists of 60 items. The last section, that related to behaviors of standard rules violation, was created according to a preventive analysis of the recurring causes of accidents in the years 2005 and 2006. It consists of 20 items valuated on a 5-point Likert scale. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS software. The analyses are descriptive, correlative, regressive, and concerning the differences among means (ANOVA).

Results (a) Exploration of the structure of the construct of risk perception, attitude towards risk, and violation of safety rules. The first data analysis phase aims to verify the congruence between the structure of the factorial risk perception construct underlined in Slovic’s studies (consisting of two principal factors such as familiarity and fear) and that deriving from the gathered data. According to what was suggested by Slovic, who measured familiarity – which we call control – and fear – which we call gravity of different kinds of risk, a measure of control and gravity of risks was created within the factory. In particular, five kinds of risk (push, cut, smoke, noise, and risk associated with means of transport) were evaluated according to the indicators

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in Table 7.1 and the general measure of control and gravity was calculated according to the means of the different indicators of all the examined risks. The second phase of data analysis was directed towards verifying the congruence between the attitude towards risk construct, consisting of five factors (health-security, ethics, finance, social, recreational) produced by Weber, Blaits and Betz (2002), and that emerging from the research. A factorial analysis was developed, in which a test of the principal components was used as the extraction method, while Varimax was used as rotation method with Kaiser normalization. The rotation reached convergence standards in three interactions. From the factorial analysis two factors emerged, which we called ethic risk and play risk (Table 7.3). Ethic risk refers to dangerous behaviors of a moral nature, such as falsifying one’s own income, cheating in an exam or stealing small objects. Play risk refers to all those risks connected to the recreational and social sphere, such as dangerous sports, to express one’s own thoughts or to move in an unknown town. The ethic risk factor shows a variance of 33.07%, the play risk 16.92%; the total variance is 49.99%. So the double-factorial structure emerging from the data does not correspond to that of Weber, Blais and Betz (2002), which has five factors. Neverthless, the two factors (ethic risk and play risk) correspond to the ethic and recreational factors of the model used for the comparison. A factorial analysis was also carried out for the dependent variable considered (violation of safety regulation). It is important to remember that the scale was specifically created according to the company data related to behavior causing accidents inside the factory. From the factorial analysis Table 7.1 Indicators related to control of risk and gravity of risk factors Control of risk

Gravity of risk

Controllable It involves me directly Avoidable It has observable effects Known Possibility of reducing the effect

Very serious Causes fear It tends to become more dangerous It concerns everybody in the same way It has immediate effects It involves many people

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Table 7.2 Descriptive analysis concerning the risk perception construct Risk perception factors Control of risk Gravity of risk

N

Minimum

Maximum

155 150

1.17 1.67

4.90 4.70

Mean Stand. dev. 3.1576 3.3429

.56103 .59328

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Table 7.3 Analysis of the latent factorial structure of the attitude towards risk construct

To explore an unknown town (recreational) To move to a new town (social) To play dangerous sports (recreational) To admit that one’s own preferences are different (social) To go on holiday to an unfamiliar continent (recreational) To express one’s own thinking (social) To lend one’s own salary of one month (finance) To go camping in a forest (recreational) To vouch for a friend (finance) To play slot machines (finance) To fly on a private plane (recreational) To falsify incomes (ethic) To cheat in an exam (ethic) To illegally hook up to the electric supply (ethic) To drive after drinking alcohol (ethic) To steal small objects (ethic) To invest in risky shares (finance) To eat food past its use by date (health) To spend money without thinking (finance)

Ethic risk

.671 .630 .596 .576

.029 .069 .176 –.134

.570

.236

.530 .456

.172 –.158

.441 .414 .386 .374 –.054 .034 .014

.291 –.105 .112 .098 .725 .674 .672

.261 –.097 .286 .001 .226

.611 .605 .507 .423 .422

(Table 7.4), designed to detect the latent structure of the construct, a monofactorial structure emerged (construct variance: 35.16%). (b) Connection between antecedent variables Secondly, the correlation between ethic risk and play risk, and that between risk perception, as risk control and risk gravity, were analyzed (Table 7.5). Therefore it emerged that as the risk control grows, so does the perception of its seriousness. This result is important for the aim of the research because it demonstrates that better information and familiarity with and control of the risk in the working environment generate a better awareness of the gravity itself. Of course, being aware of the gravity of a risk should warn the subject against having dangerous attitudes for health and well-being. All this corresponds to the results of research which shows how a correct knowledge

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Table 7.4 Analysis of the latent factorial structure of the safety regulation violation construct Violation of safety regulation .725 .721 .700 .695 .689 .655 .647 .635 .618 .610 .539 .518 .517 .513 .493 .476 .463 .456 .452

Table 7.5 Correlations between antecedent factors PLAY RISK

CORRELATION PLAY RISK

Pearson’s correlation Sig. (2code) N

ETHIC RISK

Pearson’s correlation Sig. (2code) N

RISK CONTROL

GRAVITY OF RISK

Pearson’s correlation Sig. (2code) N Pearson’s correlation Sig. (2code) N

ETHIC RISK

RISK CONTROL

GRAVITY OF RISK

1

157 .000

1

1.000 157

157

.119

–.032

.155 144

.704 144

155

.114

.069

.563(**)

.180 141

.416 141

.000 140

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Adjusting the movements of a machine without disconnecting it Inappropriate use of tools Changing a machine without following the correct procedure Checking or cleaning the machine without disconnecting it Not paying attention to moving trucks Not wearing eye protection Performing a different operation without telling the supervisor Moving loads without equipment Not wearing safety helmet Walking through sections without wearing the shoes supplied Walking outside green highlighted courses Doing normal operations without following updated procedures Hitting things with the truck Moving vehicles in an unsafe way Causing accidental harm Not wearing gloves Substituting hearing protection with earphones Performing soldering without SPP authorization Not using efficient vehicles

1

1

150

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of risks can influence risk perception and the consequential decision processes of the person (Mc Neil, Pauker, Sox, & Tversky, 1982). The correlation between risk control and risk gravity is obvious and might have been predicted, because control and gravity are two factors arising from the same risk perception variable. So in order to get different information and verify the existence of a relation between the two main variables (i.e. attitude towards risk and risk perception), we decided to make a test of the difference among means (ANOVA). Both variables (ethic and play risks) were subdivided into low, medium, and high level in order to verify whether in the three groups there was a difference in the medium scores related to the risk control and gravity control variables (Tables 7.6, 7.7, 7.8 and 7.9). The first and main important result concerns the relation between play risk and risk control (Table 7.6). It emerges that as the inclination to play

Table 7.6 ANOVA for play risk factors vs. risk control PLAY RISK

N

RISK CONTROL MEAN

F

GDL

SIG

Low Medium High

48 48 48

2.9965(a) 3.1618 (b) 3.2813 (c)

3.346

2

.038

Table 7.7 ANOVA for ethic risk factors vs. risk control ETHIC RISK

N

RISK CONTROL MEAN

F

GDL

SIG

Low Medium High

51 47 46

15.8954 (a) 15.7340 (a) 15.5507 (a)

0.188

2

.829

Table 7.8 ANOVA for play risk factors vs. risk gravity PLAY RISK

N

GRAVITY OF RISK MEAN

F

GDL

SIG

Low Medium High

46 48 47

16.0797 (a) 16.9306 (a) 17.2695 (a)

1.970

2

.143

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Table 7.9 ANOVA for ethic risk factors vs risk gravity ETHIC RISK

N

GRAVITY OF RISK MEAN

F

GDL

SIG

Low Medium High

47 46 48

17.1312 (a) 16.3804 (a) 16.7778 (a)

.188

2

.829

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risk grows, so does the perception of risk control (F-Fisher = 3,346; p < .01; df = 2). This means that subjects who in their daily life tend to assume risks related to their recreational and social life also have the perception to control a potential risky situation, and the more the attitude to risk increases, the more the perception of control grows. The (a), (b) and (c) index shows that the groups are considerably different. The second result is not significant: there is no difference between the three groups. However, we can comment on the result by saying that those who have a low inclination to risk in situations related to the ethic sphere tend to have a greater perception of risk control. Again, the third result is not significant, although people who have a low inclination to risk in situations related to the play and recreational sphere tend to have a lower perception of risk control. The last result demonstrates that people who have a low inclination to risk in situations related to the ethic sphere tend to have a greater perception of risk control. (c) Relations between antecedent and consequent variables In the last section of data analysis the main relationship, which constitutes the foundation of the research, was detected, i.e. the influence of the two constructs, attitude towards risk and risk perception, on behavioral rule violation. A linear regression with enter method was used (Table 7.10). From the regression it emerged that the attitude towards ethic risk is the only significant predictor (R 2 = 0.84; ß = .329, T = 3.780; p <.00). This indicates that a greater inclination to risk in contexts related to the ethical sphere, like cheating in an exam or falsifying a salary, relates to a greater inclination to violate safety rules. We were also interested to determine how other descriptive variables, such as length of service, age, and scholastic level, could influence the behavior related to rules violation. On this point a hierarchic linear regression was used. It is composed of three different models in which new variables were gradually introduced. The first block includes social and personal data variables, the second block is associated with the latter ethic risk and play

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Table 7.10 Linear regression for control, gravity, play risk, and ethic risk factors vs. regulation violation MODEL Control Gravity Play risk Ethic risk

ADJUSTED R 2 0.84

B .010 –.039 .040 .338

STANDARD ERROR .040 .036 .091 .090

ß

T

SIG

.027 .255 .799 –.115 –1.089 .278 .038 .437 .663 .329 3.780 .000

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MODEL

ADJUSTED R2

B

STANDARD ERROS

ß

T

SIG

Age Length of service Scolastic level

.049

–.018 .043 .404

.023 .023 .180

–.131 .321 .213

–.777 1.917 2.239

.439 .058 .027

Age Length of service Scolastic level Play risk Ethic risk

134

–.008 .036 .310 .055 .373

.022 .022 .180 .099 .103

–.060 .266 .164 .051 .319

–.369 1.656 1.722 .558 3.626

.713 .101 .088 .578 .000

Age Length of service Scolastic level Play risk Ethic risk

134

–.010 .041 .296 .066 .375

.022 .022 .180 .102 .103

–.075 .303 .156 .061 .321

–.461 1.860 1.641 .647 3.644

.646 .066 .104 .519 .000

–.221 .021

.187 .210

–.129 .011

1.183 2.39 .099 .921

Gravity of risk Risk control

risk factors (related to the attitude towards risk variable), and the last block introduces risk control and risk gravity control (related to the risk perception variable). In this regression it is possible to observe that school attendance is the only significant predictor (R 2 = .049; ß = .213; T = 2.239; p < .05), while the two other variables, age, and length of service, are not significant. But when, within the second model, ethic and play risks variables are included in the regression, an interesting result comes up: the attitude towards ethic risk has such a strong influence on the behavior related to rules violation that the influence of school attendance completely disappears. This result, which had already arisen in the linear regression, highlights that the attitude towards ethic risk predicts rules violation behavior and, as a result, exposes workers to industrial accidents.

Discussion

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Table 7.11 Hierarchic linear regression of the predictor connected to rule violation behavior

The main goal of the work was to find out if the attitude towards risk and the risk perception had an influence on the violation of safety rules. The results just presented are far from those presented in the current scientific literature, in which the idea that the chance of someone behaving in a preventive and non-risky way is basically a function of the risk perception (Rosenstock, 1974). What emerged from the discussion of the results, in contrast, is that the attitude towards risk was strongly influenced by behavioral rules against

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violation. It is the attitude towards ethic risk which has an influence on the conduct, proving that the subjects in everyday situations tend to assume risks related to the ethical sphere which are a greater violation of safety rules. Another interesting result is that the attitude towards play risk correlates with risk control. This indicates that those who assume play risks related to the recreational sphere and free time perceive themselves as having control over a potential risky situation. The concept of risk control is also relevant to the last result in which the correlation between control perception and seriousness of risk perception emerged: as the perception of risk control grows, so does the perception of risk. This could be interpreted by referring to the information related to the risk. In fact, if workers had a good cognitive education related to the risks they are exposed to, they could have the perception to control them better and evaluate them more seriously (Kaneklin & Scaratti, 2005). The awareness of gravity should lead to self-protective attitudes. The results point out the importance of risk control and the sense of risk, control, and awareness finalized not only to modify the subjective perception and response, but also to inform and to build up in an active way (Mearns, Leach & Scoones, 2000; Flin & Mearns, 1996). Every organization should implement safety training programs with the aim of providing employees with appropriate knowledge about the rules and procedures they must follow in order to work safely. Nevertheless, many studies point out that the simple transmission of information is not enough to guarantee the application of safety rules when on duty. What emerges from data analysis is the importance of the attitude towards risk in the adoption of behaviors related to the violation of safety rules. So in order to increase behaviors oriented to safety, besides the informative aspect, it is necessary to change workers’ attitudes, promoting the sharing of essential safety principles, through the commitment of the organization with regard to problems related to work. Formative interventions connected to safety have an important role when they determine a correct perception of occupational risks, since they would increase the control perception (Leiter & Robichaud 1997). Recently it has been demonstrated that workers who received accurate training on safety procedures have a much better perception of the danger of risks they are exposed to, compared to colleagues who hadn’t received any kind of training (Duffy, 2003). So, an educational campaign of prevention must be essentially founded on good training and communication of risk that can influence subjects to adhere to safety procedures and to assume non-risky behaviors for their own health. Occupational safety depends on the dynamic interaction of many technical, organizational, human and environmental factors. Within a global prevention strategy founded on the interactions between man, machine, and environment, it would be useful to consider the organizational culture,

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which, if oriented to safety, can be a factor in reducing working accidents (Barling, Zacharatos & Iverson, 2005). Moreover, it has a central role when it guarantees the efficacy of training interventions because it can have a strong impact on workers’ behavior, not only on an explicit, observable level, but even more on an implicit level, referring to rules, beliefs, attitudes, and values. Workers’ training, in order to be successful and lead to important and significant changes related to the interactions between man–machine, man– man, and man–environment, should move in two directions: promoting the development of correct knowledge and attitudes about the different aspects of the safety question, and contributing to the development of appropriate cultural models. The work described here is not meant to produce definitive results, but represents a first explorative piece of research, designed to understand the influence that variables of psychosocial nature may have on the incidence of work-related accidents. However, the study has some limits: first, the sample comes from just one organization and, second, it is composed only of permanent workers, so we cannot know if the results would be the same in a sample of temporary workers whose life is characterized by a boundaryless career. The lack of variables relating to cultural organization is another important limit of the study. The results achieved offer interesting suggestions for future researches. For example, the whole study could be repeated, administering the same instrument to other branches of the same factory. Moreover, since the search was developed in an engineering department, it could be interesting to analyze the same connections within firms of different kinds.

References Ajzen, I. & Fishbein M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 888–918. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211. Barling, J., Zacharatos, A., & Iverson, R. D. (2005). High-performance work system and occupational safety. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90 (1), 77–93. Boix, P. & Orts, E. (1997). Temporalidad y siniestralidad laboral en la Comunidad Valenciana (Temporary employment and labor accidents in the Valencian Community). Cuadernos de Relaciones Laborales, 11, 275–319. De Cuyper, N., Isaksson, K., & De Witte, H. (Eds.) (2005). Employment contracts and well-being among European workers. Hampshire, UK: Ashgate Publishing. Duffy, V. G. (2003). Effects of training and experience on perception of hazards and risk. Ergonomic, 46 (1–3), 114–125. Eagly, A. & Chaiken, S. (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Flin, R. & Mearns, K. (1996) Risk perception in hazardous industries. Psychologist, 9 (9), 401–404.

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Kaneklin, C. & Scaratti, G. (2005). La formazione alla sicurezza: una sfida di senso e di efficacia. Risorsa Uomo, 11 (3), 315–341. Leiter, M. P. & Robichaud, L. (1997). Relationships of occupational hazards with burnout: An assessment of measures and models. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2, 1–11. McNeil, B. J., Pauker, S. G., Sox, H. C., & Tversky, A. (1982). On the elicitation of preferences for alternative therapies. New England Journal of Medicine, 306, 1259–1262. Mearns, R., Leach, M., & Scoones, (2000). The institutional dynamics of communitybased natural resource management (CBNRM): An entitlements approach. Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, UK. Rosenstock, I. (1974). Historical origins of the Health Belief model. Health Education Monographs, 2 (4). Slovic, P. (1987). Perception of risk. Science, 236, 280–287. Slovic, P., Fischhoff, B. & Lichtenstein, S. (2000). Facts and fears: Understanding perceived risk. In P. Slovic (ed.) The Perception of Risk. Sterling: Earthscan. Vlek C. & Stallen P. J. (1981). Judging risks and benefits in the small and in the large. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 28 (2), 235–271. Weber, E., Blais, A., & Betz, N. (2002). A domain-specific risk-attitude scale: measuring risk perceptions and risk behaviors. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 15, 263–290. Zimmermann Verdejo, M., Maqueda Blasco, J., Almodóvar Molina, A., & de la Orden Rivera, M. V. (1996). The National Survey on Working Conditions: data for reflection. Revista espanola de salud publica, 70 (4), 421–9.

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8 Marcello Nonnis, Stefania Cuccu and Stefano Porcu

Introduction Mobbing can be defined as a degenerative process, characterized by systematic hostile behaviors acted out for a significant period of time in the workplace, by one or more workers against one or more colleagues, resulting in marginalization or expulsion of victims from their own workplace. The literature on the theme of oppression and mobbing in the working environment, and on the causes that can produce conditions of psychological terrorism in the place of employment can be related to three areas of research. The first, arising from studies of bullying (Brodsky, 1976; Olweus, 1978; Hirigoyen, 2000), maintains that the process of mobbing can be explained by the personality traits of those involved. Being an aggressor rather than a victim would constitute a relatively stable feature of personality. Since longitudinal studies don’t exist on the factors of personality, the dispositional model is shown to be ineffective at explaining whether personality profiles were indeed antecedent to mobbing. The second area of research focuses on the influence of the dynamics of the group in the working contexts (Einarsen, Raknes & Matthiesen, 1994; Leymann, 1996; Vartia, 1996; Zapf, 1999; Einarsen, 2000). The victim of mobbing, in this view, would not be destined to such a role on the base of his/her intrinsic characteristics, but certain social, spontaneous and physiological dynamics would exist in the life of the group, leading to the victim becoming an object of oppression and persecution, according to the scapegoat theory. The scapegoat represents one of the roles that naturally emerges in social groups; it acts as clarifier of the norms of the group and as a catalyst for negative feelings and the explicit aggressiveness shown by the members of the group (Spaltro, 1985). The figure of the scapegoat must therefore, in the abstract, possess different behavioral characteristics from those approved by the group that elicits the oppressive behaviors. The third

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area of research on the causes of oppressive behaviors, which is of particular interest in recent years, comes back to the principal determinants of the factors of mobbing type situations. Various authors (Einarsen et al., 1994; Leymann, 1996; Zapf, Knorz & Kulla, 1996; Trentini, 2006) have drawn attention to the fact that, in work environments where behaviors are verified as oppressive, elevated levels of conflict of role are also found, dissatisfaction with the organizational climate, scant support from the superior (or a style of authoritarian leadership), and the perception among the workers that they have little opportunity of controlling their own activities. Zapf et al. (1996) has investigated in depth some aspects of the present social climate at work. Mobbing, if carried to an extreme, is a process that has devastating consequences both on the individual who is the victim of it, and on the organizational context in which it originates and develops. The consequences of these hostile behaviors relate to three main diagnostic principles: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Generalized Anxiety Syndrome, and Adaptation Syndrome (Brodsky, 1976; Cassano, Cioni, Perugi & Poli, 1994; Leymann, 1996, 2003; Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2001; Menelao, Della Porta & Rindonone, 2001; Liefooghe & Mackenzie Davey, 2001; De Risio, 2002). We believe it is important to investigate the relationship between hostile behaviors in the place of employment, their consequences on workers and their relationship with the strategies proposed to deal with them. We also believe it is of particular importance to investigate the relationship between hostile behaviors and their consequences on workers especially in the present circumstances, characterized by boundaryless and protean careers, which imply less support from trade unions and an increase in the risk of health and well-being problems for workers.

Goals of the research The research proposes the identification of the main categories of hostile behaviors in the workplace; of the main categories of psychosomatic consequences of these hostile behaviors; the identification of the main categories of actions acted out by the victims to cope with them; the investigation of the relations between hostile behaviors, psychosomatic consequences, and the reactions of the victims to these behaviors.

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Method The research was carried out using of the ACRM Questionnaire (Action Consequences and Reactions to Mobbing) (Nonnis, 2006), a survey tool developed through critical analysis of some of the principal survey tools in the form of self-report that are available in the literature on mobbing (Leymann, 1996, 2003; Bjorkqvist, Österman, & Hjelt-Bäck, 1994; Einarsen et al., 1994; Baron, Neuman, & Geddes, 1999; Einarsen & Raknes, 1997). The

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questionnaire is composed of a table for the survey of social-anagrafical data and 203 items related to: ● ● ●

85 oppressive actions; 94 consequences of uneasiness; 24 reactions to the oppressions.

Oppressive actions Attacks on contacts and interpersonal relations, divided into the following actions regarding: ● ● ● ●

communication; through emotions; exclusion from events; indirect. Attacks on work, relative to actions against:

● ● ● ●

relationship with work; the reward system; working duties; physical conditions at work. ● Attacks on reputation. ● Attacks through sex. ● Threats or violence. ● Attacks outside the workplace.

Consequences for the worker Alterations in behavior Psychosomatic consequences Psychic consequences Consequences to oneself, related to the following dimensions of self: ● ● ● ● ●

social; family; professional; bodily; self-confidence.

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We will later see in detail the typologies of stimuli that compose the three parts of the questionnaire.

Reactions of the worker to the mobbing Formal/infra-organizational Formal/extra-organizational

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Informal/infra-organizational Informal/extra-organizational

The research was carried out on 1,161 workers from Cagliari (Sardinia, Italy), in the public (78%, n = 911) and private sector (22%, n = 250); the sample was chosen based on willingness to complete the questionnaires. Of the workers interviewed, 37% (n = 424) were female, 63% (n = 737) were male. As regards the number of working years, they were divided into four groups: workers with less than 10 years of service (40%, n = 465); workers with between 11 and 20 years of service (28%, n = 323); workers with between 21 and 30 years of service (24%, n = 284), and inherent workers with more than 31 years of service (8%, n = 88). As regards professional level, the workers were divided into five groups: workers with operational responsibility (38%, n = 438), workers with technical responsibility (20%, n = 230); those with managerial responsibility (23%, n = 271); those with high managerial responsibility (7%, n = 77); and other kinds of workers (12%, n = 145).

Data analysis techniques The identification of the main categories of hostile behaviors in the workplace, of the main categories of psychosomatic consequences of these hostile behaviors, and of the main categories of actions engaged in by the victims to cope with them, was carried out by Analysis of the Principal Components (APC) of the questionnaire (Promax rotation). The identification of the relations between the hostile behaviors, the psychosomatic consequences, and the reactions engaged in by the victims against these behaviors, was carried out by Multiple Linear Regression (Enter method). All the statistical analysis was carried out on a significance level of α = .05.

Results Principal Components Analysis

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Participants

As far as the Oppressive actions are concerned, five factors emerged that determine 48.45% of the total variance explained. We can see the factors in detail in Table 8.1. As far as Consequences for the worker are concerned, three factors emerged, which together determine 46.12% of the total variance explained, as shown in Table 8.2. As far as the Reactions of the worker to mobbing are concerned, two factors emerged that determine 46.77% of the total variance explained (Table 8.3).

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Table 8.1 Oppressive actions ␣

Attacks on communications and relationships Attacks on interface between work–home

17

.907

9

.897

3

Attacks on duty and jobs at work

11

.838

4

Attacks from superiors

6

.753

5

Attacks through sex

5

.756

Label

1

2

Example of item Some of my colleagues have been told not to communicate with me Due to my situation at work, damage has been caused to property of mine (car, home ...) I am not informed of important information necessary for the correct carrying out of my job I am hindered from receiving my benefits and rights such as (holidays, days off, illness ...) I am criticized or made fun of due to my sexual preferences (real or attributed by my colleagues)

Table 8.2 Consequences for the worker N° item

␣

Psychosomatic (stress-related)

18

.936

Psychological sphere (cognitive and emotional) Behavioral sphere

12

.703

11

.767

Factor

Label

1

2

3

Examples of item Breathing problems (worry, lack of air, asthma ...) Problems sleeping (insomnia, waking up early, sleep interrupted) I have problems with attention/ concentration I feel inadequate I have stopped or reduced the care of my body and image (washing, clothing ...)

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N° item

Factor

Table 8.3 Reactions of the worker to mobbing Factor

Label

1

Formal action outside of the workplace Informal action outside the workplace

2

N° item

␣

3

.720

I have reported it to the police

3

.645

I complain to and take it out on relatives and/or friends

Examples of item

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Multiple linear regression As seen in Table 8.4, the most influential contributing factors in the stressrelated psychosomatic field are: attacks from superiors, attacks on communication and relationships and attacks on duty and jobs at work. As far as the psychological sphere is concerned (cognitive and emotional), the most influential contributing factors are attacks on the home–work interface, attacks on communications and relationships at work, and attacks from superiors (Table 8.5). As far as the behavioral sphere is concerned, as shown in Table 8.6, the most influential contributing factors are attacks on communications and relationships, attacks by superiors, and attacks on duty and jobs at work. Relationships between hostile behaviors and reactions of the worker to mobbing As far as the most influential contributing factors in informal relationships outside the workplace are concerned, these are: attacks on communications and relationships, attacks on duty and jobs at work, and attacks on the work–home interface (Table 8.7).

Table 8.4 Contributing stress-related psychosomatic factors Criteria: Psychosomatic (stress-related) Contributing Factors Attacks from superiors Attacks on communications and relationships Attacks on duty and jobs at work Attacks through sex

␤

t

Sig.

.253 .212 .157 .105

8.259 6.539 5.013 4.083

.0001 .0001 .0001 .0001

Fit into model R = .560 R2 = .313 adjusted R2 = .311. F(4) = 131.172 Sig = .0001. N = 1161 p < .001.

Table 8.5 Contributing factors in the psychological sphere Criteria: psychological sphere (cognitive and emotional) Contributing factors Attacks on the home–work interface Attacks on communications and relationships at work Attacks from superiors

␤

T

Sig.

.294 .254 .150

11.069 8.147 4.977

.0001 .0001 .0001

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Relationships between hostile behaviors and their consequences

Fit into model R = .606 R2 = .368 adjusted R2 = .365 F(4) = 167,983 Sig = .0001. N = 1161 p < .001.

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118 Marcello Nonnis, Stefania Cuccu and Stefano Porcu

Table 8.6 Contributing factors in the behavioral sphere

Contributing factors Attacks on communications and relationships Attacks from superiors Attacks on duty and jobs at work

␤

T

Sig.

.250 .237 .228

8.280 8.059 7.793

.0001 .0001 .0001

Fit into model R = .635 R2 = .403 adjusted R2 = .401 F(4) = 195.262 Sig = .0001 N = 1161 p < .001

Table 8.7 Contributing factors on informal relationships outside the workplace Criteria: Informal relationships outside the workplace Contributing factors Attacks on communications and relationships Attacks on duty and jobs at work Attacks on the work–home interface

␤

t

Sig.

.211 .198 .127

6.197 6.073 4.361

.0001 .0001 .0001

Fit into model R = .562 R2 = .315 adjusted R2 = .315 F(3) = 87.50 Sig = .0001 N = 1161 p < .001

Table 8.8 Contributing factor on formal relationships outside the workplace Criteria: Formal relationships outside the workplace Contributing factors Attacks on the home–work interface 2

␤

T

Sig.

.562

23.108

.0001

2

Fit into model R = .562 R = .315 adjusted R = .315 F(1) = 533.969 Sig = .0001 N = 1161 p < .001

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Criteria: Behavioral sphere

Finally, the most influential contributing factor in the formal relationships outside the work field is attacks on the home–work interface, as shown in Table 8.8.

Conclusions The Analysis of the Principal Components confirms the multidimensional nature of the typologies of attacks that is typical of the process of mobbing.

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This result confirms previous researches (Einarsen et al. 1994; Bjorkqvist et al., 1994; Leymann, 1996, 2003; Einarsen & Raknes, 1997; Baron et al., 1999; Meseguer, Soler, Sáez, & García, 2008). The area of the actions conducted in the home–work interface seems interesting and innovative, which constitutes a move of the hostile actions from the place of employment towards the private sphere of the subjects. The consequences of the hostile behaviors can be described under three typologies: psychosomatic, problems of the psychological (emotional and cognitive) sphere and behavioral problems. The hypothesis of a specificity of the consequences is not confirmed on the self of the subjects. As regards the reactions, two factors (each with a lower number) emerge: formal reactions and informal (outside the workplace), this indicates the low inclination of workers to make use of opportunities of improving (with formal or informal actions) their condition within the organization. The results of the Multiple Linear Regression show empirical evidence proposed by the most important authors regarding the relationship between hostile behaviors in the place of employment and consequences of a somatic (stress-related) nature, psychological (emotional and cognitive), and behavioral. Oppressive behaviors in the place of employment confirm their negative potential on relationships, working and hierarchical, and on the health conditions of workers. In fact attacks on relationships and communication, from the superior, and on the capacity for doing his/her own job, emerge almost on a regular basis as the causes of negative effects on the psychophysical health of workers. Finally, it is interesting to ascertain how workers undertake informal actions outside the workplace to challenge hostile behaviors, actions that become formal (police reports, exposure, requests for compensation) only when the attacks become external to the working environment and they affect the home–work interface. We believe this datum to be worrying, in that workers don’t undertake formal or informal protective actions inside the organizational context, but outside, and in particular after the hostile behaviors have been carried out outside the working environment. From this, one can conclude that the worker views internal protective procedures in the organization (formal and informal) as insufficient, making him/her turn to forms of protection outside the organization. Therefore the results of this research point out the need for close examination of the relationship between hostile behaviors, their consequences and reactions from the mobbed workers.

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Hostile Behaviors in the Workplace

References Baron, R. A., Neuman, J. H., & Geddes, D. (1999). Social and personal determinants of workplace aggression: evidence for the impact of perceived injustice and the Type A behavior pattern. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 281–296.

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Bjorkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Hjelt-Bäck, M. (1994). Aggression among university employees. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 173–184. Brodsky, C. (1976). The Harassed Worker. Toronto: Lexington Books. Cassano, G. B., Cioni, P., Perugi, G., & Poli E. (1994). Manuale di Psichiatria. Torino: UTET. De Risio, S. (Ed.) (2002). Psichiatria della Salute Aziendale e Mobbing. Milano: Angeli. Einarsen, S. (2000). Harassment and bullying at work: a review of the Scandinavian approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5 (4), 379–401. Einarsen, S., Raknes, B. I., & Matthiesen, S. B. (1994). Bullying and harassment at work and their relationship to work environment quality: an exploratory study. The European Work and Organizational Psychologist, 4, 381–401. Einarsen, S. & Raknes, B. I. (1997). Harassment in the workplace and victimization of men. Violence and Victims, 12 (3), 247–263. Hirigoyen, M. F. (2000). Molestie Morali: la Violenza Perversa nella Famiglia e nel Lavoro. Torino: Einaudi. Leymann, H. (1996). The content and development of mobbing at work. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5 (2), 165–184. Leymann H. (2003). Mobbing Encyclopaedia. www.leymann.se. Liefooghe, A. P. D. & Mackenzie Davey, K. (2001). Accounts of workplace bullying: the role of the organization. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10 (4), 375–392. Menelao, A., Della Porta, M., & Rindonone, G. (Eds.) (2001). Mobbing: la Faccia Impresentabile del Mondo del Lavoro. Milano: Angeli. Meseguer, M., Soler, M. I., Sáez, M. C., & García, M. (2008). Workplace mobbing and effects on workers’ health. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 11 (1), 219–227. Mikkelsen, E. G. & Einarsen, S. (2001). Bullying in Danish work-life: prevalence and correlates. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10 (4), 393–413. Nonnis, M. (2006). Un’ipotesi di strumento di valutazione delle condizioni di disagio lavorativo e mobbing. In F. Marini & M. Nonnis (Eds.) Il Mobbing. Dal Disagio al Benessere Lavorativo (123–142). Roma: Carocci. Olweus, D. (1978), Aggression in the Schools. Bullies and Whipping Boys. Washington: Hemisphere Press. Spaltro, E. (1985). Pluralità. Bologna: Patron. Trentini, G. (2006). Oltre il Mobbing: le Nuove Frontiere della Persecutività. Milano: Franco Angeli. Vartia, M. (1996). The sources of bullying: psychological work environment and organizational climate. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5 (2), 203–214. Zapf, D. (1999). Organizational, work group related and personal causes of mobbing/ bullying at work. International Journal of Manpower, 20 (1/2), 70–86. Zapf, D., Knorz, C., & Kulla, M. (1996): On the relationship between mobbing factors and job content, social work environment and health outcomes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5, 215–237.

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120 Marcello Nonnis, Stefania Cuccu and Stefano Porcu

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Occupational Stress and Job Insecurity May Reduce the Immune NK Response in Men Working in a University Laura Forcella, Angela Di Donato, Luca Di Giampaolo, Massimilano Barattucci, Angelo Turano and Paolo Boscolo

Introduction Immune and neuroendocrine systems have been shown to exert integrated responses to environmental signals (Kempuraj et al., 2004; Di Giannantonio et al., 2005; Boscolo et al., 2008). In particular, environmental stimulation may affect the activity of cytokines, peptide hormones, neurotransmitters and receptors, localized in both the immune and the nervous systems. Blood NK activity is known to protect against cancer and infections. Many studies indicate that NK activity is reduced in patients with advanced cancer; moreover, the period of survival in these patients is related to their levels of blood NK activity (Morimoto et al., 2001). High levels of blood NK and lymphokine-activated killer activity (LAK) characterize individuals with easy-going life styles and mental health (Morimoto et al., 2001). Physical activity would thus improve the quantity, as well as the quality of blood CD16+ NK cells and, in turn, ameliorate mental health by restraining anxiety and avoiding depression (Li et al., 2007; Li et al., 2008). Sustained stress exerts opposite results; reduced blood NK or LAK activity was shown in subjects with mental instability and poor life style (Morimoto et al., 2001), in young adults with depressive disorders (Schleifer et al., 1996), in the victims of an earthquake in Japan (Inoue-Sakuri et al., 2000) and in women experiencing breast biopsy (Witek-Janusek 2007). In an investigation on subjects who underwent acute emotional stress, those with lower psychological capacity to cope with the situation showed more elevated reduction of blood NK activity and “in vitro” responsiveness of lymphocytes (Gerra et al., 2003). Mental stimulation may be helpful or dangerous to human health depending on dosage, genetic predisposition, and mental health status. Blood NK

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activity was studied in response to examination stress in cadets of an Italian Military Academy with different levels of emotional stability and anxiety (Borella et al., 1999): examination stress significantly enhanced NK cell activity in the high emotional stability/low anxiety group, while it significantly decreased NK activity in the low emotional stability/high anxiety group. Working activity was also shown to affect the immune response. Stress may be generated in the work environment, not only by the job itself, but also by low social support or repetitive work without gratification, as well as by shift work. In Italian physicians, personal accomplishment was associated with an increase of blood T lymphocytes, while the sensation of working hard and being tired from work (burnout) was related to immunosuppression (Bargellini et al., 2000). Reduced blood cytotoxic activity was reported lower in men and women working as employees in a university with high occupational stress (Di Donato et al., 2006; Boscolo et al., 2009). Reduced blood NK activity was also observed in Japan in emergency physicians and nurses with increased work load and/or on night shifts (Morikawa et al., 2005; Okamoto et al., 2008). Job loss and insecurity are considered chronic stressful situations (Segerstrom & Miller, 2004) which may induce negative neuroendocrine and immune reactions (Boscolo et al., 2009). The effects of unemployment and job insecurity on the immune response were analyzed in 1987 and 1991 in Sweden along with neuroendocrine and cardiovascular parameters (Arnetz et al., 1991). During the anticipatory and early unemployment phase the reactivity of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to phytoemagglutinin decreased in men and women. Moreover, it steadily decreased in the women following a period of unemployment, despite the fact that some of the recruited subjects participated in a psychosocial therapeutic program. Modifications of blood lymphocyte subsets were also observed in New Zealand in 1994 in unemployed workers (Mariott et al.). Blood NK cell cytotoxicity was reported significantly reduced in a four-month study on unemployed men and women with ages ranging from 29 to 45 years, living in the area of San Francisco from 1991 to 1994, in a recession period (Cohen et al., 2007). In this investigation, recovery of blood NK activity was shown after the unemployment situation ended. This study reports the effects of job stress and insecurity on blood NK activity of men and women working in a university, including part of the data reported in a recent research (Boscolo et al., 2009). This study showed reduced blood NK activity in a group of young employees in the offices of a university with temporary jobs but not in the young sanitary staff. In this new investigation, we therefore recruited other young doctors and assistants in order to further analyze the effects of job strain and insecurity in young people. In addition, we investigated two groups of women in training in the Dental School.

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122 Forcella et al.

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The majority of employees in the University of Chieti-Pescara have stable employment. It was known that some employees experience stressful working conditions in the library. Another small group of young employees were in temporary employment. We studied these two groups of male employees and referent groups. We also investigated two groups of young male sanitary staff with stable or temporary employment. Some of the recruited subjects (87) had been investigated in a previous study (Boscolo et al., 2009). In this study, we investigated 117 male subjects, as another 30 subjects (young male doctors in training in the Dental School) were recruited. In addition, we recruited 25 female doctors in training in a course of specialization in the Dental School and another 43 female assistants in training in the Dental School. Table 9.1 reports the number, age and the university degree of the six groups of men. The first group (A) was composed of over 40-year-old men working in offices; group B (from the same age group as group A) was composed of men working in a library, temporarily located in underground rooms in contact with students; group C was composed of young employees (under 40-year olds) with stable working positions, while group D (composed of men with similar ages to group C) had temporary employment, mainly through staff leasing. Groups E and F (under 40-year olds) were composed of young health service and laboratory staff of the university (doctors and assistants) with stable or temporary positions. The men of group F (mainly young doctors attending a course of specialization in the Dental School) worked in the university for professional improvement, and were confident of obtaining a stable job in the future. The education level (doctor’s degree) of groups C and D was higher than those of groups A and B. Most of the men in groups E and F (health service staff) had a medical degree. Table 9.2 reports the number, the age and the university degree of the two groups of women. The two groups had similar ages but different levels of education, since one was composed of doctors attending a course of specialization in the Dental School (together with group F of males (Table 9.1)) and the other of assistants (most of them without university degrees) in training in the Dental School. Recruitment of the subjects and determination of immune parameters

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Materials and methods

Clinical assessment included physical examination and standard routine blood analyses. Subjects taking drugs or suffering from diseases were not recruited for the study. On the second day of the working week (Tuesday), between 8 and 10 a.m., blood was collected. The “in vitro” cytotoxicity test was performed on PBMC isolated by density-gradient centrifugation. The cytotoxicity experiment was performed

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13 48.6 6 7.1 13 44.3 6 10.3** 43.6 6 8.7** 25.2 6 2.9 59.3 6 9.8* 52.8 6 11.2*** 19.9 6 3.7 10.8 6 1.3 13.7 6 6.9 *(o)

20 49.0 6 5.7 20

34.6 6 5.8 33.5 6 5.1 25.9 6 4.1 69.5 6 11.5 38.0 6 7.5 22.3 6 2.9 10.8 6 1.6 20.4 6 8.9

Employees in a library (B)

33.8 6 5.6 33.0 6 7.2 25.7 6 4.2 65.8 6 6.9 39.9 6 6.5 22.5 6 2.8 10.1 6 2.2 24.4 6 8.3

15 36.2 6 3.7 15 40.0 6 9.8 (o) 38.7 6 9.9 (o) 25.8 6 2.2 65.3 6 10.6 40.5 6 8.4 24.7 6 4.0 18.6 6 3.3*** (o) 11.0 6 4.6 *** (o)

10 36.0 6 4.3 10

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31.4 6 3.2 28.2 6 3.1 27.8 6 2.2 74.0 6 7.5 38.0 6 4.9 23.4 6 3.1 11.0 6 3.1 21.1 6 5.2

12 35.2 6 3.9 12

Young stable Young Young health employees- stable employees-temporary service staff job (C) job (D) (E)

Values are means 6 S.D. Mann Whitney test: significant difference (A vs. B and C vs. D; E vs. F): *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 Mann Whitney test: significant difference: (C vs. E; D vs. F): °p < 0.05

No. Age (years) With university degree (No.) STAI I STAI II Job demand (JD) Decision latitude (DL) Job strain (JD/DL) x 103 Social support Job insecurity Blood cytotoxic activity/ml (%)

Employees in offices (A)

31.4 6 6.8 29.6 6 4.4 31.6 6 4.5 **(o) 72.4 6 8.2 44.0 6 8.0***(o) 24.3 6 5.1 11.8 6 3.7 20.6 6 5.5

48 32.8 6 4.8 48

Young temporary health service staff (F)

Table 9.1 STAI I, STAI II, job strain (job demand/decision latitude), social support, job insecurity and subjective symptoms of men working in a university

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Table 9.2 STAI I, STAI II, job strain (job demand/decision latitude), social support, job insecurity and subjective symptoms of women working in a university

No. Age (years) With university degree STAI I STAI II Job demand (JD) Decision latitude (DL) Job strain (JD/DL) x 103 Social support Job insecurity Blood cytotoxic activity/ml (%)

25 30.6 6 6.0 25 34.7 6 7.1 32.7 6 5.8 32.7 6 3.3 75.4 6 6.1 43.6 6 5.1 25.4 6 3.7 11.6 6 2.8 21.5 6 4.9 (n 10)

Course for dentist assistants 43 25.7 6 5.8 10 38.4 6 10.5** 38.3 6 8.7*** 34.7 6 3.9 *** 62.8 6 7.5 *** 56.4 6 9.1*** 24.8 6 3.5 13.7 6 2.6*** 18.4 6 5.2 (n 10)

Values are means 6 S.D. Mann Whitney test: significant difference (A vs. B and C vs. D; E vs. F); **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 Mann Whitney test: significant difference: (C vs. E; D vs. F): °p < 0.05

using Cytotox 96 (Promega, Southampton, UK). This assay is based on the release of the cytosol enzyme LDH from cells. The end-point of the LDH assay is an estimation of damage to human erythroleukemia K562 target cells after exposure. Determination of anxiety, occupational stress, and subjective symptoms The recruited subjects completed the questionnaires in a quiet room in the morning before the blood sample collection. State-trait-anxiety inventory (STAI) was used in scale I, to measure state-anxiety as a temporary varying condition, and in scale II, to monitor trait-anxiety (Spielberger et al., 1970; Spielberger 1989). Occupational stress was determined by the Italian version of the T test of Karasek composed of 46 items: 9 items determined the decision latitude (skill decision + decision authority) (DL), 20 determined job demand (JD), 8 social support (SS), and 9 job insecurity. Job strain was determined by the ratio JD:DL (Karasek et al., 1998; Baldasseroni et al., 2001).

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Course of specialization in Dental School

Statistical analysis The data was analyzed using SPSS 11.5 for Windows. The KolmogorovSmirnov test showed that most of the data did not conform to the parametric distribution, so the Mann Whitney-U test was used to analyze the values

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between couples of groups and the Wilkoxon test for analysis of the values among the groups. We also used multivariate analysis to evaluate the influence of age, smoking habit and alcohol intake.

The scores of STAI I and STAI II of the men working in a library (group B) were significantly higher than those of the control employees (group A) (Table 9.1). Group B showed significantly reduced decision latitude compared to group A and augmented job strain (JD/DL), while job demand, social support, and job insecurity of groups A and B were similar. The scores of STAI I and STAI II of the employees with temporary employment (group D) were slightly higher (without statistical significance) than those of the employees with stable position (group C) and higher, with statistical significance, than those of the health service staff with temporary employment (group F) (Table 9.1). Moreover, group D showed very high values of job insecurity. The sanitary staff with stable or temporary positions (groups E and F) showed similar values of STAI I, STAI II, decision latitude, social support and job insecurity. However, job demand and job strain of group F (mainly young doctors in training in the Dental School) were higher than those of group E (Table 9.1). Blood NK cytotoxic activity of the men working in a library (group B) was significantly lower than that of the controls (group A) (Table 9.1). Blood NK cytotoxicity of the young employees in temporary employment (group D) was much lower than that of both group C (employees with stable employment) and F (sanitary staff with temporary employment), while there was no difference in blood cytotoxic activity between the couples of groups E–F, C–E, and D–F (Table 9.1). We divided all the recruited subjects into three groups with low, average, and high blood cytotoxic activity/ml of blood (Figures 9.1 and 9.2.) The mean age of the three groups was 43.2, 38.8, and 41.1 years respectively. In these subgroups we determined the parameters of anxiety, occupational stress, and job insecurity. The values of anxiety (STAI I and STAI II) showed a statistically significant difference both among the three groups and between the groups with high and low blood NK activity (Figure 9.1). Job insecurity (but not job demand, decision latitude, or job strain) showed the same statistical difference (Figure 9.2). The females on the course for dental assistants showed increased anxiety (STAI I and STAI II), job demand, and job strain. On the other hand, their decision latitude was significantly reduced. However, there was no difference in blood NK activity between the two groups of young women (10 subjects vs. 10).

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Results

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STAI I 50

STAI II

40

20

10

0 Low NK activity

Average NK activity

High NK activity

Figure. 9.1 STAI I and STAI II in groups with low (<16%) average (16–22%) and high (<22%) blood cytotoxic activity/ml of blood Main Whitney U test: statistical significant difference among the groups with high and low blood NK activity: • p < 0.05; • • p < 0.01. Wilcoxon test showed a statistical difference (p < 0.05) among the values of STAI and STAI II of the three groups.

Job insecurity Job strain

50

Value

40 30 20 10

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Value

30

0 Low NK activity

Average NK activity

High NK activity

Figure 9.2 Job insecurity and job strain 3 10 –3 in groups with low (<16%) average (16–22%) and high (<22%) blood cytotoxic activity/ml of blood Main Whitney U test: statistical significant difference among the groups with high and low blood NK activity: • • p < 0.01. Wilcoxon test showed a statistical difference (p < 0.05) among the values of job insecurity of the three groups.

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128 Forcella et al.

Multivariate regression analysis taking into account age, smoking habits and alcohol intake of the examined subjects did not influence the other results reported above.

Today, the perception of job insecurity affects not only workers with temporary employment but also those with a stable job, because of the global economic crisis. The quality of the job contributes not only on the level of financial compensation, but is related to a feeling of self-respect and identity (Arnetz et al., 1991). Losing one’s job or job insecurity is a stressful condition for men, and particularly in small towns in Italy, where work is considered not only a source of income but is related to a feeling of selfrespect and social identity (Boscolo et al., 2009). Therefore, a good job provides regular daily activity as well as purpose, structure and direction in life, companions, social support, and status. It was demonstrated that job insecurity and unemployment may induce emotional and cognitive effects including anxiety, depression, apathy, disturbed ability to concentrate, make decisions, and be creative (Fleming et al., 1984). There are several studies on the effects of unemployment and job insecurity on the health status of men and women. Recent studies made in Australia (Strazdins et al., 2004), Taiwan (Cheng et al., 2005), Norway (Lau & Knardhal, 2008), Denmark (Regulies et al., 2008), and other countries demonstrated that perceived job insecurity increases the risk of effects on health. In particular, the perception of job insecurity was found to be a predictor of a decline in health in employed women in Denmark; among men, a suggestive effect of job insecurity was found in employees aged 50 years or young employees with poor labor market exchanges (Regulies et al., 2008). We reported in a previous study (Boscolo et al., 2009) as well as in this investigation that blood NK activity was reduced in a small group of young employees in offices with temporary jobs and a high perception of job insecurity. On the other hand, this immunological condition does not affect the investigated sanitary staff with temporary employment. In this research, 30 other young doctors in addition to the 18 of the previous research (Boscolo et al., 2009), in training to achieve a degree in the Dental School for improving their work ability, were recruited. The high job demand and strain of these doctors did not exert adverse effects on anxiety and blood NK activity. This demonstrates that these young men, possibly with emotional stability, may tolerate stressful situations without alteration of the immune response or of health status. However, job strain and insecurity may exert noxious effects on subjects with emotional instability. In the previous study (Boscolo et al., 2009), all the 87 recruited subjects were divided into three subgroups with low, average, and elevated cytotoxic activity of the blood NK cells; only

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Discussion

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in the first of these subgroups (with low blood cytotoxic activity) was there a significant correlation between anxiety, job strain, and perception of subjective symptoms with NK cytotoxic activity. The women in training to become dental assistants showed less decision latitude and more job demand, job strain and job insecurity than the female doctors attending the course of specialization in the Dental School. The occupational stress, anxiety, and job insecurity of the women in training to become dental assistants may have been related to their anxiety; however, in 10 out of 43 examined subjects, there was no alteration of blood NK activity. In any case, we cannot rule out the possibility that young nurses with increased job strain or burnout may present working situations affecting their immune response and health status. With this in mind, an effect of job stress on the immune response of healthy nurses was demonstrated (Morikawa et al., 2005). A role for cytotoxic T and NK cells in the prevention of carcinogenesis and infections has been strongly suggested by epidemiological surveys (Morimoto et al., 2001). It may be that perception of job insecurity and unemployment may reduce the defenses against neoplastic cells. On the other hand, it is likely that the stressful perception of job insecurity may enhance autoimmune diseases or worsen the health status of workers suffering from autoimmune disorders (Boscolo et al., 2008). The levels of blood NK activity may today be studied not only by “in vitro” methods but also utilizing new, simple, inexpensive and standardized cytofluorimetric methods such as the determinations of proteolytic proteins (e.g. perforins) in NK cells. These procedures had previously been utilized for studying the effects of life style and physical activity on the immune functions (Li et al., 2007; Li et al., 2008). It would be useful to verify whether these methods may be efficient in the field of preventive and occupational medicine. Monitoring of the immune response may thus be included in health programs and services providing an effective buffer against the negative impacts of the economic crisis on unemployed people by enabling them to stay healthy and motivated until they are reintegrated in employment.

