C# 2010 for Programmers (4th Edition) (Deitel Developer Series)

C# 2010 FOR PROGRAMMERS FOURTH EDITION DEITEL® DEVELOPER SERIES

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data On file © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission must be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permissions, write to: Pearson Education, Inc. Rights and Contracts Department 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900 Boston, MA 02116 Fax (617) 671-3447 ISBN-13: 978-0-13261820-5 ISBN-10: 0-13-261820-6

Text printed in the United States on recycled paper at RR Donnelley in Crawfordsville, Indiana. First printing, October 2010

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C# 2010 FOR PROGRAMMERS FOURTH EDITION DEITEL® DEVELOPER SERIES

Paul Deitel Deitel & Associates, Inc. Harvey Deitel Deitel & Associates, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ • Boston • Indianapolis • San Francisco New York • Toronto • Montreal • London • Munich • Paris • Madrid Capetown • Sydney • Tokyo • Singapore • Mexico City

Trademarks DEITEL, the double-thumbs-up bug and Dive Into are registered trademarks of Deitel & Associates, Inc. Microsoft, Windows, Silverlight, SQL Server, Visual Studio, Visual Basic, Visual C# and Visual Web Developer are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries.

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To Anders Hejlsberg, Chief Designer of Microsoft’s C# Programming Language Paul and Harvey Deitel

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Contents Preface

xxi

Before You Begin

xxxiv

1

Introduction

1

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10

Introduction Microsoft’s Windows® Operating System C, C++, Objective-C and Java C# Extensible Markup Language (XML) Introduction to Microsoft .NET The .NET Framework and the Common Language Runtime Test-Driving the Advanced Painter Application Introduction to Object Technology Wrap-Up

2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 8 10

2

Dive Into® Visual C# 2010 Express

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

2.7 2.8

Introduction Overview of the Visual Studio 2010 IDE Menu Bar and Toolbar Navigating the Visual Studio IDE 2.4.1 Solution Explorer 2.4.2 Toolbox 2.4.3 Properties Window Using Help Using Visual Programming to Create a Simple Program that Displays Text and an Image Wrap-Up Web Resources

3

Introduction to C# Applications

3.1 3.2

Introduction A Simple C# Application: Displaying a Line of Text

2.5 2.6

11 12 12 17 19 21 22 23 24 27 38 39

40 41 41

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Contents

3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

Creating a Simple Application in Visual C# Express Modifying Your Simple C# Application Formatting Text with Console.Write and Console.WriteLine Another C# Application: Adding Integers Arithmetic Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators Wrap-Up

46 53 56 57 59 61 65

4

Introduction to Classes and Objects

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12

Introduction Classes, Objects, Methods, Properties and Instance Variables Declaring a Class with a Method and Instantiating an Object of a Class Declaring a Method with a Parameter Instance Variables and Properties UML Class Diagram with a Property Software Engineering with Properties and set and get Accessors Auto-Implemented Properties Value Types vs. Reference Types Initializing Objects with Constructors Floating-Point Numbers and Type decimal Wrap-Up

5

Control Statements: Part 1

94

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12

Introduction Control Structures if Single-Selection Statement if…else Double-Selection Statement while Repetition Statement Counter-Controlled Repetition Sentinel-Controlled Repetition Nested Control Statements Compound Assignment Operators Increment and Decrement Operators Simple Types Wrap-Up

95 95 97 98 102 103 107 112 115 115 118 119

6

Control Statements: Part 2

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

Introduction Essentials of Counter-Controlled Repetition for Repetition Statement Examples Using the for Statement do…while Repetition Statement switch Multiple-Selection Statement

66 67 67 68 72 75 80 81 82 83 84 87 93

120 121 121 122 127 131 132

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Contents

ix 140 142 148

6.7 6.8 6.9

break

and continue Statements Logical Operators Wrap-Up

7

Methods: A Deeper Look

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17

Introduction Packaging Code in C# static Methods, static Variables and Class Math Declaring Methods with Multiple Parameters Notes on Declaring and Using Methods Method-Call Stack and Activation Records Argument Promotion and Casting The .NET Framework Class Library Case Study: Random-Number Generation 7.9.1 Scaling and Shifting Random Numbers 7.9.2 Random-Number Repeatability for Testing and Debugging Case Study: A Game of Chance (Introducing Enumerations) Scope of Declarations Method Overloading Optional Parameters Named Parameters Recursion Passing Arguments: Pass-by-Value vs. Pass-by-Reference Wrap-Up

8

Arrays

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14

Introduction Arrays Declaring and Creating Arrays Examples Using Arrays Case Study: Card Shuffling and Dealing Simulation foreach Statement Passing Arrays and Array Elements to Methods Passing Arrays by Value and by Reference Case Study: Class GradeBook Using an Array to Store Grades Multidimensional Arrays Case Study: GradeBook Using a Rectangular Array Variable-Length Argument Lists Using Command-Line Arguments Wrap-Up

9

Introduction to LINQ and the List Collection 232

9.1

Introduction

149 150 150 151 154 157 158 159 160 162 166 166 167 172 174 177 178 179 182 185

187 188 188 189 190 199 203 205 208 212 217 222 227 229 231

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x

Contents

9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7

Querying an Array of int Values Using LINQ Querying an Array of Employee Objects Using LINQ Introduction to Collections Querying a Generic Collection Using LINQ Wrap-Up Deitel LINQ Resource Center

10

Classes and Objects: A Deeper Look

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21

Introduction Time Class Case Study Controlling Access to Members Referring to the Current Object’s Members with the this Reference Indexers Time Class Case Study: Overloaded Constructors Default and Parameterless Constructors Composition Garbage Collection and Destructors static Class Members readonly Instance Variables Data Abstraction and Encapsulation Time Class Case Study: Creating Class Libraries internal Access Class View and Object Browser Object Initializers Time Class Case Study: Extension Methods Delegates Lambda Expressions Anonymous Types Wrap-Up

11

Object-Oriented Programming: Inheritance

11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4

Introduction Base Classes and Derived Classes protected Members Relationship between Base Classes and Derived Classes 11.4.1 Creating and Using a CommissionEmployee Class 11.4.2 Creating a BasePlusCommissionEmployee Class without Using Inheritance 11.4.3 Creating a CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee Inheritance Hierarchy 11.4.4 CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee Inheritance Hierarchy Using protected Instance Variables 11.4.5 CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee Inheritance Hierarchy Using private Instance Variables Constructors in Derived Classes

11.5

234 238 243 246 248 248

249 250 250 254 255 257 261 267 267 270 271 275 276 277 282 283 285 288 291 293 296 298

300 301 302 304 305 305 311 316 319 323 329

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Contents 11.6 11.7 11.8

Software Engineering with Inheritance Class object Wrap-Up

12

OOP: Polymorphism, Interfaces and Operator Overloading

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5

329 330 331

332

Introduction Polymorphism Examples Demonstrating Polymorphic Behavior Abstract Classes and Methods Case Study: Payroll System Using Polymorphism 12.5.1 Creating Abstract Base Class Employee 12.5.2 Creating Concrete Derived Class SalariedEmployee 12.5.3 Creating Concrete Derived Class HourlyEmployee 12.5.4 Creating Concrete Derived Class CommissionEmployee 12.5.5 Creating Indirect Concrete Derived Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee

12.8 12.9

12.5.6 Polymorphic Processing, Operator is and Downcasting 12.5.7 Summary of the Allowed Assignments Between Base-Class and Derived-Class Variables sealed Methods and Classes Case Study: Creating and Using Interfaces 12.7.1 Developing an IPayable Hierarchy 12.7.2 Declaring Interface IPayable 12.7.3 Creating Class Invoice 12.7.4 Modifying Class Employee to Implement Interface IPayable 12.7.5 Modifying Class SalariedEmployee for Use with IPayable 12.7.6 Using Interface IPayable to Process Invoices and Employees Polymorphically 12.7.7 Common Interfaces of the .NET Framework Class Library Operator Overloading Wrap-Up

13

Exception Handling

13.1 13.2 13.3

Introduction Example: Divide by Zero without Exception Handling Example: Handling DivideByZeroExceptions and FormatExceptions 13.3.1 Enclosing Code in a try Block 13.3.2 Catching Exceptions 13.3.3 Uncaught Exceptions 13.3.4 Termination Model of Exception Handling 13.3.5 Flow of Control When Exceptions Occur .NET Exception Hierarchy 13.4.1 Class SystemException 13.4.2 Determining Which Exceptions a Method Throws

12.6 12.7

13.4

xi

333 335 336 339 341 342 345 346 348 349 351 356 357 357 359 360 360 362 363 365 367 368 371

372 373 373 376 378 379 379 380 381 381 381 382

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xii

Contents

13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9

finally Block The using Statement Exception Properties User-Defined Exception Classes Wrap-Up

14

Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 1

14.1 14.2 14.3

14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13

15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15

Introduction Windows Forms Event Handling 14.3.1 A Simple Event-Driven GUI 14.3.2 Visual Studio Generated GUI Code 14.3.3 Delegates and the Event-Handling Mechanism 14.3.4 Another Way to Create Event Handlers 14.3.5 Locating Event Information Control Properties and Layout Labels, TextBoxes and Buttons GroupBoxes and Panels CheckBoxes and RadioButtons PictureBoxes ToolTips NumericUpDown Control Mouse-Event Handling Keyboard-Event Handling Wrap-Up

Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 2 Introduction Menus Control Control LinkLabel Control ListBox Control CheckedListBox Control ComboBox Control TreeView Control ListView Control TabControl Control Multiple Document Interface (MDI) Windows Visual Inheritance User-Defined Controls Wrap-Up MonthCalendar

DateTimePicker

383 389 390 395 398

399 400 401 403 403 405 407 408 408 410 414 417 420 428 430 432 434 437 440

441 442 442 451 452 455 459 463 466 470 475 481 486 493 498 502

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Contents

16

Strings and Characters

16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11

16.16

Introduction Fundamentals of Characters and Strings string Constructors string Indexer, Length Property and CopyTo Method Comparing strings Locating Characters and Substrings in strings Extracting Substrings from strings Concatenating strings Miscellaneous string Methods Class StringBuilder Length and Capacity Properties, EnsureCapacity Method and Indexer of Class StringBuilder Append and AppendFormat Methods of Class StringBuilder Insert, Remove and Replace Methods of Class StringBuilder Char Methods Regular Expressions 16.15.1 Simple Regular Expressions and Class Regex 16.15.2 Complex Regular Expressions 16.15.3 Validating User Input with Regular Expressions and LINQ 16.15.4 Regex Methods Replace and Split Wrap-Up

17

Files and Streams

17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 17.10 17.11

Introduction Data Hierarchy Files and Streams Classes File and Directory Creating a Sequential-Access Text File Reading Data from a Sequential-Access Text File Case Study: Credit Inquiry Program Serialization Creating a Sequential-Access File Using Object Serialization Reading and Deserializing Data from a Binary File Wrap-Up

18

Databases and LINQ

18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5

Introduction Relational Databases A Books Database LINQ to SQL Querying a Database with LINQ 18.5.1 Creating LINQ to SQL Classes 18.5.2 Data Bindings Between Controls and the LINQ to SQL Classes

16.12 16.13 16.14 16.15

xiii

504 505 506 507 508 509 512 515 516 517 518 519 521 523 526 528 529 534 535 540 542

543 544 544 546 547 556 565 569 575 576 580 582

584 585 586 587 590 591 592 595

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xiv

Contents

18.6

Dynamically Binding Query Results 18.6.1 Creating the Display Query Results GUI 18.6.2 Coding the Display Query Results Application 18.7 Retrieving Data from Multiple Tables with LINQ 18.8 Creating a Master/Detail View Application 18.8.1 Creating the Master/Detail GUI 18.8.2 Coding the Master/Detail Application 18.9 Address Book Case Study 18.9.1 Creating the Address Book Application’s GUI 18.9.2 Coding the Address Book Application 18.10 Tools and Web Resources 18.11 Wrap-Up

19

599 600 600 602 608 609 610 613 615 616 618 619

Web App Development with ASP.NET

19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4

Introduction Web Basics Multitier Application Architecture Your First Web Application 19.4.1 Building the WebTime Application 19.4.2 Examining WebTime.aspx’s Code-Behind File 19.5 Standard Web Controls: Designing a Form 19.6 Validation Controls 19.7 Session Tracking 19.7.1 Cookies 19.7.2 Session Tracking with HttpSessionState 19.7.3 Options.aspx: Selecting a Programming Language 19.7.4 Recommendations.aspx: Displaying Recommendations Based on Session Values 19.8 Case Study: Database-Driven ASP.NET Guestbook 19.8.1 Building a Web Form that Displays Data from a Database 19.8.2 Modifying the Code-Behind File for the Guestbook Application 19.9 Case Study: ASP.NET AJAX 19.10 Case Study: Password-Protected Books Database Application 19.11 Wrap-Up

20

Searching and Sorting

20.1 20.2

Introduction Searching Algorithms 20.2.1 Linear Search 20.2.2 Binary Search Sorting Algorithms 20.3.1 Selection Sort 20.3.2 Insertion Sort 20.3.3 Merge Sort

20.3

620 621 622 623 625 627 636 636 641 647 648 649 652 655 657 659 662 664 664 664

666 667 667 668 672 677 677 681 685

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Contents 20.4 20.5

Summary of the Efficiency of Searching and Sorting Algorithms Wrap-Up

21

Data Structures

21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8

Introduction Simple-Type structs, Boxing and Unboxing Self-Referential Classes Linked Lists Stacks Queues Trees 21.7.1 Binary Search Tree of Integer Values 21.7.2 Binary Search Tree of IComparable Objects Wrap-Up

22

Generics

22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7

Introduction Motivation for Generic Methods Generic-Method Implementation Type Constraints Overloading Generic Methods Generic Classes Wrap-Up

23

Collections

23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4

23.6 23.7

Introduction Collections Overview Class Array and Enumerators Nongeneric Collections 23.4.1 Class ArrayList 23.4.2 Class Stack 23.4.3 Class Hashtable Generic Collections 23.5.1 Generic Class SortedDictionary 23.5.2 Generic Class LinkedList Covariance and Contravariance for Generic Types Wrap-Up

24

GUI with Windows Presentation Foundation

24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5

Introduction Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) XML Basics Structuring Data XML Namespaces

23.5

xv 691 691

692 693 693 694 695 708 712 715 716 723 728

730 731 732 734 737 739 740 749

751 752 752 755 758 758 762 765 770 770 772 776 778

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xvi 24.6 24.7 24.8

Contents

24.9 24.10 24.11 24.12 24.13 24.14 24.15 24.16 24.17

Declarative GUI Programming Using XAML Creating a WPF Application in Visual C# Express Laying Out Controls 24.8.1 General Layout Principles 24.8.2 Layout in Action Event Handling Commands and Common Application Tasks WPF GUI Customization Using Styles to Change the Appearance of Controls Customizing Windows Defining a Control’s Appearance with Control Templates Data-Driven GUIs with Data Binding Wrap-Up Web Resources

25

WPF Graphics and Multimedia

25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 25.8 25.9 25.10 25.11

Introduction Controlling Fonts Basic Shapes Polygons and Polylines Brushes Transforms WPF Customization: A Television GUI Animations (Optional) 3-D Objects and Transforms Speech Synthesis and Speech Recognition Wrap-Up

26

XML and LINQ to XML

26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 26.8 26.9 26.10

Introduction Document Type Definitions (DTDs) W3C XML Schema Documents Extensible Stylesheet Language and XSL Transformations LINQ to XML: Document Object Model (DOM) LINQ to XML Class Hierarchy LINQ to XML: Namespaces and Creating Documents XSLT with Class XslCompiledTransform Wrap-Up Web Resources

27

Web App Development with ASP.NET: A Deeper Look

27.1 27.2

795 796 798 798 799 804 812 816 817 823 826 831 837 838

839 840 840 842 843 847 853 855 864 867 873 880

881 882 882 886 893 902 906 915 918 920 920

Introduction Case Study: Password-Protected Books Database Application

921 922 922

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Contents 27.2.1 27.2.2 27.2.3 27.2.4 27.2.5

27.4

Examining the ASP.NET Web Site Template Test-Driving the Completed Application Configuring the Website Modifying the Default.aspx and About.aspx Pages Creating a Content Page That Only Authenticated Users Can Access 27.2.6 Linking from the Default.aspx Page to the Books.aspx Page 27.2.7 Modifying the Master Page (Site.master) 27.2.8 Customizing the Password-Protected Books.aspx Page ASP.NET Ajax 27.3.1 Traditional Web Applications 27.3.2 Ajax Web Applications 27.3.3 Testing an ASP.NET Ajax Application 27.3.4 The ASP.NET Ajax Control Toolkit 27.3.5 Using Controls from the Ajax Control Toolkit Wrap-Up

28

Web Services

27.3

28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6

xvii 923 925 927 930 931 932 933 935 940 940 941 942 943 944 947

948

Introduction WCF Services Basics Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) Representational State Transfer (REST) JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) Publishing and Consuming SOAP-Based WCF Web Services 28.6.1 Creating a WCF Web Service 28.6.2 Code for the WelcomeSOAPXMLService 28.6.3 Building a SOAP WCF Web Service 28.6.4 Deploying the WelcomeSOAPXMLService 28.6.5 Creating a Client to Consume the WelcomeSOAPXMLService 28.6.6 Consuming the WelcomeSOAPXMLService 28.7 Publishing and Consuming REST-Based XML Web Services 28.7.1 HTTP get and post Requests 28.7.2 Creating a REST-Based XML WCF Web Service 28.7.3 Consuming a REST-Based XML WCF Web Service 28.8 Publishing and Consuming REST-Based JSON Web Services 28.8.1 Creating a REST-Based JSON WCF Web Service 28.8.2 Consuming a REST-Based JSON WCF Web Service 28.9 Blackjack Web Service: Using Session Tracking in a SOAP-Based WCF Web Service 28.9.1 Creating a Blackjack Web Service 28.9.2 Consuming the Blackjack Web Service 28.10 Airline Reservation Web Service: Database Access and Invoking a Service from ASP.NET 28.11 Equation Generator: Returning User-Defined Types 28.11.1 Creating the REST-Based XML EquationGenerator Web Service 28.11.2 Consuming the REST-Based XML EquationGenerator Web Service

949 950 950 951 951 952 952 952 953 955 956 958 960 960 960 963 964 964 966 968 968 973 982 986 989 990

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Contents

28.11.3 Creating the REST-Based JSON WCF EquationGenerator Web Service 28.11.4 Consuming the REST-Based JSON WCF EquationGenerator Web Service 28.12 Wrap-Up 28.13 Deitel Web Services Resource Centers

29

Silverlight and Rich Internet Applications

29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4

Introduction Platform Overview Silverlight Runtime and Tools Installation Building a Silverlight WeatherViewer Application 29.4.1 GUI Layout 29.4.2 Obtaining and Displaying Weather Forecast Data 29.4.3 Custom Controls Animations and the FlickrViewer Images and Deep Zoom 29.6.1 Getting Started With Deep Zoom Composer 29.6.2 Creating a Silverlight Deep Zoom Application Audio and Video Wrap-Up

29.5 29.6

29.7 29.8

30

994 994 998 999

1000 1001 1001 1002 1002 1005 1007 1013 1016 1025 1027 1030 1038 1043

ATM Case Study, Part 1: Object-Oriented Design with the UML

30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 30.7 30.8

Introduction Examining the ATM Requirements Document Identifying the Classes in the ATM Requirements Document Identifying Class Attributes Identifying Objects’ States and Activities Identifying Class Operations Identifying Collaboration Among Objects Wrap-Up

31

ATM Case Study, Part 2: Implementing an Object-Oriented Design

31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4

Introduction Starting to Program the Classes of the ATM System Incorporating Inheritance and Polymorphism into the ATM System ATM Case Study Implementation 31.4.1 Class ATM 31.4.2 Class Screen 31.4.3 Class Keypad

1044 1045 1045 1053 1060 1064 1068 1075 1082

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Contents

xix

31.5

31.4.4 Class CashDispenser 31.4.5 Class DepositSlot 31.4.6 Class Account 31.4.7 Class BankDatabase 31.4.8 Class Transaction 31.4.9 Class BalanceInquiry 31.4.10 Class Withdrawal 31.4.11 Class Deposit 31.4.12 Class ATMCaseStudy Wrap-Up

1108 1109 1110 1112 1115 1116 1117 1121 1124 1124

A

Operator Precedence Chart

1127

B

Simple Types

1129

C

ASCII Character Set

1131

D

Number Systems

1132

D.1 D.2 D.3 D.4 D.5 D.6

Introduction Abbreviating Binary Numbers as Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers Converting Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers to Binary Numbers Converting from Binary, Octal or Hexadecimal to Decimal Converting from Decimal to Binary, Octal or Hexadecimal Negative Binary Numbers: Two’s Complement Notation

E

UML 2: Additional Diagram Types

E.1 E.2

Introduction Additional Diagram Types

F

Unicode®

F.1 F.2 F.3 F.4 F.5 F.6

Introduction Unicode Transformation Formats Characters and Glyphs Advantages/Disadvantages of Unicode Using Unicode Character Ranges

G

Using the Visual C# 2010 Debugger

G.1

Introduction

1133 1136 1137 1137 1138 1140

1142 1142 1142

1144 1145 1146 1147 1147 1148 1150

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xx G.2 G.3 G.4 G.5 G.6

Contents Breakpoints and the Continue Command DataTips and Visualizers The Locals and Watch Windows Controlling Execution Using the Step Into, Step Over, Step Out and Continue Commands Other Debugging Features G.6.1 Edit and Continue G.6.2 Exception Assistant G.6.3 Just My Code™ Debugging G.6.4 Other Debugger Features

Index

1153 1159 1160 1163 1166 1166 1168 1169 1169

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Preface “Live in fragments no longer, only connect.” —Edgar Morgan Forster Welcome to Visual C#® 2010, C# 4 and the world of Microsoft® Windows® and Internet and web programming with Microsoft’s .NET 4 Framework! This book presents leadingedge computing technologies for professional software developers. We believe the book will give you an informative, challenging and entertaining C# educational experience. We use the Deitel signature live-code approach, presenting most concepts in the context of complete working Visual C# 2010 programs, rather than using code snippets. Each code example is immediately followed by one or more sample executions. All the source code is available at www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/. At Deitel & Associates, we author programming-language professional books, LiveLessons video courses and textbooks under the Prentice Hall imprint of Pearson Higher Education, and deliver our Dive Into® Series professional instructor-led training courses worldwide on site at corporations, government agencies, branches of the military and academic institutions. As you read the book, if you have questions, send an e-mail to [email protected]; we’ll respond promptly. For updates on this book and its supporting Visual C# software, visit www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/, follow us on Twitter (@deitel) and Facebook (www.deitel.com/deitelfan), and subscribe to the Deitel ® Buzz Online newsletter (www.deitel.com/newsletter/subscribe.html). Check out our growing list of C# and related Resource Centers at www.deitel.com/ResourceCenters.html.

New and Updated Features Here are some key features of C# 2010 for Programmers, 4/e: •

LINQ. LINQ provides a uniform syntax for querying data. Strong typing enables Visual Studio to provide IntelliSense support for LINQ operations and results. LINQ can be used on different types of data sources, including collections and files (LINQ to Objects, Chapters 9 and 17, respectively), databases (LINQ to SQL, Chapters 18, 19, 27 and 28) and XML (LINQ to XML, Chapters 26 and 29).

•

Early Introduction to Generic Collections and LINQ. We introduce LINQ early so that you can begin using it with arrays. To enable you to work with more flexible data structures throughout the book, we introduce the List generic collection—a dynamic data structure—in close proximity to arrays. This enables us to demonstrate the power of LINQ and how it can be applied to most data structures. As a generic collection, the List class provides strong compile-time type safety—ensuring that all elements of the collection are of the appropriate type.

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xxii

Preface

•

Databases. We use the free Microsoft SQL Server Express Edition and real-world applications to present the fundamentals of database programming. Chapters 18, 27 and 28 discuss database and LINQ to SQL fundamentals, presented in the context of an address-book desktop application, a web-based bookstore application and a web-based airline reservation system. Chapter 18 also demonstrates using the Visual Studio 2010 tools to build a GUI application that accesses a database using LINQ to SQL.

•

Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) GUI and Graphics. We begin our GUI discussion with the traditional Windows Forms controls in Chapters 14– 15. We extend our coverage in Chapters 24 and 25 with an introduction to Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF)—Microsoft’s framework that integrates GUI, graphics and multimedia capabilities. We present many examples, including a painting application, a text editor, a color chooser, a book-cover viewer, a television video player, a 3-D rotating pyramid and various animations.

•

Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) Web Services. Microsoft’s .NET strategy embraces the Internet and web as integral to software development and deployment. Web-services technology enables information sharing, e-commerce and other interactions using standard Internet protocols and technologies, such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Extensible Markup Language (XML), Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) and REST (Representational State Transfer). Web services enable you to package application functionality in a manner that turns the web into a library of reusable software components. We replaced our treatment of ASP.NET web services from an earlier edition with a discussion of Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) services in Chapter 28. WCF is a set of technologies for building distributed systems in which system components communicate with one another over networks. WCF uses a common framework for all communication between systems, so you need to learn only one programming model. Chapter 28 focuses on WCF web services that use either the SOAP protocol or REST architecture. The REST examples transmit both XML (eXtensible Markup Language) and JSON (JavaScript Object Notation).

•

ASP.NET 4 and ASP.NET AJAX. The .NET platform enables you to create robust, scalable web-based applications. Microsoft’s .NET server-side technology, ASP.NET 4, allows you to build web documents that respond to client requests. To enable interactive web pages, server-side programs process information that users input into HTML forms. ASP.NET provides enhanced visual programming capabilities, similar to those used in building Windows Forms for desktop programs. You can create web pages visually, by dragging and dropping web controls onto web forms. Chapters 19 and 27 introduce these powerful technologies. We present a sequence of examples in which you build several web applications, including a web-based bookstore. Chapter 27 culminates with an example that demonstrates the power of AJAX. We also discuss the ASP.NET Development Server (which enables you to test your web applications on your local computer), multitier architecture and web transactions. The chapter uses ASP.NET 4 and LINQ to build a guestbook application that retrieves information from a database and displays it in a web page. We use a LinqDataSource from a web application to manip-

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New and Updated Features

xxiii

ulate a database. We use ASP.NET AJAX controls to add AJAX functionality to web applications to improve their responsiveness—in particular, we use the UpdatePanel control to perform partial-page updates. •

•

•

•

•

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Silverlight. In Chapter 29, we introduce Silverlight, Microsoft’s technology for building Rich Internet Applications (RIA). Silverlight, a competitor to JavaFX and Adobe’s Flash and Flex technologies, allows you to create visually stunning, multimedia-intensive user interfaces for web applications using .NET languages such as Visual C#. Silverlight is a subset of WPF that runs in a web browser using a plug-in. One of Silverlight’s most compelling features is its ability to stream high-definition video. The chapter presents powerful multimedia applications, including a weather viewer, Flickr® photo viewer, deep zoom book-cover collage and video viewer. Language Features to Support LINQ. Many of the Visual C# language features we cover in Chapter 10 were introduced to support LINQ. We show how to use extension methods to add functionality to a class without modifying the class’s source code. We use delegates (objects that hold method references) to support our discussion of lambda expressions, which define anonymous functions. Lambda expressions can be used wherever delegates are needed—typically as arguments to method calls or to help create more powerful LINQ queries. You’ll see how to use anonymous types to create simple classes that store data without writing a class definition—a feature used frequently in LINQ. Implicitly Typed Local Variables. When you initialize a local variable in its declaration, you can omit the variable’s type—the compiler infers it from the type of the initializer value (introduced in Chapter 9). This is another feature used frequently in LINQ. Object and Collection Initializers. When creating an object, you can use the object initializer syntax (introduced in Chapter 9) to assign values to the new object’s properties. Similarly, you can use the collection initializer syntax (Chapter 9) to specify values for the elements of collections, just as you do with arrays. Auto-Implemented Properties. For cases in which a property of a class has a get accessor that simply returns a private instance variable’s value and a set accessor that simply assigns a value to the instance variable, C# provides automatically implemented properties (also known as auto-implemented properties; introduced in Chapter 4). With an auto-implemented property, the compiler automatically creates a private instance variable and the get and set accessors for manipulating it. This gives you the software engineering benefits of having a property, but enables you to implement the property trivially. Other New Language Features. We cover optional parameters, named parameters, covariance and contravariance. Visual C# 2010 Express IDE. All screenshots have been updated to the Visual C# 2010 Express IDE. Contextual keywords. The keywords table (Chapter 3) includes the contextual keywords—words that are considered keywords only in certain contexts. Outside those contexts, such keywords can still be used as valid identifiers. This minimizes

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Preface the chance that older Visual C# code will break when upgrading to Visual C# 2010. Many of these contextual keywords are used with LINQ. IntelliSense. We point out additional ways in which the IDE’s IntelliSense helps you write code. Data Tips and Visualizers. We use DataTips and visualizers to view object contents in the code window during debugging.

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Tuned Treatment of Object-Oriented Programming. The book offers a rich treatment of C#’s object-oriented programming features. Chapter 4 introduces how to create classes and objects. These concepts are extended in Chapter 10. Chapter 11 discusses how to create powerful new classes quickly by using inheritance to “absorb” the capabilities of existing classes. Chapter 12 presents the crucial concepts of polymorphism, abstract classes, concrete classes and interfaces, all of which facilitate powerful manipulations among objects in an inheritance hierarchy.

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Visual Studio 2010 Debugger. In Appendix G, we explain how to use key debugger features, such as setting “breakpoints” and “watches” and stepping into and out of methods. Most of the material in this appendix can be covered after Chapter 4. One example uses the conditional AND (&&) operator, which is explained in Chapter 6.

Case Studies Among the hundreds of complete working C# programs we present are many case studies, including: • GradeBook class in Chapters 4–8. • OOD/UML ATM system in Chapters 30 and 31. • Time class in Chapter 10. • Employee payroll application in Chapters 11–12. • WPF painter application in Chapter 24. • WPF text-editor application in Chapter 24. • WPF color-chooser application in Chapter 24. • WPF book cover viewer application in Chapter 24. • WPF television application in Chapter 25. • Address-book application in Chapter 18. • Guestbook ASP.NET application in Chapter 19. • Password-protected books database ASP.NET application in Chapter 27. • Airline reservation web service in Chapter 28. • Blackjack web service in Chapter 28. • Equation-generator web service and math-tutor application in Chapter 28. • Silverlight weather-viewer application in Chapter 29. • Silverlight Flickr® photo-viewer application in Chapter 29. • Silverlight Deep Zoom book-cover collage application in Chapter 29. • Silverlight video-viewer application in Chapter 29.

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Object-Oriented Design Case Study: Designing and Implementing an ATM

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Object-Oriented Design Case Study: Designing and Implementing an ATM In this case study, we design and fully implement the software for a simple automated teller machine (ATM). After completing this case study, you’ll be familiar with an object-oriented design and implementation for a significant C# application. The design was developed at Deitel & Associates, Inc., and reviewed by industry professionals and academics. We kept the design and the code small and simple so that they would work well in C# professional courses. The Unified Modeling Language® (UML®) has become the preferred graphical modeling language for designing object-oriented systems. Chapters 30 and 31 present a carefully paced introduction to object-oriented design using the UML. We employ a carefully developed, incremental object-oriented design process to produce a UML model for our ATM system. From this design, we produce a substantial working C# implementation using key programming notions, including classes, objects, encapsulation, visibility, composition, inheritance and polymorphism. Here’s what the sections of the case study cover: Section 1.9—Introduction to Object Technology—presents basic concepts and terminology of object technology, including classes, objects, encapsulation and inheritance. Section 30.2—Examining the ATM Requirements Document—discusses a requirements document specifying the requirements for a system that we’ll design and implement —the software for a simple automated teller machine (ATM). We investigate the structure and behavior of object-oriented systems in general. We discuss how the UML facilitates the design process in subsequent Case Study sections by providing several additional types of diagrams to model our system. We discuss the interaction between the ATM system and its user. Specifically, we investigate the scenarios that may occur between the user and the system itself—called use cases. We model these interactions, using UML use case diagrams. Section 30.3—Identifying the Classes in the ATM Requirements Documents— begins to design the ATM system. We identify its classes by extracting the nouns and noun phrases from the requirements document. We arrange these classes into a UML class diagram that describes the class structure of our system. The diagram also describes relationships, known as associations, among the classes. Section 30.4—Identifying Class Attributes—focuses on the attributes of the classes discussed in Section 30.3. A class contains both attributes (data) and operations (behaviors). As we see in later sections, changes in an object’s attributes often affect its behavior. To determine the attributes for the classes in our case study, we extract the adjectives describing the nouns and noun phrases (which defined our classes) from the requirements document, then place the attributes in the class diagram we created in Section 30.3. Section 30.5—Identifying Objects’ States and Activities—discusses how an object, at any given time, occupies a specific condition called a state. A state transition occurs when the object receives a message to change state. The UML provides the state machine diagram, which identifies the set of possible states that an object may occupy and models that object’s state transitions. An object also has an activity—the work it performs in its lifetime. The UML provides the activity diagram—a flowchart that models an object’s activity. This section uses both diagram types to model behavioral aspects of our ATM system, such as how it carries out a withdrawal transaction and how it responds when the user is authenticated.

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Section 30.6—Identifying Class Operations—identifies the operations, or services, of our classes. We extract from the requirements document the verbs and verb phrases that specify the operations for each class. We then modify the class diagram of Section 30.3 to include each operation with its associated class. As future chapters introduce such topics as inheritance, we’ll modify our classes and diagrams. Section 30.7—Identifying Collaboration Among Objects—provides a “rough sketch” of the model for our ATM system. In this section, we see how it works. We investigate the behavior of the system by discussing collaborations—messages that objects send to each other to communicate. The class operations that we identified in Section 30.6 turn out to be the collaborations among the objects in our system. We determine the collaborations, then collect them into a communication diagram—the UML diagram for modeling collaborations. This diagram reveals which objects collaborate and when. We present a communication diagram of the collaborations among objects to perform an ATM balance inquiry. We then present the UML sequence diagram for modeling interactions in a system. This diagram emphasizes the chronological ordering of messages. A sequence diagram models how objects in the system interact to carry out withdrawal and deposit transactions. Section 31.2—Starting to Program the Classes of the ATM System—takes a break from designing the behavior of our system. We begin the implementation process. Using the UML class diagram of Section 30.3 and the attributes and operations discussed in Section 30.4 and Section 30.6, we show how to implement a class in C# from a design. We do not implement all classes—because we have not completed the design process. Working from our UML diagrams, we create code for the Withdrawal class. Section 31.3—Incorporating Inheritance and Polymorphism into the ATM System—continues our discussion of object-oriented programming. We consider inheritance: classes sharing common characteristics may inherit attributes and operations from a “base” class. In this section, we investigate how our ATM system can benefit from using inheritance. We document our discoveries in a class diagram that models inheritance relationships—the UML refers to these relationships as generalizations. We modify the class diagram of Section 30.3 by using inheritance to group classes with similar characteristics. This section concludes the design of the model portion of our simulation. Section 31.4—ATM Case Study Implementation—The majority of the case study involves designing the model (i.e., the data and logic) of the ATM system. In this section, we fully implement that model in C#, working from the UML diagrams we created. We apply the concepts of object-oriented design with the UML and object-oriented programming in C# that you learned in the chapters. By the end of this case study, you’ll have completed the design and implementation of a real-world system and should feel confident tackling larger systems. Appendix E—UML: Additional Diagram Types—overviews the UML diagram types not discussed in the OOD/UML Case Study.

Dependency Charts Figures 1–2 illustrate the dependencies among chapters in the book. An arrow pointing into a chapter indicates that it depends on the content of the chapter from which the arrow points. We’ve commented on some additional dependencies in the diagrams’ footnotes.

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Dependency Charts

Dependency Chart for Core Topics1

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Introduction to Visual C# Fundamentals and Object-Oriented Programming 1 Introduction 2 Dive Into® Visual C# 2010 Express 3 Introduction to C# Applications 4 Introduction to Classes and Objects 5 Control Statements: Part 1 6 Control Statements: Part 2 7 Methods: A Deeper Look 8 Arrays

Object-Oriented Programming: A Deeper Look 9 Introduction to LINQ and the List Collection Strings, Files and Data Structures 16 Strings and Characters

10 Classes and Objects: A Deeper Look 11 OOP: Inheritance

17 Files and Streams2

12 OOP: Polymorphism, Interfaces and Operator Overloading

20 Searching and Sorting

13 Exception Handling

21 Data Structures

Graphical User Interfaces

22 Generics

14 GUI with Windows Forms: Part 1

23 Collections

1. 2. 3. 4.

Database and Web App Development 18 Databases and LINQ3 19 Web App Development with ASP.NET4

15 GUI with Windows Forms: Part 2

See Fig. 2 for the advanced topics chapters. Requires Sections 14.1–14.5. Requires Sections 14.1–14.6 and 15.8. Requires general GUI and event-handling knowledge (Sections 14.1–14.3).

Fig. 1 | Chapter dependency chart for the core-topic chapters.

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Dependency Chart for Advanced Topics

WPF GUI and Graphics 24 GUI with Windows Presentation Foundation 25 WPF Graphics and Multimedia

LINQ, Databases and Web App Development 9 Introduction to LINQ and the List Collection

Web App Development 26 XML and LINQ to XML1 27 Web App Development with ASP.NET: A Deeper Look

18 Databases and LINQ

28 Web Services

19 Web App Development with ASP.NET

29 Silverlight and Rich Internet Applications

Object-Oriented Programming

Object-Oriented Design

10 Classes and Objects: A Deeper Look

30 ATM Case Study, Part 1: Object-Oriented Design with the UML

11 OOP: Inheritance 12 OOP: Polymorphism, Interfaces and Operator Overloading

31 ATM Case Study, Part 2: Implementing an Object-Oriented Design

1. Chapter 26 depends on the introduction to XML in Chapter 24.

Fig. 2 | Chapter dependency chart for the advanced-topic chapters.

Presentation Features C# 2010 for Programmers, 4/e, contains a rich collection of examples. We concentrate on effective software engineering principles and stress program clarity in the context of hundreds of complete, working programs. Syntax Shading. For readability, we syntax shade the code, similar to the way most integrated-development environments and code editors syntax color the code. Our syntaxshading conventions are: comments appear like this keywords appear like this constants and literal values appear like this all other code appears in black

Code Highlighting. We place gray rectangles around each program’s key code. Programming Tips. We include programming tips to help you focus on important aspects of program development. These tips and practices represent the best we’ve gleaned from a combined seven decades of programming and teaching experience.

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Presentation Features

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Good Programming Practice The Good Programming Practices call attention to techniques that will help you produce programs that are clearer, more understandable and more maintainable.

Common Programming Error Pointing out these Common Programming Errors reduces the likelihood that you’ll make them.

Error-Prevention Tip These tips contain suggestions for exposing and removing bugs from your programs; many of the tips describe aspects of Visual C# that prevent bugs from getting into programs.

Performance Tip These tips highlight opportunities for making your programs run faster or minimizing the amount of memory that they occupy.

Portability Tip The Portability Tips help you write code that will run on a variety of platforms.

Software Engineering Observation The Software Engineering Observations highlight architectural and design issues that affect the construction of software systems, especially large-scale systems.

Look-and-Feel Observation These observations help you design attractive, user-friendly graphical user interfaces that conform to industry norms.

Using Fonts for Emphasis. We place the key terms and the index’s page reference for each defining occurrence in bold text for easier reference. On-screen components are emphasized in the bold Helvetica font (e.g., the File menu) and C# program text in the Lucida font (e.g., int x = 5). Web Access. All of the source-code examples for C# 2010 for Programmers, 4/e are available for download from: www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/

Site registration is quick and easy. Download all the examples, then run each program as you read the corresponding text discussions. Objectives. Each chapter begins with a statement of objectives. This lets you know what to expect and gives you an opportunity, after reading the chapter, to determine if you’ve met the objectives. Quotations. The learning objectives are accompanied by quotations. Some are humorous; some are philosophical; others offer interesting insights. Outline. The chapter outline helps you approach the material in a top-down fashion, so you can anticipate what’s to come and set an effective learning pace.

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Illustrations/Figures. Abundant charts, tables, line drawings, programs and program output are included. We model the flow of control in control statements with UML activity diagrams. UML class diagrams model the fields, constructors and methods of classes. We make extensive use of six major UML diagram types in the OOD/UML ATM case study. Wrap-Up Section. Each chapter ends with a brief “wrap-up” section that recaps the chapter content and transitions to the next chapter. Thousands of Index Entries. We’ve included a comprehensive index, which is especially useful when you use the book as a reference.

Software for the Book We use Microsoft Visual Studio 2010 development tools, including the free Visual C#® 2010 Express Edition, Visual Web Developer 2010 Express Edition and SQL Server 2008 Express Edition. The Express Editions provide rich functionality and can be used to build robust .NET applications. They are appropriate for professionals who do not have access to a complete version of Visual Studio 2010. You may use the Express Editions to compile and execute all the example programs in the book. You may also use the full Visual Studio product to build and run the examples. All of the features supported by the Express Editions are also available in the complete Visual Studio 2010 editions. You can download the latest versions of the Express Edition tools from: www.microsoft.com/express/

When you install the software (discussed in the Before You Begin section that follows this Preface), you also should install the help documentation and SQL Server Express. Microsoft provides a dedicated forum for help using the Express Editions at: social.msdn.microsoft.com/forums/en-US/Vsexpressinstall/threads/

Windows 7, Windows Vista and Windows XP You can use Windows 7, Windows Vista or Windows XP. We used Windows 7 while developing the book. We use the Segoe UI font in the graphical user interfaces. This font is accessible to Windows XP users—we tell you how to get it in the Before You Begin section. Several of our reviewers tested all the programs on Windows XP and reported no problems. If any Windows XP-specific issues arise after the book is published, we’ll post them at www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/ with appropriate instructions. Write to us at [email protected] if you encounter any problems, and we’ll respond promptly. Other Software Requirements For Chapters 18, 19, 27 and 28 you’ll need the SQL Server 2008 Express Edition. Chapters 19, 27 and 28 require Visual Web Developer 2010 Express (or a full Visual Studio 2008 edition). For updates on the software used in this book, subscribe to our free email newsletter at www.deitel.com/newsletter/subscribe.html, visit the book’s website at www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/, and follow us on Twitter (@deitel) and Facebook (www.deitel.com/deitelfan). Download at www.wowebook.com

C# 2010 Fundamentals: Parts I, II and III LiveLessons Video Product

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C# 2010 Fundamentals: Parts I, II and III LiveLessons Video Product Our C# 2010 Fundamentals: Parts I, II and III LiveLessons Camtasia-based video training product shows you what you need to know to start building robust, powerful software with C# 2010 and .NET 4. It includes 20+ hours of expert training synchronized to C# 2010 for Programmers, 4/e. Check out our growing list of LiveLessons video products: • C# 2010 Fundamentals I, II, and III • C# 2008 Fundamentals I and II • Java Fundamentals I and II • C++ Fundamentals I and II • iPhone App-Development Fundamentals I and II • JavaScript Fundamentals I and II • Visual Basic 2010 Fundamentals I and II • C Fundamentals I and II • Android Fundamentals I and II For additional information about Deitel LiveLessons video products, visit: www.deitel.com/livelessons

Licensing Deitel Book and/or LiveLessons Video Content for Your Corporate Learning Management Systems Corporations and organizations may purchase licenses for Deitel’s best-selling book and LiveLessons video content to be placed on internal learning management systems. For more information, e-mail [email protected].

The Deitel Online Resource Centers We provide 100+ online Resource Centers on various topics of interest to our readers—see the list at www.deitel.com/ResourceCenters.html. We’ve found many exceptional resources online, including tutorials, documentation, software downloads, articles, blogs, podcasts, videos, code samples, books, e-books and more—most are free. Some of the Resource Centers you might find helpful while studying this book are Visual C#, ASP.NET, ASP.NET AJAX, LINQ, .NET, Silverlight, SQL Server, Web Services, Windows Communication Foundation, Windows Presentation Foundation, Windows 7, UML, Code Search Engines and Code Sites, Game Programming and Programming Projects.

Acknowledgments It’s a pleasure to acknowledge the efforts of people whose names do not appear on the cover, but whose hard work, cooperation, friendship and understanding were crucial to the book’s production. Thanks especially to Abbey Deitel and Barbara Deitel. We’re fortunate to have worked on this project with the dedicated publishing professionals at Prentice Hall/Pearson. We appreciate the extraordinary efforts and 15-year mentorship of our friend and professional colleague Mark L. Taub, Editor-in-Chief of Pearson

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Technology Group. Thanks to Sandra Schroeder and Chuti Prasertsith for their work on the cover, and to John Fuller for managing the production of the book. We wish to acknowledge the efforts of our third and fourth edition reviewers. Adhering to tight schedules, they scrutinized the text and the programs and provided countless suggestions for improving the presentation:

Microsoft Reviewers Vinay Ahuja (Architect), Dan Crevier, Marcelo Guerra Hahn, Helena Kotas, Eric Lippert, Kyrylo Osenkov (Visual C#) and Alex Turner (Visual C# Compiler Program Manager). Other Industry Reviewers Rizwan Ahmed a.k.a. RizwanSharp (C# MVP, Sr. Software Engineer, TEO), José Alarcón-Aguín (ASP.NET MVP, Krasis.com), Mostafa Arafa (C# MVP, Agility Logistics), Bonnie Berent (Microsoft C# MVP), Peter Bromberg (Senior Architect Merrill Lynch and C# MVP), Adam Calderon (C# MVP, InterKnowlogy), Stochio Goutsev (Independent Consultant, writer and developer and C# MVP), Octavio Hernandez (C# MVP, Advanced Bionics), Ged Mead (DevCity.Net, Microsoft VB MVP—Visual Developer) and José Antonio González Seco (Parliament of Andalusia). Academic Reviewers Mingsheng Hong (Cornell University), Stan Kurkovsky, Ph.D. (Central Connecticut State University), Markus Lumpe (Swinburne University of Technology), Gavin Osborne (Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology) and Zijiang Yang (Western Michigan University). Well, there you have it! Visual C# 2010 is a powerful programming language that will help you write programs quickly and effectively. It scales nicely into the realm of enterprise-systems development to help you build business-critical and mission-critical information systems. As you read the book, we’d appreciate your comments, criticisms, corrections and suggestions for improvement. Please address all correspondence to: [email protected]

We’ll respond promptly, and we’ll post corrections and clarifications on the book’s website: www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/

We hope you enjoy reading C# 2010 for Programmers, 4/e, as much as we enjoyed writing it! Paul J. Deitel Dr. Harvey M. Deitel

About the Authors Paul J. Deitel, CEO and Chief Technical Officer of Deitel & Associates, Inc., is a graduate of MIT, where he studied Information Technology. Through Deitel & Associates, Inc., he has delivered C#, Visual Basic, Java, C++, C and Internet programming courses to industry clients, including Cisco, IBM, Sun Microsystems, Dell, Siemens, Lucent Technologies, Fidelity, NASA at the Kennedy Space Center, the National Severe Storm Laboratory, White Sands Missile Range, Rogue Wave Software, Boeing, SunGard Higher Education, Stratus, Cambridge Technology Partners, One Wave, Hyperion Software,

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About Deitel & Associates, Inc.

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Adra Systems, Entergy, CableData Systems, Nortel Networks, Puma, iRobot, Invensys and many more. He and his co-author, Dr. Harvey M. Deitel, are the world’s best-selling programming-language textbook/professional book authors. Dr. Harvey M. Deitel, Chairman and Chief Strategy Officer of Deitel & Associates, Inc., has 49 years of experience in the computer field. Dr. Deitel earned B.S. and M.S. degrees from MIT and a Ph.D. from Boston University. He has extensive industry and academic experience, including earning tenure and serving as the Chairman of the Computer Science Department at Boston College before founding Deitel & Associates, Inc., with his son, Paul J. Deitel. He and Paul are the co-authors of dozens of books and multimedia packages and they are writing many more. With translations published in Japanese, German, Russian, Chinese, Spanish, Koresan, French, Polish, Italian, Portuguese, Greek, Urdu and Turkish, the Deitels’ texts have earned international recognition. Dr. Deitel has delivered hundreds of professional seminars to major corporations, academic institutions, government organizations and the military.

About Deitel & Associates, Inc. Deitel & Associates, Inc., founded by Paul Deitel and Harvey Deitel, is an internationally recognized authoring, corporate training and software development organization specializing in computer programming languages, object technology, Android and iPhone app development, and Internet and web software technology. The company offers instructor-led training courses delivered at client sites worldwide on major programming languages and platforms, such as Visual C#®, Java™, C, C++, Visual Basic®, Objective-C and iPhone and iPad app development, Android app development, XML®, Python®, object technology, Internet and web programming, and a growing list of additional programming and software development courses. The company’s clients include many of the world’s largest companies, government agencies, branches of the military, and academic institutions. Through its 34-year publishing partnership with Prentice Hall/Pearson, Deitel & Associates, Inc., publishes leading-edge programming professional books, college textbooks, and LiveLessons DVD- and web-based video courses. Deitel & Associates, Inc. and the authors can be reached at: [email protected]

To learn more about Deitel’s Dive Into® Series Corporate Training curriculum, visit: www.deitel.com/training/

To request a proposal for on-site, instructor-led training at your company or organization, e-mail [email protected]. Individuals wishing to purchase Deitel books and LiveLessons DVD training courses can do so through www.deitel.com. Bulk orders by corporations, the government, the military and academic institutions should be placed directly with Pearson. For more information, visit www.pearsoned.com/professional/index.htm.

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Before You Begin This section contains information you should review before using this book and instructions to ensure that your computer is set up properly for use with this book. We’ll post updates to this Before You Begin section (if any) on the book’s website: www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/

Font and Naming Conventions We use fonts to distinguish between features, such as menu names, menu items, and other elements that appear in the program-development environment. Our convention is to emphasize IDE features in a sans-serif bold Helvetica font (for example, Properties window) and to emphasize program text in a sans-serif Lucida font (for example, bool x = true). A Note Regarding Software for the Book This textbook includes a DVD which contains the Microsoft® Visual Studio® 2010 Express Edition integrated development environments for Visual C# 2010, Visual Basic 2010, Visual C++ 2010, Visual Web Developer 2010 and SQL Server 2008. The latest versions of these tools are also downloadable from www.microsoft.com/express. The Express Editions are fully functional, and there’s no time limit for using the software. We discuss the setup of this software shortly. You do not need Visual Basic or Visual C++ for use with this book. Hardware and Software Requirements for the Visual Studio 2010 Express Editions To install and run the Visual Studio 2010 Express Editions, ensure that your system meets the minimum requirements specified at: http://www.microsoft.com/express/support/default.aspx

Desktop Theme Settings for Windows 7 Users If you are using Windows 7, we assume that your theme is set to Windows 7. Follow these steps to set Windows 7 as your desktop theme: 1. Right click the desktop, then click Personalize. 2. Select the Windows 7 theme. Desktop Theme Settings for Windows Vista Users If you are using Windows Vista, we assume that your theme is set to Windows Vista. Follow these steps to set Windows Vista as your desktop theme: 1. Right click the desktop, then click Personalize. 2. Click the Theme item. Select Windows Vista from the Theme: drop-down list. 3. Click Apply to save the settings. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Desktop Theme Settings for Windows XP Users If you are using Windows XP, the windows you see on the screen will look slightly different from the screen captures in the book. We assume that your theme is set to Windows XP. Follow these steps to set Windows XP as your desktop theme: 1. Right click the desktop, then click Properties. 2. Click the Themes tab. Select Windows XP from the Theme: drop-down list. 3. Click OK to save the settings. Viewing File Extensions Several screenshots in C# 2010 for Programmers, 4/e display file names with file-name extensions (e.g., .txt, .cs or .png). Your system’s settings may need to be adjusted to display file-name extensions. Follow these steps to configure your computer: 1. In the Start menu, select All Programs, then Accessories, then Windows Explorer. 2. In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, press Alt to display the menu bar, then select Folder Options… from Windows Explorer’s Tools menu. In Windows XP, simply select Folder Options… from Windows Explorer’s Tools menu. 3. In the dialog that appears, select the View tab. 4. In the Advanced settings: pane, uncheck the box to the left of the text Hide extensions for known file types. [Note: If this item is already unchecked, no action needs to be taken.] 5. Click OK to apply the setting and close the dialog. Notes to Windows XP Users Regarding the Segoe UI Font Used in Many Applications To make user interfaces more readable, Microsoft recommends using the Segoe UI font in Windows 7 and Windows Vista. This font is not available by default on Windows XP, but it is installed with the following software products: Windows Live Messenger, Windows Live Mail, Microsoft Office 2007 and Microsoft Office 2010. You can download Windows Live Messenger from explore.live.com/windows-live-messenger. You can downloadS Windows Live Mail from explore.live.com/windows-live-mail. You must also enable ClearType on your system; otherwise, the font will not display correctly. ClearType is a technology for smoothing the edges of fonts displayed on the screen. To enable ClearType, perform the following steps: 1. Right click your desktop and select Properties… from the popup menu to view the Display Properties dialog. 2. In the dialog, click the Appearance tab, then click the Effects… button to display the Effects dialog. 3. In the Effects dialog, ensure that the Use the following method to smooth edges of screen fonts checkbox is checked, then select ClearType from the combobox below the checkbox. 4. Click OK to close the Effects dialog. Click OK to close the Display Properties dialog. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Obtaining the Code Examples The examples for C# 2010 for Programmers, 4/e are available for download at www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4q/

If you’re not already registered at our website, go to www.deitel.com and click the Register link below our logo in the upper-left corner of the page. Fill in your information. There’s no charge to register, and we do not share your information with anyone. We send you only account-management e-mails unless you register separately for our free e-mail newsletter at www.deitel.com/newsletter/subscribe.html. You must enter a valid email address. After registering, you’ll receive a confirmation e-mail with your verification code. Click the link in the confirmation email to go to www.deitel.com and sign in. Next, go to www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/. Click the Examples link to download the Examples.zip file to your computer. Write down the location where you choose to save the file on your computer. We assume the examples are located at C:\Examples on your computer. Extract the contents of Examples.zip using a tool such as WinZip (www.winzip.com) or the built-in capabilities of Windows.

Installing the Software Before you can run the applications in C# 2010 for Programmers, 4/e or build your own applications, you must install a development environment. We used Microsoft’s free Visual C# 2010 Express Edition in the examples for most chapters and Visual Web Developer 2010 Express Edition for Chapters 19 and 27–29. Chapters 18, 27 and 28 also require SQL Server Express Edition. To install the Visual C# 2010 and Visual Web Developer 2010 Express Editions: 1. Insert the DVD that accompanies this book into your computer’s DVD drive to launch the software installer. If the Visual Studio 2010 Express Setup window does not appear, use Windows Explorer to view the contents of the DVD drive and double click Setup.hta to launch the installer 2. In the Visual Studio 2010 Express Setup window, click Visual C# 2010 Express to display the Visual C# 2010 Express Setup window, then click Next >. 3. Carefully read the license agreement. Click the I have read and accept the license terms radio button to agree to the terms, then click Next >. [Note: If you do not accept the license agreement, the software will not install and you will not be able to create or execute Visual C# applications.] 4. Select the MSDN Express Library for Visual Studio 2010, Microsoft SQL Server 2008 Express Edition (x86) and Microsoft Silverlight Runtime options to install. Click Next >. [Note: Installing the MSDN documentation is not required but is highly recommended.] 5. Click Next >, then click Finish > to continue with the installation. The installer will now begin copying the files required by Visual C# 2010 Express Edition and SQL Server 2008 Express Edition. Wait for the installation to complete before proceeding—the installation process can be quite lengthy and might require you to reboot your computer. When the installation completes, click Exit. Download at www.wowebook.com

xxxvii 6. In the Visual Studio 2010 Express Setup window, click Visual Web Developer 2010 Express to display the Visual Web Developer 2010 Express Setup window, then click Next >. 7. Carefully read the license agreement. Click the I have read and accept the license terms radio button to agree to the terms, then click Next >. [Note: If you do not accept the license agreement, the software will not install and you will not be able to create or execute web applications with Visual Web Developer.] 8. Click Install > to continue with the installation. The installer will now begin copying the files required by Visual Web Developer 2010 Express Edition. This portion of the install process should be much faster, since you’ve already installed most of the supporting software and files required by Visual Web Developer. When the installation completes, click Exit.

Miscellaneous Notes • Some people like to change the workspace layout in the development tools. You can return the tools to their default layouts by selecting Window > Reset Window Layout. • There are differences between the full Visual Studio 2010 products and the Express Edition products we use in this book, such as additional menu items. One key difference is that the Database Explorer we refer to in Chapters 18, 27 and 28 is called the Server Explorer in the full Visual Studio 2010 products. • Many of the menu items we use in the book have corresponding icons shown with each menu item in the menus. Many of the icons also appear on one of the toolbars at the top of the development environment. As you become familiar with these icons, you can use the toolbars to help speed up your development time. Similarly, many of the menu items have keyboard shortcuts (also shown with each menu item in the menus) for accessing commands quickly.

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1 Introduction

The chief merit of language is clearness. —Galen

Our life is frittered away with detail. . . . Simplify, simplify. —Henry David Thoreau

Man is still the most extraordinary computer of all. —John F. Kennedy

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

The history of the Visual C# programming language.

■

Some basics of object technology.

■

The importance of XML as a data-representation scheme.

■

About Microsoft’s .NET initiative, which involves the Internet in developing and using software systems.

■

About the .NET Framework and the Common Language Runtime.

■

To test-drive a Visual C# 2010 drawing application.

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2

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction 1.2 Microsoft’s Windows® Operating System 1.3 C, C++, Objective-C and Java 1.4 C# 1.5 Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.6 Introduction to Microsoft .NET

1.7 The .NET Framework and the Common Language Runtime 1.8 Test-Driving the Advanced Painter Application 1.9 Introduction to Object Technology 1.10 Wrap-Up

1.1 Introduction Welcome to Visual C# 2010, one of the world’s fastest-growing object-oriented programming languages! We hope that working with C# 2010 for Programmers, 4/e will be an informative, challenging and entertaining learning experience for you. Perhaps most important, the book presents hundreds of complete, working C# programs and depicts their inputs and outputs. We call this the live-code approach. You can download all the book’s source code from www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/. As you proceed, if you have any questions, send an e-mail to [email protected]

To keep current with C# developments at Deitel & Associates and to receive updates to this book, subscribe to our e-mail newsletter, the Deitel® Buzz Online, at www.deitel.com/newsletter/subscribe.html

check out our growing list of C# and related Resource Centers at www.deitel.com/ResourceCenters.html

and follow us on Twitter (@deitel) and Facebook (www.deitel.com/deitelfan).

1.2 Microsoft’s Windows® Operating System Microsoft became the dominant software company in the 1980s and 1990s. In the mid1980s, Microsoft developed the Windows operating system, consisting of a graphical user interface built on top of DOS (a personal computer operating system that users interacted with by typing commands). The Windows operating system became incredibly popular after the 1993 release of Windows 3.1, whose successors, Windows 95 and Windows 98, virtually cornered the desktop operating systems market by the late 1990s. These operating systems, which borrowed from many concepts (such as icons, menus and windows) popularized by early Apple Macintosh operating systems, enabled users to work with multiple applications simultaneously. Microsoft entered the corporate operating systems market with the 1993 release of Windows NT. Windows XP was released in 2001 and combined Microsoft’s corporate and consumer operating system lines. Windows Vista, released in 2007, offered the attractive new Aero user interface, many powerful enhancements and new applications. A key focus of Windows Vista was enhanced security. Windows 7 is Microsoft’s latest operating system—its features include enhancements to the Aero user interface, faster startup times, further refinement of Vista’s security features, touch screen and multi-touch support, and more. This book is intended for Windows XP,

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1.3 C, C++, Objective-C and Java

3

Windows Vista and Windows 7 users. Windows is by far the world’s most widely used operating system.

1.3 C, C++, Objective-C and Java The C programming language was developed in the early 1970s. C first gained widespread recognition as the development language of the UNIX operating system. C is a hardwareindependent language, and, with careful design, it’s possible to write C programs that are portable to most computers. C++, developed in the early 1980s, provides several features that “spruce up” the C language, and, more importantly, capabilities for object-oriented programming (OOP). Objects are reusable software components that model items in the real world. A modular, object-oriented approach to design and implementation can make software development groups much more productive than is possible using earlier programming techniques. The Objective-C programming language, also developed in the early 1980s, added capabilities for object-oriented programming (OOP) to the C programming language. It eventually became the software development language for Apple’s Macintosh. Its use has exploded as the app development language for Apple’s popular iPod, iPhone and iPad consumer devices. Microprocessors are having a profound impact in intelligent consumer electronic devices. Recognizing this, Sun Microsystems in 1991 funded an internal corporate research project that resulted in the development of a C++-based language, which Sun eventually called Java. As the World Wide Web exploded in popularity in 1993, Sun saw the possibility of using Java to add dynamic content (for example, interactivity, animations and the like) to web pages. Sun announced the language in 1995. This generated immediate interest in the business community because of the commercial potential of the web. Java is now used to develop large-scale enterprise applications, to enhance the functionality of web servers, to provide applications for consumer devices (such as cell phones, pagers and smartphones) and for many other purposes.

1.4 C# In 2000, Microsoft announced the C# (pronounced “C-Sharp”) programming language—created specifically for the .NET platform (discussed in Sections 1.6–1.7). C# has roots in C, C++ and Java. Like Visual Basic, C# is object oriented and has access to the powerful .NET Framework Class Library—a vast collection of prebuilt components, enabling you to develop applications quickly. Both languages have similar capabilities to Java and are appropriate for the most demanding application development tasks, especially for building today’s enterprise applications, and web-based and mobile applications. C# is object oriented—you’ll learn some basics of object technology shortly and will study a rich treatment later in the book. C# is event driven—you’ll write programs that respond to user-initiated events such as mouse clicks, keystrokes and timer expirations. Microsoft’s Visual C# is indeed a visual programming language—in addition to writing program statements to build portions of your applications, you’ll also use Visual Studio’s graphical user interface to conveniently drag and drop predefined objects like buttons and textboxes into place on your screen, and label and resize them. Visual Studio will write much of the GUI code for you.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

C# has been standardized internationally, enabling other implementations of the language besides Microsoft’s Visual C#, such as Mono (www.mono-project.com).

1.5 Extensible Markup Language (XML) As the popularity of the web exploded, HTML’s limitations became apparent. HTML’s lack of extensibility (the ability to change or add features) frustrated developers, and its ambiguous definition allowed erroneous HTML to proliferate. The need for a standardized, fully extensible and structurally strict language was apparent. As a result, XML was developed by the W3C. Data independence, the separation of content from its presentation, is the essential characteristic of XML. Because XML documents describe data, any application conceivably can process them. Software developers are integrating XML into their applications to improve web functionality and interoperability. XML isn’t limited to web applications. For example, it’s increasingly used in databases—an XML document’s structure enables it to be integrated easily with database applications. As applications become more web enabled, it’s likely that XML will become the universal technology for data representation. Applications employing XML would be able to communicate with one another, provided that they could understand their respective XML markup schemes, or vocabularies. Microsoft’s .NET technologies use XML to mark up and transfer data over the Internet, and to enable software components to interoperate.

1.6 Introduction to Microsoft .NET In 2000, Microsoft announced its .NET initiative (www.microsoft.com/net), a broad new vision for using the Internet and the web in the development, engineering, distribution and use of software. Rather than forcing developers to use a single programming language, the .NET initiative permits developers to create .NET applications in any .NETcompatible language (such as C#, Visual Basic, and others). Part of the initiative includes Microsoft’s ASP.NET technology, which allows you to create web applications. The .NET strategy extends the idea of software reuse to the Internet by allowing you to concentrate on your specialties without having to implement every component of every application. Visual programming (which you’ll learn throughout this book) has become popular because it enables you to create Windows and web applications easily, using such prepackaged controls as buttons, textboxes and scrollbars. The .NET Framework is at the heart of Microsoft’s .NET strategy. This framework executes applications, includes the .NET Framework Class Library and provides many other programming capabilities that you’ll use to build C# applications.

1.7 The .NET Framework and the Common Language Runtime The details of the .NET Framework are found in the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI), which contains information about the storage of data types (that is, data that has predefined characteristics such as a date, percentage or currency amount), objects and so on. The CLI has been standardized, making it easier to implement the .NET Framework

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1.8 Test-Driving the Advanced Painter Application

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for other platforms. This is like publishing the blueprints of the framework—anyone can build it by following the specifications. The Common Language Runtime (CLR) is the central part of the .NET Framework—it executes .NET programs. Programs are compiled into machine-specific instructions in two steps. First, the program is compiled into Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL), which defines instructions for the CLR. Code converted into MSIL from other languages and sources can be woven together by the CLR. The MSIL for an application’s components is placed into the application’s executable file. When the application executes, another compiler (known as the just-in-time compiler or JIT compiler) in the CLR translates the MSIL in the executable file into machine-language code (for a particular platform), then the machine-language code executes on that platform. If the .NET Framework is installed on a platform, that platform can run any .NET program. A program’s ability to run (without modification) across multiple platforms is known as platform independence. Code written once can be used on another type of computer without modification, saving time and money. Software can also target a wider audience—previously, companies had to decide whether converting their programs to different platforms (sometimes called porting) was worth the cost. With .NET, porting programs is no longer an issue (at least once .NET itself has been made available on the platforms). The .NET Framework also provides a high level of language interoperability. Programs written in different languages (for example, C# and Visual Basic) are all compiled into MSIL—the different parts can be combined to create a single unified program. MSIL allows the .NET Framework to be language independent, because .NET programs are not tied to a particular programming language. The .NET Framework Class Library can be used by any .NET language. The library contains a variety of reusable components, saving you the trouble of creating new components. This book explains how to develop .NET software with C#.

1.8 Test-Driving the Advanced Painter Application In this section, you’ll “test-drive” an existing application that enables you to draw on the screen using the mouse. The Advanced Painter application allows you to draw with different brush sizes and colors. The elements and functionality you see in this application are typical of what you’ll learn to program in this text. The following steps show you how to test-drive the application. You’ll run and interact with the working application. 1. Checking your setup. Confirm that you’ve set up your computer properly by reading the Before You Begin section located after the Preface. 2. Locating the application directory. Open a Windows Explorer window and navigate to the C:\examples\ch01 directory (Fig. 1.1)—we assume you placed the examples in the C:\examples folder. 3. Running the Advanced Painter application. Now that you’re in the proper directory, double click the file name AdvancedPainter.exe (Fig. 1.1) to run the application (Fig. 1.2). [Note: Depending on your system configuration, Windows Explorer might not display file name extensions. To display file name extensions (like .exe in Fig. 1.1), type Alt + T in Windows Explorer to open the Tools menu, then select Folder options…. In the Folder Options window, select the View tab, uncheck Hide extensions for known file types and click OK.]

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Chapter 1 Introduction

Double click this file to run the application

Fig. 1.1 | Contents of C:\examples\ch01. Figure 1.2 labels several graphical elements—called controls. These include GroupBoxes, RadioButtons, a Panel and Buttons (these controls and many others

are discussed in depth throughout the text). The application allows you to draw with a red, blue, green or black brush of small, medium or large size. You can also undo your previous operation or clear the drawing to start from scratch.

RadioButtons

GroupBoxes

Panel Buttons

Fig. 1.2 | C# Advanced Painter application. By using existing controls—which are objects—you can create powerful applications much faster than if you had to write all the code yourself. The brush’s properties, selected in the RadioButtons labeled Black and Medium, are default settings—the initial settings you see when you first run the application. Programmers include default settings to provide reasonable choices that the application will use if the user chooses not to change the settings. Default settings also provide visual cues for users to choose their own settings. Now you’ll choose your own settings as a user of this application. 4. Changing the brush color and size. Click the RadioButton labeled Red to change the color of the brush, then click Small to change the size of the brush. Position Download at www.wowebook.com

1.8 Test-Driving the Advanced Painter Application

7

the mouse over the white Panel, then press and hold down the left mouse button to draw with the brush. Draw flower petals, as shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 | Drawing with a new brush color. 5. Changing the brush size. Click the RadioButton labeled Green to change the color of the brush again. Then, click the RadioButton labeled Large to change the size of the brush. Draw grass and a flower stem, as shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4 | Drawing with a new brush size. 6. Finishing the drawing. Click the Blue and Medium RadioButtons. Draw raindrops, as shown in Fig. 1.5, to complete the drawing. 7. Closing the application. Close your running application by clicking its close box, (Fig. 1.5). Download at www.wowebook.com

8

Chapter 1 Introduction

Close box

Fig. 1.5 | Finishing the drawing.

1.9 Introduction to Object Technology When object-oriented programming became widely used in the 1980s and 1990s, it dramatically improved the software development process. What are objects, and why are they special? Object technology is a scheme for creating meaningful software units. There are date objects, time objects, paycheck objects, invoice objects, automobile objects, people objects, audio objects, video objects, file objects, record objects and so on. On your computer screen, there are button objects, textbox objects, menu objects and many more. In fact, almost any noun can be reasonably represented as a software object. Objects have attributes (also called properties), such as color, size, weight and speed; and perform actions (also called methods or behaviors), such as moving, sleeping or drawing. Classes are types of related objects. For example, all cars belong to the “car” class, even though individual cars vary in make, model, color and options packages. A class specifies the attributes and actions available to an object of its class. An object is related to its class in much the same way as a building is related to the blueprint from which the building is constructed. Contractors can build many buildings from the same blueprint; programmers can instantiate (create) many objects from the same class. With object technology, properly designed classes can be reused on future projects. Some organizations report that another key benefit they get from object-oriented programming is the production of software that’s better organized and has fewer maintenance requirements than software produced with earlier technologies. Object orientation allows you to focus on the “big picture.” Instead of worrying about the details of how reusable objects are implemented, you focus on the behaviors and interactions of objects. A road map that showed every tree, house and driveway would be difficult to read. When such details are removed and only the essential information (roads) remains, the map becomes easier to understand. In the same way, an application that is divided into objects is easy to understand, modify and update because it hides much of the detail. It’s clear that object-oriented programming will be the key programming methodology for the next several decades. C# is one of the world’s most widely used object-oriented languages, especially in the Microsoft software development community.

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1.9 Introduction to Object Technology

9

Basic Object-Technology Concepts Object-oriented design (OOD) models software in terms similar to those that people use to describe real-world objects. It takes advantage of class relationships, where objects of a certain class, such as a class of vehicles, have the same characteristics—cars, trucks, little red wagons and roller skates have much in common. OOD takes advantage of inheritance relationships, where new classes of objects are derived by absorbing characteristics of existing classes and adding unique characteristics of their own. An object of class “convertible” certainly has the characteristics of the more general class “automobile,” but more specifically, the roof goes up and down. Object-oriented design provides a natural and intuitive way to view the software design process—namely, modeling objects by their attributes, behaviors and interrelationships, just as we describe real-world objects. OOD also models communication between objects. Just as people send messages to one another (for example, a sergeant commands a soldier to stand at attention), objects also communicate via messages. A bank-account object may receive a message to decrease its balance by a certain amount because the customer is withdrawing that amount of money. OOD encapsulates (that is, wraps) attributes and operations (behaviors) into objects—an object’s attributes and operations are intimately tied together. Objects have the property of information hiding. Objects may know how to communicate with one another across well-defined interfaces, but normally they’re not allowed to know how other objects are implemented—such details are hidden within the objects themselves. You can drive a car effectively, for example, without knowing the details of how engines, transmissions, brakes and exhaust systems work internally—as long as you know how to use the accelerator pedal, the brake pedal, the steering wheel and so on. Information hiding, as you’ll see, is crucial to good software engineering. Classes, Fields and Methods As a C# programmer, you’ll concentrate on creating your own classes. Each class contains data as well as the set of methods that manipulate that data and provide services to clients (that is, other classes that use the class). The data components of a class are called attributes or fields. For example, a bank account class might include an account number and a balance. The operation components of a class are called methods. For example, a bank-account class might include methods to make a deposit (increase the balance), make a withdrawal (decrease the balance) and inquire what the current balance is. Classes are to objects as blueprints are to houses—a class is a “plan” for building objects of the class. Just as we can build many houses from one blueprint, we can instantiate (create) many objects from one class. You cannot cook meals in the kitchen of a blueprint, but you can cook meals in the kitchen of a house. Packaging software as classes makes it possible for future software systems to reuse the classes.

Software Engineering Observation 1.1 Reuse of existing classes when building new classes and programs saves time, money and effort. Reuse also helps you build better systems, because existing classes and components often have gone through extensive testing, debugging and performance tuning.

You’ll be using existing classes and making objects of those classes throughout the entire book. In Chapter 4, you’ll begin building your own customized classes.

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Chapter 1

Introduction

With object technology, you can build much of the new software you’ll need by combining existing classes, just as automobile manufacturers combine standardized interchangeable parts. Each class you create will have the potential to become a valuable software asset that you and other programmers can reuse to speed future software development efforts.

Introduction to Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) To create the best solutions, you should follow a detailed process for determining your project’s requirements (that is, what your system is supposed to do) and developing a design that satisfies them (that is, deciding how your system should do it). Ideally, you would go through this process and carefully review the design (and have your design reviewed by other software professionals) before writing any code. If this process involves analyzing and designing your system from an object-oriented point of view, it’s called object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD). Proper analysis and design can help avoid an ill-planned system development approach that has to be abandoned partway through its implementation, possibly wasting considerable time, money and effort. Although many different OOAD processes exist, a single graphical language known as the UML (Unified Modeling Language) for communicating the results of any OOAD process has come into wide use. We introduce some simple UML diagrams in the early chapters and present a richer treatment in the ATM OOD case study (Chapters 30–31).

1.10 Wrap-Up This chapter introduced basic object-technology concepts, including classes, objects, attributes and behaviors. We discussed the different types of programming languages and some widely used languages. We presented a brief history of Microsoft’s Windows operating system. We discussed the history of the C# programming language and Microsoft’s .NET initiative, which allows you to program Internet and web-based applications using C# (and other languages). You learned the steps for executing a C# application and you test-drove the Advanced Painter C# application that we create later in the book. In the next chapter, you’ll use the Visual Studio IDE (Integrated Development Environment) to create your first C# application, using the techniques of visual programming. You’ll also become familiar with Visual Studio’s help features.

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2 Dive Into® Visual C# 2010 Express

Seeing is believing. —Proverb

Form ever follows function. —Louis Henri Sullivan

Intelligence …is the faculty of making artificial objects, especially tools to make tools.

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

The basics of the Visual Studio Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that assists you in writing, running and debugging your Visual C# programs.

■

Visual Studio’s help features.

■

Key commands contained in the IDE’s menus and toolbars.

■

The purpose of the various kinds of windows in the Visual Studio 2010 IDE.

■

What visual programming is and how it simplifies and speeds program development.

■

To create, compile and execute a simple Visual C# program that displays text and an image using the Visual Studio IDE and the technique of visual programming.

—Henri-Louis Bergson

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Chapter 2

Dive Into® Visual C# 2010 Express

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Overview of the Visual Studio 2010 IDE 2.3 Menu Bar and Toolbar 2.4 Navigating the Visual Studio IDE 2.4.1 Solution Explorer 2.4.2 Toolbox 2.4.3 Properties Window

2.5 Using Help 2.6 Using Visual Programming to Create a Simple Program that Displays Text and an Image 2.7 Wrap-Up 2.8 Web Resources

2.1 Introduction Visual Studio 2010 is Microsoft’s Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for creating, running and debugging programs (also called applications) written in various .NET programming languages. This chapter provides an overview of the Visual Studio 2010 IDE and shows how to create a simple Visual C# program by dragging and dropping predefined building blocks into place—a technique known as visual programming.

2.2 Overview of the Visual Studio 2010 IDE There are several Visual Studio versions. This book’s examples are based on the Visual C# 2010 Express Edition. See the Before You Begin section that follows the Preface for information on installing the software. We assume that you’re familiar with Windows.

Introduction to Microsoft Visual C# 2010 Express Edition We use the > character to indicate the selection of a menu item from a menu. For example, we use the notation File > Open File… to indicate that you should select the Open File… menu item from the File menu. To start Microsoft Visual C# 2010 Express Edition, select Start > All Programs > Microsoft Visual Studio 2010 Express > Microsoft Visual C# 2010 Express. Once the Express Edition begins execution, the Start Page displays (Fig. 2.1). Depending on your version of Visual Studio, your Start Page may look different. The Start Page contains a list of links to Visual Studio 2010 IDE resources and web-based resources. At any time, you can return to the Start Page by selecting View > Start Page. Links on the Start Page The Start Page links are organized into sections—Recent Projects, Get Started and Latest News—that contain links to helpful programming resources. Clicking any link on the Start Page displays relevant information associated with the specific link. [Note: An Internet connection is required for the IDE to access some of this information.] We refer to single clicking with the left mouse button as selecting or clicking. We refer to double clicking with the left mouse button simply as double clicking. The Recent Projects section contains information on projects you’ve recently created or modified. You can also open existing projects or create new ones by clicking the links above this section. The Get Started section focuses on using the IDE for creating programs and learning Visual C#. Download at www.wowebook.com

2.2 Overview of the Visual Studio 2010 IDE

New Project button

Start Page tab

Collapsed Toolbox window

Fig. 2.1 |

Latest News tab

Recent projects will be listed here

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Solution Explorer (no projects open)

Start Page links

Start Page in Visual C# 2010 Express Edition.

The Latest News tab provides links to the latest Visual C# developments (such as updates and bug fixes) and to information on advanced programming topics. To access more extensive information on Visual Studio, you can browse the MSDN (Microsoft Developer Network) library at msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/default.aspx. The MSDN site contains articles, downloads and tutorials on technologies of interest to Visual Studio developers. You can also browse the web from the IDE by selecting View > Other Windows > Web Browser. To request a web page, type its URL into the location bar (Fig. 2.2) and press the Enter key—your computer, of course, must be connected to the Internet. The web page that you wish to view appears as another tab in the IDE (Fig. 2.2).

Customizing the IDE and Creating a New Project To begin programming in Visual C#, you must create a new project or open an existing one. Select either File > New Project… to create a new project or File > Open Project… to open an existing project. From the Start Page, above the Recent Projects section, you can also click the links New Project… or Open Project…. A project is a group of related files, such as the Visual C# code and any images that might make up a program. Visual Studio 2010 organizes programs into projects and solutions, which contain one or more projects. Multiple-project solutions are used to create large-scale programs. Most of the programs we create in this book consist of a single project. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Chapter 2

Dive Into® Visual C# 2010 Express

Web browser window tab Location bar

Fig. 2.2 | Displaying a web page in Visual Studio. When you select File > New Project… or click the New Project… link on the Start Page, the New Project dialog (Fig. 2.3) displays. Dialogs are windows that facilitate user–computer communication. Visual C# Windows Forms Application (selected)

Fig. 2.3 |

Default project name (provided by Visual Studio)

Description of selected project (provided by Visual Studio)

New Project dialog.

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2.2 Overview of the Visual Studio 2010 IDE

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Visual Studio provides several templates (Fig. 2.3). Templates are the project types users can create in Visual C#—Windows Forms applications, console applications, WPF applications and others. In this chapter, we build a Windows Forms Application. Such an application executes within a Windows operating system (such as Windows 7) and typically has a graphical user interface (GUI)—the visual part of the program with which the user interacts. Windows applications include Microsoft software products like Microsoft Word, Internet Explorer and Visual Studio; software products created by other vendors; and customized software that you and other programmers create. By default, Visual Studio assigns the name WindowsFormsApplication1 to a new Windows Forms Application project and solution (Fig. 2.3). Select Windows Forms Application, then click OK to display the IDE in Design view (Fig. 2.4), which contains the features that enable you to create programs.

Menu in the menu bar Active tab

Solution Explorer window Form (Windows Forms application)

Properties window

Fig. 2.4 |

Design view of the IDE.

The rectangle in the Design area titled Form1 (called a Form) represents the main window of the application that you’re creating. Visual C# applications can have multiple Forms (windows)—however, most applications you’ll create in this text will use only one Form. You’ll learn how to customize the Form by adding GUI controls—in this example, you’ll add a Label and a PictureBox (as you’ll see in Fig. 2.25). A Label typically contains descriptive text (for example, "Welcome to Visual C#!"), and a PictureBox displays an image, such as the Deitel bug mascot. Visual C# Express has many preexisting controls and other components you can use to build and customize your programs. In this chapter, you’ll work with preexisting controls from the .NET Framework Class Library. As you place controls on the Form, you’ll be able to modify their properties. For example, Fig. 2.5 shows where the Form’s title can be modified and Fig. 2.6 shows a dialog in which a control’s font properties can be modified.

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Chapter 2

Dive Into® Visual C# 2010 Express

Textbox (displaying the text Form1) which can be modified

Fig. 2.5 | Textbox control for modifying a property in the Visual Studio IDE.

Fig. 2.6 | Dialog for modifying a control’s font properties. Collectively, the Form and controls make up the program’s GUI. Users enter data (inputs) into the program by typing at the keyboard, by clicking the mouse buttons and in a variety of other ways. Programs use the GUI to display instructions and other information (outputs) for users to view. For example, the New Project dialog in Fig. 2.3 presents a GUI where the user clicks the mouse button to select a template type, then inputs a project name from the keyboard (the figure is still showing the default project name WindowsFormsApplication1 supplied by Visual Studio). Each open file name is listed on a tab. To view a document when multiple documents are open, click its tab. Tabs facilitate easy access to multiple open documents. The active tab (the tab of the currently displayed document) is highlighted in yellow (for example, Form1.cs [Design] in Fig. 2.4).

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2.3 Menu Bar and Toolbar

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2.3 Menu Bar and Toolbar Commands for managing the IDE and for developing, maintaining and executing programs are contained in menus, which are located on the menu bar of the IDE (Fig. 2.7). The set of menus displayed depends on what you’re currently doing in the IDE.

Fig. 2.7 | Visual Studio menu bar. Menus contain groups of related commands (also called menu items) that, when selected, cause the IDE to perform specific actions. For example, new projects are created by selecting File > New Project…. The menus depicted in Fig. 2.7 are summarized in Fig. 2.8.

Menu

Description

File

Contains commands for opening, closing, adding and saving projects, as well as printing project data and exiting Visual Studio. Contains commands for editing programs, such as cut, copy, paste, undo, redo, delete, find and select. Contains commands for displaying IDE windows (for example, Solution Explorer, Toolbox, Properties window) and for adding toolbars to the IDE. Contains commands for managing projects and their files. Contains commands for compiling, debugging (that is, identifying and correcting problems in programs) and running programs. Contains commands for interacting with databases (that is, organized collections of data stored on computers), which we discuss in Chapter 18, Databases and LINQ. Contains commands for arranging and modifying a Form’s controls. The Format menu appears only when a GUI component is selected in Design view. Contains commands for accessing additional IDE tools and options for customizing the IDE. Contains commands for hiding, opening, closing and displaying IDE windows. Contains commands for accessing the IDE’s help features.

Edit View Project Debug Data

Format Tools Window Help

Fig. 2.8 | Summary of Visual Studio 2010 IDE menus. You can access many of the more common menu commands from the toolbar (Fig. 2.9), which contains graphics, called icons, that graphically represent commands. By default, the standard toolbar is displayed when you run Visual Studio for the first time— it contains icons for the most commonly used commands, such as opening a file, adding

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an item to a project, saving files and running applications (Fig. 2.9). The icons that appear on the standard toolbar may vary, depending on the version of Visual Studio you’re using. Some commands are initially disabled (grayed out or unavailable to use). These commands are enabled by Visual Studio only when they’re necessary. For example, Visual Studio enables the command for saving a file once you begin editing a file. New Project

Open File

Add New Item

Find in Files

Save

Cut

Save All

Find

Paste

Copy

Redo

Undo

Solution Explorer

Start Debugging

Toolbox

Properties Window

Extension Manager

Start Page

Fig. 2.9 | Standard Visual Studio toolbar. You can customize the IDE’s toolbars. Select View > Toolbars (Fig. 2.10). Each toolbar you select is displayed with the other toolbars at the top of the Visual Studio window. To execute a command via the toolbar, click its icon. Some icons contain a down arrow that you can click to display related commands, as shown in Fig. 2.11.

Additional toolbars are displayed at the top of the IDE with the other toolbars

Fig. 2.10 | Adding the Build toolbar to the IDE.

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2.4 Navigating the Visual Studio IDE

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Toolbar

Down arrow indicates additional commands

Fig. 2.11 | IDE toolbar icon showing additional commands. It can be difficult to remember what each toolbar icon represents. Hovering the mouse pointer over an icon highlights it and, after a brief pause, displays a description of the icon called a tool tip (Fig. 2.12). Tool tips help you become familiar with the IDE’s features and serve as useful reminders for each toolbar icon’s functionality.

Tool tip appears when the mouse pointer rests on an icon for a few moments

Fig. 2.12 | Tool tip demonstration.

2.4 Navigating the Visual Studio IDE The IDE provides windows for accessing project files and customizing controls. This section introduces several windows that you’ll use frequently when developing Visual C# programs. These windows can be accessed via the toolbar icons (Fig. 2.13) or by selecting the desired window’s name from View > Other Windows. Properties window Solution Explorer

Toolbox

Fig. 2.13 | Toolbar icons for three Visual Studio windows. Visual Studio provides a space-saving feature called auto-hide. When auto-hide is enabled, a tab appears along either the left, right or bottom edge of the IDE window (Fig. 2.14). This tab contains one or more icons, each of which identifies a hidden window. Placing the mouse pointer over one of these icons displays that window (Fig. 2.15). Moving the mouse pointer outside the window’s area hides the window. To “pin down” a window (that is, to disable auto-hide and keep the window open), click the pin icon. When auto-hide is enabled, the pin icon is horizontal (Fig. 2.15)—when a window is “pinned down,” the pin icon is vertical (Fig. 2.16). The next few sections cover three of Visual Studio’s main windows—the Solution Explorer, the Properties window and the Toolbox. These windows display project information and include tools that help you build your programs.

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Hidden windows (auto-hide enabled)

Fig. 2.14 | Auto-hide feature demonstration.

Toolbox

title bar

Horizontal orientation for pin icon when auto-hide is enabled

Fig. 2.15 | Displaying a hidden window when auto-hide is enabled.

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2.4 Navigating the Visual Studio IDE

Toolbox “pinned down”

21

Vertical orientation for pin icon when window is “pinned down”

Fig. 2.16 | Disabling auto-hide (“pinning down” a window).

2.4.1 Solution Explorer The Solution Explorer window (Fig. 2.17) provides access to all of a solution’s files. If it’s not shown in the IDE, click the Solution Explorer icon in the IDE (Fig. 2.13), select View > Other Windows > Solution Explorer or type L. When you open a new or existing solution, the Solution Explorer displays the solution’s contents.

Toolbar Show All Files icon

Fig. 2.17 |

Startup project

Solution Explorer window with an open project.

The solution’s startup project is the one that runs when you select Debug > Start (or press the F5 key). For a single-project solution like the examples in this

Debugging

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book, the startup project is the only project (in this case, WindowsFormsApplication1) and the project name appears in bold text in the Solution Explorer window. When you create an application for the first time, the Solution Explorer window lists entries for the project’s Properties and References, and the files Form1.cs and Program.cs (Fig. 2.17). The Visual C# file that corresponds to the Form shown in Fig. 2.4 is named Form1.cs (selected in Fig. 2.17). Visual C# files use the .cs file-name extension. By default, the IDE displays only files that you may need to edit—other files that the IDE generates are hidden. The Solution Explorer window includes a toolbar that contains several icons. Clicking the Show All Files icon (Fig. 2.17) displays all the solution’s files, including those generated by the IDE. Clicking the arrows to the left of a file or folder expands or collapses the project tree’s nodes. Try clicking the arrow to the left of References to display items grouped under that heading (Fig. 2.18). Click the arrow again to collapse the tree. Other Visual Studio windows also use this convention.

Click to expand node Click to collapse node

Fig. 2.18 |

Solution Explorer with the References node expanded.

2.4.2 Toolbox

The Toolbox (View > Other Windows > Toolbox) contains icons representing controls used to customize Forms (Fig. 2.19). With visual programming, you can “drag and drop” controls onto the Form and the IDE will write the code that creates the controls for you. This is faster and simpler than writing this code yourself. Just as you do not need to know how to build an engine to drive a car, you do not need to know how to build controls to use them. Reusing preexisting controls saves time and money when you develop programs. You’ll use the Toolbox when you create your first program later in the chapter. The Toolbox groups the prebuilt controls into categories—All Windows Forms, Common Controls, Containers, Menus & Toolbars, Data, Components, Printing, Dialogs, WPF Interoperability and General are listed in Fig. 2.19. Again, note the use of arrows, which can expand or collapse a group of controls. We discuss many of the Toolbox’s controls and their functionality throughout the book.

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2.4 Navigating the Visual Studio IDE

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Controls Group names

Fig. 2.19 |

Toolbox window displaying controls for the Common Controls group.

2.4.3 Properties Window To display the Properties window, select View > Other Windows > Properties Window or click the Properties window toolbar icon shown in Fig. 2.13. The Properties window displays the properties for the currently selected Form (Fig. 2.20), control or file in Design view. Properties specify information about the Form or control, such as its size, color and position. Each Form or control has its own set of properties—a property’s description is displayed at the bottom of the Properties window whenever that property is selected. Figure 2.20 shows Form1’s Properties window. The left column lists the names of the Form’s properties—the right column displays the current value of each property. You can sort the properties either alphabetically (by clicking the Alphabetical icon) or categorically (by clicking the Categorized icon). The properties can be sorted alphabetically from A to Z or Z to A—sorting by category groups the properties according to their use (that is, Appearance, Behavior, Design, etc.). Depending on the size of the Properties window, some of the properties may be hidden from view on the screen. Users can scroll through the list of properties by dragging the scrollbox up or down inside the scrollbar, or by

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Component selection drop-down list Categorized icon

Toolbar

Alphabetic icon

Scrollbox Properties

Scrollbar

Property values

Description

Fig. 2.20 |

Properties window.

clicking the arrows at the top and bottom of the scrollbar. We show how to set individual properties later in this chapter. The Properties window is crucial to visual programming—it allows you to modify a control’s properties visually, without writing code. You can see which properties are available for modification and, in many cases, can learn the range of acceptable values for a given property. The Properties window displays a brief description of the selected property, helping you understand its purpose. A property can be set quickly using this window, and no code needs to be written. At the top of the Properties window is the component selection drop-down list, which allows you to select the Form or control whose properties you wish to display in the Properties window (Fig. 2.20). Using the component selection drop-down list is an alternative way to display a Form’s or control’s properties without clicking the actual Form or control in the GUI.

2.5 Using Help Microsoft provides extensive help documentation via the Help menu. Using Help is an excellent way to get information quickly about Visual Studio, Visual C# and more.

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2.5 Using Help

25

Before using Help the first time, you must configure it as follows: 1. Select Help > Manage Help Settings to display the Help Library Manager. The first time you do this, the dialog in Fig. 2.21 will appear. Simply click OK to select the default location for help content that’s stored on your local computer. If a dialog appears with the message Do you want to allow the following program to make changes to this computer?, click Yes.

Fig. 2.21 |

Help Library Manager window the first time you select Help > Manage Help

Settings.

2. In the Help Library Manager window, click Choose online or local help (Fig. 2.22). Accessing online help requires an Internet connection, but gives you access to the most up-to-date documentation, as well as tutorials, downloads, support, forums and more. Accessing local help requires that you first download the help files, which can take considerable time and use a significant amount of disk space. If possible, we recommend that you use the online help.

Fig. 2.22 | Preparing to select online or local help.

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3. If it’s not already selected, select I want to use online help, then click OK; otherwise, click Cancel. Next, click Exit in the Help Library Manager window. Your IDE is now configured to use online help. i

Fig. 2.23 | Selecting online help. Context-Sensitive Help Visual Studio provides context-sensitive help pertaining to the “current content” (that is, the items around the location of the mouse cursor). To use context-sensitive help, click an item, such as the Form, then press the F1 key. The help documentation is displayed in a web browser window. To return to the IDE, either close the browser window or select the icon for the IDE in your Windows task bar. Figure 2.24 shows the help page for a Form’s Text property. You can view this help by selecting the Form, clicking its Text property in the Properties window and pressing the F1 key.

Fig. 2.24 | Using context-sensitive help. Download at www.wowebook.com

2.6 Create a Simple Program that Displays Text and an Image

27

2.6 Using Visual Programming to Create a Simple Program that Displays Text and an Image Next, we create a program that displays the text "Welcome to Visual C#!" and an image of the Deitel & Associates bug mascot. The program consists of a single Form that uses a Label and a PictureBox. Figure 2.25 shows the result of the program as it executes. The program and the bug image are available with this chapter’s examples, which you can download from www.deitel.com/books/csharpfp4/. We assume the examples are located at C:\examples on your computer.

Label control

PictureBox

control

Fig. 2.25 | Simple program executing. You won’t write a single line of program code. Instead, you’ll use visual programming techniques. Visual Studio processes your actions (such as mouse clicking, dragging and dropping) to generate program code. Chapter 3 begins our discussion of writing program code. Throughout the book, you produce increasingly substantial and powerful programs that usually include a combination of code written by you and code generated by Visual Studio. The generated code can be difficult for novices to understand—but you’ll rarely need to look at it. Visual programming is useful for building GUI-intensive programs that require a significant amount of user interaction. To create, save, run and terminate this first program, perform the following steps: 1. Closing the open project. If a project is already open, close it by selecting File > Close Solution. A dialog asking whether to save the current solution might appear. Click Save to save your changes or Discard to ignore them. 2. Creating the new project. To create a new Windows Forms application for the program, select File > New Project… to display the New Project dialog (Fig. 2.26). Select Windows Forms Application. Name the project ASimpleProgram and click OK. 3. Saving the project. We mentioned earlier in this chapter that you must set the directory in which the project is saved. To specify the directory in Visual C# 2010 Express, select File > Save All to display the Save Project dialog (Fig. 2.27). By deDownload at www.wowebook.com

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Type the project name here

Fig. 2.26 |

Select the Windows Forms Application template

New Project dialog.

fault, projects are saved to your user directory in the folder My Documents\visual studio 2010\Projects. To change the project location, click the Browse… button, which opens the Project Location dialog (Fig. 2.28). Navigate through the directories, select one in which to place the project (in our example, we use the directory C:\MyCSharpProjects) and click Select Folder to close the dialog. Click Save in the Save Project dialog (Fig. 2.27) to save the project and close the dialog.

Fig. 2.27 |

Save Project dialog.

When you first begin working in the IDE, it is in design mode (that is, the program is being designed and is not executing). This provides access to all the environment windows (for example, Toolbox, Properties), menus and toolbars, as you’ll see shortly. 4. Setting the text in the Form’s title bar. The text in the Form’s title bar is determined by the Form’s Text property (Fig. 2.29). If the Properties window is not open, click the properties icon in the toolbar or select View > Other Windows > Properties Window. Click anywhere in the Form to display the Form’s properties in the Properties window. In the textbox to the right of the Text property, type

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2.6 Create a Simple Program that Displays Text and an Image

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A Simple Program, as in Fig.

2.29. Press the Enter key—the Form’s title bar is updated immediately (Fig. 2.30).

Selected project location

Click to set project location

Fig. 2.28 | Setting the project location in the Project Location dialog.

Name and type of object

Selected property

Property value

Property description

Fig. 2.29 | Setting the Form’s Text property in the Properties window. Title bar

Enabled sizing handles

Fig. 2.30 |

Form

with enabled sizing handles.

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5. Resizing the Form. Click and drag one of the Form’s enabled sizing handles (the small white squares that appear around the Form, as shown in Fig. 2.30). Using the mouse, select the bottom-right sizing handle and drag it down and to the right to make the Form larger (Fig. 2.31).

Fig. 2.31 | Resized Form. 6. Changing the Form’s background color. The BackColor property specifies a Form’s or control’s background color. Clicking BackColor in the Properties window causes a down-arrow button to appear next to the value of the property (Fig. 2.32). When clicked, the down-arrow button displays other options, which vary depending on the property. In this case, the arrow displays tabs for Custom, Web and System (the default). Click the Custom tab to display the palette (a grid of colors). Select the box that represents light blue. Once you select the color, the palette closes and the Form’s background color changes to light blue (Fig. 2.33).

Current color Down-arrow button Custom palette Light blue

Fig. 2.32 | Changing the Form’s BackColor property.

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New background color

Fig. 2.33 |

Form

with new BackColor property applied.

7. Adding a

Label control to the Form. If the Toolbox is not already open, View > Other Windows > Toolbox to display the set of controls you’ll use for

select creating your programs. For the type of program we’re creating in this chapter, the typical controls we use are located in either the All Windows Forms group of the Toolbox or the Common Controls group. If either group name is collapsed, expand it by clicking the arrow to the left of the group name (the All Windows Forms and Common Controls groups are shown in Fig. 2.19). Next, double click the Label control in the Toolbox. This action causes a Label to appear in the upper-left corner of the Form (Fig. 2.34). [Note: If the Form is behind the Toolbox, you may need to hide the Toolbox to see the Label.] Although double clicking any Toolbox control places the control on the Form, you also can “drag” controls from the Toolbox to the Form—you may prefer dragging the control because you can position it wherever you want. The Label displays the text label1 by default. The Label’s

Label control

Fig. 2.34 | Adding a Label to the Form.

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background color is the same as the Form’s background color. When a control is added to the Form, its BackColor property is set to the Form’s BackColor. You can change the Label’s background color by changing its BackColor property. 8. Customizing the Label’s appearance. Select the Label by clicking it. Its properties now appear in the Properties window. The Label’s Text property determines the text (if any) that the Label displays. The Form and Label each have their own Text property—Forms and controls can have the same types of properties (such as BackColor, Text, etc.) without conflict. Set the Label’s Text property to Welcome to Visual C#!. The Label resizes to fit all the typed text on one line. By default, the AutoSize property of the Label is set to True, which allows the Label to update its size to fit all of the text if necessary. Set the AutoSize property to False (Fig. 2.35) so that you can resize the Label on your own. Resize the Label (using the sizing handles) so that the text fits. Move the Label to the top center of the Form by dragging it or by using the keyboard’s left and right arrow keys to adjust its position (Fig. 2.36). Alternatively, when the Label is selected, you can center the Label control horizontally by selecting Format > Center In Form > Horizontally.

AutoSize

property

Fig. 2.35 | Changing the Label’s AutoSize property to False.

Sizing handles

Fig. 2.36

|

Label centered with updated Text

property

GUI after the Form and Label have been customized.

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9. Setting the Label’s font size. To change the font type and appearance of the Label’s text, select the value of the Font property, which causes an ellipsis button to appear next to the value (Fig. 2.37). When the ellipsis button is clicked, a dialog that provides additional values—in this case, the Font dialog (Fig. 2.38)—is displayed. You can select the font name (the font options may be different, depending on your system), font style (Regular, Italic, Bold, etc.) and font size (16, 18, 20, etc.) in this dialog. The Sample text shows the selected font settings. Under Font, select Segoe UI, Microsoft’s recommended font for user interfaces. Under Size, select 24 points and click OK. If the Label’s text does not fit on a single line, it wraps to the next line. Resize the Label so that it appears as shown in Fig. 2.25 if it’s not large enough to hold the text. You may need to center the Label horizontally again after resizing.

Ellipsis button

Fig. 2.37

| Properties window displaying the Label’s Font property.

Current font

Font sample

Fig. 2.38

| Font dialog for selecting fonts, styles and sizes.

10. Aligning the Label’s text. Select the Label’s TextAlign property, which determines how the text is aligned within the Label. A three-by-three grid of buttons representing alignment choices is displayed (Fig. 2.39). The position of each button corresponds to where the text appears in the Label. For this program, set the

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property to MiddleCenter in the three-by-three grid—this selection causes the text to appear centered in the middle of the Label, with equal spacing from the text to all sides of the Label. The other TextAlign values, such as TopLeft, TopRight, and BottomCenter, can be used to position the text anywhere within a Label. Certain alignment values may require that you resize the Label larger or smaller to better fit the text. TextAlign

Text alignment options

Middle-center alignment option

Fig. 2.39 | Centering the Label’s text. 11. Adding a PictureBox to the Form. The PictureBox control displays images. The process involved in this step is similar to that of Step 7, in which we added a Label to the Form. Locate the PictureBox in the Toolbox (Fig. 2.19) and double click it to add it to the Form. When the PictureBox appears, move it underneath the Label, either by dragging it or by using the arrow keys (Fig. 2.40).

Updated Label

PictureBox

Fig. 2.40 | Inserting and aligning a PictureBox. 12. Inserting an image. Click the PictureBox to display its properties in the Properties window (Fig. 2.41). Locate the Image property, which displays a preview of

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2.6 Create a Simple Program that Displays Text and an Image

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the selected image or (none) if no image is selected. Click the ellipsis button to display the Select Resource dialog (Fig. 2.42), which is used to import files, such as images, for use in a program. Click the Import… button to browse for an image to insert, select the image file and click OK. We used bug.png from this chapter’s examples folder. The image is previewed in the Select Resource dialog (Fig. 2.43). Click OK to use the image. Supported image formats include PNG (Portable Network Graphics), GIF (Graphic Interchange Format), JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) and BMP (Windows bitmap). To scale the image to the PictureBox’s size, change the SizeMode property to StretchImage (Fig. 2.44). Resize the PictureBox, making it larger (Fig. 2.45). 13. Saving the project. Select File > Save All to save the entire solution. The solution file (which has the file name extension .sln) contains the name and location of its project, and the project file (which has the file name extension .csproj) contains the names and locations of all the files in the project. If you want to reopen your project at a later time, simply open its .sln file.

Image property value

(no image selected)

Fig. 2.41

| Image property of the PictureBox.

Fig. 2.42 |

Select Resource dialog to select an image for the PictureBox.

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Image file name

Fig. 2.43 |

Select Resource dialog displaying a preview of selected image.

SizeMode

SizeMode

property set to

property

StretchImage

Fig. 2.44 | Scaling an image to the size of the PictureBox.

Newly inserted image

Fig. 2.45 |

PictureBox

displaying an image.

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2.6 Create a Simple Program that Displays Text and an Image

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14. Running the project. Recall that up to this point we have been working in the IDE design mode (that is, the program being created is not executing). In run mode, the program is executing, and you can interact with only a few IDE features—features that are not available are disabled (grayed out). The text Form1.cs [Design] in the project tab (Fig. 2.46) means that we’re designing the Form visually rather than programmatically. If we had been writing code, the tab would have contained only the text Form1.cs. If there’s an asterisk (*) at the end of the text in the tab, the file has been changed and should be saved. Select Debug > Start Debugging to execute the program (or you can press the F5 key). Figure 2.47 shows the IDE in run mode (indicated by the title-bar text ASimpleProgram (Running) – Microsoft Visual C# 2010 Express Edition). Many toolbar icons and menus are disabled, since they cannot be used while the program is running. The running program appears in a separate window outside the IDE as shown in the lower-right portion of Fig. 2.47. 15. Terminating execution. Click the running program’s close box ( ) in the topright corner of the running program’s window. This action stops the program’s execution and returns the IDE to design mode. You can also select Debug > Stop Debugging to terminate the program. Form1.cs [Design]

Debug menu

Fig. 2.46 | Debugging a solution.

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IDE displays text Running, which signifies that the program is executing

Close box

Form

Running program

Fig. 2.47 | IDE in run mode, with the running program in the foreground.

2.7 Wrap-Up In this chapter, we introduced key features of the Visual Studio Integrated Development Environment (IDE). You used the technique of visual programming to create a working Visual C# program without writing a single line of code. Visual C# programming is a mixture of the two styles: Visual programming allows you to develop GUIs easily and avoid tedious GUI programming. Conventional programming (which we introduce in Chapter 3) allows you to specify the behavior of your programs. You created a Visual C# Windows Forms application with one Form. You worked with the Solution Explorer, Toolbox and Properties windows, which are essential to developing Visual C# programs. The Solution Explorer window allows you to manage your solution’s files visually. You explored Visual Studio’s help features. You learned how to set Help options to display help resources internally or externally in a web browser. We also demonstrated context-sensitive help, which displays help topics related to selected controls or text. You used visual programming to design the GUI portions of a program quickly and easily, by dragging and dropping controls (a Label and a PictureBox) onto a Form or by double clicking controls in the Toolbox. Download at www.wowebook.com

2.8 Web Resources

39

In creating the ASimpleProgram program, you used the Properties window to set the and BackColor properties of the Form. You learned that Label controls display text and that PictureBoxes display images. You displayed text in a Label and added an image to a PictureBox. You also worked with the AutoSize, TextAlign and Font properties of a Label and the Image and SizeMode properties of a PictureBox. In the next chapter, we discuss “nonvisual,” or “conventional,” programming—you’ll create your first programs that contain Visual C# code that you write, instead of having Visual Studio write the code. You’ll study console applications (programs that display only text and do not have a GUI). You’ll also learn memory concepts, arithmetic, decision making and how to use a dialog to display a message. Text

2.8 Web Resources Please take a moment to visit each of these sites briefly. social.msdn.microsoft.com/forums/en-US/category/visualcsharp/

This site provides access to the Microsoft Visual C# forums, which you can use to get your Visual C# language and IDE questions answered. www.deitel.com/VisualCSharp2010/

This site lists many of the key web resources we used as we were preparing to write this book. There’s lots of great stuff here to help you become familiar with the world of Visual C# 2010. msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio

This site is the home page for Microsoft Visual Studio. The site includes news, documentation, downloads and other resources. msdn.microsoft.com/vcsharp

This site provides information on the newest release of Visual C#, including downloads, community information and resources.

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3 Introduction to C# Applications

What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.

Objectives

—William Shakespeare

In this chapter you’ll learn:

When faced with a decision, I always ask, “What would be the most fun?”

■

To write simple C# applications using code rather than visual programming.

■

To write input/output statements.

■

To declare and use data of various types.

■

To store and retrieve data from memory.

■

To use arithmetic operators.

■

To determine the order in which operators are applied.

■

To write decision-making statements.

■

To use relational and equality operators.

■

To use message dialogs to display messages.

—Peggy Walker

“Take some more tea,” the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly. “I’ve had nothing yet,” Alice replied in an offended tone, “so I can’t take more.” “You mean you can’t take less,” said the Hatter: “it’s very easy to take more than nothing.” —Lewis Carroll

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3.1 Introduction

3.1 Introduction 3.2 A Simple C# Application: Displaying a Line of Text 3.3 Creating a Simple Application in Visual C# Express 3.4 Modifying Your Simple C# Application 3.5 Formatting Text with Console.Write and

41

3.6 Another C# Application: Adding Integers 3.7 Arithmetic 3.8 Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators 3.9 Wrap-Up

Console.WriteLine

3.1 Introduction In this chapter, we introduce console applications—these input and output text in a console window, which in Windows XP and Windows Vista is known as the Command Prompt. We use live-code examples to demonstrate input/output, text formatting and arithmetic, equality and relational operators. The optional Software Engineering Case Study section examines the requirements document that specifies what our ATM must do.

3.2 A Simple C# Application: Displaying a Line of Text Let’s consider an application that displays a line of text. (Later in this section we discuss how to compile and run an application.) The application and its output are shown in Fig. 3.1. The application illustrates several important C# language features. For your convenience, each program we present in this book includes line numbers, which are not part of actual C# code. In Section 3.3 we show how to display line numbers for your C# code in the IDE. We’ll soon see that line 10 does the real work of the application—namely, displaying the phrase Welcome to C# Programming! on the screen. We now do a code walkthrough. Line 1 begins with //, indicating that the remainder of the line is a comment. We begin every application with a comment indicating the figure number and the name of the file in which the application is stored. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

// Fig. 3.1: Welcome1.cs // Text-displaying application. using System; public class Welcome1 { // Main method begins execution of C# application public static void Main( string[] args ) { Console.WriteLine( "Welcome to C# Programming!" ); } // end Main } // end class Welcome1

Welcome to C# Programming!

Fig. 3.1 | Text-displaying application. Download at www.wowebook.com

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A comment that begins with // is called a single-line comment, because it terminates at the end of the line on which it appears. A // comment also can begin in the middle of a line and continue until the end of that line (as in lines 7, 11 and 12). Delimited comments such as /* This is a delimited comment. It can be split over many lines */

can be spread over several lines. This type of comment begins with the delimiter /* and ends with the delimiter */. All text between the delimiters is ignored by the compiler. C# incorporated delimited comments and single-line comments from the C and C++ programming languages, respectively. In this book, we use only single-line comments in our programs.

Common Programming Error 3.1 Forgetting one of the delimiters of a delimited comment is a syntax error.

Line 2 is a single-line comment that describes the purpose of the application. Line 3 is a using directive that tells the compiler where to look for a class that is used in this application. A great strength of Visual C# is its rich set of predefined classes that you can reuse rather than “reinventing the wheel.” These classes are organized under namespaces—named collections of related classes. Collectively, .NET’s namespaces are referred to as the .NET Framework Class Library. Each using directive identifies a namespace containing predefined classes that a C# application should be able to use. The using directive in line 3 indicates that this example uses classes from the System namespace, which contains the predefined Console class (discussed shortly) used in line 10, and many other useful classes.

Error-Prevention Tip 3.1 Forgetting to include a using directive for a namespace that contains a class used in your application typically results in a compilation error, containing a message such as “The name 'Console' does not exist in the current context.” When this occurs, check that you provided the proper using directives and that the names in the using directives are spelled correctly, including proper use of uppercase and lowercase letters.

For each new .NET class we use, we indicate the namespace in which it’s located. This information is important, because it helps you locate descriptions of each class in the .NET documentation. A web-based version of this documentation can be found at msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms229335.aspx

You can also place the cursor on the name of any .NET class or method, then press the F1 key to get more information. Line 4 is simply a blank line. Blank lines, space characters and tab characters are whitespace. Space characters and tabs are known specifically as whitespace characters. Whitespace is ignored by the compiler. We use whitespace to enhance application readability. Line 5 begins a class declaration for the class Welcome1. Every application you create consists of at least one class declaration that is defined by you. These are known as userdefined classes. The class keyword introduces a class declaration and is immediately fol-

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lowed by the class name (Welcome1). Keywords (also called reserved words) are reserved for use by C# and are always spelled with all lowercase letters. The complete list of C# keywords is shown in Fig. 3.2. C# Keywords and contextual keywords abstract

as

base

bool

break

byte

case

catch

char

checked

class

const

continue

decimal

default

delegate

do

double

else

enum

event

explicit

extern

false

finally

fixed

float

for

foreach

goto

if

implicit

in

int

interface

internal

is

lock

long

namespace

new

null

object

operator

out

override

params

private

protected

public

readonly

ref

return

sbyte

sealed

short

sizeof

stackalloc

static

string

struct

switch

this

throw

true

try

typeof

uint

ulong

unchecked

unsafe

ushort

using

virtual

void

volatile

while

Contextual Keywords add

alias

ascending

by

descending

equals

from

get

global

group

into

join

let

on

orderby

partial

remove

select

set

value

var

where

yield

Fig. 3.2 | C# keywords and contextual keywords. By convention, all class names begin with a capital letter and capitalize the first letter of each word they include (e.g., SampleClassName). This is frequently referred to as Pascal casing. A class name is an identifier—a series of characters consisting of letters, digits and underscores ( _ ) that does not begin with a digit and does not contain spaces. Some valid identifiers are Welcome1, identifier, _value and m_inputField1. The name 7button is not a valid identifier because it begins with a digit, and the name input field is not a valid identifier because it contains a space. Normally, an identifier that does not begin with a capital letter is not the name of a class. C# is case sensitive—that is, uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct, so a1 and A1 are different (but both valid) identifiers. Identifiers may also be preceded by the @ character. This indicates that a word should be interpreted as an identifier, even if it’s a keyword (e.g., @int). This allows C# code to use code written in other .NET languages where an identifier might have the same name as a C# keyword.

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The contextual keywords in Fig. 3.2 can be used as identifiers outside the contexts in which they’re keywords, but for clarity this is not recommended.

Good Programming Practice 3.1 By convention, always begin a class name’s identifier with a capital letter and start each subsequent word in the identifier with a capital letter.

Common Programming Error 3.2 C# is case sensitive. Not using the proper uppercase and lowercase letters for an identifier normally causes a compilation error.

In Chapters 3–9, every class we define begins with the keyword public. For now, we’ll simply require this keyword. You’ll learn more about public and non-public classes in Chapter 10, Classes and Objects: A Deeper Look. When you save your public class declaration in a file, the file name is usually the class name followed by the .cs file-name extension. For our application, the file name is Welcome1.cs.

