BOWERBIRDS
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To My Parents ‘Slange var’
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AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY SERIES
BOWERBIRDS
PETER ROWLAND
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© Peter Rowland 2008 All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO PUBLISHING for all permission requests. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry Rowland, Peter, 1967– Bowerbirds/author, Peter Rowland. Collingwood, Vic.: CSIRO Publishing, 2008. 9780643094208 (pbk.) Australian Natural History Series Includes index. Bibliography. Bowerbirds – Behavior – Australia. Bowerbirds – Australia– Handbooks, manuals, etc. Bowerbirds – Habitat – Conservation – Australia. Bowerbirds – New Guinea – Handbooks, manuals, etc. 598.8 Published by and available from CSIRO PUBLISHING 150 Oxford Street (PO Box 1139) Collingwood VIC 3066 Australia Telephone: Local call: Fax: Email: Web site:
+61 3 9662 7666 1300 788 000 (Australia only) +61 3 9662 7555
[email protected] www.publish.csiro.au
Front cover Male Regent Bowerbird. Photo by Graeme Chapman. Back cover Left: Large bower of the Vogelkop Bowerbird. Photo by Aniket Sardana. Right: Male Satin Bowerbird. Photo by Michael Seyfort. Set in 10.5/14 Adobe Palatino, Optima and Stone Sans Cover and text design by James Kelly Typeset by Desktop Concepts Pty Ltd, Melbourne Printed in Australia by BPA Print Group
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CONTENTS Acknowledgements
vii
1
Introduction
1
2
Classification and morphology
7
3
Habitat, distribution and conservation
15
4
Bower evolution and sexual behaviour
21
5
Species accounts Bowerbird key Spotted Catbird Green Catbird Tooth-billed Bowerbird Golden Bowerbird Regent Bowerbird Satin Bowerbird Spotted Bowerbird Western Bowerbird Great Bowerbird Fawn-breasted Bowerbird
27 27 30 36 49 55 62 70 78 85 91 98
6
New Guinea species supplement White-eared Catbird Macgregor’s Bowerbird Streaked Bowerbird Vogelkop Bowerbird Golden-fronted Bowerbird Archbold’s Bowerbird Masked Bowerbird Flame Bowerbird Adelbert Bowerbird Lauterbach’s Bowerbird
113 113 114 115 115 116 117 118 119 119 120
Bibliography
122
Index
131
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Special acknowledgement goes to Sally Bird and CSIRO, who made it possible for me to write this book. Thanks to Wayne Longmore for proofreading the book and offering suggestions, and Walter Boles for access to the Australian Museum bird collection, for his additional comments and assistance in tracking down published data and photographic material. Thanks also to the photographers who bring the book to life with their expertise in capturing these beautiful birds for the rest of the world to see. Also, to my wife, Kate, who provided the maps and diagrams. This book aims to condense the published knowledge acquired by ornithologists who have studied the bowerbirds over the years, and deliver it in a more simplified format for the general natural history reader. Their dedication and patience, during countless hours of research and field study, is gratefully acknowledged. I thank all of these men and women. Their work has been treated with respect, with a special mention to Clifford and Dawn Frith, and Gerald Borgia. If not for their pioneering, life-long research of the bowerbird group, and the associated published material, a book such as this would be impossible. Due to the nature of this work, references have not been included within the text, but a full list of referenced works is contained at the rear of the book. I dedicate this book to my parents, Pat and Keith. Thanks for the many opportunities you have given me in my life and for helping me to pursue my passion. I love you both very much.
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1 INTRODUCTION
‘Had Australia lacked the lyre-birds she still would have become famed among ornithologists the world over for her wonder birds: the bower-builders …’ (C. Barrett 1945).
T
his statement by Charles Barrett would suggest that this fascinating group of passerines (songbirds) are unique to Australia. In fact, New Guinea is home to two more species than Australia, with 10 of the 20 species found only in New Guinea and eight unique to Australia. The remaining two species are shared by both countries. The bowerbirds (family Ptilonorhynchidae) are famed for their unique bower-building behaviour and, in some species, such as the Vogelkop Bowerbird, the bowers are such complex constructions of sticks and other vegetable matter that early zoologists could not believe that they were made by a comparatively small bird. Instead, they thought that native men and women must have constructed them for their children to play with – a sort of cubby house. These constructions can grow to two metres or so in diameter and about one-and-a-half metres high. In all bower-building species, the male constructs, decorates and maintains the bower, which he uses to attract females for mating. The 1
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Bowerbirds
Figure 1.1 A wigwam-style maypole bower built by a male Vogelkop Bowerbird. Photo: Aniket Sardana
bower is wrongly referred to by most people as a nest. The nest, in most species, is a loose construction of twigs built by the female. The males in all bowerbird species, except the catbirds, mate with several females and take no part in the care of the eggs or raising of the young. Four basic types of bowers have been described: the ‘court’ of the Toothbilled Bowerbird, the ‘mat’ of the Archbold’s Bowerbird, the ‘avenue’ of the 10 species in the genera Ptilonorhynchus and Sericulus, and the ‘maypole’ of the five species in the genera Amblyornis (Figure 1.1). These maypole bowerbuilders are often referred to as gardener bowerbirds, because the platform areas of their bowers consist of a moss lawn, decorated with fresh leaves, flowers and berries. Currently no conclusive evidence exists to establish that male catbirds maintain a bower, although some birds have been observed laying sticks and leaves on the ground in captive situations, and some unsubstantiated historical reports talk of catbird bowers. In most species, the bower is profusely decorated by the male. Certain types and colours of items are sought and are meticulously positioned in and around the bower in an effort to bedazzle the females. Studies have 2
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Introduction
Figure 1.2 Near human habitation bowerbirds use man-made objects to decorate their bowers. This Satin Bowerbird bower has over 100 blue straws. Photo: Philip Green
indicated that the owners of bowers with a higher number, and certain assortment of, display ornaments have more successful matings. Historically bowers were decorated with naturally occurring objects but, due to the increased spread of human habitation, a number of man-made objects are now included by some species (Figure 1.2). The male Satin Bowerbird, perhaps the most studied and widely known species, has a penchant for bright blue and violet coloured objects, which may or may not be linked to his glossy blue-black plumage and violet-blue iris. These objects include parrot feathers, flowers and berries, and pilfered objects such as blue pegs, bottle tops and straws. Other bowerbirds have a liking for different coloured objects. Males of species found in the more arid areas collect green, pale grey-brown or white objects such as berries, bones, stones and glass, while others collect snail shells, insects, seashells and snake skins. Other pilfered objects include jewellery, cutlery, coins, rifle cartridges and one bower was even found to contain a glass eye! The number of items can reach over 1000 in some bowers. Some species of bowerbird are also famed for painting their bowers. The paint consists of chewed up vegetable matter which the bird wipes onto the walls of the bower with its bill or by using a stick. 3
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Bowerbirds
Eye/Iris
Crown
Wing Coverts Ear Coverts
Forehead Upper Mandible
Mantle
Nape
Secondaries Back Upper Tail Coverts
Lower Mandible Chin Tail
Throat Breast Flank
Wing
Belly/Abdomen
Primaries
Undertail
Legs
Feet
Figure 1.3 The parts of a bird most commonly referred to within this book.
In most species of bowerbirds the males have striking plumage, and the females are drab. In the catbirds, and Tooth-billed Bowerbird, however, both sexes are almost identical. The males of most species of the genus Ptilonorhynchus have a bright nuchal crest (located on the nape of the neck, see Figure 1.3), which is only erected and visible during display. One exception is the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird, which does not have a nuchal crest, but interestingly the male still displays this part of his body during courtship. Some authors have hypothesised that the use of bower ornaments is gradually replacing the need for brightly plumaged males and evolution may lead to all male bowerbirds being uniformly coloured with highly decorated bowers. The first species of bowerbird known to science was the Masked Bowerbird, which was described by Carolus Linnaeus (also known as Carl von Linné) in 1758. Originally the bird was depicted as a bird-of-paradise in early illustrations. The last species described was Archbold’s Bowerbird, which was named by Ernst (Walter) Mayr and Rudolf Meyer de Schauensee in 1939. Subspecies have been described as recently as 1997. On 14 July 1867 a bowerbird specimen was collected at Witton, near Brisbane, Queensland, by Henry Charles Rawnsley. The bird was described as a new species by Silvester Diggles and was named Rawnsley’s Bowerbird. The more widely accepted conclusion is that it was an adult hybrid cross between a Regent Bowerbird and a Satin Bowerbird. The specimen in question was predominantly glossy blue-back like the adult male Satin Bowerbird, with an extensive yellow wing patch, yellow tips on some tail feathers, similar to 4
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Introduction
the Regent Bowerbird, and had a pale violet-blue iris. The two bowerbird genera involved are closely related and the grouping of these has been suggested (Chapter 2). Only a single specimen matching the description given for Rawnsley’s Bowerbird has been recorded since, when a bird was photographed in November 2003 in Lamington National Park near Binna Burra, Queensland, although many other wild hybrids between the Regent and Satin Bowerbirds have been recorded and photographed. Rawnsley’s Bowerbird is not accepted as a valid species. Within species accounts measurements are given for critical body parts. These measurements cover all subspecies and populations within each species’s distributions, including New Guinea for the Spotted Catbird and Fawn-breasted Bowerbird, and thus may be quite broad in their range.
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2 CLASSIFICATION AND MORPHOLOGY
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he Ptilonorhynchidae comprises 20 species, which are divided into five genera: Ailuroedus (3), Amblyornis (6), Ptilonorhynchus (6), Scenopoeetes (1), and Sericulus (4). Each of these genera are represented in Australia and four are found in New Guinea. The 20 species are also almost equally divided between the two regions with eight species endemic to Australia, 10 to New Guinea and two species, the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird and the Spotted Catbird, occurring in both regions. The catbirds, so named because of their wailing cat-like calls, belong to the genus Ailuroedus. This group has had the most opposition to its grouping within the bowerbirds. The catbirds are monogamous (males mating with only one female in a single season), with both parents caring for the offspring, whereas all of the other 17 species are polygynous (with males mating with two or more females in a single season), with the offspring being cared for solely by the female. DNA studies indicate that the link between the monogamous catbirds and the polygynous bowerbirds dates back prior to the evolution of polygynous and bower-building characteristics. This might indicate that the catbird’s monogamous traits 7
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Bowerbirds
Figure 2.1 Satin Bowerbird nest and egg. The nest is constructed solely by the female. Photo: Philip Green
evolved parallel to those of the remaining bowerbirds or that the catbirds were actually once polygynous and did build bowers. This latter assumption seems unlikely, due to the results of research on cerebellum size and bower complexity (Chapter 4). One of the main benefits of monogamy over polygyny is that two parent birds are able to raise and protect the young birds. Also, the eggs do not have to be left unattended and at risk if the sitting bird needs to feed, as it can be fed by its partner or swap duties with its partner while it forages. Conversely, polygyny allows the female to choose what she perceives is the best mate. The appearance of the male’s plumage is a key indicator of his health, whereas acquisition of numbers and types of display objects indicates superior foraging ability. The structure of the male’s bower is an indication of his intelligence and the ability of the male to defend his bower is an 8
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Classification and morphology
indicator of strength and dominance. The female visits several males to compare these attributes and make her choice, and thus pass these attributes on to her offspring. While both sexual systems have their benefits, it is interesting to note that over 90 per cent of bird species practice social monogamy as opposed to less than 5 per cent which are solely polygamous. While there is a broad range in body sizes throughout the family, with smallest being the Golden Bowerbird at 230 mm, and the largest shared by the Great Bowerbird and the Archbold’s Bowerbird at 370 mm (Table 1), different sexes within the same species show little or no size difference. Different species of the same genus, however, show considerable variation across their range with the evident trend being that birds decrease in size moving south to north and at lower altitudes. This trend is referred to as Bergmann’s Rule. Developed by German biologist Karl Georg Lucas Christian Bergmann in 1847, it asserts that among closely related mammals and birds, the largest forms occur at higher altitudes and increased latitudes. The theory behind the rule is that smaller animals find it easier to keep cool, while larger animals find it easier to keep warm. While Bergmann’s Rule is most evident in northern hemisphere populations, where the increase in size correlates to the movement from north to south, the trend is still observable among southern populations. From Table 2.1, members of the genus Ailuroedus show increased body sizes in Australia compared to those in New Guinea, with the Spotted Catbird increasing in body size due to the higher altitude occupied. Spotted Catbirds occur in both Australia and New Guinea. The birds in New Guinea are larger, even though they are at lesser latitudes, but they occupy higher altitudes. Within the genus Amblyornis there is a trend of larger species at higher altitudes, with the Archbold’s Bowerbird occupying the highest altitude and being the largest species, and the Golden Bowerbird occupying the lowest altitude and being the smallest species. This trend is less distinct but still similar in the genus Sericulus where the Australian Regent Bowerbird is the largest of all of the species and occurs at greater latitude, and the Adelbert Bowerbird, the largest of the New Guinea species, occurs at the highest altitude. The data is even less conclusive for the genus Ptilonorhynchus. Another trend within bird populations, which is evident in the bowerbird group, is that birds occupying the more open arid areas are less colourful than those found in more densely vegetated habitats. Several members of the genus Ptilonorhynchus, which occupy the drier areas of Australia, are known as the Grey Bowerbirds and were previously 9
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Bowerbirds
Table 2.1 Altitude and size ranges among bowerbird species Size range (mm)
Genus
Region
Altitude range (metres)
White-eared Catbird Ailuroedes buccoides
Ailuroedus
New Guinea
Sea level to 1200
240 to 250
Spotted Catbird* Ailuroedus melanotis
Ailuroedus
Both
Sea level to 2250
260 to 290
Green Catbird Ailuroedus crassirostris
Ailuroedus
Australia
Sea level to 1000
295 to 340
Tooth-billed Bowerbird Scenopoeetes dentirostris
Scenopoeetes
Australia
600 to 1200
260 to 280
Macgregor’s Bowerbird Amblyornis macgregoriae
Amblyornis
New Guinea
1050 to 2800
260
Streaked Bowerbird Amblyornis subalaris
Amblyornis
New Guinea
650 to 1500
240
Vogelkop Bowerbird Amblyornis inornatus
Amblyornis
New Guinea
1200 to 2000
250
Golden-fronted Bowerbird Amblyornis flavifrons
Amblyornis
New Guinea
940 to 2000
240
Archbold’s Bowerbird Amblyornis papuensis
Amblyornis
New Guinea
1700 to 3600
350 to 370
Golden Bowerbird Amblyornis newtoniana
Amblyornis
Australia
600 to 1500
230 to 250
Masked Bowerbird Sericulus aureus
Sericulus
New Guinea
900 to 1400
240 to 250
Flame Bowerbird Sericulus ardens
Sericulus
New Guinea
Sea level to 760
250 to 255
Adelbert Bowerbird Sericulus bakeri
Sericulus
New Guinea
900 to 1400
265 to 270
Regent Bowerbird Sericulus chrysocephalus
Sericulus
Australia
Sea level to 900
240 to 280
Satin Bowerbird† Ptilonorhynchus violaceus
Ptilonorhynchus
Australia
Sea level to 1200
240 to 340
Lauterbach’s Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus lauterbachi
Ptilonorhynchus
New Guinea
Sea level to 1800
270
Spotted Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus maculatus
Ptilonorhynchus
Australia
Sea level to 500
280 to 310
Western Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus guttatus
Ptilonorhynchus
Australia
Sea level to 500
240 to 280
Great Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus nuchalis
Ptilonorhynchus
Australia
Sea level to 600
320 to 370
Fawn-breasted Bowerbird‡ Ptilonorhynchus cerviniventris
Ptilonorhynchus
Both
Sea level to 1750
260 to 290
Common name Latin name
*The Spotted Catbird occurs in Australia and New Guinea. The New Guinea populations occupy higher altitudes. †The Satin Bowerbird has two distinct north and south subspecies. The northern subspecies is smaller. ‡The Fawn-breasted Bowerbird occurs in Australia and New Guinea. The New Guinea populations occupy higher altitudes.
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Classification and morphology
separated within the genus Chlamydera (see below). Except for the concealable nuchal crest, these species are mostly drab. Contrastingly, the more brightly coloured birds inhabit denser forested habitats. Drab plumage offers greater camouflage to birds that occupy the areas that are less protected, with less chance of escape, while the denser habitats offer a greater concealment and more chance of fleeing a predator. Another interesting trend is that the more brightly coloured birds tend to be smaller, which would make the birds more agile and able to avoid capture. In species where the males are brightly coloured, the females tend to have more drab plumage (dimorphic), whereas among the less colourful species both sexes are similarly coloured (monotypic). The bowerbird family was once widely considered to be closely related to the birds-of-paradise (Paradisaeidae), due to resemblances in sexual dimorphism and polygynous sexual behaviour. The two families differ in a number of other traits, including egg-colouration and laying frequency, nest construction, nestling plumage and feeding habits. Birds-of-paradise do not construct bowers, but do use an arena for display, which has been suggested as the origin for the modern bowerbird bower. Recent DNA work has indicated, however, that the bowerbirds are more closely related to the crows (Corvidae), and should be grouped here along with the lyrebirds (Menuridae) and scrub-birds (Atricornithidae). Exact relationships between the families may become clearer with further study. Relationships within the bowerbird family itself have been largely based on believed similarities in DNA or protein sequences, which are reflected in both bower design and display characters. However, critical species have been unavailable for examination, which has made this hypothesis impossible to prove. It is widely agreed, however, that bowers and plumage characteristics are limited as indicators of the evolutionary development and history of species within this group. This is due to large differences in display traits by otherwise closely related species, and bower complexity shows only minor constraints on plumage characters. Over the years, many independent studies done on the group have agreed that the family is comprised of three major lineages: (1) Ailuroedus; (2) Ptilonorhynchus (which includes the previously separated genus Chlamydera) and Sericulus; and (3) Amblyornis (which includes the previously separated genera Archboldia and Prionodura) and Scenopoeetes. However, more recent complex DNA work has separated Scenopoeetes based on marked genetic and morphological differences. There is still much debate 11
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Bowerbirds
(c) (a) (b)
Figure 2.2 The skull of the Green Catbird shows smaller zygomatic (a) and postorbital (b) processes and reduced temporalis fossae (c).
as to whether Ptilonorhynchus and Sericulus should be kept separate or grouped together in the genus Ptilonorhynchus. The argument against this merger is largely based on differences in subadult plumages, bill and skull morphologies and egg patterning. Additionally, the Green and Spotted Catbirds have been found to be closely related and their grouping together as a single species has been suggested, although they have been kept separate within this book in line with other published works.
(c) (a) (b)
Figure 2.3 This skull of the Golden Bowerbird shows enlarged zygomatic (a) and postorbital (b) processes and temporalis fossae (c).
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Classification and morphology
Figure 2.4 Bowerbirds, such as this Great Bowerbird, are great mimics. Photo: Graeme Guy
The skulls of the three species of Ailuroedus have reduced postorbital and zygomatic processes (Figure 2.2) that are both well developed in the seven other Bowerbird genera (Figure 2.3). The bowerbirds also have an enlarged lachrymal (part of the skull between the beak and the eye), which is similarly developed only in the lyrebirds (family Menuridae). Both families have accomplished mimics and are adept at imitating machinery, crumpling paper, sawing or chopping wood, squeaky gates, cracking stockwhips and natural sounds such as barking dogs and the calls of other birds.
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3 HABITAT, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION
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owerbirds are confined to – but well dispersed throughout – the Australian mainland and New Guinea. Within Australia, fossil records have indicated that the wet forests were much wider spread in the past. The reduction of this habitat has thus reshaped the distributional range of those species dependent on this habitat. The rainforests inhabited by most species are often difficult to access and thus the study of certain species has been limited. A prime example of this is the Golden-fronted Bowerbird, which inhabits the rainforests of northern Indonesian Papau above 940 metres. This species was originally described in 1895 from skins purchased from a trader but was not discovered alive in the wild until 1979. Prior to European settlement in Australia, the rainforest and vine thicket vegetation covered around 43 500 km2. In a study conducted in 2001, this area had been reduced to around 30 000 km2, of which just over 11 000 km2 lies in protected areas. In fact, up to a third of all forested habitats favoured by bowerbird species have been lost since European settlement (see Table 3.1). While the majority of this habitat loss can be attributed to clearing for 15
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Table 3.1 Bowerbird habitat preference and percentage loss since European settlement
Species Spotted Catbird
Rainforest
Eucalypt open forest
Acacia forest and woodlands
Eucalypt woodlands and open woodlands
Mallee woodlands and shrublands
×
Green Catbird
×
×
Tooth-billed Bowerbird
×
×
Golden Bowerbird
×
×
Regent Bowerbird
×
×
×
Satin Bowerbird
×
×
×
Spotted Bowerbird
×
×
Western Bowerbird
×
×
Great Bowerbird
×
×
×
×
Fawn-breasted Bowerbird
×
×
×
×
% Habitat loss
30
30
15
28
×
35
agriculture, mining, logging and similar activities, a portion can also now be linked to climate change. Conversely, the amount of drier open grasslands and shrublands has remained about the same, although still only a very small percentage is reserved in protected areas. Some of the predicted effects of climate change include: s s s s s s s s s
MIGRATION OF SPECIES TO HIGHER COOLER ALTITUDES MIGRATION OF SPECIES TO MORE SOUTHERN REGIONS CHANGES IN SPECIES GEOGRAPHIC LIMITS INCREASED COMPETITION FOR RESOURCES CHANGES IN SEASONAL BREEDING PATTERNS INCREASED ABUNDANCE OF PEST PLANTS AND DISEASES INCREASED ORGANIC GROWTHS IN WATER SUPPLIES INCREASED MORTALITY FROM WEATHER EXTREMES LOSS OF SPECIES
Bowerbirds, like most other animal species, are closely associated with their habitat, and are sensitive to any environmental changes. Reduced availability of food, nesting and bower material, as well as suitable display and nesting sites are among the key threats to individual species and the 16
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Habitat, distribution and conservation
family as a whole. According to the IUCN Red List, no bowerbird species is currently considered as Threatened or Endangered, although Archbold’s Bowerbird and one subspecies of the Western Bowerbird are classified as Near Threatened and the Adelbert Bowerbird is considered Vulnerable due to the limited population distributions and sizes. The IUCN Red List provides a framework to classify species according to their extinction risk, and is the world’s most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species. Unfortunately for many species of bowerbird, not enough is known about the nature and severity of the threats affecting them and therefore the issue of implementing the correct conservation measures is clouded. The first step in any management plan is to conduct surveys to establish the actual distribution areas for each species, which will allow us to map the habitats each occupies and identify key threats to these areas. Information on each species’s key habitat requirements and behavioural patterns could also be obtained. For us to gain this understanding, we must involve the local indigenous people who share the land with these species, especially those species that inhabit remote and largely inaccessible areas. Once information on each species’s distribution, habitat requirements and key threatening processes has been obtained, implementation of conservation strategies should be finalised. Ongoing monitoring of population trends and the effectiveness of current conservation measures is essential to ensure that management actions are meeting their objectives. Key indicators include any changes to species abundance, predator numbers and general habitat health. Any habitat identified as critical to the species’s survival should be placed in national parks or reserves. Control or eradication of feral animals, including wild dogs, cats, foxes and rats, is essential as these animals prey on both adult and young birds and eggs. Larger animals such as feral pigs are responsible for damage and degradation of habitat and bower sites. Other key threats include habitat clearance, the associated impacts of development such as roads, noise and chemical pollution, livestock, disease and the illegal shooting or poisoning of birds by landholders and farmers. The illegal bird trade also impacts on bowerbirds, and bushfires not only kill birds and affect the availability and abundance of food, but also reduce the amount of suitably protected bower sites for the males. Depending on the nature of the threats identified, conservation strategies can be assigned a high, medium or low priority. 17
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Bowerbirds
Figure 3.1 Human development is one of the key threats to Bowerbird habitat. Photo: Aniket Sardana
The bowerbirds of New Guinea live in areas that are mostly inaccessible. In this way their habitat is protected to a certain extent, at least for the present. Areas of the rainforest are shared by several indigenous tribes, each of which is largely dependent on these regions for their welfare. They obtain food, water, building materials and medicines from the rainforest and have spiritual relationships with the animal species present. These associations may vary in significance between the many communities. With this in mind, these people are the conservationists, as the rainforest’s balance must be sustained if they are themselves to survive. Traditional lifestyles have been developed over many centuries with the primary intention of conserving these areas, although not all are successful, and there is significant pressure for the logging of forests, which are traditionally held by these forest-dwelling tribes. Areas such as the Mount Hagen region of New Guinea, which is the main commercial area of the highlands region, have boomed over recent years with the tea and coffee trade. Mount Hagen is located in the fertile Wahgi Valley in central mainland Papua New Guinea and is home to a diversity of species, including five species of Bowerbird. The area contains lush virgin rainforest, fast-flowing rivers and is situated at the foothills of 18
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Habitat, distribution and conservation
Figure 3.2 Dense rainforest habitat in New Guinea.