Acknowledgements

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This study was supported by the Italian Administration for University and Research (MURST), ISPESL and the Region of Abruzzo.

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Baldasseroni, A., Camerino, D., Cenni, P., Cesana, G. C., Fattorini, E., Ferrario, M., Mariani, M., & Tartaglia, R. (2001). La valutazione dei fattori psicosociali – Il Job Content Questionnaire. Fogli d’Informazione, 3,20–32. Bargellini, A., Barbieri, A., Rovesti, S., Vivoli, R., Roncaglia, R., & Borella, P. (2000). Relation between immune variables and burnout in a sample of physicians. Occup. Env. Med., 57, 453–457. Borella, P., Bargellini, A., Rovesti, S., Pinelli, M., Vivoli, R., Solfrini, V., & Vivoli, G. F. (1999). Emotional stability, anxiety, and natural killer activity under examination stress. Psychoendocrinol., 24, 613–627. Boscolo, P., Youinou, P., Theoharides, T. C., Cerulli, G., & Conti, P. (2008). Environmental and occupational stress and autoimmunity. Autoimmunity Rev. 7, 340. Boscolo, P., Di Donato, A., Di Giampaolo, L., Forcella, L., Reale, M., Dadorante, V., Alparone, F., Magliaro, S., Kouri, M., & Fattorini, E. (2009). Blood natural killer activity is reduced in men with occupational stress and job insecurity working in a university. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 82, 787–794. Cheng, Y., Chen, C. W., Chen, C. J., & Chiang, T. L. (2005). Job insecurity and its association with health among employees in the Taiwanese general population. Soc. Chi. Med., 61, 41–52. Cohen, F., Kemeny, M. E., Zegans, L. S., Johnson, P., Kearny, K. A., & Stites, D. P. (2007). Immune function declines with unemployment and recovers after stressor termination. Psychosom. Med., 69, 225–234. Di Donato, A., Di Giampaolo, L., Reale. M., Dadorante, V., Alparone, F., Stocchi, M., Fattorini, E., Di Gioacchino, M., Magrini, A., & Boscolo, P. (2006). Effect of occupational stress and anxiety on natural killer lymphocyte activity of men and women employed in a university. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol., 19 (4s), 79–84. Di Giannantonio, M., Frydas, S., Kempuraj, D., Karagouni, E., Hatzistilianou, M., Conti, C. M., Boucher, W., Papadopoulou, N., Donelan, J., Cao, J., Madhappan, B., Boscolo, P., Petrarca, C., Castellani, L., Quartesan, L., & Doyle, R., Ferro F. M. (2005). Cytokines in stress. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol., 18, 1–5. Fleming, R., Baum, A., Reddy, D., & Gatchel, R. J. (1984). Behavioural and biochemical effects of job loss and unemployment stress. J. Hum. Stress, 10, 12–17. Gerra, G., Monti, D., Panerai, A. E., Sacerdote, D., anderlini, R., Avanzino, P., Zaimovic, A., Brambilla, F., & Franceschi, C. (2003). Long-term immune-endocrine effects of bereavement: Relationships with anxiety levels and mood. Psychiatry Res., 1321, 145–158. Karasek, R. A., Brisson, C., Kawakami, N., Houtman, I., Bongers, P., & Amick, B. (1998). The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ). An instrument for internationally comparative assessments of psychosocial job characteristics. J. Occup. Health Psychol., 3, 322–355. Kempuraj, D., Konstatinidou, A., Boscolo, P., Ferro, F., Di Giannantonio, M., Conti, C. M., Merletti, D., Tetrarca, C., Castellani, M. L., Doyle, L., & Theoharides, T. C. (2004). Cytokines and the brain. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol., 17, 229–232. Inoue-Sakuri, C., Maruyama, S., & Morimoto, K. (2000). Posttraumatic stress and lifestyles are associated with natural killer cell activity in victims of the HanshinAwaji earthquake in Japan. Prev. Med., 31, 467–473. Lau B. & Knardhal S. (2008). Perceived job insecurity, job predictability, personality and health. J. Occup. Environ. Med., 50, 172–181. Li, Q., Morimoto, K. A., Nakadai, A., Inagaki, H., Katsumata, M., Shimizu, T., Hirata, K., Hirata, H., Suzuki, H., Miyazaki, Y., Kagawa, T., Koyama, Y., Ohira, T., Takayama, N., Krensky, A. M., & Kawada, T. (2007). Forest bathing enhances human natural killer

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activity and expression of anti-cancer proteins. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol., 20 (s2), 3–8. Li, Q., Morimoto, K., Kobayashi, M., Inagaki, H., Katsumata, M., Hirata, Y., Hirata, K., Shimizu, T., Li, Y. J., Kawayama, Y., Kawada, T., Ohira, T., Takayama, N., Kagawa, T., & Miyazaki, N. (2008). A forest bathing trip increases human natural killer activity and expression of anti-cancer proteins in female subjects. J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents, 22, 45–55. Mariott, D., Kirkwood, B. J., & Stough, C. (1994). Immunological effects of unemployment. Lancet, 344, 269–270. Morikawa, Y., Kitaoka-Higashiguchi, K., Tanimoto, C., Hayashi, M., Oketani, R., Miura, K., Nishijo, M., & Nakagawa, H. (2005). A cross-sectional study on the relationship of job stress with natural killer cell activity as natural killer cell subsets among healthy nurses. J. Occup. Health, 47, 378–383. Morimoto, K., Takeshita, T., Inoue-Sakurai, C., & Maruyama, S. (2001). Lifestyle and mental health status are associated with natural killer cell and lymphokine activated killer cell activities. Sci. Total. Environ., 270, 3–11. Okamoto, H., Tsunoda, T., Teruya, K., Takeda, N., Uemura, T., Matsui, T., Fukazawa, S., Ichikawa, K., Takemae, R., Tsuchida, K., & Takashima, Y. (2008). An occupational health study on emergency physicians in Japan: health assessment by immune variables (CD4, CD8, CD56 and NK cell activity) at the beginning of work. J. Occup. Health, 50, 136–146. Regulies, R., Aust, B., Burr, H., & Bültman, U. (2008). Job insecurity, chances on the labour market and decline in self-rated health in a representative sample of the Danish workplace. J. Epidemiol. Community Health, 62, 245–250. Schleifer, S. J., Keller, S. E., Bartlett, J., Eckholdt, H. M., & Delaney, B. R. (1996). Immunity in young adults with major depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 153, 477–482. Segerstrom, S. C. & Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychol. Bull., 130, 601–630. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual of the State-TraitAnxiety-Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Spielberger, C. D. (1989) Inventario per l’Ansia di Stato e di Tratto (Italian Version). O. S. Firenze: Organizzazioni Speciali. Strazdins, L., D’Souza, R. M., Limm, L. L., Broom, D. H., & Rodgers, B. (2004). Job strain, job insecurity and health: rethinking the relationship. J. Occup. Health Psychol., 9, 296–305. Witek-Janusek, L., Gabram, S., & Matheuws, H. L. (2007). Psychologic stress, reduced NK cell activity, and cytokine dysregulation in women experiencing diagnostic breast biopsy. Psychoendocrinol., 2, 22–35.

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10 Filomena Milena Marzano, Carmencita Serino and Gianvito D’Aprile

The conceptual base for health psychologists in their roles as researchers, practitioners, and policymakers is the biopsychosocial model (Anderson, 1998; Engel, 1977; Kaplan, 1990; Matarazzo, 1980; Schwartz, 1982; Schwartz & Weiss, 1978). In this perspective, it is maintained that biological, psychological, and social processes are integrally and interactively involved in physical health and illness. In this context, then, the improvement of health systems depends on both the quality of interpersonal relationships among operators, and the operators’ personal well-being. In the last decades, in fact, considerable evidence for the idea that stress negatively impacts health-care professionals has been produced. Stress, in particular, can lead to increased depression (Tyssen, Vaglum, Gronvold & Ekeberg, 2001), decreased job satisfaction (Blegen, 1993; Flanagan & Flanagan, 2002), disrupted personal relationships (Gallegos, BettinardiAngres & Talbott, 1990), and psychological distress (Jain, Lall, McLaughlin & Johnson, 1996). Moreover, it may also impair professional effectiveness, leading to decreased attention (Smith, 1990), reducing concentration (Askenasy & Lewin, 1996), impinging on decision-making skills (Klein, 1996; Lehner, Seyed-Solorforough, O’Connor, Sak & Mullin, 1997), and reducing providers’ abilities to establish strong relationships with patients (Pastore, Gambert, Plutchik & Plutchik, 1995). It has been demonstrated that the emotional structure of professional caregivers affects their functionality and efficiency (Thomas, Dyrbye, Huntington, Lawson, Novotny, Sloan & Shanafelt, 2007), especially those professions, such as the helping professions in general, in which the emotional requests of the environment go beyond the individual’s resources. In fact, these individuals are overloaded by two sources of stress: their own, and that of the helped person (Marzano, Epifani & Traversa, 2008).

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In this framework, the burnout syndrome has become particularly prominent (Freudenberger, 1974; Maslach, 1982). Burnout in health-care workers is the construct used to describe the psychological state resulting from a prolonged period of high stress levels in caregivers’ professional lives. Maslach and Jackson (1981) proposed that burnout is a negative psychological experience characterized by three components: depersonalization (perceiving care recipients as objects, or difficult, disliked people), reduced personal accomplishment (when the caregiver feels that they are engaging in ineffective patterns of interaction), and emotional exhaustion (when caregivers feel fatigued and unable to perform their jobs adequately). Many researchers and psychologists have concentrated in recent decades on the evolution of burnout, aiming most of all at identifying the factors that may offer the possibility of prevention. In this sense, there are certainly many protective factors and variables that influence or moderate the processes underlying burnout. These factors are related either to the single individual (for example avoiding an imbalance between one’s own energies and one’s own work), or to the entire organization (for example, creating information/formation activities for health operators). In both cases, it is important to notice that the phenomena of emotional exhaustion and burnout develop within the communicative relationship between caregivers and care recipients (Steinhilber, Coralli & Barale, 2001). In fact, according to Maslach (1982), “burn-out is best understood (and modified) in terms of situational sources of job-related interpersonal stress” (Maslach, 1982: 9).

The communicative dimension of burnout and its connection with empathy in human service professions Part of the literature on the communicative dimension of burnout has focused on the role of empathy within human service organizations and health professionals (Miller et al., 1988; Stiff et al., 1988). Empathy is a complex, multifaceted construct, which can be observed in several different contexts (close relationships, the work-place, educational and health organizations, etc.) and analyzed at different levels. Empathy occurs when we listen and pay attention to others carefully, when we understand their feelings, needs, and points of view. So empathy is a social experience, dealing with social norms and roles, interpersonal and intergroup relationships, culture and shared representations of the world, with our identities and our ways of comparing ourselves with others. It includes verbal components, as well as non-verbal communication skills (Serino & Marzano, 2007). Many researchers have found that caregivers’ interpersonal skills in terms of empathic responsivity can make a difference to patients and their healthcare outcomes. Thus, Batson et al. (1988), for example, revealed that feeling

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empathy toward another person may promote altruistic actions, increasing the likelihood that care recipients will be treated altruistically and effectively. Similarly, however, according to some authors, empathy may have a negative effect on the emotional exhaustion of health professional (Bennett, 1995; Miller et al., 1988): sometimes caregivers may also feel stressed when caring about the promotion and the maintenance of their patients’ health, or when they respond with an empathic attitude. Miller, Stiff & Ellis (1988), for example, argued that two dimensions of empathy seem especially pertinent as motivators for professional caregivers: empathic concern and emotional contagion. Empathic concern is defined as “(1) a general concern and regard for the welfare of others and (2) the stipulation that the affect is not parallel to that of the target person. It is this second feature which makes clear the distinction between emotional contagion and empathic concern” (Stiff et al., 1988, 199). On the other side, emotional contagion is defined as “an affective process in which an individual observing another person experiences emotional responses parallel to that person’s actual or anticipated emotions” (Miller et al., 1988; Davis, 1983). The above-mentioned study offers many important suggestions about the relationship between these two dimensions of empathy and burnout. According to the authors, for whom burnout is “a reaction to constant, emotional, communicative contact with individuals in need of help” (Miller, Stiff, & Ellis, 1988, 250; see also Miller, Ellis, Zook, & Lyles, 1990) empathy can have both positive and negative effects upon the ability of a person to communicate effectively with another. To the extent that a person is concerned with another person (empathic concern), he/she should be more communicatively responsive. To the extent that they actually feel another’s emotions (emotional contagion), they will not be able to address the joys or concerns of the other, and will be less communicatively responsive. In this light, both emotional contagion and empathic concern are to be considered as distinct separate facets of empathy1. Stiff et al.’s research (1988) focused on the effect of empathic concern and emotional contagion on social service workers’ feelings of burnout. In general, this research shows the importance of focusing on the role of empathy as a potential risk factor for caregivers. In this context, helping relationships have received much attention by researchers. However, several concrete conditions of social work and helping still deserve further attention.

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Empathy and burnout among caregivers: a study of volunteers and professionals The above-mentioned risk within health contexts has been subject to much analysis, at least at a theoretical level, while little attention has

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been given to the relationship between empathy and burnout among professional and volunteer caregivers, who are differently involved with their patients, for example, as a function of the amount of time spent with them. Our study aimed to monitor the phenomena of perceived burnout and empathy among professionals and volunteer caregivers in human service contexts. The literature, in fact, shows that this relationship is twofold: empathy, in fact, may help to improve the customer-assistant relationship, but it can also appear as a precursor risk factor, leading operators and assistants to burnout (Marzano, Epifani & Traversa, 2007; Marzano, Serino & D’Aprile, 2008; Miller, Stiff & Ellis, 1988). In this connection, our study has focused on the possible relationship between empathy and burnout in helping contexts. In particular, we aimed to explore levels of empathy and burnout among professionals and volunteer caregivers. Participants and procedure Forty caregivers participated in the study (27 professionals and 13 volunteers operating in health-care settings). The sample was composed of 13 male participants and 27 female (mean age = 33.7). Measures Participants filled in a questionnaire consisting of many self-report measures and open-ended questions. The first set of scales was intended to measure empathy and burnout among health-care operators by means of six sub-scales: Empathic Concern (EC, Davis, 1983), Emotional Contagion (CON, Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972), Communicative Responsiveness (CR, Stiff, 1984), Personal Commitment (PC), Emotional Exhaustion (EE), Depersonalization (D), and Personal Accomplishment (PA, Maslach & Jackson, 1981). These last three scales in particular are intended to measure levels of burnout according to the taxonomy introduced by Maslach and Jackson (1981). The questionnaire also included a revised version of the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy (Hojat et al., 2002), which measures empathy occurring in the caregiver–patient relationship (Hojat et al., 2001). For each item included in the different scales, participants had to indicate how much (from 1 = not at all, to 7 = extremely) they were in agreement with each sentence. The second part of the questionnaire included open questions on the caregiver–patient relationship (e.g. “What are the strengths and weaknesses of your relations with patients?”). In the last part of the questionnaire participants were asked to respond to provide some social-demographic information (gender, age, educational qualification, professional category, etc.).

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Scales on Empathy and Burnout. Data were elaborated by means of quantitative and qualitative analysis. For each sub-scale included in the questionnaire, an index was created by averaging participants’ answers to items included in each set. In particular, indexes of Empathy in Caregivers (Jefferson’s Scales, alpha = .78), Empathic Concern (alpha = .87), Emotional Contagion (alpha = .78), Depersonalization (alpha = .75), Emotional Exhaustion (alpha = .89), Personal Commitment (alpha = .84), and Occupational Commitment (alpha = .74) were created. In addition, a global index of Burnout was created (alpha = .88) by averaging scores of the three sub-dimensions (Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, and Personal Accomplishment). Participants showed different levels of Burnout as a function of their Gender: according to our results, and partially in contrast with the literature, men reported higher scores of Emotional Exhaustion (4.41 vs. 3.54; p < .05), Depersonalization (3.79 vs. 2.94; p < .05), Occupational Commitment (3.35 vs. 2.89; p = .05), and Burnout in general (3.78 vs. 3.01; p < .05) than women. Differences in terms of empathy and Burnout also emerged as a function of participants’ Professional Category (professionals vs. volunteers). According to our data, professionals (who are more constantly in contact with their patients) reported significantly higher levels of Emotional Exhaustion (3.35 vs. 2.84; p < .05), Depersonalization (3.89 vs. 3.11; p < .05), and Burnout in general (3.75 vs. 2.88; p < .05), compared to volunteers, who instead obtained higher scores in terms of Occupational Commitment (4.89 vs. 3.57; p < .05). Moreover, volunteers reported also more Empathy than professionals, although the difference between the two means is not statistically significant (4.41 vs. 4.11; p = .07). Content analysis. Participants’ answers to the open question were also investigated by means of content analysis procedures2. Results show that answers about the strengths and weaknesses of participants’ relations with patients were in line with the literature on the twofold relationship between empathy and well-being. In particular, participants’ answers mentioned both positive and negative aspects of services characteristics and of empathic relationship (Table 10.1). In this light, participants described as strengths of their relationship with patients the efficacy of offered services (e.g. “the possibility of offering a place to sleep”, “good structures”, etc.) and the empathic relation with their patients (e.g. “a crucial competence for physicians”). In the same line, participants reported as weakness issues the difficulties and the problems related to structural and organizational dimensions (e.g. “we have not enough operators”, “we work too many hours”, etc.), and the disadvantage of the empathic relation with patients (e.g. it implies a need for the caregiver to manage the excess of emotionality and involvement with patients”).

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Results

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Table 10.1 Strengths and weaknesses of caregivers’ relationships with patients (content analysis of participants’ free answers)

VOLUNTEERS (n = 13, 100%) PROFESSIONALS (n = 27, 100%)

WEAKNESSES

Efficacy of services

Advantages of empathic relation with patients

Non Efficacy of services

Disadvantages of empathic relation with patients

33%

21.8%

23%

22.2%

10.2%

42.2%

32.8%

14.8%

As to the possible comparison between professionals and volunteers, the numbers of respondents in each sub-group is very different. Our results nevertheless seem to suggest that volunteers refer to efficacy of services as a strength aspect, more than professionals (33% vs. 10.2%), while both groups report almost to the same extent the non-efficacy of structural and organization dimensions as something that may negatively affect the patient–caregiver relationship. Similarly, the two categories of respondents mention the role of empathy (as both an advantage and a disadvantage) within the caregiver–patient interface to a different extent (57% of professionals vs. 44% of volunteers). Moreover, volunteers consider empathy as a risk factor and an advantage to the same extent (21.8% and 22.2%), while professionals refer to empathy more as an advantage for their relation with patients.

Discussion and conclusion Our study was intended to focus on the phenomena of perceived burnout and empathy among professionals and volunteer caregivers in human service contexts. In the light of this aim, our data seem to suggest that participants differ as a function of some of the variables considered in our study. According to our results, in fact, participants differ as a function of their gender: men seem to be more exposed to burnout than women. This result, which is partially in contrast with the literature (Maslach, Schaufeli & Leiter, 2001), may depend on a culturally based bias, socially shared, in which men are perceived as less socialized toward helping dimensions, which is instead socially and historically ascribed to women. This bias, moreover, may also be related to the fact that nowadays more and more men are involved in the field of social care, but training courses (for many years directed toward women) still do not focus on the importance of empathy, which is

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STRENGTHS

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considered, instead, a dispositional trait of women. In this sense, caregiving and relation domains are still socially linked to the female sphere. As far as the difference between professionals and volunteers in terms of burnout and empathy is concerned, these may depend on the fact that professionals have to experience constant contact with their patients, unlike volunteers, who are probably less exposed (also in terms of time spent with patients) to the risks of their job. The twofold relationship between empathy and burnout emerged also from our qualitative results: the presence of two, clearly distinct categories in both groups (professionals and volunteers) highlights the fact that health-care operators in general are aware that their personal wellbeing in job contexts is a function of not only of the efficacy of services and structures, but also of the efficacy of communication with patients. Participants, in fact, emphasize the twofold role of being empathic in a health-care setting, stressing that an emotional communication may represent an advantage, but may also be one possible factor which determines burnout (Table 10.1). Therefore, it is possible that both empathy and burnout involve an interpersonal dimension, in which cognitive, affective and communication components are involved. Understanding empathy and its potential may become a strategic goal in helping caregivers to manage and develop positive social interactions in the health-care organizations, reducing the negative physical and psychological effects in order to promote well-being in human service occupations. Taken together, our results allowed us to reflect on different components of health-care operators’ well-being. Our data suggest the necessity of giving caregivers efficient tools in order to carry out their work as well as possible, not only in terms of appropriate structures and services, but also in terms of management of empathy, thus leading to enhanced care for health professionals and ultimately for the patients they serve.

Notes 1. Eisenberg and Miller (1987, 91), for example, clarify this, stating that “empathy can include emotional matching and the vicarious experiencing of a range of emotions consistent with those of others”. 2. Participants’ free answers were analyzed by two independent judges (total agreement).

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References Anderson, E. W. (1998). Customer satisfaction and word of mouth. Journal of Service Research, 1, 5–17. Askenasy, J. & Lewin, I. (1996). The impact of missile warfare on self-reported sleep quality. Sleep, 19, 47–51.

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Mehrabian, A. & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality, 40, 525–543. Miller, K. I., Stiff, J. B., & Ellis, B. H. (1988). Communication and empathy as precursors to burn-out among human service workers. Communication Monographs, 55 (9), 336–341. Miller, K. I., Ellis, B. H., Zook, E. G., & Lyles, J. S. (1990). An integrated model of communication, stress and burn-out in the workplace. Communication Research, 17, 300–326. Pastore, F. R., Gambert, S. R., Plutchik, A., & Plutchik, R. (1995). Empathy training for medical students. Unpublished manuscript, New York Medical College. Schwartz, G. (1982). Testing the biopsychosocial model: The ultimate challenge facing behavioral medicine? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 1040–1053. Schwartz, G. & Weiss, S. (1978). Yale conference on behavioral medicine: A proposed definition and statement of goals. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 1, 3–12. Serino C. & Marzano F. M. (2007). The context of empathy: culture,groups, social comparison. Critical Psychology, 20, 108–139. Smith, A. (1990). Stress and information processing. In M. Johnston & M. L. Wallace (Eds.), Stress and Medical Procedures (p. 184). Oxford, England: Oxford Medical Publications, Oxford University Press. Steinhilber, C. P., Coralli, E., & Barale, F. (2001). Burn-out: una riflessione. Giornale Italiano di Psicopatologia, 1, 112–19. Stiff, J. B. (1984). Construct Validity of Two Measures of Empathy. Unpublished Manuscript, Department of Communication, Michigan State University. Stiff, J. B., Dillard, J. P., Somera, L., Kim, H., & Sleight, C. (1988). Empathy communication and prosocial behavior. Communication Monograph, 55, 198–213. Thomas, M. R., Dyrbye, L. N., Huntington, J. L., Lawson, K. L., Novotny, P. J., Sloan, J. A., & Shanafelt, T. D. (2007). How do distress and well-being relate to medical student empathy? A multicenter study. In Journal of Gen. Intern. Med., 22, 177–183. Tyssen, R., Vaglum, P., Gronvold, N. T., & Ekeberg, O. (2001). Suicidal ideation among medical students and young physicians: A nationwide and prospective study of prevalence and predictors. Journal of Affective Disorders, 64, 69–79.

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11 Amelia Manuti, Giuseppe Mininni, Rubino Rossella and Rosa Scardigno

Introduction Over recent decades social, economic, and cultural changes (e.g. the process of market globalization, the massive employment of new technologies and the flexibilization of working modalities) have reshaped labor contexts and brought the topic of psychological well-being to the attention of both specialized literature and public opinion (Quinlan, 2007). In this light the concept of subjective well-being intersects with that of “organizational well-being”, meant as the ability of an organization to promote and maintain the highest degree of physical, psychological and social well-being of its members (Avallone & Bonaretti, 2003; Wright & Cropanzano, 2004). The occupational conditions experienced by workers are crucial for wellbeing. Literature has shown that temporary workers are more exposed to uneasiness than stable workers, with implications for personal and social life (Sverke & Hellgren, 2002; De Witte, 1999; Ketz De Vries & Balazs, 1997; Scharacq & Cooper, 1997; Klein Hesselink & Van Vuuren 1999; Bardasi & Francescani, 2004; Ferrari & Veglio, 2006; Manuti, Mininni & Scardigno, 2008). Withdrawal from work due to aging is also a critical step. Many empirical data offer insights into the difference between retired people’s “idealized and remembered” job context and that “imagined and longed-for” by those going through their first professional experiences (Antonelli & Cucconi, 1999; Fraccaroli & Sarchielli, 2002; Guglielmi, Sarchielli & Borelli, 2008). Within this framework, the present study analyzes the construct of (perceived) well-being in relation to work experience. We discuss the results of a qualitative study involving different groups of workers (temporary, stable and retired workers) in order to explore the meaning they attach to well-being in various domains of individual and social life, within such a renewed labor market.

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Psychological well-being as a resource for identity

Moving from the scientific evidence on quality of life, in which the relation between well-being and objective “environmental” variables (Diener & Diener, 1995) is analyzed, psychological research on well-being has developed the concepts of “social well-being” – the feeling of being included and accepted (Larson, 1993; Keyes, 1998) – and “subjective well-being” (SWB), which refers to people’s evaluation of their own lives (Arrindell et al., 1997; Diener & Suh, 1998; Matsumoto et al., 1999; Sagiv & Schwartz, 2000; Diener & Oishi, 2000; Ahuvia, 2002; Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2002). Such a perspective connects with the aims of the positive psychology movement (Seligman, 2002; 2003; Seligman & Csikszentihalyi, 2000), which focuses on individual strengths and values, helping people to enhance their lives and experience greater SWB. The development of theory and research methodologies on well-being can be accounted for by three main phases. Early studies explored the relation between well-being and objective socio-demographic variables such as income, sex, education, age and physical attractiveness (Wilson, 1967; Veenhoven, 1993; Diener & Suh, 1998). They confirmed that low life-standard and unemployment generally cause feelings of frustration (Campbell, Converse & Rogers, 1976, Warr 1987; 2007; Depolo & Sarchielli, 1987; Antonelli & Cucconi, 1999; Andersen, 2002). In the second period the focus shifted toward the influence of personality traits and copy strategies. Theoretical models of the processes of subjective (evaluation) valuation of well-being were improved. Specifically, the Costa and McCrae (1980) model associated the variability in the perception of well-being to stable personality traits such as extroversion and neuroticism, whereas the successful – and much discussed – research paradigm of the hedonic treadmill (Brickman & Campbell, 1971) proposed, on the basis of a famous study on lottery winners and people with spinal cord injuries, the idea that people are destined to hedonic neutrality in the long run. In fact they would tend to adapt to life events, always reverting to their “set point” or “baseline”, since “positive events make us temporarily happy as well as negative events make us only temporarily unhappy” (Diener & Oishi, 2005, 164). Most recently, researchers have revisited the definition of well-being and tried to measure it, generally by means of assessment procedures such as multiple-item scales that ask respondents to reflect on how happy they are. Despite the huge amount of findings which have been produced with quantitative methods/tools/procedures, methodological issues are still open. The discursive approach of qualitative methods such as focus group discussions and narrative interviews seems to better capture the complexity of the

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Defining well-being

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experience of well-being, which relies on processes of sense-making dramatically influenced culture (Armezzani et al., 1999; Manuti et al., 2007).

In their recognition of the different streams of inquiry guiding the field of well-being, Ryan and Deci (2001) organized this broad domain into two traditions: one dealing with happiness (hedonic well-being), and one dealing with human potential (eudaimonic well-being). In the first tradition, well-being is defined in terms of pleasure versus pain, and mostly measured by assessing subjective well-being (Diener, 1996; Schimmack et al., 2002). SWB consists of three components: life satisfaction (cognitive valuation), presence of positive mood, absence of negative mood (emotional component) (Diener & Lucas, 2000; Diener, Scollon, & Lucas, 2003; Delle Fave, 2007). Despite the currency of the hedonic view, many scholars have denigrated happiness as a principal criterion of well-being. From the eudaimonic perspective, well-being is distinct from happiness, since the attaining of pleasure would not always promote well-being. An extensive literature, mostly from the 1950s and 1960s, concerns the work of psychologists interested in full growth articulated constructs such as self-actualization (Maslow, 1968), full-functioning (Rogers, 1961), maturity (Allport, 1961), individuation (Jung, 1933), self-consistency (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999), and ego development (Bauer et al., 2005; King & Raspin, 2004). As part of this development, Waterman (1993) stated that the eudaimonic conception of well-being calls upon people to live in accordance with their daimon or true self, in “the striving for perfection that represents the realization of one’s true potential” (Ryff, 1995, 100). He suggested that eudaimonia occurs when people’s life activities are most congruent with deeply held values and are fully engaged. Under such circumstances people would feel intensely alive and authentic, a state Waterman labeled personal expressiveness (PE). Although strongly correlated, PE is more associated with being challenged and exerting effort, whereas hedonic enjoyment was more related to being relaxed, away from problems, and happy (Ghedin, 2004). Within the eudaimonic perspective, Ryan and Deci (2000; 2001) attempted in their Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to specify what it means to actualize the self and how this can be accomplished. Specifically, Self-Determination Theory posits three basic psychological needs – autonomy, competence, and relatedness – and theorizes that a fulfillment of these needs is essential for well-being. The need for competence means the necessity for perceived self-efficacy: to be up to a task in a specific context (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). The need for autonomy refers to the feeling that one’s behavior is self-chosen and meaningful (following intrinsic motivation) as opposed to coerced and pressured. The need for relatedness concerns the human biological propensity

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SWB or PWB? Hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives

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to establish satisfactory social relations, being in harmony with important others, rather than alienated or marginalized. Moving on from SDT, many studies have shown that intrinsic motivations in striving towards a goal are more related to well-being than external factors such as transient impulses, incentives, and rewards, introjected “shoulds” or “oughts” (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). Such a result emphasizes the role of psychosocial aspects of work experience in promoting well-being. Summing up, the debate between hedonic and eudaimonic theorists has shown the multifaceted nature of the concept of well-being, which should include both happiness and meaning, and in the work domain, where people are actively engaged in fulfilling personal goals and wishes and in reaching, perhaps, a sense of mastery and satisfaction.

Work experience as a well-being anchor From subjective well-being to organizational well-being As a “crossroad of the self” (Anolli, 1984), work serves many purposes: ensuring economic independence, structuring daily time, providing regular and meaningful interactions out of family contexts, expressing oneself (Harpaz, 2002) and building social and personal identity (Mow Team, 1987; Anolli & Mazzonis, 1997). In fact being (and being recognized as) a “productive citizen” measures one’s own social power and personal value (Jahoda, 1982; Warr, 1987; 2007; Gasparini, 1990; Rifkin, 1995; Depolo & Sarchielli, 1987). The topic of well-being represents the core aspect of the concept of “total quality” (Gabassi, Garzitto & Perin, 2005), which refers to the organizational strategy aiming to promote individual well-being within organizational contexts. “Total quality” pays attention not only to objective aspects (artifacts) which shape the work environment, but also to soft variables, such as communication, climate, culture and leadership, which influence the meaning workers give to their experience within the organization. In this perspective, well-being depends on workers’ perception of being in an “anthropocentric” context (Gabassi, Garzitto & Perin, 2005, 3), where human resources are important. Well-being is a consequence of identification with an organization which enhances the individual’s contribution and individual happiness (Brief & Weiss, 2002; Ilies, Schwind, & Heller, 2007). However, despite the evident correlation between a strategy of total quality and organizational success, only in recent times have organizations paid attention to well-being as a pivotal aspect of organizational plans (Danna & Griffin, 1999; Manuti et al., 2007). Yet the human relations movement (Mayo 1933, 1945) had pointed at psychosocial aspects of the “human factor” (motivation, alienation, group

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dynamics), which influence well-being (Chinoy, 1955; Kornhauser, 1965; Gardell 1971; Ilgen & Swisher, 1989) during times of Tayloristic management (Taylor, 1911). In that context workers had to adapt to the productive system which was thought to achieve the best result for the organization, with very little attention to work environment, quality and workers’ wellbeing. The prevention of physical damage was not allowed to slow down production. Since that time, well-being has been pursued by actions directed to the enhancement of workers’ physical and mental health. Workers have been considered actively involved in the definition and negotiation of its meaning in terms such as individual pleasure, self-fulfillment, common effort (Earnest, 2000; Pratt, 2000) and personal development (Rosen, 1986). This is to the advantage of both the workers and the organization. On one hand, feelings of belonging and identification are produced in the worker (Tanucci & Manuti, 2007). On the other hand, the work context becomes “healthy”, that is, marked not only by high levels of productivity, but also by high security, low absenteeism, low turnover and common satisfaction (Lyden & Klengele, 2000; Avallone & Paplomatas, 2005).

The study Aims, participants and methodology The present study sets out to analyze the discursive construction of wellbeing among different groups of workers: temporary, stable and retired workers. Data have been collected by means of focus group discussions (Corrao, 1998), which is a qualitative method designed to investigate the sense-making process in a group. The participants are six full-time permanent workers in a local bank headquarters (three men, 54, 55 and 56 years old and three women, 45, 55 and 57 years old), five temporary workers, randomly collected (one man, 23 years old, and four women, 26, 31, 31 and 32 years old), and eight retired workers. This last group consists of five men (57, 74, 75, 84 and 86 years old) and three (age-not-declared) women attending the Popular University Molfetta (Bari). A critical perspective has been adopted to analyze the discourses produced (Van Dijk, 1993; 1997; 1998; Fairclough, 1993; Fairclough & Wodak, 1997). More specifically, a diatextual approach to discourse analysis (Mininni, 2003; 2005; 2008) was used to identify different rhetorical modes adopted by the speakers to elaborate their own experience of well-being and to highlight the relationship between texts and contexts.

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Work Experience As a Discursive Resource

The diatextual approach as a contribution to critical discourse analysis The diatext is a semiotic instrument for Critical Discourse Analysis aimed at capturing the dynamic and negotiated nature of any communicative event

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(Mininni, 1992) and the mutual links between text and context prompted by its three dimensions (“field”, “tenor” and “mode”), that indicate the topic, the relational tone, and the style of what is happening. As it unfolds, a text can be conceived as diatext, for two main reasons (hence the term “diatext”: the Greek prefix dia means “through”). Firstly, according to a dialogical view of communication (Weigand, 1999; 2000), sense does not reside permanently within texts, but rather it goes through them as the result of the conjunct action of the enunciators which consists in the negotiation of the frame (enjeu) where they are actively involved. Secondly, taking part in a conversation (and/or coming into a dialogical relationship) means to provide an enunciative contribution of sense, such as to show who is speaking, which could legitimize what the speaker is saying and what its claim to validity is. In this perspective, argumentation is seen not simply as a communicative format, but rather as a dialogic situated practice of reciprocal confrontation, as an action game (Mininni, 2003). From an operational point of view, looking at a series of pragmatic markers (e.g. agency markers, embrayage/debrayage markers, the network of logoi and antilogoi and rhetorical figures) diatextual analysis aims to show the subjective texture, the argumentative nature and the modality features of discourses (SAM Model, Mininni, 2007), and thus to capture the meaning within the dynamics of reciprocal co-construction of text and context. The present contribution focuses on those procedures of the diatextual approach that have a greater rhetorical pertinence.

Results Well-being at work as a diatextual construction Participants in all groups (stable, temporary and retired workers) were shown to be responsive to the topic, giving it a common meaning with specific connotations depending on their occupational circumstances. Atypicality as a discursive trace of professional identity The analysis of the discursive data collected in the focus group with temporary workers confirms the negative impact that precarious working conditions might have on well-being (Schabracq & Cooper, 1997), highlighting how work experience is a fundamental peg in the construction of personal and social identity (Manuti, 2005; 2006; Manuti, Cortini & Mininni, 2006). Work is a synonym of identity when making contact with others. Temporary workers report their uneasiness at being unable to define themselves to others through their own job. Since flexibility is socially considered as precariousness and economic instability, not only must they accept the general

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1) “It is difficult to be a temporary worker. For example when you go out with friends and meet new people, the first question is always the same: so, what do you do? Aren’t you working at the moment? It’s quite frustrating to repeat you are doing nothing then you say I am attending a course. This is already a difficult condition from a personal point of view, moreover their questions make it heavier” (M. female temporary worker). Several agentivity cues (“in my opinion”, “I am”) show that participants needed to tell their own story and listen to those of others. Such an attitude, which is particularly evident in the focus group of temporary workers – who don’t know each other – shapes the frame of discourse by making it a situation where it is possible to share experiences. As a consequence, the topic of well-being seems less relevant than the need to tell one’s own story. 2) “I am 31 years old and I got my degree three years ago. Even before my graduation I had temporary contracts at the University then I have always had brief working experiences with this kind of occupational condition rather in some cases I did not have neither a contract therefore I experience another kind of atypicality” (L. female atypical worker). Another very peculiar feature of this discursive context, probably emphasized by common features of participants in terms of uncertainty and uneasiness about the occupational experience, is “dialogued syntax” (Slama-Cazacu, 1981): a communicative strategy where different contributions make a single syntactic unity as each interlocutor contributes to its definition. Such a construction shows the participants’ desire both to share and specify (as unique) their own experiences, by means of specific metadiscursive practices – such as glosses or attitude markers – oriented to reformulating the meaning expressed by others. 3) T.: I agree. I also associate wellbeing to a serene sensation in each life domains R: Yes a balance between the affective and the working domain. M: But even wellbeing at work I associate it to a serene situation in the workplace that is experience all the T: Conditions to perform good one’s own job (focus group discussion with atypical workers)

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opinion that flexibility means precariousness but also feel obliged to justify themselves.

The typical discursive act is that of “denouncing”. In fact workers describe themselves as forced to accept the situation. Argumentation is marked by stylistic elements such as “unfortunately” or “if only/how I wish”, locutions like “I keep going on”, adversative constructions opened by adverbs such as

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“but” and “on the contrary”. This feature is further confirmed by agentivity markers which show the passivity related to flexibility, which appears to be a not-chosen condition.

The feeling of uncertainty experienced by almost all participants is also reinforced by the frame metaphor of work as a game (such as “I had tried my luck”, “I threw myself”) thus marking the feelings of randomness and uncertainty which are generally associated with such events. Pragmatic cues mark the risky dimension of atypical work (like it was a game of chance) and the sad awareness that “this is the labor market at present”: the labor market has changed “the game rules” and the player/worker has to adapt to them. 5) “And then we were fired therefore I threw my self in a stage experience at a temporary employment agency I should have been there two months then it became 6 with a temporary contract now that this experience is over I am on the move again I had tried my luck with a stage knowing that there shouldn’t have been neither chances nor perspectives as they already told me since unfortunately this is the labor market at present” (T. female atypical worker) On the whole well-being is depicted as a moving goal: a question of identity and self-fulfillment, of being in harmony with others, of equilibrium between different spheres of life. Work stability as anchor of the self Although somewhat different, the focus group discussion consisting of stable workers also contributes greatly to the investigation and understanding of the relationship between well-being and work experience. Stable workers seize the opportunity for taking stock of their own life and considering the centrality work has had in their lives. Self-criticism is expressed by means of recurrent stylistic elements, locutions and softeners, e.g. “realize” “to be wrong” “perhaps” “it would be”. It should be said that the participants are close to retirement: this is a period of transition.

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4) “I begin. I go on with atypical contracts since three years then I am here mostly to denounce my condition and to my contribution to the discussion” (P. female atypical worker).

6) “At the moment we are realizing that our job is certainly a component of uneasiness we are worried about our future. We are mature workers and we do not have the same enthusiasm we had at 20 years of age. We fear changes. As permanent workers we are obliged to follow the destiny of our organization. We are never sure about what could happen. Private organizations are always exposed to changes, to restructuring and worse to failure. Then we would never be carefree any little change is a revolution for us both in private and working

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The climate is informal and free and seems to encourage interactional dynamics based on reciprocal reformulation and reconsideration to reach shared positions. Meta-discursive markers aim not only to introduce personal positions (intertextual meta-discursive markers such as reformulations, connectives, evidentials: “as I told”, “that is”, “I mean”) but also to show the desire for mutual understanding (interpersonal meta-discursive markers as intensifiers and softeners, markers of relation and attitude such as “as you said”, “truly”, “indeed”). Also in this context several forms of dialogued synthax (Slama-Cazacu, 1981) are used but with a pragmatic difference from the focus group discussion with temporary workers. There these forms show the need to mark one’s own unicity; here they convey the need to mark a common belonging to an organizational culture, a common activity of sensemaking, in connecting the turning points in their life on the turning points of the organization. 7) V: “There are people who have experienced with great uneasiness this change. C: Me for instance I fear change, I experience change as a nightmare. G: Yes our habits have changes as well but if you think about what is around us in other organizations you would agree that we are lucky. V: That we do not live the most terrible experience” (focus group discussion with permanent workers). The importance of agentivity and autonomy is further confirmed also in this focus group, where uneasiness comes from of the fact that the organization had recently been involved in a radical company shakedown. Workers consider changes as a risk and feel obliged to “to be on the defensive” and “parry blows” as a consequence of decisions taken by the company. Change is discursively constructed as “a nightmare”, “a problem”, “a revolution”, as something suddenly and radically interfering with their life and their sense of psychological security. In this light their own work stability is reinterpreted not only as economic constancy but also as “depending on the organizational choices”. As mature workers, they would like to consolidate their acquired competence (see also Sarchielli, 2003). Well-being is meant as stability more than change and cognitive-behavioral flexibility. Then, as in the previous context, game metaphors (“a bet”) are used in order to describe a recent organizational change and then to describe the uneasiness experienced in changing work habits and in developing new working behaviors. Finally, strategies of discursive debrayage are used when considering their own condition: comparing it with work instability (for instance, the precarious condition of their own daughters and sons) they acknowledge their comparative happiness. Confirming the claims of the “social comparison

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life. We do not have actual stability since each change means new problems.” (G. permanent male worker).

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theory” (Diener & Larsen, 1984; Frederick & Loewenstein, 1999) well-being is compared to models either real or ideal.

When work experience becomes memory, the relation between work and identity makes the first source of well-being. The third context of discourse explored by the present contribution is that of retired workers. The personal and social identity of the retired workers interviewed seems shaped by their past job: they idealize their professional experience and place it in a happy period of their life, full of satisfactions even in difficulties (which they describe passionately). From the very first moment they refer to their past occupation and, as in the focus group of temporary workers, they show a strong wish to tell their own story (e.g. “I was a navy officer, I’ve been traveling all around the world”). The discursive act characteristic of this focus group is that of remembering. Well-being means to be working, but now that is only a memory. 8) “I have been teaching for so many years. I decided to retire because my sons asked me to do it but actually I didn’t want to. I was so fond of my job and sometimes I still go and visit my former chief. I felt good at school. I had good relationships with my colleagues, with the childen, with the janitors: we were a family. Then after the retirement I felt a void so I started doing voluntary work. Now I have a full life and I am happy and serene . This is well-being for me my family and my passions”(O. female retired worker). Locutions (“improve oneself”, “being satisfied”) and affectivity markers (“splendid experience”, “my students”, “my room”, “my building”, “my director”, “better than at home”) make a positive sense from work. As a consequence of the implicit identification between well-being and work, retirement appears to be disorienting. By means of passive agentivity cues, retirement is depicted not as a choice but rather as someone else’s decision (her sons, for instance: “they made me retire”). Substitutive activities such as voluntary work or family care have the function of filling the vacuum in their life without work (see also Marta & Pozzi, 2007).

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The meaning of work as a memory

Concluding remarks The analysis of the literature as well as the investigation of the data collected within the present study show how subjective well-being is a pervasive experience investing the whole life of individuals. Well-being is satisfaction of one’s own desire and needs, as well as aspiration, hence an active search for situations which might lead the individual to experience such a positive sensation.

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Beside any classification and research perspective – edonic and/or eudaimonic – well-being is certainly a constitutive dimension of personal and social identity. It is a very significant life experience which might influence plans, behaviors, choices, decisions, beliefs, values, and coping styles. Wellbeing, or rather striving towards well-being, strongly conditions the elaboration of one’s own existential project, as well as the definition of objectives and priorities, and even if transitory, its effects do mark indelibly the personal story of each individual. The meaning of well-being discursively constructed by participants runs along certain dimensions that are broadly shared by the three contexts of investigations. The first dimension opposes stability versus unstableness: well-being is unstable since aspirations grow together with well-being. The second dimension depicts well-being as an individual versus social construct: interior experience is influenced by social events (flexibility of labor, as well as organizational change or retirement). Finally, the third dimension is linked to a definition of well-being as a state versus well-being as a process, a longed-for condition. Nonetheless, despite the slight differences in the discursive constructions given by the three different types of speakers, work is depicted by all participants as an ambivalent resource for subjective well-being. The working context gives individuals many occasions to prove the solidity of one’s own project of well-being and eventually to re-negotiate its meaning in light of the demands of the organizational context. Occupational status (temporary versus permanent) represents one of the several variables which contribute to redefining the meaning individuals attach to well-being. From a positive point of view, then, flexibility of labor is variety, novelty, and change, but from a negative point of view it might be seen as security, precariousness, and atypicality. The last definition is the one mostly espoused by the atypical workers interviewed which is difficult to associate with the experience of well-being. However, contractual flexibility is not the only form of labor flexibility which might negatively influence personal well-being. In fact, the experiences recounted by permanent workers show how organizational flexibility, meant as a project of organizational restructuring and change, might also challenge individual well-being. Finally, the stories told by retired workers reveal a third face of flexibility which challenges individual well-being as well: identity flexibility, which directs people to cope with the changing nature of social roles (workers, mothers, grandmothers, etc.) and then with different kinds of responsibilities. Therefore, although through different experiences and under different forms the interviewed participants have a common difficulty in experiencing flexibility (occupational/organizational/identitarian), that does not prevent them defining work as a significant and central well-being

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experience, described, at times as a precarious, at times a stable, and at times as a remembered experience. Through such evidence, we see that work is not the only experiential dimension associated with well-being that could be found within the discourses analyzed. Conversely, work sometimes challenges well-being as well as interpersonal relationships, it conditions individual choices, challenges health and psychophysical well-being (e.g. the difficulty of balancing work and extra-work responsibilities, the difficulty of finding extra time for leisure, family, and friends). The results of the present study seem to suggest further investigation of the nature of the relationship between working experience and personal well-being. Is working experience a challenge or, rather, a resource for personal well-being? The analysis of the collected data suggests that probably the meaning of such relationship is to be found in the constant striving towards a balance. Work represents an undeniable psychosocial resource for individual wellbeing. A positive working experience does positively influence self-esteem, self-efficacy, health, satisfaction, and so on. Nonetheless, sometimes work might challenge well-being, for example when it is precarious or when it is too onerous, when it suffocates and pushes people to make choices and renunciations by re-elaborating life plans and goals. The relationship between work and well-being is then profoundly paradoxical: there could be no well-being without work but at the same time there could be no wellbeing even when there is too much work. Therefore, each individual might look for their subjective balance point and engage him or herself in order to maintain it. In conclusion, the results of this contribution seem to highlight how flexibility – a semantic category which is mostly associated with work experience – might also be usefully adopted to interpret the different shadings of meaning the individual attributes to the experience of well-being. In this sense, we could also hypothesize a flexibility of well-being. This allows us, on the one hand, to stress the subjective nature of well-being experience, which even if exposed to the several variabilities which make an individuality unique, cannot escape from the analysis of the (historical, cultural and social) scenario that frames it. On the other hand it keeps the option of reconciling the hedonic with the eudaimonic perspective (Suh et al., 1996; Heylinghen & Bernheim, 2001), thus interpreting well-being at the same time as tension to pleasure and satisfaction as well as self-actualization.