Good Programming Practice 3.2 By convention, a file that contains a single public class should have a name that is identical to the class name (plus the .cs extension) in both spelling and capitalization. Naming your files in this way makes it easier for other programmers (and you) to determine where the classes of an application are located.

A left brace (in line 6 in Fig. 3.1), {, begins the body of every class declaration. A corresponding right brace (in line 12), }, must end each class declaration. Lines 7–11 are indented. This indentation is one of the spacing conventions mentioned earlier. We define each spacing convention as a Good Programming Practice.

Error-Prevention Tip 3.2 Whenever you type an opening left brace, {, in your application, immediately type the closing right brace, }, then reposition the cursor between the braces and indent to begin typing the body. This practice helps prevent errors due to missing braces.

Good Programming Practice 3.3 Indent the entire body of each class declaration one “level” of indentation between the left and right braces that delimit the body of the class. This format emphasizes the class declaration’s structure and makes it easier to read. You can let the IDE format your code by selecting Edit > Advanced > Format Document

Good Programming Practice 3.4 Set a convention for the indent size you prefer, then uniformly apply that convention. The Tab key may be used to create indents, but tab stops vary among text editors. We recommend using three spaces to form each level of indentation. We show how to do this in Section 3.3.

Common Programming Error 3.3 It’s a syntax error if braces do not occur in matching pairs.

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Line 7 is a comment indicating the purpose of lines 8–11 of the application. Line 8 is the starting point of every application. The parentheses after the identifier Main indicate that it’s an application building block called a method. Class declarations normally contain one or more methods. Method names usually follow the same Pascal casing capitalization conventions used for class names. For each application, one of the methods in a class must be called Main (which is typically defined as shown in line 8); otherwise, the application will not execute. Methods are able to perform tasks and return information when they complete their tasks. Keyword void (line 8) indicates that this method will not return any information after it completes its task. Later, we’ll see that many methods do return information. You’ll learn more about methods in Chapters 4 and 7. We discuss the contents of Main’s parentheses in Chapter 8. For now, simply mimic Main’s first line in your applications. The left brace in line 9 begins the body of the method declaration. A corresponding right brace must end the method’s body (line 11 of Fig. 3.1). Line 10 in the body of the method is indented between the braces.

Good Programming Practice 3.5 As with class declarations, indent the entire body of each method declaration one “level” of indentation between the left and right braces that define the method body. This format makes the structure of the method stand out and makes the method declaration easier to read.

Line 10 displays the string of characters contained between the double quotation marks. Whitespace characters in strings are not ignored by the compiler. Class Console provides standard input/output capabilities that enable applications to read and display text in the console window from which the application executes. The Console.WriteLine method displays a line of text in the console window. The string in the parentheses in line 10 is the argument to the method. Method Console.WriteLine displays its argument in the console window. When Console.WriteLine completes its task, it positions the screen cursor at the beginning of the next line in the console window. The entire line 10, including Console.WriteLine, the parentheses, the argument "Welcome to C# Programming!" in the parentheses and the semicolon (;), is called a statement. Most statements end with a semicolon. When the statement in line 10 executes, it displays the string Welcome to C# Programming! in the console window. A method is typically composed of one or more statements that perform the method’s task.

Error-Prevention Tip 3.3 When the compiler reports a syntax error, the error may not be in the line indicated by the error message. First, check the line for which the error was reported. If that line does not contain syntax errors, check several preceding lines.

Some programmers find it difficult when reading or writing an application to match the left and right braces ({ and }) that delimit the body of a class declaration or a method declaration. For this reason, we include a comment after each closing right brace (}) that ends a method declaration and after each closing right brace that ends a class declaration. For example, line 11 specifies the closing right brace of method Main, and line 12 specifies the closing right brace of class Welcome1. Each of these comments indicates the method or class that the right brace terminates. Visual Studio can help you locate matching braces in your code. Simply place the cursor immediately in front of the left brace or immediately after the right brace, and Visual Studio will highlight both.

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Good Programming Practice 3.6 Following the closing right brace of a method body or class declaration with a comment indicating the method or class declaration to which the brace belongs improves application readability.

3.3 Creating a Simple Application in Visual C# Express Now that we have presented our first console application (Fig. 3.1), we provide a step-bystep explanation of how to compile and execute it using Visual C# Express.

Creating the Console Application After opening Visual C# 2010Express, select File > New Project… to display the New Project dialog (Fig. 3.3), then select the Console Application template. In the dialog’s Name field, type Welcome1. Click OK to create the project. The IDE now contains the open console application, as shown in Fig. 3.4. The editor window already contains some code provided by the IDE. Some of this code is similar to that of Fig. 3.1. Some is not, and uses features that we have not yet discussed. The IDE inserts this extra code to help organize the application and to provide access to some common classes in the .NET Framework Class Library—at this point in the book, this code is neither required nor relevant to the discussion of this application; delete all of it. The code coloring scheme used by the IDE is called syntax-color highlighting and helps you visually differentiate application elements. For example, keywords appear in blue, and comments appear in green. When present, comments are green. In this blackand-white book, we syntax-shade our code similarly—bold for keywords, gray for comments, bold gray for literals and constants, and black for other text. One example of a literal is the string passed to Console.WriteLine in line 10 of Fig. 3.1. You can customize the colors shown in the code editor by selecting Tools > Options…. This displays the Options dialog. Then expand the Environment node and select Fonts and Colors. Here you can change the colors for various code elements.

Project name

Fig. 3.3 | Creating a Console Application with the New Project dialog. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Editor window

Fig. 3.4 | IDE with an open console application. Modifying the Editor Settings to Display Line Numbers Visual C# Express provides many ways to personalize your coding experience. In this step, you’ll change the settings so that your code matches that of this book. To have the IDE display line numbers, select Tools > Options…. In the dialog that appears (Fig. 3.5), click the Show all settings checkbox on the lower left of the dialog, then expand the Text Editor node in the left pane and select All Languages. On the right, check the Line numbers checkbox. Keep the Options dialog open.

Fig. 3.5 | Modifying the IDE settings. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Setting Code Indentation to Three Spaces per Indent In the Options dialog that you opened in the previous step (Fig. 3.5), expand the C# node in the left pane and select Tabs. Make sure that the option Insert spaces is selected. Enter 3 for both the Tab size and Indent size fields. Any new code you add will now use three spaces for each level of indentation. Click OK to save your settings, close the dialog and return to the editor window. Changing the Name of the Application File For applications we create in this book, we change the default name of the application file (i.e., Program.cs) to a more descriptive name. To rename the file, click Program.cs in the Solution Explorer window. This displays the application file’s properties in the Properties window (Fig. 3.6). Change the File Name property to Welcome1.cs. Solution Explorer

Click Program.cs to display its properties Properties window

File Name property

Type Welcome1.cs here to rename the file

Fig. 3.6 | Renaming the program file in the Properties window. Writing Code and Using IntelliSense In the editor window (Fig. 3.4), type the code from Fig. 3.1. As you begin typing (in line 10) the class name class name Console, an IntelliSense window containing a scrollbar is displayed as shown in Fig. 3.7. This IDE feature lists a class’s members, which include method names. As you type characters, Visual C# Express highlights the first member that matches all the characters typed, then displays a tool tip containing a description of that member. You can either type the complete item name (e.g., Console), double click the item name in the member list or press the Tab key to complete the name. Once the complete name is provided, the IntelliSense window closes. While the IntelliSense window is displayed, pressing the Ctrl key makes the window transparent so you can see the code behind the window. When you type the dot (.) after Console, the IntelliSense window reappears and shows only the members of class Console that can be used on the right side of the dot (Fig. 3.7, part 1). When you type the open parenthesis character, (, after Console.WriteLine, the Parameter Info window is displayed (Fig. 3.8). This window contains information about the method’s parameters. As you’ll learn in Chapter 7, there can be several versions of a method. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Partially typed name

IntelliSense window

Closest match is highlighted

Tool tip describes highlighted item

Partially typed member

Highlighted member

Tool tip describes highlighted member

Fig. 3.7 | IntelliSense feature of Visual C# Express. That is, a class can define several methods that have the same name, as long as they have different numbers and/or types of parameters—a concept known as overloaded methods. These methods normally all perform similar tasks. The Parameter Info window indicates how many versions of the selected method are available and provides up and down arrows for scrolling through the different versions. For example, there are 19 versions of the WriteLine method—we use one of these 19 versions in our application. The Parameter Info window is one of many features provided by the IDE to facilitate application development. In the next several chapters, you’ll learn more about the information displayed in these windows. The Parameter Info window is especially helpful when you want to see the different ways in which

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a method can be used. From the code in Fig. 3.1, we already know that we intend to display one string with WriteLine, so, because you know exactly which version of WriteLine you want to use, you can simply close the Parameter Info window by pressing the Esc key. Down arrow

Parameter Info window

Up arrow

Fig. 3.8 | Parameter Info window. Saving the Application Select File > Save All to display the Save Project dialog (Fig. 3.9). In the Location textbox, specify the directory where you want to save this project. We chose the MyProjects directory on the C: drive. Select the Create directory for solution checkbox and click Save.

Fig. 3.9 | Save Project dialog. Compiling and Running the Application You’re now ready to compile and execute your application. Depending on its type, the compiler may compile the code into files with a .exe (executable) extension, a .dll (dynamically linked library) extension or one of several other extensions. Such files are called assemblies and are the packaging units for compiled C# code. These assemblies contain the Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) code for the application. To compile the application, select Debug > Build Solution. If the application contains no syntax errors, this will compile your application and build it into an executable file (named Welcome1.exe, in one of the project’s subdirectories). To execute it, type Ctrl + F5, which invokes the Main method (Fig. 3.1). (If you attempt to run the application before building it, the IDE will build the application first, then run it only if there are no compilation errors.) The statement in line 10 of Main displays Welcome to C# Programming!. Figure 3.10 shows the results of executing this application, displayed in a console (Command Prompt) window. Leave the application’s project open in Visual C# Express; Download at www.wowebook.com

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we’ll go back to it later in this section. [Note: Many environments show Command Prompt windows with black backgrounds and white text. We adjusted these settings in our environment to make our screen captures more readable.]

Console window

Fig. 3.10 | Executing the application shown in Fig. 3.1.

Error-Prevention Tip 3.4 When learning how to program, sometimes it’s helpful to “break” a working application so you can familiarize yourself with the compiler’s syntax-error messages. Try removing a semicolon or brace from the code of Fig. 3.1, then recompiling the application to see the error messages generated by the omission.

Running the Application from the Command Prompt As we mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, you can execute applications outside the IDE in a Command Prompt. This is useful when you simply want to run an application rather than open it for modification. To open the Command Prompt, select Start > All Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt. The window (Fig. 3.11) displays copyright information, followed by a prompt that indicates the current directory. By default, the prompt specifies the current user’s directory on the local machine (in our case, C:\Users\paul). On your machine, the folder name paul will be replaced with your username. Default prompt displays when Command Prompt is opened

User enters the next command here

Fig. 3.11 | Command Prompt window when it’s initially opened. Enter the command cd (which stands for “change directory”), followed by the /d flag (to change drives if necessary), then the directory where the application’s .exe file is located (i.e., your application’s bin\Debug or bin\Release directory). For example, the command cd /d C:\MyProjects\Welcome1\Welcome1\bin\Release

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(Fig. 3.12) changes the current directory, to the Welcome1 application’s Release directory on the C: drive. The next prompt displays the new directory. After changing to the proper directory, you can run the application by entering the name of the .exe file— Welcome1. The application will run to completion, then the prompt will display again, awaiting the next command. To close the Command Prompt, type exit (Fig. 3.12) and press Enter. Updated prompt showing the new current directory

Application’s output

Type this to change to the application’s directory

Closes the Command Prompt

Type this to run the Welcome1.exe application

Fig. 3.12 | Executing the application shown in Fig. 3.1 from a Command Prompt window. Visual C# 2010 Express maintains a Debug and a Release directory in each project’s directory. The Debug directory contains a version of the application that can be used with the debugger (see Appendix G, Using the Visual C# 2010 Debugger). The Release directory contains an optimized version that you could provide to your clients. In the complete Visual Studio 2008, you can select the specific version you wish to build from the Solution Configurations drop-down list in the toolbars at the top of the IDE. The default is the Release version. The Debug version is created if you run the program with Debug > Start Debugging. bin

Syntax Errors, Error Messages and the Error List Window Go back to the application in Visual C# Express. As you type code, the IDE responds either by applying syntax-color highlighting or by generating a syntax error, which indicates a violation of Visual C#’s rules for creating correct applications (i.e., one or more statements are not written correctly). Syntax errors occur for various reasons, such as missing parentheses and misspelled keywords. When a syntax error occurs, the IDE underlines the error in red and provides a description of it in the Error List window (Fig. 3.13). If the Error List window is not visible in the IDE, select View > Error List to display it. In Figure 3.13, we intentionally omitted the comma between "Welcome to" and "C# Programming!" in line 10. The first error is simply indicating that line 10 is not a valid statement. The second error indicates that a right parenthesis is expected at character position 51 in the statement, because the compiler is confused by the unmatched left parenthesis from earlier in line 10. The third error has the text “Invalid expression term ')'”, because the compiler thinks the closing right parenthesis should have appeared earlier in the line. The fourth error has the text “; expected”, because the prior errors make the compiler think that the statement should Download at www.wowebook.com

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have been terminated with a semicolon earlier in the line. Although we deleted only one comma in line 10, this caused the compiler to misinterpret several items in this line and to generate four error messages. You can double click an error message in the Error List to jump to the place in the code that caused the error.

Error-Prevention Tip 3.5 One syntax error can lead to multiple entries in the Error List window. Each error that you address could eliminate several subsequent error messages when you recompile your application. So when you see an error you know how to fix, correct it and recompile— this may make several other errors disappear. Error List window

Intentionally omitted comma character (syntax error)

Error description(s)

Underline indicates a syntax error

Fig. 3.13 | Syntax errors indicated by the IDE.

3.4 Modifying Your Simple C# Application This section continues our introduction to C# programming with two examples that modify the example of Fig. 3.1 to display text on one line by using several statements and to display text on several lines by using only one statement.

Displaying a Single Line of Text with Multiple Statements "Welcome to C# Programming!" can be displayed several ways. Class Welcome2, shown in Fig. 3.14, uses two statements to produce the same output as that shown in Fig. 3.1. From

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this point forward, we highlight the new and key features in each code listing, as shown in lines 10–11 of Fig. 3.14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

// Fig. 3.14: Welcome2.cs // Displaying one line of text with multiple statements. using System; public class Welcome2 { // Main method begins execution of C# application public static void Main( string[] args ) { Console.Write( "Welcome to " ); Console.WriteLine( "C# Programming!" ); } // end Main } // end class Welcome2

Welcome to C# Programming!

Fig. 3.14 | Displaying one line of text with multiple statements. The application is almost identical to Fig. 3.1. We discuss only the changes here. Line 2 is a comment stating the purpose of this application. Line 5 begins the Welcome2 class declaration. Lines 10–11 display one line of text in the console window. The first statement uses Console’s method Write to display a string. Unlike WriteLine, after displaying its argument, Write does not position the screen cursor at the beginning of the next line in the console window—the next character the application displays will appear immediately after the last character that Write displays. Thus, line 11 positions the first character in its argument (the letter “C”) immediately after the last character that line 10 displays (the space character before the string’s closing double-quote character). Each Write statement resumes displaying characters from where the last Write statement displayed its last character.

Displaying Multiple Lines of Text with a Single Statement A single statement can display multiple lines by using newline characters, which indicate to Console methods Write and WriteLine when they should position the screen cursor to the beginning of the next line in the console window. Like space characters and tab characters, newline characters are whitespace characters. The application of Fig. 3.15 outputs four lines of text, using newline characters to indicate when to begin each new line. 1 2 3 4 5 6

// Fig. 3.15: Welcome3.cs // Displaying multiple lines with a single statement. using System; public class Welcome3 {

Fig. 3.15 | Displaying multiple lines with a single statement. (Part 1 of 2.)

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7 8 9 10 11 12

55

// Main method begins execution of C# application public static void Main( string[] args ) { Console.WriteLine( "Welcome\nto\nC#\nProgramming!" ); } // end Main } // end class Welcome3

Welcome to C# Programming!

Fig. 3.15 | Displaying multiple lines with a single statement. (Part 2 of 2.) Most of the application is identical to the applications of Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.14, so we discuss only the changes here. Line 2 is a comment stating the purpose of this application. Line 5 begins the Welcome3 class declaration. Line 10 displays four separate lines of text in the console window. Normally, the characters in a string are displayed exactly as they appear in the double quotes. Note, however, that the two characters \ and n (repeated three times in the statement) do not appear on the screen. The backslash (\) is called an escape character. It indicates to C# that a “special character” is in the string. When a backslash appears in a string of characters, C# combines the next character with the backslash to form an escape sequence. The escape sequence \n represents the newline character. When a newline character appears in a string being output with Console methods, the newline character causes the screen cursor to move to the beginning of the next line in the console window. Figure 3.16 lists several common escape sequences and describes how they affect the display of characters in the console window.

Escape sequence \n \t \r

\\ \"

Description Newline. Positions the screen cursor at the beginning of the next line. Horizontal tab. Moves the screen cursor to the next tab stop. Carriage return. Positions the screen cursor at the beginning of the current line—does not advance the cursor to the next line. Any characters output after the carriage return overwrite the characters previously output on that line. Backslash. Used to place a backslash character in a string. Double quote. Used to place a double-quote character (") in a string—e,g., Console.Write( "\"in quotes\"" );

displays "in quotes"

Fig. 3.16 | Some common escape sequences.

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3.5 Formatting Text with Console.Write and Console.WriteLine Console methods Write and WriteLine also have the capability to display formatted data.

Figure 3.17 outputs the strings "Welcome to" and "C# Programming!" with WriteLine. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

// Fig. 3.17: Welcome4.cs // Displaying multiple lines of text with string formatting. using System; public class Welcome4 { // Main method begins execution of C# application public static void Main( string[] args ) { Console.WriteLine( "{0}\n{1}", "Welcome to", "C# Programming!" ); } // end Main } // end class Welcome4

Welcome to C# Programming!

Fig. 3.17 | Displaying multiple lines of text with string formatting. Line 10 calls method Console.WriteLine to display the application’s output. The method call specifies three arguments. When a method requires multiple arguments, the arguments appear in a comma-separated list.

Good Programming Practice 3.7 Place a space after each comma (,) in an argument list to make applications more readable.

Most statements end with a semicolon (;). Therefore, line 10 represents only one statement. Large statements can be split over many lines, but there are some restrictions.

Common Programming Error 3.4 Splitting a statement in the middle of an identifier or a string is a syntax error.

Method WriteLine’s first argument is a format string that may consist of fixed text and format items. Fixed text is output by WriteLine, as in Fig. 3.1. Each format item is a placeholder for a value. Format items also may include optional formatting information. Format items are enclosed in curly braces and contain a sequence of characters that tell the method which argument to use and how to format it. For example, the format item {0} is a placeholder for the first additional argument (because C# starts counting from 0), {1} is a placeholder for the second, and so on. The format string in line 10 specifies that WriteLine should output two arguments and that the first one should be followed by a newline character. So this example substitutes "Welcome to" for the {0} and "C# Programming!" for the {1}. The output shows that two lines of text are displayed. Because braces

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in a formatted string normally indicate a placeholder for text substitution, you must type two left braces ({{) or two right braces (}}) to insert a single left or right brace into a formatted string, respectively. We introduce additional formatting features as they’re needed in our examples.

3.6 Another C# Application: Adding Integers Our next application reads (or inputs) two integers (whole numbers, like –22, 7, 0 and 1024) typed by a user at the keyboard, computes the sum of the values and displays the result. This application keeps track of the numbers supplied by the user in variables. The application of Fig. 3.18 demonstrates these concepts. In the sample output, we highlight data the user enters at the keyboard in bold. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

// Fig. 3.18: Addition.cs // Displaying the sum of two numbers input from the keyboard. using System; public class Addition { // Main method begins execution of C# application public static void Main( string[] args ) { int number1; // declare first number to add int number2; // declare second number to add int sum; // declare sum of number1 and number2 Console.Write( "Enter first integer: " ); // prompt user // read first number from user number1 = Convert.ToInt32( Console.ReadLine() ); Console.Write( "Enter second integer: " ); // prompt user // read second number from user number2 = Convert.ToInt32( Console.ReadLine() ); sum = number1 + number2; // add numbers Console.WriteLine( "Sum is {0}", sum ); // display sum } // end Main } // end class Addition

Enter first integer: 45 Enter second integer: 72 Sum is 117

Fig. 3.18 | Displaying the sum of two numbers input from the keyboard. Lines 1–2 state the figure number, file name and purpose of the application. Line 5 begins the declaration of class Addition. Remember that the body of each class declaration starts with an opening left brace (line 6) and ends with a closing right brace (line 26). The application begins execution with Main (lines 8–25). The left brace (line 9) marks the beginning of Main’s body, and the corresponding right brace (line 25) marks the end

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of Main’s body. Method Main is indented one level within the body of class Addition and the code in the body of Main is indented another level for readability. Line 10 is a variable declaration statement (also called a declaration) that specifies the name and type of a variable (number1) used in this application. Variables are typically declared with a name and a type before they’re used. The name of a variable can be any valid identifier. (See Section 3.2 for identifier naming requirements.) Declaration statements end with a semicolon (;). The declaration in line 10 specifies that the variable named number1 is of type int— it will hold integer values . The range of values for an int is –2,147,483,648 (int.MinValue) to +2,147,483,647 (int.MaxValue). We’ll soon discuss types float, double and decimal, for specifying real numbers, and type char, for specifying characters. Real numbers contain decimal points, as in 3.4, 0.0 and –11.19. Variables of type float and double store approximations of real numbers in memory. Variables of type decimal store real numbers precisely (to 28–29 significant digits), so decimal variables are often used with monetary calculations. Variables of type char represent individual characters, such as an uppercase letter (e.g., A), a digit (e.g., 7), a special character (e.g., * or %) or an escape sequence (e.g., the newline character, \n). Types such as int, float, double, decimal and char are called simple types. Simple-type names are keywords and must appear in all lowercase letters. Appendix B summarizes the characteristics of the simple types (bool, byte, sbyte, char, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, float, double and decimal). The variable declaration statements at lines 11–12 similarly declare variables number2 and sum to be of type int. Variable declaration statements can be split over several lines, with the variable names separated by commas (i.e., a comma-separated list of variable names). Several variables of the same type may be declared in one declaration or in multiple declarations. For example, lines 10–12 can also be written as follows: int number1, // declare first number to add number2, // declare second number to add sum; // declare sum of number1 and number2

Good Programming Practice 3.8 Declare each variable on a separate line. This format allows a comment to be easily inserted next to each declaration.

Good Programming Practice 3.9 Choosing meaningful variable names helps code to be self-documenting (i.e., one can understand the code simply by reading it rather than by reading documentation manuals or viewing an excessive number of comments).

Good Programming Practice 3.10 By convention, variable-name identifiers begin with a lowercase letter, and every word in the name after the first word begins with a capital letter. This naming convention is known as camel casing.

Line 14 uses Console.Write to display the message "Enter first integer: ". This message is a prompt—it directs the user to take a specific action. Line 16 first calls the Console’s ReadLine method. This method waits for the user to type a string of characters at the keyboard and press the Enter key. As we mentioned, some methods perform a task,

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3.7 Arithmetic

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then return the result of that task. In this case, ReadLine returns the text the user entered. Then, the string is used as an argument to class Convert’s ToInt32 method, which converts this sequence of characters into data of type int. In this case, method ToInt32 returns the int representation of the user’s input. Technically, the user can type anything as the input value. ReadLine will accept it and pass it off to the ToInt32 method. This method assumes that the string contains a valid integer value. In this application, if the user types a noninteger value, a runtime logic error called an exception will occur and the application will terminate. C# offers a technology called exception handling that will help you make your applications more robust by enabling them to handle exceptions and continue executing. This is also known as making your application fault tolerant. Chapter 13, Exception Handling, discusses how to make your applications more robust by enabling them to handle such errors and continue executing. In line 16, the result of the call to method ToInt32 (an int value) is placed in variable number1 by using the assignment operator, =. The statement is read as “number1 gets the value returned by Convert.ToInt32.” Operator = is a binary operator, because it works on two pieces of information. These are known as its operands—in this case, the operands are number1 and the result of the method call Convert.ToInt32. This statement is called an assignment statement, because it assigns a value to a variable. Everything to the right of the assignment operator, =, is always evaluated before the assignment is performed.

Good Programming Practice 3.11 Place spaces on either side of a binary operator to make it stand out and make the code more readable.

Line 18 prompts the user to enter the second integer. Line 20 reads a second integer and assigns it to the variable number2. Line 22 calculates the sum of number1 and number2 and assigns the result to variable sum. In the preceding statement, the addition operator is a binary operator—its two operands are number1 and number2. Portions of statements that contain calculations are called expressions. In fact, an expression is any portion of a statement that has a value associated with it. For example, the value of the expression number1 + number2 is the sum of the numbers. Similarly, the value of the expression Console.ReadLine() is the string of characters typed by the user. After the calculation has been performed, line 24 uses method Console.WriteLine to display the sum. The format item {0} is a placeholder for the first argument after the format string. Other than the {0} format item, the remaining characters in the format string are all fixed text. So method WriteLine displays "Sum is ", followed by the value of sum (in the position of the {0} format item) and a newline. Calculations can also be performed inside output statements. We could have combined the statements in lines 22 and 24 into the statement Console.WriteLine( "Sum is {0}", ( number1 + number2 ) );

3.7 Arithmetic The arithmetic operators are summarized in Fig. 3.19. Note the various special symbols not used in algebra. The asterisk (*) indicates multiplication, and the percent sign (%) is

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the remainder operator (called modulus in some languages), which we’ll discuss shortly. The arithmetic operators in Fig. 3.19 are binary operators—for example, the expression f + 7 contains the binary operator + and the two operands f and 7.

C# operation Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division Remainder

Arithmetic operator

Algebraic expression

C# expression

+

f+7 p–c b⋅m x / y or x- or x ÷ y y r mod s

f + 7

– * / %

p - c b * m x / y r % s

Fig. 3.19 | Arithmetic operators. Integer division yields an integer quotient—for example, the expression 7 / 4 evaluates to 1, and the expression 17 / 5 evaluates to 3. Any fractional part in integer division is simply discarded (i.e., truncated)—no rounding occurs. C# provides the remainder operator, %, which yields the remainder after division. The expression x % y yields the remainder after x is divided by y. Thus, 7 % 4 yields 3, and 17 % 5 yields 2. This operator is most commonly used with integer operands but can also be used with floats, doubles, and decimals. We will consider several interesting applications of the remainder operator, such as determining whether one number is a multiple of another. Arithmetic expressions must be written in straight-line form to facilitate entering applications into the computer. Thus, expressions such as “a divided by b” must be written as a / b, so that all constants, variables and operators appear in a straight line. The following algebraic notation is generally not acceptable to compilers: --a b

Parentheses are used to group terms in C# expressions in the same manner as in algebraic expressions. For example, to multiply a times the quantity b + c, we write a * ( b + c )

If an expression contains nested parentheses, such as ( ( a + b ) * c )

the expression in the innermost set of parentheses (a + b in this case) is evaluated first. C# applies the operators in arithmetic expressions in a precise sequence determined by the following rules of operator precedence, which are generally the same as those followed in algebra (Fig. 3.20). When we say that operators are applied from left to right, we’re referring to their associativity. You’ll see that some operators associate from right to left. Figure 3.20 summarizes these rules of operator precedence. We expand this table as additional operators are introduced. Appendix A provides the complete precedence chart.

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3.8 Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators

Operators

Operations

Order of evaluation (associativity)

Multiplication Division Remainder

If there are several operators of this type, they’re evaluated from left to right.

Addition Subtraction

If there are several operators of this type, they’re evaluated from left to right.

61

Evaluated first * / %

Evaluated next + -

Fig. 3.20 | Precedence of arithmetic operators.

3.8 Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators This section introduces a simple version of C#’s if statement that allows an application to make a decision based on the value of a condition. For example, the condition “grade is greater than or equal to 60” determines whether a student passed a test. If the condition in an if statement is true, the body of the if statement executes. If the condition is false, the body does not execute. We’ll see an example shortly. Conditions in if statements can be formed by using the equality operators (== and !=) and relational operators (>, = and , = and

x > y

x

<

x < y

x

>=

x >= y

number2 ) Console.WriteLine( "{0} > {1}", number1, number2 ); if ( number1 = number2 ) Console.WriteLine( "{0} >= {1}", number1, number2 ); } // end Main } // end class Comparison

Fig. 3.22 | Comparing integers using if statements, equality operators and relational operators. (Part 1 of 2.)

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3.8 Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators

Enter Enter 42 == 42 =

63

first integer: 42 second integer: 42 42 42 42

Enter first integer: 1000 Enter second integer: 2000 1000 != 2000 1000 < 2000 1000 1000 2000 >= 1000

Fig. 3.22 | Comparing integers using if statements, equality operators and relational operators. (Part 2 of 2.)

Lines 11–12 declare the int variables used to store the values entered by the user. Lines 14–16 prompt the user to enter the first integer and input the value. The input value is stored in variable number1. Lines 18-20 perform the same task, except that the input value is stored in variable number2. Lines 22–23 compare the values of the variables number1 and number2 to determine whether they’re equal. An if statement always begins with keyword if, followed by a condition in parentheses. An if statement expects one statement in its body. The indentation of the body statement shown here is not required, but it improves the code’s readability by emphasizing that the statement in line 23 is part of the if statement that begins in line 22. Line 23 executes only if the numbers stored in variables number1 and number2 are equal (i.e., the condition is true). The if statements in lines 25–26, 28–29, 31–32, 34–35 and 37–38 compare number1 and number2 with the operators !=, , =, respectively. If the condition in any of the if statements is true, the corresponding body statement executes.

Common Programming Error 3.6 Forgetting the left and/or right parentheses for the condition in an if statement is a syntax error—the parentheses are required.

Common Programming Error 3.7 Reversing the operators !=, >= and and == and = and < =, respectively.

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Good Programming Practice 3.12 Indent an if statement’s body to make it stand out and to enhance application readability.

There is no semicolon (;) at the end of the first line of each if statement. Such a semicolon would result in a logic error at execution time. For example, if ( number1 == number2 ); // logic error Console.WriteLine( "{0} == {1}", number1, number2 );

would actually be interpreted by C# as if ( number1 == number2 ) ; // empty statement Console.WriteLine( "{0} == {1}", number1, number2 );

where the semicolon in the line by itself—called the empty statement—is the statement to execute if the condition in the if statement is true. When the empty statement executes, no task is performed in the application. The application then continues with the output statement, which always executes, regardless of whether the condition is true or false, because the output statement is not part of the if statement.

Common Programming Error 3.9 Placing a semicolon immediately after the right parenthesis of the condition in an if statement is normally a logic error.

Note the use of whitespace in Fig. 3.22. Recall that whitespace characters, such as tabs, newlines and spaces, are normally ignored by the compiler. So statements may be split over several lines and may be spaced according to your preferences without affecting the meaning of an application. It’s incorrect to split identifiers, strings, and multicharacter operators (like >=). Ideally, statements should be kept small, but this is not always possible.

Good Programming Practice 3.13 Place no more than one statement per line in an application. This format enhances readability.

Good Programming Practice 3.14 A lengthy statement can be spread over several lines. If a single statement must be split across lines, choose breaking points that make sense, such as after a comma in a commaseparated list, or after an operator in a lengthy expression. If a statement is split across two or more lines, indent all subsequent lines until the end of the statement.

Figure 3.23 shows the precedence of the operators introduced in this chapter. The operators are shown from top to bottom in decreasing order of precedence. All these operators, with the exception of the assignment operator, =, associate from left to right. Addition is left associative, so an expression like x + y + z is evaluated as if it had been written as ( x + y ) + z. The assignment operator, =, associates from right to left, so an expression like x = y = 0 is evaluated as if it had been written as x = ( y = 0 ), which, as you’ll soon see, first assigns the value 0 to variable y then assigns the result of that assignment, 0, to x.

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3.9 Wrap-Up

Operators *

/

+

-

<



>=

Associativity

Type

left to right left to right left to right left to right right to left

multiplicative additive relational equality assignment

65

Fig. 3.23 | Precedence and associativity of operations discussed so far.

Good Programming Practice 3.15 Refer to the operator precedence chart (the complete chart is in Appendix A) when writing expressions containing many operators. Confirm that the operations in the expression are performed in the order you expect. If you’re uncertain about the order of evaluation in a complex expression, use parentheses to force the order, as you would do in algebraic expressions. Observe that some operators, such as assignment, =, associate from right to left rather than from left to right.

3.9 Wrap-Up You learned many important features of C# in this chapter, including displaying data in a Command Prompt, inputting data from the keyboard, performing calculations and making decisions. The applications presented here introduced you to basic programming concepts. As you’ll see in Chapter 4, C# applications typically contain just a few lines of code in method Main—these statements normally create the objects that perform the work of the application. In Chapter 4, you’ll learn how to implement your own classes and use objects of those classes in applications.

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4 Introduction to Classes and Objects

Nothing can have value without being an object of utility. —Karl Marx

Objectives In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

What classes, objects, methods and instance variables are.

■

How to declare a class and use it to create an object.

■

How to implement a class’s behaviors as methods.

■

How to implement a class’s attributes as instance variables and properties.

■

How to call an object’s methods to make them perform their tasks.

■

The differences between instance variables of a class and local variables of a method.

■

How to use a constructor to ensure that an object’s data is initialized when the object is created.

■

The differences between value types and reference types.

Your public servants serve you right. —Adlai E. Stevenson

Knowing how to answer one who speaks, To reply to one who sends a message. —Amenemope

You’ll see something new. Two things. And I call them Thing One and Thing Two. —Dr. Theodor Seuss Geisel

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4.1 Introduction

4.1 Introduction 4.2 Classes, Objects, Methods, Properties and Instance Variables 4.3 Declaring a Class with a Method and Instantiating an Object of a Class 4.4 Declaring a Method with a Parameter 4.5 Instance Variables and Properties 4.6 UML Class Diagram with a Property

67

4.7 Software Engineering with Properties and set and get Accessors 4.8 Auto-Implemented Properties 4.9 Value Types vs. Reference Types 4.10 Initializing Objects with Constructors 4.11 Floating-Point Numbers and Type decimal

4.12 Wrap-Up

4.1 Introduction In this chapter, we begin by explaining the concept of classes using a real-world example. Then we present five complete working applications to demonstrate how to create and use your own classes. The first four begin our case study on developing a grade book class that instructors can use to maintain student test scores. The last example introduces the type decimal and uses it to declare monetary amounts in the context of a bank account class that maintains a customer’s balance.

4.2 Classes, Objects, Methods, Properties and Instance Variables Let’s begin with a simple analogy to help you understand classes and their contents. Suppose you want to drive a car and make it go faster by pressing down on its accelerator pedal. What must happen before you can do this? Well, before you can drive a car, someone has to design it. A car typically begins as engineering drawings, similar to the blueprints used to design a house. These engineering drawings include the design for an accelerator pedal to make the car go faster. The pedal “hides” the complex mechanisms that actually make the car go faster, just as the brake pedal “hides” the mechanisms that slow the car and the steering wheel “hides” the mechanisms that turn the car. This enables people with little or no knowledge of how engines work to drive a car easily. Unfortunately, you can’t drive the engineering drawings of a car. Before you can drive a car, it must be built from the engineering drawings that describe it. A completed car will have an actual accelerator pedal to make the car go faster, but even that’s not enough—the car will not accelerate on its own, so the driver must press the accelerator pedal.

Methods Now let’s use our car example to introduce the key programming concepts of this section. Performing a task in an application requires a method. The method describes the mechanisms that actually perform its tasks. The method hides from its user the complex tasks that it performs, just as the accelerator pedal of a car hides from the driver the complex mechanisms of making the car go faster. Classes In C#, we begin by creating an application unit called a class to house (among other things) a method, just as a car’s engineering drawings house (among other things) the de-

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sign of an accelerator pedal. In a class, you provide one or more methods that are designed to perform the class’s tasks. For example, a class that represents a bank account might contain one method to deposit money in an account, another to withdraw money from an account and a third to inquire what the current account balance is.

Objects Just as you cannot drive an engineering drawing of a car, you cannot “drive” a class. Just as someone has to build a car from its engineering drawings before you can actually drive it, you must build an object of a class before you can make an application perform the tasks the class describes. That’s one reason C# is known as an object-oriented programming language. Method Calls When you drive a car, pressing its gas pedal sends a message to the car to perform a task— make the car go faster. Similarly, you send messages to an object—each message is known as a method call and tells a method of the object to perform its task. Attributes Thus far, we’ve used the car analogy to introduce classes, objects and methods. In addition to a car’s capabilities, it also has many attributes, such as its color, the number of doors, the amount of gas in its tank, its current speed and its total miles driven (i.e., its odometer reading). Like the car’s capabilities, these attributes are represented as part of a car’s design in its engineering diagrams. As you drive a car, these attributes are always associated with the car. Every car maintains its own attributes. For example, each car knows how much gas is in its own gas tank, but not how much is in the tanks of other cars. Similarly, an object has attributes that are carried with the object as it’s used in an application. These attributes are specified as part of the object’s class. For example, a bank-account object has a balance attribute that represents the amount of money in the account. Each bank-account object knows the balance in the account it represents, but not the balances of the other accounts in the bank. Attributes are specified by the class’s instance variables. Properties, Get Accessors and Set Accessors Notice that these attributes are not necessarily accessible directly. The car manufacturer does not want drivers to take apart the car’s engine to observe the amount of gas in its tank. Instead, the driver can check the fuel gauge on the dashboard. The bank does not want its customers to walk into the vault to count the amount of money in an account. Instead, the customers talk to a bank teller or check personalized online bank accounts. Similarly, you do not need to have access to an object’s instance variables in order to use them. You can use the properties of an object. Properties contain get accessors for reading the values of variables, and set accessors for storing values into them.

4.3 Declaring a Class with a Method and Instantiating an Object of a Class We begin with an example that consists of classes GradeBook (Fig. 4.1) and GradeBookTest (Fig. 4.2). Class GradeBook (declared in file GradeBook.cs) will be used to display a message on the screen (Fig. 4.2) welcoming the instructor to the grade-book application. Class GradeBookTest (declared in the file GradeBookTest.cs) is a testing class in which

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4.3 Declaring a Class with a Method and Instantiating an Object of a Class

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the Main method will create and use an object of class GradeBook. By convention, we declare classes GradeBook and GradeBookTest in separate files, such that each file’s name matches the name of the class it contains. To start, select File > New Project... to open the New Project dialog, then create a GradeBook Console Application. Rename the Program.cs file to GradeBook.cs. Delete all the code provided automatically by the IDE and replace it with the code in Fig. 4.1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

// Fig. 4.1: GradeBook.cs // Class declaration with one method. using System; public class GradeBook { // display a welcome message to the GradeBook user public void DisplayMessage() { Console.WriteLine( "Welcome to the Grade Book!" ); } // end method DisplayMessage } // end class GradeBook

Fig. 4.1 | Class declaration with one method. Class GradeBook The GradeBook class declaration (Fig. 4.1) contains a DisplayMessage method (lines 8– 11) that displays a message on the screen. Line 10 of the class displays the message. Recall that a class is like a blueprint—we need to make an object of this class and call its method to get line 10 to execute and display its message—we do this in Fig. 4.2. The class declaration begins in line 5. The keyword public is an access modifier. Access modifiers determine the accessibility of an object’s properties and methods to other methods in an application. For now, we simply declare every class public. Every class declaration contains keyword class followed by the class’s name. Every class’s body is enclosed in a pair of left and right braces ({ and }), as in lines 6 and 12 of class GradeBook. In Chapter 3, each class we declared had one method named Main. Class GradeBook also has one method—DisplayMessage (lines 8–11). Recall that Main is a special method that’s always called automatically when you execute an application. Most methods do not get called automatically. As you’ll soon see, you must call method DisplayMessage to tell it to perform its task. The method declaration begins with keyword public to indicate that the method is “available to the public”—that is, it can be called from outside the class declaration’s body by methods of other classes. Keyword void—known as the method’s return type—indicates that this method will not return (i.e., give back) any information to its calling method when it completes its task. When a method that specifies a return type other than void is called and completes its task, the method returns a result to its calling method. For example, when you go to an automated teller machine (ATM) and request your account balance, you expect the ATM to give you back a value that represents your balance. If you have a method Square that returns the square of its argument, you’d expect the statement int result = Square( 2 );

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to return 4 from method Square and assign 4 to variable result. If you have a method Maximum that returns the largest of three integer arguments, you’d expect the statement int biggest = Maximum( 27, 114, 51 );

to return the value 114 from method Maximum and assign the value to variable biggest. You’ve already used methods that return information—for example, in Chapter 3 you used Console method ReadLine to input a string typed by the user at the keyboard. When ReadLine inputs a value, it returns that value for use in the application. The name of the method, DisplayMessage, follows the return type (line 8). Generally, methods are named as verbs or verb phrases while classes are named as nouns. By convention, method names begin with an uppercase first letter, and all subsequent words in the name begin with an uppercase letter. This naming convention is referred to as Pascal case. The parentheses after the method name indicate that this is a method. An empty set of parentheses, as shown in line 8, indicates that this method does not require additional information to perform its task. Line 8 is commonly referred to as the method header. Every method’s body is delimited by left and right braces, as in lines 9 and 11. The body of a method contains statements that perform the method’s task. In this case, the method contains one statement (line 10) that displays the message "Welcome to the Grade Book!", followed by a newline in the console window. After this statement executes, the method has completed its task. Next, we’d like to use class GradeBook in an application. As you learned in Chapter 3, method Main begins the execution of every application. Class GradeBook cannot begin an application because it does not contain Main. This was not a problem in Chapter 3, because every class you declared had a Main method. To fix this problem for the GradeBook, we must either declare a separate class that contains a Main method or place a Main method in class GradeBook. In preparation for the larger applications we’ll encounter later in this book, we use a separate class (GradeBookTest in this example) containing method Main to test each new class we create in this chapter.

Adding a Class to a Visual C# Project For each example in this chapter, you’ll add a class to your console application. To do this, right click the project name in the Solution Explorer and select Add > New Item… from the pop-up menu. In the Add New Item dialog that appears, select Code File and enter the name of your new file (GradeBookTest.cs) then click the Add button. A new, blank file will be added to your project. Add the code from Fig. 4.2 to this file. Class GradeBookTest The GradeBookTest class declaration (Fig. 4.2) contains the Main method that controls our application’s execution. Any class that contains a Main method (as shown in line 6) can be used to execute an application. This class declaration begins in line 3 and ends in line 14. The class contains only a Main method, which is typical of many classes that simply begin an application’s execution. Lines 6–13 declare method Main. A key part of enabling the method Main to begin the application’s execution is the static keyword (line 6), which indicates that Main is a static method. A static method is special because it can be called without first creating an object of the class (in this case, GradeBookTest) in which the method is declared. We explain static methods in Chapter 7, Methods: A Deeper Look.

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4.3 Declaring a Class with a Method and Instantiating an Object of a Class

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

71

// Fig. 4.2: GradeBookTest.cs // Create a GradeBook object and call its DisplayMessage method. public class GradeBookTest { // Main method begins program execution public static void Main( string[] args ) { // create a GradeBook object and assign it to myGradeBook GradeBook myGradeBook = new GradeBook(); // call myGradeBook's DisplayMessage method myGradeBook.DisplayMessage(); } // end Main } // end class GradeBookTest

Welcome to the Grade Book!

Fig. 4.2 | Create a GradeBook object and call its DisplayMessage method. In this application, we’d like to call class GradeBook’s DisplayMessage method to display the welcome message in the console window. Typically, you cannot call a method that belongs to another class until you create an object of that class, as shown in line 9. We begin by declaring variable myGradeBook. The variable’s type is GradeBook—the class we declared in Fig. 4.1. Each new class you create becomes a new type in C# that can be used to declare variables and create objects. New class types will be accessible to all classes in the same project. You can declare new class types as needed; this is one reason why C# is known as an extensible language. Variable myGradeBook (line 9) is initialized with the result of the object-creation expression new GradeBook(). The new operator creates a new object of the class specified to the right of the keyword (i.e., GradeBook). The parentheses to the right of the GradeBook are required. As you’ll learn in Section 4.10, those parentheses in combination with a class name represent a call to a constructor, which is similar to a method, but is used only at the time an object is created to initialize the object’s data. In that section you’ll see that data can be placed in parentheses to specify initial values for the object’s data. For now, we simply leave the parentheses empty. We can now use myGradeBook to call its method DisplayMessage. Line 12 calls the method DisplayMessage (lines 8–11 of Fig. 4.1) using variable myGradeBook followed by a member access (.) operator, the method name DisplayMessage and an empty set of parentheses. This call causes the DisplayMessage method to perform its task. This method call differs from the method calls in Chapter 3 that displayed information in a console window—each of those method calls provided arguments that specified the data to display. At the beginning of line 12, “myGradeBook.” indicates that Main should use the GradeBook object that was created in line 9. The empty parentheses in line 8 of Fig. 4.1 indicate that method DisplayMessage does not require additional information to perform its task. For this reason, the method call (line 12 of Fig. 4.2) specifies an empty set of parentheses after the method name to indicate that no arguments are being passed to method DisplayMessage. When method DisplayMessage completes its task, method Main continues executing at line 13. This is the end of method Main, so the application terminates.

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UML Class Diagram for Class GradeBook Figure 4.3 presents a UML class diagram for class GradeBook of Fig. 4.1. Recall from Section 1.9 that the UML is a graphical language used by programmers to represent their object-oriented systems in a standardized manner. In the UML, each class is modeled in a class diagram as a rectangle with three compartments. The top compartment contains the name of the class centered horizontally in boldface type. The middle compartment contains the class’s attributes, which correspond to instance variables and properties in C#. In Fig. 4.3, the middle compartment is empty because the version of class GradeBook in Fig. 4.1 does not have any attributes. The bottom compartment contains the class’s operations, which correspond to methods in C#. The UML models operations by listing the operation name followed by a set of parentheses. Class GradeBook has one method, DisplayMessage, so the bottom compartment of Fig. 4.3 lists one operation with this name. Method DisplayMessage does not require additional information to perform its tasks, so there are empty parentheses following DisplayMessage in the class diagram, just as they appeared in the method’s declaration in line 8 of Fig. 4.1. The plus sign (+) in front of the operation name indicates that DisplayMessage is a public operation in the UML (i.e., a public method in C#). The plus sign is sometimes called the public visibility symbol. We’ll often use UML class diagrams to summarize a class’s attributes and operations. GradeBook

+ DisplayMessage( )

Fig. 4.3 | UML class diagram indicating that class GradeBook has a public DisplayMessage

operation.

4.4 Declaring a Method with a Parameter In our car analogy from Section 4.2, we discussed the fact that pressing a car’s gas pedal sends a message to the car to perform a task—make the car go faster. But how fast should the car accelerate? As you know, the farther down you press the pedal, the faster the car accelerates. So the message to the car actually includes both the task to be performed and additional information that helps the car perform the task. This additional information is known as a parameter—the value of the parameter helps the car determine how fast to accelerate. Similarly, a method can require one or more parameters that represent additional information it needs to perform its task. A method call supplies values—called arguments—for each of the method’s parameters. For example, the Console.WriteLine method requires an argument that specifies the data to be displayed in a console window. Similarly, to make a deposit into a bank account, a Deposit method specifies a parameter that represents the deposit amount. When the Deposit method is called, an argument value representing the deposit amount is assigned to the method’s parameter. The method then makes a deposit of that amount, by increasing the account’s balance. Our next example declares class GradeBook (Fig. 4.4) with a DisplayMessage method that displays the course name as part of the welcome message. (See the sample execution in Fig. 4.5.) The new DisplayMessage method requires a parameter that represents the course name to output.

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// Fig. 4.4: GradeBook.cs // Class declaration with a method that has a parameter. using System; public class GradeBook { // display a welcome message to the GradeBook user public void DisplayMessage( string courseName ) { Console.WriteLine( "Welcome to the grade book for\n{0}!", courseName ); } // end method DisplayMessage } // end class GradeBook

Fig. 4.4 | Class declaration with a method that has a parameter. Before discussing the new features of class GradeBook, let’s see how the new class is used from the Main method of class GradeBookTest (Fig. 4.5). Line 12 creates an object of class GradeBook and assigns it to variable myGradeBook. Line 15 prompts the user to enter a course name. Line 16 reads the name from the user and assigns it to the variable nameOfCourse, using Console method ReadLine to perform the input. The user types the course name and presses Enter to submit the course name to the application. Pressing Enter inserts a newline character at the end of the characters typed by the user. Method ReadLine reads characters typed by the user until the newline character is encountered, then returns a string containing the characters up to, but not including, the newline. The newline character is discarded. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

// Fig. 4.5: GradeBookTest.cs // Create a GradeBook object and pass a string to // its DisplayMessage method. using System; public class GradeBookTest { // Main method begins program execution public static void Main( string[] args ) { // create a GradeBook object and assign it to myGradeBook GradeBook myGradeBook = new GradeBook(); // prompt for and input course name Console.WriteLine( "Please enter the course name:" ); string nameOfCourse = Console.ReadLine(); // read a line of text Console.WriteLine(); // output a blank line // call myGradeBook's DisplayMessage method // and pass nameOfCourse as an argument myGradeBook.DisplayMessage( nameOfCourse ); } // end Main } // end class GradeBookTest

Fig. 4.5 | Create GradeBook object and pass a string to its DisplayMessage method. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Please enter the course name: CS101 Introduction to C# Programming Welcome to the grade book for CS101 Introduction to C# Programming!

Fig. 4.5 | Create GradeBook object and pass a string to its DisplayMessage method. (Part 2 of 2.) Line 21 calls myGradeBook’s DisplayMessage method. The variable nameOfCourse in parentheses is the argument that’s passed to method DisplayMessage so that the method can perform its task. Variable nameOfCourse’s value in Main becomes the value of method DisplayMessage’s parameter courseName in line 8 of Fig. 4.4. When you execute this application, notice that method DisplayMessage outputs the name you type as part of the welcome message (Fig. 4.5).

Software Engineering Observation 4.1 Normally, objects are created with new. One exception is a string literal that’s contained in quotes, such as "hello". String literals are references to string objects that are implicitly created by C#.

More on Arguments and Parameters When you declare a method, you must specify in the method’s declaration whether the method requires data to perform its task. To do so, you place additional information in the method’s parameter list, which is located in the parentheses that follow the method name. The parameter list may contain any number of parameters, including none at all. Each parameter is declared as a variable with a type and identifier in the parameter list. Empty parentheses following the method name (as in Fig. 4.1, line 8) indicate that a method does not require any parameters. In Fig. 4.4, DisplayMessage’s parameter list (line 8) declares that the method requires one parameter. Each parameter must specify a type and an identifier. In this case, the type string and the identifier courseName indicate that method DisplayMessage requires a string to perform its task. At the time the method is called, the argument value in the call is assigned to the corresponding parameter (in this case, courseName) in the method header. Then, the method body uses the parameter courseName to access the value. Lines 10–11 of Fig. 4.4 display parameter courseName’s value, using the {0} format item in WriteLine’s first argument. The parameter variable’s name (Fig. 4.4, line 8) can be the same or different from the argument variable’s name (Fig. 4.5, line 21). A method can specify multiple parameters by separating each parameter from the next with a comma. The number of arguments in a method call must match the number of parameters in the parameter list of the called method’s declaration. Also, the types of the arguments in the method call must be consistent with the types of the corresponding parameters in the method’s declaration. (As you’ll learn in subsequent chapters, an argument’s type and its corresponding parameter’s type are not always required to be identical.) In our example, the method call passes one argument of type string (nameOfCourse is declared as a string in line 16 of Fig. 4.5), and the method declaration specifies one parameter of type string (line 8 in Fig. 4.4). So the type of the argument in the method call exactly matches the type of the parameter in the method header. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Common Programming Error 4.1 A compilation error occurs if the number and types of arguments in a method call do not match the number and types of parameters in the method declaration.

Updated UML Class Diagram for Class GradeBook The UML class diagram of Fig. 4.6 models class GradeBook of Fig. 4.4. Like Fig. 4.4, this GradeBook class contains public operation DisplayMessage. However, this version of DisplayMessage has a parameter. The UML models a parameter a bit differently from C# by listing the parameter name, followed by a colon and the parameter type in the parentheses following the operation name. The UML has several data types that are similar to the C# types. For example, UML types String and Integer correspond to C# types string and int, respectively. Unfortunately, the UML does not provide types that correspond to every C# type. For this reason, and to avoid confusion between UML types and C# types, we use only C# types in our UML diagrams. Class Gradebook’s method DisplayMessage (Fig. 4.4) has a string parameter named courseName, so Fig. 4.6 lists the parameter courseName : string between the parentheses following DisplayMessage. GradeBook

+ DisplayMessage( courseName : string )

Fig. 4.6 | UML class diagram indicating that class GradeBook has a public DisplayMessage operation with a courseName parameter of type string.

Notes on using Directives Notice the using directive in Fig. 4.5 (line 4). This indicates to the compiler that the application uses classes in the System namespace, like the Console class. Why do we need a using directive to use class Console, but not class GradeBook? There is a special relationship between classes that are compiled in the same project, like classes GradeBook and GradeBookTest. By default, such classes are considered to be in the same namespace. A using directive is not required when one class in a namespace uses another in the same namespace—such as when class GradeBookTest uses class GradeBook. For simplicity, our examples in this chapter do not declare a namespace. Any classes that are not explicitly placed in a namespace are implicitly placed in the so-called global namespace. Actually, the using directive in line 4 is not required if we always refer to class Console as System.Console, which includes the full namespace and class name. This is known as the class’s fully qualified class name. For example, line 15 could be written as System.Console.WriteLine( "Please enter the course name:" );

Most C# programmers consider using fully qualified names to be cumbersome, and instead prefer to use using directives.

4.5 Instance Variables and Properties In Chapter 3, we declared all of an application’s variables in the application’s Main method. Variables declared in the body of a method are known as local variables and can be

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used only in that method. When a method terminates, the values of its local variables are lost. Recall from Section 4.2 that an object has attributes that are carried with the object as it’s used in an application. Such attributes exist before a method is called on an object and after the method completes execution. Attributes are represented as variables in a class declaration. Such variables are called fields and are declared inside a class declaration but outside the bodies of the class’s method declarations. When each object of a class maintains its own copy of an attribute, the field that represents the attribute is also known as an instance variable—each object (instance) of the class has a separate instance of the variable. In Chapter 10, Classes and Objects: A Deeper Look, we discuss another type of field called a static variable, where all objects of the same class share one variable. A class normally contains one or more properties that manipulate the attributes that belong to a particular object of the class. The example in this section demonstrates a GradeBook class that contains a courseName instance variable to represent a particular GradeBook object’s course name, and a CourseName property to manipulate courseName.

Class with an Instance Variable and a Property In our next application (Figs. 4.7–4.8), class GradeBook (Fig. 4.7) maintains the course name as an instance variable so that it can be used or modified at any time during an application’s execution. The class also contains one method—DisplayMessage (lines 24– 30)—and one property—CourseName (line 11–21). Recall from Chapter 2 that properties are used to manipulate an object’s attributes. For example, in that chapter, we used a Label’s Text property to specify the text to display on the Label. In this example, we use a property in code rather than in the Properties window of the IDE. To do this, we first declare a property as a member of the GradeBook class. As you’ll soon see, the GradeBook’s CourseName property can be used to store a course name in a GradeBook (in instance variable courseName) or retrieve the GradeBook’s course name (from instance variable courseName). Method DisplayMessage—which now specifies no parameters—still displays a welcome message that includes the course name. However, the method now uses the CourseName property to obtain the course name from instance variable courseName. A typical instructor teaches more than one course, each with its own course name. Line 8 declares courseName as a variable of type string. Line 8 is a declaration for an instance variable, because the variable is declared in the class’s body (lines 7–31) but outside the bodies of the class’s method (lines 24–30) and property (lines 11–21). Every instance (i.e., object) of class GradeBook contains one copy of each instance variable. For example, if there are two GradeBook objects, each object has its own copy of courseName. All the methods and properties of class GradeBook can directly manipulate its instance variable courseName, but it’s considered good practice for methods of a class to use that class’s properties to manipulate instance variables (as we do in line 29 of method DisplayMessage). The software engineering reasons for this will soon become clear. GradeBook

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// Fig. 4.7: GradeBook.cs // GradeBook class that contains a courseName instance variable, // and a property to get and set its value.

Fig. 4.7 | public

GradeBook class that contains a private instance variable, courseName and a property to get and set its value. (Part 1 of 2.)

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using System; public class GradeBook { private string courseName; // course name for this GradeBook // property to get and set the course name public string CourseName { get { return courseName; } // end get set { courseName = value; } // end set } // end property CourseName // display a welcome message to the GradeBook user public void DisplayMessage() { // use property CourseName to get the // name of the course that this GradeBook represents Console.WriteLine( "Welcome to the grade book for\n{0}!", CourseName ); // display property CourseName } // end method DisplayMessage } // end class GradeBook

Fig. 4.7 | public

GradeBook class that contains a private instance variable, courseName and a property to get and set its value. (Part 2 of 2.)

Access Modifiers public and private Most instance-variable declarations are preceded with the keyword private (as in line 8). Like public, keyword private is an access modifier. Variables, properties or methods declared with access modifier private are accessible only to properties and methods of the class in which they’re declared. Thus, variable courseName can be used only in property CourseName and method DisplayMessage of class GradeBook.

Software Engineering Observation 4.2 Precede every field and method declaration with an access modifier. Generally, instance variables should be declared private and methods and properties should be declared public. If the access modifier is omitted before a member of a class, the member is implicitly declared private. (We’ll see that it’s appropriate to declare certain methods private, if they will be accessed only by other methods of the class.)

Software Engineering Observation 4.3 Declaring the instance variables of a class as private and the methods of the class as public facilitates debugging, because problems with data manipulations are localized to the class’s methods and properties, since the private instance variables are accessible only to these methods and properties.

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Declaring instance variables with access modifier private is known as information hiding. When an application creates (instantiates) an object of class GradeBook, variable courseName is encapsulated (hidden) in the object and can be accessed only by methods and properties of the object’s class.

Setting and Getting the Values of private Instance Variables How can we allow a program to manipulate a class’s private instance variables but ensure that they remain in a valid state? We need to provide controlled ways for programmers to “get” (i.e., retrieve) the value in an instance variable and “set” (i.e., modify) the value in an instance variable. Although you can define methods like GetCourseName and SetCourseName, C# properties provide a more elegant solution. Next, we show how to declare and use properties. Class with a Property The GradeBook class’s CourseName property declaration is located in lines 11–21 of Fig. 4.7. The property begins in line 11 with an access modifier (in this case, public), followed by the type that the property represents (string) and the property’s name (CourseName). Properties use the same naming conventions as methods and classes. Properties contain accessors that handle the details of returning and modifying data. A property declaration can contain a get accessor, a set accessor or both. The get accessor (lines 13–16) enables a client to read the value of private instance variable courseName; the set accessor (lines 17–20) enables a client to modify courseName. After defining a property, you can use it like a variable in your code. For example, you can assign a value to a property using the = (assignment) operator. This executes the code in the property’s set accessor to set the value of the corresponding instance variable. Similarly, referencing the property to use its value (for example, to display it on the screen) executes the code in the property’s get accessor to obtain the corresponding instance variable’s value. We show how to use properties shortly. By convention, we name each property with the capitalized name of the instance variable that it manipulates (e.g., CourseName is the property that represents instance variable courseName)—C# is case sensitive, so these are distinct identifiers. GradeBook

and set Accessors Let’s look more closely at property CourseName’s get and set accessors (Fig. 4.7). The get accessor (lines 13–16) begins with the identifier get and its body is delimited by braces. The accessor’s body contains a return statement, which consists of the keyword return followed by an expression. The expression’s value is returned to the client code that uses the property. In this example, the value of courseName is returned when the property CourseName is referenced. For example, in the following statement get

string theCourseName = gradeBook.CourseName;

the expression gradeBook.CourseName (where gradeBook is an object of class GradeBook) executes property CourseName’s get accessor, which returns the value of instance variable courseName. That value is then stored in variable theCourseName. Property CourseName can be used as simply as if it were an instance variable. The property notation allows the client to think of the property as the underlying data. Again, the client cannot directly manipulate instance variable courseName because it’s private.

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The set accessor (lines 17–20) begins with the identifier set and its body is delimited by braces. When the property CourseName appears in an assignment statement, as in gradeBook.CourseName = "CS100 Introduction to Computers";

the text "CS100 Introduction to Computers" is assigned to the set accessor’s contextual keyword named value and the set accessor executes. Note that value is implicitly declared and initialized in the set accessor—it’s a compilation error to declare a local variable value in this body. Line 19 stores the contents of value in instance variable courseName. A set accessor does not return any data when it completes its task. The statements inside the property in lines 15 and 19 (Fig. 4.7) each access courseName even though it was declared outside the property. We can use instance variable courseName in the methods and properties of class GradeBook, because courseName is an instance variable of the class.

Using Property CourseName in Method DisplayMessage Method DisplayMessage (lines 24–30 of Fig. 4.7) does not receive any parameters. Lines 28–29 output a welcome message that includes the value of instance variable courseName. We do not reference courseName directly. Instead, we access property CourseName (line 29), which executes the property’s get accessor, returning the value of courseName. Class That Demonstrates Class GradeBook (Fig. 4.8) creates a GradeBook object and demonstrates property CourseName. Line 11 creates a GradeBook object and assigns it to local variable myGradeBook. Lines 14–15 display the initial course name using the object’s CourseName property—this executes the property’s get accessor, which returns the value of courseName. The first line of the output shows an empty name (marked by ''). Unlike local variables, which are not automatically initialized, every field has a default initial value—a value provided by C# when you do not specify the initial value. Thus, fields are not required to be explicitly initialized before they’re used in an application—unless they must be initialized to values other than their default values. The default value for an instance variable of type string (like courseName) is null. When you display a string variable that contains the value null, no text is displayed on the screen. Line 18 prompts the user to enter a course name. Line 19 assigns the course name entered by the user to object myGradeBook’s CourseName property. When a value is assigned to CourseName, the value specified (which is returned by ReadLine in this case) is assigned to implicit parameter value of CourseName’s set accessor (lines 17–20, Fig. 4.7). Then parameter value is assigned by the set accessor to instance variable courseName (line 19 of Fig. 4.7). Line 20 (Fig. 4.8) displays a blank line, then line 23 calls myGradeBook’s DisplayMessage method to display the welcome message containing the course name. GradeBookTest

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GradeBookTest

// Fig. 4.8: GradeBookTest.cs // Create and manipulate a GradeBook object. using System; public class GradeBookTest {

Fig. 4.8 | Create and manipulate a GradeBook object. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// Main method begins program execution public static void Main( string[] args ) { // create a GradeBook object and assign it to myGradeBook GradeBook myGradeBook = new GradeBook(); // display initial value of CourseName Console.WriteLine( "Initial course name is: '{0}'\n", myGradeBook.CourseName ); // prompt for and read course name Console.WriteLine( "Please enter the course name:" ); myGradeBook.CourseName = Console.ReadLine(); // set CourseName Console.WriteLine(); // output a blank line // display welcome message after specifying course name myGradeBook.DisplayMessage(); } // end Main } // end class GradeBookTest

Initial course name is: '' Please enter the course name: CS101 Introduction to C# Programming Welcome to the grade book for CS101 Introduction to C# Programming!

Fig. 4.8 | Create and manipulate a GradeBook object. (Part 2 of 2.)

4.6 UML Class Diagram with a Property Figure 4.9 contains an updated UML class diagram for the version of class GradeBook in Fig. 4.7. We model properties in the UML as attributes—the property (in this case, CourseName) is listed as a public attribute—as indicated by the plus (+) sign—preceded by the word “property” in guillemets (« and »). Using descriptive words in guillemets (called stereotypes in the UML) helps distinguish properties from other attributes and operations. The UML indicates the type of the property by placing a colon and a type after the property name. The get and set accessors of the property are implied, so they’re not listed in the UML diagram. Class GradeBook also contains one public method DisplayMessage, so the class diagram lists this operation in the third compartment. Recall that the plus (+) sign is the public visibility symbol. GradeBook + «property» CourseName : string + DisplayMessage( )

Fig. 4.9 | UML class diagram indicating that class GradeBook has a public CourseName property of type string and one public method.

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A class diagram helps you design a class, so it’s not required to show every implementation detail of the class. Since an instance variable that’s manipulated by a property is really an implementation detail of that property, our class diagram does not show the courseName instance variable. A programmer implementing the GradeBook class based on this class diagram would create the instance variable courseName as part of the implementation process (as we did in Fig. 4.7). In some cases, you may find it necessary to model the private instance variables of a class. Like properties, instance variables are attributes of a class and are modeled in the middle compartment of a class diagram. The UML represents instance variables as attributes by listing the attribute name, followed by a colon and the attribute type. To indicate that an attribute is private, a class diagram would list the private visibility symbol—a minus sign (–)—before the attribute’s name. For example, the instance variable courseName in Fig. 4.7 would be modeled as “- courseName : string” to indicate that it’s a private attribute of type string.

4.7 Software Engineering with Properties and set and get Accessors Using properties as described earlier in this chapter would seem to violate the notion of private data. Although providing a property with get and set accessors may appear to be the same as making its corresponding instance variable public, this is not the case. A public instance variable can be read or written by any property or method in the program. If an instance variable is private, the client code can access the instance variable only indirectly through the class’s non-private properties or methods. This allows the class to control the manner in which the data is set or returned. For example, get and set accessors can translate between the format of the data stored in the private instance variable and the format of the data preferred by the client. Consider a Clock class that represents the time of day as a private int instance variable time, containing the number of seconds since midnight. Suppose the class provides a Time property of type string to manipulate this instance variable. Although get accessors typically return data exactly as it’s stored in an object, they need not expose the data in this “raw” format. When a client refers to a Clock object’s Time property, the property’s get accessor could use instance variable time to determine the number of hours, minutes and seconds since midnight, then return the time as a string of the form "HH:MM:SS". Similarly, suppose a Clock object’s Time property is assigned a string of the form "HH:MM:SS". Using the string capabilities presented in Chapter 16, Strings and Characters, and the method Convert.ToInt32 presented in Section 3.6, the Time property’s set accessor can convert this string to an int number of seconds since midnight and store the result in the Clock object’s private instance variable time. The Time property’s set accessor can also provide data-validation capabilities that scrutinize attempts to modify the instance variable’s value to ensure that the value it receives represents a valid time (e.g., "12:30:45" is valid but "42:85:70" is not). We demonstrate data validation in Section 4.11. So, although a property’s accessors enable clients to manipulate private data, they carefully control those manipulations, and the object’s private data remains safely encapsulated (i.e., hidden) in the object. This is not possible with public instance variables, which can easily be set by clients to invalid values.

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Properties of a class should also be used by the class’s own methods to manipulate the class’s private instance variables, even though the methods can directly access the private instance variables. Accessing an instance variable via a property’s accessors—as in the body of method DisplayMessage (Fig. 4.7, lines 28–29)—creates a more robust class that’s easier to maintain and less likely to malfunction. If we decide to change the representation of instance variable courseName in some way, the declaration of method DisplayMessage does not require modification—only the bodies of property CourseName’s get and set accessors that directly manipulate the instance variable will need to change. For example, suppose we want to represent the course name as two separate instance variables—courseNumber (e.g., "CS101") and courseTitle (e.g., "Introduction to C# Programming"). The DisplayMessage method can still use property CourseName’s get accessor to obtain the full course name to display as part of the welcome message. In this case, the get accessor would need to build and return a string containing the courseNumber, followed by the courseTitle. Method DisplayMessage would continue to display the complete course title “CS101 Introduction to C# Programming,” because it’s unaffected by the change to the class’s instance variables.

4.8 Auto-Implemented Properties In Fig. 4.7, we created a GradeBook class with a private courseName instance variable and a public property CourseName to enable client code to access the courseName. When you look at the CourseName property’s definition (Fig. 4.7, lines 11–21), notice that the get accessor simply returns private instance variable courseName’s value and the set accessor simply assigns a value to the instance variable—no other logic appears in the accessors. For such cases, C# provides automatically implemented properties (also known as autoimplemented properties). With an auto-implemented property, the C# compiler creates a private instance variable, and the get and set accessors for returning and modifying the private instance variable. Unlike a user-defined property, an auto-implemented property, must have both a get and a set accessor. This enables you to implement the property trivially, which is handy when you’re first designing a class. If you later decide to include other logic in the get or set accessors, you can simply modify the property’s implementation. To use an auto-implemented property in the GradeBook class of Fig. 4.7, you can replace the private instance variable at line 8 and the property at lines 11–21 with the following code: public string CourseName { get; set; }

Code Snippets for Auto-implemented Properties The IDE has a feature called code snippets that allows you to insert predefined code templates into your source code. One such snippet enables you to insert a public auto-implemented property by typing the word “prop” in the code window and pressing the Tab key twice. Certain pieces of the inserted code are highlighted for you to easily change the property’s type and name. You can press the Tab key to move from one highlighted piece of text to the next in the inserted code. By default, the new property’s type is int and its name is MyProperty. To get a list of all available code snippets, type Ctrl + k, Ctrl + x. This displays the Insert Snippet window in the code editor. You can navigate through the Visual C# snippet folders with the mouse to see the snippets. This feature can also be accessed by right clicking in the source code editor and selecting the Insert Snippet… menu item. Download at www.wowebook.com

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4.9 Value Types vs. Reference Types Types in C# are divided into two categories—value types and reference types. C#’s simple types are all value types. A variable of a value type simply contains a value of that type. For example, Fig. 4.10 shows an int variable named count that contains the value 7. Value types are implemented as structs, which are similar to classes and are discussed in more detail in Chapter 16. int count = 7; count

A variable (count) of a value type (int) contains a value (7) of that type

7

Fig. 4.10 | Value-type variable. By contrast, a variable of a reference type (sometimes called a reference) contains the address of a location in memory where the data referred to by that variable is stored. Such a variable is said to refer to an object in the program. Line 11 of Fig. 4.8 creates a GradeBook object, places it in memory and stores the object’s reference in variable myGradeBook of type GradeBook as shown in Fig. 4.11. The GradeBook object is shown with its courseName instance variable. GradeBook myGradeBook = new GradeBook(); myGradeBook

GradeBook object courseName

(The arrow represents the memory address of the GradeBook object)

A variable (myGradeBook) of a reference type (GradeBook) contains a reference (memory address) to an object of that type

Fig. 4.11 | Reference-type variable. Reference-type instance variables (such as myGradeBook in Fig. 4.11) are initialized by default to the value null. string is a reference type. For this reason, string variable courseName is shown in Fig. 4.11 with an empty box representing the null-valued variable. A string variable with the value null is not an empty string, which is represented by "" or string.Empty. The value null represents a reference that does not refer to an object. The empty string is a string object with no characters in it. A client of an object must use a variable that refers to the object to invoke (i.e., call) the object’s methods and access the object’s properties. In Fig. 4.8, the statements in Main use variable myGradeBook, which contains the GradeBook object’s reference, to send messages to the GradeBook object. These messages are calls to methods (like DisplayMessage) or references to properties (like CourseName) that enable the program to interact with GradeBook objects. For example, line 19 of Fig. 4.8 uses the reference myGradeBook to set the course name by assigning a value to property CourseName. This sends a message to the GradeBook object to invoke the CourseName property’s set accessor. The message includes

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as an argument the value read from the user’s input (in this case, "CS101 Introduction to C# Programming") that CourseName’s set accessor requires to perform its task. The set accessor uses this information to set the courseName instance variable. In Section 7.16, we discuss value types and reference types in detail.

Software Engineering Observation 4.4 A variable’s declared type (e.g., int, double or GradeBook) indicates whether the variable is of a value or a reference type. If a variable’s type is not one of the thirteen simple types (Appendix B), or an enum or a struct type (which we discuss in Section 7.10 and Chapter 16, respectively), then it’s a reference type. For example, Account account1 indicates that account1 is a variable that can refer to an Account object.

4.10 Initializing Objects with Constructors As mentioned in Section 4.5, when a GradeBook (Fig. 4.7) object is created, its instance variable courseName is initialized to null by default. This is also true of the private instance variable that the compiler creates for the auto-implemented CourseName property discussed in Section 4.8. What if you want to provide a course name when you create a GradeBook object? Each class can provide a constructor that can be used to initialize an object of a class when the object is created. In fact, C# requires a constructor call for every object that’s created. The new operator calls the class’s constructor to perform the initialization. The constructor call is indicated by the class name, followed by parentheses. For example, line 11 of Fig. 4.8 first uses new to create a GradeBook object. The empty parentheses after “new GradeBook()” indicate a call without arguments to the class’s constructor. The compiler provides a public default constructor with no parameters in any class that does not explicitly define a constructor, so every class has a constructor. The default constructor does not modify the default values of the instance variables. When you declare a class, you can provide your own constructor (or several constructors, as you’ll learn in Chapter 10) to specify custom initialization for objects of your class. For example, you might want to specify a course name for a GradeBook object when the object is created, as in GradeBook myGradeBook = new GradeBook( "CS101 Introduction to C# Programming" );

In this case, the argument "CS101 Introduction to C# Programming" is passed to the GradeBook object’s constructor and used to initialize the CourseName. Each time you create a new GradeBook object, you can provide a different course name. The preceding statement requires that the class provide a constructor with a string parameter. Figure 4.12 contains a modified GradeBook class with such a constructor. 1 2 3 4 5 6

// Fig. 4.12: GradeBook.cs // GradeBook class with a constructor to initialize the course name. using System; public class GradeBook {

Fig. 4.12 |

GradeBook

class with a constructor to initialize the course name. (Part 1 of 2.)

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4.10 Initializing Objects with Constructors

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

85

// auto-implemented property CourseName implicitly created an // instance variable for this GradeBook's course name public string CourseName { get; set; } // constructor initializes auto-implemented property // CourseName with string supplied as argument public GradeBook( string name ) { CourseName = name; // set CourseName to name } // end constructor // display a welcome message to the GradeBook user public void DisplayMessage() { // use auto-implemented property CourseName to get the // name of the course that this GradeBook represents Console.WriteLine( "Welcome to the grade book for\n{0}!", CourseName ); } // end method DisplayMessage } // end class GradeBook

Fig. 4.12 |

GradeBook

class with a constructor to initialize the course name. (Part 2 of 2.)

Lines 13–16 declare the constructor for class GradeBook. A constructor must have the same name as its class. Like a method, a constructor specifies in its parameter list the data it requires to perform its task. When you use new to create an object, you place this data in the parentheses that follow the class name. Unlike a method, a constructor doesn’t specify a return type (not even void). Line 13 indicates that class GradeBook’s constructor has a parameter called name of type string. In line 15, the name passed to the constructor is used to initialize auto-implemented property CourseName via its set accessor. Figure 4.13 demonstrates initializing GradeBook objects using this constructor. Lines 12–13 create and initialize a GradeBook object. The constructor of class GradeBook is called with the argument "CS101 Introduction to C# Programming" to initialize the course name. The object-creation expression to the right of = in lines 12–13 returns a reference to the new object, which is assigned to variable gradeBook1. Lines 14–15 repeat this process for another GradeBook object, this time passing the argument "CS102 Data Structures in C#" to initialize the course name for gradeBook2. Lines 18–21 use each object’s CourseName property to obtain the course names and show that they were indeed initialized when the objects were created. In Section 4.5, you learned that each instance (i.e., object) of a class contains its own copy of the class’s instance variables. The output confirms that each GradeBook maintains its own course name. 1 2 3 4 5

// Fig. 4.13: GradeBookTest.cs // GradeBook constructor used to specify the course name at the // time each GradeBook object is created. using System;

Fig. 4.13 | GradeBook

GradeBook constructor used to specify the course name at the time each object is created. (Part 1 of 2.)

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public class GradeBookTest { // Main method begins program execution public static void Main( string[] args ) { // create GradeBook object GradeBook gradeBook1 = new GradeBook( // invokes constructor "CS101 Introduction to C# Programming" ); GradeBook gradeBook2 = new GradeBook( // invokes constructor "CS102 Data Structures in C#" ); // display initial value of courseName for each GradeBook Console.WriteLine( "gradeBook1 course name is: {0}", gradeBook1.CourseName ); Console.WriteLine( "gradeBook2 course name is: {0}", gradeBook2.CourseName ); } // end Main } // end class GradeBookTest

gradeBook1 course name is: CS101 Introduction to C# Programming gradeBook2 course name is: CS102 Data Structures in C#

Fig. 4.13 |

constructor used to specify the course name at the time each GradeBook object is created. (Part 2 of 2.) GradeBook

Normally, constructors are declared public. If a class does not explicitly define a constructor, the class’s instance variables are initialized to their default values—0 for numeric types, false for type bool and null for reference types. If you declare any constructors for a class, C# will not create a default constructor for that class.

Error-Prevention Tip 4.1 Unless default initialization of your class’s instance variables is acceptable, provide a constructor to ensure that your class’s instance variables are properly initialized with meaningful values when each new object of your class is created.

Adding the Constructor to Class GradeBook’s UML Class Diagram The UML class diagram of Fig. 4.14 models class GradeBook of Fig. 4.12, which has a constructor that has a name parameter of type string. Like operations, the UML models constructors in the third compartment of a class in a class diagram. To distinguish a constructor from a class’s operations, the UML places the word “constructor” between GradeBook + «property» CourseName : string + «constructor» GradeBook( name : string ) + DisplayMessage( )

Fig. 4.14 | UML class diagram indicating that class GradeBook has a constructor with a name

parameter of type string.

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guillemets (« and ») before the constructor’s name. It’s customary to list constructors before other operations in the third compartment.

4.11 Floating-Point Numbers and Type decimal In our next application, we depart temporarily from our GradeBook case study to declare a class called Account that maintains a bank account’s balance. Most account balances are not whole numbers (such as 0, –22 and 1024). For this reason, class Account represents the account balance as a real number (i.e., a number with a decimal point, such as 7.33, 0.0975 or 1000.12345). C# provides three simple types for storing real numbers—float, double, and decimal. Types float and double are called floating-point types. The primary difference between them and decimal is that decimal variables store a limited range of real numbers precisely, whereas floating-point variables store only approximations of real numbers, but across a much greater range of values. Also, double variables can store numbers with larger magnitude and finer detail (i.e., more digits to the right of the decimal point—also known as the number’s precision) than float variables. A key application of type decimal is representing monetary amounts.

Real-Number Precision and Storage Requirements Variables of type float represent single-precision floating-point numbers and have seven significant digits. Variables of type double represent double-precision floating-point numbers. These require twice as much storage as float variables and provide 15–16 significant digits—approximately double the precision of float variables. Furthermore, variables of type decimal require twice as much storage as double variables and provide 28– 29 significant digits. In some applications, even variables of type double and decimal will be inadequate—such applications are beyond the scope of this book. Most programmers represent floating-point numbers with type double. In fact, C# treats all real numbers you type in an application’s source code (such as 7.33 and 0.0975) as double values by default. Such values in the source code are known as floating-point literals. To type a decimal literal, you must type the letter “M” or “m” (which stands for “money”) at the end of a real number (for example, 7.33M is a decimal literal rather than a double). Integer literals are implicitly converted into type float, double or decimal when they’re assigned to a variable of one of these types. See Appendix B, for the ranges of values for variables of types float, double, decimal and all the other simple types. Although floating-point numbers are not always 100% precise, they have numerous applications. For example, when we speak of a “normal” body temperature of 98.6, we do not need to be precise to a large number of digits. When we read the temperature on a thermometer as 98.6, it may actually be 98.5999473210643. Calling this number simply 98.6 is fine for most applications involving body temperatures. Due to the imprecise nature of floating-point numbers, type decimal is preferred over the floating-point types whenever the calculations need to be exact, as with monetary calculations. In cases where approximation is enough, double is preferred over type float because double variables can represent floating-point numbers more accurately. For this reason, we use type decimal throughout the book for monetary amounts and type double for other real numbers. Real numbers also arise as a result of division. In conventional arithmetic, for example, when we divide 10 by 3, the result is 3.3333333…, with the sequence of 3s Download at www.wowebook.com

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repeating infinitely. The computer allocates only a fixed amount of space to hold such a value, so clearly the stored floating-point value can be only an approximation.

Common Programming Error 4.2 Using floating-point numbers in a manner that assumes they’re represented precisely can lead to logic errors.

Class with an Instance Variable of Type decimal Our next application (Figs. 4.15–4.16) contains a simple class named Account (Fig. 4.15) that maintains the balance of a bank account. A typical bank services many accounts, each with its own balance, so line 7 declares an instance variable named balance of type decimal. Variable balance is an instance variable because it’s declared in the body of the class (lines 6–36) but outside the class’s method and property declarations (lines 10–13, 16–19 and 22– 35). Every instance (i.e., object) of class Account contains its own copy of balance. Class Account contains a constructor, a method, and a property. Since it’s common for someone opening an account to place money in the account immediately, the constructor (lines 10–13) receives a parameter initialBalance of type decimal that represents the account’s starting balance. Line 12 assigns initialBalance to the property Balance, invoking Balance’s set accessor to initialize the instance variable balance. Account

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

// Fig. 4.15: Account.cs // Account class with a constructor to // initialize instance variable balance. public class Account { private decimal balance; // instance variable that stores the balance // constructor public Account( decimal initialBalance ) { Balance = initialBalance; // set balance using property } // end Account constructor // credit (add) an amount to the account public void Credit( decimal amount ) { Balance = Balance + amount; // add amount to balance } // end method Credit // a property to get and set the account balance public decimal Balance { get { return balance; } // end get set {

Fig. 4.15 |

Account

class with a constructor to initialize instance variable balance.

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30 31 32 33 34 35 36

// validate that value is greater than or equal to 0; // if it is not, balance is left unchanged if ( value >= 0 ) balance = value; } // end set } // end property Balance } // end class Account

Fig. 4.15 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

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Account

class with a constructor to initialize instance variable balance.

// Fig. 4.16: AccountTest.cs // Create and manipulate Account objects. using System; public class AccountTest { // Main method begins execution of C# application public static void Main( string[] args ) { Account account1 = new Account( 50.00M ); // create Account object Account account2 = new Account( -7.53M ); // create Account object // display initial balance of each object using a property Console.WriteLine( "account1 balance: {0:C}", account1.Balance ); // display Balance property Console.WriteLine( "account2 balance: {0:C}\n", account2.Balance ); // display Balance property decimal depositAmount; // deposit amount read from user // prompt and obtain user input Console.Write( "Enter deposit amount for account1: " ); depositAmount = Convert.ToDecimal( Console.ReadLine() ); Console.WriteLine( "adding {0:C} to account1 balance\n", depositAmount ); account1.Credit( depositAmount ); // add to account1 balance // display balances Console.WriteLine( "account1 balance: {0:C}", account1.Balance ); Console.WriteLine( "account2 balance: {0:C}\n", account2.Balance ); // prompt and obtain user input Console.Write( "Enter deposit amount for account2: " ); depositAmount = Convert.ToDecimal( Console.ReadLine() ); Console.WriteLine( "adding {0:C} to account2 balance\n", depositAmount ); account2.Credit( depositAmount ); // add to account2 balance // display balances Console.WriteLine( "account1 balance: {0:C}", account1.Balance );

Fig. 4.16 | Create and manipulate an Account object. (Part 1 of 2.) Download at www.wowebook.com

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Console.WriteLine( "account2 balance: {0:C}", account2.Balance ); } // end Main } // end class AccountTest

account1 balance: $50.00 account2 balance: $0.00 Enter deposit amount for account1: 49.99 adding $49.99 to account1 balance account1 balance: $99.99 account2 balance: $0.00 Enter deposit amount for account2: 123.21 adding $123.21 to account2 balance account1 balance: $99.99 account2 balance: $123.21

Fig. 4.16 | Create and manipulate an Account object. (Part 2 of 2.) Method Credit (lines 16–19) doesn’t return data when it completes its task, so its return type is void. The method receives one parameter named amount—a decimal value that’s added to the property Balance. Line 18 uses both the get and set accessors of Balance. The expression Balance + amount invokes property Balance’s get accessor to obtain the current value of instance variable balance, then adds amount to it. We then assign the result to instance variable balance by invoking the Balance property’s set accessor (thus replacing the prior balance value). Property Balance (lines 22–35) provides a get accessor, which allows clients of the class (i.e., other classes that use this class) to obtain the value of a particular Account object’s balance. The property has type decimal (line 22). Balance also provides an enhanced set accessor. In Section 4.5, we introduced properties whose set accessors allow clients of a class to modify the value of a private instance variable. In Fig. 4.7, class GradeBook defines property CourseName’s set accessor to assign the value received in its parameter value to instance variable courseName (line 19). This CourseName property does not ensure that courseName contains only valid data. The application of Figs. 4.15–4.16 enhances the set accessor of class Account’s property Balance to perform this validity checking. Line 32 (Fig. 4.15) ensures that value is nonnegative. If the value is greater than or equal to 0, the amount stored in value is assigned to instance variable balance in line 33. Otherwise, balance is left unchanged.

Class to Use Class Account Class AccountTest (Fig. 4.16) creates two Account objects (lines 10–11) and initializes them respectively with 50.00M and -7.53M (the decimal literals representing the real numbers 50.00 and -7.53). The Account constructor (lines 10–13 of Fig. 4.15) references property Balance to initialize balance. In previous examples, the benefit of referencing the property in the constructor was not evident. Now, however, the constructor takes advantage of the validation provided by the set accessor of the Balance property. The constructor simply assigns a value to Balance rather than duplicating the set accessor’s AccountTest

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validation code. When line 11 of Fig. 4.16 passes an initial balance of -7.53 to the Account constructor, the constructor passes this value to the set accessor of property Balance, where the actual initialization occurs. This value is less than 0, so the set accessor does not modify balance, leaving this instance variable with its default value of 0. Lines 14–17 in Fig. 4.16 output the balance in each Account by using the Account’s Balance property. When Balance is used for account1 (line 15), the value of account1’s balance is returned by the get accessor in line 26 of Fig. 4.15 and displayed by the Console.WriteLine statement (Fig. 4.16, lines 14–15). Similarly, when property Balance is called for account2 from line 17, the value of the account2’s balance is returned from line 26 of Fig. 4.15 and displayed by the Console.WriteLine statement (Fig. 4.16, lines 16– 17). The balance of account2 is 0 because the constructor ensured that the account could not begin with a negative balance. The value is output by WriteLine with the format item {0:C}, which formats the account balance as a monetary amount. The : after the 0 indicates that the next character represents a format specifier, and the C format specifier after the : specifies a monetary amount (C is for currency). The cultural settings on the user’s machine determine the format for displaying monetary amounts. For example, in the United States, 50 displays as $50.00. In Germany, 50 displays as 50,00€. Figure 4.17 lists a few other format specifiers in addition to C. Format specifier C

or c

D N

or d or n

E

or e

F G

or f or g

X

or x

Fig. 4.17 |

Description Formats the string as currency. Displays an appropriate currency symbol ($ in the United States) next to the number. Separates digits with an appropriate separator character (comma in the United States) and sets the number of decimal places to two by default. Formats the string as a decimal. Displays number as an integer. Formats the string with a thousands separator and a default of two decimal places. Formats the number using scientific notation with a default of six decimal places. Formats the string with a fixed number of decimal places (two by default). Formats the number normally with decimal places or using scientific notation, depending on context. If a format item does not contain a format specifier, format G is assumed implicitly. Formats the string as hexadecimal.

string

format specifiers.

Line 19 declares local variable depositAmount to store each deposit amount entered by the user. Unlike the instance variable balance in class Account, the local variable depositAmount in Main is not initialized to 0 by default. However, this variable does not need to be initialized here because its value will be determined by the user’s input. The compiler does not allow a local variable’s value to be read until it’s initialized. Line 22 prompts the user to enter a deposit amount for account1. Line 23 obtains the input from the user by calling the Console class’s ReadLine method, then passing the string entered by the user to the Convert class’s ToDecimal method, which returns the

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decimal value in this string. Lines 24–25 display the deposit amount. Line 26 calls object account1’s Credit method and supplies depositAmount as the method’s argument. When

the method is called, the argument’s value is assigned to parameter amount of method Credit (lines 16–19 of Fig. 4.15), then method Credit adds that value to the balance (line 18 of Fig. 4.15). Lines 29–32 (Fig. 4.16) output the balances of both Accounts again to show that only account1’s balance changed. Line 35 prompts the user to enter a deposit amount for account2. Line 36 obtains the input from the user by calling method Console.ReadLine, and passing the return value to the Convert class’s ToDecimal method. Lines 37–38 display the deposit amount. Line 39 calls object account2’s Credit method and supplies depositAmount as the method’s argument, then method Credit adds that value to the balance. Finally, lines 42–43 output the balances of both Accounts again to show that only account2’s balance changed.

and get Accessors with Different Access Modifiers By default, the get and set accessors of a property have the same access as the property— for example, for a public property, the accessors are public. It’s possible to declare the get and set accessors with different access modifiers. In this case, one of the accessors must implicitly have the same access as the property and the other must be declared with a more restrictive access modifier than the property. For example, in a public property, the get accessor might be public and the set accessor might be private. We demonstrate this feature in Section 10.6. set

Error-Prevention Tip 4.2 The benefits of data integrity are not automatic simply because instance variables are made private—you must provide appropriate validity checking and report the errors.

Error-Prevention Tip 4.3 accessors that set the values of private data should verify that the intended new values are proper; if they’re not, the set accessors should leave the instance variables unchanged and indicate an error. We demonstrate how to indicate errors in Chapter 13, Exception Handling. set

UML Class Diagram for Class Account The UML class diagram in Fig. 4.18 models class Account of Fig. 4.15. The diagram models the Balance property as a UML attribute of type decimal (because the corresponding C# property had type decimal). The diagram models class Account’s constructor with a parameter initialBalance of type decimal in the third compartment of the class. The diagram models operation Credit in the third compartment with an amount Account + «property» Balance : decimal + «constructor» Account( initialBalance : decimal ) + Credit( amount : decimal )

Fig. 4.18 | UML class diagram indicating that class Account has a public Balance property of type decimal, a constructor and a method.

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parameter of type decimal (because the corresponding method has an amount parameter of C# type decimal).

4.12 Wrap-Up In this chapter, you learned the basic object-oriented concepts of classes, objects, methods, instance variables and properties—these will be used in most substantial C# applications you create. You learned how to declare instance variables of a class to maintain data for each object of the class, how to declare methods that operate on that data, and how to declare properties to obtain and set that data. We demonstrated how to call a method to tell it to perform its task and how to pass information to methods as arguments. We discussed the difference between a local variable of a method and an instance variable of a class and that only instance variables are initialized automatically. We discussed the difference between a value type and a reference type. You learned how to create auto-implemented properties. You also learned how to use a class’s constructor to specify the initial values for an object’s instance variables. We discussed some of the differences between value types and reference types. You learned about the value types float, double and decimal for storing real numbers. We showed how the UML can be used to create class diagrams that model the constructors, methods, properties and attributes of classes. You learned the value of declaring instance variables private and using public properties to manipulate them. For example, we demonstrated how set accessors in properties can be used to validate an object’s data and ensure that the object is maintained in a consistent state. You learned how to create auto-implemented properties. In the next chapter we begin our introduction to control statements, which specify the order in which an application’s actions are performed. You’ll use these in your methods to specify how they should perform their tasks.

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5 Control Statements: Part 1

Let’s all move one place on. —Lewis Carroll

The wheel is come full circle.

OBJECTIVES

—William Shakespeare

In this chapter you’ll learn:

How many apples fell on Newton’s head before he took the hint!

■

To use the if and if…else selection statements to choose between alternative actions.

■

To use the while repetition statement to execute statements in an application repeatedly.

■

To use counter-controlled repetition and sentinelcontrolled repetition.

■

To use the increment, decrement and compound assignment operators.

—Robert Frost

All the evolution we know of proceeds from the vague to the definite. —Charles Sanders Peirce

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5.1 Introduction

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

Introduction Control Structures if Single-Selection Statement if…else Double-Selection Statement while Repetition Statement Counter-Controlled Repetition

5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12

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Sentinel-Controlled Repetition Nested Control Statements Compound Assignment Operators Increment and Decrement Operators Simple Types Wrap-Up

5.1 Introduction In this chapter, we introduce C#’s if, if…else and while control statements,. We devote a portion of the chapter (and Chapters 6 and 8) to further developing the GradeBook class we introduced in Chapter 4. In particular, we add a method to the GradeBook class that uses control statements to calculate the average of a set of student grades. Another example demonstrates additional ways to combine control statements to solve a similar problem. We introduce C#’s compound assignment operators and explore its increment and decrement operators. These additional operators abbreviate and simplify many statements. Finally, we present an overview of C#’s simple types. In Chapter 6, Control Statements: Part 2, we present most of C#’s remaining control statements. Then we present C#’s last control statement, foreach, in Chapter 8, Arrays.

5.2 Control Structures Normally, statements in an application are executed one after the other in the order in which they’re written—this process is called sequential execution. Various C# statements enable you to specify that the next statement to execute is not necessarily the next one in sequence—this is called transfer of control. During the 1960s, it became clear that the indiscriminate use of transfers of control was the root of much difficulty experienced by software development groups. The blame was pointed at the goto statement (used in most programming languages of the time), which allows programmers to specify a transfer of control to one of a wide range of possible destinations in an application (creating what is often called “spaghetti code”). The notion of so-called structured programming became almost synonymous with “goto elimination.” We recommend that you avoid C#’s goto statement. Research1 had demonstrated that applications could be written without goto statements. The challenge of the era for programmers was to shift their styles to “goto-less programming.” Not until the 1970s did programmers start taking structured programming seriously. The results were impressive because structured applications were clearer, easier to debug and modify, and more likely to be bug free in the first place. Bohm and Jacopini’s work demonstrated that all applications could be written in terms of only three control structures—the sequence structure, the selection structure and the repetition structure. When we introduce C#’s implementations of control structures, we’ll refer to them in the terminology of the C# Language Specification as “control statements.” 1.

Bohm, C., and G. Jacopini, “Flow Diagrams, Turing Machines, and Languages with Only Two Formation Rules,” Communications of the ACM, Vol. 9, No. 5, May 1966, pp. 336–371.

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Sequence Structure in C# The sequence structure is built into C#. Unless directed otherwise, the computer executes C# statements are executed one after the other in the order in which they’re written—that is, in sequence. The UML activity diagram in Fig. 5.1 illustrates a typical sequence structure in which two calculations are performed in order. C# lets you have as many actions as you want in a sequence structure.

add grade to total

add 1 to counter

Corresponding C# statement: total = total + grade;

Corresponding C# statement: counter = counter + 1;

Fig. 5.1 | Sequence structure activity diagram. An activity diagram models the workflow (also called the activity) of a portion of a software system. Such workflows may include a portion of an algorithm, such as the sequence structure in Fig. 5.1. Activity diagrams are composed of special-purpose symbols, such as action-state symbols (rectangles with their left and right sides replaced with arcs curving outward), diamonds and small circles. These symbols are connected by transition arrows, which represent the flow of the activity—that is, the order in which the actions should occur. Activity diagrams help you develop and represent algorithms. They also clearly show how control structures operate. Consider the activity diagram for the sequence structure in Fig. 5.1. It contains two action states that represent actions to perform. Each action state contains an action expression—for example, “add grade to total” or “add 1 to counter”—that specifies an action to perform. Other actions might include calculations or input/output operations. The arrows in the activity diagram represent transitions, which indicate the order in which the actions occur. The portion of the application that implements the activities illustrated by the diagram in Fig. 5.1 first adds grade to total, then adds 1 to counter. The solid circle at the activity diagram’s top represents the activity’s initial state—the beginning of the workflow before the application performs the modeled actions. The solid circle surrounded by a hollow circle that appears at the bottom of the diagram represents the final state—the end of the workflow after the application performs its actions. Figure 5.1 also includes rectangles with the upper-right corners folded over. These are UML notes (like comments in C#) that describe the purpose of symbols in the diagram. Figure 5.1 uses UML notes to show the C# code associated with each action state in the activity diagram. A dotted line connects each note with the element that the note describes. Activity diagrams normally do not show the C# code that implements the activity. We use notes for this purpose here to illustrate how the diagram relates to C# code. For more information on the UML, see our optional case study, which appears in Chapters 30–31, and visit our UML Resource Center (www.deitel.com/UML/) and www.uml.org. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Selection Structures in C# C# has three types of selection structures, which from this point forward we shall refer to as selection statements. The if statement either performs (selects) an action if a condition is true or skips the action if the condition is false. The if…else statement performs an action if a condition is true or performs a different action if the condition is false. The switch statement (Chapter 6) performs one of many different actions, depending on the value of an expression. The if statement is called a single-selection statement because it selects or ignores a single action (or, as we’ll soon see, a single group of actions). The if…else statement is called a double-selection statement because it selects between two different actions (or groups of actions). The switch statement is called a multiple-selection statement because it selects among many different actions (or groups of actions). Repetition Structures in C# C# provides four repetition structures, which from this point forward we shall refer to as repetition statements—these are the while, do…while, for and foreach statements. (Chapter 6 presents the do…while and for statements. Chapter 8 discusses the foreach statement.) The while, for and foreach statements perform the action (or group of actions) in their bodies zero or more times—if the loop-continuation condition is initially false, the action (or group of actions) will not execute. The do…while statement performs the action (or group of actions) in its body one or more times. Summary of Control Statements in C# C# has only three kinds of structured control statements: the sequence statement, selection statement (three types) and repetition statement (four types). We combine as many of each type of statement as necessary to make the program flow and work as required. As with the sequence statement in Fig. 5.1, we can model each control statement as an activity diagram. Each diagram contains one initial state and one final state that represent a control statement’s entry point and exit point, respectively. Single-entry/single-exit control statements make it easy to build applications—the control statements are “attached” to one another by connecting the exit point of one to the entry point of the next. We call this control-statement stacking. There’s only one other way in which control statements may be connected: control-statement nesting, in which one control statement appears inside another. Thus, algorithms in C# applications are constructed from only three kinds of structured control statements, combined in only two ways. This is the essence of simplicity.

5.3 if Single-Selection Statement Applications use selection statements to choose among alternative courses of action. For example, suppose that the passing grade on an exam is 60. The C# statement if ( grade >= 60 ) Console.WriteLine( "Passed" );

determines whether the condition grade >= 60 is true or false. If the condition is true, "Passed" is displayed, and the next C# statement in order is performed. If the condition is false, the output statement is ignored, and the next C# statement in order is performed. The indentation of the second line of this selection statement is optional, but recommended, because it emphasizes the inherent structure of the if statement.

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Figure 5.2 illustrates the single-selection if statement. This UML activity diagram contains what is perhaps the most important symbol in an activity diagram—the diamond, or decision symbol, which indicates that a decision is to be made. The workflow will continue along a path determined by the symbol’s associated guard conditions, which can be true or false. Each transition arrow emerging from a decision symbol has a guard condition (specified in square brackets next to the transition arrow). If a guard condition is true, the workflow enters the action state to which the transition arrow points. In Fig. 5.2, if grade >= 60 is true, the application displays "Passed", then transitions to the final state of this activity. If grade < 60 is true, the application immediately transitions to the final state without displaying a message. The if statement is a single-entry/single-exit control statement. The activity diagrams for the remaining control statements also contain initial states, transition arrows, action states that indicate actions to perform and decision symbols (with associated guard conditions) that indicate decisions to be made, and final states. Corresponding C# statement: Console.WriteLine( "Passed" );

[grade >= 60]

print “Passed”

[grade < 60]

Fig. 5.2 |

if

single-selection statement UML activity diagram.

5.4 if…else Double-Selection Statement The if single-selection statement performs an indicated action only when the condition is true; otherwise, the action is skipped. The if…else double-selection statement allows you to specify an action to perform when the condition is true and a different action when the condition is false. For example, the C# statement if ( grade >= 60 ) Console.WriteLine( "Passed" ); else Console.WriteLine( "Failed" );

displays "Passed" if grade >= 60 is true, but displays "Failed" if grade < 60 is true. In either case, after displaying occurs, the next statement in sequence is performed. The body of the else part is also indented. Whatever indentation convention you choose should be applied consistently throughout your applications. It’s difficult to read applications that do not obey uniform spacing conventions.

Good Programming Practice 5.1 Indent both body statements of an if…else statement.

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5.4 if…else Double-Selection Statement

99

Good Programming Practice 5.2 If there are several levels of indentation, each level should be indented the same additional amount of space.

Figure 5.3 illustrates the flow of control in the if…else statement. Once again, the symbols in the UML activity diagram (besides the initial state, transition arrows and final state) represent action states and a decision.

print “Failed”

Fig. 5.3 |

if…else

[grade < 60]

[grade >= 60]

print “Passed”

double-selection statement UML activity diagram.

Conditional Operator (?:) C# provides the conditional operator (?:), which can be used in place of an if…else statement. This is C#’s only ternary operator—it takes three operands. Together, the operands and the ?: symbols form a conditional expression. The first operand (to the left of the ?) is a boolean expression (i.e., an expression that evaluates to a bool-type value—true or false), the second operand (between the ? and :) is the value of the conditional expression if the boolean expression is true and the third operand (to the right of the :) is the value of the conditional expression if the boolean expression is false. For example, the statement Console.WriteLine( grade >= 60 ? "Passed" : "Failed" );

displays the value of WriteLine’s conditional-expression argument. The conditional expression in the preceding statement evaluates to the string "Passed" if the boolean expression grade >= 60 is true and evaluates to the string "Failed" if the boolean expression is false. Thus, this statement with the conditional operator performs essentially the same function as the if…else statement shown earlier in this section. You’ll see that conditional expressions can be used in some situations where if…else statements cannot.

Good Programming Practice 5.3 When a conditional expression is inside a larger expression, it’s good practice to parenthesize the conditional expression for clarity. Adding parentheses may also prevent operatorprecedence problems that could cause syntax errors.

Nested if…else Statements An application can test multiple cases by placing if…else statements inside other if…else statements to create nested if…else statements. For example, the following nested if…else statement displays A for exam grades greater than or equal to 90, B for Download at www.wowebook.com

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Chapter 5 Control Statements: Part 1

grades in the range 80 to 89, C for grades in the range 70 to 79, D for grades in the range 60 to 69 and F for all other grades: if ( grade >= 90 ) Console.WriteLine( "A" ); else if ( grade >= 80 ) Console.WriteLine( "B" ); else if ( grade >= 70 ) Console.WriteLine( "C" ); else if ( grade >= 60 ) Console.WriteLine( "D" ); else Console.WriteLine( "F" );

If grade is greater than or equal to 90, the first four conditions will be true, but only the statement in the if-part of the first if…else statement will execute. After that statement executes, the else-part of the “outermost” if…else statement is skipped. Most C# programmers prefer to write the preceding if…else statement as if ( grade >= 90 ) Console.WriteLine( else if ( grade >= 80 Console.WriteLine( else if ( grade >= 70 Console.WriteLine( else if ( grade >= 60 Console.WriteLine( else Console.WriteLine(

"A" ) "B" ) "C" ) "D"

); ); ); );

"F" );

The two forms are identical except for the spacing and indentation, which the compiler ignores. The latter form is popular because it avoids deep indentation of the code to the right—such indentation often leaves little room on a line of code, forcing lines to be split and decreasing the readability of your code.

Dangling-else Problem The C# compiler always associates an else with the immediately preceding if unless told to do otherwise by the placement of braces ({ and }). This behavior can lead to what is referred to as the dangling-else problem. For example, if ( x > 5 ) if ( y > 5 ) Console.WriteLine( "x and y are > 5" ); else Console.WriteLine( "x is 5" is output. Otherwise, it appears that if x is not greater than 5, the else part of the if…else outputs the string "x is 5" ); else Console.WriteLine( "x is 5"—is displayed. However, if the second condition is false, the string "x is 5" ); } else Console.WriteLine( "x is = 0" ); } // end set } // end property GrossSales // property that gets and sets commission employee's commission rate public decimal CommissionRate { get { return commissionRate; } // end get set { if ( value > 0 && value < 1 ) commissionRate = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "CommissionRate", value, "CommissionRate must be > 0 and < 1" ); } // end set } // end property CommissionRate // calculate commission employee's pay public decimal Earnings() { return commissionRate * grossSales; } // end method Earnings // return string representation of CommissionEmployee object public override string ToString() {

Fig. 11.4 |

CommissionEmployee

class represents a commission employee. (Part 2 of 3.)

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96 return string.Format( "{0}: {1} {2}\n{3}: {4}\n{5}: {6:C}\n{7}: {8:F2}", 97 "commission employee", FirstName, LastName, 98 99 "social security number", SocialSecurityNumber, "gross sales", GrossSales, "commission rate", CommissionRate ); 100 } // end method ToString 101 102 } // end class CommissionEmployee

Fig. 11.4 |

CommissionEmployee

class represents a commission employee. (Part 3 of 3.)

Class Overview services include a constructor (lines 14–23), methods Earnings (lines 88–91) and ToString (lines 94–101), and the public properties (lines 26–85) for manipulating the class’s instance variables firstName, lastName, socialSecurityNumber, grossSales and commissionRate (declared in lines 7–11). Each of its instance variable is private, so objects of other classes cannot directly access these variables. Declaring instance variables as private and providing public properties to manipulate and validate them helps enforce good software engineering. The set accessors of properties GrossSales and CommissionRate, for example, validate their arguments before assigning the values to instance variables grossSales and commissionRate, respectively. CommissionEmployee

CommissionEmployee’s public

Constructor Constructors are not inherited, so class CommissionEmployee does not inherit class object’s constructor. However, class CommissionEmployee’s constructor calls class object’s constructor implicitly. In fact, before executing the code in its own body, the derived class’s constructor calls its direct base class’s constructor, either explicitly or implicitly (if no constructor call is specified), to ensure that the instance variables inherited from the base class are initialized properly. The syntax for calling a base-class constructor explicitly is discussed in Section 11.4.3. If the code does not include an explicit call to the base-class constructor, the compiler generates an implicit call to the base class’s default or parameterless constructor. The comment in line 17 indicates where the implicit call to the base class object’s default constructor is made (you do not write the code for this call). Class object’s default (empty) constructor does nothing. Even if a class does not have constructors, the default constructor that the compiler implicitly declares for the class will call the base class’s default or parameterless constructor. Class object is the only class that does not have a base class. After the implicit call to object’s constructor occurs, lines 18–22 in the constructor assign values to the class’s instance variables. We do not validate the values of arguments first, last and ssn before assigning them to the corresponding instance variables. We certainly could validate the first and last names—perhaps by ensuring that they’re of a reasonable length. Similarly, a social security number could be validated to ensure that it contains nine digits, with or without dashes (e.g., 123-45-6789 or 123456789). CommissionEmployee

and CommissionRate Properties In Chapter 10, when the client code provided incorrect data to set a particular instance variable, we maintained the object in a consistent state by assigning a default value to the instance variable. In this example, properties GrossSales and CommissionRate throw an exception of type ArgumentOutOfRangeException (lines 65–66 and 82–83), which notifies the client code that an invalid argument was passed to the corresponding property’s CommissionEmployee GrossSales

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11.4 Relationship between Base Classes and Derived Classes

309

accessor. The throw statement creates a new object of type ArgumentOutOfRangeExThe parentheses following the class name indicate a call to the ArgumentOutOfRangeException constructor. After the exception object is created, the throw statement immediately exits the set accessor and the exception is returned to the code that attempted to set the time. As you’ll learn in Chapter 13, you can use exception handling in the client code to “catch” such exceptions and attempt to recover from them. set

ception.

Method Earnings Method Earnings (lines 88–91) calculates a CommissionEmployee’s earnings. Line 90 multiplies the commissionRate by the grossSales and returns the result. CommissionEmployee

Method ToString Method ToString (lines 94–101) is special—it’s one of the methods that every class inherits directly or indirectly from class object, which is the root of the C# class hierarchy. Section 11.7 summarizes class object’s methods. Method ToString returns a string representing an object. It’s called implicitly by an application whenever an object must be converted to a string representation, such as in Console’s Write method or string method Format using a format item. Class object’s ToString method returns a string that includes the name of the object’s class. It’s primarily a placeholder that can be (and typically should be) overridden by a derived class to specify an appropriate string representation of the data in a derived class object. Method ToString of class CommissionEmployee overrides (redefines) class object’s ToString method. When invoked, CommissionEmployee’s ToString method uses string method Format to return a string containing information about the CommissionEmployee. We use the format specifier C to format grossSales as currency and the format specifier F2 to format the commissionRate with two digits of precision to the right of the decimal point. To override a base-class method, a derived class must declare a method with keyword override and with the same signature (method name, number of parameters and parameter types) and return type as the base-class method—object’s ToString method takes no parameters and returns type string, so CommissionEmployee declares ToString with no parameters and returns type string. CommissionEmployee

Common Programming Error 11.1 It’s a compilation error to override a method with one that has a different access modifier. Overriding a method with a more restrictive access modifier would break the is-a relationship. If a public method could be overridden as a protected or private method, the derived-class objects would not be able to respond to the same method calls as base-class objects. Once a method is declared in a base class, the method must have the same access modifier for all that class’s direct and indirect derived classes.

Class CommissionEmployeeTest Figure 11.5 tests class CommissionEmployee. Lines 10–11 create a CommissionEmployee object and invoke its constructor (lines 14–23 of Fig. 11.4) to initialize it. We append the M suffix to the gross sales amount and the commission rate to indicate that the compiler should treate these as decimal literals, rather than doubles. Lines 16–22 use CommissionEmployee’s properties to retrieve the object’s instance-variable values for output. Line 23 outputs the amount calculated by the Earnings method. Lines 25–26 invoke the set accessors of the object’s GrossSales and CommissionRate properties to change the values of instance variables grossSales and commissionRate. Lines 28–29 output the string repDownload at www.wowebook.com

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Chapter 11 Object-Oriented Programming: Inheritance

resentation of the updated CommissionEmployee. When an object is output using a format item, the object’s ToString method is invoked implicitly to obtain the object’s string representation. Line 30 outputs the earnings again. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

// Fig. 11.5: CommissionEmployeeTest.cs // Testing class CommissionEmployee. using System; public class CommissionEmployeeTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { // instantiate CommissionEmployee object CommissionEmployee employee = new CommissionEmployee( "Sue", "Jones", "222-22-2222", 10000.00M, .06M ); // display commission-employee data Console.WriteLine( "Employee information obtained by properties and methods: \n" ); Console.WriteLine( "First name is {0}", employee.FirstName ); Console.WriteLine( "Last name is {0}", employee.LastName ); Console.WriteLine( "Social security number is {0}", employee.SocialSecurityNumber ); Console.WriteLine( "Gross sales are {0:C}", employee.GrossSales ); Console.WriteLine( "Commission rate is {0:F2}", employee.CommissionRate ); Console.WriteLine( "Earnings are {0:C}", employee.Earnings() ); employee.GrossSales = 5000.00M; // set gross sales employee.CommissionRate = .1M; // set commission rate Console.WriteLine( "\n{0}:\n\n{1}", "Updated employee information obtained by ToString", employee ); Console.WriteLine( "earnings: {0:C}", employee.Earnings() ); } // end Main } // end class CommissionEmployeeTest

Employee information obtained by properties and methods: First name is Sue Last name is Jones Social security number is 222-22-2222 Gross sales are $10,000.00 Commission rate is 0.06 Earnings are $600.00 Updated employee information obtained by ToString: commission employee: Sue Jones social security number: 222-22-2222 gross sales: $5,000.00 commission rate: 0.10 earnings: $500.00

Fig. 11.5 | Testing class CommissionEmployee.