Photo: Aniket Sardana
Mt Wilhelm, which has a peak of 4509 metres, but the environment is under threat by commercial development. There is no national park system in New Guinea, but there is a new initiative which places a long-term lease on areas of land under a Conservation Covenant. Under this system individual communities are given the benefits of improved schools and roads in exchange for the active conservation of their lands. This system has been developed and implemented by Conservation International.
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4 BOWER EVOLUTION AND SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
T
o entice females to mate, male bowerbirds construct a display area called a bower, a habit not recorded in any other bird family. This unique behaviour has captured people’s interest and curiosity for centuries. Even Charles Darwin remarked in 1838 that the bowers (or ‘playing passages’) were ‘the most wonderful instances of bird-architecture yet discovered’. The bowers are generally located on traditional bower sites, although new sites may be selected as the habitat changes. A traditional site can be maintained by successive male owners over many years, even decades, with the active bower changing to different positions within the site. Immature and subadult males also build bowers, referred to as rudimentary bowers. These bowers are poorly constructed and scantily decorated. The immatures learn their skills by attending an adult male’s bower in their absence and practising on their own bower. The male carefully selects the site for his bower, taking into consideration local geographic and environmental factors, such as topography, suitable vegetation, the proximity of food and water, and the amount of light that diffuses to the display area. The bower design ranges from a cleared area 21
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Bowerbirds
Figure 4.1 The platform on which the male Fawn-breasted Bowerbird builds its avenue bower is larger in New Guinea. Photo: Ron Hoff
decorated with leaves to a complex hut. Studies have been undertaken to examine the size of the skull and brain in relation to the complexity of bower design. The study revealed a distinct link between an increase in the size of the temporalis fossae (cerebellum) and an increase in bower complexity (see Figure 2.3, p. 12). Interestingly, however, there appears to be no significant difference in cerebellum size between males and females of the same species. The increase in bower complexity and associated increase in cerebellum size has been hypothesised to be as a result of sexual selection by the female. Studies have associated increased mating success with both increased bower design complexity and the accompanying quantity and type of decorations. Catbirds do not have a significantly enlarged temporalis fossae (see Figure 2.2, p. 12). The stage-type bowers are typical of the Tooth-billed Bowerbirds (Scenopoeetes dentirostris): Scenopoeetes literally translates as ‘stagemaker’ (from the Greek words Skene meaning a stage or covered area and Poietes meaning a maker). First an area of the forest floor is cleared of debris; then it is decorated with fresh leaves, all of which are placed in the display area with the paler undersurfaces facing upwards (Figure 4.2). 22
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Bower evolution and sexual behaviour
Figure 4.2 The male Tooth-billed Bowerbird decorates an area with upturned leaves. Photo: Philip Green
Mat-type bowers are made by the Archbold’s Bowerbird of New Guinea. The male places dried fern fronds on the ground and decorates them with dead beetles, snail shells and blue-coloured rainforest fruits. The avenue bower normally consists of two parallel walls of interwoven dry sticks and grass stems, with a cleared area at each end which is decorated with ornaments. Typical of the avenue builders is the Spotted Bowerbird of eastern Australia. The bower, with its two parallel walls, is placed in a shaded place under low shrubbery, usually close to water. The male Spotted Bowerbird decorates his bower with objects of white, pale green, grey, mauve and amber, as well as assorted objects pilfered from humans. In one case a bird carried over two kilograms of nails from a barn over 400 metres away. In contrast, the Satin Bowerbird has a penchant for blue objects, and he gathers blue feathers, flowers and berries, as well as blue straws and blue pegs from unguarded clotheslines. Typical of the maypole bower-builders is the Golden Bowerbird. The male selects two small trees about a metre apart, with a branch or fallen limb between them, and piles twigs up the sides of both uprights to form 23
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Figure 4.3 The Golden Bowerbird bower normally consists of two vertical columns connected by a horizontal display perch.
two columns. This bower may be reused year after year and can grow to three metres in height. The bird sings and displays from the horizontal perch between the two columns (Figure 4.3), which is decorated with flowers and mosses. An even more incredible maypole construction is that made by the Vogelkop Bowerbird of New Guinea. The male creates a wigwam-type construction around a small tree, using the stems of the orchid Dendrobium. This amazing piece of architecture is about two metres across with a neat entrance on one side. The bower of the Lauterbach’s Bowerbird is unique as it has four rather than two walls. The bower is decorated mainly with stones, and one bower examined had nearly a thousand stones with a combined weight of almost five kilograms. In addition to the keen decorating ability shown by the bowerbirds, many ‘paint’ their bowers with a mixture of saliva and masticated vegetable matter. Avenue builders apply this mixture with their bills, but builders of maypole bowers have become adept at applying a similar mixture with twigs. The most likely origin of bower-building is debatable. One hypothesis proposes that all bowers developed from a single origin of a simple single 24
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Bower evolution and sexual behaviour
Figure 4.4 A painted stick from the wall of a Satin Bowerbird bower.
Photo: Philip Green
wall of sticks or a simple maypole, and another suggests that the avenue bower evolved separate to the maypole bower. The development of the bower itself is thought to have evolved to enable the male to hide from the female and thus allow the female to feel protected during display, and with the ability to leave easily if she is not prepared to mate. This theory can be substantiated by the Tooth-billed Bowerbird, which does not construct a walled bower, but hides behind a small tree during display. The Archbold’s Bowerbird forms a curtain of orchid stems to separate the male from the female and the male crouches low to the ground, while the female remains on a perch for much of the display. These barriers may have become necessary due to the aggressive nature of the male’s display, which would be threatening to the female if there were no protective barrier. This has been termed the ‘threat reduction’ theory, which was developed to explain the habit of the male Spotted Bowerbird directing part of his courtship display at the thin, see-through walls of his bower, while the female was on the other side. Another aspect of this theory is that the 25
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bower may serve the purpose of also protecting the female from forced copulation by other opportunistic males. This is not supported by the reluctance of females to enter the avenue prior to copulation. Copulation is also an aggressive affair and, as the male and female flap their wings, the walls of the bower may be damaged. The female solicits copulation, and may copulate with the same male several times over a few days, and may even mate with him in successive seasons. The increased complexity and decoration of the bower has been dubiously suggested to be at the expense of the male’s bright plumage, with the more complex bower-builders having more drab plumage. Thus, ancestral males would have been brightly coloured and highly dimorphic in plumage, and constructed simple bowers, although the Vogelkop Bowerbird appears to be the only example where an increase in bower size and complexity has occurred and both plumage brightness and dimorphism have decreased. There are records of this species building hutless bowers. An interesting study of the painting habit of a number of Satin Bowerbirds showed that almost 95 per cent of the males studied painted the inner walls of their bower using a mixture of masticated plant material and saliva (Figure 4.4). This habit is shared with many other bowerbird species, and all the avenue-building species. The female was observed to nibble at this paint during the courtship display. Paint was removed from some bowers and added to others. In those bowers where paint was added, the male advertised more, whereas there was no change in habits of those where some of the dried paint was removed. It was suggested that the fresh paint may act as a chemical sexual stimulant to the female, due to her habit of nibbling at the paint.
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5 SPECIES ACCOUNTS
Bowerbird key Australian species 1 Plumage predominantly green Plumage without green
(2) (4)
2 Black patch below eye No black patch
Spotted Catbird (3)
3 Eye red Eye lilac-blue
Green Catbird Satin Bowerbird # Satin Bowerbird (5)
4 Entire plumage dark violet-blue Plumage without blue 5 Plumage with prominent yellow areas Plumage without prominent yellow areas 6 Plumage velvety-black and rich golden-yellow Plumage glossy golden yellow-brown 7 Uniform brownish upperparts Mottled brownish or grey upperparts
(6) (7) # Regent Bowerbird # Golden Bowerbird (8) (9)
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8 Underparts heavily streaked; notched bill Tooth-billed Bowerbird Upperparts washed with yellow; iris yellowish Golden Bowerbird 9 Underparts reddish-buff, brighter on belly No reddish-buff on belly
Fawn-breasted Bowerbird (10)
10 Underparts spotted or streaked Underparts uniform greyish
(11) (15)
11 Iris yellow; black patch on crown Iris brown
Regent Bowerbird (12)
12 Head & throat moderately streaked; belly pale Head & throat heavily streaked; belly brownish
(13) (14)
13 Bright lilac-pink crest (during display) Lilac-pink crest absent or greatly reduced
# Spotted Bowerbird Spotted Bowerbird
14 Bright lilac-pink crest (during display) Lilac-pink crest absent or greatly reduced
# Western Bowerbird Western Bowerbird
15 Bright lilac-pink crest (during display) Lilac-pink crest absent or greatly reduced
# Great Bowerbird Great Bowerbird
New Guinea species 1 Body predominantly green Body plumage without green
(2) (4)
2 Black patch below eye Crown brownish; white below the eye 3 Plumage predominantly blackish Plumage not blackish
Spotted Catbird White-eared Catbird (4) (6)
4 No crest; yellow wing patch Crested
Archbold’s Bowerbird (5)
5 Small tufted yellow crest Large glossy orange crest
# Archbold’s Bowerbird # Adelbert Bowerbird
6 Plumage orange-yellow Plumage brownish
(7) (8) # Masked Bowerbird # Flame Bowerbird
7 Face black Face orange; throat yellow 8 Upperparts mottled brownish Upperparts uniform brownish
(9) (10)
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Species accounts
9 Belly reddish-buff (richer on belly) Belly yellow
Fawn-breasted Bowerbird Lauterbach’s Bowerbird
10 Underparts brownish or yellow Underparts heavily streaked on throat & breast
(11) (12)
11 Underparts yellow Underparts brownish
(14) (15)
12 Underparts pale buff, barred darker Underparts similarly coloured to upperparts
Adelbert Bowerbird (13) # Streaked Bowerbird Streaked Bowerbird
13 Bright orange-yellow crest No crest 14 Face black Face mottled brown
Masked Bowerbird Flame Bowerbird
15 Underparts paler than upperparts Underparts similarly coloured to upperparts
(16) (18)
16 Underparts uniformly pale from chin to undertail Vogelkop Bowerbird Underparts paler on belly and flanks (17) 17 Large glossy yellow crest; Foya Mountains No crest; Foya Mountains 18 Large orange-yellow crest & brown crest No crest
# Golden-fronted Bowerbird Golden-fronted Bowerbird # Macgregor’s Bowerbird Macgregor’s Bowerbird
N.B. In most species, immature males are similar in plumage to adult females.
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Spotted Catbird Ailuroedus melanotis (Gray, 1858) Field identification The Spotted, or Black-eared, Catbird inhabits the tropical rainforests of north-eastern Queensland, Australia, and is found throughout New Guinea. It is a large, secretive, solid green, dark-headed bird with a red iris and a stout pale bill. It has long powerful legs and bounds from branch to branch in search for food. Feeding birds are quite difficult to detect because their green plumage blends with the rainforest foliage. In New Guinea, the Spotted Catbird is distinguished from the White-eared Catbird by its spotted crown and conspicuous black patch below the eye. The only other member of this genus is the larger Green Catbird found in southern Queensland and along the east coast of New South Wales, which lacks the blackish ear coverts and has more uniform bright green plumage with distinct white spots on the underparts. When seen, the Spotted Catbird is generally alone, in pairs or in small groups consisting of an adult pair and their offspring. They are more often heard than seen.
Other names Spotted Cat-Bird (Cat Bird); Australasian Catbird; Green Catbird; Blackeared Catbird (Cat-Bird or Cat Bird); Black-cheeked, Black-naped, JobiIsland, Arfak Mountain, Queensland or Barbet-like Cat-Bird; Chiguah-ah by the Aboriginal people of northern Queensland; buziba or waraloa by the tribespeople of New Guinea; Burung kucing telinga hitam in Indonesian (Burung meaning Bird, kucing meaning Cat, telinga meaning ear, hitam meaning black).
Discovery and nomenclature The first Spotted Catbird was discovered in the Aru Islands in 1857 by Alfred Russel Wallace. It was named in 1858 by George Robert Gray, curator at the British Museum, as a bowerbird, Ptilonorhynchus melanotis, but was subsequently moved to the genus Ailuroedus, previously established by Jean Louis Cabanis in 1851 to accommodate the Green Catbird (A. crassirostris) and White-eared Catbird (A. buccoides). The first Australian specimen was collected near Cardwell, in the Rockingham
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Bay area of north-eastern Queensland in 1874 and was named by Edward Pierson Ramsay as Ailuroedus melanotis maculosus. The subspecies A. m. joanae was described in 1941 by Gregory Macalister Mathews from a specimen collected near Rocky Scrub in the McIlwraith Ranges, Cape York Peninsula. Ernest Thomas Gilliard, an American ornithologist, recognised a further eight subspecies distributed throughout much of New Guinea. The generic name of this bowerbird, Ailuroedus, means cat-singer or cat-voiced and the specific name, melanotis, means blackeared (melas being Greek for black and otis meaning eared).
Description Measurements Length: 260–290 mm Wing: 133–177 mm Tail: 90–140 mm Bill: 29.6–41.3 mm Tarsus: 36.8–51.5 mm Weight: 140–285 g Adult Male: The head, from the crown to the nape, is dark blackish-brown, with each feather centred with greenish-dark buff, giving a strongly spotted appearance; the spots appear smaller and more concentrated on the nape. The ear coverts are brown-black, and are surrounded by buff-white. The remainder of the upperparts are emerald green; the tail feathers have a prominent white tip (reduced or absent on the central pair). The wings are more dusky-green, the primary wing feathers have black shafts and the secondary flight feathers and wing coverts are tipped buff-white. The chin is brownish-black and becomes whitish-buff on the throat, with each feather tipped with dark grey. The rest of the underparts are buff-white with olive-green to brown edges; the olive-green feathers are streaked creamy white, giving a spotted appearance. The undertail is generally darker, with a pale greenish-blue wash on the inner sides of the feathers. The bill is light grey-cream, and the iris is deep red. The legs and feet are pale blue-grey. Female: The female is slightly smaller but her plumage is similar to that of the male.
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Immature Both sexes are similar to the adults, but are generally darker and duller above, with less prominent buff markings on the crown and nape. The buff colouring of the underparts tends to be more whitish. The iris is mid-brown. Juvenile Like the immature, but with some fluffy brown down still on the head and some bare patches on the sides of the head. The iris is more greyish. Nestling The bare skin is orange, including the legs, with amounts of grey-brown down on the head, back and wings. The bill is orange, tipped with black, and has a yellow-orange gape.
Subspecies and variations Two subspecies are found in Australia and a further eight in New Guinea. All subspecies exhibit the conspicuous black earmarking. Ailuroedus melanotis joanae: This is the smaller of the two Australian subspecies, although the two species are separated in range, and birds would need to be compared quite closely to see any difference in size. Otherwise, it is somewhat darker on the head and upper back and paler on the underparts. This subspecies occurs on the eastern Cape York Peninsula, from Claudie River to the McIlwraith Ranges. A. m. maculosus: Occurs in north-east Queensland from the Cooktown area, south to Mt Halifax. This subspecies is generally paler than the nominate subspecies (found in New Guinea), with fewer markings. The eight subspecies in New Guinea vary in the degree of brown to black of the upperparts and the buff to green of the underparts.
Vocalisations The most distinctive song is a mewing cat-like growl, eeyoo-yoo-yoo-yooyoo-yoo, which lasts for 2 to 3 seconds, and is repeated at frequent intervals. Other vocalisations include a variety of drawn out cat-like wailings that fluctuate in pitch. Males tend to match their song types in response to the calls of neighbouring males, but there is no vocal mimicry. The singing is heard throughout the day, but is more prevalent at dawn and dusk. In
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Species accounts
Figure 5.1 Current identified range of the Spotted Catbird.
winter, Spotted Catbird pairs maintain contact while foraging with single or double high-pitched squeaks or ‘chip’ calls.
Distribution and habitats The Spotted Catbird inhabits tropical rainforest in both lowland and montane areas in both Australia and New Guinea where home-range territories are occupied year round, covering between one and two hectares. Within Australia it is found in two separate regions in north-eastern Queensland, from Claudie River to Mt Halifax, where the two different populations inhabit the higher altitudes, with some movement to the lower areas in winter. In New Guinea it is widespread up to 2250 metres, and from sea level in the Fly River area of the south, throughout the lowlands in the western Papuan islands of Aru and Misool.
Food and feeding It is predominantly a frugivore, with the fruits of figs (Ficus spp.), palms (family Arecaceae), Quandong (Elaeocarpus sp.), Stinging Tree (Dendrocnide spp.) and Finger Cherry (Rhodomyrtus macrocarpus) preferred. Smaller fruits
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are plucked from the plant and eaten whole, while the larger fruits are eaten piece by piece in situ (while they are still attached to the stem and branch). In addition to fruits, the Spotted Catbird feeds on other plant material, such as berries, buds and shoots, particularly of ferns, and flowers. Animal prey, taken during the breeding season, consists of beetles, spiders, caterpillars, termites, cicadas, cockroaches, worms and small lizards. Smaller insect prey is captured through investigation of moss-laden tree trunks, taken in flight or gleaned from plant foliage; ground-dwelling animals and fallen fruits are found among leaf litter. The eggs and nestlings of other bird species are also preyed upon, including the Chowchilla (Orthonyx spaldingii), Noisy Pitta (Pitta versicolor), Grey-headed Robin (Heteromyias albispecularis) and Wompoo Fruit-Dove (Ptilinopus magnificus).
Mating Spotted Catbirds form long-lasting monogamous pairs, which may last for more than four years in succession. At the onset of the breeding season males become very vocal, engaging in song bouts with neighbouring males as breeding territory boundaries are re-established. Bower Spotted Catbirds are not known to construct a bower. Courtship Courtship display among a pair of Spotted Catbirds is a straightforward and basic affair, and largely consists of the male chasing the female among tree branches. After a while, the female stops and the male hops excitedly back and forth between branches in close proximity to her. Food is usually held in the bill of the male during the chase. Breeding season In Australia, the breeding season is from August to March, with a peak in October to December, and egg-laying generally starts in September. Little is known about breeding for the New Guinean subspecies, but it may occur at any time during the year, with the main season similar to Australian birds. There is one brood per season.
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Species accounts
Nest The nest is a large bulky cup of medium to large twigs and broad leaves – both dried and green – bound with stems of vines and leaves, and lined with fine twigs. Below the stick lining there are pieces of decaying wood and mud. Nests measure 160 to 200 mm in diameter and about 150 mm deep, with an egg cup of around 60 mm in depth, and are built in forks in the densely foliaged canopy of small rainforest tree saplings or tree ferns, or between the trunks of two or three saplings. They are often two to five metres above ground. The female builds the nest and the male defends the nest site. In successive seasons, new nests may be constructed in close proximity to the first nest site. Eggs Full clutches are usually two, but vary from one to three. The eggs are laid about two days apart. These are unmarked and are oval-shaped, slightly glossy and uniform cream to pale olive-brown and measure about 40 × 29 mm (slightly larger in New Guinea birds). Incubation and fledging Incubation is performed solely by the female. The first egg hatches at about 22 to 24 days, with subsequent eggs hatching about a day later. The female broods the nestlings, but both parents feed them. Nestlings are fed a diet of both fruit and animal matter, including other nestling birds, which are delivered either whole or after being dismembered by the parents. The young fledge after about 21 days. If potential predators visit the nest site, both sexes perform distraction displays to lure predators away. The distracting bird moves across the forest floor on foot while holding both wings outstretched and uttering scolding notes.
Status and conservation This species is widespread, and is reported as Common throughout its large range. It is a common resident in north-east Queensland. Key threats include loss of habitat due to clearing and degradation, and there is potential loss due to the effects of climate change.
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Green Catbird Ailuroedus crassirostris (Paykull, 1815) Field identification The Green Catbird is a robust bird with bright green wings and tail, a pale white bill and a red iris. Both sexes have distinct white spots on the otherwise green underparts, and a dusky crown, nape and face. The lack of blackish ear coverts and the uniform bright green plumage of the Green Catbird distinguish it from the smaller Spotted Catbird. It has strong legs, which it uses to bound up branches in search of food, or during courtship display. It is generally inconspicuous, more frequently heard uttering its characteristic cat-like wailing song than seen amongst the similarly coloured foliage of its rainforest home.
Other names Australasian Catbird; Green Cat-Bird (Cat Bird); Large-billed Cat Bird; Cat Bird or Cat-bird.
Discovery and nomenclature This species was the first of the Australian catbirds to be described but the exact location from where it was collected is not known. The type specimen is held at the Natural History Museum in Paris, and the tag reads: Nova Hollandiae [= Sydney, New South Wales]. This original specimen was named by Swedish ornithologist Gustaff von Paykull in 1815 as a shrike, Lanius crassirostris, in reference to its thick bill. It was later placed in the bowerbird genus Ptilonorhynchus by Heinrich Kuhl in 1820, and it was not until 1851 that the genus Ailuroedus was erected by Jean Louis Cabanis to accommodate it. The specific name crassirostris comes from the Latin words crassus meaning thick and rostris meaning bill.