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12 Models of Workers’ Involvement in Societas Europaea’s Governance

Introduction The involvement of employees in the governance of joint-stock companies can be investigated from various perspectives. The jurist looks at legislative choices from the point of view of the impact they have on the law, or – in the “economic analysis of law” approach – for the social costs or benefits generated by the rules. For the commercial law jurist, the right approach might be to investigate which pattern of employee involvement provided by the law is more efficiently in line with good corporate governance, which one can obtain the best balance between body and powers, the proper allocation of managers’ responsibilities, and so on. The labor law jurist, in turn, will probably consider the consequences of these choices from the workers’ perspective; he will naturally tend to set the issue of employee involvement in the broader perspective of the rights and obligations arising from the employment relationship. However, the issue is not without interest for the psychologist, particularly the occupational psychologist, concerned with identifying and assessing the impact, first of all, from the perspective of the individual, and then on the category of people affected by the application of the standard. He seeks to measure the degree of individual and collective satisfaction generated by the choice of a particular model of worker involvement in corporate governance. Despite their apparent differences, the various visions just mentioned – legal and psychological, individual and collective – are deeply, and almost unexpectedly, tied to one another. This comes as no surprise, if we take into consideration the fact that Article 3 of the Italian Constitution says that there is an inseparable link between the “effective participation of all workers in the political, economic, and social life of the country” and the “full development of the human person” in a framework of freedom and equality. In this law, the individual and the category (workers) are both recipients of the Republic’s actions, aimed at ensuring participation with

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the dual objectives of elevation of the individual and social development. This principle is fully consistent with Article 2 of the Italian Constitution: the Republic undertakes to protect the inviolable rights of man “as an individual and in the social groups where he expresses his personality”. This study proposes to describe and evaluate the models of employee involvement provided for by European company law through the Societas Europaea (SE) model of the joint-stock company. I intend to state which model is the best for employees, considered first of all as a category, but also as individuals. First of all, I will briefly describe the three different models of involvement required by EU Council Directive n.86/2001 (henceforth referred to as: the SE Directive1), supplementing Council Regulation n. 2157/2001, embodying the Statute for a European Company (henceforth referred to as the SE Regulation). Then, I will examine the possibility for the models to become law in action in Italy, and which of these models can be considered most satisfactory for Italian employees. My opinion is that the model with a high level of employee participation is not consistent with the Italian tradition of industrial relations between owners and employees, which has always been based on external conflict, mediated by trade unions. Employees do not deem the direct introduction of their representatives in the corporate governance of the company to be a good method of involvement; consequently, the participation model would not be effectively implemented in an Italian SE. It should be noted that the so-called instruments of the “economic participation of workers” will not be included in this study: e.g. equity participation, directly (share ownership) or through collecting funds (the USA ESOP, Employee Shares Ownership Plans, for example), indirect participation in the profits of the company, or by proportioning a part of wages to profits.

The involvement of employees in the EC vision The European Employment Strategy considers the link between quality and productivity at work and the quality of industrial relations to be of central importance. Major emphasis should be placed on the involvement of employees in managerial decision-making. In the EU vision, employee involvement is a fundamental point of contact between the economic and social spheres. EU institutions immediately understood the extreme usefulness, if not the absolute necessity of including, among the tools for the balanced development of the European Economic Area, mechanisms of social cohesion which could improve productivity by acting on worker satisfaction. Community institutions also tried to ensure forms of employee involvement in the strategic management of enterprises; but, at the same time, they recognized that the history of different industrial relations in the various

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– Directive 45/1994 of the European Works Councils (EWC); – Framework Directive No.14/2002 of the European Parliament and Council of March 11, establishing a general framework for informing and consulting employees in the European community; – In the specific context of company law, the Regulations on the Statute of the European Company and the European Cooperative. These all show the intention of the EU to “direct the system of labour relations towards more participatory and collaborative connotations” (Olivelli, 2005). Despite the substantial unity of their intent, these regulations can hardly be systematized. Their approaches are too different and their degree of impact highly variable; it is even difficult to introduce uniform definitions of the various forms of employee involvement provided by legal sources. In this paper, I will refer to the definitions adopted by the SE Directive, which is the specific object of my reflection, while pointing out that they have no general relevance within the EU and national legislation.

Directive supplementing the EC Regulation of European companies A European Company (SE) is a model public limited-liability company regulated by EU law in order to provide a common scheme for combinations of transnational companies. A European Company is the ideal model of corporate organization for a group of undertakings with offices in several Member States of the European Community, or for a joint enterprise among European companies of different nationalities; for example, large transnational projects (tunnels, railways). The legal rules of the SE tend to be the same, whatever the country of incorporation; this promotes and encourages the mobility of business initiatives and allows for the removal of “the legal and psychological difficulties and tax problems” generated during “restructuring operations and cooperation involving companies from different Member States” as a result of the “obligation to choose a form of company governed by a particular national law” (see Recital 3 of the Directive). The SE Community Regulation provides uniform rules for the formation and structure of organs (general meeting, board of directors, supervisory, and controlling organs); in a wide number of subjects (capital, budget, merger, registration) it refers to national laws, which have been rendered similar to a great extent by European directives2. One of the essential features that

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States could represent a powerful obstacle not only in alignment, but also in mere harmonization of national legislation on this issue. Over time, a broad range of interventions aimed at regulating employee involvement have developed into law:

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defines the “European type” of company is the mandatory provision in the SE statute of forms of employee involvement on the issues and decisions affecting the life of the SE, but the SE Regulation does not specify a particular model of involvement. Moreover, the whole issue of employee involvement in the SE was not included in the Regulation. After more than thirty years of debate and changes, and after three Draft Regulations, it was decided that the only way to get approval of the Draft was to delete the provisions from the Regulation, and make them the subject of a separate Directive. Member States gained a stronger degree of freedom in transposing the Directive, avoiding the risk of the indiscriminate penetration of the model of “high” employee participation into the law of Member States. The information level of participation is recognized for employees under the law of almost all Member States, but it is often quite different from the real German mitbestimmung (or codetermination). Not by chance, the “minimal” (Ducoloux Favard, in Principe (Ed.), 2002) level of importance of the right to information in the European Works Council Directive made it possible to achieve approval of this EU measure without major difficulties; but this Directive was not effective. In particular, during a few examples of troubled corporate restructuring, information arrived late and it was not possible to affect events that had a significant impact on employees. The measure regarding the SE has a dual structure, Regulation plus Directive, which is quite unprecedented in Community law. In the Directive, the concept of employee involvement has extremely varied connotations, beyond the “symbolic”3 unity of the concept. In this way, each Member State can vary the forms and methods of employee participation in the management of the firm, on the basis of the sociological substrate and the history of industrial relations for each European State (see Recital 4 of the SE Directive).

The procedures for involvement The SE Directive (Article 2) provides three different procedures for employee involvement, with an increasing degree of impact: information, consultation and participation. At the very least, “information and consultation procedures at the transnational level should be ensured in all cases of the creation of an SE”; and “if and when participation rights exist within one or more companies establishing an SE, such rights should be preserved through their transfer to the SE, once established, unless the parties decide otherwise” (Directive, Recitals 6 and 7). The latter aim is actually achieved through the introduction of the socalled “before/after” principle: the application of the directives cannot

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affect the rights of involvement, nor the structures of representation already regulated by European and national laws and practices. On the one hand, therefore, there is “no escape”, which means no bypass or circumvention of national rules on the involvement of employees; on the other hand, “no export”, i.e. no ex novo participatory regime in undertakings that did not adopt the participatory regime, unless representatives of the parties decide otherwise, since they remain free to overrule this decision4. The lowest level of involvement consists, as mentioned, in recognizing the right of employees to be informed by the competent organ of the SE, through their representatives (who may form a representative body), on questions which concern the SE itself, its subsidiaries and establishments situated in another Member State, or on issues which exceed the powers of the decision-making organs in a single Member State, “at a time, in a manner and with a content which allows the employees’ representatives to undertake an in-depth assessment of the possible impact and, where appropriate, prepare consultations with the competent organ of the SE” (SE Directive, Article 2). The right of consultation involves the establishment of a dialogue between the employees’ representatives and the competent organ of the SE, “at a time, in a manner and with a content which allows the employees’ representatives, on the basis of information provided, to express an opinion on the measures envisaged by the competent organ which may be taken into account in the decision-making process within the SE” (Article 2 of the Directive). Both the rights to information and to consultation remain outside the scope of direct influence on management decisions. The first is a mere oneway flow of mandatory information from the company to the employees, the second creates a more structured interchange of communication. But only participation enables employees to directly influence the decision-making processes within the company, since it gives their representatives (or their representative body) “the right to elect or appoint some of the members of the company’s supervisory or administrative organ, or the right to recommend (and/or oppose) the appointment of some or all members of the company’s supervisory or administrative organ” (Directive, Article 2). The rules for participation are connected to the different systems used for appointing members of the company organs provided by the two models of SE corporate governance, i.e. monistic and dualistic. The selection of the model of corporate governance is not a subject of negotiation. The choice of involvement model is determined in negotiations between the company and a special negotiating body, which are held as soon as the plan for the establishment of the SE has been drawn up. The negotiations must be concluded within six months (extendable to one year) with the development of a written agreement. Member States may stipulate that a part of the delegation be representatives of trade unions, whether they are

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(a) an agreement on the modalities of employee involvement was signed; (b) the special negotiating body decided not to open negotiations, or to terminate them, choosing to make use of provisions in force in the Member States where the SE has employees; (c) the maximum time period for negotiations was reached without agreement (see Werlauff, 2003). In the latter case, should the companies participating in the establishment decide to continue with the registration of the SE, employee involvement is regulated according to additional rules. These must be adopted, pursuant to Article 7, Paragraph 1 of the Directive, by the Member State in which the registered office of the SE is located (so-called standard rules of the Annex). These same rules may be expressly chosen by the parties participating in the negotiations.

The implementation of the directive in Italy The EU law has been considered timid, minimalist and defeatist – since it is no longer made “in the spirit of the widespread generalization of the most advanced participatory practices,” but is “limited to the retention of existing ones, in a changed rearguard perspective” and is also “unfinished, as it deliberately lays on the national legislator the tensions related to the adoption of the participatory model in the SE” (Guarriello, 2005). Let’s take a look at the situation in Italy. The Italian system shows unresolved tensions regarding this issue, on different levels. Article 46 of the Constitution seems to tend toward a participatory model, when it evokes the “right of employees to collaborate in the management of companies” even “in the manner and within the limits established by law” and “in harmony with the needs of production”. However, acts of the Constitutional Assembly reveal that the rule, while originally clear, since it expressly mentioned “participation,” was, in a second phase, softened to obtain the consent of liberals, becoming generic and, in fact, incapable of guiding ordinary law. There have been authors who read Article 46 of the Constitution as an open standard, which asks the law not to place limits, but to support collective autonomy in the pursuit of alternative forms of participation. In this sense, it is currently said that “there is no mutual exclusion between strengthening the rights of employee information and consultation and

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employees of a participating company or concerned subsidiaries or establishments or not. Each State, in establishing rules of implementation, should determine the destiny of the company if the negotiations fail. The registration of the SE is subject to one of the following cases:

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the development of collective bargaining”. Clashes should only occur between the “implementation of participation rights in the proper sense and collective bargaining”, because the latter is “based on the distinction of interests and mutual freedom of action of the parties” and, therefore, opposes participation, which is based on “bodies and procedures involving the identification of common interests to both sides” and presupposes a “limitation on the freedom of parties to use their means of direct action” (D’Antona, 1990). In Italy, employee involvement was, for a long time, exclusively relegated to the dimension of conflict in collective bargaining. Involving employees in managerial choices was considered undesirable by not only capitalists and top managers, but also by workers, who worried that trade unionism could loose its typical class character. Even Law no. 300/1970 (the so-called Workers’ Law) was read, in this light, as based on the assumption of the conflict between capital and labor, although there are also views radically opposed to this. On the side of commercial law, too, the recent reform of Italian company law confirms the contradictions within the system. On the one hand, all Italian companies limited by shares now have the chance to organize their governance according to the dualistic model of German origin, intrinsically linked to the insertion of employee representatives in internal control organs (Aufsichstrat, the supervisory board in Italy). On the other hand, this possibility is ruled out, since Article 2409-duodecies prohibits those who are tied to the company, its subsidiaries or those subject to common control by an employment relationship from being elected to the office of component of the supervisory board. Nowadays, the only possible way to appoint representatives of workers in the supervisory board in Italian limited by shares companies is to identify those who are not employees, but are designated by employees as holders of a category interest: typically, trade union representatives. This evokes the idea of an original conflict of interest between the employees and other stakeholders inside the undertaking, similar to that sometimes suggested for the minority members of the control board in Italian companies based on the Latin model (“sindaco di minoranza”). In this way, the trade union would have an “improper participatory function” and would expose itself to the criticism of the employers, always hostile to the “control of the participatory role by the trade unions” (D’Antona, 1990).

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The measure of implementation In Italy, the adoption of the measure of implementation of the directive was seriously delayed due to the declared lack of a regulatory framework for employee involvement, because of the absolute extraneousness of the legal institute to both the tradition of corporate governance, and to the tradition of industrial relations in Italy. The measure was not issued until

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August 2005, after the Common Statement of March 2005 was formulated by the social parties, signed by a large number of business organizations (Confidustria, ABI, ANIA, Confcommercio), and accompanied by a joint document of the union confederations CGIL, CISL and UIL. It has been said that “about the ideological influences, there seem to be outdated positions which saw in participation, or, in general, in employee involvement (in a broad meaning) at the level of the undertaking, the danger for workers to lose their counterweight”. This should lower ideological barriers to that idea, since “a work environment with participatory or collaborative relations can be considered more appropriate for achieving the common good, without wishing to renounce more adversarial industrial relations” (Guarriello, 2008). Surely, the Common Statement can be considered as an encouraging sign. There is no doubt that the changed international context, including financial scandals and the economic crisis, is a stimulus to reach new balances between the maximization of shareholder value and the protection of instances of new stakeholders, primarily of employees. In this sense, the exponential increase in attention being paid to the issues of corporate social responsibility is symbolic. However, the Italian discipline implementing the Directive, which is also directly based upon the Common Statement, did not build an Italian model for employee participation applicable to SEs based in Italy. Legislative Decree no. 188/2005 does not contain standard rules applicable either in the case of failure of negotiation or by express choice of the parties in favor of the reference provision, but merely refers to business agreements. Regarding this, there are those who say that the Italian legislation transposing the Directive should be considered as not in accordance with community law, because: (a) it does not choose any of the different forms of employee participation in the company organs (election, appointment, recommendation or opposition to the designation); and (b) it does not explain how to implement representation in the two models (monistic and dualistic) that can be chosen for SE governance and does not expressly legitimate for the SE the disapplication of the provisions laid down for Italian limited by shares companies (Articles no. 2399 and 2409-duodecies c.c.).

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The renunciation of the Italian law also causes uncertainty about the legal regime applicable to SEs established in Italy and discourages undertakings from using that model. Nor may the rules be read as being aimed at denying in principle the applicability of the participatory model, since Italy has not even chosen to use the opt-out clause, inserted in Article 7, Paragraph 3 of the Directive to overcome the residual resistance in Spain.

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All of this has led Italian authors to speak of “the announced end of the participatory model in the Statute of the European Company”, without considering the fact as alarming, since “the guarantee of the institutional presence of workers in the levers of control is not necessarily an index of their greater weight in the development of the decision-making of the company” (Pizzoferrato, 2004).

In conclusion, the model with a higher level of involvement (participation) seems to be undesirable to both parties (owners and employees) in Italian companies and neither a reform of company law, nor the enforcement of the SE model would modify this. Not surprisingly, most Italian representative trade unions expressed their clear preference for the dualistic model of corporate governance in a joint document that accompanies the Common Statement. The dualistic model clearly separates the strategic tasks of the supervisory board from the management duties delegated to the administrative organ; within this model of corporate governance the employees’ representatives can avoid improperly taking responsibility “related to the direct presence of representatives in administrative organs”. However, this means the end of the true participation model. Additionally, the involvement of employees through direct participation in company organs may not be a guarantee of individual satisfaction, either. First of all, we must consider the stress of leadership, which is notable, and is even more difficult to bear for those people who are not accustomed to taking direct responsibility for achieving results. Moreover, being co-opted into the control center might turn off the adrenaline generated by the will to fight, making the employee representative an easy target for the criticism of his coworkers, not unlike what happens to “scabs” (crumiri) who sell out to the owner. A partially satisfactory solution, for individual happiness as well, could be a “third option”, positioned between strong and weak involvement: solidarity, the essence of the “concept of a collaborative working relationship”, clearly present in Catholic social thought. Obviously, this type of involvement is typically implemented through external means of participation, without the representation of workers in the company organs (see D’Antona, 1990); and this concept might be partly reconcilable with the procedure of consultation as provided for in Article 2 of the Directive. Many countries attempted this option after the Second World War, when the pressing needs of reconstruction led to the establishment of joint participatory bodies, such as the British joint production committees. A new attempt at solidarity may once again be useful in this troubled beginning of the third millennium, when the world has been shaken by a global crisis.

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Conclusions

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However, this method still clashes with the well-established and practically unshakable Italian choice of the “single channel” of worker representation and, furthermore, with the trade unions’ fear of seeing their role severely weakened. Consequently, my opinion is that the only model of employee involvement which will be concretely put into practice in Italian SEs (and, in the future, in Italian companies limited by shares) is the low level one, i.e. information. I believe this will create a serious limitation not only to employee satisfaction, but also to increased establishment of SEs in Italy, particularly in the case of German undertakings.

Notes 1. Directive 2001/86/EC, Oct. 8, 2001, supplementing the European Company statute on worker involvement, in EC Regulation n.2157/2001, in GUCE, Nov. 10, 2001, L294. 2. See XXI Recital of the Regulation. 3. European Commission Green Book Promoting a European Framework for Corporate Social Responsibility (doc. COM (2001) 366, July 18th, 2001, retrieved on March 26, 2009, from http://ec.europa.eu/) frames the provision of rules protecting employee involvement, and especially participation, within the broader context of “corporate social responsibility”. 4. Braaksma E., (2002), Employee Participation in the European Company, retrieved on December 5, 2008 from www.juridix.net/eu_soc, strongly criticizes the principle which forces employees to accept the preexisting model of involvement, even when they do not consider it appropriate; furthermore, this rule is not in line with the principles expressed in the Final Report of High Level Group of Company Law Experts, November, 2002 (retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/company/docs/modern/report_en.pdf). The experts considered it to be inopportune to set minimum requirements for the negotiation procedure, in order to avoid any impediment to the independence of the parties.

References Arrigo, G. (2001). Il Diritto del Lavoro dell’Unione Europea. Milan: Giuffrè. Baums, T. & Cahn, A. (2004). Die Europäische Aktiengesellschaft – Umsetzungsfragen und Perspektiven. Berlin: De Gruyter Recht. Bonell, M. J. (1990). Partecipazione dei lavoratori alla gestione delle imprese I) Diritto commerciale. In Enc. Giur. Treccani, Rome: Istituto dell’Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani. Bordogna, L. (2002). Società Europea, partecipazione dei lavoratori e relazioni industriali. Proceedings of European Forum Società Europea e Dialogo Sociale, Rome, 7th – 8th February, 2002. Caterino, D. (2002). Il regolamento sulla Società Europea e la connessa direttiva sul coinvolgimento dei lavoratori. In Giur. Comm., I, 479–488. D’Antona, M. (1990). Partecipazione dei lavoratori alla gestione delle imprese II) Diritto del lavoro. In Enc. Giur. Treccani, Rome: Istituto dell’Enciclopedia Italiana Treccani.

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Draetta, U. & Pocar, F. (Eds.). (2002). La Società Europea. Problemi di Diritto Societario Comunitario. Milan: EGEA. Ficari, L. (Ed.), (2006). Società Europea, Diritti di Informazione e Partecipazione dei Lavoratori. Milan: Giuffrè. Guarriello, F. (2008). Il recepimento della direttiva sul coinvolgimento dei lavoratori nella Società Europea. Retrieved 14th November, 2008 from http://www.cgil.it/ GIURIDICO/Politiche%20%del%20diritto/Archivio/ Guarriello, F. (2005). Quale partecipazione dei lavoratori negli organi societari in Italia? La proposta Baglioni. Giorn. Dir. lav. rel. Ind., 107 (3), 495–510. Montalenti P. (1994). Partecipazione dei lavoratori alla gestione dell’impresa. In Dig. Disc. Priv. – commercial law. Torino: UTET. Olivelli, P. (2005). Rappresentanza collettiva dei lavoratori e diritti di partecipazione alla gestione delle imprese. Proceedings of the A.I.D.L.A.S.S. forum, Lecce, May 27–28 2005. Oplustil, K. & Teichmann, C. (Eds.), (2004). The European Company – All Over Europe: A State-by-state Account of the Introduction of the European Company. Berlin: De Gruyter Recht. Pedrazzoli, M. (1989). Democrazia industriale. In Dig. Disc. Priv. – Commercial Law. Torino: UTET. Pizzoferrato, A. (2004). La fine annunciate del modello partecipativo nello statuto della Società Europea. RIDL, I, 35–61. Principe, A. (Ed.) (2002). Lo statuto legale di Società Europea. Napoli: ESI. Werlauff, E. (2003). The SE Company – A new Common European Company from 8 October 2004. Eur. Bus. Law Rev., 85–103.

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Part III

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Atypical Workers

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13 Atypical Workers and Burnout: Preliminary Research

Theoretical framework Unemployment is a huge problem in our society; it affects individuals’ financial situation and it contributes to conditions of malaise and unease. It could be considered as a real disease for some people. Indeed, looking for a job is turning out to be harder and harder; furthermore, employment agencies are often helpless in assisting citizens to find a solution. In the past everybody seemed to know what was necessary to get a job. This might not have always guaranteed a particular career, but people who had a job were much more numerous than nowadays. Flexibility and market regulation has influenced the extent and character of labor fragmentation, which is creating new challenges for social and labor policy. Today, ongoing learning and multifarious skills are necessary preconditions for work and it is not odd to say that finding a job is becoming the real job. These reasons lead to the consideration that unemployment today is regarded as a genuine, even if unconventional, disease (Batini, Del Sarto & Perchiazzi, 2007). Recently, the only attempts to tackle unemployment have been flexible jobs and fixed-term contracts, with two effects: it is true that flexible jobs can provide working opportunities for many people, but on the other hand they can cause a decrease in the quality of the job and dissatisfaction among the workers (Ferrari & Veglio, 2006). Bardasi and Francesconi (2003) have studied the relationship between individual well-being and atypical employment in a panel study; the results demonstrated that job satisfaction is lower with seasonal/casual workers but higher for part-time workers, though these associations tend to disappear over time. Some studies (Famiani, Monti & Tomei, 2005) showed that these new types of job have a real influence on individual well-being. Job flexibility causes insecurity in private life and it affects both personal and professional choices. Workers relate flexible jobs to an increasing degree of precariousness and insecurity, threatening the future for young people (Catania, Vaccaro &

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Zucca, 2004). This phenomenon is shown to affect specific personal choices such as marriage, the decision to have children or to live alone (Salvini & Ferro, 2006). Recently, distinguished scholars have found that from a professional point of view, fixed-term contracts tend to cause job insecurity (Sverke, Hellgren, Näswall, Chirumbolo, De Witte & Goslinga, 2004; Chirumbolo & Hellgren, 2003). Notably, atypical workers – in comparison with workers on openended contracts – show higher levels of job insecurity, which affects their personal satisfaction and degree of involvement and undermines the quality of the job. Changes in the job market have made the situation hard to sustain, and more people suffer from anxiety as a result. Indeed, nowadays looking for a job is so wearing that many people often suffer from symptoms that can be likened to “burnout”. Burnout is a situation of malaise, caused by severe stress and lack of interest and motivation in the professional field. Many studies define it as an “occupational disease” because of its association with people’s jobs. Burnout appears to be characterized by long-term exhaustion and diminished interest, along with depersonalization, frustration, and irritability. It mainly affects workers involved in the helping professions. The present study applies the concept of burnout to “atypical workers”. As stated in the Italian Civil Code (article 1322), “atypical workers” are employees who do not fall into the traditional role of full-time employees. This includes part-time or workers with flexible hours, work patterns such as single working days and home working. Treu’s Law in 1997 and subsequently in 2003 (Law 30) applied relevant variations to the labor market and introduced job flexibility in Italy. Flexibility has profoundly changed the concept of work and the relationship between the worker and time (Andreoni, 2005): atypical workers tend to change job frequently, they live in stressful and unpredictable circumstances, and may have more than one job. Moreover they are often unsatisfied and are therefore continuously looking for a better occupation. Moving on from these issues, we wish to demonstrate that atypical workers can suffer from burnout disease. We used an AWB (Atypical Workers Burnout) questionnaire, according to Maslasch’s definition, to verify this hypothesis.

Aims and hypothesis

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The purpose of the study is to perform a preliminary investigation in order to test the questionnaire’s validity and reliability and to define a set of values obtained from the interviewees. Our hypotheses are: 1. Reliability of the questionnaire; 2. Convergent validity with State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI, Spielberg, 1989); and 3. Discriminant validity due to Cognitions Check List (CCL, Beck, Steer, Eidelson, & Riskind, 1987).

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Method Interviewees: 170 atypical workers (78 male; 92 female) were interviewed in central and southern Italy; their mean age was 29 (S. D. = 5.47).

We adopted a non-probability sampling based on a convenient subset of the population (Reber, 1995), given by a sample of the population close to hand. In this type of convenience sampling, the interviewee is selected because of his immediate availability. The researcher adopting such a sample cannot make scientific generalizations about the total population out of the sample because it would not be representative enough. Tools: The AWB questionnaire (Atypical Workers Burnout) consists of three sections, according to Maslach’s theory. The “emotional exhaustion” area contains 14 items and measures the tendency of people to feel emotionally empty; the “depersonalization” area contains 8 items and represents detachment from the job and from oneself; the “low personal satisfaction” area contains 7 items and measures the dissatisfaction of the worker caused by the impossibility of self realization in the professional field. These items were chosen after a preliminary interview with privileged informants. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) evaluates the state and traits of anxiety and was validated by Spielberg in 1989. Form Y (STAI) measures anxiety in adults and consists of 20 items. The main features checked by the STAIAnxiety scale are apprehension, tension, nervousness and worry. The Cognitions Checklist (CCL; Beck, Steer, Eidelson, & Riskind, 1987) is a self-report inventory which assesses the frequency of automatic thoughts across various commonly occurring scenarios. The CCL has two subscales: anxious cognitive content (CCL-A) is assessed by 12 items tapping dangerrelated cognition; depressive cognitive content (CCL-D) is assessed by 14 items which tap depressive automatic thoughts.

Data analysis

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Sampling:

Item Analysis and Reliability may be used to construct reliable scales of measurement or to improve existing scales, as well as to evaluate the reliability of already existing scales (Pedon, 2005). Item Analysis allows us to observe the characteristics of a particular item and can be used both to ensure that such items belong to an appropriate standard as well as to select other items to be included in the text. The main indicators of the item analysis are the index of difficulty and the index of discrimination. The index of difficulty for the Likert scale can

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be measured using the theoretical mean, the theoretic standard deviation and the real mean. The index of discrimination can be calculated across Pearson’s correlation between item score and test score. Another method allows us to look at the item means and standard deviations and to eliminate those items that show extreme means or and zero or nearly zero variances. We have calculated the internal consistency of our areas to verify the reliability of the test. All the items should measure the same issue, so they should be correlated to each other. A useful coefficient for assessing internal consistency is Cronbach’s alpha. The formula is: α 5 k/k21 (12∑ s2i / s2t ) where k is the number of the items, si2 is the variance of the ith item and st2 is the variance of the total score given by summing all the items. If the items are not simply added to make the score, but first multiplied by weighting coefficients, we multiply the item by its coefficient before calculating the variance si2. Clearly, we must have at least two items – that is k > 1, or α will be undefined. Thus α will be 1 if the items are all the same and 0 if none is related to another. Pearson’s correlation is used to verify a correlation between at least two continuous variables. We use this coefficient to prove the convergent validity between AWB-STAI and discriminant validity between AWB-Cll. We hypothesize that burnout is a construct related to State-Trait Anxiety and that it is dissimilar and unrelated to the depression inventory.

Results We have calculated means and Standard Deviations (Table 13.1) for every item to eliminate the nondiscriminating items. We have calculated Cronbach’s alpha for every area, considering alpha also if the item was deleted: The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients have very high values. Therefore, the subscales are reliable. We have calculated Pearson’s coefficient to verify the correlation among the subscales of the AWB, STAI and CCL. The coefficients show that there are positive correlations among three subscales of the AWB and STAI, while there is no correlation between AWB and CCL. Finally we calculated the scores in order to establish whether the estimated scores of each subject could be interpreted as low, medium or high. We eventually found the threshold values for both men and women, through the reckoning of the 33rd and 67th percentile.

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N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Items During the evenings I often don’t feel like going out because I’m tired. I look for more options to emotionally detach me from the job. The worker is poorly motivated if he/she knows the “due date of the contract”. I am rather detached in personal relationships with my colleagues. Any job can really impassion me. I am always able to quickly impassion me to my job. There is is no interest towards the job. At work I sometimes have behaviours that generally are not mine. I’m very happy to change job frequently. I don’t care a lot what happens at work. At work, I feel realized. I have become insensitive towards my job. I face working problems effectively. At the end of the day I feel worn-out since I spend a lot of time looking for a new job. I hardly talk to anyone about my working problems. The energy required to look for a new job gives me great satisfaction. I get easily angry while I’m looking for a new job. I am always very nervous when it draws near the due date of the contract. At work I often feel restless. I become demoralized if I think that shortly I will change my job. I will never find a job that satisfies my economic needs. From a professional point of view, my job involves me a lot. Sometimes I feel lacking in strength because of my job. I feel worn-out because of my job. I become disheartened if I think that I will never find a stable job. At work, I hardly ever become angry. I’m disappointed by the contemporary labor market. I feel disheartened about looking for a new job. Sometimes I cannot explain some emotional reactions I have.

Mean

S. D.

4.34

1.621

4.78

1.790

5.34

1.817

3.50

1.904

2.94 3.99 3.85 3.86

1.645 1.578 2.072 1.904

3.21 3.68 3.30 4.21 4.66 4.92

1.679 1.858 1.653 1.847 1.250 1.597

3.36 2.73

1.691 1.579

4.44 4.49

1.774 1.772

4.42 4.08

1.736 1.782

4.34 3.19

1.968 1.824

4.14 3.98 4.75

1.679 1.832 1.899

3.82 6.14 5.23 4.40

1.746 1.401 1.591 1.739

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Table 13.1 Means and Standard Deviations

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Callea Antonino and Federica Ballone Table 13.2 Cronbach’s alpha: emotional exhaustion

Items

Corrected item-total correlation

Alpha if item deleted

.310 .549 .068 .551 .481 .509 .453 .608 .580 .689 .305 .613 .417 .307 .276

.826 .812 .841 .811 .816 .814 .818 .808 .809 .800 .826 .808 .820 .827 .829

b1 b14 b15 b17 b18 b19 b20 b23 b24 b25 b27 b28 b16pos b26pos b22pos Alpha = .82

Table 13.3 Cronbach’s alpha: depersonalization Depersonalization Items

Corrected item-total correlation

Alpha if item deleted

.406 .470 .539 .575 .724 .454 .504

.789 .778 .765 .757 .727 .780 .772

b2 b4 b8 b10 b12 b29 b06 Alpha = .79

Table 13.4 Cronbach’s alpha: low personal satisfaction Items

Corrected item-total correlation

Alpha if item deleted

.312 .435 .553 .359 .108 .477 .356

.637 .601 .553 .624 .690 .589 .628

b3 b5 b7 b21 b09pos b11pos b13pos

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Emotional Exhaustion

Alpha = .66

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Table 13.5 Pearson’s coefficient correlation

Emotional Exhaustion Depersonalization Low Personal Satisfaction STAI CCL

CCL

1

.591(**)

.667(**)

.474(**)

.242

.591(**) .667(**)

1 .684(**)

.684(**) 1

.425(**) .379(**)

.203 .294

.474(**) .242

.425(**) .203

.379(**) .294

1 .597(**)

.597(**) 1

Table 13.6 Threshold values of males

Emotional Exhaustion Depersonalization Personal Satisfaction

Low

Medium

High

X < 61 X < 24 X < 26

61 < X < 77 24 < X < 33 26 < X < 32

X > 77 X > 33 X > 32

Table 13.7 Threshold values of females

Emotional Exhaustion Depersonalization Personal Satisfaction

Low

Medium

High

X < 65 X < 25 X < 27

65 < X < 74 25 < X < 34 27 < X < 33

X > 74 X > 34 X > 33

Conclusions The aim of this research was to study atypical workers’ health. We drew up a questionnaire to check for possible malaise in these workers. Researchers have analyzed the impact of flexibility on mental health, on job dissatisfaction and its influence on the decisions of individuals to become parents. The results show that many atypical workers suffer from burnout syndrome, a condition that causes a state of disaffection towards work (Piper & Piper, 2000). In order to estimate the reliability of the test, we initially performed the item analysis, which allows us to accept all the 29 items of the AWB questionnaire. Then we verified the tool’s internal consistency by the means of Cronbach’s alpha on the three areas: Emotional Exhaustion has a high reliability (α = .82); Depersonalization (α = .79); Low Personal Satisfaction

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Low Emotional Personal Exhaustion Depersonalization Satisfaction STAI

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(α = .66). So it is possible to state that the inventory is entirely reliable; this result is very important for proving the next analysis. Instead of calculating the validity, we performed a few linear correlations; we confirmed a positive correlation between Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, Low Personal Satisfaction and the STAI scale. Workers who suffer from anxiety turn out to have an high burnout level too. Furthermore, they declare that they have Low Personal Satisfaction. The present study confirms the results of other scientific surveys: Virtanen et al. (2007) and Magnavita (2007) verified that high anxiety levels were associated in a negative way to Personal Satisfaction, while high levels of depression were positively associated to Emotional Exhaustion. The data verify the results of other research (Goslinga & Sverke, 2003) which demonstrate that workers on temporary contracts are more likely to report poor health and poor life and job satisfaction than those who are employed in permanent jobs. In particular, Bardasi and Francesconi (2003) show that job satisfaction is reduced for seasonal/casual workers and is higher for part-timers. The linkage between job insecurity and health has been well established, too (Scott, 2004). With respect to physical and psychological health, the data confirm the results of recent research, that is, that atypical workers suffer more than traditional workers. In fact, Kawachi (2008) demonstrated that, although atypical work arrangements are convenient for employers, they are often associated with poor pay and absence of pension and health benefits, as well as lack of protection from unions and labor laws. We did not find any correlation between burnout and the CCL scale; this result has been fully confirmed by the literature since the research conducted by Maslach and Jackson (1986). Moreover Leiter and Durup (1994) demonstrated the discriminant validity between burnout and depression on a sample of more than 300 workers. Recently, Iacovides, Fountoulakis, and Kaprinis (2003) obtained the same results. In adopting percentile ranks we assumed as threshold values the scores associated with the 33rd and 67th percentile; this interval is critical in validating a questionnaire insofar as it permits us to discriminate atypical workers, who have burnout syndrome, from others who do not. The values set to distinguish one subject from another are divided according to gender. By analyzing women’s threshold values we can see that they are higher in the Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization areas, but lower in the Low Personal Satisfaction compared to the men’s threshold values. We then took the analysis further to compare the groups divided by gender, the number of working years and the type of contract. We found significant differences between men and women only in the Emotional Exhaustion area, where women turned out to have a higher output compared to men. We did not find any difference in the other areas.

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For analyzing the “working years”, we divided the subjects into three groups: less than 3 years, between 4 and 7 years and more than 8 years. ANOVA turned out to be significant in the Emotional Exhaustion area. The Post Hoc test shows there is a difference between individuals who have been working for many years (the third group) and those who have worked for few years (the first group). This clearly shows that the variable “working years” affects the beginning of a disease like burnout, as confirmed by other studies in the literature which talk about a chronic syndrome (Bakker, Van Emmerik & Van Riet, 2008). In a comparison between part-time workers and full-time workers, the former have a higher output in the area “Low Personal Satisfaction”. According to this, we found a greater dissatisfaction for part-time atypical workers than for full-time atypical workers. Though atypical work can cause some problems, that it also gives workers the opportunity to enjoy their spare time. Some interviewees confirmed that they are satisfied with their own spare time (M = 5.28). This data confirms the results of other recent research (Ferrari & Veglio, 2006). The aim of the present study was to shed light on some aspects of a subject which is becoming increasingly important but is not studied enough: that is, atypical work. Atypical work has changed its shape: from an alternative and transient phase, it now appears to be the only solution to finding a job in the current labor market. To use our questionnaire in a different context we must prove its validity and define the threshold values. Repeating this study could be interesting but it would be necessary to increase the sample and include more variables such as engagement, health, stress, work safety, and coping resources. Moreover, the results of this research allow us to hypothesize a new concept: “precariousness of living” (Callea, Ballone & Lucantoni, in press). This multidimensional construct checks on people’s precarious working experience and its consequences for everyday life. Essentially, the limits of our study are due to the low numbers used and the sampling. We only interviewed 170 subjects, which as a range is too small to be representative of Italian atypical workers. As far as the sampling is concerned, all the subjects live in central Italy. The AWB questionnaire was distributed in places where there are many atypical workers and only to people who chose to take part to the study on a voluntary basis.

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Atypical Workers and Burnout

References Andreoni, P. E. (2005). Tempo e Lavoro. Storia, Psicologia e Nuove Problematiche. Milano: Mondadori. Bakker, A., Van Emmerik, H., & Van Riet, P. (2008). How job demands, resources and burnout predict objective performance: A constructive replication. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 21, 309–324.

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Bardasi, E., Francesconi, M. (2003). The impact of atypical employment on individual wellbeing: Evidence from a panel of British workers. Working Papers of the Institute for Social and Economic Research, paper 2003–2. Colchester: University of Essex. Batini, F., Del Sarto, G., & Perchiazzi, M. (2007). Raccontare le Competenze. Firenze: Transeuropa Edizioni. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Eidelson, J. I., & Riskind, J. H. (1987). Differentiating anxiety and depression: A test of the Cognitive Content-Specificity Hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 179–183. Catania, D., Vaccaro, C. M., & Zucca, G. (2004) Una Vita Tanti Lavori. L’Italia degli “Atipici” tra Vulnerabilità Sociale, Reti Familiari e Auto-imprenditorialità. Milano: Franco Angeli. Chirumbolo, A. & Hellgren, J. (2003). Individual and organizational consequences of job insecurity: a European study. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 24 (2), 215–238. Famiani, M., Monti, C., & Tomei, G. (2005). Lavori atipici e salute mentale. http://dirittolavoro.altervista.org. Ferrari, L. & Veglio, O. (2006). Donne e Uomini nel Mercato del Lavoro Atipico. La Dimensione Psicologica e di Genere del Lavoro Precario e Flessibile. Milano: Franco Angeli. Goslinga, S. & Sverke, M. (2003). Atypical work and Trade Union membership: Union attitudes and Union turnover among traditional vs atypically employed Union members. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 24 (2), 290–312. Iacovides, K. N., Fountoulakis, S., & Kaprinis, G. (2003). The relationship between job stress, burnout and clinical depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 75 (3), 209. Kawachi, I. (2008). Globalization and workers’ health. Industrial Relations. 46, 421–423. Leiter, M. P. & Durup, J. (1994). The discriminant validity of burnout and depression: A confirmatory factor analytic study. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 7 (4), 357 – 373. Maslach, C. & Jackson, S. (1986). Maslach Burnout Inventory: Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Magnavita, N. (2007). Ansia e depressione nei luoghi di lavoro. Il questionario A/D di Goldberg. Giornale Italiano Medicina del Lavoro ed Ergonomia, 29, 670–671. Pedon, A. (2005). Introduzione ai Test Psicologici. Roma: Borla. Piper, H. & Piper, J. (2000). Disaffected young people as the problem. Mentoring as the solution. Education and work as the goal. Journal of Education and Work, 13 (1), 77–94. Reber, A. S. (1995). Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Penguin Books. Salvini, S. & Ferro, I. (2006). Atypical jobs and family choices: An interpretative model, Atti del Convegno Torino Incontr, Torino, 12–14 June 2006, 155–158. Scott, H. K. (2004). Reconceptualizing the nature and health consequences of workrelated insecurity for the new economy: The decline of workers’ power in the flexibility regime. International Journal Health Service, 34 (1), 143–53. Spielberg, C. D. (1989). S.T.A.I. Inventario per l’Ansia di Stato e di Tratto. Forma Y. O. S. Organizzazioni Speciali, Firenze. Sverke, M., Hellgren, J., Näswall, K., Chirumbolo, A., De Witte, H., & Goslinga, S. (2004). Job Insecurity and Union Membership: European Unions in the Wake of Flexible Production. Brussels, P.I.E.-Peter Lang. Virtanen, M., Vahtera, J., Pentti, J., Honkonen, T., Elovainio, M., & Kivimäki, M. (2007). Job strain and psychologic distress influence on sickness absence among Finnish employees. Am. Journal Preventive Medicine. 33, 182–7.

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14 Elisabetta Crocetti, Augusto Palmonari and Barbara Pojaghi

Introduction During recent decades, important changes have occurred in the labor market and the spread of fixed-term employment contracts (i.e. atypical jobs) has increased job insecurity (Chirumbolo & Hellgren, 2003). Understanding the psychosocial consequences of this phenomenon is not an easy task because it is complex and multifaceted. For instance, in a qualitative study conducted with Italian young adults with atypical jobs, Sarchielli, Mandrioli, Palmonari and Vecchiato (2006) found evidence for both positive and negative outcomes of atypical employment contracts. Specifically, atypical workers evaluated their work conditions positively, although they complained about their contracts; they received strong support from their close social network (i.e. partner, peers and family), whereas they complained about the lack of adequate support from the trade unions and work services; they emphasized how job insecurity may lead to relational insecurity, by being an obstacle to the formation of a new family and to the possibility of having children; they underlined that atypical contracts may facilitate entrance into the labor market, but they might become a serious threat when the condition of atypical workers becomes chronic. Until now, studies on the effects of job insecurity have yielded contrasting findings (Sarchielli, 2008). This might be due to the fact that several variables can moderate the impact of job insecurity on individual and organizational outcomes. One potential moderating variable is the age of the workers (Novara, 2005). Therefore, in this contribution we will examine the effects of job insecurity during a specific developmental period: emerging adulthood. Arnett (2000) proposed emerging adulthood as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18–28. He argued that if the end of adolescence is measured in terms of taking on adult roles such as marriage, parenthood and

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stable full-time work, adolescence currently ends much later than in the past because many people are postponing these transitions until the mid- or late twenties. Therefore, it is important to study emerging adulthood as a life span period distinct from both adolescence and adulthood. In our study, we investigate the effects of job insecurity on three aspects relevant to emerging adults’ experiences (work identity, well-being and time perspective) and we will compare atypical workers with a “control group” composed of typical workers of the same age. Identity. Identity formation is a key task for an individual’s entire life span that becomes particularly urgent in adolescence and young adulthood (Erikson, 1950). The most important development of Erikson’s views on identity formation is Marcia’s (1966) identity status paradigm. Marcia describes four clearly differentiated identity statuses, based on the amount of exploration and commitment that adolescents experience or have experienced. Exploration refers to the active questioning and weighing of various identity alternatives before making decisions about the values, beliefs, and goals to pursue. Commitment involves making a relatively firm choice about an identity domain and engaging in significant activities geared toward the implementation of that choice. Specifically, in the diffusion status adolescents have not engaged in a proactive process of exploration of different alternatives, nor have they made a commitment in to a specific identity domain. In the foreclosure status, adolescents have made a commitment without exploration. In the moratorium status, adolescents are actively exploring various alternatives and have not yet made a commitment. In the achievement status, adolescents have made a commitment in a specific identity domain, following a period of active exploration. Recently, Crocetti, Rubini, and Meeus (2008) expanded Marcia’s paradigm by proposing an identity model in which commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment are taken into account as pivotal identity processes. Specifically, commitment is conceptualized as a choice made in identity relevant areas as well as the extent to which one identifies with that choice. In-depth exploration represents the extent to which adolescents deal with current commitments actively, reflecting on their choices, looking for information, and talking with others about them. Reconsideration of commitment refers to the comparison between current commitments and possible alternatives, as well as to efforts to change present commitments. It represents the crisis-like aspect of identity formation. This model can be used to study identity formation in adolescents (Crocetti et al., 2008) as well as in emerging adults (Crocetti, Palmonari & Pojaghi, 2007). Well-being. Well-being is a multifaceted construct. In this contribution we will focus on the cognitive component of subjective well-being that is referred to as life satisfaction (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). People who report high satisfaction with life are those who find a positive

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match between their standards and their current situation. Among the various factors that can affect satisfaction with life, work conditions have a strong impact, in fact satisfaction with life is strongly related to work satisfaction (Tait, Padgett & Baldwin, 1989). This association is particularly pronounced in people with autonomous jobs, high income, high educational level and high job involvement (Warr, 1999). Time perspective. Lewin conceptualized time perspective as “the totality of the individual’s view of his psychological future and psychological past existing at a given time” (1942, 75). Therefore, psychological past and future have a strong impact on current behavior. The Lewinian conceptualization of time perspective has been developed by Zimbardo and Boyd (1999), who stressed that time perspective is a crucial process in individual and societal functioning. They proposed to consider five dimensions of time perspective: the past-negative reflects a generally negative, aversive view of the past; the past-positive reveals a warm, sentimental attitude toward the past; the present-hedonistic reflects a hedonistic, risk-taking attitude toward time and life; the present-fatalistic expresses a fatalistic, helpless and hopeless attitude toward life; the future dimension suggests that behavior is dominated by a striving for future goals and rewards. In order to gain a better understanding of the effects of job insecurity on emerging adults’ lives we will integrate a variable-centered and a person-centered approach. Using a variable-centered approach we will investigate differences in mean scores and associations among relevant variables included in this study, while, through a person-centered approach, we will identify groups of individuals who have reached different work identity statuses.

Method Participants The participants were 227 workers (47% men), aged between 18 and 28 years (M = 25 years, DS = 2.7 years). Two groups of participants were identified in the total sample by level of employment contract. The first group was comprised of 108 (48% of the sample) typical workers (55% men); the second group included 119 atypical workers (40% men). The mean age of the two groups was the same (M = 25 years), whereas the gender composition was statistically different (χ2 (1, 227) = 5.21, p < .05), with more men in the typical worker group and more women in the atypical group. Additionally, the educational level was higher among individuals with an atypical job (χ2 (1, 227) = 12.47, p < .001): 17.7% of typical workers held a university degree whereas 40.2% of the atypical group had that level of education.

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Measures Work identity. This was measured using the Italian version (Crocetti et al., 2007; Crocetti, Schwartz, Fermani & Meeus, 2010) of the Utrecht-Management of

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Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS; Crocetti et al., 2008). It consists of 13 items with a response scale ranging from 1 (completely untrue) to 5 (completely true). Sample items include: “My work gives me certainty in life” (commitment; 5 items; α = .84); “I think a lot about my work” (in-depth exploration; five items; α = .68); and “I often think it would be better to try to find different work” (reconsideration of commitment; five items; α = .88). Well-being. This was assessed using the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985). The SWLS consists of five items (e.g. “I am satisfied with my life”) with a response scale ranging from 1 = completely untrue to 5 = completely true (α = .81). Time perspective. This was measured using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). This instrument consists of 60 items with a response scale ranging from 1 (completely untrue) to 5 (completely true). Sample items are: “I think about the bad things that have happened to me in the past” (past-negative; 12 items; α = .82); “I get nostalgic about my childhood” (past-positive; 7 items; α = .71); “Taking risks keeps my life from becoming boring” (present-hedonistic; 19 items; α = .74); “My life path is controlled by forces that I cannot influence” (present-fatalistic; 9 items; α = .70); “When I want to achieve something, I set goals and consider specific means for reaching those goals” (future; 13 items; α = .68).

Results A variable-centered approach Results of the descriptive statistics for the overall sample are reported in Table 14.1.