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11.4 Relationship between Base Classes and Derived Classes

311

11.4.2 Creating a BasePlusCommissionEmployee Class without Using Inheritance We now discuss the second part of our introduction to inheritance by declaring and testing the (completely new and independent) class BasePlusCommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.6), which contains a first name, last name, social security number, gross sales amount, commission rate and base salary. Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s public services include a BasePlusCommissionEmployee constructor (lines 16–26), methods Earnings (lines 113–116) and ToString (lines 119–127), and public properties (lines 30–110) for the class’s private instance variables firstName, lastName, socialSecurityNumber, grossSales, commissionRate and baseSalary (declared in lines 8–11). These variables, properties and methods encapsulate all the necessary features of a base-salaried commission employee. Note the similarity between this class and class CommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.4)—in this example, we do not yet exploit that similarity. Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee does not specify that it extends object with the syntax “: object” in line 6, so the class implicitly extends object. Also, like class CommissionEmployee’s constructor (lines 14–23 of Fig. 11.4), class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s constructor invokes class object’s default constructor implicitly, as noted in the comment in line 19 of Fig. 11.6. Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s Earnings method (lines 113–116) computes the earnings of a base-salaried commission employee. Line 115 adds the employee’s base salary to the product of the commission rate and the gross sales, and returns the result. Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee overrides object method ToString to return a string containing the BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s information (lines 119–127). Once again, we use format specifier C to format the gross sales and base salary as currency and format specifier F2 to format the commission rate with two digits of precision to the right of the decimal point (line 122).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

// Fig. 11.6: BasePlusCommissionEmployee.cs // BasePlusCommissionEmployee class represents an employee that receives // a base salary in addition to a commission. using System; public class BasePlusCommissionEmployee { private string firstName; private string lastName; private string socialSecurityNumber; private decimal grossSales; // gross weekly sales private decimal commissionRate; // commission percentage private decimal baseSalary; // base salary per week // six-parameter constructor public BasePlusCommissionEmployee( string first, string last, string ssn, decimal sales, decimal rate, decimal salary ) {

Fig. 11.6 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee

class represents an employee that receives a base

salary in addition to a commission. (Part 1 of 4.)

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312

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69

Chapter 11 Object-Oriented Programming: Inheritance

// implicit call to object constructor occurs here firstName = first; lastName = last; socialSecurityNumber = ssn; GrossSales = sales; // validate gross sales via property CommissionRate = rate; // validate commission rate via property BaseSalary = salary; // validate base salary via property } // end six-parameter BasePlusCommissionEmployee constructor // read-only property that gets // BasePlusCommissionEmployee's first name public string FirstName { get { return firstName; } // end get } // end property FirstName // read-only property that gets // BasePlusCommissionEmployee's last name public string LastName { get { return lastName; } // end get } // end property LastName // read-only property that gets // BasePlusCommissionEmployee's social security number public string SocialSecurityNumber { get { return socialSecurityNumber; } // end get } // end property SocialSecurityNumber // property that gets and sets // BasePlusCommissionEmployee's gross sales public decimal GrossSales { get { return grossSales; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 ) grossSales = value;

Fig. 11.6 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee

class represents an employee that receives a base

salary in addition to a commission. (Part 2 of 4.)

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11.4 Relationship between Base Classes and Derived Classes

70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120

313

else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "GrossSales", value, "GrossSales must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property GrossSales // property that gets and sets // BasePlusCommissionEmployee's commission rate public decimal CommissionRate { get { return commissionRate; } // end get set { if ( value > 0 && value < 1 ) commissionRate = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "CommissionRate", value, "CommissionRate must be > 0 and < 1" ); } // end set } // end property CommissionRate // property that gets and sets // BasePlusCommissionEmployee's base salary public decimal BaseSalary { get { return baseSalary; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 ) baseSalary = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "BaseSalary", value, "BaseSalary must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property BaseSalary // calculate earnings public decimal Earnings() { return baseSalary + ( commissionRate * grossSales ); } // end method earnings // return string representation of BasePlusCommissionEmployee public override string ToString() {

Fig. 11.6 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee

class represents an employee that receives a base

salary in addition to a commission. (Part 3 of 4.)

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121 return string.Format( 122 "{0}: {1} {2}\n{3}: {4}\n{5}: {6:C}\n{7}: {8:F2}\n{9}: {10:C}", 123 "base-salaried commission employee", firstName, lastName, 124 "social security number", socialSecurityNumber, 125 "gross sales", grossSales, "commission rate", commissionRate, "base salary", baseSalary ); 126 127 } // end method ToString 128 } // end class BasePlusCommissionEmployee

Fig. 11.6 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee

class represents an employee that receives a base

salary in addition to a commission. (Part 4 of 4.)

Class BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest Figure 11.7 tests class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. Lines 10–12 instantiate a BasePlusCommissionEmployee object and pass "Bob", "Lewis", "333-33-3333", 5000.00M, .04M and 300.00M to the constructor as the first name, last name, social security number, gross sales, commission rate and base salary, respectively. Lines 17–25 use BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s properties and methods to retrieve the values of the object’s instance variables and calculate the earnings for output. Line 27 invokes the object’s BaseSalary property to change the base salary. Property BaseSalary’s set accessor (Fig. 11.6, lines 102–109) ensures that instance variable baseSalary is not assigned a negative value, because an employee’s base salary cannot be negative. Lines 29–30 of Fig. 11.7 invoke the object’s ToString method implicitly to get the object’s string representation. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

// Fig. 11.7: BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest.cs // Testing class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. using System; public class BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { // instantiate BasePlusCommissionEmployee object BasePlusCommissionEmployee employee = new BasePlusCommissionEmployee( "Bob", "Lewis", "333-33-3333", 5000.00M, .04M, 300.00M ); // display BasePlusCommissionEmployee's data Console.WriteLine( "Employee information obtained by properties and methods: \n" ); Console.WriteLine( "First name is {0}", employee.FirstName ); Console.WriteLine( "Last name is {0}", employee.LastName ); Console.WriteLine( "Social security number is {0}", employee.SocialSecurityNumber ); Console.WriteLine( "Gross sales are {0:C}", employee.GrossSales ); Console.WriteLine( "Commission rate is {0:F2}", employee.CommissionRate ); Console.WriteLine( "Earnings are {0:C}", employee.Earnings() ); Console.WriteLine( "Base salary is {0:C}", employee.BaseSalary );

Fig. 11.7 | Testing class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. (Part 1 of 2.)

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11.4 Relationship between Base Classes and Derived Classes

26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

315

employee.BaseSalary = 1000.00M; // set base salary Console.WriteLine( "\n{0}:\n\n{1}", "Updated employee information obtained by ToString", employee ); Console.WriteLine( "earnings: {0:C}", employee.Earnings() ); } // end Main } // end class BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest

Employee information obtained by properties and methods: First name is Bob Last name is Lewis Social security number is 333-33-3333 Gross sales are $5,000.00 Commission rate is 0.04 Earnings are $500.00 Base salary is $300.00 Updated employee information obtained by ToString: base-salaried commission employee: Bob Lewis social security number: 333-33-3333 gross sales: $5,000.00 commission rate: 0.04 base salary: $1,000.00 earnings: $1,200.00

Fig. 11.7 | Testing class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. (Part 2 of 2.) Much of the code for class BasePlusCommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.6) is similar, if not identical, to the code for class CommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.4). For example, in class BasePlusCommissionEmployee, private instance variables firstName and lastName and properties FirstName and LastName are identical to those of class CommissionEmployee. Classes CommissionEmployee and BasePlusCommissionEmployee also both contain private instance variables socialSecurityNumber, commissionRate and grossSales, as well as properties to manipulate these variables. In addition, the BasePlusCommissionEmployee constructor is almost identical to that of class CommissionEmployee, except that BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s constructor also sets the baseSalary. The other additions to class BasePlusCommissionEmployee are private instance variable baseSalary and property BaseSalary. Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s Earnings method is nearly identical to that of class CommissionEmployee, except that BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s also adds the baseSalary. Similarly, class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s ToString method is nearly identical to that of class CommissionEmployee, except that BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s ToString also formats the value of instance variable baseSalary as currency. We literally copied the code from class CommissionEmployee and pasted it into class BasePlusCommissionEmployee, then modified class BasePlusCommissionEmployee to include a base salary and methods and properties that manipulate the base salary. This “copy-and-paste” approach is often error prone and time consuming. Worse yet, it can spread many physical copies of the same code throughout a system, creating a code-maintenance nightmare. Is there a way to “absorb” the members of one class in a way that makes

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Chapter 11 Object-Oriented Programming: Inheritance

them part of other classes without copying code? In the next several examples we answer this question, using a more elegant approach to building classes—namely, inheritance.

Error-Prevention Tip 11.1 Copying and pasting code from one class to another can spread errors across multiple source-code files. To avoid duplicating code (and possibly errors) in situations where you want one class to “absorb” the members of another class, use inheritance rather than the “copy-and-paste” approach.

Software Engineering Observation 11.4 With inheritance, the common members of all the classes in the hierarchy are declared in a base class. When changes are required for these common features, you need to make the changes only in the base class—derived classes then inherit the changes. Without inheritance, changes would need to be made to all the source-code files that contain a copy of the code in question.

11.4.3 Creating a CommissionEmployee– BasePlusCommissionEmployee Inheritance Hierarchy Now we declare class BasePlusCommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.8), which extends class CommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.4). A BasePlusCommissionEmployee object is a CommissionEmployee (because inheritance passes on the capabilities of class CommissionEmployee), but class BasePlusCommissionEmployee also has instance variable baseSalary (Fig. 11.8, line 7). The colon (:) in line 5 of the class declaration indicates inheritance. As a derived class, BasePlusCommissionEmployee inherits the members of class CommissionEmployee and can access those members that are non-private. The constructor of class CommissionEmployee is not inherited. Thus, the public services of BasePlusCommissionEmployee include its constructor (lines 11–16), public methods and properties inherited from class CommissionEmployee, property BaseSalary (lines 20–34), method Earnings (lines 37–41) and method ToString (lines 44–53). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

// Fig. 11.8: BasePlusCommissionEmployee.cs // BasePlusCommissionEmployee inherits from class CommissionEmployee. using System; public class BasePlusCommissionEmployee : CommissionEmployee { private decimal baseSalary; // base salary per week // six-parameter derived-class constructor // with call to base class CommissionEmployee constructor public BasePlusCommissionEmployee( string first, string last, string ssn, decimal sales, decimal rate, decimal salary ) : base( first, last, ssn, sales, rate ) {

Fig. 11.8 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee

inherits from class CommissionEmployee. (Part 1

of 2.)

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11.4 Relationship between Base Classes and Derived Classes

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

317

BaseSalary = salary; // validate base salary via property } // end six-parameter BasePlusCommissionEmployee constructor // property that gets and sets // BasePlusCommissionEmployee's base salary public decimal BaseSalary { get { return baseSalary; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 ) baseSalary = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "BaseSalary", value, "BaseSalary must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property BaseSalary // calculate earnings public override decimal Earnings() { // not allowed: commissionRate and grossSales private in base class return baseSalary + ( commissionRate * grossSales ); } // end method Earnings // return string representation of BasePlusCommissionEmployee public override string ToString() { // not allowed: attempts to access private base-class members return string.Format( "{0}: {1} {2}\n{3}: {4}\n{5}: {6:C}\n{7}: {8:F2}\n{9}: {10:C}", "base-salaried commission employee", firstName, lastName, "social security number", socialSecurityNumber, "gross sales", grossSales, "commission rate", commissionRate, "base salary", baseSalary ); } // end method ToString } // end class BasePlusCommissionEmployee

Fig. 11.8 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee

inherits from class CommissionEmployee. (Part 2

of 2.)

A Derived Class’s Constructor Must Call Its Base Class’s Constructor Each derived-class constructor must implicitly or explicitly call its base-class constructor to ensure that the instance variables inherited from the base class are initialized properly. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Chapter 11 Object-Oriented Programming: Inheritance

BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s

six-parameter constructor explicitly calls class Commisfive-parameter constructor to initialize the base-class portion of a BasePlusCommissionEmployee object—that is, the instance variables firstName, lastName, socialSecurityNumber, grossSales and commissionRate. Line 13 in the header of BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s six-parameter constructor invokes the CommissionEmployee’s five-parameter constructor (declared at lines 14–23 of Fig. 11.4) by using a constructor initializer. In Section 10.6, we used constructor initializers with keyword this to call overloaded constructors in the same class. In line 13 of Fig. 11.8, we use a constructor initializer with keyword base to invoke the base-class constructor. The arguments first, last, ssn, sales and rate are used to initialize base-class members firstName, lastName, socialSecurityNumber, grossSales and commissionRate, respectively. If BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s constructor did not invoke CommissionEmployee’s constructor explicitly, C# would attempt to invoke class CommissionEmployee’s parameterless or default constructor—but the class does not have such a constructor, so the compiler would issue an error. When a base class contains a parameterless constructor, you can use base() in the constructor initializer to call that constructor explicitly, but this is rarely done. sionEmployee’s

Common Programming Error 11.2 A compilation error occurs if a derived-class constructor calls one of its base-class constructors with arguments that do not match the number and types of parameters specified in one of the base-class constructor declarations.

Method Earnings Lines 37–41 of Fig. 11.8 declare method Earnings using keyword override to override the CommissionEmployee’s Earnings method, as we did with method ToString in previous examples. Line 37 causes a compilation error indicating that we cannot override the base class’s Earnings method because it was not explicitly “marked virtual, abstract, or override.” The virtual and abstract keywords indicate that a base-class method can be overridden in derived classes. (As you’ll learn in Section 12.4, abstract methods are implicitly virtual.) The override modifier declares that a derived-class method overrides a virtual or abstract base-class method. This modifier also implicitly declares the derivedclass method virtual and allows it to be overridden in derived classes further down the inheritance hierarchy. If we add the keyword virtual to the declaration of method Earnings in Fig. 11.4 and recompile, other compilation errors appear. As shown in Fig. 11.9, the compiler generates additional errors for line 40 of Fig. 11.8 because base class CommissionEmployee’s instance variables commissionRate and grossSales are private—derived class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s methods are not allowed to access base class CommissionEmployee’s private instance variables. The compiler issues additional errors at lines 49–51 of BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s ToString method for the same reason. The errors in BasePlusCommissionEmployee could have been prevented by using the public properties inherited from class CommissionEmployee. For example, line 40 could have invoked the get accessors of properties CommissionRate and GrossSales to access CommissionEmployee’s private instance variables commissionRate and grossSales, respectively. Lines 49–51 also could have used appropriate properties to retrieve the values of the base class’s instance variables. BasePlusCommissionEmployee

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319

f

Fig. 11.9 | Compilation errors generated by BasePlusCommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.8) after declaring the Earnings method in Fig. 11.4 with keyword virtual.

11.4.4 CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee Inheritance Hierarchy Using protected Instance Variables To enable class BasePlusCommissionEmployee to directly access base-class instance variables firstName, lastName, socialSecurityNumber, grossSales and commissionRate, we can declare those members as protected in the base class. As we discussed in Section 11.3, a base class’s protected members are inherited by all derived classes of that base class. Class CommissionEmployee in this example is a modification of the version from Fig. 11.4 that declares its instance variables firstName, lastName, socialSecurityNumber, grossSales and commissionRate as protected rather than private. We also declare the Earnings method virtual as in public virtual decimal Earnings()

so that BasePlusCommissionEmployee can override the method. The rest of the class declaration in this example is identical to that of Fig. 11.4. The complete source code for class CommissionEmployee is included in this example’s project.

vs. protected Data We could have declared base class CommissionEmployee’s instance variables firstName, lastName, socialSecurityNumber, grossSales and commissionRate as public to enable derived class BasePlusCommissionEmployee to access the base-class instance variables. However, declaring public instance variables is poor software engineering, because it allows unrestricted access to the instance variables, greatly increasing the chance of errors. With protected instance variables, the derived class gets access to the instance variables, but classes that are not derived from the base class cannot access its variables directly. public

Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.10) in this example extends the version of class CommissionEmployee with protected data rather than the one with private data in Fig. 11.4. Each BasePlusCommissionEmployee object inherits CommissionEmployee’s protected instance variables firstName, lastName, socialSecurityNumber, grossSales and

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commissionRate—all

these variables are now protected members of BasePlusCommisAs a result, the compiler does not generate errors when compiling line 40 of method Earnings and lines 48–50 of method ToString. If another class extends BasePlusCommissionEmployee, the new derived class also inherits the protected members. Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee does not inherit class CommissionEmployee’s constructor. However, class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s six-parameter constructor (lines 12–17) calls class CommissionEmployee’s five-parameter constructor with a constructor initializer. BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s six-parameter constructor must explicitly call the five-parameter constructor of class CommissionEmployee, because CommissionEmployee does not provide a parameterless constructor that could be invoked implicitly. sionEmployee.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

// Fig. 11.10: BasePlusCommissionEmployee.cs // BasePlusCommissionEmployee inherits from CommissionEmployee and has // access to CommissionEmployee's protected members. using System; public class BasePlusCommissionEmployee : CommissionEmployee2 { private decimal baseSalary; // base salary per week // six-parameter derived-class constructor // with call to base class CommissionEmployee constructor public BasePlusCommissionEmployee( string first, string last, string ssn, decimal sales, decimal rate, decimal salary ) : base( first, last, ssn, sales, rate ) { BaseSalary = salary; // validate base salary via property } // end six-parameter BasePlusCommissionEmployee constructor // property that gets and sets // BasePlusCommissionEmployee's base salary public decimal BaseSalary { get { return baseSalary; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 ) baseSalary = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "BaseSalary", value, "BaseSalary must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property BaseSalary // calculate earnings public override decimal Earnings() {

Fig. 11.10 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee inherits from CommissionEmployee and has access to CommissionEmployee's protected members. (Part 1 of 2.)

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11.4 Relationship between Base Classes and Derived Classes

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

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return baseSalary + ( commissionRate * grossSales ); } // end method Earnings // return string representation of BasePlusCommissionEmployee public override string ToString() { return string.Format( "{0}: {1} {2}\n{3}: {4}\n{5}: {6:C}\n{7}: {8:F2}\n{9}: {10:C}", "base-salaried commission employee", firstName, lastName, "social security number", socialSecurityNumber, "gross sales", grossSales, "commission rate", commissionRate, "base salary", baseSalary ); } // end method ToString } // end class BasePlusCommissionEmployee

Fig. 11.10 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee inherits from CommissionEmployee and has access to CommissionEmployee's protected members. (Part 2 of 2.)

Class BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest Figure 11.11 uses a BasePlusCommissionEmployee object to perform the same tasks that Fig. 11.7 performed on the version of the class from Fig. 11.6. The outputs of the two applications are identical. Although we declared the version of the class in Fig. 11.6 without using inheritance and declared the version in Fig. 11.10 using inheritance, both classes provide the same functionality. The source code in Fig. 11.10 (which is 53 lines) is considerably shorter than version in Fig. 11.6 (which is 128 lines), because the new class inherits most of its functionality from CommissionEmployee, whereas the version in Fig. 11.6 inherits only class object’s functionality. Also, there’s now only one copy of the commission-employee functionality declared in class CommissionEmployee. This makes the code easier to maintain, modify and debug, because the code related to a commission employee exists only in class CommissionEmployee. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

// Fig. 11.11: BasePlusCommissionEmployee.cs // Testing class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. using System; public class BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { // instantiate BasePlusCommissionEmployee object BasePlusCommissionEmployee basePlusCommissionEmployee = new BasePlusCommissionEmployee( "Bob", "Lewis", "333-33-3333", 5000.00M, .04M, 300.00M ); // display BasePlusCommissionEmployee's data Console.WriteLine( "Employee information obtained by properties and methods: \n" ); Console.WriteLine( "First name is {0}", basePlusCommissionEmployee.FirstName );

Fig. 11.11 | Testing class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Console.WriteLine( "Last name is {0}", basePlusCommissionEmployee.LastName ); Console.WriteLine( "Social security number is {0}", basePlusCommissionEmployee.SocialSecurityNumber ); Console.WriteLine( "Gross sales are {0:C}", basePlusCommissionEmployee.GrossSales ); Console.WriteLine( "Commission rate is {0:F2}", basePlusCommissionEmployee.CommissionRate ); Console.WriteLine( "Earnings are {0:C}", basePlusCommissionEmployee.Earnings() ); Console.WriteLine( "Base salary is {0:C}", basePlusCommissionEmployee.BaseSalary ); basePlusCommissionEmployee.BaseSalary = 1000.00M; // set base salary Console.WriteLine( "\n{0}:\n\n{1}", "Updated employee information obtained by ToString", basePlusCommissionEmployee ); Console.WriteLine( "earnings: {0:C}", basePlusCommissionEmployee.Earnings() ); } // end Main } // end class BasePlusCommissionEmployee

Employee information obtained by properties and methods: First name is Bob Last name is Lewis Social security number is 333-33-3333 Gross sales are $5,000.00 Commission rate is 0.04 Earnings are $500.00 Base salary is $300.00 Updated employee information obtained by ToString: base-salaried commission employee: Bob Lewis social security number: 333-33-3333 gross sales: $5,000.00 commission rate: 0.04 base salary: $1,000.00 earnings: $1,200.00

Fig. 11.11 | Testing class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. (Part 2 of 2.) In this example, we declared base-class instance variables as protected so that derived classes could access them. Inheriting protected instance variables enables you to directly access the variables in the derived class without invoking the set or get accessors of the corresponding property. In most cases, however, it’s better to use private instance variables to encourage proper software engineering. Your code will be easier to maintain, modify and debug. Using protected instance variables creates several potential problems. First, the derived-class object can set an inherited variable’s value directly without using a property’s set accessor. Therefore, a derived-class object can assign an invalid value to the variable.

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For example, if we were to declare CommissionEmployee’s instance variable grossSales as protected, a derived-class object (e.g., BasePlusCommissionEmployee) could then assign a negative value to grossSales. The second problem with using protected instance variables is that derived-class methods are more likely to be written to depend on the base class’s data implementation. In practice, derived classes should depend only on the baseclass services (i.e., non-private methods and properties) and not on the base-class data implementation. With protected instance variables in the base class, we may need to modify all the derived classes of the base class if the base-class implementation changes. For example, if for some reason we were to change the names of instance variables firstName and lastName to first and last, then we would have to do so for all occurrences in which a derived class directly references base-class instance variables firstName and lastName. In such a case, the software is said to be fragile or brittle, because a small change in the base class can “break” derived-class implementation. You should be able to change the base-class implementation while still providing the same services to the derived classes. Of course, if the base-class services change, we must reimplement our derived classes.

Software Engineering Observation 11.5 Declaring base-class instance variables private (as opposed to protected) enables the base-class implementation of these instance variables to change without affecting derivedclass implementations.

11.4.5 CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee Inheritance Hierarchy Using private Instance Variables We now reexamine our hierarchy once more, this time using the best software engineering practices. Class CommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.12) declares instance variables firstName, lastName, socialSecurityNumber, grossSales and commissionRate as private (lines 7– 11) and provides public properties FirstName, LastName, SocialSecurityNumber, GrossSales and GrossSales for manipulating these values. Methods Earnings (lines 88– 91) and ToString (lines 94–101) use the class’s properties to obtain the values of its instance variables. If we decide to change the instance-variable names, the Earnings and ToString declarations will not require modification—only the bodies of the properties that directly manipulate the instance variables will need to change. These changes occur solely within the base class—no changes to the derived class are needed. Localizing the effects of changes like this is a good software engineering practice. Derived class BasePlusCommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.13) inherits from CommissionEmployee’s and can access the private base-class members via the inherited public properties. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

// Fig. 11.12: CommissionEmployee.cs // CommissionEmployee class represents a commission employee. using System; public class CommissionEmployee { private string firstName; private string lastName;

Fig. 11.12 |

CommissionEmployee

class represents a commission employee. (Part 1 of 3.)

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private string socialSecurityNumber; private decimal grossSales; // gross weekly sales private decimal commissionRate; // commission percentage // five-parameter constructor public CommissionEmployee( string first, string last, string ssn, decimal sales, decimal rate ) { // implicit call to object constructor occurs here firstName = first; lastName = last; socialSecurityNumber = ssn; GrossSales = sales; // validate gross sales via property CommissionRate = rate; // validate commission rate via property } // end five-parameter CommissionEmployee constructor // read-only property that gets commission employee's first name public string FirstName { get { return firstName; } // end get } // end property FirstName // read-only property that gets commission employee's last name public string LastName { get { return lastName; } // end get } // end property LastName // read-only property that gets // commission employee's social security number public string SocialSecurityNumber { get { return socialSecurityNumber; } // end get } // end property SocialSecurityNumber // property that gets and sets commission employee's gross sales public decimal GrossSales { get { return grossSales; } // end get set {

Fig. 11.12 |

CommissionEmployee

class represents a commission employee. (Part 2 of 3.)

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325

62 if ( value >= 0 ) 63 grossSales = value; 64 else 65 throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( 66 "GrossSales", value, "GrossSales must be >= 0" ); 67 } // end set 68 } // end property GrossSales 69 70 // property that gets and sets commission employee's commission rate 71 public decimal CommissionRate 72 { 73 get 74 { 75 return commissionRate; 76 } // end get 77 set 78 { 79 if ( value > 0 && value < 1 ) 80 commissionRate = value; 81 else 82 throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "CommissionRate", 83 value, "CommissionRate must be > 0 and < 1" ); 84 } // end set 85 } // end property CommissionRate 86 87 // calculate commission employee's pay 88 public virtual decimal Earnings() 89 { 90 return CommissionRate * GrossSales; 91 } // end method Earnings 92 93 // return string representation of CommissionEmployee object 94 public override string ToString() 95 { 96 return string.Format( 97 "{0}: {1} {2}\n{3}: {4}\n{5}: {6:C}\n{7}: {8:F2}", 98 "commission employee", FirstName, LastName, 99 "social security number", SocialSecurityNumber, 100 "gross sales", GrossSales, "commission rate", CommissionRate ); 101 } // end method ToString 102 } // end class CommissionEmployee

Fig. 11.12 |

CommissionEmployee

class represents a commission employee. (Part 3 of 3.)

Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee (Fig. 11.13) has several changes to its method implementations that distinguish it from the version in Fig. 11.10. Methods Earnings (Fig. 11.13, lines 39–42) and ToString (lines 45–49) each invoke property BaseSalary’s get accessor to obtain the base-salary value, rather than accessing baseSalary directly. If we decide to rename instance variable baseSalary, only the body of property BaseSalary will need to change.

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// Fig. 11.13: BasePlusCommissionEmployee.cs // BasePlusCommissionEmployee inherits from CommissionEmployee and has // access to CommissionEmployee's private data via // its public properties. using System; public class BasePlusCommissionEmployee : CommissionEmployee { private decimal baseSalary; // base salary per week // six-parameter derived class constructor // with call to base class CommissionEmployee constructor public BasePlusCommissionEmployee( string first, string last, string ssn, decimal sales, decimal rate, decimal salary ) : base( first, last, ssn, sales, rate ) { BaseSalary = salary; // validate base salary via property } // end six-parameter BasePlusCommissionEmployee constructor // property that gets and sets // BasePlusCommissionEmployee's base salary public decimal BaseSalary { get { return baseSalary; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 ) baseSalary = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "BaseSalary", value, "BaseSalary must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property BaseSalary // calculate earnings public override decimal Earnings() { return BaseSalary + base.Earnings(); } // end method Earnings // return string representation of BasePlusCommissionEmployee public override string ToString() { return string.Format( "base-salaried {0}\nbase salary: {1:C}", base.ToString(), BaseSalary ); } // end method ToString } // end class BasePlusCommissionEmployee

Fig. 11.13 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee inherits from CommissionEmployee and has access to CommissionEmployee's private data via its public properties.

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Method Earnings Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s Earnings method (Fig. 11.13, lines 39–42) overrides class CommissionEmployee’s Earnings method (Fig. 11.12, lines 88–91) to calculate a BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s earnings. The method obtains the portion of the employee’s earnings based on commission alone by calling CommissionEmployee’s Earnings method with base.Earnings() (Fig. 11.13, line 41), then adds the base salary to this value to calculate the total earnings of the employee. Note the syntax used to invoke an overridden baseclass method from a derived class—place the keyword base and the member access (.) operator before the base-class method name. This method invocation is a good software engineering practice—by having BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s Earnings method invoke CommissionEmployee’s Earnings method to calculate part of a BasePlusCommissionEmployee object’s earnings, we avoid duplicate code and reduce code-maintenance problems. BasePlusCommissionEmployee

Common Programming Error 11.3 When a base-class method is overridden in a derived class, the derived-class version often calls the base-class version to do a portion of the work. Failure to prefix the base-class method name with the keyword base and the member access (.) operator when referencing the base class’s method from the derived-class version causes the derived-class method to call itself, creating infinite recursion.

Method ToString Similarly, BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s ToString method (Fig. 11.13, lines 45–49) overrides class CommissionEmployee’s version (Fig. 11.12, lines 94–101) to return a string representation that’s appropriate for a base-salaried commission employee. The method creates part of a BasePlusCommissionEmployee object’s string representation (i.e., the string "commission employee" and the values of CommissionEmployee’s private instance variables) by calling CommissionEmployee’s ToString method with base.ToString() (Fig. 11.13, line 48). The derived class’s method then outputs the remainder of the object’s string representation (i.e., the value of class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s base salary). BasePlusCommissionEmployee

Class BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest Figure 11.14 performs the same manipulations on a BasePlusCommissionEmployee object as did Figs. 11.7 and 11.11, respectively. Although each “base-salaried commission employee” class behaves identically, the BasePlusCommissionEmployee in this example is the best engineered. By using inheritance and by using properties that hide the data and ensure consistency, we have efficiently and effectively constructed a well-engineered class. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

// Fig. 11.14: BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest.cs // Testing class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. using System; public class BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) {

Fig. 11.14 | Testing class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// instantiate BasePlusCommissionEmployee object BasePlusCommissionEmployee employee = new BasePlusCommissionEmployee( "Bob", "Lewis", "333-33-3333", 5000.00M, .04M, 300.00M ); // display BasePlusCommissionEmployee's data Console.WriteLine( "Employee information obtained by properties and methods: \n" ); Console.WriteLine( "First name is {0}", employee.FirstName ); Console.WriteLine( "Last name is {0}", employee.LastName ); Console.WriteLine( "Social security number is {0}", employee.SocialSecurityNumber ); Console.WriteLine( "Gross sales are {0:C}", employee.GrossSales ); Console.WriteLine( "Commission rate is {0:F2}", employee.CommissionRate ); Console.WriteLine( "Earnings are {0:C}", employee.Earnings() ); Console.WriteLine( "Base salary is {0:C}", employee.BaseSalary ); employee.BaseSalary = 1000.00M; // set base salary Console.WriteLine( "\n{0}:\n\n{1}", "Updated employee information obtained by ToString", employee ); Console.WriteLine( "earnings: {0:C}", employee.Earnings() ); } // end Main } // end class BasePlusCommissionEmployeeTest

Employee information obtained by properties and methods: First name is Bob Last name is Lewis Social security number is 333-33-3333 Gross sales are $5,000.00 Commission rate is 0.04 Earnings are $500.00 Base salary is $300.00 Updated employee information obtained by ToString: base-salaried commission employee: Bob Lewis social security number: 333-33-3333 gross sales: $5,000.00 commission rate: 0.04 base salary: $1,000.00 earnings: $1,200.00

Fig. 11.14 | Testing class BasePlusCommissionEmployee. (Part 2 of 2.) In this section, you saw an evolutionary set of examples that was carefully designed to teach key capabilities for good software engineering with inheritance. You learned how to create a derived class using inheritance, how to use protected base-class members to enable a derived class to access inherited base-class instance variables and how to override base-class methods to provide versions that are more appropriate for derived-class objects. In addition, you applied software engineering techniques from Chapter 4, Chapter 10 and this chapter to create classes that are easy to maintain, modify and debug.

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11.5 Constructors in Derived Classes

329

11.5 Constructors in Derived Classes As we explained in the preceding section, instantiating a derived-class object begins a chain of constructor calls. The derived-class constructor, before performing its own tasks, invokes its direct base class’s constructor either explicitly (via a constructor initializer with the base reference) or implicitly (calling the base class’s default constructor or parameterless constructor). Similarly, if the base class is derived from another class (as every class except object is), the base-class constructor invokes the constructor of the next class up in the hierarchy, and so on. The last constructor called in the chain is always the constructor for class object. The original derived-class constructor’s body finishes executing last. Each base class’s constructor manipulates the base-class instance variables that the derived-class object inherits. For example, consider again the CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee hierarchy from Figs. 11.12 and 11.13. When an application creates a BasePlusCommissionEmployee object, the BasePlusCommissionEmployee constructor is called. That constructor immediately calls CommissionEmployee’s constructor, which in turn immediately calls object’s constructor implicitly. Class object’s constructor has an empty body, so it immediately returns control to CommissionEmployee’s constructor, which then initializes the private instance variables of CommissionEmployee that are part of the BasePlusCommissionEmployee object. When CommissionEmployee’s constructor completes execution, it returns control to BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s constructor, which initializes the BasePlusCommissionEmployee object’s baseSalary.

11.6 Software Engineering with Inheritance This section discusses customizing existing software with inheritance. When a new class extends an existing class, the new class inherits the members of the existing class. We can customize the new class to meet our needs by including additional members and by overriding base-class members. Doing this does not require the derived-class programmer to change the base class’s source code. C# simply requires access to the compiled base-class code, so it can compile and execute any application that uses or extends the base class. This powerful capability is attractive to independent software vendors (ISVs), who can develop proprietary classes for sale or license and make them available to users in class libraries. Users then can derive new classes from these library classes rapidly, without accessing the ISVs’ proprietary source code.

Software Engineering Observation 11.6 Although inheriting from a class does not require access to the class’s source code, developers often insist on seeing the source code to understand how the class is implemented. They may, for example, want to ensure that they’re extending a class that performs well and is implemented securely.

Students sometimes have difficulty appreciating the scope of the problems faced by designers who work on large-scale software projects in industry. People experienced with such projects say that effective software reuse improves the software-development process. Object-oriented programming facilitates software reuse, potentially shortening development time. The availability of substantial and useful class libraries delivers the maximum benefits of software reuse through inheritance.

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Software Engineering Observation 11.7 At the design stage in an object-oriented system, the designer often finds that certain classes are closely related. The designer should “factor out” common members and place them in a base class. Then the designer should use inheritance to develop derived classes, specializing them with capabilities beyond those inherited from the base class.

Software Engineering Observation 11.8 Declaring a derived class does not affect its base class’s source code. Inheritance preserves the integrity of the base class.

Reading derived-class declarations can be confusing, because inherited members are not declared explicitly in the derived classes, but are nevertheless present in them. A similar problem exists in documenting derived-class members.

11.7 Class object As we discussed earlier in this chapter, all classes inherit directly or indirectly from the object class (System.Object in the Framework Class Library), so its seven methods are inherited by all other classes. Figure 11.15 summarizes object’s methods. You can learn more about object’s methods at: msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.object_members.aspx

Method

Description

Equals

This method compares two objects for equality and returns true if they’re equal and false otherwise. It takes any object as an argument. When objects of a particular class must be compared for equality, the class should override method Equals to compare the contents of the two objects. The method’s implementation should meet the following requirements: • It should return false if the argument is null. • It should return true if an object is compared to itself, as in object1.Equals(object1). • It should return true only if both object1.Equals( object2.Equals(object1) would return true.

object2 )

and

• For three objects, if object1.Equals(object2) returns true and object2.Equals(object3) returns true, then object1.Equals(object3) should also return true. • A class that overrides the method Equals should also override the method GetHashCode to ensure that equal objects have identical hashcodes. The default Equals implementation determines only whether two references refer to the same object.

Fig. 11.15 |

object methods that are inherited directly or indirectly by all classes. (Part 1 of 2.)

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11.8 Wrap-Up

331

Method

Description

Finalize

This method cannot be explicitly declared or called. When a class contains a destructor, the compiler implicitly renames it to override the protected method Finalize, which is called only by the garbage collector before it reclaims an object’s memory. The garbage collector is not guaranteed to reclaim an object, thus it’s not guaranteed that an object’s Finalize method will execute. When a derived class’s Finalize method executes, it performs its task, then invokes the base class’s Finalize method. In general, you should avoid using Finalize. A hashtable data structure relates one object, called the key, to another object, called the value. We discuss Hashtable in Chapter 23, Collections. When a value is initially inserted in a hashtable, the key’s GetHashCode method is called. The value returned is used by the hashtable to determine the location at which to insert the corresponding value. The key’s hashcode is also used by the hashtable to locate the key’s corresponding value. Every object knows its own type at execution time. Method GetType (used in Section 12.5) returns an object of class Type (namespace System) that contains information about the object’s type, such as its class name (obtained from Type property FullName). This protected method, which takes no arguments and returns an object reference, makes a copy of the object on which it’s called. The implementation of this method performs a shallow copy—instance-variable values in one object are copied into another object of the same type. For reference types, only the references are copied. This static method receives two objects and returns true if two they’re the same instance or if they’re null references. Otherwise, it returns false. This method (introduced in Section 7.4) returns a string representation of an object. The default implementation of this method returns the namespace followed by a dot and the class name of the object’s class.

GetHashCode

GetType

MemberwiseClone

ReferenceEquals ToString

Fig. 11.15 |

object methods that are inherited directly or indirectly by all classes. (Part 2 of 2.)

11.8 Wrap-Up This chapter introduced inheritance—the ability to create classes by absorbing an existing class’s members and enhancing them with new capabilities. You learned the notions of base classes and derived classes and created a derived class that inherits members from a base class. The chapter introduced access modifier protected; derived-class members can access protected base-class members. You learned how to access base-class members with base. You also saw how constructors are used in inheritance hierarchies. Finally, you learned about the methods of class object, the direct or indirect base class of all classes. In Chapter 12, we build on our discussion of inheritance by introducing polymorphism—an object-oriented concept that enables us to write applications that handle, in a more general manner, objects of a wide variety of classes related by inheritance. After studying Chapter 12, you’ll be familiar with classes, objects, encapsulation, inheritance and polymorphism—the most essential aspects of object-oriented programming.

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12 OOP: Polymorphism, Interfaces and Operator Overloading One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them, One Ring to bring them all and in the darkness bind them.

OBJECTIVES

—John Ronald Reuel Tolkien

In this chapter you’ll learn:

General propositions do not decide concrete cases.

■

How polymorphism enables you to “program in the general” and make systems extensible.

■

To use overridden methods to effect polymorphism.

■

To create abstract classes and methods.

■

To determine an object’s type at execution time.

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To create sealed methods and classes.

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To declare and implement interfaces.

■

To overload operators to enable them to manipulate objects.

—Oliver Wendell Holmes

A philosopher of imposing stature doesn’t think in a vacuum. Even his most abstract ideas are, to some extent, conditioned by what is or is not known in the time when he lives. —Alfred North Whitehead

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12.1 Introduction

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5

Introduction Polymorphism Examples Demonstrating Polymorphic Behavior Abstract Classes and Methods Case Study: Payroll System Using Polymorphism

12.5.1 Creating Abstract Base Class Employee

12.5.2 Creating Concrete Derived Class SalariedEmployee

12.5.3 Creating Concrete Derived Class HourlyEmployee

12.5.4 Creating Concrete Derived Class CommissionEmployee

12.5.5 Creating Indirect Concrete Derived Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee

12.5.6 Polymorphic Processing, Operator is and Downcasting

333

12.5.7 Summary of the Allowed Assignments Between Base-Class and Derived-Class Variables

12.6 sealed Methods and Classes 12.7 Case Study: Creating and Using Interfaces 12.7.1 12.7.2 12.7.3 12.7.4

Developing an IPayable Hierarchy Declaring Interface IPayable Creating Class Invoice Modifying Class Employee to Implement Interface IPayable 12.7.5 Modifying Class SalariedEmployee for Use with IPayable 12.7.6 Using Interface IPayable to Process Invoices and Employees Polymorphically 12.7.7 Common Interfaces of the .NET Framework Class Library

12.8 Operator Overloading 12.9 Wrap-Up

12.1 Introduction We now continue our study of object-oriented programming by explaining and demonstrating polymorphism with inheritance hierarchies. Polymorphism enables us to “program in the general” rather than “program in the specific.” In particular, polymorphism enables us to write applications that process objects that share the same base class in a class hierarchy as if they were all objects of the base class. Let’s consider a polymorphism example. Suppose we create an application that simulates moving several types of animals for a biological study. Classes Fish, Frog and Bird represent the types of animals under investigation. Imagine that each class extends base class Animal, which contains a method Move and maintains an animal’s current location as x–y–z coordinates. Each derived class implements method Move. Our application maintains an array of references to objects of the various Animal-derived classes. To simulate an animal’s movements, the application sends each object the same message once per second—namely, Move. Each specific type of Animal responds to a Move message in a unique way—a Fish might swim three feet, a Frog might jump five feet and a Bird might fly 10 feet. The application issues the Move message to each animal object generically, but each object modifies its x–y–z coordinates appropriately for its specific type of movement. Relying on each object to know how to “do the right thing” in response to the same method call is the key concept of polymorphism. The same message (in this case, Move) sent to a variety of objects has “many forms” of results—hence the term polymorphism.

Systems Are Easy to Extend With polymorphism, we can design and implement systems that are easily extensible— new classes can be added with little or no modification to the general portions of the application, as long as the new classes are part of the inheritance hierarchy that the applica-

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tion processes generically. The only parts of an application that must be altered to accommodate new classes are those that require direct knowledge of the new classes that you add to the hierarchy. For example, if we extend class Animal to create class Tortoise (which might respond to a Move message by crawling one inch), we need to write only the Tortoise class and the part of the simulation that instantiates a Tortoise object. The portions of the simulation that process each Animal generically can remain the same. This chapter has several parts. First, we discuss common examples of polymorphism. We then provide a live-code example demonstrating polymorphic behavior. As you’ll soon see, you’ll use base-class references to manipulate both base-class objects and derived-class objects polymorphically.

Polymorphic Employee Inheritance Hierarchy We then present a case study that revisits the employee hierarchy of Section 11.4.5. We develop a simple payroll application that polymorphically calculates the weekly pay of several different types of employees using each employee’s Earnings method. Though the earnings of each type of employee are calculated in a specific way, polymorphism allows us to process the employees “in the general.” In the case study, we enlarge the hierarchy to include two new classes—SalariedEmployee (for people paid a fixed weekly salary) and HourlyEmployee (for people paid an hourly salary and “time-and-a-half” for overtime). We declare a common set of functionality for all the classes in the updated hierarchy in an “abstract” class, Employee, from which classes SalariedEmployee, HourlyEmployee and CommissionEmployee inherit directly and class BasePlusCommissionEmployee inherits indirectly. As you’ll soon see, when we invoke each employee’s Earnings method off a baseclass Employee reference, the correct earnings calculation is performed due to C#’s polymorphic capabilities. Determining the Type of an Object at Execution Time Occasionally, when performing polymorphic processing, we need to program “in the specific.” Our Employee case study demonstrates that an application can determine the type of an object at execution time and act on that object accordingly. In the case study, we use these capabilities to determine whether a particular employee object is a BasePlusCommissionEmployee. If so, we increase that employee’s base salary by 10%. Interfaces The chapter continues with an introduction to C# interfaces. An interface describes a set of methods and properties that can be called on an object, but does not provide concrete implementations for them. You can declare classes that implement (i.e., provide concrete implementations for the methods and properties of) one or more interfaces. Each interface member must be defined for all the classes that implement the interface. Once a class implements an interface, all objects of that class have an is-a relationship with the interface type, and all objects of the class are guaranteed to provide the functionality described by the interface. This is true of all derived classes of that class as well. Interfaces are particularly useful for assigning common functionality to possibly unrelated classes. This allows objects of unrelated classes to be processed polymorphically— objects of classes that implement the same interface can respond to the same method calls. To demonstrate creating and using interfaces, we modify our payroll application to create a general accounts-payable application that can calculate payments due for the earnings of Download at www.wowebook.com

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335

company employees and for invoice amounts to be billed for purchased goods. As you’ll see, interfaces enable polymorphic capabilities similar to those enabled by inheritance.

Operator Overloading This chapter ends with an introduction to operator overloading. In previous chapters, we declared our own classes and used methods to perform tasks on objects of those classes. Operator overloading allows us to define the behavior of the built-in operators, such as +, - and = 0 ) // validation wage = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "Wage", value, "Wage must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property Wage // property that gets and sets hourly employee's hours public decimal Hours { get { return hours; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 && value 0 && value < 1 ) commissionRate = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "CommissionRate", value, "CommissionRate must be > 0 and < 1" ); } // end set } // end property CommissionRate // calculate earnings; override abstract method Earnings in Employee public override decimal Earnings() { return CommissionRate * GrossSales; } // end method Earnings // return string representation of CommissionEmployee object public override string ToString() { return string.Format( "{0}: {1}\n{2}: {3:C}\n{4}: {5:F2}", "commission employee", base.ToString(), "gross sales", GrossSales, "commission rate", CommissionRate ); } // end method ToString } // end class CommissionEmployee

Fig. 12.7 |

CommissionEmployee

class that extends Employee. (Part 2 of 2.)

12.5.5 Creating Indirect Concrete Derived Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee (Fig. 12.8) extends class CommissionEmployee (line 5) and therefore is an indirect derived class of class Employee. Class BasePlusCommissionEmployee has a constructor (lines 10–15) that takes as arguments a first name, a last name, a social security number, a sales amount, a commission rate and a base salary. It then passes the first name, last name, social security number, sales amount and commission rate to the

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constructor (line 12) to initialize the base class’s data. BasePlusCom(lines 19–33) to manipulate instance variable baseSalary. Method Earnings (lines 36–39) calculates a BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s earnings. Line 38 in method Earnings calls base class CommissionEmployee’s Earnings method to calculate the commission-based portion of the employee’s earnings. Again, this shows the benefits of code reuse. BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s ToString method (lines 42–46) creates a string representation of a BasePlusCommissionEmployee that contains "base-salaried", followed by the string obtained by invoking base class CommissionEmployee’s ToString method (another example of code reuse), then the base salary. The result is a string beginning with "base-salaried commission employee", followed by the rest of the BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s information. Recall that CommissionEmployee’s ToString method obtains the employee’s first name, last name and social security number by invoking the ToString method of its base class (i.e., Employee)—a further demonstration of code reuse. BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s ToString initiates a chain of method calls that spans all three levels of the Employee hierarchy. CommissionEmployee

missionEmployee also contains property BaseSalary

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

// Fig. 12.8: BasePlusCommissionEmployee.cs // BasePlusCommissionEmployee class that extends CommissionEmployee. using System; public class BasePlusCommissionEmployee : CommissionEmployee { private decimal baseSalary; // base salary per week // six-parameter constructor public BasePlusCommissionEmployee( string first, string last, string ssn, decimal sales, decimal rate, decimal salary ) : base( first, last, ssn, sales, rate ) { BaseSalary = salary; // validate base salary via property } // end six-parameter BasePlusCommissionEmployee constructor // property that gets and sets // base-salaried commission employee's base salary public decimal BaseSalary { get { return baseSalary; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 ) baseSalary = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "BaseSalary", value, "BaseSalary must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property BaseSalary

Fig. 12.8 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee

class that extends CommissionEmployee. (Part 1

of 2.)

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12.5 Case Study: Payroll System Using Polymorphism

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

351

// calculate earnings; override method Earnings in CommissionEmployee public override decimal Earnings() { return BaseSalary + base.Earnings(); } // end method Earnings // return string representation of BasePlusCommissionEmployee object public override string ToString() { return string.Format( "base-salaried {0}; base salary: {1:C}", base.ToString(), BaseSalary ); } // end method ToString } // end class BasePlusCommissionEmployee

Fig. 12.8 |

BasePlusCommissionEmployee

class that extends CommissionEmployee. (Part 2

of 2.)

12.5.6 Polymorphic Processing, Operator is and Downcasting To test our Employee hierarchy, the application in Fig. 12.9 creates an object of each of the four concrete classes SalariedEmployee, HourlyEmployee, CommissionEmployee and BasePlusCommissionEmployee. The application manipulates these objects, first via variables of each object’s own type, then polymorphically, using an array of Employee variables. While processing the objects polymorphically, the application increases the base salary of each BasePlusCommissionEmployee by 10% (this, of course, requires determining the object’s type at execution time). Finally, the application polymorphically determines and outputs the type of each object in the Employee array. Lines 10–20 create objects of each of the four concrete Employee derived classes. Lines 24–32 output the string representation and earnings of each of these objects. Each object’s ToString method is called implicitly by WriteLine when the object is output as a string with format items.

Assigning Derived-Class Objects to Base-Class References Line 35 declares employees and assigns it an array of four Employee variables. Lines 38–41 assign a SalariedEmployee object, an HourlyEmployee object, a CommissionEmployee object and a BasePlusCommissionEmployee object to employees[0], employees[1], employees[2] and employees[3], respectively. Each assignment is allowed, because a SalariedEmployee is an Employee, an HourlyEmployee is an Employee, a CommissionEmployee is an Employee and a BasePlusCommissionEmployee is an Employee. Therefore, we can assign the references of SalariedEmployee, HourlyEmployee, CommissionEmployee and BasePlusCommissionEmployee objects to base-class Employee variables, even though Employee is an abstract class. 1 2 3 4

// Fig. 12.9: PayrollSystemTest.cs // Employee hierarchy test application. using System;

Fig. 12.9 |

Employee

hierarchy test application. (Part 1 of 4.)

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5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57

Chapter 12 OOP: Polymorphism, Interfaces and Operator Overloading

public class PayrollSystemTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { // create derived-class objects SalariedEmployee salariedEmployee = new SalariedEmployee( "John", "Smith", "111-11-1111", 800.00M ); HourlyEmployee hourlyEmployee = new HourlyEmployee( "Karen", "Price", "222-22-2222", 16.75M, 40.0M ); CommissionEmployee commissionEmployee = new CommissionEmployee( "Sue", "Jones", "333-33-3333", 10000.00M, .06M ); BasePlusCommissionEmployee basePlusCommissionEmployee = new BasePlusCommissionEmployee( "Bob", "Lewis", "444-44-4444", 5000.00M, .04M, 300.00M );

Fig. 12.9 |

Console.WriteLine( "Employees processed individually:\n" ); Console.WriteLine( "{0}\nearned: {1:C}\n", salariedEmployee, salariedEmployee.Earnings() ); Console.WriteLine( "{0}\nearned: {1:C}\n", hourlyEmployee, hourlyEmployee.Earnings() ); Console.WriteLine( "{0}\nearned: {1:C}\n", commissionEmployee, commissionEmployee.Earnings() ); Console.WriteLine( "{0}\nearned: {1:C}\n", basePlusCommissionEmployee, basePlusCommissionEmployee.Earnings() ); // create four-element Employee array Employee[] employees = new Employee[ 4 ]; // initialize array with Employees of derived types employees[ 0 ] = salariedEmployee; employees[ 1 ] = hourlyEmployee; employees[ 2 ] = commissionEmployee; employees[ 3 ] = basePlusCommissionEmployee; Console.WriteLine( "Employees processed polymorphically:\n" ); // generically process each element in array employees foreach ( Employee currentEmployee in employees ) { Console.WriteLine( currentEmployee ); // invokes ToString // determine whether element is a BasePlusCommissionEmployee if ( currentEmployee is BasePlusCommissionEmployee ) { // downcast Employee reference to // BasePlusCommissionEmployee reference BasePlusCommissionEmployee employee = ( BasePlusCommissionEmployee ) currentEmployee;

Employee

hierarchy test application. (Part 2 of 4.)

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12.5 Case Study: Payroll System Using Polymorphism

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73

353

employee.BaseSalary *= 1.10M; Console.WriteLine( "new base salary with 10% increase is: {0:C}", employee.BaseSalary ); } // end if Console.WriteLine( "earned {0:C}\n", currentEmployee.Earnings() ); } // end foreach // get type name of each object in employees array for ( int j = 0; j < employees.Length; j++ ) Console.WriteLine( "Employee {0} is a {1}", j, employees[ j ].GetType() ); } // end Main } // end class PayrollSystemTest

Employees processed individually: salaried employee: John Smith social security number: 111-11-1111 weekly salary: $800.00 earned: $800.00 hourly employee: Karen Price social security number: 222-22-2222 hourly wage: $16.75; hours worked: 40.00 earned: $670.00 commission employee: Sue Jones social security number: 333-33-3333 gross sales: $10,000.00 commission rate: 0.06 earned: $600.00 base-salaried commission employee: Bob Lewis social security number: 444-44-4444 gross sales: $5,000.00 commission rate: 0.04; base salary: $300.00 earned: $500.00

Employees processed polymorphically: salaried employee: John Smith social security number: 111-11-1111 weekly salary: $800.00 earned $800.00 hourly social hourly earned

employee: Karen Price security number: 222-22-2222 wage: $16.75; hours worked: 40.00 $670.00

Fig. 12.9 |

Employee

hierarchy test application. (Part 3 of 4.)

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commission employee: Sue Jones social security number: 333-33-3333 gross sales: $10,000.00 commission rate: 0.06 earned $600.00 base-salaried commission employee: Bob Lewis social security number: 444-44-4444 gross sales: $5,000.00 commission rate: 0.04; base salary: $300.00 new base salary with 10% increase is: $330.00 earned $530.00 Employee Employee Employee Employee

Fig. 12.9 |

0 1 2 3

is is is is

a a a a

SalariedEmployee HourlyEmployee CommissionEmployee BasePlusCommissionEmployee

Employee

hierarchy test application. (Part 4 of 4.)

Polymorphically Processing Employees Lines 46–66 iterate through array employees and invoke methods ToString and Earnings with Employee variable currentEmployee, which is assigned the reference to a different Employee during each iteration. The output illustrates that the appropriate methods for each class are indeed invoked. All calls to virtual methods ToString and Earnings are resolved at execution time, based on the type of the object to which currentEmployee refers. This process is known as dynamic binding or late binding. For example, line 48 implicitly invokes method ToString of the object to which currentEmployee refers. Only the methods of class Employee can be called via an Employee variable—and Employee includes class object’s methods, such as ToString. (Section 11.7 discussed the methods that all classes inherit from class object.) A base-class reference can be used to invoke only methods of the base class. Giving BasePlusCommissionEmployees 10% Raises We perform special processing on BasePlusCommissionEmployee objects—as we encounter them, we increase their base salary by 10%. When processing objects polymorphically, we typically do not need to worry about the “specifics,” but to adjust the base salary, we do have to determine the specific type of each Employee object at execution time. Line 51 uses the is operator to determine whether a particular Employee object’s type is BasePlusCommissionEmployee. The condition in line 51 is true if the object referenced by currentEmployee is a BasePlusCommissionEmployee. This would also be true for any object of a BasePlusCommissionEmployee derived class (if there were any), because of the isa relationship a derived class has with its base class. Lines 55–56 downcast currentEmployee from type Employee to type BasePlusCommissionEmployee—this cast is allowed only if the object has an is-a relationship with BasePlusCommissionEmployee. The condition at line 51 ensures that this is the case. This cast is required if we are to use derived class BasePlusCommissionEmployee’s BaseSalary property on the current Employee object—attempting to invoke a derived-class-only method directly on a base class reference is a compilation error. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Common Programming Error 12.3 Assigning a base-class variable to a derived-class variable (without an explicit downcast) is a compilation error.

Software Engineering Observation 12.4 If at execution time the reference to a derived-class object has been assigned to a variable of one of its direct or indirect base classes, it’s acceptable to cast the reference stored in that base-class variable back to a reference of the derived-class type. Before performing such a cast, use the is operator to ensure that the object is indeed an object of an appropriate derived-class type.

When downcasting an object, an InvalidCastException (of namespace System) occurs if at execution time the object does not have an is a relationship with the type specified in the cast operator. An object can be cast only to its own type or to the type of one of its base classes. You can avoid a potential InvalidCastException by using the as operator to perform a downcast rather than a cast operator. For example, in the statement BasePlusCommissionEmployee employee = currentEmployee as BasePlusCommissionEmployee;

is assigned a reference to an object that is a BasePlusCommissionEmployee, or the value null if currentEmployee is not a BasePlusCommissionEmployee. You can then compare employee with null to determine whether the cast succeeded. If the is expression in line 51 is true, the if statement (lines 51–62) performs the special processing required for the BasePlusCommissionEmployee object. Using BasePlusCommissionEmployee variable employee, line 58 accesses the derived-class-only property BaseSalary to retrieve and update the employee’s base salary with the 10% raise. Lines 64–65 invoke method Earnings on currentEmployee, which calls the appropriate derived-class object’s Earnings method polymorphically. Obtaining the earnings of the SalariedEmployee, HourlyEmployee and CommissionEmployee polymorphically in lines 64–65 produces the same result as obtaining these employees’ earnings individually in lines 24–29. However, the earnings amount obtained for the BasePlusCommissionEmployee in lines 64–65 is higher than that obtained in lines 30–32, due to the 10% increase in its base salary. employee

Every Object Knows Its Own Type Lines 69–71 display each employee’s type as a string. Every object in C# knows its own type and can access this information through method GetType, which all classes inherit from class object. Method GetType returns an object of class Type (of namespace System), which contains information about the object’s type, including its class name, the names of its methods, and the name of its base class. Line 71 invokes method GetType on the object to get its runtime class (i.e., a Type object that represents the object’s type). Then method ToString is implicitly invoked on the object returned by GetType. The Type class’s ToString method returns the class name. Avoiding Compilation Errors with Downcasting In the previous example, we avoid several compilation errors by downcasting an Employee variable to a BasePlusCommissionEmployee variable in lines 55–56. If we remove the cast

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operator (BasePlusCommissionEmployee) from line 56 and attempt to assign Employee variable currentEmployee directly to BasePlusCommissionEmployee variable employee, we receive a “Cannot implicitly convert type” compilation error. This error indicates that the attempt to assign the reference of base-class object commissionEmployee to derived-class variable basePlusCommissionEmployee is not allowed without an appropriate cast operator. The compiler prevents this assignment, because a CommissionEmployee is not a BasePlusCommissionEmployee—again, the is-a relationship applies only between the derived class and its base classes, not vice versa. Similarly, if lines 58 and 61 use base-class variable currentEmployee, rather than derived-class variable employee, to use derived-class-only property BaseSalary, we receive an “'Employee' does not contain a definition for 'BaseSalary'” compilation error on each of these lines. Attempting to invoke derived-class-only methods on a base-class reference is not allowed. While lines 58 and 61 execute only if is in line 51 returns true to indicate that currentEmployee has been assigned a reference to a BasePlusCommissionEmployee object, we cannot attempt to use derived-class BasePlusCommissionEmployee property BaseSalary with base-class Employee reference currentEmployee. The compiler would generate errors in lines 58 and 61, because BaseSalary is not a base-class member and cannot be used with a base-class variable. Although the actual method that’s called depends on the object’s type at execution time, a variable can be used to invoke only those methods that are members of that variable’s type, which the compiler verifies. Using a base-class Employee variable, we can invoke only methods and properties found in class Employee—methods Earnings and ToString, and properties FirstName, LastName and SocialSecurityNumber—and method methods inherited from class object.

12.5.7 Summary of the Allowed Assignments Between Base-Class and Derived-Class Variables Now that you’ve seen a complete application that processes diverse derived-class objects polymorphically, we summarize what you can and cannot do with base-class and derivedclass objects and variables. Although a derived-class object also is a base-class object, the two are nevertheless different. As discussed previously, derived-class objects can be treated as if they were base-class objects. However, the derived class can have additional derivedclass-only members. For this reason, assigning a base-class reference to a derived-class variable is not allowed without an explicit cast—such an assignment would leave the derivedclass members undefined for a base-class object. We’ve discussed four ways to assign base-class and derived-class references to variables of base-class and derived-class types: 1. Assigning a base-class reference to a base-class variable is straightforward. 2. Assigning a derived-class reference to a derived-class variable is straightforward. 3. Assigning a derived-class reference to a base-class variable is safe, because the derived-class object is an object of its base class. However, this reference can be used to refer only to base-class members. If this code refers to derived-class-only members through the base-class variable, the compiler reports errors. 4. Attempting to assign a base-class reference to a derived-class variable is a compilation error. To avoid this error, the base-class reference must be cast to a derivedclass type explicitly or must be converted using the as operator. At execution

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12.6 sealed Methods and Classes

357

time, if the object to which the reference refers is not a derived-class object, an exception will occur. The is operator can be used to ensure that such a cast is performed only if the object is a derived-class object.

12.6 sealed Methods and Classes Only methods declared virtual, override or abstract can be overridden in derived classes. A method declared sealed in a base class cannot be overridden in a derived class. Methods that are declared private are implicitly sealed, because it’s impossible to override them in a derived class (though the derived class can declare a new method with the same signature as the private method in the base class). Methods that are declared static also are implicitly sealed, because static methods cannot be overridden either. A derived-class method declared both override and sealed can override a base-class method, but cannot be overridden in derived classes further down the inheritance hierarchy. A sealed method’s declaration can never change, so all derived classes use the same method implementation, and calls to sealed methods are resolved at compile time—this is known as static binding. Since the compiler knows that sealed methods cannot be overridden, it can often optimize code by removing calls to sealed methods and replacing them with the expanded code of their declarations at each method-call location—a technique known as inlining the code.

Performance Tip 12.1 The compiler can decide to inline a sealed method call and will do so for small, simple sealed methods. Inlining does not violate encapsulation or information hiding, but does improve performance, because it eliminates the overhead of making a method call.

A class that’s declared

sealed

cannot be a base class (i.e., a class cannot extend a

sealed class). All methods in a sealed class are implicitly sealed. Class string is a sealed

class. This class cannot be extended, so applications that use strings can rely on the functionality of string objects as specified in the Framework Class Library.

Common Programming Error 12.4 Attempting to declare a derived class of a sealed class is a compilation error.

12.7 Case Study: Creating and Using Interfaces Our next example (Figs. 12.11–12.15) reexamines the payroll system of Section 12.5. Suppose that the company involved wishes to perform several accounting operations in a single accounts-payable application—in addition to calculating the payroll earnings that must be paid to each employee, the company must also calculate the payment due on each of several invoices (i.e., bills for goods purchased). Though applied to unrelated things (i.e., employees and invoices), both operations have to do with calculating some kind of payment amount. For an employee, the payment refers to the employee’s earnings. For an invoice, the payment refers to the total cost of the goods listed on the invoice. Can we calculate such different things as the payments due for employees and invoices polymorphically in a single application? Does C# offer a capability that requires that unrelated classes implement a set of common methods (e.g., a method that calculates a payment amount)? C# interfaces offer exactly this capability.

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Interfaces define and standardize the ways in which people and systems can interact with one another. For example, the controls on a radio serve as an interface between a radio’s users and its internal components. The controls allow users to perform a limited set of operations (e.g., changing the station, adjusting the volume, choosing between AM and FM), and different radios may implement the controls in different ways (e.g., using push buttons, dials, voice commands). The interface specifies what operations a radio must permit users to perform but does not specify how they’re performed. Similarly, the interface between a driver and a car with a manual transmission includes the steering wheel, the gear shift, the clutch pedal, the gas pedal and the brake pedal. This same interface is found in nearly all manual-transmission cars, enabling someone who knows how to drive one particular manual-transmission car to drive just about any other. The components of each car may look a bit different, but the general purpose is the same—to allow people to drive the car. Software objects also communicate via interfaces. A C# interface describes a set of methods and properties that can be called on an object—to tell it, for example, to perform some task or return some piece of information. The next example introduces an interface named IPayable that describes the functionality of any object that must be capable of being paid and thus must offer a method to determine the proper payment amount due. An interface declaration begins with the keyword interface and can contain only abstract methods, properties, indexers and events (events are discussed in Chapter 14, Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 1.) All interface members are implicitly declared both public and abstract. In addition, each interface can extend one or more other interfaces to create a more elaborate interface that other classes can implement.

Common Programming Error 12.5 It’s a compilation error to declare an interface member public or abstract explicitly, because they’re redundant in interface-member declarations. It’s also a compilation error to specify any implementation details, such as concrete method declarations, in an interface.

To use an interface, a class must specify that it implements the interface by listing the interface after the colon (:) in the class declaration. This is the same syntax used to indicate inheritance from a base class. A concrete class implementing the interface must declare each member of the interface with the signature specified in the interface declaration. A class that implements an interface but does not implement all its members is an abstract class—it must be declared abstract and must contain an abstract declaration for each unimplemented member of the interface. Implementing an interface is like signing a contract with the compiler that states, “I will provide an implementation for all the members specified by the interface, or I will declare them abstract.”

Common Programming Error 12.6 Failing to define or declare any member of an interface in a class that implements the interface results in a compilation error.

An interface is typically used when unrelated classes need to share common methods. This allows objects of unrelated classes to be processed polymorphically—objects of classes that implement the same interface can respond to the same method calls. You can create an interface that describes the desired functionality, then implement this interface in any

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12.7 Case Study: Creating and Using Interfaces

359

classes requiring that functionality. For example, in the accounts-payable application developed in this section, we implement interface IPayable in any class that must be able to calculate a payment amount (e.g., Employee, Invoice). An interface often is used in place of an abstract class when there’s no default implementation to inherit—that is, no fields and no default method implementations. Like abstract classes, interfaces are typically public types, so they’re normally declared in files by themselves with the same name as the interface and the .cs file-name extension.

12.7.1 Developing an IPayable Hierarchy To build an application that can determine payments for employees and invoices alike, we first create an interface named IPayable. Interface IPayable contains method GetPaymentAmount that returns a decimal amount to be paid for an object of any class that implements the interface. Method GetPaymentAmount is a general-purpose version of method Earnings of the Employee hierarchy—method Earnings calculates a payment amount specifically for an Employee, while GetPaymentAmount can be applied to a broad range of unrelated objects. After declaring interface IPayable, we introduce class Invoice, which implements interface IPayable. We then modify class Employee such that it also implements interface IPayable. Finally, we update Employee derived class SalariedEmployee to “fit” into the IPayable hierarchy (i.e., we rename SalariedEmployee method Earnings as GetPaymentAmount).

Good Programming Practice 12.1 By convention, the name of an interface begins with "I". This helps distinguish interfaces from classes, improving code readability.

Good Programming Practice 12.2 When declaring a method in an interface, choose a name that describes the method’s purpose in a general manner, because the method may be implemented by a broad range of unrelated classes.

Classes Invoice and Employee both represent things for which the company must be able to calculate a payment amount. Both classes implement IPayable, so an application can invoke method GetPaymentAmount on Invoice objects and Employee objects alike. This enables the polymorphic processing of Invoices and Employees required for our company’s accounts-payable application. The UML class diagram in Fig. 12.10 shows the interface and class hierarchy used in our accounts-payable application. The hierarchy begins with interface IPayable. The UML distinguishes an interface from a class by placing the word “interface” in guillemets (« and ») above the interface name. The UML expresses the relationship between a class and an interface through a realization. A class is said to “realize,” or implement, an interface. A class diagram models a realization as a dashed arrow with a hollow arrowhead pointing from the implementing class to the interface. The diagram in Fig. 12.10 indicates that classes Invoice and Employee each realize (i.e., implement) interface IPayable. As in the class diagram of Fig. 12.2, class Employee appears in italics, indicating that it’s an abstract class. Concrete class SalariedEmployee extends Employee and inherits its base class’s realization relationship with interface IPayable.

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«interface» IPayable

Invoice

Employee

SalariedEmployee

Fig. 12.10 |

IPayable

interface and class hierarchy UML class diagram.

12.7.2 Declaring Interface IPayable The declaration of interface IPayable begins in Fig. 12.11 at line 3. Interface IPayable contains public abstract method GetPaymentAmount (line 5). The method cannot be explicitly declared public or abstract. Interfaces can have any number of members and interface methods can have parameters. 1 2 3 4 5 6

// Fig. 12.11: IPayable.cs // IPayable interface declaration. public interface IPayable { decimal GetPaymentAmount(); // calculate payment; no implementation } // end interface IPayable

Fig. 12.11 |

IPayable

interface declaration.

12.7.3 Creating Class Invoice We now create class Invoice (Fig. 12.12) to represent a simple invoice that contains billing information for one kind of part. The class contains properties PartNumber (line 11), PartDescription (line 14), Quantity (lines 27–41) and PricePerItem (lines 44–58) that indicate the part number, the description of the part, the quantity of the part ordered and the price per item. Class Invoice also contains a constructor (lines 17–24) and a ToString method (lines 61–67) that returns a string representation of an Invoice object. The set accessors of properties Quantity and PricePerItem ensure that quantity and pricePerItem are assigned only nonnegative values. 1 2 3 4 5 6

// Fig. 12.12: Invoice.cs // Invoice class implements IPayable. using System; public class Invoice : IPayable {

Fig. 12.12 |

Invoice

class implements IPayable. (Part 1 of 3.)

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12.7 Case Study: Creating and Using Interfaces

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private int quantity; private decimal pricePerItem; // property that gets and sets the part number on the invoice public string PartNumber { get; set; } // property that gets and sets the part description on the invoice public string PartDescription { get; set; } // four-parameter constructor public Invoice( string part, string description, int count, decimal price ) { PartNumber = part; PartDescription = description; Quantity = count; // validate quantity via property PricePerItem = price; // validate price per item via property } // end four-parameter Invoice constructor // property that gets and sets the quantity on the invoice public int Quantity { get { return quantity; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 ) // validate quantity quantity = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "Quantity", value, "Quantity must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property Quantity // property that gets and sets the price per item public decimal PricePerItem { get { return pricePerItem; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 ) // validate price quantity = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "PricePerItem", value, "PricePerItem must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property PricePerItem

Fig. 12.12 |

Invoice

class implements IPayable. (Part 2 of 3.)

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// return string representation of Invoice object public override string ToString() { return string.Format( "{0}: \n{1}: {2} ({3}) \n{4}: {5} \n{6}: {7:C}", "invoice", "part number", PartNumber, PartDescription, "quantity", Quantity, "price per item", PricePerItem ); } // end method ToString // method required to carry out contract with interface IPayable public decimal GetPaymentAmount() { return Quantity * PricePerItem; // calculate total cost } // end method GetPaymentAmount } // end class Invoice

Fig. 12.12 |

Invoice

class implements IPayable. (Part 3 of 3.)

Line 5 of Fig. 12.12 indicates that class Invoice implements interface IPayable. Like all classes, class Invoice also implicitly inherits from class object. C# does not allow derived classes to inherit from more than one base class, but it does allow a class to inherit from a base class and implement any number of interfaces. All objects of a class that implement multiple interfaces have the is-a relationship with each implemented interface type. To implement more than one interface, use a comma-separated list of interface names after the colon (:) in the class declaration, as in: public class ClassName : BaseClassName, FirstInterface, SecondInterface, …

When a class inherits from a base class and implements one or more interfaces, the class declaration must list the base-class name before any interface names. Class Invoice implements the one method in interface IPayable—method GetPaymentAmount is declared in lines 70–73. The method calculates the amount required to pay the invoice. The method multiplies the values of quantity and pricePerItem (obtained through the appropriate properties) and returns the result (line 72). This method satisfies the implementation requirement for the method in interface IPayable— we’ve fulfilled the interface contract with the compiler.

12.7.4 Modifying Class Employee to Implement Interface IPayable We now modify class Employee to implement interface IPayable. Figure 12.13 contains the modified Employee class. This class declaration is identical to that of Fig. 12.4 with two exceptions. First, line 3 of Fig. 12.13 indicates that class Employee now implements interface IPayable. Because of this, we must rename Earnings to GetPaymentAmount throughout the Employee hierarchy. As with method Earnings in the version of class Employee in Fig. 12.4, however, it does not make sense to implement method GetPaymentAmount in class Employee, because we cannot calculate the earnings payment owed to a general Employee—first, we must know the specific type of Employee. In Fig. 12.4, we declared method Earnings as abstract for this reason, and as a result, class Employee had to be declared abstract. This forced each Employee derived class to override Earnings with a concrete implementation.

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// Fig. 12.13: Employee.cs // Employee abstract base class. public abstract class Employee : IPayable { // read-only property that gets employee's first name public string FirstName { get; private set; } // read-only property that gets employee's last name public string LastName { get; private set; } // read-only property that gets employee's social security number public string SocialSecurityNumber { get; private set; } // three-parameter constructor public Employee( string first, string last, string ssn ) { FirstName = first; LastName = last; SocialSecurityNumber = ssn; } // end three-parameter Employee constructor // return string representation of Employee object public override string ToString() { return string.Format( "{0} {1}\nsocial security number: {2}", FirstName, LastName, SocialSecurityNumber ); } // end method ToString // Note: We do not implement IPayable method GetPaymentAmount here, so // this class must be declared abstract to avoid a compilation error. public abstract decimal GetPaymentAmount(); } // end abstract class Employee

Fig. 12.13 |

Employee

abstract base class.

In Fig. 12.13, we handle this situation the same way. Recall that when a class implements an interface, the class makes a contract with the compiler stating that the class either will implement each of the methods in the interface or will declare them abstract. If the latter option is chosen, we must also declare the class abstract. As we discussed in Section 12.4, any concrete derived class of the abstract class must implement the abstract methods of the base class. If the derived class does not do so, it too must be declared abstract. As indicated by the comments in lines 29–30, class Employee of Fig. 12.13 does not implement method GetPaymentAmount, so the class is declared abstract.

12.7.5 Modifying Class SalariedEmployee for Use with IPayable Figure 12.14 contains a modified version of class SalariedEmployee that extends Employee and implements method GetPaymentAmount. This version of SalariedEmployee is identical to that of Fig. 12.5 with the exception that the version here implements method GetPaymentAmount (lines 35–38) instead of method Earnings. The two methods contain the same functionality but have different names. Recall that the IPayable version of the method has a more general name to be applicable to possibly disparate classes. The remaining Employee

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derived classes (e.g., HourlyEmployee, CommissionEmployee and BasePlusCommissionEmployee) also must be modified to contain method GetPaymentAmount in place of Earnings to reflect the fact that Employee now implements IPayable. We leave these modifications to try on your own and use only SalariedEmployee in our test application in this section.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

// Fig. 12.14: SalariedEmployee.cs // SalariedEmployee class that extends Employee. using System; public class SalariedEmployee : Employee { private decimal weeklySalary; // four-parameter constructor public SalariedEmployee( string first, string last, string ssn, decimal salary ) : base( first, last, ssn ) { WeeklySalary = salary; // validate salary via property } // end four-parameter SalariedEmployee constructor // property that gets and sets salaried employee's salary public decimal WeeklySalary { get { return weeklySalary; } // end get set { if ( value >= 0 ) // validation weeklySalary = value; else throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException( "WeeklySalary", value, "WeeklySalary must be >= 0" ); } // end set } // end property WeeklySalary // calculate earnings; implement interface IPayable method // that was abstract in base class Employee public override decimal GetPaymentAmount() { return WeeklySalary; } // end method GetPaymentAmount // return string representation of SalariedEmployee object public override string ToString() { return string.Format( "salaried employee: {0}\n{1}: {2:C}", base.ToString(), "weekly salary", WeeklySalary ); } // end method ToString } // end class SalariedEmployee

Fig. 12.14 |

SalariedEmployee

class that extends Employee.

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365

When a class implements an interface, the same is-a relationship provided by inheritance applies. Class Employee implements IPayable, so we can say that an Employee is an IPayable, as are any classes that extend Employee. As such, SalariedEmployee objects are IPayable objects. An object of a class that implements an interface may be thought of as an object of the interface type. Objects of any classes derived from the class that implements the interface can also be thought of as objects of the interface type. Thus, just as we can assign the reference of a SalariedEmployee object to a base-class Employee variable, we can assign the reference of a SalariedEmployee object to an interface IPayable variable. Invoice implements IPayable, so an Invoice object also is an IPayable object, and we can assign the reference of an Invoice object to an IPayable variable.

Software Engineering Observation 12.5 Inheritance and interfaces are similar in their implementation of the is-a relationship. An object of a class that implements an interface may be thought of as an object of that interface type. An object of any derived classes of a class that implements an interface also can be thought of as an object of the interface type.

Software Engineering Observation 12.6 The is-a relationship that exists between base classes and derived classes, and between interfaces and the classes that implement them, holds when passing an object to a method. When a method parameter receives an argument of a base class or interface type, the method polymorphically processes the object received as an argument.

12.7.6 Using Interface IPayable to Process Invoices and Employees Polymorphically (Fig. 12.15) illustrates that interface IPayable can be used to process a set of Invoices and Employees polymorphically in a single application. Line 10 declares payableObjects and assigns it an array of four IPayable variables. Lines 13–14 assign the references of Invoice objects to the first two elements of payableObjects. Lines 15–18 assign the references of SalariedEmployee objects to the remaining two elements of payableObjects. These assignments are allowed because an Invoice is an IPayable, a SalariedEmployee is an Employee and an Employee is an IPayable. Lines 24–29 use a foreach statement to process each IPayable object in payableObjects polymorphically, printing the object as a string, along with the payment due. Lines 27–28 implicitly invokes method ToString off an IPayable interface reference, even though ToString is not declared in interface IPayable—all references (including those of interface types) refer to objects that extend object and therefore have a ToString method. Line 28 invokes IPayable method GetPaymentAmount to obtain the payment amount for each object in payableObjects, regardless of the actual type of the object. The output reveals that the method calls in lines 27– 28 invoke the appropriate class’s implementation of methods ToString and GetPaymentAmount. For instance, when currentPayable refers to an Invoice during the first iteration of the foreach loop, class Invoice’s ToString and GetPaymentAmount methods execute. PayableInterfaceTest

Software Engineering Observation 12.7 All methods of class object can be called by using a reference of an interface type—the reference refers to an object, and all objects inherit the methods of class object.

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// Fig. 12.15: PayableInterfaceTest.cs // Tests interface IPayable with disparate classes. using System; public class PayableInterfaceTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { // create four-element IPayable array IPayable[] payableObjects = new IPayable[ 4 ]; // populate array payableObjects[ 0 payableObjects[ 1 payableObjects[ 2 "111-11-1111", payableObjects[ 3 "888-88-8888",

with objects that implement IPayable ] = new Invoice( "01234", "seat", 2, 375.00M ); ] = new Invoice( "56789", "tire", 4, 79.95M ); ] = new SalariedEmployee( "John", "Smith", 800.00M ); ] = new SalariedEmployee( "Lisa", "Barnes", 1200.00M );

Console.WriteLine( "Invoices and Employees processed polymorphically:\n" ); // generically process each element in array payableObjects foreach ( var currentPayable in payableObjects ) { // output currentPayable and its appropriate payment amount Console.WriteLine( "payment due {0}: {1:C}\n", currentPayable, currentPayable.GetPaymentAmount() ); } // end foreach } // end Main } // end class PayableInterfaceTest

Invoices and Employees processed polymorphically: invoice: part number: 01234 (seat) quantity: 2 price per item: $375.00 payment due: $750.00 invoice: part number: 56789 (tire) quantity: 4 price per item: $79.95 payment due: $319.80 salaried employee: John Smith social security number: 111-11-1111 weekly salary: $800.00 payment due: $800.00 salaried employee: Lisa Barnes social security number: 888-88-8888 weekly salary: $1,200.00 payment due: $1,200.00

Fig. 12.15 | Tests interface IPayable with disparate classes. Download at www.wowebook.com

12.7 Case Study: Creating and Using Interfaces

367

12.7.7 Common Interfaces of the .NET Framework Class Library In this section, we overview several common interfaces defined in the .NET Framework Class Library. These interfaces are implemented and used in the same manner as those you create (e.g., interface IPayable in Section 12.7.2). The Framework Class Library’s interfaces enable you to extend many important aspects of C# with your own classes. Figure 12.16 overviews several commonly used Framework Class Library interfaces. Interface

Description

IComparable

C# contains several comparison operators (e.g., =, ==, !=) that allow you to compare simple-type values. In Section 12.8 you’ll see that these operators can be defined to compare two objects. Interface IComparable can also be used to allow objects of a class that implements the interface to be compared to one another. The interface contains one method, CompareTo, that compares the object that calls the method to the object passed as an argument to the method. Classes must implement CompareTo to return a value indicating whether the object on which it’s invoked is less than (negative integer return value), equal to (0 return value) or greater than (positive integer return value) the object passed as an argument, using any criteria you specify. For example, if class Employee implements IComparable, its CompareTo method could compare Employee objects by their earnings amounts. Interface IComparable is commonly used for ordering objects in a collection such as an array. We use IComparable in Chapter 22, Generics, and Chapter 23, Collections. Implemented by any class that represents a component, including Graphical User Interface (GUI) controls (such as buttons or labels). Interface IComponent defines the behaviors that components must implement. We discuss IComponent and many GUI controls that implement this interface in Chapter 14, Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 1, and Chapter 15, Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 2. Implemented by classes that must provide an explicit mechanism for releasing resources. Some resources can be used by only one program at a time. In addition, some resources, such as files on disk, are unmanaged resources that, unlike memory, cannot be released by the garbage collector. Classes that implement interface IDisposable provide a Dispose method that can be called to explicitly release resources. We discuss IDisposable briefly in Chapter 13, Exception Handling. You can learn more about this interface at msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.idisposable.aspx. The MSDN article Implementing a Dispose Method at msdn.microsoft.com/enus/library/fs2xkftw.aspx discusses the proper implementation of this interface in your classes. Used for iterating through the elements of a collection (such as an array) one element at a time. Interface IEnumerator contains method MoveNext to move to the next element in a collection, method Reset to move to the position before the first element and property Current to return the object at the current location. We use IEnumerator in Chapter 23.

IComponent

IDisposable

IEnumerator

Fig. 12.16 | Common interfaces of the .NET Framework Class Library.

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12.8 Operator Overloading Object manipulations are accomplished by sending messages (in the form of method calls) to the objects. This method-call notation is cumbersome for certain kinds of classes, especially mathematical classes. For these classes, it would be convenient to use C#’s rich set of built-in operators to specify object manipulations. In this section, we show how to enable these operators to work with class objects—via a process called operator overloading. C# enables you to overload most operators to make them sensitive to the context in which they’re used. Some operators are overloaded more frequently than others, especially the various arithmetic operators, such as + and -, where operator notation often is more natural. Figures 12.17 and 12.18 provide an example of using operator overloading with a ComplexNumber class. For a list of overloadable operators, see msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/ library/8edha89s.aspx. Class ComplexNumber (Fig. 12.17) overloads the plus (+), minus (-) and multiplication (*) operators to enable programs to add, subtract and multiply instances of class ComplexNumber using common mathematical notation. Lines 9 and 12 define properties for the Real and Imaginary components of the complex number. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

// Fig. 12.17: ComplexNumber.cs // Class that overloads operators for adding, subtracting // and multiplying complex numbers. using System; public class ComplexNumber { // read-only property that gets the real component public double Real { get; private set; } // read-only property that gets the imaginary component public double Imaginary { get; private set; } // constructor public ComplexNumber( double a, double b ) { Real = a; Imaginary = b; } // end constructor // return string representation of ComplexNumber public override string ToString() { return string.Format( "({0} {1} {2}i)", Real, ( Imaginary < 0 ? "-" : "+" ), Math.Abs( Imaginary ) ); } // end method ToString // overload the addition operator public static ComplexNumber operator+ ( ComplexNumber x, ComplexNumber y ) {

Fig. 12.17 | Class that overloads operators for adding, subtracting and multiplying complex numbers. (Part 1 of 2.)

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12.8 Operator Overloading

32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

369

return new ComplexNumber( x.Real + y.Real, x.Imaginary + y.Imaginary ); } // end operator + // overload the subtraction operator public static ComplexNumber operator- ( ComplexNumber x, ComplexNumber y ) { return new ComplexNumber( x.Real - y.Real, x.Imaginary - y.Imaginary ); } // end operator // overload the multiplication operator public static ComplexNumber operator* ( ComplexNumber x, ComplexNumber y ) { return new ComplexNumber( x.Real * y.Real - x.Imaginary * y.Imaginary, x.Real * y.Imaginary + y.Real * x.Imaginary ); } // end operator * } // end class ComplexNumber

Fig. 12.17 | Class that overloads operators for adding, subtracting and multiplying complex numbers. (Part 2 of 2.)

Lines 29–34 overload the plus operator (+) to perform addition of ComplexNumbers. Keyword operator, followed by an operator symbol, indicates that a method overloads the specified operator. Methods that overload binary operators must take two arguments. The first argument is the left operand, and the second argument is the right operand. Class ComplexNumber’s overloaded plus operator takes two ComplexNumber references as arguments and returns a ComplexNumber that represents the sum of the arguments. This method is marked public and static, which is required for overloaded operators. The body of the method (lines 32–33) performs the addition and returns the result as a new ComplexNumber. Notice that we do not modify the contents of either of the original operands passed as arguments x and y. This matches our intuitive sense of how this operator should behave— adding two numbers does not modify either of the original numbers. Lines 37–51 provide similar overloaded operators for subtracting and multiplying ComplexNumbers.

Software Engineering Observation 12.8 Overload operators to perform the same function or similar functions on class objects as the operators perform on objects of simple types. Avoid nonintuitive use of operators.

Software Engineering Observation 12.9 At least one parameter of an overloaded operator method must be a reference to an object of the class in which the operator is overloaded. This prevents you from changing how operators work on simple types.

Class ComplexTest (Fig. 12.18) demonstrates the overloaded ComplexNumber operators +, - and *. Lines 14–27 prompt the user to enter two complex numbers, then use this input to create two ComplexNumbers and assign them to variables x and y.

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// Fig. 12.18: OperatorOverloading.cs // Overloading operators for complex numbers. using System; public class ComplexTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { // declare two variables to store complex numbers // to be entered by user ComplexNumber x, y; // prompt the user to enter the first complex number Console.Write( "Enter the real part of complex number x: " ); double realPart = Convert.ToDouble( Console.ReadLine() ); Console.Write( "Enter the imaginary part of complex number x: " ); double imaginaryPart = Convert.ToDouble( Console.ReadLine() ); x = new ComplexNumber( realPart, imaginaryPart ); // prompt the user to enter the second complex number Console.Write( "\nEnter the real part of complex number y: " ); realPart = Convert.ToDouble( Console.ReadLine() ); Console.Write( "Enter the imaginary part of complex number y: " ); imaginaryPart = Convert.ToDouble( Console.ReadLine() ); y = new ComplexNumber( realPart, imaginaryPart ); // display the results of Console.WriteLine(); Console.WriteLine( "{0} + Console.WriteLine( "{0} Console.WriteLine( "{0} * } // end method Main } // end class ComplexTest

calculations with x and y {1} = {2}", x, y, x + y ); {1} = {2}", x, y, x - y ); {1} = {2}", x, y, x * y );

Enter the real part of complex number x: 2 Enter the imaginary part of complex number x: 4 Enter the real part of complex number y: 4 Enter the imaginary part of complex number y: -2 (2 + 4i) + (4 - 2i) = (6 + 2i) (2 + 4i) - (4 - 2i) = (-2 + 6i) (2 + 4i) * (4 - 2i) = (16 + 12i)

Fig. 12.18 | Overloading operators for complex numbers. Lines 31–33 add, subtract and multiply x and y with the overloaded operators, then output the results. In line 31, we perform the addition by using the plus operator with ComplexNumber operands x and y. Without operator overloading, the expression x + y wouldn’t make sense—the compiler wouldn’t know how two objects of class ComplexNumber should be added. This expression makes sense here because we’ve defined the plus operator for two ComplexNumbers in lines 29–34 of Fig. 12.17. When the two Complex-

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12.9 Wrap-Up

371

Numbers

are “added” in line 31 of Fig. 12.18, this invokes the operator+ declaration, passing the left operand as the first argument and the right operand as the second argument. When we use the subtraction and multiplication operators in lines 32–33, their respective overloaded operator declarations are invoked similarly. Each calculation’s result is a reference to a new ComplexNumber object. When this new object is passed to the Console class’s WriteLine method, its ToString method (Fig. 12.17, lines 22–26) is implicitly invoked. Line 31 of Fig. 12.18 could be rewritten to explicitly invoke the ToString method of the object created by the overloaded plus operator, as in: Console.WriteLine( "{0} + {1} = {2}", x, y, ( x + y ).ToString() );

12.9 Wrap-Up This chapter introduced polymorphism—the ability to process objects that share the same base class in a class hierarchy as if they were all objects of the base class. The chapter discussed how polymorphism makes systems extensible and maintainable, then demonstrated how to use overridden methods to effect polymorphic behavior. We introduced the notion of an abstract class, which allows you to provide an appropriate base class from which other classes can inherit. You learned that an abstract class can declare abstract methods that each derived class must implement to become a concrete class, and that an application can use variables of an abstract class to invoke derived class implementations of abstract methods polymorphically. You also learned how to determine an object’s type at execution time. We showed how to create sealed methods and classes. The chapter discussed declaring and implementing an interface as another way to achieve polymorphic behavior, often among objects of different classes. Finally, you learned how to define the behavior of the built-in operators on objects of your own classes with operator overloading. You should now be familiar with classes, objects, encapsulation, inheritance, interfaces and polymorphism—the most essential aspects of object-oriented programming. Next, we take a deeper look at using exception handling to deal with runtime errors.

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13 Exception Handling

It is common sense to take a method and try it. If it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something.

OBJECTIVES

—Franklin Delano Roosevelt

In this chapter you’ll learn:

O! throw away the worser part of it, And live the purer with the other half.

■

What exceptions are and how they’re handled.

■

When to use exception handling.

—William Shakespeare

■

To use try blocks to delimit code in which exceptions might occur.

■

To throw exceptions to indicate a problem.

■

To use catch blocks to specify exception handlers.

If they’re running and they don’t look where they’re going I have to come out from somewhere and catch them.

■

To use the finally block to release resources.

■

The .NET exception class hierarchy.

■

Exception properties.

■

To create user-defined exceptions.

—J. D. Salinger

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13.1 Introduction

13.1 Introduction 13.2 Example: Divide by Zero without Exception Handling 13.3 Example: Handling DivideByZeroExceptions and FormatExceptions 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3 13.3.4

Enclosing Code in a try Block Catching Exceptions Uncaught Exceptions Termination Model of Exception Handling

373

13.3.5 Flow of Control When Exceptions Occur

13.4 .NET Exception Hierarchy 13.4.1 Class SystemException 13.4.2 Determining Which Exceptions a Method Throws

13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9

finally Block

The using Statement Exception Properties

User-Defined Exception Classes Wrap-Up

13.1 Introduction In this chapter, we take a deeper look at exception handling. An exception indicates that a problem occurred during a program’s execution. The name “exception” comes from the fact that, although the problem can occur, it occurs infrequently. If the “rule” is that a statement normally executes correctly, then the occurrence of a problem represents the “exception to the rule.” Exception handling enables you to create applications that can handle exceptions—in many cases allowing a program to continue executing as if no problems were encountered. More severe problems may prevent a program from continuing normal execution, instead requiring the program to notify the user of the problem, then terminate in a controlled manner. The features presented in this chapter enable you to write clear, robust and more fault-tolerant programs (i.e., programs that are able to deal with problems that may arise and continue executing). The style and details of C# exception handling are based in part on the work of Andrew Koenig and Bjarne Stroustrup. “Best practices” for exception handling in Visual C# are specified in the Visual Studio documentation.1 After reviewing exception-handling concepts and basic exception-handling techniques, we overview .NET’s exception-handling class hierarchy. Programs typically request and release resources (such as files on disk) during program execution. Often, the supply of these resources is limited, or the resources can be used by only one program at a time. We demonstrate a part of the exception-handling mechanism that enables a program to use a resource, then guarantee that it will be released for use by other programs, even if an exception occurs. We show several properties of class System.Exception (the base class of all exception classes) and discuss how you can create and use your own exception classes.

13.2 Example: Divide by Zero without Exception Handling Let’s see what happens when errors arise in a console application that does not use exception handling. Figure 13.1 inputs two integers from the user, then divides the first integer by the second using integer division to obtain an int result. In this example, an exception 1.

“Best Practices for Handling Exceptions [C#],” .NET Framework Developer’s Guide, Visual Studio .NET Online Help. Available at msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/seyhszts.aspx.

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is thrown (i.e., an exception occurs) when a method detects a problem and is unable to handle it.

Running the Application In most of our examples, the application appears to run the same with or without debugging. As we discuss shortly, the example in Fig. 13.1 might cause errors, depending on the user’s input. If you run this application using the Debug > Start Debugging menu option, the program pauses at the line where an exception occurs, displays the Exception Assistant and allows you to analyze the current state of the program and debug it. We discuss the Exception Assistant in Section 13.3.3. We discuss debugging in detail in Appendix G. In this example, we do not wish to debug the application; we simply want to see what happens when errors arise. For this reason, we execute this application from a Command 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

// Fig. 13.1: DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling.cs // Integer division without exception handling. using System; class DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling { static void Main() { // get numerator and denominator Console.Write( "Please enter an integer numerator: " ); int numerator = Convert.ToInt32( Console.ReadLine() ); Console.Write( "Please enter an integer denominator: " ); int denominator = Convert.ToInt32( Console.ReadLine() ); // divide the two integers, then display the result int result = numerator / denominator; Console.WriteLine( "\nResult: {0:D} / {1:D} = {2:D}", numerator, denominator, result ); } // end Main } // end class DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling

Please enter an integer numerator: 100 Please enter an integer denominator: 7 Result: 100 / 7 = 14

Please enter an integer numerator: 100 Please enter an integer denominator: 0 Unhandled Exception: System.DivideByZeroException: Attempted to divide by zero. at DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling.Main() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_01\DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling\ DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling\ DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling.cs:line 16

Fig. 13.1 | Integer division without exception handling. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Please enter an integer numerator: 100 Please enter an integer denominator: hello Unhandled Exception: System.FormatException: Input string was not in a correct format. at System.Number.StringToNumber(String str, NumberStyles options, NumberBuffer& number, NumberFormatInfo info, Boolean parseDecimal) at System.Number.ParseInt32(String s, NumberStyles style, NumberFormatInfo info) at DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling.Main() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_01\DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling\ DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling\ DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling.cs:line 13

Fig. 13.1 | Integer division without exception handling. (Part 2 of 2.) Prompt window. Select Start > All Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt to open a Command Prompt window, then use the cd command to change to the application’s Debug

directory. For example, if this application resides in the directory C:\examples\ ch13\Fig13_01\DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling on your system, you will type cd /d C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_01\DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling\ DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling\bin\Debug

in the Command Prompt, then press Enter to change to the application’s Debug directory. To execute the application, type DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling.exe

in the Command Prompt, then press Enter. If an error arises during execution, a dialog is displayed indicating that the application encountered a problem and needs to close. In Windows Vista and Windows 7, the system tries to find a solution to the problem, then asks you to choose between looking online for a solution to the problem and closing the program. [Note: On some systems a Just-In-Time Debugging dialog is displayed instead. If this occurs, simply click the No button to dismiss the dialog.] At this point, an error message describing the problem is displayed in the Command Prompt. We formatted the error messages in Fig. 13.1 for readability. [Note: Selecting Debug > Start Without Debugging (or F5) to run the application from Visual Studio executes the application’s so-called release version. The error messages produced by this version of the application may differ from those shown in Fig. 13.1, because of optimizations that the compiler performs to create an application’s release version.]

Analyzing the Results The first sample execution shows a successful division. In the second, the user enters 0 as the denominator. Several lines of information are displayed in response to the invalid input. This information—known as a stack trace—includes the name of the exception class (System.DivideByZeroException) in a message indicating the problem that occurred and the path of execution that led to the exception, method by method. This information helps you debug a program. The first line of the error message specifies that a DivideByZeroException occurred. When a program divides an integer by 0, the CLR throws a DivideByZeroException (namespace System). The text after the name of the exception,

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“Attempted to divide by zero,” indicates why this exception occurred. Division by zero is not allowed in integer arithmetic. [Note: Division by zero with floating-point values is allowed and results in the value infinity—represented by either constant Double.PositiveInfinity or constant Double.NegativeInfinity, depending on whether the numerator is positive or negative. These values are displayed as Infinity or -Infinity. If both the numerator and denominator are zero, the result of the calculation is the constant Double.NaN (“not a number”), which is returned when a calculation’s result is undefined.] Each “at” line in a stack trace indicates a line of code in the particular method that was executing when the exception occurred. The “at” line contains the namespace, class and method in which the exception occurred (DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling.Main), the location and name of the file containing the code (C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_01\DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling\DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling\DivideByZeroNoExceptionHandling.cs) and the line number (:line 16) where the exception occurred. In this

case, the stack trace indicates that the DivideByZeroException occurred when the program was executing line 16 of method Main. The first “at” line in the stack trace indicates the exception’s throw point—the initial point at which the exception occurred (i.e., line 16 in Main). This information makes it easy for you to see where the exception originated, and what method calls were made to get to that point in the program. In the third sample execution, the user enters the string "hello" as the denominator. This causes a FormatException, and another stack trace is displayed. Our earlier examples that read numeric values from the user assumed that the user would input an integer value, but a noninteger value could be entered. A FormatException (namespace System) occurs, for example, when Convert method ToInt32 receives a string that does not represent a valid integer. Starting from the last “at” line in the stack trace, we see that the exception was detected in line 13 of method Main. The stack trace also shows the other methods that led to the exception being thrown. To perform its task, Convert.ToInt32 calls method Number.ParseInt32, which in turn calls Number.StringToNumber. The throw point occurs in Number.StringToNumber, as indicated by the first “at” line in the stack trace. Method Convert.ToInt32 is not in the stack trace because the compiler optimized this call out of the code—all it does forward its arguments to Number.ParseInt32. In the sample executions in Fig. 13.1, the program terminates when exceptions occur and stack traces are displayed. This does not always happen—sometimes a program may continue executing even though an exception has occurred and a stack trace has been printed. In such cases, the application may produce incorrect results. The next section demonstrates how to handle exceptions to enable the program to run to normal completion.

13.3 Example: Handling DivideByZeroExceptions and FormatExceptions Now, let’s consider a simple example of exception handling. The application in Fig. 13.2 uses exception handling to process any DivideByZeroExceptions and FormatExceptions that might arise. The application reads two integers from the user (lines 18–21). Assuming that the user provides integers as input and does not specify 0 as the denominator for the division, line 25 performs the division and lines 28–29 display the result. However, if the user inputs a noninteger value or supplies 0 as the denominator, an exception occurs. This program demonstrates how to catch and handle such exceptions—in this case, displaying an error message and allowing the user to enter another set of values.

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// Fig. 13.2: DivideByZeroExceptionHandling.cs // FormatException and DivideByZeroException handlers. using System; class DivideByZeroExceptionHandling { static void Main( string[] args ) { bool continueLoop = true; // determines whether to keep looping do { // retrieve user input and calculate quotient try { // Convert.ToInt32 generates FormatException // if argument cannot be converted to an integer Console.Write( "Enter an integer numerator: " ); int numerator = Convert.ToInt32( Console.ReadLine() ); Console.Write( "Enter an integer denominator: " ); int denominator = Convert.ToInt32( Console.ReadLine() ); // division generates DivideByZeroException // if denominator is 0 int result = numerator / denominator; // display result Console.WriteLine( "\nResult: {0} / {1} = {2}", numerator, denominator, result ); continueLoop = false; } // end try catch ( FormatException formatException ) { Console.WriteLine( "\n" + formatException.Message ); Console.WriteLine( "You must enter two integers. Please try again.\n" ); } // end catch catch ( DivideByZeroException divideByZeroException ) { Console.WriteLine( "\n" + divideByZeroException.Message ); Console.WriteLine( "Zero is an invalid denominator. Please try again.\n" ); } // end catch } while ( continueLoop ); // end do...while } // end Main } // end class DivideByZeroExceptionHandling

Please enter an integer numerator: 100 Please enter an integer denominator: 7 Result: 100 / 7 = 14

Fig. 13.2 |

FormatException

and DivideByZeroException handlers. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Enter an integer numerator: 100 Enter an integer denominator: 0 Attempted to divide by zero. Zero is an invalid denominator. Please try again. Enter an integer numerator: 100 Enter an integer denominator: 7 Result: 100 / 7 = 14

Enter an integer numerator: 100 Enter an integer denominator: hello Input string was not in a correct format. You must enter two integers. Please try again. Enter an integer numerator: 100 Enter an integer denominator: 7 Result: 100 / 7 = 14

Fig. 13.2 |

FormatException

and DivideByZeroException handlers. (Part 2 of 2.)

Sample Outputs Before we discuss the details of the program, let’s consider the sample outputs in Fig. 13.2. The first sample output shows a successful calculation in which the user enters the numerator 100 and the denominator 7. The result (14) is an int, because integer division always yields an int result. The second sample output demonstrates the result of an attempt to divide by zero. In integer arithmetic, the CLR tests for division by zero and generates a DivideByZeroException if the denominator is zero. The program detects the exception and displays an error message indicating the attempt to divide by zero. The last sample output depicts the result of inputting a non-int value—in this case, the user enters "hello" as the denominator. The program attempts to convert the input strings to ints using method Convert.ToInt32 (lines 19 and 21). If an argument cannot be converted to an int, the method throws a FormatException. The program catches the exception and displays an error message indicating that the user must enter two ints. Another Way to Convert Strings to Integers Another way to validate the input is to use the Int32.TryParse method, which converts a string to an int value if possible. All of the numeric types have TryParse methods. The method requires two arguments—one is the string to parse and the other is the variable in which the converted value is to be stored. The method returns a bool value that’s true only if the string was parsed successfully. If the string could not be converted, the value 0 is assigned to the second argument, which is passed by reference so its value can be modified in the calling method. Method TryParse can be used to validate input in code rather than allowing the code to throw an exception.

13.3.1 Enclosing Code in a try Block Now we consider the user interactions and flow of control that yield the results shown in the sample output windows. Lines 14–31 define a try block enclosing the code that might

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throw exceptions, as well as the code that’s skipped when an exception occurs. For example, the program should not display a new result (lines 28–29) unless the calculation in line 25 completes successfully. The user inputs values that represent the numerator and denominator. The two statements that read the ints (lines 19 and 21) call method Convert.ToInt32 to convert strings to int values. This method throws a FormatException if it cannot convert its string argument to an int. If lines 19 and 21 convert the values properly (i.e., no exceptions occur), then line 25 divides the numerator by the denominator and assigns the result to variable result. If denominator is 0, line 25 causes the CLR to throw a DivideByZeroException. If line 25 does not cause an exception to be thrown, then lines 28–29 display the result of the division.

13.3.2 Catching Exceptions Exception-handling code appears in a catch block. In general, when an exception occurs in a try block, a corresponding catch block catches the exception and handles it. The try block in this example is followed by two catch blocks—one that handles a FormatException (lines 32–37) and one that handles a DivideByZeroException (lines 38–43). A catch block specifies an exception parameter representing the exception that the catch block can handle. The catch block can use the parameter’s identifier (which you choose) to interact with a caught exception object. If there’s no need to use the exception object in the catch block, the exception parameter’s identifier can be omitted. The type of the catch’s parameter is the type of the exception that the catch block handles. Optionally, you can include a catch block that does not specify an exception type—such a catch block (known as a general catch clause) catches all exception types. At least one catch block and/or a finally block (discussed in Section 13.5) must immediately follow a try block. In Fig. 13.2, the first catch block catches FormatExceptions (thrown by method Convert.ToInt32), and the second catch block catches DivideByZeroExceptions (thrown by the CLR). If an exception occurs, the program executes only the first matching catch block. Both exception handlers in this example display an error-message dialog. After either catch block terminates, program control continues with the first statement after the last catch block (the end of the method, in this example). We’ll soon take a deeper look at how this flow of control works in exception handling.

13.3.3 Uncaught Exceptions An uncaught exception (or unhandled exception) is an exception for which there’s no matching catch block. You saw the results of uncaught exceptions in the second and third outputs of Fig. 13.1. Recall that when exceptions occur in that example, the application terminates early (after displaying the exception’s stack trace). The result of an uncaught exception depends on how you execute the program—Fig. 13.1 demonstrated the results of an uncaught exception when an application is executed in a Command Prompt. If you run the application from Visual Studio with debugging, and the runtime environment detects an uncaught exception, the application pauses, and a window called the Exception Assistant appears indicating where the exception occurred, the type of the exception and links to helpful information on handling the exception. Figure 13.3 shows the Exception Assistant that’s displayed if the user attempts to divide by zero in the application of Fig. 13.1.

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Throw point

Exception Assistant

Fig. 13.3 | Exception Assistant.

13.3.4 Termination Model of Exception Handling When a method called in a program or the CLR detects a problem, the method or the CLR throws an exception. Recall that the point in the program at which an exception occurs is called the throw point—this is an important location for debugging purposes (as we demonstrate in Section 13.7). If an exception occurs in a try block (such as a FormatException being thrown as a result of the code in lines 19 and 21 in Fig. 13.2), the try block terminates immediately, and program control transfers to the first of the following catch blocks in which the exception parameter’s type matches the type of the thrown exception. In Fig. 13.2, the first catch block catches FormatExceptions (which occur if input of an invalid type is entered); the second catch block catches DivideByZeroExceptions (which occur if an attempt is made to divide by zero). After the exception is handled, program control does not return to the throw point because the try block has expired (which also causes any of its local variables to go out of scope). Rather, control resumes after the last catch block. This is known as the termination model of exception handling. [Note: Some languages use the resumption model of exception handling, in which, after an exception is handled, control resumes just after the throw point.] If no exceptions occur in the try block, the program of Fig. 13.2 successfully completes the try block by ignoring the catch blocks in lines 32–37 and 38–43, and passing line 43. Then the program executes the first statement following the try and catch blocks. In this example, the program reaches the end of the do…while loop (line 44), so the method terminates, and the program awaits the next user interaction. The try block and its corresponding catch and finally blocks together form a try statement. It’s important not to confuse the terms “try block” and “try statement”—the term “try block” refers to the block of code following the keyword try (but before any catch or finally blocks), while the term “try statement” includes all the code from the

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opening try keyword to the end of the last catch or finally block. This includes the try block, as well as any associated catch blocks and finally block. When a try block terminates, local variables defined in the block go out of scope. If a try block terminates due to an exception, the CLR searches for the first catch block that can process the type of exception that occurred. The CLR locates the matching catch by comparing the type of the thrown exception to each catch’s parameter type. A match occurs if the types are identical or if the thrown exception’s type is a derived class of the catch’s parameter type. Once an exception is matched to a catch block, the code in that block executes and the other catch blocks in the try statement are ignored.

13.3.5 Flow of Control When Exceptions Occur In the third sample output of Fig. 13.2, the user inputs hello as the denominator. When line 21 executes, Convert.ToInt32 cannot convert this string to an int, so the method throws a FormatException object to indicate that the method was unable to convert the string to an int. When the exception occurs, the try block expires (terminates). Next, the CLR attempts to locate a matching catch block. A match occurs with the catch block in line 32, so the exception handler displays the exception’s Message property (to retrieve the error message associated with the exception) and the program ignores all other exception handlers following the try block. Program control then continues with line 44.

Common Programming Error 13.1 Specifying a comma-separated list of parameters in a catch block can have at most one parameter.

catch

block is a syntax error. A

In the second sample output of Fig. 13.2, the user inputs 0 as the denominator. When the division in line 25 executes, a DivideByZeroException occurs. Once again, the try block terminates, and the program attempts to locate a matching catch block. In this case, the first catch block does not match—the exception type in the catch-handler declaration is not the same as the type of the thrown exception, and FormatException is not a base class of DivideByZeroException. Therefore the program continues to search for a matching catch block, which it finds in line 38. Line 40 displays the exception’s Message property. Again, program control then continues with line 44.

13.4 .NET Exception Hierarchy In C#, the exception-handling mechanism allows only objects of class Exception (namespace System) and its derived classes to be thrown and caught. Note, however, that C# programs may interact with software components written in other .NET languages (such as C++) that do not restrict exception types. The general catch clause can be used to catch such exceptions. This section overviews several of the .NET Framework’s exception classes and focuses exclusively on exceptions that derive from class Exception. In addition, we discuss how to determine whether a particular method throws exceptions.

13.4.1 Class SystemException Class Exception (namespace System) is the base class of .NET’s exception class hierarchy. An important derived class is SystemException. The CLR generates SystemExceptions.

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Many of these can be avoided if applications are coded properly. For example, if a program attempts to access an out-of-range array index, the CLR throws an exception of type IndexOutOfRangeException (a derived class of SystemException). Similarly, an exception occurs when a program uses a reference-type variable to call a method when the reference has a value of null. This causes a NullReferenceException (another derived class of SystemException). You saw earlier in this chapter that a DivideByZeroException occurs in integer division when a program attempts to divide by zero. Other exceptions thrown by the CLR include OutOfMemoryException, StackOverflowException and ExecutionEngineException, which are thrown when something goes wrong that causes the CLR to become unstable. Sometimes such exceptions cannot even be caught. It’s best to simply log such exceptions, then terminate your application. A benefit of the exception class hierarchy is that a catch block can catch exceptions of a particular type or—because of the is-a relationship of inheritance—can use a base-class type to catch exceptions in a hierarchy of related exception types. For example, Section 13.3.2 discussed the catch block with no parameter, which catches exceptions of all types (including those that are not derived from Exception). A catch block that specifies a parameter of type Exception can catch all exceptions that derive from Exception, because Exception is the base class of all exception classes. The advantage of this approach is that the exception handler can access the caught exception’s information via the parameter in the catch. We’ll say more about accessing exception information in Section 13.7. Using inheritance with exceptions enables an catch block to catch related exceptions using a concise notation. A set of exception handlers could catch each derived-class exception type individually, but catching the base-class exception type is more concise. However, this technique makes sense only if the handling behavior is the same for a base class and all derived classes. Otherwise, catch each derived-class exception individually.

Common Programming Error 13.2 The compiler issues an error if a catch block that catches a base-class exception is placed before a catch block for any of that class’s derived-class types. In this case, the base-class catch block would catch all base-class and derived-class exceptions, so the derived-class exception handler would never execute.

13.4.2 Determining Which Exceptions a Method Throws How do we determine that an exception might occur in a program? For methods contained in the .NET Framework classes, read the detailed descriptions of the methods in the online documentation. If a method throws an exception, its description contains a section called Exceptions that specifies the types of exceptions the method throws and briefly describes what causes them. For an example, search for “Convert.ToInt32 method” in the Visual Studio online documentation. The Exceptions section of this method’s web page indicates that method Convert.ToInt32 throws two exception types—FormatException and OverflowException—and describes the reason why each might occur. [Note: You can also find this information in the Object Browser described in Section 10.15.]

Software Engineering Observation 13.1 If a method throws exceptions, statements that invoke the method directly or indirectly should be placed in try blocks, and those exceptions should be caught and handled.

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It’s more difficult to determine when the CLR throws exceptions. Such information appears in the C# Language Specification (available from bit.ly/CSharp4Spec). This document defines C#’s syntax and specifies cases in which exceptions are thrown.

13.5 finally Block Programs frequently request and release resources dynamically (i.e., at execution time). For example, a program that reads a file from disk first makes a file-open request (as we’ll see in Chapter 17, Files and Streams). If that request succeeds, the program reads the contents of the file. Operating systems typically prevent more than one program from manipulating a file at once. Therefore, when a program finishes processing a file, the program should close the file (i.e., release the resource) so other programs can use it. If the file is not closed, a resource leak occurs. In such a case, the file resource is not available to other programs, possibly because a program using the file has not closed it. In programming languages such as C and C++, in which the programmer is responsible for dynamic memory management, the most common type of resource leak is a memory leak. A memory leak occurs when a program allocates memory (as C# programmers do via keyword new), but does not deallocate the memory when it’s no longer needed. Normally, this is not an issue in C#, because the CLR performs garbage collection of memory that’s no longer needed by an executing program (Section 10.9). However, other kinds of resource leaks (such as unclosed files) can occur.

Error-Prevention Tip 13.1 The CLR does not completely eliminate memory leaks. The CLR will not garbage collect an object until the program contains no more references to that object, and even then there may be a delay until the memory is required. Thus, memory leaks can occur if you inadvertently keep references to unwanted objects.

Moving Resource-Release Code to a finally Block Typically, exceptions occur when processing resources that require explicit release. For example, a program that processes a file might receive IOExceptions during the processing. For this reason, file-processing code normally appears in a try block. Regardless of whether a program experiences exceptions while processing a file, the program should close the file when it’s no longer needed. Suppose a program places all resource-request and resource-release code in a try block. If no exceptions occur, the try block executes normally and releases the resources after using them. However, if an exception occurs, the try block may expire before the resource-release code can execute. We could duplicate all the resource-release code in each of the catch blocks, but this would make the code more difficult to modify and maintain. We could also place the resource-release code after the try statement; however, if the try block terminated due to a return statement, code following the try statement would never execute. To address these problems, C#’s exception-handling mechanism provides the finally block, which is guaranteed to execute regardless of whether the try block executes successfully or an exception occurs. This makes the finally block an ideal location in which to place resource-release code for resources that are acquired and manipulated in the corresponding try block. If the try block executes successfully, the finally block executes immediately after the try block terminates. If an exception occurs in the try block, Download at www.wowebook.com

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the finally block executes immediately after a catch block completes. If the exception is not caught by a catch block associated with the try block, or if a catch block associated with the try block throws an exception itself, the finally block executes before the exception is processed by the next enclosing try block, which could be in the calling method. By placing the resource-release code in a finally block, we ensure that even if the program terminates due to an uncaught exception, the resource will be deallocated. Local variables in a try block cannot be accessed in the corresponding finally block. For this reason, variables that must be accessed in both a try block, and its corresponding finally block should be declared before the try block.