Description Measurements Length: 295–340 mm Wing: 150–179 mm Tail: 108–139 mm Bill: 30.5–38.0 mm 36
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Species accounts
Tarsus: 40.4–50.0 mm Weight: 167–289 g Adult Male: The crown and ear coverts are yellowish-green, with black tips to the feathers, and the rest of the upperparts are bright green, with white centres to the feathers on the nape and mantle. The primary and secondary flight feathers have greenish-white tips, giving a spotted appearance. The outer primary flight feathers are washed with bluish-green. The tail feathers are green with white tips (absent from central feathers). Feathers at sides of the neck and upper breast are tipped with buff-white to give a spotted or streaked appearance, and form a pale patch on the lower neck area above the top of the wings. The chin is greyish-white with black bases to the feathers. The throat and posterior of the ear coverts are greyish, washed with green, and the feather shafts have greenish-white streaks. The breast and sides of the abdomen are a duller green than the upperparts, each feather has broad white spots and streaks, and the abdomen and flanks are pale greenish-yellow, each feather with a yellowish-white central streak. The feathers of the flanks are brownish olive-green. The undertail coverts are pale yellow with a green wash. The bill is pale horn-coloured with a green wash and the legs and feet are greyish-olive. The iris is blood red with a fine ring of white feathers around each eye. Female: The adult female is similar to the male. Immature Both the male and female are similar to the adult, although the plumage is duller. The iris is more brownish-red and the bill is greyish. Juvenile Juveniles are similar to the immatures, often with fluffy russet down on the head and with darker, less green underparts, becoming more whitish, washed with olive-green, on the abdomen. Nestling The bill is yellowish-white, sometimes with a pale pink wash, and the gape is pale yellow. The body is generally covered with grey-brown down. The legs are blue-grey and the iris is grey to grey-brown. 37
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Subspecies and variations There are no subspecies recorded and no apparent variation throughout the range.
Vocalisations The Green Catbird is highly vocal and is most easily recognised by its cat-like yowling song, which lasts for two to three seconds, rising in volume and pitch in the middle and descending at the end. The male sings louder and longer than the female. During the cooler winter months, both sexes are rather quiet, but members of a foraging pair maintain contact with single or double squeaks or ‘tic’ notes. Towards the onset of the breeding season, males become very vocal as they re-establish breeding territories. Their wailing song can be heard throughout the day, but is most notable at dawn, with gradual reductions throughout the day and with a mini peak at dusk. Males in north-eastern New South Wales have a much more varied repertoire and are reported to be louder than the birds from the south. Members of a pair sing against neighbouring pairs, particularly during the early stages of the breeding cycle. The female song – a series of whirring notes and ending with a ‘tsit’ – is given while swinging her head from side to side. No mimicry is carried out by either sex.
Distribution and habitats The Green Catbird is found in warm humid rainforests from Mount Dromedary, south of Narooma in south-eastern New South Wales, north to the Cooloola and Kingaroy districts in south-eastern Queensland. In these areas it occurs from near sea level to above 1000 metres. It also inhabits rainforest fringes and adjacent eucalypt forest or woodland and is a regular visitor to gardens and orchards bordering these areas. Its range does not overlap that of the Spotted Catbird. The Green Catbird is mostly sedentary and usually moves around locally, either singly or in pairs. Breeding pairs are territorial and occupy larger home ranges of about two hectares in the non-breeding season.
Food and feeding Green Catbirds are predominantly frugivorous, feeding on figs and a variety of vegetable matter, such as buds, shoots, flowers and seeds. 38
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Figure 5.2 Current identified range of the Green Catbird.
Cultivated fruits are also eaten when naturally occurring food is scarce. The diet is supplemented with insects and small vertebrates, such as tree-frogs and nestlings of small songbirds. The number of insects eaten increases on the approach to nesting. Figs are usually detached at the stem, while the catbird is perched in an upright stance, and carried to a broad limb or a crevice in a tree or log to be consumed. In this way fig seeds are dispersed throughout the forest. Larger fruits of the Strangler Fig (Ficus watkinsiana) are preferred, and large quantities are fed to nestlings. Breeding territories usually contain one or two fig trees, which regularly produce an abundance of ripe fruit for several months coinciding with the catbird’s breeding season. Green Catbirds forage mainly high in the canopy, often in association with other bowerbirds and other frugivorous birds such as pigeons, and infrequently descend to the ground in search of fallen fruits and ground-dwelling insects. Green Catbirds drink from, and bathe in, pools of water in crevices of rainforest trees. When such pools are unavailable they bathe by clinging onto dripping wet foliage and shuffling and shaking their plumage. Male Green Catbirds feed their mates while they perform nest-building and incubation duties, and they have been observed continuing this habit outside of the breeding season. 39
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Mating Green Catbirds form monogamous pair bonds and breeding pairs defend all-purpose territories in which they raise their young. About two-thirds of eggs laid result in successful fledging of the young. Eggs and young birds may be subject to predation by larger lizards, such as the Lace Monitor, Varanus varius, and the Carpet Python, Morelia spilotes, and birds of prey, such as the Grey Goshawk, Accipiter novaehollandiae. Due to the placement of the nest amongst dense foliage and the well-camouflaged plumage of the brooding female, most nests appear to avoid unwanted attention. Bower Although a bowerbird, the Green Catbird is not known to build or maintain a bower. Courtship Little information is known of the courtship ritual employed by the Green Catbird. Pairs have been observed chasing each other around the forest canopy, which may form part of the courtship ritual, and food has been carried by the male prior to copulation and then fed to the female afterwards. The feeding of the female by the male (see Food and feeding) at different times of the year, especially while the female builds the nest, presumably maintains the monogamous pair bond and has likely become the central part of the courtship ritual. Breeding season The breeding season extends from September to February, and only one brood is raised per season. Nest construction and egg-laying typically start around early October. Nest The nest is a bulky open cup of sticks and twigs, bound with stems of climbers and lined with dried leaves and sometimes rootlets. The base of the nest has a layer of leaves, overlaid with pieces of decaying wood or similar material placed below the nest cup lining. The decaying wood may be to provide extra warmth to the eggs during incubation. The nest measures 220 to 250 mm in diameter and is about 150 mm deep, with an egg cup of about 70 mm deep. Construction of the nest is by the female, and most nests are placed among dense foliage in a tree fork, vine thicket or fern. Nest sites are typically five to 10 metres above the ground. 40
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Top: The display ‘stage’ of the male Tooth-billed Bowerbird is decorated with upturned leaves. Photo: Philip Green Bottom: The male Golden Bowerbird builds a maypole bower, which can reach three metres in height. Photo: Graeme Guy
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Close to human habitation male bowerbirds often use man-made objects for decorations. Satin Bowerbirds readily steal blue pegs from clotheslines. Photo: Philip Green
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Top: The male Satin Bowerbird decorates his avenue bower primarily with blue objects. Photo: Graeme Guy Bottom left: White, green and red objects are favoured decorations for the male Great Bowerbird. Photo: www.ataglance.com.au Bottom right: Male Regent Bowerbirds place brown, green and yellowish objects within the avenue of the bower. Photo: Graeme Chapman
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Top: The male Fawn-breasted Bowerbird builds his avenue bower on top of a large platform of sticks. Photo: Michael Seyfort Bottom: The avenue bower of the male Spotted Bowerbird is constructed of grass stems and slender sticks. Photo: Peter Roberts
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Top: This elaborate maypole bower is built by the male Vogelkop Bowerbird of New Guinea. The internal chamber amplifies the bird’s songs. Photo: Aniket Sardana Bottom left: In other areas of its range the Vogelkop Bowerbird builds a quite different simple maypole bower. Photo: Ron Hoff Bottom right: New Guinea’s Macgregor’s Bowerbird also builds a maypole bower. This is a simple construction of sticks placed around a small tree and surrounded by a circular moss ‘lawn’. Photo: Ron Hoff
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The male Regent Bowerbird paints the inner walls of his bower (top left). On the arrival of a female he moves to the end of the avenue and commences display (top right). During display he often holds an ornament in his bill (bottom left). Successful courtship results in copulation, which usually takes place at the end of the avenue (bottom right). Photos: Philip Green
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Top: Mating between Satin Bowerbirds is accompanied by a lot of wing-flapping, resulting in damage to the avenue walls. Bottom: An immature male Satin Bowerbird practices displaying to other ‘green’ birds. Photos: Philip Green
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A male Great Bowerbird advertises his bower (top left). He inspects his bower to make sure all ornaments are correctly placed (top right). The male holds a prized ornament in his bill (bottom left). During display the bright lilac-pink nuchal crest is erected (bottom right). Photos: Graeme Guy
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Eggs Typical clutches consist of two eggs, but vary from one to three. The unmarked eggs are oval-shaped and uniformly rich buff-cream. They measure approximately 43 × 31 mm. Incubation and fledging The incubation period is about 23 to 24 days and is performed solely by the female. The female broods the nestlings, spending about four to five hours per day in this activity. If potential predators approach a nest that contains eggs or young, both sexes perform a distraction display, in which they hop along the ground with their head and wings drooped, in an attempt to lure the unwanted visitor away from the nest. Both sexes are also aggressive towards intruders. Nestlings are fed almost equally by both parents and are fed predominantly on fruit, especially figs, but are also fed a variety of arthropods, including beetles, cicadas, millipedes and grasshoppers, and nestlings of small bird species. Faecal sacs from the nestlings are eaten by the parents. The young fledge at about 21 days but remain dependent for a further 70 to 80 days.
Status and conservation This species is Locally Common and is listed on the IUCN Red List as Least Concern. One of the main threats to this species is loss of habitat and fragmentation of remaining rainforest areas due to clearing and degradation by landholders, and the perceived effects of climate change. Other threats include illegal shooting of birds that feed on cultivated fruits. The establishment of conservation areas, such as the 269 hectare Tokatakiya Nature Refuge, north-west of Roma, Queensland, are valuable strongholds for the species.
Tooth-billed Bowerbird Scenopoeetes dentirostris (Ramsay, 1876) Field identification The Tooth-billed Bowerbird is a stocky bird with a stout, notched bill. It is generally olive-brown above with buff-white underparts, distinctly streaked with brown. It inhabits the tropical rainforests of Queensland’s north, where 49
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it occurs singly, in twos or in small groups. It is very vocal during the breeding season, but is largely quiet and inconspicuous at other times.
Other names Tooth-billed Bower-bird (Catbird, Cat Bird or Cat bird); Toothbill; Tooth Bill; Stagemaker; Stage-maker; Stage-maker Bower-bird (Bower Bird) or Leafturner; Bartchal, Cherra-chelbo, Gramma or Werimber by the Aboriginal people.
Discovery and nomenclature This species was discovered in 1874 by Robert Johnstone on the Seaview Range north of Townsville, and was named in 1876 by Edward Pierson Ramsay. It was originally included in the genus Ailuroedus until the genus Scenopoeetes was erected in 1891 by Elliott Coues. The generic name Scenopoeetes comes from the Greek words skene meaning stage and poietes meaning maker, and the specific name dentirostris is Latin for tooth(ed)-bill.
Description Measurements Length: 260–280 mm Wing: 138–157 mm Tail: 96–108 mm Bill: 28.1–33.0 mm Tarsus: 29.4–37.0 mm Weight: 132–199 mm Adult Male: Head and rest of upperparts olive-brown, with paler cinnamon streaking on the ear coverts. The feathers of the throat are whitish, washed and streaked with very pale cinnamon-buff. Underparts buff-white, heavily streaked with olive-brown, darker on the breast. The undertail is barred with cinnamon-brown. The bill is brown-black, paler at the tips, with a distinct notch towards the front of its upper mandible and corresponding raised ‘teeth-like’ serrations in the lower mandible. The gape is orangeyellow, and the buccal area (inside the bill) is black. The eye has a dark brown iris, and is encircled with a narrow ring of reddish-brown feathers. The legs and feet are greenish-grey. 50
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Female: The female is similar to the adult male, but has a pinkish-yellow buccal area. Immature Both sexes are similar to the adults, but the bill is brown and the inside of the bill is pale orange-yellow. The iris is pale brownish-grey. As the male matures the buccal area becomes blacker. Juvenile Juveniles are similar to the immatures, but the head and thighs still retain some grey down, and the sides of the neck have bare patches. The upper back is olive-grey, with some down remaining on rump. The underparts are largely buff, brighter on the throat and streaked with grey. The bill is grey, with a pale orange buccal area and reduced yellow gape. The legs are light grey and the iris is grey. Nestling Nestlings are covered with dense dark grey down, mostly on the head and back. The mouth is pale orange with yellow gape. The bill is grey with a darker tip, and the iris is grey.
Subspecies and variations There are no subspecies recorded and no apparent variation throughout the range.
Vocalisations This species has a loud and varied repertoire of wheezing harsh screeches, squeals, scratchings, babbles, loud melodious whistles, soft whisperings and loud ‘chucks’ interwoven with mimicry of other forest-dwellers. The Tooth-billed Bowerbird’s songs are ventriloquial, making the bird often difficult to locate. It also has the ability to sing with two voices at once, due to an adaptation of its syrinx (the avian equivalent to the human larynx). Other bird species are mimicked and include, but are not limited to, the Bower’s Shrike-thrush (Colluricincla boweri), Black Butcherbird (Cracticus quoyi), Lewin’s Honeyeater (Meliphaga lewinii), Bridled Honeyeater (Lichenostomus frenatus), Australian King-Parrot (Alisteris scapularis), Golden Whistler (Pachycephala pectoralis), Yellow-throated Scrubwren (Sericornis 51
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citreogularis), Large-billed Scrubwren (S. magnirostra), Pied Currawong (Strepera graculina), Grey Goshawk (Accipiter novaehollandiae), Dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis), Fan-tailed Cuckoo (Cacomantis flabelliformis), Greyheaded Robin (Heteromyias cinereifrons), Eastern Yellow Robin (Eopsaltria australis), Pacific Baza (Aviceda subcristata), Spangled Drongo (Dicrurus bracteatus), and Magpie-lark (Grallina cyanoleuca). Other animals mimicked include frogs, cicadas, crickets and fying-foxes.
Distribution and habitats The Tooth-billed Bowerbird is found in the upland wet tropical rainforests of the Atherton region, north-east Queensland, from Mount Amos near Cooktown south to Mount Elliot, south of Townsville. It generally inhabits extensive tracts of rainforest, but can be found in smaller remnant pockets neighbouring this habitat. Individuals will also visit orchards and gardens, to feed on cultivated fruits. Its altitude range is normally 600 to about 1200 metres, but has been recorded as low as 350 metres.
Food and feeding Individuals of this species feed predominantly on fruit and leaves, but also consume some seeds, flowers, stems, insects, spiders and possibly snails. Birds can be seen catching swarming termites, and other flying insects, in mid-air. The most favoured fruits are figs, particularly Strangler Fig (Ficus watkinsiana) and F. destruens, and the fruits of the White Aspen (Acronychia acronychioides), the White Quandong (Elaeocarpus foveolatus), the Bluff Hazelwood (Sympocos cochinchinensis), the White Supplejack (Ripogonum album) and Johnson’s Satinash (or Watergum) (Syzygium johnsonii), a variety of Lilly Pilly. During the winter months, when fruits are scarce, leaves form a large part of the bird’s diet. The bowerbird uses its notched bill to tear these up before eating them. This appears to be the toothed bill’s primary purpose, the second one being to remove leaves for decorations on its display courts. Due to its largely herbivorous diet, most foraging occurs in the mid to upper levels of the forest.
Mating The male Tooth-billed Bowerbird is presumed to be polygynous, mating with more than one female in a single breeding season. Once mating is 52
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Figure 5.3 Current identified range of the Tooth-billed Bowerbird.
complete, the females perform all nest-building, incubation and nestling duties alone. Bower The male Tooth-billed Bowerbird does not build or maintain a bower, rather he clears and decorates a court for displaying to prospective female mates. The court site is generally on a gentle slope, often on or near a ridge top, within a more lightly wooded area of rainforest. From about September, through to about January, each year the male clears a space on the forest floor, which is either oval or circular and is about 1 to 2.5 metres in diameter. The area is then decorated with fresh leaves, the paler undersurfaces turned uppermost. The number of leaves on a court varies considerably and may be as few as 20 in some courts and in excess of 100 in others. The leaves can be from only one particular tree species or may be a mix of several species. The leaves are mostly between 30 and 40 centimetres in length, and are readily stolen by neighbouring males if the display court is left unattended. The court also contains one or two display trees, which may vary in size from a small sapling to an established tree. Display trees are generally near the side of the court and the area around the base is cleared. The court is normally re-used by the same male for successive seasons, but if the court-owning male abandons his court, rival males will 53
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take it over. Although the male attends his display court from July to January, he is most active and vocal from September to December. Courtship To advertise himself, the male Tooth-billed Bowerbird sings throughout the breeding season from a perch above his court. The male’s posture while singing is upright, with his head thrown back and his throat feathers fluffed out. The bouts of song are prolonged, lasting for 45 minutes or more, with a small pause between each bout. When a female attends the court of a singing male, the male descends to the court and hides behind the display tree, constantly changing his position in response to the female to remain hidden. The male will repeatedly peer around the display tree to locate the female. The male’s song then usually changes to soft mimicry, but it may continue with the advertising call for a while. When the female approaches the display tree, the male hops out from behind, opens his bill wide and fluffs out his throat feathers to provide a striking contrast between the black mouth and whitish ‘beard’. The male continues to hop from side to side, while swinging his tail in an upwards and sideways motion. One or both wings are also rapidly flapped up and down. The male then lunges towards the female, with his wings spread open, progressively getting closer to the female with each lunge. Copulation follows this part of display and is accompanied by more wing-flapping by the male. The male utters soft mimicry, accompanied by short clicking notes, throughout. Breeding season The breeding season starts from about September and continues through to January, with the peak period during November and December. Only one brood is thought to be raised per season, although there was a report of a second clutch from 1909, but details are lacking. Nest Nest construction is widely accepted to be performed solely by the female. The nest structure consists of a delicate, shallow cup of thin vine tendrils and fine sticks built on a loose base of dry sticks. It is usually placed in dense foliage of vine tangles or larger trees from 10 to 30 metres above the ground, and is not normally visible from below. The nest location may be a considerable distance from the male’s display court.
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Eggs The typical clutch size is two, but can be occasionally one. The unmarked eggs are oval-shaped and uniformly rich buff-cream, and measure about 42 × 28 mm. Incubation and fledging Incubation is widely accepted to be performed solely by the female. The incubation period is unknown. The female is also believed to perform all parental care, including brooding and feeding of the nestlings. Young birds are fed predominantly on fruit and insects, mostly beetles. The fledging period is unknown.
Status and conservation Tooth-billed Bowerbirds inhabit the rainforests of the Atherton region, north-east Queensland. Part of this habitat has been cleared for agriculture and has been affected by past logging activities, including the clearance of ridge top areas, used by males for court sites, for access roads. Males tend not to re-establish or replace display courts affected by logging activities. Logging in some areas has since stopped and, although there is some habitat fragmentation, rainforest areas are now expanding. Clearance and degradation of rainforest areas, and the potential reduction of rainforest area due to the predicted changes in climate patterns associated with global warming, are still key threats. The species is currently evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, and is considered as common in suitable habitat.
Golden Bowerbird Amblyornis newtoniana (De Vis, 1883) Field identification The Golden Bowerbird is the smallest of Australia’s bowerbirds. It is found in the wet tropical rainforest of northern Queensland above 600 metres. The adult male is mostly glossy golden yellow-brown with a relatively small pale olive-brown bill and a yellow eye. The tail is long in relation to the body size and is partly forked (Prionodura from the Greek words
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prionodes meaning saw or serrated, and oura meaning tail). The adult female and young birds are mostly brown, washed with yellow or yellow-olive. Golden Bowerbirds are usually encountered singly or in small groups of up to 15 birds, although these groups are quite loosely associated and scattered over an area of several hectares. Birds are generally inconspicuous away from the bower site, and may be seen feeding in association with other frugivorous species. Individuals may groom their plumage by anting, whereby the birds hold an insect, such as an ant, in their bill and systematically wipe it through their flight feathers.
Other names Newton’s Bowerbird (Bower-bird or Bower Bird); Golden Bower-bird (Bower-Bird or Bower Bird), Golden or Queensland Gardener; Coleman, Wargan-dilla or Wargandilla by the Aboriginal people.
Discovery and nomenclature This particular species was named after the prominent English ornithologist Alfred Newton. The sexes of this species are markedly different, so much so that the curator of the Queensland Museum, Charles Walter De Vis, named a female collected from the Tully River area in 1882 Prionodura newtoni, and a male collected from the Bellenden Ker Range in 1889 Corymbicola mestoni, believing they were different species. When reports of observations of birds in the attendance of bowers were received, De Vis realised that the specimens were actually different sexes of the same species.
Description Measurements Length: 230–250 mm Wing: 112–130 mm Tail: 85–115 mm Bill: 22.0–25.1 mm Tarsus: 23.1–32.3 mm Weight: 62–96 g
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Adult Male: The crown and mantle are glossy golden-yellow, with the remainder of head, chin and upperparts a deep yellowish olive-brown. The short subcrest on the central crown is orange-yellow. The wings are yellowisholive, glossed with golden-yellow on the undersides and with darker olive on the inner vanes of the flight feathers. The undersurfaces of the flight feathers have pale cream bases and centres. The tail is bright golden-yellow, with contrasting dusky olive on the central two tail feathers. The underparts are rich golden-yellow, with a glossy sheen and tend towards greenisholive on the flanks. The iris is buff, washed deeply with yellow. The bill is blackish olive-brown with pale greyish bases to each mandible. The legs are brownish-grey. Female: The female Golden Bowerbird is smaller than the male. The upperparts and tail are a uniformly dull olive-brown. The sides of the head are greyish and the wings are dusky olive-brown with a yellow wash to the flight feathers and coverts. The underparts are mostly ash-grey, with paler streaks on breast and throat, and brownish-grey on the sides of the breast. The undersides of the wings are washed with yellow and the flight feathers have pale yellow shafts. The eye is pale brown, washed with yellow. Immature Immatures are similar to the adult female but the iris is darker brown, becoming paler with age. Subadult males are generally washed with yellow on the breast with full adult plumage acquired in the fifth year. Juvenile Juveniles are similar to the immature female but are darker, with less yellow wash on the flight feathers. The head still has some brown-grey down and there are bare dull yellow patches on the sides. The bill is pale grey with a yellow gape and yellow-orange inside. The legs are blue-grey. The iris is dark brown. Nestling The upperparts are mostly covered with long dark brown-grey down. Bare skin patches are orange-buff. The bill is pale grey with a yellow gape.
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Subspecies and variations There are no subspecies. The males show some differences in depth and hue of the golden-yellow colouring.