Table 14.1 Descriptive statistics for the variables included in the study Mean

Std. Deviation

Work identity Commitment In-depth exploration Reconsideration of commitment Satisfaction with life

3.39 3.81 2.63 3.33

0.91 0.70 1.20 0.75

Time perspective Past-negative Past-positive Present-hedonistic Present-fatalistic Future

2.84 3.45 3.33 2.68 3.48

0.60 0.59 0.43 0.56 0.43

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Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) on work identity, satisfaction with life, and time perspective as dependent variables, and with gender (men vs. women), educational level (low vs. high), and employment contract (typical vs. atypical) as independent variables revealed that, based on the Wilks’ Lambda criterion, the combined dependent variables were significantly affected by educational level (F (9, 192) = 2.00, p < .05, h² = .09) and employment contract (F (9, 192) = 2.45, p < .05, h² = .10). Gender differences, two-way interactions, and the three-way interaction were found to be not significant. Follow-up univariate analyses of variance revealed significant differences by educational level on work in-depth exploration (F (1, 207) = 4.72, p < .05, h² = .02); satisfaction with life (F (1, 207) = 6.34, p < .05, h² = .03); past-negative (F (1, 207) = 6.86, p < .01, h² = .03), and future orientation (F (1, 207) = 9.43, p < .01, h² = .04). Specifically, emerging adults with a high educational level (i.e. university degree) scored higher on work in-depth exploration, satisfaction with life and future orientation than their peers with a lower educational level. On the other hand, individuals with a low educational level (i.e. high school degree or lower) scored higher on past negative than those with a high educational level. Significant differences by employment contract were found on work commitment (F (1, 227) = 12.81, p < .001, h² = .05) and in-depth exploration (F (1, 227) = 4.57, p < .05, h² = .02). Findings revealed that emerging adults with atypical jobs reported lower commitment and higher in-depth exploration than their peers with typical jobs. A further aim of this study was to test whether work identity processes were related to well-being. To reach this goal we performed regression analyses, in the total sample, as well as in the typical and atypical worker subgroups, in which the identity processes were entered as predictors and satisfaction with life was the dependent variable. Findings consistently indicated that work commitment was significantly associated with satisfaction with life (see Table 14.2), especially within the typical worker group. Table 14.2 Associations between work identity processes and satisfaction with life (standardized betas and proportions of explained variance) Satisfaction with life

Work identity Commitment In-depth exploration Reconsideration of commitment R2

Total sample N = 227

Typical workers n = 108

.30*** .11 –.14

.38*** .11 –.10

.19***

.25***

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Atypical workers n = 119 .23* .11 –.14 .14***

*** p < .001; * p < .05.

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In order to investigate work identity using a person-centered approach, we examined which identity statuses could be derived from the combination of work commitment, in-depth exploration and reconsideration of commitment. We employed cluster analysis, a method of data-driven classification, following the two-step clustering procedure suggested by Gore (2000). On the basis of various criteria (i.e. theoretical meaningfulness of each cluster, parsimony and explanatory power) we retained a three-cluster solution, shown in Figure 14.1. The first cluster was comprised of individuals (33% of the sample) with low scores on commitment and in-depth exploration, associated with high scores on reconsideration of commitment. The second cluster included emerging adults (28.2%) with high scores on commitment, combined with low scores on in-depth exploration and reconsideration of commitment. The third cluster consisted of individuals (38.8%) with high scores on commitment and in-depth exploration, associated with low scores on reconsideration of commitment. Based on Marcia’s (1966) identity status paradigm, the three clusters could be labeled work moratorium, foreclosure and achievement, respectively. This three-cluster solution explained 48% of the variance in commitment, 43% of the variance in in-depth exploration, and 68% of the variance in reconsideration of commitment. We examined whether the distribution of participants across the three work identity statuses varied as a function of employment contract, educational level, and gender. Findings indicated that only differences by employment contract were statistically significant (χ2 (2, 227) = 12.02, p < .01): emerging adults with an atypical job were more likely to be in the status of 1.5 1 0.5 0 −0.5

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A person-centered approach

−1 −1.5

Moratorium (33%)

Foreclosure (28.2%)

Commitment

Exploration

Achievement (38.8%) Reconsideration

Figure 14.1 Z-scores for commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment for the work identity clusters

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Distribution of typical and atypical workers across work identity

Typical workers Atypical workers

Moratorium

Foreclosure

24% 41.2%

38% 19.3%

Achievement 38% 39.5%

Total 100% 100%

moratorium, whereas individuals with a typical job were more likely to be in the status of foreclosure (see Table 14.3). Thus, we examined whether participants in the various work identity statuses reported significant differences on well-being and time perspective. Findings of the MANOVA and Tukey post hoc tests revealed that individuals in the moratorium statuses exhibited significant lower satisfaction with life (F (2, 227) = 17.93, p < .001, h² = .14) and higher negative view of their past (F (2, 227) = 6.42, p < .01, h² = .05) than their peers in the foreclosure and achievement statuses. These results were not moderated by participants’ employment contract.

Discussion In this study, we integrated variable-centered and person-centered approaches to expand our understanding of the effects of employment contract (atypical vs. typical) on emerging adults’ lives. The effects of educational level Using a variable-centered approach, we found that differences on well-being and time perspective are explained more by participants’ educational background than by their employment contract. In fact, emerging adults with a university degree report higher satisfaction with life and higher future orientation compared to their peers with a lower educational level. On the other hand, individuals with a low educational level report a more negative view of their past than their peers with a higher level of education. These findings shed light on differences between emerging adults who have access to higher education and their peers who enter directly into the labor market after completing high school, providing elements useful in understanding the “forgotten half” (Arnett, 2000, 476). In fact, studies of young people who do not attend college in the years following high school remain rare, thus little is known about the experience of emerging adults who face the challenge of finding their own occupation earlier or with a lower level of education (Arnett, 2000). Our results suggest that these emerging adults face difficulties that may lead to a decrease in satisfaction with life and may influence their time perspective. In particular, these emerging adults are less future oriented,

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Table 14.3 statuses

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perhaps because they feel less equipped to deal with continuous changes in the labor market that increasingly require highly specialized workers.

Furthermore, we found that the employment contract of the participants influences their work identity, but not their satisfaction with life and time perspective. These findings differ from those presented by Crocetti, Graziani and Moscatelli (2006), who showed that atypical workers have difficulty planning their future and looking at it with optimism. These differences might be due to the diverse age of the participants. In the present study workers ranged in age between 18 and 28 years, whereas Crocetti et al. (2006) presented data collected on participants whose age ranged between 26 and 36 years. Perhaps atypical jobs are more acceptable for emerging adults who are entering the labor market, while they become a serious threat for young adults who, because of the precariousness of their work condition, may not plan other personal goals, such as getting married and having children (Novara, 2005). Integrating a variable-centered and a person-centered approach Findings from a variable-centered and a person-centered approach both confirmed that atypical workers exhibit a less stable work identity than typical workers. In fact, atypical workers report lower work commitment and higher in-depth exploration than typical workers. Moreover, individuals with an atypical contract are much more represented in the status of identity moratorium, which indicates that they have not yet found what work fits their standards and aspirations, so they are still struggling to find the occupation that is right for them. This condition, more than the atypical employment contract itself, is responsible for low levels of satisfaction with life and a negative view of past experiences. These results are in line with an extensive literature that shows that the moratorium status is characterized by maladjustment (for a review see Meeus, Iedema, Helsen & Vollebergh, 1999). Interestingly, in this study, the cluster analysis pointed out the presence of three distinct groups (i.e. moratorium, foreclosure and achievement) but did not detect the fourth status included in Marcia’s (1966) model: identity diffusion. This means that in our sample there was not a group of individuals characterized by low work commitment, in-depth exploration and also low reconsideration. Thus, emerging adults who have participated in this study have found a work commitment they consider right for them (thus they are in a status of identity achievement or foreclosure) or they are striving to find it (i.e. they are in a status of moratorium). Overall, these findings highlight that the formation of a stable work identity is a very important goal for young people. Our findings also indicated that work commitment is strongly intertwined with life satisfaction, especially in people with typical jobs. These

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The effects of employment contract

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results are consistent with those documented by Meeus, Dekovic´ and Iedema (1997) who found that employed youth tied well-being to their work identity, whereas unemployed individuals tied well-being to relational identity. The authors stated that the favorability hypothesis of social comparison could provide the theoretical mechanism for understanding these results (Festinger, 1954). According to this hypothesis, individuals select comparison dimensions on which they perform well as the most important for selfdefinition. Therefore, typical workers can link their well-being to their work identity, whereas atypical workers, who do not have a steady work condition, can tie their well-being to other aspects of their experience that they perceive to be more stable. Limitations Findings of this study should be considered in light of some limitations. The first is that we employed a cross-sectional design. Thus, we cannot ascertain causal links between work identity, well-being and time perspective. Future studies should improve our understanding of the effects of job insecurity by investigating this topic longitudinally in order to detect short and long-term consequences of work identity transitions on adjustment and time perspective. The second limitation concerns the fact that we did not control some variables that may moderate the effects of the employment contract (De Cuyper, de Jong, De Witte, Isaksson, Rigotti & Schalk, 2008), such as: the content of jobs (our sample was heterogeneous, with emerging adults employed in different types of work; given the small sample size it was not possible to examine specific situations), volition (i.e. whether workers voluntarily choose an atypical job or if the atypical job was the only possibility) and balance between personal and work life. Therefore, future investigations should consider these variables, which could account for differences in the outcomes of job insecurity. Conclusion The present contribution highlights the fact that emerging adults with atypical jobs face more difficulties in defining a firm work identity and they struggle to find an occupation that corresponds to their interests and goals.

References

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Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480. Chirumbolo, A. & Hellgren, J. (2003). Individual and organizational consequences of job insecurity: A European study. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 24 (2), 217–240. Crocetti, E., Graziani, A. R., & Moscatelli, S. (2006). Il futuro: Aspettative, progetti e preoccupazioni [The future: Expectations, projects, and concerns]. In G. Sarchielli, E. Mandrioli, A. Palmonari, & T. Vecchiato (Eds.). Lavorare da precari: Effetti

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psicosociali della flessibilità occupazionale (123–135). Centro Studi e Formazione Sociale Fondazione E. Zancan, Documentazioni sui Servizi Sociali, 57. Crocetti, E., Palmonari, A., & Pojaghi, B. (2007, February). “Who am I?” Identity formation in Italian emerging adults. Individual paper presented at 3rd Conference on Emerging Adulthood (EA), Tucson, Arizona, USA. Crocetti, E., Rubini, M., & Meeus, W. (2008). Capturing the dynamics of identity formation in various ethnic groups: Development and validation of a three-dimensional model. Journal of Adolescence, 31 (2), 207–222. Crocetti, E., Schwartz, S., Fermani, A., & Meeus, W. (2010). The Utrecht Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS): Italian validation and cross-national comparisons. European Journal of Psychological Assessment. De Cuyper, N., de Jong, J., De Witte, H., Isaksson, K., Rigotti, T., & Schalk, R. (2008). Literature review of theory and research on the psychological impact of temporary employment: Toward a conceptual model. International Journal of Management Reviews, 10 (1), 25–51. Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140. Gore, P. A., Jr. (2000). Cluster analysis. In H. E. A. Tinsley & S. D. Brown (Eds.), Handbook of Applied Multivariate Statistics and Mathematical Modeling (297–321). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Lewin, K. (1942). Field theory and learning. In K. Lewin (1952), Field Theory in Social Science. Selected Theoretical Papers (60–86). London: Tavistock Publications. Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551–558. Meeus, W., Dekovic´, M., & Iedema, J. (1997). Unemployment and identity in adolescence: A social comparison perspective. The Career Development, 45, 369–380. Meeus, W., Iedema, J., Helsen, M., & Vollebergh, W. (1999). Patterns of adolescent identity development: Review of literature and longitudinal analysis. Developmental Review, 19, 419–461. Novara, F. (2005). Lavorare in una società instabile [Working in an unstable society]. Studi Zancan, 4, 83–109. Sarchielli, G. (2008). Diversità, ambivalenze e tensioni. Comprendere gli effetti psicosociale della flessibilità lavorativa [Diversities, ambivalences, and tensions. Understanding the psychosocial effects of job flexibility]. Psicologia Sociale, 3, 355–368. Sarchielli, G., Mandrioli, E., Palmonari, A., & Vecchiato, T. (Eds.) (2006). Lavorare da precari: Effetti psicosociali della flessibilità occupazionale [Precarious work: psychosocial effects of job flexibility]. Centro Studi e Formazione Sociale Fondazione E. Zancan, Documentazioni sui Servizi Sociali, 57. Tait, M., Padgett, M. Y., & Baldwin, T. T. (1989). Job satisfaction and life satisfaction: A reexamination of the strength of the relationship and gender effect as a function of the date of the study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 502–507. Warr, P. (1999). Well-being and the workplace. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology (392–413). New York: Russel Sage Foundation. Zimbardo, P. G. & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1271–1288.

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15 Emanuela Ingusci, Francesca Palano, Laura Ressa and Giancarlo Tanucci

Introduction Atypical employment is currently on the increase; atypicality is considered to be a consequence of the lack of long-term agreements (both explicit and otherwise) between the employee and the employer. In such a context, companies need to find more flexible ways to face up to different circumstances and to maintain their productivity level in order to remain in the labor market. This brand-new work setting has led to a remarkable diffusion of atypical agreements, which differ from traditional ones inasmuch as they offer business organizations an opportunity to employ workers in a more dynamic way. As a consequence of this evolution in the occupational environment, employees have been obliged to readapt their skills, collecting and seeking all the new information they can find about the labor market and its changes. Moreover, employees have radically changed their ideas about work, as well as their expectations and hopes concerning their future job. Ashford and Black (1996) first understood the importance of proactive behavior during the work entry process; they analyzed the socialization process, discovering that proactivity helps the newcomer to positively enter into a new organization. The dimensions of proactivity analyzed by Ashford and Black (1996) are: information seeking, feedback seeking, general socializing, positive framing, networking, boss relationship building and job-change negotiating. The concept of flexibility today is crucial in understanding the reality of the labor market, but it has been studied and considered an important element in the process of work socialization only in recent years. The psychological literature presents different points of view from which the same occupational phenomenon can be analyzed. As Nicholson demonstrated (1987), the socialization process starts developing with one’s perception of the world of work, and initiates a so-called

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“transition cycle”, during which newcomers face four different phases: in the first phase, newcomers prepare themselves to enter the labor market through resources expectations and desires. The second step consists of the real contact with the new occupational context; the third step is adaptation, and is related to personal and role changes. The last step is called the phase of stabilization, and helps the newcomer to be effective and to develop a high level of involvement. The socialization process also concerns organizations and the tactics they use to attract workers’ attention, motivating them to perform better. Of course, such tactics are intended to promote the socialization process, to make the newcomers’ entry process gentler and more gradual, and to give a positive image of the organization. As regards proactivity and motivation, these two concepts should be considered the main instruments the newcomer has at his/her disposal better to face the world of work, and to use his/her ability and knowledge in such a way as to favor his/her job search and performance. The present study focuses on these two concepts because of their crucial importance for obtaining good results in socialization. It is clear, moreover, that the way in which people adopt proactive behavior, or are motivated to work successfully, influences their perception of personal and professional success, and is decisive for the way in which they conceive of their job.

Method Aims and hypothesis The purpose of the present explorative study can be summarized as follows: to analyze the system of motivations and attitudes adopted by employees for facing the new atypical labor market; to check the hypothesis of Ashford and Black (1996) according to which people who are already working adopt proactive behavior more frequently; to check the hypothesis of Claes and Ruiz-Quintanilla, according to which the unemployed restrict their efforts at career building. The study involved a sample of users of four employment services in Bari (N = 167). The results lead to a clear definition of proactivity and motivation. The principal aims of the present study are the following:

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– to highlight the dimensions that best describe proactivity and work motivation; – to point out different levels of proactivity and work motivation shown by the young interviewees; – to examine the relationship between proactivity and motivation and socio-demographic variables such as age, educational qualification, but also the number of previous jobs;

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Participants The study involved 167 users of four public employment services in Bari (Informagiovani – Comune di Bari, Informagiovani – Comune di Casamassima, Quanta s.p.A., WorkOpp). A convenience sampling was used. The sample consisted of 107 females and 60 males. The participants were divided into three age groups: 15% of people of an age from 19 to 21; 31.7% were from 22 to 24 years old; 53.3% were older than 24. These age groups were built on the basis of the age distribution in the sample. Most of participants lived in Bari (40.4%); those from the province of Bari amounted to 33.3% of the total sample. As regards educational qualifications, a significant percentage of people had completed a 5-year high school diploma (57.5%), while 16.2% had completed a 5-year university degree and 16.2% a 3-year degree. This is shown in Table 15.1. Instrument The questionnaire was divided into five sections. The first part concerned general characteristics of the subjects, such as gender, age, social status, and professional condition, plus items about contract duration, job search Table 15.1 Sample characteristics Type of subjects N = 167

Percentage

Men Women Total

35.9% 64.1% 100.0%

19–21 years old 22–24 years old 24–32 years old Total

15% 31.7% 53.3% 100.0%

Employed Not yet employed Unemployed Total

34.7% 31.2% 34.1% 100.0%

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– to verify the hypothesis of Ashford and Black (1996), according to which workers and individuals who have experienced the socialization process more easily adopt proactive behavior; – to verify the hypothesis of Claes and Ruiz-Quintanilla (1998): according to the authors, people tend to restrict their career planning and networking behavior when they are not working; – to explore the interviewees’ opinions about the functionality of services developed in Bari to promote the work socialization of younger citizens.

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methods, strategies of information seeking and any internships carried out by the participants. The second section analyzed proactivity in the socialization process through an adaptation of the Proactivity Scale (Ashford & Black, 1996). The scale is a 17-item inventory, composed by four sub-scales (information seeking, feedback seeking, networking, positive framing). Each item was rated on a 5-point-scale: from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The third section of the questionnaire aimed to investigate the motivational work orientation of the atypical workers. For this purpose, we used an adaptation of the Motivation Orientation Test (TOM) (Petitta, Borgogni, Mastrorilli; 2005). The TOM Scale is a 43-item inventory, composed of four sub-scales: leadership orientation, innovation orientation, goal orientation, and relationship orientation. Each item was rated on a 7-point scale: from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The participants were strongly homogeneous as to their occupational situation. The employed represented 34.7%; 34.1% of the sample was composed of the unemployed; the remaining 31.2% consisted of people who had never worked before, as shown in Table 15.1. Another important variable concerned the type of employment contract: most of the participants said they were full-time workers with a permanent contract (25.9%), 13.8% had a fixed-term contract job, 13.8% had an occasional work contract, and 12.1% consisted of part-time workers with an open-ended contract. As to the way these people found their present job, the participants were asked to answer a question about the methods they used to look for a job. The results show two principal methods of job search: a formal method and an informal one. The first method is the structured job information market where positions are listed through want ads and public and private employment agencies. The second is the hidden job information market, where positions are transmitted through informal contacts made by friends and relatives. Most people (28.8%) said they were introduced to the new job through relatives or friends already engaged in the same occupational context. Another group (20.3%) were hired thanks to the people they mixed with, or to the “word-of-mouth” strategy. This strategy suggests the possibility of the use of networking ability to create more opportunities to access the labor market. The present study also explored the role of the work domain, in order to analyze which were the most frequent areas and types of jobs in which the participants were involved. The largest group of people (20.7%) worked in transport, or in telecommunication companies, 10.3% were employed in industries and another 10.3% had a job in state companies. Another significant question concerned the number of previous jobs the participants performed. 47.3% of the interviewees said they had performed

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Table 15.2

Number of past jobs

Past jobs N = 167

Percentage 35.8% 17.0% 47.3% 100.0%

two or more jobs in the previous years; on the other hand, 35.8% of people had never worked before and did not have any work experience before their present job (Table 15.2). In order to better understand how the interviewees conceived the labor market and work in general, the questionnaire explored which principles and values were responsible for their choices and led to a particular type of job. 22.4% of participants said that their work choices were guided by the relevance of the future job in the context of their educational qualification and knowledge. Another 22.4% of interviewees said they chose their job on the basis of their desire for independence, while 17.2% answered that the most important elements in the process of occupational search were economic needs and difficulties connected with the lack of money. The last question concerned future job expectations. The participants were asked to think about their future occupational situation and express what they wanted to obtain from their future jobs. 48.3% of interviewees expressed their need for professional satisfaction; on the other hand, 34.5% said they expected economic stability from their future jobs. The instrument used was a questionnaire structured as below: – socio-demographic variables: age, gender, marital status, city of residence, educational qualification, occupational situation; – proactivity scale (adaptation of the original scale, Ashford and Black, 1996): composed of 17 items which explained the seven factors in the original model (information seeking, feedback seeking, positive framing, networking, job-change negotiating, general socializing, boss relationship building). Participants were asked to indicate how frequently they experienced behaviors described by these items, using a 5-point Likert format scale: 1 = never; 2 = rarely; 3 = sometimes; 4 = often; 5 = always; – test of motivational orientation (TOM, Petitta, Borgogni & Mastrorilli, 2004): composed of 43 items which explain four factors (leadership

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None One Two or more Total

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orientation, objective orientation, innovation orientation, relationship orientation). Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement for each assertion proposed in the item, using a 7-point Likert format scale: 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = fairly strongly disagree; 3 = slightly disagree; 4 = neither disagree nor agree; 5 = slightly agree; 6 = fairly agree; 7 = strongly agree.

The data were processed using SPSS 16.0 software. Factor structures of both Proactivity and Motivation Scales have been analyzed using varimax rotation, in order to respect the independence of dimensions. The dimensions underlying the Proactivity Scale were investigated using principal components analysis. The scree plot revealed breaks after four factors, which correspond only to some of the original factors discovered by Ashford and Black (1996). Items loading less than .40 are been eliminated. The proactivity factor solution explains the 69% of variance (Table 15.3). The principal component analysis was also carried out on the Motivational Orientation Test (Petitta, Borgogni & Mastrorilli, 2004). In this case, three factors, selected through the scree plot, account for 47.5% of the variance; the three dimensions are shown in Table 15.4. Moreover, the t-test for independent samples revealed very interesting results, because it correlated the Proactivity Scale with variables such as occupational situation, contract duration and the number of past jobs. The dimensions obtained in the Motivational Orientation Test were correlated with the variables of gender, occupational situation, and number of past jobs. Tables 15.6, 15.7, 15.8, 15.9 and 15.10 show the results of the t-test analysis. As Table 15.5 shows, as far as information seeking and networking are concerned, the participants in employment have higher scores than people who have never been employed. According to Spencer and Spencer (1993), who refer to the situational nature of competence, this result means that proactivity is a characteristic that people develop when they stay within organizational contexts. The connection between proactivity development and work experience is also confirmed by the other results. In fact, subjects who have a contract with the duration of more than one year scored higher on information seeking than those who have a contract duration of less than one year (Table 15.6). In addition, participants with two or more previous jobs are more committed to information seeking than people who have never worked (Table 15.7). As Table 15.8 shows, the results for motivational orientation revealed some gender differences: men scored higher on leadership orientation than

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Data analysis

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Table 15.3 Proactivity component matrix)

Scale,

principal

components

analysis.

(Rotated

Principal components

Sought to master the internal policy of the company Sought to learn how the services and structures inside the company worked Sought to comprehend the informal organization of the company Sought to comprehend the formal organizational structure Asked for feedback on your work after completing a task Asked for feedback on your work during the performance of a task Asked your boss for a critical commentary of your work Asked your boss’s opinion about your work Sought to look on the bright side of your condition Sought to view your condition as a unique opportunity rather than a threat Sought to view your condition as a challenge rather than a problem Took part in parties, gatherings and meetings organized by your company Took part in official events (such as conferences, seminars etc.) where you had the opportunity to meet important people Sought to engage in a conversation with workers from a different department

4 Networking

.836

.078

.212

.130

.816

.055

.298

.201

.761

.286

.162

.140

.757

.139

.120

.094

.100

.847

.166

-.009

.042

.829

.131

.067

.199

.713

.116

.279

.300

.576

–.108

.353

.161

.012

.803

.253

.221

.215

.791

.113

.285

.139

.731

.194

.164

.151

.120

.830

.057

.191

.209

.755

.276

.047

.323

.620

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1 2 3 Information Feedback Positive seeking seeking framing

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Table 15.4 TOM, Principal Components Analysis (Rotated component matrix) Principal components

When I am with other people I like to be considered a leader I like being a leader I tend to maintain control over the people who surround me I love making decisions, even for others I like convincing people I tend to control other people’s behavior I usually assume positions of authority and influence I prefer not to be contradicted on any occasion I am interested in the career, especially if it entails guiding other people I usually enforce my own choices I love being the center of attention I am fascinated by having to measure up to increasingly difficult tasks I am fascinated by difficult and challenging tasks I like constantly trying out new things I prefer being involved in contexts that test my abilities I constantly seek opportunities to put myself to the test Even when facing the same tasks, I tend to choose different methods every time I am strongly attracted by little-known situations I see my projects through to the end, even if they are risky I always seek ways to put my capacities to good use I reason creatively and differently from others In order to succeed in one’s work, it is necessary to build a solid relationship with others It is very important for me to make others accept me It is important for me to be given emotional support in all kinds of situations I am always careful not to wrong other people It is important for me to have information about the quality of what I am doing

2 Innovation and goal orientation

3 Relationship orientation

.778

.028

.027

.751 .731

.093 .042

.026 .166

.722 .704 .693 .688

.090 –.026 –.113 .200

–.097 –.085 –.060 .091

.600

.058

–.189

.597

.314

.101

.552 .531 .029

.318 .185 .814

–.296 –.008 .231

.118

.740

–.075

.070 .060

.688 .664

.319 .074

–.009

.638

.009

.244

.624

.091

.136

.615

.123

.158

.581

.120

–.064

.483

.065

.253 –.032

.421 .009

.141 .741

.020

.084

.675

.009

.133

.666

–.057 –.076

.229 .226

.662 .607

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1 Leadership orientation

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Table 15.5 T-test for independent samples: Proactivity–Occupational situation Occupational status

Mean

SD

T value

Sig. (2-tailed)

gdl

Information Employed seeking Never been employed

.2455221 .74623555 –.7716088 1.15451339

5.133

90

.000

Networking

.2434316 –.3337055

3.012

80.691

.003

Employed Never been employed

.91454789 .89829517

Table 15.6 T-test for independent samples: Proactivity–Contract duration Proactivity dimensions

Contract duration

Information From 6 months to seeking 1 year More than 1 year Feedback seeking

From 6 months to 1 year More than 1 year

T value

Mean

SD

–.1219322

.63399803

.3730103

.69641404

.5631151

.82859284

Sig. (2-tailed)

gdl

–2.221 22.217

.037

2.365 27.249

.025

–.1792759 1.11385952

Table.15.7 T-test for independent samples: Number of past jobs Proactivity dimensions

Number of past jobs

Mean

SD

T value

information No one –.6192344 1.15719127 –5.670 seeking Two or more .3411763 .66955416

gdl

Sig. (2-tailed)

114

.000

Table 15.8 T-test for independent samples: Motivation Orientation–Gender Motivation Orientation Dimensions

Gender

Mean

Leadership Men .4309491 orientation Women –.2517425

SD

T value

.93331511 .95456489

4.427

Relationship Men –.4254417 1.09269865 –4.337 orientation Women .2485253 .85341242

Gdl

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Proactivity dimensions

Sig. (2-tailed)

123.741 .000 158

.000

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Table 15.9 T-test for independent samples: Motivation Orientation–Occupational situation

Occupational situation

Goal and Employed innovation Never been orientation employed

Mean

SD

T value

gdl

.1290230 1.02949256 2.681 104.848 –.3807297 .93695267

Sig. (2-tailed) .009

women, while women are more relationship oriented than men in job search. In Table 15.9, employed participants appear more oriented towards goal and innovation than people who have not been previously employed.

Results discussion Principal component analysis The results of the principal component analysis (varimax solution), carried out by adapting the proactivity scale (Ashford & Black, 1996) and using the atypical workers sample, are shown in Table 15.1. The analysis identified a four-factor solution; more specifically, the proactivity factors are: information seeking, feedback seeking, positive framing and networking. Information seeking explains 20.8% of the variance, feedback seeking explains 17.7% of the variance; the third dimension (positive framing) explains 15.7% of the variance; the last dimension (networking) explains 14.6% of the variance. The principal component analysis selected four factors from the original proactivity scale of Ashford and Black (1996). Sensemaking includes both information seeking and feedback seeking. Information seeking refers to newcomers’ search for and acquisition of job and organizational information. Feedback seeking refers to an employee’s request for information regarding his or her performance. According to Ashford and Taylor, feedback allows new employees to understand when they need to learn more or when they need to reinterpret past information. Networking (defined by Ashford and Black as relationship building with the boss), refers to behaviors on the part of the new employee that are directed towards initiating social interaction in the work environment. Positive framing refers to a proactive technique used by individuals during their adaptation to a new job. Three dimensions are excluded from the original scale: job-change negotiating, general socializing and relationship building. The principal component analysis results (varimax solution) carried out on the Motivational Orientation Test scale (TOM) (Petitta, Borgogni & Mastrorilli, 2004), using the same sample, are shown in Table 15.2. The

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Motivation Orientation Dimensions

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analysis identified a three-factor solution. Specifically, motivational orientation factors are: leadership orientation, goal and innovation orientation and relationship orientation. While the original scale structure is composed of four factors, the results of the component principal analysis revealed three dimensions, as explained above. Leadership orientation explains 19.9% of the variance, goal and innovation orientation explains 17.2% of the variance and relationship orientation explains 10.2% of the variance.

The t-test for independent samples underlined the existence of a relation between proactivity and each of the three socio-demographic variables (occupational status, contract duration and number of jobs in the past). Moreover, motivation and the other three variables are related significantly (gender, occupational status and number of jobs in the past). In particular, the employed participants have higher levels of information seeking and networking than people who have never been employed. It means that the workers, even if they are atypical, realize the importance of information seeking and of developing a network of relations to search for a new job, but also of having a better work environment where they can develop their own professional identity. As regards contract duration, participants with a contract duration of less than one year are more oriented to seeking feedback from their boss. This might be because they have only worked for a brief period of time, but also because they do not know how the specific professional context works. Besides, male subjects are more oriented to leadership than female subjects; while women are more oriented to relationships, as explained by studies of personal skills (such as relationship building, communication, cooperation) and gender. Finally, the results indicate that participants with one or more past jobs use more job search strategies (such as information seeking) than people who have never been employed. It means that, in an atypical labor market, workers develop specific strategic skills not only in order to look for a job, but also to create the conditions that will allow his/ her future employability.

Conclusions

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T-test for independent samples on socio-demographic variables

The present study leads to conclusions which are of interest for future research on labor market outlook. Results indicated that the employed were more able to develop their ability in information seeking and networking (Ashford & Black, 1996). These dimensions of proactivity are important in order to look for a job, but also in order to develop and to mature one’s own professional identity. Indeed, individuals need to present themselves in the labor market as a competitive resource; to do this, they have to seek information about their own profession, but they also have to create a network

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of relations in the professional, personal, and social context (Depolo et al., 1998). The results further demonstrated that proactivity was connected to contract duration; in fact, the employees with a contract of more than one year showed higher levels in factors such as information seeking and feedback seeking; and the employed people adopted proactive behavior more frequently (Ashford and Black, 1996); the unemployed people usually restrict career-building and networking behavior (Claes & Ruiz-Quintanilla, 1998). Finally, the results highlighted that men were more oriented to leadership, while women were careful about positive relationship construction. This means that gender differences are related to the choice of profession (Peirò et al., 2002). Future research could consider people before they work: it could be interesting to study the mismatch between prior expectations and work entry and supportive behavior of the supervisor as Depolo, Fraccaroli and Sarchielli found (1994). Also, future research could consider how a promotion experience during a job can increase the probability of proactive behavior occurring (Claez & Ruiz-Quintanilla, 1998). Other important variables to consider are external mobility of the individuals from one organization to another or from one place to another. Mobility, after all, is a type of proactive behavior relevant to the individual’s own future career planning. The limitations of the study are the use of single-source data (only self-reports) and the lack of the validation of the scales used.

References Ashford, S. J. & Black, J. S. (1996). Proactivity during organizational entry: the role of desire for control. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81 (2), 199–214. Claes, R. & Ruiz-Quintanilla, S. A. (1998). Influences of early career experiences, occupational group, and national culture on proactive career behavior. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 52, 357–378. Depolo, M., Fraccaroli, F., Rinaldi, A., & Sarchielli, G. (1998). Ricerca delle informazioni e socializzazione organizzativa: indagine sull’inserimento al lavoro di giovani ricercatori. Bollettino di Psicologia Applicata, 225, 29–37. Depolo, M., Fraccaroli, F. & Sarchielli, G. (1994). Le decalage entre attentes et realité dans le processusde socialisation all travail. Travail Humain, 131–143. Peirò, J. M., Montalvo, J. G., & Gracia, F. (2002). How do young people cope with job flexibility?: Demographic and psychological antecedents of the resistance to accept a job with non-preferred flexibility features. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51, 43–66. Nicholson, N. (1987). The transition cycle: a conceptual framework for the analysis of change and human resources management. In K. M. Rowland & G. R. Ferris (Eds.), Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, Vol. 5. Petitta, L., Borgogni, L., & Mastrorilli, A. (2005). Il Test di Orientamento MotivazionaleVersione Generale (T.O.M.-V.G.) come strumento per la misura delle inclinazioni motivazionali. Giornale Italiano di Psicologia, XXXII (3), 653–670. Spencer, L. M. & Spencer, S. M. (1993). Competence at Work. Models for Superior Performance. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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16 Silvia De Simone and Marina Mondo

Introduction In Italy the subject of atypical work has attracted the attention of researchers from different fields of work, in particular since the Biaggi Act (L. 30 14/02/03) regulated new contractual forms introducing profound innovations in the organization of work. Although the labor market is still mainly characterized by standard business relations, in recent years the Italian context has seen an exponential growth of “atypical” forms of work, with respect to those defined as “typical” or “traditional”, which are substantially characterized by a permanent contract (Mandrone, 2006). “Atypical jobs” include multiple forms of contract (such as contracts of service with VAT registration number, fixed-term contracts, and project contracts), which are all characterized by the temporary nature of the business relation. Therefore, atypical work refers to all working procedures which, for various reasons, are not referable to the standard model of work which has characterized the occupational structure of the “Fordist society” (Accornero, 2001; Gallino, 2001). “Atypicalness” refers to a series of discontinuous normative elements which concern the time, places, tutelage, negotiation practices, exemption, roles and the content itself of traditional professional services (Chicchi, 2002). Today, even public organizations, like private organizations, avail themselves of new professionals with atypical contracts who support permanent workers with a traditional contract. What often happens is that atypical workers cover, especially in public organizations, crucial, and innovative roles (Accornero, 2006). Nevertheless, atypical work happens to be spreading in a sociocultural context – that of Italy – which is still imbued with traditional values which are not easy to reconcile with the values of flexibility and change. As atypical work spread in Europe (Brewster, Mayne & Tregaskis, 1997), a growing body of psychological literature focused its attention on the negative effects of this type of work on the individual

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Job Satisfaction and Values: A Comparison between Non-traditional Workers and Traditional Workers

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(De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006; Palmonari & Sarchielli, 2004; Parker, Griffin, Sprigg & Wall, 2002; Sverke, Hellgren & Näswall, 2002): the growth of stress and other psychic and somatic pathologies linked to the world of work (Ito & Brotheridge, 2001; Metcalfe & Smith, 2003), problems in reconciling professional and private life (Bosio, Lozza & Graffigna, 2006; Salmieri, 2006), the experiences of social marginality (Boris & Degiuli, 2003; Chicchi, 2002; Gallino, 2001) and uncertain working conditions (Bosio, Lozza & Graffigna, 2006), vaguely defined working identity (Chicchi, 2002; Rizza, 2003), the compromise of the planning dimension (Zappalà, Sarchielli & Depolo, 2006), reduced commitment towards the organization (De Witte & Näswall, 2003; Ferrari, Magri & Valsecchi, 2006), and the development of a different psychological contract with the organization (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006; Sparrow, 2000). The feeling of precariousness, typical of atypical workers, has an effect on the levels of satisfaction and quality of life (Sarchielli, 2003). Atypical workers, who probably have new and different values from permanent workers, may experience more dissatisfaction than their colleagues, due mainly to the conditions of “insecurity” and “precariousness” intrinsically linked to these contractual typologies. The present work aims to answer the following research question: what are the characteristics of atypical compared to permanent workers in relation to levels of professional satisfaction and prevailing values? To this end, the individual objectives are: (1) to survey job satisfaction/dissatisfaction (Schleicher, Watt & Greguras, 2004); (2) to survey personal values according to Schwartz’s universal psychological theory (Schwartz, 1992, 1994, 2007; Schwartz, Bilsky, 1987; Schwartz & Huismans, 1995; Schwartz & Sagiv, 1995; Schwartz & Bardi, 2001; Aavik & Allik, 2002; Kasser & Ahuvia, 2002); (3) to find possible significant differences in relation to the variable “contractual typology” and other socio-data; (4) to identify some predictors of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction; (5) to identify subject typologies based on shared values, levels of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction, and socio-data dimensions.

Method Participants A battery of tests was applied to a sample of subjects who work in the administrative/management area of the University of Studies of Cagliari (Italy). The procedure used to gather the questionnaires required direct contact with the administrative executives of the various structures involved, who passed on to the single operating units the invitation to participate in the research. The questionnaires, which were rigorously anonymous, were distributed to the workers one by one by the researchers. The sampling carried out was a non-probabilistic one, according to the quota sampling technique (Corbetta, 2003; McBurney & White, 2007). The sampling involved 299 subjects of both genders, of which 111 were males (37.1%) and 188 females

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(62.9%), with traditional and atypical contracts. In particular, 64.9% of the subjects have a permanent contract (n = 194), while 35.1% have an atypical contract (n = 105). 92.2% of the sample (n = 272) is aged between 18 and 35, while the remaining (n = 27) are between 36 and 65. The level of education is average–high: only 8.9% of the subjects has a qualification below a high school diploma. As far as seniority is concerned, 45.1% of the subjects interviewed have been working at the University for less than five years, 34.7% have been in service from 6 to 15 years, and finally 20.2% have been working there for more than 15 years. Procedure All the subjects participated voluntarily in the survey, and the time taken to complete the protocols was about 30 minutes. Each interviewee was asked to complete the questionnaire enclosing a brief socio-data card, which included information on the variables gender, age, professional state and contract typology (traditional or atypical worker). Instruments In order to gather data and assess the constructs being examined, a battery composed of two questionnaires was used, one aimed at finding job satisfaction and the other at finding professional values. Schleicher, Watt and Greguras (2004) claim that researchers who study organizations tend to oversimplify the conceptualization and operationality of job satisfaction. In the majority of studies of organizational behavior, job satisfaction is operationalized through various items included in a satisfaction scale which combine into one score, or through different items which create multiple scores linked to different aspects of satisfaction (Spector, 1997). The underlying presumption is, in both cases, that this single score (or the total of the scores linked to different aspects) provides a complete representation of how satisfied individuals feel about their job (Schleicher, Watt & Greguras, 2004). An ad hoc scale was built in order to measure job satisfaction (OJSQ, Overall Job Satisfaction Questionnaire), starting from Schleicher, Watt and Greguras’s (2004) work, where the authors suggest that since “pure” measures of professional affective and cognitive satisfaction do not exist (Fisher, 2003; Weiss, 2002), the two measures of job satisfaction currently available and which better meet the assessment tests are the Overall Job Satisfaction Scale (OJS; Brayfield & Rothe, 1951) and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ; Weiss, Dawis, England & Lofquist, 1967). The OJS is more affective-based and includes questions relating to emotional reactions at work, whereas the MSQ is more cognitive-based and consists of a list of working conditions which the respondent is asked to consider without taking the emotional aspect into consideration (e.g. Moorman, 1993; Schleicher, Watt & Greguras, 2004). The QSLG is composed of 16 items on the Likert scale with seven steps drawn from the OJS and the MSQ,

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translated and adapted from F. Marini1, aiming at finding the emotional and cognitive aspects linked to job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Seven items have been added aimed at measuring job satisfaction in relation to certain specific organizational variables, quality of relations, salary, recognition of the results gained, perception of the usefulness of one’s role, career opportunities, job security, and organizational training. The Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ) by Schwartz et al. (Schwartz, 2005; Schwartz, Melech, Lehmann, Burgess & Harris, 2001) was used to find personal values in the Italian version by Capanna, Vecchione & Schwartz (2005). This instrument has recently been submitted for conformational analysis in the Italian context (Vecchione, Casconi & Barbaranelli, in press). The PVQ is composed of 40 items on the seven-step Likert scale, each of which supplies a portrait of a typical person and his/her objectives, goals, or desires, in order to give an outline of the ten valorial types in the many aspects which characterize each of the ten values originally proposed by Schwartz (1992). The dimensions covered in the questionnaire are: “Openness to change” (composed of the motivational self-direction and stimulation types) which describes people who give particular importance to independence of thought and to creativity, and who prefer new and challenging situations; “Conservatism” (which includes tradition, conformism, and security) is typical of those who give greater importance to stability and harmony and who prefer respect for the rules according to the dictates of tradition and the social rules in force; “Self-assertion” (which includes success, power, and hedonism) which diffuses values according to which individuals consider relevant both personal power and the possibility of controlling others, together with the need for success; “Self-transcendence” (which includes leniency and universalism) is typical of those who give particular importance to the values linked to the valorization and defence of people and nature’s well-being.

Data analysis The Analysis in Principal Components (APC) was applied to the answers gathered by the Overall Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (OJSQ), which highlighted a bipolar mono-factorial structure. Its positive polarity corresponds to a condition of professional satisfaction, in opposition to negative polarity, which implies a condition of dissatisfaction. The identified solution explains 36.5% of the variability and presents a good coefficient of reliability (.879). Through the calculation of the factorial score a new variable was identified related to the dimension of Overall Job Satisfaction. For descriptive purposes, the average aggregate score was calculated related to the factor Overall Job Satisfaction, the value of which is equal to 4.79% with a standard deviation of 1.06 on a seven-step scale. The subjects who responded to the questionnaire are on average quite satisfied.

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Since the confirmational analysis in the Italian context of the Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ) by Schwartz in the Italian version by Capanna, Vecchione and Schwartz (2005) is still being perfected (Vecchione, Casconi & Barbaranelli, in press), in order to calculate the factorial structure of the questionnaire, an Analysis of the Principal Components was applied, with a varimax orthogonal rotation. Through the APC four main components were extrapolated, corresponding to the four general dimensions identified by Schwartz (1992), which show good reliability: Openness to Change (α = .845), Self-improvement (α = .819), Self-transcendence (α = .780), Conservatism (α = .842). The identified solution explains 45.5% of the total variance. Successively, the possible linear relations among these dimensions were analyzed, through the calculation of Pearson’s r coefficient of correlation. What emerges from the analysis is that the factor Self-transcendence of the PVQ positively correlates, even if weakly (r = .165; p < .05), with the factor Overall Job Satisfaction, with the item S1 (Quality of relations) (r = .141; p < .05) and the item S4 (Perceived usefulness of one’s role) (r = .153; p <.05). The PVQ component Openness to Change correlates directly, although weakly again, with the item S2 (Salary) (r = .127; p < .05) and with the item S6 (Job security) (r = .125; p < .05). The factor Self-improvement positively and weakly correlates with the item S3 (Acknowledgement of the results gained) (r = .128; p < .05), with the item S5 (Career opportunity) with the item S5 (r = .117; p < .05) and S6 (Job security) (r = .141; p < .05). The factor Overall Job Satisfaction presents direct correlations with all seven single items which survey satisfaction in relation to certain organizational variables, just as they show among themselves significant, and at times high, direct correlation coefficients. The research proceeded by applying the variance analysis (both multivaried and monovaried, in one or more directions) in order to highlight possible differences in the statements of the interviewees in relation to the socio-data variables (gender, age bracket, contractual type, seniority service bracket, qualifications). For conciseness, the most significant and interesting results are presented below. In order to identify the heterogeneous assessments concerning the dimensions surveyed by the subjects with different types of contracts (atypical contracts versus traditional contracts) and with diversified seniority of service, a monovaried analysis of the factorial variance was carried out, having as factors the contractual typology and the seniority of service bracket respectively (drawing 2 × 3), and as dependent variables, the four components of the PVQ and the Overall Job Satisfaction factor respectively. The choice of a monovaried ANOVA derives from the orthogonal calculation of the dimensions drawn from the PVQ. The analysis highlights a significant effect of the contractual typology (F (1.292) = 8.610; p < .01), on the variable “Openness to change”, linked to the fact that atypical workers present a significantly higher average with respect to traditional workers. Concerning the variable “Conservatism”, the significant factor found was seniority of

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service (F (2.292) = 3.566; p < .05), given that the subjects who have been working for a longer period within the organization have a significantly higher average compared to their colleagues with less seniority. In relation to the factor Overall Job Satisfaction, the analysis highlights an effect of the contractual typology (F (1.292) = 4.650; p < .05), given that atypical workers present a significantly higher average with respect to traditional workers. Furthermore, a multivaried analysis of variance in four directions was applied, having as factors gender, contractual typology, qualifications, and organizational seniority bracket respectively (drawing 2 × 2 × 2 × 3). The dependant variables consisted of seven single items on professional satisfaction. A multivaried effect was found with the variable qualifications (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.947, df = 7.268, p < .05), of the interaction among the variables contractual typology * qualifications (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.942, df = 7.268, p < .05), gender * seniority bracket (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.908, df = 14.536, p < .05). At the monovaried level, a significant effect of the variable qualifications was noticed on the item S6 (F (1.274) = 5.406; p<.05); in fact, the subjects with a degree present an average score on the job security condition that was higher compared to their colleagues with lower qualifications. Still at the monovaried level, a significant effect is highlighted of the interaction contractual typology * qualifications always on the item S6 (F (1.274) = 3.870; p < .05). In this case, traditional workers present levels of satisfaction for similar job security conditions, whether they have higher or lower qualifications; in contrast, in atypical workers, the satisfaction for job security condition is higher in those who have a university diploma. Still at the monovaried level, we registered the effect of the interaction gender * seniority bracket on the item S2 (F (2.274) = 3.198; p < .05). We observed that satisfaction with regard to the salary is higher in women with higher seniority service, while for men in the same bracket, the level of satisfaction with regard to income is significantly inferior. In the seniority brackets of the subjects who have been employed for less than 15 years, significant differences between men and women were not found. In order to understand which of the specific aspects of practice has a significant role in predicting the level of overall job satisfaction of a worker, a Multiple Linear Regression was applied (Backward method). In our model the predictors are seven single items of satisfaction and the criterion is constituted by the score related to the dimension Overall Job Satisfaction. The analysis presents a high R2 (R = 0.724; Adj R2 = 0.516; Std.Er.Estime = 0.687) and a significant prediction model (F (5.292) = 64.418; p < .001), Keeping as predictors of the variable criteria in the model the items S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, relating respectively to: quality of relations (β = 0.191 ; t = 4.339 ; p<.05) , salary (β = –0.096 ; t = –2.041 ; p < .05), recognition of the results gained (β = 0.256 ; t = 4.582; p < .05), perceived usefulness of the role (β = 0.362; t = 7.198; p < .05), and career opportunity (β = 0.188; t = 3.625; p < .05). The item which outweighs the others in predicting the criterion is

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208 Silvia De Simone and Marina Mondo

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S4 (perceived usefulness of the role) and, secondly, S3 (recognition of the results gained). What is notable is that all the predictors have a positive relation with the criterion, except for the item S2, relating to the satisfaction with regard to salary. The same regression analysis (using the same predictors and the same criterion) was applied separately to the group of atypical workers and to the traditional workers, in order to highlight possible differences in the survey. As regards traditional workers, the R2 value is quite high, similar to that found in the whole sample (R = 0.715; Adj R2 = 0.499; Std.Er.Estime = 0.721). The regression model is always significant and the best predictors identified are the same as those found in the whole sample (items S1, S2, S3, S4, S5). In this case too, the item S2 (related to income satisfaction) is inversely related to the criterion, so that when the overall satisfaction score increases, the score relating to the S2 item decreases. In the group of atypical workers, the value R2 is higher compared to the whole sample (R = 0.756; Adj R2 = 0.555; Std.Er.Estime = 0.637). The prediction model is always significant, but the numbers of predictors is inferior compared to the previous findings; it concerns the items S1, S3, S4, and S5 (not including the item S2, salary satisfaction). In this case all the predictors have a direct relation with the criterion, so that when the scores of the single items increase, the overall satisfaction score increases proportionally too. Successively, the Non Hierarchical (K-Means) Cluster Analysis was applied, finding four clusters. The first cluster, the “Ambitious”, is composed of 77 subjects who have a low score in Self-transcendence, a low level of Overall Job Satisfaction for the Table 16.1 Traditional workers Predictors S1) Quality of relations S2) Salary S3) Recognition of the results gained S4) Perceived usefulness of one’s role S5) Career opportunity

b

es

beta

t

sig

.094 –.083 .134 .254 .102

.039 .036 .039 .039 .040

.134 –.146 .238 .425 .180

2.411 –2.284 3.425 6.534 2.520

.017 .023 .001 .000 .013

b

es

beta

t

sig

.192 .111 .182 .157

.053 .054 .048 .045

.267 .198 .308 .274

3.629 2.048 3.806 3.494

.000 .043 .000 .001

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Table 16.2 Atypical workers Predictors S1) Quality of relations S3) Recognition of the results gained S4) Perceived usefulness of one’s role S5) Career opportunity

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Table 16.3 Chart of the main characteristics of the four clusters

n

Denomination

1

77 Low satisfaction, low self-transcendence, high self-improvement, high openness to change

Young male gender

Ambitious

2

84 Low conservatism, low self-improvement, high self-transcendence

Young and adult, female gender, degree, atypical workers

Idealist

3

91 High conservatism, high satisfaction, low openness to change

Adults, low qualifications, traditional workers

Conformist

4

47 Low self-transcendence, low openness to change, low satisfaction

Adults, female gender, low qualifications, traditional workers

Disillusioned

current working situation and a high score in the scales of Self-improvement and Openness to Change. These subjects are mainly young, belonging to the male gender. The second cluster, the “Idealists”, includes 84 workers who mainly have a degree, are young or adults, and mainly belong to the female gender, the majority being employed with an atypical contract. These individuals are characterized by high scores in the Self-transcendence scale, a low score in Self-improvement and low Conservatism. The third cluster, the “Conformists”, includes 91 workers who are distinguished by their high level of Conservatism, low Openness to Change, and a substantial level of Overall Job Satisfaction. These subjects have low qualifications, they are adults, and have permanent contracts. The fourth and last cluster, the “Disillusioned”, consists of a smaller group of individuals (n = 47), who have low levels of Overall Job Satisfaction, low Openness to Change, and low levels of Self-transcendence. These subjects also have low qualifications, they belong to the category of traditional workers, they are of mature years, and mainly belong to the female gender.

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Characterizing elements

Socio-data characteristics

Cluster

Discussion and conclusions The results obtained suggest interesting ideas concerning the level of satisfaction of atypical and traditional workers belonging to the organization in question, in relation to personal life values and certain socio-data dimensions.