Error-Prevention Tip 13.2 A finally block typically contains code to release resources acquired in the corresponding try block, which makes the finally block an effective mechanism for eliminating resource leaks.

Performance Tip 13.1 As a rule, resources should be released as soon as they’re no longer needed in a program. This makes them available for reuse promptly.

If one or more catch blocks follow a try block, the finally block is optional. However, if no catch blocks follow a try block, a finally block must appear immediately after the try block. If any catch blocks follow a try block, the finally block (if there is one) appears after the last catch block. Only whitespace and comments can separate the blocks in a try statement.

Demonstrating the finally Block The application in Fig. 13.4 demonstrates that the finally block always executes, regardless of whether an exception occurs in the corresponding try block. The program consists of method Main (lines 8–47) and four other methods that Main invokes to demonstrate finally. These methods are DoesNotThrowException (lines 50–67), ThrowExceptionWithCatch (lines 70–89), ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch (lines 92–108) and ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow (lines 111–136). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

// Fig. 13.4: UsingExceptions.cs // Using finally blocks. // finally blocks always execute, even when no exception occurs. using System; class UsingExceptions { static void Main() { // Case 1: No exceptions occur in called method Console.WriteLine( "Calling DoesNotThrowException" ); DoesNotThrowException();

Fig. 13.4 |

// Case 2: Exception occurs and is caught in called method Console.WriteLine( "\nCalling ThrowExceptionWithCatch" ); finally

blocks always execute, even when no exception occurs. (Part 1 of 4.)

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13.5 finally Block

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

385

ThrowExceptionWithCatch(); // Case 3: Exception occurs, but is not caught in called method // because there is no catch block. Console.WriteLine( "\nCalling ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch" ); // call ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch try { ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch(); } // end try catch { Console.WriteLine( "Caught exception from " + "ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch in Main" ); } // end catch // Case 4: Exception occurs and is caught in called method, // then rethrown to caller. Console.WriteLine( "\nCalling ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow" ); // call ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow try { ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow(); } // end try catch { Console.WriteLine( "Caught exception from " + "ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow in Main" ); } // end catch } // end method Main // no exceptions thrown static void DoesNotThrowException() { // try block does not throw any exceptions try { Console.WriteLine( "In DoesNotThrowException" ); } // end try catch { Console.WriteLine( "This catch never executes" ); } // end catch finally { Console.WriteLine( "finally executed in DoesNotThrowException" ); } // end finally Console.WriteLine( "End of DoesNotThrowException" ); } // end method DoesNotThrowException

Fig. 13.4 |

finally

blocks always execute, even when no exception occurs. (Part 2 of 4.)

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// throws exception and catches it locally static void ThrowExceptionWithCatch() { // try block throws exception try { Console.WriteLine( "In ThrowExceptionWithCatch" ); throw new Exception( "Exception in ThrowExceptionWithCatch" ); } // end try catch ( Exception exceptionParameter ) { Console.WriteLine( "Message: " + exceptionParameter.Message ); } // end catch finally { Console.WriteLine( "finally executed in ThrowExceptionWithCatch" ); } // end finally Console.WriteLine( "End of ThrowExceptionWithCatch" ); } // end method ThrowExceptionWithCatch // throws exception and does not catch it locally static void ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch() { // throw exception, but do not catch it try { Console.WriteLine( "In ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch" ); throw new Exception( "Exception in ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch" ); } // end try finally { Console.WriteLine( "finally executed in " + "ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch" ); } // end finally // unreachable code; logic error Console.WriteLine( "End of ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch" ); } // end method ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch // throws exception, catches it and rethrows it static void ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow() { // try block throws exception try { Console.WriteLine( "In ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow" ); throw new Exception( "Exception in ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow" ); } // end try catch ( Exception exceptionParameter ) { Console.WriteLine( "Message: " + exceptionParameter.Message );

Fig. 13.4 |

finally

blocks always execute, even when no exception occurs. (Part 3 of 4.)

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387

122 // rethrow exception for further processing 123 throw; 124 125 126 // unreachable code; logic error 127 } // end catch 128 finally { 129 Console.WriteLine( "finally executed in " + 130 131 "ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow" ); } // end finally 132 133 134 // any code placed here is never reached 135 Console.WriteLine( "End of ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow" ); 136 } // end method ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow 137 } // end class UsingExceptions Calling DoesNotThrowException In DoesNotThrowException finally executed in DoesNotThrowException End of DoesNotThrowException Calling ThrowExceptionWithCatch In ThrowExceptionWithCatch Message: Exception in ThrowExceptionWithCatch finally executed in ThrowExceptionWithCatch End of ThrowExceptionWithCatch Calling ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch In ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch finally executed in ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch Caught exception from ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch in Main Calling ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow In ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow Message: Exception in ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow finally executed in ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow Caught exception from ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow in Main

Fig. 13.4 |

finally

blocks always execute, even when no exception occurs. (Part 4 of 4.)

Line 12 of Main invokes method DoesNotThrowException. This method’s try block outputs a message (line 55). Because the try block does not throw any exceptions, program control ignores the catch block (lines 57–60) and executes the finally block (lines 61– 64), which outputs a message. At this point, program control continues with the first statement after the close of the finally block (line 66), which outputs a message indicating that the end of the method has been reached. Then, program control returns to Main.

Throwing Exceptions Using the throw Statement Line 16 of Main invokes method ThrowExceptionWithCatch (lines 70–89), which begins in its try block (lines 73–77) by outputting a message. Next, the try block creates an Exception object and uses a throw statement to throw it (line 76). Executing the throw statement indicates that a problem has occurred in the code. As you’ve seen in earlier chapters, you can throw exceptions by using the throw statement. Just as with exceptions Download at www.wowebook.com

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thrown by the Framework Class Library’s methods and the CLR, this indicates to client applications that an error has occurred. A throw statement specifies an object to be thrown. The operand of a throw statement can be of type Exception or of any type derived from class Exception. The string passed to the constructor becomes the exception object’s error message. When a throw statement in a try block executes, the try block expires immediately, and program control continues with the first matching catch block (lines 78–81) following the try block. In this example, the type thrown (Exception) matches the type specified in the catch, so line 80 outputs a message indicating the exception that occurred. Then, the finally block (lines 82–86) executes and outputs a message. At this point, program control continues with the first statement after the close of the finally block (line 88), which outputs a message indicating that the end of the method has been reached. Program control then returns to Main. In line 80, we use the exception object’s Message property to retrieve the error message associated with the exception (i.e., the message passed to the Exception constructor). Section 13.7 discusses several properties of class Exception. Lines 23–31 of Main define a try statement in which Main invokes method ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch (lines 92–108). The try block enables Main to catch any exceptions thrown by ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch. The try block in lines 95–99 of ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch begins by outputting a message. Next, the try block throws an Exception (line 98) and expires immediately. Normally, program control would continue at the first catch following this try block. However, this try block does not have any catch blocks. Therefore, the exception is not caught in method ThrowExceptionWithoutCatch. Program control proceeds to the finally block (lines 100–104), which outputs a message. At this point, program control returns to Main—any statements appearing after the finally block (e.g., line 107) do not execute. In this example, such statements could cause logic errors, because the exception thrown in line 98 is not caught. In Main, the catch block in lines 27–31 catches the exception and displays a message indicating that the exception was caught in Main.

Rethrowing Exceptions Lines 38–46 of Main define a try statement in which Main invokes method ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow (lines 111–136). The try statement enables Main to catch any exceptions thrown by ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow. The try statement in lines 114– 132 of ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow begins by outputting a message. Next, the try block throws an Exception (line 117). The try block expires immediately, and program control continues at the first catch (lines 119–127) following the try block. In this example, the type thrown (Exception) matches the type specified in the catch, so line 121 outputs a message indicating where the exception occurred. Line 124 uses the throw statement to rethrow the exception. This indicates that the catch block performed partial processing of the exception and now is throwing the exception again (in this case, back to the method Main) for further processing. In general, it’s considered better practice to throw a new exception and pass the original one to the new exception’s constructor. This maintains all of the stack-trace information from the original exception. Rethrowing an exception loses the original exception’s stack-trace information. You can also rethrow an exception with a version of the throw statement which takes an operand that is the reference to the exception that was caught. It’s important to note, however, that this form of throw statement resets the throw point, so the original throw

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point’s stack-trace information is lost. Section 13.7 demonstrates using a throw statement with an operand from a catch block. In that section, you’ll see that after an exception is caught, you can create and throw a different type of exception object from the catch block and you can include the original exception as part of the new exception object. Class library designers often do this to customize the exception types thrown from methods in their class libraries or to provide additional debugging information. The exception handling in method ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow does not complete, because the throw statement in line 124 immediately terminates the catch block— if there were any code between line 124 and the end of the block, it would not execute. When line 124 executes, method ThrowExceptionCatchRethrow terminates and returns control to Main. Once again, the finally block (lines 128–132) executes and outputs a message before control returns to Main. When control returns to Main, the catch block in lines 42–46 catches the exception and displays a message indicating that the exception was caught. Then the program terminates.

Returning After a finally Block The next statement to execute after a finally block terminates depends on the exceptionhandling state. If the try block successfully completes, or if a catch block catches and handles an exception, the program continues its execution with the next statement after the finally block. However, if an exception is not caught, or if a catch block rethrows an exception, program control continues in the next enclosing try block. The enclosing try could be in the calling method or in one of its callers. It also is possible to nest a try statement in a try block; in such a case, the outer try statement’s catch blocks would process any exceptions that were not caught in the inner try statement. If a try block executes and has a corresponding finally block, the finally block executes even if the try block terminates due to a return statement. The return occurs after the execution of the finally block.

Common Programming Error 13.3 If an uncaught exception is awaiting processing when the finally block executes, and the finally block throws a new exception that’s not caught in the finally block, the first exception is lost, and the new exception is passed to the next enclosing try block.

Error-Prevention Tip 13.3 When placing code that can throw an exception in a finally block, always enclose the code in a try statement that catches the appropriate exception types. This prevents the loss of any uncaught and rethrown exceptions that occur before the finally block executes.

Software Engineering Observation 13.2 Do not place try blocks around every statement that might throw an exception—this can make programs difficult to read. Instead, place one try block around a significant portion of code, and follow this try block with catch blocks that handle each possible exception. Then follow the catch blocks with a single finally block. Use separate try blocks to distinguish between multiple statements that can throw the same exception type.

13.6 The using Statement Typically resource-release code should be placed in a finally block to ensure that a resource is released, regardless of whether there were exceptions when the resource was used

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in the corresponding try block. An alternative notation—the using statement (not to be confused with the using directive for using namespaces)—simplifies writing code in which you obtain a resource, use the resource in a try block and release the resource in a corresponding finally block. For example, a file-processing application (Chapter 17) could process a file with a using statement to ensure that the file is closed properly when it’s no longer needed. The resource must be an object that implements the IDisposable interface and therefore has a Dispose method. The general form of a using statement is using ( ExampleObject exampleObject = new ExampleObject() ) { exampleObject.SomeMethod(); }

where ExampleObject is a class that implements the IDisposable interface. This code creates an object of type ExampleObject and uses it in a statement, then calls its Dispose method to release any resources used by the object. The using statement implicitly places the code in its body in a try block with a corresponding finally block that calls the object’s Dispose method. For instance, the preceding code is equivalent to { ExampleObject exampleObject = new ExampleObject(); try { exampleObject.SomeMethod(); } finally { if ( exampleObject != null ) ( ( IDisposable ) exampleObject ).Dispose(); } }

The if statement ensures that exampleObject still references an object; otherwise, a NullReferenceException might occur.

13.7 Exception Properties As we discussed in Section 13.4, exception types derive from class Exception, which has several properties. These frequently are used to formulate error messages indicating a caught exception. Two important properties are Message and StackTrace. Property Message stores the error message associated with an Exception object. This message can be a default message associated with the exception type or a customized message passed to an Exception object’s constructor when the Exception object is thrown. Property StackTrace contains a string that represents the method-call stack. Recall that the runtime environment at all times keeps a list of open method calls that have been made but have not yet returned. The StackTrace represents the series of methods that have not finished processing at the time the exception occurs. If the debugging information that is generated by the compiler for the method is accessible to the IDE, the stack trace also includes line numbers; the first line number indicates the throw point, and subsequent line numbers indicate the locations from which the methods in the stack trace were called. PDB files are created by the IDE to maintain the debugging information for your projects.

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Property InnerException Another property used frequently by class-library programmers is InnerException. Typically, class library programmers “wrap” exception objects caught in their code so that they then can throw new exception types that are specific to their libraries. For example, a programmer implementing an accounting system might have some account-number processing code in which account numbers are input as strings but represented as ints in the code. Recall that a program can convert strings to int values with Convert.ToInt32, which throws a FormatException when it encounters an invalid number format. When an invalid account-number format occurs, the accounting-system programmer might wish to employ a different error message than the default message supplied by FormatException or might wish to indicate a new exception type, such as InvalidAccountNumberFormatException. In such cases, you would provide code to catch the FormatException, then create an appropriate type of Exception object in the catch block and pass the original exception as one of the constructor arguments. The original exception object becomes the InnerException of the new exception object. When an InvalidAccountNumberFormatException occurs in code that uses the accounting system library, the catch block that catches the exception can obtain a reference to the original exception via property InnerException. Thus the exception indicates both that the user specified an invalid account number and that the problem was an invalid number format. If the InnerException property is null, this indicates that the exception was not caused by another exception. Other Exception Properties Class Exception provides other properties, including HelpLink, Source and TargetSite. Property HelpLink specifies the location of the help file that describes the problem that occurred. This property is null if no such file exists. Property Source specifies the name of the application or object that caused the exception. Property TargetSite specifies the method where the exception originated. Demonstrating Exception Properties and Stack Unwinding Our next example (Fig. 13.5) demonstrates properties Message, StackTrace and InnerException of class Exception. In addition, the example introduces stack unwinding— when an exception is thrown but not caught in a particular scope, the method-call stack is “unwound,” and an attempt is made to catch the exception in the next outer try block. We keep track of the methods on the call stack as we discuss property StackTrace and the stack-unwinding mechanism. To see the proper stack trace, you should execute this program using steps similar to those presented in Section 13.2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

// Fig. 13.5: Properties.cs // Stack unwinding and Exception class properties. // Demonstrates using properties Message, StackTrace and InnerException. using System; class Properties { static void Main() {

Fig. 13.5 | Stack unwinding and Exception class properties. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// call Method1; any Exception generated is caught // in the catch block that follows try { Method1(); } // end try catch ( Exception exceptionParameter ) { // output the string representation of the Exception, then output // properties Message, StackTrace and InnerException Console.WriteLine( "exceptionParameter.ToString: \n{0}\n", exceptionParameter ); Console.WriteLine( "exceptionParameter.Message: \n{0}\n", exceptionParameter.Message ); Console.WriteLine( "exceptionParameter.StackTrace: \n{0}\n", exceptionParameter.StackTrace ); Console.WriteLine( "exceptionParameter.InnerException: \n{0}\n", exceptionParameter.InnerException ); } // end catch } // end method Main // calls Method2 static void Method1() { Method2(); } // end method Method1 // calls Method3 static void Method2() { Method3(); } // end method Method2 // throws an Exception containing an InnerException static void Method3() { // attempt to convert string to int try { Convert.ToInt32( "Not an integer" ); } // end try catch ( FormatException formatExceptionParameter ) { // wrap FormatException in new Exception throw new Exception( "Exception occurred in Method3", formatExceptionParameter ); } // end catch } // end method Method3 } // end class Properties

exceptionParameter.ToString: System.Exception: Exception occurred in Method3 ---> System.FormatException: Input string was not in a correct format.

Fig. 13.5 | Stack unwinding and Exception class properties. (Part 2 of 3.)

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at System.Number.StringToNumber(String str, NumberStyles options, NumberBuffer& number, NumberFormatInfo info, Boolean parseDecimal) at System.Number.ParseInt32(String s, NumberStyles style, NumberFormatInfo info) at Properties.Method3() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 49 --- End of inner exception stack trace --at Properties.Method3() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 54 at Properties.Method2() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 40 at Properties.Method1() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 34 at Properties.Main() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 14 exceptionParameter.Message: Exception occurred in Method3 exceptionParameter.StackTrace: at Properties.Method3() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 54 at Properties.Method2() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 40 at Properties.Method1() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 34 at Properties.Main() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 14 exceptionParameter.InnerException: System.FormatException: Input string was not in a correct format. at System.Number.StringToNumber(String str, NumberStyles options, NumberBuffer& number, NumberFormatInfo info, Boolean parseDecimal) at System.Number.ParseInt32(String s, NumberStyles style, NumberFormatInfo info) at Properties.Method3() in C:\examples\ch13\Fig13_05\Properties\ Properties\Properties.cs:line 49

Fig. 13.5 | Stack unwinding and Exception class properties. (Part 3 of 3.) Program execution begins with Main, which becomes the first method on the methodcall stack. Line 14 of the try block in Main invokes Method1 (declared in lines 32–35), which becomes the second method on the stack. If Method1 throws an exception, the catch block in lines 16–28 handles the exception and outputs information about the exception that occurred. Line 34 of Method1 invokes Method2 (lines 38–41), which becomes the third method on the stack. Then line 40 of Method2 invokes Method3 (lines 44–57), which becomes the fourth method on the stack. At this point, the method-call stack (from top to bottom) for the program is: Method3 Method2 Method1 Main

The method called most recently (Method3) appears at the top of the stack; the first method called (Main) appears at the bottom. The try statement (lines 47–56) in Method3 in-

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vokes method Convert.ToInt32 (line 49), which attempts to convert a string to an int. At this point, Convert.ToInt32 becomes the fifth and final method on the call stack.

Throwing an Exception with an InnerException Because the argument to Convert.ToInt32 is not in int format, line 49 throws a FormatException that’s caught in line 51 of Method3. The exception terminates the call to Convert.ToInt32, so the method is removed (or unwound) from the method-call stack. The catch block in Method3 then creates and throws an Exception object. The first argument to the Exception constructor is the custom error message for our example, “Exception occurred in Method3.” The second argument is the InnerException—the FormatException that was caught. The StackTrace for this new exception object reflects the point at which the exception was thrown (lines 54–55). Now Method3 terminates, because the exception thrown in the catch block is not caught in the method body. Thus, control returns to the statement that invoked Method3 in the prior method in the call stack (Method2). This removes, or unwinds, Method3 from the method-call stack. When control returns to line 40 in Method2, the CLR determines that line 40 is not in a try block. Therefore the exception cannot be caught in Method2, and Method2 terminates. This unwinds Method2 from the call stack and returns control to line 34 in Method1. Here again, line 34 is not in a try block, so Method1 cannot catch the exception. The method terminates and is unwound from the call stack, returning control to line 14 in Main, which is located in a try block. The try block in Main expires and the catch block (lines 16–28) catches the exception. The catch block uses properties Message, StackTrace and InnerException to create the output. Stack unwinding continues until a catch block catches the exception or the program terminates. Displaying Information About the Exception The first block of output (which we reformatted for readability) in Fig. 13.5 contains the exception’s string representation, which is returned from an implicit call to method ToString. The string begins with the name of the exception class followed by the Message property value. The next four items present the stack trace of the InnerException object. The remainder of the block of output shows the StackTrace for the exception thrown in Method3. The StackTrace represents the state of the method-call stack at the throw point of the exception, rather than at the point where the exception eventually is caught. Each StackTrace line that begins with “at” represents a method on the call stack. These lines indicate the method in which the exception occurred, the file in which the method resides and the line number of the throw point in the file. The inner-exception information includes the inner-exception stack trace.

Error-Prevention Tip 13.4 When catching and rethrowing an exception, provide additional debugging information in the rethrown exception. To do so, create an Exception object containing more specific debugging information, then pass the original caught exception to the new exception object’s constructor to initialize the InnerException property.

The next block of output (two lines) simply displays the Message property’s value (Exception occurred in Method3) of the exception thrown in Method3. The third block of output displays the StackTrace property of the exception thrown in Method3. This StackTrace property contains the stack trace starting from line 54 in

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Method3,

because that’s the point at which the Exception object was created and thrown. The stack trace always begins from the exception’s throw point. Finally, the last block of output displays the string representation of the InnerException property, which includes the namespace and class name of the exception object, as well as its Message and StackTrace properties.

13.8 User-Defined Exception Classes In many cases, you can use existing exception classes from the .NET Framework Class Library to indicate exceptions that occur in your programs. In some cases, however, you might wish to create new exception classes specific to the problems that occur in your programs. User-defined exception classes should derive directly or indirectly from class Exception of namespace System. When you create code that throws exceptions, they should be well documented, so that other developers who use your code will know how to handle them.

Good Programming Practice 13.1 Associating each type of malfunction with an appropriately named exception class improves program clarity.

Software Engineering Observation 13.3 Before creating a user-defined exception class, investigate the existing exceptions in the .NET Framework Class Library to determine whether an appropriate exception type already exists.

Class NegativeNumberException Figures 13.6–13.7 demonstrate a user-defined exception class. NegativeNumberException (Fig. 13.6) represents exceptions that occur when a program performs an illegal operation on a negative number, such as attempting to calculate its square root. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

// Fig. 13.6: NegativeNumberException.cs // NegativeNumberException represents exceptions caused by // illegal operations performed on negative numbers. using System; class NegativeNumberException : Exception { // default constructor public NegativeNumberException() : base( "Illegal operation for a negative number" ) { // empty body } // end default constructor // constructor for customizing error message public NegativeNumberException( string messageValue ) : base( messageValue ) {

Fig. 13.6 |

represents exceptions caused by illegal operations performed on negative numbers. (Part 1 of 2.) NegativeNumberException

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// empty body } // end one-argument constructor // constructor for customizing the exception's error // message and specifying the InnerException object public NegativeNumberException( string messageValue, Exception inner ) : base( messageValue, inner ) { // empty body } // end two-argument constructor } // end namespace SquareRootTest

Fig. 13.6 |

NegativeNumberException represents exceptions caused by illegal operations performed on negative numbers. (Part 2 of 2.)

According to Microsoft’s docuemtn on “Best Practices for Handling Exceptions” (bit.ly/ExceptionsBestPractices), user-defined exceptions should typically extend class Exception, have a class name that ends with “Exception” and define three constructors: a parameterless constructor; a constructor that receives a string argument (the error message); and a constructor that receives a string argument and an Exception argument (the error message and the inner-exception object). Defining these three constructors makes your exception class more flexible, allowing other programmers to easily use and extend it. NegativeNumberExceptions most frequently occur during arithmetic operations, so it seems logical to derive class NegativeNumberException from class ArithmeticException. However, class ArithmeticException derives from class SystemException—the category of exceptions thrown by the CLR. Per Microsoft’s best practices for exception handling, user-defined exception classes should inherit from Exception rather than SystemException. In this case, we could have used the built-in ArgumentException class, which is recommended in the best practices for invalid argument values. We create our own exception type here simply for demonstration purposes.

Class NegativeNumberException Class SquareRootTest (Fig. 13.7) demonstrates our user-defined exception class. The application enables the user to input a numeric value, then invokes method SquareRoot (lines 40–48) to calculate the square root of that value. To perform this calculation, SquareRoot invokes class Math’s Sqrt method, which receives a double value as its argument. Normally, if the argument is negative, method Sqrt returns NaN. In this program, we’d like to prevent the user from calculating the square root of a negative number. If the numeric value that the user enters is negative, method SquareRoot throws a NegativeNumberException (lines 44–45). Otherwise, SquareRoot invokes class Math’s method Sqrt to compute the square root (line 47). When the user inputs a value, the try statement (lines 14–34) attempts to invoke SquareRoot using the value input by the user. If the user input is not a number, a FormatException occurs, and the catch block in lines 25–29 processes the exception. If the user inputs a negative number, method SquareRoot throws a NegativeNumberException (lines 44–45); the catch block in lines 30–34 catches and handles this type of exception.

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// Fig. 13.7: SquareRootTest.cs // Demonstrating a user-defined exception class. using System; class SquareRootTest { static void Main( string[] args ) { bool continueLoop = true; do { // catch any NegativeNumberException thrown try { Console.Write( "Enter a value to calculate the square root of: " ); double inputValue = Convert.ToDouble( Console.ReadLine() ); double result = SquareRoot( inputValue ); Console.WriteLine( "The square root of {0} is {1:F6}\n", inputValue, result ); continueLoop = false; } // end try catch ( FormatException formatException ) { Console.WriteLine( "\n" + formatException.Message ); Console.WriteLine( "Please enter a double value.\n" ); } // end catch catch ( NegativeNumberException negativeNumberException ) { Console.WriteLine( "\n" + negativeNumberException.Message ); Console.WriteLine( "Please enter a non-negative value.\n" ); } // end catch } while ( continueLoop ); } // end Main // computes square root of parameter; throws // NegativeNumberException if parameter is negative public static double SquareRoot( double value ) { // if negative operand, throw NegativeNumberException if ( value < 0 ) throw new NegativeNumberException( "Square root of negative number not permitted" ); else return Math.Sqrt( value ); // compute square root } // end method SquareRoot } // end class SquareRootTest

Enter a value to calculate the square root of: 30 The square root of 30 is 5.477226

Fig. 13.7 | Demonstrating a user-defined exception class. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Enter a value to calculate the square root of: hello Input string was not in a correct format. Please enter a double value. Enter a value to calculate the square root of: 25 The square root of 25 is 5.000000

Enter a value to calculate the square root of: -2 Square root of negative number not permitted Please enter a non-negative value. Enter a value to calculate the square root of: 2 The square root of 2 is 1.414214

Fig. 13.7 | Demonstrating a user-defined exception class. (Part 2 of 2.)

13.9 Wrap-Up In this chapter, you learned how to use exception handling to deal with errors in an application. We demonstrated that exception handling enables you to remove error-handling code from the “main line” of the program’s execution. You saw exception handling in the context of a divide-by-zero example. You learned how to use try blocks to enclose code that may throw an exception, and how to use catch blocks to deal with exceptions that may arise. We explained the termination model of exception handling, in which, after an exception is handled, program control does not return to the throw point. We discussed several important classes of the .NET Exception hierarchy, including Exception (from which user-defined exception classes are derived) and SystemException. Next you learned how to use the finally block to release resources whether or not an exception occurs, and how to throw and rethrow exceptions with the throw statement. We showed how the using statement can be used to automate the process of releasing a resource. You then learned how to obtain information about an exception using Exception properties Message, StackTrace and InnerException, and method ToString. You learned how to create your own exception classes. In the next two chapters, we present an in-depth treatment of graphical user interfaces. In these chapters and throughout the rest of the book, we use exception handling to make our examples more robust, while demonstrating new features of the language.

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14 Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 1 … the wisest prophets make sure of the event first. —Horace Walpole

...The user should feel in control of the computer; not the other way around. This is achieved in applications that embody three qualities: responsiveness, permissiveness, and consistency.

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

Design principles of graphical user interfaces (GUIs).

■

How to create graphical user interfaces.

—Inside Macintosh, Volume 1 Apple Computer, Inc. 1985

■

How to process events in response to user interactions with GUI controls.

All the better to see you with my dear.

■

The namespaces that contain the classes for GUI controls and event handling.

■

How to create and manipulate various controls.

■

How to add descriptive ToolTips to GUI controls.

■

How to process mouse and keyboard events.

—The Big Bad Wolf to Little Red Riding Hood

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14.1 Introduction 14.2 Windows Forms 14.3 Event Handling 14.3.1 A Simple Event-Driven GUI 14.3.2 Visual Studio Generated GUI Code 14.3.3 Delegates and the Event-Handling Mechanism 14.3.4 Another Way to Create Event Handlers 14.3.5 Locating Event Information

14.4 Control Properties and Layout

14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13

Labels, TextBoxes and Buttons GroupBoxes and Panels CheckBoxes and RadioButtons PictureBoxes ToolTips NumericUpDown Control Mouse-Event Handling Keyboard-Event Handling Wrap-Up

14.1 Introduction A graphical user interface (GUI) allows a user to interact visually with a program. A GUI (pronounced “GOO-ee”) gives a program a distinctive “look” and “feel.” Providing different applications with a consistent set of intuitive user-interface components enables users to become productive with each application faster.

Look-and-Feel Observation 14.1 Consistent user interfaces enable a user to learn new applications more quickly because the applications have the same “look” and “feel.”

As an example of a GUI, consider Fig. 14.1, which shows a Visual C# Express Edition window containing various GUI controls. Near the top of the window, there’s a menu bar containing the menus File, Edit, View, Project, Build, Debug, Data, Tools, Window, and Help. Below the menu bar is a tool bar of buttons, each with a defined task, such as creating

Button

Tabs

Menu

Title bar

Menu bar

Tool bar

Fig. 14.1 | GUI controls in the Visual C# IDE window.

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a new project or opening an existing project. There are two tabs below the tool bar—these present information in a tabbed view and allow users to switch between them. These controls form a user-friendly interface through which you have been interacting with the IDE. GUIs are built from GUI controls (which are sometimes called components or widgets—short for window gadgets). GUI controls are objects that can display information on the screen or enable users to interact with an application via the mouse, keyboard or some other form of input (such as voice commands). Several common GUI controls are listed in Fig. 14.2—in the sections that follow and in Chapter 15, we discuss each of these in detail. Chapter 15 also explores the features and properties of additional GUI controls. Control

Description

Label

Displays images or uneditable text. Enables the user to enter data via the keyboard. It can also be used to display editable or uneditable text. Triggers an event when clicked with the mouse. Specifies an option that can be selected (checked) or unselected (not checked). Provides a drop-down list of items from which the user can make a selection either by clicking an item in the list or by typing in a box. Provides a list of items from which the user can make a selection by clicking one or more items. A container in which controls can be placed and organized. Enables the user to select from a range of numeric input values.

TextBox

Button CheckBox ComboBox

ListBox

Panel NumericUpDown

Fig. 14.2 | Some basic GUI controls.

14.2 Windows Forms Windows Forms are used to create the GUIs for programs. A Form is a graphical element that appears on your computer’s desktop; it can be a dialog, a window or an MDI window (multiple document interface window)—discussed in Chapter 15. A component is an instance of a class that implements the IComponent interface, which defines the behaviors that components must implement, such as how the component is loaded. A control, such as a Button or Label, has a graphical representation at runtime. Some components lack graphical representations (e.g., class Timer of namespace System.Windows.Forms—see Chapter 15). Such components are not visible at run time. Figure 14.3 displays the Windows Forms controls and components from the C# Toolbox. The controls and components are organized into categories by functionality. Selecting the category All Windows Forms at the top of the Toolbox allows you to view all the controls and components from the other tabs in one list (as shown in Fig. 14.3). In this chapter and the next, we discuss many of these controls and components. To add a control or component to a Form, select that control or component from the Toolbox and drag it on the Form. To deselect a control or component, select the Pointer item in the Toolbox (the icon at the top of the list). When the Pointer item is selected, you cannot accidentally add a new control to the Form.

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Display all controls and components

Categories that organize controls and components by functionality

Fig. 14.3 | Components and controls for Windows Forms. When there are several windows on the screen, the active window is the frontmost and has a highlighted title bar. A window becomes the active window when the user clicks somewhere inside it. The active window is said to “have the focus.” For example, in Visual Studio the active window is the Toolbox when you’re selecting an item from it, or the Properties window when you’re editing a control’s properties. A Form is a container for controls and components. When you drag items from the Toolbox onto the Form, Visual Studio generates code that creates the object and sets its basic properties. This code is updated when the control or component’s properties are modified in the IDE. Removing a control or component from the Form deletes the corresponding generated code. The IDE maintains the generated code in a separate file using partial classes—classes that are split among multiple files and assembled into a single class by the compiler. We could write this code ourselves, but it’s much easier to allow Visual Studio to handle the details. We introduced visual programming concepts in Chapter 2. In this chapter and the next, we use visual programming to build more substantial GUIs. Each control or component we present in this chapter is located in namespace System.Windows.Forms. To create a Windows application, you generally create a Windows Form, set its properties, add controls to the Form, set their properties and implement event handlers (methods) that respond to events generated by the controls. Figure 14.4 lists common Form properties, methods and a common event. When we create controls and event handlers, Visual Studio generates much of the GUI-related code. In visual programming, the IDE maintains GUI-related code and you write the bodies of the event handlers to indicate what actions the program should take when particular events occur.

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14.3 Event Handling

properties, methods and an event

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Form

Description

Common Properties AcceptButton AutoScroll CancelButton FormBorderStyle Font

Text

that is clicked when Enter is pressed. bool value that allows or disallows scrollbars when needed. Button that is clicked when the Escape key is pressed. Border style for the Form (e.g., none, single, three-dimensional). Font of text displayed on the Form, and the default font for controls added to the Form. Text in the Form’s title bar. Button

Common Methods Close

Hide Show

Closes a Form and releases all resources, such as the memory used for the Form’s contents. A closed Form cannot be reopened. Hides a Form, but does not destroy the Form or release its resources. Displays a hidden Form.

Common Event Load

Occurs before a Form is displayed to the user. The handler for this event is displayed in the Visual Studio editor when you double click the Form in the Visual Studio designer.

Fig. 14.4 | Common Form properties, methods and an event.

14.3 Event Handling Normally, a user interacts with an application’s GUI to indicate the tasks that the application should perform. For example, when you write an e-mail in an e-mail application, clicking the Send button tells the application to send the e-mail to the specified e-mail addresses. GUIs are event driven. When the user interacts with a GUI component, the interaction— known as an event—drives the program to perform a task. Common events (user interactions) that might cause an application to perform a task include clicking a Button, typing in a TextBox, selecting an item from a menu, closing a window and moving the mouse. All GUI controls have events associated with them. Objects of other types can also have associated events as well. A method that performs a task in response to an event is called an event handler, and the overall process of responding to events is known as event handling.

14.3.1 A Simple Event-Driven GUI The Form in the application of Fig. 14.5 contains a Button that a user can click to display a MessageBox. In line 6, notice the namespace declaration, which is inserted for every class you create. We’ve been removing these from earlier simple examples because they were unnecessary. Namespaces organize groups of related classes. Each class’s name is actually a combination of its namespace name, a dot (.) and the class name. This is known as the class’s fully qualified class name. You can use the class’s simple name (the unqualified class name—SimpleEventExample) in the application. If you were to reuse this class in an-

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other application, you’d use the fully qualified name or write a using directive so that you could refer to the class by its simple name. We’ll use namespaces like this in Chapters 15 and Chapters 21. If another namespace also contains a class with the same name, the fully qualified class names can be used to distinguish between the classes in the application and prevent a name conflict (also called a name collision). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

// Fig. 14.5: SimpleEventExampleForm.cs // Simple event handling example. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace SimpleEventExample { // Form that shows a simple event handler public partial class SimpleEventExampleForm : Form { // default constructor public SimpleEventExampleForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // handles click event of Button clickButton private void clickButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { MessageBox.Show( "Button was clicked." ); } // end method clickButton_Click } // end class SimpleEventExampleForm } // end namespace SimpleEventExample

Fig. 14.5 | Simple event-handling example. Using the techniques presented in Chapter 2, create a Form containing a Button. First, create a new Windows application. Next, rename the Form1.cs file to SimpleEventExample.cs in the Solution Explorer. Click the Form in the designer, then use the Properties window to set the Form’s Text property to "Simple Event Example". Set the Form’s Font property to Segoe UI, 9pt. To do so, select the Font property in the Properties window, then click the ellipsis (…) button in the property’s value field to display a font dialog. Drag a Button from the Toolbox onto the Form. In the Properties window for the Button, set the (Name) property to clickButton and the Text property to Click Me. You’ll notice that we use a convention in which each variable name we create for a control ends with the control’s type. For example, in the variable name clickButton, “Button” is the control’s type.

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When the user clicks the Button in this example, we want the application to respond by displaying a MessageBox. To do this, you must create an event handler for the Button’s Click event. You can create this event handler by double clicking the Button on the Form, which declares the following empty event handler in the program code: private void clickButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { }

By convention, the IDE names the event-handler method as objectName_eventName (e.g., clickButton_Click). The clickButton_Click event handler executes when the user clicks the clickButton control. Each event handler receives two parameters when it’s called. The first—an object reference typically named sender—is a reference to the object that generated the event. The second is a reference to an event arguments object of type EventArgs (or one of its derived classes), which is typically named e. This object contains additional information about the event that occurred. EventArgs is the base class of all classes that represent event information. To display a MessageBox in response to the event, insert the statement MessageBox.Show( "Button was clicked." );

in the event handler’s body. The resulting event handler appears in lines 18–21 of Fig. 14.5. When you execute the application and click the Button, a MessageBox appears displaying the text "Button was clicked".

14.3.2 Visual Studio Generated GUI Code Visual Studio places the auto-generated GUI code in the Designer.cs file of the Form (SimpleEventExampleForm.Designer.cs in this example). You can open this file by expanding the node in the Solution Explorer window for the file you’re currently working in (SimpleEventExampleForm.cs) and double clicking the file name that ends with Designer.cs. Figs. 14.6 and 14.7 show this file’s contents. The IDE collapses the code in lines

Fig. 14.6 | First half of the Visual Studio generated code file.

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Fig. 14.7 | Second half of the Visual Studio generated code file. 23–57 of Fig. 14.7 by default—you can click the + icon next to line 23 to expand the code, then click the – icon next to that line to collapse it. Now that you have studied classes and objects in detail, this code will be easier to understand. Since this code is created and maintained by Visual Studio, you generally don’t need to look at it. In fact, you do not need to understand most of the code shown here to build GUI applications. However, we now take a closer look to help you understand how GUI applications work. The auto-generated code that defines the GUI is actually part of the Form’s class—in this case, SimpleEventExample. Line 3 of Fig. 14.6 (and line 9 of Fig. 14.5) uses the partial modifier, which allows this class to be split among multiple files, including the files that contain auto-generated code and those in which you write your own code. Line 59 of Fig. 14.7 declares the clickButton that we created in Design mode. It’s declared as an instance variable of class SimpleEventExampleForm. By default, all variable declarations for controls created through C#’s design window have a private access modifier. The code also includes the Dispose method for releasing resources (lines 14–21) and method InitializeComponent (lines 29–55), which contains the code that creates the Button, then sets some of the Button’s and the Form’s properties. The property values correspond to the values set in the Properties window for each control. Visual Studio adds comments to the code that it generates, as in lines 33–35. Line 42 was generated when we created the event handler for the Button’s Click event. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Method InitializeComponent is called when the Form is created, and establishes such properties as the Form title, the Form size, control sizes and text. Visual Studio also uses the code in this method to create the GUI you see in design view. Changing the code in InitializeComponent may prevent Visual Studio from displaying the GUI properly.

Error-Prevention Tip 14.1 The code generated by building a GUI in Design mode is not meant to be modified directly, which is why this code is placed in a separate file. Modifying this code can prevent the GUI from being displayed correctly in Design mode and might cause an application to function incorrectly. Modify control properties only through the Properties window.

14.3.3 Delegates and the Event-Handling Mechanism The control that generates an event is known as the event sender. An event-handling method—known as the event handler—responds to a particular event that a control generates. When the event occurs, the event sender calls its event handler to perform a task (i.e., to “handle the event”). The .NET event-handling mechanism allows you to choose your own names for event-handling methods. However, each event-handling method must declare the proper parameters to receive information about the event that it handles. Since you can choose your own method names, an event sender such as a Button cannot know in advance which method will respond to its events. So, we need a mechanism to indicate which method is the event handler for an event.

Delegates Event handlers are connected to a control’s events via special objects called delegates. A delegate object holds a reference to a method with a signature that is specified by the delegate type’s declaration. GUI controls have predefined delegates that correspond to every event they can generate. For example, the delegate for a Button’s Click event is of type EventHandler (namespace System). If you look at this type in the online help documentation, you’ll see that it’s declared as follows: public delegate void EventHandler( object sender, EventArgs e );

This uses the delegate keyword to declare a delegate type named EventHandler, which can hold references to methods that return void and receive two parameters—one of type object (the event sender) and one of type EventArgs. If you compare the delegate declaration with clickButton_Click’s header (Fig. 14.5, line 18), you’ll see that this event handler indeed meets the requirements of the EventHandler delegate. The preceding declaration actually creates an entire class for you. The details of this special class’s declaration are handled by the compiler.

Indicating the Method that a Delegate Should Call An event sender calls a delegate object like a method. Since each event handler is declared as a delegate, the event sender can simply call the appropriate delegate when an event occurs—a Button calls the EventHandler delegate that corresponds to its Click event in response to a click. The delegate’s job is to invoke the appropriate method. To enable the clickButton_Click method to be called, Visual Studio assigns clickButton_Click to the Download at www.wowebook.com

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delegate, as shown in line 42 of Fig. 14.7. This code is added by Visual Studio when you double click the Button control in Design mode. The expression new System.EventHandler(this.clickButton_Click);

creates an EventHandler delegate object and initializes it with the clickButton_Click method. Line 42 uses the += operator to add the delegate to the Button’s Click event. This indicates that clickButton_Click will respond when a user clicks the Button. The += operator is overloaded by the delegate class that is created by the compiler. You can actually specify that several different methods should be invoked in response to an event by adding other delegates to the Button’s Click event with statements similar to line 42 of Fig. 14.7. Event delegates are multicast—they represent a set of delegate objects that all have the same signature. Multicast delegates enable several methods to be called in response to a single event. When an event occurs, the event sender calls every method referenced by the multicast delegate. This is known as event multicasting. Event delegates derive from class MulticastDelegate, which derives from class Delegate (both from namespace System).

14.3.4 Another Way to Create Event Handlers For the GUI application in Fig. 14.5, you double clicked the Button control on the Form to create its event handler. This technique creates an event handler for a control’s default event—the event that is most frequently used with that control. Controls can generate many different events, and each one can have its own event handler. For instance, your application can also provide an event handler for a Button’s MouseHover event, which occurs when the mouse pointer remains positioned over the Button for a short period of time. We now discuss how to create an event handler for an event that is not a control’s default event.

Using the Properties Window to Create Event Handlers You can create additional event handlers through the Properties window. If you select a control on the Form, then click the Events icon (the lightning bolt icon in Fig. 14.8) in the Properties window, all the events for that control are listed in the window. You can double click an event’s name to display the event handler in the editor, if the event handler already exists, or to create the event handler. You can also select an event, then use the drop-down list to its right to choose an existing method that should be used as the event handler for that event. The methods that appear in this drop-down list are the Form class’s methods that have the proper signature to be an event handler for the selected event. You can return to viewing the properties of a control by selecting the Properties icon (Fig. 14.8). A single method can handle multiple events from multiple controls. For example, the Click events of three Buttons could all be handled by the same method. You can specify an event handler for multiple events by selecting multiple controls and selecting a single method in the Properties window. If you create a new event handler this way, you should rename it appropriately. You could also select each control individually and specify the same method for each one’s event.

14.3.5 Locating Event Information Read the Visual Studio documentation to learn about the different events raised by each control. To do this, select a control in the IDE and press the F1 key to display that control’s online help (Fig. 14.9). The web page that is displayed contains basic information

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Properties icon Events icon

Selected event

Fig. 14.8 | Viewing events for a Button control in the Properties window. about the control’s class. In the left column of the page are several links to more information about the class—Members, Constructor, Methods, Properties and Events. This list may vary by class. The Members link displays a complete list of the class’s members. This list includes the events that the class can generate. Each of the other links displays a subset of the class’s members. Click the link to the list of events for that control (Button Events in this case) to display the supported events for that control.

Link to list of supported events

Control’s class name

Fig. 14.9 | List of Button events.

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Next, click the name of an event to view its description and examples of its use. We selected the Click event to display the information in Fig. 14.10. The Click event is a member of class Control, an indirect base class of class Button. The Remarks section of the page discusses the details of the selected event. Alternatively, you could use the Object Browser to look up this information. The Object Browser shows only the members originally defined in a given class. The Click event is originally defined in class Control and inherited into Button. For this reason, you must look at class Control in the Object Browser to see the documentation for the Click event. See Section 10.15 for more information regarding the Object Browser.

Event name Event type Event argument class

Fig. 14.10 |

Click

event details.

14.4 Control Properties and Layout This section overviews properties that are common to many controls. Controls derive from class Control (namespace System.Windows.Forms). Figure 14.11 lists some of class Control’s properties and methods. The properties shown here can be set for many controls. For example, the Text property specifies the text that appears on a control. The location of this text varies depending on the control. In a Form, the text appears in the title bar, but the text of a Button appears on its face. The Select method transfers the focus to a control and makes it the active control. When you press the Tab key in an executing Windows application, controls receive the focus in the order specified by their TabIndex property. This property is set by Visual Studio based on the order in which controls are added to a Form, but you can change the tabbing order. TabIndex is helpful for users who enter information in many controls, such

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Class Control properties and methods

411

Description

Common Properties BackColor BackgroundImage Enabled

Focused Font ForeColor

TabIndex

TabStop Text

Visible

The control’s background color. The control’s background image. Specifies whether the control is enabled (i.e., if the user can interact with it). Typically, portions of a disabled control appear “grayed out” as a visual indication to the user that the control is disabled. Indicates whether the control has the focus. The Font used to display the control’s text. The control’s foreground color. This usually determines the color of the text in the Text property. The tab order of the control. When the Tab key is pressed, the focus transfers between controls based on the tab order. You can set this order. If true, then a user can give focus to this control via the Tab key. The text associated with the control. The location and appearance of the text vary depending on the type of control. Indicates whether the control is visible.

Common Methods Hide Select Show

Hides the control (sets the Visible property to false). Acquires the focus. Shows the control (sets the Visible property to true).

Fig. 14.11 | Class Control properties and methods. as a set of TextBoxes that represent a user’s name, address and telephone number. The user can enter information, then quickly select the next control by pressing the Tab key. The Enabled property indicates whether the user can interact with a control to generate an event. Often, if a control is disabled, it’s because an option is unavailable to the user at that time. For example, text editor applications often disable the “paste” command until the user copies some text. In most cases, a disabled control’s text appears in gray (rather than in black). You can also hide a control from the user without disabling the control by setting the Visible property to false or by calling method Hide. In each case, the control still exists but is not visible on the Form.

Anchoring and Docking You can use anchoring and docking to specify the layout of controls inside a container (such as a Form). Anchoring causes controls to remain at a fixed distance from the sides of the container even when the container is resized. Anchoring enhances the user experience. For example, if the user expects a control to appear in a particular corner of the application, anchoring ensures that the control will always be in that corner—even if the user resizes the Form. Docking attaches a control to a container such that the control stretches Download at www.wowebook.com

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across an entire side or fills an entire area. For example, a button docked to the top of a container stretches across the entire top of that container, regardless of the width of the container. When parent containers are resized, anchored controls are moved (and possibly resized) so that the distance from the sides to which they’re anchored does not vary. By default, most controls are anchored to the top-left corner of the Form. To see the effects of anchoring a control, create a simple Windows application that contains two Buttons. Anchor one control to the right and bottom sides by setting the Anchor property as shown in Fig. 14.12. Leave the other control with its default anchoring (top, left). Execute the application and enlarge the Form. Notice that the Button anchored to the bottom-right corner is always the same distance from the Form’s bottom-right corner (Fig. 14.13), but that the other control stays its original distance from the top-left corner of the Form. Anchoring window Click the down-arrow in the Anchor property to display the anchoring window

Darkened bars indicate the container’s side(s) to which the control is anchored; use mouse clicks to select or deselect a bar

Fig. 14.12 | Manipulating the Anchor property of a control. Before resizing

After resizing

Constant distance to right and bottom sides

Fig. 14.13 | Anchoring demonstration. Sometimes, it’s desirable for a control to span an entire side of the Form, even when the Form is resized. For example, a control such as a status bar typically should remain at the bottom of the Form. Docking allows a control to span an entire side (left, right, top or bottom) of its parent container or to fill the entire container. When the parent control is resized, the docked control resizes as well. In Fig. 14.14, a Button is docked at the top of the Form (spanning the top portion). When the Form is resized, the Button is resized to the Form’s new width. Forms have a Padding property that specifies the distance between the docked controls and the Form edges. This property specifies four values (one for each side),

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and each value is set to 0 by default. Some common control layout properties are summarized in Fig. 14.15.

Before resizing

After resizing

Control extends along entire top portion of form

Fig. 14.14 | Docking a Button to the top of a Form. Control layout

properties

Description

Anchor

Causes a control to remain at a fixed distance from the side(s) of the container even when the container is resized. Allows a control to span one side of its container or to fill the remaining space in the container. Sets the space between a container’s edges and docked controls. The default is 0, causing the control to appear flush with the container’s sides. Specifies the location (as a set of coordinates) of the upper-left corner of the control, in relation to its container’s upper-left corner. Specifies the size of the control in pixels as a Size object, which has properties Width and Height. Indicates the minimum and maximum size of a Control, respectively.

Dock

Padding

Location

Size MinimumSize, MaximumSize

Fig. 14.15 |

Control

layout properties.

The Anchor and Dock properties of a Control are set with respect to the Control’s parent container, which could be a Form or another parent container (such as a Panel; discussed in Section 14.6). The minimum and maximum Form (or other Control) sizes can be set via properties MinimumSize and MaximumSize, respectively. Both are of type Size, which has properties Width and Height to specify the size of the Form. Properties MinimumSize and MaximumSize allow you to design the GUI layout for a given size range. The user cannot make a Form smaller than the size specified by property MinimumSize and cannot make a Form larger than the size specified by property MaximumSize. To set a Form to a fixed size (where the Form cannot be resized by the user), set its minimum and maximum size to the same value.

Look-and-Feel Observation 14.2 For resizable Forms, ensure that the GUI layout appears consistent across various Form sizes.

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Using Visual Studio To Edit a GUI’s Layout Visual Studio helps you with GUI layout. When you drag a control across a Form, blue snap lines appear to help you position the control with respect to others (Fig. 14.16) and the Form’s edges. This feature makes the control you’re dragging appear to “snap into place” alongside other controls. Visual Studio also provides the Format menu, which contains options for modifying your GUI’s layout. The Format menu does not appear in the IDE unless you select one or more controls in design view. When you select multiple controls, you can align them with the Format menu’s Align submenu. The Format menu also enables you to modify the space between controls or to center a control on the Form.

Snap line to help align controls on their left sides

Snap line that indicates when a control reaches the minimum recommended distance from another control or the edge of a Form

Fig. 14.16 | Snap lines for aligning controls.

14.5 Labels, TextBoxes and Buttons Labels provide text information (as well as optional images) and are defined with class La-

(a derived class of Control). A Label displays text that the user cannot directly modify. A Label’s text can be changed programmatically by modifying the Label’s Text property. Figure 14.17 lists common Label properties. bel

Common Label properties Font Text TextAlign

Description The font of the text on the Label. The text on the Label. The alignment of the Label’s text on the control—horizontally (left, center or right) and vertically (top, middle or bottom). The default is top, left.

Fig. 14.17 | Common Label properties. A textbox (class TextBox) is an area in which either text can be displayed by a program or the user can type text via the keyboard. A password TextBox is a TextBox that hides the information entered by the user. As the user types characters, the password TextBox masks the user input by displaying a password character. If you set the property UseSystemPasswordChar to true, the TextBox becomes a password TextBox. Users often encounter both types of TextBoxes, when logging into a computer or website—the username TextBox allows users to input their usernames; the password TextBox allows users to enter their passwords. Figure 14.18 lists the common properties and a common event of TextBoxes.

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TextBox properties

and an event

Description

Common Properties If true in a multiline TextBox, pressing Enter in the TextBox creates a new line. If false (the default), pressing Enter is the same as pressing the default Button on the Form. The default Button is the one assigned to a Form’s AcceptButton property. If true, the TextBox can span multiple lines. The default value is false. If true, the TextBox has a gray background, and its text cannot be edited. The default value is false. For multiline textboxes, this property indicates which scrollbars appear (None—the default, Horizontal, Vertical or Both). The TextBox’s text content. When true, the TextBox becomes a password TextBox, and the systemspecified character masks each character the user types.

AcceptsReturn

Multiline ReadOnly

ScrollBars

Text UseSystemPasswordChar

Common Event Generated when the text changes in a TextBox (i.e., when the user adds or deletes characters). When you double click the TextBox control in Design mode, an empty event handler for this event is generated.

TextChanged

Fig. 14.18 |

TextBox

properties and an event.

A button is a control that the user clicks to trigger a specific action or to select an option in a program. As you’ll see, a program can use several types of buttons, such as checkboxes and radio buttons. All the button classes derive from class ButtonBase (namespace System.Windows.Forms), which defines common button features. In this section, we discuss class Button, which typically enables a user to issue a command to an application. Figure 14.19 lists common properties and a common event of class Button. Button properties

and an event

Description

Common Properties Specifies the text displayed on the Button face. Modifies a Button’s appearance—attribute Flat (for the Button to display without a three-dimensional appearance), Popup (for the Button to appear flat until the user moves the mouse pointer over the Button), Standard (three-dimensional) and System, where the Button’s appearance is controlled by the operating system. The default value is Standard.

Text FlatStyle

Common Event Click

Fig. 14.19 |

Generated when the user clicks the Button. When you double click a Button in design view, an empty event handler for this event is created. Button

properties and an event.

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Figure 14.20 uses a TextBox, a Button and a Label. The user enters text into a password box and clicks the Button, causing the text input to be displayed in the Label. Normally, we would not display this text—the purpose of password TextBoxes is to hide the text being entered by the user. When the user clicks the Show Me Button, this application retrieves the text that the user typed in the password TextBox and displays it in a Label. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

// Fig. 14.20: LabelTextBoxButtonTestForm.cs // Using a TextBox, Label and Button to display // the hidden text in a password TextBox. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace LabelTextBoxButtonTest { // Form that creates a password TextBox and // a Label to display TextBox contents public partial class LabelTextBoxButtonTestForm : Form { // default constructor public LabelTextBoxButtonTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // display user input in Label private void displayPasswordButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // display the text that the user typed displayPasswordLabel.Text = inputPasswordTextBox.Text; } // end method displayPasswordButton_Click } // end class LabelTextBoxButtonTestForm } // end namespace LabelTextBoxButtonTest

Fig. 14.20 | Program to display hidden text in a password box. First, create the GUI by dragging the controls (a TextBox, a Button and a Label) on the Form. Once the controls are positioned, change their names in the Properties window from the default values—textBox1, button1 and label1—to the more descriptive displayPasswordLabel, displayPasswordButton and inputPasswordTextBox. The (Name) property in the Properties window enables us to change the variable name for a control. Visual Studio creates the necessary code and places it in method InitializeComponent of the partial class in the file LabelTextBoxButtonTestForm.Designer.cs.

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We set displayPasswordButton’s Text property to “Show Me” and clear the Text of so that it’s blank when the program begins executing. The BorderStyle property of displayPasswordLabel is set to Fixed3D, giving our Label a threedimensional appearance. We also changed its TextAlign property to MiddleLeft so that the Label’s text is displayed centered between its top and bottom. The password character for inputPasswordTextBox is determined by the user’s system settings when you set UseSystemPasswordChar to true. This property accepts only one character. We create an event handler for displayPasswordButton by double clicking this control in Design mode. We added line 24 to the event handler’s body. When the user clicks the Show Me Button in the executing application, line 24 obtains the text entered by the user in inputPasswordTextBox and displays the text in displayPasswordLabel. displayPasswordLabel

14.6 GroupBoxes and Panels GroupBoxes

and Panels arrange controls on a GUI. GroupBoxes and Panels are typically used to group several controls of similar functionality or several controls that are related in a GUI. All of the controls in a GroupBox or Panel move together when the GroupBox or Panel is moved. Furthermore, a GroupBoxes and Panels can also be used to show or hide a set of controls at once. When you modify a container’s Visible property, it toggles the visibility of all the controls within it. The primary difference between these two controls is that GroupBoxes can display a caption (i.e., text) and do not include scrollbars, whereas Panels can include scrollbars and do not include a caption. GroupBoxes have thin borders by default; Panels can be set so that they also have borders by changing their BorderStyle property. Figures 14.21–14.22 list the common properties of GroupBoxes and Panels, respectively.

Look-and-Feel Observation 14.3 Panels and GroupBoxes can contain other Panels and GroupBoxes for more complex layouts.

GroupBox

properties

Description The set of controls that the GroupBox contains. Specifies the caption text displayed at the top of the GroupBox.

Controls Text

Fig. 14.21 | Panel

GroupBox

properties

Description Indicates whether scrollbars appear when the Panel is too small to display all of its controls. The default value is false. Sets the border of the Panel. The default value is None; other options are Fixed3D and FixedSingle. The set of controls that the Panel contains.

AutoScroll

BorderStyle

Controls

Fig. 14.22 |

properties.

Panel

properties.

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Look-and-Feel Observation 14.4 You can organize a GUI by anchoring and docking controls inside a GroupBox or Panel. The GroupBox or Panel then can be anchored or docked inside a Form. This divides controls into functional “groups” that can be arranged easily.

To create a GroupBox, drag its icon from the Toolbox onto a Form. Then, drag new controls from the Toolbox into the GroupBox. These controls are added to the GroupBox’s Controls property and become part of the GroupBox. The GroupBox’s Text property specifies the caption. To create a Panel, drag its icon from the Toolbox onto the Form. You can then add controls directly to the Panel by dragging them from the Toolbox onto the Panel. To enable the scrollbars, set the Panel’s AutoScroll property to true. If the Panel is resized and cannot display all of its controls, scrollbars appear (Fig. 14.23). The scrollbars can be used to view all the controls in the Panel—both at design time and at execution time. In Fig. 14.23, we set the Panel’s BorderStyle property to FixedSingle so that you can see the Panel in the Form.

Control inside Panel

Panel

Panel

scrollbars Panel

resized

Fig. 14.23 | Creating a Panel with scrollbars. Look-and-Feel Observation 14.5 Use Panels with scrollbars to avoid cluttering a GUI and to reduce the GUI’s size.

The program in Fig. 14.24 uses a GroupBox and a Panel to arrange Buttons. When these Buttons are clicked, their event handlers change the text on a Label. 1 2 3 4

// Fig. 14.24: GroupboxPanelExampleForm.cs // Using GroupBoxes and Panels to arrange Buttons. using System; using System.Windows.Forms;

Fig. 14.24 | Using GroupBoxes and Panels to arrange Buttons. (Part 1 of 2.)

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namespace GroupBoxPanelExample { // Form that displays a GroupBox and a Panel public partial class GroupBoxPanelExampleForm : Form { // default constructor public GroupBoxPanelExampleForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // event handler for Hi Button private void hiButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { messageLabel.Text = "Hi pressed"; // change text in Label } // end method hiButton_Click // event handler for Bye Button private void byeButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { messageLabel.Text = "Bye pressed"; // change text in Label } // end method byeButton_Click // event handler for Far Left Button private void leftButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { messageLabel.Text = "Far left pressed"; // change text in Label } // end method leftButton_Click // event handler for Far Right Button private void rightButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { messageLabel.Text = "Far right pressed"; // change text in Label } // end method rightButton_Click } // end class GroupBoxPanelExampleForm } // end namespace GroupBoxPanelExample

Fig. 14.24 | Using GroupBoxes and Panels to arrange Buttons. (Part 2 of 2.) The mainGroupBox has two Buttons—hiButton (which displays the text Hi) and bye(which displays the text Bye). The Panel (named mainPanel) also has two Buttons, leftButton (which displays the text Far Left) and rightButton (which displays the text Far Right). The mainPanel has its AutoScroll property set to true, allowing scrollbars to appear Button

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when the contents of the Panel require more space than the Panel’s visible area. The Label (named messageLabel) is initially blank. To add controls to mainGroupBox or mainPanel, Visual Studio calls method Add of each container’s Controls property. This code is placed in the partial class located in the file GroupBoxPanelExample.Designer.cs. The event handlers for the four Buttons are located in lines 18–39. Lines 20, 26, 32 and 38 change the text of messageLabel to indicate which Button the user pressed.

14.7 CheckBoxes and RadioButtons C# has two types of state buttons that can be in the on/off or true/false states—CheckBoxes and RadioButtons. Like class Button, classes CheckBox and RadioButton are derived from class ButtonBase. CheckBoxes

A CheckBox is a small square that either is blank or contains a check mark. When the user clicks a CheckBox to select it, a check mark appears in the box. If the user clicks the CheckBox again to deselect it, the check mark is removed. You can also configure a CheckBox to toggle between three states (checked, unchecked and indeterminate) by setting its ThreeState property to true. Any number of CheckBoxes can be selected at a time. A list of common CheckBox properties and events appears in Fig. 14.25. CheckBox properties

and events

Description

Common Properties By default, this property is set to Normal, and the CheckBox displays as a traditional checkbox. If it’s set to Button, the CheckBox displays as a Button that looks pressed when the CheckBox is checked. Indicates whether the CheckBox is checked (contains a check mark) or unchecked (blank). This property returns a bool value. The default is false (unchecked). Indicates whether the CheckBox is checked or unchecked with a value from the CheckState enumeration (Checked, Unchecked or Indeterminate). Indeterminate is used when it’s unclear whether the state should be Checked or Unchecked. When CheckState is set to Indeterminate, the CheckBox is usually shaded. Specifies the text displayed to the right of the CheckBox. When this property is true, the CheckBox has three states—checked, unchecked and indeterminate. By default, this property is false and the CheckBox has only two states—checked and unchecked.

Appearance

Checked

CheckState

Text ThreeState

Common Events CheckedChanged

CheckStateChanged

Fig. 14.25 |

CheckBox

Generated when the Checked property changes. This is a CheckBox’s default event. When a user double clicks the CheckBox control in design view, an empty event handler for this event is generated. Generated when the CheckState property changes.

properties and events.

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The program in Fig. 14.26 allows the user to select CheckBoxes to change a Label’s font style. The event handler for one CheckBox applies bold and the event handler for the other applies italic. If both CheckBoxes are selected, the font style is set to bold and italic. Initially, neither CheckBox is checked. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

// Fig. 14.26: CheckBoxTestForm.cs // Using CheckBoxes to toggle italic and bold styles. using System; using System.Drawing; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace CheckBoxTest { // Form contains CheckBoxes to allow the user to modify sample text public partial class CheckBoxTestForm : Form { // default constructor public CheckBoxTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // toggle the font style between bold and // not bold based on the current setting private void boldCheckBox_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { outputLabel.Font = new Font( outputLabel.Font, outputLabel.Font.Style ^ FontStyle.Bold ); } // end method boldCheckBox_CheckedChanged // toggle the font style between italic and // not italic based on the current setting private void italicCheckBox_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { outputLabel.Font = new Font( outputLabel.Font, outputLabel.Font.Style ^ FontStyle.Italic ); } // end method italicCheckBox_CheckedChanged } // end class CheckBoxTestForm } // end namespace CheckBoxTest

Fig. 14.26 | Using CheckBoxes to change font styles. The boldCheckBox has its Text property set to Bold. The italicCheckBox has its property set to Italic. The Text property of outputLabel is set to Watch the font style change. After creating the controls, we define their event handlers. Double clicking the CheckBoxes at design time creates empty CheckedChanged event handlers. Text

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To change a Label’s font style, set its Font property to a new Font object (lines 23–24 and 32–33). Class Font is in the System.Drawing namespace. The Font constructor that we use here takes the current font and new style as arguments. The first argument—outputLabel.Font—uses outputLabel’s original font name and size. The style is specified with a member of the FontStyle enumeration, which contains Regular, Bold, Italic, Strikeout and Underline. (The Strikeout style displays text with a line through it.) A Font object’s Style property is read-only, so it can be set only when the Font object is created.

Combining Font Styles with Bitwise Operators Styles can be combined via bitwise operators—operators that perform manipulation on bits of information. Recall from Chapter 1 that all data is represented in the computer as combinations of 0s and 1s. Each 0 or 1 represents a bit. The FontStyle (namespace System.Drawing) is represented as a set of bits that are selected in a way that allows us to combine different FontStyle elements to create compound styles, using bitwise operators. These styles are not mutually exclusive, so we can combine different styles and remove them without affecting the combination of previous FontStyle elements. We can combine these various font styles, using either the logical OR (|) operator or the logical exclusive OR (^) operator (also called XOR). When the logical OR operator is applied to two bits, if at least one bit of the two has the value 1, then the result is 1. Combining styles using the logical OR operator works as follows. Assume that FontStyle.Bold is represented by bits 01 and that FontStyle.Italic is represented by bits 10. When we use the logical OR (|) to combine the styles, we obtain the bits 11. 01 10 -11

= =

Bold Italic

=

Bold and Italic

The logical OR operator helps create style combinations. However, what happens if we want to undo a style combination, as we did in Fig. 14.26? The logical exclusive OR operator enables us to combine styles and to undo existing style settings. When logical exclusive OR is applied to two bits, if both bits have the same value, then the result is 0. If both bits are different, then the result is 1. Combining styles using logical exclusive OR works as follows. Assume, again, that FontStyle.Bold is represented by bits 01 and that FontStyle.Italic is represented by bits 10. When we use logical exclusive OR (^) on both styles, we obtain the bits 11. 01 10 -11

= =

Bold Italic

=

Bold and Italic

Now, suppose that we would like to remove the FontStyle.Bold style from the previous combination of FontStyle.Bold and FontStyle.Italic. The easiest way to do so is to reapply the logical exclusive OR (^) operator to the compound style and FontStyle.Bold. 11 01 -10

= =

Bold and Italic Bold

=

Italic

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This is a simple example. The advantages of using bitwise operators to combine FontStyle values become more evident when we consider that there are five FontStyle values (Bold, Italic, Regular, Strikeout and Underline), resulting in 16 FontStyle combinations. Using bitwise operators to combine font styles greatly reduces the amount of code required to check all possible font combinations. In Fig. 14.26, we need to set the FontStyle so that the text appears in bold if it was not bold originally, and vice versa. Line 24 uses the bitwise logical exclusive OR operator to do this. If outputLabel.Font.Style is bold, then the resulting style is not bold. If the text is originally italic, the resulting style is bold and italic, rather than just bold. The same applies for FontStyle.Italic in line 33. If we didn’t use bitwise operators to compound FontStyle elements, we’d have to test for the current style and change it accordingly. In boldCheckBox_CheckedChanged, we could test for the regular style and make it bold; test for the bold style and make it regular; test for the italic style and make it bold italic; and test for the italic bold style and make it italic. This is cumbersome because, for every new style we add, we double the number of combinations. Adding a CheckBox for underline would require testing eight additional styles. Adding a CheckBox for strikeout would require testing 16 additional styles. RadioButtons

Radio buttons (defined with class RadioButton) are similar to CheckBoxes in that they also have two states—selected and not selected (also called deselected). However, RadioButtons normally appear as a group, in which only one RadioButton can be selected at a time. Selecting one RadioButton in the group forces all the others to be deselected. Therefore, RadioButtons are used to represent a set of mutually exclusive options (i.e., a set in which multiple options cannot be selected at the same time).

Look-and-Feel Observation 14.6 Use RadioButtons when the user should choose only one option in a group.

Look-and-Feel Observation 14.7 Use CheckBoxes when the user should be able to choose multiple options in a group.

All

RadioButtons

added to a container become part of the same group. To divide into several groups, they must be added to separate containers, such as GroupBoxes or Panels. The common properties and a common event of class RadioButton are listed in Fig. 14.27. RadioButtons

RadioButton

properties and an event

Description

Common Properties Checked Text

Fig. 14.27 |

Indicates whether the RadioButton is checked. Specifies the RadioButton’s text. RadioButton

properties and an event. (Part 1 of 2.)

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RadioButton

properties and an event

Description

Common Event CheckedChanged

Fig. 14.27 |

Generated every time the RadioButton is checked or unchecked. When you double click a RadioButton control in design view, an empty event handler for this event is generated.

RadioButton

properties and an event. (Part 2 of 2.)

Software Engineering Observation 14.1 Forms, GroupBoxes,

and Panels can act as logical groups for RadioButtons. The within each group are mutually exclusive to each other, but not to RadioButtons in different logical groups. RadioButtons

The program in Fig. 14.28 uses RadioButtons to enable users to select options for a After selecting the desired attributes, the user presses the Display Button to display the MessageBox. A Label in the lower-left corner shows the result of the MessageBox (i.e., which Button the user clicked—Yes, No, Cancel, etc.). To store the user’s choices, we create and initialize the iconType and buttonType objects (lines 13–14). Object iconType is of type MessageBoxIcon, and can have values Asterisk, Error, Exclamation, Hand, Information, None, Question, Stop and Warning. The sample output shows only Error, Exclamation, Information and Question icons. Object buttonType is of type MessageBoxButtons, and can have values AbortRetryIgnore, OK, OKCancel, RetryCancel, YesNo and YesNoCancel. The name indicates the options that are presented to the user in the MessageBox. The sample output windows show MessageBoxes for all of the MessageBoxButtons enumeration values. MessageBox.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

// Fig. 14.28: RadioButtonsTestForm.cs // Using RadioButtons to set message window options. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace RadioButtonsTest { // Form contains several RadioButtons--user chooses one // from each group to create a custom MessageBox public partial class RadioButtonsTestForm : Form { // create variables that store the user's choice of options private MessageBoxIcon iconType; private MessageBoxButtons buttonType; // default constructor public RadioButtonsTestForm() {

Fig. 14.28 | Using RadioButtons to set message-window options. (Part 1 of 4.)

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InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // change Buttons based on option chosen by sender private void buttonType_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( sender == okRadioButton ) // display OK Button buttonType = MessageBoxButtons.OK; // display OK and Cancel Buttons else if ( sender == okCancelRadioButton ) buttonType = MessageBoxButtons.OKCancel; // display Abort, Retry and Ignore Buttons else if ( sender == abortRetryIgnoreRadioButton ) buttonType = MessageBoxButtons.AbortRetryIgnore; // display Yes, No and Cancel Buttons else if ( sender == yesNoCancelRadioButton ) buttonType = MessageBoxButtons.YesNoCancel; // display Yes and No Buttons else if ( sender == yesNoRadioButton ) buttonType = MessageBoxButtons.YesNo; // only on option left--display Retry and Cancel Buttons else buttonType = MessageBoxButtons.RetryCancel; } // end method buttonType_CheckedChanged // change Icon based on option chosen by sender private void iconType_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( sender == asteriskRadioButton ) // display asterisk Icon iconType = MessageBoxIcon.Asterisk; // display error Icon else if ( sender == errorRadioButton ) iconType = MessageBoxIcon.Error; // display exclamation point Icon else if ( sender == exclamationRadioButton ) iconType = MessageBoxIcon.Exclamation; // display hand Icon else if ( sender == handRadioButton ) iconType = MessageBoxIcon.Hand; // display information Icon else if ( sender == informationRadioButton ) iconType = MessageBoxIcon.Information;

Fig. 14.28 | Using RadioButtons to set message-window options. (Part 2 of 4.)

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71 72 // display question mark Icon 73 else if ( sender == questionRadioButton ) 74 iconType = MessageBoxIcon.Question; 75 76 // display stop Icon 77 else if ( sender == stopRadioButton ) 78 iconType = MessageBoxIcon.Stop; 79 80 // only one option left--display warning Icon 81 else 82 iconType = MessageBoxIcon.Warning; 83 } // end method iconType_CheckedChanged 84 85 // display MessageBox and Button user pressed 86 private void displayButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) 87 { // display MessageBox and store 88 // the value of the Button that was pressed 89 DialogResult result = MessageBox.Show( 90 "This is your Custom MessageBox.", "Custon MessageBox", 91 buttonType, iconType ); 92 93 94 // check to see which Button was pressed in the MessageBox 95 // change text displayed accordingly 96 switch (result) 97 { 98 case DialogResult.OK: 99 displayLabel.Text = "OK was pressed."; 100 break; 101 case DialogResult.Cancel: 102 displayLabel.Text = "Cancel was pressed."; 103 break; 104 case DialogResult.Abort: 105 displayLabel.Text = "Abort was pressed."; 106 break; 107 case DialogResult.Retry: 108 displayLabel.Text = "Retry was pressed."; 109 break; 110 case DialogResult.Ignore: 111 displayLabel.Text = "Ignore was pressed."; 112 break; 113 case DialogResult.Yes: 114 displayLabel.Text = "Yes was pressed."; 115 break; 116 case DialogResult.No: 117 displayLabel.Text = "No was pressed."; 118 break; 119 } // end switch 120 } // end method displayButton_Click 121 } // end class RadioButtonsTestForm 122 } // end namespace RadioButtonsTest

Fig. 14.28 | Using RadioButtons to set message-window options. (Part 3 of 4.)

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a)

427

b)

c) OKCancel button type

d) OK button type

e) AbortRetryIgnore button type

f) YesNoCancel button type

g) YesNo button type

h) RetryCancel button type

Fig. 14.28 | Using RadioButtons to set message-window options. (Part 4 of 4.) We created two GroupBoxes, one for each set of enumeration values. The GroupBox captions are Button Type and Icon. The GroupBoxes contain RadioButtons for the corresponding enumeration options, and the RadioButtons’ Text properties are set appropriately. Because the RadioButtons are grouped, only one RadioButton can be selected from each GroupBox. There’s also a Button (displayButton) labeled Display. When a user clicks this Button, a customized MessageBox is displayed. A Label (displayLabel) displays which Button the user pressed within the MessageBox.

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The event handler for the RadioButtons handles the CheckedChanged event of each When a RadioButton contained in the Button Type GroupBox is checked, the corresponding event handler sets buttonType to the appropriate value. Lines 23–48 contain the event handling for these RadioButtons. Similarly, when the user checks the RadioButtons belonging to the Icon GroupBox, the corresponding event handler associated with these events (lines 51–83) sets iconType to the appropriate value. The Click event handler for displayButton (lines 86–120) creates a MessageBox (lines 90–93). The MessageBox options are specified with the values stored in iconType and buttonType. When the user clicks one of the MessageBox’s buttons, the result of the message box is returned to the application. This result is a value from the DialogResult enumeration that contains Abort, Cancel, Ignore, No, None, OK, Retry or Yes. The switch statement in lines 96–119 tests for the result and sets displayLabel.Text appropriately. RadioButton.

14.8 PictureBoxes A PictureBox displays an image. The image can be one of several formats, such as bitmap, GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) and JPEG. A PictureBox’s Image property specifies the image that is displayed, and the SizeMode property indicates how the image is displayed (Normal, StretchImage, Autosize, CenterImage or Zoom). Figure 14.29 describes common PictureBox properties and a common event. PictureBox properties

and an event

Description

Common Properties Sets the image to display in the PictureBox. Enumeration that controls image sizing and positioning. Values are Normal (default), StretchImage, AutoSize, CenterImage, and Zoom. Normal places the image in the PictureBox’s top-left corner, and CenterImage puts the image in the middle. These two options truncate the image if it’s too large. StretchImage resizes the image to fit in the PictureBox. AutoSize resizes the PictureBox to hold the image. Zoom resizes the image to to fit the PictureBox but maintains the original aspect ratio.

Image SizeMode

Common Event Occurs when the user clicks a control. When you double click this control in the designer, an event handler is generated for this event.

Click

Fig. 14.29 |

PictureBox

properties and an event.

Figure 14.30 uses a PictureBox named imagePictureBox to display one of three bitmap images—image0.bmp, image1.bmp or image2.bmp. These images are provided in the Images subdirectory of this chapter’s examples directory. Whenever a user clicks the Next Image Button, the image changes to the next image in sequence. When the last image is displayed and the user clicks the Next Image Button, the first image is displayed again.

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// Fig. 14.30: PictureBoxTestForm.cs // Using a PictureBox to display images. using System; using System.Drawing; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace PictureBoxTest { // Form to display different images when PictureBox is clicked public partial class PictureBoxTestForm : Form { private int imageNum = -1; // determines which image is displayed // default constructor public PictureBoxTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // change image whenever Next Button is clicked private void nextButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { imageNum = ( imageNum + 1 ) % 3; // imageNum cycles from 0 to 2 // retrieve image from resources and load into PictureBox imagePictureBox.Image = ( Image ) ( Properties.Resources.ResourceManager.GetObject( string.Format( “image{0}”, imageNum ) ) ); } // end method nextButton_Click } // end class PictureBoxTestForm } // end namespace PictureBoxTest

Fig. 14.30 | Using a PictureBox to display images.

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Using Resources Programmatically In this example, we added the images to the project as resources. This causes the compiler to embed the images in the application’s executable file and enables the application to access the images through the project’s Properties namespace. By embedding the images in the application, you don’t need to worry about wrapping the images with the application when you move it to another location or computer. If you’re creating a new project, use the following steps to add images to the project as resources: 1. After creating your project, right click the project’s Properties node in the Solution Explorer and select Open to display the project’s properties. 2. From the tabs on the left, click the Resources tab. 3. At the top of the Resources tab, click the down arrow next to Add Resource and select Add Existing File… to display the Add existing file to resources dialog. 4. Locate the image files you wish to add as resources and click the Open button. We provided three sample images in the Images folder with this chapter’s examples. 5. Save your project. The files now appear in a folder named Resources in the Solution Explorer. We’ll use this technique in most examples that use images going forward. A project’s resources are stored in its Resources class (of the project’s Properties namespace). The Resources class contains a ResourceManager object for interacting with the resources programmatically. To access an image, you can use the method GetObject, which takes as an argument the resource name as it appears in the Resources tab (e.g., "image0") and returns the resource as an Object. Lines 27–28 invoke GetObject with the result of the expression string.Format( "image{0}", imageNum )

which builds the name of the resource by placing the index of the next picture (imageNum, which was obtained earlier in line 23) at the end of the word "image". You must convert this Object to type Image (namespace System.Drawing) to assign it to the PictureBox’s Image property (line 26). The Resources class also provides direct access to the resources you define with expressions of the form Resources.resourceName, where resourceName is the name you provided to the resource when you created it. When using such an expression, the resource returned already has the appropriate type. For example, Properties.Resources.image0 is an Image object representing the first image.

14.9 ToolTips In Chapter 2, we demonstrated tool tips—the helpful text that appears when the mouse hovers over an item in a GUI. Recall that the tool tips displayed in Visual Studio help you become familiar with the IDE’s features and serve as useful reminders for each toolbar icon’s functionality. Many programs use tool tips to remind users of each control’s purpose. For example, Microsoft Word has tool tips that help users determine the purpose of the application’s icons. This section demonstrates how to use the ToolTip component to

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add tool tips to your applications. Figure 14.31 describes common properties and a common event of class ToolTip. ToolTip properties

and an event

Description

Common Properties The amount of time (in milliseconds) that the tool tip appears while the mouse is over a control. The amount of time (in milliseconds) that a mouse must hover over a control before a tool tip appears. The amount of time (in milliseconds) between which two different tool tips appear (when the mouse is moved from one control to another).

AutoPopDelay

InitialDelay

ReshowDelay

Common Event Draw

Fig. 14.31 |

Raised when the tool tip is displayed. This event allows programmers to modify the appearance of the tool tip. ToolTip

properties and an event.

When you add a ToolTip component from the Toolbox, it appears in the component tray—the gray region below the Form in Design mode. Once a ToolTip is added to a Form, a new property appears in the Properties window for the Form’s other controls. This property appears in the Properties window as ToolTip on, followed by the name of the ToolTip component. For instance, if our Form’s ToolTip were named helpfulToolTip, you would set a control’s ToolTip on helpfulToolTip property value to specify the control’s tool tip text. Figure 14.32 demonstrates the ToolTip component. For this example, we create a GUI containing two Labels, so we can demonstrate different tool tip text for each Label. To make the sample outputs clearer, we set the BorderStyle property of each Label to FixedSingle, which displays a solid border. Since there’s no event-handling code in this example, we did not show the code for the Form class. a)

b)

Fig. 14.32 | Demonstrating the ToolTip component. In this example, we named the ToolTip component labelsToolTip. Figure 14.33 shows the ToolTip in the component tray. We set the tool tip text for the first Label to "First Label" and the tool tip text for the second Label to "Second Label". Figure 14.34 demonstrates setting the tool tip text for the first Label.

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ToolTip in component tray

Fig. 14.33 | Demonstrating the component tray.

Property to set tool tip text

Tool tip text

Fig. 14.34 | Setting a control’s tool tip text.

14.10 NumericUpDown Control At times, you’ll want to restrict a user’s input choices to a specific range of numeric values. This is the purpose of the NumericUpDown control. This control appears as a TextBox, with two small Buttons on the right side—one with an up arrow and one with a down arrow. By default, a user can type numeric values into this control as if it were a TextBox or click the up and down arrows to increase or decrease the value in the control, respectively. The largest and smallest values in the range are specified with the Maximum and Minimum properties, respectively (both of type decimal). The Increment property (also of type decimal) specifies by how much the current value changes when the user clicks the arrows. Property DecimalPlaces specifies the number of decimal places that the control should display as an integer. Figure 14.35 describes common NumericUpDown properties and an event. NumericUpDown

properties and an event

Description

Common Properties DecimalPlaces Increment

Fig. 14.35 |

Specifies how many decimal places to display in the control. Specifies by how much the current number in the control changes when the user clicks the control’s up and down arrows.

NumericUpDown

properties and an event. (Part 1 of 2.)

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NumericUpDown

properties and an event

Description

Maximum

Largest value in the control’s range. Smallest value in the control’s range. Modifies the alignment of the up and down Buttons on the NumericUpDown control. This property can be used to display these Buttons either to the left or to the right of the control. The numeric value currently displayed in the control.

Minimum UpDownAlign

Value

Common Event ValueChanged

Fig. 14.35 |

This event is raised when the value in the control is changed. This is the default event for the NumericUpDown control. NumericUpDown

properties and an event. (Part 2 of 2.)

Figure 14.36 demonstrates a NumericUpDown control in a GUI that calculates interest rate. The calculations performed in this application are similar to those in Fig. 6.6. TextBoxes are used to input the principal and interest rate amounts, and a NumericUpDown control is used to input the number of years for which we want to calculate interest. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

// Fig. 14.36: InterestCalculatorForm.cs // Demonstrating the NumericUpDown control. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace NumericUpDownTest { public partial class InterestCalculatorForm : Form { // default constructor public InterestCalculatorForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor private void calculateButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // declare variables to store user input decimal principal; // store principal double rate; // store interest rate int year; // store number of years decimal amount; // store amount string output; // store output // retrieve user input principal = Convert.ToDecimal( principalTextBox.Text );

Fig. 14.36 | Demonstrating the NumericUpDown control. (Part 1 of 2.)

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rate = Convert.ToDouble( interestTextBox.Text ); year = Convert.ToInt32( yearUpDown.Value ); // set output header output = "Year\tAmount on Deposit\r\n"; // calculate amount after each year and append to output for ( int yearCounter = 1; yearCounter Separator or by typing “-” for the text of a menu item. In addition to text, Visual Studio allows you to easily add TextBoxes and ComboBoxes (drop-down lists) as menu items. When adding an item in Design mode, you may have noticed that before you enter text for a new item, you are provided with a drop-down list. Clicking the down arrow (Fig. 15.5) allows you to select the type of item to add—MenuItem (of type ToolStripMenuItem, the default), ComboBox (of type ToolStripComboBox) and TextBox (of type ToolStripTextBox). We focus on ToolStripMenuItems. [Note: If you view this drop-down list for menu items that are not on the top level, a fourth option appears, allowing you to insert a separator bar.] \

Menu item options

Fig. 15.5 | Menu-item options. ToolStripMenuItems generate a Click event when selected. To create an empty Click event handler, double click the menu item in Design mode. Common actions in response to these events include displaying dialogs and setting properties. Common menu properties and a common event are summarized in Fig. 15.6.

Look-and-Feel Observation 15.2 It is a convention to place an ellipsis (…) after the name of a menu item (e.g., Save As…) that requires the user to provide more information—typically through a dialog. A menu item that produces an immediate action without prompting the user for more information (e.g., Save) should not have an ellipsis following its name.

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MenuStrip and ToolStripMenuItem

properties and an event MenuStrip

Description

Properties Causes text to display from right to left. This is useful for languages that are read from right to left.

RightToLeft

ToolStripMenuItem Checked CheckOnClick ShortcutKeyDisplayString ShortcutKeys ShowShortcutKeys Text

Properties Indicates whether a menu item is checked. The default value is false, meaning that the menu item is unchecked. Indicates that a menu item should appear checked or unchecked as it is clicked. Specifies text that should appear beside a menu item for a shortcut key. If left blank, the key names are displayed. Otherwise, the text in this property is displayed for the shortcut key. Specifies the shortcut key for the menu item (e.g., -F9 is equivalent to clicking a specific item). Indicates whether a shortcut key is shown beside menu item text. The default is true, which displays the shortcut key. Specifies the menu item’s text. To create an Alt access shortcut, precede a character with & (e.g., &File to specify a menu named File with the letter F underlined).

Common ToolStripMenuItem Event Click Generated when an item is clicked or a shortcut key is used. This is the default event when the menu is double clicked in the designer.

Fig. 15.6 |

MenuStrip

and ToolStripMenuItem properties and an event.

Class MenuTestForm (Fig. 15.7) creates a simple menu on a Form. The Form has a toplevel File menu with menu items About (which displays a MessageBox) and Exit (which terminates the program). The program also includes a Format menu, which contains menu items that change the format of the text on a Label. The Format menu has submenus Color and Font, which change the color and font of the text on a Label.

Create the GUI To create this GUI, begin by dragging the MenuStrip from the ToolBox onto the Form. Then use Design mode to create the menu structure shown in the sample outputs. The File menu (fileToolStripMenuItem) has menu items About (aboutToolStripMenuItem) and Exit (exitToolStripMenuItem); the Format menu (formatToolStripMenuItem) has two submenus. The first submenu, Color (colorToolStripMenuItem), contains menu items Black (blackToolStripMenuItem), Blue (blueToolStripMenuItem), Red (redToolStripMenuItem) and Green (greenToolStripMenuItem). The second submenu, Font (fontToolStripMenuItem), contains menu items Times New Roman (timesToolStripMenuItem), Courier (courierToolStripMenuItem), Comic Sans (comicToolStripMenuItem), a separator bar (dashToolStripMenuItem), Bold (boldToolStripMenuItem) and Italic (italicToolStripMenuItem). Download at www.wowebook.com

15.2 Menus

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

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// Fig. 15.7: MenuTestForm.cs // Using Menus to change font colors and styles. using System; using System.Drawing; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace MenuTest { // our Form contains a Menu that changes the font color // and style of the text displayed in Label public partial class MenuTestForm : Form { // constructor public MenuTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // display MessageBox when About ToolStripMenuItem is selected private void aboutToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { MessageBox.Show( "This is an example\nof using menus.", "About", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Information ); } // end method aboutToolStripMenuItem_Click // exit program when Exit ToolStripMenuItem is selected private void exitToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { Application.Exit(); } // end method exitToolStripMenuItem_Click // reset checkmarks for Color ToolStripMenuItems private void ClearColor() { // clear all checkmarks blackToolStripMenuItem.Checked = false; blueToolStripMenuItem.Checked = false; redToolStripMenuItem.Checked = false; greenToolStripMenuItem.Checked = false; } // end method ClearColor // update Menu state and color display black private void blackToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // reset checkmarks for Color ToolStripMenuItems ClearColor(); // set color to Black displayLabel.ForeColor = Color.Black;

Fig. 15.7 | Menus for changing text font and color. (Part 1 of 4.)

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blackToolStripMenuItem.Checked = true; } // end method blackToolStripMenuItem_Click // update Menu state and color display blue private void blueToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // reset checkmarks for Color ToolStripMenuItems ClearColor(); // set color to Blue displayLabel.ForeColor = Color.Blue; blueToolStripMenuItem.Checked = true; } // end method blueToolStripMenuItem_Click // update Menu state and color display red private void redToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // reset checkmarks for Color ToolStripMenuItems ClearColor(); // set color to Red displayLabel.ForeColor = Color.Red; redToolStripMenuItem.Checked = true; } // end method redToolStripMenuItem_Click // update Menu state and color display green private void greenToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // reset checkmarks for Color ToolStripMenuItems ClearColor(); // set color to Green displayLabel.ForeColor = Color.Green; greenToolStripMenuItem.Checked = true; } // end method greenToolStripMenuItem_Click // reset checkmarks for Font ToolStripMenuItems private void ClearFont() { // clear all checkmarks timesToolStripMenuItem.Checked = false; courierToolStripMenuItem.Checked = false; comicToolStripMenuItem.Checked = false; } // end method ClearFont // update Menu state and set Font to Times New Roman private void timesToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // reset checkmarks for Font ToolStripMenuItems

Fig. 15.7 | Menus for changing text font and color. (Part 2 of 4.) Download at www.wowebook.com

15.2 Menus

106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158

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ClearFont(); // set Times New Roman font timesToolStripMenuItem.Checked = true; displayLabel.Font = new Font( "Times New Roman", 14, displayLabel.Font.Style ); } // end method timesToolStripMenuItem_Click // update Menu state and set Font to Courier private void courierToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // reset checkmarks for Font ToolStripMenuItems ClearFont(); // set Courier font courierToolStripMenuItem.Checked = true; displayLabel.Font = new Font( "Courier", 14, displayLabel.Font.Style ); } // end method courierToolStripMenuItem_Click // update Menu state and set Font to Comic Sans MS private void comicToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // reset checkmarks for Font ToolStripMenuItems ClearFont(); // set Comic Sans font comicToolStripMenuItem.Checked = true; displayLabel.Font = new Font( "Comic Sans MS", 14, displayLabel.Font.Style ); } // end method comicToolStripMenuItem_Click // toggle checkmark and toggle bold style private void boldToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // toggle checkmark boldToolStripMenuItem.Checked = !boldToolStripMenuItem.Checked; // use Xor to toggle bold, keep all other styles displayLabel.Font = new Font( displayLabel.Font displayLabel.Font.Style ^ FontStyle.Bold ); } // end method boldToolStripMenuItem_Click // toggle checkmark and toggle italic style private void italicToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // toggle checkmark italicToolStripMenuItem.Checked = !italicToolStripMenuItem.Checked;

Fig. 15.7 | Menus for changing text font and color. (Part 3 of 4.) Download at www.wowebook.com

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159 160 // use Xor to toggle italic, keep all other styles 161 displayLabel.Font = new Font( displayLabel.Font 162 displayLabel.Font.Style ^ FontStyle.Italic ); 163 } // end method italicToolStripMenuItem_Click 164 } // end class MenuTestForm 165 } // end namespace MenuTest a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

Fig. 15.7 | Menus for changing text font and color. (Part 4 of 4.) Handling the Click Events for the About and Exit Menu Items The About menu item in the File menu displays a MessageBox when clicked (lines 20–25). The Exit menu item closes the application through static method Exit of class Application (line 31). Class Application’s static methods control program execution. Method Exit causes our application to terminate. Submenu Events We made the items in the Color submenu (Black, Blue, Red and Green) mutually exclusive—the user can select only one at a time (we explain how we did this shortly). To indicate that a menu item is selected, we will set each Color menu item’s Checked property to true. This causes a check to appear to the left of a menu item. Each Color menu item has its own Click event handler. The method handler for color Black is blackToolStripMenuItem_Click (lines 45–54). Similarly, the event handlers for Color

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colors Blue, Red and Green are blueToolStripMenuItem_Click (lines 57–66), redToolStripMenuItem_Click (lines 69–78) and greenToolStripMenuItem_Click (lines 81–90), respectively. Each Color menu item must be mutually exclusive, so each event handler calls method ClearColor (lines 35–42) before setting its corresponding Checked property to true. Method ClearColor sets the Checked property of each color ToolStripMenuItem to false, effectively preventing more than one menu item from being selected at a time. In the designer, we initially set the Black menu item’s Checked property to true, because at the start of the program, the text on the Form is black.

Software Engineering Observation 15.1 The mutual exclusion of menu items is not enforced by the Checked property is true. You must program this behavior.

MenuStrip,

even when the

Submenu Events The Font menu contains three menu items for fonts (Courier, Times New Roman and Comic Sans) and two menu items for font styles (Bold and Italic). We added a separator bar between the font and font-style menu items to indicate that these are separate options. A Font object can specify only one font at a time but can set multiple styles at once (e.g., a font can be both bold and italic). We set the font menu items to display checks. As with the Color menu, we must enforce mutual exclusion of these items in our event handlers. Event handlers for font menu items Times New Roman, Courier and Comic Sans are timesToolStripMenuItem_Click (lines 102–112), courierToolStripMenuItem_Click (lines 115–125) and comicToolStripMenuItem_Click (lines 128–138), respectively. These event handlers behave in a manner similar to that of the event handlers for the Color menu items. Each event handler clears the Checked properties for all font menu items by calling method ClearFont (lines 93–99), then sets the Checked property of the menu item that raised the event to true. This enforces the mutual exclusion of the font menu items. In the designer, we initially set the Times New Roman menu item’s Checked property to true, because this is the original font for the text on the Form. The event handlers for the Bold and Italic menu items (lines 141–163) use the bitwise logical exclusive OR (^) operator to combine font styles, as we discussed in Chapter 14. Font

15.3 MonthCalendar Control Many applications must perform date and time calculations. The .NET Framework provides two controls that allow an application to retrieve date and time information—the MonthCalendar and DateTimePicker (Section 15.4) controls. The MonthCalendar (Fig. 15.8) control displays a monthly calendar on the Form. The user can select a date from the currently displayed month or can use the provided arrows to navigate to another month. When a date is selected, it is highlighted. Multiple dates can be selected by clicking dates on the calendar while holding down the Shift key. The default event for this control is the DateChanged event, which is generated when a new date is selected. Properties are provided that allow you to modify the appearance of the calendar, how many dates can be selected at once, and the minimum date and maximum date that may be selected. MonthCalendar properties and a common MonthCalendar event are summarized in Fig. 15.9.

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Current day is outlined Selected day is highlighted

Fig. 15.8 |

MonthCalendar

control.

MonthCalendar

properties and an event MonthCalendar

Description

Properties

FirstDayOfWeek

MaxDate MaxSelectionCount MinDate MonthlyBoldedDates SelectionEnd SelectionRange SelectionStart

Sets which day of the week is the first displayed for each week in the calendar. The last date that can be selected. The maximum number of dates that can be selected at once. The first date that can be selected. An array of dates that will displayed in bold in the calendar. The last of the dates selected by the user. The dates selected by the user. The first of the dates selected by the user.

Common MonthCalendar Event DateChanged Generated when a date is selected in the calendar.

Fig. 15.9 |

MonthCalendar

properties and an event.

15.4 DateTimePicker Control The DateTimePicker control (see output of Fig. 15.11) is similar to the MonthCalendar control but displays the calendar when a down arrow is selected. The DateTimePicker can be used to retrieve date and time information from the user. A DateTimePicker’s Value property stores a DateTime object, which always contains both date and time information. You can retrieve the date information from the DateTime object by using property Date, and you can retrieve only the time information by using the TimeOfDay property. The DateTimePicker is also more customizable than a MonthCalendar control— more properties are provided to edit the look and feel of the drop-down calendar. Property Format specifies the user’s selection options using the DateTimePickerFormat enumeration. The values in this enumeration are Long (displays the date in long format, as in Thursday, July 10, 2010), Short (displays the date in short format, as in 7/10/2010), Time (displays a time value, as in 5:31:02 PM) and Custom (indicates that a custom format will

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be used). If value Custom is used, the display in the DateTimePicker is specified using property CustomFormat. The default event for this control is ValueChanged, which occurs when the selected value (whether a date or a time) is changed. DateTimePicker properties and a common event are summarized in Fig. 15.10. DateTimePicker

properties and an event DateTimePicker

Properties

CalendarForeColor CalendarMonth-

Description

Sets the text color for the calendar. Sets the calendar’s background color.

Background CustomFormat Format

MaxDate MinDate ShowCheckBox

ShowUpDown

Value

Sets the custom format string for the user’s options. Sets the format of the date and/or time used for the user’s options. The maximum date and time that can be selected. The minimum date and time that can be selected. Indicates if a CheckBox should be displayed to the left of the selected date and time. Indicates whether the control displays up and down Buttons. Helpful when the DateTimePicker is used to select a time—the Buttons can be used to increase or decrease hour, minute and second. The data selected by the user.

Common DateTimePicker Event ValueChanged Generated when the Value property changes, including when the user selects a new date or time.

Fig. 15.10 |

DateTimePicker

properties and an event.

Figure 15.11 demonstrates using a DateTimePicker to select an item’s drop-off time. Many companies use such functionality—several online DVD rental companies specify the day a movie is sent out and the estimated time that it will arrive at your home. The user selects a drop-off day, then an estimated arrival date is displayed. The date is always two days after drop-off, three days if a Sunday is reached (mail is not delivered on Sunday). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

// Fig. 15.11: DateTimePickerForm.cs // Using a DateTimePicker to select a drop-off time. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace DateTimePickerTest {

Fig. 15.11 | Demonstrating DateTimePicker. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// Form lets user select a drop-off date using a DateTimePicker // and displays an estimated delivery date public partial class DateTimePickerForm : Form { // constructor public DateTimePickerForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor private void dateTimePickerDropOff_ValueChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { DateTime dropOffDate = dateTimePickerDropOff.Value; // add extra time when items are dropped off around Sunday if ( dropOffDate.DayOfWeek == DayOfWeek.Friday || dropOffDate.DayOfWeek == DayOfWeek.Saturday || dropOffDate.DayOfWeek == DayOfWeek.Sunday ) //estimate three days for delivery outputLabel.Text = dropOffDate.AddDays( 3 ).ToLongDateString(); else // otherwise estimate only two days for delivery outputLabel.Text = dropOffDate.AddDays( 2 ).ToLongDateString(); } // end method dateTimePickerDropOff_ValueChanged private void DateTimePickerForm_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // user cannot select days before today dateTimePickerDropOff.MinDate = DateTime.Today; // user can only select days of this year dateTimePickerDropOff.MaxDate = DateTime.Today.AddYears( 1 ); } // end method DateTimePickerForm_Load } // end class DateTimePickerForm } // end namespace DateTimePickerTest

a)

b)

Fig. 15.11 | Demonstrating DateTimePicker. (Part 2 of 3.)

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d)

c)

Fig. 15.11 | Demonstrating DateTimePicker. (Part 3 of 3.) The DateTimePicker (dropOffDateTimePicker) has its Format property set to Long, so the user can select a date and not a time in this application. When the user selects a date, the ValueChanged event occurs. The event handler for this event (lines 18–35) first retrieves the selected date from the DateTimePicker’s Value property (line 21). Lines 24– 26 use the DateTime structure’s DayOfWeek property to determine the day of the week on which the selected date falls. The day values are represented using the DayOfWeek enumeration. Lines 29–30 and 33–34 use DateTime’s AddDays method to increase the date by three days or two days, respectively. The resulting date is then displayed in Long format using method ToLongDateString. In this application, we do not want the user to be able to select a drop-off day before the current day, or one that is more than a year into the future. To enforce this, we set the DateTimePicker’s MinDate and MaxDate properties when the Form is loaded (lines 40 and 43). Property Today returns the current day, and method AddYears (with an argument of 1) is used to specify a date one year in the future. Let’s take a closer look at the output. This application begins by displaying the current date (Fig. 15.11(a)). In Fig. 15.11(b), we selected the 30th of July. In Fig. 15.11(c), the estimated arrival date is displayed as the 2nd of August. Figure 15.11(d) shows that the 30th, after it is selected, is highlighted in the calendar.

15.5 LinkLabel Control The LinkLabel control displays links to other resources, such as files or web pages (Fig. 15.12). A LinkLabel appears as underlined text (colored blue by default). When the mouse moves over the link, the pointer changes to a hand; this is similar to the behavior of a hyperlink in a web page. The link can change color to indicate whether it is not yet visited, previously visited or active. When clicked, the LinkLabel generates a LinkClicked event (see Fig. 15.13). Class LinkLabel is derived from class Label and therefore inherits all of class Label’s functionality.

LinkLabel on a Form

Fig. 15.12 |

LinkLabel

Hand image displays when mouse moves over LinkLabel

control in running program.

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Look-and-Feel Observation 15.3 A LinkLabel is the preferred control for indicating that the user can click a link to jump to a resource such as a web page, though other controls can perform similar tasks.

LinkLabel properties

and an event

Description

Common Properties ActiveLinkColor

LinkArea LinkBehavior

LinkColor

LinkVisited

Text UseMnemonic

VisitedLinkColor

Common Event LinkClicked

Fig. 15.13 |

Specifies the color of the active link when the user is in the process of clicking the link. The default color (typically red) is set by the system. Specifies which portion of text in the LinkLabel is part of the link. Specifies the link’s behavior, such as how the link appears when the mouse is placed over it. Specifies the original color of the link before it’s been visited. The default color (typically blue) is set by the system. If true, the link appears as though it has been visited (its color is changed to that specified by property VisitedLinkColor). The default value is false. Specifies the control’s text. If true, the & character in the Text property acts as a shortcut (similar to the Alt shortcut in menus). Specifies the color of a visited link. The default color (typically purple) is set by the system. (Event arguments LinkLabelLinkClickedEventArgs) Generated when the link is clicked. This is the default event when the control is double clicked in Design mode.

LinkLabel

properties and an event.

Class LinkLabelTestForm (Fig. 15.14) uses three LinkLabels to link to the C: drive, the Deitel website (www.deitel.com) and the Notepad application, respectively. The Text properties of the LinkLabel’s cDriveLinkLabel, deitelLinkLabel and notepadLinkLabel describe each link’s purpose. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

// Fig. 15.14: LinkLabelTestForm.cs // Using LinkLabels to create hyperlinks. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace LinkLabelTest { // Form using LinkLabels to browse the C:\ drive, // load a web page and run Notepad public partial class LinkLabelTestForm : Form {

Fig. 15.14 |

LinkLabels

used to link to a drive, a web page and an application. (Part 1 of 3.)

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15.5 LinkLabel Control

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// constructor public LinkLabelTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // browse C:\ drive private void cDriveLinkLabel_LinkClicked( object sender, LinkLabelLinkClickedEventArgs e ) { // change LinkColor after it has been clicked driveLinkLabel.LinkVisited = true; System.Diagnostics.Process.Start( @"C:\" ); } // end method cDriveLinkLabel_LinkClicked // load www.deitel.com in web browser private void deitelLinkLabel_LinkClicked( object sender, LinkLabelLinkClickedEventArgs e ) { // change LinkColor after it has been clicked deitelLinkLabel.LinkVisited = true; System.Diagnostics.Process.Start( "http://www.deitel.com" ); } // end method deitelLinkLabel_LinkClicked // run application Notepad private void notepadLinkLabel_LinkClicked( object sender, LinkLabelLinkClickedEventArgs e ) { // change LinkColor after it has been clicked notepadLinkLabel.LinkVisited = true; // program called as if in run // menu and full path not needed System.Diagnostics.Process.Start( "notepad" ); } // end method driveLinkLabel_LinkClicked } // end class LinkLabelTestForm } // end namespace LinkLabelTest Click first LinkLabel to look at contents of C: drive

Fig. 15.14 |

LinkLabels

used to link to a drive, a web page and an application. (Part 2 of 3.)

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Click second LinkLabel to go to Deitel website

Click on third LinkLabel to open Notepad

Fig. 15.14 |

LinkLabels

used to link to a drive, a web page and an application. (Part 3 of 3.)

The event handlers for the LinkLabels call method Start of class Process (namespace System.Diagnostics), which allows you to execute other programs, or load documents or web sites from an application. Method Start can take one argument, the file to open, or two arguments, the application to run and its command-line arguments. Method Start’s arguments can be in the same form as if they were provided for input to the Windows Run command (Start > Run...). For applications that are known to Windows, full path names are not needed, and the file extension often can be omitted. To open a file of a type that Windows recognizes (and knows how to handle), simply use the file’s full path name. For example, if you a pass the method a .doc file, Windows will open it in Microsoft Word (or whatever program is registered to open .doc files, if any). The Windows operating system must be able to use the application associated with the given file’s extension to open the file. The event handler for cDriveLinkLabel’s LinkClicked event browses the C: drive (lines 19–26). Line 23 sets the LinkVisited property to true, which changes the link’s color from blue to purple (the LinkVisited colors can be configured through the Properties window in Visual Studio). The event handler then passes @"C:\" to method Start (line 25), which opens a Windows Explorer window. The @ symbol that we placed before "C:\" indicates that all characters in the string should be interpreted literally—this is known as a verbatim string. Thus, the backslash within the string is not considered to be the first character of an escape sequence. This simplifies strings that represent directory paths, since you do not need to use \\ for each \ character in the path. The event handler for deitelLinkLabel’s LinkClicked event (lines 29–36) opens the web page www.deitel.com in the user’s default web browser. We achieve this by passing the web-page address as a string (line 35), which opens the web page in a new web browser window or tab. Line 33 sets the LinkVisited property to true.

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The event handler for notepadLinkLabel’s LinkClicked event (lines 39–48) opens the Notepad application. Line 43 sets the LinkVisited property to true so that the link appears as a visited link. Line 47 passes the argument "notepad" to method Start, which runs notepad.exe. In line 47, neither the full path nor the .exe extension is required—Windows automatically recognizes the argument given to method Start as an executable file.

15.6 ListBox Control The ListBox control allows the user to view and select from multiple items in a list. ListBoxes are static GUI entities, which means that users cannot directly edit the list of items. The user can be provided with TextBoxes and Buttons with which to specify items to be added to the list, but the actual additions must be performed in code. The CheckedListBox control (Section 15.7) extends a ListBox by including CheckBoxes next to each item in the list. This allows users to place checks on multiple items at once, as is possible with CheckBox controls. (Users also can select multiple items from a ListBox by setting the ListBox’s SelectionMode property, which is discussed shortly.) Figure 15.15 displays a ListBox and a CheckedListBox. In both controls, scrollbars appear if the number of items exceeds the ListBox’s viewable area. ListBox

Selected items Scrollbars appear if necessary Checked item

Fig. 15.15 |

ListBox

CheckedListBox

and CheckedListBox on a Form.

Figure 15.16 lists common ListBox properties and methods and a common event. The SelectionMode property determines the number of items that can be selected. This property has the possible values None, One, MultiSimple and MultiExtended (from the SelectionMode enumeration)—the differences among these settings are explained in Fig. 15.16. The SelectedIndexChanged event occurs when the user selects a new item. properties, methods and an event ListBox

Description

Common Properties The collection of items in the ListBox. Indicates whether the ListBox can display multiple columns. Multiple columns eliminate vertical scrollbars from the display.

Items MultiColumn

Fig. 15.16 |

ListBox

properties, methods and an event. (Part 1 of 2.)

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properties, methods and an event ListBox

SelectedIndex

SelectedIndices SelectedItem

SelectedItems SelectionMode

Sorted

Description Returns the index of the selected item. If no items have been selected, the property returns -1. If the user selects multiple items, this property returns only one of the selected indices. If multiple items are selected, use property SelectedIndices. Returns a collection containing the indices for all selected items. Returns a reference to the selected item. If multiple items are selected, it returns the item with the lowest index number. Returns a collection of the selected item(s). Determines the number of items that can be selected and the means through which multiple items can be selected. Values None, One (the default), MultiSimple (multiple selection allowed) or MultiExtended (multiple selection allowed using a combination of arrow keys or mouse clicks and Shift and Ctrl keys). Indicates whether items are sorted alphabetically. Setting this property’s value to true sorts the items. The default value is false.

Common Methods ClearSelected GetSelected

Deselects every item. Returns true if the item at the specified index is selected.

Common Event SelectedIndexChanged

Fig. 15.16 | Both the

ListBox

Generated when the selected index changes. This is the default event when the control is double clicked in the designer.

properties, methods and an event. (Part 2 of 2.)

and CheckedListBox have properties Items, SelectedItem and Property Items returns a collection of the list items. Collections are a common way to manage lists of objects in the .NET framework. Many .NET GUI components (e.g., ListBoxes) use collections to expose lists of internal objects (e.g., items in a ListBox). We discuss collections further in Chapter 23. The collection returned by property Items is represented as an object of type ListBox.ObjectCollection. Property SelectedItem returns the ListBox’s currently selected item. If the user can select multiple items, use collection SelectedItems to return all the selected items as a ListBox.SelectedObjectColection. Property SelectedIndex returns the index of the selected item—if there could be more than one, use property SelectedIndices, which returns a ListBox.SelectedIndexColection. If no items are selected, property SelectedIndex returns -1. Method GetSelected takes an index and returns true if the corresponding item is selected. ListBox

SelectedIndex.

Adding Items to ListBoxes and CheckedListBoxes To add items to a ListBox or to a CheckedListBox, we must add objects to its Items collection. This can be accomplished by calling method Add to add a string to the ListBox’s or CheckedListBox’s Items collection. For example, we could write myListBox.Items.Add( myListItem );

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to add string myListItem to ListBox myListBox. To add multiple objects, you can either call method Add multiple times or call method AddRange to add an array of objects. Classes ListBox and CheckedListBox each call the submitted object’s ToString method to determine the Label for the corresponding object’s entry in the list. This allows you to add different objects to a ListBox or a CheckedListBox that later can be returned through properties SelectedItem and SelectedItems. Alternatively, you can add items to ListBoxes and CheckedListBoxes visually by examining the Items property in the Properties window. Clicking the ellipsis button opens the String Collection Editor, which contains a text area for adding items; each item appears on a separate line (Fig. 15.17). Visual Studio then writes code to add these strings to the Items collection inside method InitializeComponent.

Fig. 15.17 | String Collection Editor. Figure 15.18 uses class ListBoxTestForm to add, remove and clear items from Class ListBoxTestForm uses TextBox inputTextBox to allow the user to type in a new item. When the user clicks the Add Button, the new item appears in displayListBox. Similarly, if the user selects an item and clicks Remove, the item is deleted. When clicked, Clear deletes all entries in displayListBox. The user terminates the application by clicking Exit. The addButton_Click event handler (lines 20–24) calls method Add of the Items collection in the ListBox. This method takes a string as the item to add to displayListBox. In this case, the string used is the user input from the inputTextBox (line 22). After the item is added, inputTextBox.Text is cleared (line 23). ListBox displayListBox.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

// Fig. 15.18: ListBoxTestForm.cs // Program to add, remove and clear ListBox items using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace ListBoxTest { // Form uses a TextBox and Buttons to add, // remove, and clear ListBox items public partial class ListBoxTestForm : Form {

Fig. 15.18 | Program that adds, removes and clears ListBox items. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// constructor public ListBoxTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // add new item to ListBox (text from input TextBox) // and clear input TextBox private void addButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { displayListBox.Items.Add( inputTextBox.Text ); inputTextBox.Clear(); } // end method addButton_Click // remove item if one is selected private void removeButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // check whether item is selected, remove if if ( displayListBox.SelectedIndex != -1 ) displayListBox.Items.RemoveAt( displayListBox.SelectedIndex ); } // end method removeButton_Click // clear all items in ListBox private void clearButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { displayListBox.Items.Clear(); } // end method clearButton_Click // exit application private void exitButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { Application.Exit(); } // end method exitButton_Click } // end class ListBoxTestForm } // end namespace ListBoxTest a)

b)

Fig. 15.18 | Program that adds, removes and clears ListBox items. (Part 2 of 3.)

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d)

Fig. 15.18 | Program that adds, removes and clears ListBox items. (Part 3 of 3.) The removeButton_Click event handler (lines 27–33) uses method RemoveAt to remove an item from the ListBox. Event handler removeButton_Click first uses property SelectedIndex to determine which index is selected. If SelectedIndex is not –1 (i.e., an item is selected), lines 31–32 remove the item that corresponds to the selected index. The clearButton_Click event handler (lines 36–39) calls method Clear of the Items collection (line 38). This removes all the entries in displayListBox. Finally, event handler exitButton_Click (lines 42–45) terminates the application by calling method Application.Exit (line 44).

15.7 CheckedListBox Control The CheckedListBox control derives from ListBox and displays a CheckBox with each item. Items can be added via methods Add and AddRange or through the String Collection Editor. CheckedListBoxes allow multiple items to be checked, but item selection is more restrictive. The only values for the SelectionMode property are None and One. One allows a single selection, whereas None allows no selections. Because an item must be selected to be checked, you must set the SelectionMode to be One if you wish to allow users to check items. Thus, toggling property SelectionMode between One and None effectively switches between enabling and disabling the user’s ability to check list items. Common properties, a method and an event of CheckedListBoxes appear in Fig. 15.19.

Common Programming Error 15.1 The IDE displays an error message if you attempt to set the SelectionMode property to MultiSimple or MultiExtended in the Properties window of a CheckedListBox. If this value is set programmatically, a runtime error occurs.