Vocalisations The Golden Bowerbird has a variety of vocalisations, including rattles, squeals, croaks, whistles and churrings. The calls vary in nature and complexity throughout the species’s range. In addition to these calls, the Golden Bowerbird is an expert mimic, particularly of other bird species. Species mimicked include Bower’s Shrike-thrush (Colluricincla boweri), Bridled Honeyeater (Lichenostomus frenatus), Australian King-Parrot (Alisteris scapularis), Yellow-throated Scrubwren (Sericornis citreogularis), Large-billed Scrubwren (S. magnirostra), Eastern Whipbird (Psophodes olivaceus), Pied Currawong (Strepera graculina), Grey-headed Robin (Heteromyias cinereifrons), White-headed Pigeon (Columba leucomela), Chowchilla (Orthonyx spaldingii), Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), Brown Gerygone (Gerygone mouki), Spectacled Monarch (Symposiarchus trivirgatus) and Noisy Pitta (Pitta versicolor). The female is much less vocal.
Distribution and habitats Golden Bowerbirds are endemic to Australia and are largely sedentary by nature. They inhabit the moist subtropical to tropical mountain rainforests of the Atherton Tableland region of north-east Queensland, from Windsor Tableland south of Cooktown, south to the Paluma Ranges north of Townsville. Their distribution ranges typically from about 600 to 1500 metres above sea level, although there have been reports of young or female birds descending as low as 350 metres during winter.
Food and feeding Golden Bowerbirds feed almost exclusively on fruit, particularly the fruits of the Giant Pepper Vine (Piper novaehollandiae), Common Indian Mulberry (Morinda umbellate), White Supplejack (Ripogonum album) and Polyscias spp. The fruit diet is supplemented with flowers, buds, spiders and some insects, such as beetles and cicadas. Most feeding takes place in the canopy, but may occur anywhere from the ground up, and may be in the company of other Golden Bowerbirds (usually of the opposite sex or young birds) or 58
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Figure 5.4 Current identified range of the Golden Bowerbird.
with members of different species. Fruits may also be stored in a cache near a bower or nest site, to maximise the individual’s time spent attending to their bower or protecting nestlings. Cache sites include tree cavities, under leaf litter or under fallen logs. Insects and their larvae may be gleaned from foliage or caught in the air. Birds drink primarily from waterfilled cavities in trees, although some moisture is gained from wet foliage.
Mating Male Golden Bowerbirds are presumed to be polygynous, with the male mating with more than one female in a season. Males have a delayed sexual maturity, with immature males attaining full adult plumage after the fifth or sixth year. Subadult males attend deserted bower sites before attaining full adult plumage. They will also court and, because their sperm is viable, are able to reproduce with females. The female performs all nesting and parental duties. Bower The male Golden Bowerbird builds and maintains a large bower, which is the largest built by any of the Australian species. It is Australia’s only representative of the maypole bower-builders. Bower sites are attended 59
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from about August to January, occasionally as early as July, and a secondary brief attendance period occurs from March to May. The bower is normally constructed with two stick pyramids placed around two small vertical tree trunks, about a metre apart, with a fallen branch, vine or similar horizontal perch connecting them in the middle. The overall height can reach three metres, with one tower shorter than the other, and the individual towers can be over three metres in diameter, although most bowers are somewhat smaller. Occasionally bowers may consist of a single pyramid of sticks, with a second tower occasionally added in subsequent years. In these single tower constructions the perch protrudes from one side. The perch is not placed by the bird, rather it is already in place when the bower site is selected, and can be at any height from just above ground level to two metres from the ground. The pyramids can be either conical in shape or in a seemingly disorganised mass, but are always more neatly arranged at the ends of the horizontal perch. The sticks in a pyramid are fused together with a growth of fungus. The horizontal perch is kept bare in the middle, but the ends are decorated with the male’s more special decorations, such as orchid flowers (Dendrobium spp.), ripe fruit or dried seed capsules (Melicope sp.) and green lichen (Usnea sp.). The bowers are usually located on fairly flat ground or on the side of a gently sloping hill, towards the ridge top. Immature males may build or attend simple bowers during the non-breeding season. These bowers are often in the vicinity of an active bower and may be visited by the same or different immature males in consecutive seasons. A single bower is maintained by the males, and may be attended for over 15 consecutive years. The bowers remain the same size and shape for up to 10 years, but are redecorated year after year. Like other bowerbirds, male Golden Bowerbirds steal materials and decorations from bowers owned by other males. This theft normally occurs during the bower owner’s absence. Courtship Males normally start to display around August, although this may be as early as July if conditions are favourable and food is plentiful. To advertise himself to potential mates, the male sings loudly from a horizontal perch about five to 10 metres above his bower. The songs are fairly short in duration and are followed by periods of silence. Neighbouring males countersing. If a female approaches, the male will perform a complex courtship routine which involves a variety of displays. Firstly, the male
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will bow his head forward and down to expose the golden-yellow feathers of his crown and subcrest; the wings are also held partially outstretched. The head may be bobbed up and down and shaken from side to side. The male also displays in flight, using slow wingbeats and periods of hovering. During this display the male holds his body in a vertical position and his head pushed forward, and may hold a decoration in his bill. During this display, the male repeatedly fans his tail open and closed to display the golden-yellow outer tail feathers. This latter part of the display is often performed in front of and very close to the foliage of a small tree. He also sings to the female with a variety of sounds, including soft mimicry, and will also hide from the female by concealing himself behind a tree trunk, peering regularly around at her. If the female lands on the male’s display perch, the male chases her away while calling loudly. This may be repeated each time the female lands on the perch. Unlike the avenue-building bowerbirds, mating probably occurs away from the bower. Breeding season The breeding season of the Golden Bowerbird coincides with the wet season of Australia’s tropical north, and runs from August to February, with the peak in December and January. Only one brood is raised per season. Nest Females construct a deep cupped nest, placed on a loose platform of twigs. The outer structure of the nest is made from dry leaves and bark, bound with dry tendrils and rootlets, and the cup is lined with finer tendrils and occasionally feathers. A new nest may be built on the remains of one from a previous year. The nest structure is about 160 mm wide, with the cup about 90 mm in diameter and about 50 mm deep, and is normally placed in a crevice in a tree trunk or, occasionally, in a tree fork or between the buttresses of a tree, at a height of one to five metres above the ground. The nest may be placed within 50 metres of an active bower, but is generally much further away. Eggs The eggs of the Golden Bowerbird are unmarked and uniformly pale cream to white. There are usually two, sometimes one and rarely three, oval eggs, which measure approximately 35 × 25 mm.
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Incubation and fledging All incubation duties are performed solely by the female. The eggs hatch after about 21 days. Although the eggs in a single clutch are laid one to two days apart, hatching may occur on the same day. Hatchling Golden Bowerbirds are cared for exclusively by the female. They are fed on a diet high in fruits, such as the Quandong (Elaeocarpus sp.), which is supplemented substantially with insects, particularly cicadas. The female consumes the hatchling’s faecal sacs. The young birds fledge at about 19 days.
Status and conservation The species is Locally Common and widespread throughout its limited range. It inhabits isolated rainforests, rainforest patches that have been subjected to past logging activities, and larger areas of pristine rainforest. Some habitat has been lost due to past clearance for agriculture and there is some fragmentation of its former habitat. However, due to current protection, the rainforest is slowly expanding towards the west, with total current suitable habitat estimated at around 1500 km2, albeit fragmented. Speculation on the potential reduction of this habitat due to climate change, and the associated reduction in rainfall, could see a huge decrease of suitable habitat by around 60 per cent, using just a 1oC increase in average temperatures. Thus global warming is potentially the single most significant threat to this species. Presently, the Golden Bowerbird is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
Regent Bowerbird Sericulus chrysocephalus (Lewin, 1808) Field identification The Regent Bowerbird is a relatively small, slender bowerbird. It has a long, straight thin bill, which is yellow in the adult male and dark brown in the female. Both sexes are generally inconspicuous, which is surprising given the male’s striking plumage. The majority of the body is deep velvety black, with rich golden-yellow plumage on the head, nape and wings. The young male’s eye is initially brown, but turns to bright yellow in the second year. The female plumage is quite opposite to the male, being generally brownblack, with light brown scallops on her upperback and underparts. There is a sooty black patch on the hind-crown and occasionally a second band 62
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on the nape and the eyes are yellowish-brown. Males are most noticeable during the breeding season when they are displaying, but are otherwise quiet and secretive.
Other names Regent Bower-bird (Bower Bird); Australian Regent Bowerbird; Australian Regentbird (Regent Bird); Regent Bird; Regent-bird; Northern Regent Bird, King Honeysucker or Golden Regent; Yelgun by the Aboriginal people of Richmond River (Yelgun meaning sun).
Discovery and nomenclature When first discovered it was thought to be a type of honeyeater and was later considered a bird-of-paradise. It was given the scientific name Meliphaga chrysocephala, by John William Lewin in 1808, with the generic name of Sericulus allocated by William John Swainson in 1825. The scientific name relates directly to the male’s striking black and yellow plumage (Sericulus meaning silky and chrysocephalus meaning golden-headed). They did not realise it was a bowerbird until the 1860s. The original common name, Regent Bird, was in honour of Prince Regent, who later became King George IV.
Description Measurements Length: 240–280 mm Wing: 120–148 mm Tail: 82–111 mm Bill: 27.9–32.3 mm Tarsus: 32.5–39 mm Weight: 76–138 g Adult Male: The male Regent Bowerbird is slightly smaller than the female and has a shorter tail. No confusion between the two is possible due to the male’s striking plumage. The short, velvety feathers of the lores, forehead, crown, nape and upper mantle are rich golden-yellow, washed with orangered on the fore-crown. The flight feathers are golden-yellow with black 63
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tips, with the exception of the two outermost primaries and their coverts, which are dull black. The secondary coverts and tertials are rich goldenyellow. The remaining plumage is ink black with a pale purple gloss. The tail is black, occasionally with a small amount of yellow on the v-shaped tip or on the edges of some feathers. The bill is orange-yellow and the iris is bright yellow. The legs are dark grey-black. Female: The head and nape are greyish, with feathers edged duskybrown and with a dull sooty black patch on the crown, which is occasionally edged finely with yellow on the hind-crown. Occasionally some yellow feathers are visible on the crown. A second smudged band of black is present on the nape. The feathers of the cheeks and ear coverts are off-white with greyish-white shaft streaks. The mantle and back are dull fawn-brown, more greenish on the mantle, and the feathers of the back each have a broad dirty off-white tip. The lower back and upper tail coverts are grey-brown, and the tail is brown. The wings are dull olive-brown, the primary flight feathers are often with a yellow wash with paler edges on the primaries and secondaries. The tail is dull brown and longer than in the male. The underparts are wholly cream, with a dull yellow-grey wash, except for a narrow black patch on the throat. The feathers on the upper breast have conspicuously dark brownish-olive barring. The abdomen is paler and more finely barred. The undersides of the wings are also finely barred with pale olive-buff, and may have a faint yellow wash. The bill is black and the legs and feet are grey-black. The iris is brown, washed with varying amounts of yellow. Immature The females and younger immature males are similar to adult females, but with a dark brown iris. After the second year, both the males and females begin to show a yellow colouring in the iris, although the female’s iris may take another year for this to become obvious, and the male’s bill turns pale yellow. Adult male plumage is attained slowly, taking up to six years for it to be fully complete. During this period of change the immature or subadult male may resemble the adult female, but with a yellow bill and eyes. It later becomes a largely brown bird with the male’s black and golden-yellow on the crown, nape and throat. Subsequently the plumage will be mostly as the adult male, but with a few brown feathers still apparent, and finally these will be lost altogether.
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Juvenile Both sexes are similar to the first or second year immatures, but with generally paler plumage, and paler grey legs. Some of the fluffy down is still present on the head, and the throat is almost naked. Nestling The nestlings are covered in a light grey-brown down. The bill is greyblack, with an orange-yellow gape and the iris is dark brown.
Subspecies and variations There are no subspecies, although there are two distinct populations. The northern population was named Sericulus c. rothschilidi by Gregory Macalister Mathews from a bird collected in the Blackall Ranges, Queensland in 1912. It is considered to be more deeply tinged with orange-red on crown and nape, although this is not obvious. This subspecies is not considered as valid and the two populations are now grouped together.
Vocalisations Away from the bower, the Regent Bowerbird is mostly silent except for a few soft coughing and chattering sounds. The male at a bower utters a subdued metallic ‘te-aar’, some chattering, squeaks, hissing and soft whispering mimicry during courtship. Bird species mimicked include the Spectacled Monarch (Symposiarchus trivirgatus) and the White-browed Scrubwren (Sericornis frontalis).
Distribution and habitats This species is found in humid subtropical rainforests and neighbouring eucalypt forest, from sea level to about 900 metres. Its distribution is coastal and near coastal, extending from the Eungella Range in northern Queensland, south to Gosford, New South Wales, and is uncommonly sighted in the Sydney region. It is absent from the Rockhampton area towards the north of its range. Individuals are mainly sedentary, with some local winter movement, mostly from high to low altitudes. Groups of 30 or more birds, largely females and immatures, visit orchards, gardens and similar open areas during the winter months.
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Figure 5.5 Current identified range of the Regent Bowerbird.
Food and feeding The Regent Bowerbird feeds mainly on the fruits of native plants, including Native Quince (Alectryon subcinereus), Soap Tree (Alphitonia exelsia), Large Staff Vine (Celastrus subspicata), Wallaby Apple (Citriobatus spinescens), Giant Stinging Tree (Dendrocnide excelsa), Native Tamarind (Diploglottis australis), Hard Quandong (Elaeocarpus obovatus), Moreton Bay Fig (Ficus macrophylla), Rock Fig (F. platypoda), Deciduous Fig (F. superba), White Bollygum (Neolitsea dealbata), Native Olive (Olea paniculata), Elderberry Panax (Polyscias sambucifolia), Giant Pepper Vine (Piper novaehollandiae) and Silver Myrtle (Rhodamnia argentea). The species will also feed off the fruits of exotic plants, such as Lantana (Lantana camara), Inkweed (Phytolacca octandra) and Coral Berry (Rivina humilis), and will enter orchards and gardens for cultivated species. Foraging occurs from ground level up to the tree canopy, but the mid to upper levels are favoured where larger fruits, such as the Strangler Fig (Ficus watkinsiana), are eaten in situ. Fruits form the bulk of the diet throughout the year, but beetles, cicadas and spiders are eaten in the breeding season. The Regent Bowerbird also feeds on flowers, nectar and leaves.
Mating There is delayed sexual maturity in males, with immature males attaining full adult plumage after five years, although males around two years of age have been recorded mating in captivity. Males are polygynous. 66
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Bower Both adult and subadult males build bowers, which may be 100 to 300 metres away from neighbouring males. Bowers are loosely constructed avenues with two vertical stick walls parallel to one another. The avenue is built on a thin platform of sticks, with the overall construction measuring about 10–20 cm long, 15–25 cm wide and 25–30 cm high. The avenue is about 8 cm internally, with the walls measuring about 6 cm in thickness. Occasionally, just a platform of sticks is constructed, typically built by younger males. Both are sparsely decorated with brown, green and yellowish objects, such as snail shells, leaves, berries, seeds, pebbles, flowers and some man-made items. Possibly due to co-habitation with the Satin Bowerbird, blue items are also used as decorations. If an avenue is present, almost all of the decorations are placed within it (unlike the Satin Bowerbird), and the walls may be painted with a mixture of masticated foliage and fruit matter. Painting material, such as green leaves or the tips of ferns, is mixed with saliva and is placed in the centre of the avenue. The mixture is then applied to the inside of the bower walls with the bill using short jabs and wiping movements, and the bird returns to the ‘paint’ to restock its bill. Two or more males (both adult and immature birds) may attend a single bower, and individual males have been observed attending two separate bowers during the same period. The bower site is usually an obscure location, on flat or gently sloping ground on a ridge top, and within a dense area of ferns, vines or similar vegetation. Unlike those of other bowerbirds, most Regent Bowerbird bowers are relatively briefly used, with most only attended for a period of less than two weeks, and rarely more than one month. If a bower is discovered by a potential predator or human intruder it is normally destroyed, with the owner rebuilding at another site. The bower is built in quick fashion, taking as little as three hours from start to finish, and the male spends less than five per cent of its time attending to it once it is completed. Courtship The male is mostly silent and so attracts the female by displaying his bright plumage from an open, sunlit perch. If a female is attracted, the male moves her to the bower site and stands at the avenue entrance in an upright posture. The male utters a soft chattering to entice the female to the avenue of the bower. If the female is interested she will enter the avenue and may inspect the bower ornaments. Once the female enters the avenue, the male will start the main courtship display, which consists of two separate stages: the central and peripheral displays. Generally the 67
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central display is performed first, but the component display postures may be performed in any order. Throughout all display postures the male utters quiet mimicry and chattering noises. During the central display, the male stands in an upright posture close to one end of the avenue, facing the female, with or without an ornament in his bill. The male moves his head from side to side, places the ornament back in the avenue and then holds his head to one side while assuming a stooped posture. This is accompanied by a series of wing flicks and bobbing movements that show off his bright yellow nape to the female. In order to fully show off his nape, he faces away from the female, moves his head back slightly and partially raises the velvety nape feathers. In another posture the male shows his orange-red forehead to the female. This is performed by facing the female, bending his head downward and drooping his wings slightly. The male then darts back and forth towards the female, bulging his eyes. The peripheral display involves the male moving around the perimeter of the bower in a series of exaggerated movements, including flashes of his bright yellow wing panels. During the peripheral display the female remains crouched in the avenue of the bower, which means the male performs part of the display from behind. The male also flies and hops among branches near the bower site. When displaying among the branches, the male may perform somersaults. If the female is impressed, she normally solicits copulation by crouching in the bower avenue with her tail raised, although mating may occasionally take place immediately outside the avenue or in clearings made by the male in the forest. The male mounts her from behind and, once mated, the female ruffles and shakes her feathers before leaving to perform all parental duties alone. Breeding season The male Regent Bowerbird attends his bower from August each year. Breeding commences in September and continues through to January or February, peaking in November and December. Birds in the southern part of the range typically start (and finish) breeding earlier than those in the north. Females probably only raise one brood per season although a second brood was recorded in a captive female. Nest A shallow saucer is constructed by the female, loosely built of sticks and twigs and lined with finer twigs, rootlets and occasionally leaves. The nest takes about one to two weeks to finish and is often placed in a dense clump 68
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of vines, mistletoe or in a thin fork. The overall width of the nest is about 250 mm, with the egg cup measuring 100–120 mm wide and around 40 mm deep. The nest can be any distance from the male’s bower, and may be located in the same position as, or close to, the previous year’s nests. Nest heights can be from two to 30 metres above the ground, but are normally around 10 to 15 metres. Eggs The typical clutch consists of two glossed cream to dark buff oval eggs, each marked with irregular fine brown to black lines. Uncommonly a clutch may consist of one or three eggs. The eggs are probably laid on alternate days. The egg size varies, particularly with different clutch sizes, but is generally around 38 × 26 mm. Incubation and fledging Most information for incubation comes from data collected on captive birds. These studies show that incubation starts on the day that either the first or second egg is laid, and lasts from 17–21 days. The female raises the young with no assistance from the male. The hatchlings are fed on a diet of fruits and insects, such as caterpillars, beetles, moths and butterflies, which are chewed up by the female before feeding. The faecal sacs of the young birds are swallowed by the female. The young fledge at 17–21 days, and feed independently at around 60 days.
Status and conservation The species is considered to be uncommon to moderately common but, due to its secretive nature and lack of loud vocalisations, the Regent Bowerbird may seem to be scarcer than it is. In the past the species was resident in the Sydney region, but today it rarely ranges south of the Hawkesbury River, due to the absence of suitable habitat. Clearance of rainforest habitat and fragmentation of suitable forest have led to a decline in species numbers throughout its range and the illegal shooting of birds as pests among commercial orchards has also impacted on population size and distribution. Past threats also included the illegal hunting of the birds for mounting in collections. Conservation areas, such as the recently established 269 hectare Tokatakiya Nature Refuge, north-west of Roma, Queensland, are valuable strongholds for the species. 69
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Satin Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus violaceus Vieillot, 1816 Field identification Satin Bowerbirds are stocky, medium-sized birds. The adult male has glossy blue-black plumage, a pale yellowish-blue slightly decurved bill and a violetblue iris. Younger males and females are similar in colour to each other, being olive-green above, off-white with dark scalloping below, have brown wings and tail and a dark brown or cream bill. These birds are collectively referred to as ‘green’ birds and can be seen in large flocks, especially during winter. These ‘green’ birds may be confused with Green Catbirds with which they overlap in range, but can be distinguished by their purple-blue eye. The iris of the Green Catbird is red and the plumage is brighter green.
Other names Satin Bower-bird (Bower Bird); Purple Satin; Satin-bird; Satin Bird; Satinbird; Satin Grackle; Lesser or Northern Satin Bowerbird (subspecies P. v. minor); Cowry by the Aboriginal people of New South Wales.
Discovery and nomenclature The male Satin Bowerbird is undoubtedly the best known of the bowerbird family. The species was first described by French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816, and later given the scientific name of Ptilonorhynchus violaceus. Ptilonorhynchus is from the Greek words ptilon meaning feather and rhunkhos meaning beak (due to the partly feathered beak), and violaceus comes from Latin meaning bluish, describing the male’s striking violetblue plumage.
Description Measurements Length: 240–340 mm Wing: 145–182 mm Tail: 92–128 mm Bill: 28.2–40.3 mm Tarsus: 41.5–53.0 mm Weight: 170–290 g 70
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Adult Male: The entire plumage is dark blue with a glossy violet sheen, slightly duller and more blackish on the flight feathers, wing coverts, lower abdomen and the centres of the upper tail feathers. The outer edges and tips of the upper tail feathers are glossed violet. The undertail is more bronze, as are the underwings. The bill is pale greenish-yellow, washed with blue at the base, and is slightly decurved. The bill appears quite short and thick as the feathers of the forehead extend forward over its base but is actually slightly longer than the skull. The iris is bright purple-violet, tending more towards blue on the edge, and the legs and feet are dull yellowish-brown and faintly tinged blue. Female: The upperparts and wing coverts are dull grey-green, with a light blue tinge, particularly towards the edges of the feathers. The feathers of the back, rump and upper tail coverts are washed with yellowish-green, more heavily towards the feather centres. The feathers of the crown and upper back are slightly darker and browner than the remainder of the upperparts. The primary wing feathers are dark brown and the greater wing coverts and secondaries are dull brown washed with greyish-green. The inner flight feathers have white tips. The ear coverts, cheeks and throat are brown with pale buff streaks. The remainder of the underparts and underwings are cream-buff with a yellowish-green wash. The underparts have a scaly appearance, due to brown crescent-shaped markings on the feathers. The underwing coverts are cream, barred with olive-brown. The undertail is yellow-brown. The bill is normally dark horn, washed with olive, but may be paler cream at certain times of the year. The iris is lilacblue, tending more towards purple nearer the centre, and the legs are pale cream-grey, washed with purplish-buff. Immature From the first to the third year, the plumage of both the male and female resembles the adult female, but with whitish underparts. The first year, birds have more prominent pale tips on the upper wing coverts, pale grey legs and a dark brown-grey iris. By the second year, the iris has become lilac-blue and purple and the sides of the head become greener (particularly in the males). The male’s underparts also become greener in the third year. After the third year, the male’s plumage continues to change, but the female’s remains unaltered, except for slight changes in leg colour, becoming more yellow in conjunction with breeding. During the fourth year, the male resembles the adult female, but has a green collar on his 71
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breast, and the bill also changes to pale yellowish-green with a blue base. The male starts to acquire the adult’s blue-black plumage in his fifth year, with newly grown feathers exhibiting a purple gloss, and some blue-black feathers appearing. During his sixth and seventh year the male completes his transformation to the adult male plumage. Juvenile At the time of leaving the nest, the remnant down on the head of the fledgling birds is gradually replaced with greenish-brown feathers, while the back feathers become more greenish. The underparts are pale cream, broadly scalloped with greenish-brown. The birds have a brown iris and the ear coverts are streaked with cream-buff. Nestling Newly hatched birds have orange skin and orange-brown down. As the birds develop the body and wings are covered with greenish-brown feathers, but the head remains partially naked, with long brown down on the crown.