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The overall job satisfaction of the subjects interviewed takes shape as a mono-factorial bipolar structure whose positive polarity corresponds to a condition of professional satisfaction condition, in contrast to negative polarity which implies a condition of dissatisfaction. Previous research has identified different factors predicting job satisfaction (Grandey, Cordeiro & Crouter, 2005), sometimes traced to the characteristics of the job (Hackman & Oldham, 1976), at others to the working situation (Sundstrom, 1986), at others again to the personal dispositions of the worker (Staw & Ross, 1985; Arvey, Bouchard, Segal & Abraham, 1989). The workers who are involved in the research feel quite satisfied in relation to certain dimensions linked to the working situation (Sundstrom, 1986) such as the quality of relations, the perceived usefulness of their role, the salary, the recognition of the results gained and the conditions of job security. The subjects interviewed feel less satisfied with the career opportunities offered by their organization and with the opportunities for taking part in training courses aimed at implementing professional competences. Concerning career promotions, the low level of satisfaction could be linked to the prevailing mechanism of exam procedures, which do not favor flexible career development. In this case too, salary, as mentioned in the literature, does not constitute a unique and essential element of satisfaction: in fact the subjects feel more gratified by elements connected with relations with colleagues and superiors and by the possibility of feeling useful and appreciated. The organizational aspects considered, as the literature suggests, all turn out to be predictors of overall job satisfaction, except for the variable “organizational training”, probably because this is not given enough value in the context in which the research was carried out. In fact, the current training plan of the University does not contemplate the inclusion of training on entry, which would be useful for job socialization in general and would favor particularly good role integration. In particular, the predictors of job satisfaction in traditional workers appear to be “quality of relations”, “salary”, “recognition of the results gained”, “perceived usefulness of the role”, and “career opportunities”. The perceived usefulness of the role and, secondly, the recognition of the results obtained, appear to be the variables that better predict the general satisfaction of the subjects with a permanent contract. All the predictors have a positive relation with general satisfaction, except for the item relating to salary satisfaction. This data appears to be quite strange, presumably indicating that the professional satisfaction of the subjects who work in the public organization in the study has an inverse relation with salary satisfaction, recognized as being among the lowest in the Italian context and not linked to the results obtained. Furthermore, the influence of reward on satisfaction depends on how far it communicates positive information about selfconception (Thierry, 1984), the symbolic meaning given to it and shared by the members of the organization (Avallone, 2007). In the atypical workers group, the predictors of job satisfaction are all the organizational variables

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identified for traditional workers, except for salary. The workers who belong to this category probably have priorities and expectations which are different from their working situation, which is perceived as precarious (Ferrari & Veglio, 2006). Therefore, what becomes a priority for these subjects is to build good relations, feel useful and appreciated for future “career opportunities”, which for them as atypical workers can mean the possibility of obtaining a permanent contract. The atypical workers interviewed perceive their organization as capable of satisfying their expectations, especially in relation to the opportunity of gaining a permanent post in the organization. In fact, some authors claim that the various forms of compensation do not influence job satisfaction, but that the clarity of organizational procedures and trust in the organization do (Lau & Sholihin, 2005). The results related to personal values are in line with previous research, which describes the valorial universe of individuals using the dimensions identified by Schwartz (Schwartz, 1992, 1994, 2007; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987; Schwartz & Huismans, 1995; Schwartz & Sagiv, 1995; Schwartz & Bardi, 2001; Aavik & Allik, 2002; Kasser & Ahuvia, 2002). What emerges particularly is that atypical workers present average scores which are higher than traditional ones in the dimension “openness to change”, while senior workers obtain higher scores in the dimension “conservatism”. The atypical workers in our sample consider independence of thought and creativity fundamental and tend to favor situations perceived as new and challenging. The senior workers interviewed, that is, the subjects who have been longer in the organization, attribute particular importance to values linked to stability, respect for rules, conformism, and tradition. In line with some studies in the literature (McDonald & Makin, 2000; Mauno et al., 2005) the atypical workers interviewed appear to be more satisfied than traditional workers. This result can be explained if we refer to the peculiar characteristics of the organizational context where the research was carried out. The atypical workers interviewed carry out highly specialized tasks, have key roles with respect to the organizational objectives and they manage high power and autonomous spaces (Avallone, 2007). Consequently, they perceive themselves as being particularly useful in achieving organizational goals and as having the possibility, eventually, of obtaining a permanent relation with the organization. The satisfaction rating for salary is higher in senior women, whereas men with the same level of seniority have a significantly lower level of satisfaction for their income. The relation between job satisfaction and gender has been analyzed frequently in the literature, producing incongruent results: some studies show that women are more satisfied than men, while others show the opposite; others again claim that men and women have the same level of satisfaction (Chiu, 1998). The subjects interviewed have been grouped into four categories which confirm the description of the main characteristics in terms of values and satisfaction of the subjects sampled. The most numerous, the “conformists”,

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subjects with low scholastic education and with a traditional contract, are characterized by a high level of conservatism, low openness to change, and high job satisfaction. These subjects epitomize the stereotype of the Italian public worker who holds conformist and traditional values that fit the characteristics of traditional public organizations (Sangiorgi, 2008). “The idealists”, mainly women with atypical contracts and high qualifications, characterized by low conservatism and self-improvement, and high self-transcendence, represent those who believe that change, underway in public organizations, is both worth wishing for and realizable. “The ambitious” – men who are not very content with their job and with low self-transcendence, high selfimprovement and openness to change – believe in the change in progress and probably take steps for it to happen, although they feel dissatisfied with the time the organization is taking to realize the process of reorganization. Lastly, “the disillusioned”, mainly women with low scholastic education and with a traditional contract, not really content with the current situation, characterized by low self-transcendence and openness to change, probably experience their job situation passively and perceive the change in progress negatively. Future research developments could include further variables to investigate the comparison between atypical workers and traditional workers, such as stress and other pathologies linked to the world of work (Ito & Brotheridge, 2001; Metcalfe & Smith, 2003), the reconciliation of working life/private life (Bosio, Lozza & Graffigna, 2006; Salmieri, 2006), the construction of working identity (Rizza, 2003; Chicchi, 2002), quality of life (Sarchielli, 2003), and the psychological contract with the organization (Ferrari & Veglio, 2006).

Note 1. Franco Marini, Professor of Work and Organization Psychology at the University of Studies of Cagliari.

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Mauno, S., Kinnunen, U., Mäkikangas, A., & Nätti, J. (2005). Psychological consequences of fixed term employment and perceived job insecurity among health care staff. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 14, 209–237. McBurney, D., & White, T. L. (2007). Research Methods. Belmont: Thomas/ Wadsworth. McDonald, D. J., & Makin, P. J. (2000). The psychological contract, organizational commitment and job satisfaction of temporary staff. Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, 21, 84–91. Metcalfe, C. & Smith, G. (2003). Frequent job change and associated health. Social Science and Medicine, 56 (1), 1–15. Moorman, R. H. (1993). The influence of cognitive and affective based job satisfaction measures on the relationship between satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. Human Relations, 46, 759–776. Parker, S. K., Griffin, M. A., Sprigg, C. A., & Wall, T. D. (2002). Effect of temporary contracts on perceived work characteristics and job strain: A longitudinal study. Personnel psychology, 55, 689–719. Rizza, R. (2003). Il Lavoro Mobile. Roma: Carocci. Salmieri, L. (2006). Coppie Flessibili. Milano:Cortina Editore. Sangiorgi, G. (Ed.) (2008). Management e Governance nella Pubblica Amministrazione. Milano: Franco Angeli. Sarchielli, G. (2003). Psicologia del Lavoro. Bologna: Il Mulino. Schleicher, D. J., Watt, J. D., & Greguras, G. J. (2004). Reexamining the Job Satisfation– Perfomance Relationship: The Complexity of Attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89 (1), 165–177. Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical Perspective. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48, 1–21. Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the content and structure of values? Journal of Social Issues, 50, 19–45. Schwartz, S. H. (2005). Basic human values: Their content and structure across countries. In A. Tamayo & J. B. Porto (Eds.), Valores e Comportamento nas Organizaçoes (21–55). Petròpolis, Brazil: Vozes. Schwartz, S. H. (2007). Basic human values: theory, methods, and application. Risorsa Uomo, 2, 261–283. Schwartz, S. H. & Bardi, A. (2001). Values hierarchies across cultures: Taking a similarities perspective. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 268–290. Schwartz, S. H. & Bilsky, W. (1987). Toward a universal psychological structure of human values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 550–562. Schwartz, S. H. & Huismans, S. (1995). Value priorities and religiosity in four western religions. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58, 88–107. Schwartz, S. H., Melech, G., Lehmann, A., Burgess, S., & Harris, M. (2001). Extending the cross-cultural validity of the theory of basic human values with a different method of measurement. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 32. Schwartz, S. H. & Sagiv, L. (1995). Identifying culture specifics in the content and structure of values. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 92–116. Sparrow, P. (2000). New employee behaviours, work design and forms of work organization. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15, 202–218. Spector, P. E. (1997). Job Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Causes, and Consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Staw, B. M. & Ross, J. (1985). Stability in the midst of change: a dispositional approach to job attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70 (3), 469–480.

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Sundstrom, E. (1986). Work Places: The Psychology of the Physical Environment in Offices and Factories. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sverke, M., Hellgren, J., & Näswall, K. (2002). No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7, 242–264 Thierry, B. (1984). Clasping behaviour in Macaca tonkeana. Behaviour, 89, 1–28. Weiss, D. J., Davis, R. S., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation, XXII. Weiss, H. M. (2002). Deconstructing job satisfaction: Separating evaluations, beliefs and affective experiences. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 173–194. Zappalà, S., Sarchielli, G., & Depolo, M. (2006). Il lavoro senza protezione: stili e progetti di vita di lavoratori contingenti. In L. Ferrari & O. Veglio (Ed.), Donne e Uomini nel Mercato del Lavoro Atipico. La Dimensione Psicologica e di Genere del Lavoro Precario e Flessibile. Milano: Franco Angeli.

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Part IV

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Work–Life Balance

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17 Simona Ricotta, Claudio G. Cortese and Chiara Ghislieri

Introduction Individual well-being is an important issue for organizations, and consequently management is involved in multiple politically responsible actions aimed at improving employees’ well-being and the quality of their working lives (Pitt-Catsouphes & Googins, 2005). Organizational commitment to take care of individual well-being has become both an ethical issue, as a result of the growing demand for social responsibility, and a business issue, in pursuit of an increase in motivation and performance (Patterson, West, Lawthom & Nickell, 1997). In order to improve the quality of life of their employees, organizations can take action at different levels (Davis & Kalleberg, 2006), as follows: ● ● ●

●

organizational policies; job design; employment contracts (providing, for example, flexible schedules, parttime hours, telecommuting); and training and counselling to support an employee’s career and development.

Moreover, organizations can plan actions that have a more specific focus, for example, offering: ●

●

●

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Perceived Utility of Welfare Initiatives in an Italian Multinational Corporation

economic benefits (social security, insurance policy, loans or easy payment terms for house purchase); time-saving services, inside or outside the organization (online shopping, providing staff to carry out private errands, etc.); services for employees’ families (on-site child care or nursery and kindergarten in convention with the company; agreements with nursing homes for elder care); 219

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220 Simona Ricotta, Claudio G. Cortese and Chiara Ghislieri

● ●

training or entertainment initiatives for employees’ families (especially for children); agreements with public bodies for leisure time opportunities; and health, fitness and wellness centres inside the company, or by arrangement with another provider.

The expression “family-friendly” (Veiga, Baldridge & Eddleston, 2004) is used to refer to those initiatives aimed at improving work–life integration, and reducing work–life conflicts (Thompson & Beauvais, 2000; Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness 1999) that are considered to be a source of negative emotions, stress, poor performance, and dissatisfaction (Small & Riley, 1990; Kossek, Colquitt & Noe, 2001). These family-friendly initiatives are currently available in many larger organizations. Introducing them in small to medium organizations is more problematic and depends on their sustainability and on financial resources. It is generally difficult without public support. Organizational interest in welfare initiatives is growing (Lewis, 1997) and is certainly an indicator of an increased focus on and sensitivity towards the quality of work and private life. However, understanding the impact on employees’ satisfaction and motivation is presently affected by poor monitoring on perceived utility and efficacy. Research on how people respond to welfare programmes is indispensable, and this is important for many reasons: orientating future investment, understanding why some initiatives are not exploited, and avoiding the introduction of fake and “façade” initiatives. The literature has identified interesting differences in the evaluation of initiatives depending on personal data. For example, Thompson et al. (1999) found that women with children evaluate initiatives as more useful and effective, that they use them most and that they take more advantage of them compared to men or women without children. Budd and Mumford (2006) found that married people with children, with high levels of education, in high-level professional occupations and with longer job tenure, evaluate organizational initiatives as more accessible. Studies conducted in different countries suggest the presence of positive consequences deriving from the introduction of some welfare initiatives. Availability, accessibility and perceived utility of welfare initiatives are associated with well-being (Lapierre & Allen, 2006) and job satisfaction (Allen, 2001). Results on the availability of family-friendly initiatives indicate positive direct and indirect effects. Family-friendly initiatives have a positive influence on commitment, organizational citizenship and productivity (Galinsky & Stein, 1990), and also reduce absenteeism and turnover. Moreover, family-friendly initiatives improve quality of life through the reduction of work–life conflict (Netemeyer, McMurrian & Boles, 1996). As a result of all these consequences, organizations offering welfare or family-friendly initiatives are more able to attract human resources and skills (Greenblatt, 2002).

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While the existence of positive effects of welfare initiatives is well-documented, it is also possible that there are negative outcomes, deriving, for instance, from inadequate attention during any stage of the process: the needs analysis, the planning, or even the communication of the planned initiatives (Cortese, Ghislieri & Quaglino, 2008). In order to limit or avoid negative consequences, the literature points out some issues that should be carefully considered. Firstly, family-friendly initiatives must be designed to reduce rather than accentuate differences among employees. This is particularly important for those initiatives, such as telecommuting or part-time working, that fundamentally modify work conditions. These initiatives can be a real support for work–life balance but can become a disadvantage when they obstruct career progression or legitimate the gender gap in compensation or the sharing of care activities and housework, instead of reducing it (Smithson, Lewis, Cooper & Dyer, 2004). Secondly, some authors consider the risk that family-friendly policies could create a backlash of resentment among employees who do not need those benefits or who are not beneficiaries because they do not have access to them (Kossek & Nichol, 1992; Rothausen, Gonzalez, Clarke, & Odell, 1998). In fact, access to welfare initiatives is subject to some restrictions deriving from personal (e.g. kindergarten is useful only for parents of preschool children) or professional characteristics (e.g. some initiatives are offered only to specific organizational divisions or headquarters). In order to take advantage of the introduction of family-friendly initiatives and to avoid negative consequences, it is important to plan them from a diversity management perspective, thus guaranteeing equity and equality while supporting fairness perceptions (Grandey, 2001; Harris, 1997). The utility and efficacy of welfare policies are connected to: the phase of needs analysis conducted before the introduction of the initiatives; the monitoring of identified needs, since they may change according to changes among the employees; the adoption of a diversity management perspective in order to satisfy targeted needs; the perception of a satisfying equity experience (in terms of both the workplace and welfare initiatives). Moreover, it is important to clarify (Cortese, Ghislieri & Quaglino, 2008) that the perception of a workplace as family-friendly depends not only on the availability of the initiatives, but also on the presence of a supportive familyfriendly culture, characterized by values and practices aimed at supporting work–life balance (Thompson et al., 1999). This implies the presence of: ●

●

●

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a positive environment and an organizational culture that enhances individual differences and needs; a relationship with colleagues and supervisors that is respectful of nonwork responsibilities; and work processes and practices that support work–life balance.

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Moreover, Allen (2001) defines as “supportive” an organization with supportive leaders and with accessible benefits. Thompson et al. (1999) and Thompson and Beauvais (2000) point out that the implementation of welfare programmes, and especially of family-friendly initiatives, can be problematic in the case of a non-supportive/non-family-friendly organizational culture. Schein’s theory (1985) represents a useful theoretical framework for investigating organizational culture and organizational attitude toward employees’ well-being and work–life balance. In this framework, welfare or family-friendly initiatives and benefits are considered as visible “artefacts” that are the actual expressions of deeper elements such as values, strategies, ideologies and assumptions. The perception of incoherence between organizational culture and welfare initiatives can bring about the perception of a low level of accessibility and utility for these initiatives. In contrast, the initiatives considered accessible and useful are those offered by organizations with a culture in which: ●

●

the job is evaluated on quality and not on working hours, and personal/ family responsibilities do not obstruct career opportunities; and supervisors are respectful, able to support and listen to employees, sensitive to work-family issues, attentive to extra-work responsibilities, flexible in managing their co-workers (Behson, 2002), informed about organizational initiatives and work-family balance policies, and supportive in encouraging the use of welfare initiatives.

Problem statement The research was conducted in an Italian multinational telecommunications and media company, with three aims: (1) to examine the perceived utility of welfare initiatives offered by the organization; (2) to examine the differences in perceived utility of welfare initiatives based on personal and professional characteristics; (3) to examine the relation between perceived utility and variables such as job satisfaction and motivation.

Method

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222 Simona Ricotta, Claudio G. Cortese and Chiara Ghislieri

Participants The sample consisted of 49,765 subjects, with the following characteristics: ● ●

●

gender: 75.5% men; 24.2% women; length of service: 10.4% with 0–5 years; 11.1% with 6–10 years; 40.1% with 11–20 years; 38.5% with more than 20 years; professional level: 87.2% office worker; 7.8% professional; 2.8% factory worker; 2.2% manager;

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professional group: 43.8% technical services; 26.8% marketing; 7.3% information technology; 4.1% administration and control; 18.0% others; business unit: 93.8% operations; 4.1% corporate; 1.1% office products; 0.9% media.

Procedure and measures

Utility of welfare solutions: ad hoc scale, 14 items. Participants were asked to answer the following question: “Thinking about work–life balance, please mark how each of these initiatives is useful to you in improving your quality of life, using a scale from 1 (low utility) to 7 (high utility)”. Facet job satisfaction: 32 items, 1 (minimal satisfaction) to 7 (maximum satisfaction) point scale (Cortese, 2005a). Global job satisfaction: single item, 1 (not satisfied) to 10 (completely satisfied) point scale (Cortese & Quaglino, 2006). Work motivation: 6 items, 1 (weak motivation) to 7 (strong motivation) point scale (Cortese, 2005b). Statistical analysis Data analysis included descriptive statistics of items and scale (mean, standard deviation, asymmetry and kurtosis). The reliability of each scale was assessed with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Analysis of variance (post hoc LSD) was used in order to evaluate differences in the perceived utility of welfare solutions based on personal and professional characteristics. The relationship between variables was evaluated through analysis of correlation (Pearson’s r). Data analysis was conducted with SPSS, version 12.0.

Results The first aim of the research was to examine the perceived utility of 14 welfare initiatives offered to employees by the organization. Employees were asked to evaluate the utility of welfare initiatives from 1 (low utility) to 7 (high utility). In order to make the initiatives more recognizable, examples of the services offered were included, where applicable. The results (Table 17.1) show an overall positive evaluation of utility regarding welfare initiatives offered by the company. Initiatives that support families through economic benefits (such as loans and medical insurance), or through the provision of child care (for example, in the company nursery) are those that are most appreciated. Initiatives that introduce a flexible schedule or work-time (temporary part-time working and hour bank) are also evaluated as particularly useful. Less appreciated, but still positively evaluated, are initiatives for leisure time.

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Data were collected through the administration of an online questionnaire. The questionnaire included four sections:

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Table 17.1 Perceived utility of welfare initiatives – results for each initiative (1–7 point scale)

Medical insurance Loans Temporary part-time working Hour bank Nursery (on-site child care) Transport facilities Education for children of employees Initiatives for children of employees Agreements and conventions Time-saving services Association for leisure activities Social initiatives Fitness and wellness centres Ante-natal courses

6.13 5.74 5.53 5.50 5.49 5.41 5.41 5.18 5.06 4.94 4.93 4.80 4.73 4.50

SD 1.29 1.50 1.48 1.50 1.70 1.66 1.51 1.54 1.65 1.71 1.66 1.77 1.76 1.77

Table 17.2 Perceived utility of welfare initiatives – results for initiatives in categories (1–7 point scale) Mean Economic benefits (2 items) Solutions for mothers/fathers (3 items) Activities for children (2 items) General services (3 items) Opportunities for leisure time (3 items) Ante-natal courses (1 item) Welfare policies

5.91 5.47 5.28 5.10 4.77 4.50 5.17

SD 2.61 4.36 2.87 4.45 4.50 1.77 1.32

The second aim of the research was to examine differences in the perceived utility of welfare initiatives in relation to personal and professional characteristics. In order to simplify this, similar initiatives were grouped together, and descriptive analysis (Table 17.2) and variance analysis were conducted using the following categorization: ● ●

●

●

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Mean

economic benefits: loans; medical insurance; solutions for mothers/fathers: temporary part-time working; hour bank; nursery facilities; activities for children: initiatives and education for children of employees; general services: agreements and conventions; transport facilities, timesaving services;

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Perceived Utility of Welfare Initiatives ●

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opportunities for leisure time: fitness and wellness centres; social initiatives; association for leisure activities; ante-natal courses.

●

●

●

gender – women evaluate all the initiatives more positively, especially economic benefits [F(1, 49,424) = 478.60], solutions for mothers/fathers [F(1, 48,959) = 1541.88], and opportunities for leisure time [F(1, 49,265) = 205.01]; professional level – there are no differences in the evaluation of solutions for mothers/fathers, which are appreciated by everyone regardless of professional qualification. Some differences can be observed in the evaluation of other initiatives. Compared to managers and professionals, office and factory workers evaluate less positively activities for employees’ children [F(2, 49,247) = 10.26], economic benefits [F(2, 49,323) = 104.92], and general services [F(2, 49,066) = 51.56]. In contrast, office and factory workers appreciate leisure opportunities more than managers and professionals [F(2, 49,164) = 25.98]; professional group – solutions for mothers and fathers [F(3, 45,587) = 151.34] and general services [F(3, 45,794) = 137.55] are appreciated less by technical services employees. Economic benefits [F(3, 46,031) = 67.70] and opportunities for leisure time [F(3, 45,881) = 44.52] are appreciated more by those who work in marketing, particularly compared with staff in technical services and information technology.

The third aim of the research was to examine the presence and the degree of a correlation between perceived utility and variables such as job satisfaction and motivation. Correlation analysis (Pearson’s r) shows that perceived Table 17.3 Correlations between utility of welfare policies, facet job satisfaction, global job satisfaction, and work motivation 1.

2.

3.

4.

1. Utility of welfare solutions – 2. Facet job satisfaction .28** – 3. Global job satisfaction .26** .75** – 4. Work motivation .34** .71** .72** – M 5.17 (1–7 3.93 (1–10 6.21 (1–7 4.96 (1–7 point scale) point scale) point scale) point scale) SD 1.32 1.18 2.35 1.42 Cronbach’s alpha .94 .97 .90

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Variance analysis (evaluated with post hoc LSD) shows multiple differences (p < .001) according to demographic variables, as follows:

**p<.001.

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226 Simona Ricotta, Claudio G. Cortese and Chiara Ghislieri

utility of welfare solutions (**p < .001) is related to facet job satisfaction (.28**), global job satisfaction (.26**), and work motivation (.34**).

Regarding the first aim of the research, the results demonstrate positive evaluation for all the initiatives planned and offered by the company to support employees’ work–life balance and well-being. With reference to the ranking, it is interesting to note that economic benefits are the initiatives that are most appreciated, and opportunities for leisure time are the least appreciated, especially initiatives relating to personal care within the company. This result implies a wish to keep personal time separate from the workplace. Moreover, initiatives supporting child care are particularly valued: these initiatives can both fill a gap in public welfare provision and be advantageous from an economic point of view. In relation to the second aim of the research, the results show that, depending on their personal and professional characteristics, employees give different utility evaluations for the same initiatives. These results suggest the necessity of diversifying the initiatives offered in order to satisfy varying needs. The differences observed highlight the importance of all actions supporting family life, especially those aimed at facilitating child care or those providing financial aid. Diversifying the offer of welfare initiatives increases the probability of each employee finding at least one initiative, or one aspect of an initiative, useful for his or her own needs. Consequently, this increases positive effects and reduces risks and negative effects – such as the experience of inequity – of initiatives. With regard to the third aim of the research, the results show a positive correlation between perceived utility of welfare initiatives and job satisfaction and motivation. These results suggest that perceived utility for welfare initiatives could play a role in improving commitment and well-being dynamics, of which satisfaction is an indicator. The importance of introducing family-friendly initiatives is also related to evidence of their positive effects in reducing absenteeism and turnover intention (Galinsky & Stein, 1990).

Conclusion

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Discussion

These results may stimulate useful reflections for other organizations and for human resource managers interested in implementing or expanding welfare programmes. With regard to organizational processes, the study confirms the importance of a thorough phase of needs analysis and of constant monitoring, especially in order to avoid investing in fake welfare programmes and in “façade” initiatives that are unable to satisfy the needs and requirements of

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employees. It would be possible to conduct further studies with the aim of understanding the non-linear relationship explored in literature between welfare programmes and the perception of an organizational culture supporting employees’ well-being. The present study provides preliminary data relating to a large sample of employees working in different business units of a large company. It can therefore be useful for orientating some decisions, and could direct further research on welfare programmes in those organizations that want to evaluate and monitor the perceived utility of welfare initiatives (either currently offered or planned for the future). In order to monitor initiatives that are already in operation, it is advisable to obtain data relating to perceived utility, along with awareness, actual use, and satisfaction associated with each initiative. These recommendations are especially important in workplaces that are strongly characterized by changes in the labor force that could increase differences: the same employee, for instance, going through different stages during his or her life cycle, might present different needs, from those relating to child care to those relating to the care of elder parents; or, in the case of turnover, new needs will be brought in with the arrival of new employees. With reference to welfare policies and related literature, of particular importance is the relevance ascribed to the necessity of a supportive culture (Allen, 2001), which is characterized by constant and careful communication, diffusion of welfare policies, and management involvement. Managers must be involved and participate in the effort to achieve quality-of-life improvements, and they must share a thorough knowledge of the initiatives. They should be able to explain the reasons for them, to consider employees’ needs, to promote knowledge and use of welfare initiatives and to orientate the choice of initiatives; and they should be sensitive to employee reactions. These issues relate to the awareness of well-being and work–life balance as important and strategic topics in business school courses and in management training (Thompson, 2002). Finally, the relation observed between perceived utility of welfare solutions, job satisfaction and motivation indicates that there are advantages for organizations adopting these initiatives. These advantages can take the form of a “virtuous cycle” in which motivation and satisfaction support each other, sustaining and being sustained by the perception of an organization that offers useful welfare initiatives. In conclusion, some limitations and possible future directions of the research are considered. Regarding the limits of the study, it is important to note that it focused on the utility of welfare initiatives, but it could also be interesting to evaluate related variables such as employees’ knowledge of such initiatives, the effective availability of initiatives in the employees’ local workplace, and their actual use. Another limit of the research refers to the description of the

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sample, since only a few variables have been examined, and none of them relate to family characteristics. Including personal and family characteristics could be useful in order to gain a better understanding of employees’ needs in relation to child or elder care. Future directions for research could include an in-depth examination of initiatives that were less appreciated, and also the adoption of qualitative methodologies. Furthermore, research could be designed to investigate which variables influence utility perception – with particular focus on the role of organizational culture – and how, in turn, utility perception can influence organizational satisfaction and well-being. Longitudinal studies could be developed to observe changes in utility perception of familyfriendly initiatives during an employee’s life cycle, and also to analyze the possible impact of these initiatives on quality of life.

References Allen, T. D. (2001). Family-supportive work environments: The role of organizational perceptions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 414–435. Behson, S. J. (2002). Which dominates? The relative importance of work–family organizational support and general organizational context on employee outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 53–72. Budd, J. & Mumford, K. (2006). Family-friendly work practice in Britain: Availability and perceived accessibility. Human Resource Management, 45 (1), 23–42. Cortese, C. G. & Quaglino, G. P. (2006). The measurement of job satisfaction in organizations: A comparison between a facet scale and a single-item measure. Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 13 (4), 305–316. Cortese, C. G. (2005a). Soddisfazione per il lavoro. Sviluppo & Organizzazione, 206, 89–104. Cortese, C. G. (2005b). Motivare. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore. Cortese, C. G., Ghislieri, C., & Quaglino, G. P. (2008). Il welfare nelle organizzazioni: quali soluzioni per quali soggetti? Risorsa Uomo, 14 (1), 41–58. Davis, A. E. & Kalleberg, A. L. (2006). Family-friendly organizations? Work and Occupations, 33 (2), 191–223. Galinsky, E. & Stein, P. J. (1990). The impact of human resource policies on employees. The Journal of Family Issues, 11 (4), 368–383. Grandey, A. A. (2001). Family friendly policies: Organizational justice perceptions of need-based allocations. In R. Cropanzano (Ed.), Justice in the Workplace: From Theory to Practice (Vol. 2, 145–173). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Greenblatt, E. (2002). Work/life balance: Wisdom or whining. Organizational Dynamics, 31 (2), 177–193. Harris, D. (1997). The fairness furor, Working Mother, 7, 28–32. Kossek, E. E. & Nichol, V. (1992). The effects of on-site child care on employee attitudes and performance. Personnel Psychology, 45, 485–509. Kossek, E., Colquitt, J., & Noe, R. (2001). Caregiving decisions, well-being, and performance: The effects of place and provider as a function of dependent type and work–family climates. Academy of Management Journal, 44 (1), 29–44. Lapierre, L. M. & Allen, T. D. (2006). Work-supportive family, family-supportive supervision, use of organizational benefits, and problem-focused coping: Implications

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for work–family conflict and employee well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11 (2), 169–181. Lewis, S. (1997). Family friendly policies: A route to changing organizational change or playing around at the margins. Gender, Work and Organization, 4, 13–23. Netemeyer, R. G., McMurrian, R., & Boles, J. S. (1996). Development and validation of work–family conflict and family–work conflict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81 (4), 400–410. Patterson, M., West, M. A., Lawthom R., & Nickell, S. (1997). Impact of People Management Practices on Business Performance. London: Institute of Personnel and Development. Pitt-Catsouphes, M. & Googins, B. (2005). Recasting the work–family agenda as a corporate social responsibility. In E. E. Kossek & S. J. Lambert (Eds.) Work and Life Integration (469–490). Mahwah, New Jersey: Erlbaum. Rothausen, T. J., Gonzalez, J. A., Clarke, N. E., & O’Dell, L. L. (1998). Family-friendly backlash–Fact or fiction? The case of organizations’ on-site child care centres. Personnel Psychology, 51, 685–705. Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Small, S. A. & Riley, D. (1990). Toward a multidimensional assessment of work spillover into family life. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 51–61. Smithson, J., Lewis, S., Cooper, C., & Dyer, J. (2004). Flexible working and the gender pay gap in the accountancy profession. Work, Employment and Society, 18 (1), 115–135. Thompson, C. (2002). Managing the work–life balance act: an introduction exercise. Journal of Management Education, 26 (2), 205–220. Thompson, C. A., Beauvais, L. L., & Lyness, K. S. (1999). When work–family benefits are not enough: The influence of work–family culture on benefit utilization, organizational attachment, and work–family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 392–415. Thompson, C. A. & Beauvais, L. L. (2000). Work–life juggling. In D. Smith (Ed.), Women at Work: Leadership for the Next Century (162–189). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Veiga, J. F., Baldridge, D. C., & Eddleston, K. A. (2004). Toward understanding employee reluctance to participate in family-friendly programs. Human Resource Management Review, 14, 337–351.

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Perceived Utility of Welfare Initiatives

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18 Lara Colombo and Chiara Ghislieri

Introduction and problem statement The increasing attention given to the work–family interface (Colombo & Ghislieri, 2008) has been brought about by the important changes in the workforce, in terms of the greater participation of women and the number of couples where both partners have a career (Major & Germano, 2006). The research approach to this subject is changing in line with the transformations associated with the information era. While the industrial revolution tended to emphasize “separation”, the information era signals the success of convergence between different life contexts (MacDermid, 2005). Research on this topic suggests that the tension between family and work roles can become a source of stress (Thomas & Ganster, 1995), which in turn decreases psychological (Allen, Herst, Bruck & Sutton, 2000) and physical well-being (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1997). More than one study has pointed out that workers exposed to stressor agents become a cost for the organization in terms of injuries, inefficiency, and reduced productivity (Ganster & Schaubroeck, 1991). Beyond the idea that balancing different roles and generating a satisfying equilibrium is a widespread challenge (O’Driscoll, Brough, & Kalliath, 2006), a new way of interpreting the work–family relationship is being established, a way that is more oriented to grasping the reciprocal enrichment that can be achieved (Grzywacz & Bass, 2003). However, work–family conflict today represents the central construct in studies about work–family balance, because it offers a focus on possible antecedents and on possible outcomes of troublesome feelings: the effort of balancing family and vocational roles can cause work dissatisfaction (Carlson & Kacmar, 2000; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998) and depression (Noor, 2002) but it is also one of the possible determinants of absenteeism and an employee’s desire to change organization or job (Allen et al., 2000; Boyar, Maertz, Pearson & Keough, 2003).

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The Role of Work–Family Spillover in Psychological Well-being and Psychological Discomfort at Work

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Although the model of spillover has appeared in literature since Zedeck and Mosier’s review (1990), attempts to transform the construct into more complex research designs were made only recently (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000). The model is based on the idea of a high border permeability among different life domains, which does not necessarily produce negative consequences. Research, in fact, considers spillover in terms of feelings, values, abilities and behaviors that drift from one context into another (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). The main studies concentrate on emotional spillover: it can be bidirectional, positive, and/or negative. Some authors refer more to the idea of “contagion” (Stevens, Kiger, & Riley, 2006) distinguishing between forms of influence that are related to the individual moving between two contexts (spillover) and crossover influence, when the feelings of a person in a context affect the feelings of other people in another context (for instance when the work strain of one person affects the quality of life of other family members). Lately, the construct of enrichment has been associated with the construct of spillover; enrichment accounting especially for positive influence (Barnett, 1998; Barnett & Hyde, 2001; Carlson, Kacmar, Wayne & Grzywacz, 2006). Evidence suggests that multiple roles have a positive influence on individual well-being (Baruch & Barnett, 1986). This data, together with the renewed emphasis on positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentimihalyi, 2000), has induced researchers to interpret the relationship between work and family in more positive terms (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000). Recently, for instance, Grzywacz and Bass (2003) developed a new perspective on the facilitating influence between work and family that may give interesting results. Different variables influence the work–family interface: requests related to each role (Boyar et al., 2003; Carlson & Frone 2003; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Major, Klein & Ehrhart, 2002); personality (type A personality, locus of control) and coping strategies (Behson, 2002; Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Rothbard & Dumas, 2006; Wayne, Musisca, & Fleeson, 2004); emotional and instrumental family support (King, Mattimore, King & Adams, 1995); organizational family-friendly culture, and, especially, family-supportive supervisors and colleagues (Allen, 2001; Clark, 2001; Thompson, Beauvais & Lyness, 1999). There are also many variables that can moderate the relation between work–family spillover and its outcomes, but few findings related to moderating variables were found coherent and significant (O’Driscoll et al., 2006). The moderating variables mentioned in the literature are: gender, social support, coping, trust in management and negative affectivity (Colombo & Ghislieri, 2008). With regard to “gender” a special discussion is needed. Social pressure, consolidated in common cultural practices, has always emphasized women’s family role (Major, 1993). Men still seem, even today, to be offering

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only limited support (Hochschild, 1997). However, Carr (2002) pointed out that men’s and women’s strategies to cope with balance problems are becoming more similar, even though women are still those in charge of family responsibilities, choosing solutions such as part-time or tele-working. Pleck’s (1977) hypothesis of a different permeability of boundaries between women (greater invasion of family thoughts at work) and men (greater invasion of work thoughts at home) does not appear to be confirmed. Research evidence is contradictory, and cases in which conflict in the direction both W→F and F→W is greater for men are not infrequent (Kirchmeyer, 1992, 1993). Gutek, Searle and Klepa (1991) use the gender role framework to explain why women report lower level of F→W interference than men: since taking care of the family represents a traditional female role, women experience the tasks associated with home and family care less as an imposition (and consequently perform them with less effort and less difficulty). Even though research has not clearly determined any causal relation (due to the scarcity of longitudinal research), it has been shown that problems in work–family balancing have a role in determining dissatisfaction, psychological stress, and chronic health problems (Frone, 2003; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998); less involvement in the organization, fewer resources spent at work, more conflicts, ambiguity, absenteeism, and lateness (Allen et al., 2000; Frone, 2003; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998).

The purpose of the research The present study intends to: 1. focus on the relationship between work–family negative and positive spillover and psychological well-being and psychological discomfort at work; 2. evaluate the role of organizational and family supports in determining psychological well-being and psychological discomfort at work; 3. verify whether any difference in well-being and discomfort perceptions can be related to the control variables.

Method

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232 Lara Colombo and Chiara Ghislieri

Participants and data collection procedures The survey was conducted in two organizations of the Public Administration in the North of Italy: an Agency for Environmental Safety and a Health Authority. Upon authorized communication of the research initiative, promoted by the Equal Opportunities Committees of the two organizations, the questionnaire, along with a letter from the head of the study (explaining the research aim, underlining the voluntary nature of participation and

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anonymity in data collection and analysis), was administered to all employees of the two organizations. The questionnaires were returned in a box located in the conference room. In the Agency for Environmental Safety the questionnaire was given to a total of 1,100 individuals, of whom 695 (63.18%) returned the completed questionnaire. In the Health Authority the questionnaire was given to a total of 900 individuals of whom 627 (69.67%) returned the completed questionnaire. After data cleaning, the final sample consisted of 1,322 subjects. The demographic characteristics of the sample are as follows: ● ● ● ● ●

gender: 66.9% women, 31.8% men; having children: 62.3% of the sample have at least one child; working hours: 89.5% full-time, 8.8% part-time; level of employment: 85.5% line, 8.8% management; organization: 52.6% Agency for Environmental Safety, 47.4% Health Authority.

Measures The questionnaire gathers information about different variables. Work–family spillover was measured through an adaptation of the Grzywacz and Marks scale (2000): negative work-to-family spillover was measured using four items with a Likert scale from 1 – never – to 6 – always; positive work-to-family spillover was measured using three items with a Likert scale from 1 – never – to 6 – always. Family support was measured through an adaptation of the King et al. (1995) scale: emotional support was measured using three items with a Likert scale from 1 – strongly disagree – to 6 – strongly agree; instrumental support was measured using four items with a Likert scale from 1 – strongly disagree – to 6 – strongly agree. Organizational support was measured through one scale based on Clark’s work (2001): supervisors’ support was measured using four items with a Likert scale from 1 – strongly disagree – to 6 – strongly agree; coworkers’ support was measured using four items with a Likert scale from 1 – strongly disagree – to 6 – strongly agree. Psychological well-being at work was measured using six items (positive emotions, Warr, 1990) with a Likert scale from 1 – never – to 6 – always. Psychological discomfort at work was measured using six items (negative emotions, Warr, 1990) with a Likert scale from 1 – never – to 6 – always. Family workload was measured counting the chosen options from a list of 12 household activities. The control variables considered in this study are: gender, presence of children, working hours, level of employment, organization. The reliability of each scales used in this study is good (see Table 18.1).

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– .09** .50** .02 –.12** –.13**

–.26** –.16** 17.25 6.57 .86

– –.52** –.03 –.36**

.25**

.22**

.14**

.34**

.28** 19.92 6.07 .86

2

–.00 5.95 2.68

–.01

–.29**

–.09**

.12**

– .15**

3

–.21** 13.26 4.28 .77

–.25**

–.14**

–.05

.14**

–

4

.11** 10.95 3.30 .67

.15**

.07*

.21**

–

5

.22** 17.05 5.24 .91

.15**

.43**

–

6

.19** 11.37 4.92 .91

.19**

–

7

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Note: **p <. 001, *p < .05.

1 Well-being at work 2 Discomfort at work 3 Family workload 4 Negative W→F spillover 5 Positive W→F spillover 6 Family emotional support 7 Family instrumental support 8 Supervisors’ support 9 Coworkers’ support M DS a

1

9

–52** – 15.87 17.43 6.07 5.13 .95 .95

–

8

Table 18.1 Correlations between scales (Pearson’s r); Means (M), Standard Deviation (SD) of the scales; reliability of scales (a)

The Role of Work–Family Spillover 235

After the descriptive analysis (means and standard deviation) for each scale, the psychometric characteristics of each dimension were examined with Cronbach’s alpha as measure of internal coherence and reliability. The relation among dimensions has been analyzed with correlation (Pearson’s r) that shows many significant relations between variables. The causal relation between variables (well-being and discomfort at work as dependent variables) has been analyzed with multiple regression (method enter). Also, the scores of well-being and discomfort scales were submitted to t-test analysis for independent samples in relation to control variables.

Results and discussion The correlations between variables The correlations (Pearson’s r) show many significant relations among variables (see Table 18.1). Well-being at work correlates negatively with negative W→F spillover and positively with the positive W→F spillover, organizational (supervisors’ and coworkers’) support and family support (emotional and instrumental). Discomfort at work correlates positively with negative W→F spillover and negatively with organizational (supervisors’ and coworkers’) support and instrumental and emotional family support. The relation between family workload and discomfort at work is present but weak. The negative W→F spillover is related to well-being and especially with discomfort, while positive W→F spillover is related only to well-being. Organizational and family support seems to be linked especially with well-being at work. Finally, well-being and discomfort present quite a high negative correlation. The t-test for paired samples (t[1234] = 8.95, p < .00) shows a significant difference between the means of the two dimensions: the mean of well-being (M = 19.94, SD = 6.03) is higher than the mean of discomfort (M = 17.16, SD = 6.51); the significant difference between the two means emphasizes that the perception of psychological well-being is greater than the perception of psychological discomfort at work. The antecedents of psychological well-being at work

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Data analysis

Table 18.2 shows that W→F spillover (negative and positive), supervisors’ support and family emotional support contribute to explaining psychological well-being at work (the model explains 28% of the variances): the presence of negative W→F spillover decreases psychological well-being; the positive W→F spillover, the presence of supervisors’ support and family emotional support increase well-being. Coworkers’ support has a very low positive impact on well-being at work.

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236 Lara Colombo and Chiara Ghislieri

(Constant) Sex (1 “Women”) Children (1 “Having children”) Working hours (1 “Full time”) Level of employment (1 “Management”) Negative W→F Spillover Positive W→F Spillover Family emotional support Family instrumental support Supervisors’ support Coworkers’ support

Standardized Coefficients Beta

T

p

–.04 .02 .05 –.00 –.33 .23 .14 –.01 .16 .07

11.89 –1.36 .85 1.85 –.11 –11.43 8.04 4.51 –.32 5.01 2.09

.00 .17 .39 .06 .91 .00 .00 .00 .75 .00 .04

The antecedents of psychological discomfort at work The negative W→F spillover and organizational supervisors’ support explain psychological discomfort at work (the model explains 28% of the variances; see Table 18.3): the presence of negative W→F spillover increases discomfort and supervisor support decreases the discomfort. Family emotional support and coworkers’ support have a very low impact on discomfort at work. The results of the multiple regression models emphasize the role of W→F spillover and of social support (organizational and family) as antecedents that explain psychological well-being and discomfort at work. The differences: t-test The observed differences among the subjects in relation to well-being and discomfort are: ●

●

●

women (M = 17.75, SD = 6.65) showed a higher level of psychological discomfort compared to men (M = 16.18, SD = 6.22) [t(1236) = 3.97, p < .00]; the Health Authority employees showed a higher level of psychological well-being at work (M = 20.83, SD = 6.08) compared to the Agency for Environmental Safety employees (M = 19.10, SD = 5.95) [t(1256) = 5.10, p < .00]; the Health Authority employees showed also a higher level of psychological discomfort at work (M = 17.96, SD = 6.35) compared to the Agency for Environmental Safety employees (M = 16.60, SD = 6.71) [t(1250) = 3.66, p < .00].

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Table 18.2 Multiple Regression – Well-being at Work (Method Enter; R-squared .28)

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(Constant) Sex (1 “Women”) Children (1 “Having children”) Working hours (1 “Full time”) Level of employment (1 “Management”) Family workload Negative W→F Spillover Family emotional support Family instrumental support Supervisors’ support Coworkers’ support

Standardized Coefficients Beta

T

p

.02 –.03 –.05 .02 .01 .46 –.08 –.01 –.16 .06

9.33 .58 –1.04 –1.75 .83 .18 16.33 –2.72 –.41 –5.14 2.01

.00 .56 .29 .08 .41 .86 .00 .01 .68 .00 .04

Conclusion The results from the multiple regression models show that negative W→F spillover and organizational support contribute to explaining both psychological well-being and discomfort at work. Positive W→F spillover and family emotional support contribute to explaining only psychological well-being. The t-test revealed that women experience greater psychological discomfort compared to men and the Health Authority employees have a greater emotional response at work, both positive and negative. This context appears therefore more absorbing, perhaps due to the type of organizational mission. Research into work–family spillover is an important step towards improving the quality of life at work. Research can contribute to a deeper understanding of well-being dynamics and orientate organizational policies and actions toward an improvement of psychological well-being.

Limitation and future research

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Table 18.3 Multiple regression – discomfort at work (Method Enter; R-squared .28)

In order to better understand the differences in spillover perception, a MANOVA analysis could be performed. Further research will be able to take into consideration a greater number of variables with a path model, not only to explain the role of spillover in determining well-being, but also to understand the role of some variables in determining spillover. One final consideration concerns the importance of including, in future research, measures of positive relation between work and family (e.g. positive spillover and enrichment) and planning longitudinal research designs

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Lara Colombo and Chiara Ghislieri

that will allow the researcher to evaluate the causal relations with greater certainty. Unfortunately, this kind of research is onerous and has a significant impact on privacy, so is difficult to perform in organizational contexts. The research implication for practice concerns two main areas for intervention. The first area involves training. It is important to promote ongoing training of coordinators and supervisors, since their roles were proved to be fundamental. However, supporting overall personnel training is important too, in order to increase people’s ability to manage work–family boundaries. Group training is not the only way: individual and targeted training, such as counseling, mentoring, or coaching, might be extremely effective. The second intervention area is directly related to the family-friendly opportunities that can sustain work–family balance (Neal & Hammer, 2001, Pitt-Catsouphes 2002). Several opportunities can be implemented, such as internal services dedicated to sustaining care responsibilities (e.g. company nursery) or external services (e.g. agreements with other local facilities); flexible work schedules (horizontal, vertical, mixed part-time; hours bank); solutions to save time, such as agreements with shops (laundry, supermarkets, etc.) to obtain dedicated services like bill payment, correspondence delivery or collecting, purchasing of medicines; recreational activities related to cultural initiatives (passes for museums, cinemas, etc.) or to wellness (gym, fitness center, etc.); training and education opportunities for employees and their families (study tours, summer camps, etc.). The choice of the most suitable initiatives could be guided by preliminary research focused on the employees’ specific needs.

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Carlson, D. S. & Frone, M. R. (2003). Relation of behavioral and psychological involvement to a new four-factor conceptualization of work–family interference. Journal of Business Psychology, 17, 515–535. Carlson, D. S. & Kacmar, K. M. (2000). Work–family conflict in the organization: do life role values makes a difference? Journal of Management, 26, 1031–1054. Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., Wayne, J. H., & Grzywacz, J. G. (2006). Measuring the positive side of the work–family interface: Development and validation of a work– family enrichment scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 131–164. Carr, D. (2002). The psychological consequences of work–family trade-offs for three cohorts of men and women. Social Psychology Quarterly, 65, 103–124. Clark, S. C. (2001). Work cultures and work/family balance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 348–365. Colombo, L. & Ghislieri, C. (2008). The work-to-family conflict: Theories and measures. TPM – Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 15, 35–55. Edwards, J. R. & Rothbard, N. P. (2000). Mechanisms linking work and family: clarifying the relationship between work and family constructs. Academy of Management Review, 25, 178–199. Frone, M. R. (2003). Work–family balance. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology (143–162). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1997). Relation of work–family conflict to health outcomes: a four-year longitudinal study of employed parents. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 325–335. Ganster, D. C. & Schaubroeck, J. (1991). Work stress and employee health. Journal of Management, 17, 235–271. Grandey, A. A. & Cropanzano, R. (1999). The conservation of resources model applied to work–family conflict and strain. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 350–370. Greenhaus, J. H. & Beutell, N. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76–88. Grzywacz, J. G. & Bass, B. L. (2003). Work, family and mental health: Testing different models of work–family fit. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 248–261. Grzywacz, J. G. & Marks, N. F. (2000). Reconceptualizing the work–family interface: an ecological perspective on the correlates of positive and negative spillover between work and family. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 111–126. Gutek, B. A., Searle, S., & Klepa, L. (1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for work–family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 560–568. Hochschild, C. (1997). The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work. New York: Metropolitan Books. King, L. A., Mattimore, L. K., King, D. W., & Adams, G. A. (1995). Family support inventory for workers: A new measure of perceived social support from family members. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16 (3), 235–258. Kirchmeyer, C. (1992). Perceptions of nonwork-to-work spillover: challenging the common view of conflict-ridden domain relationships. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 231–249. Kirchmeyer, C. (1993). Nonwork-to-work spillover: a more balanced view of the experiences and coping of professional women and men. Sex Roles, 28, 531–552. Kossek, E. E. & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work–family conflict, policies, and the job-life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for organizational behaviour-human resources research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 139–149.