Event ItemCheck occurs whenever a user checks or unchecks a CheckedListBox item. Event-argument properties CurrentValue and NewValue return CheckState values for the current and new state of the item, respectively. A comparison of these values allows you to determine whether the CheckedListBox item was checked or unchecked. The CheckedListBox control retains the SelectedItems and SelectedIndices properties (it inherits

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CheckedListBox

properties, a method and an event Common Properties CheckedItems

CheckedIndices

CheckOnClick

SelectionMode

Description (All the ListBox properties, methods and events are inherited by CheckedListBox.) Returns the collection of items that are checked as a CheckedListBox.CheckedItemCollection. This is distinct from the selected item, which is highlighted (but not necessarily checked). [Note: There can be at most one selected item at any given time.] Returns indices for all checked items as a CheckedListBox.CheckedIndexCollection. When true and the user clicks an item, the item is both selected and checked or unchecked. By default, this property is false, which means that the user must select an item, then click it again to check or uncheck it. Determines whether items can be selected and checked. The possible values are One (the default; allows multiple checks to be placed) or None (does not allow any checks to be placed).

Common Method GetItemChecked

Takes an index and returns true if the corresponding item is checked.

Common Event

(Event arguments ItemCheckEventArgs) Generated when an item is checked or unchecked.

ItemCheck ItemCheckEventArgs CurrentValue

Index NewValue

Fig. 15.19 |

Properties Indicates whether the current item is checked or unchecked. Possible values are Checked, Unchecked and Indeterminate. Returns the zero-based index of the item that changed. Specifies the new state of the item.

CheckedListBox

properties, a method and an event.

them from class ListBox). However, it also includes properties CheckedItems and CheckedIndices, which return information about the checked items and indices. In Fig. 15.20, class CheckedListBoxTestForm uses a CheckedListBox and a ListBox to display a user’s selection of books. The CheckedListBox allows the user to select multiple titles. In the String Collection Editor, items were added for some Deitel books: C, C++, Java™, Internet & WWW, VB 2008, Visual C++ and Visual C# 2008 (the acronym HTP stands for “How to Program”). The ListBox (named displayListBox) displays the user’s selection. In the screenshots accompanying this example, the CheckedListBox appears to the left, the ListBox on the right. When the user checks or unchecks an item in itemCheckedListBox_ItemCheck, an ItemCheck event occurs and event handler itemCheckedListBox_ItemCheck (lines 19–31) executes. An if…else statement (lines 27–30) determines whether the user checked or unchecked an item in the CheckedListBox. Line 27 uses the NewValue property to deterDownload at www.wowebook.com

15.7 CheckedListBox Control

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

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// Fig. 15.20: CheckedListBoxTestForm.cs // Using a CheckedListBox to add items to a display ListBox using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace CheckedListBoxTest { // Form uses a checked ListBox to add items to a display ListBox public partial class CheckedListBoxTestForm : Form { // constructor public CheckedListBoxTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // item about to change // add or remove from display ListBox private void itemCheckedListBox_ItemCheck( object sender, ItemCheckEventArgs e ) { // obtain reference of selected item string item = itemCheckedListBox.SelectedItem.ToString(); // if item checked, add to ListBox // otherwise remove from ListBox if ( e.NewValue == CheckState.Checked ) displayListBox.Items.Add( item ); else displayListBox.Items.Remove( item ); } // end method itemCheckedListBox_ItemCheck } // end class CheckedListBoxTestForm } // end namespace CheckedListBoxTest a)

b)

c)

d)

Fig. 15.20 |

CheckedListBox

and ListBox used in a program to display a user selection.

mine whether the item is being checked (CheckState.Checked). If the user checks an item, line 28 adds the checked entry to the ListBox displayListBox. If the user unchecks an item, line 30 removes the corresponding item from displayListBox. This event handler

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was created by selecting the CheckedListBox in Design mode, viewing the control’s events in the Properties window and double clicking the ItemCheck event. The default event for a CheckedListBox is a SelectedIndexChanged event.

15.8 ComboBox Control The ComboBox control combines TextBox features with a drop-down list—a GUI component that contains a list from which a value can be selected. A ComboBox usually appears as a TextBox with a down arrow to its right. By default, the user can enter text into the TextBox or click the down arrow to display a list of predefined items. If a user chooses an element from this list, that element is displayed in the TextBox. If the list contains more elements than can be displayed in the drop-down list, a scrollbar appears. The maximum number of items that a drop-down list can display at one time is set by property MaxDropDownItems. Figure 15.21 shows a sample ComboBox in three different states. Click the down arrow to display items in drop-down list

Fig. 15.21 |

ComboBox

Selecting an item from drop-down list changes text in TextBox portion

demonstration.

As with the ListBox control, you can add objects to collection Items programmatically, using methods Add and AddRange, or visually, with the String Collection Editor. Figure 15.22 lists common properties and a common event of class ComboBox.

Look-and-Feel Observation 15.4 Use a ComboBox to save space on a GUI. A disadvantage is that, unlike with a the user cannot see available items without expanding the drop-down list.

properties and an event

ListBox,

ComboBox

Description

Common Properties DropDownStyle

Items

Fig. 15.22 |

ComboBox

Determines the type of ComboBox. Value Simple means that the text portion is editable and the list portion is always visible. Value DropDown (the default) means that the text portion is editable but the user must click an arrow button to see the list portion. Value DropDownList means that the text portion is not editable and the user must click the arrow button to see the list portion. The collection of items in the ComboBox control.

properties and an event. (Part 1 of 2.)

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15.8 ComboBox Control

properties and an event

467

ComboBox

Description Specifies the maximum number of items (between 1 and 100) that the drop-down list can display. If the number of items exceeds the maximum number of items to display, a scrollbar appears. Returns the index of the selected item, or -1 if none are selected. Returns a reference to the selected item. Indicates whether items are sorted alphabetically. Setting this property’s value to true sorts the items. The default is false.

MaxDropDownItems

SelectedIndex SelectedItem Sorted

Common Event SelectedIndexChanged

Fig. 15.22 |

ComboBox

Generated when the selected index changes (such as when a different item is selected). This is the default event when control is double clicked in the designer.

properties and an event. (Part 2 of 2.)

Property DropDownStyle determines the type of ComboBox and is represented as a value of the ComboBoxStyle enumeration, which contains values Simple, DropDown and DropDownList. Option Simple does not display a drop-down arrow. Instead, a scrollbar appears next to the control, allowing the user to select a choice from the list. The user also can type in a selection. Style DropDown (the default) displays a drop-down list when the down arrow is clicked (or the down arrow key is pressed). The user can type a new item in the ComboBox. The last style is DropDownList, which displays a drop-down list but does not allow the user to type in the TextBox. The ComboBox control has properties Items (a collection), SelectedItem and SelectedIndex, which are similar to the corresponding properties in ListBox. There can be at most one selected item in a ComboBox. If no items are selected, then SelectedIndex is -1. When the selected item changes, a SelectedIndexChanged event occurs. Class ComboBoxTestForm (Fig. 15.23) allows users to select a shape to draw—circle, ellipse, square or pie (in both filled and unfilled versions)—by using a ComboBox. The ComboBox in this example is uneditable, so the user cannot type in the TextBox.

Look-and-Feel Observation 15.5 Make lists (such as ComboBoxes) editable only if the program is designed to accept usersubmitted elements. Otherwise, the user might try to enter a custom item that is improper for the purposes of your application.

1 2 3 4 5

// Fig. 15.23: ComboBoxTestForm.cs // Using ComboBox to select a shape to draw. using System; using System.Drawing; using System.Windows.Forms;

Fig. 15.23 |

ComboBox

used to draw a selected shape. (Part 1 of 3.)

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namespace ComboBoxTest { // Form uses a ComboBox to select different shapes to draw public partial class ComboBoxTestForm : Form { // constructor public ComboBoxTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // get index of selected shape, draw shape private void imageComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create graphics object, Pen and SolidBrush Graphics myGraphics = base.CreateGraphics();

Fig. 15.23 |

// create Pen using color DarkRed Pen myPen = new Pen( Color.DarkRed ); // create SolidBrush using color DarkRed SolidBrush mySolidBrush = new SolidBrush( Color.DarkRed ); // clear drawing area, setting it to color white myGraphics.Clear( Color.White ); // find index, draw proper shape switch ( imageComboBox.SelectedIndex ) { case 0: // case Circle is selected myGraphics.DrawEllipse( myPen, 50, 50, 150, 150 ); break; case 1: // case Rectangle is selected myGraphics.DrawRectangle( myPen, 50, 50, 150, 150 ); break; case 2: // case Ellipse is selected myGraphics.DrawEllipse( myPen, 50, 85, 150, 115 ); break; case 3: // case Pie is selected myGraphics.DrawPie( myPen, 50, 50, 150, 150, 0, 45 ); break; case 4: // case Filled Circle is selected myGraphics.FillEllipse( mySolidBrush, 50, 50, 150, 150 ); break; case 5: // case Filled Rectangle is selected myGraphics.FillRectangle( mySolidBrush, 50, 50, 150, 150 ); break; case 6: // case Filled Ellipse is selected myGraphics.FillEllipse( mySolidBrush, 50, 85, 150, 115 ); break; ComboBox

used to draw a selected shape. (Part 2 of 3.)

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59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

469

case 7: // case Filled Pie is selected myGraphics.FillPie( mySolidBrush, 50, 50, 150, 150, 0, 45 ); break; } // end switch myGraphics.Dispose(); // release the Graphics object } // end method imageComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged } // end class ComboBoxTestForm } // end namespace ComboBoxTest (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 15.23 |

ComboBox

used to draw a selected shape. (Part 3 of 3.)

After creating ComboBox imageComboBox, make it uneditable by setting its DropDownto DropDownList in the Properties window. Next, add items Circle, Square, Ellipse, Pie, Filled Circle, Filled Square, Filled Ellipse and Filled Pie to the Items collection using the String Collection Editor. Whenever the user selects an item from imageComboBox, a SelectedIndexChanged event occurs and event handler imageComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged (lines 19–66) executes. Lines 23–29 create a Graphics object, a Pen and a SolidBrush, which are used to draw on the Form. The Graphics object (line 23) allows a pen or brush to draw on a component, using one of several Graphics methods. The Pen object (line 26) is used by methods DrawEllipse, DrawRectangle and DrawPie (lines 38, 41, 44 and 47) to draw the outlines of their corresponding shapes. The SolidBrush object (line 29) is used by methods FillEllipse, FillRectangle and FillPie (lines 50, 53–54, 57 and 60–61) to fill their corresponding solid shapes. Line 32 colors the entire Form White, using Graphics method Clear. The application draws a shape based on the selected item’s index. The switch statement (lines 35–63) uses imageComboBox.SelectedIndex to determine which item the user selected. Graphics method DrawEllipse (line 38) takes a Pen, and the x- and y-coordiStyle

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nates of the upper-left corner, the width and height of the bounding box in which the ellipse will be displayed. The origin of the coordinate system is in the upper-left corner of the Form; the x-coordinate increases to the right, and the y-coordinate increases downward. A circle is a special case of an ellipse (with the width and height equal). Line 38 draws a circle. Line 44 draws an ellipse that has different values for width and height. Class Graphics method DrawRectangle (line 41) takes a Pen, the x- and y-coordinates of the upper-left corner and the width and height of the rectangle to draw. Method DrawPie (line 47) draws a pie as a portion of an ellipse. The ellipse is bounded by a rectangle. Method DrawPie takes a Pen, the x- and y-coordinates of the upper-left corner of the rectangle, its width and height, the start angle (in degrees) and the sweep angle (in degrees) of the pie. Angles increase clockwise. The FillEllipse (lines 50 and 57), FillRectangle (line 53–54) and FillPie (line 60–61) methods are similar to their unfilled counterparts, except that they take a Brush (e.g., SolidBrush) instead of a Pen. Some of the drawn shapes are illustrated in the screenshots of Fig. 15.23.

15.9 TreeView Control The TreeView control displays nodes hierarchically in a tree. Traditionally, nodes are objects that contain values and can refer to other nodes. A parent node contains child nodes, and the child nodes can be parents to other nodes. Two child nodes that have the same parent node are considered sibling nodes. A tree is a collection of nodes, usually organized in a hierarchical manner. The first parent node of a tree is the root node (a TreeView can have multiple roots). For example, the file system of a computer can be represented as a tree. The top-level directory (perhaps C:) would be the root, each subfolder of C: would be a child node and each child folder could have its own children. TreeView controls are useful for displaying hierarchical information, such as the file structure that we just mentioned. We cover nodes and trees in greater detail in Chapter 21, Data Structures. Figure 15.24 displays a sample TreeView control on a Form.

Click – to collapse node and hide child nodes

Root node

Child nodes (of Manager1)

Click + to expand node and display child nodes

Fig. 15.24 |

TreeView

displaying a sample tree.

A parent node can be expanded or collapsed by clicking the plus box or minus box to its left. Nodes without children do not have these boxes. The nodes in a TreeView are instances of class TreeNode. Each TreeNode has a Nodes collection (type TreeNodeCollection), which contains a list of other TreeNodes—known as its children. The Parent property returns a reference to the parent node (or null if the node is a root node). Figure 15.25 and Fig. 15.26 list the common properties of TreeViews and TreeNodes, common TreeNode methods and a common TreeView event. Download at www.wowebook.com

15.9 TreeView Control

471

TreeView properties

and an event

Description

Common Properties Indicates whether CheckBoxes appear next to nodes. A value of true displays CheckBoxes. The default value is false. Specifies an ImageList object containing the node icons. An ImageList object is a collection that contains Image objects. Returns the collection of TreeNodes in the control as a TreeNodeCollection. It contains methods Add (adds a TreeNode object), Clear (deletes the entire collection) and Remove (deletes a specific node). Removing a parent node deletes all of its children. The selected node.

CheckBoxes

ImageList

Nodes

SelectedNode

Common Event (Event arguments TreeViewEventArgs) AfterSelect Generated after selected node changes. This is the default event when the control is double clicked in the designer.

Fig. 15.25 |

TreeView

properties and an event.

TreeNode properties

and methods

Description

Common Properties Checked

FirstNode

FullPath ImageIndex

LastNode

NextNode Nodes

PrevNode SelectedImageIndex

Text

Indicates whether the TreeNode is checked (CheckBoxes property must be set to true in the parent TreeView). Specifies the first node in the Nodes collection (i.e., the first child in the tree). Indicates the path of the node, starting at the root of the tree. Specifies the index in the TreeView’s ImageList of the image shown when the node is deselected. Specifies the last node in the Nodes collection (i.e., the last child in the tree). Next sibling node. Collection of TreeNodes contained in the current node (i.e., all the children of the current node). It contains methods Add (adds a TreeNode object), Clear (deletes the entire collection) and Remove (deletes a specific node). Removing a parent node deletes all of its children. Previous sibling node. Specifies the index in the TreeView’s ImageList of the image to use when the node is selected. Specifies the TreeNode’s text.

Common Methods Collapse

Fig. 15.26 |

Collapses a node. TreeNode

properties and methods. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Chapter 15 Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 2

TreeNode properties

and methods

Description

Expand

Expands a node. Expands all the children of a node. Returns the number of child nodes.

ExpandAll GetNodeCount

Fig. 15.26 |

TreeNode

properties and methods. (Part 2 of 2.)

To add nodes to the TreeView visually, click the ellipsis next to the Nodes property in the Properties window. This opens the TreeNode Editor (Fig. 15.27), which displays an empty tree representing the TreeView. There are Buttons to create a root and to add or delete a node. To the right are the properties of current node. Here you can rename the node.

Delete currently selected node

Fig. 15.27 | TreeNode Editor. To add nodes programmatically, first create a root node. Create a new TreeNode object and pass it a string to display. Then call method Add to add this new TreeNode to the TreeView’s Nodes collection. Thus, to add a root node to TreeView myTreeView, write myTreeView.Nodes.Add( new TreeNode( rootLabel ) );

where myTreeView is the TreeView to which we are adding nodes, and rootLabel is the text to display in myTreeView. To add children to a root node, add new TreeNodes to its Nodes collection. We select the appropriate root node from the TreeView by writing myTreeView.Nodes[ myIndex ]

where myIndex is the root node’s index in myTreeView’s Nodes collection. We add nodes to child nodes through the same process by which we added root nodes to myTreeView. To add a child to the root node at index myIndex, write myTreeView.Nodes[ myIndex ].Nodes.Add( new TreeNode( ChildLabel ) );

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15.9 TreeView Control

473

Class TreeViewDirectoryStructureForm (Fig. 15.28) uses a TreeView to display the contents of a directory chosen by the user. A TextBox and a Button are used to specify the directory. First, enter the full path of the directory you want to display. Then click the Button to set the specified directory as the root node in the TreeView. Each subdirectory of this directory becomes a child node. This layout is similar to that used in Windows Explorer. Folders can be expanded or collapsed by clicking the plus or minus boxes that appear to their left. When the user clicks the enterButton, all the nodes in directoryTreeView are cleared (line 68). Then, if the directory exists (line 73), the path entered in inputTextBox is used to create the root node. Line 76 adds the directory to directoryTreeView as the root node, and lines 79–80 call method PopulateTreeView (lines 21–62), which takes a directory (a string) and a parent node. Method PopulateTreeView then creates child nodes corresponding to the subdirectories of the directory it receives as an argument. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

// Fig. 15.28: TreeViewDirectoryStructureForm.cs // Using TreeView to display directory structure. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.IO; namespace TreeViewDirectoryStructure { // Form uses TreeView to display directory structure public partial class TreeViewDirectoryStructureForm : Form { string substringDirectory; // store last part of full path name // constructor public TreeViewDirectoryStructureForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // populate current node with subdirectories public void PopulateTreeView( string directoryValue, TreeNode parentNode ) { // array stores all subdirectories in the directory string[] directoryArray = Directory.GetDirectories( directoryValue );

Fig. 15.28 |

// populate current node with subdirectories try { // check to see if any subdirectories are present if ( directoryArray.Length != 0 ) { // for every subdirectory, create new TreeNode, // add as a child of current node and recursively // populate child nodes with subdirectories TreeView

used to display directories. (Part 1 of 3.)

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foreach ( string directory in directoryArray ) { // obtain last part of path name from the full path // name by calling the GetFileNameWithoutExtension // method of class Path substringDirectory = Path.GetFileNameWithoutExtension( directory ); // create TreeNode for current directory TreeNode myNode = new TreeNode( substringDirectory ); // add current directory node to parent node parentNode.Nodes.Add( myNode ); // recursively populate every subdirectory PopulateTreeView( directory, myNode ); } // end foreach } // end if } //end try // catch exception catch ( UnauthorizedAccessException ) { parentNode.Nodes.Add( "Access denied" ); } // end catch } // end method PopulateTreeView // handles enterButton click event private void enterButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // clear all nodes directoryTreeView.Nodes.Clear(); // // // if {

check if the directory entered by user exists if it does, then fill in the TreeView, if not, display error MessageBox ( Directory.Exists( inputTextBox.Text ) ) // add full path name to directoryTreeView directoryTreeView.Nodes.Add( inputTextBox.Text ); // insert subfolders PopulateTreeView( inputTextBox.Text, directoryTreeView.Nodes[ 0 ] );

} // display error MessageBox if directory not found else MessageBox.Show( inputTextBox.Text + " could not be found.", "Directory Not Found", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); } // end method enterButton_Click } // end class TreeViewDirectoryStructureForm } // end namespace TreeViewDirectoryStructure

Fig. 15.28 |

TreeView

used to display directories. (Part 2 of 3.)

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15.10 ListView Control

a)

Fig. 15.28 |

475

b)

TreeView

used to display directories. (Part 3 of 3.)

Method PopulateTreeView (lines 21–62) obtains a list of subdirectories, using method GetDirectories of class Directory (namespace System.IO) in lines 25–26. Method GetDirectories takes a string (the current directory) and returns an array of strings (the subdirectories). If a directory is not accessible for security reasons, an UnauthorizedAccessException is thrown. Lines 58–61 catch this exception and add a node containing “Access denied” instead of displaying the subdirectories. If there are accessible subdirectories, lines 42–43 use method GetFileNameWithoutExtension of class Path to increase readability by shortening the full path name to just the directory name. The Path class provides functionality for working with strings that are file or directory paths. Next, each string in the directoryArray is used to create a new child node (line 46). We use method Add (line 49) to add each child node to the parent. Then method PopulateTreeView is called recursively on every subdirectory (line 52), which eventually populates the TreeView with the entire directory structure. Our recursive algorithm may cause a delay when the program loads large directories. However, once the folder names are added to the appropriate Nodes collection, they can be expanded and collapsed without delay. In the next section, we present an alternate algorithm to solve this problem.

15.10 ListView Control The ListView control is similar to a ListBox in that both display lists from which the user can select one or more items (an example of a ListView can be found in Fig. 15.31). ListView is more versatile and can display items in different formats. For example, a ListView can display icons next to the list items (controlled by its SmallImageList, LargeImageList or StateImageList properties) and show the details of items in columns. Property MultiSelect (a bool) determines whether multiple items can be selected. CheckBoxes can be included by setting property CheckBoxes (a bool) to true, making the ListView’s appearance similar to that of a CheckedListBox. The View property specifies the layout of the ListBox. Property Activation determines the method by which the user selects a list item. The details of these properties and the ItemActivate event are explained in Fig. 15.29. ListView allows you to define the images used as icons for ListView items. To display images, an ImageList component is required. Create one by dragging it to a Form from

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properties and events ListView

Description

Common Properties Activation

CheckBoxes LargeImageList Items MultiSelect

SelectedItems

SmallImageList View

Determines how the user activates an item. This property takes a value in the ItemActivation enumeration. Possible values are OneClick (single-click activation), TwoClick (double-click activation, item changes color when selected) and Standard (the default; double-click activation, item does not change color). Indicates whether items appear with CheckBoxes. true displays CheckBoxes. The default is false. Specifies the ImageList containing large icons for display. Returns the collection of ListViewItems in the control. Determines whether multiple selection is allowed. The default is true, which enables multiple selection. Returns the collection of selected items as a ListView.SelectedListViewItemCollection. Specifies the ImageList containing small icons for display. Determines appearance of ListViewItems. Possible values are LargeIcon (the default; large icon displayed, items can be in multiple columns), SmallIcon (small icon displayed, items can be in multiple columns), List (small icons displayed, items appear in a single column), Details (like List, but multiple columns of information can be displayed per item) and Tile (large icons displayed, information provided to right of icon; valid only in Windows XP or later).

Common Events Generated when an item is clicked. This is the default event. Generated when an item in the ListView is activated (clicked or double clicked). Does not contain the specifics of which item is activated.

Click ItemActivate

Fig. 15.29 |

ListView

properties and events.

the ToolBox. Then, select the Images property in the Properties window to display the Image Collection Editor (Fig. 15.30). Here you can browse for images that you wish to add to the ImageList, which contains an array of Images. Adding images this way embeds them into the application (like resources), so they do not need to be included separately with the published application. They’re not however part of the project. In this example, we added images to the ImageList programmatically rather than using the Image Collection Editor so that we could use image resources. After creating an empty ImageList, add the file and folder icon images to the project as resources. Next, set property SmallImageList of the ListView to the new ImageList object. Property SmallImageList specifies the image list for the small icons. Property LargeImageList sets the ImageList for large icons. The items in a ListView are each of type ListViewItem. Icons for the ListView items are selected by setting the item’s ImageIndex property to the appropriate index. Class ListViewTestForm (Fig. 15.31) displays files and folders in a ListView, along with small icons representing each file or folder. If a file or folder is inaccessible because of

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15.10 ListView Control

477

Fig. 15.30 | Image Collection Editor window for an ImageList component. permission settings, a MessageBox appears. The program scans the contents of the directory as it browses, rather than indexing the entire drive at once.

Method ListViewTestForm_Load Method ListViewTestForm_Load (lines 114–123) handles the Form’s Load event. When the application loads, the folder and file icon images are added to the Images collection of fileFolderImageList (lines 117–118). Since the ListView’s SmallImageList property is set to this ImageList, the ListView can display these images as icons for each item. Because the folder icon was added first, it has array index 0, and the file icon has array index 1. The application also loads its home directory (obtained at line 14) into the ListView when it first loads (line 121) and displays the directory path (line 122). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

// Fig. 15.31: ListViewTestForm.cs // Displaying directories and their contents in ListView. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.IO; namespace ListViewTest { // Form contains a ListView which displays // folders and files in a directory public partial class ListViewTestForm : Form { // store current directory string currentDirectory = Directory.GetCurrentDirectory(); // constructor public ListViewTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor

Fig. 15.31 |

ListView

displaying files and folders. (Part 1 of 4.)

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// browse directory user clicked or go up one level private void browserListView_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // ensure an item is selected if ( browserListView.SelectedItems.Count != 0 ) { // if first item selected, go up one level if ( browserListView.Items[ 0 ].Selected ) { // create DirectoryInfo object for directory DirectoryInfo directoryObject = new DirectoryInfo( currentDirectory ); // if directory has parent, load it if ( directoryObject.Parent != null ) { LoadFilesInDirectory( directoryObject.Parent.FullName ); } // end if } // end if // selected directory or file else { // directory or file chosen string chosen = browserListView.SelectedItems[ 0 ].Text; // if item selected is directory, load selected directory if ( Directory.Exists( Path.Combine( currentDirectory, chosen ) ) ) { LoadFilesInDirectory( Path.Combine( currentDirectory, chosen ) ); } // end if } // end else // update displayLabel displayLabel.Text = currentDirectory; } // end if } // end method browserListView_Click // display files/subdirectories of current directory public void LoadFilesInDirectory( string currentDirectoryValue ) { // load directory information and display try { // clear ListView and set first item browserListView.Items.Clear(); browserListView.Items.Add( "Go Up One Level" );

Fig. 15.31 |

ListView

displaying files and folders. (Part 2 of 4.)

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479

73 // update current directory 74 currentDirectory = currentDirectoryValue; 75 DirectoryInfo newCurrentDirectory = 76 new DirectoryInfo( currentDirectory ); 77 78 // put files and directories into arrays 79 DirectoryInfo[] directoryArray = 80 newCurrentDirectory.GetDirectories(); 81 FileInfo[] fileArray = newCurrentDirectory.GetFiles(); 82 83 // add directory names to ListView 84 foreach ( DirectoryInfo dir in directoryArray ) 85 { 86 // add directory to ListView ListViewItem newDirectoryItem = 87 88 browserListView.Items.Add( dir.Name ); 89 newDirectoryItem.ImageIndex = 0; // set directory image 90 91 } // end foreach 92 93 // add file names to ListView 94 foreach ( FileInfo file in fileArray ) 95 { 96 // add file to ListView ListViewItem newFileItem = 97 98 browserListView.Items.Add( file.Name ); 99 newFileItem.ImageIndex = 1; // set file image 100 101 } // end foreach 102 } // end try 103 104 // access denied 105 catch ( UnauthorizedAccessException ) 106 { 107 MessageBox.Show( "Warning: Some fields may not be " + 108 "visible due to permission settings", 109 "Attention", 0, MessageBoxIcon.Warning ); 110 } // end catch 111 } // end method LoadFilesInDirectory 112 113 // handle load event when Form displayed for first time 114 private void ListViewTestForm_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) 115 { 116 // add icon images to ImageList fileFolderImageList.Images.Add( Properties.Resources.folder ); 117 fileFolderImageList.Images.Add( Properties.Resources.file ); 118 119 120 // load current directory into browserListView 121 LoadFilesInDirectory( currentDirectory ); 122 displayLabel.Text = currentDirectory; 123 } // end method ListViewTestForm_Load 124 } // end class ListViewTestForm 125 } // end namespace ListViewTest

Fig. 15.31 |

ListView

displaying files and folders. (Part 3 of 4.)

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a)

b)

c)

Fig. 15.31 |

ListView

displaying files and folders. (Part 4 of 4.)

Method LoadFilesInDirectory The LoadFilesInDirectory method (lines 64–111) populates browserListView with the directory passed to it (currentDirectoryValue). It clears browserListView and adds the element "Go Up One Level". When the user clicks this element, the program attempts to move up one level (we see how shortly). The method then creates a DirectoryInfo object initialized with the string currentDirectory (lines 75–76). If permission is not given to browse the directory, an exception is thrown (and caught in line 105). Method LoadFilesInDirectory works differently from method PopulateTreeView in the previous program (Fig. 15.28). Instead of loading all the folders on the hard drive, method LoadFilesInDirectory loads only the folders in the current directory. Class DirectoryInfo (namespace System.IO) enables us to browse or manipulate the directory structure easily. Method GetDirectories (line 80) returns an array of DirectoryInfo objects containing the subdirectories of the current directory. Similarly, method GetFiles (line 81) returns an array of class FileInfo objects containing the files in the current directory. Property Name (of both class DirectoryInfo and class FileInfo) contains only the directory or file name, such as temp instead of C:\myfolder\temp. To access the full name, use property FullName.

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481

Lines 84–91 and lines 94–101 iterate through the subdirectories and files of the current directory and add them to browserListView. Lines 90 and 100 set the ImageIndex properties of the newly created items. If an item is a directory, we set its icon to a directory icon (index 0); if an item is a file, we set its icon to a file icon (index 1).

Method browserListView_Click Method browserListView_Click (lines 23–61) responds when the user clicks control browserListView. Line 26 checks whether anything is selected. If a selection has been made, line 29 determines whether the user chose the first item in browserListView. The first item in browserListView is always Go Up One Level; if it is selected, the program attempts to go up a level. Lines 32–33 create a DirectoryInfo object for the current directory. Line 36 tests property Parent to ensure that the user is not at the root of the directory tree. Property Parent indicates the parent directory as a DirectoryInfo object; if no parent directory exists, Parent returns the value null. If a parent directory does exist, lines 38–39 pass the parent directory’s full name to LoadFilesInDirectory. If the user did not select the first item in browserListView, lines 44–56 allow the user to continue navigating through the directory structure. Line 47 creates string chosen and assigns it the text of the selected item (the first item in collection SelectedItems). Lines 50–51 determine whether the user selected a valid directory (rather than a file). Using the Combine method of class Path, the program combines strings currentDirectory and chosen to form the new directory path. The Combine method automatically adds a backslash (\), if necessary, between the two pieces. This value is passed to the Exists method of class Directory. Method Exists returns true if its string parameter is a valid directory. If so, the program passes the string to method LoadFilesInDirectory (lines 53– 54). Finally, displayLabel is updated with the new directory (line 59). This program loads quickly, because it indexes only the files in the current directory. A small delay may occur when a new directory is loaded. In addition, changes in the directory structure can be shown by reloading a directory. The previous program (Fig. 15.28) may have a large initial delay, as it loads an entire directory structure. This type of tradeoff is typical in the software world.

Software Engineering Observation 15.2 When designing applications that run for long periods of time, you might choose a large initial delay to improve performance throughout the rest of the program. However, in applications that run for only short periods, developers often prefer fast initial loading times and small delays after each action.

15.11 TabControl Control The TabControl creates tabbed windows, such as those in Visual Studio (Fig. 15.32). This enables you to specify more information in the same space on a Form and group displayed data logically. TabControls contain TabPage objects, which are similar to Panels and GroupBoxes in that TabPages also can contain controls. You first add controls to the TabPage objects, then add the TabPages to the TabControl. Only one TabPage is displayed at a time. To add objects to the TabPage and the TabControl, write myTabPage.Controls.Add( myControl ); myTabControl.TabPages.Add( myTabPage );

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Tabs

Fig. 15.32 | Tabbed windows in Visual Studio. The preceding statements call method Add of the Controls collection and method Add of the TabPages collection. The example adds TabControl myControl to TabPage myTabPage, then adds myTabPage to myTabControl. Alternatively, we can use method AddRange to add an array of TabPages or controls to a TabControl or TabPage, respectively. Figure 15.33 depicts a sample TabControl.

TabPage TabControl

Controls in TabPage

Fig. 15.33 |

TabControl

with TabPages example.

You can add TabControls visually by dragging and dropping them onto a Form in Design mode. To add TabPages in Design mode, right click the TabControl and select Add Tab (Fig. 15.34). Alternatively, click the TabPages property in the Properties window and add tabs in the dialog that appears. To change a tab label, set the Text property of the TabPage. Clicking the tabs selects the TabControl—to select the TabPage, click the control area underneath the tabs. You can add controls to the TabPage by dragging and dropping items from the ToolBox. To view different TabPages, click the appropriate tab (in either design or run mode). Common properties and a common event of TabControls are described in Fig. 15.35. Each TabPage generates a Click event when its tab is clicked. Event handlers for this event can be created by double clicking the body of the TabPage. Class UsingTabsForm (Fig. 15.36) uses a TabControl to display various options relating to the text on a label (Color, Size and Message). The last TabPage displays an About message, which describes the use of TabControls.

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15.11 TabControl Control

Fig. 15.34 |

TabPages

483

added to a TabControl.

TabControl

properties and an event

Description

Common Properties ImageList ItemSize Multiline SelectedIndex SelectedTab TabCount TabPages

Specifies images to be displayed on tabs. Specifies the tab size. Indicates whether multiple rows of tabs can be displayed. Index of the selected TabPage. The selected TabPage. Returns the number of tab pages. Returns the collection of TabPages within the TabControl as a TabControl.TabPageCollection.

Common Event SelectedIndexChanged

Fig. 15.35 | 1 2 3 4 5 6

Generated when SelectedIndex changes (i.e., another TabPage is selected).

TabControl

properties and an event.

// Fig. 15.36: UsingTabsForm.cs // Using TabControl to display various font settings. using System; using System.Drawing; using System.Windows.Forms;

Fig. 15.36 |

TabControl

used to display various font settings. (Part 1 of 3.)

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namespace UsingTabs { // Form uses Tabs and RadioButtons to display various font settings public partial class UsingTabsForm : Form { // constructor public UsingTabsForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // event handler for Black RadioButton private void blackRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { displayLabel.ForeColor = Color.Black; // change color to black } // end method blackRadioButton_CheckedChanged // event handler for Red RadioButton private void redRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { displayLabel.ForeColor = Color.Red; // change color to red } // end method redRadioButton_CheckedChanged // event handler for Green RadioButton private void greenRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { displayLabel.ForeColor = Color.Green; // change color to green } // end method greenRadioButton_CheckedChanged // event handler for 12 point RadioButton private void size12RadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // change font size to 12 displayLabel.Font = new Font( displayLabel.Font.Name, 12 ); } // end method size12RadioButton_CheckedChanged // event handler for 16 point RadioButton private void size16RadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // change font size to 16 displayLabel.Font = new Font( displayLabel.Font.Name, 16 ); } // end method size16RadioButton_CheckedChanged // event handler for 20 point RadioButton private void size20RadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) {

Fig. 15.36 |

TabControl

used to display various font settings. (Part 2 of 3.)

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15.11 TabControl Control

59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

485

// change font size to 20 displayLabel.Font = new Font( displayLabel.Font.Name, 20 ); } // end method size20RadioButton_CheckedChanged // event handler for Hello! RadioButton private void helloRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { displayLabel.Text = "Hello!"; // change text to Hello! } // end method helloRadioButton_CheckedChanged // event handler for Goodbye! RadioButton private void goodbyeRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { displayLabel.Text = "Goodbye!"; // change text to Goodbye! } // end method goodbyeRadioButton_CheckedChanged } // end class UsingTabsForm } // end namespace UsingTabs a)

b)

c)

d)

Fig. 15.36 |

TabControl

used to display various font settings. (Part 3 of 3.)

The textOptionsTabControl and the colorTabPage, sizeTabPage, messageTabPage and aboutTabPage are created in the designer (as described previously). The colorTabPage contains three RadioButtons for the colors black (blackRadioButton), red (redRadioButton) and green (greenRadioButton). This TabPage is displayed in Fig. 15.36(a). The CheckedChanged event handler for each RadioButton updates the color of the text in displayLabel (lines 22, 29 and 36). The sizeTabPage (Fig. 15.36(b)) has three RadioButtons, corresponding to font sizes 12 (size12RadioButton), 16 (size16RadioButton) and 20 (size20RadioButton), which change the font size of displayLabel—lines 44, 52 and 60, respectively. The messageTabPage (Fig. 15.36(c)) contains two RadioButtons for the messages Hello! (helloRadioButton) and Goodbye! (goodbyeRadioButton). The two RadioButtons determine the text on displayLabel (lines 67 and 74, respectively). The

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Chapter 15 Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 2

aboutTabPage

(Fig. 15.36(d)) contains a Label (messageLabel) describing the purpose of

TabControls.

Software Engineering Observation 15.3 A TabPage can act as a container for a single logical group of RadioButtons, enforcing their mutual exclusivity. To place multiple RadioButton groups inside a single TabPage, you should group RadioButtons within Panels or GroupBoxes contained within the TabPage.

15.12 Multiple Document Interface (MDI) Windows In previous chapters, we have built only single document interface (SDI) applications. Such programs (including Microsoft’s Notepad and Paint) can support only one open window or document at a time. SDI applications usually have limited abilities—Paint and Notepad, for example, have limited image- and text-editing features. To edit multiple documents, the user must execute another instance of the SDI application. Many complex applications are multiple document interface (MDI) programs, which allow users to edit multiple documents at once (e.g., Microsoft Office products). MDI programs also tend to be more complex—Paint Shop Pro and Photoshop have a greater number of image-editing features than does Paint. An MDI program’s main window is called the parent window, and each window inside the application is referred to as a child window. Although an MDI application can have many child windows, each has only one parent window. Furthermore, a maximum of one child window can be active at once. Child windows cannot be parents themselves and cannot be moved outside their parent. Otherwise, a child window behaves like any other window (with regard to closing, minimizing, resizing, and so on). A child window’s functionality can differ from that of other child windows of the parent. For example, one child window might allow the user to edit images, another might allow the user to edit text and a third might display network traffic graphically, but all could belong to the same MDI parent. Figure 15.37 depicts a sample MDI application with two child windows. MDI parent MDI child MDI child

Fig. 15.37 | MDI parent window and MDI child windows. To create an MDI Form, create a new Form and set its IsMdiContainer property to The Form changes appearance, as in Fig. 15.38. Next, create a child Form class to be added to the Form. To do this, right click the project in the Solution Explorer, select Project > Add Windows Form… and name the file. Edit the Form as you like. To add the true.

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15.12 Multiple Document Interface (MDI) Windows

Single Document Interface (SDI)

487

Multiple Document Interface (MDI)

Fig. 15.38 | SDI and MDI forms. child Form to the parent, we must create a new child Form object, set its MdiParent property to the parent Form and call the child Form’s Show method. In general, to add a child Form to a parent, write ChildFormClass childForm = New ChildFormClass(); childForm.MdiParent = parentForm; childForm.Show();

In most cases, the parent Form creates the child, so the parentForm reference is this. The code to create a child usually lies inside an event handler, which creates a new window in response to a user action. Menu selections (such as File, followed by a submenu option of New, followed by a submenu option of Window) are common techniques for creating new child windows. Class Form property MdiChildren returns an array of child Form references. This is useful if the parent window wants to check the status of all its children (for example, ensuring that all are saved before the parent closes). Property ActiveMdiChild returns a reference to the active child window; it returns null if there are no active child windows. Other features of MDI windows are described in Fig. 15.39. MDI Form properties, a method and an event

Description

Common MDI Child Properties IsMdiChild Indicates whether the Form is an MDI child. If true, Form is an MDI child (read-only property). MdiParent Specifies the MDI parent Form of the child. Common MDI Parent Properties ActiveMdiChild Returns the Form that is the currently active MDI child (returns null if no children are active). IsMdiContainer Indicates whether a Form can be an MDI parent. If true, the Form can be an MDI parent. The default value is false. MdiChildren Returns the MDI children as an array of Forms.

Fig. 15.39 | MDI parent and MDI child properties, a method and an event. (Part 1 of 2.) Download at www.wowebook.com

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MDI Form properties, a method and an event

Description

Common Method LayoutMdi

Determines the display of child forms on an MDI parent. The method takes as a parameter an MdiLayout enumeration with possible values ArrangeIcons, Cascade, TileHorizontal and TileVertical. Figure 15.42 depicts the effects of these values.

Common Event MdiChildActivate

Generated when an MDI child is closed or activated.

Fig. 15.39 | MDI parent and MDI child properties, a method and an event. (Part 2 of 2.) Child windows can be minimized, maximized and closed independently of the parent window. Figure 15.40 shows two images: one containing two minimized child windows and a second containing a maximized child window. When the parent is minimized or closed, the child windows are minimized or closed as well. Notice that the title bar in Fig. 15.40(b) is Form1 - [Child1]. When a child window is maximized, its title-bar text is inserted into the parent window’s title bar. When a child window is minimized or maximized, its title bar displays a restore icon, which can be used to return the child window to its previous size (its size before it was minimized or maximized). Parent window icons: minimize, maximize and close a)

Maximized child window icons: minimize, restore and close

b)

Minimized child window icons: restore, maximize and close

Parent title bar indicates maximized child

Fig. 15.40 | Minimized and maximized child windows. C# provides a property that helps track which child windows are open in an MDI container. Property MdiWindowListItem of class MenuStrip specifies which menu, if any, displays a list of open child windows that the user can select to bring the corresponding window to the foreground. When a new child window is opened, an entry is added to the end of the list (Fig. 15.41). If ten or more child windows are open, the list includes the option More Windows..., which allows the user to select a window from a list in a dialog.

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Good Programming Practice 15.1 When creating MDI applications, include a menu that displays a list of the open child windows. This helps the user select a child window quickly, rather than having to search for it in the parent window. Child windows list

Nine or more child windows enables the More Windows… option

Fig. 15.41 |

MenuStrip

property MdiWindowListItem example.

MDI containers allow you to organize the placement of its child windows. The child windows in an MDI application can be arranged by calling method LayoutMdi of the parent Form. Method LayoutMdi takes an MdiLayout enumeration, which can have values ArrangeIcons, Cascade, TileHorizontal and TileVertical. Tiled windows completely fill the parent and do not overlap; such windows can be arranged horizontally (value TileHorizontal) or vertically (value TileVertical). Cascaded windows (value Cascade) overlap— each is the same size and displays a visible title bar, if possible. Value ArrangeIcons arranges the icons for any minimized child windows. If minimized windows are scattered around the parent window, value ArrangeIcons orders them neatly at the bottom-left corner of the parent window. Figure 15.42 illustrates the values of the MdiLayout enumeration. a) ArrangeIcons

Fig. 15.42 |

MdiLayout

b) Cascade

enumeration values. (Part 1 of 2.)

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c) TileHorizontal

Fig. 15.42 |

MdiLayout

d) TileVertical

enumeration values. (Part 2 of 2.)

Class UsingMDIForm (Fig. 15.43) demonstrates MDI windows. Class UsingMDIForm uses three instances of child Form ChildForm (Fig. 15.44), each containing a PictureBox that displays an image. The parent MDI Form contains a menu enabling users to create and arrange child Forms.

MDI Parent Form Figure 15.43 presents class UsingMDIForm—the application’s MDI parent Form. This Form, which is created first, contains two top-level menus. The first of these menus, File (fileToolStripMenuItem), contains both an Exit item (exitToolStripMenuItem) and a New submenu (newToolStripMenuItem) consisting of items for each child window. The second menu, Window (windowToolStripMenuItem), provides options for laying out the MDI children, plus a list of the active MDI children. In the Properties window, we set the Form’s IsMdiContainer property to true, making the Form an MDI parent. In addition, we set the MenuStrip’s MdiWindowListItem property to windowToolStripMenuItem. This enables the Window menu to contain the list of child MDI windows. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

// Fig. 15.43: UsingMDIForm.cs // Demonstrating use of MDI parent and child windows. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace UsingMDI { // Form demonstrates the use of MDI parent and child windows public partial class UsingMDIForm : Form { // constructor public UsingMDIForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor

Fig. 15.43 | MDI parent-window class. (Part 1 of 3.)

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15.12 Multiple Document Interface (MDI) Windows

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69

491

// create Lavender Flowers image window private void lavenderToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create new child ChildForm child = new ChildForm( "Lavender Flowers", "lavenderflowers" ); child.MdiParent = this; // set parent child.Show(); // display child } // end method lavenderToolStripMenuItem_Click // create Purple Flowers image window private void purpleToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create new child ChildForm child = new ChildForm( "Purple Flowers", "purpleflowers" ); child.MdiParent = this; // set parent child.Show(); // display child } // end method purpleToolStripMenuItem_Click // create Yellow Flowers image window private void yellowToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create new child Child child = new ChildForm( "Yellow Flowers", "yellowflowers" ); child.MdiParent = this; // set parent child.Show(); // display child } // end method yellowToolStripMenuItem_Click // exit application private void exitToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { Application.Exit(); } // end method exitToolStripMenuItem_Click // set Cascade layout private void cascadeToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { this.LayoutMdi( MdiLayout.Cascade ); } // end method cascadeToolStripMenuItem_Click // set TileHorizontal layout private void tileHorizontalToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { this.LayoutMdi( MdiLayout.TileHorizontal ); } // end method tileHorizontalToolStripMenuItem

Fig. 15.43 | MDI parent-window class. (Part 2 of 3.) Download at www.wowebook.com

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// set TileVertical layout private void tileVerticalToolStripMenuItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { this.LayoutMdi( MdiLayout.TileVertical ); } // end method tileVerticalToolStripMenuItem_Click } // end class UsingMDIForm } // end namespace UsingMDI

a)

b)

c)

d)

Fig. 15.43 | MDI parent-window class. (Part 3 of 3.) The Cascade menu item (cascadeToolStripMenuItem) has an event handler (cascadeToolStripMenuItem_Click, lines 58–62) that arranges the child windows in a cascading manner. The event handler calls method LayoutMdi with the argument Cascade from the MdiLayout enumeration (line 61). The Tile Horizontal menu item (tileHorizontalToolStripMenuItem) has an event handler (tileHorizontalToolStripMenuItem_Click, lines 65–69) that arranges the child windows in a horizontal manner. The event handler calls method LayoutMdi with the argument TileHorizontal from the MdiLayout enumeration (line 68). Finally, the Tile Vertical menu item (tileVerticalToolStripMenuItem) has an event handler (tileVerticalToolStripMenuItem_Click, lines 72–76) that arranges the child

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493

windows in a vertical manner. The event handler calls method LayoutMdi with the argument TileVertical from the MdiLayout enumeration (line 75).

MDI Child Form At this point, the application is still incomplete—we must define the MDI child class. To do this, right click the project in the Solution Explorer and select Add > Windows Form…. Then name the new class in the dialog as ChildForm (Fig. 15.44). Next, we add a PictureBox (displayPictureBox) to ChildForm. In ChildForm’s constructor, line 16 sets the title-bar text. Lines 19–21 retrieve the appropriate image resource, cast it to an Image and set displayPictureBox’s Image property. The images that are used can be found in the Images subfolder of this chapter’s examples directory. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

// Fig. 15.44: ChildForm.cs // Child window of MDI parent. using System; using System.Drawing; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace UsingMDI { public partial class ChildForm : Form { public ChildForm( string title, string resourceName ) { // Required for Windows Form Designer support InitializeComponent(); Text = title; // set title text // set image to display in PictureBox displayPictureBox.Image = ( Image ) ( Properties.Resources.ResourceManager.GetObject( resourceName ); } // end constructor } // end class ChildForm } // end namespace UsingMDI

Fig. 15.44 | MDI child ChildForm. After the MDI child class is defined, the parent MDI Form (Fig. 15.43) can create new child windows. The event handlers in lines 18–48 create a new child Form corresponding to the menu item clicked. Lines 22–23, 33–34 and 44–45 create new instances of ChildForm. Lines 24, 35 and 46 set each Child’s MdiParent property to the parent Form. Lines 25, 36 and 47 call method Show to display each child Form.

15.13 Visual Inheritance Chapter 11 discussed how to create classes by inheriting from other classes. We have also used inheritance to create Forms that display a GUI, by deriving our new Form classes from

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class System.Windows.Forms.Form. This is an example of visual inheritance. The derived Form class contains the functionality of its Form base class, including any base-class properties, methods, variables and controls. The derived class also inherits all visual aspects— such as sizing, component layout, spacing between GUI components, colors and fonts— from its base class. Visual inheritance enables you to achieve visual consistency across applications. For example, you could define a base Form that contains a product’s logo, a specific background color, a predefined menu bar and other elements. You then could use the base Form throughout an application for uniformity and branding. You can also create controls that inherit from other controls. For example, you might create a custom UserControl (discussed in Section 15.14) that is derived from an existing control.

Creating a Base Form Class VisualInheritanceBaseForm (Fig. 15.45) derives from Form. The output depicts the workings of the program. The GUI contains two Labels with text Bugs, Bugs, Bugs and Copyright 2010, by Deitel & Associates, Inc., as well as one Button displaying the text Learn More. When a user presses the Learn More Button, method learnMoreButton_Click (lines 18–24) is invoked. This method displays a MessageBox that provides some informative text.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

// Fig. 15.45: VisualInheritanceBaseForm.cs // Base Form for use with visual inheritance. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace VisualInheritanceBase { // base Form used to demonstrate visual inheritance public partial class VisualInheritanceBaseForm : Form { // constructor public VisualInheritanceForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // display MessageBox when Button is clicked private void learnMoreButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { MessageBox.Show( "Bugs, Bugs, Bugs is a product of deitel.com", "Learn More", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Information ); } // end method learnMoreButton_Click } // end class VisualInheritanceBaseForm } // end namespace VisualInheritanceBase

Fig. 15.45 | Class VisualInheritanceBaseForm, which inherits from class Form, contains a Button (Learn More).

(Part 1 of 2.)

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495

Fig. 15.45 | Class VisualInheritanceBaseForm, which inherits from class Form, contains a Button (Learn More).

(Part 2 of 2.)

Steps for Declaring and Using a Reusable Class Before a Form (or any class) can be used in multiple applications, it must be placed in a class library to make it reusable. The steps for creating a reusable class are: 1. Declare a public class. If the class is not public, it can be used only by other classes in the same assembly—that is, compiled into the same DLL or EXE file. 2. Choose a namespace name and add a namespace declaration to the source-code file for the reusable class declaration. 3. Compile the class into a class library. 4. Add a reference to the class library in an application. 5. Use the class. Let’s take a look at these steps in the context of this example Step 1: Creating a public Class For Step 1 in this discussion, we use the public class VisualInheritanceBaseForm declared in Fig. 15.45. By default, every new Form class you create is declares as a public class. Step 2: Adding the namespace Declaration For Step 2, we use the namespace declaration that was created for us by the IDE. By default, every new class you define is placed in a namespace with the same name as the project. In almost every example in the text, we’ve seen that classes from preexisting libraries, such as the .NET Framework Class Library, can be imported into a C# application. Each class belongs to a namespace that contains a group of related classes. As applications become more complex, namespaces help you manage the complexity of application components. Class libraries and namespaces also facilitate software reuse by enabling applications to add classes from other namespaces (as we’ve done in most examples). We removed the namespace declarations in earlier chapters because they were not necessary. Placing a class inside a namespace declaration indicates that the class is part of the specified namespace. The namespace name is part of the fully qualified class name, so the name of class VisualInheritanceTestForm is actually VisualInheritanceBase.VisualInheritanceBaseForm. You can use this fully qualified name in your applications, or you can write a using directive and use the class’s simple name (the unqualified class name— Download at www.wowebook.com

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VisualInheritanceBaseForm)

in the application. If another namespace also contains a class with the same name, the fully qualified class names can be used to distinguish between the classes in the application and prevent a name conflict (also called a name collision).

Step 3: Compiling the Class Library To allow other Forms to inherit from VisualInheritanceForm, we must package VisualInheritanceForm as a class library and compile it into a .dll file. Such as file is known as a dynamically linked library—a way to package classes that you can reference from other applications. Right click the project name in the Solution Explorer and select Properties, then choose the Application tab. In the Output type drop-down list, change Windows Application to Class Library. Building the project produces the .dll. You can configure a project to be a class library when you first create it by selecting the Class Library template in the New Project dialog. [Note: A class library cannot execute as a stand-alone application. The screen captures in Fig. 15.45 were taken before changing the project to a class library.] Step 4: Adding a Reference to the Class Library Once the class is compiled and stored in the class library file, the library can be referenced from any application by indicating to the Visual C# Express IDE where to find the class library file. To visually inherit from VisualInheritanceBaseForm, first create a new Windows application. Right-click the project name in the Solution Explorer window and select Add Reference... from the pop-up menu that appears. The dialog box that appears will contain a list of class libraries from the .NET Framework. Some class libraries, like the one containing the System namespace, are so common that they’re added to your application by the IDE. The ones in this list are not. In the Add Reference... dialog box, click the Browse tab. When you build a class library, Visual C# places the .dll file in the project’s bin\Release folder. In the Browse tab, you can navigate to the directory containing the class library file you created in Step 3, as shown in Fig. 15.46. Select the .dll file and click OK.

f

Fig. 15.46 | Adding a reference.

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497

Step 5: Using the Class—Deriving From a Base Form Open the file that defines the new application’s GUI and modify the line that defines the class to indicate that the application’s Form should inherit from class VisualInheritanceBaseForm. The class-declaration line should now appear as follows: public partial class VisualInhertianceTestForm : VisualInheritanceBase.VisualInheritanceBaseForm

Unless you specify namespace VisualInheritanceBase in a using directive, you must use the fully qualified name VisualInheritanceBase.VisualInheritanceBaseForm. In Design view, the new application’s Form should now display the controls inherited from the base Form (Fig. 15.47). We can now add more components to the Form.

Fig. 15.47 |

Form

demonstrating visual inheritance.

Class VisualInheritanceTestForm Class VisualInheritanceTestForm (Fig. 15.48) is a derived class of VisualInheritanceBaseForm. The output illustrates the functionality of the program. The components, their layouts and the functionality of base class VisualInheritanceBaseForm (Fig. 15.45) are inherited by VisualInheritanceTestForm. We added an additional Button with text About this Program. When a user presses this Button, method aboutButton_Click (lines 19–25) is invoked. This method displays another MessageBox providing different informative text (lines 21–24). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

// Fig. 15.48: VisualInheritanceTestForm.cs // Derived Form using visual inheritance. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace VisualInheritanceTest { // derived form using visual inheritance public partial class VisualInheritanceTestForm : VisualInheritanceBase.VisualInheritanceBaseForm {

Fig. 15.48 | Class VisualInheritanceTestForm, which inherits from class VisualInheritanceBaseForm,

contains an additional Button. (Part 1 of 2.)

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12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Chapter 15 Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 2

// constructor public VisualInheritanceTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // display MessageBox when Button is clicked private void aboutButton_Click(object sender, EventArgs e) { MessageBox.Show( "This program was created by Deitel & Associates.", "About This Program", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Information ); } // end method aboutButton_Click } // end class VisualInheritanceTestForm } // end namespace VisualInheritanceTest

Derived class can modify this control

Derived class cannot modify these controls

Fig. 15.48 | Class VisualInheritanceTestForm, which inherits from class VisualInheritanceBaseForm,

contains an additional Button. (Part 2 of 2.)

If a user clicks the Learn More button, the event is handled by the base-class event handler learnMoreButton_Click. Because VisualInheritanceBaseForm uses a private access modifier to declare its controls, VisualInheritanceTestForm cannot modify the controls inherited from class VisualInheritanceBaseForm visually or programmatically. You can, however, add event handlers for the inherited controls. The IDE displays a small icon at the top left of the visually inherited controls to indicate that they’re inherited and cannot be altered.

15.14 User-Defined Controls The .NET Framework allows you to create custom controls. These custom controls appear in the user’s Toolbox and can be added to Forms, Panels or GroupBoxes in the same way that we add Buttons, Labels and other predefined controls. The simplest way to create a custom control is to derive a class from an existing control, such as a Label. This is useful

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499

if you want to add functionality to an existing control, rather than replacing it with one that provides the desired functionality. For example, you can create a new type of Label that behaves like a normal Label but has a different appearance. You accomplish this by inheriting from class Label and overriding method OnPaint.

Method OnPaint All controls have an OnPaint method, which the system calls when a component must be redrawn (such as when the component is resized). The method receives a PaintEventArgs object, which contains graphics information—property Graphics is the graphics object used to draw, and property ClipRectangle defines the rectangular boundary of the control. Whenever the system raises a Paint event to draw the control on the screen, the control catches the event and calls its OnPaint method. The base class’s OnPaint should be called explicitly from an overridden OnPaint implementation before executing custompaint code. In most cases, you want to do this to ensure that the original painting code executes in addition to the code you define in the custom control’s class. Alternately, if we do not wish to let the base-class OnPaint method execute, we do not call it. Creating New Controls To create a new control composed of existing controls, use class UserControl. Controls added to a custom control are called constituent controls. For example, a programmer could create a UserControl composed of a Button, a Label and a TextBox, each associated with some functionality (for example, the Button setting the Label’s text to that contained in the TextBox). The UserControl acts as a container for the controls added to it. The UserControl contains constituent controls, but it does not determine how these constituent controls are displayed. To control the appearance of each constituent control, you can handle each control’s Paint event or override OnPaint. Both the Paint event handler and OnPaint are passed a PaintEventArgs object, which can be used to draw graphics (lines, rectangles, and so on) on the constituent controls. Using another technique, a programmer can create a brand-new control by inheriting from class Control. This class does not define any specific behavior; that’s left to you. Instead, class Control handles the items associated with all controls, such as events and sizing handles. Method OnPaint should contain a call to the base class’s OnPaint method, which calls the Paint event handlers. You add code that draws custom graphics inside the overridden OnPaint method. This technique allows for the greatest flexibility but also requires the most planning. All three approaches are summarized in Fig. 15.49. Custom-control techniques and PaintEventArgs properties Custom-Control Techniques Inherit from Windows Forms control

Description

You can do this to add functionality to a preexisting control. If you override method OnPaint, call the base class’s OnPaint method. You only can add to the original control’s appearance, not redesign it.

Fig. 15.49 | Custom-control creation. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Chapter 15 Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 2

Custom-control techniques and PaintEventArgs properties Create a UserControl

Inherit from class Control

PaintEventArgs Graphics ClipRectangle

Description You can create a UserControl composed of multiple preexisting controls (e.g., to combine their functionality). You place drawing code in a Paint event handler or overridden OnPaint method. Define a brand new control. Override method OnPaint, then call base-class method OnPaint and include methods to draw the control. With this method you can customize control appearance and functionality.

Properties The control’s graphics object. It is used to draw on the control. Specifies the rectangle indicating the boundary of the control.

Fig. 15.49 | Custom-control creation. (Part 2 of 2.) Clock Control We create a “clock” control in Fig. 15.50. This is a UserControl composed of a Label and a Timer—whenever the Timer raises an event (once per second in this example), the Label is updated to reflect the current time. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

// Fig. 15.50: ClockUserControl.cs // User-defined control with a timer and a Label. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace ClockExample { // UserControl that displays the time on a Label public partial class ClockUserControl : UserControl { // constructor public ClockUserControl() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // update Label at every tick private void clockTimer_Tick(object sender, EventArgs e) { // get current time (Now), convert to string displayLabel.Text = DateTime.Now.ToLongTimeString(); } // end method clockTimer_Tick } // end class ClockUserControl } // end namespace ClockExample

Fig. 15.50 |

UserControl-defined

clock. (Part 1 of 2.)

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15.14 User-Defined Controls

Fig. 15.50 |

UserControl-defined

501

clock. (Part 2 of 2.)

Timers Timers (System.Windows.Forms

namespace) are non-visual components that generate events at a set interval. This interval is set by the Timer’s Interval property, which defines the number of milliseconds (thousandths of a second) between events. By default, timers are disabled and do not generate events. Tick

Adding a User Control This application contains a user control (ClockUserControl) and a Form that displays the user control. Create a Windows application, then create a UserControl class by selecting Project > Add User Control…. This displays a dialog from which we can select the type of control to add—user controls are already selected. We then name the file (and the class) ClockUserControl. Our empty ClockUserControl is displayed as a grey rectangle. Designing the User Control You can treat this control like a Windows Form, meaning that you can add controls using the ToolBox and set properties using the Properties window. However, instead of creating an application, you are simply creating a new control composed of other controls. Add a Label (displayLabel) and a Timer (clockTimer) to the UserControl. Set the Timer interval to 1000 milliseconds and set displayLabel’s text with each Tick event (lines 18– 22). To generate events, clockTimer must be enabled by setting property Enabled to true in the Properties window. Structure DateTime (namespace System) contains property Now, which returns the current time. Method ToLongTimeString converts Now to a string containing the current hour, minute and second (along with AM or PM, depending on your locale). We use this to set the time in displayLabel in line 21. Once created, our clock control appears as an item on the ToolBox in the section titled ProjectName Components, where ProjectName is your project’s name. You may need to switch to the application’s Form before the item appears in the ToolBox. To use the control, simply drag it to the Form and run the Windows application. We gave the ClockUserControl object a white background to make it stand out in the Form. Figure 15.50 shows the output of Clock, which contains our ClockUserControl. There are no event handlers in Clock, so we show only the code for ClockUserControl. Sharing Custom Controls with Other Developers Visual Studio allows you to share custom controls with other developers. To create a UserControl that can be exported to other solutions, do the following: 1. Create a new Class Library project. 2. Delete Class1.cs, initially provided with the application.

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Chapter 15 Graphical User Interfaces with Windows Forms: Part 2 3. Right click the project in the Solution Explorer and select Add > User Control…. In the dialog that appears, name the user-control file and click Add. 4. Inside the project, add controls and functionality to the (Fig. 15.51).

UserControl

Fig. 15.51 | Custom-control creation. 5. Build the project. Visual Studio creates a .dll file for the UserControl in the output directory (bin/Release). The file is not executable; class libraries are used to define classes that are reused in other executable applications. 6. Create a new Windows application. 7. In the new Windows application, right click the ToolBox and select Choose Items…. In the Choose Toolbox Items dialog that appears, click Browse…. Browse for the .dll file from the class library created in Steps 1–5. The item will then appear in the Choose Toolbox Items dialog (Fig. 15.52). If it is not already checked, check this item. Click OK to add the item to the Toolbox. This control can now be added to the Form as if it were any other control.

Fig. 15.52 | Custom control added to the ToolBox.

15.15 Wrap-Up Many of today’s commercial applications provide GUIs that are easy to use and manipulate. Because of this demand for user-friendly GUIs, the ability to design sophisticated

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503

GUIs is an essential programming skill. Visual Studio’s IDE makes GUI development quick and easy. In Chapters 14 and 15, we presented basic Windows Forms GUI development techniques. In Chapter 15, we demonstrated how to create menus, which provide users easy access to an application’s functionality. You learned the DateTimePicker and MonthCalendar controls, which allow users to input date and time values. We demonstrated LinkLabels, which are used to link the user to an application or a web page. You used several controls that provide lists of data to the user—ListBoxes, CheckedListBoxes and ListViews. We used the ComboBox control to create drop-down lists, and the TreeView control to display data in hierarchical form. We then introduced complex GUIs that use tabbed windows and multiple document interfaces. The chapter concluded with demonstrations of visual inheritance and creating custom controls. In Chapter 16, we introduce string and character processing.

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16 Strings and Characters

The chief defect of Henry King Was chewing little bits of string. —Hilaire Belloc

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

To create and manipulate immutable character-string objects of class string and mutable character-string objects of class StringBuilder.

■

To manipulate character objects of struct Char.

■

To use regular-expression classes Regex and Match.

■

To iterate through matches to a regular expression.

■

To use character classes to match any character from a set of characters.

■

To use quantifiers to match a pattern multiple times.

■

To search for patterns in text using regular expressions.

■

To validate data using regular expressions and LINQ.

■

To modify strings using regular expressions and class Regex.

The difference between the almost-right word and the right word is really a large matter—it’s the difference between the lightning bug and the lightning. —Mark Twain

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16.1 Introduction

16.1 Introduction 16.2 Fundamentals of Characters and Strings 16.3 string Constructors 16.4 string Indexer, Length Property and CopyTo Method 16.5 Comparing strings 16.6 Locating Characters and Substrings in strings 16.7 Extracting Substrings from strings 16.8 Concatenating strings 16.9 Miscellaneous string Methods 16.10 Class StringBuilder

505

16.11 Length and Capacity Properties, EnsureCapacity Method and Indexer of Class StringBuilder 16.12 Append and AppendFormat Methods of Class StringBuilder 16.13 Insert, Remove and Replace Methods of Class StringBuilder 16.14 Char Methods 16.15 Regular Expressions 16.15.1 Simple Regular Expressions and Class Regex

16.15.2 Complex Regular Expressions 16.15.3 Validating User Input with Regular Expressions and LINQ 16.15.4 Regex Methods Replace and Split

16.16 Wrap-Up

16.1 Introduction This chapter introduces the .NET Framework Class Library’s string- and character-processing capabilities and demonstrates how to use regular expressions to search for patterns in text. The techniques it presents can be employed in text editors, word processors, pagelayout software, computerized typesetting systems and other kinds of text-processing software. Previous chapters presented some basic string-processing capabilities. Now we discuss in detail the text-processing capabilities of class string and type char from the System namespace and class StringBuilder from the System.Text namespace. We begin with an overview of the fundamentals of characters and strings in which we discuss character constants and string literals. We then provide examples of class string’s many constructors and methods. The examples demonstrate how to determine the length of strings, copy strings, access individual characters in strings, search strings, obtain substrings from larger strings, compare strings, concatenate strings, replace characters in strings and convert strings to uppercase or lowercase letters. Next, we introduce class StringBuilder, which is used to build strings dynamically. We demonstrate StringBuilder capabilities for determining and specifying the size of a StringBuilder, as well as appending, inserting, removing and replacing characters in a StringBuilder object. We then introduce the character-testing methods of struct Char that enable a program to determine whether a character is a digit, a letter, a lowercase letter, an uppercase letter, a punctuation mark or a symbol other than a punctuation mark. Such methods are useful for validating individual characters in user input. In addition, type Char provides methods for converting a character to uppercase or lowercase. We discuss regular expressions. We present classes Regex and Match from the System.Text.RegularExpressions namespace as well as the symbols that are used to form regular expressions. We then demonstrate how to find patterns in a string, match entire strings to patterns, replace characters in a string that match a pattern and split strings at delimiters specified as a pattern in a regular expression.

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Chapter 16 Strings and Characters

16.2 Fundamentals of Characters and Strings Characters are the fundamental building blocks of C# source code. Every program is composed of characters that, when grouped together meaningfully, create a sequence that the compiler interprets as instructions describing how to accomplish a task. In addition to normal characters, a program also can contain character constants. A character constant is a character that’s represented as an integer value, called a character code. For example, the integer value 122 corresponds to the character constant 'z'. The integer value 10 corresponds to the newline character '\n'. Character constants are established according to the Unicode character set, an international character set that contains many more symbols and letters than does the ASCII character set (listed in Appendix C). To learn more about Unicode, see Appendix F. A string is a series of characters treated as a unit. These characters can be uppercase letters, lowercase letters, digits and various special characters: +, -, *, /, $ and others. A string is an object of class string in the System namespace.1 We write string literals, also called string constants, as sequences of characters in double quotation marks, as follows: "John Q. Doe" "9999 Main Street" "Waltham, Massachusetts" "(201) 555-1212"

A declaration can assign a string literal to a string reference. The declaration string color = "blue";

initializes string reference color to refer to the string literal object "blue".

Performance Tip 16.1 If there are multiple occurrences of the same string literal object in an application, a single copy of it will be referenced from each location in the program that uses that string literal. It’s possible to share the object in this manner, because string literal objects are implicitly constant. Such sharing conserves memory.

On occasion, a string will contain multiple backslash characters (this often occurs in the name of a file). To avoid excessive backslash characters, it’s possible to exclude escape sequences and interpret all the characters in a string literally, using the @ character. Backslashes within the double quotation marks following the @ character are not considered escape sequences, but rather regular backslash characters. Often this simplifies programming and makes the code easier to read. For example, consider the string "C:\MyFolder\MySubFolder\MyFile.txt" with the following assignment: string file = "C:\\MyFolder\\MySubFolder\\MyFile.txt";

Using the verbatim string syntax, the assignment can be altered to string file = @"C:\MyFolder\MySubFolder\MyFile.txt";

This approach also has the advantage of allowing string literals to span multiple lines by preserving all newlines, spaces and tabs. 1.

C# provides the string keyword as an alias for class String. In this book, we use the term string.

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16.3 string Constructors

507

16.3 string Constructors Class string provides eight constructors for initializing Figure 16.1 demonstrates three of the constructors. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

strings

in various ways.

// Fig. 16.1: StringConstructor.cs // Demonstrating string class constructors. using System; class StringConstructor { public static void Main( string[] args ) { // string initialization char[] characterArray = { 'b', 'i', 'r', 't', 'h', ' ', 'd', 'a', 'y' }; string originalString = "Welcome to C# programming!"; string string1 = originalString; string string2 = new string( characterArray ); string string3 = new string( characterArray, 6, 3 ); string string4 = new string( 'C', 5 ); Console.WriteLine( "string1 = " + "\"" + string1 + "\"\n" + "string2 = " + "\"" + string2 + "\"\n" + "string3 = " + "\"" + string3 + "\"\n" + "string4 = " + "\"" + string4 + "\"\n" ); } // end Main } // end class StringConstructor

string1 string2 string3 string4

= = = =

Fig. 16.1 |

"Welcome to C# programming!" "birth day" "day" "CCCCC" string

constructors.

Lines 10–11 allocate the char array characterArray, which contains nine characters. Lines 12–16 declare the strings originalString, string1, string2, string3 and string4. Line 12 assigns string literal "Welcome to C# programming!" to string reference originalString. Line 13 sets string1 to reference the same string literal. Line 14 assigns to string2 a new string, using the string constructor with a character array argument. The new string contains a copy of the array’s characters. Line 15 assigns to string3 a new string, using the string constructor that takes a char array and two int arguments. The second argument specifies the starting index position (the offset) from which characters in the array are to be copied. The third argument specifies the number of characters (the count) to be copied from the specified starting position in the array. The new string contains a copy of the specified characters in the array. If the specified offset or count indicates that the program should access an element outside the bounds of the character array, an ArgumentOutOfRangeException is thrown. Line 16 assigns to string4 a new string, using the string constructor that takes as arguments a character and an int specifying the number of times to repeat that character in the string.

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Chapter 16 Strings and Characters

Software Engineering Observation 16.1 In most cases, it’s not necessary to make a copy of an existing string. All strings are immutable—their character contents cannot be changed after they’re created. Also, if there are one or more references to a string (or any object for that matter), the object cannot be reclaimed by the garbage collector.

16.4 string Indexer, Length Property and CopyTo Method The application in Fig. 16.2 presents the string indexer, which facilitates the retrieval of any character in the string, and the string property Length, which returns the length of the string. The string method CopyTo copies a specified number of characters from a string into a char array. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

// Fig. 16.2: StringMethods.cs // Using the indexer, property Length and method CopyTo // of class string. using System; class StringMethods { public static void Main( string[] args ) { string string1 = "hello there"; char[] characterArray = new char[ 5 ]; // output string1 Console.WriteLine( "string1: \"" + string1 + "\"" ); // test Length property Console.WriteLine( "Length of string1: " + string1.Length ); // loop through characters in string1 and display reversed Console.Write( "The string reversed is: " ); for ( int i = string1.Length - 1; i >= 0; i-- ) Console.Write( string1[ i ] ); // copy characters from string1 into characterArray string1.CopyTo( 0, characterArray, 0, characterArray.Length ); Console.Write( "\nThe character array is: " ); for ( int i = 0; i < characterArray.Length; i++ ) Console.Write( characterArray[ i ] ); Console.WriteLine( "\n" ); } // end Main } // end class StringMethods

Fig. 16.2 |

string

indexer, Length property and CopyTo method. (Part 1 of 2.)

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16.5 Comparing strings

509

string1: "hello there" Length of string1: 11 The string reversed is: ereht olleh The character array is: hello

Fig. 16.2 |

string

indexer, Length property and CopyTo method. (Part 2 of 2.)

This application determines the length of a string, displays its characters in reverse order and copies a series of characters from the string to a character array. Line 17 uses string property Length to determine the number of characters in string1. Like arrays, strings always know their own size. Lines 22–23 write the characters of string1 in reverse order using the string indexer. The string indexer treats a string as an array of chars and returns each character at a specific position in the string. The indexer receives an integer argument as the position number and returns the character at that position. As with arrays, the first element of a string is considered to be at position 0.

Common Programming Error 16.1 Attempting to access a character that’s outside a OutOfRangeException.

string’s

bounds results in an

Index-

Line 26 uses string method CopyTo to copy the characters of string1 into a character array (characterArray). The first argument given to method CopyTo is the index from which the method begins copying characters in the string. The second argument is the character array into which the characters are copied. The third argument is the index specifying the starting location at which the method begins placing the copied characters into the character array. The last argument is the number of characters that the method will copy from the string. Lines 29–30 output the char array contents one character at a time.

16.5 Comparing strings The next two examples demonstrate various methods for comparing strings. To understand how one string can be “greater than” or “less than” another, consider the process of alphabetizing a series of last names. The reader would, no doubt, place "Jones" before "Smith", because the first letter of "Jones" comes before the first letter of "Smith" in the alphabet. The alphabet is more than just a set of 26 letters—it’s an ordered list of characters in which each letter occurs in a specific position. For example, Z is more than just a letter of the alphabet; it’s specifically the twenty-sixth letter of the alphabet. Computers can order characters alphabetically because they’re represented internally as Unicode numeric codes.

Comparing Strings with Equals, CompareTo and the Equality Operator (==) Class string provides several ways to compare strings. The application in Fig. 16.3 demonstrates the use of method Equals, method CompareTo and the equality operator (==). The condition in line 21 uses string method Equals to compare string1 and literal string "hello" to determine whether they’re equal. Method Equals (inherited from object and overridden in string) tests any two objects for equality (i.e., checks whether the objects have identical contents). The method returns true if the objects are equal and

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510 false

Chapter 16 Strings and Characters otherwise. In this case, the condition returns

true,

because

string1

references

string literal object "hello". Method Equals uses word sorting rules that depend on your

system’s currently selected culture. Comparing "hello" with "HELLO" would return false, because the lowercase letters are different from the those of corresponding uppercase letters. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

// Fig. 16.3: StringCompare.cs // Comparing strings using System; class StringCompare { public static void Main( string[] args ) { string string1 = "hello"; string string2 = "good bye"; string string3 = "Happy Birthday"; string string4 = "happy birthday";

Fig. 16.3 |

// output values of four strings Console.WriteLine( "string1 = \"" + string1 + "\"" + "\nstring2 = \"" + string2 + "\"" + "\nstring3 = \"" + string3 + "\"" + "\nstring4 = \"" + string4 + "\"\n" ); // test for equality using Equals method if ( string1.Equals( "hello" ) ) Console.WriteLine( "string1 equals \"hello\"" ); else Console.WriteLine( "string1 does not equal \"hello\"" ); // test for equality with == if ( string1 == "hello" ) Console.WriteLine( "string1 equals \"hello\"" ); else Console.WriteLine( "string1 does not equal \"hello\"" ); // test for equality comparing case if ( string.Equals( string3, string4 ) ) // static method Console.WriteLine( "string3 equals string4" ); else Console.WriteLine( "string3 does not equal string4" ); // test CompareTo Console.WriteLine( "\nstring1.CompareTo( string2 ) is " + string1.CompareTo( string2 ) + "\n" + "string2.CompareTo( string1 ) is " + string2.CompareTo( string1 ) + "\n" + "string1.CompareTo( string1 ) is " + string1.CompareTo( string1 ) + "\n" + "string3.CompareTo( string4 ) is " + string

test to determine equality. (Part 1 of 2.)

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16.5 Comparing strings

46 47 48 49 50

511

string3.CompareTo( string4 ) + "\n" + "string4.CompareTo( string3 ) is " + string4.CompareTo( string3 ) + "\n\n" ); } // end Main } // end class StringCompare

string1 string2 string3 string4

= = = =

"hello" "good bye" "Happy Birthday" "happy birthday"

string1 equals "hello" string1 equals "hello" string3 does not equal string4 string1.CompareTo( string2.CompareTo( string1.CompareTo( string3.CompareTo( string4.CompareTo(

Fig. 16.3 |

string

string2 string1 string1 string4 string3

) ) ) ) )

is is is is is

1 -1 0 1 -1

test to determine equality. (Part 2 of 2.)

The condition in line 27 uses the overloaded equality operator (==) to compare with the literal string "hello" for equality. In C#, the equality operator also compares the contents of two strings. Thus, the condition in the if statement evaluates to true, because the values of string1 and "hello" are equal. Line 33 tests whether string3 and string4 are equal to illustrate that comparisons are indeed case sensitive. Here, static method Equals is used to compare the values of two strings. "Happy Birthday" does not equal "happy birthday", so the condition of the if statement fails, and the message "string3 does not equal string4" is output (line 36). Lines 40–48 use string method CompareTo to compare strings. Method CompareTo returns 0 if the strings are equal, a negative value if the string that invokes CompareTo is less than the string that’s passed as an argument and a positive value if the string that invokes CompareTo is greater than the string that’s passed as an argument. Notice that CompareTo considers string3 to be greater than string4. The only difference between these two strings is that string3 contains two uppercase letters in positions where string4 contains lowercase letters. string string1

Determining Whether a String Begins or Ends with a Specified String Figure 16.4 shows how to test whether a string instance begins or ends with a given string. Method StartsWith determines whether a string instance starts with the string text passed to it as an argument. Method EndsWith determines whether a string instance ends with the string text passed to it as an argument. Class stringStartEnd’s Main method defines an array of strings (called strings), which contains "started", "starting", "ended" and "ending". The remainder of method Main tests the elements of the array to determine whether they start or end with a particular set of characters. Line 13 uses method StartsWith, which takes a string argument. The condition in the if statement determines whether the string at index i of the array starts with the characters "st". If so, the method returns true, and strings[i] is output along with a message.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Chapter 16 Strings and Characters

// Fig. 16.4: StringStartEnd.cs // Demonstrating StartsWith and EndsWith methods. using System; class StringStartEnd { public static void Main( string[] args ) { string[] strings = { "started", "starting", "ended", "ending" }; // test every string to see if it starts with "st" for ( int i = 0; i < strings.Length; i++ ) if ( strings[ i ].StartsWith( "st" ) ) Console.WriteLine( "\"" + strings[ i ] + "\"" + " starts with \"st\"" ); Console.WriteLine(); // test every string to see if it ends with "ed" for ( int i = 0; i < strings.Length; i++ ) if ( strings[ i ].EndsWith( "ed" ) ) Console.WriteLine( "\"" + strings[ i ] + "\"" + " ends with \"ed\"" ); Console.WriteLine(); } // end Main } // end class StringStartEnd

"started" starts with "st" "starting" starts with "st" "started" ends with "ed" "ended" ends with "ed"

Fig. 16.4 |

StartsWith

and EndsWith methods.

Line 21 uses method EndsWith to determine whether the string at index i of the array ends with the characters "ed". If so, the method returns true, and strings[i] is displayed along with a message.

16.6 Locating Characters and Substrings in strings In many applications, it’s necessary to search for a character or set of characters in a string. For example, a programmer creating a word processor would want to provide capabilities for searching through documents. The application in Fig. 16.5 demonstrates some of the many versions of string methods IndexOf, IndexOfAny, LastIndexOf and LastIndexOfAny, which search for a specified character or substring in a string. We perform all searches in this example on the string letters (initialized with "abcdefghijklmabcdefghijklm") located in method Main of class StringIndexMethods. Lines 14, 16 and 18 use method IndexOf to locate the first occurrence of a character or substring in a string. If it finds a character, IndexOf returns the index of the specified

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16.6 Locating Characters and Substrings in strings

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

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// Fig. 16.5: StringIndexMethods.cs // Using string-searching methods. using System; class StringIndexMethods { public static void Main( string[] args ) { string letters = "abcdefghijklmabcdefghijklm"; char[] searchLetters = { 'c', 'a', '$' }; // test IndexOf to locate a character in a string Console.WriteLine( "First 'c' is located at index " + letters.IndexOf( 'c' ) ); Console.WriteLine( "First 'a' starting at 1 is located at index " + letters.IndexOf( 'a', 1 ) ); Console.WriteLine( "First '$' in the 5 positions starting at 3 " + "is located at index " + letters.IndexOf( '$', 3, 5 ) ); // test LastIndexOf to find a character in a string Console.WriteLine( "\nLast 'c' is located at index " + letters.LastIndexOf( 'c' ) ); Console.WriteLine( "Last 'a' up to position 25 is located at " + "index " + letters.LastIndexOf( 'a', 25 ) ); Console.WriteLine( "Last '$' in the 5 positions starting at 15 " + "is located at index " + letters.LastIndexOf( '$', 15, 5 ) ); // test IndexOf to locate a substring in a string Console.WriteLine( "\nFirst \"def\" is located at index " + letters.IndexOf( "def" ) ); Console.WriteLine( "First \"def\" starting at 7 is located at " + "index " + letters.IndexOf( "def", 7 ) ); Console.WriteLine( "First \"hello\" in the 15 positions " + "starting at 5 is located at index " + letters.IndexOf( "hello", 5, 15 ) ); // test LastIndexOf to find a substring in a string Console.WriteLine( "\nLast \"def\" is located at index " + letters.LastIndexOf( "def" ) ); Console.WriteLine( "Last \"def\" up to position 25 is located " + "at index " + letters.LastIndexOf( "def", 25 ) ); Console.WriteLine( "Last \"hello\" in the 15 positions " + "ending at 20 is located at index " + letters.LastIndexOf( "hello", 20, 15 ) ); // test IndexOfAny to find first occurrence of character in array Console.WriteLine( "\nFirst 'c', 'a' or '$' is " + "located at index " + letters.IndexOfAny( searchLetters ) ); Console.WriteLine("First 'c', 'a' or '$' starting at 7 is " + "located at index " + letters.IndexOfAny( searchLetters, 7 ) ); Console.WriteLine( "First 'c', 'a' or '$' in the 5 positions " + "starting at 7 is located at index " + letters.IndexOfAny( searchLetters, 7, 5 ) );

Fig. 16.5 | Searching for characters and substrings in strings. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// test LastIndexOfAny to find last occurrence of character // in array Console.WriteLine( "\nLast 'c', 'a' or '$' is " + "located at index " + letters.LastIndexOfAny( searchLetters ) ); Console.WriteLine( "Last 'c', 'a' or '$' up to position 1 is " + "located at index " + letters.LastIndexOfAny( searchLetters, 1 ) ); Console.WriteLine( "Last 'c', 'a' or '$' in the 5 positions " + "ending at 25 is located at index " + letters.LastIndexOfAny( searchLetters, 25, 5 ) ); } // end Main } // end class StringIndexMethods

First 'c' is located at index 2 First 'a' starting at 1 is located at index 13 First '$' in the 5 positions starting at 3 is located at index -1 Last 'c' is located at index 15 Last 'a' up to position 25 is located at index 13 Last '$' in the 5 positions starting at 15 is located at index -1 First "def" is located at index 3 First "def" starting at 7 is located at index 16 First "hello" in the 15 positions starting at 5 is located at index -1 Last "def" is located at index 16 Last "def" up to position 25 is located at index 16 Last "hello" in the 15 positions ending at 20 is located at index -1 First 'c', 'a' or '$' is located at index 0 First 'c', 'a' or '$' starting at 7 is located at index 13 First 'c', 'a' or '$' in the 5 positions starting at 7 is located at index -1 Last 'c', 'a' or '$' is located at index 15 Last 'c', 'a' or '$' up to position 1 is located at index 0 Last 'c', 'a' or '$' in the 5 positions ending at 25 is located at index -1

Fig. 16.5 | Searching for characters and substrings in strings. (Part 2 of 2.) character in the string; otherwise, IndexOf returns –1. The expression in line 16 uses a version of method IndexOf that takes two arguments—the character to search for and the starting index at which the search of the string should begin. The method does not examine any characters that occur prior to the starting index (in this case, 1). The expression in line 18 uses another version of method IndexOf that takes three arguments—the character to search for, the index at which to start searching and the number of characters to search. Lines 22, 24 and 26 use method LastIndexOf to locate the last occurrence of a character in a string. Method LastIndexOf performs the search from the end of the string to the beginning of the string. If it finds the character, LastIndexOf returns the index of the specified character in the string; otherwise, LastIndexOf returns –1. There are three versions of method LastIndexOf. The expression in line 22 uses the version that takes as an argument the character for which to search. The expression in line 24 uses the version that takes two arguments—the character for which to search and the highest index from

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16.7 Extracting Substrings from strings

515

which to begin searching backward for the character. The expression in line 26 uses a third version of method LastIndexOf that takes three arguments—the character for which to search, the starting index from which to start searching backward and the number of characters (the portion of the string) to search. Lines 29–44 use versions of IndexOf and LastIndexOf that take a string instead of a character as the first argument. These versions of the methods perform identically to those described above except that they search for sequences of characters (or substrings) that are specified by their string arguments. Lines 47–64 use methods IndexOfAny and LastIndexOfAny, which take an array of characters as the first argument. These versions of the methods also perform identically to those described above, except that they return the index of the first occurrence of any of the characters in the character-array argument.

Common Programming Error 16.2 In the overloaded methods LastIndexOf and LastIndexOfAny that take three parameters, the second argument must be greater than or equal to the third. This might seem counterintuitive, but remember that the search moves from the end of the string toward the start of the string.

16.7 Extracting Substrings from strings Class string provides two Substring methods, which create a new string by copying part of an existing string. Each method returns a new string. The application in Fig. 16.6 demonstrates the use of both methods. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

// Fig. 16.6: SubString.cs // Demonstrating the string Substring method. using System; class SubString { public static void Main( string[] args ) { string letters = "abcdefghijklmabcdefghijklm"; // invoke Substring method and pass it one parameter Console.WriteLine( "Substring from index 20 to end is \"" + letters.Substring( 20 ) + "\"" ); // invoke Substring method and pass it two parameters Console.WriteLine( "Substring from index 0 of length 6 is \"" + letters.Substring( 0, 6 ) + "\"" ); } // end method Main } // end class SubString

Substring from index 20 to end is "hijklm" Substring from index 0 of length 6 is "abcdef"

Fig. 16.6 | Substrings generated from strings.

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Chapter 16 Strings and Characters

The statement in line 13 uses the Substring method that takes one int argument. The argument specifies the starting index from which the method copies characters in the original string. The substring returned contains a copy of the characters from the starting index to the end of the string. If the index specified in the argument is outside the bounds of the string, the program throws an ArgumentOutOfRangeException. The second version of method Substring (line 17) takes two int arguments. The first argument specifies the starting index from which the method copies characters from the original string. The second argument specifies the length of the substring to copy. The substring returned contains a copy of the specified characters from the original string. If the supplied length of the substring is too large (i.e., the substring tries to retrieve characters past the end of the original string), an ArgumentOutOfRangeException is thrown.

16.8 Concatenating strings The + operator is not the only way to perform string concatenation. The static method Concat of class string (Fig. 16.7) concatenates two strings and returns a new string containing the combined characters from both original strings. Line 16 appends the characters from string2 to the end of a copy of string1, using method Concat. The statement in line 16 does not modify the original strings.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

// Fig. 16.7: SubConcatenation.cs // Demonstrating string class Concat method. using System; class StringConcatenation { public static void Main( string[] args ) { string string1 = "Happy "; string string2 = "Birthday"; Console.WriteLine( "string1 = \"" + string1 + "\"\n" + "string2 = \"" + string2 + "\"" ); Console.WriteLine( "\nResult of string.Concat( string1, string2 ) = " + string.Concat( string1, string2 ) ); Console.WriteLine( "string1 after concatenation = " + string1 ); } // end Main } // end class StringConcatenation

string1 = "Happy " string2 = "Birthday" Result of string.Concat( string1, string2 ) = Happy Birthday string1 after concatenation = Happy

Fig. 16.7 |

Concat static

method.

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16.9 Miscellaneous string Methods

517

16.9 Miscellaneous string Methods Class string provides several methods that return modified copies of strings. The application in Fig. 16.8 demonstrates the use of these methods, which include string methods Replace, ToLower, ToUpper and Trim. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

// Fig. 16.8: StringMethods2.cs // Demonstrating string methods Replace, ToLower, ToUpper, Trim, // and ToString. using System; class StringMethods2 { public static void Main( string[] args ) { string string1 = "cheers!"; string string2 = "GOOD BYE "; string string3 = " spaces "; Console.WriteLine( "string1 = \"" + string1 + "\"\n" + "string2 = \"" + string2 + "\"\n" + "string3 = \"" + string3 + "\"" ); // call method Replace Console.WriteLine( "\nReplacing \"e\" with \"E\" in string1: \"" + string1.Replace( 'e', 'E' ) + "\"" ); // call ToLower and ToUpper Console.WriteLine( "\nstring1.ToUpper() = \"" + string1.ToUpper() + "\"\nstring2.ToLower() = \"" + string2.ToLower() + "\"" ); // call Trim method Console.WriteLine( "\nstring3 after trim = \"" + string3.Trim() + "\"" ); Console.WriteLine( "\nstring1 = \"" + string1 + "\"" ); } // end Main } // end class StringMethods2

string1 = "cheers!" string2 = "GOOD BYE " string3 = " spaces

"

Replacing "e" with "E" in string1: "chEErs!" string1.ToUpper() = "CHEERS!" string2.ToLower() = "good bye " string3 after trim = "spaces" string1 = "cheers!"

Fig. 16.8 |

string

methods Replace, ToLower, ToUpper and Trim.

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Chapter 16 Strings and Characters

Line 21 uses string method Replace to return a new string, replacing every occurrence in string1 of character 'e' with 'E'. Method Replace takes two arguments—a char for which to search and another char with which to replace all matching occurrences of the first argument. The original string remains unchanged. If there are no occurrences of the first argument in the string, the method returns the original string. An overloaded version of this method allows you to provide two strings as arguments. The string method ToUpper generates a new string (line 25) that replaces any lowercase letters in string1 with their uppercase equivalents. The method returns a new string containing the converted string; the original string remains unchanged. If there are no characters to convert, the original string is returned. Line 26 uses string method ToLower to return a new string in which any uppercase letters in string2 are replaced by their lowercase equivalents. The original string is unchanged. As with ToUpper, if there are no characters to convert to lowercase, method ToLower returns the original string. Line 30 uses string method Trim to remove all whitespace characters that appear at the beginning and end of a string. Without otherwise altering the original string, the method returns a new string that contains the string, but omits leading and trailing whitespace characters. This method is particularly useful for retrieving user input (i.e., via a TextBox). Another version of method Trim takes a character array and returns a copy of the string that does not begin or end with any of the characters in the array argument.

16.10 Class StringBuilder The string class provides many capabilities for processing strings. However a string’s contents can never change. Operations that seem to concatenate strings are in fact assigning string references to newly created strings (e.g., the += operator creates a new string and assigns the initial string reference to the newly created string). The next several sections discuss the features of class StringBuilder (namespace System.Text), used to create and manipulate dynamic string information—i.e., mutable strings. Every StringBuilder can store a certain number of characters that’s specified by its capacity. Exceeding the capacity of a StringBuilder causes the capacity to expand to accommodate the additional characters. As we’ll see, members of class StringBuilder, such as methods Append and AppendFormat, can be used for concatenation like the operators + and += for class string. StringBuilder is particularly useful for manipulating in place a large number of strings, as it’s much more efficient than creating individual immutable strings.

Performance Tip 16.2 Objects of class

are immutable (i.e., constant strings), whereas objects of class are mutable. C# can perform certain optimizations involving strings (such as the sharing of one string among multiple references), because it knows these objects will not change. string

StringBuilder

Class StringBuilder provides six overloaded constructors. Class StringBuilderCon(Fig. 16.9) demonstrates three of these overloaded constructors. Line 10 employs the no-parameter StringBuilder constructor to create a StringBuilder that contains no characters and has an implementation-specific default initial capacity. Line 11 uses the StringBuilder constructor that takes an int argument to create a StringBuilder that contains no characters and has the initial capacity specified in the int argument (i.e., 10). Line 12 uses the StringBuilder constructor that takes a string structor

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16.11 Class StringBuilder

519

argument to create a StringBuilder containing the characters of the string argument. Lines 14–16 implicitly use StringBuilder method ToString to obtain string representations of the StringBuilders’ contents. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

// Fig. 16.9: StringBuilderConstructor.cs // Demonstrating StringBuilder class constructors. using System; using System.Text; class StringBuilderConstructor { public static void Main( string[] args ) { StringBuilder buffer1 = new StringBuilder(); StringBuilder buffer2 = new StringBuilder( 10 ); StringBuilder buffer3 = new StringBuilder( "hello" ); Console.WriteLine( "buffer1 = \"" + buffer1 + "\"" ); Console.WriteLine( "buffer2 = \"" + buffer2 + "\"" ); Console.WriteLine( "buffer3 = \"" + buffer3 + "\"" ); } // end Main } // end class StringBuilderConstructor

buffer1 = "" buffer2 = "" buffer3 = "hello"

Fig. 16.9 |

StringBuilder

class constructors.

16.11 Length and Capacity Properties, EnsureCapacity Method and Indexer of Class StringBuilder

Class StringBuilder provides the Length and Capacity properties to return the number of characters currently in a StringBuilder and the number of characters that a StringBuilder can store without allocating more memory, respectively. These properties also can increase or decrease the length or the capacity of the StringBuilder. Method EnsureCapacity allows you to reduce the number of times that a StringBuilder’s capacity must be increased. The method ensures that the StringBuilder’s capacity is at least the specified value. The program in Fig. 16.10 demonstrates these methods and properties. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

// Fig. 16.10: StringBuilderFeatures.cs // Demonstrating some features of class StringBuilder. using System; using System.Text; class StringBuilderFeatures {

Fig. 16.10 |

StringBuilder

size manipulation. (Part 1 of 2.)

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8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Chapter 16 Strings and Characters

public static void Main( string[] args ) { StringBuilder buffer = new StringBuilder( "Hello, how are you?" ); // use Length and Capacity properties Console.WriteLine( "buffer = " + buffer + "\nLength = " + buffer.Length + "\nCapacity = " + buffer.Capacity ); buffer.EnsureCapacity( 75 ); // ensure a capacity of at least 75 Console.WriteLine( "\nNew capacity = " + buffer.Capacity ); // truncate StringBuilder by setting Length property buffer.Length = 10; Console.Write( "\nNew length = " + buffer.Length + "\nbuffer = " ); // use StringBuilder indexer for ( int i = 0; i < buffer.Length; i++ ) Console.Write( buffer[ i ] ); Console.WriteLine( "\n" ); } // end Main } // end class StringBuilderFeatures

buffer = Hello, how are you? Length = 19 Capacity = 19 New length = 10 buffer = Hello, how

Fig. 16.10 |

StringBuilder

size manipulation. (Part 2 of 2.)

The program contains one StringBuilder, called buffer. Lines 10–11 of the program use the StringBuilder constructor that takes a string argument to instantiate the StringBuilder and initialize its value to "Hello, how are you?". Lines 14–16 output the content, length and capacity of the StringBuilder. Line 18 expands the capacity of the StringBuilder to a minimum of 75 characters. If new characters are added to a StringBuilder so that its length exceeds its capacity, the capacity grows to accommodate the additional characters in the same manner as if method EnsureCapacity had been called. Line 23 uses property Length to set the length of the StringBuilder to 10. If the specified length is less than the current number of characters in the StringBuilder, the contents of the StringBuilder are truncated to the specified length. If the specified length is greater than the number of characters currently in the StringBuilder, null characters are appended to the StringBuilder until the total number of characters in the StringBuilder is equal to the specified length.

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16.12 Class StringBuilder

521

16.12 Append and AppendFormat Methods of Class StringBuilder Class StringBuilder provides 19 overloaded Append methods that allow various types of values to be added to the end of a StringBuilder. The Framework Class Library provides versions for each of the simple types and for character arrays, strings and objects. (Remember that method ToString produces a string representation of any object.) Each method takes an argument, converts it to a string and appends it to the StringBuilder. Figure 16.11 demonstrates the use of several Append methods. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

// Fig. 16.11: StringBuilderAppend.cs // Demonstrating StringBuilder Append methods. using System; using System.Text; class StringBuilderAppend { public static void Main( string[] args ) { object objectValue = "hello"; string stringValue = "good bye"; char[] characterArray = { 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f' }; bool booleanValue = true; char characterValue = 'Z'; int integerValue = 7; long longValue = 1000000; float floatValue = 2.5F; // F suffix indicates that 2.5 is a float double doubleValue = 33.333; StringBuilder buffer = new StringBuilder(); // use method Append to append values to buffer buffer.Append( objectValue ); buffer.Append( " " ); buffer.Append( stringValue ); buffer.Append( " " ); buffer.Append( characterArray ); buffer.Append( " "); buffer.Append( characterArray, 0, 3 ); buffer.Append( " " ); buffer.Append( booleanValue ); buffer.Append( " " ); buffer.Append( characterValue ); buffer.Append( " " ); buffer.Append( integerValue ); buffer.Append( " " ); buffer.Append( longValue ); buffer.Append( " " ); buffer.Append( floatValue ); buffer.Append( " " ); buffer.Append( doubleValue );

Fig. 16.11 | Append methods of StringBuilder. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Console.WriteLine( "buffer = " + buffer.ToString() + "\n" ); } // end Main } // end class StringBuilderAppend

buffer = hello

good bye

abcdef

abc

True

Z

7

1000000

2.5

33.333

Fig. 16.11 | Append methods of StringBuilder. (Part 2 of 2.) Lines 22–40 use 10 different overloaded Append methods to attach the string representations of objects created in lines 10–18 to the end of the StringBuilder. Class StringBuilder also provides method AppendFormat, which converts a string to a specified format, then appends it to the StringBuilder. The example in Fig. 16.12 demonstrates the use of this method. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

// Fig. 16.12: StringBuilderAppendFormat.cs // Demonstrating method AppendFormat. using System; using System.Text; class StringBuilderAppendFormat { public static void Main( string[] args ) { StringBuilder buffer = new StringBuilder(); // formatted string string string1 = "This {0} costs: {1:C}.\n"; // string1 argument array object[] objectArray = new object[ 2 ]; objectArray[ 0 ] = "car"; objectArray[ 1 ] = 1234.56; // append to buffer formatted string with argument buffer.AppendFormat( string1, objectArray ); // formatted string string string2 = "Number:{0:d3}.\n" + "Number right aligned with spaces:{0, 4}.\n" + "Number left aligned with spaces:{0, -4}."; // append to buffer formatted string with argument buffer.AppendFormat( string2, 5 ); // display formatted strings Console.WriteLine( buffer.ToString() ); } // end Main } // end class StringBuilderAppendFormat

Fig. 16.12 |

StringBuilder’s AppendFormat

method. (Part 1 of 2.)

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16.13 Class StringBuilder

This car costs: $1,234.56. Number:005. Number right aligned with spaces: Number left aligned with spaces:5

Fig. 16.12 |

523

5. .

StringBuilder’s AppendFormat

method. (Part 2 of 2.)

Line 13 creates a string that contains formatting information. The information enclosed in braces specifies how to format a specific piece of data. Formats have the form {X[,Y][:FormatString]}, where X is the number of the argument to be formatted, counting from zero. Y is an optional argument, which can be positive or negative, indicating how many characters should be in the result. If the resulting string is less than the number Y, it will be padded with spaces to make up for the difference. A positive integer aligns the string to the right; a negative integer aligns it to the left. The optional FormatString applies a particular format to the argument—currency, decimal or scientific, among others. In this case, “{0}” means the first argument will be printed out. “{1:C}” specifies that the second argument will be formatted as a currency value. Line 22 shows a version of AppendFormat that takes two parameters—a string specifying the format and an array of objects to serve as the arguments to the format string. The argument referred to by “{0}” is in the object array at index 0. Lines 25–27 define another string used for formatting. The first format “{0:d3}”, specifies that the first argument will be formatted as a three-digit decimal, meaning that any number having fewer than three digits will have leading zeros placed in front to make up the difference. The next format, “{0, 4}”, specifies that the formatted string should have four characters and be right aligned. The third format, “{0, -4}”, specifies that the strings should be aligned to the left. Line 30 uses a version of AppendFormat that takes two parameters—a string containing a format and an object to which the format is applied. In this case, the object is the number 5. The output of Fig. 16.12 displays the result of applying these two versions of AppendFormat with their respective arguments.

16.13 Insert, Remove and Replace Methods of Class StringBuilder Class StringBuilder provides 18 overloaded Insert methods to allow various types of data to be inserted at any position in a StringBuilder. The class provides versions for each of the simple types and for character arrays, strings and objects. Each method takes its second argument, converts it to a string and inserts the string into the StringBuilder in front of the character in the position specified by the first argument. The index specified by the first argument must be greater than or equal to 0 and less than the length of the StringBuilder; otherwise, the program throws an ArgumentOutOfRangeException. Class StringBuilder also provides method Remove for deleting any portion of a StringBuilder. Method Remove takes two arguments—the index at which to begin deletion and the number of characters to delete. The sum of the starting index and the number of characters to be deleted must always be less than the length of the StringBuilder; otherwise, the program throws an ArgumentOutOfRangeException. The Insert and Remove methods are demonstrated in Fig. 16.13.

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// Fig. 16.13: StringBuilderInsertRemove.cs // Demonstrating methods Insert and Remove of the // StringBuilder class. using System; using System.Text; class StringBuilderInsertRemove { public static void Main( string[] args ) { object objectValue = "hello"; string stringValue = "good bye"; char[] characterArray = { 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f' }; bool booleanValue = true; char characterValue = 'K'; int integerValue = 7; long longValue = 10000000; float floatValue = 2.5F; // F suffix indicates that 2.5 is a float double doubleValue = 33.333; StringBuilder buffer = new StringBuilder(); // insert values into buffer buffer.Insert( 0, objectValue ); buffer.Insert( 0, " " ); buffer.Insert( 0, stringValue ); buffer.Insert( 0, " " ); buffer.Insert( 0, characterArray ); buffer.Insert( 0, " " ); buffer.Insert( 0, booleanValue ); buffer.Insert( 0, " " ); buffer.Insert( 0, characterValue ); buffer.Insert( 0, " " ); buffer.Insert( 0, integerValue ); buffer.Insert( 0, " " ); buffer.Insert( 0, longValue ); buffer.Insert( 0, " " ); buffer.Insert( 0, floatValue ); buffer.Insert( 0, " " ); buffer.Insert( 0, doubleValue ); buffer.Insert( 0, " " ); Console.WriteLine( "buffer after Inserts: \n" + buffer + "\n" ); buffer.Remove( 10, 1 ); // delete 2 in 2.5 buffer.Remove( 4, 4 ); // delete .333 in 33.333 Console.WriteLine( "buffer after Removes:\n" + buffer ); } // end Main } // end class StringBuilderInsertRemove

buffer after Inserts: 33.333 2.5 10000000

Fig. 16.13 |

StringBuilder

7

K

True

abcdef

good bye

hello

text insertion and removal. (Part 1 of 2.)

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16.13 Class StringBuilder

buffer after Removes: 33 .5 10000000 7

Fig. 16.13 |

K

StringBuilder

True

abcdef

good bye

525

hello

text insertion and removal. (Part 2 of 2.)

Another useful method included with StringBuilder is Replace. Replace searches for a specified string or character and substitutes another string or character in its place. Figure 16.14 demonstrates this method. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

// Fig. 16.14: StringBuilderReplace.cs // Demonstrating method Replace. using System; using System.Text; class StringBuilderReplace { public static void Main( string[] args ) { StringBuilder builder1 = new StringBuilder( "Happy Birthday Jane" ); StringBuilder builder2 = new StringBuilder( "good bye greg" ); Console.WriteLine( "Before replacements:\n" + builder1.ToString() + "\n" + builder2.ToString() ); builder1.Replace( "Jane", "Greg" ); builder2.Replace( 'g', 'G', 0, 5 ); Console.WriteLine( "\nAfter replacements:\n" + builder1.ToString() + "\n" + builder2.ToString() ); } // end Main } // end class StringBuilderReplace

Before Replacements: Happy Birthday Jane good bye greg After replacements: Happy Birthday Greg Good bye greg

Fig. 16.14 |

StringBuilder

text replacement.

Line 18 uses method Replace to replace all instances "Jane" with the "Greg" in Another overload of this method takes two characters as parameters and replaces each occurrence of the first character with the second. Line 19 uses an overload of Replace that takes four parameters, of which the first two are characters and the second two are ints. The method replaces all instances of the first character with the second character, beginning at the index specified by the first int and continuing for a count specified by the second int. Thus, in this case, Replace looks through only five characters, starting builder1.

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Chapter 16 Strings and Characters

with the character at index 0. As the output illustrates, this version of Replace replaces g with G in the word "good", but not in "greg". This is because the gs in "greg" are not in the range indicated by the int arguments (i.e., between indexes 0 and 4).

16.14 Char Methods C# provides a concept called a struct (short for “structure”) that’s similar to a class. Although structs and classes are comparable, structs represent value types. Like classes, structs can have methods and properties, and can use the access modifiers public and private. Also, struct members are accessed via the member access operator (.). The simple types are actually aliases for struct types. For instance, an int is defined by struct System.Int32, a long by System.Int64 and so on. All struct types derive from class ValueType, which derives from object. Also, all struct types are implicitly sealed, so they do not support virtual or abstract methods, and their members cannot be declared protected or protected internal. In the struct Char,2 which is the struct for characters, most methods are static, take at least one character argument and perform either a test or a manipulation on the character. We present several of these methods in the next example. Figure 16.15 demonstrates static methods that test characters to determine whether they’re of a specific character type and static methods that perform case conversions on characters. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

// Fig. 16.15: StaticCharMethods.cs // Demonstrates static character-testing and case-conversion methods // from Char struct using System; class StaticCharMethods { static void Main( string[] args ) { Console.Write( "Enter a character: " ); char character = Convert.ToChar( Console.ReadLine() ); Console.WriteLine( "is digit: {0}", Char.IsDigit( character ) ); Console.WriteLine( "is letter: {0}", Char.IsLetter( character ) ); Console.WriteLine( "is letter or digit: {0}", Char.IsLetterOrDigit( character ) ); Console.WriteLine( "is lower case: {0}", Char.IsLower( character ) ); Console.WriteLine( "is upper case: {0}", Char.IsUpper( character ) ); Console.WriteLine( "to upper case: {0}", Char.ToUpper( character ) ); Console.WriteLine( "to lower case: {0}", Char.ToLower( character ) );

Fig. 16.15 | 2.

Char’s static

character-testing and case-conversion methods. (Part 1 of 3.)

Just as keyword string is an alias for class String, keyword char is an alias for struct Char. In this text, we use the term Char when calling a static method of struct Char and the term char elsewhere.

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25 26 27 28 29

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Console.WriteLine( "is punctuation: {0}", Char.IsPunctuation( character ) ); Console.WriteLine( "is symbol: {0}", Char.IsSymbol( character ) ); } // end Main } // end class StaticCharMethods

Enter a character: A is digit: False is letter: True is letter or digit: True is lower case: False is upper case: True to upper case: A to lower case: a is punctuation: False is symbol: False

Enter a character: 8 is digit: True is letter: False is letter or digit: True is lower case: False is upper case: False to upper case: 8 to lower case: 8 is punctuation: False is symbol: False

Enter a character: @ is digit: False is letter: False is letter or digit: False is lower case: False is upper case: False to upper case: @ to lower case: @ is punctuation: True is symbol: False

Enter a character: m is digit: False is letter: True is letter or digit: True is lower case: True is upper case: False to upper case: M to lower case: m is punctuation: False is symbol: False

Fig. 16.15 |

Char’s static

character-testing and case-conversion methods. (Part 2 of 3.)

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Enter a character: + is digit: False is letter: False is letter or digit: False is lower case: False is upper case: False to upper case: + to lower case: + is punctuation: False is symbol: True

Fig. 16.15 |

Char’s static

character-testing and case-conversion methods. (Part 3 of 3.)

After the user enters a character, lines 13–27 analyze it. Line 13 uses Char method to determine whether character is defined as a digit. If so, the method returns true; otherwise, it returns false (note again that bool values are output capitalized). Line 14 uses Char method IsLetter to determine whether character character is a letter. Line 16 uses Char method IsLetterOrDigit to determine whether character character is a letter or a digit. Line 18 uses Char method IsLower to determine whether character character is a lowercase letter. Line 20 uses Char method IsUpper to determine whether character character is an uppercase letter. Line 22 uses Char method ToUpper to convert character character to its uppercase equivalent. The method returns the converted character if the character has an uppercase equivalent; otherwise, the method returns its original argument. Line 24 uses Char method ToLower to convert character character to its lowercase equivalent. The method returns the converted character if the character has a lowercase equivalent; otherwise, the method returns its original argument. Line 26 uses Char method IsPunctuation to determine whether character is a punctuation mark, such as "!", ":" or ")". Line 27 uses Char method IsSymbol to determine whether character character is a symbol, such as "+", "=" or "^". Structure type Char also contains other methods not shown in this example. Many of the static methods are similar—for instance, IsWhiteSpace is used to determine whether a certain character is a whitespace character (e.g., newline, tab or space). The struct also contains several public instance methods; many of these, such as methods ToString and Equals, are methods that we have seen before in other classes. This group includes method CompareTo, which is used to compare two character values with one another. IsDigit

16.15 Regular Expressions We now introduce regular expressions—specially formatted strings used to find patterns in text. They can be used to ensure that data is in a particular format. For example, a U.S. zip code must consist of five digits, or five digits followed by a dash followed by four more digits. Compilers use regular expressions to validate program syntax. If the program code does not match the regular expression, the compiler indicates that there’s a syntax error. We discuss classes Regex and Match from the System.Text.RegularExpressions namespace as well as the symbols used to form regular expressions. We then demonstrate how to find patterns in a string, match entire strings to patterns, replace characters in a string that match a pattern and split strings at delimiters specified as a pattern in a regular expression. Download at www.wowebook.com

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16.15.1 Simple Regular Expressions and Class Regex The .NET Framework provides several classes to help developers manipulate regular expressions. Figure 16.16 demonstrates the basic regular-expression classes. To use these classes, add a using statement for the namespace System.Text.RegularExpressions (line 4). Class Regex represents a regular expression. We create a Regex object named expression (line 16) to represent the regular expression "e". This regular expression matches the literal character "e" anywhere in an arbitrary string. Regex method Match returns an object of class Match that represents a single regular-expression match. Class Match’s ToString method returns the substring that matched the regular expression. The call to method Match (line 17) matches the leftmost occurrence of the character "e" in testString. Class Regex also provides method Matches (line 21), which finds all matches of the regular expression in an arbitrary string and returns a MatchCollection object containing all the Matches. A MatchCollection is a collection, similar to an array, and can be used with a foreach statement to iterate through the collection’s elements. We introduced collections in Chapter 9 and discuss them in more detail in Chapter 23, Collections. We use a foreach statement (lines 21–22) to display all the matches to expression in testString. The elements in the MatchCollection are Match objects, so the foreach statement infers variable myMatch to be of type Match. For each Match, line 22 outputs the text that matched the regular expression. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

// Fig. 16.16: BasicRegex.cs // Demonstrate basic regular expressions. using System; using System.Text.RegularExpressions; class BasicRegex { static void Main( string[] args ) { string testString = "regular expressions are sometimes called regex or regexp"; Console.WriteLine( "The test string is\n \"{0}\"", testString ); Console.Write( "Match 'e' in the test string: " ); // match 'e' in the test string Regex expression = new Regex( "e" ); Console.WriteLine( expression.Match( testString ) ); Console.Write( "Match every 'e' in the test string: " ); // match 'e' multiple times in the test string foreach ( var myMatch in expression.Matches( testString ) ) Console.Write( "{0} ", myMatch ); Console.Write( "\nMatch \"regex\" in the test string: " ); // match 'regex' in the test string foreach ( var myMatch in Regex.Matches( testString, "regex" ) ) Console.Write( "{0} ", myMatch );

Fig. 16.16 | Demonstrating basic regular expressions. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Console.Write( "\nMatch \"regex\" or \"regexp\" using an optional 'p': " ); // use the ? quantifier to include an optional 'p' foreach ( var myMatch in Regex.Matches( testString, "regexp?" ) ) Console.Write( "{0} ", myMatch ); // use alternation to match either 'cat' or 'hat' expression = new Regex( "(c|h)at" ); Console.WriteLine( "\n\"hat cat\" matches {0}, but \"cat hat\" matches {1}", expression.Match( "hat cat" ), expression.Match( "cat hat" ) ); } // end Main } // end class BasicRegex

The test string is "regular expressions are sometimes called regex or regexp" Match 'e' in the test string: e Match every 'e' in the test string: e e e e e e e e e e e Match "regex" in the test string: regex regex Match "regex" or "regexp" using an optional 'p': regex regexp "hat cat" matches hat, but "cat hat" matches cat

Fig. 16.16 | Demonstrating basic regular expressions. (Part 2 of 2.) Regular expressions can also be used to match a sequence of literal characters anywhere in a string. Lines 27–28 display all the occurrences of the character sequence "regex" in testString. Here we use the Regex static method Matches. Class Regex provides static versions of both methods Match and Matches. The static versions take a regular expression as an argument in addition to the string to be searched. This is useful when you want to use a regular expression only once. The call to method Matches (line 27) returns two matches to the regular expression "regex". Notice that "regexp" in the testString matches the regular expression "regex", but the "p" is excluded. We use the regular expression "regexp?" (line 34) to match occurrences of both "regex" and "regexp". The question mark (?) is a metacharacter—a character with special meaning in a regular expression. More specifically, the question mark is a quantifier—a metacharacter that describes how many times a part of the pattern may occur in a match. The ? quantifier matches zero or one occurrence of the pattern to its left. In line 34, we apply the ? quantifier to the character "p". This means that a match to the regular expression contains the sequence of characters "regex" and may be followed by a "p". Notice that the foreach statement (lines 34–35) displays both "regex" and "regexp". Metacharacters allow you to create more complex patterns. The "|" (alternation) metacharacter matches the expression to its left or to its right. We use alternation in the regular expression "(c|h)at" (line 38) to match either "cat" or "hat". Parentheses are used to group parts of a regular expression, much as you group parts of a mathematical expression. The "|" causes the pattern to match a sequence of characters starting with either "c" or "h", followed by "at". The "|" character attempts to match the entire expression to its left or to its right. If we didn’t use the parentheses around "c|h", the regular expression would match either the single character "c" or the sequence of characters

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16.15 Regular Expressions "hat".