Subspecies and variations Ptilonorhynchus violaceus violaceus: Found in a broad coastal band from the Bunya Mountains in central eastern Queensland to the Otway Ranges in southern Victoria. This subspecies occurs from sea level up to around 1000 metres. P. v. minor: Confined to north Queensland from Cooktown, south to the Paluma Range (near Townsville), above 500 metres. Individuals are 10 to 15 per cent smaller than those of the south-east, and the female has a greener breast and a bluish sheen on the back.
Vocalisations There is a vast array of vocalisations, including buzzing, whirring, rattling, churring, whistles and mimicry, although there is significant variation in the frequency, duration and format of the calls between different populations. Bird species mimicked include: Laughing Kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae), Lewin’s Honeyeater (Meliphaga lewinii), Torresian Crow (Corvus orru), Yellowtailed Black-Cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus funereus), Glossy Black-Cockatoo (C. lathami), Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), Crimson Rosella 72
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Figure 5.6 Current identified range of the Satin Bowerbird.
(Platycercus elegans), Superb Lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae), Albert’s Lyrebird (M. alberti), Golden Whistler (Pachycephala pectoralis), Paradise Riflebird (Ptiloris paradiseus), Fan-tailed Cuckoo (Cacomantis flabelliformis), Pied Butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis), White-browed Scrubwren (Sericornis frontalis), Grey Shrike-thrush (Colluricincla harmonica), Logrunner (Orthonyx temminckii), Rufous Scrub-bird (Atricornis rufescens), White-throated Treecreeper (Cormobates leucophaea) and Australian Magpie (Cracticus tibicen). Both the male and female use mimicry, although the female repertoire appears less extensive than that of the male. Other mimicked sounds recorded include a domestic cat and a postman’s whistle.
Distribution and habitats Satin Bowerbirds are found in a range of habitats from rainforests to suburban gardens, but prefer rainforest fringes and adjacent tall sclerophyll forest, with dense understorey. The northern subspecies is mostly confined to the highland rainforests of the Atherton area of northern Queensland, from Helenvale, just south of Cooktown, to the Paluma Range. Here it is found from 500 to 1200 metres above sea level. The southern population ranges from the Bunya Mountains in southeastern Queensland south to the Otway Ranges of Victoria. It occurs from 73
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sea level up to about 1000 metres. Outside of the breeding season, large foraging flocks of up to 200 birds (mostly females and immature males) move to lower, more open country, occasionally entering orchards, parks and gardens. Although the mature male Satin Bowerbirds are mostly solitary, they may join these ‘green’ bird flocks at this time of year. These flocks may mix with other bird species, particularly the Pied Currawong (Strepera graculina).
Food and feeding Satin Bowerbirds are omnivorous, but feed mostly on fruits, particularly figs of Strangler Fig (Ficus watkinsiana), Sandpaper Fig (F. coronata) and Deciduous Fig (F. superba), as well as the fruits of several other native and exotic plant species. Smaller fruits are plucked before eating, but large fruits are eaten in situ. The diet is supplemented with various amounts of seeds, leaves, flowers, nectar, vegetables and small animals. During summer, the diet consists of a large number of invertebrates, especially beetles, but also cicadas, moths, flying termites, caterpillars, stick insects and spiders. Animal prey may be gleaned from foliage or caught in the air. Satin Bowerbirds will also readily kill and eat lizards and small birds, the latter are either caught in flight or are predated from nests. In winter, birds feed mostly on grass shoots, herbs, flowers, cultivated fruits and vegetables and the younger leaves of trees. Foraging is largely arboreal, with a large percentage of time spent in the canopy, but can occur anywhere from the ground up. Satin Bowerbirds readily attempt to displace other bird species when foraging.
Mating Male Satin Bowerbirds are polygynous, mating with several females during a season, and both the adult and subadult males construct a display bower. Successful matings often lead to repeat visits by the females in successive seasons. The male takes no part in nest construction or the care of the eggs and nestlings. Although the immature males do not attain full adult plumage until their sixth or seventh year, they are able to successfully copulate with a female at age five. These subadult males may invade a bower in an attempt to force copulation on a female during the bowerowning male’s display.
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Bower The male defends an area immediately surrounding his bower, and will readily attempt to displace the resident male from a more successful site. The male builds and maintains a single avenue bower, which typically consists of two parallel walls of sticks that curve inwardly at the apex. Rarely, a bower may have three vertical walls. The avenue is built on a platform of woven sticks placed on the ground, and the whole construction may take as little as a day to complete. The walls of the bower are generally orientated in an approximate north-south direction. The area outside the avenue is decorated with bright blue coloured objects, which are quite similar in shade. Prior to European habitation in Australia, the male Satin Bowerbird decorated his bower with natural objects, such as tail feathers of the Crimson Rosella (Platycercus elegans) and other feathers and flowers. Although these objects are still used, a number of man-made items are readily used, such as plastic clothes pegs, drinking straws, ribbons, marbles and bottle tops. In captive situations, bowerbirds have even killed other bird species, such as Superb Fairy-wrens (Malurus cyaneus), to use their blue feathers as decorations. Blue feathers are among the most highly prized decorations. In addition to blue objects, some yellow or brown items are used, particularly in areas away from human habitation. These include flowers, leaves, cicada nymph cases, brown snail shells and discarded snake skins. Condoms and their wrappers have also been recorded at several bowers. In addition to the decorations, the walls of the bower avenue are painted with a mixture of chewed vegetable matter or charcoal and saliva. The bird applies the mixture using its bill. Research has suggested that mating success is greatly influenced by the number of blue objects collected by the male, and rival males readily raid neighbouring bowers to steal its decorations and destroy the bower walls. The same bower may be used in successive seasons or a new one constructed within a short distance of the original site. The bowers of the northern subspecies are smaller than those of the south-east. Immature and subadult males construct rudimentary bowers, which are used as practice sites. These inferior constructions may consist of just a platform of sticks laid on the ground, or an avenue of thicker, unbent sticks. Courtship In some areas the male Satin Bowerbird attends his bower from May, and the northern subspecies starts around July, but most start from late 75
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August or early September and finish in late December or January. The male advertises his presence with loud ascending and descending whistling calls given from an exposed perch high in a tree near his bower. On the arrival of a female, and often on the arrival of an immature male, the bower-owning male performs a ritualised display. The display is commenced with a series of soft notes, sung by the male, while he holds his wings slightly open above his back with his bill gaping. This is accompanied by a series of vertical movements and repeated picking up and putting down of a blue bower object, with a shake of the head. The vocalisations change to a mechanical whirring buzz. The male then raises his tail high in the air and performs a series of repeated wing flicks, using the wing on the opposite side of his body from the bower. The tail is simultaneously moved up and down with each wing flick, with each movement mechanical and rapid in nature. The male then hops and strides around the bower with his legs stiff and his body contorted rigidly. All movements are accompanied by continued chatterings, creaks and rattling, interspersed with mimicry. The male then strides back and forth across the bower entrance, usually with a display object in his bill, and ends up in the same position where the display started. If impressed, the female moves into the bower avenue and solicits mating by crouching down and quivering her wing. Copulation is normally within the bower avenue, but can take place on the platform immediately outside the avenue entrance. After copulation, the female stands and flaps her wings repeatedly and is then aggressively chased away by the male. Breeding season The breeding season extends from September through to early February, with the peak activity occurring in October to January. Female Satin Bowerbirds usually raise only one brood in a season. Nest The female builds a bulky, shallow saucer of twigs, with an inner lining of green Eucalypt or Acacia leaves, which turn brown at about the time the eggs are laid, and may serve as camouflage. The nest measures up to 300 mm wide, with an egg cup about 150 mm wide and 40 mm deep (slightly smaller in the subspecies P. v. minor). The nest may be in close proximity to or over 200 metres from other nests, and the same location may be used in successive seasons. The nest can be positioned in a variety of locations, such as a fork against the trunk of a tree, in a mistletoe clump, among a tangle of vines, in a cavity in the top of a broken tree trunk or in 76
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the outer foliage of a tree. The nest height is from two to about 35 metres above the ground, and takes about one to two weeks to construct. Eggs The typical Satin Bowerbird clutch consists of two dark cream-buff eggs, streaked with purple-grey and spotted with grey and dark brown, but can occasionally be a single egg and rarely three. The markings are more concentrated at the broad end, and the wavy lines are generally absent on the eggs of the northern subspecies. The eggs are oval-shaped and measure about 43 x 29 mm, with those of the northern subspecies slightly smaller than those of the nominate subspecies. Incubation and fledging All incubation is solely by the female, and has been reported to last anywhere from 17 to 23 days, but is widely accepted to be around 21 days. All nestling care is performed solely by the female. The nestlings are fed on a diet almost exclusively of arthropods, with fruit supplying about five per cent. The main food items are scarab beetles, such as Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus spp.), supplemented with stick insects, grasshoppers and cicadas. The young remain in the nest for 20 to 21 days and, after fledging, are cared for by the female for another 55 to 60 days. The female actively defends the nest site against other Satin Bowerbirds and other similarsized bird species, but adopts a motionless pose in a tree near the nest if a larger potential predator, such as a Pied Currawong (Strepera graculina), is observed. She will either remain in this position or approach the nest and again sit motionless for a long period of time after the intruder has left. Nest predation is usually by large birds, and is relatively high.
Status and conservation The Satin Bowerbird is moderately common and reasonably abundant. Although the population is reportedly increasing in certain areas, in parts of its range it has become locally extinct due to loss of habitat through human settlement and eradication, either directly for its attacks on cultivated fruits and vegetables or indirectly due to the species’s feeding association with illegally hunted species such as pigeons. Due to their attraction to blue objects, birds have been choked by the blue rings from plastic milk containers. The rings are carried in the bird’s bill and then get caught around its head, preventing it from eating. Certain milk vendors have now changed the ring colour to black, to make them less attractive to 77
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the species, and people are being educated to cut the rings prior to disposal. Other key threats include attacks on birds from feral cats (Felis domesticus) and foxes (Vulpes vulpes), loss of habitat by clearance for human settlement or industry, and the potential impact of climate change.
Spotted Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus maculatus (Gould, 1837) Field identification The Spotted Bowerbird is found over a broad area in the eastern half of Australia. It is distinguished from other similarly sized bird species by its stout appearance and highly vocal nature. Its flight is undulating with wingtips held upswept. Its plumage is predominantly brown, boldly spotted above with pale buff, and has a bright lilac-pink erectile crest on its nape, which is usually only visible during display. It is a wary bird, and its cryptic plumage gives it excellent camouflage amongst foliage. Both sexes are similar, although the crest is either absent or greatly reduced in the females. The intensity of the colour and the extent of spotting varies in individuals in relation to the amount of feather wear.
Other names Spotted Bower-bird (Bower Bird); Mimic bird; Mimicbird; Large-frilled Bower-bird or Cabbage-bird; Weetah by the Aboriginal people.
Discovery and nomenclature The Spotted Bowerbird was first described by John Gould in 1837, and was placed within the genus Chlamydera prior to its recent merging within Ptilonorhynchus. It is not known where the first specimen was collected, but it is thought to be from the Liverpool Plains in New South Wales (about 375 kilometres north north-west of Sydney).
Description Measurements Length: 280–310 mm Wing: 141–157 mm
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Tail: 99–117 mm Bill: 28.6–35.4 mm Tarsus: 36.7–44.5 mm Weight: 124–162 g Adult Male: The forehead, crown and nape are rich buff-brown, variably edged with black and tinged with silver-grey. On the nape is an erectile filamentous nuchal crest of bright lilac-pink, which, in some birds, has a dusky-brown patch immediately below it. The mantle is brown and the remaining upperparts are blackish-brown, with each feather tipped with pale reddish-buff, which gives the bird a prominent spotted appearance. Upper wing coverts have some fine black barring and the tail feathers have a pale buff tip. The sides of the head, chin, throat and upper breast are buff to buff-brown, barred with dusky-brown, and the abdomen is paler buffcream, becoming darker with grey barring on the flanks and undertail. The underwing is buff-cream with variable amounts of olive-brown spotting and barring. The iris is reddish-brown to grey-brown, the bill is dark grey-black and the buccal area can be pink or yellow. The legs and feet are olive-brown, paler on the tarsus. Female: The adult female is similar to the adult male, but the lilac-pink nuchal crest is reduced or absent. Immature Immature Spotted Bowerbirds are similar in plumage to the adult female, but are generally paler above and below, with the black barring replaced with grey and the spotting less pronounced. The iris is dark brown and the gape is yellow. Subadult males have a smaller nuchal crest and paler brown streaking on the crown than the adults. Juvenile The juveniles are similar to the immature in plumage, but the feathers of the nape are heavily streaked with pale buff. Nestling Nestlings are covered in long grey down, which is particularly dense on the head and back, and the bare skin is dark maroon-grey. The bill is greyblack with a yellowish gape and the iris is brown.
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Subspecies and variations There are no subspecies. Although individuals from Queensland and South Australia were described as subspecies this idea has now been dismissed. The Western Bowerbird, from central and western Australia, was for many years considered to be a subspecies, but has now been recognised as a different species. There is some geographic variation across the species’s broad range, with birds from South Australia having a paler crest, reddish abdomen and a paler grey-black bill. In some areas, where the distributions overlap, the species has hybridised with the Great Bowerbird.
Vocalisations Spotted Bowerbirds are renowned for their mimicry, and can seemingly copy almost any sound they hear, including the calls of other bird species, other animals and man-made noises. The normal calls are dominated by harsh churrings, but also include a variety of clinks, harsh grindings, clicks and hisses. Birds also make a cat-like meowing, which is much debated as to whether it is part of the birds’ normal repertoire or mimicry. The male is more vocal than the female. Other bird species copied include Whistling Kite (Haliastur sphenurus), Grey Butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus), Bluewinged Kookaburra (Dacelo leachii), Apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea), Australian Magpie (Cracticus tibicen), Noisy Miner (Manorina melanocephalus), Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax) and the flight of the Crested Pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes). Mimicry also includes the sound of larger animals walking through vegetation, barking dogs, wood-chopping, diesel engines, whip cracks and twanging fence wire.
Distribution and habitats Birds show a marked preference for riverine vegetation within open savannah. In north-eastern Queensland males also show a fondness for areas of Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) as sites for the bower. Similarly, males in northern New South Wales associate with the Wild Lemon (Canthium oleifolium) and the Warrior or Currant Bush (Apophyllum anomalum). While close association with particular plant species is not obvious with other bower-owning males, vegetation containing thorny and fruit-bearing shrubs seems to dominate. Birds will also frequent orchards, parks and gardens, especially remote homesteads, and males readily build their 80
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Figure 5.7 Current identified range of the Spotted Bowerbird.
bowers in gardens containing exotic plants. Spotted Bowerbirds are widely distributed in the arid and semi-arid areas of the eastern half of Australia from about Rockhampton, Queensland, west to the Georgina River and Eyre Creek Catchment and south through central New South Wales to the eastern part of South Australia along the Murray River. In the past, the distribution extended further into south-east South Australia, but changes in habitat have seen the species withdraw (see Status and conservation). Irregular sightings have occurred in other areas well outside of the normal range, probably due to unusual weather patterns.
Food and feeding Similar to other bowerbird species, Spotted Bowerbirds feed predominantly on fruits, supplemented with varying amounts of seeds, berries, nectar, leaves, insects, spiders and small lizards. Favoured fruits include, but are not limited to, those of the White Cedar (Melia azedarock), Native Orange (Capparis mitchellii), Peppercorn Tree (Schinus molle), Mangrove Boobialla (Myoporum acuminatum), Currant Bush (Carissa ovata), Conker Berry (Carissa lanceolata) and Turkey Bush (Eremophila deserti). Insect food includes grasshoppers, caterpillars, moths, beetles, stick insects and ants. During times of drought and in seasons when native fruits are less abundant, a 81
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larger number of seeds – especially those of the Kurrajong (Brachychiton populneus) – as well as flowers and nectar, are eaten. Small groups commonly visit orchards and gardens to feed on cultivated fruits and vegetables. Bower-owning males have been seen eating the fruits, flowers and leaves of the plants used to conceal their bower, which allows them to maximise their attendance time, and is a likely explanation for their preference for certain plant species as bower sites in certain areas. Birds forage alone, in pairs or in small groups, from ground level to the tree canopy, and associate with other fruit-eating species.
Mating The male Spotted Bowerbirds are polygynous, mating with several females in a season. The males have a delayed sexual maturity, with older males thought to have greater mating success than younger males. The female alone builds the nest and attends to the eggs and nestlings. Bower As previously discussed (see Distribution and habitats), the sites selected in some areas by male Spotted Bowerbirds for the construction of the bower show a marked preference for certain plant species, and are within close proximity to water. The bower may be attended at any time of the year, but most activity takes place between July and January. A single bower is normally constructed in late winter or early spring, although a record exists of two decorated bowers built 33 centimetres apart in central northern New South Wales, which were most likely maintained by the same male. The two-walled avenue-type bower is usually placed under dense shrubbery, on a small untidy platform, which is placed directly on or near the ground. The avenue walls measure about 40 to 70 centimetres long, 20 to 30 centimetres high, 10 to 25 centimetres thick and are 15 to 25 centimetres apart. The bower avenue may be orientated in any direction, but is more commonly placed north to south. The avenue walls are constructed mostly of grass stems, with a few slender sticks giving support at the base, and the internal walls are painted with a mixture of masticated grass and saliva applied with the bill. The bower avenue and the platform immediately outside the entrance are decorated profusely with both natural and man-made objects of white, black, green, grey, yellow, brown and silver. Naturally occurring objects include bleached animal bones, eggshells, snail shells, berries, seed pods, insect casings, flowers and pebbles. 82
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The green berries from nightshade family Solanum spp. members are highly prized. The list of human-related objects is extensive and includes such things as glass, keys, wire, jewellery, plastic, bottle and can tops, coins, gun cartridge cases and once, even a glass eye! The circular objects are also often hung on the bower walls. The objects are meticulously arranged and the male spends much of his time correcting any anomalies and rearranging items into separated piles. Decoration theft is not common in Spotted Bowerbirds, although some records do exist of males destroying a rival’s bower and stealing items. The distance between the bowers of neighbouring males varies depending on the availability and density of suitable areas of habitat, but is generally less than 2.5 kilometres and often within a kilometre. The same site area is used for bowers over successive years and an active bower may be located within a short distance of the remains of many inactive bowers. Courtship The bower-owning male advertises his presence to potential mates with ringing metallic calls delivered from an open perch near the bower. On the arrival of a potential mate, the male starts to display, in a similar way to other avenue-building bowerbirds. The display consists of two separate stages: the central and the peripheral, which relate to the location of the male in relation to the bower. The central display is usually performed first and consists of four main displays, which may be performed in any sequence. In most display postures the male usually holds one of his most highly prized ornaments in his bill; this is then repeatedly dropped and re-gathered or replaced with another. The displays are also accompanied by mimicry and other vocalisations. In all displays the actions are jerky and aggressive. During the central display, the male stands in an upright posture at the front and to the side of the avenue entrance, while the female moves inside the avenue, keeping one wall of the bower between her and the male. The male raises and lowers his wings while jumping backward and forward, and fanning his tail. The male’s bright lilac-pink nuchal crest is raised throughout and is displayed to the female in two separate postures. The male also crouches with his bill slightly open, picks up an ornament and jerks his head up and down. During the peripheral display the male stiffens his head and neck and walks or runs in circles around the bower with his wings drooped, tail cocked and crest fully fanned. If the courtship is successful, copulation takes place in, or adjacent to, the bower. Following copulation the female violently shakes her wings before departing. 83
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Breeding season Typically the breeding season extends from August to January, but may start as early as May and end as late as April, subject to suitable conditions. Nest The nest has a bulky foundation, untidily constructed of small dead sticks, with a shallow, saucer-shaped egg-cup made of finer twigs and tendrils, and occasionally lined with dry grass or leaves. Due to the loose construction of the nest, its contents can be seen from the underside. The nest measures about 200 mm in width, with the egg cup about 40 to 50 mm deep, and is placed in the horizontal fork of a tree or in a mistletoe clump, from two to 12 metres above the ground. Eggs A normal clutch consists of two eggs, but can sometimes be one or three. The oval-shaped eggs are pale grey-green to buff, slightly glossy and heavily decorated with light scribbles of brown to brownish-black. The markings are more heavily concentrated at the wider end. The eggs measure about 39 × 27 mm. Incubation and fledging All incubation duties are performed solely by the female, although the incubation period has not been documented. The young birds are fed a diet rich in insects, spiders, worms and small lizards, heavily supplemented with fruits. The female defends the nest site from potential predators by chasing the intruder or feigning injury to lure the intruder away while she uses vocal mimicry and harsh notes. In some cases the female will freeze and sit motionless on a nearby perch until the intruder leaves. The nestlings fledge after 20–21 days.