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MacDermid, S. M. (2005). (Re)considering conflict between work and family. In E. E. Kossek & S. J. Lambert (Eds.), Work and Life Integration (19–40). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Major, B. (1993). Gender, entitlement, and distinction of family labor. Journal of Social Issues, 49, 141–159. Major, D. A. & Germano, L. M. (2006). The changing nature of work and its impact on the work-home interface. In F. Jones, R. J. Burke, & M. Westman (Eds.), Work–life Balance. A Psychological Perspective (13–38). Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press. Major, V. S., Klein, K. J., & Ehrhart, M. G. (2002). Work time, work interference with family, and psychological distress. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 427–436. Neal M. B. & Hammer L. B. (2001). Supporting employees with child and elder care needs: an employers’ sourcebook. Portland State University. Retrieved from http://www. sandwich.pdx.edu/ Noor, N. M. (2002). The moderating effect of spouse support in the relationship between work variables and women’s work–family conflict. Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 45, 12–23. O’Driscoll, M., Brough, P., & Kalliath, T. (2006). Work–family conflict and facilitation. In F. Jones, R. J. Burke, & M. Westman (Eds.), Work–life Balance. A Psychological Perspective (117–142). Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press. Pitt-Catsouphes, M. (2002). Family-Friendly Workplace. A Sloan Work and Family Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://wfnetwork.bc.edu/encyclopedia_entry.php?id= 232&area=All Pleck, J. H. (1977). The work–family role system. Social Problems, 24, 417–427. Rothbard N. P. & Dumas, T. L. (2006). Research perspectives: managing the workhome interface. In F. Jones, R. J. Burke, & M. Westman (Eds.), Work–life Balance. A Psychological Perspective (71–89). Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press. Seligman, M. E. P. & Csikszentimihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: an introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14. Stevens, D. P., Kiger, G., & Riley, P. J. (2006). His, hers, or ours? Work-to-family spillover, crossover, and family cohesion. The Social Science Journal, 43, 425–436. Thomas, L. & Ganster D. C. (1995). Impact of family-supportive work variables on work–family conflict and strain: A control perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 6–15. Thompson, C. A., Beauvais, L. L., & Lyness, K. S. (1999). When work–family benefits are not enough: The influence of work–family culture on benefit utilization, organizational attachment, and work–family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 392–415. Warr, P. B. (1990). Decision latitude, job demands, and employee well being. Work and Stress, 4, 285–294. Wayne, J., Musisca, N., & Fleeson, W. (2004). Considering the role of personality in the work–family experience: relationship of the big five to work–family conflict and facilitation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64, 108–130. Zedeck, S. & Mosier, K. L. (1990). Work in the family and employing organization. American Psychologist, 45, 240–251.

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19 Sara Mazzucchelli

Introduction Since the early 1990s the demand for maternity and parental leave, as well as for external child care facilities, has grown steadily in all European countries. Thus the provision of social care has also taken on increasing importance in the field of welfare research. This increase in demand is closely connected to the influx of women into paid employment, and has been incorporated at the EU level in several recommendations/directives by the EU to its Member States. In 1992, the EU issued the 92/241/EEC recommendation on child care, and then, in 1996, approved the 96/34/EC Directive on Parental Leave (Ejrnæs, 2008). The EU directive on parental leave has forced the Member States to introduce legislation on maternity/parental leave, but, even so, significant differences between the countries in terms of eligibility, duration, benefit levels and flexibility in taking up parental leave can be found (Moss & Deven, 1999; 2006; Moss & O’Brien, 2006; Wall, 2008; Gstrein et al., 2007; Vassilev & Wallace, 2007). This paper will not address the national criteria for maternal leave and parental leave in the 25 EU member states, nor will it discuss the variation in leave schemes and consequences of different kinds of leave policies in the EU countries1. It will, instead, focus on one of the principal and most recent legislative reconciliation tools available in Italy2 – namely, the law 53/2000 Regulations for sustaining maternity and paternity, for the right to training and for the coordination of times in the city3. This decision was taken as Law 53/2000 and has a particularly significant innovative character, due both to its purpose and to those to whom it is addressed. This legislative intervention introduces, for the first time in Italy, the individual – rather than the non-transferable – right of male employees with small children to take parental leave.

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The Impact of Law 53/2000 (Regulation of Parental Leave) on Fathers: A Good Law Disregarded in Daily Life

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242 Sara Mazzucchelli

We will therefore outline the essential features of this law, in order to analyze its implementation data and to identify its cultural orientation.

A fundamental objective of the law 53/2000 is the identification of tools that are both concrete and flexible, to allow for the reconciling of contrasting personal and working needs. The regulations holistically redefine the possibility of fathers and mothers taking leave from work to care for children, to assist the disabled, and to train workers on the cultural and professional levels. The overall objective of the law, as discussed in a previous article, is essentially to pursue “a balance between periods of work, care, training, and relationships”. In this sense, it is defined as a discipline addressed to both parents, one which allows a true redistribution of child care tasks, primarily through the redefinition of parental leave. The system of guarantees, previously defined in detail in law 1204/71 is here further expanded and rendered more “flexible” in terms of sharing of care responsibility. A sort of reward system is also established – through the lengthening of the period of leave allowed – for cases in which the father employee takes charge of the child (Art. 3, paragraph 2) (Scialdone, 2002). Overall, this regulatory measure appears to be rather innovative from a number of points of view: it establishes a full and permanent equality between the position of the mother and that of the father employee, and assumes a vision of parenting as a truly shared task, as a co-responsibility, and as a relationship between the parents. In fact, this is the first time that an Italian regulation has referred specifically to “relative leave-taking” and of “optional absence”, thus attributing to both parents the same rights to take care of the children. Such data, of a strongly innovative nature, positively reflects the current re-evaluation of the meaning of paternity (Rossi, 2005, 2006). The text in question seems, therefore, to be marked by the value of reciprocity and to emphasize and promote the ethics of caretaking and of inter- and intra-generational, as well as intra-gender, solidarity. It is clear that the reconciliation of work commitments and family responsibilities of the partners helps to achieve a situation of overall individual and family well-being. Another reflection of societal and political change related to this issue is the availability of the granting of contributions to be paid by the Employment Fund (law 236/93) to businesses that apply contractual agreements which provide for increased flexibility in working conditions (Art. 9), including, in particular, programs that allow “special forms of flexibility in working hours and work organization” related to the care of children (or cases of foster care or adoption). The recipients of such contributions – the supply conditions for which are strictly regulated by the Parliamentary Decree of 15 May, 2001 – are “... by way of priority

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An evaluation of law 53/2000: a good law ...

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working mothers and fathers, to be understood as such also those who are adoptive or foster parents” (art. 3). Thus, by expanding its range of categories of beneficiary of compulsory absence or parental leave to independent business owners and the selfemployed, and to a category of publicly funded projects (those aimed at replacing business owners and the self-employed with other entrepreneurs or self-employed workers), this law undoubtedly represents a new profile for family/work leave (Scialdone, 2002). In addition, the opportunity for financing seems oriented toward subsidiarity, in that positive actions aimed at favouring flexibility and reconciliation are funded by the Ministry for Labour, in agreement with the Ministry of Social Solidarity and the Ministry of Equal Opportunity, but are carried out in local situations on the basis of the concrete needs of the subjects involved (Rossi, 2005, 2006). The concrete modalities for defining forms of flexibility and material conditions are agreed upon through the process of collective bargaining. The candidates’ funding must, in fact, be awarded according to agreements with the comparatively more representative trade unions: collective agreement is therefore a precondition for the eligibility of projects (Scialdone, 2002). Thus, a legislative trend emerges, one that is heading toward a “gradual socialization” of costs, related to the measures guaranteed by the system of family protection. This trend is confirmed by the gradual transition of funds from a system based on employers’ contributions to one based on public taxation (Bozzao, 2001; Fine-Davis et al., 2007). A further positive development is the planned implementation of a “monitoring and evaluation system of the approved projects” by the Ministry of Labour (art.5) and the priority given to agreements and initiatives coming from “pilot experiments aimed at creating a support network to bargain in the field”, possibly supported by the system of local autonomies (art.2).

... disregarded in daily life: the analysis of implementation data Although the data on how individual families make use of parental leave is extremely varied, from a normative point of view, parental leave surely represents an important tool in the reconciling of the needs and obligations of mothers and fathers with small children. A survey conducted in 2005 on behalf of the Italian National Observatory on the family4, about the taking of family leave by workers in public administration, the private sector, the third sector, and by self-employed men and women (craftsmen, traders, and truck farmers) between 2001 and 2004 highlighted a general increase after the approval and application of law 53/00. The trend stabilized between 2002–2003.

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The economic factor carries considerable weight, in particular for fathers. The enhancement measure contained in the collective agreement for the public sector5 has had positive spin-offs in the use of parental leave and determines a significant difference in the use of this concession between the different contractual categories. However, wide gaps still remain between take-up rates6 and the ways leave is used among men and women. An imbalance can still be noticed at a territorial level: rates in the NorthEast are significantly higher than in the rest of the country, while the South is the area with the lowest rates and where the lowest gap, by gender, is found in the use of leave. It is important to point out that, compared to data for 2002 and 2003, the rate of use in the South and on the Islands is increasing (from 1.8% in 2002 to 2.1% in 2004), as it is in the North-East (from 4.7% in 2002 to 5%), while it is declining in the North-West (from 4.7% to 3.9%). It is especially interesting to note how the commitment of parents to taking direct care of the child does not end after the first year of life. On the contrary, a good percentage of parents also make use of the leave allowed in the following years, especially, but not only, in the first three years of the child’s life. This is an effect that can be traced directly to the new law; under the previous regulations parental leave was permitted only in the first year of life. This data, therefore, while signalling a persistent disparity between the genders with respect to resorting to optional absence from work, show that following the entering into effect of law 53/00, not only did the number of those who resorted to the period of leave increase overall, but the number of working fathers who exercised this choice also increased. We can therefore state that such a regulatory provision, while certainly not devoid of uncertainty and contradiction, nonetheless constitutes an important step toward an authentic reconciliation between times of life7. Such an enthusiastic evaluation is quickly dampened, however, by the analysis of the data from studies conducted by the European Commission (2004) and the Istat-Cnel research (2003). From these it would in fact appear that there is an almost complete disregard in daily life of the principles of equality that inspired the new regulation: although 65% of fathers are aware of the right to take parental leave, 87% have never taken advantage of this possibility, nor do they intend to do so. The main prohibitive reasons are related to inadequate financial compensation, the lack of information and career concerns (European Commission, 2004). Moreover, as pointed out by Piazza (2000), some major difficulties faced by fathers in requesting and obtaining parental leave are determined by:

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the presence of strong social and cultural conditioning that considers the handling of the child as the mother’s responsibility a lack of information regarding the opportunities offered by the law, related to the

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absence of a family-friendly culture by participants in collective bargaining. On the one hand, entrepreneurs resist not only the additional costs but also the organizational and cultural change (there has been a strong hostility in companies towards allowing employees to take advantage of leave, even to the point of cases of induction dismissal where an employee had wanted to take or insisted on taking parental leave). On the other hand, the trade unions themselves have not shown interest in facilitating the sharing of responsibilities between parents. The risk of penalties to the career, especially for fathers in relevant positions, should also be noted (Rossi, 2005, 2006; Tiraboschi, 2005; Ponzellini, 2006; Zanatta, 2007). The professional position and the income of spouses, where the income of the husband still tends to be larger (the reduction of 70% in the father’s salary is therefore a major limitation of family income and a strong disincentive for fathers to take parental leave). This inherent inequality in the access to this resource – it is used mainly by people who can afford it – thus leads to a paradoxical result. This measure, created to encourage greater sharing in the care of children, may be actually strengthening the model of male breadwinner (Ponzellini, 2006). Confirming this evaluation are the “life stories” of some fathers, gathered in a publication edited by Lombardy Region (Regione Lombardia/Pari Opportunità – Associazione per la famiglia, 2002). While praising the satisfaction and joy of being able to fully live one’s own role as parent that taking parental leave allows, these fathers also point out a series of problems that arise due to the scarce availability of information related to the possibilities offered by the regulation in question, and to a cultural climate that is rather hostile, or at the very least diffident, with respect to this type of innovation, especially for those in a position of responsibility. This category of fathers, more than any others, have reported a certain isolation and marginalization after coming back to work at the end of the leave period (Rossi, 2005, 2006). Fine-Davis et al. (2007) investigated the attitudes and perceptions (of men and women) in the workplace towards those (men and women) who benefit from prolonged leave for the care of children. While they found significant differences by gender, employment sector (public or private), and socioeconomic status (SeS), the perceived attitudes towards women and employees in the public sector were generally more tolerant. However, there was less understanding for women working in the private sector and for people having a high SeS, irrespective of employment sector8. Thus the data available is in fact contrasting, and difficulties are reported related to the application and perception of these reconciliation measures. Therefore, the law in question requires accurate monitoring that will allow, through possible corrective measures, genuine application of the

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underlying principles of equality and a full expression of the innovation that it contains. To achieve greater clarity on the impact of this legislative instrument we will now revisit the research of Zanatta (2007) in an attempt to identify and compare the socioeconomic and cultural features of fathers who have benefitted from leave with those of fathers who have not availed themselves of this opportunity, to identify discriminating indicators. The educational qualifications and the professional position of the fathers are variables that show a strong statistical correlation with the use of leave: the more educated fathers are those who most often request leave (12.2% of graduates), followed by those with an intermediate educational qualification (9.8% of those who obtained an upper school diploma), and, finally, by those with a lower education level (only 7% of fathers who possess a junior high school diploma take parental leave). This data is clarified by the analysis of the variable professional position: contrary to what one would expect from the previous data, in fact, it is not those in managerial positions or positions of authority over others in the work place who benefit more than their employees from this measure (7.9%), but it is the teachers and specialized workers (11.8%) and, finally, the workers (6.5%). This result corresponds to what emerged in the studies previously mentioned: a prolonged absence from work can have a far more negative and permanent effect on those holding positions of responsibility than on those in lower-ranked positions. On the other hand, this outcome is probably dictated by the greater investment in work and career on the part of bosses and managers, typical of men in managerial roles and with high professional responsibilities. The high educational level of people who make most use of leave, then, is not always related to higher professional positions, but may, instead, indicate a greater cultural sensitivity and personal identification with the change in the paternal role. The limited participation of the lower-level workers in the use of parental leave could be explained, as some research has revealed (Zanatta, 1999), by a more traditional division of tasks in the family, which is also related to lower educational levels on average. Another crucial variable in determining whether parental leave is taken is the attitude towards work. As has emerged from research studies carried out in the United States and in the Scandinavian countries, social class plays a key role in creating paternal identity. Indeed, the image of the father being actively involved in child care is most prevalent within the middle class. This conception of fatherhood appears, for men of this social class, to be a composite and complex strategy: it enables them, in fact, to adapt to the professional engagement of their wives and to the consequent decline in their position of unique or primary breadwinner, as well as distinguishing them from the working class, which in general has a more traditional idea of masculinity and fatherhood (Griswold, 1993). The low level of job orientation, then, as well as issues of identity, could also be determined by

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the possession of a job with limited career opportunities, or one that is not very rewarding. Even working hours are strongly correlated with the use of leave: 14.5% of those who work 36 hours or less per week make use of parental leave, while only 6.8% of those who have a longer working week do so. The same figures apply to those in the business sector, and to those with more limited ambition in their work. Finally, certain partner characteristics (educational level, professional position, working hours), are of fundamental importance in the request for leave. In fact, 11.7% of people whose life partner has a university diploma request leave, while 10% of fathers whose life partner is employed (versus 7.1% of fathers whose partner does not hold a job) do so. According to a qualitative study on the opinions and the orientation values of civil servants, the category of workers that most often makes use of parental leave (Zanatta, 2007) helps to explain the significance of this second set of factors. The results, although they cannot be generalized because of the small sample, indicate that the use of leave is an effect of a strong perception of paternal identity and of a generative orientation – that is, a low priority assigned to work, and greater value attributed to the family, children, and leisure time, the assignment of value to gender equality and the concrete experience of putting this belief into practice through involvement in child care (Aldous et al., 1998; Bulanda, 2004).

Conclusions While certainly a valuable element of the implemented law is its attempt to take a familial view (which sees the family and not the individual as the entity involved in planning and the implementation of initiatives), unfortunately we still detect the persistence of a culture that places the responsibility of care and conciliation entirely on the family – or rather, on women – and the existence of a statistical and research culture with an “individual” matrix, which sees people as liberated by meaningful relationships with regard to life choices. Research data, from various sources, refers mainly to individuals, which, due to the complex social relationships involved, makes a relational discussion difficult (Rossi, 2005, 2006). The first point, however, as revealed in the paper, highlights the importance of a re-thinking of the term “work” – not only in lexical terms but, more importantly, in terms of culture. With the advent of industrialization, work has become, in fact, synonymous with employment (Googins, 1991; Coontz, 1992). This has brought about a clear contradiction of lifespheres, of life-times, of norms, and of culture specific to family and work (Clark, 2000). Such a vision lingers on not only as a commonly-held belief but is frequently strengthened and exacerbated by the legal system, which then finds itself taking an ambivalent stance because of the emergence of a

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social context which is completely different from that of the past. Presentday social complexity sees people as improvising jugglers of irreconcilable worlds. This view reinforces and confirms the need for and the essentialness of the role of caregiver, which is ever more vital and necessary in holding together the social fabric, and therefore provoking a reconsideration of the meaning of work9. The results presented here seem to highlight the fact that an explanation of human behavior based only on economic rationality is not complete, and that cultural and value factors seem to be of strong significance. In fact, there are undoubtedly both economic and cultural obstacles to the dissemination of this legislative tool. ●

●

There are clear economic and monetary limits which explain the reasons for the lower percentage of use of leave by workers in the private sector, compared to those in the public sector (Saitta, 1996; Irer, 1998). If we wish the exercising of this right to become a widespread practice, it is therefore necessary to ensure that its costs fall only on workers and companies. From the cultural point of view, on the other hand, the major obstacle encountered by workers seems to be linked to the presence, in companies, of gender stereotyping, which severely hampers or prevents the spread of innovative interventions. The fathers’ absence from work to devote himself to child care still seems to be highly stigmatized: a corporate culture which is sensitive to the life-course needs of workers has not yet been attained. This traditional conception of the gender division, then, is present not only at a structural level, but also at the individual level. Although, in fact, the majority of respondents admit a significant change in the paternal role, compared to the past, it is the fathers who have taken parental leave who seem to be truly aware of this change, and therefore emphasize more strongly the importance of sharing the child care with their wives10. Two kinds of fathers then emerge: one with a greater affinity with the traditional breadwinner model, the other closer to the present-day idea and of the “new father”, as represented in the literature (Nock, 1998; Townsend, 2002; Bjornberg & Kollind, 1996; Castelain-Meunier, 2002)11. The couple relationship and its relational and negotiating dynamics play a key role both in the identity-making of the man and the woman and in obtaining a good level of paternal involvement in childcare (Badolato, 1993; Fine-Davis et al., 2007)12 . The gap between the ideal (request for leave) and real behavior (effective use of this measure) found in the breadwinner category of fathers can be interpreted only by taking into account the ambivalence that accompanies the redefinition of gender roles and parenting (Molinari, 1991; 1996; Giovannini, 1998). But in transition periods, such as that of today, both women and men seem to need to restore a degree of continuity

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This data, therefore, help us to understand the complex articulation of structure and agency in family life. The different welfare systems, national contexts, legislative and economic arrangements, company structures and organization, certainly represent structural backgrounds which have an influence on the daily organization of the nuclear family. However, these are not sufficient to explain the extraordinary variability in lifestyles and in choices about reconciling family and work, which do not follow an individual but rather a relational matrix13. The couple acts as the life-sphere within which equity/disequity and gender parity/stereotyping of male and female roles are challenged. This theme (the work–family reconciliation observed through the specific lens of parental leave) therefore turns out to be highly complex, as it refers to a range of intertwined factors of varying importance and relating to a variety of life domains (political, cultural, social and economic). It would be interesting to tackle this theme by overcoming the opposition and “the confrontation between men and women in respect of who does what”14 (Fine-Davis, Fagnani, Giovannini, Hojgaard & Clarke, 2007, p. 171) not only by investigating the reciprocal perceptions of partners but by trying to better understand how the process (conscious or otherwise) of negotiation and decision-making in family matters plays out within the couple. This, in fact, implies not a rigid totting-up in terms of roles and tasks, but a prior consideration of what work is, what housework and childcare mean in the family, who is in charge of each of these (or both), and what the carrying out of certain tasks, getting involved in certain duties, and working on different fronts (at home and working outside the home) entails for the structure and definition of identity of each individual and of the couple. Only by observing from this complete and complex perspective can we obtain a non-simplistic understanding of the subject, which will enable us to highlight potentially influential or latent factors. Finally, for a better understanding of the law and its impact, the analysis carried out here points out the need to consider the interplay between leave policies and other family policies. The effects of parental leave schemes on gender equality are, in fact, double-edged. On the one hand, parental leave schemes could minimize the gender employment gap, thereby increasing women’s employment, because parental leave enables mothers to combine caring with employment. On the other hand, long leave periods may reinforce a traditional gendered division of paid and unpaid work, thereby damaging women’s future career opportunities, which could in turn further contribute to gender differences in wages and to weaker promotion opportunities (Ejrnæs, 2008).

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with the family tradition and the gender asymmetries that characterize it, especially as regards the area of housework and child care (Bimbi, 1996; Fine-Davis et al., 2007).

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The outcomes of different leave policies are, instead, highly dependent on the structural conditions within the labor market and on the characteristics of family policies. The question of whether parental leave enables women to remain in gainful employment or encourages women to withdraw from the labor market is highly dependent on the implementation of leave policies and of family policies, as well as on the interplay with other kinds of family and labor market policies (such as child care policies, working time regulation, and tax benefit policies). Policies at the EU level on parental leave must take into consideration how the interplay between different kinds of family policies shape work and child care in different national contexts. In some countries (Eastern and Central Europe), in fact, long parental leave serves as a means to compensate for the lack of child care facilities, while in other countries (Southern Europe) parental leave is used to prevent permanently employed mothers from leaving the labor market after maternity. Still other countries (Nordic countries) use leave policy as a way to shape a more flexible transition between paid work and care work and to redistribute the gendered division of care work in the home.

Notes 1. For further details see the WORKCARE project, an EU 6 framework project which analyzes the most recent developments in family and work reconciliation in selected EU member states (http://www.abdn.ac.uk/socsci/research/nec/workcare/); Wall (2008); Ejrnæs, (2008); see also researches of the International network on Leave Policies (International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research, www.bis.gov.uk/assets/.../10-1157-international-review-leave-policies.pdf. 2. Parental leave was introduced and adopted, at the European level, following an agreement between the European social partners and in compliance with Directive 96/34/EC, under which any worker – man or woman – has the right to take parental leave of at least three months to take care of his or her children, whether birth-children or adopted. The system of parental leave is different in the European countries (European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2006): the length generally varies between a minimum period of three months (which occurs in most countries concerned) and two years. 3. In fact, all issues concerning maternity and paternity in the workplace which were reviewed by the Law 53/2000 were concentrated and systematized in the Motherhood and Fatherhood Act (legislative decree 151 of 26 March 2001), then further integrated by the subsequent Legislative Decree 115 of 23 April 2003. All legal norms concerning the protection of fatherhood and motherhood can be found in a single law. The text is the culmination of a long series of laws, which began in Italy in 1902 with Law 242 (which mandated a compulsory maternity leave of 30 days after the birth of a child). 4. The research compared the use of leave before and after the entry into force of Law 53/2000. The results presented, illustrated in Gavio & Lelleri (2005, 2007), refer to a sample including, for the public sector, cities, provinces, regions, a State University, USL companies, hospitals, ministries, ministerial agencies, and local

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The Impact of Law 53/2000 251 government (Poste Italiane, Trenitalia, RAI), while for the private and third sector, organizations of various kinds were included. The results for the public administration sector relate to the following period: 1 January 2004–31 December 2004. The data from the private and third sector, however, relate to the following periods: January January January January

2001–31 2002–31 2003–31 2004–31

December December December December

2001 2002 2003 2004.

5. The national agreements of workers included in the sample (public sector employees) allow, in fact, 100% pay for the first thirty days of the leave. Conversely, the law entitles workers to parental leave pay of 30% of normal earnings during the first three years and for the first six months of the child’s life (which may be shared between mother and father). Periods of leave longer than six months or after the third year of the child’s life are unpaid, unless the individual applicant’s income is below the statutory limit. Law 53/00 also specifies that collective agreements may contain more favourable conditions than those provided for by the law, as was the case in our study. 6. The rate of women’s use of leave is three times that of men. Parent-workers used, on average, in 2004, 41 days of parental leave; breaking down this figure by gender, some differences can be seen: men took on average 22 days and women 48. The average number of days taken is declining slightly over time, from 45 in 2002 to 41 in 2004 for the total sample. A research on the use of this measure in some European countries (Italy, France, Denmark, and Ireland) highlighted how in Italy the recourse to leave is seen, more frequently than in other countries, as an alternative to usual care solutions (grandparents, other relatives, babysitters, neighbors, nursery schools, flexible working hours and holidays) (Fine-Davis et al., 2007). 7. According to recent research conducted by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working conditions (2004–2005), the use of this measure by women is very high in Italy (about 75%) and, almost making our country the equal of the Nordic countries. 8. In the same study subjects were also asked about the degree of acceptance towards the perceived family responsibilities of workers, or attitudes in the workplace with respect to their family status (the consideration shown by colleagues and bosses, child care responsibilities) and the implementation of a series of actions (going home early or arriving late, bringing the child to work, holding a part-time position, not job sharing) to cater for child care. It was found that the perception of positive attitudes by colleagues was significant and strongly related to the men’s well-being; for women, however, the perception of kind attitudes by bosses was more significant. The resultant well-being is therefore different according to gender: the positive opinion of colleagues for men is crucial for the satisfaction felt towards work; for women, in contrast, the understanding of bosses is essential for overall well-being. The interesting difference therefore is that, while for men the satisfaction derived from their work is not related to that derived from the family, for women these are highly correlated. These data lead us to assume that men might somehow use a strategy of “compartmentalization”, while for women work and family life are highly integrated. This observation is in sync with that

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–1 –1 –1 –1

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9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

noted by other studies (Bernardi & Mancini, 1994; Palomba & Sabbadini, 1994; Ventimiglia, 1996, 1999): a typical female strategy emphasizes the simultaneous management of different spaces, through a continuous exchange of a psychological nature between the requirements of family, children , and working commitments. This is very different, then, from monothematic approach of men, in which men tend to divide their lives into different areas managed in exclusive and distinct time and space: work, family, time for children, and leisure time (Fine-Davis et al., 2007). Over the long term, as previously emphasized, the term “work” has come to mean extra-domestic activity carried out mainly by men and for remuneration. Recently, however, the urgency connected to care work has led to a marked change in the definition of the concept: first of all, a distinction between work and “other types of work” has been introduced (Abrahamson, Boje & Greve, 2005). Several researchers have since tried to clarify even more precisely the defining parameters, introducing a further classification between paid and unpaid work: the latter would include all the productive activities undertaken, on behalf of one’s own family or that of others, outside the official labor market and potentially replaceable by goods and services obtained on the official market. An activity which falls, or might fall, into such a category must meet the criterion of a “third person”, more precisely, it could be carried out by a third person in exchange for monetary reward at least on the theoretical level. In ordinary usage, household work and volunteering are typically considered as unpaid work. From the literature it emerges that the majority of fathers emphasize the importance of playing with their children, while they do not mention practical activities and child care. The care dimension, then, seems not yet to be part of the symbolic image of fathers and or even their mental image of the role of parent (Badolato, 1993; Molinari, 1996; Ventimiglia, 1996; Giovannini, 1998; Fine-Davis et al., 2007). Paternal involvement in child care and housework is developing very slowly and is mainly offered in the form of “assistance” to the mother (Bimbi & Castellano, 1990; Ventimiglia, 1996; 1999). However, many mothers accept and justify this asymmetry because the cost of negotiating a greater equality in the roles is too high (Scisci, 1999). Worthy of note is Brotherson & White’s publication (2007), a recent collection of research which clearly demonstrates the multiplicity of roles fathers can play in the formative years of a child’s life. One study highlights the presence of a mother’s ambiguous attitude about the paternal involvement in child care: on the one hand, they ask for a more active cooperation; on the other hand, however, they seem to want to keep for themselves a sphere of exclusive and traditional control (which for many women is a primary source of recognition and identity) (Bimbi, 1990; 1996; Bimbi & Castellano, 1990). Some sociologists have underlined a fundamental trend towards intimate relationships emphasizing the quest for autonomy and individual self-fulfillment, the centrality of negotiation, and a weakening of external constraints (Giddens, 1992; Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2002; De Singly, 1996). However, rather than a single model of family functioning, conjugal modernity is seen to be developing around a limited set of diverse forms or styles of interactions (Kellerhals et al., 1982, 2004; Aboim & Wall, 2002).

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References Aboim, S. & Wall, K. (2002). Tipos de família em Portugal: interacções, valores, contextos. Análise Social, 163, 475–506. Abrahamson, P., Boje, T. P., & Greve, B. (2005). Welfare and Families in Europe. London: Sage. Aldous, J., Mulligan, G. M., & Bjarnason, T. (1998). Fathering over time: what makes the difference? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 809–820. Badolato, G. (1993). Identità Paterna e Relazione di Coppia. Milano: Giuffrè. Beck, U. & Beck-Gernsheim, E. (2002). Individualization. London: Sage. Bernardi, M. P. & Mancini, M. G. (1994). Una donna a tempo pieno. In C. Cipolla (Ed.) La differenza come compatibilità (24–47). Milano: FrancoAngeli. Bimbi, F. (1990). Molteplicità dei tempi sociali; tempo quotidiano, esperienze di paternità e di maternità. In F. Bimbi & G. Castellano (Eds.), Madri e Padri. Milano: FrancoAngeli. Bimbi, F. (1996). Differenze di genere nelle decisioni di procreazione. Inchiesta, 111, 15–23. Bimbi, F. & Castellano, G. (Eds.) (1990). Madri e Padri. Milano: FrancoAngeli. Bjornberg, U. & Kollind, A. K. (Eds.) (1996). Men’s Family Relations. Report from an international seminar. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International. Bozzao, P. (2001). La protezione sociale della famiglia. Lavoro e diritto, 15 (1), 55–96. Brotherson, S. E. & White, J. M. (2007). Why Fathers Count: The Importance of Fathers and Their Involvement with Children. Harriman (TN): Men’s Studies Press. Bulanda, R. E. (2004). Paternal involvement with children: the influence of gender ideologies. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 66, 40–45. Castelain-Meunier, C. (2002). The place of fatherhood and the parental role: tensions, ambivalence and contradictions. Current Sociology, 2, 185–201. Clark, S. C. (2000). Work/family border theory: a new theory of work/family balance, Human Relations, 53 (6), 747–770. Coontz, S. (1992). The Way We Never Were. New York: Basic Books. De Singly, F. (1996). Le Soi, le Couple et la Famille. Bruxelles: Nathan. Ejrnæs, A. (2008). What is the role of parental leave policies in shaping work and care in the enlarged EU? Paper presented at the Cinefogo conference, Plovdiv, 4–5 February 2008. European Commission (2004), Europeans’ Attitudes to Parental Leave, European Opinion Research Group. Website: www.ec.europa.eu. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. (2006). Parental Leave in European Companies 2004–2005. Website: www.eurofound. europa.eu/pubdocs/2006/87/en/1/ef0687en.pdf Fine-Davis, M., Fagnani, J., Giovannini, D., Hojgaard, L., & Clarke, H. (2007). Padri e Madri: i Dilemmi della Conciliazione Famiglia–Lavoro. Bologna: Il Mulino.

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14. One of the methods used to survey this area was the gathering of information on the frequency of child care and domestic tasks (Giovannini & Ventimiglia, 1994). Another method was to present a list of activities and ask participants to respond with an indication of who normally carried out each task. In this way information on the availability of family members and other support networks engaged in managing the family was obtained (Zanatta, 1999; Haas, 1993). Questions mostly referred to activities carried out throughout the week, in order to emphasize the problems of reconciling family and work and to highlight the differences between males and females in their day-to-day domestic management.

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Gavio, F. & Lelleri, R. (2005). La fruizione dei congedi parentali in Italia. Monitoraggio dell’applicazione della legge n. 53/2000 negli anni 2002 e 2003. In P. Donati (Ed.), Famiglie e Politiche di Welfare in Italia: Interventi e Pratiche (Osservatorio Nazionale sulla Famiglia, vol. 2). Il Mulino, Bologna, pp 50–72. Gavio, F. & Lelleri, R. (2007). La fruizione dei congedi parentali in Italia nella pubblica amministrazione, nel settore privato e nel terzo settore. Monitoraggio dell’applicazione della legge n. 53/2000 dal 2001 al 2004. In P. Donati (Ed.), Famiglie e bisogni sociali: la frontiera delle buone prassi, (Osservatorio Nazionale sulla Famiglia). Il Mulino, Bologna, pp 256–287. Giddens, A. (1992). The Transformation of Intimacy. Sexuality, Love, and Eroticism in Modern Societies. Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press. Giovannini, D. (1998). Are fathers changing? Comparing some different images on sharing of childcare and domestic work. In E. Drew, R. Emerek, & E. Mahon (Eds.), Women, Work and the Family in Europe (191–199). London–New York: Routledge. Giovannini, D. & Ventimiglia, C. (eds.) (1994). Paternità e politiche per l’infanzia. Rapporto di Ricerca non pubblicato. Regione Emilia-Romagna: Assessorato alla Formazione Professionale, Lavoro, Scuola e Università. Googins, B. K. (1991). Work/Family Conflicts: Private Lives – Public Responses. New York: Auburn House. Griswold, R. L. (1993). Fatherhood in America: A History. New York: Basic Books. Gstrein, M., Mateeva, L., & Schuh, U. (2007). WORKCARE. Social quality and the changing relationship between work, care and welfare in Europe. Social, demographic and employment trends. CIT5 Contract No. 028361 (May 2007, Working Paper 2). Website: www.abdn.ac.uk/socsci/research/nec/workcare/. Haas, L. (1993). Changing gender roles in Sweden. In: J. C. Hood (Ed.), Men, Work and Family (23–55). Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage Publications. Istituto Regionale di Ricerca della Lombardia (1998). Conciliazione tra vita professionale e evita familiare, risorse e vincoli delle famiglie e sostegno istituzionale. Quaderni Regionali di Ricerca, 25. Kellerhals, J., Perrin, J-F., Steinauer-Cresson, G., Vonèche, L., & Wirth, G. (1982). Mariages au Quotidien: Inégalités Sociales, Tensions Culturelles et Organisation Familiale. Lausanne: Pierre-Marcel Favre. Kellerhals, J., Widmer, E., & Levy, R. (2004). Mesure et Démesure du Couple. Cohésion, Crises et Résilience dans les Couples Contemporains. Paris: Payot. ISTAT-CNEL (2003). Maternità e partecipazione delle donne al mercato del lavoro: tra vincoli e strategie di conciliazione. I principali risultati dell’indagine campionaria sulle nascite condotta dall’Istat nel 2002, Paper presented at the Cnel-Istat Seminar, Roma (www.istat.it). Molinari, L. (1991). Identità sociale e conflitto di ruoli: principi organizzatori di rappresentazioni sociali dello sviluppo infantile. Giornale Italiano di Psicologia, 18 (1), 97–118. Molinari, L. (1996). Ritratti di famiglia nelle esperienze delle madri. In C. Ventimiglia (Ed.), Paternità in Controluce. Milano: FrancoAngeli. Moss, P. & Deven, S. (Eds.) (1999). Parental Leave: Progress or Pitfall? Research and Policy Issues in Europe. Brussels: NIDI CBGS Publications. Moss, P. & Deven, F. (2006). Leave policies and research: a cross-national overview. Marriage and Family Review, 39 (3/4), 255–285. Moss, P. & O’Brien, M. (Eds.) (2006). International review of leave policies and related research 2006. Employment Relations Research Series (57), Department of Trade and Industry, London. Website: www.dti.gov.uk. Nock, S. L. (1998). Marriage in Men’s Lives. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

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Palomba, R. & Sabbadini, L. L. (1994). Tempi Diversi. L’Uso del Tempo di Uomini e Donne nell’Italia di Oggi. Commissione Nazionale per le Pari Opportunità tra Uomo e Donna, Roma. Website: www.istat.it. Piazza, M. (2000). I sistemi di conciliazione tra i tempi del lavoro familiare, i tempi del lavoro professionale e i tempi dei servizi. Quaderni Regionali di Ricerca, 16. Ponzellini, A. M. (2006). Work–life balance and industrial relations in Italy. European Societies 2, 273–294. Regione Lombardia/Pari Opportunità – Associazione per la famiglia (2002), I nuovi padri. Politiche femminili e pari opportunità. Website: www.famiglia.regione.lombardia.it. Rossi, G. (2005). Lavoro e famiglia: tra ideali e realtà. Gli orientamenti e le scelte degli uomini e delle donne in Italia. In P. Donati (Ed.), Famiglia e Lavoro: dal Conflitto a Nuove Sinergie. IX Rapporto CISF sulla famiglia in Italia. Cinisello Balsamo (Mi): Edizioni San Paolo. Rossi, G. (Ed.) (2006). Reconciling Family and Work: New Challenges for Social Policies in Europe. Milano: FrancoAngeli. Sabbadini, L. L. & Palomba, R. (1994). Tempi Diversi. Roma: Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, Commissione Nazionale Parità. Saitta, L. (1996). I datori di lavoro e la paternità. In C. Ventimiglia (Ed.), Paternità in Controluce (73–97). Milano: FrancoAngeli. Scialdone, A. (2002). Le azioni positive per la flessibilità. In Regione Lombardia/Pari Opportunità (Ed.) Conciliare Famiglia e Lavoro. Un Obiettivo Possibile? Website: www. regione.lombardia.it. Scisci, A. (1999). La donna tra famiglia e lavoro: il caso italiano. Studi di Sociologia 37 (2), 235–254. Tiraboschi, M. (2005). La legislazione del mercato del lavoro a sostegno della famiglia dopo la legge Biagi. In P. Donati (Ed.), Famiglia e Lavoro: dal Conflitto a Nuove Sinergie, IX Rapporto CISF sulla famiglia in Italia (227–263). Cinisello Balsamo (Mi): Edizioni San Paolo. Townsend, N. W. (2002). The Package Deal. Marriage, Work and Fatherhood in Men’s Lives. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press. Vassilev, I. & Wallace, C. (2007). WORKCARE. Social Quality and the Changing Relationship between Work, Care and Welfare in Europe. Literature review. CIT5 Contract No. 028361 (May 2007, Working Paper 1)(Website: www.abdn.ac.uk/socsci/research/nec/workcare/). Ventimiglia, C. (1996). Paternità in Controluce. Milano: FrancoAngeli. Ventimiglia, C. (1999). Mamme in regia, papa in panchina. Famiglia Oggi 11, 18–25. Wall, K. (2008). Leave policy models and the articulation of work and family in Europe: a comparative perspective. Sociologia e Politiche Sociali, 1, 100–135. Zanatta, A. L. (1999). Il coinvolgimento dei padri nella cura dei figli. Polis 13 (3), 469–484. Zanatta, A. L. (2007). Padri e congedo parentale. In A. Pinnelli, F. Racioppi, & L. Terzeria (Eds.), Genere, Famiglia e Salute (295–318). Milano: FrancoAngeli.

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20 Raffaella Patimo

Introduction The economic conditions of working women have lately been substantially improving in many aspects and across several countries. As a first consideration, one of the new positive aspects is the increased opportunities women are being granted to access the labor market, supported at several levels by public policies. At the European Union (EU) level, for example, in 1999, the guideline on “gender mainstreaming (GM) approach in implementing the guidelines across all four pillars” was incorporated in the 1997 European Employment Strategy (EES) in order to allow for more integration in gender issues. This meant extra consideration of gender effects in all policy measures undertaken. Of course, the situation of European women has improved on average, but quite a few countries still experience substantial discrimination in access, which is not sustainable in the long run. The target of GM is to boost female participation in the labor market and to remove all existing obstacles to its implementation by taking into consideration the impact on gender of every policy in every sector. However, the gender issue is far from resolved, from the EU to the local level. On the contrary, after the mid-term evaluation (2003), pillar IV on “equal opportunities” disappeared, and was replaced by a single more general guideline (one out of ten, the “10 commandments”) on equal opportunities. The EU’s attention then shifted to “employment issues” as a whole, rather than to gender balanced employment more specifically. This was mainly due to the unfavorable economic context, especially in the labor market. The effect is clearly seen in the new “streamlining” of EES and in the reinforcement of three overarching objectives of full employment, quality, and productivity at work, and social cohesion and inclusion. Gender equality was no longer included in the guidelines, though GM remained as a general principle. Many stakeholders and analysts (Rubery et al., 2006; JER, 2007; CEC, 2008)

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have attributed this to the decision to consider GM so absorbed by all EU members as to be redundant, if it were explicitly adopted in further policy measures. The GM approach, much to the advantage of total employment measures, has therefore started to be less and less visible, and this could be understood within a general slowdown of the already difficult process of catching up by female workers. As a further consideration, the lesser degree of vertical and horizontal segregation in the professions has given rise, though to a marginal extent, to a reduction in the wage gap that has always differentiated the male working context from the female. However, given the same starting conditions (such as education levels, for example) for men and women, considerable gaps remain in the positions covered1 in all sectors. Nevertheless, the overview on employment and participation is far from homogeneous across countries and professions in Europe. This could certainly be attributed to different preferences for social and economic targets according to national, or even local, culture and policy priorities. For example, Fernandez and Fogli (2005) have shown that a significant part of variation in time and space of decisions to participate and to have children is explained by Culture. Therefore, the “traditional” paradigm which used to explain the lower levels of activity for women by the role taken by women in the household (typically, childrearing and care of the house and/or other dependants) proves to be strikingly ineffective. The “traditional” negative relationship between fertility rates and activity rates does not hold any more. In Italy, in particular, the situation is variable even at national level: the data on total employment, activity rate, and unemployment differ drastically across territorial divisions or regions. The gap between Northern-Central Italy and Southern Italy is generally high, but becomes even wider when disaggregated by gender. Hence, the scope clearly exists for policy measures, these being the crucial determinants of such differentials. Actually, the “traditional” argument would hold only if we found similar participation (activity rates), based on the fact that the propensity to actively participate in the labor market depends somehow on the institutional framework (Cenci & Scarlato (2002), Patimo (2005), Del Boca et al. (2007)) that, in turn, should be common to all regions. In fact, we infer that the activity rates definitely depend on the institutional context surrounding the potential workers, undoubtedly influenced by policy measures undertaken. And yet, there must be more profound reasons that prevent women from southern Italy entering the labor market and leaving them in the inactive side of the economy. The questions, therefore, are: can we maintain, in different territorial environments, that differently conceived or coordinated policy measures contribute to preventing thousands of (young) women exploiting their economic potential and, perhaps, exploiting fully the investment they have made in their human capital? Does not this unexploited potential eventually harm the whole economic system? Can a country, a region, grow

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steadily and completely if the other half of the labor force is standing idle? To say it à la North (1990): if we think that female employment gives rise to increasing returns for the whole community2, what prevents the appropriate institutional change – which would allow them to work on an equal basis – from taking place? Are there so many differences in the cultural, educational, and working environments of North and South as to eliminate the potential role of increasing returns and market failures in causing this institutional change? Although these questions require a much deeper analysis and longer discussion, this paper tries, as a preliminary, to gather some observations obtained from different sources: the new EES; the policy measures available across Italy to promote equal opportunities; the uneven output produced by same institutions across different territories; the unfavorable economic context actually turning from threat of recession to opportunity to growth. This study aims at casting some light on the performance of the local labor market in Puglia and its neighbor regions through a first data analysis on employment, activity rate, and the availability of selected support services. We intend to show that the poor performance of local labor markets stems directly from a poor and short-sighted mixture of economic and social policies by local government bodies. After a brief literature overview, this paper will then attempt to cast some light on the determinants of continuously existing gaps in the supply of employment (and social) policies offered by some (Nordic) countries compared to other (Southern) countries, arguing that the crucial problem shared by many EU members is not (only) the reduction of unemployment or the increase in employment for women, but (also) the enforcement of the principle of nondiscrimination and a new approach to the potential relation between female work and innovation in technologies as well as in management, starting from a country-level definition of their determinants. The approach followed here is from theoretical background to policy analysis, through a preliminary descriptive analysis of available data.

The relevant literature The relationship between the participation of women in the labor market and institutions has been under investigation for a long time. Following North’s definition of institutions3, which he distinguishes from organizations4, any constraint applying to the household is bound to affect all the decisions made inside the household. These constraints may well be those faced by the “heads” (husband and wife) of the household when deciding how to allocate their time and to what extent to increase the size of the household. Women, in particular, face all those institutional constraints that will play a decisive role in their decision making about their participation in the labor market. These constraints are imposed by the availability,

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cost, and quality of childcare services; the availability, cost, and quality of services for the care of other dependants; the time coordination of the organizations (be they economic, social, political or educational) of the society; the targets and the consistency of public policies relative to the commitments undertaken by government in a principal-agent scheme. According to some recent economic literature (Del Boca (2002), Del Boca et al. (2006), Del Boca et al. (2003)), the lack in provision of family services (more than their cost) certainly affects the labor supply by hampering the active participation of women in the labor market. Studies on the real access of female workers to the labor market, in terms of non-visible obstacles to entrance, are giving new impetus to the subject. These studies explicitly show that the female labor supply is sensitive not only to wages – as the traditional explanation would suggest – but also to the cost of family services (childcare and care of the elderly). This implies that a higher cost (in monetary terms or in terms of its scarcity) of these services causes a reduction in the supply of labor of women who have children (or other dependants) to take care of. However, this is true only when rationing is not present (Del Boca, 2002). In fact, when rationing of child care exists, as in the Italian case, especially in the Southern Italian regions (Del Boca & Pasqua 2002), the real cost of these services becomes infinite, even though the nominal cost is lower than average. Along with Del Boca et al. (2007), who estimate the probability of both working and having children in the same year (ECHP database), the institutional context affects the labor supply of women differently, according to specific characteristics that need to be taken into account in policy designing (education levels, flexibility, and timing coordination) (Chiuri, 2000). Other studies have recently shown that the surrounding institutional context significantly affects market participation and the performance of female workers, or more generally parents (Del Boca & Wetzels, 2007; ILO, 2008; De Henau et al., 2006). The last of these, in particular, have investigated how policies can be designed in order to minimize the employment penalties associated with the presence of young children, and thus promote parenthood by working women. Many authors have explained the gaps between mothers’ and fathers’ employment (and less often activity) rates by the amount of time spent in household and caring activities. Traditionally5, the fact that mothers tend to spend more time than fathers in childcare and unpaid household work was explained in terms of their assumed comparative advantages in the two spheres. Recent models of the allocation of resources within households draw on bargaining theories, some assuming that partners cooperate, others that they compete6. In these models, individual earnings, even when potential, can be a determinant of the intra-household time allocation. The differences between the earnings of men and women, stemming partly from discrimination against women, may thus be seen as perpetuating unequal

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gender balance in household and caring activities. Once again, cooperation proves to be the first-best solution: this is what is called sharing of household responsibility. The perpetuation could be true when this outcome is foreseeable at the time of investing in human capital, implying a biased decision made by young women either on the amount of human capital to be accumulated or on the field in which the cultural/training investment has to take place (discrimination ex-ante). Hence, lower labor market wages received by women lead to lower incentives for women to engage in paid employment, which in turn lead to relatively high levels of unpaid work, and again lower wages, feeding the vicious circle. In addition, other authors7 argue that employers’ expectations about a likely disinvestment in commitment to the job in favor of a greater commitment to their childcare role result in the promotion ladder being harder for mothers (or even potential mothers) to climb compared to fathers, tending to confirm the traditional pattern of specialization and the major presence of men at top managerial levels. Chevalier and Viitanen (2002), examining the causality between female labor force participation and the supply of childcare, found that “the lack of childcare facilities limits the participation of women in the labor force, however, the market for childcare does not seem to react to demand. Therefore, government intervention may be required to create more childcare facilities” (917, author’s italics). Another hint for a possible role for government in leveling the playing field for female and male workers is found in Bratti et al. (2004). Analyzing the role of employment protection in the employment decisions of new mothers in Italy, they find that a higher degree of job stability and employment protection favor a stronger labor market attachment on the part of new mothers. Compared to other EU countries, maternity protection in employment in Italy is above average, giving a period of maternal leave or possible absence in the child’s early years. Here a problem of insider-outsider style seems to be applicable. This above-average protection can be enjoyed by insider mothers only, while outsider mothers maintain their disinclination to any participation in the labor market when deciding to commit themselves to child-rearing. Overall, the analysis reports a picture of a “dual” labor market, where women with highly protected and stable jobs find it easier to combine career and family, while those who are less protected by labor laws are more likely to quit the labor market. To sum up, the debate on female participation in the labor market, the effect of policy measures undertaken and the different approaches thereby adopted has been active for many years, since it involves a sensitive social dimension of public economic policies. On the whole, from the existing literature, a major role for the coordination of public services arises. Actually, it seems that the cost of childcare services is only a secondary problem, whereas their availability is a major

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one and the awareness of the whole community on this matter is essential when devoting public effort and funds to increasing female participation. But childcare services are only one (big) part of the problem. Yet, following this strand of recent literature, our questions would then be: how policies must be designed (or properly applied if correctly designed) in order to minimize labor market participation disadvantages for those with children, and also the unsustainable trade-off between child-rearing and employment in some regions of the so-called advanced economies.