Line 41 uses the regular expression (line 38) to search the strings "hat

531 cat"

and

"cat hat". Notice in the output that the first match in "hat cat" is "hat", while the first

match in "cat hat" is "cat". Alternation chooses the leftmost match in the string for either of the alternating expressions—the order of the expressions doesn’t matter.

Regular-Expression Character Classes and Quantifiers The table in Fig. 16.17 lists some character classes that can be used with regular expressions. A character class represents a group of characters that might appear in a string. For example, a word character (\w) is any alphanumeric character (a-z, A-Z and 0-9) or underscore. A whitespace character (\s) is a space, a tab, a carriage return, a newline or a form feed. A digit (\d) is any numeric character. Character class

Matches

Character class

Matches

\d

any digit any word character any whitespace

\D

any nondigit any nonword character any nonwhitespace

\w \s

\W \S

Fig. 16.17 | Character classes. Figure 16.18 uses character classes in regular expressions. For this example, we use method DisplayMatches (lines 53–59) to display all matches to a regular expression. Method DisplayMatches takes two strings representing the string to search and the regular expression to match. The method uses a foreach statement to display each Match in the MatchCollection object returned by the static method Matches of class Regex. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

// Fig. 16.18: CharacterClasses.cs // Demonstrate using character classes and quantifiers. using System; using System.Text.RegularExpressions; class CharacterClasses { static void Main( string[] args ) { string testString = "abc, DEF, 123"; Console.WriteLine( "The test string is: \"{0}\"", testString ); // find the digits in the test string Console.WriteLine( "Match any digit" ); DisplayMatches( testString, @"\d" ); // find anything that isn't a digit Console.WriteLine( "\nMatch any nondigit" ); DisplayMatches( testString, @"\D" );

Fig. 16.18 | Demonstrating using character classes and quantifiers. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// find the word characters in the test string Console.WriteLine( "\nMatch any word character" ); DisplayMatches( testString, @"\w" ); // find sequences of word characters Console.WriteLine( "\nMatch a group of at least one word character" ); DisplayMatches( testString, @"\w+" ); // use a lazy quantifier Console.WriteLine( "\nMatch a group of at least one word character (lazy)" ); DisplayMatches( testString, @"\w+?" ); // match characters from 'a' to 'f' Console.WriteLine( "\nMatch anything from 'a' - 'f'" ); DisplayMatches( testString, "[a-f]" ); // match anything that isn't in the range 'a' to 'f' Console.WriteLine( "\nMatch anything not from 'a' - 'f'" ); DisplayMatches( testString, "[^a-f]" ); // match any sequence of letters in any case Console.WriteLine( "\nMatch a group of at least one letter" ); DisplayMatches( testString, "[a-zA-Z]+" ); // use the . (dot) metacharacter to match any character Console.WriteLine( "\nMatch a group of any characters" ); DisplayMatches( testString, ".*" ); } // end Main // display the matches to a regular expression private static void DisplayMatches( string input, string expression ) { foreach ( var regexMatch in Regex.Matches( input, expression ) ) Console.Write( "{0} ", regexMatch ); Console.WriteLine(); // move to the next line } // end method DisplayMatches } // end class CharacterClasses

The test string is: "abc, DEF, 123" Match any digit 1 2 3 Match any nondigit a b c , D E F , Match any word character a b c D E F 1 2 3 Match a group of at least one word character abc DEF 123

Fig. 16.18 | Demonstrating using character classes and quantifiers. (Part 2 of 3.) Download at www.wowebook.com

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Match a group of at least one word character (lazy) a b c D E F 1 2 3 Match anything from 'a' - 'f' a b c Match anything not from 'a' - 'f' , D E F , 1 2 3 Match a group of at least one letter abc DEF Match a group of any characters abc, DEF, 123

Fig. 16.18 | Demonstrating using character classes and quantifiers. (Part 3 of 3.) The first regular expression (line 15) matches digits in the testString. We use the digit character class (\d) to match any digit (0–9). We precede the regular expression string with @. Recall that backslashes within the double quotation marks following the @ character are regular backslash characters, not the beginning of escape sequences. To define the regular expression without prefixing @ to the string, you would need to escape every backslash character, as in "\\d"

which makes the regular expression more difficult to read. The output shows that the regular expression matches 1, 2, and 3 in the testString. You can also match anything that isn’t a member of a particular character class using an uppercase instead of a lowercase letter. For example, the regular expression "\D" (line 19) matches any character that isn’t a digit. Notice in the output that this includes punctuation and whitespace. Negating a character class matches everything that isn’t a member of the character class. The next regular expression (line 23) uses the character class \w to match any word character in the testString. Notice that each match consists of a single character. It would be useful to match a sequence of word characters rather than a single character. The regular expression in line 28 uses the + quantifier to match a sequence of word characters. The + quantifier matches one or more occurrences of the pattern to its left. There are three matches for this expression, each three characters long. Quantifiers are greedy—they match the longest possible occurrence of the pattern. You can follow a quantifier with a question mark (?) to make it lazy—it matches the shortest possible occurrence of the pattern. The regular expression "\w+?" (line 33) uses a lazy + quantifier to match the shortest sequence of word characters possible. This produces nine matches of length one instead of three matches of length three. Figure 16.19 lists other quantifiers that you can place after a pattern in a regular expression, and the purpose of each. Regular expressions are not limited to the character classes in Fig. 16.17. You can create your own character class by listing the members of the character class between square brackets, [ and ]. [Note: Metacharacters in square brackets are treated as literal characters.] You can include a range of characters using the "-" character. The regular expression in line 37 of Fig. 16.18 creates a character class to match any lowercase letter

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Quantifier

Matches

*

Matches zero or more occurrences of the preceding pattern. Matches one or more occurrences of the preceding pattern. Matches zero or one occurrences of the preceding pattern. Matches any single character. Matches exactly n occurrences of the preceding pattern. Matches at least n occurrences of the preceding pattern. Matches between n and m (inclusive) occurrences of the preceding pattern.

+ ? . {n} {n,} {n,m}

Fig. 16.19 | Quantifiers used in regular expressions. from a to f. These custom character classes match a single character that’s a member of the class. The output shows three matches, a, b and c. Notice that D, E and F don’t match the character class [a-f] because they’re uppercase. You can negate a custom character class by placing a "^" character after the opening square bracket. The regular expression in line 41 matches any character that isn’t in the range a-f. As with the predefined character classes, negating a custom character class matches everything that isn’t a member, including punctuation and whitespace. You can also use quantifiers with custom character classes. The regular expression in line 45 uses a character class with two ranges of characters, a-z and A-Z, and the + quantifier to match a sequence of lowercase or uppercase letters. You can also use the "." (dot) character to match any character other than a newline. The regular expression ".*" (line 49) matches any sequence of characters. The * quantifier matches zero or more occurrences of the pattern to its left. Unlike the + quantifier, the * quantifier can be used to match an empty string.

16.15.2 Complex Regular Expressions The program of Fig. 16.20 tries to match birthdays to a regular expression. For demonstration purposes, the expression matches only birthdays that do not occur in April and that belong to people whose names begin with "J". We can do this by combining the basic regular-expression techniques we’ve already discussed. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

// Fig. 16.20: RegexMatches.cs // A more complex regular expression. using System; using System.Text.RegularExpressions; class RegexMatches { static void Main( string[] args ) { // create a regular expression Regex expression = new Regex( @"J.*\d[\d-[4]]-\d\d-\d\d" );

Fig. 16.20 | A more complex regular expression. (Part 1 of 2.)

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string testString = "Jane's Birthday is 05-12-75\n" + "Dave's Birthday is 11-04-68\n" + "John's Birthday is 04-28-73\n" + "Joe's Birthday is 12-17-77"; // display all matches to the regular expression foreach ( var regexMatch in expression.Matches( testString ) ) Console.WriteLine( regexMatch ); } // end Main } // end class RegexMatches

Jane's Birthday is 05-12-75 Joe's Birthday is 12-17-77

Fig. 16.20 | A more complex regular expression. (Part 2 of 2.) Line 11 creates a Regex object and passes a regular-expression pattern string to its constructor. The first character in the regular expression, "J", is a literal character. Any string matching this regular expression must start with "J". The next part of the regular expression (".*") matches any number of unspecified characters except newlines. The pattern "J.*" matches a person’s name that starts with J and any characters that may come after that. Next we match the person’s birthday. We use the \d character class to match the first digit of the month. Since the birthday must not occur in April, the second digit in the month can’t be 4. We could use the character class "[0-35-9]" to match any digit other than 4. However, .NET regular expressions allow you to subtract members from a character class, called character-class subtraction. In line 11, we use the pattern "[\d-[4]]" to match any digit other than 4. When the "-" character in a character class is followed by a character class instead of a literal character, the "-" is interpreted as subtraction instead of a range of characters. The members of the character class following the "-" are removed from the character class preceding the "-". When using character-class subtraction, the class being subtracted ([4]) must be the last item in the enclosing brackets ([\d-[4]]). This notation allows you to write shorter, easier-to-read regular expressions. Although the "–" character indicates a range or character-class subtraction when it’s enclosed in square brackets, instances of the "-" character outside a character class are treated as literal characters. Thus, the regular expression in line 11 searches for a string that starts with the letter "J", followed by any number of characters, followed by a twodigit number (of which the second digit cannot be 4), followed by a dash, another twodigit number, a dash and another two-digit number. Lines 20–21 use a foreach statement to iterate through the MatchCollection object returned by method Matches, which received testString as an argument. For each Match, line 21 outputs the text that matched the regular expression. The output in Fig. 16.20 displays the two matches that were found in testString. Notice that both matches conform to the pattern specified by the regular expression.

16.15.3 Validating User Input with Regular Expressions and LINQ The application in Fig. 16.21 presents a more involved example that uses regular expressions to validate name, address and telephone-number information input by a user.

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// Fig. 16.21: Validate.cs // Validate user information using regular expressions. using System; using System.Linq; using System.Text.RegularExpressions; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace Validate { public partial class ValidateForm : Form { public ValidateForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // handles OK Button's Click event private void okButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // find blank TextBoxes and order by TabIndex var emptyBoxes = from Control currentControl in Controls where currentControl is TextBox let box = currentControl as TextBox where string.IsNullOrEmpty( box.Text ) orderby box.TabIndex select box; // if there are any empty TextBoxes if ( emptyBoxes.Count() > 0 ) { // display message box indicating missing information MessageBox.Show( "Please fill in all fields", "Missing Information", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); emptyBoxes.First().Select(); // select first empty TextBox } // end if else { // check for invalid input if ( !ValidateInput( lastNameTextBox.Text, "^[A-Z][a-zA-Z]*$", "Invalid last name" ) ) lastNameTextBox.Select(); // select invalid TextBox else if ( !ValidateInput( firstNameTextBox.Text, "^[A-Z][a-zA-Z]*$", "Invalid first name" ) ) firstNameTextBox.Select(); // select invalid TextBox else if ( !ValidateInput( addressTextBox.Text, @"^[0-9]+\s+([a-zA-Z]+|[a-zA-Z]+\s[a-zA-Z]+)$", "Invalid address" ) )

Fig. 16.21 | Validating user information using regular expressions. (Part 1 of 4.)

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53 54 addressTextBox.Select(); // select invalid TextBox else if ( !ValidateInput( cityTextBox.Text, 55 56 @"^([a-zA-Z]+|[a-zA-Z]+\s[a-zA-Z]+)$", "Invalid city" ) ) 57 58 cityTextBox.Select(); // select invalid TextBox 59 else if ( !ValidateInput( stateTextBox.Text, @"^([a-zA-Z]+|[a-zA-Z]+\s[a-zA-Z]+)$", "Invalid state" ) ) 60 61 62 stateTextBox.Select(); // select invalid TextBox else if ( !ValidateInput( zipCodeTextBox.Text, 63 @"^\d{5}$", "Invalid zip code" ) ) 64 65 66 zipCodeTextBox.Select(); // select invalid TextBox else if ( !ValidateInput( phoneTextBox.Text, 67 68 @"^[1-9]\d{2}-[1-9]\d{2}-\d{4}$", "Invalid phone number" ) ) 69 70 71 phoneTextBox.Select(); // select invalid TextBox 72 else // if all input is valid 73 { 74 this.Hide(); // hide main window 75 MessageBox.Show( "Thank You!", "Information Correct", 76 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Information ); 77 Application.Exit(); // exit the application 78 } // end else 79 } // end else 80 } // end method okButton_Click 81 82 // use regular expressions to validate user input 83 private bool ValidateInput( 84 string input, string expression, string message ) 85 { 86 // store whether the input is valid 87 bool valid = Regex.Match( input, expression ).Success; 88 89 // if the input doesn't match the regular expression 90 if ( !valid ) 91 { 92 // signal the user that input was invalid 93 MessageBox.Show( message, "Invalid Input", 94 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 95 } // end if 96 97 return valid; // return whether the input is valid 98 } // end method ValidateInput 99 } // end class ValidateForm 100 } // end namespace Validate

Fig. 16.21 | Validating user information using regular expressions. (Part 2 of 4.)

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(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 16.21 | Validating user information using regular expressions. (Part 3 of 4.)

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539

(d)

Fig. 16.21 | Validating user information using regular expressions. (Part 4 of 4.) When a user clicks OK, the program uses a LINQ query to select any empty TextBoxes (lines 22–27) from the Controls collection. Notice that we explicitly declare the type of the range variable in the from clause (line 22). When working with nongeneric collections, such as Controls, you must explicitly type the range variable. The first where clause (line 23) determines whether the currentControl is a TextBox. The let clause (line 24) creates and initializes a variable in a LINQ query for use later in the query. Here, we use the let clause to define variable box as a TextBox, which contains the Control object cast to a TextBox. This allows us to use the control in the LINQ query as a TextBox, enabling access to its properties (such as Text). You may include a second where clause after the let clause. The second where clause determines whether the TextBox’s Text property is empty. If one or more TextBoxes are empty (line 30), the program displays a message to the user (lines 33–35) that all fields must be filled in before the program can validate the information. Line 37 calls the Select method of the first TextBox in the query result so that the user can begin typing in that TextBox. The query sorted the TextBoxes by TabIndex (line 26) so the first TextBox in the query result is the first empty TextBox on the Form. If there are no empty fields, lines 39–71 validate the user input. We call method ValidateInput to determine whether the user input matches the specified regular expressions. ValidateInput (lines 83–98) takes as arguments the text input by the user (input), the regular expression the input must match (expression) and a message to display if the input is invalid (message). Line 87 calls Regex static method Match, passing both the string to validate and the regular expression as arguments. The Success property of class Match indicates whether method Match’s first argument matched the pattern specified by the regular expression in the second argument. If the value of Success is false (i.e., there was no match), lines 93–94 display the error message passed as an argument to method ValidateInput. Line 97 then returns the value of the Success property. If ValidateInput returns false, the TextBox containing invalid data is selected so the user can correct the input. If all input is valid—the else statement (lines 72–78) displays a message dialog stating that all input is valid, and the program terminates when the user dismisses the dialog. In the previous example, we searched a string for substrings that matched a regular expression. In this example, we want to ensure that the entire string for each input con-

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forms to a particular regular expression. For example, we want to accept "Smith" as a last name, but not "9@Smith#". In a regular expression that begins with a "^" character and ends with a "$" character (e.g., line 43), the characters "^" and "$" represent the beginning and end of a string, respectively. These characters force a regular expression to return a match only if the entire string being processed matches the regular expression. The regular expressions in lines 43 and 47 use a character class to match an uppercase first letter followed by letters of any case—a-z matches any lowercase letter, and A-Z matches any uppercase letter. The * quantifier signifies that the second range of characters may occur zero or more times in the string. Thus, this expression matches any string consisting of one uppercase letter, followed by zero or more additional letters. The \s character class matches a single whitespace character (lines 51, 56 and 60). In the expression "\d{5}", used for the zipCode string (line 64), {5} is a quantifier (see Fig. 16.19). The pattern to the left of {n} must occur exactly n times. Thus "\d{5}" matches any five digits. Recall that the character "|" (lines 51, 56 and 60) matches the expression to its left or the expression to its right. In line 51, we use the character "|" to indicate that the address can contain a word of one or more characters or a word of one or more characters followed by a space and another word of one or more characters. Note the use of parentheses to group parts of the regular expression. This ensures that "|" is applied to the correct parts of the pattern. The Last Name: and First Name: TextBoxes each accept strings that begin with an uppercase letter (lines 43 and 47). The regular expression for the Address: TextBox (line 51) matches a number of at least one digit, followed by a space and then either one or more letters or else one or more letters followed by a space and another series of one or more letters. Therefore, "10 Broadway" and "10 Main Street" are both valid addresses. As currently formed, the regular expression in line 51 doesn’t match an address that does not start with a number, or that has more than two words. The regular expressions for the City: (line 56) and State: (line 60) TextBoxes match any word of at least one character or, alternatively, any two words of at least one character if the words are separated by a single space. This means both Waltham and West Newton would match. Again, these regular expressions would not accept names that have more than two words. The regular expression for the Zip code: TextBox (line 64) ensures that the zip code is a five-digit number. The regular expression for the Phone: TextBox (line 68) indicates that the phone number must be of the form xxx-yyy-yyyy, where the xs represent the area code and the ys the number. The first x and the first y cannot be zero, as specified by the range [1–9] in each case.

16.15.4 Regex Methods Replace and Split Sometimes it’s useful to replace parts of one string with another or to split a string according to a regular expression. For this purpose, class Regex provides static and instance versions of methods Replace and Split, which are demonstrated in Fig. 16.22. 1 2 3 4

// Fig. 16.22: RegexSubstitution.cs // Using Regex methods Replace and Split. using System; using System.Text.RegularExpressions;

Fig. 16.22 | Using Regex methods Replace and Split. (Part 1 of 2.)

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16.15 Regular Expressions

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

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class RegexSubstitution { static void Main( string[] args ) { string testString1 = "This sentence ends in 5 stars *****"; string testString2 = "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8"; Regex testRegex1 = new Regex( @"\d" ); string output = string.Empty; Console.WriteLine( "First test string: {0}", testString1 ); // replace every '*' with a '^' and display the result testString1 = Regex.Replace( testString1, @"\*", "^" ); Console.WriteLine( "^ substituted for *: {0}", testString1 ); // replace the word "stars" with "carets" and display the result testString1 = Regex.Replace( testString1, "stars", "carets" ); Console.WriteLine( "\"carets\" substituted for \"stars\": {0}", testString1 ); // replace every word with "word" and display the result Console.WriteLine( "Every word replaced by \"word\": {0}", Regex.Replace( testString1, @"\w+", "word" ) ); Console.WriteLine( "\nSecond test string: {0}", testString2 ); // replace the first three digits with the word "digit" Console.WriteLine( "Replace first 3 digits by \"digit\": {0}", testRegex1.Replace( testString2, "digit", 3 ) ); Console.Write( "string split at commas [" ); // split the string into individual strings, each containing a digit string[] result = Regex.Split( testString2, @",\s" ); // add each digit to the output string foreach( var resultString in result ) output += "\"" + resultString + "\", "; // delete ", " at the end of output string Console.WriteLine( output.Substring( 0, output.Length - 2 ) + "]" ); } // end Main } // end class RegexSubstitution

First test string: This sentence ends in 5 stars ***** ^ substituted for *: This sentence ends in 5 stars ^^^^^ "carets" substituted for "stars": This sentence ends in 5 carets ^^^^^ Every word replaced by "word": word word word word word word ^^^^^ Second test string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Replace first 3 digits by "digit": digit, digit, digit, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 String split at commas ["1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8"]

Fig. 16.22 | Using Regex methods Replace and Split. (Part 2 of 2.)

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method Replace replaces text in a string with new text wherever the original matches a regular expression. We use two versions of this method in Fig. 16.22. The first version (line 18) is a static method and takes three parameters—the string to modify, the string containing the regular expression to match and the replacement string. Here, Replace replaces every instance of "*" in testString1 with "^". Notice that the regular expression ("\*") precedes character * with a backslash (\). Normally, * is a quantifier indicating that a regular expression should match any number of occurrences of a preceding pattern. However, in line 18, we want to find all occurrences of the literal character *; to do this, we must escape character * with character \. By escaping a special regular-expression character, we tell the regular-expression matching engine to find the actual character * rather than use it as a quantifier. The second version of method Replace (line 34) is an instance method that uses the regular expression passed to the constructor for testRegex1 (line 12) to perform the replacement operation. Line 12 instantiates testRegex1 with argument @"\d". The call to instance method Replace in line 34 takes three arguments—a string to modify, a string containing the replacement text and an integer specifying the number of replacements to make. In this case, line 34 replaces the first three instances of a digit ("\d") in testString2 with the text "digit". Method Split divides a string into several substrings. The original string is broken at delimiters that match a specified regular expression. Method Split returns an array containing the substrings. In line 39, we use static method Split to separate a string of comma-separated integers. The first argument is the string to split; the second argument is the regular expression that represents the delimiter. The regular expression ",\s" separates the substrings at each comma. By matching a whitespace character (\s in the regular expression), we eliminate the extra spaces from the resulting substrings. Regex

string

16.16 Wrap-Up In this chapter, you learned about the Framework Class Library’s string- and character-processing capabilities. We overviewed the fundamentals of characters and strings. You saw how to determine the length of strings, copy strings, access the individual characters in strings, search strings, obtain substrings from larger strings, compare strings, concatenate strings, replace characters in strings and convert strings to uppercase or lowercase letters. We showed how to use class StringBuilder to build strings dynamically. You learned how to determine and specify the size of a StringBuilder object, and how to append, insert, remove and replace characters in a StringBuilder object. We then introduced the character-testing methods of type Char that enable a program to determine whether a character is a digit, a letter, a lowercase letter, an uppercase letter, a punctuation mark or a symbol other than a punctuation mark, and the methods for converting a character to uppercase or lowercase. Finally, we discussed classes Regex, Match and MatchCollection from namespace System.Text.RegularExpressions and the symbols that are used to form regular expressions. You learned how to find patterns in a string and match entire strings to patterns with Regex methods Match and Matches, how to replace characters in a string with Regex method Replace and how to split strings at delimiters with Regex method Split. In the next chapter, you’ll learn how to read data from and write data to files.

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17 Files and Streams

I can only assume that a “Do Not File” document is filed in a “Do Not File” file. —Senator Frank Church Senate Intelligence Subcommittee Hearing, 1975

Consciousness … does not appear to itself chopped up in bits. … A “river” or a “stream” are the metaphors by which it is most naturally described.

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

To create, read, write and update files.

■

To use classes File and Directory to obtain information about files and directories on your computer.

■

To use LINQ to search through directories.

■

To become familiar with sequential-access file processing.

■

To use classes FileStream, StreamReader and StreamWriter to read text from and write text to files.

■

To use classes FileStream and BinaryFormatter to read objects from and write objects to files.

—William James

I read part of it all the way through. —Samuel Goldwyn

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17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6

Introduction Data Hierarchy Files and Streams Classes File and Directory Creating a Sequential-Access Text File Reading Data from a SequentialAccess Text File 17.7 Case Study: Credit Inquiry Program 17.8 Serialization

17.9 Creating a Sequential-Access File Using Object Serialization 17.10 Reading and Deserializing Data from a Binary File 17.11 Wrap-Up

17.1 Introduction Variables and arrays offer only temporary storage of data—the data is lost when a local variable “goes out of scope” or when the program terminates. By contrast, files (and databases, which we cover in Chapter 18) are used for long-term retention of large amounts of data, even after the program that created the data terminates. Data maintained in files often is called persistent data. Computers store files on secondary storage devices, such as magnetic disks, optical disks, flash memory and magnetic tapes. In this chapter, we explain how to create, update and process data files in C# programs. We begin with an overview of the data hierarchy from bits to files. Next, we overview some of the Framework Class Library’s file-processing classes. We then present two examples that show how you can determine information about the files and directories on your computer. The remainder of the chapter shows how to write to and read from text files that are human readable and binary files that store entire objects in binary format.

17.2 Data Hierarchy Ultimately, all data items that computers process are reduced to combinations of 0s and 1s. This occurs because it’s simple and economical to build electronic devices that can assume two stable states—one state represents 0 and the other represents 1. It’s remarkable that the impressive functions performed by computers involve only the most fundamental manipulations of 0s and 1s.

Bits The smallest data item that computers support is called a bit (short for “binary digit”—a digit that can assume one of two values). Each bit can assume either the value 0 or the value 1. Computer circuitry performs various simple bit manipulations, such as examining the value of a bit, setting the value of a bit and reversing a bit (from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1). Characters Programming with data in the low-level form of bits is cumbersome. It’s preferable to program with data in forms such as decimal digits (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9), letters (i.e., A–Z and a–z) and special symbols (i.e., $, @, %, &, *, (, ), -, +, ", :, ?, / and many others). Digits, letters and special symbols are referred to as characters. The set of all characters used to write programs and represent data items on a particular computer is called

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that computer’s character set. Because computers can process only 0s and 1s, every character in a computer’s character set is represented as a pattern of 0s and 1s. Bytes are composed of eight bits. C# uses the Unicode® character set (www.unicode.org) in which characters are composed of 2 bytes. Programmers create programs and data items with characters; computers manipulate and process these characters as patterns of bits.

Fields Just as characters are composed of bits, fields are composed of characters. A field is a group of characters that conveys meaning. For example, a field consisting of uppercase and lowercase letters can represent a person’s name. Data items processed by computers form a data hierarchy (Fig. 17.1), in which data items become larger and more complex in structure as we progress from bits to characters to fields to larger data aggregates.

Judy

J u d y

01001010

1

Sally

Black

Tom

Blue

Judy

Green

Iris

Orange

Randy

Red

File

Record

Green

Field

Byte (ASCII character J)

Bit

Fig. 17.1 | Data hierarchy. Records and Files Typically, a record (which can be represented as a class) is composed of several related fields. In a payroll system, for example, a record for a particular employee might include the following fields: 1. Employee identification number 2. Name Download at www.wowebook.com

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Chapter 17 Files and Streams 3. Address 4. Hourly pay rate 5. Number of exemptions claimed 6. Year-to-date earnings 7. Amount of taxes withheld

In the preceding example, each field is associated with the same employee. A file is a group of related records.1 A company’s payroll file normally contains one record for each employee. A payroll file for a small company might contain only 22 records, whereas one for a large company might contain 100,000. It’s not unusual for a company to have many files, some containing millions, billions or even trillions of characters of information.

Record Key To facilitate the retrieval of specific records from a file, at least one field in each record is chosen as a record key, which identifies a record as belonging to a particular person or entity and distinguishes that record from all others. For example, in a payroll record, the employee identification number normally would be the record key. Sequential Files There are many ways to organize records in a file. A common organization is called a sequential file, in which records typically are stored in order by a record-key field. In a payroll file, records usually are placed in order by employee identification number. The first employee record in the file contains the lowest employee identification number, and subsequent records contain increasingly higher ones. Databases Most businesses use many different files to store data. For example, a company might have payroll files, accounts-receivable files (listing money due from clients), accounts-payable files (listing money due to suppliers), inventory files (listing facts about all the items handled by the business) and many other files. A group of related files often are stored in a database. A collection of programs designed to create and manage databases is called a database management system (DBMS). We discuss databases in Chapter 18.

17.3 Files and Streams C# views each file as a sequential stream of bytes (Fig. 17.2). Each file ends either with an end-of-file marker or at a specific byte number that’s recorded in a system-maintained administrative data structure. When a file is opened, an object is created and a stream is associated with the object. When a console application executes, the runtime environment creates three stream objects that are accessible via properties Console.Out, Console.In and Console.Error, respectively. These objects facilitate communication between a program and a particular file or device. Console.In refers to the standard input stream ob1.

Generally, a file can contain arbitrary data in arbitrary formats. In some operating systems, a file is viewed as nothing more than a collection of bytes, and any organization of the bytes in a file (such as organizing the data into records) is a view created by the application programmer.

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ject, which enables a program to input data from the keyboard. Console.Out refers to the standard output stream object, which enables a program to output data to the screen. Console.Error refers to the standard error stream object, which enables a program to output error messages to the screen. We have been using Console.Out and Console.In in our console applications, Console methods Write and WriteLine use Console.Out to perform output, and Console methods Read and ReadLine use Console.In to perform input. 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

... ...

n-1

end-of-file marker

Fig. 17.2 | C#’s view of an n-byte file. There are many file-processing classes in the Framework Class Library. The namespace includes stream classes such as StreamReader (for text input from a file), StreamWriter (for text output to a file) and FileStream (for both input from and output to a file). These stream classes inherit from abstract classes TextReader, TextWriter and Stream, respectively. Actually, properties Console.In and Console.Out are of type TextReader and TextWriter, respectively. The system creates objects of TextReader and TextWriter derived classes to initialize Console properties Console.In and Console.Out. Abstract class Stream provides functionality for representing streams as bytes. Classes FileStream, MemoryStream and BufferedStream (all from namespace System.IO) inherit from class Stream. Class FileStream can be used to write data to and read data from files. Class MemoryStream enables the transfer of data directly to and from memory—this is much faster than reading from and writing to external devices. Class BufferedStream uses buffering to transfer data to or from a stream. Buffering is an I/O performance-enhancement technique, in which each output operation is directed to a region in memory, called a buffer, that’s large enough to hold the data from many output operations. Then actual transfer to the output device is performed in one large physical output operation each time the buffer fills. The output operations directed to the output buffer in memory often are called logical output operations. Buffering can also be used to speed input operations by initially reading more data than is required into a buffer, so subsequent reads get data from memory rather than an external device. In this chapter, we use key stream classes to implement file-processing programs that create and manipulate sequential-access files. System.IO

17.4 Classes File and Directory Information is stored in files, which are organized in directories (also called folders). Classes File and Directory enable programs to manipulate files and directories on disk. Class File can determine information about files and can be used to open files for reading or writing. We discuss techniques for writing to and reading from files in subsequent sections. Figure 17.3 lists several of class File’s static methods for manipulating and determining information about files. We demonstrate several of these methods in Fig. 17.5.

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Chapter 17 Files and Streams

Method

Description

AppendText

Copy Create CreateText Delete Exists GetCreationTime GetLastAccessTime GetLastWriteTime Move Open

OpenRead OpenText OpenWrite

Fig. 17.3 |

File

Returns a StreamWriter that appends text to an existing file or creates a file if one does not exist. Copies a file to a new file. Creates a file and returns its associated FileStream. Creates a text file and returns its associated StreamWriter. Deletes the specified file. Returns true if the specified file exists and false otherwise. Returns a DateTime object representing when the file was created. Returns a DateTime object representing when the file was last accessed. Returns a DateTime object representing when the file was last modified. Moves the specified file to a specified location. Returns a FileStream associated with the specified file and equipped with the specified read/write permissions. Returns a read-only FileStream associated with the specified file. Returns a StreamReader associated with the specified file. Returns a write FileStream associated with the specified file.

class static methods (partial list).

Class Directory provides capabilities for manipulating directories. Figure 17.4 lists some of class Directory’s static methods for directory manipulation. Figure 17.5 demonstrates several of these methods, as well. The DirectoryInfo object returned by method CreateDirectory contains information about a directory. Much of the information contained in class DirectoryInfo also can be accessed via the methods of class Directory. static

Method

CreateDirectory Delete Exists GetDirectories

GetFiles

GetCreationTime GetLastAccessTime

GetLastWriteTime

Move

Fig. 17.4 |

Description Creates a directory and returns its associated DirectoryInfo object. Deletes the specified directory. Returns true if the specified directory exists and false otherwise. Returns a string array containing the names of the subdirectories in the specified directory. Returns a string array containing the names of the files in the specified directory. Returns a DateTime object representing when the directory was created. Returns a DateTime object representing when the directory was last accessed. Returns a DateTime object representing when items were last written to the directory. Moves the specified directory to a specified location.

Directory

class static methods.

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Demonstrating Classes File and Directory Class FileTestForm (Fig. 17.5) uses File and Directory methods to access file and directory information. This Form contains the control inputTextBox, in which the user enters a file or directory name. For each key that the user presses while typing in the TextBox, the program calls event handler inputTextBox_KeyDown (lines 19–75). If the user presses the Enter key (line 22), this method displays either the file’s or directory’s contents, depending on the text the user input. (If the user does not press the Enter key, this method returns without displaying any content.) Line 28 uses File method Exists to determine whether the userspecified text is the name of an existing file. If so, line 31 invokes private method GetInformation (lines 79–97), which calls File methods GetCreationTime (line 88), GetLastWriteTime (line 92) and GetLastAccessTime (line 96) to access file information. When method GetInformation returns, line 38 instantiates a StreamReader for reading text from the file. The StreamReader constructor takes as an argument a string containing the name of the file to open. Line 40 calls StreamReader method ReadToEnd to read the entire contents of the file as a string, then appends the string to outputTextBox. Once the file has been read, the using block terminates, closes the file and disposes of the corresponding object. .

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

// Fig. 17.5: FileTestForm.cs // Using classes File and Directory. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.IO; namespace FileTest { // displays contents of files and directories public partial class FileTestForm : Form { // parameterless constructor public FileTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // invoked when user presses key private void inputTextBox_KeyDown( object sender, KeyEventArgs e ) { // determine whether user pressed Enter key if ( e.KeyCode == Keys.Enter ) { // get user-specified file or directory string fileName = inputTextBox.Text; // determine whether fileName is a file if ( File.Exists( fileName ) ) { // get file's creation date, modification date, etc. GetInformation( fileName ); StreamReader stream = null; // declare StreamReader

Fig. 17.5 | Using classes File and Directory. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// display file contents through StreamReader try { // obtain reader and file contents using ( stream = new StreamReader( fileName ) ) { outputTextBox.AppendText( stream.ReadToEnd() ); } // end using } // end try catch ( IOException ) { MessageBox.Show( "Error reading from file", "File Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); } // end catch } // end if // determine whether fileName is a directory else if ( Directory.Exists( fileName ) ) { // get directory's creation date, // modification date, etc. GetInformation( fileName ); // obtain file/directory list of specified directory string[] directoryList = Directory.GetDirectories( fileName ); outputTextBox.AppendText( "Directory contents:\n" ); // output directoryList contents foreach ( var directory in directoryList ) outputTextBox.AppendText( directory + "\n" ); } // end else if else { // notify user that neither file nor directory exists MessageBox.Show( inputTextBox.Text + " does not exist", "File Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); } // end else } // end if } // end method inputTextBox_KeyDown // get information on file or directory, // and output it to outputTextBox private void GetInformation( string fileName ) { outputTextBox.Clear(); // output that file or directory exists outputTextBox.AppendText( fileName + " exists\n" );

Fig. 17.5 | Using classes File and Directory. (Part 2 of 3.)

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17.4 Classes File and Directory

86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99

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// output when file or directory was created outputTextBox.AppendText( "Created: " + File.GetCreationTime( fileName ) + "\n" ); // output when file or directory was last modified outputTextBox.AppendText( "Last modified: " + File.GetLastWriteTime( fileName ) + "\n" ); // output when file or directory was last accessed outputTextBox.AppendText( "Last accessed: " + File.GetLastAccessTime( fileName ) + "\n" ); } // end method GetInformation } // end class FileTestForm } // end namespace FileTest a) Viewing the contents of file "quotes.txt"

b) Viewing all files in directory C:\Program Files\

c) User gives invalid input

d) Error message is displayed

Fig. 17.5 | Using classes File and Directory. (Part 3 of 3.) If line 28 determines that the user-specified text is not a file, line 51 determines whether it’s a directory using Directory method Exists. If the user specified an existing directory, line 55 invokes method GetInformation to access the directory information. Line 59 calls Directory method GetDirectories to obtain a string array containing the names of subdirectories in the specified directory. Lines 64–65 display each element in the string array. Note that, if line 51 determines that the user-specified text is not a directory name, lines 70–72 notify the user (via a MessageBox) that the name the user entered does not exist as a file or directory.

Searching Directories with LINQ We now consider another example that uses file- and directory-manipulation capabilities. Class LINQToFileDirectoryForm (Fig. 17.6) uses LINQ with classes File, Path and

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Directory to report the number of files of each file type that exist in the specified directory

path. The program also serves as a “clean-up” utility—when it finds a file that has the .bak file-name extension (i.e., a backup file), the program displays a MessageBox asking the user whether that file should be removed, then responds appropriately to the user’s input. This example also uses LINQ to Objects to help delete the backup files. When the user clicks Search Directory, the program invokes searchButton_Click (lines 25–65), which searches recursively through the directory path specified by the user. If the user inputs text in the TextBox, line 29 calls Directory method Exists to determine whether that text is a valid directory. If it’s not, lines 32–33 notify the user of the error.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

// Fig. 17.6: LINQToFileDirectoryForm.cs // Using LINQ to search directories and determine file types. using System; using System.Collections.Generic; using System.Linq; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.IO; namespace LINQToFileDirectory { public partial class LINQToFileDirectoryForm : Form { string currentDirectory; // directory to search // store extensions found, and number of each extension found Dictionary found = new Dictionary(); // parameterless constructor public LINQToFileDirectoryForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // handles the Search Directory Button's Click event private void searchButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // check whether user specified path exists if ( pathTextBox.Text != string.Empty && !Directory.Exists( pathTextBox.Text ) ) { // show error if user does not specify valid directory MessageBox.Show( "Invalid Directory", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); } // end if else { // use current directory if no directory is specified if ( pathTextBox.Text == string.Empty ) currentDirectory = Directory.GetCurrentDirectory();

Fig. 17.6 | Using LINQ to search directories and determine file types. (Part 1 of 4.)

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else currentDirectory = pathTextBox.Text; directoryTextBox.Text = currentDirectory; // show directory // clear TextBoxes pathTextBox.Clear(); resultsTextBox.Clear(); SearchDirectory( currentDirectory ); // search the directory // allow user to delete .bak files CleanDirectory( currentDirectory ); // summarize and display the results foreach ( var current in found.Keys ) { // display the number of files with current extension resultsTextBox.AppendText( string.Format( "* Found {0} {1} files.\r\n", found[ current ], current ) ); } // end foreach found.Clear(); // clear results for new search } // end else } // end method searchButton_Click // search directory using LINQ private void SearchDirectory( string folder ) { // files contained in the directory string[] files = Directory.GetFiles( folder ); // subdirectories in the directory string[] directories = Directory.GetDirectories( folder ); // find all file extensions in this directory var extensions = ( from file in files select Path.GetExtension( file ) ).Distinct(); // count the number of files using each extension foreach ( var extension in extensions ) { var temp = extension; // count the number of files with the extension var extensionCount = ( from file in files where Path.GetExtension( file ) == temp select file ).Count();

Fig. 17.6 | Using LINQ to search directories and determine file types. (Part 2 of 4.)

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92 // if the Dictionary already contains a key for the extension 93 if ( found.ContainsKey( extension ) ) found[ extension ] += extensionCount; // update the count 94 95 else found.Add( extension, extensionCount ); // add new count 96 97 } // end foreach 98 99 // recursive call to search subdirectories 100 foreach ( var subdirectory in directories ) 101 SearchDirectory( subdirectory ); 102 } // end method SearchDirectory 103 104 // allow user to delete backup files (.bak) 105 private void CleanDirectory( string folder ) 106 { 107 // files contained in the directory string[] files = Directory.GetFiles( folder ); 108 109 110 // subdirectories in the directory string[] directories = Directory.GetDirectories( folder ); 111 112 113 // select all the backup files in this directory 114 var backupFiles = from file in files 115 where Path.GetExtension( file ) == ".bak" 116 117 select file; 118 119 // iterate over all backup files (.bak) 120 foreach ( var backup in backupFiles ) 121 { 122 DialogResult result = MessageBox.Show( "Found backup file " + 123 Path.GetFileName( backup ) + ". Delete?", "Delete Backup", 124 MessageBoxButtons.YesNo, MessageBoxIcon.Question ); 125 126 // delete file if user clicked 'yes' 127 if ( result == DialogResult.Yes ) 128 { 129 File.Delete( backup ); // delete backup file --found[ ".bak" ]; // decrement count in Dictionary 130 131 132 // if there are no .bak files, delete key from Dictionary 133 if ( found[ ".bak" ] == 0 ) found.Remove( ".bak" ); 134 135 } // end if 136 } // end foreach 137 138 // recursive call to clean subdirectories 139 foreach ( var subdirectory in directories ) CleanDirectory( subdirectory ); 140 141 } // end method CleanDirectory 142 } // end class LINQToFileDirectoryForm 143 } // end namespace LINQToFileDirectory

Fig. 17.6 | Using LINQ to search directories and determine file types. (Part 3 of 4.)

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Fig. 17.6 | Using LINQ to search directories and determine file types. (Part 4 of 4.) Method SearchDirectory Lines 38–41 get the current directory (if the user did not specify a path) or the specified directory. Line 49 passes the directory name to recursive method SearchDirectory (lines 68–102). Line 71 calls Directory method GetFiles to get a string array containing file names in the specified directory. Line 74 calls Directory method GetDirectories to get a string array containing the subdirectory names in the specified directory. Lines 78–79 use LINQ to get the Distinct file-name extensions in the files array. Path method GetExtension obtains the extension for the specified file name. For each filename extension returned by the LINQ query, lines 82–97 determine the number of occurrences of that extension in the files array. The LINQ query at lines 88–90 compares each file-name extension in the files array with the current extension being processed (line 89). All matches are included in the result. We then use LINQ method Count to determine the total number of files that matched the current extension. Class LINQToFileDirectoryForm uses a Dictionary (declared in line 16) to store each file-name extension and the corresponding number of file names with that extension. A Dictionary (namespace System.Collections.Generic) is a collection of key/value pairs, in which each key has a corresponding value. Class Dictionary is a generic class like class List (presented in Section 9.4). Line 16 indicates that the Dictionary found contains pairs of strings and ints, which represent the file-name extensions and the number of files with those extensions, respectively. Line 93 uses Dictionary method ContainsKey to determine whether the specified file-name extension has been placed in the Dictionary previously. If this method returns true, line 94 adds the extensionCount determined in lines 88–90 to the current total for that extension that’s stored in the Dictionary. Otherwise, line 96 uses Dictionary method Add to insert a new key/value pair into the Dictionary for the new file-name extension and its extensionCount. Lines 100–101 recursively call SearchDirectory for each subdirectory in the current directory. Method CleanDirectory When method SearchDirectory returns, line 52 calls CleanDirectory (defined at lines 105–141) to search for all files with extension .bak. Lines 108 and 111 obtain the list of

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file names and list of directory names in the current directory, respectively. The LINQ query in lines 115–117 locates all file names in the current directory that have the .bak extension. Lines 120–136 iterate through the query’s results and prompt the user to determine whether each file should be deleted. If the user clicks Yes in the dialog, line 129 uses File method Delete to remove the file from disk, and line 130 subtracts 1 from the total number of .bak files. If the number of .bak files remaining is 0, line 134 uses Dictionary method Remove to delete the key/value pair for .bak files from the Dictionary. Lines 139– 140 recursively call CleanDirectory for each subdirectory in the current directory. After each subdirectory has been checked for .bak files, method CleanDirectory returns, and lines 55–61 display the summary of file-name extensions and the number of files with each extension. Line 55 uses Dictionary property Keys to get all the keys in the Dictionary. Line 60 uses the Dictionary’s indexer to get the value for the current key. Finally, line 63 uses Dictionary method Clear to delete the contents of the Dictionary.

17.5 Creating a Sequential-Access Text File C# imposes no structure on files. Thus, the concept of a “record” does not exist in C# files. This means that you must structure files to meet the requirements of your applications. The next few examples use text and special characters to organize our own concept of a “record.”

Class BankUIForm The following examples demonstrate file processing in a bank-account maintenance application. These programs have similar user interfaces, so we created reusable class BankUIForm (Fig. 17.7) to encapsulate a base-class GUI (see the screen capture in Fig. 17.7). Class BankUIForm contains four Labels and four TextBoxes. Methods ClearTextBoxes (lines 28–40), SetTextBoxValues (lines 43–64) and GetTextBoxValues (lines 67–78) clear, set the values of and get the values of the text in the TextBoxes, respectively. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

// Fig. 17.7: BankUIForm.cs // A reusable Windows Form for the examples in this chapter. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace BankLibrary { public partial class BankUIForm : Form { protected int TextBoxCount = 4; // number of TextBoxes on Form // enumeration constants specify TextBox indices public enum TextBoxIndices { ACCOUNT, FIRST, LAST, BALANCE } // end enum

Fig. 17.7 | Base class for GUIs in our file-processing applications. (Part 1 of 3.)

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17.5 Creating a Sequential-Access Text File

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// parameterless constructor public BankUIForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // clear all TextBoxes public void ClearTextBoxes() { // iterate through every Control on form foreach ( Control guiControl in Controls ) { // determine whether Control is TextBox if ( guiControl is TextBox ) { // clear TextBox ( ( TextBox ) guiControl ).Clear(); } // end if } // end for } // end method ClearTextBoxes // set text box values to string-array values public void SetTextBoxValues( string[] values ) { // determine whether string array has correct length if ( values.Length != TextBoxCount ) { // throw exception if not correct length throw ( new ArgumentException( "There must be " + ( TextBoxCount + 1 ) + " strings in the array" ) ); } // end if // set array values if array has correct length else { // set array values to TextBox values accountTextBox.Text = values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.ACCOUNT ]; firstNameTextBox.Text = values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.FIRST ]; lastNameTextBox.Text = values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.LAST ]; balanceTextBox.Text = values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.BALANCE ]; } // end else } // end method SetTextBoxValues // return TextBox values as string array public string[] GetTextBoxValues() { string[] values = new string[ TextBoxCount ]; // copy TextBox fields to string array values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.ACCOUNT ] = accountTextBox.Text; values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.FIRST ] = firstNameTextBox.Text;

Fig. 17.7 | Base class for GUIs in our file-processing applications. (Part 2 of 3.)

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values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.LAST ] = lastNameTextBox.Text; values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.BALANCE ] = balanceTextBox.Text; return values; } // end method GetTextBoxValues } // end class BankUIForm } // end namespace BankLibrary

Fig. 17.7 | Base class for GUIs in our file-processing applications. (Part 3 of 3.) Using visual inheritance (Section 15.13), you can extend this class to create the GUIs for several examples in this chapter. Recall that to reuse class BankUIForm, you must compile the GUI into a class library, then add a reference to the new class library in each project that will reuse it. This library (BankLibrary) is provided with the code for this chapter. You might need to re-add the references to this library in our examples when you copy them to your system, since the library most likely will reside in a different location on your system.

Class Record Figure 17.8 contains class Record that Figs. 17.9, 17.11 and 17.12 use for maintaining the information in each record that’s written to or read from a file. This class also belongs to the BankLibrary DLL, so it’s located in the same project as class BankUIForm. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

// Fig. 17.8: Record.cs // Class that represents a data record. namespace BankLibrary { public class Record { // auto-implemented Account property public int Account { get; set; } // auto-implemented FirstName property public string FirstName { get; set; } // auto-implemented LastName property public string LastName { get; set; }

Fig. 17.8 | Record for sequential-access file-processing applications. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// auto-implemented Balance property public decimal Balance { get; set; } // parameterless constructor sets members to default values public Record() : this( 0, string.Empty, string.Empty, 0M ) { } // end constructor // overloaded constructor sets members to parameter values public Record( int accountValue, string firstNameValue, string lastNameValue, decimal balanceValue ) { Account = accountValue; FirstName = firstNameValue; LastName = lastNameValue; Balance = balanceValue; } // end constructor } // end class Record } // end namespace BankLibrary

Fig. 17.8 | Record for sequential-access file-processing applications. (Part 2 of 2.) Class

contains auto-implemented properties for instance variables Account, and Balance (lines 9–18), which collectively represent all the information for a record. The parameterless constructor (lines 21–24) sets these members by calling the four-argument constructor with 0 for the account number, string.Empty for the first and last name and 0.0M for the balance. The four-argument constructor (lines 27– 34) sets these members to the specified parameter values. Record

FirstName, LastName

Using a Character Stream to Create an Output File Class CreateFileForm (Fig. 17.9) uses instances of class Record to create a sequential-access file that might be used in an accounts-receivable system—i.e., a program that organizes data regarding money owed by a company’s credit clients. For each client, the program obtains an account number and the client’s first name, last name and balance (i.e., the amount of money that the client owes to the company for previously received goods and services). The data obtained for each client constitutes a record for that client. In this application, the account number is used as the record key—files are created and maintained in account-number order. This program assumes that the user enters records in accountnumber order. However, a comprehensive accounts-receivable system would provide a sorting capability, so the user could enter the records in any order. 1 2 3 4 5

// Fig. 17.9: CreateFileForm.cs // Creating a sequential-access file. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.IO;

Fig. 17.9 | Creating and writing to a sequential-access file. (Part 1 of 5.)

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using BankLibrary; namespace CreateFile { public partial class CreateFileForm : BankUIForm { private StreamWriter fileWriter; // writes data to text file // parameterless constructor public CreateFileForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // event handler for Save Button private void saveButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create and show dialog box enabling user to save file DialogResult result; // result of SaveFileDialog string fileName; // name of file containing data using ( SaveFileDialog fileChooser = new SaveFileDialog() ) { fileChooser.CheckFileExists = false; // let user create file result = fileChooser.ShowDialog(); fileName = fileChooser.FileName; // name of file to save data } // end using // ensure that user clicked "OK" if ( result == DialogResult.OK ) { // show error if user specified invalid file if ( fileName == string.Empty ) MessageBox.Show( "Invalid File Name", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); else { // save file via FileStream if user specified valid file try { // open file with write access FileStream output = new FileStream( fileName, FileMode.OpenOrCreate, FileAccess.Write ); // sets file to where data is written fileWriter = new StreamWriter( output ); // disable Save button and enable Enter button saveButton.Enabled = false; enterButton.Enabled = true; } // end try // handle exception if there is a problem opening the file

Fig. 17.9 | Creating and writing to a sequential-access file. (Part 2 of 5.)

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catch ( IOException ) { // notify user if file does not exist MessageBox.Show( "Error opening file", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); } // end catch } // end else } // end if } // end method saveButton_Click // handler for enterButton Click private void enterButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // store TextBox values string array string[] values = GetTextBoxValues(); // Record containing TextBox values to output Record record = new Record(); // determine whether TextBox account field is empty if ( values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.ACCOUNT ] != string.Empty ) { // store TextBox values in Record and output it try { // get account-number value from TextBox int accountNumber = Int32.Parse( values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.ACCOUNT ] ); // determine whether accountNumber is valid if ( accountNumber > 0 ) { // store TextBox fields in Record record.Account = accountNumber; record.FirstName = values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.FIRST ]; record.LastName = values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.LAST ]; record.Balance = Decimal.Parse( values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.BALANCE ] ); // write Record to file, fields separated by commas fileWriter.WriteLine( record.Account + "," + record.FirstName + "," + record.LastName + "," + record.Balance ); } // end if else { // notify user if invalid account number MessageBox.Show( "Invalid Account Number", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); } // end else } // end try

Fig. 17.9 | Creating and writing to a sequential-access file. (Part 3 of 5.)

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111 // notify user if error occurs during the output operation 112 catch ( IOException ) 113 { 114 MessageBox.Show( "Error Writing to File", "Error", 115 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 116 } // end catch 117 // notify user if error occurs regarding parameter format 118 catch ( FormatException ) 119 { 120 MessageBox.Show( "Invalid Format", "Error", 121 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 122 } // end catch 123 } // end if 124 125 ClearTextBoxes(); // clear TextBox values 126 } // end method enterButton_Click 127 128 // handler for exitButton Click 129 private void exitButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) 130 { 131 // determine whether file exists 132 if ( fileWriter != null ) 133 { 134 try 135 { 136 // close StreamWriter and underlying file fileWriter.Close(); 137 138 } // end try 139 // notify user of error closing file 140 catch ( IOException ) 141 { 142 MessageBox.Show( "Cannot close file", "Error", 143 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 144 } // end catch 145 } // end if 146 147 Application.Exit(); 148 } // end method exitButton_Click 149 } // end class CreateFileForm 150 } // end namespace CreateFile a) BankUI graphical user interface with three additional controls

Fig. 17.9 | Creating and writing to a sequential-access file. (Part 4 of 5.)

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17.5 Creating a Sequential-Access Text File

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b) Save File dialog

Files and directories

c) Account 100, "Nancy Brown", saved with a balance of -25.54

Fig. 17.9 | Creating and writing to a sequential-access file. (Part 5 of 5.) Class CreateFileForm either creates or opens a file (depending on whether one exists), then allows the user to write records to it. The using directive in line 6 enables us to use the classes of the BankLibrary namespace; this namespace contains class BankUIForm, from which class CreateFileForm inherits (line 10). Class CreateFileForm’s GUI enhances that of class BankUIForm with buttons Save As, Enter and Exit.

Method saveButton_Click When the user clicks the Save As button, the program invokes the event handler saveButton_Click (lines 21–66). Line 27 instantiates an object of class SaveFileDialog (namespace System.Windows.Forms). By placing this object in a using statement (lines 27–32), we can ensure that the dialog’s Dispose method is called to release its resources as soon as the program has retrieved user input from it. SaveFileDialog objects are used for selecting files (see the second screen in Fig. 17.9). Line 29 indicates that the dialog should not check if the file name specified by the user already exists. Line 30 calls SaveFileDialog

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method ShowDialog to display the dialog. When displayed, a SaveFileDialog prevents the user from interacting with any other window in the program until the user closes the SaveFileDialog by clicking either Save or Cancel. Dialogs that behave in this manner are called modal dialogs. The user selects the appropriate drive, directory and file name, then clicks Save. Method ShowDialog returns a DialogResult specifying which button (Save or Cancel) the user clicked to close the dialog. This is assigned to DialogResult variable result (line 30). Line 31 gets the file name from the dialog. Line 35 tests whether the user clicked OK by comparing this value to DialogResult.OK. If the values are equal, method saveButton_Click continues. You can open files to perform text manipulation by creating objects of class FileStream. In this example, we want the file to be opened for output, so lines 47–48 create a FileStream object. The FileStream constructor that we use receives three arguments—a string containing the path and name of the file to open, a constant describing how to open the file and a constant describing the file permissions. The constant FileMode.OpenOrCreate (line 48) indicates that the FileStream object should open the file if it exists or create the file if it does not exist. Note that the contents of an existing file are overwritten by the StreamWriter. To preserve the original contents of a file, use FileMode.Append. There are other FileMode constants describing how to open files; we introduce these constants as we use them in examples. The constant FileAccess.Write indicates that the program can perform only write operations with the FileStream object. There are two other constants for the third constructor parameter—FileAccess.Read for read-only access and FileAccess.ReadWrite for both read and write access. Line 58 catches an IOException if there’s a problem opening the file or creating the StreamWriter. If so, the program displays an error message (lines 61–62). If no exception occurs, the file is open for writing.

Good Programming Practice 17.1 When opening files, use the FileAccess enumeration to control user access to these files.

Common Programming Error 17.1 Failure to open a file before attempting to use it in a program is a logic error.

Method enterButton_Click After typing information into each TextBox, the user clicks the Enter button, which calls event handler enterButton_Click (lines 69–126) to save the data from the TextBoxes into the user-specified file. If the user entered a valid account number (i.e., an integer greater than zero), lines 91–97 store the TextBox values in an object of type Record (created at line 75). If the user entered invalid data in one of the TextBoxes (such as nonnumeric characters in the Balance field), the program throws a FormatException. The catch block in lines 118–122 handles such exceptions by notifying the user (via a MessageBox) of the improper format. If the user entered valid data, lines 100–102 write the record to the file by invoking method WriteLine of the StreamWriter object that was created at line 51. Method WriteLine writes a sequence of characters to a file. The StreamWriter object is constructed with a FileStream argument that specifies the file to which the StreamWriter will output text. Class StreamWriter belongs to th e System.IO namespace.

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Method exitButton_Click When the user clicks Exit, exitButton_Click (lines 129–148) executes. Line 137 closes the StreamWriter, which automatically closes the FileStream. Then, line 147 terminates the program. Note that method Close is called in a try block. Method Close throws an IOException if the file or stream cannot be closed properly. In this case, it’s important to notify the user that the information in the file or stream might be corrupted.

Performance Tip 17.1 Close each file explicitly when the program no longer needs to use it. This can reduce resource usage in programs that continue executing long after they finish using a specific file. The practice of explicitly closing files also improves program clarity.

Performance Tip 17.2 Releasing resources explicitly when they’re no longer needed makes them immediately available for reuse by other programs, thus improving resource utilization.

Sample Data To test the program, we entered information for the accounts shown in Fig. 17.10. The program does not depict how the data records are stored in the file. To verify that the file has been created successfully, we create a program in the next section to read and display the file. Since this is a text file, you can actually open it in any text editor to see its contents. Account number

First name

Last name

Balance

100

Nancy

Brown

-25.54

200

Stacey

Dunn

314.33

300

Doug

Barker

0.00

400

Dave

Smith

258.34

500

Sam

Stone

34.98

Fig. 17.10 | Sample data for the program of Fig. 17.9.

17.6 Reading Data from a Sequential-Access Text File The previous section demonstrated how to create a file for use in sequential-access applications. In this section, we discuss how to read (or retrieve) data sequentially from a file. Class ReadSequentialAccessFileForm (Fig. 17.11) reads records from the file created by the program in Fig. 17.9, then displays the contents of each record. Much of the code in this example is similar to that of Fig. 17.9, so we discuss only the unique aspects of the application. .

1 2 3

// Fig. 17.11: ReadSequentialAccessFileForm.cs // Reading a sequential-access file. using System;

Fig. 17.11 | Reading sequential-access files. (Part 1 of 4.)

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using System.Windows.Forms; using System.IO; using BankLibrary; namespace ReadSequentialAccessFile { public partial class ReadSequentialAccessFileForm : BankUIForm { private StreamReader fileReader; // reads data from a text file // parameterless constructor public ReadSequentialAccessFileForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // invoked when user clicks the Open button private void openButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create and show dialog box enabling user to open file DialogResult result; // result of OpenFileDialog string fileName; // name of file containing data using ( OpenFileDialog fileChooser = new OpenFileDialog() ) { result = fileChooser.ShowDialog(); fileName = fileChooser.FileName; // get specified name } // end using // ensure that user clicked "OK" if ( result == DialogResult.OK ) { ClearTextBoxes(); // show error if user specified invalid file if ( fileName == string.Empty ) MessageBox.Show( "Invalid File Name", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); else { try { // create FileStream to obtain read access to file FileStream input = new FileStream( fileName, FileMode.Open, FileAccess.Read ); // set file from where data is read fileReader = new StreamReader( input ); openButton.Enabled = false; // disable Open File button nextButton.Enabled = true; // enable Next Record button } // end try

Fig. 17.11 | Reading sequential-access files. (Part 2 of 4.)

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56 catch ( IOException ) 57 { 58 MessageBox.Show( "Error reading from file", 59 "File Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, 60 MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 61 } // end catch 62 } // end else 63 } // end if 64 } // end method openButton_Click 65 66 // invoked when user clicks Next button 67 private void nextButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) 68 { 69 try 70 { 71 // get next record available in file string inputRecord = fileReader.ReadLine(); 72 73 string[] inputFields; // will store individual pieces of data 74 75 if ( inputRecord != null ) 76 { 77 inputFields = inputRecord.Split( ',' ); 78 79 Record record = new Record( 80 Convert.ToInt32( inputFields[ 0 ] ), inputFields[ 1 ], 81 inputFields[ 2 ], 82 Convert.ToDecimal( inputFields[ 3 ] ) ); 83 84 // copy string-array values to TextBox values 85 SetTextBoxValues( inputFields ); 86 } // end if 87 else 88 { 89 // close StreamReader and underlying file 90 fileReader.Close(); 91 openButton.Enabled = true; // enable Open File button 92 nextButton.Enabled = false; // disable Next Record button 93 ClearTextBoxes(); 94 95 // notify user if no records in file 96 MessageBox.Show( "No more records in file", string.Empty, 97 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Information ); 98 } // end else 99 } // end try 100 catch ( IOException ) 101 { 102 MessageBox.Show( "Error Reading from File", "Error", 103 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 104 } // end catch 105 } // end method nextButton_Click 106 } // end class ReadSequentialAccessFileForm 107 } // end namespace ReadSequentialAccessFile

Fig. 17.11 | Reading sequential-access files. (Part 3 of 4.)

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a) BankUI graphical user interface with an Open File button

b) OpenFileDialog window

c) Reading account 100

d) User is shown a messagebox when all records have been read

Fig. 17.11 | Reading sequential-access files. (Part 4 of 4.) Download at www.wowebook.com

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Method openButton_Click When the user clicks the Open File button, the program calls event handler openButton_Click (lines 21–64). Line 27 creates an OpenFileDialog, and line 29 calls its ShowDialog method to display the Open dialog (see the second screenshot in Fig. 17.11). The behavior and GUI for the Save and Open dialog types are identical, except that Save is replaced by Open. If the user selects a valid file name, lines 47–48 create a FileStream object and assign it to reference input. We pass constant FileMode.Open as the second argument to the FileStream constructor to indicate that the FileStream should open the file if it exists or throw a FileNotFoundException if it does not. (In this example, the FileStream constructor will not throw a FileNotFoundException, because the OpenFileDialog is configured to check that the file exists.) In the last example (Fig. 17.9), we wrote text to the file using a FileStream object with write-only access. In this example (Fig. 17.11), we specify read-only access to the file by passing constant FileAccess.Read as the third argument to the FileStream constructor. This FileStream object is used to create a StreamReader object in line 51. The FileStream object specifies the file from which the StreamReader object will read text.

Error-Prevention Tip 17.1 Open a file with the FileAccess.Read file-open mode if its contents should not be modified. This prevents unintentional modification of the contents.

Method nextButton_Click When the user clicks the Next Record button, the program calls event handler nextButton_Click (lines 67–104), which reads the next record from the user-specified file. (The user must click Next Record after opening the file to view the first record.) Line 72 calls StreamReader method ReadLine to read the next record. If an error occurs while reading the file, an IOException is thrown (caught at line 99), and the user is notified (lines 101–102). Otherwise, line 75 determines whether StreamReader method ReadLine returned null (i.e., there’s no more text in the file). If not, line 77 uses method Split of class string to separate the stream of characters that was read from the file into strings that represent the Record’s properties. These properties are then stored by constructing a Record object using the properties as arguments (lines 79–81). Line 84 displays the Record values in the TextBoxes. If ReadLine returns null, the program closes the StreamReader object (line 90), automatically closing the FileStream object, then notifies the user that there are no more records (lines 96–97).

17.7 Case Study: Credit Inquiry Program To retrieve data sequentially from a file, programs normally start from the beginning of the file, reading consecutively until the desired data is found. It sometimes is necessary to process a file sequentially several times (from the beginning of the file) during the execution of a program. A FileStream object can reposition its file-position pointer (which contains the byte number of the next byte to be read from or written to the file) to any position in the file. When a FileStream object is opened, its file-position pointer is set to byte position 0 (i.e., the beginning of the file) We now present a program that builds on the concepts employed in Fig. 17.11. Class CreditInquiryForm (Fig. 17.12) is a credit-inquiry program that enables a credit manager

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to search for and display account information for those customers with credit balances (i.e., customers to whom the company owes money), zero balances (i.e., customers who do not owe the company money) and debit balances (i.e., customers who owe the company money for previously received goods and services). We use a RichTextBox in the program to display the account information. RichTextBoxes provide more functionality than regular TextBoxes—for example, RichTextBoxes offer method Find for searching individual strings and method LoadFile for displaying file contents. Classes RichTextBox and TextBox both inherit from abstract class System.Windows.Forms.TextBoxBase. In this example, we chose a RichTextBox, because it displays multiple lines of text by default, whereas a regular TextBox displays only one. Alternatively, we could have specified that a TextBox object display multiple lines of text by setting its Multiline property to true. The program displays buttons that enable a credit manager to obtain credit information. The Open File button opens a file for gathering data. The Credit Balances button displays a list of accounts that have credit balances, the Debit Balances button displays a list of accounts that have debit balances and the Zero Balances button displays a list of accounts that have zero balances. The Done button exits the application. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

// Fig. 17.12: CreditInquiryForm.cs // Read a file sequentially and display contents based on // account type specified by user ( credit, debit or zero balances ). using System; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.IO; using BankLibrary; namespace CreditInquiry { public partial class CreditInquiryForm : Form { private FileStream input; // maintains the connection to the file private StreamReader fileReader; // reads data from text file // name of file that stores credit, debit and zero balances private string fileName; // parameterless constructor public CreditInquiryForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // invoked when user clicks Open File button private void openButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create dialog box enabling user to open file DialogResult result; using ( OpenFileDialog fileChooser = new OpenFileDialog() ) {

Fig. 17.12 | Credit-inquiry program. (Part 1 of 5.)

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result = fileChooser.ShowDialog(); fileName = fileChooser.FileName; } // end using // exit event handler if user clicked Cancel if ( result == DialogResult.OK ) { // show error if user specified invalid file if ( fileName == string.Empty ) MessageBox.Show( "Invalid File Name", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); else { // create FileStream to obtain read access to file input = new FileStream( fileName, FileMode.Open, FileAccess.Read ); // set file from where data is read fileReader = new StreamReader( input ); // enable all GUI buttons, except for Open File button openButton.Enabled = false; creditButton.Enabled = true; debitButton.Enabled = true; zeroButton.Enabled = true; } // end else } // end if } // end method openButton_Click // invoked when user clicks credit balances, // debit balances or zero balances button private void getBalances_Click( object sender, System.EventArgs e ) { // convert sender explicitly to object of type button Button senderButton = ( Button ) sender; // get text from clicked Button, which stores account type string accountType = senderButton.Text; // read and display file information try { // go back to the beginning of the file input.Seek( 0, SeekOrigin.Begin ); displayTextBox.Text = "The accounts are:\r\n"; // traverse file until end of file while ( true ) { string[] inputFields; // stores individual pieces of data Record record; // store each Record as file is read decimal balance; // store each Record's balance

Fig. 17.12 | Credit-inquiry program. (Part 2 of 5.)

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// get next Record available in file string inputRecord = fileReader.ReadLine(); // when at the end of file, exit method if ( inputRecord == null ) return; inputFields = inputRecord.Split( ',' ); // parse input // create Record from input record = new Record( Convert.ToInt32( inputFields[ 0 ] ), inputFields[ 1 ], inputFields[ 2 ], Convert.ToDecimal(inputFields[ 3 ])); // store record's last field in balance balance = record.Balance; // determine whether to display balance if ( ShouldDisplay( balance, accountType ) ) { // display record string output = record.Account + "\t" + record.FirstName + "\t" + record.LastName + "\t"; // display balance with correct monetary format output += String.Format( "{0:F}", balance ) + "\r\n"; // copy output to screen displayTextBox.AppendText( output ); } // end if } // end while } // end try // handle exception when file cannot be read catch ( IOException ) { MessageBox.Show( "Cannot Read File", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); } // end catch } // end method getBalances_Click // determine whether to display given record private bool ShouldDisplay( decimal balance, string accountType ) { if ( balance > 0M ) { // display credit balances if ( accountType == "Credit Balances" ) return true; } // end if else if ( balance < 0M ) {

Fig. 17.12 | Credit-inquiry program. (Part 3 of 5.)

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17.7 Case Study: Credit Inquiry Program

573

138 // display debit balances 139 if ( accountType == "Debit Balances" ) 140 return true; 141 } // end else if 142 else // balance == 0 143 { 144 // display zero balances 145 if ( accountType == "Zero Balances" ) 146 return true; 147 } // end else 148 149 return false; 150 } // end method ShouldDisplay 151 152 // invoked when user clicks Done button 153 private void doneButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) 154 { 155 if ( input != null ) 156 { 157 // close file and StreamReader 158 try 159 { 160 // close StreamReader and underlying file fileReader.Close(); 161 162 } // end try 163 // handle exception if FileStream does not exist 164 catch ( IOException ) 165 { 166 // notify user of error closing file 167 MessageBox.Show( "Cannot close file", "Error", 168 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 169 } // end catch 170 } // end if 171 172 Application.Exit(); 173 } // end method doneButton_Click 174 } // end class CreditInquiryForm 175 } // end namespace CreditInquiry a)

Fig. 17.12 | Credit-inquiry program. (Part 4 of 5.)

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Chapter 17 Files and Streams

b)

c)

d)

e)

Fig. 17.12 | Credit-inquiry program. (Part 5 of 5.) When the user clicks the Open File button, the program calls the event handler (lines 26–60). Line 31 creates an OpenFileDialog, and line 33 calls its ShowDialog method to display the Open dialog, in which the user selects the file to open. openButton_Click

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17.8 Serialization

575

Lines 47–48 create a FileStream object with read-only file access and assign it to reference input. Line 51 creates a StreamReader object that we use to read text from the FileStream. When the user clicks Credit Balances, Debit Balances or Zero Balances, the program invokes method getBalances_Click (lines 64–125). Line 67 casts the sender parameter, which is an object reference to the control that generated the event, to a Button object. Line 70 extracts the Button object’s text, which the program uses to determine which type of accounts to display. Line 76 uses FileStream method Seek to reset the file-position pointer back to the beginning of the file. FileStream method Seek allows you to reset the file-position pointer by specifying the number of bytes it should be offset from the file’s beginning, end or current position. The part of the file you want to be offset from is chosen using constants from the SeekOrigin enumeration. In this case, our stream is offset by 0 bytes from the file’s beginning (SeekOrigin.Begin). Lines 81–117 define a while loop that uses private method ShouldDisplay (lines 128–150) to determine whether to display each record in the file. The while loop obtains each record by repeatedly calling StreamReader method ReadLine (line 88) and splitting the text into tokens (line 94) that are used to initialize object record (lines 97–99). Line 91 determines whether the fileposition pointer has reached the end of the file, in which case ReadLine returns null. If so, the program returns from method getBalances_Click (line 92).

17.8 Serialization Section 17.5 demonstrated how to write the individual fields of a Record object to a text file, and Section 17.6 demonstrated how to read those fields from a file and place their values in a Record object in memory. In the examples, Record was used to aggregate the information for one record. When the instance variables for a Record were output to a disk file, certain information was lost, such as the type of each value. For instance, if the value "3" is read from a file, there’s no way to tell if the value came from an int, a string or a decimal. We have only data, not type information, on disk. If the program that’s going to read this data “knows” what object type the data corresponds to, then the data can be read directly into objects of that type. For example, in Fig. 17.11, we know that we are inputting an int (the account number), followed by two strings (the first and last name) and a decimal (the balance). We also know that these values are separated by commas, with only one record on each line. So, we are able to parse the strings and convert the account number to an int and the balance to a decimal. Sometimes it would be easier to read or write entire objects. C# provides such a mechanism, called object serialization. A serialized object is an object represented as a sequence of bytes that includes the object’s data, as well as information about the object’s type and the types of data stored in the object. After a serialized object has been written to a file, it can be read from the file and deserialized—that is, the type information and bytes that represent the object and its data can be used to recreate the object in memory. Class BinaryFormatter (namespace System.Runtime.Serialization.Formatters. Binary) enables entire objects to be written to or read from a stream. BinaryFormatter method Serialize writes an object’s representation to a file. BinaryFormatter method Deserialize reads this representation from a file and reconstructs the original object. Both methods throw a SerializationException if an error occurs during serialization or deserialization. Both methods require a Stream object (e.g., the FileStream) as a parameter so that the BinaryFormatter can access the correct stream.

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Chapter 17 Files and Streams

In Sections 17.9–17.10, we create and manipulate sequential-access files using object serialization. Object serialization is performed with byte-based streams, so the sequential files created and manipulated will be binary files. Binary files are not human readable. For this reason, we write a separate application that reads and displays serialized objects.

17.9 Creating a Sequential-Access File Using Object Serialization We begin by creating and writing serialized objects to a sequential-access file. In this section, we reuse much of the code from Section 17.5, so we focus only on the new features.

Defining the RecordSerializable Class Let’s begin by modifying our Record class (Fig. 17.8) so that objects of this class can be serialized. Class RecordSerializable (Fig. 17.13) is marked with the [Serializable] attribute (line 7), which indicates to the CLR that objects of class RecordSerializable can be serialized. The classes for objects that we wish to write to or read from a stream must include this attribute in their declarations or must implement interface ISerializable. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

// Fig. 17.13: RecordSerializable.cs // Serializable class that represents a data record. using System; namespace BankLibrary { [Serializable] public class RecordSerializable { // automatic Account property public int Account { get; set; } // automatic FirstName property public string FirstName { get; set; } // automatic LastName property public string LastName { get; set; } // automatic Balance property public decimal Balance { get; set; } // default constructor sets members to default values public RecordSerializable() : this( 0, string.Empty, string.Empty, 0M ) { } // end constructor // overloaded constructor sets members to parameter values public RecordSerializable( int accountValue, string firstNameValue, string lastNameValue, decimal balanceValue ) { Account = accountValue;

Fig. 17.13 |

RecordSerializable

class for serializable objects. (Part 1 of 2.)

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17.9 Creating a Sequential-Access File Using Object Serialization

33 34 35 36 37 38

577

FirstName = firstNameValue; LastName = lastNameValue; Balance = balanceValue; } // end constructor } // end class RecordSerializable } // end namespace BankLibrary

Fig. 17.13 |

RecordSerializable

class for serializable objects. (Part 2 of 2.)

In a class that’s marked with the [Serializable] attribute or that implements interface ISerializable, you must ensure that every instance variable of the class is also serializable. All simple-type variables and strings are serializable. For variables of reference types, you must check the class declaration (and possibly its base classes) to ensure that the type is serializable. By default, array objects are serializable. However, if the array contains references to other objects, those objects may or may not be serializable.

Using a Serialization Stream to Create an Output File Next, we’ll create a sequential-access file with serialization (Fig. 17.14). To test this program, we used the sample data from Fig. 17.10 to create a file named clients.ser. Since the sample screen captures are the same as Fig. 17.9, they are not shown here. Line 15 creates a BinaryFormatter for writing serialized objects. Lines 53–54 open the FileStream to which this program writes the serialized objects. The string argument that’s passed to the FileStream’s constructor represents the name and path of the file to be opened. This specifies the file to which the serialized objects will be written. This program assumes that data is input correctly and in the proper record-number order. Event handler enterButton_Click (lines 72–127) performs the write operation. Line 78 creates a RecordSerializable object, which is assigned values in lines 94–100. Line 103 calls method Serialize to write the RecordSerializable object to the output file. Method Serialize takes the FileStream object as the first argument so that the BinaryFormatter can write its second argument to the correct file. Only one statement is required to write the entire object. If a problem occurs during serialization, a SerializationException occurs—we catch this exception in lines 113–117. In the sample execution for the program in Fig. 17.14, we entered information for five accounts—the same information shown in Fig. 17.10. The program does not show how the data records actually appear in the file. Remember that we are now using binary files, which are not human readable. To verify that the file was created successfully, the next section presents a program to read the file’s contents. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

// Fig. 17.14: CreateFileForm.cs // Creating a sequential-access file using serialization. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.IO; using System.Runtime.Serialization.Formatters.Binary; using System.Runtime.Serialization; using BankLibrary;

Fig. 17.14 | Sequential file created using serialization. (Part 1 of 4.)

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10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62

Chapter 17 Files and Streams

namespace CreateFile { public partial class CreateFileForm : BankUIForm { // object for serializing RecordSerializables in binary format private BinaryFormatter formatter = new BinaryFormatter(); private FileStream output; // stream for writing to a file // parameterless constructor public CreateFileForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // handler for saveButton_Click private void saveButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create and show dialog box enabling user to save file DialogResult result; string fileName; // name of file to save data using ( SaveFileDialog fileChooser = new SaveFileDialog() ) { fileChooser.CheckFileExists = false; // let user create file // retrieve the result of the dialog box result = fileChooser.ShowDialog(); fileName = fileChooser.FileName; // get specified file name } // end using // ensure that user clicked "OK" if ( result == DialogResult.OK ) { // show error if user specified invalid file if ( fileName == string.Empty ) MessageBox.Show( "Invalid File Name", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); else { // save file via FileStream if user specified valid file try { // open file with write access output = new FileStream( fileName, FileMode.OpenOrCreate, FileAccess.Write ); // disable Save button and enable Enter button saveButton.Enabled = false; enterButton.Enabled = true; } // end try // handle exception if there is a problem opening the file catch ( IOException ) {

Fig. 17.14 | Sequential file created using serialization. (Part 2 of 4.)

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17.9 Creating a Sequential-Access File Using Object Serialization

63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114

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// notify user if file could not be opened MessageBox.Show( "Error opening file", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); } // end catch } // end else } // end if } // end method saveButton_Click // handler for enterButton Click private void enterButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // store TextBox values string array string[] values = GetTextBoxValues(); // RecordSerializable containing TextBox values to serialize RecordSerializable record = new RecordSerializable(); // determine whether TextBox account field is empty if ( values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.ACCOUNT ] != string.Empty ) { // store TextBox values in RecordSerializable and serialize it try { // get account-number value from TextBox int accountNumber = Int32.Parse( values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.ACCOUNT ] ); // determine whether accountNumber is valid if ( accountNumber > 0 ) { // store TextBox fields in RecordSerializable record.Account = accountNumber; record.FirstName = values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.FIRST ]; record.LastName = values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.LAST ]; record.Balance = Decimal.Parse( values[ ( int ) TextBoxIndices.BALANCE ] ); // write RecordSerializable to FileStream formatter.Serialize( output, record ); } // end if else { // notify user if invalid account number MessageBox.Show( "Invalid Account Number", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); } // end else } // end try // notify user if error occurs in serialization catch ( SerializationException ) {

Fig. 17.14 | Sequential file created using serialization. (Part 3 of 4.)

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Chapter 17 Files and Streams

115 MessageBox.Show( "Error Writing to File", "Error", 116 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 117 } // end catch 118 // notify user if error occurs regarding parameter format 119 catch ( FormatException ) 120 { 121 MessageBox.Show( "Invalid Format", "Error", 122 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 123 } // end catch 124 } // end if 125 126 ClearTextBoxes(); // clear TextBox values 127 } // end method enterButton_Click 128 129 // handler for exitButton Click 130 private void exitButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) 131 { 132 // determine whether file exists 133 if ( output != null ) 134 { 135 // close file 136 try 137 { 138 output.Close(); // close FileStream 139 } // end try 140 // notify user of error closing file 141 catch ( IOException ) 142 { 143 MessageBox.Show( "Cannot close file", "Error", 144 MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); 145 } // end catch 146 } // end if 147 148 Application.Exit(); 149 } // end method exitButton_Click 150 } // end class CreateFileForm 151 } // end namespace CreateFile

Fig. 17.14 | Sequential file created using serialization. (Part 4 of 4.)

17.10 Reading and Deserializing Data from a Binary File The preceding section showed how to create a sequential-access file using object serialization. In this section, we discuss how to read serialized objects sequentially from a file. Figure 17.15 reads and displays the contents of the clients.ser file created by the program in Fig. 17.14. The sample screen captures are identical to those of Fig. 17.11, so they are not shown here. Line 15 creates the BinaryFormatter that will be used to read objects. The program opens the file for input by creating a FileStream object (lines 49–50). The name of the file to open is specified as the first argument to the FileStream constructor. The program reads objects from a file in event handler nextButton_Click (lines 59– 92). We use method Deserialize (of the BinaryFormatter created in line 15) to read the data (lines 65–66). Note that we cast the result of Deserialize to type RecordSerializ-

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(line 66)—this cast is necessary, because Deserialize returns a reference of type and we need to access properties that belong to class RecordSerializable. If an error occurs during deserialization, a SerializationException is thrown, and the FileStream object is closed (line 82). able

object

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

// Fig. 17.15: ReadSequentialAccessFileForm.cs // Reading a sequential-access file using deserialization. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.IO; using System.Runtime.Serialization.Formatters.Binary; using System.Runtime.Serialization; using BankLibrary; namespace ReadSequentialAccessFile { public partial class ReadSequentialAccessFileForm : BankUIForm { // object for deserializing RecordSerializable in binary format private BinaryFormatter reader = new BinaryFormatter(); private FileStream input; // stream for reading from a file // parameterless constructor public ReadSequentialAccessFileForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // invoked when user clicks the Open button private void openButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create and show dialog box enabling user to open file DialogResult result; // result of OpenFileDialog string fileName; // name of file containing data using ( OpenFileDialog fileChooser = new OpenFileDialog() ) { result = fileChooser.ShowDialog(); fileName = fileChooser.FileName; // get specified name } // end using // ensure that user clicked "OK" if ( result == DialogResult.OK ) { ClearTextBoxes(); // show error if user specified invalid file if ( fileName == string.Empty ) MessageBox.Show( "Invalid File Name", "Error", MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Error ); else {

Fig. 17.15 | Sequential file read using deserialization. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Chapter 17 Files and Streams

// create FileStream to obtain read access to file input = new FileStream( fileName, FileMode.Open, FileAccess.Read ); openButton.Enabled = false; // disable Open File button nextButton.Enabled = true; // enable Next Record button } // end else } // end if } // end method openButton_Click // invoked when user clicks Next button private void nextButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // deserialize RecordSerializable and store data in TextBoxes try { // get next RecordSerializable available in file RecordSerializable record = ( RecordSerializable ) reader.Deserialize( input ); // store RecordSerializable values in temporary string array string[] values = new string[] { record.Account.ToString(), record.FirstName.ToString(), record.LastName.ToString(), record.Balance.ToString() }; // copy string-array values to TextBox values SetTextBoxValues( values ); } // end try // handle exception when there are no RecordSerializables in file catch ( SerializationException ) { input.Close(); // close FileStream openButton.Enabled = true; // enable Open File button nextButton.Enabled = false; // disable Next Record button ClearTextBoxes(); // notify user if no RecordSerializables in file MessageBox.Show( "No more records in file", string.Empty, MessageBoxButtons.OK, MessageBoxIcon.Information ); } // end catch } // end method nextButton_Click } // end class ReadSequentialAccessFileForm } // end namespace ReadSequentialAccessFile

Fig. 17.15 | Sequential file read using deserialization. (Part 2 of 2.)

17.11 Wrap-Up In this chapter, you learned how to use file processing to manipulate persistent data. You learned that data is stored in computers as 0s and 1s, and that combinations of these values

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17.11 Wrap-Up

583

are used to form bytes, fields, records and eventually files. We overviewed several file-processing classes from the System.IO namespace. You used class File to manipulate files, and classes Directory and DirectoryInfo to manipulate directories. Next, you learned how to use sequential-access file processing to manipulate records in text files. We then discussed the differences between text-file processing and object serialization, and used serialization to store entire objects in and retrieve entire objects from files. In Chapter 18, we begin our discussion of databases, which organize data in such a way that the data can be selected and updated quickly. We introduce Structured Query Language (SQL) for writing simple database queries. We then introduce LINQ to SQL, which allows you to write LINQ queries that are automatically converted into SQL queries. These SQL queries are then used to query the database.

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18 Databases and LINQ

Now go, write it before them in a table, and note it in a book, that it may be for the time to come for ever and ever.

OBJECTIVES

—Isaiah 30:8

In this chapter you’ll learn:

It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data.

■

The relational database model.

■

To use LINQ to retrieve and manipulate data from a database.

■

To add data sources to projects.

■

To use the Object Relational Designer to create LINQ to SQL classes.

■

To use the IDE’s drag-and-drop capabilities to display database tables in applications.

■

To use data binding to move data seamlessly between GUI controls and databases.

■

To create Master/Detail views that enable you to select a record and display its details.

—Arthur Conan Doyle

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18.1 Introduction

18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5

Introduction Relational Databases A Books Database LINQ to SQL Querying a Database with LINQ

18.5.1 Creating LINQ to SQL Classes 18.5.2 Data Bindings Between Controls and the LINQ to SQL Classes

18.6 Dynamically Binding Query Results 18.6.1 Creating the Display Query Results GUI 18.6.2 Coding the Display Query Results Application

585

18.7 Retrieving Data from Multiple Tables with LINQ 18.8 Creating a Master/Detail View Application 18.8.1 Creating the Master/Detail GUI 18.8.2 Coding the Master/Detail Application

18.9 Address Book Case Study 18.9.1 Creating the Address Book App’lication’s GUI 18.9.2 Coding the Address Book Application

18.10 Tools and Web Resources 18.11 Wrap-Up

18.1 Introduction A database is an organized collection of data. A database management system (DBMS) provides mechanisms for storing, organizing, retrieving and modifying data. Today’s most popular DBMSs manage relational databases, which organize data simply as tables with rows and columns. Some popular proprietary DBMSs are Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase and IBM DB2. PostgreSQL and MySQL are popular open-source DBMSs that can be downloaded and used freely by anyone. In this chapter, we use Microsoft’s free SQL Server Express, which is installed with Visual C# Express and Visual Studio. It can also be downloaded separately from Microsoft (www.microsoft.com/express/sql). SQL Server Express provides many features of Microsoft’s full (fee-based) SQL Server product, but has some limitations, such as a maximum database size. A SQL Server Express database can be easily migrated to a full version of SQL Server—we did this with our deitel.com website once our database became too large for SQL Server Express. You can learn more about the SQL Server versions at bit.ly/SQLServerEditions. Today’s most popular database systems are relational databases. A language called Structured Query Language (SQL)—pronounced “sequel”—is an international standard used with relational databases to perform queries (that is, to request information that satisfies given criteria) and to manipulate data. For years, programs that accessed a relational database passed SQL queries as Strings to the database management system, then processed the results. A logical extension of querying and manipulating data in databases is to perform similar operations on any sources of data, such as arrays, collections (like the Items collection of a ListBox) and files. Chapter 9 introduced LINQ to Objects and used it to to manipulate data stored in arrays. LINQ to SQL allows you to manipulate data stored in a SQL Server or SQL Server Express relational database. The SQL in LINQ to SQL stands for SQL Server, not Structured Query Language. As with LINQ to Objects, the IDE provides IntelliSense for your LINQ to SQL queries. This chapter introduces general concepts of relational databases, then explores LINQ to SQL and the IDE’s tools for working with databases. In later chapters, you’ll see other practical database and LINQ to SQL applications, such as a web-based bookstore and a

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Chapter 18 Databases and LINQ

web-based airline reservation service. Databases are at the heart of almost all “industrial strength” applications. [Note: In previous editions of this book, this chapter included an introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL). We now perform all of the database interactions in this chapter using LINQ, so we’ve moved the introduction to SQL to this book’s website at www.deitel.com/books/csharphtp4/.]

18.2 Relational Databases A relational database organizes data simply in tables. Figure 18.1 illustrates a sample Employees table that might be used in a personnel system. The table stores the attributes of employees. Tables are composed of rows (also called records) and columns (also called fields) in which values are stored. This table consists of six rows (one per employee) and five columns (one per attribute). The attributes are the employee’s ID, name, department, salary and location. The ID column of each row is the table’s primary key—a column (or group of columns) requiring a unique value that cannot be duplicated in other rows. This guarantees that each primary key value can be used to identify one row. A primary key composed of two or more columns is known as a composite key. Good examples of primary-key columns in other applications are a book’s ISBN number in a book information system or a part number in an inventory system—values in each of these columns must be unique. LINQ to SQL requires every table to have a primary key to support updating the data in tables. The rows in Fig. 18.1 are displayed in ascending order by primary key. But they could be listed in decreasing (descending) order or in no particular order at all. Table Employees

Row

ID

Name

Department

Salary

Location

23603

Jones

413

1100

New Jersey

24568

Kerwin

413

2000

New Jersey

34589

Larson

642

1800

Los Angeles

35761

Myers

611

1400

Orlando

47132

Neumann

413

9000

New Jersey

78321

Stephens

611

8500

Orlando

Primary key

Fig. 18.1 |

Employees

Column

table sample data.

Each column represents a different data attribute. Some column values may be duplicated between rows. For example, three different rows in the Employees table’s Department column contain the number 413, indicating that these employees work in the same department. You can use LINQ to SQL to define queries that select subsets of the data from a table. For example, a program might select data from the Employees table to create a query result that shows where each department is located, in increasing order by Department number (Fig. 18.2).

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18.3 A Books Database

Department

Location

413 611 642

New Jersey Orlando Los Angeles

587

Fig. 18.2 | Distinct Department and Location data from the Employees table.

18.3 A Books Database We now consider a simple Books database that stores information about some Deitel publications. First, we overview the database’s tables. A database’s tables, their fields and the relationships among them are collectively known as a database schema. LINQ to SQL uses a database’s schema to define classes that enable you to interact with the database. Next, we show how to use LINQ to SQL to retrieve information from the Books database. The database file—Books.mdf—is provided with this chapter’s examples. SQL Server database files have the .mdf (“master data file”) file-name extension.

Table of the Books Database The database consists of three tables: Authors, Titles and AuthorISBN. The Authors table (described in Fig. 18.3) consists of three columns that maintain each author’s unique ID number, first name and last name, respectively. Figure 18.4 contains the data from the Authors table. Authors

Column

Description

AuthorID

Author’s ID number in the database. In the Books database, this integer column is defined as an identity column, also known as an autoincremented column—for each row inserted in the table, the AuthorID value is increased by 1 automatically to ensure that each row has a unique AuthorID. This is the primary key.

FirstName

Author’s first name (a string). Author’s last name (a string).

LastName

Fig. 18.3 |

Authors

table of the Books database.

AuthorID

FirstName

LastName

1

Harvey

Deitel

2

Paul

Deitel

3

Greg

Ayer

4

Dan

Quirk

Fig. 18.4 | Data from the Authors table of the Books

database.

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Chapter 18 Databases and LINQ

Table of the Books Database The Titles table (described in Fig. 18.5) consists of four columns that maintain information about each book in the database, including its ISBN, title, edition number and copyright year. Figure 18.6 contains the data from the Titles table. Titles

Column

Description

ISBN

ISBN of the book (a string). The table’s primary key. ISBN is an abbreviation for “International Standard Book Number”—a numbering scheme that publishers worldwide use to give every book a unique identification number. Title of the book (a string). Edition number of the book (an integer). Copyright year of the book (a string).

Title EditionNumber Copyright

Fig. 18.5 |

Titles

table of the Books database.

ISBN

Title

EditionNumber

Copyright

0131752421

Internet & World Wide Web How to Program

4

2008

0132222205

Java How to Program

7

2007

0132404168

C How to Program

5

2007

0136053033

Simply Visual Basic 2008

3

2009

013605305X

Visual Basic 2008 How to Program

4

2009

013605322X

Visual C# 2008 How to Program

3

2009

0136151574

Visual C++ 2008 How to Program

2

2008

0136152503

C++ How to Program

6

2008

Fig. 18.6 | Data from the Titles table of the Books database. Table of the Books Database The AuthorISBN table (described in Fig. 18.7) consists of two columns that maintain ISBNs for each book and their corresponding authors’ ID numbers. This table associates authors with their books. The AuthorID column is a foreign key—a column in this table that matches the primary-key column in another table (that is, AuthorID in the Authors table). The ISBN column is also a foreign key—it matches the primary-key column (that is, ISBN) in the Titles table. Together the AuthorID and ISBN columns in this table form a composite primary key. Every row in this table uniquely matches one author to one book’s ISBN. Figure 18.8 contains the data from the AuthorISBN table of the Books database. AuthorISBN

Foreign Keys A database might consist of many tables. A goal when designing a database is to minimize the amount of duplicated data among the database’s tables. Foreign keys, which are specified when a database table is created, link the data in multiple tables.

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18.3 A Books Database

Column

Description

AuthorID

The author’s ID number, a foreign key to the Authors table. The ISBN for a book, a foreign key to the Titles table.

ISBN

Fig. 18.7 |

AuthorISBN

table of the Books database.

AuthorID

ISBN

AuthorID

1

0131752421

(continued)

1

0132222205

2

0132222205

1

0132404168

2

0132404168

1

0136053033

2

0136053033

1

013605305X

2

013605305X

1

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Fig. 18.8 | Data from the AuthorISBN table of the Books database. Every foreign-key value must appear as another table’s primary-key value so the DBMS can ensure that the foreign key value is valid. For example, the DBMS ensures that the AuthorID value for a particular row of the AuthorISBN table (Fig. 18.8) is valid by checking that there is a row in the Authors table with that AuthorID as the primary key. Foreign keys also allow related data in multiple tables to be selected from those tables—this is known as joining the data. There is a one-to-many relationship between a primary key and a corresponding foreign key (for example, one author can write many books and one book can be written by many authors). This means that a foreign key can appear many times in its own table but only once (as the primary key) in another table. For example, the ISBN 0131450913 can appear in several rows of AuthorISBN (because this book has several authors) but only once in Titles, where ISBN is the primary key.

Entity-Relationship Diagram for the Books Database Figure 18.9 is an entity-relationship (ER) diagram for the Books database. This diagram shows the tables in the database and the relationships among them. The first compartment in each box contains the table’s name. The names in italic font are primary keys— AuthorID in the Authors table, AuthorID and ISBN in the AuthorISBN table, and ISBN in the Titles table. Every row must have a value in the primary-key column (or group of columns), and the value of the key must be unique in the table; otherwise, the DBMS will report an error. The names AuthorID and ISBN in the AuthorISBN table are both italic— together these form a composite primary key for the AuthorISBN table.

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Authors AuthorID

AuthorISBN 1

FirstName

AuthorID ISBN

LastName

Titles 1

ISBN Title EditionNumber Copyright

Fig. 18.9 | Entity-relationship diagram for the Books database. The lines connecting the tables in Fig. 18.9 represent the relationships among the tables. Consider the line between the Authors and AuthorISBN tables. On the Authors end of the line, there’s a 1, and on the AuthorISBN end, an infinity symbol (∞ ). This indicates a one-to-many relationship—for each author in the Authors table, there can be an arbitrary number of ISBNs for books written by that author in the AuthorISBN table (that is, an author can write any number of books). Note that the relationship line links the AuthorID column in the Authors table (where AuthorID is the primary key) to the AuthorID column in the AuthorISBN table (where AuthorID is a foreign key)—the line between the tables links the primary key to the matching foreign key. The line between the Titles and AuthorISBN tables illustrates a one-to-many relationship—one book can be written by many authors. Note that the line between the tables links the primary key ISBN in table Titles to the corresponding foreign key in table AuthorISBN. The relationships in Fig. 18.9 illustrate that the sole purpose of the AuthorISBN table is to provide a many-to-many relationship between the Authors and Titles tables—an author can write many books, and a book can have many authors.

18.4 LINQ to SQL LINQ to SQL enables you to access data in SQL Server databases using the same LINQ syntax introduced in Chapter 9. You interact with the database via classes that are automatically generated from the database schema by the IDE’s LINQ to SQL Designer. For each table in the database, the IDE creates two classes: •

A class that represents a row of the table: This class contains properties for each column in the table. LINQ to SQL creates objects of this class—called row objects—to store the data from individual rows of the table.

•

A class that represents the table: LINQ to SQL creates an object of this class to store a collection of row objects that correspond to all of the rows in the table.

Relationships between tables are also taken into account in the generated classes: •

In a row object’s class, an additional property is created for each foreign key. This property returns the row object of the corresponding primary key in another table. For example, the class that represents the rows of the Books database’s AuthorISBN table also contains an Author property and a Title property—from any AuthorISBN row object, you can access the full author and title information.

•

In the class for a row object, an additional property is created for the collection of row objects with foreign-keys that reference the row object’s primary key. For

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example, the LINQ to SQL class that represents the rows of the Books database’s Authors table contains an AuthorISBNs property that you can use to get all of the

books written by that author. The IDE automatically adds the “s” to “AuthorISBN” to indicate that this property represents a collection of AuthorISBN objects. Similarly, the LINQ to SQL class that represents the rows of the Titles table also contains an AuthorISBNs property that you can use to get all of the co-authors of a particular title. Once generated, the LINQ to SQL classes have full IntelliSense support in the IDE. Section 18.7 demonstrates queries that use the relationships among the Books database’s tables to join data.

Interface LINQ to SQL works through the IQueryable interface, which inherits from the IEnumerable interface introduced in Chapter 9. When a LINQ to SQL query on an IQueryable object executes against the database, the results are loaded into objects of the corresponding LINQ to SQL classes for convenient access in your code. IQueryable

Class All LINQ to SQL queries occur via a DataContext class, which controls the flow of data between the program and the database. A specific DataContext derived class, which inherits from the class System.Data.Linq.DataContext, is created when the LINQ to SQL classes representing each row of the table are generated by the IDE. This derived class has properties for each table in the database, which can be used as data sources in LINQ queries. Any changes made to the DataContext can be saved back to the database using the DataContext’s SubmitChanges method, so with LINQ to SQL you can modify the database’s contents. DataContext

18.5 Querying a Database with LINQ In this section, we demonstrate how to connect to a database, query it and display the results of the query. There is little code in this section—the IDE provides visual programming tools and wizards that simplify accessing data in applications. These tools establish database connections and create the objects necessary to view and manipulate the data through Windows Forms GUI controls—a technique known as data binding. Our first example performs a simple query on the Books database from Section 18.3. We retrieve the entire Authors table and use data binding to display its data in a DataGridView—a control from namespace System.Windows.Forms that can display data from a data source in tabular format. The basic steps we’ll perform are: •

Connect to the Books database.

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Create the LINQ to SQL classes required to use the database.

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Add the Authors table as a data source.

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Drag the Authors table data source onto the Design view to create a GUI for displaying the table’s data.

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Add a few statements to the program to allow it to interact with the database.

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The GUI for the program is shown in Fig. 18.10. All of the controls in this GUI are automatically generated when we drag a data source that represents the Authors table onto the Form in Design view. The BindingNavigator at the top of the window is a collection of controls that allow you to navigate through the records in the DataGridView that fills the rest of the window. The BindingNavigator controls also allow you to add records, delete records and save your changes to the database. If you add a new record, note that empty values are not allowed in the Books database, so attempting to save a new record without specifying a value for each field will cause an error. Move previous Move first

Move next

Current position

Add new

Move last

Save Data Delete

GUI controls for the BindingNavigator DataGridView with the Authors table’s

column names You can add a new record by typing in this row of the DataGridView

Fig. 18.10 | GUI for the Display Authors Table application.

18.5.1 Creating LINQ to SQL Classes This section presents the steps required to create LINQ to SQL classes for a database.

Step 1: Creating the Project Create a new Windows Forms Application named DisplayTable. Change the name of the source file to DisplayAuthorsTable.cs. The IDE updates the Form’s class name to match the source file. Set the Form’s Text property to Display Authors Table. Step 2: Adding a Database to the Project and Connecting to the Database To interact with a database, you must create a connection to the database. This will also give you the option of copying the database file to your project. 1. In Visual C# 2010 Express, select View > Other Windows > Database Explorer to display the Database Explorer window. By default, it appears on the left side of the IDE. If you’re using a full version of Visual Studio, select View > Server Explorer to display the Server Explorer. From this point forward, we’ll refer to the Database Explorer. If you have a full version of Visual Studio, substitute Server Explorer for Database Explorer in the steps. 2. Click the Connect to Database icon ( ) at the top of the Database Explorer. If the Choose Data Source dialog appears (Fig. 18.11), select Microsoft SQL Server Database File from the Data source: list. If you check the Always use this selection CheckBox, the IDE will use this type of database file by default when you connect to databases in the future. Click Continue to display the Add Connection dialog.

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Fig. 18.11 | Choose Data Source dialog. 3. In the Add Connection dialog (Fig. 18.12), the Data source: TextBox reflects your selection from the Choose Data Source dialog. You can click the Change… Button to select a different type of database. Next, click Browse… to locate and select the Books.mdf file in the Databases directory included with this chapter’s examples. You can click Test Connection to verify that the IDE can connect to the database through SQL Server Express. Click OK to create the connection.

Error-Prevention Tip 18.1 Ensure that no other program is using the database file before you attempt to add it to the project. Connecting to the database requires exclusive access. i

Fig. 18.12 | Add Connection dialog.

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Step 3: Generating the LINQ to SQL classes After adding the database, you must select the database tables from which the LINQ to SQL classes will be created. LINQ to SQL uses the database’s schema to help define the classes. \

1. Right click the project name in the Solution Explorer and select Add > New Item… to display the Add New Item dialog. Select the LINQ to SQL Classes template, name the new item Books.dbml and click the Add button. The Object Relational Designer window will appear (Fig. 18.13). You can also double click the Books.dbml file in the Solution Explorer to open the Object Relational Designer.

Drag the database’s tables here to generate the LINQ to SQL classes

Fig. 18.13 | Object Relational Designer window. 2. Expand the Books.mdf database node in the Database Explorer, then expand the Tables node. Drag the Authors, Titles and AuthorISBN tables onto the Object Relational Designer. The IDE prompts whether you want to copy the database to the project directory. Select Yes. The Object Relational Designer will display the tables that you dragged from the Database Explorer (Fig. 18.14). Notice that the Object Relational Designer named the class that represents items from the Authors table as Author, and named the class that represents the Titles table as Title. This is because one object of the Author class represents one author—a single row from the Authors table. Similarly, one object of the Title class represents one book—a single row from the Titles table. Because the class name Title conflicts with one of the column names in the Titles table, the IDE renames that column’s property in the Title class as Title1. 3. Save the Books.dbml file. i

Fig. 18.14 | Object Relational Designer window showing the selected tables from the Books

database and their relationships.

When you save Books.dbml, the IDE generates the LINQ to SQL classes that you can use to interact with the database. These include a class for each table you selected from the

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database and a derived class of DataContext named BooksDataContext that enables you to programmatically interact with the database.

Error-Prevention Tip 18.2 Be sure to save the file in the Object Relational Designer before trying to use the LINQ to SQL classes in code. The IDE does not generate the classes until you save the file.

18.5.2 Data Bindings Between Controls and the LINQ to SQL Classes The IDE’s automatic data binding capabilities simplify creating applications that can view and modify the data in a database. You must write a small amount of code to enable the autogenerated data-binding classes to interact with the autogenerated LINQ to SQL classes. You’ll now perform the steps to display the contents of the Authors table in a GUI.

Step 1: Adding the Author LINQ to SQL Class as a Data Source To use the LINQ to SQL classes for data binding, you must first add them as a data source. 1. Select Data > Add New Data Source… to display the Data Source Configuration Wizard. 2. The LINQ to SQL classes are used to create objects representing the tables in the database, so we’ll use an Object data source. In the dialog, select Object and click Next >. Expand the tree view as shown in Fig. 18.15 and ensure that Author is checked. An object of this class will be used as the data source. 3. Click Finish.

Fig. 18.15 | Selecting the Author LINQ to SQL class as the data source.

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The Authors table in the database is now a data source that can be used by the bindings. Open the Data Sources window (Fig. 18.16) by selecting Data > Show Data Sources—the window is displayed at the left side of the IDE. You can see the Author class that you added in the previous step. The columns of the database’s Authors table should appear below it, as well as an AuthorISBNs entry representing the relationship between the database’s Authors and AuthorISBN tables.

Fig. 18.16 | Data Sources window showing the Author class as a data source. Step 2: Creating GUI Elements Next, you’ll use the Design view to create a GUI control that can display the Authors table’s data. 1. Switch to Design view for the DisplayAuthorsTable class. 2. Click the Author node in the Data Sources window—it should change to a dropdown list. Open the drop-down by clicking the down arrow and ensure that the DataGridView option is selected—this is the GUI control that will be used to display and interact with the data. 3. Drag the Author node from the Data Sources window onto the Form in Design view. The IDE creates a DataGridView (Fig. 18.17) with the correct column names and a BindingNavigator (authorBindingNavigator) that contains Buttons for moving between entries, adding entries, deleting entries and saving changes to the database. The IDE also generates a BindingSource (authorBindingSource), which handles the transfer of data between the data source and the data-bound controls on the Form. Nonvisual components such as the BindingSource and the non-visual aspects of the BindingNavigator appear in the component tray—the gray region below the Form in Design view. We use the default names for automatically generated components throughout this chapter to show exactly what the IDE creates. To make the DataGridView occupy the entire window, select the DataGridView, then use the Properties window to set the Dock property to Fill. Step 3: Connecting the BooksDataContext to the authorBindingSource The final step is to connect the BooksDataContext (created with the LINQ to SQL classes in Section 18.5.1) to the authorBindingSource (created earlier in this section), so that the application can interact with the database. Figure 18.18 shows the small amount of code needed to obtain data from the database and to save any changes that the user makes to the data back into the database. Download at www.wowebook.com

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GUI controls for the BindingNavigator DataGridView with the Authors table’s

column names

Objects in the component tray (the gray area below the Form)

Fig. 18.17 | Component tray holds nonvisual components in Design view. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

// Fig. 18.18: DisplayAuthorsTable.cs // Displaying data from a database table in a DataGridView. using System; using System.Linq; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace DisplayTable { public partial class DisplayAuthorsTable : Form { // constructor public DisplayAuthorsTable() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // LINQ to SQL data context private BooksDataContext database = new BooksDataContext(); // load data from database into DataGridView private void DisplayAuthorsTable_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // use LINQ to order the data for display authorBindingSource.DataSource = from author in database.Authors orderby author.AuthorID select author; } // end method DisplayAuthorsTable_Load

Fig. 18.18 | Displaying data from a database table in a DataGridView. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// click event handler for the Save Button in the // BindingNavigator saves the changes made to the data private void authorBindingNavigatorSaveItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { Validate(); // validate input fields authorBindingSource.EndEdit(); // indicate edits are complete database.SubmitChanges(); // write changes to database file } // end method authorBindingNavigatorSaveItem_Click } // end class DisplayAuthorsTable } // end namespace DisplayTable

Fig. 18.18 | Displaying data from a database table in a DataGridView. (Part 2 of 2.) As mentioned in Section 18.4, a DataContext object is used to interact with the database. The BooksDataContext class was automatically generated by the IDE when you created the LINQ to SQL classes to allow access to the Books database. Line 18 creates an object of this class named database. Create the Form’s Load handler by double clicking the Form’s title bar in Design view. We allow data to move between the DataContext and the BindingSource by creating a LINQ query that extracts data from the BooksDataContext’s Authors property (lines 25– 27), which corresponds to the Authors table in the database. The authorBindingSource’s DataSource property (line 24) is set to the results of this query. The authorBindingSource uses the DataSource to extract data from the database and to populate the DataGridView.

Step 4: Saving Modifications Back to the Database If the user modifies the data in the DataGridView, we’d also like to save the modifications in the database. By default, the BindingNavigator’s Save Data Button ( ) is disabled. To enable it, right click this Button’s icon and select Enabled. Then, double click the icon to create its Click event handler. Saving the data entered into the DataGridView back to the database is a three-step process (lines 35–37). First, all controls on the form are validated (line 35)—if any of the controls have event handlers for the Validating event, those execute. You typically handle this event to determine whether a control’s contents are valid. Second, line 36 calls EndEdit on the authorBindingSource, which forces it to save any pending changes in the BooksDataContext. Finally, line 37 calls SubmitChanges on the BooksDataContext to store the changes in the database. For efficiency, LINQ to SQL saves only data that has changed.

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Step 5: Configuring the Database File to Persist Changes When you run the program in debug mode, the database file is overwritten with the original database file each time you execute the program. This allows you to test your program with the original content until it works correctly. When you run the program in release mode (Ctrl + F5), changes you make to the database persist automatically; however, if you change the code, the next time you run the program, the database will be restored to its original version. To persist changes for all executions, select the database in the Solution Explorer and set the Copy to Output Directory property in the Properties window to Copy if newer.

18.6 Dynamically Binding Query Results Now that you’ve seen how to display an entire database table in a DataGridView, we show how to perform several different queries and display the results in a DataGridView. The Display Query Results application (Fig. 18.19) allows the user to select a query from the ComboBox at the bottom of the window, then displays the results of the query. a) Results of the “All titles” query, which shows the contents of the Titles table ordered by the book titles

b) Results of the “Titles with 2008 copyright” query

c) Results of the “Titles ending with ’How to Program’” query

Fig. 18.19 | Sample execution of the Display Query Results application.

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18.6.1 Creating the Display Query Results GUI Perform the following steps to build the Display Query Results application’s GUI.

Step 1: Creating the Project First, create a new Windows Forms Application named DisplayQueryResult. Rename the source file to TitleQueries.cs. Set the Form’s Text property to Display Query Results. Step 2: Creating the LINQ to SQL Classes Follow the steps in Section 18.5.1 to add the Books database to the project and generate the LINQ to SQL classes. Step 3: Creating a DataGridView to Display the Titles Table Follow Steps 1 and 2 in Section 18.5.2 to create the data source and the DataGridView. In this example, select the Title class (rather than the Author class) as the data source, and drag the Title node from the Data Sources window onto the form. Step 4: Adding a ComboBox to the Form In Design view, add a ComboBox named queriesComboBox below the DataGridView on the Form. Users will select which query to execute from this control. Set the ComboBox’s Dock property to Bottom and the DataGridView’s Dock property to Fill. Next, you’ll add the names of the queries to the ComboBox. Open the ComboBox’s String Collection Editor by right clicking the ComboBox and selecting Edit Items. You can also access the String Collection Editor from the ComboBox’s smart tag menu. A smart tag menu provides you with quick access to common properties you might set for a control (such as the Multiline property of a TextBox), so you can set these properties directly in Design view, rather than in the Properties window. You can open a control’s smart tag menu by clicking the small arrowhead ( ) that appears in the control’s upper-right corner in Design view when the control is selected. In the String Collection Editor, add the following three items to queriesComboBox—one for each of the queries we’ll create: 1. All titles 2. Titles with 2008 copyright 3. Titles ending with "How to Program"

18.6.2 Coding the Display Query Results Application Next you must write code that executes the appropriate query each time the user chooses a different item from queriesComboBox. Double click queriesComboBox in Design view to generate a queriesComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged event handler (Fig. 18.20, lines 44– 78) in the TitleQueries.cs file. In the event handler, add a switch statement (lines 48– 75) to change the titleBindingSource’s DataSource property to a LINQ query that returns the correct set of data. The data bindings created by the IDE automatically update the titleDataGridView each time we change its DataSource. The MoveFirst method of the BindingSource (line 77) moves to the first row of the result each time a query executes. The results of the queries in lines 53–55, 61–64 and 70–73 are shown in Fig. 18.19(a), (b) and (c), respectively. [Note: As we mentioned previously, in the generated LINQ to SQL classes, the IDE renamed the Title column of the Titles table as Title1 to avoid a naming conflict with the class Title.]