Status and conservation Once very common along the Murray River, the Spotted Bowerbird is now considered Endangered in the states of Victoria and South Australia (2007 Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria), and has been listed as Threatened in Victoria’s Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. It is extremely rare in these states and the fact that there have been no recent sightings may indicate that the species is extinct in these states. Many birds 84
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have been illegally shot or poisoned for entering orchards, vineyards and similar cultivated areas to feed on fruits and vegetables. Other pressures include the past clearing of preferred habitat for grazing and agriculture and predation by foxes and feral cats. Also, widespread bushfires have left the woodland understorey sparse and unsuitable for the birds. Species numbers also appear to be on the decline in southern New South Wales. In order to develop an action plan for the Spotted Bowerbird, it is necessary to establish whether the species still occurs in these regions and ascertain its habitat and dietary requirements. This research will benefit the conservation of the wider Spotted Bowerbird population, as well as other animal species that are impacted by the same issues. Preservation and monitoring of suitable habitat and the placing of these areas in reserves will benefit the species, as will the restriction of recreational activities, such as camping and four wheel driving, as well as the elimination of stock-grazing. Awareness needs to be increased within the public and amongst the agricultural landholders about the status of the species and the impacts of illegal shooting, poisoning, widespread burning off and removal of timber from the woodland understorey. This education should not only be limited to the areas already affected, but in other areas where the birds may be threatened by similar activities. If the species still exists in these states, the revegetation and fencing off of critical habitat is the first step in any action plan for the Spotted Bowerbird, in conjunction with removal of stock, kangaroos and feral animals. If surveys fail to identify the presence of the species in these areas, the revegetation of essential areas and the establishment of wildlife corridors could facilitate the reintroduction of the species. Translocation may also be considered, whereby the species is reintroduced into the areas where it is extinct, in order to ensure the continued survival of the species. The overall population of the Spotted Bowerbird is quite stable, however, and the species is classified on the IUCN Red List as Least Concern.
Western Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus guttatus (Gould, 1862) Field identification With the exception of the Great Bowerbird, found in the north, the Western Bowerbird is the only bowerbird in Western Australia. The range of the two species does not overlap and confusion between the two should not 85
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occur. The Western Bowerbird is considerably smaller than the Great Bowerbird and is more richly coloured. It is shy and wary and its cryptic ochre-brown and heavily spotted plumage allows it perfect camouflage within tree foliage. It is somewhat similar to the Spotted Bowerbird of eastern and central Australia, and the two species share much of the same habits. For many years, the Western Bowerbird was regarded as a subspecies of the Spotted Bowerbird. The range of these two species is not known to overlap.
Other names Guttated, Yellow-spotted, Pale-spotted or Large-spotted Bower-bird (Bowerbird); Spotted Bowerbird; Akerrk, Ikarka, Iligura, Ir-karka, Karka, Tarradee or Thurra-ji by the Aboriginal people.
Discovery and nomenclature The first specimen of this species was collected in the East Murchison region of north-western Australia (probably near the upper Fortescue River) in 1861 by the explorer Francis Thomas Gregory. The bird was later given to John Gould, who named it in 1862. The specific name guttatus comes from Latin and means speckled, spotted or dappled.
Description Measurements Length: 240–280 mm Wing: 135–157 mm Tail: 86–106 mm Bill: 27.7–32.6 mm Tarsus: 35.5–41.6 mm Weight: 122–148 mm Adult Male: The intensity of plumage colour and the extent of spotting vary greatly due to the amount of feather wear. The feathers of the crown are brownish-black, each feather with a distinct chestnut spot, bordered with bronze, and with darker blackish bases. The plumage of the head has a silver gloss. The upperparts, including the relatively short tail, are generally 86
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blackish-brown with a large chestnut-buff spot on the tip of each feather; finer on mantle. The wings are slightly paler and the primary and secondary flight feathers are margined with pale buff on the outer webs and whitishyellow on the inner webs. The nape has a conspicuous lilac-pink nuchal crest, which is generally visible only during courtship display. The feathers of both the head and the nape have a silvery-white gloss. The chin, throat and upper breast are brownish-black, with an almost circular reddishcream spot near the tip of each feather. The remaining underparts are predominantly creamy-yellow, becoming more reddish-brown on the flanks, thighs and undertail. The underwing is buff-cream with brownishblack barring on the coverts. The bill is black, the iris is dark brown, and the legs and feet greenish-horn. Female: The female’s tail is slightly longer than the male’s. Otherwise, the two sexes are similar, apart from the female having a more heavily spotted throat. The lilac-pink nuchal crest is smaller and duller in younger females and increases in size with age. Immature Immatures of both sexes are similar to the adult female, but the plumage is paler and greyer and lacks the silver gloss on the head. The lilac-pink nuchal crest is absent or greatly reduced and the bill is brownish. The subadult male is similar to the adult female. Juvenile The plumage is similar to the immature, but with the lilac-pink nuchal crest absent, and the spotting of upperparts paler and much less distinct. Nestling Little is known of the nestling plumage, but it is presumed to be similar to the nestling Spotted Bowerbird.
Subspecies and variations There are two subspecies. Ptilonorhynchus guttatus guttatus: This subspecies occupies the majority of the range. There is negligible north to south variation, although the birds of the north are darker, as are birds from central Australia. P. g. carteri: This subspecies was identified in 1920 and named by prominent ornithologist Gregory Macalister Mathews. It occurs only on 87
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the North West Cape of mid-western Western Australia. It is smaller than the nominate subspecies, with a smaller nuchal crest.
Vocalisations The normal calls are similar to those of the Spotted Bowerbird and are dominated by harsh churrings, as well as a variety of metallic clinks, harsh grindings, clicks, cackles and hisses. Birds also emit a cat-like meowing. It is much debated as to whether this sound is part of the bird’s normal repertoire or mimicry. The Western Bowerbird is an accomplished mimic and often imitates the calls of other birds, especially when in the presence of a potential predator. Bird species mimicked include the Whistling Kite (Haliastur sphenurus), Blue-winged Kookaburra (Dacelo leachii), Pied Butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis), Australian Ringneck (Barnardius zonarius), Brown Falcon (Falco berigora), White-browed Babbler (Pomatostomus superciliosus), Little Crow (Corvus bennetti), Yellow-throated Miner (Manorina flavigula), Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae), Singing Honeyeater (Lichenostomus virescens) and Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater (Acanthogenys rufogularis). Other mimicry recorded includes rattling metal objects, dogs barking and the call of a kid (Capra hircus).
Distribution and habitats The species is found in a broad band across central and mid-western Australia from the Everard Ranges, about 100 kilometres south of the South Australia–Northern Territory border in north-western South Australia, and about 300 kilometres north-east of Alice Springs in the Northern Territory, west to the Pilbara in the north and Leonora in the south of Western Australia. The Western Bowerbird has not been recorded as overlapping with the western limit of the Spotted Bowerbird’s range, and the two species are reportedly absent from a broad longitudinal band of about 100 kilometres between 137° and 138° E (1 degree = 111 kilometres) at the inland extremities of their respective ranges. The Western Bowerbird was considered to be restricted in range to that of the Rock Fig (Ficus platypoda), but in recent years its range has extended beyond that into the south-eastern interior of Western Australia, and there may be two isolated populations. The Western Bowerbird is also found near gum-fringed creeks, wooded savannah and dense vegetation (such as Casuarina and Acacia) in rocky areas and near bores, troughs and dams. 88
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Figure 5.8 Current identified range of the Western Bowerbird.
Food and feeding Western Bowerbirds feed mainly on fruits, including those of the Rock Fig (Ficus platypoda), Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum), Snake Gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina) and mistletoe (family Loranthaceae). Other foods include nectar, flowers (Acacia spp.), insects such as moths, ants, beetles, grasshoppers, and spiders. The Western Bowerbird drinks regularly and is seldom found far from water. Small groups commonly visit orchards and homesteads to feed on cultivated fruits and vegetables.
Mating The male Western Bowerbird is polygynous, mating with several females in a season, while the female performs all nesting duties and care of the young birds. Bower The males construct an avenue bower, which consists of two parallel walls of flexible twigs, curved at the top, and concealed under the lower branches of a tree or bush. The avenue is normally placed on top of a platform of sticks, about 15 to 20 centimetres tall, and does not seem to be orientated in any particular direction. The avenue walls measure about 25 to 35 89
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centimetres long, 20 to 25 centimetres high, 10 to 12 centimetres thick and 15 centimetres apart. The bower is decorated with objects that are white and green in colour. Naturally occurring objects include berries, fruits, seed pods, leaves, bones, snail shells and pebbles. Human-related objects include gun cartridge casings, glass and assorted metal objects. A bower may be maintained for two to three years before a new one is constructed. The new bower is often built on the same site as the old one, or within close proximity, with some of the previous bower’s materials recycled. Courtship Little information is available on the courtship of the Western Bowerbird, but observations to date show a similar ritual to that of the Spotted Bowerbird. The male advertises his bower with a range of vocalisations. When a prospective female arrives at the bower, the male will commence to display to her with a series of ritualised dances, including vertical jumps, wing-flicking and tail-fanning. During the display the male will erect the feathers of his pink nuchal crest and perform nape presentations. The male also holds a bower decoration in his bill and shakes his head vigorously, in a similar manner to the Spotted Bowerbird. Displays are accompanied by harsh calls, whistles, hisses and mimicry. Breeding season The breeding season is generally from July to December, with peak activity occurring from August to October. Nest The nest is constructed solely by the female. It is a loose platform of dry sticks, supporting a shallow cup lined with finer twigs, grasses and Casuarina needles. The nest measures about 150 mm in diameter, with the egg cup about 110 mm wide and 50 mm deep. It is placed amongst foliage in the fork of a tree or bush, or in a mistletoe clump, and at a height of about two to six metres above the ground. Eggs Typical clutches consist of two eggs, but may only be one. The oval-shaped eggs are pale grey-green to buff, slightly glossy and heavily decorated with light scribbles and blotches of brown to brownish-black. The markings are more heavily concentrated at the wider end. The eggs measure about 38 × 26 mm. 90
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Incubation and fledging All incubation duties are performed solely by the female. The incubation period is unknown, but is probably similar to that of the Spotted Bowerbird. All nestling care is also performed solely by the female. The fledging period is unknown, but again is probably similar to that of the Spotted Bowerbird.
Status and conservation The species is endemic to Australia. It is regarded as Locally Common, and the subspecies C. g. carteri is Near Threatened due to its population size and restricted range. Because of the species’s shy and wary nature and the remoteness of its distribution in central Australia and in the Northern Territory, records may not be a true indication of species numbers. Key threats include predation by feral cats and foxes.
Great Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus nuchalis Jardine & Selby, 1830 Field identification This is the largest of the bowerbirds, and is distributed across the north of Australia. It is mostly uniform in plumage, with both sexes predominantly pale brown. The feathers of the back, wings and rump have greyish edges and tips, which give the plumage a mottled appearance. There is a bright violet-pink crest on the nape, which is used by the male during display and is either absent or greatly reduced on the female and younger birds. It can be covered by other feathers. As with most other Australian bowerbirds, it is highly vocal, giving a variety of harsh, mechanical calls and mimicry. It is not likely to be confused with other birds, and is easily recognised in flight by its undulating, swooping motion. The range of the Great Bowerbird overlaps that of the Spotted Bowerbird from Mount Isa to Mackay, Queensland, but the two are quite different in plumage. The range of the Great Bowerbird also overlaps that of the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird in north-eastern Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, but the latter species can be distinguished by its buff-ochre underparts and smaller size. 91
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Other names Great Bower-bird (Bower Bird); Lilac-naped Bower-bird; Great Grey Bowerbird (Bower-bird or Bower Bird); Queensland Bowerbird (Bower Bird) or Eastern Bower-bird (for C. n. orientalis) or Western Great Bower Bird (for the birds found in the western part of Australia’s north, referred to by some authors as C. n. oweni); Djuwe, Errwodh, Errwoy or Weedah by the Aboriginal people.
Discovery and nomenclature It is not known where the first specimen was collected, but it is presumed to be from the Port Darwin area of the Northern Territory, and was collected by William Macleay. It was described in 1830 by the English ornithologists William Jardine and Prideaux John Selby. The specific name nuchalis comes from the Latin word for nape, due to the violet-pink crest on the nape of the male.
Description Measurements Length: 320–370 mm Wing: 155–193 mm Tail: 122–160 mm Bill: 32.2–41.5 mm Tarsus: 40.7–54.6 mm Weight: 153–265 g Adult Male: The plumage is generally dull grey throughout, but with the crown more silver-grey and the sides of the head and neck mid brown-grey. The feathers immediately above and to the sides of the violet-pink nuchal crest are tipped silvery-white. The nuchal crest is normally concealed and is erected during the courtship display. The remaining upperparts are more brownish-grey, with paler grey tips to the feathers, giving a spotted appearance. The primary wing coverts and flight feathers are paler brown with pale grey outer edges and tips. The tail is dusky brown, with numerous darker bars on the upper tail coverts. The underparts are buff-grey, paler on the underwing and with cream-buff bases and centres on the underwing coverts. The undertail is also a paler dull creamy-grey with numerous 92
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narrow dusky brown bars on the undertail coverts. The iris is dark brown and the bill is dark brown, faintly tinged with olive on the outside and yellow-orange inside. The feet are grey-brown, tinged faintly with olive. Female: The female is largely similar in plumage to the male, but is more whitish-grey on the nape and faintly barred on the abdomen and flanks. The violet-pink nuchal crest is either absent or greatly reduced. Immature Both sexes are similarly plumaged to the adult female but are duskier below, with distinct barring on the breast, abdomen and flanks. The feathers on the upper back are barred with buff-white. Subadult males have less conspicuous barring and a small nuchal crest. Juvenile The crown, back and rump are grey-brown with pale buff spots. The throat and breast are dark grey, becoming paler on the abdomen and with narrow dusky barring on the flanks. The bill is grey-black and the iris is brown. Nestling Newly hatched birds are sparsely covered in grey down, with skin dark purplish-grey and bluish-grey legs. The iris is brown and the mouth is yellow.
Subspecies and variations The species shows marked variation across its range, with two subspecies recognised. Birds are larger and more uniformly coloured in the west. The two subspecies integrate where their ranges overlap in the south of the Gulf of Carpenteria, Queensland. Ptilonorhynchus nuchalis nuchalis: Found in the central and western areas of Australia’s north, from the Kimberley region, Western Australia, across the Northern Territory to the south-western corner of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, including several offshore islands. Some authors split this subspecies into two, with P. n. oweni for the birds in the western half of the range, south to the Fitzroy River, Western Australia. P. n. orientalis: Named by John Gould in 1879 from a specimen collected at Port Denison, Queensland. The range extends throughout the majority of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, and south to about Mackay. This subspecies has more conspicuous black and white variegations on the 93
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upperparts. The females are also more noticeably barred underneath. Some authors split this subspecies further, with P. n. yorki for the birds of the Cape York Peninsula.
Vocalisations Like other members of the genus Ptilonorhynchus, the Great Bowerbird gives a variety of scolding calls, including rasps, cackles, hisses, whistles and churrings, and a harsh advertising song. Both sexes are adept at mimicry. Birds copied include the Whistling Kite (Haliastur sphenurus), Laughing Kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae), Pacific Baza (Aviceda subcristata), Black Kite (Milvus migrans) and Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax). Other sounds copied include dogs barking, machinery, squeaking gates, human voices, crumpling paper and cat meows. Females use vocal mimicry to deter predators away from the young, including the alarm call of the Blue-faced Honeyeater (Entomyzon cyanotis).
Distribution and habitats The Great Bowerbird occupies a broad range across northern Australia, from the Kimberleys in north-east Western Australia, east through the Northern Territory to north Queensland, from Cape York Peninsula south to near Mackay. It also inhabits numerous offshore islands. The areas range from sea level up to around 600 metres and have an annual rainfall of over 500 mm, up to around 1500 mm. It inhabits rainforest fringes, vine thickets, riverine woodlands, open savannah, eucalypt and Melaleuca woodlands, mangroves and urban gardens, and is seldom found far from water. The requirement of water seems to be mostly due to the association of its food sources with these areas, and its penchant for bathing, rather than the necessity to drink. It is generally sedentary during the breeding season and more nomadic at other times of the year.
Food and feeding Great Bowerbirds are frugivores, feeding predominantly off the fruits of native plants such as the Rock Fig (Ficus platypoda), Weeping Fig (F. benjemina), Stem-fruit Fig (F. racemosa) and Carpentaria Palm (Carpentaria acuminata). This native fruit diet is supplemented with cultivated and exotic fruits, including those of the Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica), nectar, 94
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Figure 5.9 Current identified range of the Great Bowerbird.
such as Fern-leaved Grevillea (Grevillea pteridifolia), seeds, flowers, insects and spiders. Other animal food includes worms and small lizards. Historic records also mention the species eating domestic chicken eggs. Birds are usually encountered feeding singly or in small groups; however, outside the breeding season, foraging groups of 20 to 30 may be observed, particularly around orchards and gardens.
Mating The male Great Bowerbird is polygynous, and the female performs all nesting duties and care of the young birds. There is a delayed sexual maturity in the males, and subadult and juvenile males build rudimentary bowers. These practice bowers are poorly constructed and have thicker sticks. Bower Males build a large two-walled avenue bower, measuring about 50 to 100 centimetres long, 15 to 25 centimetres wide and 30 to 40 centimetres tall, with the walls about 20 centimetres thick. The bower site is usually on 95
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the fringe of dense vegetation and beneath the foliage of a short bush or shrub. The avenue is constructed on a platform of sticks up to two metres long by 1.5 metres wide, and is generally orientated approximately north to south. The walls are constructed parallel to each other and some or many of the taller sticks meet those of the opposite wall to form an arch. As with other avenue-building bowerbirds, the male paints the interior of the avenue walls. The paint consists of masticated vegetable matter and occasionally kangaroo or wallaby dung, mixed with saliva and applied with the bill. The paint dries to a conspicuous tea-brown colour. The bower platform, at both ends of the avenue, is decorated with up to 1000 or more ornaments, with one end containing more decorations than the other. Some ornaments are also placed within the avenue. Favoured colours for decorations are white, green, grey and red. Away from human settlement, bower decorations include animal bones, stones, bleached snail shells, seashells, leaves, flowers and fruits, and the male normally groups similar items together. Closer to human habitation, males collect a wide variety of man-made items for decorations, including pens, glass, pieces of silvery metal, plastic and gun cartridges. The male Great Bowerbird may steal ornaments from neighbouring bowers, which are often in close proximity (less than two kilometres), and damage their bower walls as well. Bowers are often reused in successive seasons, with the walls refurbished and new decorations added. However, if a new bower is built it is often constructed on the same site and in close proximity to the old one. Courtship The male advertises his bower with a harsh song. Once a female is attracted to the bower site, the male performs two main displays: the central and the peripheral. The displays and their postures may be performed in any sequence. The central display includes upright postures in which the male faces the female and raises himself up to full height, with his bill open and his tongue flicked in and out. The male then stretches forward with his nuchal crest partially opened and, if green fruit is present, he appears to offer this to the female. Other ornaments are also picked up. The male also pecks at the end of the bower wall. This is often followed by a series of nape presentations, in which the male lowers his beak and rotates his head to show off the fully erected nuchal crest. During the nape presentations, the male’s wings may droop and bower decorations may be repeatedly picked up and aggressively thrown to the 96
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ground. The peripheral display may be performed before or after the central display, and consists of the male strutting around the perimeter of the bower with his wings drooped, tail held outstretched and his nuchal crest raised. As the intensity of the display increases, the male starts to bound or hop instead of strut. Most central displays are conducted from the platform end that contains the most number of decorations; generally the northern end. The female normally stands just outside the avenue, and frequently shifts her body to conceal herself from the male. The male attempts to lure the female into the bower avenue with a display similar to that of a young bird begging for food. Courtship displays are accompanied by the female’s hisses, and ticking noises and some mimicry by the male. Copulation may occur inside or immediately outside the bower avenue. Breeding season Due to the wide range occupied by the Great Bowerbirds, breeding times vary and may be recorded in any month of the year, although the peak egg-laying period is around October and November. Breeding appears to be triggered in response to heavy rains and the arrival of the annual tropical monsoon. This is possibly due to the increased abundance of insect food at these times. Nest The female constructs a bulky shallow cup of thin sticks and twigs, which is lined with finer twigs and some leaves. The nest measures about 200 mm across and about 125 mm deep, with the egg cup about 60 mm deep. The nest is placed within foliage in the fork of a tree, or in a mistletoe clump or vine tangle, and at a height of two to 10 metres above the ground. Eggs The usual clutch is one, but occasionally a second egg, and rarely a third, is laid. The glossy eggs are cream-buff, washed faintly with greenish and pale greenish-grey blotches. The oval eggs are profusely scribbled with fine grey-brown to black lines, and measure around 41 × 29 mm. Incubation and fledging Incubation is carried out by the female and she also performs all parental care. The egg hatches after about 21 days, and the young bird is fed a diet rich in animal matter, heavily supplemented with fruit. The majority of the animal meals consist of grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, caterpillars, mantids 97
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and spiders, and fewer quantities of flies, small lizards and moths. The favoured fruits are figs, which are either fed whole or in pieces. The young bird fledges after about 20 days.
Status and conservation The species is common to fairly common in suitable areas of habitat, although it has declined south of the Atherton Tableland, Queensland since the 1930s. Birds may be illegally shot or poisoned by landholders for the damage they cause to cultivated fruits and vegetables and this may impact on localised populations. Other threats include feral cats and the alteration of its habitat by fire. The Great Bowerbird is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
Fawn-breasted Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus cerviniventris (Gould, 1850) Field identification Usually seen singly, in pairs or in wintering flocks of 10 or so individuals, the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird inhabits the far north of Queensland and coastal New Guinea. It is more slender than the Great Bowerbird, with which it shares part of its range in Australia, and lacks the lilac crest on the nape. Both sexes are similar, and are easily distinguished by the orangebuff abdomen. The remainder of the plumage is largely grey-brown, with darker spotting above. In New Guinea, it shares part of its range with the similarly plumaged Lauterbach’s Bowerbird, which has more yellow underparts and a dark, russet or brown crown. It is not easily confused with non-bowerbird species. It is generally timid and cautious, but is more vocal during the breeding season. Movement between food trees is in a distinctive, bouncing flight, characterised by rapid wing beats and alternate swooping glides.
Other names Fawn-breasted Bower-bird (Bower Bird); Meyer’s Bower-bird or Buffbreasted Bower-bird; Tewinga by the Aboriginal people of Cape York, Australia; Norkumnor, Swari-mani or Ubeeda by the tribespeople of New 98
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Guinea; Burung namdur coklat in Indonesian (Burung namdur meaning Bowerbird and coklat meaning chocolate).
Discovery and nomenclature Although more widely distributed in New Guinea, the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird was first discovered on the Australian mainland. A male specimen was shot at his bower in the Cape York Peninsula in 1849 by John MacGillivray, a naturalist on the survey ship HMS Rattlesnake. The specimen was sent to John Gould in London, who named it Chlamydera cerviniventris in 1850. The specific name comes from the Latin word cervinus, which literally means of a deer and refers to the brownish colouring on the underparts, and ventris meaning abdomen or belly.