A brief overview of female participation and policy measures In line with this literature overview, helped by the evidence of data shown below, it is clear that different groups of countries emerge, more or less associated with models of “traditionally” classified welfare states . In particular, according to the data on the four variables on EU members in this table, ranked by female activity rate in 2007, it appears that Scandinavian countries and Great Britain are at the top of the list, followed by an unusual Portuguese performance, while those countries who are now viewed as constituting the “Mediterranean model” (Bettio & Villa, 1998; Del Boca, 2002), i.e. Greece and Italy and newly accessed Malta, are at the bottom of the list. At first sight this suggests that being a member of the EU (of democratic and developed countries, etc.) for a longer time does not constitute an asset in tackling the gender gap. It is also true that in the last four years Spain has improved this indicator sharply, having been at the bottom rank for a long while (Patimo, 2005). A very simple consideration arises: given the level of the development of the economic systems; given the pace of this development; given the different attitudes of people to the family setting; can it be possible that none of these women want to actively participate in the economic life of their countries? Can their reservation wage be so high that they give up the search for a job? After all, these considerations would accord with those to be made regarding the increased opportunities for women to access education and achieve targets that were out of their reach only a few years ago. Moreover, the odd evolution of the relation between activity rates and fertility rates has already been studied in many ways, and yet, the more likely explanation of these odd phenomena is inconsistency. A possible and “traditional” explanation of the low rates of female activity lies in the double role they play in the household and in the labor market. In order for this explanation to hold, we should find that the low activity rate countries show high fertility rates, but this is not the case EU-wide. In fact, if we leave out the newly acceded countries, Italy, Spain, and Greece have the worst performance in relation to number of children per fertile woman

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(1.28 ca.). This is in evident contrast also with the fact that Scandinavian women who actively participate in the labor market and who are effectively employed have 1.76 (Denmark) to 1.72 (Sweden) children per woman. It is therefore concisely shown that women’s choice not to participate is not a matter of “objective” obstacles for them to enter the labor market but rather a matter of coordination of public policies and enforcement of cultural values, since those policies have a the long-term objective of investment in social infrastructures which give an economic yield in terms of employment and income for the country as a whole. This is even more true when we disaggregate the data for Italy, which appears near the bottom of Tables 20.1 and 20.2, into data for divisions Table 20.1 Main labor market indicators, EU 27 (plus Norway), 2007

SE DK NO FI NL DE UK PT EE LV AT SI FR CY LT IE BG CZ ES SK BE LU PL RO HU GR IT MT EU

ACT RATE

EMP RATE

EMP GR RATE

UNEMP RATE

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

76.8 76.4 75.9 73.8 72.2 70.1 69.0 68.8 68.7 68.3 67.8 66.6 65.6 65.4 65.0 63.3 62.1 61.5 61.4 60.8 60.4 58.9 56.5 56.0 55.1 54.9 50.7 38.6 63.4

81.4 83.9 81.6 77.2 84.6 81.8 82.2 79.4 77.5 77.6 81.7 75.8 74.9 82.9 71.0 81.4 70.6 78.1 81.4 75.9 73.6 75.0 70.0 70.1 69.0 79.1 74.4 77.6 77.7

71.8 73.2 74.0 68.5 69.6 64.0 65.5 61.9 65.9 64.4 64.4 62.6 60.0 62.4 62.2 60.6 57.6 57.3 54.7 53.0 55.3 56.1 50.6 52.8 50.9 47.9 46.6 35.7 58.3

76.5 81.0 79.5 72.1 82.2 74.7 77.5 73.8 73.2 72.5 78.4 72.7 69.3 80.0 67.9 77.4 66.0 74.8 76.2 68.4 68.7 72.3 63.6 64.8 64.0 74.9 70.7 72.9 72.5

2.2 1.7 4.4 2.3 3.4 2.0 0.4 0.2 0.0 3.6 1.4 2.0 2.2 4.8 2.3 4.8 2.6 1.2 4.5 2.2 2.4 6.3 3.0 0.5 –0.6 1.4 1.4 7.5 2.1

2.3 1.6 3.7 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.0 –0.2 1.5 3.5 2.0 3.2 0.6 2.0 3.4 2.6 3.0 2.2 2.0 2.0 1.1 2.9 2.0 1.9 0.2 1.2 1.0 0.6 1.5

6.4 4.2 2.5 7.2 3.6 8.3 5.0 9.7 3.9 5.6 5.0 5.9 8.9 4.6 4.3 4.2 7.3 6.7 10.9 12.7 8.5 5.1 10.4 5.4 7.7 12.8 7.9 7.6 7.8

9.9 3.5 2.6 6.5 2.8 8.5 5.6 6.7 5.4 6.4 3.9 5.8 7.8 3.4 4.3 4.9 6.5 4.2 6.4 4.0 6.7 3.4 9.0 7.2 7.1 5.2 4.9 5.9 6.6

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Source: Own elaboration of Eurostat data, from Eurostat data explorer, 2009.

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Table 20.2 The inconsistency of policy targets as shown in EU* female labor market data, 2006

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

SE DK FI NL DE UK PT EE LV AT SI FR CY LT IE CZ ES SK LU PL HU GR IT MT

76.8 76.4 73.8 72.2 70.1 69.0 68.8 68.7 68.3 67.8 66.6 65.6 65.4 65.0 63.3 61.5 61.4 60.8 58.9 56.5 55.1 54.9 50.7 38.6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

FR IE DK FI UK SE NL LU EE CY AT PT MT ES DE GR IT HU LV CZ LT SI SK PL

1.94 1.86 1.80 1.80 1.78 1.77 1.71 1.66 1.50 1.42 1.41 1.40 1.38 1.35 1.34 1.33 1.32 1.31 1.31 1.28 1.27 1.26 1.25 1.24

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

NL UK ES SE FR LU IE DE IT CY DK EE FI MT AT SI GR HU LV CZ PT SK LT PL

CC_COV RATE 41.0 28.0 20.0 17.0 14.0 14.0 13.0 11.0 10.0 7.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0

Source: Own elaboration of Eurostat data, from Eurostat data Explorer, 2009. *: BG and RO: not all data available; BE: no data on fertility rate available Note: CC = Country Code.

or regions. It is true that the Italian total employment rate (EMP RATE) increased by seven percentage points from 1995 to 2007. The improvements can be seen even more favorably by looking at decrease in the unemployment rate (UNEMP RATE) over same period: from 11.2 to 6.1, with the relevant rate in single figures only since 2001. This difference in trends between unemployment (mediocre) and employment (good) has a positive implication: it means, in fact, that activity rates (ACT RATE) have increased from a total of 57.8% in 1993 to 62.5 % in 2007, and, in particular, the female activity rate is growing faster: from 41.9% in 1993 to 54.7% in 2007. Although this seems to be a positive result for the country in general and for women in particular, the regional disaggregation of the data tells us that these substantial changes are taking place mostly in the Center–North, and

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Ranking CC ACT RATE Ranking CC FERT RATE Ranking CC

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Table 20.3 Main labor market indicators, Italian regions, 2007

Regions Piemonte Valle d’Aosta/Vallée d’Aoste Lombardia Trentino-Alto Adige – Bolzano/Bozen – Trento Veneto Friuli-Venezia Giulia Liguria Emilia-Romagna Toscana Umbria Marche Lazio Abruzzo Molise Campania Puglia Basilicata Calabria Sicilia Sardegna Italia

EMP RATE

UNEM RATE

L-R UNEM RATE

F

M

F

M

F

2007

F

M

59.5 62.3

76.1 78.1

56.3 59.6

73.4 76.2

5.2 4.3

3.5 2.4

2.4 1.5

1.4 0.8

59.3 60.3 61.9 58.8 57.0 58.5 58.3 64.6 59.3 59.6 58.5 52.4 49.0 45.4 32.7 35.5 40.3 36.3 35.2 45.5 50.7

78.8 79.4 81.2 77.6 78.9 77.1 75.8 80.1 76.2 75.8 76.8 75.7 74.4 71.1 66.3 70.1 69.3 65.1 67.9 71.7 74.4

56.6 57.9 59.8 56.2 54.0 55.7 55.0 62.0 55.5 55.5 54.8 48.1 44.1 40.4 27.9 30.0 34.1 31.0 29.0 39.0 46.6

76.7 77.8 79.5 76.1 77.2 75.2 72.6 78.4 74.0 73.7 74.7 71.7 71.4 66.5 59.9 63.7 64.9 58.9 60.7 66.4 70.7

4.6 3.8 3.3 4.4 5.2 4.7 5.7 3.9 6.3 6.9 6.1 8.2 9.8 10.9 14.6 15.5 15.3 14.5 17.3 14.2 7.9

2.6 1.9 2.0 1.8 2.0 2.4 4.2 2.1 2.8 2.7 2.7 5.1 3.9 6.4 9.5 9.0 6.3 9.4 10.6 7.2 4.9

1.7 1.0 0.8 1.2 1.9 2.0 1.9 1.2 2.5 3.3 2.8 4.3 4.5 5.9 8.3 8.6 9.2 8.5 11.3 6.8 3.9

0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.5 1.3 0.5 1.0 0.7 0.5 2.5 1.9 2.8 5.0 4.5 2.9 5.0 6.0 3.2 2.2

Source: Own elaboration of ISTAT, regional database, 2008.

mostly among the women of Center–North. In the following graph, data is shown from Southern to Northern regions, which roughly corresponds to ranking from bottom to top values. It is clear that women were more active in 2007 than in 1995, though quite a few regions have seen a downturn in the latest value, due to unfavorable economic conditions. In order to look for more structural reasons for this, we show the childcare coverage rate (CC_COV RATE) for each region. In Graph 20.2, this rate appears to be closely connected to the female activity rate. We may therefore infer that by increasing this, and other similar social services, the activity rate would receive the desired boost, and the whole economic system, through increased wealth and well-being, would benefit from this. In Southern Italy, ten years have passed by but unemployment is still at the same level. Furthermore, and more worryingly, we found that the same, mutatis mutandis, has occurred in the male sector. Already at the macro-regional level, therefore, it is evident that structural gaps exist and,

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ACT RATE

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Sardegna Sicilia Caladria Basilicata Puglia Campania Molise

Lazio Marche 2007 Umbria 2003

Toscana

1999

Emilia-Romagna

1995

Liguria Friuli-Venezia Giulia Veneto –Trento –Bolzano/Bozen Trentino-Alto Adige Lombardia Valle d'Aosta/Vallée d'Aoste Piemonte 0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Graph 20.1 Female activity rate by Italian region Source: Own elaboration of ISTAT, regional database, 2008.

70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0

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Abruzzo

CC cov rate 2005

Italia

Valle...

Veneto

Umbria

Trentino-Alto Adige

Sicilia

Toscana

Sardegna

Puglia

Molise

Piemonte

Marche

Lombardia

Lazio

Liguria

Friuli-Venezia Giulia

Campania

Emilia-Romagna

Calabria

Abruzzo

Basilicata

0.0

ACT RATE 2005

Graph 20.2 Female activity rate by Italian region Source: Own elaboration of ISTAT, several database, 2008.

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266 Raffaella Patimo 25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0 1999 5.0

2003 2007

Italia

Sicilia

Sardegna

Caladria

Puglia

Basilicata

Molise

Campania

Lazio

Abruzzo

Umbria

Marche

Toscana

Liguria

Emilia-Romagna

Veneto

Friuli-Venezia Giulia

–Trento

–Bolzano/Bozen

Lombardia

Trentino-Alto Adige

Piemonte

Valle d'Aosta/Vallée d'Aoste

0.0

Graph 20.3 Total unemployment rate by Italian region Source: Own elaboration of ISTAT, regional database, 2008.

apparently, nothing is being done or, worse, nothing has proved effective in reducing this unsustainable regional differential in labor market conditions. At a more disaggregated level, for which we already have some evidence (lack of space preventing discussion here), we expect to find far worse situations, with isolated pockets of (limited) excellence that, in any case, would not be sufficient per se to guarantee the development of the local labor markets and a level playing field for all workers.

The necessary coordination of policy measures: some concluding remarks

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1995

In this time of adverse global economic conditions, policy implications are unavoidable. The current stagnation of economies could well be explained through a Total Factor Productivity (TFP) methodology, accounting for the contribution of capital, technology, and labor, the last being differentiated by male and female labor factors. Other studies8 have already shown it is not the growth of employment per se which brings higher levels of production and hence income and finally wealth, but rather, the increase in total productivity stems from higher levels of technological innovation and labor

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productivity. We must assume that the desired increase in female activity and employment rates we are looking for require high-quality planning from the beginning. Equal opportunities have to be transformed into gender-neutral opportunities of access, permanence and progression through a coordinated use of policy measures which cover the whole working life of female and male workers. From this brief literature overview we can highlight the following areas requiring transformation: (i) first, and most important, the provision of childcare services: after obligatory parental leave mother workers could only be asked to go back to work if proper care is offered and guaranteed; (ii) a shift in culture, being one of the major determinant which makes people think, more than forty years after Becker wrote his pioneering work, that there might still exist a comparative advantage in household labor division due to gender and not to personal attitudes; (iii) following (ii), the parental/partner sharing of household and childcare responsibilities as the substantial determinant of equal opportunities; (iv) the closing of the pay gap, which otherwise would perpetuate, at best, the hampering of career progression, and at worst, departure from the labor market. In a thorough overview of the near future, the Lisbon strategy incorporates these targets in the evolution of the context, together with targets on employment. It actually envisages raising the coverage of childcare services up to at least 33% of 0–3 year-old children (90% 3–6). This means that countries like Italy, where the national average for the coverage of childcare services for children 0–3 was 10% in 2006 (latest available Eurostat data), still have much to do towards the removal of real obstacles to female participation in the labor market. Female labor supply has social, economic and cultural characteristics that distinguish it from the male labor supply, because of women’s role in family life and family production, known in the relevant fields as the “double presence phenomenon” (Balbo, 1978). Neglecting this fact in policy decision making may negate policy efforts aimed at increasing the participation of women through investments in education and training, requalification and lifelong learning measures, and on the prevention (and cure) of discrimination against them. We also believe that the initiatives undertaken at EU and national levels may give a self-reinforcing impetus to the employment-oriented phase of the European integration process. Nevertheless, we believe that the initiatives in favor of coordination for women’s participation in the whole society and in favor of conciliation between family and work have to start at local level, as suggested by the subsidiary principle. In this way, GM would regain the visibility it appears to have lost. At this stage, however, our brief, and not exhaustive, overview of EU member states on the conditions applying to men and to women with family and

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without burdens, implies that personal (but socially relevant) decisions – such as marriage age, fertility targets, and attitudes towards labor market participation – may be influenced by these unequal conditions. Furthermore, our outline of Italian regional variations in labor opportunities – though at a rough level of analysis – paves the way for a deeper investigation into the economic (and social) reasons for this uneven treatment at the start of the third millennium, especially bearing in mind the implications for poverty. Nevertheless, we recognize that things are now changing. A strong effort for the coordination of policies is needed. Provided inter-institutional cooperation and coordination are forthcoming, targets for female participation may be satisfactorily met.

Notes 1. Only at employee level do women overtake men; though this situation is applicable EU-wide, there are minor exceptions like those occurring in Denmark and Great Britain. For few examples, please refer to ISTAT 2004, 118–123. 2. Since “prime age” women (25–54), together with older workers (55–64), constitute one of the largest demographic groups of non-employed persons who could be mobilized, raising female participation is a key task not only in the EU or Italy, but in all in OECD countries (P. Swaim, Women in Employment, www.OECD.org last accessed 1 December 2009). 3. “... any kind of constraint that human beings conceive with the object of regulating the social interaction ...” (North 1990) 4. Which supply a framework for actions and are best intended as “the agents of institutional change” 5. For all, see, first, Becker (1965). 6. See OECD (2001), 137. 7. In OECD (2001) Lommerud and Vagstad (2000). 8. Recently (2008), V. Peragine. Povertà e politiche di inclusione sociale in provincia di Bari, Meridia.

References Becker, G. S. (1965). A theory of the allocation of time. Economic Journal, 75, 493–517. Bettio, F. & Villa, P. (1998). A Mediterranean perspective on the breakdown of the relationship between participation and fertility. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 22, 137–171. Bratti, M., Del Bono, E., & Vuri, D. (2004). Employment decisions of new mothers in Italy: the role of employment protection. IZA Discussion Paper number 1111, April 2004. CEC (2008). Report on equality between women and men 2008, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Cenci, M. & Scarlato, M. (2002). Istituzioni e mercato del lavoro nel Mezzogiorno d’Italia: un’analisi dinamica. Rivista di Politica Economica, La provincia del Mezzogiorno tra vincoli storici, struttura economica, dinamiche culturali e politiche economiche. G. Piga & B. Chiarini (Eds.), May–June. Chevalier, A. & Viitanen, T. K. (2002). The causality between female labour force participation and the availability of childcare. Applied Economics Letters, 9 (14), 915–18.

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Chiuri, M. C. (2000). Quality and demand of child care and female labour supply in Italy. Labour, 1 (14), 97–118. de Henau, J., Meulders, D., & O’Dorchai, S. (2006). The comparative effectiveness of public policies to fight motherhood-induced employment penalties and decreasing fertility in the former eu-15. Working Papers DULBEA 06-02.RS, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Department of Applied Economics (DULBEA). Del Boca, D. (2002). The effect of child care and part time opportunities on participation and fertility decisions in Italy, Discussion Paper no. 427, IZA, Bonn. Del Boca, D. (2002). The effect of child care on participation and fertility. Journal of Population Economics, Spring. Del Boca, D., Locatelli, M., & Pasqua, S. (2000). Employment decisions of married women: Evidence and explanations. Labour, 1 (14), 35–52. Del Boca, D., Vuri, D. (2005). Labor supply and child care costs: The effect of rationing. Labor and Demography, IZA DP, (1779). Del Boca, D. & Wetzels, C. (eds) (2007). Social Policies, Labor Markets and Motherhood. Cambridge University Press. Del Boca, D., Pasqua, S. & Pronzato, C. (2006). The Impact of Institutions on Motherhood and Work, ISER working papers 2006–55. Fernández, R., and Fogli, A., (2005). “Culture: An Empirical Investigation of Beliefs, Work, and Fertility,” NBER Working Paper No. 11268. ILO (2008). Global Employment Trends for Women 2008, Geneva. ISTAT (2004). per il Min. Pari opportunità, Come cambia la vita delle donne. Collana Demetra, Atti e Convegni, Emanuele Romeo Editore, L. L. Sabbadini (Ed.). North, D. (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press. OECD (2001– ...). OECD Employment Outlook. Paris: OECD. Patimo, R. (2005). Il ruolo delle istituzioni nella determinazione della partecipazione femminile al mercato del lavoro. In A. Lopes, M. Lorizio, & F. Reganati (Eds.), Istituzioni e Imprese nello Sviluppo Locale. Roma: Carocci editore. Rubery, J., Grimshaw, D., Smith, M., & Donnelly, R. (2006). The National Reform Programme and the gender aspects of the European Employment Strategy. Coordinator synthesis report prepared for the Equality Unit, EC, University of Manchester, EWERC, Manchester.

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Reconciling Work and Family Life: Collective Bargaining in the Local Public Services Sector Carla Spinelli

Reconciling work and family life: what role for collective bargaining? Equal treatment for men and women cannot be viewed from an individual standpoint, being mainly a social problem. Every social problem that affects both organizations and workers acquires a collective dimension. Indeed, even if reconciling work responsibilities with family obligations as a collective question is a particular issue, it should be granted further consideration in collective agreements – especially at plant level – since they are, as a rule, closer to social reality and social problems. An effective equal opportunities policy presupposes an integrated overall strategy allowing for better organization of working hours and greater flexibility. Flexibility should not be just for the benefit of employers. Modern workers have a need for flexible working arrangements and modern work organizations to facilitate reconciling work with family care, to allow time for education and to cater to their personal preferences and life styles. This is particularly true, indeed, it is essential, for workers involved in boundaryless careers. In this field, trade unions play a major role, i.e. by means of collective bargaining. Affirmative actions promoting women’s participation in the labor force should be adopted, to encourage the introduction of new flexible ways of organizing work and time that are better suited to the changing needs of society. If not supported with trade union activities, reconciling work and family life could risk remaining the social responsibility of the employer alone, unless it is legally enforceable. Furthermore, collective agreements, meeting the needs of both businesses (or public administrations) and workers,

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21

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should avoid the natural resistance of businesses (or public administrations) to accepting organizational changes that are determined by external factors and not directly linked to their interests.

Legal rules regarding working time flexibility enabling men and women to reconcile their occupational and family obligations1 assign local governments the task of organizing all public services in their area – health, safety, education, transport, etc. – in order to meet citizens’ needs, such as accessing these services on week-ends, lunch time or late evening. This action should involve not only public services provided directly by local governments but also those coordinated or controlled by them. In particular, Law no. 53/2000, which puts into effect Dir. no. 96/34/ EC, thus promoting a new balance for working time, time for training, and time for family care, requires local governments to define Time Planning of Territorial Public Services, in order to meet the objective of rational time organization. The above Law also entrusts local governments with the task of creating municipal bodies – also known as “Time Banks”2 – which “collect” people’s free time and make it available for social solidarity activities. According to the legislator, all these interventions represent local governments’ fundamental contributions to reconciling work and family policies. In relation to the above, yet another aspect should be considered. When designing and implementing work and family policies, local governments must not disregard their status as employers, not only because – like any employer – they must guarantee equal opportunities at work for men and women, but also because of the promotional role they are assigned by national and regional3 laws. This role consists, in fact, in providing a local governance of public services by enforcing Time Planning of Territorial Public Services and pursuing the aim of social solidarity, i.e. by means of “Time Banks”. In this perspective, the concrete solutions adopted by local governments become highly relevant. Indeed, the more they provide more and better public services, the more they will ask for working time flexibility from workers employed in this sector, including workers whose employer is the local government. Nevertheless, these workers have the same need to reconcile work and the needs of family life as all the citizens who benefit from public services. In other words, when organizing Time Planning of Territorial Public Services, local governments have to take into account the need to reconcile work and family life of both citizens and public service workers. In order to ensure this difficult balance, local governments resort to collective bargaining.

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Reconciling work and family life policies: local government as public services supplier or manager, local government as employer

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Carla Spinelli

Collective agreements signed at national level to set terms and conditions of employment for local government employees broadly regulate flexible working time arrangements and measures to facilitate work–life balance, either directly4 or delegating this function to collective bargaining at a local level. The surveys examined have focused on collective bargaining at a local level, as it developed between 1998 and 20025. They show disappointing results as far as the reconciliation of work and family life is concerned. According to the above-mentioned surveys, collective agreements at local level regulate working time flexibility, taking into account local government interests and employees’ needs separately. On the one hand, they have drawn up a standard working day schedule for all workers according to the best provision of public services. The only flexible working arrangement allowed is the workers’ opportunity to choose when to begin and/or end their working day, but only within a specific range determined by the collective agreement, either as a fixed term (i.e. half an hour more or less than standard) or as a difference with respect to the compulsory working time schedule. This flexible working arrangement cannot be extended to workers employed in certain public services, such as children’s assistants in kindergarten, primary school teachers and local policy officers, who have more rigid working time arrangements involving work shifts, duty on call, etc. On the other hand, collective agreements introduce “worker-oriented” flexible working arrangements as special individual opportunities to deviate from the standard work schedule when facing personal or family problems. Very often, collective agreements determine in detail which situations should entitle workers to apply for flexible working arrangements and define priority criteria. Sometimes flexible working arrangements are directly regulated by collective agreements (e.g. reducing or modifying work shifts). In other cases, administrations are expected to find the right solution for each worker’s needs, within the framework of contractual rules. In any case, the common constraint of every arrangement is that it must not jeopardize the provision of public services. Working time “accounts” are another relevant measure for work–life balance. They accumulate non-paid overtime working hours which can be used by workers on demand as educational/training or parental/care leave6. Working time accounts are regulated by collective agreement at a local level in order to define the conditions workers have to abide by when using accumulated working hours. Sometimes working time accounts can counterbalance inappropriate use of flexibility arrangements regarding the beginning and/or the end of a standard working day.

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Trends in collective bargaining for local government employees

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Collective agreements at a local level do not, however, regulate parttime or teleworking. However, they do regulate parental leave (although that is the exclusive competence of collective agreements at a national level), setting requirements and procedures for application or priority criteria. In conclusion, collective agreements signed at a local level between 1998 and 2002 have not achieved significant results in terms of the introduction of organized systems of flexible work in local government7. Even where enforced, no innovative regulations have been adopted8. Collective bargaining at a local level has focused mainly on conventional issues such as salary or health and safety, rather than on improving flexible working arrangements and modern work organization, to the benefit of both local governments as employers, and their employees. Similar outcomes have been recorded not only in the public services sector but also in the entire public sector9. Negotiations have developed without allowing the opportunity of improving quality at work. Both local governments and trade unions can be considered responsible for this; the former due to the lack of organization strategies, and the latter for focusing only on wage demands. As regards the powers delegated by national collective agreements for measures reconciling work and family life, it is worth considering that many local collective agreements leave decision-making powers to management offices instead of directly regulating flexible working time arrangements, working time accounts or non-standard working time schedules for workers who are disadvantaged for personal or family reasons. According to this behavior, social partners and, even more, trade unions, have declined to implement affirmative action on flexible working time, which is their competence as prescribed by the national collective agreement10.

Best practice The above describes the situation in the surveys on collective bargaining in the early 2000s. In the meantime, however, things have evolved. Interesting and innovative solutions for reconciling work and family life have been introduced over the last few years in some local government work organizations, with an important contribution from collective bargaining. These collective agreements, surprisingly, cannot be found in official databases. They are available on specialized websites only, where best practice receives higher consideration11. Such collective agreements are still rare, yet they could become a good example of best practice to follow. One experience in particular, inter alia, is worth considering. A successful affirmative action project on human resources management and reconciling policy has been implemented in Alessandria, Italy. The project is

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Reconciling Work and Family Life

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Carla Spinelli

entitled “Mothers in local government organizations, double presence, double satisfaction: back to work better than before”12. The project was designed to help female workers going back to work after childbirth. The project was focused on promoting employees’ motivation practices and on implementing a family-friendly organizational environment. In this perspective, new standards of internal communication were experimented with, and workers were offered a counseling service. An internal exploratory survey was carried out distributing questionnaires to highlight all the problems linked to the work–home role conflict of female workers and to monitor the subsequent concrete reconciling needs and demands of women employed by local government in Alessandria. As a result of this survey, new flexible ways of organizing work and time were introduced in 2007 through a collective agreement. Another important result gained through collective bargaining is the wider diffusion of teleworking. Introduced generally as an experimental organizational solution, teleworking is now implemented in several workplaces where it is normally preferred by workers who are in difficulty for personal or family reasons. It is now commonly recognized as a suitable instrument for increasing women’s participation in the labor market13.

Final remarks The experiences of collective bargaining described above confirm that a joint régime of flexibility measures, improving efficiency and productivity, together with employee oriented work–life balance provisions, does enhance quality at work. These examples of flexibility options are, in fact, beneficial both to employers and employees. They represent best practice to be fostered at a local level. In this perspective, an important contribution to ensuring success for a local model of governance on reconciling work and family life policies and, more generally, on time policies as required by Law no. 53/2000, could be obtained by developing a virtuous circle of consent involving collective agreements signed at a local level and a tripartite local dialogue between employers’/public administrations organizations, trade unions, and local government representatives. This appears to be necessary before defining Time Planning of Territorial Public Services. The complexity of interests involved – those of citizens in the good functioning of public services, those of local governments in organizing public services in an effective, efficient, and economical way, and those of workers in balancing their work responsibilities with their family obligations – requires appropriate norms in order to embrace them all. Reconciling these different demands, which cannot be tackled without ensuring all the stakeholders’ participation, is a major challenge for local governments. Hence, networking with the national and local levels of

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the collective agreement and social stakeholders involved in the dialogue appears to be crucial for promoting gender-based policies.

This contribution has been developed as part of the research: La governance locale delle politiche dei tempi. Conciliazione di vita e lavoro e armonizzazione dei tempi della città [Local Governance on Time Policies. Reconciling work and family life and harmonizing time in the town], carried out by the Department of Labour Law and Industrial Relations, University of Bari and financed by POR Puglia 2000–2006, Measure no. 3.14 – Promuovere la partecipazione delle donne nel mercato del lavoro [Promoting female participation in the labor market]. 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Art. 50, d.lgs. no. 267/2000. Art. 22 ff., Law no. 53/2000. See Apulia Regional Law no. 7/2007. See norms concerning, for example: flexibility in working time, part-time, teleworking, parental leaves (CCNL 6.7.1995, art. 19, and mainly CCNL 14.9.2000, artt. 1, 4–6 and 11–18). Bellardi, Carabelli & Viscomi (Eds.) (2007); Bordogna (Ed.) (2002); Della Rocca, Rampino & Burgarella (Eds.) (2001). Art. 38 bis, CCNL 14.9.2000. With specific reference to working time arrangements see Esposito & Saracini (2007, 62 ff). See the critical analysis of Soloperto (2007, 209); Carrieri & Ricciardi (2006, 7). Dell’Aringa (2007, 297); Della Rocca (2006, 280). Art. 19, co. 2 and 5, CCNL 14.9.2000. Among others, www.nonsolofannulloni.forumpa.it; www.buoniesempi.it www.comune.alessandria.it/progetti An interesting project on teleworking as an instrument to increase women’s participation in managerial roles has been adopted in Chieri, Italy: www.comune. chieri.to.it/organizzazione/pariopportunità.

References Bellardi, L., Carabelli, U., & Viscomi, A. (Eds.) (2007). Contratti Integrativi e Flessibilità nel Lavoro Pubblico Riformato. Bari: Cacucci. Bordogna, L. (Ed.) (2002). Contrattazione integrativa e gestione del personale nelle pubbliche amministrazioni. Un’indagine sull’esperienza del quadriennio 1998– 2001, Quaderni ARAN, 12. Milano: Franco Angeli. Carrieri, M. & Ricciardi, M. (2006). La contrattazione integrativa negli enti locali. Innovazioni tentate, effetti voluti ed esiti non desiderati. In M Carrieri & M. Ricciardi, (Eds.) (2006), L’innovazione Imperfetta. Casi di Contrattazione Integrativa negli Enti Locali. Bologna: Il Mulino. Dell’Aringa, C. (2007). La contrattazione collettiva nel settore pubblico: più ombre che luci. Lav. Dir., 297. Della Rocca, G. (2006). Contrattazione senza innovazione. Lav. Pubbl. Ammin., 280. Della Rocca, G., Rampino, L., & Burgarella, M. (Eds.) (2001). Dalla Contrattazione Decentrata alla Contrattazione Integrativa, Roma: FORMEZ.

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Notes

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Esposito M. & Saracini P. (2007). La contrattazione collettiva integrativa nei comuni e nelle province italiane nel periodo 1999–2002. In Bellardi, L., Carabelli, U., & Viscomi, A. (Eds.) (2007). Soloperto, R. (2007). La contrattazione integrativa decentrata nel comparto delle Regioni e delle Autonomie locali. Quaderni Dir. Lav. Rel. Ind. (30), L’Impiego Pubblico negli Enti Locali. Torino: Utet.

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Part V

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Organizational Efficiency

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Promoting Psychological Health and Performance in an Educational Work Context: How the Satisfaction of Three Basic Psychological Needs Can Help Achieve Both Maryse Brien, Jean-Sébastien Boudrias, Dominic Lapointe and André Savoie

Teachers are generally considered as being subjected to particularly high levels of work stress. In Canada, the Canadian Teachers’ Federation (2005) stated that 83 percent of teachers reported a higher workload compared to four years ago. Moreover, considering the effects of health and individual performance on organizational effectiveness, it is important to be concerned with both. As a result, both the SIOP and CRITEOS missions emphasize the importance of enhancing human well-being and performance. A suggested route to increase these outcomes is the satisfaction of basic needs. Explicitly, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) has proposed that the satisfaction of three basic human needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) is associated with positive individual outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In this regard, Baard, Deci, and Ryan (2004) showed that satisfaction of these needs is positively associated with both work performance and an absence of anxiety and somatization.

Self-Determination Theory

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22

Industrial and organizational psychology (Latham and Budworth, 2006) – as well as motivational psychology (Deci & Ryan, 2000) – have been studying the concept of needs for some time. In Self-Determination Theory (SDT), needs are conceptualized as “innate psychological nutriments that are essential for ongoing psychological growth, integrity, and well-being” (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Three basic psychological needs are identified: autonomy, competence and relatedness.

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The need for autonomy is defined as person’s desire to make his or her own choices, to express his or her feeling and to initiate his or her own actions (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The need for competence refers to the individual’s desire to have an effect on the environment and to reach desired outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The need for relatedness is the desire to establish mutually caring rapports with others (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Many positive outcomes such as close relationships (Patrick, Knee, Canevello & Lonsbary, 2007) and secure attachment (La Guardia, Ryan, Couchman & Deci, 2000) have been linked to SDT needs satisfaction. The focus of this study will be to show how basic needs satisfaction can help achieve both psychological health and performance.

Psychological health The World Health Organization (1946) mentions in its constitution that: “Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. Kasl (1992) affirmed that psychological health would contain at the same time an absence of negative aspects and a presence of positive aspects. Thus, in the present study, psychological health is conceptualized by the product of two opposite and complementary processes: well-being and distress. Well-being is described as a positive affect subjectively experienced by the individual and the state of satisfaction which results from this (Masse et al., 1998a). In contrast, authors in psychology agree that distress is an unpleasant subjective state which includes at least two components, depression and anxiety (Mirowski & Ross, 1989; Préville, Potrin & Boyer, 1995). In this study, our conceptualization of distress also includes social disengagement and irritability. Past studies have revealed that psychological health at work is both positively related to global intrinsic needs satisfaction (Gilbert et al., 2006; 2008a; Forest, 2005) and separate needs satisfaction (Baard, Deci & Ryan, 2004). Other studies have shown positive links between needs satisfaction and psychological health in sports (Gagné, Ryan & Bargmann, 2003) and between daily variations of each need satisfaction and well-being (Reis, Sheldon, Roscoe & Ryan, 2000). In addition to those North American studies, studies conducted in Europe (Deci, Ryan, Gagné, Leone, Usunov & Kornazheva, 2001) and Asia (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim & Kasser, 2001) have revealed similar results: positive links between needs satisfaction and wellbeing and negative links between needs satisfaction and distress. Thus, the two first hypotheses of this study are as follows:

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280 Brien et al.

Hypothesis 1: There is a positive relationship between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and psychological health.

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Hypothesis 2: When psychological health is simultaneously regressed onto intrinsic needs, satisfaction of each of the three needs accounts for significant independent variance.

Motowidlo, Borman and Schmit (1997) define work performance as the summation of the behaviors which contribute to the achievement of organizational objectives and which can be measured in terms of individual contribution. In addition, they argued that an important component of that work output is related to the task (task performance). Task performance is defined as behaviors that play a role in the organization’s technical core and includes those activities that are typically recognized as part of a worker’s job (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993). Also, task performance behaviors are delineated according to role requirements and should be identified by a thorough analysis of the job (Coleman & Borman, 2000). In two studies, Baard, Deci and Ryan (2004) showed that global need satisfaction is related to global performance. They also showed that two of the three needs are related to job performance. Specifically, they revealed a significant link between relatedness and performance and a marginally significant link between competence and performance. Thus, the two last hypotheses tested in this experiment are formulated as follows: Hypothesis 3: There is a positive relationship between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and task performance. Hypothesis 4: When performance is simultaneously regressed onto intrinsic needs, satisfaction of each of the three needs accounts for significant independent variance.

Method Procedure Initially, all Montreal suburban school boards were invited to take part in a study evaluating the psychological health of their elementary and secondary school teachers. Then, school boards introduced the project to their school principals (two school boards invited 71 schools). When a school principal was interested in taking part in the questionnaire study, he or she communicated with the authors to schedule an appointment on a pedagogical day. At the scheduled time, the study was presented to all the teachers working in the school and a consent form was signed before the questionnaires were distributed and completed by the teachers. At the end, 12 schools (17%) agreed to participate in the study and approximately 70% of invited teachers completed the questionnaires.

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Performance

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Participants 146 French-speaking teachers (37.9% male and 62.1% female) participated in this study. 36.5% taught at the elementary level, 62.8% at the secondary level, and 0.7% were from vocational training schools. Their seniority ranged from 4 months to 33 years (mean = 12 years).

Four different measures coupled with demographic questions were assessed in the study. Intrinsic needs satisfaction: To measure the three basic needs, a French version (Forest & Mageau, in preparation) of the Perceptions of Fundamental Needs Scale (Ryan, 1998) was used. Each of the 13 items are measured on a 6-point scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 6 (Strongly agree). Gilbert, Lebrock and Savoie (2006) report acceptable psychometric properties of this three factor scale. In this study, global questionnaire alpha was 0.88 and factor Cronbach’s alphas were respectively 0.88 for need for autonomy, 0.87 for need for competence, and 0.90 for need for relatedness. Well-being: The Well-Being Manifestations Measure Scale (Massé et al.,1998a; 1998c) was adapted for the work setting (Gilbert et al., 2006). This is a 25-item instrument measured on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). In the present data set, alpha was 0.93 for the total score. Construct validity of this four-factor measure was demonstrated by Gilbert et al. (2006; 2008a; 2008b). Distress: Third, a 23-item work setting adaptation (Gilbert et al., 2006) of Distress Manifestations Measure Scale (Massé et al., 1998b; 1998c) was used to measure distress. Studies, including a confirmatory factor analysis, showed good properties of this three factors measure (Gilbert et al., 2006; 2008a; 2008b). In the present data set, alpha was .94 for the total score. Psychological health: The indicators of psychological health consisted of the combination of well-being and distress. In this study, the correlation between well-being and distress was –.68 (p < 0.001). This suggests that use of the composite indicator (well-being less distress) was reasonable. Performance: Because we found no existing instrument that measures teacher performance, the Teacher’s Task Performance Questionnaire was constructed by the authors’ research team and used to measure self-reported teachers’ performance. It was a 21-item instrument measured on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). The measure is based on a literature review and two general documents that specify the tasks and responsibilities of Quebec teachers (Article 22 of the “Loi sur l’instruction publique du Québec” and Clause 8.2 of the National Agreement of Quebec Teachers).

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Measures

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Results

Table 22.1 shows factor analysis results of the new Teachers’ Task Performance scale. Principal component was used prior to Principal Axis Factoring extraction to estimate the number of factors, presence of outliers, absence of multicollinearity, and factorability of the correlation matrices. Orthogonal and oblique rotations were also explored. Four factors were extracted in the final solution using Principal Axis Factoring extraction and Promax rotation. Four items were deleted because of their very small communalities and failure to load on factors. Variables were ordered and grouped by size

Table 22.1 Factor loadings, communalities (h2), and percents of variance for Principal Axis Factoring extraction and Promax rotation on Teachers’ Task Performance Questionnaire (N = 146)

Item QP08 QP09 QP10 QP11r QP06 QP32 QP33 QP31 QP28 QP29 QP13r QP21 QP22 QP12 QP27r QP01 QP20 QP18 QP19 QP03 QP07 Cronbach’s alpha

F1- Class F2-Relationship F3-Positive management with parents feedback 0.86 0.81 0.77 0.63 0.48 –0.06 0.09 –0.15 0.03 –0.01 –0.08 0.06 –0.02 0.12 –0.07 0.12 –0.22 –0.02 –0.04 0.18 0.07 0.84

–0.09 0.01 0.16 –0.14 0.12 0.74 0.61 0.54 0.52 0.41 –0.07 0.22 –0.13 0.03 –0.02 –0.16 0.02 0.07 0.18 –0.08 0.25 0.73

–0.02 –0.03 –0.16 0.03 0.28 0.05 –0.10 –0.03 –0.03 0.05 0.75 0.63 0.50 0.44 0.38 –0.03 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.17 –0.14 0.69

F4-Basic teacher Communalities tasks (h2) 0.06 –0.08 0.06 –0.05 –0.08 –0.07 –0.14 0.11 0.08 0.15 –0.18 –0.01 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.68 0.59 0.46 0.42 0.34 0.34 0.66

0.72 0.61 0.63 0.36 0.45 0.52 0.33 0.32 0.33 0.28 0.43 0.59 0.25 0.38 0.18 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.29 0.25 0.24

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Preliminary results

Cronbach’s alpha total: 0.83. Percent of variance in principal components: 49.8%. Percent of variance in factor analysis: 38.7%. Loadings over 0.30 are in bold.

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F2- Relation with parents F3- Positive feedback F4- Basic teacher tasks

F1-Class management

F2-Relationship with parents

F3-Positive feedback

0.34 0.36 0.33

0.45 0.46

0.43

of loading to facilitate interpretation. Loadings over 0.300 are in dark print and interpretative labels are suggested for each factor. In sum, the four interrelated factors for the Teachers’ Task Performance questionnaire are: (1) class management (e.g. my class climate encourages learning), (2) relationship with parent (e.g. I effectively manage delicate situations (i.e. cheating, disturbing behaviors) with students’ parents), (3) positive feedback (e.g. my principal seems satisfied with my management of student absences), and (4) basic teacher tasks (e.g. I covered the content prescribed by the program). Table 22.2 shows that factor correlations varied between 0.33 and 0.46. Thus, we decided to use a global indicator of task performance. Before testing the hypotheses, some analyses were conducted to assess whether socio-demographic variables had an effect on the dependant variables (psychological health and performance). Results showed no relationship between seniority and psychological health (r = –.12, p = .16), nor between seniority and performance (r = .04, p = .62). In addition, no mean difference was found between the two major school levels (vocational training school did not have enough participants to test for mean differences) when compared to psychological health (t = 0.26, df = 137, p = 0.80) and performance (t = 0.87, df = 137, p = 0.39). Thus, parsimony suggests that controlling for socio-demographic variables would not be necessary in further analyses.

Tests of Hypotheses Hypotheses 1 and 3 were tested using correlations. The results, reported in Table 22.3, support the two hypotheses. First, there is a positive relationship between total score intrinsic needs’ satisfaction and psychological health (r = .73, p < .001). Consistent with the second hypothesis, intrinsic needs and task performance are positively related (r = .50, p < .001). That is, individuals reporting high satisfaction of intrinsic needs also reported high task performance and good psychological health. Further, each independent need satisfaction is related to both outcomes (Table 22.3). Hypotheses 2 and 4 were tested using multiple regression analysis of the data. When psychological health was simultaneously regressed onto the three separate needs [F (3, 142) = 59.14, p < .001], satisfaction of the need for autonomy was significantly related to psychological health (β = .22, p < .001),

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Table 22.2 Factors correlations matrix

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Table 22.3 Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables measured SD

1

3.87 2.10

0.39 1.03

.48***

4.83

0.57

.50***

.73***

4.83

0.77

.30***

.53*** .78***

4.54

0.93

.25***

50*** .77***

.40***

5.07

0.60

.62***

64*** .72***

.42***

2

3

4

5

.29***

N = 146. *** p < .001. 1 Number of answer choices is not the same for each scale. View measures on p. 3 and 4.

as was satisfaction of the need for relatedness (β = .28, p < .001) and satisfaction of the need for competence (β = .47, p < .001). Hypothesis 4 stated that each of the three needs account for significant independent variance of work performance when simultaneously regressed. As would be expected, when performance was regressed onto three separate needs [F (3, 142) = 30.16, p < .001], satisfaction of competence accounted for significant independent variance (β = .59, p < .001), but not the two other needs (autonomy, β = .02, p = .79; relatedness, β = .07, p = .31). In other words, our results invalidate Hypothesis 4, which stated that each need accounts for significant independent variance.

Discussion This study aimed to assess how satisfaction of psychological needs can help achieve both performance and psychological health. The results provide some support for our hypotheses. First, the more that global intrinsic needs are satisfied, the greater will be task performance and psychological health, suggesting that principals’ support of teachers’ perceptions of their needs could be an intervention target. An example of an intervention aimed at increasing needs satisfaction is supporting communication and confidence between workers, or providing autonomy-supportive behavior training to school principals (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). Furthermore, this study suggests that the satisfaction of all separate needs accounts for a significant proportion of the variance in psychological health and that only the satisfaction of the need for competence was related to task performance. This final result could be explained by the similarity of the two concepts (satisfaction

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1. Task performance 2. Psychological health 3. Intrinsic needs satisfaction 4. Need satisfaction, autonomy 5. Need satisfaction, relatedness 6. Need satisfaction, competence

M1

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of need for competence and task performance) and by the correlations of the three needs. Still, we strongly suggest keeping all needs’ satisfactions in future studies, since Baard, Deci and Ryan (2004) have yielded significant links between satisfaction of the need for relatedness and performance and a marginal link between the satisfaction of the need for competence and global performance. Although these results are promising, the study’s cross-sectional design is a major limitation, making it technically impossible to suggest, at this time, any causal directions between the variables. Thus, it is important to replicate the study with many measurement periods. Also, a larger sample (over 200) would allow the fit of the overall path model to be tested using Structural Equation Modeling. The sample size (N = 146) and its sociodemographic characteristics (Montreal educators) affect the external validity of the results obtained. An additional limitation of this study was the use of self-reported measures. This type of measurement could lead people to describe themselves in a desirable way. The fact that other studies have used supervisor ratings of performance suggests that our measure may not be the most appropriate for this study, but, at the same time, the constraints of the Québec educational work context commend self-reported performance questionnaires. Consequently, we suggest that future research should, as a minimum, include a larger sample and use a longitudinal design.

Note We gratefully acknowledge financial support from C.R.S.H. and F.Q.R.S.C.

References Baard, P. P., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Intrinsic need satisfaction: A motivational basis of performance and well-being in two work settings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 34 (10), 2045–2068. Borman, W. C. & Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. In N. Schmitt & W. C. Borman & Associates (Eds.), Personnel Selection in Organizations (71–98). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Canadian Teachers' Federation (2005). Teacher Workplace. Retrieved 12 October 2010 from: http://www.ctf-fce.ca/documents/Priorities/EN/econ/teacher_workplace/ index.asp. Coleman, V. I. & Borman, W. C. (2000). Investigating the underlying structure of the citizenship performance domain. Human Resource Management Review, 10, 24–44. Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “What” and “Why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behaviour. Psychological Inquiry, 11 (4), 227–268. Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Gagné, M., Leone, D. R., Usunov, J., & Kornazheva, B. P. (2001). Need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations of a former Eastern Bloc country. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 930–942.

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Forest, J. (2005). Vérification de l’effet de la passion et la satisfaction des besoins de base sur la performance, le bien-être psychologique, la détresse psychologique, l’état de flow et la vitalité subjective au travail. Thèse de doctorat inédite, Université de Montréal. Forest, J. & Mageau, G. A. (In preparation). Validation de l’échelle de la perception des besoins fondamentaux de compétence, d’autonomie et de connexion sociale dans le domaine du travail, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada. Gagné, M., Ryan, R. M., & Bargman, K. (2003). Autonomy support and need satisfaction in the motivation and well-being of gymnasts. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 372–390. Gilbert, M.-H., Lebrock, P., & Savoie, A. (2006). Validation initiale d’un modèle prévisionnel de la santé psychologique au travail. Acte de congrès: 14ième congrès de psychologie du travail et des organisations. Hammamet, Tunisia. Gilbert, M.-H., Lebrock, P., & Savoie, A. (2008a). Étude du rôle médiateur de la satisfaction des besoins fondamentaux dans la relation entre les ressources organisationnelles et la santé psychologique au travail. Acte de congrès: 15ième congrès de psychologie du travail et des organisations. Québec. Gilbert, M.-H. (2008b). La santé psychologique au travail: La définir, la mesurer et la développer. Thèse de doctorat soumise, Université de Montréal. Kasl, S. V. (1992). Surveillance of psychological disorders in the work place. In G. P. Keita & S. L. Sauter (Eds.), Work and Well-Being: An Agenda for the 1990s. Washington, American Psychological Association, 73–95. La Guardia, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Couchman, C. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Within-person variation in security of attachment: A self-determination theory perspective on attachment, need fulfillment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 367–384. Latham, G. & Budworth, M. (2006). The study of employee motivation in the 20th century. In L. Koppes (Ed.), Historical Perspectives in Industrial Organizational Psychology: The First Hundred Years. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Mageau G. A. & Vallerand R. J. (2003). The coach–athlete relationship: a motivational model. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21 (11), 883–904. Massé, R., Poulin, C., Dassa, C., Lambert, J., Bélair, S., & Battaglini, A. (1998a). Élaboration et validation d’un outil de mesure du bien-être psychologique: L’ÉMMBEP. Revue Canadienne de Santé Publique, 89 (5), 352–357. Massé, R., Poulin, C., Dassa, C., Lambert, J., Bélair, S., & Battaglini, A. (1998b). Élaboration et validation d’un outil de mesure de la détresse psychologique dans une population non clinique de Québécois francophones. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 89 (3), 183–187. Massé, R., Poulin, C., Dassa, C., Lambert, J., Bélair, S., & Battaglini, A. (1998c). The structure of mental health: Higher-order confirmatory factor analyses of psychological distress and well-being measures. Social Indicators Research, 45, 475–504. Mirowski, J. & Ross, C. E. (1989). Social Causes of Psychological Distress. New York: Addyne de Gruyter. Motowidlo, S. J., Borman, W. C., & Schmit, M. J. (1997). A theory of individual differences in task and contextual performance. Human Performance, 10, 71–83. Patrick, H., Knee, C. R., Canevello, A., & Lonsbary, C. (2007). The role of need fulfillment in relationship functioning and well-being: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 434–457. Préville, M., Potvin, L., & Boyer, R. (1995). The structure of psychological distress. Psychological Reports, 77, 275–293.