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Customizing the Form’s Load Event Handler Create the TitleQueries_Load event handler (lines 20–28) by double clicking the title bar in Design view. Line 23 sets the Log property of the BooksDataContext to Console.Out. This causes the program to output to the console the SQL query that is sent to the database for each LINQ query. When the Form loads, it should display the complete list of books from the Titles table, sorted by title. Rather than defining the same LINQ query as in lines 53– 55, we can programmatically cause the queriesComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged event handler to execute simply by setting the queriesComboBox’s SelectedIndex to 0 (line 27). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

// Fig. 18.20: TitleQueries.cs // Displaying the result of a user-selected query in a DataGridView. using System; using System.Linq; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace DisplayQueryResult { public partial class TitleQueries : Form { public TitleQueries() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // LINQ to SQL data context private BooksDataContext database = new BooksDataContext(); // load data from database into DataGridView private void TitleQueries_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // write SQL to standard output stream database.Log = Console.Out; // set the ComboBox to show the default query that // selects all books from the Titles table queriesComboBox.SelectedIndex = 0; } // end method TitleQueries_Load // Click event handler for the Save Button in the // BindingNavigator saves the changes made to the data private void titleBindingNavigatorSaveItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { Validate(); // validate input fields titleBindingSource.EndEdit(); // indicate edits are complete database.SubmitChanges(); // write changes to database file // when saving, return to "all titles" query queriesComboBox.SelectedIndex = 0; } // end method titleBindingNavigatorSaveItem_Click

Fig. 18.20 | Displaying the result of a user-selected query in a DataGridView. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// loads data into titleBindingSource based on user-selected query private void queriesComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // set the data displayed according to what is selected switch ( queriesComboBox.SelectedIndex ) { case 0: // all titles // use LINQ to order the books by title titleBindingSource.DataSource = from book in database.Titles orderby book.Title1 select book; break; case 1: // titles with 2008 copyright // use LINQ to get titles with 2008 // copyright and sort them by title titleBindingSource.DataSource = from book in database.Titles where book.Copyright == "2008" orderby book.Title1 select book; break; case 2: // titles ending with "How to Program" // use LINQ to get titles ending with // "How to Program" and sort them by title titleBindingSource.DataSource = from book in database.Titles where book.Title1.EndsWith( "How to Program" ) orderby book.Title1 select book; break; } // end switch titleBindingSource.MoveFirst(); // move to first entry } // end method queriesComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged } // end class TitleQueries } // end namespace DisplayQueryResult

Fig. 18.20 | Displaying the result of a user-selected query in a DataGridView. (Part 2 of 2.) Saving Changes Follow the instructions in the previous example to add a handler for the BindingNavigator’s Save Data Button (lines 32–41). Note that, except for changes to the names, the three lines are identical. The last statement (line 40) displays the results of the All titles query in the DataGridView.

18.7 Retrieving Data from Multiple Tables with LINQ In this section, we concentrate on LINQ to SQL features that simplify querying and combining data from multiple tables. The Joining Tables with LINQ application (Fig. 18.21) uses LINQ to SQL to combine and organize data from multiple tables, and shows the results of queries that perform the following tasks:

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•

Get a list of all the authors and the ISBNs of the books they’ve authored, sorted by last name then first name (Fig. 18.21(a)).

•

Get a list of all the authors and the titles of the books they’ve authored, sorted by last name then first; for each author sort the titles alphabetically (Fig. 18.21(b)).

•

Get a list of all the book titles grouped by author, sorted by last name then first; for a given author sort the titles alphabetically (Fig. 18.21(c)).

a) List of authors and the ISBNs of the books they’ve authored; sort the authors by last name then first name

b) List of authors and the titles of the book’s they’ve authored; sort the authors by last name then first name; for a given author, sort the titles alphabetically

c) List of titles grouped by author; sort the authors by last name then first name; for a given author, sort the titles alphabetically

Fig. 18.21 | Outputs from the Joining Tables with LINQ application.

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GUI for the Joining Tables with LINQ Application For this example (Fig. 18.22–Fig. 18.25), create a Windows Forms application named JoinQueries and rename the Form.cs file as JoiningTableData.cs. We set the following properties for the outputTextBox: • Font property: Set to Lucida Console to display the output in a fixed-width font. • Anchor property: Set to Top, Bottom, Left, Right so that you can resize the window and the outputTextBox will resize accordingly. • Scrollbars property: Set to Vertical, so that you can scroll through the output. Follow the steps from previous sections to set up the connection to the database and the LINQ to SQL classes. Creating the BooksDataContext The code combines data from the three tables in the Books database and displays the relationships between the book titles and authors in three different ways. It uses LINQ to SQL classes that have been created using the same steps as the first two examples. As in previous examples, the BooksDataContext object (Fig. 18.22, line 19) allows the program to interact with the database. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

// Fig. 18.22: JoiningTableData.cs // Using LINQ to perform a join and aggregate data across tables. using System; using System.Linq; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace JoinQueries { public partial class JoiningTableData : Form { public JoiningTableData() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor private void JoiningTableData_Load(object sender, EventArgs e) { // create database connection BooksDataContext database = new BooksDataContext();

Fig. 18.22 | Creating the BooksDataContext for querying the Books database. Combining Author Names with the ISBNs of the Books They’ve Written The first query (Fig. 18.23, lines 23–26) joins data from two tables and returns a list of author names and the ISBNs representing the books they’ve written, sorted by LastName then FirstName. The query takes advantage of the properties that LINQ to SQL creates based on foreign-key relationships between the database’s tables. These properties enable you to easily combine data from related rows in multiple tables.

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// get authors and ISBNs of each book they co-authored var authorsAndISBNs = from author in database.Authors from book in author.AuthorISBNs orderby author.LastName, author.FirstName select new { author.FirstName, author.LastName, book.ISBN }; outputTextBox.AppendText( "Authors and ISBNs:" ); // display authors and ISBNs in tabular format foreach ( var element in authorsAndISBNs ) { outputTextBox.AppendText( String.Format( "\r\n\t{0,-10} {1,-10} {2,-10}", element.FirstName, element.LastName, element.ISBN ) ); } // end foreach

Fig. 18.23 | Getting a list of authors and the ISBNs of the books they’ve authored. The first from clause (line 23) gets one author from the Authors table. The second clause (line 24) uses the generated AuthorISBNs property of the Author class to get only the rows in the AuthorISBN table that link to the current author—that is, the ones that have the same AuthorID as the current author. The combined result of the two from clauses is a collection of all the authors and the ISBNs of the books they’ve authored. The two from clauses introduce two range variables into the scope of this query—other clauses can access both range variables to combine data from multiple tables. Line 26 combines the FirstName and LastName of an author from the Authors table with a corresponding ISBN from the AuthorISBNs table. This line creates a new anonymous type that contains these three properties. from

Anonymous Types As you know, anonymous types allow you to create simple classes used to store data without writing a class definition. An anonymous type declaration (line 26)—known formally as an anonymous object-creation expression—is similar to an object initializer (Section 10.16). The anonymous type declaration begins with the keyword new followed by a member-initializer list in braces ({}). No class name is specified after the new keyword. The compiler generates a class definition based on the anonymous object-creation expression. This class contains the properties specified in the member-initializer list—FirstName, LastName and ISBN. All properties of an anonymous type are public. Anonymous type properties are read-only—you cannot modify a property’s value once the object is created. Each property’s type is inferred from the values assigned to it. The class definition is generated automatically by the compiler, so you don’t know the class’s type name (hence the term anonymous type). Thus, you must use implicitly typed local variables to store references to objects of anonymous types (e.g., line 31). Though we are not using it here, the compiler defines a ToString method when creating the anonymous type’s class definition. The method returns a string in curly braces containing a comma-separated list of PropertyName = value pairs. The compiler also provides an Equals method, which com-

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pares the properties of the anonymous object that calls the method and the anonymous object that it receives as an argument.

Combining Author Names with the Titles of the Books They’ve Written The second query (Fig. 18.24, lines 40–45) gives similar output, but uses the foreign-key relationships to go one step further and get the title of each book that an author wrote. The first from clause (line 40) gets one title from the Titles table. The second from clause (line 41) uses the generated AuthorISBNs property of the Title class to get only the rows in the AuthorISBN table that link to the current title—that is, the ones that have the same ISBN as the current title. Each of those book objects contains an Author property that represents the foreign-key relationship between the AuthorISBNs table and the Authors table. This Author property gives us access to the names of the authors for the current book. 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

// get authors and titles of each book they co-authored var authorsAndTitles = from title in database.Titles from book in title.AuthorISBNs let author = book.Author orderby author.LastName, author.FirstName, title.Title1 select new { author.FirstName, author.LastName, title.Title1 }; outputTextBox.AppendText( "\r\n\r\nAuthors and titles:" ); // display authors and titles in tabular format foreach ( var element in authorsAndTitles ) { outputTextBox.AppendText( String.Format( "\r\n\t{0,-10} {1,-10} {2}", element.FirstName, element.LastName, element.Title1 ) ); } // end foreach

Fig. 18.24 | Getting a list of authors and the titles of the books they’ve authored. Line 42 uses the let query operator, which allows you to declare a new variable in a LINQ query—usually to create a shorter name for an expression. The variable can be accessed in later statements just like a range variable. The author variable created in the let clause refers to book.Author. The select clause (lines 44–45) uses the author and title variables introduced earlier in the query to get the FirstName and LastName of each author from the Authors table and the title of each book from the Titles table.

Organizing Book Titles by Author Most queries return results with data arranged in a relational-style table of rows and columns. The last query (Fig. 18.25, lines 60–66) returns hierarchical results. Each element in the results contains the name of an Author and a list of Titles that the author wrote. The LINQ query does this by using a nested query in the select clause. The outer query iterates over the authors in the database. The inner query takes a specific author and retrieves all titles that the author worked on. The select clause (lines 62–66) creates an anonymous type with two properties:

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•

The property Name (line 62) combines each author’s name, separating the first and last names by a space.

•

The property Titles (line 63) receives the result of the nested query, which returns the title of each book written by the current author.

In this case, we’re providing names for each property in the new anonymous type. When you create an anonymous type, you can specify the name for each property by using the format name = value. 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84

// get authors and titles of each book // they co-authored; group by author var titlesByAuthor = from author in database.Authors orderby author.LastName, author.FirstName select new { Name = author.FirstName + " " + author.LastName, Titles = from book in author.AuthorISBNs orderby book.Title.Title1 select book.Title.Title1 }; outputTextBox.AppendText( "\r\n\r\nTitles grouped by author:" ); // display titles written by each author, grouped by author foreach ( var author in titlesByAuthor ) { // display author's name outputTextBox.AppendText( "\r\n\t" + author.Name + ":" ); // display titles written by that author foreach ( var title in author.Titles ) { outputTextBox.AppendText( "\r\n\t\t" + title ); } // end inner foreach } // end outer foreach } // end method JoiningTableData_Load } // end class JoiningTableData } // end namespace JoinQueries

Fig. 18.25 | Getting a list of titles grouped by authors. The nested foreach statements (lines 71–81) use the properties of the anonymous type created by the query to output the hierarchical results. The outer loop displays the author’s name and the inner loop displays the titles of all the books written by that author. Notice the expression book.Title.Title1 used in the inner orderby and select clauses (lines 65–66). This is due to the database having a Title column in the Titles table, and is another example of following foreign-key relationships. (Recall that the IDE renamed the Title column in the LINQ to SQL classes to avoid a naming conflict with the generated Title class.) The range variable book iterates over the rows of the AuthorISBN for the current author’s books. Each book’s Title property contains the corresponding row from the Titles table for that book. The Title1 in the expression returns the Title column (the title of the book) from that row of the Titles table in the database.

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18.8 Creating a Master/Detail View Application Figure 18.26 demonstrates a so-called master/detail view—one part of the GUI (the master) allows you to select an entry, and another part (the details) displays detailed information about that entry. In this example, if you select an author from the Author: ComboBox, the application displays the details of the books written by that author (Fig. 18.26(b)). If you select a book title from the Title: ComboBox, the application displays the co-authors of that book (Fig. 18.26(c)). a) Master/Detail application when it begins execution before an author or title is selected; no results are displayed in the DataGridView until the user makes a selection from one of the ComboBoxes

b) Select Harvey Deitel from the Author: drop-down list to view books he’s co-authored

c) Select C++ How to Program from the Title: drop-down to view the authors who wrote that book

Fig. 18.26 | Master/Detail application.

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18.8.1 Creating the Master/Detail GUI You’ve seen that the IDE can automatically generate the BindingSource, BindingNavigator and GUI elements when you drag a data source onto the Form. While this works for simple applications, those with more complex operations involve writing more substantial amounts of code. Before explaining the code, we list the steps required to create the GUI.

Step 1: Creating the Project Create a new Windows Forms Application called MasterDetail. Name the source file Details.cs and set the Form’s Text property to Master/Detail. Step 2: Creating LINQ to SQL Classes Follow the instructions in Section 18.5.1 to add the Books database and create the LINQ to SQL classes to interact with the database. Step 3: Creating GUI Elements Add two Labels and two ComboBoxes to the top of the Form. Position them as shown in Fig. 18.27. The Label and ComboBox on the left should be named authorLabel and authorComboBox, respectively. The Label and ComboBox on the right should be named titleLabel and titleComboBox. Set the Text properties of the Labels to Author: and Title:, respectively. Also change the DropDownStyle properties of the ComboBoxes from DropDown to DropDownList—this prevents the user from being able to type in the control.

authorLabel authorComboBox titleLabel titleComboBox booksDataGridView

authorBindingSource

titleBindingSource

Fig. 18.27 | Finished design of Master/Detail application. Next, create a DataGridView called booksDataGridView to hold the details that are displayed. Unlike previous examples, do not automatically create it by dragging a data

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source from the Data Sources window—this example sets the data source programmatically. Instead, drag the DataGridView from the Toolbox. Resize the DataGridView so that it fills the remainder of the Form. Because this control is only for viewing data, set its ReadOnly property to True using the Properties window. Finally, we need to add two BindingSources from the Data section of the Toolbox, one for information from the Titles table and one for information from the Authors table. Name these titleBindingSource and authorBindingSource, respectively. As in the previous examples, these appear in the component tray. These BindingSources are used as data sources for the DataGridView—the data source switches between them, depending on whether we want to view a list of Titles or a list of Authors. With the GUI creation complete, we can now write the code to provide the master/detail functionality.

18.8.2 Coding the Master/Detail Application Nested Class AuthorBinding As you saw in Fig. 18.26, the Author: ComboBox displays each author’s full name. This example uses data binding to display the names in the ComboBox. When you bind a collection of objects to a ComboBox’s DataSource property, the ComboBox normally displays the result of calling ToString on each object in the collection. If the String representation is not appropriate, you can specify one property of each object in the collection that should be displayed. In this example, we want to display each author’s first and last name. Recall that the author’s name is stored as two separate fields in the database, so the auto-generated Author class does not have single property that returns the full name. For this reason, we use a class called AuthorBinding (Fig. 18.28, lines 21–25) to help display the author’s full name. Class AuthorBinding’s Name property stores an author’s full name, and the Author property stores the Author object that contains the author’s information from the database. Class AuthorBinding is intended for use only in this example, so we defined it inside class Details—it’s a so-called nested class. Class definitions may be nested inside other classes when they’re intended to be used only by their enclosing classes—that is, they’re not meant for use by other programs. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

// Fig. 18.28: Details.cs // Using a DataGridView to display details based on a selection. using System; using System.Linq; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace MasterDetail { public partial class Details : Form { public Details() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor

Fig. 18.28 | Nested class AuthorBinding in class Details. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// connection to database private BooksDataContext database = new BooksDataContext(); // this class helps us display each author's first // and last name in the authors drop-down list private class AuthorBinding { public Author Author { get; set; } // contained Author object public string Name { get; set; } // author's full name } // end class AuthorBinding

Fig. 18.28 | Nested class AuthorBinding in class Details. (Part 2 of 2.) Configuring the Data Sources The ComboBox’s DisplayMember property is set to the String "Name" (Fig. 18.29, line 31), which tells the ComboBox to use the Name property of the objects in its DataSource to determine what text to display for each item. The DataSource in this case is the result of the LINQ query in lines 35–38, which creates an AuthorBinding object for each author. The authorComboBox will contain the Name of each author in the query result. Recall from Section 10.16 that object initializers (like lines 37–38) can initialize an object without explicitly calling a constructor. 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

// initialize data sources when the Form is loaded private void Details_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // display AuthorBinding.Name authorComboBox.DisplayMember = "Name"; // set authorComboBox's DataSource to the list of authors authorComboBox.DataSource = from author in database.Authors orderby author.LastName, author.FirstName select new AuthorBinding { Author = author, Name = author.FirstName + " " + author.LastName }; // display Title.Title1 titleComboBox.DisplayMember = "Title1"; // set titleComboBox's DataSource to the list of titles titleComboBox.DataSource = from title in database.Titles orderby title.Title1 select title; // initially, display no "detail" data booksDataGridView.DataSource = null; } // end method Details_Load

Fig. 18.29 | Configuring the ComboBoxes’ and DataGridView’s data sources.

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For the titleComboBox, we specify that each book’s title should be displayed (line 41). The LINQ query in lines 45–47 returns a sorted list of Title objects and assigns it to the titleComboBox’s DataSource. Initially, we don’t want to display any data in the DataGridView. However, when you set a ComboBox’s DataSource, the control’s SelectedIndexChanged event handler is called. To prevent this data from being displayed when the program first loads, we explicitly set the DataGridView’s DataSource property to null (line 50).

The BindingSource of a DataGridView Simple GUI elements like ComboBoxes can work directly from a data source, such as the result of a LINQ to SQL query. However, a DataGridView requires a BindingSource as its DataSource. While building the GUI, you created two BindingSource objects—one for displaying a list of Authors and one for displaying a list of Titles. You can change the columns and data displayed in the DataGridView merely by changing its DataSource between the two BindingSource objects. The DataGridView automatically determines the column names it needs to display from its BindingSource and refreshes itself when the BindingSource changes. Method authorComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged The authorComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged event handler (Fig. 18.30) performs three distinct operations. First, it retrieves the selected Author (lines 58–59) from the authorComboBox. The ComboBox’s SelectedItem property returns an object, so we convert the SelectedItem property’s value to the type AuthorBinding—recall that the ComboBox’s DataSource was set to a collection of AuthorBinding objects. Then, the event handler accesses the AuthorBinding’s Author property to retrieve the wrapped Author object. 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

// display titles that were co-authored by the selected author private void authorComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // get the selected Author object from the ComboBox Author currentAuthor = ( ( AuthorBinding ) authorComboBox.SelectedItem ).Author; // set titleBindingSource's DataSource to the // list of titles written by the selected author titleBindingSource.DataSource = from book in currentAuthor.AuthorISBNs select book.Title; // display the titles in the DataGridView booksDataGridView.DataSource = titleBindingSource; } // end method authorComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged

Fig. 18.30 | Displaying the books for the selected author. Next, the event handler uses LINQ to retrieve the Title objects representing books that the currentAuthor worked on (lines 64–65). The results of the LINQ query are assigned to the DataSource property of titleBindingSource (line 63). The event handler

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sets the titleBindingSource because we want to display Title objects associated with the currentAuthor. Finally, the DataGridView’s DataSource is assigned titleBindingSource to display the books this author wrote (line 68).

Method titleComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged The titleComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged event handler (Fig. 18.31) is nearly identical to authorComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged. Line 76 gets the selected Title from the ComboBox. Lines 80–82 set the authorsBindingSource’s DataSource to the list of Authors for the current book. Finally, the DataGridView’s DataSource is assigned authorBindingSource to display the authors who wrote this book (line 85). 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88

// display the authors of the selected title private void titleComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // get the selected Title object from the ComboBox Title currentTitle = ( Title ) titleComboBox.SelectedItem; // set authorBindingSource's DataSource to the // list of authors for the selected title authorBindingSource.DataSource = from book in currentTitle.AuthorISBNs select book.Author; // display the authors in the DataGridView booksDataGridView.DataSource = authorBindingSource; } // end method titleComboBox_SelectedIndexChanged } // end class Details } // end namespace MasterDetail

Fig. 18.31 | Displaying the authors of the selected book.

18.9 Address Book Case Study Our next example (Fig. 18.32) implements a simple AddressBook application that enables users to perform the following tasks on the database AddressBook.mdf (which is included in the directory with this chapter’s examples): •

Insert new contacts

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Find contacts whose last names begin with the specified letters

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Update existing contacts

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Delete contacts

We populated the database with six fictional contacts. Rather than displaying a database table in a DataGridView, this application presents the details of one contact at a time in several TextBoxes. The BindingNavigator at the top of the window allows you to control which row of the table is displayed at any given time. The BindingNavigator also allows you to add a contact, delete a contact and save changes to a contact. When you run the application, experiment with the BindingNavigator’s controls. The CD- or DVD-like buttons of the BindingNavigator allow you to change

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the currently displayed row. Adding a row clears the TextBoxes and sets the TextBox to the right of Address ID to zero. When you save a new entry, the Address ID field is automatically changed from zero to a unique number by the database. Recall from Section 18.5 that to allow changes to the database to persist between executions of the application, you can run the program in release mode (Ctrl + F5). a) Use the BindingNavigator’s

controls at the top of the window to navigate through the contacts in the database; initially there are six contacts in the database

b) Type a search String in the Last Name: TextBox then press Find to locate contacts whose last names begin with that String; only two names start with “Br” so the BindingNavigator indicates two matching records

Displaying the first of two matching contacts for the current search

c) Click the Browse All Entries Button to clear the search String and to allow browsing of all contacts in the database. You can now browse through all six contacts

Fig. 18.32 | Manipulating an address book.

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18.9.1 Creating the Address Book Application’s GUI We discuss the application’s code momentarily. First we show the steps to create this application.

Step 1: Creating the Project Create a new Windows Forms Application named AddressBook, set the Form’s filename to Contacts.cs, then set the Form’s Text property to Address Book. Step 2: Creating LINQ to SQL Classes and Data Source Follow the instructions in Section 18.5.1 to add a database to the project and generate the LINQ to SQL classes. For this example, add the AddressBook database and name the file AddressBook.dbml. You must also add the Address table as a data source, as we did with the Authors table in Step 1 of Section 18.5.2. Step 3: Displaying the Details of Each Row In the earlier sections, you dragged an object from the Data Sources window to the Form to create a DataGridView that was bound to the data in that object. The IDE allows you to specify the type of control(s) that it will create when you drag and drop an object from the Data Sources window onto a Form. In Design view, click the Address node in the Data Sources window. Note that this becomes a drop-down list when you select it. Click the down arrow to view the items in the list. The item to the left of DataGridView is initially highlighted in blue, because the default control that’s bound to a table is a DataGridView. Select the Details option (Fig. 18.33) in the drop-down list to indicate that the IDE should create a set of Label/TextBox pairs for each column-name/column-value pair when you drag and drop Address onto the Form.

Fig. 18.33 | Specifying that an Address should be displayed as a set of Labels and TextBoxes.

Step 4: Dragging the Address Data-Source Node to the Form Drag the Address node from the Data Sources window to the Form. This automatically creates a BindingNavigator and the Labels and TextBoxes corresponding to the columns of the database table. The fields may be placed out of order, with the Email at the top. Reorder the components, using Design view, so they’re in the proper order shown in Fig. 18.32. Step 5: Making the AddressID TextBox ReadOnly The AddressID column of the Addresses table is an autoincremented identity column, so users should not be allowed to edit the values in this column. Select the TextBox for the AddressID and set its ReadOnly property to True using the Properties window. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Step 6: Adding Controls to Allow Users to Specify a Last Name to Locate While the BindingNavigator allows you to browse the address book, it would be more convenient to be able to find a specific entry by last name. To add this functionality to the application, we must create controls to allow the user to enter a last name and provide event handlers to perform the search. Add a Label named findLabel, a TextBox named findTextBox, and a Button named findButton. Place these controls in a GroupBox named findGroupBox, then set its Text property to Find an entry by last name. Set the Text property of the Label to Last Name: and set the Text property of the Button to Find. Step 7: Allowing the User to Return to Browsing All Rows of the Database To allow users to return to browsing all the contacts after searching for contacts with a specific last name, add a Button named browseAllButton below the findGroupBox. Set the Text property of browseAllButton to Browse All Entries.

18.9.2 Coding the Address Book Application Method RefreshContacts As we showed in previous examples, we must connect the addressBindingSource that controls the GUI with the AddressBookDataContext that interacts with the database. In this example, we do this in the RefreshContacts method (Fig. 18.34, lines 21–31), which is called from several other methods in the application. Method RefreshContacts sets the addressBindingSource’s DataSource property to the result of a LINQ query on the Addresses table. We created a private method in this example, because there are three locations in the program where we need to update the addressBindingSource’s DataSource property. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

// Fig. 18.34: Contact.cs // Manipulating an address book. using System; using System.Linq; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace AddressBook { public partial class Contacts : Form { public Contacts() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // LINQ to SQL data context private AddressBookDataContext database = new AddressBookDataContext();

Fig. 18.34 | Creating the BooksDataContext and defining method RefreshContacts for use in other methods. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// fill our addressBindingSource with all rows, ordered by name private void RefreshContacts() { // use LINQ to create a data source from the database addressBindingSource.DataSource = from address in database.Addresses orderby address.LastName, address.FirstName select address; addressBindingSource.MoveFirst(); // go to the first result findTextBox.Clear(); // clear the Find TextBox } // end method RefreshContacts

Fig. 18.34 | Creating the BooksDataContext and defining method RefreshContacts for use in other methods. (Part 2 of 2.)

Method Contacts_Load Method Contacts_Load (Fig. 18.35) calls RefreshContacts (line 36) so that the first record is displayed when the application starts. As before, you create the Load event handler by double clicking the Form’s title bar. 33 34 35 36 37 38

// when the form loads, fill it with data from the database private void Contacts_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) { RefreshContacts(); // fill binding with data from database } // end method Contacts_Load

Fig. 18.35 | Calling RefreshContacts to fill the TextBoxes when the application loads. Method addressBindingNavigatorSaveItem_Click Method addressBindingNavigatorSaveItem_Click (Fig. 18.36) saves the changes to the database when the BindingNavigator’s save Button is clicked. (Remember to enable this button in the BindingNavigator.) We call RefreshContacts after saving to re-sort the data and move back to the first element. 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

// Click event handler for the Save Button in the // BindingNavigator saves the changes made to the data private void addressBindingNavigatorSaveItem_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { Validate(); // validate input fields addressBindingSource.EndEdit(); // indicate edits are complete database.SubmitChanges(); // write changes to database file RefreshContacts(); // change back to initial unfiltered data } // end method addressBindingNavigatorSaveItem_Click

Fig. 18.36 | Saving changes to the database when the user clicks the Save Data Button.

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The AddressBook database requires values for the first name, last name, phone number and e-mail. We did not check for errors to simplify the code—if a field is empty when you attempt to save, a SqlException exception (namespace System.Data.SqlClient) occurs.

Method findButton_Click Method findButton_Click (Fig. 18.37) uses LINQ (lines 57–60) to select only people whose last names start with the characters entered in the findTextBox. The query sorts the results by last name then first name. When you enter a last name and click Find, the BindingNavigator allows the user to browse only the rows containing the matching last names. This is because the data source bound to the Form’s controls (the result of the LINQ query) has changed and now contains only a limited number of rows. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

// use LINQ to create a data source that contains only people // with last names that start with the specified text private void findButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // use LINQ to create a data source from the database addressBindingSource.DataSource = from address in database.Addresses where address.LastName.StartsWith( findTextBox.Text ) orderby address.LastName, address.FirstName select address; addressBindingSource.MoveFirst(); // go to first result } // end method findButton_Click

Fig. 18.37 | Finding the contacts whose last names begin with a specified String. Method browseAllButton_Click Method browseAllButton_Click (Fig. 18.38) allows users to return to browsing all the rows after searching for specific rows. Double click browseAllButton to create a Click event handler. Have the event handler call RefreshContacts (line 68) to restore the data source to the full list of people and clear the findTextBox. 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

// reload addressBindingSource with all rows private void browseButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { RefreshContacts(); // change back to initial unfiltered data } // end method browseButton_Click } // end class Contacts } // end namespace AddressBook

Fig. 18.38 | Allowing the user to browse all contacts.

18.10 Tools and Web Resources Our extensive LINQ Resource Center at www.deitel.com/LINQ contains many links to additional information, including blogs by Microsoft LINQ team members, sample chapters, tutorials, videos, downloads, FAQs, forums, webcasts and other resource sites.

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A useful tool for learning LINQ is LINQPad (www.linqpad.net), which allows you to execute and view the results of any C# or Visual Basic expression, including LINQ queries. It also supports connecting to a SQL Server database and querying it using SQL and LINQ to SQL.

18.11 Wrap-Up This chapter introduced the relational database model, LINQ to SQL and the IDE’s visual programming tools for working with databases. You examined the contents of a simple Books database and learned about the relationships among the tables in the database. You used LINQ and the LINQ to SQL classes generated by the IDE to retrieve data from, add new data to, delete data from and update data in a SQL Server Express database. We discussed the LINQ to SQL classes automatically generated by the IDE, such as the DataContext class that controls interactions with the database. You learned how to use the IDE’s tools to connect to databases and to generate LINQ to SQL classes based on a database’s schema. You then used the IDE’s drag-and-drop capabilities to automatically generate GUIs for displaying and manipulating database data. In the next chapter, we demonstrate how to build web applications using Microsoft’s ASP.NET technology. We introduce the concept of a three-tier application, which is divided into three pieces that can reside on the same computer or be distributed among separate computers across a network such as the Internet. One of these tiers—the information tier—typically stores data in a database.

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19 Web App Development with ASP.NET

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn:

… the challenges are for the designers of these applications: to forget what we think we know about the limitations of the Web, and begin to imagine a wider, richer range of possibilities. It’s going to be fun.

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Web application development using ASP.NET.

—Jesse James Garrett

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To handle the events from a Web Form’s controls.

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To use validation controls to ensure that data is in the correct format before it’s sent from a client to the server.

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To maintain user-specific information.

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To create a data-driven web application using ASP.NET and LINQ to SQL.

If any man will draw up his case, and put his name at the foot of the first page, I will give him an immediate reply. Where he compels me to turn over the sheet, he must wait my leisure. —Lord Sandwich

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19.1 Introduction

19.1 Introduction 19.2 Web Basics 19.3 Multitier Application Architecture 19.4 Your First Web Application 19.4.1 Building the WebTime Application 19.4.2 Examining WebTime.aspx’s CodeBehind File

19.5 Standard Web Controls: Designing a Form 19.6 Validation Controls 19.7 Session Tracking

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19.7.4 Recommendations.aspx: Displaying Recommendations Based on Session Values

19.8 Case Study: Database-Driven ASP.NET Guestbook 19.8.1 Building a Web Form that Displays Data from a Database 19.8.2 Modifying the Code-Behind File for the Guestbook Application

19.9 Case Study: ASP.NET AJAX 19.10 Case Study: Password-Protected Books Database Application 19.11 Wrap-Up

19.7.1 Cookies 19.7.2 Session Tracking with HttpSessionState

19.7.3 Options.aspx: Selecting a Programming Language

19.1 Introduction In this chapter, we introduce web-application development with Microsoft’s ASP.NET technology. Web-based applications create web content for web-browser clients. We present several examples that demonstrate web-application development using Web Forms, web controls (also called ASP.NET server controls) and Visual C# programming. Web Form files have the file-name extension .aspx and contain the web page’s GUI. You customize Web Forms by adding web controls including labels, textboxes, images, buttons and other GUI components. The Web Form file represents the web page that is sent to the client browser. We often refer to Web Form files as ASPX files. An ASPX file created in Visual Studio has a corresponding class written in a .NET language—we use Visual C# in this book. This class contains event handlers, initialization code, utility methods and other supporting code. The file that contains this class is called the code-behind file and provides the ASPX file’s programmatic implementation. To develop the code and GUIs in this chapter, we used Microsoft’s Visual Web Developer 2010 Express—a free IDE designed for developing ASP.NET web applications. The full version of Visual Studio 2010 includes the functionality of Visual Web Developer, so the instructions we present for Visual Web Developer also apply to Visual Studio 2010. The database example (Section 19.8) also requires SQL Server 2008 Express. See the Before You Begin section of the book for additional information on this software. In Chapter 27, we present several additional web-application development topics, including: •

master pages to maintain a uniform look-and-feel across the Web Forms in a web application

•

creating password-protected websites with registration and login capabilities

•

using the Web Site Administration Tool to specify which parts of a website are password protected

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using ASP.NET AJAX to quickly and easily improve the user experience for your web applications, giving them responsiveness comparable to that of desktop applications.

19.2 Web Basics In this section, we discuss what occurs when a user requests a web page in a browser. In its simplest form, a web page is nothing more than an HTML (HyperText Markup Language) document (with the extension .html or .htm) that describes to a web browser the document’s content and how to format it. HTML documents normally contain hyperlinks that link to different pages or to other parts of the same page. When the user clicks a hyperlink, a web server locates the requested web page and sends it to the user’s web browser. Similarly, the user can type the address of a web page into the browser’s address field and press Enter to view the specified page. Web development tools like Visual Web Developer typically use a “stricter” version of HTML called XHTML (Extensible HyperText Markup Language), which is based on XML (Chapter 26). ASP.NET produces web pages as XHTML documents.

URIs and URLs URIs (Uniform Resource Identifiers) identify resources on the Internet. URIs that start with http:// are called URLs (Uniform Resource Locators). Common URLs refer to files, directories or server-side code that performs tasks such as database lookups, Internet searches and business application processing. If you know the URL of a publicly available resource anywhere on the web, you can enter that URL into a web browser’s address field and the browser can access that resource. Parts of a URL A URL contains information that directs a browser to the resource that the user wishes to access. Web servers make such resources available to web clients. Popular web servers include Microsoft’s Internet Information Services (IIS) and Apache’s HTTP Server. Let’s examine the components of the URL http://www.deitel.com/books/downloads.html

The http:// indicates that the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) should be used to obtain the resource. HTTP is the web protocol that enables clients and servers to communicate. Next in the URL is the server’s fully qualified hostname (www.deitel.com)—the name of the web server computer on which the resource resides. This computer is referred to as the host, because it houses and maintains resources. The hostname www.deitel.com is translated into an IP (Internet Protocol) address—a numerical value that uniquely identifies the server on the Internet. A Domain Name System (DNS) server maintains a database of hostnames and their corresponding IP addresses, and performs the translations automatically. The remainder of the URL (/books/downloads.html) specifies the resource’s location (/books) and name (downloads.html) on the web server. The location could represent an actual directory on the web server’s file system. For security reasons, however, the location is typically a virtual directory. The web server translates the virtual directory into a real location on the server, thus hiding the resource’s true location.

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Making a Request and Receiving a Response When given a URL, a web browser uses HTTP to retrieve the web page found at that address. Figure 19.1 shows a web browser sending a request to a web server. Figure 19.2 shows the web server responding to that request. a) The request is sent from the web client to the web server

Web server b) After it receives the request, the web server searches its system for the resource

Web client Internet

Fig. 19.1 | Client requesting a resource from a web server.

Web server The server responds to the request with the resource's contents Web client Internet

Fig. 19.2 | Client receiving a response from the web server.

19.3 Multitier Application Architecture Web-based applications are multitier applications (sometimes referred to as n-tier applications). Multitier applications divide functionality into separate tiers (that is, logical groupings of functionality). Although tiers can be located on the same computer, the tiers of web-based applications commonly reside on separate computers for security and scalability. Figure 19.3 presents the basic architecture of a three-tier web-based application.

Information Tier The information tier (also called the bottom tier) maintains the application’s data. This tier typically stores data in a relational database management system. For example, a retail store might have a database for storing product information, such as descriptions, prices and quantities in stock. The same database also might contain customer information, such as user names, billing addresses and credit card numbers. This tier can contain multiple databases, which together comprise the data needed for an application.

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Top tier (Client tier)

Browser

User interface

XHTML

Middle tier (Business logic tier)

Web server

Business logic implemented in ASP.NET

LINQ Bottom tier (Information tier)

DBMS

Database

Fig. 19.3 | Three-tier architecture. Business Logic The middle tier implements business logic, controller logic and presentation logic to control interactions between the application’s clients and its data. The middle tier acts as an intermediary between data in the information tier and the application’s clients. The middle-tier controller logic processes client requests (such as requests to view a product catalog) and retrieves data from the database. The middle-tier presentation logic then processes data from the information tier and presents the content to the client. Web applications typically present data to clients as web pages. Business logic in the middle tier enforces business rules and ensures that data is reliable before the server application updates the database or presents the data to users. Business rules dictate how clients can and cannot access application data, and how applications process data. For example, a business rule in the middle tier of a retail store’s web-based application might ensure that all product quantities remain positive. A client request to set a negative quantity in the bottom tier’s product information database would be rejected by the middle tier’s business logic. Client Tier The client tier, or top tier, is the application’s user interface, which gathers input and displays output. Users interact directly with the application through the user interface (typically viewed in a web browser), keyboard and mouse. In response to user actions (for example, clicking a hyperlink), the client tier interacts with the middle tier to make requests and to retrieve data from the information tier. The client tier then displays to the user the data retrieved from the middle tier. The client tier never directly interacts with the information tier.

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19.4 Your First Web Application Our first example displays the web server’s time of day in a browser window (Fig. 19.4). When this application executes—that is, a web browser requests the application’s web page—the web server executes the application’s code, which gets the current time and displays it in a Label. The web server then returns the result to the web browser that made the request, and the web browser renders the web page containing the time. We executed this application in both the Internet Explorer and Firefox web browsers to show you that the web page renders identically in each.

Fig. 19.4 |

WebTime

web application running in both Internet Explorer and Firefox.

Testing the Application in Your Default Web Browser To test this application in your default web browser, perform the following steps: 1. Open Visual Web Developer. 2. Select Open Web Site… from the File menu. 3. In the Open Web Site dialog (Fig. 19.5), ensure that File System is selected, then navigate to this chapter’s examples, select the WebTime folder and click the Open Button. 4. Select WebTime.aspx in the Solution Explorer, then type Ctrl + F5 to execute the web application. Testing the Application in a Selected Web Browser If you wish to execute the application in another web browser, you can copy the web page’s address from your default browser’s address field and paste it into another browser’s address field, or you can perform the following steps:

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Fig. 19.5 |

Open Web Site dialog.

1. In the Solution Explorer, right click WebTime.aspx and select Browse With… to display the Browse With dialog (Fig. 19.6).

Fig. 19.6 | Selecting another web browser to execute the web application. 2. From the Browsers list, select the browser in which you’d like to test the web application and click the Browse Button. If the browser you wish to use is not listed, you can use the Browse With dialog to add items to or remove items from the list of web browsers.

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19.4.1 Building the WebTime Application Now that you’ve tested the application, let’s create it in Visual Web Developer.

Step 1: Creating the Web Site Project Select File > New Web Site... to display the New Web Site dialog (Fig. 19.7). In the left column of this dialog, ensure that Visual C# is selected, then select ASP.NET Empty Web Site in the middle column. At the bottom of the dialog you can specify the location and name of the web application.

Fig. 19.7 | Creating an ASP.NET Web Site in Visual Web Developer. The Web location: ComboBox provides the following options: •

File System: Creates a new website for testing on your local computer. Such web-

sites execute in Visual Web Developer’s built-in ASP.NET Development Server and can be accessed only by web browsers running on the same computer. You can later “publish” your website to a production web server for access via a local network or the Internet. Each example in this chapter uses the File System option, so select it now. •

HTTP:

Creates a new website on an IIS web server and uses HTTP to allow you to put your website’s files on the server. IIS is Microsoft’s software that is used to run production websites. If you own a website and have your own web server, you might use this to build a new website directly on that server computer. You must be an Administrator on the computer running IIS to use this option.

•

FTP:

Uses File Transfer Protocol (FTP) to allow you to put your website’s files on the server. The server administrator must first create the website on the server for you. FTP is commonly used by so-called “hosting providers” to allow website owners to share a server computer that runs many websites.

Change the name of the web application from WebSite1 to WebTime, then click OK to create the website.

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Step 2: Adding a Web Form to the Website and Examining the Solution Explorer A Web Form represents one page in a web application—we’ll often use the terms “page” and “Web Form” interchangeably. A Web Form contains a web application’s GUI. To create the WebTime.aspx Web Form: 1. Right click the project name in the Solution Explorer and select Add New Item... to display the Add New Item dialog (Fig. 19.8).

Fig. 19.8 | Adding a new Web Form to the website with the Add New Item dialog. 2. In the left column, ensure that Visual C# is selected, then select Web Form in the middle column. 3. In the Name: TextBox, change the file name to WebTime.aspx, then click the Add Button. After you add the Web Form, the IDE opens it in Source view by default (Fig. 19.9). This view displays the markup for the Web Form. As you become more familiar with ASP.NET and building web sites in general, you might use Source view to perform high precision adjustments to your design or to program in the JavaScript language that executes in web browsers. For the purposes of this chapter, we’ll keep things simple by working exclusively in Design mode. To switch to Design mode, you can click the Design Button at the bottom of the code editor window.

The Solution Explorer The Solution Explorer (Fig. 19.10) shows the contents of the website. We expanded the node for WebTime.aspx to show you its code-behind file WebTime.aspx.cs. Visual Web Developer’s Solution Explorer contains several buttons that differ from Visual C# Express. The Copy Web Site button opens a dialog that allows you to move the files in this project to another location, such as a remote web server. This is useful if you’re developing the application on your local computer but want to make it available to the public from a different location. The ASP.NET Configuration button takes you to a web page called the Web Site Administra-

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Source mode shows only

the Web Form’s markup Split mode allows you to view the Web Form’s markup and design at the same time Design mode allows you to

build a Web Form using similar techniques to building a Windows Form

Fig. 19.9 | Web Form in Source view. View Code

View Designer

Nest Related Files

Copy Web Site

Refresh Properties

Code-behind file that contains the application’s business logic

ASP.NET Configuration

ASPX page represents the application’s user interface

Fig. 19.10 | Solution Explorer window for an Empty Web Site project after adding the Web Form WebTime.aspx. tion Tool,

where you can manipulate various settings and security options for your application. The Nest Related Files button organizes each Web Form and its code-behind file. If the ASPX file is not open in the IDE, you can open it in Design mode three ways: •

double click it in the Solution Explorer then select the Design tab

•

select it in the Solution Explorer and click the View Designer (

•

right click it in the Solution Explorer and select View Designer

) Button

To open the code-behind file in the code editor, you can •

double click it in the Solution Explorer

•

select the ASPX file in the Solution Explorer, then click the View Code (

•

right click the code-behind file in the Solution Explorer and select Open

) Button

The Toolbox Figure 19.11 shows the Toolbox displayed in the IDE when the project loads. Part (a) displays the beginning of the Standard list of web controls, and part (b) displays the remainDownload at www.wowebook.com

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ing web controls and the list of other control groups. We discuss specific controls listed in Fig. 19.11 as they’re used throughout the chapter. Many of the controls have similar or identical names to Windows Forms controls presented earlier in the book. a)

b)

Fig. 19.11 | Toolbox in Visual Web Developer. The Web Forms Designer Figure 19.12 shows the initial Web Form in Design mode. You can drag and drop controls from the Toolbox onto the Web Form. You can also type at the current cursor location to add so-called static text to the web page. In response to such actions, the IDE generates the appropriate markup in the ASPX file.

Cursor appears here by default

Cursor’s current location in the Web Form

Fig. 19.12 | Design mode of the Web Forms Designer. Step 3: Changing the Title of the Page Before designing the Web Form’s content, you’ll change its title to A Simple Web Form Example. This title will be displayed in the web browser’s title bar (see Fig. 19.4). It’s typi-

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cally also used by search engines like Google and Bing when they index real websites for searching. Every page should have a title. To change the title: 1. Ensure that the ASPX file is open in Design view. 2. View the Web Form’s properties by selecting DOCUMENT, which represents the Web Form, from the drop-down list in the Properties window. 3. Modify the Title property in the Properties window by setting it to A Simple Web Form Example.

Designing a Page Designing a Web Form is similar to designing a Windows Form. To add controls to the page, drag-and-drop them from the Toolbox onto the Web Form in Design view. The Web Form and each control are objects that have properties, methods and events. You can set these properties visually using the Properties window or programmatically in the code-behind file. You can also type text directly on a Web Form at the cursor location. Controls and other elements are placed sequentially on a Web Form one after another in the order in which you drag-and-drop them onto the Web Form. The cursor indicates the insertion point in the page. If you want to position a control between existing text or controls, you can drop the control at a specific position between existing page elements. You can also rearrange controls with drag-and-drop actions in Design view. The positions of controls and other elements are relative to the Web Form’s upper-left corner. This type of layout is known as relative positioning and it allows the browser to move elements and resize them based on the size of the browser window. Relative positioning is the default, and we’ll use it throughout this chapter. For precise control over the location and size of elements, you can use absolute positioning in which controls are located exactly where you drop them on the Web Form. If you wish to use absolute positioning: 1. Select Tools > Options…., to display the Options dialog. 2. If it isn’t checked already, check the Show all settings checkbox. 3. Next, expand the HTML Designer > CSS Styling node and ensure that the checkbox labeled Change positioning to absolute for controls added using Toolbox, paste or drag and drop is selected. Step 4: Adding Text and a Label You’ll now add some text and a Label to the Web Form. Perform the following steps to add the text: 1. Ensure that the Web Form is open in Design mode. 2. Type the following text at the current cursor location: Current time on the Web server:

3. Select the text you just typed, then select Heading 2 from the Block Format ComboBox (Fig. 19.13) to format this text as a heading that will appear in a larger bold font. In more complex pages, headings help you specify the relative importance of parts of that content—like sections in a book chapter.

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Block Format ComboBox

Fig. 19.13 | Changing the text to Heading 2 heading. 4. Click to the right of the text you just typed and press the Enter key to start a new paragraph in the page. The Web Form should now appear as in Fig. 19.14.

The cursor is positioned here after inserting a new paragraph by pressing Enter

Fig. 19.14 |

WebTime.aspx

after inserting text and a new paragraph.

5. Next, drag a Label control from the Toolbox into the new paragraph or double click the Label control in the Toolbox to insert the Label at the current cursor position. 6. Using the Properties window, set the Label’s (ID) property to timeLabel. This specifies the variable name that will be used to programmatically change the Label’s Text. 7. Because, the Label’s Text will be set programmatically, delete the current value of the Label’s Text property. When a Label does not contain text, its name is displayed in square brackets in Design view (Fig. 19.15) as a placeholder for design and layout purposes. This text is not displayed at execution time.

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Label control

Fig. 19.15 |

WebTime.aspx

after adding a Label.

Step 5: Formatting the Label Formatting in a web page is performed with CSS (Cascading Style Sheets). The details of CSS are beyond the scope of this book. However, it’s easy to use CSS to format text and elements in a Web Form via the tools built into Visual Web Developer. In this example, we’d like to change the Label’s background color to black, its foreground color yellow and make its text size larger. To format the Label, perform the following steps: 1. Click the Label in Design view to ensure that it’s selected. 2. Select View > Other Windows > CSS Properties to display the CSS Properties window at the left side of the IDE (Fig. 19.16).

Fig. 19.16 |

CSS Properties window.

3. Right click in the Applied Rules box and select New Style… to display the New Style dialog (Fig. 19.17). 4. Type the new style’s name—.timeStyle—in the Selector: ComboBox. Styles that apply to specific elements must be named with a dot (.) preceding the name. Such a style is called a CSS class. 5. Each item you can set in the New Style dialog is known as a CSS attribute. To change timeLabel’s foreground color, select the Font category from the Category list, then select the yellow color swatch for the color attribute. 6. Next, change the font-size attribute to xx-large. 7. To change timeLabel’s background color, select the Background category, then select the black color swatch for the background-color attribute.

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New style’s name

Font category allows you to

style an element’s font Background category allows

you to specify an element’s background color or background image The new style will be applied to the currently selected element in the page Preview of what the style will look like

Fig. 19.17 |

New Style dialog.

The New Style dialog should now appear as shown in (Fig. 19.18). Click the OK Button to apply the style to the timeLabel so that it appears as shown in Fig. 19.19. Also, notice that the Label’s CssClass property is now set to timeStyle in the Properties window.

Bold category names indicate the categories in which CSS attribute values have been changed

Fig. 19.18 |

New Style dialog after changing the Label’s style.

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Fig. 19.19 | Design view after changing the Label’s style. Step 6: Adding Page Logic Now that you’ve designed the GUI, you’ll write code in the code-behind file to obtain the server’s time and display it on the Label. Open WebTime.aspx.cs by double clicking it in the Solution Explorer. In this example, you’ll add an event handler to the code-behind file to handle the Web Form’s Init event, which occurs when the page is requested by a web browser. The event handler for this event—named Page_Init—initialize the page. The only initialization required for this example is to set the timeLabel’s Text property to the time on the web server computer. The code-behind file initally contains a Page_Load event handler. To create the Page_Init event handler, simply rename Page_Load as Page_Init. Then complete the event handler by inserting the following code in its body: // display the server's current time in timeLabel timeLabel.Text = DateTime.Now.ToString("hh:mm:ss");

Step 7: Setting the Start Page and Running the Program To ensure that WebTime.aspx loads when you execute this application, right click it in the Solution Explorer and select Set As Start Page. You can now run the program in one of several ways. At the beginning of Fig. 19.4, you learned how to view the Web Form by typing Ctrl + F5. You can also right click an ASPX file in the Solution Explorer and select View in Browser. Both of these techniques execute the ASP.NET Development Server, open your default web browser and load the page into the browser, thus running the web application. The development server stops when you exit Visual Web Developer. If problems occur when running your application, you can run it in debug mode by selecting Debug > Start Debugging, by clicking the Start Debugging Button ( ) or by typing F5 to view the web page in a web browser with debugging enabled. You cannot debug a web application unless debugging is explicitly enabled in the application’s Web.config file—a file that is generated when you create an ASP.NET web application. This file stores the application’s configuration settings. You’ll rarely need to manually modify Web.config. The first time you select Debug > Start Debugging in a project, a dialog appears and asks whether you want the IDE to modify the Web.config file to enable debugging. After you click OK, the IDE executes the application. You can stop debugging by selecting Debug > Stop Debugging. Regardless of how you execute the web application, the IDE will compile the project before it executes. In fact, ASP.NET compiles your web page whenever it changes between HTTP requests. For example, suppose you browse the page, then modify the ASPX file or add code to the code-behind file. When you reload the page, ASP.NET recompiles the

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page on the server before returning the response to the browser. This important behavior ensures that clients always see the latest version of the page. You can manually compile an entire website by selecting Build Web Site from the Debug menu in Visual Web Developer.

19.4.2 Examining WebTime.aspx’s Code-Behind File Figure 19.20 presents the code-behind file WebTime.aspx.cs. Line 5 begins the declaration of class WebTime. In Visual C#, a class declaration can span multiple source-code files—the separate portions of the class declaration in each file are known as partial classes. The partial modifier indicates that the code-behind file is part of a larger class. Like Windows Forms applications, the rest of the class’s code is generated for you based on your visual interactions to create the application’s GUI in Design mode. That code is stored in other source code files as partial classes with the same name. The compiler assembles all the partial classes that have the same into a single class declaration. Line 5 indicates that WebTime inherits from class Page in namespace System.Web.UI. This namespace contains classes and controls for building web-based applications. Class Page represents the default capabilities of each page in a web application—all pages inherit directly or indirectly from this class. Lines 8–12 define the Page_Init event handler, which initializes the page in response to the page’s Init event. The only initialization required for this page is to set the timeLabel’s Text property to the time on the web server computer. The statement in line 11 retrieves the current time (DateTime.Now) and formats it as hh:mm:ss. For example, 9 AM is formatted as 09:00:00, and 2:30 PM is formatted as 02:30:00. As you’ll see, variable timeLabel represents an ASP.NET Label control. The ASP.NET controls are defined in namespace System.Web.UI.WebControls. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

// Fig. 19.20: WebTime.aspx.cs // Code-behind file for a page that displays the web server’s time. using System; public partial class WebTime : System.Web.UI.Page { // initializes the contents of the page protected void Page_Init( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // display the server's current time in timeLabel timeLabel.Text = DateTime.Now.ToString( "hh:mm:ss" ); } // end method Page_Init } // end class WebTime

Fig. 19.20 | Code-behind file for a page that displays the web server’s time.

19.5 Standard Web Controls: Designing a Form This section introduces some of the web controls located in the Standard section of the Toolbox (Fig. 19.11). Figure 19.21 summarizes the controls used in the next example.

A Form Gathering User Input Figure 19.22 depicts a form for gathering user input. This example does not perform any tasks—that is, no action occurs when the user clicks Register. As an exercise, you could

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Web control

Description

TextBox

Gathers user input and displays text. Triggers an event when clicked. Displays a hyperlink. Displays a drop-down list of choices from which a user can select an item. Groups radio buttons. Displays images (for example, PNG, GIF and JPG).

Button HyperLink DropDownList RadioButtonList Image

Fig. 19.21 | Commonly used web controls.

Heading 3 paragraph

Paragraph of plain text Image control

A table containing four Images and four TextBoxes TextBox control

DropDownList control HyperLink control

RadioButtonList control

Button control

Fig. 19.22 | Web Form that demonstrates web controls. provide the functionality. Here we focus on the steps for adding these controls to a Web Form and for setting their properties. Subsequent examples demonstrate how to handle the events of many of these controls. To execute this application:

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Chapter 19 Web App Development with ASP.NET 1. Select Open Web Site… from the File menu. 2. In the Open Web Site dialog, ensure that File System is selected, then navigate to this chapter’s examples, select the WebControls folder and click the Open Button. 3. Select WebControls.aspx in the Solution Explorer, then type Ctrl + F5 to execute the web application in your default web browser.

Creating the Web Site To begin, follow the steps in Section 19.4.1 to create an Empty Web Site named WebControls, then add a Web Form named WebControls.aspx to the project. Set the document’s Title property to "Web Controls Demonstration". To ensure that WebControls.aspx loads when you execute this application, right click it in the Solution Explorer and select Set As Start Page. Adding the Images to the Project The images used in this example are located in the images folder with this chapter’s examples. Before you can display images in the Web Form, they must be added to your project. To add the images folder to your project: 1. Open Windows Explorer. 2. Locate and open this chapter’s examples folder (ch22). 3. Drag the images folder from Windows Explorer into Visual Web Developer’s Solution Explorer window and drop the folder on the name of your project. The IDE will automatically copy the folder and its contents into your project. Adding Text and an Image to the Form Next, you’ll begin creating the page. Perform the following steps: 1. First create the page’s heading. At the current cursor position on the page, type the text "Registration Form", then use the Block Format ComboBox in the IDE’s toolbar to change the text to Heading 3 format. 2. Press Enter to start a new paragraph, then type the text "Please fill in all fields and click the Register button". 3. Press Enter to start a new paragraph, then double click the Image control in the Toolbox. This control inserts an image into a web page, at the current cursor position. Set the Image’s (ID) property to userInformationImage. The ImageUrl property specifies the location of the image to display. In the Properties window, click the ellipsis for the ImageUrl property to display the Select Image dialog. Select the images folder under Project folders: to display the list of images. Then select the image user.png. 4. Click OK to display the image in Design view, then click to the right of the Image and press Enter to start a new paragraph. Adding a Table to the Form Form elements are often placed in tables for layout purposes—like the elements that represent the first name, last name, e-mail and phone information in Fig. 19.22. Next, you’ll create a table with two rows and two columns in Design mode.

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1. Select Table > Insert Table to display the Insert Table dialog (Fig. 19.23). This dialog allows you to configure the table’s options. 2. Under Size, ensure that the values of Rows and Columns are both 2—these are the default values. 3. Click OK to close the Insert Table dialog and create the table. By default, the contents of a table cell are aligned vertically in the middle of the cell. We changed the vertical alignment of all cells in the table by setting the valign property to top in the Properties window. This causes the content in each table cell to align with the top of the cell. You can set the valign property for each table cell individually or by selecting all the cells in the table at once, then changing the valign property’s value.

Fig. 19.23 | Insert Table dialog. After creating the table, controls and text can be added to particular cells to create a neatly organized layout. Next, add Image and TextBox controls to each the four table cells as follows: 1. Click the table cell in the first row and first column of the table, then double click the Image control in the Toolbox. Set its (ID) property to firstNameImage and set its ImageUrl property to the image fname.png. 2. Next, double click the TextBox control in the Toolbox. Set its (ID) property to firstNameTextBox. As in Windows Forms, a TextBox control allows you to obtain text from the user and display text to the user

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Chapter 19 Web App Development with ASP.NET 3. Repeat this process in the first row and second column, but set the Image’s (ID) property to lastNameImage and its ImageUrl property to the image lname.png, and set the TextBox’s (ID) property to lastNameTextBox. 4. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 in the second row and first column, but set the Image’s (ID) property to emailImage and its ImageUrl property to the image email.png, and set the TextBox’s (ID) property to emailTextBox. 5. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 in the second row and second column, but set the Image’s (ID) property to phoneImage and its ImageUrl property to the image phone.png, and set the TextBox’s (ID) property to phoneTextBox.

Creating the Publications Section of the Page This section contains an Image, some text, a DropDownList control and a HyperLink control. Perform the following steps to create this section: 1. Click below the table, then use the techniques you’ve already learned in this section to add an Image named publicationsImage that displays the publications.png image. 2. Click to the right of the Image, then press Enter and type the text "Which book would you like information about?" in the new paragraph. 3. Hold the Shift key and press Enter to create a new line in the current paragraph, then double click the DropDownList control in the Toolbox. Set its (ID) property to booksDropDownList. This control is similar to the Windows Forms ComboBox control, but doesn’t allow users to type text. When a user clicks the drop-down list, it expands and displays a list from which the user can make a selection. 4. You can add items to the DropDownList using the ListItem Collection Editor, which you can access by clicking the ellipsis next to the DropDownList’s Items property in the Properties window, or by using the DropDownList Tasks smarttag menu. To open this menu, click the small arrowhead that appears in the upper-right corner of the control in Design mode (Fig. 19.24). Visual Web Developer displays smart-tag menus for many ASP.NET controls to facilitate common tasks. Clicking Edit Items... in the DropDownList Tasks menu opens the ListItem Collection Editor, which allows you to add ListItem elements to the DropDownList. Add items for "Visual Basic 2010 How to Program", "Visual C# 2010 How to Program", "Java How to Program" and "C++ How to Program" by clicking the Add Button four times. For each item, select it, then set its Text property to one of the four book titles. 5. Click to the right of the DropDownList and press Enter to start a new paragraph, then double click the HyperLink control in the Toolbox to add a hyperlink to the

Fig. 19.24 | DropDownList Tasks smart-tag menu.

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19.6 Validation Controls web page. Set its

(ID)

property to

booksHyperLink

and its

Text

641

property to

"Click here to view more information about our books". Set the NavigateUrl

property to http://www.deitel.com. This specifies the resource or web page that will be requested when the user clicks the HyperLink. Setting the Target property to _blank specifies that the requested web page should open in a new browser window. By default, HyperLink controls cause pages to open in the same browser window.

Completing the Page Next you’ll create the Operating System section of the page and the Register Button. This section contains a RadioButtonList control, which provides a series of radio buttons from which the user can select only one. The RadioButtonList Tasks smart-tag menu provides an Edit Items… link to open the ListItem Collection Editor so that you can create the items in the list. Perform the following steps: 1. Click to the right of the HyperLink control and press Enter to create a new paragraph, then add an Image named osImage that displays the os.png image. 2. Click to the right of the Image and press Enter to create a new paragraph, then add a RadioButtonList. Set its (ID) property to osRadioButtonList. Use the ListItem Collection Editor to add the items shown in Fig. 19.22. 3. Finally, click to the right of the RadioButtonList and press Enter to create a new paragraph, then add a Button. A Button web control represents a button that triggers an action when clicked. Set its (ID) property to registerButton and its Text property to Register. As stated earlier, clicking the Register button in this example does not do anything. You can now execute the application (Ctrl + F5) to see the Web Form in your browser.

19.6 Validation Controls This section introduces a different type of web control, called a validation control or validator, which determines whether the data in another web control is in the proper format. For example, validators can determine whether a user has provided information in a required field or whether a zip-code field contains exactly five digits. Validators provide a mechanism for validating user input on the client. When the page is sent to the client, the validator is converted into JavaScript that performs the validation in the client web browser. JavaScript is a scripting language that enhances the functionality of web pages and is typically executed on the client. Unfortunately, some client browsers might not support scripting or the user might disable it. For this reason, you should always perform validation on the server. ASP.NET validation controls can function on the client, on the server or both.

Validating Input in a Web Form The Web Form in Fig. 19.25 prompts the user to enter a name, e-mail address and phone number. A website could use a form like this to collect contact information from visitors. After the user enters any data, but before the data is sent to the web server, validators ensure that the user entered a value in each field and that the e-mail address and phone-num-

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ber values are in an acceptable format. In this example, (555) 123-4567, 555-123-4567 and 123-4567 are all considered valid phone numbers. Once the data is submitted, the web server responds by displaying a message that repeats the submitted information. A real business application would typically store the submitted data in a database or in a file on the server. We simply send the data back to the client to demonstrate that the server received the data. To execute this application: 1. Select Open Web Site… from the File menu. 2. In the Open Web Site dialog, ensure that File System is selected, then navigate to this chapter’s examples, select the Validation folder and click the Open Button. 3. Select Validation.aspx in the Solution Explorer, then type Ctrl + F5 to execute the web application in your default web browser. a) Initial Web Form

b) Web Form after the user presses the Submit Button without having entered any data in the TextBoxes; each TextBox is followed by an error message that was displayed by a validation control

RequiredFieldValidator

controls

Fig. 19.25 | Validators in a Web Form that retrieves user contact information. (Part 1 of 2.)

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c) Web Form after the user enters a name, an invalid e-mail address and an invalid phone number in the TextBoxes, then presses the Submit Button; the validation controls display error messages in response to the invalid e-mail and phone number values

RegularExpressionValidator

controls

d) The Web Form after the user enters valid values for all three TextBoxes and presses the Submit Button

Fig. 19.25 | Validators in a Web Form that retrieves user contact information. (Part 2 of 2.) In the sample output: •

Fig. 19.25(a) shows the initial Web Form

•

Fig. 19.25(b) shows the result of submitting the form before typing any data in the TextBoxes

•

Fig. 19.25(c) shows the results after entering data in each TextBox, but specifying an invalid e-mail address and invalid phone number

•

Fig. 19.25(d) shows the results after entering valid values for all three TextBoxes and submitting the form.

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Creating the Web Site To begin, follow the steps in Section 19.4.1 to create an Empty Web Site named Validation, then add a Web Form named Validation.aspx to the project. Set the document’s Title property to "Demonstrating Validation Controls". To ensure that Validation.aspx loads when you execute this application, right click it in the Solution Explorer and select Set As Start Page. Creating the GUI To create the page, perform the following steps: 1. Type "Please fill out all the fields in the following form:", then use the Block Format ComboBox in the IDE’s toolbar to change the text to Heading 3 format and press Enter to create a new paragraph. 2. Insert a three row and two column table. You’ll add elements to the table momentarily. 3. Click below the table and add a Button. Set its (ID) property to submitButton and its Text property to Submit. Press Enter to create a new paragraph. By default, a Button control in a Web Form sends the contents of the form back to the server for processing. 4. Add a Label. Set its (ID) property to outputLabel and clear its Text property— you’ll set it programmatically when the user clicks the submitButton. Set the outputLabel’s Visible property to false, so the Label does not appear in the client’s browser when the page loads for the first time. You’ll programmatically display this Label after the user submits valid data. Next you’ll add text and controls to the table you created in Step 2 above. Perform the following steps: 1. In the left column, type the text "Name:" in the first row, "E-mail:" in the second row and "Phone:" in the third row. 2. In the right column of the first row, add a TextBox and set its (ID) property to nameTextBox. 3. In the right column of the second row, add a TextBox and set its (ID) property to emailTextBox. Then type the text "e.g., [email protected]" to the right of the TextBox. 4. In the right column of the third row, add a TextBox and set its (ID) property to phoneTextBox. Then type the text "e.g., (555) 555-1234" to the right of the TextBox. Using RequiredFieldValidator Controls We use three RequiredFieldValidator controls (found in the Validation section of the Toolbox) to ensure that the name, e-mail address and phone number TextBoxes are not empty when the form is submitted. A RequiredFieldValidator makes an input control a required field. If such a field is empty, validation fails. Add a RequiredFieldValidator as follows: 1. Click to the right of the nameTextBox in the table and press Enter to move to the next line.

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2. Add a RequiredFieldValidator, set its (ID) to nameRequiredFieldValidator and set the ForeColor property to Red. 3. Set the validator’s ControlToValidate property to nameTextBox to indicate that this validator verifies the nameTextBox’s contents. 4. Set the validator’s ErrorMessage property to "Please enter your name". This is displayed on the Web Form only if the validation fails. 5. Set the validator’s Display property to Dynamic, so the validator occupies space on the Web Form only when validation fails. When this occurs, space is allocated dynamically, causing the controls below the validator to shift downward to accommodate the ErrorMessage, as seen in Fig. 19.25(a)–(c). Repeat these steps to add two more RequiredFieldValidators in the second and third rows of the table. Set their (ID) properties to emailRequiredFieldValidator and phoneRequiredFieldValidator, respectively, and set their ErrorMessage properties to "Please enter your email address" and "Please enter your phone number", respectively.

Using RegularExpressionValidator Controls This example also uses two RegularExpressionValidator controls to ensure that the e-mail address and phone number entered by the user are in a valid format. Visual Web Developer provides several predefined regular expressions that you can simply select to take advantage of this powerful validation control. Add a RegularExpressionValidator as follows: 1. Click to the right of the emailRequiredFieldValidator in the second row of the table and add a RegularExpressionValidator, then set its (ID) to emailRegularExpressionValidator and its ForeColor property to Red. 2. Set the ControlToValidate property to emailTextBox to indicate that this validator verifies the emailTextBox’s contents. 3. Set the validator’s ErrorMessage property to "Please enter an e-mail address in a valid format". 4. Set the validator’s Display property to Dynamic, so the validator occupies space on the Web Form only when validation fails. Repeat the preceding steps to add another RegularExpressionValidator in the third row of the table. Set its (ID) property to phoneRegularExpressionValidator and its ErrorMessage property to "Please enter a phone number in a valid format", respectively. A RegularExpressionValidator’s ValidationExpression property specifies the regular expression that validates the ControlToValidate’s contents. Clicking the ellipsis next to property ValidationExpression in the Properties window displays the Regular Expression Editor dialog, which contains a list of Standard expressions for phone numbers, zip codes and other formatted information. For the emailRegularExpressionValidator, we selected the standard expression Internet e-mail address. If the user enters text in the emailTextBox that does not have the correct format and either clicks in a different text box or attempts to submit the form, the ErrorMessage text is displayed in red. For the phoneRegularExpressionValidator, we selected U.S. phone number to ensure that a phone number contains an optional three-digit area code either in parentheses and followed by an optional space or without parentheses and followed by a required hyphen. After an optional area code, a phone number must contain three digits, Download at www.wowebook.com

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a hyphen and another four digits. For example, (555) 123-4567, 555-123-4567 and 1234567 are all valid phone numbers.

Submitting the Web Form’s Contents to the Server If all five validators are successful (that is, each TextBox is filled in, and the e-mail address and phone number provided are valid), clicking the Submit button sends the form’s data to the server. As shown in Fig. 19.25(d), the server then responds by displaying the submitted data in the outputLabel. Examining the Code-Behind File for a Web Form That Receives User Input Figure 19.26 shows the code-behind file for this application. Notice that this code-behind file does not contain any implementation related to the validators. We say more about this soon. In this example, we respond to the page’s Load event to process the data submitted by the user. Like the Init event, the Load event occurs each time the page loads into a web browser—the difference is that on a postback, you cannot access the posted data in the controls. The event handler for this event is Page_Load (lines 8–33). The event handler for the Load event is created for you when you add a new Web Form. To complete the event handler, insert the code from Fig. 19.26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

// Fig. 19.26: Validation.aspx.cs // Code-behind file for the form demonstrating validation controls. using System; public partial class Validation : System.Web.UI.Page { // Page_Load event handler executes when the page is loaded protected void Page_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // if this is not the first time the page is loading // (i.e., the user has already submitted form data) if ( IsPostBack ) { Validate(); // validate the form // if the form is valid if ( IsValid ) { // retrieve the values submitted by the user string name = nameTextBox.Text; string email = emailTextBox.Text; string phone = phoneTextBox.Text; // show the the submitted values outputLabel.Text = "Thank you for your submission" + "We received the following information:"; outputLabel.Text += String.Format( "Name: {0}{1}E-mail:{2}{1}Phone:{3}", name, "", email, phone);

Fig. 19.26 | Code-behind file for the form demonstrating validation controls. (Part 1 of 2.)

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30 31 32 33 34

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outputLabel.Visible = true; // display the output message } // end if } // end if } // end method Page_Load } // end class Validation

Fig. 19.26 | Code-behind file for the form demonstrating validation controls. (Part 2 of 2.) Differentiating Between the First Request to a Page and a Postback Web programmers using ASP.NET often design their web pages so that the current page reloads when the user submits the form; this enables the program to receive input, process it as necessary and display the results in the same page when it’s loaded the second time. These pages usually contain a form that, when submitted, sends the values of all the controls to the server and causes the current page to be requested again. This event is known as a postback. Line 12 uses the IsPostBack property of class Page to determine whether the page is being loaded due to a postback. The first time that the web page is requested, IsPostBack is false, and the page displays only the form for user input. When the postback occurs (from the user clicking Submit), IsPostBack is true. Server-Side Web Form Validation Server-side Web Form validation must be implemented programmatically. Line 14 calls the current Page’s Validate method to validate the information in the request. This validates the information as specified by the validation controls in the Web Form. Line 17 uses the IsValid property of class Page to check whether the validation succeeded. If this property is set to true (that is, validation succeeded and the Web Form is valid), then we display the Web Form’s information. Otherwise, the web page loads without any changes, except any validator that failed now displays its ErrorMessage. Processing the Data Entered by the User Lines 20–22 retrieve the values of nameTextBox, emailTextBox and phoneTextBox. When data is posted to the web server, the data that the user entered is accessible to the web application through the web controls’ properties. Next, lines 25–29 set outputLabel’s Text to display a message that includes the name, e-mail and phone information that was submitted to the server. In lines 25, 26 and 29, notice the use of rather than \n to start new lines in the outputLabel— is the markup for a line break in a web page. Line 30 sets the outputLabel’s Visible property to true, so the user can see the thank-you message and submitted data when the page reloads in the client web browser.

19.7 Session Tracking Originally, critics accused the Internet and e-business of failing to provide the customized service typically experienced in “brick-and-mortar” stores. To address this problem, businesses established mechanisms by which they could personalize users’ browsing experiences, tailoring content to individual users. Businesses achieve this level of service by tracking each customer’s movement through the Internet and combining the collected data with information provided by the consumer, including billing information, personal preferences, interests and hobbies.

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Personalization Personalization makes it possible for businesses to communicate effectively with their customers and also improves users’ ability to locate desired products and services. Companies that provide content of particular interest to users can establish relationships with customers and build on those relationships over time. Furthermore, by targeting consumers with personal offers, recommendations, advertisements, promotions and services, businesses create customer loyalty. Websites can use sophisticated technology to allow visitors to customize home pages to suit their individual needs and preferences. Similarly, online shopping sites often store personal information for customers, tailoring notifications and special offers to their interests. Such services encourage customers to visit sites more frequently and make purchases more regularly. Privacy A trade-off exists between personalized business service and protection of privacy. Some consumers embrace tailored content, but others fear the possible adverse consequences if the info they provide to businesses is released or collected by tracking technologies. Consumers and privacy advocates ask: What if the business to which we give personal data sells or gives that information to another organization without our knowledge? What if we do not want our actions on the Internet—a supposedly anonymous medium—to be tracked and recorded by unknown parties? What if unauthorized parties gain access to sensitive private data, such as credit-card numbers or medical history? These are questions that must be addressed by programmers, consumers, businesses and lawmakers alike. Recognizing Clients To provide personalized services to consumers, businesses must be able to recognize clients when they request information from a site. As we have discussed, the request/response system on which the web operates is facilitated by HTTP. Unfortunately, HTTP is a stateless protocol—it does not provide information that would enable web servers to maintain state information regarding particular clients. This means that web servers cannot determine whether a request comes from a particular client or whether the same or different clients generate a series of requests. To circumvent this problem, sites can provide mechanisms by which they identify individual clients. A session represents a unique client on a website. If the client leaves a site and then returns later, the client will still be recognized as the same user. When the user closes the browser, the session typically ends. To help the server distinguish among clients, each client must identify itself to the server. Tracking individual clients is known as session tracking. One popular session-tracking technique uses cookies (discussed in Section 19.7.1); another uses ASP.NET’s HttpSessionState object (used in Section 19.7.2). Additional session-tracking techniques are beyond this book’s scope.

19.7.1 Cookies Cookies provide you with a tool for personalizing web pages. A cookie is a piece of data stored by web browsers in a small text file on the user’s computer. A cookie maintains information about the client during and between browser sessions. The first time a user visits the website, the user’s computer might receive a cookie from the server; this cookie is then reactivated each time the user revisits that site. The collected information is intended to

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be an anonymous record containing data that is used to personalize the user’s future visits to the site. For example, cookies in a shopping application might store unique identifiers for users. When a user adds items to an online shopping cart or performs another task resulting in a request to the web server, the server receives a cookie containing the user’s unique identifier. The server then uses the unique identifier to locate the shopping cart and perform any necessary processing. In addition to identifying users, cookies also can indicate users’ shopping preferences. When a Web Form receives a request from a client, the Web Form can examine the cookie(s) it sent to the client during previous communications, identify the user’s preferences and immediately display products of interest to the client. Every HTTP-based interaction between a client and a server includes a header containing information either about the request (when the communication is from the client to the server) or about the response (when the communication is from the server to the client). When a Web Form receives a request, the header includes information such as the request type and any cookies that have been sent previously from the server to be stored on the client machine. When the server formulates its response, the header information contains any cookies the server wants to store on the client computer and other information, such as the MIME type of the response. The expiration date of a cookie determines how long the cookie remains on the client’s computer. If you do not set an expiration date for a cookie, the web browser maintains the cookie for the duration of the browsing session. Otherwise, the web browser maintains the cookie until the expiration date occurs. Cookies are deleted when they expire.

Portability Tip 19.1 Users may disable cookies in their web browsers to help ensure their privacy. Such users will experience difficulty using web applications that depend on cookies to maintain state information.

19.7.2 Session Tracking with HttpSessionState The next web application demonstrates session tracking using the .NET class HttpSessionState. When you execute this application, the Options.aspx page (Fig. 19.27(a)), which is the application’s Start Page, allows the user to select a programming language from a group of radio buttons. [Note: You might need to right click Options.aspx in the Solution Explorer and select Set As Start Page before running this application.] When the user clicks Submit, the selection is sent to the web server for processing. The web server uses an HttpSessionState object to store the chosen language and the ISBN number for one of our books on that topic. Each user that visits the site has a unique HttpSessionState object, so the selections made by one user are maintained separately from all other users. After storing the selection, the server returns the page to the browser (Fig. 19.27(b)) and displays the user’s selection and some information about the user’s unique session (which we show just for demonstration purposes). The page also includes links that allow the user to choose between selecting another programming language or viewing the Recommendations.aspx page (Fig. 19.27(e)), which lists recommended books pertaining to the programming language(s) that the user selected previously. If the user clicks the link for book recommendations, the information stored in the user’s unique HttpSessionState object is read and used to form the list of recommendations. To test this application:

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Chapter 19 Web App Development with ASP.NET 1. Select Open Web Site… from the File menu. 2. In the Open Web Site dialog, ensure that File System is selected, then navigate to this chapter’s examples, select the Sessions folder and click the Open Button. 3. Select Options.aspx in the Solution Explorer, then type Ctrl + F5 to execute the web application in your default web browser.

Creating the Web Site To begin, follow the steps in Section 19.4.1 to create an Empty Web Site named Sessions, then add two Web Forms named Options.aspx and Recommendations.aspx to the project. Set the Options.aspx document’s Title property to "Sessions" and the Recommendations.aspx document’s Title property to "Book Recommendations". To ensure that Options.aspx is the first page to load for this application, right click it in the Solution Explorer and select Set As Start Page.

a) User selects a language from the Options.aspx page, then presses Submit to send the selection to the server

b) Options.aspx page is updated to hide the controls for selecting a language and to display the user’s selection; the user clicks the hyperlink to return to the list of languages and make another selection

Fig. 19.27 | ASPX file that presents a list of programming languages. (Part 1 of 2.)

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c) User selects another language from the Options.aspx page, then presses Submit to send the selection to the server

d) Options.aspx page is updated to hide the controls for selecting a language and to display the user’s selection; the user clicks the hyperlink to get a list of book recommendations

e) Recommendations.aspx displays the list of recommended books based on the user’s selections

Fig. 19.27 | ASPX file that presents a list of programming languages. (Part 2 of 2.)

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19.7.3 Options.aspx: Selecting a Programming Language The Options.aspx page Fig. 19.27(a) contains the following controls arranged vertically: 1. A Label with its (ID) property set to promptLabel and its Text property set to "Select a programming language:". We used the techniques shown in Step 5 of Section 19.4.1 to create a CSS style for this label named .labelStyle, and set the style’s font-size attribute to large and the font-weight attribute to bold. 2. The user selects a programming language by clicking one of the radio buttons in a RadioButtonList. Each radio button has a Text property and a Value property. The Text property is displayed next to the radio button and the Value property represents a value that is sent to the server when the user selects that radio button and submits the form. In this example, we’ll use the Value property to represent the ISBN for the recommended book. Create a RadioButtonList with its (ID) property set to languageList. Use the ListItem Collection Editor to add five radio buttons with their Text properties set to Visual Basic, Visual C#, C, C++ and Java, and their Value properties set to 0-13-215213-4, 0-13-605322-X, 0-13512356-2, 0-13-611726-0 and 0-13-605306-8, respectively 3. A Button with its (ID) property set to submitButton and its Text property set to Submit. In this example, we’ll handle this Button’s Click event. You can create its event handler by double clicking the Button in Design view. 4. A Label with its (ID) property set to responseLabel and its Text property set to "Welcome to Sessions!". This Label should be placed immediately to the right of the Button so that the Label appears at the top of the page when we hide the preceding controls on the page. Reuse the CSS style you created in Step 1 by setting this Label’s CssClass property to labelStyle. 5. Two more Labels with their (ID) properties set to idLabel and timeoutLabel, respectively. Clear the text in each Label’s Text property—you’ll set these programmatically with information about the current user’s session. 6. A HyperLink with its (ID) property set to languageLink and its Text property set to "Click here to choose another language". Set its NavigateUrl property by clicking the ellipsis next to the property in the Properties window and selecting Options.aspx from the Select URL dialog. 7. A HyperLink with its (ID) property set to recommendationsLink and its Text property set to "Click here to get book recommendations". Set its NavigateUrl property by clicking the ellipsis next to the property in the Properties window and selecting Recommendations.aspx from the Select URL dialog. 8. Initially, the controls in Steps 4–7 will not be displayed, so set each control’s Visible property to false.

Property of a Page Every Web Form includes a user-specific HttpSessionState object, which is accessible through property Session of class Page. Throughout this section, we use this property to manipulate the current user’s HttpSessionState object. When a page is first requested, a unique HttpSessionState object is created by ASP.NET and assigned to the Page’s Session property. Session

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Code-Behind File for Options.aspx Fig. 19.28 presents the code-behind file for the Options.aspx page. When this page is requested, the Page_Load event handler (lines 10–40) executes before the response is sent to the client. Since the first request to a page is not a postback, the code in lines 16–39 does not execute the first time the page loads. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

// Fig. 19.28: Options.aspx.cs // Processes user's selection of a programming language by displaying // links and writing information in a Session object. using System; public partial class Options : System.Web.UI.Page { // if postback, hide form and display links to make additional // selections or view recommendations protected void Page_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( IsPostBack ) { // user has submitted information, so display message // and appropriate hyperlinks responseLabel.Visible = true; idLabel.Visible = true; timeoutLabel.Visible = true; languageLink.Visible = true; recommendationsLink.Visible = true; // hide other controls used to make language selection promptLabel.Visible = false; languageList.Visible = false; submitButton.Visible = false; // if the user made a selection, display it in responseLabel if ( languageList.SelectedItem != null ) responseLabel.Text += " You selected " + languageList.SelectedItem.Text; else responseLabel.Text += " You did not select a language."; // display session ID idLabel.Text = "Your unique session ID is: " + Session.SessionID; // display the timeout timeoutLabel.Text = "Timeout: " + Session.Timeout + " minutes."; } // end if } // end method Page_Load // record the user's selection in the Session protected void submitButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) {

Fig. 19.28 | Process user's selection of a programming language by displaying links and writing information in an HttpSessionState object. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// if the user made a selection if ( languageList.SelectedItem != null ) // add name/value pair to Session Session.Add( languageList.SelectedItem.Text, languageList.SelectedItem.Value ); } // end method submitButton_Click } // end class Options

Fig. 19.28 | Process user's selection of a programming language by displaying links and writing information in an HttpSessionState object. (Part 2 of 2.)

Postback Processing When the user presses Submit, a postback occurs. The form is submitted to the server and Page_Load executes. Lines 16–20 display the controls shown in Fig. 19.27(b) and lines 23–25 hide the controls shown in Fig. 19.27(a). Next, lines 28–32 ensure that the user selected a language and, if so, display a message in the responseLabel indicating the selection. Otherwise, the message "You did not select a language" is displayed. The ASP.NET application contains information about the HttpSessionState object (property Session of the Page object) for the current client. The object’s SessionID property (displayed in line 35) contains the unique session ID—a sequence of random letters and numbers. The first time a client connects to the web server, a unique session ID is created for that client and a temporary cookie is written to the client so the server can identify the client on subsequent requests. When the client makes additional requests, the client’s session ID from that temporary cookie is compared with the session IDs stored in the web server’s memory to retrieve the client’s HttpSessionState object. HttpSessionState property Timeout (displayed in line 38) specifies the maximum amount of time that an HttpSessionState object can be inactive before it’s discarded. By default, if the user does not interact with this web application for 20 minutes, the HttpSessionState object is discarded by the server and a new one will be created if the user interacts with the application again. Figure 19.29 lists some common HttpSessionState properties. Properties

Description

Count

Specifies the number of key/value pairs in the Session object. Indicates whether this is a new session (that is, whether the session was created during loading of this page). Returns a collection containing the Session object’s keys. Returns the session’s unique ID. Specifies the maximum number of minutes during which a session can be inactive (that is, no requests are made) before the session expires. By default, this property is set to 20 minutes.

IsNewSession

Keys SessionID Timeout

Fig. 19.29 |

HttpSessionState

properties.

Method submitButton_Click In this example, we wish to store the user’s selection in an HttpSessionState object when the user clicks the Submit Button. The submitButton_Click event handler (lines 43–50) Download at www.wowebook.com

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adds a key/value pair to the HttpSessionState object for the current user, specifying the language chosen and the ISBN number for a book on that language. The HttpSessionState object is a dictionary—a data structure that stores key/value pairs. A program uses the key to store and retrieve the associated value in the dictionary. We cover dictionaries in more depth in Chapter 23. The key/value pairs in an HttpSessionState object are often referred to as session items. They’re placed in an HttpSessionState object by calling its Add method. If the user made a selection (line 46), lines 48–49 get the selection and its corresponding value from the languageList by accessing its SelectedItem’s Text and Value properties, respectively, then call HttpSessionState method Add to add this name/value pair as a session item in the HttpSessionState object (Session). If the application adds a session item that has the same name as an item previously stored in the HttpSessionState object, the session item is replaced—session item names must be unique. Another common syntax for placing a session item in the HttpSessionState object is Session[Name] = Value. For example, we could have replaced lines 48–49 with Session[ languageList.SelectedItem.Text ] = languageList.SelectedItem.Value

Software Engineering Observation 19.1 A Web Form should not use instance variables to maintain client state information, because each new request or postback is handled by a new instance of the page. Instead, maintain client state information in HttpSessionState objects, because such objects are specific to each client.

Software Engineering Observation 19.2 A benefit of using HttpSessionState objects (rather than cookies) is that they can store any type of object (not just Strings) as attribute values. This provides you with increased flexibility in determining the type of state information to maintain for clients.

19.7.4 Recommendations.aspx: Displaying Recommendations Based on Session Values After the postback of Options.aspx, the user may request book recommendations. The book-recommendations hyperlink forwards the user to the page Recommendations.aspx (Fig. 19.27(e)) to display the recommendations based on the user’s language selections. The page contains the following controls arranged vertically: 1. A Label with its (ID) property set to recommendationsLabel and its Text property set to "Recommendations". We created a CSS style for this label named .labelStyle, and set the font-size attribute to x-large and the font-weight attribute to bold. (See Step 5 in Section 19.4.1 for information on creating a CSS style.) 2. A ListBox with its (ID) property set to booksListBox. We created a CSS style for this label named .listBoxStyle. In the Position category, we set the width attribute to 450px and the height attribute to 125px. The px indicates that the measurement is in pixels. 3. A HyperLink with its (ID) property set to languageLink and its Text property set to "Click here to choose another language". Set its NavigateUrl property

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Chapter 19 Web App Development with ASP.NET by clicking the ellipsis next to the property in the Properties window and selecting Options.aspx from the Select URL dialog. When the user clicks this link, the Options.aspx page will be reloaded. Requesting the page in this manner is not considered a postback, so the original form in Fig. 19.27(a) will be displayed.

Code-Behind File for Recommendations.aspx Figure 19.30 presents the code-behind file for Recommendations.aspx. Event handler Page_Init (lines 8–29) retrieves the session information. If a user has not selected a language in the Options.aspx page, the HttpSessionState object’s Count property will be 0 (line 11). This property provides the number of session items contained in a HttpSessionState object. If the Count is 0, then we display the text No Recommendations (line 22), clear the ListBox and hide it (lines 23–24), and update the Text of the HyperLink back to Options.aspx (line 27). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

// Fig. 19.30: Recommendations.aspx.cs // Creates book recommendations based on a Session object. using System; public partial class Recommendations : System.Web.UI.Page { // read Session items and populate ListBox with recommendations protected void Page_Init( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // determine whether Session contains any information if ( Session.Count != 0 ) { // display Session's name-value pairs foreach ( string keyName in Session.Keys ) booksListBox.Items.Add( keyName + " How to Program. ISBN#: " + Session[ keyName ] ); } // end if else { // if there are no session items, no language was chosen, so // display appropriate message and clear and hide booksListBox recommendationsLabel.Text = "No Recommendations"; booksListBox.Items.Clear(); booksListBox.Visible = false; // modify languageLink because no language was selected languageLink.Text = "Click here to choose a language"; } // end else } // end method Page_Init } // end class Recommendations

Fig. 19.30 | Session data used to provide book recommendations to the user. If the user chose at least one language, the loop in lines 14–16 iterates through the object’s keys (line 14) by accessing the HttpSessionState’s Keys property, which returns a collection containing all the keys in the session. Lines 15–16 concatenate the keyName, the String " How to Program. ISBN#: " and the key’s correHttpSessionState

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sponding value, which is returned by Session(keyName). This String is the recommendation that is added to the ListBox.

19.8 Case Study: Database-Driven ASP.NET Guestbook Many websites allow users to provide feedback about the website in a guestbook. Typically, users click a link on the website’s home page to request the guestbook page. This page usually consists of a form that contains fields for the user’s name, e-mail address, message/ feedback and so on. Data submitted on the guestbook form is then stored in a database located on the server. In this section, we create a guestbook Web Form application. The GUI (Fig. 19.31) contains a GridView data control, which displays all the entries in the guestbook in tabular format. This control is located in the Toolbox’s Data section. We explain how to create and configure this data control shortly. The GridView displays abc in Design mode to indicate data that will be retrieved from a data source at runtime. You’ll learn how to create and configure the GridView shortly.

GridView

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Fig. 19.31 | Guestbook application GUI in Design mode. The Guestbook Database The application stores the guestbook information in a SQL Server database called Guestbook.mdf located on the web server. (We provide this database in the databases folder with this chapter’s examples.) The database contains a single table named Messages. Testing the Application To test this application: 1. Select Open Web Site… from the File menu. Download at www.wowebook.com

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2. In the Open Web Site dialog, ensure that File System is selected, then navigate to this chapter’s examples, select the Guestbook folder and click the Open Button. 3. Select Guestbook.aspx in the Solution Explorer, then type Ctrl + F5 to execute the web application in your default web browser. Figure 19.32(a) shows the user submitting a new entry. Figure 19.32(b) shows the new entry as the last row in the GridView. a) User enters data for the name, e-mail and message, then presses Submit to send the data to the server

b) Server stores the data in the database, then refreshes the GridView with the updated data

Fig. 19.32 | Sample execution of the Guestbook application.

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19.8.1 Building a Web Form that Displays Data from a Database You’ll now build this GUI and set up the data binding between the GridView control and the database. Many of these steps are similar to those performed in Chapter 18 to access and interact with a database in a Windows application. We discuss the code-behind file in Section 19.8.2. To build the guestbook application, perform the following steps:

Step 1: Creating the Web Site To begin, follow the steps in Section 19.4.1 to create an Empty Web Site named Guestbook then add a Web Form named Guestbook.aspx to the project. Set the document’s Title property to "Guestbook". To ensure that Guestobook.aspx loads when you execute this application, right click it in the Solution Explorer and select Set As Start Page. Step 2: Creating the Form for User Input In Design mode, add the text Please leave a message in our guestbook:, then use the Block Format ComboBox in the IDE’s toolbar to change the text to Heading 3 format. Insert a table with four rows and two columns, configured so that the text in each cell aligns with the top of the cell. Place the appropriate text (see Fig. 19.31) in the top three cells in the table’s left column. Then place TextBoxes named nameTextBox, emailTextBox and messageTextBox in the top three table cells in the right column. Configure the TextBoxes as follows: • Set the nameTextBox’s width to 300px. • Set the emailTextBox’s width to 300px. • Set the messageTextBox’s width to 300px and height to 100px. Also set this control’s TextMode property to MultiLine so the user can type a message containing multiple lines of text. Finally, add Buttons named submitButton and clearButton to the bottom-right table cell. Set the buttons’ Text properties to Submit and Clear, respectively. We discuss the buttons’ event handlers when we present the code-behind file. You can create these event handlers now by double clicking each Button in Design view. Step 3: Adding a GridView Control to the Web Form Add a GridView named messagesGridView that will display the guestbook entries. This control appears in the Data section of the Toolbox. The colors for the GridView are specified through the Auto Format... link in the GridView Tasks smart-tag menu that opens when you place the GridView on the page. Clicking this link displays an AutoFormat dialog with several choices. In this example, we chose Professional. We show how to set the GridView’s data source (that is, where it gets the data to display in its rows and columns) shortly. Step 4: Adding a Database to an ASP.NET Web Application To use a SQL Server Express database file in an ASP.NET web application, you must first add the file to the project’s App_Data folder. For security reasons, this folder can be accessed only by the web application on the server—clients cannot access this folder over a network. The web application interacts with the database on behalf of the client. The Empty Web Site template does not create the App_Data folder. To create it, right click the project’s name in the Solution Explorer, then select Add ASP.NET Folder > App_Data. Next, add the Guestbook.mdf file to the App_Data folder. You can do this in one of two ways:

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Drag the file from Windows Explorer and drop it on the App_Data folder.

•

Right click the App_Data folder in the Solution Explorer and select Add Existing Item… to display the Add Existing Item dialog, then navigate to the databases folder with this chapter’s examples, select the Guestbook.mdf file and click Add. [Note: Ensure that Data Files is selected in the ComboBox above or next to the Add Button in the dialog; otherwise, the database file will not be displayed in the list of files.]

Step 5: Creating the LINQ to SQL Classes As in Chapter 18, you’ll use LINQ to interact with the database. To create the LINQ to SQL classes for the Guestbook database: 1. Right click the project in the Solution Explorer and select Add New Item… to display the Add New Item dialog. 2. In the dialog, select LINQ to SQL Classes, enter Guestbook.dbml as the Name, and click Add. A dialog appears asking if you would like to put your new LINQ to SQL classes in the App_Code folder; click Yes. The IDE will create an App_Code folder and place the LINQ to SQL classes information in that folder. 3. In the Database Explorer window, drag the Guestbook database’s Messages table from the Database Explorer onto the Object Relational Designer. Finally, save your project by selecting File > Save All. Step 6: Binding the GridView to the Messages Table of the Guestbook Database You can now configure the GridView to display the database’s data. 1. In the GridView Tasks smart-tag menu, select from the Choose Data Source ComboBox to display the Data Source Configuration Wizard dialog. 2. In this example, we use a LinqDataSource control that allows the application to interact with the Guestbook.mdf database through LINQ. Select LINQ, then set the ID of the data source to messagesLinqDataSource and click OK to begin the Configure Data Source wizard. 3. In the Choose a Context Object screen, ensure that GuestbookDataContext is selected in the ComboBox, then click Next >. 4. The Configure Data Selection screen (Fig. 19.33) allows you to specify which data the LinqDataSource should retrieve from the data context. Your choices on this page design a Select LINQ query. The Table drop-down list identifies a table in the data context. The Guestbook data context contains one table named Messages, which is selected by default. If you haven’t saved your project since creating your LINQ to SQL classes (Step 5), the list of tables will not appear. In the Select pane, ensure that the checkbox marked with an asterisk (*) is selected to indicate that you want to retrieve all the columns in the Messages table. 5. Click the Advanced… button, then select the Enable the LinqDataSource to perform automatic inserts CheckBox and click OK. This configures the LinqDataSource control to automatically insert new data into the database when new data is inserted in the data context. We discuss inserting new guestbook entries based on users’ form submissions shortly. 6. Click Finish to complete the wizard.

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Fig. 19.33 | Configuring the query used by the LinqDataSource to retrieve data. A control named messagesLinqDataSource now appears on the Web Form directly below the GridView (Fig. 19.34). It’s represented in Design mode as a gray box containing its type and name. It will not appear on the web page—the gray box simply provides a way to manipulate the control visually through Design mode—similar to how the objects in the component tray are used in Design mode for a Windows Forms application. The GridView now has column headers that correspond to the columns in the Messages table. The rows each contain either a number (which signifies an autoincremented column) or abc (which indicates string data). The actual data from the Guestbook.mdf database file will appear in these rows when you view the ASPX file in a web browser.

Step 7: Modifying the Columns of the Data Source Displayed in the GridView It’s not necessary for site visitors to see the MessageID column when viewing past guestbook entries—this column is merely a unique primary key required by the Messages table within the database. So, let’s modify the GridView to prevent this column from displaying on the Web Form. We’ll also modify the column Message1 to read Message. 1. In the GridView Tasks smart tag menu, click Edit Columns to display the Fields dialog (Fig. 19.35). 2. Select MessageID in the Selected fields pane, then click the Button. This removes the MessageID column from the GridView. 3. Next select Message1 in the Selected fields pane and change its HeaderText property to Message. The IDE renamed this field to prevent a naming conflict in the LINQ to SQL classes. 4. Click OK to return to the main IDE window, then set the Width property of the GridView to 650px. The GridView should now appear as shown in Fig. 19.31. Download at www.wowebook.com

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LinqDataSource

control

Fig. 19.34 | Design mode displaying LinqDataSource control for a GridView.

Fig. 19.35 | Removing the MessageID column from the GridView.

19.8.2 Modifying the Code-Behind File for the Guestbook Application After building the Web Form and configuring the data controls used in this example, double click the Submit and Clear buttons in Design view to create their corresponding Click event handlers in the code-behind file (Fig. 19.36). The IDE generates empty event handlers, so we must add the appropriate code to make these buttons work properly. The

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event handler for clearButton (lines 37–42) clears each TextBox by setting its Text property to an empty string. This resets the form for a new guestbook submission. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

// Fig. 19.36: Guestbook.aspx.cs // Code-behind file that defines event handlers for the guestbook. using System; using System.Collections.Specialized; // for class ListDictionary public partial class Guestbook : System.Web.UI.Page { // Submit Button adds a new guestbook entry to the database, // clears the form and displays the updated list of guestbook entries protected void submitButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // create dictionary of parameters for inserting ListDictionary insertParameters = new ListDictionary(); // add current date and the user's name, e-mail address // and message to dictionary of insert parameters insertParameters.Add( "Date", DateTime.Now.ToShortDateString() ); insertParameters.Add( "Name", nameTextBox.Text ); insertParameters.Add( "Email", emailTextBox.Text ); insertParameters.Add( "Message1", messageTextBox.Text ); // execute an INSERT LINQ statement to add a new entry to the // Messages table in the Guestbook data context that contains the // current date and the user's name, e-mail address and message messagesLinqDataSource.Insert( insertParameters ); // clear the TextBoxes nameTextBox.Text = String.Empty; emailTextBox.Text = String.Empty; messageTextBox.Text = String.Empty; // update the GridView with the new database table contents messagesGridView.DataBind(); } // submitButton_Click // Clear Button clears the Web Form's TextBoxes protected void clearButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { nameTextBox.Text = String.Empty; emailTextBox.Text = String.Empty; messageTextBox.Text = String.Empty; } // clearButton_Click } // end class Guestbook

Fig. 19.36 | Code-behind file for the guestbook application. Lines 10–34 contain submitButton’s event-handling code, which adds the user’s information to the Guestbook database’s Messages table. To use the values of the TextBoxes on the Web Form as the parameter values inserted into the database, we must create a ListDictionary of insert parameters that are key/value pairs.

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Line 13 creates a ListDictionary object—a set of key/value pairs that is implemented as a linked list and is intended for dictionaries that store 10 or fewer keys. Lines 17–20 use the ListDictionary’s Add method to store key/value pairs that represent each of the four insert parameters—the current date and the user’s name, e-mail address, and message. The keys must match the names of the columns of the Messages table in the .dbml file. Invoking the LinqDataSource method Insert (line 25) inserts the data in the data context, adding a row to the Messages table and automatically updating the database. We pass the ListDictionary object as an argument to the Insert method to specify the insert parameters. After the data is inserted into the database, lines 28–30 clear the TextBoxes, and line 33 invokes messagesGridView’s DataBind method to refresh the data that the GridView displays. This causes messagesLinqDataSource (the GridView’s source) to execute its Select command to obtain the Messages table’s newly updated data.

19.9 Case Study: ASP.NET AJAX In Chapter 27, Web App Development with ASP.NET: A Deeper Look, you learn the difference between a traditional web application and an Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) web application. You also learn how to use ASP.NET AJAX to quickly and easily improve the user experience for your web applications, giving them responsiveness comparable to that of desktop applications. To demonstrate ASP.NET AJAX capabilities, you enhance the validation example by displaying the submitted form information without reloading the entire page. The only modifications to this web application appear in Validation.aspx file. You use Ajax-enabled controls to add this feature.

19.10 Case Study: Password-Protected Books Database Application In Chapter 27, we also include a web application case study in which a user logs into a password-protected website to view a list of publications by a selected author. The application consists of several pages and provides website registration and login capabilities. You’ll learn about ASP.NET master pages, which allow you to specify a common lookand-feel for all the pages in your app. We also introduce the Web Site Administration Tool and use it to configure the portions of the application that can be accessed only by users who are logged into the website.

19.11 Wrap-Up In this chapter, we introduced web-application development using ASP.NET and Visual Web Developer 2010 Express. We began by discussing the simple HTTP transactions that take place when you request and receive a web page through a web browser. You then learned about the three tiers (that is, the client or top tier, the business logic or middle tier and the information or bottom tier) that comprise most web applications. Next, we explained the role of ASPX files (that is, Web Form files) and code-behind files, and the relationship between them. We discussed how ASP.NET compiles and executes web applications so that they can be displayed in a web browser. You also learned how to build an ASP.NET web application using Visual Web Developer.

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The chapter demonstrated several common ASP.NET web controls used for displaying text and images on a Web Form. We also discussed validation controls, which allow you to ensure that user input on a web page satisfies certain requirements. We discussed the benefits of maintaining a user’s state information across multiple pages of a website. We then demonstrated how you can include such functionality in a web application by using session tracking with HttpSessionState objects. Finally, we built a guestbook application that allows users to submit comments about a website. You learned how to save the user input in a SQL Server database and how to display past submissions on the web page. In Chapter 20, we discuss how to create methods that can order array elements in ascending or descending order, and that can search for values in arrays.

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20 Searching and Sorting

With sobs and tears he sorted out Those of the largest size … —Lewis Carroll

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

To search for a given value in an array using the linear search and binary search algorithm.

■

To sort arrays using the iterative selection and insertion sort algorithms.

■

To sort arrays using the recursive merge sort algorithm.

■

To determine the efficiency of searching and sorting algorithms.

Attempt the end, and never stand to doubt; Nothing’s so hard, but search will find it out. —Robert Herrick

It is an immutable law in business that words are words, explanations are explanations, promises are promises — but only performance is reality. —Harold S. Green

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20.1 Introduction 20.2 Searching Algorithms 20.2.1 Linear Search 20.2.2 Binary Search

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20.4 Summary of the Efficiency of Searching and Sorting Algorithms 20.5 Wrap-Up

20.3 Sorting Algorithms 20.3.1 Selection Sort 20.3.2 Insertion Sort 20.3.3 Merge Sort

20.1 Introduction Searching data involves determining whether a value (referred to as the search key) is present in the data and, if so, finding the value’s location. Two popular search algorithms are the simple linear search and the faster, but more complex, binary search. Sorting places data in order, based on one or more sort keys. A list of names could be sorted alphabetically, bank accounts could be sorted by account number, employee payroll records could be sorted by social security number and so on. This chapter introduces two simple sorting algorithms, the selection sort and the insertion sort, along with the more efficient, but more complex, merge sort. Figure 20.1 summarizes the searching and sorting algorithms discussed in this book. Chapter

Algorithm

Location

Searching Algorithms: 20 Linear Search Binary Search 23 BinarySearch method of class Array Contains method of classes List and Stack ContainsKey method of class Dictionary

Section 20.2.1 Section 20.2.2 Fig. 23.3 Fig. 23.4 Fig. 23.7

Sorting Algorithms: 20 Selection Sort Insertion Sort Recursive Merge Sort 20, 23 Sort method of classes Array and List

Section 20.3.1 Section 20.3.2 Section 20.3.3 Figs. 20.4, 23.3–23.4

Fig. 20.1 | Searching and sorting capabilities in this text.

20.2 Searching Algorithms Looking up a phone number, accessing a website and checking the definition of a word in a dictionary all involve searching large amounts of data. The next two sections discuss two common search algorithms—one that is easy to program yet relatively inefficient and one that is relatively efficient but more complex to program. Download at www.wowebook.com

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20.2.1 Linear Search The linear search algorithm searches each element in an array sequentially. If the search key does not match an element in the array, the algorithm tests each element and, when the end of the array is reached, informs the user that the search key is not present. If the search key is in the array, the algorithm tests each element until it finds one that matches the search key and returns the index of that element. As an example, consider an array containing the following values 34

56

2

10

77

51

93

30

5

52

and a method that is searching for 51. Using the linear search algorithm, the method first checks whether 34 matches the search key. It does not, so the algorithm checks whether 56 matches the search key. The method continues moving through the array sequentially, testing 2, then 10, then 77. When the method tests 51, which matches the search key, the method returns the index 5, which is the location of 51 in the array. If, after checking every array element, the method determines that the search key does not match any element in the array, the method returns a sentinel value (e.g., -1). If there are duplicate values in the array, linear search returns the index of the first element in the array that matches the search key. Figure 20.2 declares class LinearArray. This class has a private instance variable data (an array of ints), and a static Random object named generator to fill the array with randomly generated ints. When an object of class LinearArray is instantiated, the constructor (lines 12–19) creates and initializes the array data with random ints in the range 10–99. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

// Fig. 20.2: LinearArray.cs // Class that contains an array of random integers and a method // that searches that array sequentially. using System; public class LinearArray { private int[] data; // array of values private static Random generator = new Random(); // create array of given size and fill with random integers public LinearArray( int size ) { data = new int[ size ]; // create space for array

// fill array with random ints in range 10-99 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ ) data[ i ] = generator.Next( 10, 100 ); } // end LinearArray constructor // perform a linear search on the data public int LinearSearch( int searchKey )

Fig. 20.2 | Class that contains an array of random integers and a method that searches that array sequentially. (Part 1 of 2.)

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20.2 Searching Algorithms 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

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{ // loop through array sequentially for ( int index = 0; index < data.Length; index++ ) if ( data[ index ] == searchKey ) return index; // return index of integer return -1; // integer was not found } // end method LinearSearch // method to output values in array public override string ToString() { string temporary = string.Empty; // iterate through array foreach ( int element in data ) temporary += element + " "; temporary += "\n"; // add newline character return temporary; } // end method ToString } // end class LinearArray

Fig. 20.2 | Class that contains an array of random integers and a method that searches that array sequentially. (Part 2 of 2.)

Lines 22–30 perform the linear search. The search key is passed to parameter Lines 25–27 loop through the elements in the array. Line 26 compares each element in the array with searchKey. If the values are equal, line 27 returns the index of the element. If the loop ends without finding the value, line 29 returns -1. Lines 33–43 declare method ToString, which returns a string representation of the array for printing. Figure 20.3 creates LinearArray object searchArray containing an array of 10 ints (line 13) and allows the user to search the array for specific elements. Lines 17–18 prompt the user for the search key and store it in searchInt. Lines 21–37 loop until the user enters the sentinel value -1. The array holds ints from 10–99 (line 18 of Fig. 20.2). Line 24 calls the LinearSearch method to determine whether searchInt is in the array. If searchInt is found, LinearSearch returns the position of the element, which the method outputs in lines 27–29. If searchInt is not in the array, LinearSearch returns -1, and the method notifies the user (lines 31–32). Lines 35–36 retrieve the next integer from the user. searchKey.

Efficiency of Linear Search Searching algorithms all accomplish the same goal—finding an element that matches a given search key, if such an element exists. Many things, however, differentiate search algorithms from one another. The major difference is the amount of effort required to

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Chapter 20 Searching and Sorting

// Fig. 20.3: LinearSearchTest.cs // Sequentially search an array for an item. using System; public class LinearSearchTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { int searchInt; // search key int position; // location of search key in array // create array and output it LinearArray searchArray = new LinearArray( 10 ); Console.WriteLine( searchArray ); // print array // input first int from user Console.Write( "Please enter an integer value (-1 to quit): " ); searchInt = Convert.ToInt32( Console.ReadLine() ); // repeatedly input an integer; -1 terminates the application while ( searchInt != -1 ) { // perform linear search position = searchArray.LinearSearch( searchInt ); if ( position != -1 ) // integer was not found Console.WriteLine( "The integer {0} was found in position {1}.\n", searchInt, position ); else // integer was found Console.WriteLine( "The integer {0} was not found.\n", searchInt ); // input next int from user Console.Write( "Please enter an integer value (-1 to quit): " ); searchInt = Convert.ToInt32( Console.ReadLine() ); } // end while } // end Main } // end class LinearSearchTest

64 90 84 62 28 68 55 27 78 73 Please enter an integer value (-1 to quit): 78 The integer 78 was found in position 8. Please enter an integer value (-1 to quit): 64 The integer 64 was found in position 0. Please enter an integer value (-1 to quit): 65 The integer 65 was not found. Please enter an integer value (-1 to quit): -1

Fig. 20.3 | Sequentially search an array for an item.

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complete the search. One way to describe this effort is with Big O notation, which is a measure of the worst-case runtime for an algorithm—that is, how hard an algorithm may have to work to solve a problem. For searching and sorting algorithms, this is particularly dependent on how many elements there are in the data set and the algorithm used. Suppose an algorithm is designed to test whether the first element of an array is equal to the second element. If the array has 10 elements, this algorithm requires one comparison. If the array has 1,000 elements, this algorithm still requires one comparison. In fact, this algorithm is completely independent of the number of elements in the array, and is thus said to have a constant runtime, which is represented in Big O notation as O(1). An algorithm that is O(1) does not necessarily require only one comparison. O(1) just means that the number of comparisons is constant—it does not grow as the size of the array increases. An algorithm that tests whether the first element of an array is equal to any of the next three elements is still O(1), even though it requires three comparisons. An algorithm that tests whether the first element of an array is equal to any of the other elements of the array will require at most n – 1 comparisons, where n is the number of elements in the array. If the array has 10 elements, this algorithm requires up to nine comparisons. If the array has 1,000 elements, this algorithm requires up to 999 comparisons. As n grows larger, the n part of the expression “dominates,” and subtracting one becomes inconsequential. Big O is designed to highlight these dominant terms and ignore terms that become unimportant as n grows. For this reason, an algorithm that requires a total of n – 1 comparisons (such as the one we described earlier) is said to be O(n). An O(n) algorithm is referred to as having a linear runtime. O(n) is often pronounced “on the order of n” or more simply “order n.” Now suppose you have an algorithm that tests whether any element of an array is duplicated elsewhere in the array. The first element must be compared with every other element in the array. The second element must be compared with every other element except the first (it was already compared to the first). The third element must be compared with every other element except the first two. In the end, this algorithm will end up making (n – 1) + (n – 2) + … + 2 + 1 or n2/2 – n/2 comparisons. As n increases, the n2 term dominates and the n term becomes inconsequential. Again, Big O notation highlights the n2 term, leaving n2/2. But as we’ll soon see, constant factors are omitted in Big O notation. Big O is concerned with how an algorithm’s runtime grows in relation to the number of items processed. Suppose an algorithm requires n2 comparisons. With four elements, the algorithm will require 16 comparisons; with eight elements, the algorithm will require 64 comparisons. With this algorithm, doubling the number of elements quadruples the number of comparisons. Consider a similar algorithm requiring n2/2 comparisons. With four elements, the algorithm will require eight comparisons; with eight elements, 32 comparisons. Again, doubling the number of elements quadruples the number of comparisons. Both of these algorithms grow as the square of n, so Big O ignores the constant, and both algorithms are considered to be O(n2), referred to as quadratic runtime and pronounced “on the order of n-squared” or more simply “order n-squared.” When n is small, O(n2) algorithms (running on today’s billions-of-operations-persecond personal computers) will not noticeably affect performance. But as n grows, you’ll start to notice the performance degradation. An O(n2) algorithm running on a million-element array would require a trillion “operations” (where each could actually require several machine instructions to execute). This could require many minutes to execute. A billion-

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element array would require a quintillion operations, a number so large that the algorithm could take decades! O(n2) algorithms are easy to write, as you’ll see shortly. You’ll also see algorithms with more favorable Big O measures. These efficient algorithms often take more cleverness and effort to create, but their superior performance can be well worth the extra effort, especially as n gets large and algorithms are compounded into larger applications. The linear search algorithm runs in O(n) time. The worst case in this algorithm is that every element must be checked to determine whether the search item exists in the array. If the size of the array is doubled, the number of comparisons that the algorithm must perform is also doubled. Linear search can provide outstanding performance if the element matching the search key happens to be at or near the front of the array. But we seek algorithms that perform well, on average, across all searches, including those where the element matching the search key is near the end of the array. Linear search is the easiest search algorithm to program, but it can be slow compared to other search algorithms. If an application needs to perform many searches on large arrays, it may be better to implement a different, more efficient algorithm, such as the binary search, which we present in the next section.

Performance Tip 20.1 Sometimes the simplest algorithms perform poorly. Their virtue is that they’re easy to program, test and debug. Sometimes more complex algorithms are required to realize maximum performance.

20.2.2 Binary Search The binary search algorithm is more efficient than the linear search algorithm, but it requires that the array be sorted. The first iteration of this algorithm tests the middle element in the array. If this matches the search key, the algorithm ends. Assuming the array is sorted in ascending order, if the search key is less than the middle element, the search key cannot match any element in the second half of the array and the algorithm continues with only the first half of the array (i.e., the first element up to, but not including, the middle element). If the search key is greater than the middle element, the search key cannot match any element in the first half of the array, and the algorithm continues with only the second half of the array (i.e., the element after the middle element through the last element). Each iteration tests the middle value of the remaining portion of the array, called a subarray. A subarray can have no elements, or it can encompass the entire array. If the search key does not match the element, the algorithm eliminates half of the remaining elements. The algorithm ends by either finding an element that matches the search key or reducing the subarray to zero size. As an example, consider the sorted 15-element array 2

3

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27

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65

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and a search key of 65. An application implementing the binary search algorithm would first check whether 51 is the search key (because 51 is the middle element of the array). The search key (65) is larger than 51, so 51 is “discarded” (i.e., eliminated from consideration) along with the first half of the array (all elements smaller than 51.) Next, the algorithm checks whether 81 (the middle element of the remainder of the array) matches the search key. The search key (65) is smaller than 81, so 81 is discarded along with the ele-

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ments larger than 81. After just two tests, the algorithm has narrowed the number of values to check to three (56, 65 and 77). The algorithm then checks 65 (which indeed matches the search key) and returns the index of the array element containing 65. This algorithm required just three comparisons to determine whether the search key matched an element of the array. Using a linear search algorithm would have required 10 comparisons. [Note: In this example, we have chosen to use an array with 15 elements so that there will always be an obvious middle element in the array. With an even number of elements, the middle of the array lies between two elements. We implement the algorithm to choose the higher of the two elements.] Figure 20.4 declares class BinaryArray. This class is similar to LinearArray—it has a private instance variable data (an array of ints), a static Random object named generator to fill the array with randomly generated ints, a constructor, a search method (BinarySearch), a RemainingElements method (which creates a string containing the elements not yet searched) and a ToString method. Lines 12–21 declare the constructor. After initializing the array with random ints from 10–99 (lines 17–18), line 20 calls method Array.Sort on the array data. Method Sort is a static method of class Array that sorts the elements in an array in ascending order. Recall that the binary search algorithm works only on sorted arrays. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

// Fig. 20.4: BinaryArray.cs // Class that contains an array of random integers and a method // that uses binary search to find an integer. using System; public class BinaryArray { private int[] data; // array of values private static Random generator = new Random(); // create array of given size and fill with random integers public BinaryArray( int size ) { data = new int[ size ]; // create space for array // fill array with random ints in range 10-99 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ ) data[ i ] = generator.Next( 10, 100 ); Array.Sort( data ); } // end BinaryArray constructor // perform a binary search on the data public int BinarySearch( int searchElement ) { int low = 0; // low end of the search area int high = data.Length - 1; // high end of the search area int middle = ( low + high + 1 ) / 2; // middle element int location = -1; // return value; -1 if not found

Fig. 20.4 | Class that contains an array of random integers and a method that uses binary search to find an integer. (Part 1 of 2.)