Description Measurements Length: 260–290 mm Wing: 138–157 mm Tail: 104–119 mm Bill: 28.1–34.9 mm Tarsus: 34.7–43.3 mm Weight: 117–182 g Adult Male: The feathers of the lores, forehead, crown and nape are pale greybrown, washed with olive, with paler buff-white streaking and edging. The remainder of the upperparts are olive-brown with paler central spots and tips on the feathers, giving a mottled appearance. The wings are darker olive-brown; the primary, secondary and tertial flight feathers have narrow buff-white edges; the secondaries and tertials also have large buff-white tips. The underparts, from the chin to the upper chest, are pale buff-white with each feather having grey-brown edging, producing a streaked appearance (more obvious on the upper chest). The remainder of the underparts are ochre-buff, brighter on the abdomen, with some faint barring on the flanks. The underwings are grey-buff, with paler inner margins on the flight feathers. The undertail feathers are pale olive-buff, with paler buff tips and centres. The bill is black, and the buccal area is rich orange-yellow. The iris is dark brown, and the legs are grey-brown. 99
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Female: The female is similar to the male, but may be more heavily streaked on the upper chest, although the difference may be slight and apparent only when the two sexes are compared side by side. Immature During the first year, the immatures of both sexes are similar to the adult male, with the exception of the forehead and crown, which are more heavily streaked, and the feathers of the back, which have broader pale centres. The full adult plumage is attained in the second year. Juvenile The juveniles are similar to the first year immature, but the nape is featherless; the exposed skin is dark pinkish-brown. The feathers of the upperparts are more extensively streaked, with some buff-grey down on the crown, and the underparts are pale buff-grey with faint dusky barring. Nestling The young birds are sparsely covered in dusky grey-brown down, more concentrated on the crown and upperparts. The exposed skin is dark pinkishbuff. The bill is black and the mouth is yellow with a dirty-white gape.
Subspecies and variations There are no subspecies and there is apparently no geographic variation across the species’s range in Australia and New Guinea.
Vocalisations The Fawn-breasted Bowerbird has a variety of calls that vary in intensity, including harsh churring, hissing, rasping and rattling calls, whistles and mimicry. Natural calls include a hissing ‘tchee-tchee-tchee’ and a metallic whistled ‘ke-ke’. The male at his bower uses mimicry of other bird species and some mechanical sounds. Birds species mimicked include Willie Wagtail (Rhipidura leucophrys), Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), Noisy Friarbird (Philemon corniculatus), Black-backed Butcherbird (Cracticus mentalis), Orange-footed Scrubfowl (Megapodius reinwardt), Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus) and Blue-winged Kookaburra (Dacelo leachii). The female also mimics the calls of other bird species, particularly when alarmed by potential nest predators. In addition to avian mimicry, the Fawn-breasted 100
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Figure 5.10 Current identified range of the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird.
Bowerbird mimics other sounds in its environment, including horse sounds, squeaking gates, sawing, hammering, running water, a rattling spray can and, remarkably, the speech of humans.
Distribution and habitats Apart from the Spotted Catbird (Ailuroedus melanotis), the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird is the only bowerbird found in both Australia and New Guinea. Throughout its range, the species inhabits thickets of vine forest, melaleuca, eucalypt and mangroves nestled within savannah grassland and open woodland, as well as the fringes of rainforests. It will also visit parks and gardens, and is common in lowland areas from sea level to about 100 metres in Australia and 1750 metres in New Guinea. In Australia, it is restricted to northern Queensland from the tip of Cape York Peninsula south to the Silver Plains area. During the breeding season individuals are mainly solitary and sedentary. Outside of this time, small groups may form, which roam locally in search of food. Some reports indicate that the species ranges south to the Jardine and Chester rivers and inland to the Mitchell and Palmer rivers, although these are most likely due to incorrect identification of bowers belonging to the Great Bowerbird. In New Guinea it is wide ranging in coastal and near 101
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coastal areas from Humboldt Bay in the north, east to the eastern tip of New Guinea and west along the south coast to Kerema. Apparently isolated populations also occur in the Trans-Fly region and on the Vogelkop Peninsula in Indonesian Papau.
Food and feeding The Fawn-breasted Bowerbird feeds largely on the fruits of trees, shrubs and vines, such as the Kangaroo Vine (also known as the native grape) (Cissus antarcticus), and some insects, including the Green Ant (Oecophylla smaragdina). Food is obtained from ground level to the tree canopy, with birds feeding individually, in pairs or small groups.
Mating The males are polygynous, readily mating with any number of females in a single season and leaving the females solely responsible for nest construction and care for the eggs and young. Both adult and subadult males build bowers and competition for bower sites is fierce, with the bowers of established males promptly destroyed and replaced by rival males if the site owner is absent. Bower The bower construction is an elaborate two-walled avenue built on a large, untidy interwoven platform. The bower orientation is roughly eastwest, and the platform is slightly thicker at the western end. Both the platform and avenue are constructed of slender sticks, with the platform measuring around 100 to 175 centimetres long, 50 to 80 centimetres wide and 20 to 40 centimetres tall, and the bower avenue approximately 50 to 100 centimetres in length, 20 to 30 centimetres tall and eight to 10 centimetres between the walls. The platforms of the Australian birds are generally shorter and more compact than those in New Guinea, and may have a slightly narrower avenue. Also, the southern avenue wall is slightly taller than the northern one. Both the avenue and the platform at the bower entrance are ornately decorated with a hundred or so small green fruits, either individual or in bunches. These are replaced with fresh fruits as they age and dry out. The discarded dried fruits are placed in a pile near the bower platform. Other decorations include green leaves and both seed and flower casings. The 102
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majority of decorations are placed at the western end of the bower. As with other bower-building bowerbirds, the male Fawn-breasted Bowerbird paints the inner walls of his bower. Chewed up green vegetable matter, mixed with saliva, is wiped on the avenue walls using the bill. Newly painted sticks are green but dry to dull olive-grey. In Australia, males attend their bowers for about eight months, commencing in May and June and through to January. In New Guinea, these times vary and the start of construction typically coincides with the start of the dry season. The bower is placed on the ground, within areas of dense grassland or woodland vegetation, near the edge of the forest. The average distance between neighbouring bowers is around 500 metres, although subadult males may build rudimentary practice bowers in closer proximity to an established bower. Courtship Males advertise their bowers with loud, repetitive metallic songs, delivered from an exposed branch, high in a dead tree. Once a female is attracted to the male’s presence, she will either perch on a branch immediately above the bower or descend to the east end of the platform. The actual courtship ritual is not well documented, but consists of peripheral and central displays, similar to those of other avenue-building species. The male starts by running rapidly in and out of the vegetation around the bower perimeter, stopping at times in a perfectly still posture. Once the female enters the avenue, he approaches the avenue and hops up and down on the same spot, uttering soft churring notes and perhaps some mimicry. He peers at the female from in front of and to one side of the bower avenue, and either holds a green decoration in his bill, normally either a single berry or a bunch, or opens his bill slightly to expose an orange-yellow interior. Although he lacks the coloured crest on the nape that is present in other closely related species, the male twists his head, presenting its nape to the female. This behaviour perhaps indicates that the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird was crested in the past. The male may then open and close one or both of his wings in a rather abrupt manner, and bend his fanned tail upward. Copulation takes place in the bower avenue, after which the female vigorously flaps her wings before departing. Breeding season Due to the species’s wide range, breeding times vary. In Australia the season extends from August through to about January, although peak activity is 103
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from September to late December. In New Guinea the breeding appears to continue throughout the year, but varies slightly between north and south populations, and is probably in response to favourable conditions. Nest The female builds the nest, which is a frail open cup constructed of sticks, vine tendrils and bark, lined with finer rootlets, twigs and grasses. The overall nest size varies considerably and can be quite large (up to 400 mm or more), with the egg cup about 100 mm in diameter and 60 mm deep. The nest is located in a concealed fork in a shrub, mangrove or tree from one to 10 metres above the ground. The nest may be at any distance from the male’s bower but is usually within 200 metres. Eggs The normal clutch consists of a single slightly glossy, pale cream egg, tinged with greenish-buff and heavily marked with fine scribbled lines of brown to black, more concentrated at the wider end. The egg measures about 41 × 28 mm, with those of the Australian birds marginally larger than those in New Guinea. Incubation and fledging The female incubates the egg alone. The exact incubation period is not known, but is probably similar to other related species. The nestling is fed mostly insects (including caterpillars) and fruit, and leaves the nest after 21 or more days. If a potential predator approaches the nest site, the female feigns injury in an attempt to lure it away.
Status and conservation Due to the species’s quiet and wary nature, many individuals may be easily overlooked. In some areas it is considered common to moderately common, while in other areas it is scarce. The IUCN Red List details the species status as Least Concern, due to its large range. The global population size has not been established, but the global trend for the population size is not considered to exceed the threshold for the population decline of greater than 30 per cent in 10 years or three generations.
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Top: Green Catbirds are easily distinguished by their bright green plumage and red eye. Photo: Graeme Chapman Bottom left: Both sexes of the Spotted Catbird have a conspicuous black patch below the eye. Photo: Peter Roberts Bottom right: The Tooth-billed Bowerbird is found in the tropical rainforest of north-eastern Queensland. Photo: Philip Green
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Top: Female Golden Bowerbirds are quite differently plumaged than the male, and were originally thought to be a separate species. Photo: Philip Green Bottom: The male Golden Bowerbird of Queensland’s north is glossed golden yellow-brown. Photo: Graeme Guy
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The Regent Bowerbird male is a striking bird, with deep black and rich golden-yellow plumage. Photo: Graeme Guy
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Top: Female and immature male Regent Bowerbirds are similarly plumaged, although the adult female has paler feathers on the front and sides of the head and a black patch on the crown. Photo: Graeme Guy Bottom: After their second year the immature male Regent Bowerbird’s bill and eye gradually turn yellowish and the birds attain their full adult plumage after six years. Photo: Philip Green
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The male Satin Bowerbird has glossy blue-black plumage and is perhaps the most well-known of Australia’s bowerbirds. Photo: Michael Seyfort
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Top: Female and young male Satin Bowerbirds are similarly coloured and are collectively referred to as ‘green’ birds. Photo: Graeme Guy Bottom: Immature male Satin Bowerbirds start to acquire the adult male’s plumage in their fifth year and complete the change at age seven. Photo: Philip Green
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Top: In Australia, the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird is restricted to far north Queensland, where it inhabits pockets of dense forest. Photo: Michael Seyfort Middle: Both male and female Spotted Bowerbirds are predominantly brown with bold buff spotting. Photo: Graeme Chapman Bottom: The Western Bowerbird is found throughout much of Western Australia and east to northern South Australia and the south of the Northern Territory. Photo: www.ataglance.com.au
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Top: The Great Bowerbird is the largest member of the family and is distributed throughout Australia’s north. Photo: Graeme Guy Bottom: The bright lilac-pink nuchal crest of the male Great Bowerbird is normally only visible during display. Photo: Michael Seyfort
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6 NEW GUINEA SPECIES SUPPLEMENT
White-eared Catbird Ailuroedus buccoides (Temminck, 1835) The White-eared Catbird measures 240 to 250 mm. This is a stocky green bird, darker olive-brown on the crown and with a conspicuous white patch below and behind the eye. The underparts are pale with profuse black spotting. Both sexes of these species are similar, although the female is slightly smaller. Immature birds have a slightly darker bill, but are otherwise similarly plumaged to the adults. The White-eared Catbird occupies dry and humid forests throughout lowland areas of the New Guinea mainland and the islands of Batanta, Japen, Salawati and Waigeo, up to 1200 metres above sea level, where it feeds largely on the fruits of Elaeocarpus sp. and Piper sp., as well as some insects and nestlings of other bird species. It is absent from the southern Trans-Fly region, where it is replaced by the Spotted Catbird (Ailuroedus melanotis). In areas where the two overlap, the latter species can be separated by its spotted crown and black and white facial markings. 113
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There are four subspecies of the White-eared Catbird, all occurring in New Guinea: A. b. buccoides, A. b. cinnamomeus, A. b. geislerorum and A. b. stonii, each of which vary slightly in size and colouration. The most common call is a hissing shhhhh. The male White-eared Catbird is not known to build a display bower, and pairs form monogamous bonds. Breeding appears to occur at any time of the year, and a single, unmarked, buff-cream egg is laid in a shallow nest. The incubation of the egg appears to be solely by the female and it hatches after around 20 days. The species is known as Agika, Buziba, Kabuas or Yaritagga by the local tribespeople of New Guinea and Burung kucing telinga putih by the people of Indonesia (Burung meaning Bird, kucing meaning Cat, telinga meaning ear, putih meaning white).
Macgregor’s Bowerbird Amblyornis macgregoriae De Vis, 1890 Macgregor’s Bowerbird measures 260 mm. The male is generally dark olive-brown, washed with orange on the crown, and with a large erectile orange and brown crest. The bill is dark blue-grey and the iris is brown. The female is slightly paler than the male and lacks the erectile crest. Immature birds are similar to the adult female, but subadults start to show a small crest as they mature. There are seven subspecies, all native to New Guinea: A. m. macgregoriae, A. m. amati, A. m. germanus, A. m. kombok, A. m. lecroyae, A. m. mayri and A. m. rubicola, which vary in size, depth of colour and amount of orange on the crown. The species inhabits rainforest in the mountains of New Guinea from 1050 to 2800 metres above sea level. The distributional range extends from the Weyland Mountains in the west, through the Oranje Mountains, the Owen Stanley Ranges and the Adelbert Mountains to the Huon Peninsula. The male builds a maypole bower, consisting of a cleared area around a small tree, with a number of sticks interwoven around the tree to a height of around five metres. The base of the tower and the ground surrounding it is covered in moss. The bower is usually located on sloping ground on or near a ridge top, and can be within 100 to 250 metres from neighbouring males. Males spend over half of the day at or near their bower and aggressively defend this area against other males. The male’s courtship display involves crestraising, wing-flapping, hopping between nearby trees and hiding from the female behind the central trees. After successful copulation the female performs all nest duties alone, while the promiscuous male breeds with other females. Rival males often disrupt courtship displays. Vocalisations 114
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include harsh calls, whistles and mimicry. Population threats include hunting of the males by local tribespeople for the birds’ crests, which are used for head-dresses, decorations or for trading, and logging of habitat. Local names include: Antau, Dakwalova, Fagan, Golova, Gorowa, Gullawalla, Hombodagwa, Kombok, Kumbuca, Kwnb, Larli, Onkena or Sombeng by the tribespeople of New Guinea; Burung namdur jumbai in Indonesian (Burung namdur meaning bowerbird, jumbai meaning tassel).
Streaked Bowerbird Amblyornis subalaris Sharpe, 1884 The Streaked Bowerbird measures 240 mm. The majority of the plumage is dark brown, washed with cinnamon on the upperparts, and paler on the underparts. The throat and upper breast have conspicuous paler streaks. The male has a dark orange erectile crest, which is reduced or absent in the females. The iris is dark brown and the bill is blue-grey. Immature birds are similar to the adult female, with the males developing the adult crest with age. The Streaked Bowerbird inhabits lowland humid forests between 650 and 1500 metres, along the southern side of the Owen Stanley Ranges and from the Angabunga River to Mount Simpson. The Streaked Bowerbird generally occurs at lower altitudes than the Macgregor’s Bowerbirds, but the two species have been recorded interbreeding where ranges overlap. The male Streaked Bowerbird is presumed to be polygynous and builds a maypole bower, built around a small tree, and with a dome-shaped roof. The bower is decorated with fruits, flowers, leaves and beetles. Little information exists on the courtship display, but it is reported to be similar to that of the Macgregor’s Bowerbird, but with the male displaying from inside the bower structure and the female observing from the outside. Threats to the species include loss of habitat from logging, mining and farming, and the associated clearing of areas for major roads.
Vogelkop Bowerbird Amblyornis inornatus (Schlegel, 1871) The Vokelkop Bowerbird measures 250 mm. Both sexes and the immatures of this species are similarly plumaged. The upperparts are dark cinnamonbrown and the underparts are paler cinnamon-buff. The bill is bluish-black and the iris is dark brown. The legs are bluish, more so in adult males. As the name suggests, the Vogelkop Bowerbird is found on the Vogelkop Peninsula, where it inhabits the rainforests of the Arfak Mountains, from 1200 metres above sea level. It is also found on the Fak Fak, Kumawa, 115
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Tamrau and Wandammen ranges, up to about 2000 metres above sea level. Birds feed on fruits and insects. The species has a varied vocal repertoire, including whistles, clicks, gurgles and rattles. It is also an expert mimic and copies the calls of birds, as well as other animals and human-related noises. The male Vogelkop Bowerbird is presumed to be polygynous, building a complex bower to entice females for breeding. In some areas the bower is a simple maypole, while in others it is a complex wigwam-style hut with one or more entrances, and built around one or two small saplings. The base of the maypole and the area outside the bower entrance has a brown moss carpet-like covering. The bower is decorated with fruits, flowers, beetle exoskeletons, feathers and fungi, which are grouped together in organised piles. Red, blue, black and orange coloured items dominate, but the colours vary between different populations. The decorations may be placed within the hut, but are most numerous on the moss platform outside. The male displays to the female on arrival at the bower, and sings to her while hiding behind the maypole or a pile of decorations. The hut serves as a kind of amplification chamber for his songs, which consist of both natural sounds and mimicry. Although the different populations of the Volgelkop Bowerbird are almost identical in plumage, because of the large difference in the types of bowers constructed, future research may well indicate the need to separate this species into two separate species. The species is known locally as Andom or Damdom by the people of the Tamrau Mountains, New Guinea and Burung serambi (Burung meaning bird and serambi meaning verandah) or Burung pintar (pintar meaning clever) in Indonesian.
Golden-fronted Bowerbird Amblyornis flavifrons Rothschild, 1895 The Golden-fronted Bowerbird measures 240 mm. The upperparts are reddish-brown on the back and rump, tending towards more olive-brown on the wings and tail. The underparts are cinnamon-buff and the undertail and underwings are greyish-buff. The head of the male is adorned with a striking orange-yellow crest. The bill is black and the iris is dark brown. The Golden-fronted Bowerbird is restricted to the Foya Mountains, Indonesian Papau, where it inhabits montane forest from 940 to 2000 metres. The species was described in 1895 from skins purchased from a trader, but was not observed in the wild until 1979. The Golden-fronted Bowerbird is a frugivore and feeds in the mid to upper levels of the forest. Vocalisations include screeches, rasps, wheezes, crackling sounds and 116
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mimicry. The male is presumed to be polygynous and builds a maypole bower, with sticks woven in a tower around the trunk of a thin tree. The base of the maypole is encircled by a moss mat, and is decorated with yellow, green and blue fruits. The only courtship display recorded saw the male singing to the female from a perch, while holding a whole fruit in his bill. The crest was raised and lowered intermittently and the male shook his head to ruffle his crest feathers. This courtship attempt was unsuccessful. The Foya Mountains are uninhabited and contained within the Foya Nature Reserve. Due to the remoteness of the species distribution, it is not considered to be under any immediate threats, despite its limited range.
Archbold’s Bowerbird Amblyornis papuensis (Rand, 1940) The Archbold’s Bowerbird measures 350–370 mm. The male is predominantly black, with a strikingly contrasting orange-yellow and black-streaked crest that extends from the bill to the nape. The eye is dark brown and the bill is black. The female is smaller than the male and the plumage is more brownishblack with faint black scallops on the back and greyish streaks on the crown and breast. The female lacks the orange-yellow crest, but has a small patch of reddish-buff midway along the leading edge of the wing. Immature birds are similar to the adult female, but the males tend to be darker, and with some yellow crest feathers appearing with age. There are two subspecies, both found in New Guinea. The nominate subspecies A. p. papuensis is found in central Indonesian Papau in the Weyland and Snow Mountains region, from about 2000 to 3600 metres. A. p. sanfordi is found from 1700–2800 metres in the Mount Hagen, Mount Giluwe and Tari Gap regions of central New Guinea. Both subspecies inhabit humid and frostaffected moss-forests. The males build a massive mat-type display bower, which is unique among the bowerbirds. The mat consists of a variable number of fern fronds spread over a large area of the forest floor. Above the mat are numerous low branches, which are decorated with orchids that form a ‘curtain’ that divides the court. The bower may be used for a number of years in succession. The polygynous male attracts prospective mates with loud advertisement calls given from a branch above the bower. Upon the arrival of a female, the calls become softer and the male descends to the mat to display. The male squats down in a horizontal posture on the mat, fans his crest slightly and shuffles in the direction of the female, who is perched above the bower. The male utters quiet calls and soft mimicry 117
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during display. If the female remains on the perch, the male raises his body slightly and swings his tail from side to side. If successful in courtship, copulation occurs on the mat and is followed by wing-fluttering by the female prior to departing. The female performs all parental duties alone. The Archbold’s Bowerbird, although moderately common in its patchy distribution, is at risk from logging, hunting and possible population fragmentation. The population as a whole is classified as Near Threatened. Locally known as Kera polgi in New Guinea and Burung namdur hitam in Indonesian.
Masked Bowerbird Sericulus aureus (Linnaeus, 1758) The Masked Bowerbird measures 240–250 mm. The male has a conspicuous silky orange crown, nape and upper back, which is strikingly contrasted by the black face, which extends from above the eye to the chin and throat. The feathers of the nape and upper back are elongated and highly glossed. The back and rump are orange-yellow and the wings are yellow, with outer flight feathers and tips to the secondaries brownish-black, which appear as a broad black line when the wing is folded. The tail is brownish-black with a narrow yellow tip. The underparts are almost entirely yellow, except for the undertail, which is blackish-brown, and a tiny patch of black on the sides of the breast. The bill is black, with a paler blue-grey base and the iris is yellow. The legs and feet are grey. The female is olive brown above and yellow below, with a large amount of brown scalloping on the upper breast, which becomes heavier on the chin and cheeks. The base colour of the face is pale olive-buff. The wings are more reddish-brown, with pale olive-buff leading edges and pale yellow tips on the primary flight feathers. In flight, the underwing is pale yellow faintly washed with orange, as is the undertail. The bill is grey-brown and the iris is brown. Immatures resemble the adult female but, as the older males start to acquire the adult male plumage, the underparts become bright yellow and the face turns black, followed by areas of the orange-yellow upperparts showing through the olive-brown. The Masked Bowerbird inhabits lowland and lower montane forests from 900 to 1400 metres, in north-western and central New Guinea from the Vogelkop Peninsula through the Weyland and Oranje Mountain ranges to about Mount Hagen and the Prince Alexander Mountains. The male is polygynous and builds a small avenue bower to display to different females. The bower is decorated with rounded fruits, which are placed within, and at either end of, the bower avenue. The species is locally known 118
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as Da doo, Kimied, Komeida or Komicha by the people of New Guinea, and Burung namdur emas in Indonesian.