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Promoting Psychological Health and Performance

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Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily wellbeing: The role of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 419–435. Ryan, R. M. (1998). Perception of Fundamental Needs Scale. Unpublished Scale, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA. Sheldon, K. M., Elliot, A. J., Kim, Y., & Kasser, T. (2001). What’s satisfying about satisfying events? Comparing ten candidate psychological needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 325–339. World Health Organisation (1946). Preamble of the Constitution of the World Health Organization. International Health Conference, June 19–22, New York.

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A Study of Willingness to Mentor: Demographic Differences, Determinants and the Moderating Effect of Organizational Usefulness Paola Gatti and Stefania Santoro

Mentoring has been defined as “a relationship between a young adult and an older, more experienced adult that helps the younger individual learn to navigate in the adult world and in the world of work” (Kram, 1985, 2). Mentoring is a developmental relationship that can be beneficial to the mentor and the organization as a whole, as well as to the protégé (Eby, Durley, Evans & Ragins, 2006). The benefits are chiefly subjective (Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz & Lima, 2004), and affect attitudes, interpersonal relations, and motivation/involvement and, to a lesser extent, health-related outcomes (Eby, Allen, Evans, Ng, & Dubois, 2008). Mentoring thus seems capable of promoting organizational well-being, a goal that can be more effectively reached if mentoring is informal (Chao, Walz & Gardner, 1992). Some scholars (Eby, 1997), however, maintain that dramatic changes in working conditions and career paths have undermined the classic mentoring relationship – dyadic and hierarchical as defined by Kram (1985) – which may be more difficult for people to form in today’s organizations. In confirmation, Sullivan (1999, 474) concedes that mentoring “may still be useful for a firm’s core employees or for those organizations with more traditional structures”. Though these criticisms cannot be ignored, it should be borne in mind that mentoring in the definition we have adopted: ●

●

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23

Attracts “burgeoning interest” (Ensher, Thomas & Murphy, 2001, 419), not least because the alternatives that are often considered more consonant with today’s conditions – including peer mentoring – have been found to be less effective (Ensher et al., 2001) Leads to more effective socialization on the job (Chao et al., 1992), and can thus fulfill its functions expeditiously 289

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●

Is regarded as useful in helping people cope with the high stress associated with changes in the organization (Kram & Hall, 1989) Helps strengthen the psychological contract between individuals and the organization (Ragins, Cotton & Miller, 2000).

The critical reflection now focusing on mentoring in today’s organizations – and the investment in time and effort that mentorships demand, particularly on the part of the mentor (Allen, 2003) – may spur interest and a willingness to mentor. Willingness, in fact, lays the foundation for a positive mentoring relationship (cf. Mullen, 1998): research has shown that the larger the role played by the mentor in the “initiation” phase, the more benefits the mentoring process will have (Scandura & Williams, 2001). This paper, which presents a study conducted in Italy, sought to determine how willingness varies with certain demographic factors, and to test the ability of several variables to explain willingness. Moreover, the study investigated the potential influence of organizational context on willingness: i.e. the organizational usefulness of mentoring as perceived by employees. This seems to be the trend of recent investigations of willingness to mentor (cf. Eby, Lockwood, & Butts, 2006).

Theoretical background A review of the literature sheds light on how willingness has been linked to four categories of variable: Demographic characteristics. The work reviewed found no significant differences between men and women in willingness to mentor (Allen, Poteet, Russell & Dobbins, 1997; Ragins & Scandura, 1994). However, a more recent study underlined that “although results of individual studies have been mixed, research has found evidence of gender differences in willingness to mentor others” (Allen, 2003, 142). Higher education levels (Allen, Poteet et al., 1997), as well as higher organizational rank (Ragins & Cotton, 1993) were shown to correspond to a greater willingness. Age does not seem to affect willingness, as these two variables were not linked by a linear relationship (Allen, Russell, & Maetzke, 1997), or even a curvilinear relationship (Ragins & Cotton, 1993). We propose: Hypothesis 1: Women and men will show differences in their willingness to mentor.

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Hypothesis 2: Better educated, higher ranking respondents will report more willingness to mentor than less educated, lower ranking respondents. Mentoring variables. Respondents with past experience as a mentor or a protégé were generally more willing to mentor (Allen, Poteet et al., 1997; Ragins & Cotton, 1993). The relationship between willingness and past experience as a mentor was stronger than that between willingness and past experience as a protégé (Allen, Poteet et al., 1997). A further variable used

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for studying willingness is drawbacks to mentoring, considered as a complementary rather than contrasting construct which explains a more specific dimension of intention to mentor (Ragins & Cotton, 1993). As for the expectations entertained about mentoring, it was pointed out that the greater the benefits and the fewer the costs expected from mentoring, the more willing individuals will be to assume a mentorship role (Ragins & Scandura, 1999). The same study found that the positive relationship between benefits and willingness was higher than the negative relationship between willingness and costs. This leads us to predict that: Hypothesis 3: Respondents who have been mentors will report more willingness than those who have not. Hypothesis 4: The greater the drawbacks to mentoring, the lower the willingness will be. Hypothesis 5: The greater the expected benefits of being a mentor, the higher the willingness will be. Personality variables. Altruism and positive affectivity were correlated with motivation to mentor (Aryee, Chay & Chew, 1996). This correlation prompted Allen (2003) to investigate further variables, particularly those linked to prosocial behavior, finding that other-oriented empathy and helpfulness were positively related to willingness. Allen, Poteet et al. (1997, 15) found that individuals with “an internal locus of control or a greater degree of upward striving reported greater intentions to mentor others than did individuals with an external locus of control or a lower degree of upward striving”. Although organization-based self-esteem did not explain willingness (Aryee et al., 1996), a study by Noe and Wilk (1993) defined self-efficacy as an important determinant of employees’ participation in development activities such as mentoring. The study presented here used two measures of self-efficacy, one specific for the job and one specific for mentorship role, i.e. a measure of the acquired characteristics needed to be a good mentor. We propose: Hypothesis 6: Self-efficacy on the job and self-efficacy in the mentorship role will be positively related to willingness. The first relationship will be weaker than the second.

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Situational variables. The quality of individuals’ relationships with their supervisors has been shown to be positively related to willingness, whereas job-induced stress was not related (Allen, Poteet et al., 1997). The emphasis that the organizational reward system gives to employee development and opportunities for junior and senior colleagues to interact on the job both have a positive relationship with willingness (Aryee et al., 1996). The organizational membership characteristics that can influence employees’ participation in development activities (Noe & Wilk, 1993) can also include

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job satisfaction, as it is a “generic” type of work attitude which can influence the employees’ working life (Judge & Watanabe, 1993). There are also certain variables that could be considered on the borderline between this group and mentoring variables. Here, examples include mentors’ perception of management support for mentoring and mentors’ perceptions of their own accountability, which is negatively related to willingness (Eby, Lockwood et al., 2006). A similar construct is the perceived organizational usefulness of mentoring, which introduces the contextual dimension to the study of mentoring functions. The organizational usefulness of mentoring could moderate the effect of drawbacks on willingness. Drawbacks, in fact, are concrete obstacles to willingness and could be influenced by workplace characteristics. We propose: Hypothesis 7: Job satisfaction will be positively related to willingness. Hypothesis 8: Perceived organizational usefulness of mentoring will be positively related to willingness. Since there is currently no theory or research to provide direction on how drawbacks and organizational usefulness of mentoring combine to explain willingness to mentor, we formulate this relationship as an open-ended research question. Research question: Do drawbacks have a differential impact on willingness to mentor for individuals who perceive high or low organizational usefulness of mentoring?

Method Participants and procedure Data were collected from three occasional samples by administering the questionnaire via the Web. The sample of 378 participants consisted of 62.1% females and 37.9% males, with a medium-high education level: 41.6% of respondents have a high school diploma and 41.6% have a bachelor’s degree. As for organizational rank, the largest proportion of respondents are white-collar workers (56.9%), followed by blue-collar workers (31.4%), supervisors (8.2%), and executives (3.5%). The number of respondents who had previous experience as a mentor (64.3%) is higher than respondents who did not (35.7%). This difference is significant only for gender [χ2 (1, N = 369) = 5.72, p < .05]: female mentors (66.8%) are more numerous than males (33.2%). The following definition of mentor – adapted from the literature (Eby, Lockwood et al., 2006; Ragins & Cotton, 1999) – was included in the questionnaire: “Mentors are people with advanced experience and knowledge who provide upward mobility and support to your career. A mentor may or may not be in your organization, and she/he may or may not be your immediate supervisor”.

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Situational variables

Ad hoc scale, based on Kram’s (1985) distinction between psychosocial and career functions of mentoring

Cooper, Sloan, & Williams (1988/2002)

Borgogni, Petitta, & Steca (2001), adapted to organizational environment Ad hoc scale

4

10

4

7

1

Dummy coded: 1 = Yes 0 = No 7-point Likert: 1 = Never 7 = Always 7-point Likert: 1 = Strongly disagree 7 = Strongly agree 7-point Likert: 1 = Completely dissatisfied 7 = Completely satisfied 7-point Likert: 1 = Strongly disagree 7 = Strongly agree

idem

7-point Likert: 1 = Strongly disagree 7 = Strongly agree idem

Scale type

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Organizational usefulness of mentoring (OUM)

Acquired personal characteristics perceived as necessary for a mentor (APC) Job satisfaction (JS)

Self-efficacy on the job (SE)

Wallace (2001)

5

Ragins & Scandura (1994, 1999)

Personality variables

5

Ragins & Cotton (1993)

Drawbacks to mentoring (DtM) Expected benefits of being a mentor (BbM) Previous experience as a mentor (PEaM)

3

Ragins & Scandura (1994)

Willingness to mentor (WtM)

Items

Mentoring variables

Source

Variable label

Psychometric properties of scales

Variable type

Table 23.1

.73

.93

.90

.85

–

.77

.77

.92

Cronbach’s alpha

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The self-report questionnaire used for the survey consisted of a section for each type of variable contemplated by the literature. Table 23.1 shows psychometric properties of the scales used in this study. For the two ad hoc scales, the results of GLS factor analysis are presented. The four items of APC required to serve as a mentor (job skills, experience, professional position, and role) loaded on a factor with an eigenvalue over 3.10, explaining 71.55% of variance. For OUM, the extracted factor had an eigenvalue over 2.24, explaining 41.71% of variance.

Results Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for all variables are shown in Table 23.2. The t-test results indicate that WtM was higher in men [t(323.755) = 3.99, p < .001] than women, and higher for respondents with previous experience as a mentor [t(349) = 5.03, p < .001] and as a protégé [t(119.309) = 3.67, p < .001] than for people who did not have this experience. Anova showed significant differences in WtM across organizational ranks [F(3, 352) = 4.94, p < .01]: executives and supervisors are more willing to mentor than whiteand blue-collar workers. No significant differences were found for education level. Hypothesis 2 was partially supported: organizational rank was positively related to WtM, but education level was not. Multiple regression (see Table 23.3) showed that WtM was explained by four variables. Three were positively related – APC (β +.36, p < .01), BbM (β + .25, p < .01), and Gender (β +.14, p < .05; 1 = male) – and one, DtM (β – .29, p < .01), was negatively related. The resulting R-square was 0.44 with an adjusted R-square of 0.42. Table 23.2

Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations of all variables 1.

1. Age 2. Length of employment 3. WtM 4. DtM 5. OUM 6. APC 7. BbM 8. SE 9. JS M SD

2. – .86**

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

–

.09 .09 – .01 .02 –.42** – –.01 .01 .26** –.17** .34** .35** .51** –.23** .04 .01 .39** –.16** .10 .10 .34** –.27** .13* .10 .18** –.03 41.71 18.40 13.48 14.20 8.97 10.73 4.74 6.23

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Measures

– .19** – .35** .17** – .30** .36** .23** – .17** .27** .15** .31** – 21.61 17.07 23.96 37.49 38.88 4.20 5.82 5.55 5.71 12.79

*p < .05. **p < .01.

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Table 23.3 Multiple regression interaction effect of drawbacks usefulness on willingness

results examining and organizational

Gender (1 = male) BbM PEaM (1 = yes) APC JS SE DtM OUM DtM x OUM R2 Adjusted R2 ∆R2

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

b

b

b

.13* .29** .05 .40** –.05 .10

.14* .25** .03 .36** –.03 .05 –.29** –.04

.358 .345 .358

.437 .421 .079

.15* .23** .04 .32** –.02 .05 –.28** .09 –.20** .473 .456 .036

N = 378. *p < .01; **p < .001.

Hypothesis 1 received full support: men showed greater WtM than women, and the regression coefficient is significant. Hypothesis 3 was partially supported, as PEaM did not explain WtM in the regression, though respondents who had been mentors reported more WtM than those who had not. However, the two sub-samples are not fully comparable because of their different gender composition. The higher percentage of women among experienced mentors could influence the result, as WtM is significantly higher in men. Hypotheses 4 and 5 received full support: DtM were negatively related to WtM, while BbM were positively related to WtM. Hypothesis 6 was partially supported: APC explains WtM in the regression analysis with a strong positive relationship, but SE does not explain WtM. Hypotheses 7 and 8 were not supported. JS and OUM did not explain WtM in the regression. OUM (see Table 23.3) was a significant moderator (β – .20, p < .01). The resulting R-square for this regression analysis was 0.47, while adjusted R-square was 0.46. The Research question found a positive answer: DtM have a differential impact on WtM for different moderator levels (see Table 23.4 and Figure 23.1). In particular, DtM have a stronger impact on WtM for individuals who perceive high OUM (β – .59, p < .001) than for individuals who perceive low OUM (β –.18, p < .01).

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Willingness

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Low OUM (–1 SD) Medium OUM High OUM (+1 SD)

Stand. error

t

p

–.184 –.385 –.587

.065 .048 .065

–2.806 –8.020 –9.072

.005 .000 .000

Organizational usefulness of mentoring −.87 .00 .87

1.50

1.00 Willingness to mentor

b

0.50

0.00

−0.50

−1.00 −1.85

1.88 Drawbacks to mentoring

Figure 23.1

Interaction between OUM and DtM on willingness

Discussion WtM was found to differ according to gender, as men reported greater intention to mentor than women. Moreover, gender explains WtM in the regression analysis. Previous research found no gender differences for willingness (Allen, Poteet et al., 1997; Ragins & Scandura, 1994). Consequently, a more extensive investigation of the cultural differences between the two countries in which the studies were conducted could be advisable. As other authors have observed, the findings of mentoring studies “may not be automatically applicable to countries that do not fit the Anglo-Saxon cultural profile” (Bozionelos, 2006, 371). If organizational rank and education level

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Table 23.4 DtM regression coefficients at three moderator levels (OUM)

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are examined, only the first variable has significant differences for WtM. The result partially confirms that WtM rises with rank, as concluded by Ragins and Cotton (1993). Regarding mentoring variables, PEaM does not influence WtM in the regression analysis, although the t-test shows that WtM is higher in respondents with PEaM. As the higher percentage of women among experienced mentors could influence the result, these findings must be taken with reservations, and require further investigation. The difference measured by t-test could indicate that previous experience helps the individual understand the relationship’s benefits or, alternatively, enhances self-efficacy in the mentorship role, which in turn increases willingness. Indeed, the literature emphasizes a significant relationship between experience and self-efficacy (Gist & Mitchell, 1992). DtM, as expected, have a strong inverse relationship with WtM. This variable measures concrete limits to assuming the mentorship role (e.g. time restrictions or workload). As Kozlowski and Hults (1987) noted, situational limits, and time restrictions in particular, can influence people’s involvement in activities that support resource development and socialization. Accordingly, organizations that intend to stimulate willingness should allocate resources to mentoring activities and recognize that they take time. BbM – which were significant in the regression analysis – imply that willingness can also hinge on utilitarian considerations. This parallels the findings of Allen (2003), who identified three possible motives for deciding to mentor, one of which was self-enhancement in the organization. To support mentoring relationships, organizations should emphasize mentoring benefits for the mentor but should also monitor mentors’ work with protégés. The risk is that mentors could be motivated by self-interest, neglecting the protégés’ needs. Regression results showed that APC are closely linked to WtM. This might suggest that there is a mental image of the ideal mentor, and that respondents have a preconception of this role which can influence willingness. Thus, studies of the role of expectations in mentoring (e.g. Young & Perrewe, 2004) are of particular interest. This relationship suggests that the concept of willingness can also be interpreted in terms of the extent to which individuals feel they can in fact be an effective mentor. These conjectures are not supported by an equally close link between WtM and SE. While SE is associated with the ideas of overcoming unexpected events, and earning other people’s respect, WtM is more a question of role-specific self-efficacy which is directly influenced by the expectations and image assigned to mentoring, and is thus related to APC. Neither JS nor OUM explain WtM. More generally, WtM is closely related to personal characteristics. There seems to be less of a relation between this measure and organizational characteristics. Nevertheless, OUM moderates the effect of DtM on WtM. The moderating effect underscores the potential for increasing WtM in an organization by encouraging a “mentoring culture”.

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298 Paola Gatti and Stefania Santoro

To be effective, this culture should emphasize the prosocial dimension of mentoring, its functions and benefits in the organizations. Considering the nature of the moderating effect, however, it can be concluded that there is a risk for the organization if it promotes the OUM without controlling concrete drawbacks.

Essentially, there were three limitations to the study: 1. The small size and homogeneity of the sample, which consisted mainly of white-collar employees. A sample with a more balanced stratification for demographic factors, as well as for previous mentoring experience, would have made it possible to discriminate between subcategories more effectively 2. The use of ad hoc measures developed for this study for OUM and APC. Considering the results of the analysis, in which these variables exercise a significant role, additional work on the batteries of items could be useful 3. The reliance on self-report data gathered through a single questionnaire. Thus, the extent to which the results may be affected by common method variance can not be fully determined. Two points of attention for future research should be mentioned. First, even if situational variables used in this study did not affect willingness, future work should expand upon these findings by considering other aspects of the context, e.g. characteristics that are more specific than the broad construct of job satisfaction. Another point requiring attention is the link between the image of the ideal mentor, APC and willingness. A qualitative inquiry of expectations for the mentor role could be useful for a better understanding of willingness.

References Allen, T. D. (2003). Mentoring others: A dispositional and motivational approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62 (1), 134–154. Allen, T. D., Eby, L. T., Poteet, M. L., Lentz, E., & Lima, L. (2004). Career benefits associated with mentoring for protégés: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89 (1), 127–136. Allen, T. D., Poteet, M. L., Russell, J. E. A., & Dobbins, G. H. (1997). A field study of factors related to supervisors’ willingness to mentor others. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 1–22. Allen, T. D., Russell, J. E. A., & Maetzke, S. B. (1997). Formal peer monitoring: Factors related to protégés’ satisfaction and willingness to mentor others. Group & Organization Management, 22 (4), 488–507.

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Conclusions

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Aryee, S., Chay, Y. W., & Chew, J. (1996). The motivation to mentor among managerial employees: An interactionist approach. Group & Organization Management, 21 (3), 261–277. Borgogni, L., Petitta, L., & Steca, P. (2001). Efficacia personale e collettiva nei contesti organizzativi. In G. V. Caprara (Ed.), La Valutazione dell’Autoefficacia (157–171). Trento: Erickson. Bozionelos, N. (2006). Mentoring and expressive network resources: Their relationship with career success and emotional exhaustion among Hellenes employees involved in emotion work. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17 (2), 362–378. Chao, G. T., Walz, P. M., & Gardner, P. D. (1992). Formal and informal mentorship. A comparison on mentoring functions and contrast with nonmentored counterparts. Personnel Psychology, 45, 619–636. Cooper, C. L., Sloan, S. J., & Williams, S. (2002). OSI – Occupational Stress Indicator (S. Sirigatti & C. Stefanile, Trans.). Firenze, Italy: Organizzazioni Speciali. (Original work published 1988) Eby, L. T. (1997). Alternative forms of mentoring in changing organizational environments: A conceptual extension of the mentoring literature. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 125–144. Eby, L. T., Allen, T. D., Evans, S. C., Ng, T., & DuBois, D. L. (2008). Does mentoring matter? A multidisciplinary meta-analysis comparing mentored and non-mentored individuals. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72, 254–267. Eby, L. T., Durley, J. R., Evans, S. C., & Ragins, B. R. (2006). The relationship between short-term mentoring benefits and long-term mentor outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69, 424–444. Eby, L. T., Lockwood, A. L., & Butts, M. (2006). Perceived support for mentoring: A multiple perspectives approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68 (2), 267–291. Ensher, E. A., Thomas, C., & Murphy, S. E. (2001). Comparison of traditional, stepahead, and peer mentoring on protégés support, satisfaction, and perceptions of career success. Journal of Business and Psychology, 15 (3), 419–438. Gist, M. E. & Mitchell, T. R. (1992). Self-efficacy: A theoretical analysis of its determinants and malleability. Academy of Management Review, 17 (2), 183–211. Judge, T. & Watanabe, S. (1993). Another look at the job satisfaction-life satisfaction relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 939–948. Kozlowski, S. W. J. & Hults, B. M. (1987). An exploration of climates for technical updating and performance. Personnel Psychology, 40, 539–564. Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships in Organizational Life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. Kram, K. E. & Hall, D. T. (1989). Mentoring as an antidote to stress during corporate trauma. Human Resource Management, 28 (4), 493–510. Mullen, E. J. (1998). Vocational and psychological mentoring functions: Identifying mentors who serve both. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9 (4), 319–331. Noe, R. A. & Wilk, S. L. (1993). Investigation of the factors that influence employees’ participation in development activities. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (2), 291–302. Ragins, B. R. & Cotton, J. L. (1993). Gender and willingness to mentor in organizations. Journal of Management, 19 (1), 97–111. Ragins, B. R. & Cotton, J. L. (1999). Mentor functions and outcomes: A comparison of men and women in formal and informal mentoring relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84 (4), 529–550.

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Ragins, B. R., Cotton, J. L., & Miller, J. S. (2000). Marginal mentoring: The effects of type of mentor, quality of relationship, and program design on work and career attitudes. Academy of Management Journal, 43 (6), 1177–1194. Ragins, B. R. & Scandura, T. A. (1994). Gender differences in expected outcomes of mentoring relationships. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 957–971. Ragins, B. R. & Scandura, T. A. (1999). Burden or blessing? Expected costs and benefits of being a mentor. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2 0(4), 493–509. Scandura, T. A. & Williams, E. A. (2001). An investigation of the moderating effects of gender on the relationships between mentorship initiation and protégé perceptions of mentoring functions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59 (3), 342–363. Sullivan, S. E. (1999). The changing nature of careers: A review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 25 (3), 457–484. Young, A. M. & Perrewe, P. L. (2004). The role of expectations in the mentoring exchange: An analysis of mentor and protégé expectations in relation to perceived support. Journal of Managerial Issues, 16 (1), 103–126. Wallace, J. E. (2001). The benefits of mentoring for female lawyers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58 (3), 366–391.

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24 The Right Place for the Right Man

Introduction The belief that exposure to variously colored lights could have a direct and variable effect on human bodily functions, although widespread in recent years, is to be considered a modern development from the growing literature of the 19th century, starting from the 1810 Goethian hypothesis on Farbenlehre (Goethe, 1810). Dealing with the phenomena of colored words and of color-hearing (Galton, 1883) the English psychologist Francis Galton wrote in a 1880 letter: [ ... ] there is no doubt that blue has a calming effect and red an irritating one, for the Italian mad-doctors find an advantage in putting their irritable patients in a room lighted with blue light, and their apathetic ones under red light (Pearson, 1924, 214). Moreover, in 1887 the French psychologist Charles Féré carried out quantified experiments treating colored lights as variable vibrations of radiant energy that could be sensed by the skin even with the eyes closed, and finding that red light had the most stimulating effect and violet the most calming (Féré, 1887). These were only some examples of the interest in the link between color stimulation and the specific response pattern of the organism, which has been widely documented since 1942, when K. Goldstein investigated differences in performance of tasks involving psychophysical judgments and psychomotor functions in a red environment versus a green one (Goldstein, 1942). Thus, according to him, red and yellow were naturally experienced as stimulating and disagreeable, focused people on the external environment, and produced outgoing behavior, whereas green and blue were experienced as calming and agreeable, focused people inward, and produced stable behavior. Subsequent research has interpreted Goldstein’s suggestions in

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terms of longer wavelength colors (red, orange) experienced as arousing or causing disphoria and confusion (Kwallek, Woodson, Lewis & Sales, 1997), whereas shorter wavelength colors (green and blue) are viewed as calming (Plack & Shick, 1974; Levy, 1984) or inducing depression (Stone & English, 1998), colors in the environment which direct subjects’ attention onto the task or away from it (Wineman, 1979), etc. For example, findings related to the last question showed that a red office interior tends to be more distracting than traditional office interior colors such as white (Kwallek, Lewis, LinHsiao & Woodson, 1996). In any case, in comparison with a wide literature on color physics and physiology, little is yet known and full of controversy, at present, regarding the effect of color on psychological functioning.

Problem statement There is a specific field of environmental psychology designed to analyze the effects of colors on workers’ task performance. The questions that drive this type of research include: What kind of relationship exists between color stimuli and affect, cognition, and behavior? What colors influence workers’ moods, satisfaction, motivation, and performance? As far as the color of office walls is concerned, red, white, and green are the colors usually tested. In 1975 Jacobs and Suess had already showed that subjects exposed to rooms illuminated by red or yellow lights had significantly higher anxiety scores than subjects in blue and green illumination conditions (Jacobs & Suess, 1975). Following Goldstein’s proposal, Wineman (1979) stated that warm colors like red increase subjects’ awareness of their surroundings and alert them to the environment, whereas cool colors like blue or green focus people inward, increasing their attention to visual and mental tasks. The wide variation of emotional responses elicited by red suggests that it is an “ambivalent” color (Albert, 2007, 19), because it evokes negative feelings such as anxiety, anger, tension (Levy, 1984), annoyance (Crane, 1980), and positive ones, such as vigor, excitement, stimulation, and happiness (Plack & Shick, 1974). Additionally, it is associated with certain objects such as fire, blood, and hearts (Schachtel, 1943). As regard blue or blue-green, this is generally linked with relaxation (Levy, 1984), comfort, security, peace, and calm (Plack & Shick, 1974). There has been less research evaluating the indirect impact of environments of different colors when individuals are working on specific tasks, as opposed to viewing the environmental color. However, in a 1985 empirical research project conducted with students, they rated their mood as good in a red room compared to yellow and neutral rooms, because they felt calmer there than in the neutral and yellow rooms (Rosenstein, 1985).

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In contrast, Ainsworth, Simpson, and Cassell (1993) found no effect of red, blue-green, or white offices on college women’s moods after they performed various office tasks. Also, Kwallek and Lewis (1990) did not find tension-anxiety to be greater after individuals completed name and number comparisons while working in a red office, compared with individuals working in white or green offices. In fact, individuals who worked in a red as opposed to a white or green room experienced less confusion and bewilderment. In conclusion, given the existing incongruence between color preference and subjects’ performance, further in-depth investigations are needed to be able to choose the right place for the right man. To this end, we chose: ●

●

●

orange, a close relative of red, because it radiates warmth and energy, stimulates activity and appetite, and encourages socialization; its hue is less saturated than that of red; finally, there are very few experimental studies on it; with both a warming and cooling effect, green denotes balance, harmony, and stability. It also symbolizes learning and harmony; as a neutral, balanced color, gray is a cool, conservative hue that seldom evokes strong emotion. Thus, being a color of formality, it is the most widely used in Italian public administration offices.

Aims Starting from the current results according to which red environments are considered more distracting, although subjects make fewer errors, our research aims: 1. to examine a set of hypotheses regarding the influence of orange versus green versus gray colored office environments on employers in local public administration; 2. to assess the significant effects of these three colors relative to workers’ performance and mood.

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Hypothesis It was predicted that a greater amount of tension/anxiety and errors would be reported in the orange office and that subjects would perform better in the green office.

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Method Participants

Materials 1. A Demographic Questionnaire Form was used to collect information such as sex and age. 2. The Italian version of the Profile of Mood States questionnaire (POMS) (Farnè, Sebellico, Gnugnoli & Corallo, 1991), which is a test designed to measure certain psychological traits, was used to assess participants’ emotional status in the office. It consists of 58 items concerning six mood factors: tension–anxiety, depression–dejection, anger–hostility, vigour– activity, fatigue–inertia, and confusion–bewilderment. Participants rate their feelings on a five-point Likert scale of 0–4 where 0 = not at all, 1 = a little, 2 = moderately, 3 = quite a bit, 4 = extremely. 3. The Italian version of the General Clerical Test (Cocci, 1998), which is a nine-part right/wrong test, was used to assess skills related to general clerical and office management, such as speed and accuracy, numerical skills, and language-related skills. 4. A Preference Questionnaire made up of the following four opinion questions: (a) Did you like working in that color of office? (b) Did you like the color of the environment? (c) Did you find the color of the office distracting? (d) Do you think that color can affect your performance and/or mood? with a 3- point Likert scale (1 = absolutely not, 2 = possibly, 3 = definitely)

Workplace Each workplace was: ● ● ●

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A total of 222 employees working in local public administration were randomly selected to participate in this research, 111 male and 111 female. The mean age of the subjects was 45.7 years. All participation was voluntary and each participant was informed of the nature of the study at the conclusion of the test.

2.63 m wide 3.50 m long 2.90 m high

Moreover, each office had one window and various objects (desk, lamp, phone, table, two chairs, etc.) of neutral colors (wood tones). The artificial lighting was the same for all three offices.

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The experiment employed a between subjects design, and it was made up of three steps. Six subjects were tested at a time. Firstly, the subjects completed the POMS as a pre-test in a room colored with the same gray as the gray test office, so that a profile of the subjects’ moods could be defined before their exposure to an experimental office. Secondly, the participants were randomly placed in an orange, gray, and green office, where they completed the Demographic Questionnaire Form, followed by the General Clerical Test, which they had to work on in 45 minutes. Thirdly, subjects were asked to complete the POMS for a second time and filled out a questionnaire asking their preference.

Results The data showed: 1. A significant difference in the number of errors made in the three environments. F (2,215) = 4.64, p < 0.01. A post hoc Test (Tukey Studentized) showed that there were significantly more errors made in the gray office than in the orange one. It also emerged that the females performed better than the males on the intellectual tasks. F (1,215) = 7.21, p < 0.01 (Table 24.1). 2. A significant difference appeared in the confusion–bewilderment mean scores F (2,207) = 3.57, p < 0.03 by analysis of covariance between POMS post-test scores and POMS pre-test scores (treated as a covariate) (Table 24.2). 3. Indeed, a post hoc Test (Tukey Studentized) showed a significantly lower confusion–bewilderment post-test mean score for the subjects in the orange office compared to those in the green one. 4. Females showed more tension than the males on the POMS post-test F (1,215) = 5.04, p < 0.05, whereas males reported more vigor than females: F (1,215) = 5.07 p < 0.05 (tab. 2). 5. A significant difference in the subjects’ rating of whether they would like to work in the office to which they were assigned F (2,215) = 3.32 p < 0.04. Specifically, the T-Studentized post hoc test showed that subjects who worked in the gray office stated that they would like to work in their experimental environment more than subjects working in the orange office (Table 24.3). Consequently, subjects working in the gray office stated that color had an effect on their task compared with the subjects working in the orange and green environments F (2,215) = 4.32 p < 0.02. Moreover, the T-Studentized test revealed no significant difference for color affecting work between people working in the orange and green offices (Table 24.3).

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Procedure

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6. An interaction effect for sex by office color. In subjects in the orange and gray offices, more males than females found the color of the environment distracting, while in the green office more females than males found the color of the environment distracting F (2,216) = 6.42 p < 0.01 (Table 24.3). Table 24.1 Average performance Number of errors

Office

M

SD

M

SD

Orange Males Females Gray Males Females Green Males Females

318.72 315.92 321.59 313.56 302.81 324.04 319.62 308.00 331.57

45.62 50.20 40.88 49.95 53.24 44.77 44.61 50.82 33.88

*8.72 9.39 8.03 *13.00 12.14 13.84 11.10 10.61 11.60

6.22 6.88 5.46 11.08 11.42 10.82 7.70 7.69 7.80

Significant difference between these means, p < 0.05.

Table 24.2 Post-test means for profile of mood questionnaire Orange POMS Scale

Gray

Green

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

9.44 8.29 10.62

6.29 4.76 7.43

10.47 9.92 11.00

6.83 6.88 6.84

10.44 9.56 11.34

5.75 6.22 5.16

Depression Males Females

5.19 4.61 5.78

6.86 6.20 7.52

6.32 6.08 6.54

8.78 8.63 9.02

5.56 5.67 5.43

7.27 7.26 7.39

Anger Males Females

3.77 3.95 3.59

4.91 4.82 5.07

5.74 5.49 5.97

7.76 7.64 7.97

3.80 4.75 2.83

5.02 6.17 3.29

Vigor Males Females

12.91 13.87 11.92

6.73 6.75 6.65

13.11 14.57 11.74

7.13 6.87 7.19

12.77 14.83 10.66

6.76 6.55 6.39

Fatigue Males Females

9.81 8.76 10.89

6.96 5.80 7.91

10.32 9.62 10.97

6.44 6.69 6.21

11.21 10.86 11.57

5.79 5.52 6.11

Confusion– bewilderment Males Females

*6.15

4.27

6.88

4.49

*7.39

4.64

5.34 6.97

3.75 4.66

6.16 7.56

4.34 4.58

7.25 7.54

4.51 4.82

Tension–anxiety Males Females

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Number correct

Significant difference between these means, p < 0.05.

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Table 24.3 Means for subjects ratings Office

Preference Questionnaire

Gray

Green

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

Liked to work in office Males Females

1.72 1.63 1.81

0.65 0.63 0.66

1.97 2.11 1.85

0.61 0.52 0.67

1.77 1.83 1.71

0.66 0.70 0.62

Liked color of office Males Females

2.20 2.13 2.28

0.78 0.74 0.81

2.16 2.35 1.97

0.71 0.68 0.71

2.26 2.20 2.31

0.67 0.72 0.63

Color of office affected work Males Females

1.61 1.58 1.65

0.61 0.64 0.59

1.89 2.00 1.79

0.76 0.75 0.78

1.59 1.50 1.69

0.71 0.74 0.68

Color of office affected mood Males Females

1.77 1.79 1.76

0.71 0.74 0.68

1.80 1.76 1.85

0.69 0.60 0.78

1.67 1.49 1.86

0.77 0.74 0.77

Color of office distracting Males Females

1.61 1.76 1.46

0.80 0.85 0.73

1.09 1.14 1.05

0.33 0.42 0.22

1.42 1.22 1.63

0.66 0.48 0.73

Significant difference between these means, p < 0.05.

Discussion These results indicated that: 1. Less confusion–bewilderment emerged in the orange office than in the green one. 2. Subjects in the orange office worked ignoring the bright surrounding color, concentrated more on the test, and made fewer errors; 3. Subjects in the gray office made most errors; 4. Subjects working in orange office found this color more distracting than subjects who worked in and rated the gray office, whereas those who expressed their preference for the gray office made more errors working in it. 5. As far as sex difference is concerned, a significant difference in psychological traits emerged in two mood factors. Regarding tension–anxiety, female participants showed higher mean scores than males in all three environments, whereas, for vigor, male participants showed higher mean scores than their female colleagues. Moreover, women found green more distracting, while orange and gray were considered more distracting by men.

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Orange

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Most of the results were unexpected. Firstly, in contrast with the common theory that green denotes balance, harmony and stability, subjects working in the green office were the most confused and also more anxious than subjects working in the orange office. Secondly, as far as the latter environment was concerned, an incongruence emerged in that, although orange was chosen as the most distracting, subjects made fewer errors when working in the orange office. This incongruence between subjects’ ratings and their performance could be explained by both the above-mentioned psychological meaning of orange and its proximity to red. Regarding red, the data obtained in the research conducted by Elliot and Maier demonstrated that this hue means danger in the sense of a psychological danger of failure; this derives from teachers’ use of red ink to mark mistakes, stop signs, etc. (Elliot & Maier, 2007, 251). Thirdly, although gray is said to be an appropriate color for offices, it did not prove conducive to productivity, in contrast with what most people believe. As Bertagna stated on this issue: “The important thing is [ ... ] to consider color and the use of it in order to improve the quality of life. But, once again, without falling into the trap of the gray” (Bertagna, 1996. 29). Fourthly, colored stimuli seemed to have some influence on personality traits and not on the task performance. Fifthly, in choosing colors, females rated green the most distracting and males rated orange and gray the most distracting. A plausible explanation for these ratings could be related to color closeness to gender. Further investigations should be carried out in order to assess the effects of long-term exposure to orange, green, and gray environments and to determine whether an increase in performance and in well-being will occur in the long run.

References Ainsworth, R. A., Simpson, L., & Cassell, D., (1993). Effects of three colors in an office interior on mood and performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76, 235–241. Albert, A. (2007). Color hue and mood: The effect of variation of red hues on positive and negative mood states. Journal of the Behavioral Sciences, 1, 19–26. Bertagna, G. (1996). Design tools: applied chromatology. Deciding the colour. Stileindustria, 7, 24–29. Cocci, F. (1998). Adattamento Italiano del General Clerical Test e Primi Dati di Taratura. Firenze: Organizzazioni Speciali. Crane, C. R. (1980). An experiment dealing with color and emotion. In E. Ulman & C. A. Levy (Eds.), Art Therapy Viewpoints (358–361). New York: Schocken Books. Elliot, A. J. & Maier, M. A. (2007). Color and psychological functioning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16 (5), 250–254. Farnè, M., Sebellico, A., Gnugnoli, D., & Corallo, A. (1991). POMS. Un Questionario per lo Studio delle Emozioni. Firenze: Giunti O. S. Féré, C. (1887). Sensation et Mouvement. Paris: F. Alcan. Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development. London: Macmillan.

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Conclusions

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Goethe (von), J. W. (1810). Zur Farbenlehre. Tübingen: J. G. Cotta. Goldstein, K. (1942). Some experimental observations concerning the influence of the colors on the function of the organism. Occupational Therapy and Rehabilitation, 21, 147–151 Jacobs, K. W. & Suess, J. F. (1975). Effects of four psychological primary colors on anxiety state. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41, 207–210. Kwallek, N. & Lewis, C. M. (1990). Effects of environmental colour on males and females: A red or white or green office. Applied Economics, 21, 275–278. Kwallek, N., Lewis, C. M., Lin-Hsiao, J. W. D., & Woodson, H. (1996). Effects of nine monochromatic office interior colors on clerical tasks and worker mood. Color Research and Application, 21 (6), 448–458. Kwallek, N., Woodson, H., Lewis, C. M., & Sales, C. (1997). Impact of three interior color schemes on worker mood and performance relative to individual environmental sensitivity. Color Research and Application, 22, 121–132. Levy, B. I. (1984). Research into the psychological meaning of color. American Journal of Art Therapy, 23, 58–62. Pearson, K. (1924). The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton, Vol. 2. Cambridge: University Press. Plack, J. J. & Shick, J. (1974). The effects of color on human behavior. Journal of the Association for the Study of Perception, 9, 4–16. Rosenstein, L. D. (1985). Effect of color of the environment on task performance and mood of males and females with high or low scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 60, 550–559. Schachtel, E. G. (1943). On color and effect: Contributions to an understanding of Rorschach’s test. II. Psychiatry, 6, 393–409. Stone, N. J. & English, A. J. (1998). Task type, posters and workspace colour on mood, satisfaction, and performance. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 175–185. Wineman, J. D. (1979). Color in environmental design: Its impact on human behavior. Environmental Design Research Association, 10, 436–439.

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accidents, work-related, 100–10 adjustment strategies evaluations of, 19–20 during work role transition, 17–28 adulthood, emerging, 181–2 aggressive behavior, in workplace, 112–19 argumentation, 147–8 atypicality, 146–7 atypical workers burnout and, 171–9 job satisfaction of, 203–13 motivations and attitudes of, 191–202 values of, 203–13 work identity and, 181–9 belonginess, 92 belonginess hypothesis, 89–90 Bem’s Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), 57–8 biopsychosocial model, 132 blood NK activity, 121–9 boundary-crossing careers, 1 Boundaryless Career Attitude Scale (BCAS), 9, 12, 13, 14 boundaryless careers, 42 cultural perspective on, 30–3, 34–5 defined, 1 in Italy, 7–16 “new science” perspective on, 44–5 university students expectancies and, 45–53 boundaryless mindset, 9, 13 burnout, 87, 91 atypical workers and, 171–9 definition of, 172 empathy and, 133–8 health professions and, 133–8 burnout syndrome, 133 career changes, adjustment strategies and, 17–28 career context, organizational socialization and, 17–18 career development, learning processes and, 31–2

career expectations, of university students, 42–53 career models, traditional, 7 career(s) boundaryless. see boundaryless careers concept of, 30–1 newcomer’s, 31–40 socioeconomic context of, 17 caregivers, burnout and, 133–8 Cognitions Check List (CCL), 172 collective bargaining, 270–5 color, work performance and, 301–7 commitment, 182 company governance, worker involvement in, 158–67 depersonalization, 133, 176, 177 depression, 132, 178 diatext, 145–6 Distress Manifestations Measure Scale, 282 emotional exhaustion, 133, 176, 177, 178 empathy, role of, in health professions, 132–8 employee involvement, 158–67 employment atypical. see atypical workers life satisfaction and, 58–9 employment contracts, 188 environmental psychology, 302 EU Council Directive n.86/2001, 159, 161 eudaimonic well-being, 143–4 European Employment Strategy (EES), 256 exhaustion emotional, 133, 176, 177, 178 global meaning and, 91–6

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-08

Index

family-friendly initiatives, 220–8 family services, 259 fathers employment by, 259–60 parental leave laws and, 241–53 feedback seeking, 200, 202 311

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female labor market participation, 256–68 female-typed occupations, 59–60, 65–6 life satisfaction and, 76–80 fixed-term contracts, 171, 172, 181 flexibility, 191 flexibility of well-being, 152 flexible jobs, 171–2 gender mentoring willingness and, 290–8 personality traits and, 57–8 work-family spillover and, 231–2 gender equality, 256 gender mainstreaming, 256 gender stereotypes, 61–2, 65 parental leave laws and, 245–50 gender-typical occupations, life satisfaction and, 76–80 global meaning, well-being and, 87–96 happiness, 57, 143 see also well-being health professions burnout and, 133–8 role of empathy in, 132–8 hedonic treadmill, 142 hedonic well-being, 143–4 helping professions, 132 hostile behaviors, in workplace, 112–19 human capital, 260 human health theory, 89–91 human potential, 143–4 human relations movement, 144–5 identity atypical workers and, 182 formation of, 182 immune response, job stress and insecurity and, 121–9 information seeking, 200, 201, 202 injuries, work-related, 100–10 intrinsic needs satisfaction, 282 instrumental traits, 64–5 internal control, 64 Italy female labor market participation in, 256–68 models of worker involvement in governance in, 158–67 protean and boundaryless careers in, 7–16

job autonomy, 92 job-demands-control (JD-C) model, 87 job demands-resources (JD-R) model, 87–9, 94 job discretion, 19 job insecurity, 171–2, 181 immune NK response and, 121–9 job mobility, 17 job novelty, 19, 20 job resources, occupation well-being and, 87–96 job satisfaction of atypical workers, 171, 203–13 of traditional workers, 203–13 job stress, 87, 91 immune NK response and, 121–9 joint-stock companies, worker involvement in governance of, 158–67 labor market changes, 181 labor markets, female participation in, 256–68 Law 53/2000, 241–53, 271 leadership, quality of, 92 learning, through participation, 35–40 learning processes, 31–2 Legitimate Peripheral Participation model (LPP), 31–2 life satisfaction (LS), 57 gender-typical occupations and, 76–80 sex typing of occupations and, 59–61 traits and, 57–8 well-being and, 182–3 work and, 58–9 of working vs. non-working individuals, 62–82 local government employees, 272–3 locus of control, 57–8 male breadwinner, 245, 248 male-typed occupations, 59, 60, 65–6 life satisfaction and, 76–80 managerial leadership, 90 memory, work as, 150 men mentoring willingness and, 290–8 parental leave laws and, 241–53 sex-typed occupations and, 59–61 work, life satisfaction and, 58–9, 62–82 work-family spillover and, 231–2

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-08

312 Index

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mentoring, 289–98 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), 205 mixed-gender occupations, 60–1, 65–6 mixed-method approach, 42–4 mobbing, 112 mothers, employment by, 259–60 Motivational Orientation Test scale (TOM), 200–1 mutual engagement, 33 networking, 200, 201 newcomers learning by doing by, 35–40 learning processes of, 31–2 socialization of, 31–40 “New Science” perspective, 44–5 NK activity, 121–9 non-working individuals, life satisfaction of, 58–9, 62–82 occupational mobility, 3 occupational status, 151–2 occupational stress, immune NK response and, 121–9 occupations, sex typing of, and life satisfaction, 59–61 occupation well-being, 1 global meaning and, 87–96 job resources and, 87–96 sex-typed occupations and, 76–80 oppression, 112 organizational efficiency color and, 301–8 mentoring and, 289–98 psychological health and, 279–86 organizational mobility preference, 9, 13, 15 organizational socialization, 17–18 adjustment strategies and, 20–8 timing of, 20 organizational well-being, 141, 144–5 Overall Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (OJSQ), 205, 206 Overall Job Satisfaction Scale (OJS), 205 parental leave laws, 241–53 participation, learning through, 35–40 part-time workers, job satisfaction of, 171 Perception of Fundamental Needs Scale, 282

313

personal change, 19–20, 22 personality traits expressive, 64–5 gender and, 57–8 instrumental, 64–5 life satisfaction and, 57–8 personal resources, occupation wellbeing and, 87–96 personal satisfaction, 176, 177, 178 Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ), 206, 207 positive human health theory, 89–91, 94–5 positive psychology, 89–91, 142 post-corporate careers, 1 Proactivity Scale, 197 professional identity, 146–7 Protean Career Attitude Scale (PCAS), 9, 10–11, 14 protean careers, 1, 42 in Italy, 7–16 psychological discomfort, 236 psychological health, work performance and, 279–86 psychological well-being, 2 antecedents of, at work, 235–6 defined, 280 work experience and, 141–52 work-family spillover and, 230–8 quality-of-life (QoL), 2, 142, 219 retired workers, 141 risk attitude, 100 risk perception, safety standards violations and, 100–10 role adjustment, 18–19 role combination, 65 stereotypes and, 61–2 role innovation, 18, 22 rule violations, 100–10

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-08

Index

safety standards violations, risk perception and, 100–10 scapegoats, 112–13 SE Community Regulation, 160–1 SE Directive, 159, 161 Self-Determination Theory (SDT), 143–4, 279–80 self-directed career management, 12, 15 Sense of Coherence Scale, 92

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sex-typed occupations, 65–6 gender stereotypes and, 61–2 life satisfaction and, 76–80 sex typing of occupations, life satisfaction and, 59–61 social constructionist approach, to careers, 7 socialization of newcomers, 31–40 work and, 191–2 Societas Europaea, 158–67 socioeconomic context, of careers, 17 stable workers, 148–50 State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), 172 stress, 87, 91 immune NK response and, 121–9 negative impacts of, 132 students, career expectancies of, 42–53 subjective well-being see also psychological well-being defined, 2 work experience and, 141–52 supervisor support, 90 temporary workers, 141, 147, 151 time perspective, 183, 184 traditional workers job satisfaction of, 203–13 values of, 203–13 traits, life satisfaction and, 57–8 transition cycle, 192 Treu’s Law, 172 triangulation, 42–4 unemployment life satisfaction and, 59 problem of, 171 university students, career expectancies of, 42–53 values, of atypical vs. traditional workers, 203–13 values driven, 12 victims, of hostile behavior, 112–19 welfare initiatives, in Italian multinational corporation, 219–28 well-being, 1–3 atypical employment and, 171–9, 181–9 defined, 142–3, 182–3

eudaimonic, 143–4 flexibility of, 152 hedonic, 143–4 organizational, 141, 144–5 studies on, 142–3 work experience and, 141–52 work-family spillover and, 230–8 work performance and, 279–86 Well-being Manifestations Measure Scale, 282 women mentoring willingness and, 290–8 self-attribution of personality traits by, 58 sex-typed occupations and, 59–61 stereotypes and, 61–2 work, life satisfaction and, 58–9, 62–82 work-family spillover and, 231–2 workforce participation by, 256–68 work life satisfaction and, 58–9 as memory, 150 socialization and, 191–2 work environment, 95 color and, 301–8 well-being and, 141–52 worker involvement, 158–67 work experience, subjective well-being and, 141–52 work identity, atypical workers and, 181–9 working individuals, life satisfaction of, 62–82 work-life balance collective bargaining and, 270–5 parental leave laws and, 241–53 psychological well-being/discomfort and, 230–8 welfare initiatives and, 219–28 work performance color and, 301–8 psychological health and, 279–86 workplace, hostile behaviors in, 112–19 work-related accidents, 100–10 work role transition model of, 18–19 timing of adjustment strategies during, 17–28 work stability, 148–50

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-03-08

314 Index

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