Flame Bowerbird Sericulus ardens D’Albertis & Salvadori, 1879 The Flame Bowerbird measures 250–255 mm. The male of this species is striking and, apart from the black face, is similar in plumage to the Masked Bowerbird. The two species were in fact grouped together as a subspecies of the single species Flame Bowerbird, which may cause some confusion for people referring to different published accounts of these birds. The crown nape and upper back of the male is bright deep orange-red, and the wings are orange with contrasting black flight feathers. The rump is orange and the tail is black. The cheeks and upper breast are orange-red, and the throat, belly and flanks orange. The bill is pale yellowish and the legs and feet are black. The eye is orange. The female is olive-brown above, with some orange wash on the feathers of the mantle. The face is olivebuff, heavily washed with orange, and encircled by a narrow area of buffgrey, which extends to the chin. Throat and upper breast are yellowish-olive and the remainder of the underparts are yellow. The tail is slightly longer than that of the male. The immatures are similar to the adult female, but the males have progressively patchy amounts of orange-yellow plumage showing through with age. The male Flame Bowerbird is polygynous and builds a small avenue bower, consisting of two parallel walls of twigs built on top of a small mound. The sticks of the walls are curved and the insides are painted. The avenue is sparsely decorated with fruits, flowers and nuts. The species inhabits lowland rainforests up to about 760 metres above sea level. Its range extends from the base of the Weyland Mountains, east to Mount Bosavi. The southern limit of its distribution is yet to be determined. It feeds on fruit and insects. Locally the species is known as Bide or Sile.
Adelbert Bowerbird Sericulus bakeri (Chapin, 1929) The Adelbert Bowerbird measures 265–270 mm. The male is predominantly glossy deep blue-black, with a striking filamentous orange-red silky crown that drapes over the nape and mantle. The wing has a conspicuous yellow patch. The iris is pale yellow and the bill is black with a paler blue-grey base. The legs and feet are black. 119
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The female is olive-brown above, with paler buff-grey streaking on the face, head, upper back and upper wing coverts. The underparts are pale creamy-buff, heavily scalloped with darker olive-brown. The iris is dark brown and the bill is dark blackish-brown. The legs and feet are greybrown. The immature males are brownish above, lighter on the crown and much paler on the forehead and lores, becoming more reddish on the ear coverts. The chin and throat are pale buff, with some faint speckling. The remaining underparts are pale cream-buff, with irregular bars of blackishbrown, and yellowish-cream on the abdomen. The crest is absent, but the feathers on the nape are narrowed and slightly lengthened. The Adelbert Bowerbird inhabits humid montane forest from about 900 to 1400 metres above sea level, although it is less common below 1200 metres. The distribution is limited to the Adelbert Mountains of New Guinea. The species is considered Vulnerable, due to its limited range (about 570 km 2) and small population, and was previously listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. The male is polygynous and builds a small avenue bower to display to prospective mates. The bower is decorated with small round fruits and leaves, mostly grouped within the avenue. The courtship display of wild birds has not been documented, and there is no reliable information available on breeding and nesting. The calls consist of rasps and hisses and avian mimicry. The birds feed on fruits, predominantly figs, and insects such as ants. Locally the species is known as Adselei, Mooma, Orrau, Purian, Tema or Yserere, by the various tribes that inhabit the region.
Lauterbach’s Bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus lauterbachi (Reichenow, 1897) The Lauterbach’s Bowerbird measures 270 mm. The male is olive-brown above, with paler olive-buff edges to the feathers, which gives a scalloped and streaked appearance. The forehead, crown and nape are deep russet, and this colouration extends to just below the eye. The upper tail is brown with a greenish-yellow wash to the feathers, and with paler buff edges to the feathers. The underparts are dirty yellow, with olive-buff streaks on the throat. The iris is dark brown and the bill is black. The female is generally paler than the male and is more yellow on the crown. There are two subspecies: P. l. lauterbachi and P. l. uniformis, both of which are endemic to New Guinea. The two have different distributions and the latter subspecies is paler and lacks the russet colouration on the crown. 120
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New Guinea species supplement
Immatures resemble the adult female. The species is superficially similar to the Fawn-breasted Bowerbird, which shares part of its range, and may be mistaken in the field. The latter species is reddish-brown underneath rather than yellow, and lacks the russet crown. The species inhabits bushy grasslands, forests and forest edges, up to around 1800 metres above sea level. The Lauterbach’s Bowerbird is found in a narrow band through central Indonesian Papau from Geelvink Bay to the Ok Tedi River (C. l. uniformis) and then in the Northern Castal and Bismark ranges of central Papua New Guinea (C. l. lauterbachi). The male is polygynous and builds a unique fourwalled avenue bower. The avenue walls are constructed on the top of a platform of grasses and sticks. The grasses and sticks of the main avenue walls are curved outwards. At each end of the main avenue are the two remaining walls, which formed from the platform. The avenue walls are painted and the bower is decorated with blue, grey, green and red objects, including fruits, pebbles and seeds. The calls include rasping, churring and hissing sounds and mimicry. Locally, the species is known as Cell, Gen-nana-gun-gun, Kairo, Pi Ah Vu, Sel, Takagul or Till by the tribespeople of New Guinea and Burung namdur kuning muda in Indonesian.
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INDEX Page numbers in bold refer to illustrations or photographs
Aspen, White see Acronychia acronychioides Atricornis rufescens 73 Atricornithidae 11 Aviceda subcristata 52, 94 Azadirachta indica 94
Aboriginal 30, 50, 56, 63, 70, 78, 86, 92, 98 Acacia harpophylla 80 Acanthogenys rufogularis 88 Accipiter novaehollandiae 40, 52 Acronychia acronychioides 52 Adelbert Mountains 120 Ailuroedus 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 30, 31, 36 Ailuroedus buccoides see Catbird, White-eared buccoides see Catbird, White-eared cinnamomeus see Catbird, White-eared geisleronum see Catbird, White-eared stonii see Catbird, White-eared Ailuroedus crassirostris see Catbird, Green Ailuroedus melanotis see Catbird, Spotted joannae see Catbird, Spotted maculosus see Catbird, Spotted Alectryon subcinereus 66 Alisteris scapularis 51, 58 Alphitonia exelsia 66 Amblyornis 2, 7, 9, 10, 11 Amblyornis flavifrons see Bowerbird, Golden-fronted inornatus see Bowerbird, Vogelkop macgregoriae see Bowerbird, Macgregor’s amati see Bowerbird, Macgregor’s germanus see Bowerbird, Macgregor’s kombok see Bowerbird, Macgregor’s lecroyae see Bowerbird, Macgregor’s macgregoriae see Bowerbird, Macgregor’s mayri see Bowerbird, Macgregor’s rubicola see Bowerbird, Macgregor’s newtoniana see Bowerbird, Golden papuensis see Bowerbird, Archbold’s papuensis see Bowerbird, Archbold’s sanfordi see Bowerbird, Archbold’s subalaris see Bowerbird, Streaked anting 56 Apophyllum anomalum 80 Apostlebird see Struthidea cinerea Aquila audax 80, 94 Archboldia 11
Babbler, White-browed see Pomatostomus superciliosus Barnardius zonarius 88 Barrett, Charles 1 Baza, Pacific see Aviceda subcristata Bergmann, Karl George Lucas Christian 9 Bergmann’s Rule 9 bird-of-paradise 4, 11, 63 Black-Cockatoo, Glossy see Calyptorhynchus lathami Yellow-tailed see Calyptorhynchus funereus Bollygum, White see Neolitsea dealbata Boobialla, Mangrove see Myoporum acuminatum bower 2, 3, 8, 21–6 attendance by immature 21 complexity 8, 11, 22 construction 16 damage during copulation see bower, copulation at decorating 2, 3, 23, 24, 26, 42, 67, 75, 82, 96 defence 8 design 11, 21, 22 destruction 67, 75, 83, 102 evolution 21–6 material see construction objects see decorating origin 11, 24 ornaments see decorating painting 3, 25, 26 platform 44 site 17, 21 bower-building 1, 7, 24 bower, avenue 22, 23, 25 copulation at 26 court-type 23 hiding by male at 25 mat-type 2, 23 maypole 2, 23, 24, 25
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protection of female at 26 rudimentary 21 stage-type 22, 41 Bower Bird see Bowerbird Bowerbird, Adelbert 9, 10, 17, 28, 29, 114, 119–20 Archbold’s 2, 4, 9, 10, 17, 23, 25, 28, 117–8 Australian Regent see Regent Buff-breasted see Fawn-breasted Eastern see Great Fawn-breasted 4, 7, 10, 16, 22, 28, 29, 44, 91, 98–104, 111, 121 Flame 10, 28, 29, 119 Golden 9, 10, 12, 16, 23, 24, 27, 28, 41, 55–62, 106 Golden-fronted 10, 15, 29, 116–7 Great 9, 10, 16, 28, 43, 48, 80, 85, 86, 91–8, 101, 112 Great Grey see Great Guttated see Western Large-spotted see Western Lauterbach’s 10, 24, 29, 98, 120–1 Lesser Satin see Satin Lilac-naped see Great Macgregor’s 9, 10, 29, 45, 114–5, 115 Masked 4, 10, 28, 29, 118–9, 119 Meyer’s see Fawn-breasted Newton’s see Golden Northern Satin see Satin Pale-spotted see Western Queensland see Great Rawnsley’s 4–5 Regent 4, 5, 9, 10, 16, 27, 28, 43, 46, 62–9, 107, 108 Satin 3, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 23, 25, 26, 27, 42, 43, 47, 67, 70–8, 109, 110 Spotted 10, 16, 23, 25, 28, 44, 78–85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 111 Streaked 10, 29, 115 Stage-maker see Tooth-billed Tooth-billed 10, 16, 22, 23, 25, 28, 41, 49–55, 105 Vogelkop 1, 2, 10, 24, 26, 29, 45, 115–6 Western see Great Western Great see Great Yellow-fronted see Golden-fronted Yellow-spotted see Western Bower-Bird see Bowerbird
Brachychiton populneus 82 Brigalow see Acacia harpophylla Bush, Currant see Apophyllum anomalum Turkey see Eremophila deserti Warrior see Apophyllum anomalum bushfire 17, 85, 98 Butcherbird, Black see Cracticus quoyi Black-backed see Cracticus mentalis Grey see Cracticus torquatus Pied see Cracticus nigrogularis Cabanis, Jean Louis 30, 36 Cacatua galerita 58, 72, 100 Cacomantis flabelliformis 52, 73 Calyptorhynchus funereus 72 lathami 72 Canthium oleifolium 80 Capparis mitchellii 81 Carissa lenceolata 81 Carpentaria acuminata 94 Carpentaria Palm see Carpentaria acuminata Cat Bird see Catbird Catbird, Arfak Mountain see Spotted Australasian see Spotted Barbet-like see Spotted Black-cheeked see Spotted Black-naped see Spotted Black-eared see Spotted Green 10, 12, 12, 16, 27, 36–40, 49, 70, 105 Jobi-Island see Spotted Large-billed see Green Queensland see Spotted Spotted 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, 27, 28, 30–5, 101, 105, 113 Tooth-billed see Bowerbird, Tooth-billed White-eared 10, 28, 113–4 catbirds 2, 4, 7, 8, 22 Cat-Bird see Catbird Cedar, White see Melia azedarock Celastrus subspicata 66 cerebellum 8, 22 Chlamydera 11, 78, 99, 103 Chowchilla see Orthonyx spaldingii Cissus antarcticus 102 Citriobatus spinescens 66 classification 7–14 climate change 16, 35, 49, 55, 62, 78 Cockatoo, Sulphur-crested see Cacatua galerita
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Index
Coleman see Bowerbird, Golden Columba leucomela 58 Colluricincla boweri 51, 58 harmonica 73 Conker Berry see Carissa lanceolata conservation 15–20 conservation covenant 19 Conservation International 19 copulation 26, 46 copulation, forced 26 Coracina novaehollandiae 88 Coral Berry see Rivina humilis Cormobates leucophaea 73 Corvidae 11 Corvus bennetti 88 orru 72 Corycymbicola mestoni 56 courtship, carrying of food during 34, 40 Cracticus mentalis 100 nigrogularis 73, 88 tibicen 73, 80 torquatus 80 quoyi 51 Crow, Little see Corvus bennetti Torresian see Corvus orru Cuckoo, Fan-tailed see Cacomantis flabelliformis Cuckoo-shrike, Black-faced see Coracina novaehollandiae Currawong, Pied see Strepera graculina
Eagle, Wedge-tailed see Aquila audax Eclectus roratus 100 Elaeocarpus foveolatus 52 obvatus 66 sp. 33, 62, 113 Elderberry Panax see Polyscias sambucifolia Entomyzon cyanotis 94 Eopsaltria australis 52 Eremophila deserti 81 Eurystomus orientalis 52 Fairy-wren, Superb see Malurus cyaneus Falco berigora 88 Falcon, Brown see Falco berigora Felis domesticus 78, 85, 91, 98 feral animals 17, 85 feral cat see Felis domesticus Ficus, benjemina 94 coronata 74 destruens 52 macrophylla 66 platypoda 66, 88, 89, 94 racemosa 94 spp. 33 superba 66, 74 watkinsiana 39, 52, 66, 74 Finger Cherry see Rhodonyrtus macrocarpus Fig, Deciduous see Ficus superba Moreton Bay see Ficus macrophylla Rock see Ficus platypoda Sandpaper see Ficus coronata Stem-fruit see Ficus racemosa Strangler see Ficus watkinsiana Weeping see Ficus benjemina fire see bushfire forced copulation 26 fossil record 15 Fox see Vulpes vulpes Friarbird, Noisy see Philemon corniculatus Fruit-Dove, Wompoo see Ptilinopus magnificus
Dacelo leachii 80, 88, 100 novaeguineae 72, 94 Darwin, Charles 21 De Vis, Charles Walter 56 decorating see bower decorating Dendrocnide excelsa 66 spp. 33 Dicrurus bracteatus 52 Diploglottis australis 66 Diggles, Sylvester 4 display area 21, 22 display, use of ornaments during 46, 48, 68, 76, 83, 96 distraction see predation at nest hiding during 25, 61, 97 DNA see classification Dollarbird see Eurystomus orientalis Drongo, Spangled see Dicrurus bracteatus
Gardener, Golden see Bowerbird, Golden Queensland see Bowerbird, Golden Gerygone, Brown see Gerygone mouki Gerygone mouki 58 Gilliard, Ernest Thomas 31 global warming see climate change Goshawk, Grey see Accipiter novaehollandiae
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Bowerbirds
Gould, John 78, 86, 93, 99 Gourd, Snake see Trichosanthes cucumerina Grallina cyanoleuca 52 Grape, Native see Cissus antarcticus Gray, George Robert 30 Gregory, Francis Thomas 86 Grevillea, Fern-leaved see Grevillea pteridifolia Grevillea pteridifolia 95
lachrymal 13 Lanius crassirostris 36 Lantana see Lantana camara Lantana camara 66 Leaf-turner see Bowerbird, Tooth-billed Lemon, Wild see Canthium oleifolium Lewin, John William 63 Lichenostomus frenatus 51, 58 virescens 88 logging see habitat loss Logrunner see Orthonyx temminckii Loranthaceae see mistletoe Lyrebird, Albert’s see Menura alberti Superb see Menura novaehollandiae
habitat and climate change see climate change and distribution 15–20 clearance see habitat loss conservation see conservation fragmentation 55 loss 15–8, 35, 49, 55, 62, 69, 77, 78, 115, 118 preference 16 protection see conservation reduction 15 Haliastur sphenurus 80, 88, 94 Hazelwood, Bluff see Sympocos cochinchinensis Heteromyias cinereifrons 34, 52, 58 Honeyeater, Blue-faced see Entomyzon cyanotis Bridled see Lichenostomus frenatus Lewin’s see Meliphaga lewenii Singing see Lichenostomus virescens Spiny-cheeked Acanthagenys rufogularis Honeysucker, King see Bowerbird, Regent human habitation 3, 42, 75, 96
MacGillivray, John 99 Magpie, Australian see Cracticus tibicen Magpie-lark see Grallina cyanoleuca Malurus cyaneus 75 Manorina flavigula 88 melanocephalus 80 mate selection 8–9, 22, 75 Macleay, William 92 Mathews, Gregory MaCalister 31, 65, 87 Mayr, Ernst 4 Megapodius reinwardt 100 Melia azedarock 81 Meliphaga chrysocephala 63 lewinii 51, 72 Menura alberti 73 novaehollandiae 73 Menuridae 11, 13 Meyer de Scauensee, Rudolf 4 Milvus migrans 94 mimic see mimicry mimicry 13, 32, 38, 51, 52, 54, 58, 61, 65, 68, 72, 73, 76, 78, 80, 83, 84, 88, 90, 91, 94, 97, 100, 101, 103, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121 Miner, Noisy see Manorina melanocephalus Yellow-throated see Manornia flavigula mining see habitat loss mistletoe 69, 76, 84, 89, 90, 97 Monarch, Spectacled see Symposiarchus trivirgatus Monitor, Lace see Varanus varius monogamy 7, 8, 9 Morelia spilotes 40 Morinda umbellate 58 morphology 7–14
Inkweed see Phytolacca octandra itelligence as basis for mate selection see mate selection IUCN Red List 17, 49, 55, 62, 85, 98, 104, 120 Jardine, William 92 Johnstone, Robert 50 key threatening processes see conservation King George IV 63 King-Parrot, Australian see Alisteris scapularis Kite, Black see Milvus migrans Whistling see Haliastur sphenurus Kookaburra, Blue-winged see Dacelo leachii Laughing see Dacelo novaeguineae Kuhl, Heinrich 36 Kurrajong see Bracychiton populneus
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Index
postorbital process 12, 13 predation at nest 35, 40, 49, 74, 77, 84, 88, 94, 100, 104 Prince Regent 63 Prionodura 11, 55, 56 Psophodes olivaceus 58 Ptilinopus magnificus 34 Ptilonorhynchidae 1, 7 Ptilonorhynchus 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12 cerviniventris see Bowerbird, Fawnbreasted guttata see Bowerbird, Western carteri see Bowerbird, Western guttata see Bowerbird, Western lauterbachi see Bowerbird, Lauterbach’s lauterbachi see Bowerbird, Lauterbach’s uniformis see Bowerbird, Lauterbach’s maculate see Bowerbird, Spotted nuchalis see Bowerbird, Great rawnsleyi see Bowerbird, Rawnsley’s violaceus see Bowerbird, Satin minor see Bowerbird, Satin violaceus see Bowerbird, Satin Ptiloris paradiseus 73 Purple Satin see Bowerbird, Satin Python, Carpet see Morelia spilotes
Mulberry, Common Indian see Morinda umbellate Myoporum acuminatum 81 Myrtle, Silver see Rhodamnia argentea Neolitsea dealbata 66 Newton, Alfred 56 objects, use of man-made see bower decorating Ocyphaps lophotes 80 Olea paniculata 66 Olive, Native see Olea paniculata Orange, Native see Capparis mitchellii ornament theft 3, 23, 60, 75, 83, 96 ornaments see bower decorating Orthonyx spaldingii 34, 58 temminckii 73 Pachycephala pectoralis 51, 73 paint see bower painting paint as sexual stimulant 26 Panax, Elderberry see Polyscias sambucifolia Paradisaeidae 11 Parrot, Eclectus see Eclectus roratus Paykull, Gustaff von 36 Philemon corniculatus 100 Phytolacca octandra 66 Pigeon, Crested see Ocyphaps lophotes White-headed see Columba leucomela Piper novaehollandiae 58, 66 sp. 113 Pitta, Noisy see Pitta versicolor Pitta versicolor 34, 58 Platycercus elegans 73, 75 plumage and bower complexity 4, 26 and classification 11, 12 as basis for mate selection see mate selection and habitat 9, 11 as indicator of evolutionary development 11 brightness 3, 11 colouration and ornament selection 3 dimorphism 11 polygyny 8 Polyscias sambucifolia 66 spp. 58 Pomatostomus superciliosus 88
Quandong see Elaeocarpus sp. Quandong, Hard see Elaeocarpus obovatus White see Elaeocarpus foveolatus Quince, Native see Alectryon subcinereus Ramsay, Edward Pierson 31, 50 Rawnsley, Henry Charles 4 Regent Bird see Regentbird Regent, Golden see Bowerbird, Regent Regentbird, Australian see Bowerbird, Regent Northern see Bowerbird, Regent Regent-bird see Regentbird Rhipidura leucophrys 100 Rhodamnia argentea 66 Rhodomyrtus macrocarpus 33 Riflebird, Paradise see Ptiloris paradiseus Ringneck, Australian see Barnardius zonarius Ripogonum album 52, 58 Rivina humilis 66 Robin, EasternYellow see Eopsaltria australis Grey-headed see Heteromyias cinereifrons
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Bowerbirds
Rosella, Crimson see Platycercus elegans
Stagemaker see Bowerbird, Tooth-billed Stinging Tree see Dendrocnide spp. Stinging Tree, Giant see Dendrocnide exelsa Strepera graculina 52, 58, 74, 77 Struthidea cinerea 80 Supplejack, White see Ripogonum album Swainson, William John 63 Sympocos cochinchinensis 52 Symposiarchus trivirgatus 58, 65 Syzygium johnsonii 52
Sandalwood see Santalum spicatum Santalum spicatum 89 Satin Bird see Satinbird Satin Grackle see Bowerbird, Satin Satinash, Johnson’s see Syzygium johnsonii Satinbird see Bowerbird, Satin Satin-bird see Satinbird Scenopoeetes 7, 10, 11, 22, 50 Scenopoeetes dentirostris see Bowerbird, Tooth-billed Schinus molle 81 Scrub-bird, Rufous see Atrichornis rufescens Scrubfowl, Orange-footed see Magapodius reinwardt Scrubwren, Large-billed see Sericornis magnirostris White-browed see Sericornis frontalis Yellow-throated see Sericornis citreogularis Selby, Prideaux John 92 Sericornis citreogularis 51, 58 frontalis 65, 73 magnirostra 52, 58 Sericulus 2, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 63 ardens see Bowerbird, Flame aureus see Bowerbird Masked bakeri see Bowerbird, Adelbert chrysocephalus see Bowerbird, Regent chrysocephalus see Bowerbird, Regent rothschildi see Bowerbird, Regent sexual behaviour 21–6 selection see mate selection Shrike-thrush, Bower’s see Colluricincla boweri Grey see Colluricincla harmonica Soap Tree see Alphitonia exelsia
Tamarind, Native see Diploglottis australis temporalis fossae 12, 12, 22 threat reduction theory 25 Tokatakiya Nature Refuge 49, 69 Tooth bill see Bowerbird, Tooth-billed Toothbill see Bowerbird, Tooth-billed Tree, Neem see Azadirachta indica Peppercorn see Schinus molle Treecreeper, White-throated see Cormobates leucophaea Trichosanthes cucumerina 89 Varanus varius 40 Vieillot, Jean Pierre 70 Vine, Giant Pepper see Piper novaehollandiae Kangaroo see Cissus antarcticus Large Staff see Celastrus subspicata vine thicket 15, 40, 94, 101 Wagtail, Willie see Rhipidura leucophrys Wallaby Apple see Citriobatus spinescens Wallace, Alfred Russel 30 Whipbird, Eastern see Psophodes olivaceus Whistler, Golden see Pachycephala pectoralis zygomatic process 12, 13
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