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do // loop to search for element { // print remaining elements of array Console.Write( RemainingElements( low, high ) ); // output spaces for alignment for ( int i = 0; i < middle; i++ ) Console.Write( " " ); Console.WriteLine( " * " ); // indicate current middle // if the element is found at the middle if ( searchElement == data[ middle ] ) location = middle; // location is the current middle // middle element is too high else if ( searchElement < data[ middle ] ) high = middle - 1; // eliminate the higher half else // middle element is too low low = middle + 1; // eliminate the lower half middle = ( low + high + 1 ) / 2; // recalculate the middle } while ( ( low insert ) { // shift element right one slot data[ moveItem ] = data[ moveItem - 1 ]; moveItem--; } // end while data[ moveItem ] = insert; // place inserted element PrintPass( next, moveItem ); // output pass of algorithm } // end for } // end method Sort // print a pass of the algorithm public void PrintPass( int pass, int index ) { Console.Write( "after pass {0}: ", pass ); // output elements till swapped item for ( int i = 0; i < index; i++ ) Console.Write( data[ i ] + " " ); Console.Write( data[ index ] + "* " ); // indicate swap // finish outputting array for ( int i = index + 1; i < data.Length; i++ ) Console.Write( data[ i ] + " " ); Console.Write( "\n

" ); // for alignment

// indicate amount of array that is sorted for( int i = 0; i = 1 ) // if not base case { int middle1 = ( low + high ) / 2; // calculate middle of array int middle2 = middle1 + 1; // calculate next element over // output split step Console.WriteLine( "split: Console.WriteLine( " Console.WriteLine( " Console.WriteLine();

" + Subarray( low, high ) ); " + Subarray( low, middle1 ) ); " + Subarray( middle2, high ) );

Fig. 20.10 | Class that creates an array filled with random integers. Provides a method to sort the array with merge sort. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// split array in half; sort each half (recursive calls) SortArray( low, middle1 ); // first half of array SortArray( middle2, high ); // second half of array // merge two sorted arrays after split calls return Merge( low, middle1, middle2, high ); } // end if } // end method SortArray // merge two sorted subarrays into one sorted subarray private void Merge( int left, int middle1, int middle2, int right ) { int leftIndex = left; // index into left subarray int rightIndex = middle2; // index into right subarray int combinedIndex = left; // index into temporary working array int[] combined = new int[ data.Length ]; // working array // output two subarrays before merging Console.WriteLine( "merge: " + Subarray( left, middle1 ) ); Console.WriteLine( " " + Subarray( middle2, right ) ); // merge arrays until reaching end of either while ( leftIndex operator. However, this operator is not overloaded for use with every type that’s built into the Framework Class Library or that might be defined by extending those types. Generic code is restricted to performing operations that are guaranteed to work for every possible type. Thus, an expression like variable1 < variable2 is not allowed unless the compiler can ensure that the operator < is provided for every type that will ever be used in the generic code. Similarly, you cannot call a method on a generic-type variable unless the compiler can ensure that all types that will ever be used in the generic code support that method.

Interface It’s possible to compare two objects of the same type if that type implements the generic interface IComparable (of namespace System). A benefit of implementing interface IComparable is that IComparable objects can be used with the sorting and searching methods of classes in the System.Collections.Generic namespace—we discuss those methods in Chapter 23. The structures in the Framework Class Library that correspond to the simple types all implement this interface. For example, the structure for simple type double is Double and the structure for simple type int is Int32—both Double and Int32 implement the IComparable interface. Types that implement IComparable must declare a CompareTo method for comparing objects. For example, if we have two ints, int1 and int2, they can be compared with the expression: IComparable

int1.CompareTo( int2 )

Method CompareTo must return 0 if the objects are equal, a negative integer if int1 is less than int2 or a positive integer if int1 is greater than int2. It’s the responsibility of the programmer who declares a type that implements IComparable to define method CompareTo such that it compares the contents of two objects of that type and returns the appropriate result.

Specifying Type Constraints Even though IComparable objects can be compared, they cannot be used with generic code by default, because not all types implement interface IComparable. However, we can restrict the types that can be used with a generic method or class to ensure that they meet certain requirements. This feature—known as a type constraint—restricts the type of the argument supplied to a particular type parameter. Figure 22.4 declares method Maximum (lines 20–34) with a type constraint that requires each of the method’s arguments to be of type IComparable. This restriction is important, because not all objects can be compared. However, all IComparable objects are guaranteed to have a CompareTo method that can be used in method Maximum to determine the largest of its three arguments.

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// Fig. 22.4: MaximumTest.cs // Generic method Maximum returns the largest of three objects. using System; class MaximumTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { Console.WriteLine( "Maximum of {0}, {1} and {2} is {3}\n", 3, 4, 5, Maximum( 3, 4, 5 ) ); Console.WriteLine( "Maximum of {0}, {1} and {2} is {3}\n", 6.6, 8.8, 7.7, Maximum( 6.6, 8.8, 7.7 ) ); Console.WriteLine( "Maximum of {0}, {1} and {2} is {3}\n", "pear", "apple", "orange", Maximum( "pear", "apple", "orange" ) ); } // end Main // generic function determines the // largest of the IComparable objects private static T Maximum< T >( T x, T y, T z ) where T : IComparable< T > { T max = x; // assume x is initially the largest // compare y with max if ( y.CompareTo( max ) > 0 ) max = y; // y is the largest so far // compare z with max if ( z.CompareTo( max ) > 0 ) max = z; // z is the largest return max; // return largest object } // end method Maximum } // end class MaximumTest

Maximum of 3, 4 and 5 is 5 Maximum of 6.6, 8.8 and 7.7 is 8.8 Maximum of pear, apple and orange is pear

Fig. 22.4 | Generic method Maximum returns the largest of three objects. Generic method Maximum uses type parameter T as the return type of the method (line 20), as the type of method parameters x, y and z (line 20), and as the type of local variable max (line 23). Generic method Maximum’s where clause (after the parameter list in line 21) specifies the type constraint for type parameter T. In this case, the clause where T : IComparable indicates that this method requires the type argument to implement interface IComparable. If no type constraint is specified, the default type constraint is object. C# provides several kinds of type constraints. A class constraint indicates that the type argument must be an object of a specific base class or one of its subclasses. An interface

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constraint indicates that the type argument’s class must implement a specific interface. The type constraint in line 20 is an interface constraint, because IComparable is an interface. You can specify that the type argument must be a reference type or a value type by using the reference-type constraint (class) or the value-type constraint (struct), respectively. Finally, you can specify a constructor constraint—new()—to indicate that the generic code can use operator new to create new objects of the type represented by the type parameter. If a type parameter is specified with a constructor constraint, the type argument’s class must provide a public parameterless or default constructor to ensure that objects of the class can be created without passing constructor arguments; otherwise, a compilation error occurs. It’s possible to apply multiple constraints to a type parameter. To do so, simply provide a comma-separated list of constraints in the where clause. If you have a class constraint, reference-type constraint or value-type constraint, it must be listed first—only one of these types of constraints can be used for each type parameter. Interface constraints (if any) are listed next. The constructor constraint is listed last (if there is one).

Analyzing the Code Method Maximum assumes that its first argument (x) is the largest and assigns it to local variable max (line 23). Next, the if statement at lines 26–27 determines whether y is greater than max. The condition invokes y’s CompareTo method with the expression y.CompareTo(max). If y is greater than max, then y is assigned to variable max (line 27). Similarly, the statement at lines 30–31 determines whether z is greater than max. If so, line 31 assigns z to max. Then, line 33 returns max to the caller. In Main (lines 7–16), line 10 calls Maximum with the integers 3, 4 and 5. Generic method Maximum is a match for this call, but its arguments must implement interface IComparable to ensure that they can be compared. Type int is a synonym for struct Int32, which implements interface IComparable. Thus, ints (and other simple types) are valid arguments to method Maximum. Line 12 passes three double arguments to Maximum. Again, this is allowed because double is a synonym for the Double struct, which implements IComparable. Line 15 passes Maximum three strings, which are also IComparable objects. Note that we intentionally placed the largest value in a different position in each method call (lines 10, 12 and 15) to show that the generic method always finds the maximum value, regardless of its position in the argument list and regardless of the inferred type argument.

22.5 Overloading Generic Methods A generic method may be overloaded. Each overloaded method must have a unique signature (as discussed in Chapter 7). A class can provide two or more generic methods with the same name but different method parameters. For example, we could provide a second version of generic method DisplayArray (Fig. 22.3) with the additional parameters lowIndex and highIndex that specify the portion of the array to output. A generic method can be overloaded by nongeneric methods with the same method name. When the compiler encounters a method call, it searches for the method declaration that best matches the method name and the argument types specified in the call. For example, generic method DisplayArray of Fig. 22.3 could be overloaded with a version specific to strings that outputs the strings in neat, tabular format. If the compiler cannot

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match a method call to either a nongeneric method or a generic method, or if there’s ambiguity due to multiple possible matches, the compiler generates an error.

22.6 Generic Classes The concept of a data structure (e.g., a stack) that contains data elements can be understood independently of the element type it manipulates. A generic class provides a means for describing a class in a type-independent manner. We can then instantiate type-specific versions of the generic class. This capability is an opportunity for software reusability. With a generic class, you can use a simple, concise notation to indicate the actual type(s) that should be used in place of the class’s type parameter(s). At compilation time, the compiler ensures your code’s type safety, and the runtime system replaces type parameters with type arguments to enable your client code to interact with the generic class. One generic Stack class, for example, could be the basis for creating many Stack classes (e.g., “Stack of double,” “Stack of int,” “Stack of char,” “Stack of Employee”). Figure 22.5 presents a generic Stack class declaration. This class should not be confused with the class Stack from namespace System.Collections.Generics. A generic class declaration is similar to a nongeneric class declaration, except that the class name is followed by a type-parameter list (line 5) and, optionally, one or more constraints on its type parameter. Type parameter T represents the element type the Stack will manipulate. As with generic methods, the type-parameter list of a generic class can have one or more type parameters separated by commas. Type parameter T is used throughout the Stack class declaration (Fig. 22.5) to represent the element type. Class Stack declares variable elements as an array of type T (line 8). This array (created at line 21) will store the Stack’s elements. [Note: This example implements a Stack as an array. As you’ve seen in Chapter 21, Stacks also are commonly implemented as linked lists.] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

// Fig. 22.5: Stack.cs // Generic class Stack. using System; class Stack< T > { private int top; // location of the top element private T[] elements; // array that stores stack elements // parameterless constructor creates a stack of the default size public Stack() : this( 10 ) // default stack size { // empty constructor; calls constructor at line 18 to perform init } // end stack constructor // constructor creates a stack of the specified number of elements public Stack( int stackSize ) {

Fig. 22.5 | Generic class Stack. (Part 1 of 2.)

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if ( stackSize > 0 ) // validate stackSize elements = new T[ stackSize ]; // create stackSize elements else throw new ArgumentException( "Stack size must be positive." ); top = -1; // stack initially empty } // end stack constructor // push element onto the stack; if unsuccessful, // throw FullStackException public void Push( T pushValue ) { if ( top == elements.Length - 1 ) // stack is full throw new FullStackException( string.Format( "Stack is full, cannot push {0}", pushValue ) ); ++top; // increment top elements[ top ] = pushValue; // place pushValue on stack } // end method Push // return the top element if not empty, // else throw EmptyStackException public T Pop() { if ( top == -1 ) // stack is empty throw new EmptyStackException( "Stack is empty, cannot pop" ); --top; // decrement top return elements[ top + 1 ]; // return top value } // end method Pop } // end class Stack

Fig. 22.5 | Generic class Stack. (Part 2 of 2.)

Class Stack has two constructors. The parameterless constructor (lines 11–15) passes the default stack size (10) to the one-argument constructor, using the syntax this (line 12) to invoke another constructor in the same class. The one-argument constructor (lines 18– 26) validates the stackSize argument and creates an array of the specified stackSize (if it’s greater than 0) or throws an exception, otherwise. Method Push (lines 30–38) first determines whether an attempt is being made to push an element onto a full Stack. If so, lines 33–34 throw a FullStackException (declared in Fig. 22.6). If the Stack is not full, line 36 increments the top counter to indicate the new top position, and line 37 places the argument in that location of array elements. Method Pop (lines 42–49) first determines whether an attempt is being made to pop an element from an empty Stack. If so, line 45 throws an EmptyStackException (declared in Fig. 22.7). Otherwise, line 47 decrements the top counter to indicate the new top position, and line 48 returns the original top element of the Stack. Classes FullStackException (Fig. 22.6) and EmptyStackException (Fig. 22.7) each provide a parameterless constructor, a one-argument constructor of exception classes (as discussed in Section 13.8) and a two-argument constructor for creating a new exception

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using an existing one. The parameterless constructor sets the default error message while the other two constructors set custom error messages.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

// Fig. 22.6: FullStackException.cs // FullStackException indicates a stack is full. using System; class FullStackException : Exception { // parameterless constructor public FullStackException() : base( "Stack is full" ) { // empty constructor } // end FullStackException constructor // one-parameter constructor public FullStackException( string exception ) : base( exception ) { // empty constructor } // end FullStackException constructor // two-parameter constructor public FullStackException( string exception, Exception inner ) : base( exception, inner ) { // empty constructor } // end FullStackException constructor } // end class FullStackException

Fig. 22.6 |

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

FullStackException

indicates a stack is full.

// Fig. 22.7: EmptyStackException.cs // EmptyStackException indicates a stack is empty. using System; class EmptyStackException : Exception { // parameterless constructor public EmptyStackException() : base( "Stack is empty" ) { // empty constructor } // end EmptyStackException constructor // one-parameter constructor public EmptyStackException( string exception ) : base( exception ) { // empty constructor } // end EmptyStackException constructor

Fig. 22.7 |

EmptyStackException

indicates a stack is empty. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// two-parameter constructor public EmptyStackException( string exception, Exception inner ) : base( exception, inner ) { // empty constructor } // end EmptyStackException constructor } // end class EmptyStackException

Fig. 22.7 |

EmptyStackException

indicates a stack is empty. (Part 2 of 2.)

As with generic methods, when a generic class is compiled, the compiler performs type checking on the class’s type parameters to ensure that they can be used with the code in the generic class. The constraints determine the operations that can be performed on the type parameters. The runtime system replaces the type parameters with the actual types at runtime. For class Stack (Fig. 22.5), no type constraint is specified, so the default type constraint, object, is used. The scope of a generic class’s type parameter is the entire class. Now, let’s consider an application (Fig. 22.8) that uses the Stack generic class. Lines 13–14 declare variables of type Stack (pronounced “Stack of double”) and Stack (pronounced “Stack of int”). The types double and int are the Stack’s type arguments. The compiler replaces the type parameters in the generic class so that the compiler can perform type checking. Method Main instantiates objects doubleStack of size 5 (line 18) and intStack of size 10 (line 19), then calls methods TestPushDouble (lines 28– 48), TestPopDouble (lines 51–73), TestPushInt (lines 76–96) and TestPopInt (lines 99– 121) to manipulate the two Stacks in this example. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

// Fig. 22.8: StackTest.cs // Testing generic class Stack. using System; class StackTest { // create arrays of doubles and ints private static double[] doubleElements = new double[]{ 1.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.4, 5.5, 6.6 }; private static int[] intElements = new int[]{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 }; private static Stack< double > doubleStack; // stack stores doubles private static Stack< int > intStack; // stack stores int objects public static void Main( string[] args ) { doubleStack = new Stack< double >( 5 ); // stack of doubles intStack = new Stack< int >( 10 ); // stack of ints TestPushDouble(); // push doubles onto doubleStack TestPopDouble(); // pop doubles from doubleStack TestPushInt(); // push ints onto intStack TestPopInt(); // pop ints from intStack } // end Main

Fig. 22.8 | Testing generic class Stack. (Part 1 of 4.)

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// test Push method with doubleStack private static void TestPushDouble() { // push elements onto stack try { Console.WriteLine( "\nPushing elements onto doubleStack" ); // push elements onto stack foreach ( var element in doubleElements ) { Console.Write( "{0:F1} ", element ); doubleStack.Push( element ); // push onto doubleStack } // end foreach } // end try catch ( FullStackException exception ) { Console.Error.WriteLine(); Console.Error.WriteLine( "Message: " + exception.Message ); Console.Error.WriteLine( exception.StackTrace ); } // end catch } // end method TestPushDouble // test Pop method with doubleStack private static void TestPopDouble() { // pop elements from stack try { Console.WriteLine( "\nPopping elements from doubleStack" ); double popValue; // store element removed from stack // remove all elements from stack while ( true ) { popValue = doubleStack.Pop(); // pop from doubleStack Console.Write( "{0:F1} ", popValue ); } // end while } // end try catch ( EmptyStackException exception ) { Console.Error.WriteLine(); Console.Error.WriteLine( "Message: " + exception.Message ); Console.Error.WriteLine( exception.StackTrace ); } // end catch } // end method TestPopDouble // test Push method with intStack private static void TestPushInt() {

Fig. 22.8 | Testing generic class Stack. (Part 2 of 4.)

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78 // push elements onto stack 79 try 80 { 81 Console.WriteLine( "\nPushing elements onto intStack" ); 82 83 // push elements onto stack 84 foreach ( var element in intElements ) 85 { 86 Console.Write( "{0} ", element ); 87 intStack.Push( element ); // push onto intStack 88 } // end foreach 89 } // end try 90 catch ( FullStackException exception ) 91 { 92 Console.Error.WriteLine(); 93 Console.Error.WriteLine( "Message: " + exception.Message ); 94 Console.Error.WriteLine( exception.StackTrace ); 95 } // end catch 96 } // end method TestPushInt 97 98 // test Pop method with intStack 99 private static void TestPopInt() 100 { 101 // pop elements from stack 102 try 103 { 104 Console.WriteLine( "\nPopping elements from intStack" ); 105 106 int popValue; // store element removed from stack 107 108 // remove all elements from stack 109 while ( true ) 110 { 111 popValue = intStack.Pop(); // pop from intStack 112 Console.Write( "{0} ", popValue ); 113 } // end while 114 } // end try 115 catch ( EmptyStackException exception ) 116 { 117 Console.Error.WriteLine(); 118 Console.Error.WriteLine( "Message: " + exception.Message ); 119 Console.Error.WriteLine( exception.StackTrace ); 120 } // end catch 121 } // end method TestPopInt 122 } // end class StackTest Pushing elements onto doubleStack 1.1 2.2 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.6 Message: Stack is full, cannot push 6.6 at Stack`1.Push(T pushValue) in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_05_08\Stack\Stack\Stack.cs:line 36 at StackTest.TestPushDouble() in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_05_08\Stack\Stack\StackTest.cs:line 39

Fig. 22.8 | Testing generic class Stack. (Part 3 of 4.)

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Popping elements from doubleStack 5.5 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.1 Message: Stack is empty, cannot pop at Stack`1.Pop() in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_05_08\Stack\Stack\Stack.cs:line 47 at StackTest.TestPopDouble() in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_05_08\Stack\Stack\StackTest.cs:line 63 Pushing elements onto intStack 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Message: Stack is full, cannot push 11 at Stack`1.Push(T pushValue) in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_05_08\Stack\Stack\Stack.cs:line 36 at StackTest.TestPushInt() in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_05_08\Stack\Stack\StackTest.cs:line 87 Popping elements from intStack 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Message: Stack is empty, cannot pop at Stack`1.Pop() in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_05_08\Stack\Stack\Stack.cs:line 47 at StackTest.TestPopInt() in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_05_08\Stack\Stack\StackTest.cs:line 111

Fig. 22.8 | Testing generic class Stack. (Part 4 of 4.) Method TestPushDouble (lines 28–48) invokes method Push to place the double values 1.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.4 and 5.5 stored in array doubleElements onto doubleStack. The foreach statement terminates when the test program attempts to Push a sixth value onto doubleStack (which is full, because doubleStack can store only five elements). In this case, the method throws a FullStackException (Fig. 22.6) to indicate that the Stack is full. Lines 42–47 catch this exception and display the message and stack-trace information. The stack trace indicates the exception that occurred and shows that Stack method Push generated the exception at line 36 of the file Stack.cs (Fig. 22.5). The trace also shows that method Push was called by StackTest method TestPushDouble at line 39 of StackTest.cs. This information enables you to determine the methods that were on the method-call stack at the time that the exception occurred. Because the program catches the exception, the C# runtime environment considers the exception to have been handled, and the program can continue executing. Method TestPopDouble (lines 51–73) invokes Stack method Pop in an infinite while loop to remove all the values from the stack. Note in the output that the values are popped off in last-in, first-out order—this, of course, is the defining characteristic of stacks. The while loop (lines 61–65) continues until the stack is empty. An EmptyStackException occurs when an attempt is made to pop from the empty stack. This causes the program to proceed to the catch block (lines 67–72) and handle the exception, so the program can continue executing. When the test program attempts to Pop a sixth value, the doubleStack is empty, so method Pop throws an EmptyStackException. Method TestPushInt (lines 76–96) invokes Stack method Push to place values onto intStack until it’s full. Method TestPopInt (lines 99–121) invokes Stack method Pop to

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remove values from intStack until it’s empty. Once again, note that the values pop off in last-in, first-out order.

Creating Generic Methods to Test Class Stack< T > Note that the code in methods TestPushDouble and TestPushInt is almost identical for pushing values onto a Stack or a Stack, respectively. Similarly the code in methods TestPopDouble and TestPopInt is almost identical for popping values from a Stack or a Stack, respectively. This presents another opportunity to use generic methods. Figure 22.9 declares generic method TestPush (lines 33–54) to perform the same tasks as TestPushDouble and TestPushInt in Fig. 22.8—that is, Push values onto a Stack. Similarly, generic method TestPop (lines 57–79) performs the same tasks as TestPopDouble and TestPopInt in Fig. 22.8—that is, Pop values off a Stack. Note that the output of Fig. 22.9 precisely matches the output of Fig. 22.8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

// Fig. 22.9: StackTest.cs // Testing generic class Stack. using System; using System.Collections.Generic; class StackTest { // create arrays of doubles and ints private static double[] doubleElements = new double[] { 1.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.4, 5.5, 6.6 }; private static int[] intElements = new int[] { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 }; private static Stack< double > doubleStack; // stack stores doubles private static Stack< int > intStack; // stack stores int objects public static void Main( string[] args ) { doubleStack = new Stack< double >( 5 ); // stack of doubles intStack = new Stack< int >( 10 ); // stack of ints // push doubles onto doubleStack TestPush( "doubleStack", doubleStack, doubleElements ); // pop doubles from doubleStack TestPop( "doubleStack", doubleStack ); // push ints onto intStack TestPush( "intStack", intStack, intElements ); // pop ints from intStack TestPop( "intStack", intStack ); } // end Main // test Push method private static void TestPush< T >( string name, Stack< T > stack, IEnumerable< T > elements ) {

Fig. 22.9 | Testing generic class Stack. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// push elements onto stack try { Console.WriteLine( "\nPushing elements onto " + name ); // push elements onto stack foreach ( var element in elements ) { Console.Write( "{0} ", element ); stack.Push( element ); // push onto stack } // end foreach } // end try catch ( FullStackException exception ) { Console.Error.WriteLine(); Console.Error.WriteLine( "Message: " + exception.Message ); Console.Error.WriteLine( exception.StackTrace ); } // end catch } // end method TestPush // test Pop method private static void TestPop< T >( string name, Stack< T > stack ) { // push elements onto stack try { Console.WriteLine( "\nPopping elements from " + name ); T popValue; // store element removed from stack // remove all elements from stack while ( true ) { popValue = stack.Pop(); // pop from stack Console.Write( "{0} ", popValue ); } // end while } // end try catch ( EmptyStackException exception ) { Console.Error.WriteLine(); Console.Error.WriteLine( "Message: " + exception.Message ); Console.Error.WriteLine( exception.StackTrace ); } // end catch } // end TestPop } // end class StackTest

Pushing elements onto doubleStack 1.1 2.2 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.6 Message: Stack is full, cannot push 6.6 at Stack`1.Push(T pushValue) in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_09\Stack\Stack\Stack.cs:line 36 at StackTest.TestPush[T](String name, Stack`1 stack, IEnumerable`1 elements) in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_09\Stack\Stack\StackTest.cs:line 45

Fig. 22.9 | Testing generic class Stack. (Part 2 of 3.)

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Popping elements from doubleStack 5.5 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.1 Message: Stack is empty, cannot pop at Stack`1.Pop() in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_09\Stack\Stack\Stack.cs:line 47 at StackTest.TestPop[T](String name, Stack`1 stack) in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_09\Stack\Stack\StackTest.cs:line 69 Pushing elements onto intStack 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Message: Stack is full, cannot push 11 at Stack`1.Push(T pushValue) in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_09\Stack\Stack\Stack.cs:line 36 at StackTest.TestPush[T](String name, Stack`1 stack, IEnumerable`1 elements) in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_09\Stack\Stack\StackTest.cs:line 45 Popping elements from intStack 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Message: Stack is empty, cannot pop at Stack`1.Pop() in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_09\Stack\Stack\Stack.cs:line 47 at StackTest.TestPop[T](String name, Stack`1 stack) in C:\Examples\ch22\Fig22_09\Stack\Stack\StackTest.cs:line 69

Fig. 22.9 | Testing generic class Stack. (Part 3 of 3.) Method Main (lines 17–30) creates the Stack (line 19) and Stack (line 20) objects. Lines 23–29 invoke generic methods TestPush and TestPop to test the Stack objects. Generic method TestPush (lines 33–54) uses type parameter T (specified at line 33) to represent the data type stored in the Stack. The generic method takes three arguments—a string that represents the name of the Stack object for output purposes, an object of type Stack and an IEnumerable that contains the elements that will be Pushed onto Stack. Note that the compiler enforces consistency between the type of the Stack and the elements that will be pushed onto the Stack when Push is invoked, which is the type argument of the generic method call. Generic method TestPop (lines 57– 79) takes two arguments—a string that represents the name of the Stack object for output purposes and an object of type Stack.

22.7 Wrap-Up This chapter introduced generics. We discussed how generics ensure compile-time type safety by checking for type mismatches at compile time. You learned that the compiler will allow generic code to compile only if all operations performed on the type parameters in the generic code are supported for all types that could be used with the generic code. You also learned how to declare generic methods and classes using type parameters. We demonstrated how to use a type constraint to specify the requirements for a type parameter— a key component of compile-time type safety. We discussed several kinds of type constraints, including reference-type constraints, value-type constraints, class constraints, interface constraints and constructor constraints. We also discussed how to implement

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multiple type constraints for a type parameter. Finally, we showed how generics improve code reuse. In the next chapter, we demonstrate the .NET Framework Class Library’s collection classes, interfaces and algorithms. Collection classes are pre-built data structures that you can reuse in your applications, saving you time.

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23 Collections

The shapes a bright container can contain! —Theodore Roethke

I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent, of human knowledge, that has ever been gathered together at the White House—with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone.

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

The nongeneric and generic collections that are provided by the .NET Framework.

■

To use class Array’s static methods to manipulate arrays.

■

To use enumerators to “walk through” a collection.

■

To use the foreach statement with the .NET collections.

■

To use nongeneric collection classes ArrayList, Stack, and Hashtable.

■

To use generic collection classes SortedDictionary and LinkedList.

—John F. Kennedy

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23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4

Introduction Collections Overview Class Array and Enumerators Nongeneric Collections

23.4.1 Class ArrayList 23.4.2 Class Stack 23.4.3 Class Hashtable

23.5 Generic Collections 23.5.1 Generic Class SortedDictionary 23.5.2 Generic Class LinkedList

23.6 Covariance and Contravariance for Generic Types 23.7 Wrap-Up

23.1 Introduction Chapter 21 discussed how to create and manipulate data structures. The discussion was “low level,” in the sense that we painstakingly created each element of each data structure dynamically with new and modified the data structures by directly manipulating their elements and references to their elements. For the vast majority of applications, there’s no need to build custom data structures. Instead, you can use the prepackaged data-structure classes provided by the .NET Framework. These classes are known as collection classes—they store collections of data. Each instance of one of these classes is a collection of items. Some examples of collections are the cards you hold in a card game, the songs stored in your computer, the real-estate records in your local registry of deeds (which map book numbers and page numbers to property owners), and the players on your favorite sports team. Collection classes enable programmers to store sets of items by using existing data structures, without concern for how they’re implemented. This is a nice example of code reuse. Programmers can code faster and expect excellent performance, maximizing execution speed and minimizing memory consumption. In this chapter, we discuss the collection interfaces that list the capabilities of each collection type, the implementation classes and the enumerators that “walk through” collections. The .NET Framework provides three namespaces dedicated to collections. Namespace System.Collections contains collections that store references to objects. We included these because there’s a large amount of legacy code in industry that uses these collections. Most new applications should use the collections in the System.Collections.Generic namespace, which contains generic classes—such as the List and Dictionary classes you learned previously—to store collections of specific types. The System.Collections.Specialized namespace contains several collections that support specific types, such as strings and bits. You can learn more about this namespace at msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.collections.specialized.aspx. The collections in these namespaces provide standardized, reusable components; you do not need to write your own collection classes. These collections are written for broad reuse. They’re tuned for rapid execution and for efficient use of memory. As new data structures and algorithms are developed that fit this framework, a large base of programmers already will be familiar with the interfaces and algorithms implemented by those data structures.

23.2 Collections Overview All collection classes in the .NET Framework implement some combination of the collection interfaces. These interfaces declare the operations to be performed generically on var-

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ious types of collections. Figure 23.1 lists some of the interfaces of the .NET Framework collections. All the interfaces in Fig. 23.1 are declared in namespace System.Collections and have generic analogs in namespace System.Collections.Generic. Implementations of these interfaces are provided within the framework. Programmers may also provide implementations specific to their own requirements. Interface

Description

ICollection

The interface from which interfaces IList and IDictionary inherit. Contains a Count property to determine the size of a collection and a CopyTo method for copying a collection’s contents into a traditional array. An ordered collection that can be manipulated like an array. Provides an indexer for accessing elements with an int index. Also has methods for searching and modifying a collection, including Add, Remove, Contains and IndexOf. A collection of values, indexed by an arbitrary “key” object. Provides an indexer for accessing elements with an object index and methods for modifying the collection (e.g., Add, Remove). IDictionary property Keys contains the objects used as indices, and property Values contains all the stored objects. An object that can be enumerated. This interface contains exactly one method, GetEnumerator, which returns an IEnumerator object (discussed in Section 23.3). ICollection extends IEnumerable, so all collection classes implement IEnumerable directly or indirectly.

IList

IDictionary

IEnumerable

Fig. 23.1 | Some common collection interfaces. In earlier versions of C#, the .NET Framework primarily provided the collection classes in the System.Collections and System.Collections.Specialized namespaces. These classes stored and manipulated object references. You could store any object in a collection. One inconvenient aspect of storing object references occurs when retrieving them from a collection. An application normally needs to process specific types of objects. As a result, the object references obtained from a collection typically need to be downcast to an appropriate type to allow the application to process the objects correctly. The .NET Framework also includes the System.Collections.Generic namespace, which uses the generics capabilities we introduced in Chapter 22. Many of these classes are simply generic counterparts of the classes in namespace System.Collections. This means that you can specify the exact type that will be stored in a collection. You also receive the benefits of compile-time type checking—the compiler ensures that you’re using appropriate types with your collection and, if not, issues compile-time error messages. Also, once you specify the type stored in a collection, any item you retrieve from the collection will have the correct type. This eliminates the need for explicit type casts that can throw InvalidCastExceptions at execution time if the referenced object is not of the appropriate type. This also eliminates the overhead of explicit casting, improving efficiency and type safety. Generic collections are especially useful for storing structs, since they eliminate the overhead of boxing and unboxing. This chapter demonstrates collection classes Array, ArrayList, Stack, Hashtable, generic SortedDictionary, and generic LinkedList—plus built-in array capabilities. Namespace System.Collections provides several other data structures, including BitArray

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(a collection of true/false values), Queue and SortedList (a collection of key/value pairs that are sorted by key and can be accessed either by key or by index). Figure 23.2 summarizes many of the collection classes. We also discuss the IEnumerator interface. Collection classes can create enumerators that allow programmers to walk through the collections. Although these enumerators have different implementations, they all implement the IEnumerator interface so that they can be processed polymorphically. As we’ll soon see, the foreach statement is simply a convenient notation for using an enumerator. In the next section, we begin our discussion by examining enumerators and the capabilities for array manipulation. [Note: Collection classes directly or indirectly implement ICollection and IEnumerable (or their generic equivalents ICollection and IEnumerable for generic collections).] Class System

Implements

Description

IList

The base class of all conventional arrays. See Section 23.3.

namespace:

Array

System.Collections

namespace:

ArrayList

IList

BitArray

ICollection

Hashtable

IDictionary

Queue

ICollection

SortedList

IDictionary

Stack

ICollection

System.Collections.Generic

Mimics conventional arrays, but will grow or shrink as needed to accommodate the number of elements. See Section 23.4.1. A memory-efficient array of bools. An unordered collection of key/value pairs that can be accessed by key. See Section 23.4.3. A first-in, first-out collection. See Section 21.6. A collection of key/value pairs that are sorted by key and can be accessed either by key or by index. A last-in, first-out collection. See Section 23.4.2.

namespace:

Dictionary< K, V >

IDictionary< K, V >

LinkedList< T >

ICollection< T >

List< T >

IList< T >

Queue< T >

ICollection< T >

SortedDictionary<

IDictionary< K, V >

K, V > SortedList< K, V >

IDictionary< K, V >

Stack< T >

ICollection< T >

A generic, unordered collection of key/value pairs that can be accessed by key. See Section 17.4. A doubly linked list. See Section 23.5.2. A generic ArrayList. Section 9.4. A generic Queue. A Dictionary that sorts the data by the keys in a binary tree. See Section 23.5.1. A generic SortedList. A generic Stack. See .

Fig. 23.2 | Some collection classes of the .NET Framework.

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23.3 Class Array and Enumerators Chapter 8 presented basic array-processing capabilities. All arrays implicitly inherit from abstract base class Array (namespace System); this class defines property Length, which specifies the number of elements in the array. In addition, class Array provides static methods that provide algorithms for processing arrays. Typically, class Array overloads these methods—for example, Array method Reverse can reverse the order of the elements in an entire array or can reverse the elements in a specified range of elements in an array. For a complete list of class Array’s static methods visit: msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.array.aspx

Figure 23.3 demonstrates several static methods of class Array. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

// Fig. 23.3: UsingArray.cs // Array class static methods for common array manipulations. using System; using System.Collections; // demonstrate algorithms of class Array public class UsingArray { private static int[] intValues = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }; private static double[] doubleValues = { 8.4, 9.3, 0.2, 7.9, 3.4 }; private static int[] intValuesCopy; // method Main demonstrates class Array's methods public static void Main( string[] args ) { intValuesCopy = new int[ intValues.Length ]; // defaults to zeroes

Fig. 23.3 |

Console.WriteLine( "Initial array values:\n" ); PrintArrays(); // output initial array contents // sort doubleValues Array.Sort( doubleValues ); // copy intValues into intValuesCopy Array.Copy( intValues, intValuesCopy, intValues.Length ); Console.WriteLine( "\nArray values after Sort and Copy:\n" ); PrintArrays(); // output array contents Console.WriteLine(); // search for 5 in intValues int result = Array.BinarySearch( intValues, 5 ); if ( result >= 0 ) Console.WriteLine( "5 found at element {0} in intValues", result ); else Console.WriteLine( "5 not found in intValues" );

Array

class used to perform common array manipulations. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// search for 8763 in intValues result = Array.BinarySearch( intValues, 8763 ); if ( result >= 0 ) Console.WriteLine( "8763 found at element {0} in intValues", result ); else Console.WriteLine( "8763 not found in intValues" ); } // end Main // output array content with enumerators private static void PrintArrays() { Console.Write( "doubleValues: " ); // iterate through the double array with an enumerator IEnumerator enumerator = doubleValues.GetEnumerator(); while ( enumerator.MoveNext() ) Console.Write( enumerator.Current + " " ); Console.Write( "\nintValues: " ); // iterate through the int array with an enumerator enumerator = intValues.GetEnumerator(); while ( enumerator.MoveNext() ) Console.Write( enumerator.Current + " " ); Console.Write( "\nintValuesCopy: " ); // iterate through the second int array with a foreach statement foreach ( var element in intValuesCopy ) Console.Write( element + " " ); Console.WriteLine(); } // end method PrintArrays } // end class UsingArray

Initial array values: doubleValues: 8.4 9.3 0.2 7.9 3.4 intValues: 1 2 3 4 5 6 intValuesCopy: 0 0 0 0 0 0 Array values after Sort and Copy: doubleValues: 0.2 3.4 7.9 8.4 9.3 intValues: 1 2 3 4 5 6 intValuesCopy: 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 found at element 4 in intValues 8763 not found in intValues

Fig. 23.3 |

Array

class used to perform common array manipulations. (Part 2 of 2.)

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The using directives in lines 3–4 include the namespaces System (for classes Array and Console) and System.Collections (for interface IEnumerator, which we discuss shortly). References to the assemblies for these namespaces are implicitly included in every application, so we do not need to add any new references to the project file. Our test class declares three static array variables (lines 9–11). The first two lines initialize intValues and doubleValues to an int and double array, respectively. Static variable intValuesCopy is intended to demonstrate the Array’s Copy method, so it’s left with the default value null—it does not yet refer to an array. Line 16 initializes intValuesCopy to an int array with the same length as array intValues. Line 19 calls the PrintArrays method (lines 49–74) to output the initial contents of all three arrays. We discuss the PrintArrays method shortly. We can see from the output of Fig. 23.3 that each element of array intValuesCopy is initialized to the default value 0. Line 22 uses static Array method Sort to sort array doubleValues. When this method returns, the array contains its original elements sorted in ascending order. The elements in the array must implement the IComparable interface. Line 25 uses static Array method Copy to copy elements from array intValues to array intValuesCopy. The first argument is the array to copy (intValues), the second argument is the destination array (intValuesCopy) and the third argument is an int representing the number of elements to copy (in this case, intValues.Length specifies all elements). Lines 32 and 40 invoke static Array method BinarySearch to perform binary searches on array intValues. Method BinarySearch receives the sorted array in which to search and the key for which to search. The method returns the index in the array at which it finds the key (or a negative number if the key was not found). BinarySearch assumes that it receives a sorted array. Its behavior on an unsorted array is unpredictable. Chapter 20 discussed binary searching in detail. Method PrintArrays (lines 49–74) uses class Array’s methods to loop though each array. The GetEnumerator method (line 54) obtains an enumerator for array doubleValues. Recall that Array implements the IEnumerable interface. All arrays inherit implicitly from Array, so both the int[] and double[] array types implement IEnumerable interface method GetEnumerator, which returns an enumerator that can iterate over the collection. Interface IEnumerator (which all enumerators implement) defines methods MoveNext and Reset and property Current. MoveNext moves the enumerator to the next element in the collection. The first call to MoveNext positions the enumerator at the first element of the collection. MoveNext returns true if there’s at least one more element in the collection; otherwise, the method returns false. Method Reset positions the enumerator before the first element of the collection. Methods MoveNext and Reset throw an InvalidOperationException if the contents of the collection are modified in any way after the enumerator is created. Property Current returns the object at the current location in the collection.

Common Programming Error 23.1 If a collection is modified after an enumerator is created for that collection, the enumerator immediately becomes invalid—any methods called on the enumerator after this point throw InvalidOperationExceptions. For this reason, enumerators are said to be “fail fast.”

When an enumerator is returned by the GetEnumerator method in line 54, it’s initially positioned before the first element in Array doubleValues. Then when line 56 calls MoveNext in the first iteration of the while loop, the enumerator advances to the first ele-

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ment in doubleValues. The while statement in lines 56–57 loops over each element until the enumerator passes the end of doubleValues and MoveNext returns false. In each iteration, we use the enumerator’s Current property to obtain and output the current array element. Lines 62–65 iterate over array intValues. Notice that PrintArrays is called twice (lines 19 and 28), so GetEnumerator is called twice on doubleValues. The GetEnumerator method (lines 54 and 62) always returns an enumerator positioned before the first element. Also notice that the IEnumerator property Current is read-only. Enumerators cannot be used to modify the contents of collections, only to obtain the contents. Lines 70–71 use a foreach statement to iterate over the collection elements like an enumerator. In fact, the foreach statement behaves exactly like an enumerator. Both loop over the elements of an array one by one in consecutive order. Neither allows you to modify the elements during the iteration. This is not a coincidence. The foreach statement implicitly obtains an enumerator via the GetEnumerator method and uses the enumerator’s MoveNext method and Current property to traverse the collection, just as we did explicitly in lines 54–57. For this reason, we can use the foreach statement to iterate over any collection that implements the IEnumerable interface—not just arrays. We demonstrate this functionality in the next section when we discuss class ArrayList. Other static Array methods include Clear (to set a range of elements to 0, false or null, as appropriate), CreateInstance (to create a new array of a specified type), IndexOf (to locate the first occurrence of an object in an array or portion of an array), LastIndexOf (to locate the last occurrence of an object in an array or portion of an array) and Reverse (to reverse the contents of an array or portion of an array).

23.4 Nongeneric Collections The System.Collections namespace in the .NET Framework Class Library is the primary source for nongeneric collections. These classes provide standard implementations of many of the data structures discussed in Chapter 21 with collections that store references of type object. In this section, we demonstrate classes ArrayList, Stack and Hashtable.

23.4.1 Class ArrayList In most programming languages, conventional arrays have a fixed size—they cannot be changed dynamically to conform to an application’s execution-time memory requirements. In some applications, this fixed-size limitation presents a problem for programmers. They must choose between using fixed-size arrays that are large enough to store the maximum number of elements the application may require and using dynamic data structures that can grow and shrink the amount of memory required to store data in response to the changing requirements of an application at execution time. The .NET Framework’s ArrayList collection class mimics the functionality of conventional arrays and provides dynamic resizing of the collection through the class’s methods. At any time, an ArrayList contains a certain number of elements less than or equal to its capacity—the number of elements currently reserved for the ArrayList. An application can manipulate the capacity with ArrayList property Capacity. [Note: New applications should use the generic List class introduced in Chapter 9.]

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Performance Tip 23.1 As with linked lists, inserting additional elements into an ArrayList whose current size is less than its capacity is a fast operation.

Performance Tip 23.2 It’s a slow operation to insert an element into an ArrayList that needs to grow larger to accommodate a new element. An ArrayList that’s at its capacity must have its memory reallocated and the existing values copied into it.

Performance Tip 23.3 If storage is at a premium, use method TrimToSize of class ArrayList to trim an ArrayList to its exact size. This will optimize an ArrayList’s memory use. Be careful—if the application needs to insert additional elements, the process will be slower, because the ArrayList must grow dynamically (trimming leaves no room for growth).

ArrayLists

store references to objects. All classes derive from class object, so an can contain objects of any type. Figure 23.4 lists some useful methods and properties of class ArrayList. ArrayList

Method or property Add

Capacity

Clear Contains

Count

IndexOf

Insert Remove RemoveAt RemoveRange

Sort TrimToSize

Description Adds an object to the ArrayList and returns an int specifying the index at which the object was added. Property that gets and sets the number of elements for which space is currently reserved in the ArrayList. Removes all the elements from the ArrayList. Returns true if the specified object is in the ArrayList; otherwise, returns false. Read-only property that gets the number of elements stored in the ArrayList. Returns the index of the first occurrence of the specified object in the ArrayList. Inserts an object at the specified index. Removes the first occurrence of the specified object. Removes an object at the specified index. Removes a specified number of elements starting at a specified index in the ArrayList. Sorts the ArrayList. Sets the Capacity of the ArrayList to the number of elements the ArrayList currently contains (Count).

Fig. 23.4 | Some methods and properties of class ArrayList.

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Figure 23.5 demonstrates class ArrayList and several of its methods. Class ArrayList belongs to the System.Collections namespace (line 4). Lines 8–11 declare two arrays of strings (colors and removeColors) that we’ll use to fill two ArrayList objects. Recall from Section 10.11 that constants must be initialized at compile time, but readonly variables can be initialized at execution time. Arrays are objects created at execution time, so we declare colors and removeColors with readonly—not const—to make them unmodifiable. When the application begins execution, we create an ArrayList with an initial capacity of one element and store it in variable list (line 16). The foreach statement in lines 19–20 adds the five elements of array colors to list via ArrayList’s Add method, so list grows to accommodate these new elements. Line 24 uses ArrayList’s overloaded constructor to create a new ArrayList initialized with the contents of array removeColors, then assigns it to variable removeList. This constructor can initialize the contents of an ArrayList with the elements of any ICollection passed to it. Many of the collection classes have such a constructor. Notice that the constructor call in line 24 performs the task of lines 19–20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

// Fig. 23.5: ArrayListTest.cs // Using class ArrayList. using System; using System.Collections; public class ArrayListTest { private static readonly string[] colors = { "MAGENTA", "RED", "WHITE", "BLUE", "CYAN" }; private static readonly string[] removeColors = { "RED", "WHITE", "BLUE" }; // create ArrayList, add colors to it and manipulate it public static void Main( string[] args ) { ArrayList list = new ArrayList( 1 ); // initial capacity of 1 // add the elements of the colors array to the ArrayList list foreach ( var color in colors ) list.Add( color ); // add color to the ArrayList list // add elements in the removeColors array to // the ArrayList removeList with the ArrayList constructor ArrayList removeList = new ArrayList( removeColors ); Console.WriteLine( "ArrayList: " ); DisplayInformation( list ); // output the list // remove from ArrayList list the colors in removeList RemoveColors( list, removeList ); Console.WriteLine( "\nArrayList after calling RemoveColors: " ); DisplayInformation( list ); // output list contents } // end Main

Fig. 23.5 | Using class ArrayList. (Part 1 of 2.)

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36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

// displays information on the contents private static void DisplayInformation( { // iterate through array list with a foreach ( var element in arrayList ) Console.Write( "{0} ", element );

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of an array list ArrayList arrayList ) foreach statement // invokes ToString

// display the size and capacity Console.WriteLine( "\nSize = {0}; Capacity = {1}", arrayList.Count, arrayList.Capacity ); int index = arrayList.IndexOf( "BLUE" ); if ( index != -1 ) Console.WriteLine( "The array list contains BLUE at index {0}.", index ); else Console.WriteLine( "The array list does not contain BLUE." ); } // end method DisplayInformation // remove colors specified in secondList from firstList private static void RemoveColors( ArrayList firstList, ArrayList secondList ) { // iterate through second ArrayList like an array for ( int count = 0; count < secondList.Count; count++ ) firstList.Remove( secondList[ count ] ); } // end method RemoveColors } // end class ArrayListTest

ArrayList: MAGENTA RED WHITE BLUE CYAN Size = 5; Capacity = 8 The array list contains BLUE at index 3. ArrayList after calling RemoveColors: MAGENTA CYAN Size = 2; Capacity = 8 The array list does not contain BLUE.

Fig. 23.5 | Using class ArrayList. (Part 2 of 2.) Line 27 calls method DisplayInformation (lines 37–54) to output the contents of the list. This method uses a foreach statement to traverse the elements of an ArrayList. As we discussed in Section 23.3, the foreach statement is a convenient shorthand for calling ArrayList’s GetEnumerator method and using an enumerator to traverse the elements of the collection. Also, line 40 infers that the iteration variable’s type is object because class ArrayList is nongeneric and stores references to objects. We use properties Count and Capacity (line 45) to display the current number and the maximum number of elements that can be stored without allocating more memory to the ArrayList. The output of Fig. 23.5 indicates that the ArrayList has capacity 8. In line 47, we invoke method IndexOf to determine the position of the string "BLUE" in arrayList and store the result in local variable index. IndexOf returns -1 if the element

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is not found. The if statement in lines 49–53 checks if index is -1 to determine whether arrayList contains "BLUE". If it does, we output its index. ArrayList also provides method Contains, which simply returns true if an object is in the ArrayList, and false otherwise. Method Contains is preferred if we do not need the index of the element.

Performance Tip 23.4 ArrayList methods IndexOf and Contains each perform a linear search, which is a costly

operation for large ArrayLists. If the ArrayList is sorted, use ArrayList method BinarySearch to perform a more efficient search. Method BinarySearch returns the index of the element, or a negative number if the element is not found.

After method DisplayInformation returns, we call method RemoveColors (lines 57– 63) with the two ArrayLists. The for statement in lines 61–62 iterates over ArrayList secondList. Line 62 uses an indexer to access an ArrayList element—by following the ArrayList reference name with square brackets ([]) containing the desired index of the element. An ArgumentOutOfRangeException occurs if the specified index is not both greater than 0 and less than the number of elements currently stored in the ArrayList (specified by the ArrayList’s Count property). We use the indexer to obtain each of secondList’s elements, then remove each one from firstList with the Remove method. This method deletes a specified item from an ArrayList by performing a linear search and removing (only) the first occurrence of the specified object. All subsequent elements shift toward the beginning of the ArrayList to fill the emptied position. After the call to RemoveColors, line 33 again outputs the contents of list, confirming that the elements of removeList were, indeed, removed.

23.4.2 Class Stack The Stack class implements a stack data structure and provides much of the functionality that we defined in our own implementation in Section 21.5. Refer to that section for a discussion of stack data-structure concepts. We created a test application in Fig. 21.14 to demonstrate the StackInheritance data structure that we developed. We adapt Fig. 21.14 in Fig. 23.6 to demonstrate the .NET Framework collection class Stack. [Note: New applications requiring a stack class should use the generic Stack class.] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

// Fig. 23.6: StackTest.cs // Demonstrating class Stack. using System; using System.Collections; public class StackTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { Stack stack = new Stack(); // create an empty Stack // create objects to store in the stack bool aBoolean = true;

Fig. 23.6 | Demonstrating class Stack. (Part 1 of 3.)

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char aCharacter = '$'; int anInteger = 34567; string aString = "hello"; // use method Push to add items to (the top of) the stack stack.Push( aBoolean ); PrintStack( stack ); stack.Push( aCharacter ); PrintStack( stack ); stack.Push( anInteger ); PrintStack( stack ); stack.Push( aString ); PrintStack( stack ); // check the top element of the stack Console.WriteLine( "The top element of the stack is {0}\n", stack.Peek() ); // remove items from stack try { while ( true ) { object removedObject = stack.Pop(); Console.WriteLine( removedObject + " popped" ); PrintStack( stack ); } // end while } // end try catch ( InvalidOperationException exception ) { // if exception occurs, output stack trace Console.Error.WriteLine( exception ); } // end catch } // end Main // display the contents of a stack private static void PrintStack( Stack stack ) { if ( stack.Count == 0 ) Console.WriteLine( "stack is empty\n" ); // the stack is empty else { Console.Write( "The stack is: " ); // iterate through the stack with a foreach statement foreach ( var element in stack ) Console.Write( "{0} ", element ); // invokes ToString Console.WriteLine( "\n" ); } // end else } // end method PrintStack } // end class StackTest

Fig. 23.6 | Demonstrating class Stack. (Part 2 of 3.)

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The stack is: True The stack is: $ True The stack is: 34567 $ True The stack is: hello 34567 $ True The top element of the stack is hello hello popped The stack is: 34567 $ True 34567 popped The stack is: $ True $ popped The stack is: True True popped stack is empty System.InvalidOperationException: Stack empty. at System.Collections.Stack.Pop() at StackTest.Main(String[] args) in C:\examples\ch23\ fig23_06\StackTest\StackTest.cs:line 37

Fig. 23.6 | Demonstrating class Stack. (Part 3 of 3.) The using directive in line 4 allows us to use the Stack class with its unqualified name from the System.Collections namespace. Line 10 creates a Stack. As one might expect, class Stack has methods Push and Pop to perform the basic stack operations. Method Push takes an object as an argument and inserts it at the top of the Stack. If the number of items on the Stack (the Count property) is equal to the capacity at the time of the Push operation, the Stack grows to accommodate more objects. Lines 19–26 use method Push to add four elements (a bool, a char, an int and a string) to the stack and invoke method PrintStack (lines 50–64) after each Push to output the contents of the stack. Notice that this nongeneric Stack class can store only references to objects, so each of the value-type items—the bool, the char and the int—is implicitly boxed before it’s added to the Stack. (Namespace System.Collections.Generic provides a generic Stack class that has many of the same methods and properties used in Fig. 23.6. This version eliminates the overhead of boxing and unboxing simple types.) Method PrintStack (lines 50–64) uses Stack property Count (implemented to fulfill the contract of interface ICollection) to obtain the number of elements in stack. If the stack is not empty (i.e., Count is not equal to 0), we use a foreach statement to iterate over the stack and output its contents by implicitly invoking the ToString method of each element. The foreach statement implicitly invokes Stack’s GetEnumerator method, which we could have called explicitly to traverse the stack via an enumerator. Method Peek returns the value of the top stack element but does not remove the element from the Stack. We use Peek at line 30 to obtain the top object of the Stack, then output that object, implicitly invoking the object’s ToString method. An InvalidOpera-

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occurs if the Stack is empty when the application calls Peek. (We do not need an exception-handling block because we know the stack is not empty here.) Method Pop takes no arguments—it removes and returns the object currently on top of the Stack. An infinite loop (lines 35–40) pops objects off the stack and outputs them until the stack is empty. When the application calls Pop on the empty stack, an InvalidOperationException is thrown. The catch block (lines 42–46) outputs the exception, implicitly invoking the InvalidOperationException’s ToString method to obtain its error message and stack trace. tionException

Common Programming Error 23.2 Attempting to Peek or Pop an empty Stack (a Stack whose Count property is 0) causes an InvalidOperationException.

Although Fig. 23.6 does not demonstrate it, class Stack also has method Contains, which returns true if the Stack contains the specified object, and returns false otherwise.

23.4.3 Class Hashtable When an application creates objects of new or existing types, it needs to manage those objects efficiently. This includes sorting and retrieving objects. Sorting and retrieving information with arrays is efficient if some aspect of your data directly matches the key value and if those keys are unique and tightly packed. If you have 100 employees with nine-digit social security numbers and you want to store and retrieve employee data by using the social security number as a key, it would nominally require an array with 1,000,000,000 elements, because there are 1,000,000,000 unique nine-digit numbers. If you have an array that large, you could get high performance storing and retrieving employee records by simply using the social security number as the array index, but it would be a large waste of memory. Many applications have this problem—either the keys are of the wrong type (i.e., not nonnegative integers), or they’re of the right type but are sparsely spread over a large range. What is needed is a high-speed scheme for converting keys such as social security numbers and inventory part numbers to unique array indices. Then, when an application needs to store something, the scheme could convert the application key rapidly to an index and the record of information could be stored at that location in the array. Retrieval occurs the same way—once the application has a key for which it wants to retrieve the data record, the application simply applies the conversion to the key, which produces the array index where the data resides in the array and retrieves the data. The scheme we describe here is the basis of a technique called hashing, in which we store data in a data structure called a hash table. Why the name? Because, when we convert a key into an array index, we literally scramble the bits, making a “hash” of the number. The number actually has no real significance beyond its usefulness in storing and retrieving this particular data record. A glitch in the scheme occurs when there are collisions (i.e., two different keys “hash into” the same cell, or element, in the array). Since we cannot sort two different data records to the same space, we need to find an alternative home for all records beyond the first that hash to a particular array index. One scheme for doing this is to “hash again” (i.e., to reapply the hashing transformation to the key to provide a next candidate cell in the array). The hashing process is designed so that with just a few hashes, an available cell will be found.

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Another scheme uses one hash to locate the first candidate cell. If the cell is occupied, successive cells are searched linearly until an available cell is found. Retrieval works the same way—the key is hashed once, the resulting cell is checked to determine whether it contains the desired data. If it does, the search is complete. If it does not, successive cells are searched linearly until the desired data is found. The most popular solution to hash-table collisions is to have each cell of the table be a hash “bucket”—typically, a linked list of all the key/value pairs that hash to that cell. This is the solution that the .NET Framework’s Hashtable class implements. The load factor affects the performance of hashing schemes. The load factor is the ratio of the number of objects stored in the hash table to the total number of cells of the hash table. As this ratio gets higher, the chance of collisions tends to increase.

Performance Tip 23.5 The load factor in a hash table is a classic example of a space/time trade-off: By increasing the load factor, we get better memory utilization, but the application runs slower due to increased hashing collisions. By decreasing the load factor, we get better application speed because of reduced hashing collisions, but we get poorer memory utilization because a larger portion of the hash table remains empty.

Computer-science students study hashing schemes in courses called “Data Structures” and “Algorithms.” Recognizing the value of hashing, the .NET Framework provides class Hashtable to enable programmers to easily employ hashing in applications. This concept is profoundly important in our study of object-oriented programming. Classes encapsulate and hide complexity (i.e., implementation details) and offer userfriendly interfaces. Crafting classes to do this properly is one of the most valued skills in the field of object-oriented programming. A hash function performs a calculation that determines where to place data in the hash table. The hash function is applied to the key in a key/value pair of objects. Class Hashtable can accept any object as a key. For this reason, class object defines method GetHashCode, which all objects inherit. Most classes that are candidates to be used as keys in a hash table override this method to provide one that performs efficient hash-code calculations for a specific type. For example, a string has a hash-code calculation that’s based on the contents of the string. Figure 23.7 uses a Hashtable to count the number of occurrences of each word in a string. [Note: New applications should use generic class Dictionary (introduced in Section 17.4) rather than Hashtable.] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

// Fig. 23.7: HashtableTest.cs // Application counts the number of occurrences of each word in a string // and stores them in a hash table. using System; using System.Text.RegularExpressions; using System.Collections; public class HashtableTest {

Fig. 23.7 | Application counts the number of occurrences of each word in a string and stores them in a hash table. (Part 1 of 3.)

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public static void Main( string[] args ) { // create hash table based on user input Hashtable table = CollectWords(); // display hash-table content DisplayHashtable( table ); } // end Main // create hash table from user input private static Hashtable CollectWords() { Hashtable table = new Hashtable(); // create a new hash table Console.WriteLine( "Enter a string: " ); // prompt for user input string input = Console.ReadLine(); // get input // split input text into tokens string[] words = Regex.Split( input, @"\s+" ); // processing input words foreach ( var word in words ) { string wordKey = word.ToLower(); // get word in lowercase // if the hash table contains the word if ( table.ContainsKey( wordKey ) ) { table[ wordKey ] = ( ( int ) table[ wordKey ] ) + 1; } // end if else // add new word with a count of 1 to hash table table.Add( wordKey, 1 ); } // end foreach return table; } // end method CollectWords // display hash-table content private static void DisplayHashtable( Hashtable table ) { Console.WriteLine( "\nHashtable contains:\n{0,-12}{1,-12}", "Key:", "Value:" ); // generate output for each key in hash table // by iterating through the Keys property with a foreach statement foreach ( var key in table.Keys ) Console.WriteLine( "{0,-12}{1,-12}", key, table[ key ] ); Console.WriteLine( "\nsize: {0}", table.Count ); } // end method DisplayHashtable } // end class HashtableTest

Fig. 23.7 | Application counts the number of occurrences of each word in a string and stores them in a hash table. (Part 2 of 3.)

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Enter a string: As idle as a painted ship upon a painted ocean Hashtable contains: Key: Value: ocean 1 a 2 as 2 ship 1 upon 1 painted 2 idle 1 size: 7

Fig. 23.7 | Application counts the number of occurrences of each word in a string and stores them in a hash table. (Part 3 of 3.)

Lines 4–6 contain

directives for namespaces System (for class Console), (for class Regex) and System.Collections (for class Hashtable). Class HashtableTest declares three static methods. Method CollectWords (lines 20–46) inputs a string and returns a Hashtable in which each value stores the number of times that word appears in the string and the word is used for the key. Method DisplayHashtable (lines 49–60) displays the Hashtable passed to it in column format. The Main method (lines 10–17) simply invokes CollectWords (line 13), then passes the Hashtable returned by CollectWords to DisplayHashtable in line 16. Method CollectWords (lines 20–46) begins by initializing local variable table with a new Hashtable (line 22) that has a default maximum load factor of 1.0. When the Hashtable reaches the specified load factor, the capacity is increased automatically. (This implementation detail is invisible to clients of the class.) Lines 24–25 prompt the user and input a string. We use static method Split of class Regex in line 28 to divide the string by its whitespace characters. This creates an array of “words,” which we then store in local variable words. Lines 31–43 loop over every element of array words. Each word is converted to lowercase with string method ToLower, then stored in variable wordKey (line 33). Then line 36 calls Hashtable method ContainsKey to determine whether the word is in the hash table (and thus has occurred previously in the string). If the Hashtable does not contain an entry for the word, line 42 uses Hashtable method Add to create a new entry in the hash table, with the lowercase word as the key and an object containing 1 as the value. Autoboxing occurs when the application passes integer 1 to method Add, because the hash table stores both the key and value in references of type object. using

System.Text.RegularExpressions

Common Programming Error 23.3 Using the Add method to add a key that already exists in the hash table causes an mentException.

Argu-

If the word is already a key in the hash table, line 38 uses the Hashtable’s indexer to obtain and set the key’s associated value (the word count) in the hash table. We first down-

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cast the value obtained by the get accessor from an object to an int. This unboxes the value so that we can increment it by 1. Then, when we use the indexer’s set accessor to assign the key’s associated value, the incremented value is implicitly reboxed so that it can be stored in the hash table. Notice that invoking the get accessor of a Hashtable indexer with a key that does not exist in the hash table obtains a null reference. Using the set accessor with a key that does not exist in the hash table creates a new entry, as if you had used the Add method. Line 45 returns the hash table to the Main method, which then passes it to method DisplayHashtable (lines 49–60), which displays all the entries. This method uses readonly property Keys (line 56) to get an ICollection that contains all the keys. Because ICollection extends IEnumerable, we can use this collection in the foreach statement in lines 56–57 to iterate over the keys of the hash table. This loop accesses and outputs each key and its value in the hash table using the iteration variable and table’s get accessor. Each key and its value is displayed in a field width of -12. The negative field width indicates that the output is left justified. A hash table is not sorted, so the key/value pairs are not displayed in any particular order. Line 59 uses Hashtable property Count to get the number of key/value pairs in the Hashtable. Lines 56–57 could have also used the foreach statement with the Hashtable object itself, instead of using the Keys property. If you use a foreach statement with a Hashtable object, the iteration variable will be of type DictionaryEntry. The enumerator of a Hashtable (or any other class that implements IDictionary) uses the DictionaryEntry structure to store key/value pairs. This structure provides properties Key and Value for retrieving the key and value of the current element. If you do not need the key, class Hashtable also provides a read-only Values property that gets an ICollection of all the values stored in the Hashtable. We can use this property to iterate through the values stored in the Hashtable without regard for where they’re stored.

Problems with Nongeneric Collections In the word-counting application of Fig. 23.7, our Hashtable stores its keys and data as object references, even though we store only string keys and int values by convention. This results in some awkward code. For example, line 38 was forced to unbox and box the int data stored in the Hashtable every time it incremented the count for a particular key. This is inefficient. A similar problem occurs in line 56—the iteration variable of the foreach statement is an object reference. If we need to use any of its string-specific methods, we need an explicit downcast. This can cause subtle bugs. Suppose we decide to improve the readability of Fig. 23.7 by using the indexer’s set accessor instead of the Add method to add a key/value pair in line 42, but accidentally type: table[ wordKey ] = wordKey; // initialize to 1

This statement will create a new entry with a string key and string value instead of an int value of 1. Although the application will compile correctly, this is clearly incorrect. If a word appears twice, line 38 will try to downcast this string to an int, causing an InvalidCastException at execution time. The error that appears at execution time will indicate that the problem is at line 38, where the exception occurred, not at line 42. This makes the error more difficult to find and debug, especially in large software applications where the exception may occur in a different file—and even in a different assembly.

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23.5 Generic Collections The System.Collections.Generic namespace contains generic classes that allow us to create collections of specific types. As you saw in Fig. 23.2, many of the classes are simply generic versions of nongeneric collections. A couple of classes implement new data structures. Here, we demonstrate generic collections SortedDictionary and LinkedList.

23.5.1 Generic Class SortedDictionary A dictionary is the general term for a collection of key/value pairs. A hash table is one way to implement a dictionary. The .NET Framework provides several implementations of dictionaries, both generic and nongeneric, all of which implement the IDictionary interface (described in Fig. 23.1). The application in Fig. 23.8 is a modification of Fig. 23.7 that uses the generic class SortedDictionary. Generic class SortedDictionary does not use a hash table, but instead stores its key/value pairs in a binary search tree. (We discuss binary trees in depth in Section 21.7.) As the class name suggests, the entries in SortedDictionary are sorted in the tree by key. When the key implements generic interface IComparable, the SortedDictionary uses the results of IComparable method CompareTo to sort the keys. Notice that despite these implementation details, we use the same public methods, properties and indexers with classes Hashtable and SortedDictionary in the same ways. In fact, except for the generic-specific syntax, Fig. 23.8 looks remarkably similar to Fig. 23.7. This is the beauty of object-oriented programming. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

// Fig. 23.12: SortedDictionaryTest.cs // Application counts the number of occurrences of each word in a string // and stores them in a generic sorted dictionary. using System; using System.Text.RegularExpressions; using System.Collections.Generic; public class SortedDictionaryTest { public static void Main( string[] args ) { // create sorted dictionary based on user input SortedDictionary< string, int > dictionary = CollectWords(); // display sorted dictionary content DisplayDictionary( dictionary ); } // end Main // create sorted dictionary from user input private static SortedDictionary< string, int > CollectWords() { // create a new sorted dictionary SortedDictionary< string, int > dictionary = new SortedDictionary< string, int >();

Fig. 23.8 | Application counts the number of occurrences of each word in a string and stores them in a generic sorted dictionary. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Console.WriteLine( "Enter a string: " ); // prompt for user input string input = Console.ReadLine(); // get input // split input text into tokens string[] words = Regex.Split( input, @"\s+" ); // processing input words foreach ( var word in words ) { string wordKey = word.ToLower(); // get word in lowercase // if the dictionary contains the word if ( dictionary.ContainsKey( wordKey ) ) { ++dictionary[ wordKey ]; } // end if else // add new word with a count of 1 to the dictionary dictionary.Add( wordKey, 1 ); } // end foreach return dictionary; } // end method CollectWords // display dictionary content private static void DisplayDictionary< K, V >( SortedDictionary< K, V > dictionary ) { Console.WriteLine( "\nSorted dictionary contains:\n{0,-12}{1,-12}", "Key:", "Value:" ); // generate output for each key in the sorted dictionary // by iterating through the Keys property with a foreach statement foreach ( K key in dictionary.Keys ) Console.WriteLine( "{0,-12}{1,-12}", key, dictionary[ key ] ); Console.WriteLine( "\nsize: {0}", dictionary.Count ); } // end method DisplayDictionary } // end class SortedDictionaryTest

Enter a string: We few, we happy few, we band of brothers Sorted dictionary contains: Key: Value: band 1 brothers 1 few, 2 happy 1 of 1 we 3 size: 6

Fig. 23.8 | Application counts the number of occurrences of each word in a string and stores them in a generic sorted dictionary. (Part 2 of 2.)

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Line 6 contains a using directive for the System.Collections.Generic namespace, which contains class SortedDictionary. The generic class SortedDictionary takes two type arguments—the first specifies the type of key (i.e., string) and the second the type of value (i.e., int). We have simply replaced the word Hashtable in line 13 and lines 23– 24 with SortedDictionary to create a dictionary of int values keyed with strings. Now, the compiler can check and notify us if we attempt to store an object of the wrong type in the dictionary. Also, because the compiler now knows that the data structure contains int values, there’s no longer any need for the downcast in line 40. This allows line 40 to use the much more concise prefix increment (++) notation. These changes result in code that can be checked for type safety at compile time. Static method DisplayDictionary (lines 51–63) has been modified to be completely generic. It takes type parameters K and V. These parameters are used in line 52 to indicate that DisplayDictionary takes a SortedDictionary with keys of type K and values of type V. We use type parameter K again in line 59 as the type of the iteration key. This use of generics is a marvelous example of code reuse. If we decide to change the application to count the number of times each character appears in a string, method DisplayDictionary could receive an argument of type SortedDictionary without modification. The key-value pairs displayed are now ordered by key, as shown in Fig. 23.8.

Performance Tip 23.6 Because class SortedDictionary keeps its elements sorted in a binary tree, obtaining or inserting a key/value pair takes O(log n) time, which is fast compared to linear searching, then inserting.

Common Programming Error 23.4 Invoking the get accessor of a SortedDictionary indexer with a key that does not exist in the collection causes a KeyNotFoundException. This behavior is different from that of the Hashtable indexer’s get accessor, which would return null.

23.5.2 Generic Class LinkedList The generic LinkedList class is a doubly linked list—we can navigate the list both backward and forward with nodes of generic class LinkedListNode. Each node contains property Value and read-only properties Previous and Next. The Value property’s type matches LinkedList’s single type parameter because it contains the data stored in the node. The Previous property gets a reference to the preceding node in the linked list (or null if the node is the first of the list). Similarly, the Next property gets a reference to the subsequent reference in the linked list (or null if the node is the last of the list). We demonstrate a few linked-list manipulations in Fig. 23.9. 1 2 3 4 5

// Fig. 23.9: LinkedListTest.cs // Using LinkedLists. using System; using System.Collections.Generic;

Fig. 23.9 | Using LinkedLists. (Part 1 of 4.)

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public class LinkedListTest { private static readonly string[] colors = { "black", "yellow", "green", "blue", "violet", "silver" }; private static readonly string[] colors2 = { "gold", "white", "brown", "blue", "gray" }; // set up and manipulate LinkedList objects public static void Main( string[] args ) { LinkedList< string > list1 = new LinkedList< string >(); // add elements to first linked list foreach ( var color in colors ) list1.AddLast( color ); // add elements to second linked list via constructor LinkedList< string > list2 = new LinkedList< string >( colors2 ); Concatenate( list1, list2 ); // concatenate list2 onto list1 PrintList( list1 ); // display list1 elements Console.WriteLine( "\nConverting strings in list1 to uppercase\n" ); ToUppercaseStrings( list1 ); // convert to uppercase string PrintList( list1 ); // display list1 elements Console.WriteLine( "\nDeleting strings between BLACK and BROWN\n" ); RemoveItemsBetween( list1, "BLACK", "BROWN" ); PrintList( list1 ); // display list1 elements PrintReversedList( list1 ); // display list in reverse order } // end Main // display list contents private static void PrintList< T >( LinkedList< T > list ) { Console.WriteLine( "Linked list: " ); foreach ( T value in list ) Console.Write( "{0} ", value ); Console.WriteLine(); } // end method PrintList // concatenate the second list on the end of the first list private static void Concatenate< T >( LinkedList< T > list1, LinkedList< T > list2 ) { // concatenate lists by copying element values // in order from the second list to the first list foreach ( T value in list2 ) list1.AddLast( value ); // add new node } // end method Concatenate

Fig. 23.9 | Using LinkedLists. (Part 2 of 4.)

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59 60 // locate string objects and convert to uppercase private static void ToUppercaseStrings( LinkedList< string > list ) 61 62 { // iterate over the list by using the nodes 63 LinkedListNode< string > currentNode = list.First; 64 65 while ( currentNode != null ) 66 { 67 68 string color = currentNode.Value; // get value in node currentNode.Value = color.ToUpper(); // convert to uppercase 69 70 71 currentNode = currentNode.Next; // get next node } // end while 72 } // end method ToUppercaseStrings 73 74 75 // delete list items between two given items 76 private static void RemoveItemsBetween< T >( LinkedList< T > list, 77 T startItem, T endItem ) 78 { 79 // get the nodes corresponding to the start and end item LinkedListNode< T > currentNode = list.Find( startItem ); 80 81 LinkedListNode< T > endNode = list.Find( endItem ); 82 83 // remove items after the start item 84 // until we find the last item or the end of the linked list 85 while ( ( currentNode.Next != null ) && 86 ( currentNode.Next != endNode ) ) 87 { list.Remove( currentNode.Next ); // remove next node 88 89 } // end while 90 } // end method RemoveItemsBetween 91 92 // display reversed list 93 private static void PrintReversedList< T >( LinkedList< T > list ) 94 { 95 Console.WriteLine( "Reversed List:" ); 96 97 // iterate over the list by using the nodes LinkedListNode< T > currentNode = list.Last; 98 99 while ( currentNode != null ) 100 { 101 102 Console.Write( "{0} ", currentNode.Value ); currentNode = currentNode.Previous; // get previous node 103 } // end while 104 105 106 Console.WriteLine(); 107 } // end method PrintReversedList 108 } // end class LinkedListTest

Fig. 23.9 | Using LinkedLists. (Part 3 of 4.)

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Linked list: black yellow green blue violet silver gold white brown blue gray Converting strings in list1 to uppercase Linked list: BLACK YELLOW GREEN BLUE VIOLET SILVER GOLD WHITE BROWN BLUE GRAY Deleting strings between BLACK and BROWN Linked list: BLACK BROWN BLUE GRAY Reversed List: GRAY BLUE BROWN BLACK

Fig. 23.9 | Using LinkedLists. (Part 4 of 4.) The using directive in line 4 allows us to use the LinkedList class by its unqualified name. Lines 16–23 create LinkedLists list1 and list2 of strings and fill them with the contents of arrays colors and colors2, respectively. LinkedList is a generic class that has one type parameter for which we specify the type argument string in this example (lines 16 and 23). We demonstrate two ways to fill the lists. In lines 19–20, we use the foreach statement and method AddLast to fill list1. The AddLast method creates a new LinkedListNode (with the given value available via the Value property) and appends this node to the end of the list. There’s also an AddFirst method that inserts a node at the beginning of the list. Line 23 invokes the constructor that takes an IEnumerable parameter. All arrays implicitly inherit from the generic interfaces IList and IEnumerable with the type of the array as the type argument, so the string array colors2 implements IEnumerable. The type parameter of this generic IEnumerable matches the type parameter of the generic LinkedList object. This constructor call copies the contents of the array colors2 to list2. Line 25 calls generic method Concatenate (lines 51–58) to append all elements of list2 to the end of list1. Line 26 calls method PrintList (lines 40–48) to output list1’s contents. Line 29 calls method ToUppercaseStrings (lines 61–73) to convert each string element to uppercase, then line 30 calls PrintList again to display the modified strings. Line 33 calls method RemoveItemsBetween (lines 76–90) to remove the elements between "BLACK" and "BROWN"—not including either. Line 35 outputs the list again, then line 36 invokes method PrintReversedList (lines 93–107) to display the list in reverse order. Generic method Concatenate (lines 51–58) iterates over list2 with a foreach statement and calls method AddLast to append each value to the end of list1. The LinkedList class’s enumerator loops over the values of the nodes, not the nodes themselves, so the iteration variable has type T. Notice that this creates a new node in list1 for each node in list2. One LinkedListNode cannot be a member of more than one LinkedList. If you want the same data to belong to more than one LinkedList, you must make a copy of the node for each list to avoid InvalidOperationExceptions. Generic method PrintList (lines 40–48) similarly uses a foreach statement to iterate over the values in a LinkedList, and outputs them. Method ToUppercaseStrings (lines 61–73) takes a linked list of strings and converts each string value to uppercase. This

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method replaces the strings stored in the list, so we cannot use an enumerator (via a foreach statement) as in the previous two methods. Instead, we obtain the first LinkedListNode via the First property (line 64), and use a while statement to loop through the list (lines 66–72). Each iteration of the while statement obtains and updates the contents of currentNode via property Value, using string method ToUpper to create an uppercase version of string color. At the end of each iteration, we move the current node to the next node in the list by assigning currentNode to the node obtained by its own Next property (line 71). The Next property of the last node of the list gets null, so when the while statement iterates past the end of the list, the loop exits. Notice that it does not make sense to declare ToUppercaseStrings as a generic method, because it uses the string-specific methods of the values in the nodes. Methods PrintList (lines 40–48) and Concatenate (lines 51–58) do not need to use any stringspecific methods, so they can be declared with generic type parameters to promote maximal code reuse. Generic method RemoveItemsBetween (lines 76–90) removes a range of items between two nodes. Lines 80–81 obtain the two “boundary” nodes of the range by using method Find. This method performs a linear search on the list and returns the first node that contains a value equal to the passed argument. Method Find returns null if the value is not found. We store the node preceding the range in local variable currentNode and the node following the range in endNode. The while statement in lines 85–89 removes all the elements between currentNode and endNode. On each iteration of the loop, we remove the node following currentNode by invoking method Remove (line 88). Method Remove takes a LinkedListNode, splices that node out of the LinkedList, and fixes the references of the surrounding nodes. After the Remove call, currentNode’s Next property now gets the node following the node just removed, and that node’s Previous property now gets currentNode. The while statement continues to loop until there are no nodes left between currentNode and endNode, or until currentNode is the last node in the list. (There’s also an overloaded version of method Remove that performs a linear search for the specified value and removes the first node in the list that contains it.) Method PrintReversedList (lines 93–107) displays the list backward by navigating the nodes manually. Line 98 obtains the last element of the list via the Last property and stores it in currentNode. The while statement in lines 100–104 iterates through the list backward by moving the currentNode reference to the previous node at the end of each iteration, then exiting when we move past the beginning of the list. Note how similar this code is to lines 64–72, which iterated through the list from the beginning to the end.

23.6 Covariance and Contravariance for Generic Types A new feature in Visual C# 2010 is covariance and contravariance of generic interface and delegate types. To understand these concepts, we’ll consider them in the context of arrays, which have always been covariant and contravariant in C#.

Covariance in Arrays Recall our Employee class hierarchy from Section 12.5, which consisted of the base class Employee and the derived classes SalariedEmployee, CommissionEmployee and BasePlusCommissionEmployee. Assuming the declarations

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SalariedEmployee[] salariedEmployees = { new SalariedEmployee( "Bob", "Blue", "111-11-1111", 800M ), new SalariedEmployee( "Rachel", "Red", "222-22-2222", 1234M ) }; Employee[] employees;

we can write the following statement: employees = salariedEmployees;

Even though the array type SalariedEmployee[] does not derive from the array type Employee[], the preceding assignment is allowed because class SalariedEmployee is a derived class of Employee. Similarly, suppose we have the following method, which displays the string representation of each Employee in its employees array parameter: void PrintEmployees( Employee[] employees )

We can call this method with the array of SalariedEmployees, as in: PrintEmployees( salariedEmployees );

and the method will correctly display the string representation of each SalariedEmployee object in the argument array. Assigning an array of a derived-class type to an array variable of a base-class type is an example of covariance.

Covariance in Generic Types Covariance now also works with several generic interface and delegate types, including IEnumerable. Arrays and generic collections implement the IEnumerable interface. Using the salariedEmployees array declared previously, consider the following statement: IEnumerable< Employee > employees = salariedEmployees;

Prior to Visual C# 2010, this generated a compilation error. Interface IEnumerable is now covariant, so the preceding statement is allowed. If we modify method PrintEmployees as in: void PrintEmployees( IEnumerable< Employee > employees )

we can call PrintEmployees with the array of SalariedEmployee objects, because that array implements the interface IEnumerable and because a SalariedEmployee is an Employee and because IEnumerable is covariant. Covariance like this works only with reference types that are related by a class hierarchy.

Contravariance in Arrays Previously, we showed that an array of a derived-class type (salariedEmployees) can be assigned to an array variable of a base-class type (employees). Now, consider the following statement, which has always worked in C#: SalariedEmployee[] salariedEmployees2 = ( SalariedEmployee[] ) employees;

Based on the previous statements, we know that the Employee array variable employees currently refers to an array of SalariedEmployees. Using a cast operator to assign employees—an array of base-class-type elements—to salariedEmployees2—an array of derivedclass-type elements—is an example of contravariance. The preceding cast will fail at runtime if employees is not an array of SalariedEmployees.

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Contravariance in Generic Types To understand contravariance in generic types, consider a SortedSet of SalariedEmployees. Class SortedSet maintains a set of objects in sorted order—no duplicates are allowed. The objects placed in a SortedSet must implement the IComparable interface. For classes that do not implement this interface, you can still compare their objects using an object that implements the IComparer interface. This interface’s Compare method compares its two arguments and returns 0 if they’re equal, a negative integer if the first object is less than the second, or a positive integer if the first object is greater than the second. Our Employee hierarchy classes do not implement IComparable. Let’s assume we wish to sort Employees by social security number. We can implement the following class to compare any two Employees: class EmployeeComparer : IComparer< Employee > { int IComparer< Employee >.Compare( Employee a, Employee b) { return a.SocialSecurityNumber.CompareTo( b.SocialSecurityNumber ); } // end method Compare } // end class EmployeeComparer

Method Compare returns the result of comparing the two Employees social security numbers using string method CompareTo. Now consider the following statement, which creates a SortedSet: SortedSet< SalariedEmployee > set = new SortedSet< SalariedEmployee >( new EmployeeComparer() );

When the type argument does not implement IComparable, you must supply an appropriate IComparer object to compare the objects that will be placed in the SortedSet. Since, we’re creating a SortedSet of SalariedEmployees, the compiler expects the IComparer object to implement the IComparer. Instead, we provided an object that implements IComparer. The compiler allows us to provide an IComparer for a base-class type where an IComparer for a derived-class type is expected because interface IComparer supports contravariance.

Web Resources For a list of covariant and contravariant interface types in .NET 4, visit msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/dd799517.aspx#VariantList

It’s also possible to create your own variant types. For information on this, visit msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/dd997386.aspx

23.7 Wrap-Up This chapter introduced the .NET Framework collection classes. You learned about the hierarchy of interfaces that many of the collection classes implement. You saw how to use class Array to perform array manipulations. You learned that the System.Collections and System.Collections.Generic namespaces contain many nongeneric and generic collection classes, respectively. We presented the nongeneric classes ArrayList, Stack and

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as well as generic classes SortedDictionary and LinkedList. In doing so, we discussed data structures in greater depth. We discussed dynamically expanding collections, hashing schemes, and two implementations of a dictionary. You saw the advantages of generic collections over their nongeneric counterparts. You also learned how to use enumerators to traverse these data structures and obtain their contents. We demonstrated the foreach statement with many of the classes of the Framework Class Library, and explained that this works by using enumerators “behindthe-scenes” to traverse the collections. Hashtable

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24 GUI with Windows Presentation Foundation My function is to present old masterpieces in modern frames. —Rudolf Bing

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn:

Instead of being a static one-time event, bonding is a process, a dynamic and continuous one.

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To mark up data using XML.

—Julius Segal

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To define a WPF GUI with Extensible Application Markup Language (XAML).

…they do not declare but only hint.

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To handle WPF user-interface events.

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To use WPF’s commands feature to handle common application tasks such as cut, copy and paste.

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To customize the look-and-feel of WPF GUIs using styles and control templates.

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To use data binding to display data in WPF controls.

—Friedrich Nietzsche

Science is the knowledge of consequences, and dependence of one fact upon another. —Thomas Hobbes

Here form is content, content is form. —Samuel Beckett

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24.1 Introduction

24.1 Introduction g 24.2 Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) 24.3 XML Basics 24.4 Structuring Data 24.5 XML Namespaces 24.6 Declarative GUI Programming Using XAML 24.7 Creating a WPF Application in Visual C# Express 24.8 Laying Out Controls

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24.10 Commands and Common Application Tasks 24.11 WPF GUI Customization 24.12 Using Styles to Change the Appearance of Controls 24.13 Customizing Windows 24.14 Defining a Control’s Appearance with Control Templates 24.15 Data-Driven GUIs with Data Binding 24.16 Wrap-Up 24.17 Web Resources

24.8.1 General Layout Principles 24.8.2 Layout in Action

24.9 Event Handling

24.1 Introduction In Chapters 14–15, you built GUIs using Windows Forms. In this chapter, you’ll build GUIs using Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF)—Microsoft’s newer framework for GUI, graphics, animation and multimedia. In Chapter 25, WPF Graphics and Multimedia, you’ll learn how to incorporate 2D graphics, 3D graphics, animation, audio and video in WPF applications. In Chapter 29, Silverlight and Rich Internet Applications, we’ll demonstrate how to use Silverlight (a subset of WPF for web applications) to create Internet applications. We begin with an introduction to WPF. Next, we discuss an important tool for creating WPF applications called XAML (pronounced “zammel”)—Extensible Application Markup Language. XAML is a descriptive markup language that can be used to define and arrange GUI controls without any C# code. Its syntax is XML (Extensible Markup Language), a widely supported standard for describing data that is commonly used to exchange that data between applications over the Internet. We present an introduction to XML in Sections 24.3–24.5. Section 24.6 demonstrates how to define a WPF GUI with XAML. Sections 24.7–24.10 demonstrate the basics of creating a WPF GUI—layout, controls and events. You’ll also learn new capabilities that are available in WPF controls and event handling. WPF allows you to easily customize the look-and-feel of a GUI beyond what is possible in Windows Forms. Sections 24.11–24.14 demonstrate several techniques for manipulating the appearance of your GUIs. WPF also allows you to create data-driven GUIs that interact with many types of data. We demonstrate how to do this in Section 24.15.

24.2 Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) Previously, you often had to use multiple technologies to build client applications. If a Windows Forms application required video and audio capabilities, you needed to incorporate an additional technology such as Windows Media Player. Likewise, if your application required 3D graphics capabilities, you had to incorporate a separate technology

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such as Direct3D. WPF provides a single platform capable of handling both of these requirements, and more. It enables you to use one technology to build applications containing GUI, images, animation, 2D or 3D graphics, audio and video capabilities. In this chapter and Chapters 25 and 29, we demonstrate each of these capabilities. WPF can interoperate with existing technologies. For example, you can include WPF controls in Windows Forms applications to incorporate multimedia content (such as audio or video) without converting the entire application to WPF, which could be a costly and time-consuming process. You can also use Windows Forms controls in WPF applications. WPF’s ability to use the acceleration capabilities of your computer’s graphics hardware increases your applications’ performance. In addition, WPF generates vector-based graphics and is resolution independent. Vector-based graphics are defined, not by a grid of pixels as raster-based graphics are, but rather by mathematical models. An advantage of vector-based graphics is that when you change the resolution, there is no loss of quality. Hence, the graphics become portable to a great variety of devices. Moreover, your applications won’t appear smaller on higher-resolution screens. Instead, they’ll remain the same size and display sharper. Chapter 25 presents more information about vector-based graphics and resolution independence. Building a GUI with WPF is similar to building a GUI with Windows Forms—you drag-and-drop predefined controls from the Toolbox onto the design area. Many WPF controls correspond directly to those in Windows Forms. Just as in a Windows Forms application, the functionality is event driven. Many of the Windows Forms events you’re familiar with are also in WPF. A WPF Button, for example, is similar to a Windows Forms Button, and both raise Click events. There are several important differences between the two technologies, though. The WPF layout scheme is different. WPF properties and events have more capabilities. Most notably, WPF allows designers to define the appearance and content of a GUI without any C# code by defining it in XAML, a descriptive markup language (that is, a text-based notation for describing something).

Introduction to XAML In Windows Forms, when you use the designer to create a GUI, the IDE generates code statements that create and configure the controls. In WPF, it generates XAML markup (that is, a text-based notation for describing data). Because markup is designed to be readable by both humans and computers, you can also manually write XAML markup to define GUI controls. When you compile your WPF application, a XAML compiler generates code to create and configure controls based on your XAML markup. This technique of defining what the GUI should contain without specifying how to generate it is an example of declarative programming. XAML allows designers and programmers to work together more efficiently. Without writing any code, a graphic designer can edit the look-and-feel of an application using a design tool, such as Microsoft’s Expression Blend—a XAML graphic design program. A programmer can import the XAML markup into Visual Studio and focus on coding the logic that gives an application its functionality. Even if you’re working alone, however, this separation of front-end appearance from back-end logic improves your program’s organization and makes it easier to maintain. XAML is an essential component of WPF programming. Because XAML is implemented with XML, it’s important that you understand the basics of XML before we continue our discussion of XAML and WPF GUIs.

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24.3 XML Basics The Extensible Markup Language was developed in 1996 by the World Wide Web Consortium’s (W3C’s) XML Working Group. XML is a widely supported standard for describing data that is commonly used to exchange that data between applications over the Internet. It permits document authors to create markup for virtually any type of information. This enables them to create entirely new markup languages for describing any type of data, such as mathematical formulas, software-configuration instructions, chemical molecular structures, music, news, recipes and financial reports. XML describes data in a way that both human beings and computers can understand. Figure 24.1 is a simple XML document that describes information for a baseball player. We focus on lines 5–11 to introduce basic XML syntax. You’ll learn about the other elements of this document in Section 24.4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

John Doe 0.375

Fig. 24.1 | XML that describes a baseball player’s information. XML documents contain text that represents content (that is, data), such as John (line 6), and elements that specify the document’s structure, such as firstName (line 6). XML documents delimit elements with start tags and end tags. A start tag consists of the element name in angle brackets (for example, and in lines 5 and 6, respectively). An end tag consists of the element name preceded by a forward slash (/) in angle brackets (for example, and in lines 6 and 11, respectively). An element’s start and end tags enclose text that represents a piece of data (for example, the firstName of the player—John—in line 6, which is enclosed by the start tag and and end tag) or other elements (for example, the firstName, lastName, and battingAverage elements in the player element). Every XML document must have exactly one root element that contains all the other elements. In Fig. 24.1, player (lines 5–11) is the root element. Some XML-based markup languages include XHTML (Extensible HyperText Markup Language—HTML’s replacement for marking up web content), MathML (for mathematics), VoiceXML™ (for speech), CML (Chemical Markup Language—for chemistry) and XBRL (Extensible Business Reporting Language—for financial data exchange). ODF (Open Document Format—developed by Sun Microsystems) and OOXML (Office Open XML—developed by Microsoft as a replacement for the old proprietary Microsoft Office formats) are two competing standards for electronic office documents such as spreadsheets, presentations, and word processing documents. These

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markup languages are called XML vocabularies and provide a means for describing particular types of data in standardized, structured ways. Massive amounts of data are currently stored on the Internet in a variety of formats (for example, databases, web pages, text files). Based on current trends, it’s likely that much of this data, especially that which is passed between systems, will soon take the form of XML. Organizations see XML as the future of data encoding. Information-technology groups are planning ways to integrate XML into their systems. Industry groups are developing custom XML vocabularies for most major industries that will allow computer-based business applications to communicate in common languages. For example, web services, which we discuss in Chapter 28, allow web-based applications to exchange data seamlessly through standard protocols based on XML. Also, web services are described by an XML vocabulary called WSDL (Web Services Description Language). The next generation of the Internet and World Wide Web is being built on a foundation of XML, which enables the development of more sophisticated web-based applications. XML allows you to assign meaning to what would otherwise be random pieces of data. As a result, programs can “understand” the data they manipulate. For example, a web browser might view a street address listed on a simple HTML web page as a string of characters without any real meaning. In an XML document, however, this data can be clearly identified (that is, marked up) as an address. A program that uses the document can recognize this data as an address and provide links to a map of that location, driving directions from that location or other location-specific information. Likewise, an application can recognize names of people, dates, ISBN numbers and any other type of XML-encoded data. Based on this data, the application can present users with other related information, providing a richer, more meaningful user experience.

Viewing and Modifying XML Documents XML documents are portable. Viewing or modifying an XML document—a text file, usually with the .xml file-name extension—does not require special software, although many software tools exist, and new ones are frequently released that make it more convenient to develop XML-based applications. Most text editors can open XML documents for viewing and editing. Visual C# Express includes an XML editor that provides IntelliSense. The editor also checks that the document is well formed and is valid if a schema (discussed shortly) is present. Also, most web browsers can display an XML document in a formatted manner that shows its structure. We demonstrate this using Internet Explorer in Section 24.4. One important characteristic of XML is that it’s both human readable and machine readable. Processing XML Documents Processing an XML document requires software called an XML parser (or XML processor). A parser makes the document’s data available to applications. While reading the contents of an XML document, a parser checks that the document follows the syntax rules specified by the W3C’s XML Recommendation (www.w3.org/XML). XML syntax requires a single root element, a start tag and end tag for each element and properly nested tags (that is, the end tag for a nested element must appear before the end tag of the enclosing element). Furthermore, XML is case sensitive, so the proper capitalization must be used in elements. A document that conforms to this syntax is a well-formed XML document, and is syntactically correct. We present fundamental XML syntax in Section 24.4. If an XML parser can

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process an XML document successfully, that XML document is well formed. Parsers can provide access to XML-encoded data in well-formed documents only—if a document is not well-formed, the parser will report an error to the user or calling application. Often, XML parsers are built into software such as Visual Studio or available for download over the Internet. Popular parsers include Microsoft XML Core Services (MSXML), the .NET Framework’s XmlReader class, the Apache Software Foundation’s Xerces (available from xerces.apache.org) and the open-source Expat XML Parser (available from expat.sourceforge.net).

Validating XML Documents An XML document can optionally reference a Document Type Definition (DTD) or a W3C XML Schema (referred to simply as a “schema” for the rest of this book) that defines the XML document’s proper structure. When an XML document references a DTD or a schema, some parsers (called validating parsers) can use the DTD/schema to check that it has the appropriate structure. If the XML document conforms to the DTD/schema (that is, the document has the appropriate structure), the XML document is valid. For example, if in Fig. 24.1 we were referencing a DTD that specifies that a player element must have firstName, lastName and battingAverage elements, then omitting the lastName element (line 8) would cause the XML document player.xml to be invalid. The XML document would still be well formed, however, because it follows proper XML syntax (that is, it has one root element, and each element has a start and an end tag). By definition, a valid XML document is well formed. Parsers that cannot check for document conformity against DTDs/schemas are nonvalidating parsers—they determine only whether an XML document is well formed. For more information about validation, DTDs and schemas, as well as the key differences between these two types of structural specifications, see Chapter 26. For now, schemas are XML documents themselves, whereas DTDs are not. As you’ll learn in Chapter 26, this difference presents several advantages in using schemas over DTDs.

Software Engineering Observation 24.1 DTDs and schemas are essential for business-to-business (B2B) transactions and missioncritical systems. Validating XML documents ensures that disparate systems can manipulate data structured in standardized ways and prevents errors caused by missing or malformed data.

Formatting and Manipulating XML Documents XML documents contain only data, not formatting instructions, so applications that process XML documents must decide how to manipulate or display each document’s data. For example, a PDA (personal digital assistant) may render an XML document differently than a wireless phone or a desktop computer. You can use Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) to specify rendering instructions for different platforms. We discuss XSL in Chapter 26. XML-processing programs can also search, sort and manipulate XML data using technologies such as XSL. Some other XML-related technologies are XPath (XML Path Language—a language for accessing parts of an XML document), XSL-FO (XSL Formatting Objects—an XML vocabulary used to describe document formatting) and XSLT (XSL Transformations—a language for transforming XML documents into other documents). We present XSLT and XPath in Chapter 26. We’ll also present new C# features that

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greatly simplify working with XML in your code. With these features, XSLT and similar technologies are not needed while coding in C#, but they remain relevant on platforms where C# and .NET are not available.

24.4 Structuring Data In Fig. 24.2, we present an XML document that marks up a simple article using XML. The line numbers shown are for reference only and are not part of the XML document. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Simple XML July 24, 2008 John Doe XML is pretty easy. In this chapter, we present a wide variety of examples that use XML.

Fig. 24.2 | XML used to mark up an article. This document begins with an XML declaration (line 1), which identifies the document as an XML document. The version attribute specifies the XML version to which the document conforms. The current XML standard is version 1.0. Though the W3C released a version 1.1 specification in February 2004, this newer version is not yet widely supported. The W3C may continue to release new versions as XML evolves to meet the requirements of different fields. Some XML documents also specify an encoding attribute in the XML declaration. An encoding specifies how characters are stored in memory and on disk—historically, the way an uppercase "A" was stored on one computer architecture was different than the way it was stored on a different computer architecture. Appendix F discusses Unicode, which specifies encodings that can describe characters in any written language. An introduction to different encodings in XML can be found at the website bit.ly/EncodeXMLData.

Portability Tip 24.1 Documents should include the XML declaration to identify the version of XML used. A document that lacks an XML declaration might be assumed erroneously to conform to the latest version of XML—in which case, errors could result.

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Common Programming Error 24.1 Placing whitespace characters before the XML declaration is an error.

XML comments (lines 2–3), which begin with , can be placed almost anywhere in an XML document. XML comments can span to multiple lines—an end marker on each line is not needed; the end marker can appear on a subsequent line, as long as there is exactly one end marker (-->) for each begin marker ( Jane Doe Box 12345 15 Any Ave. Othertown Otherstate 67890 555-4321

Fig. 24.4 | Business letter marked up as XML. (Part 1 of 2.)

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John Doe 123 Main St. Anytown Anystate 12345 555-1234 Dear Sir: It is our privilege to inform you about our new database managed with XML. This new system allows you to reduce the load on your inventory list server by having the client machine perform the work of sorting and filtering the data. Please visit our website for availability and pricing. Sincerely, Ms. Jane Doe

Fig. 24.4 | Business letter marked up as XML. (Part 2 of 2.) Line 5 specifies that this XML document references a DTD. Recall from Section 24.3 that DTDs define the structure of the data for an XML document. For example, a DTD specifies the elements and parent/child relationships between elements permitted in an XML document.

Error-Prevention Tip 24.1 An XML document is not required to reference a DTD, but validating XML parsers can use a DTD to ensure that the document has the proper structure.

Portability Tip 24.2 Validating an XML document helps guarantee that independent developers will exchange data in a standardized form that conforms to the DTD.

The DTD reference (line 5) contains three items: the name of the root element that the DTD specifies (letter); the keyword SYSTEM (which denotes an external DTD—a DTD declared in a separate file, as opposed to a DTD declared locally in the same file); and the DTD’s name and location (that is, letter.dtd in the same directory as the XML document). DTD document file names typically end with the .dtd extension. We discuss DTDs and letter.dtd in detail in Chapter 26. Root element letter (lines 7–44 of Fig. 24.4) contains the child elements contact, contact, salutation, paragraph, paragraph, closing and signature. Besides being

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placed between tags, data also can be placed in attributes—name/value pairs that appear within the angle brackets of start tags. Elements can have any number of attributes (separated by spaces) in their start tags, provided all the attribute names are unique. The first contact element (lines 8–17) has an attribute named type with attribute value "sender", which indicates that this contact element identifies the letter’s sender. The second contact element (lines 19–28) has attribute type with value "receiver", which indicates that this contact element identifies the letter’s recipient. Like element names, attribute names are case sensitive, can be of any length, may contain letters, digits, underscores, hyphens and periods, and must begin with either a letter or an underscore character. A contact element stores various items of information about a contact, such as the contact’s name (represented by element name), address (represented by elements address1, address2, city, state and zip), phone number (represented by element phone) and gender (represented by attribute gender of element flag). Element salutation (line 30) marks up the letter’s salutation. Lines 32–40 mark up the letter’s body using two paragraph elements. Elements closing (line 42) and signature (line 43) mark up the closing sentence and the author’s “signature,” respectively.

Common Programming Error 24.6 Failure to enclose attribute values in double ("") or single ('') quotes is a syntax error.

Line 16 introduces the empty element flag. An empty element contains no content. However, it may sometimes contain data in the form of attributes. Empty element flag contains an attribute that indicates the gender of the contact (represented by the parent contact element). Document authors can close an empty element either by placing a slash immediately preceding the right angle bracket, as shown in line 16, or by explicitly writing an end tag, as in line 22:

Line 22 can also be written as:

The address2 element in line 22 is empty, because there is no second part to this contact’s address. However, we must include this element to conform to the structural rules specified in the XML document’s DTD—letter.dtd (which we present in Chapter 26). This DTD specifies that each contact element must have an address2 child element (even if it’s empty). In Chapter 26, you’ll learn how DTDs indicate that certain elements are required while others are optional.

24.5 XML Namespaces XML allows document authors to create custom elements. This extensibility can result in naming collisions—elements with identical names that represent different things—when combining content from multiple sources. For example, we may use the element book to mark up data about a Deitel publication. A stamp collector may use the element book to mark up data about a book of stamps. Using both of these elements in the same document could create a naming collision, making it difficult to determine which kind of data each element contains.

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An XML namespace is a collection of element and attribute names. Like C# namespaces, XML namespaces provide a means for document authors to unambiguously refer to elements that have the same name (that is, prevent collisions). For example, Math

and Cardiology

use element subject to mark up data. In the first case, the subject is something one studies in school, whereas in the second case, the subject is a field of medicine. Namespaces can differentiate these two subject elements. For example, Math

and Cardiology

Both school and medical are namespace prefixes. A document author places a namespace prefix and colon (:) before an element name to specify the namespace to which that element belongs. Document authors can create their own namespace prefixes using virtually any name except the reserved namespace prefixes xml and xmlns. In the subsections that follow, we demonstrate how document authors ensure that namespaces are unique.

Common Programming Error 24.7 Attempting to create a namespace prefix named xml in any mixture of uppercase and lowercase letters is a syntax error—the xml namespace prefix is reserved for internal use by XML itself.

Differentiating Elements with Namespaces Figure 24.5 uses namespaces to differentiate two distinct elements—the file element related to a text file and the file document related to an image file. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

A book list A funny picture

Fig. 24.5 | XML namespaces demonstration. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 24.5 | XML namespaces demonstration. (Part 2 of 2.) Lines 6–7 use the XML-namespace reserved attribute xmlns to create two namespace prefixes—text and image. Creating a namespace prefix is similar to using a using statement in C#—it allows you to access XML elements from a given namespace. Each namespace prefix is bound to a series of characters called a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) that uniquely identifies the namespace. Document authors create their own namespace prefixes and URIs. A URI is a way to identify a resource, typically on the Internet. Two popular types of URI are Uniform Resource Name (URN) and Uniform Resource Locator (URL). To ensure that namespaces are unique, document authors must provide unique URIs. In this example, we use the text urn:deitel:textInfo and urn:deitel:imageInfo as URIs. These URIs employ the URN scheme frequently used to identify namespaces. Under this naming scheme, a URI begins with "urn:", followed by a unique series of additional names separated by colons. These URIs are not guaranteed to be unique—the idea is simply that creating a long URI in this way makes it unlikely that two authors will use the same namespace. Another common practice is to use URLs, which specify the location of a file or a resource on the Internet. For example, http://www.deitel.com is the URL that identifies the home page of the Deitel & Associates website. Using URLs for domains that you own guarantees that the namespaces are unique, because the domain names (for example, www.deitel.com) are guaranteed to be unique. For example, lines 5–7 could be rewritten as

where URLs related to the Deitel & Associates, Inc. domain name serve as URIs to identify the text and image namespaces. The parser does not visit these URLs, nor do these URLs need to refer to actual web pages. Each simply represents a unique series of characters used to differentiate URI names. In fact, any string can represent a namespace. For example, our image namespace URI could be hgjfkdlsa4556, in which case our prefix assignment would be xmlns:image = "hgjfkdlsa4556"

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Lines 9–11 use the text namespace prefix for elements file and description. The end tags must also specify the namespace prefix text. Lines 13–16 apply namespace prefix image to the elements file, description and size. Attributes do not require namespace prefixes, because each attribute is already part of an element that specifies the namespace prefix. For example, attribute filename (line 9) is already uniquely identified by being in the context of the filename start tag, which is prefixed with text.

Specifying a Default Namespace To eliminate the need to place namespace prefixes in each element, document authors may specify a default namespace for an element and its children. Figure 24.6 demonstrates using a default namespace ( urn:deitel:textInfo) for element directory. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

A book list A funny picture

Fig. 24.6 | Default namespace demonstration. Line 5 defines a default namespace using attribute xmlns with a URI as its value. Once we define this default namespace, child elements which do not specify a prefix belong to the default namespace. Thus, element file (lines 8–10) is in the default namespace

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urn:deitel:textInfo.

Compare this to lines 9–11 of Fig. 24.5, where we had to prefix the file and description element names with the namespace prefix text.

Common Programming Error 24.8 The default namespace can be overridden at any point in the document with another xmlns attribute. All direct and indirect children of the element with the xmlns attribute use the new default namespace.

The default namespace applies to the directory element and all elements that are not qualified with a namespace prefix. However, we can use a namespace prefix to specify a different namespace for particular elements. For example, the file element in lines 12–15 includes the image namespace prefix, indicating that this element is in the urn:deitel:imageInfo namespace, not the default namespace.

Namespaces in XML Vocabularies XML-based languages, such as XML Schema, Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) and BizTalk (www.microsoft.com/biztalk), often use namespaces to identify their elements. Each vocabulary defines special-purpose elements that are grouped in namespaces. These namespaces help prevent naming collisions between predefined and user-defined elements.

24.6 Declarative GUI Programming Using XAML A XAML document defines the appearance of a WPF application. Figure 24.7 is a simple XAML document that defines a window that displays Welcome to WPF! 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Welcome to WPF!

Fig. 24.7 | A simple XAML document.

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Since XAML documents are XML documents, a XAML document consists of many nested elements, delimited by start tags and end tags. As with any other XML document, each XAML document must contain a single root element. Just as in XML, data is placed as nested content or in attributes. Two standard namespaces must be defined in every XAML document so that the XAML compiler can interpret your markup—the presentation XAML namespace, which defines WPF-specific elements and attributes, and the standard XAML namespace, which defines elements and attributes that are standard to all types of XAML documents. Usually, the presentation XAML namespace (http://schemas.microsoft.com/winfx/2006/ xaml/presentation) is defined as the default namespace (line 6), and the standard XAML namespace (http://schemas.microsoft.com/winfx/2006/xaml) is mapped to the namespace prefix x (line 7). These are both automatically included in the Window element’s start tag when you create a WPF application. WPF controls are represented by elements in XAML markup. The root element of the XAML document in Fig. 24.7 is a Window control (lines 5–18), which defines the application’s window—this corresponds to the Form control in Windows Forms. The Window start tag (line 5) also defines another important attribute, x:Class, which specifies the class name of the associated code-behind class that provides the GUI’s functionality (line 5). The x: signifies that the Class attribute is located in the standard XAML namespace. A XAML document must have an associated code-behind file to handle events. Using attributes, you can define a control’s properties in XAML. For example, the Window’s Title, Width and Height properties are set in line 8. A Window’s Title specifies the text that is displayed in the Window’s title bar. The Width and Height properties apply to a control of any type and specify the control’s width and height, respectively, using machine-independent pixels. Window is a content control (a control derived from class ContentControl), meaning it can have exactly one child element or text content. You’ll almost always set a layout container (a control derived from the Panel class) as the child element so that you can host multiple controls in a Window. A layout container such as a Grid (lines 11–17) can have many child elements, allowing it to contain many controls. In Section 24.8, you’ll use content controls and layout containers to arrange a GUI. Like Window, a Label—corresponding to the Label control in Windows Forms—is also a ContentControl. It’s generally used to display text.

24.7 Creating a WPF Application in Visual C# Express To create a new WPF application, open the New Project dialog (Fig. 24.8) and select WPF Application from the list of template types. The IDE for a WPF application looks nearly identical to that of a Windows Forms application. You’ll recognize the familiar Toolbox, Design view, Solution Explorer and Properties window.

XAML View There are differences, however. One is the new XAML view (Fig. 24.9) that appears when you open a XAML document. This view is linked to the Design view and the Properties window. When you edit content in the Design view, the XAML view automatically updates, and vice versa. Likewise, when you edit properties in the Properties window, the XAML view automatically updates, and vice versa.

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Fig. 24.8 | New Project dialog.

Fig. 24.9 | XAML view. Generated Files When you create a WPF application, four files are generated and can be viewed in the Solution Explorer. App.xaml defines the Application object and its settings. The most noteworthy setting is the StartupUri attribute, which defines the XAML document that executes first when the Application loads (MainWindow.xaml by default). App.xaml.cs is its code-behind class and handles application-level events. MainWindow.xaml defines the application window, and MainWindow.xaml.cs is its code-behind class, which handles the window’s events. The file name of the code-behind class is always the file name of the associated XAML document followed by the .cs file-name extension. Setting XAML Indent Size and Displaying Line Numbers We use three-space indents in our code. To ensure that your code appears the same as the book’s examples, change the tab spacing for XAML documents to three spaces (the default is four). Select Tools > Options and ensure that the Show all settings checkbox is checked. In Text Editor > XAML > Tabs change the Tab and indent size to 3. You should also configure the XAML editor to display line numbers by checking the Line numbers checkbox in Text Editor > XAML > General. You’re now ready to create your first WPF application.

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GUI Design Creating a WPF application in Visual C# Express is similar to creating a Windows Forms application. You can drag-and-drop controls onto the Design view of your WPF GUI. A control’s properties can be edited in the Properties window. Because XAML is easy to understand and edit, it’s often less difficult to manually edit your GUI’s XAML markup than to do everything through the IDE. In some cases, you must manually write XAML markup in order to take full advantage of the features that are offered in WPF. Nevertheless, the visual programming tools in Visual Studio are often handy, and we’ll point out the situations in which they might be useful as they occur.

24.8 Laying Out Controls In Windows Forms, a control’s size and location are specified explicitly. In WPF, a control’s size should be specified as a range of possible values rather than fixed values, and its location specified relative to those of other controls. This scheme, in which you specify how controls share the available space, is called flow-based layout. Its advantage is that it enables your GUIs, if designed properly, to be aesthetically pleasing, no matter how a user might resize the application. Likewise, it enables your GUIs to be resolution independent.

24.8.1 General Layout Principles Layout refers to the size and positioning of controls. The WPF layout scheme addresses both of these in a flow-based fashion and can be summarized by two fundamental principles with regard to a control’s size and position.

Size of a Control Unless necessary, a control’s size should not be defined explicitly. Doing so often creates a design that looks pleasing when it first loads, but deteriorates when the application is resized or the content updates. Thus, in addition to the Width and Height properties associated with every control, all WPF controls have the MinWidth, MinHeight, MaxHeight and MaxWidth properties. If the Width and Height properties are both Auto (which is the default when they are not specified in the XAML code), you can use these minimum and maximum properties to specify a range of acceptable sizes for a control. Its size will automatically adjust as the size of its container changes. Position of a Control A control’s position should not be defined in absolute terms. Instead, it should be specified based on its position relative to the layout container in which it’s included and the other controls in the same container. All controls have three properties for doing this— Margin, HorizontalAlignment and VerticalAlignment. Margin specifies how much space to put around a control’s edges. The value of Margin is a comma-separated list of four integers, representing the left, top, right and bottom margins. Additionally, you can specify two integers, which it interprets as the left–right and top–bottom margins. If you specify just one integer, it uses the same margin on all four sides. HorizontalAlignment and VerticalAlignment specify how to align a control within its layout container. Valid options of HorizontalAlignment are Left, Center, Right and Stretch. Valid options of VerticalAlignment are Top, Center, Bottom and Stretch. Stretch means that the object will occupy as much space as possible.

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Other Layout Properties A control can have other layout properties specific to the layout container in which it’s contained. We’ll discuss these as we examine the specific layout containers. WPF provides many controls for laying out a GUI. Figure 24.10 lists several of them. Control

Description

Layout containers (derived from Panel) Grid Layout is defined by a grid of rows and columns, depending on the RowDefinitions and ColumnDefinitions properties. Elements are placed into cells. Canvas Layout is coordinate based. Element positions are defined explicitly by their distance from the top and left edges of the Canvas. StackPanel Elements are arranged in a single row or column, depending on the Orientation property. DockPanel Elements are positioned based on which edge they’re docked to. If the LastChildFill property is True, the last element gets the remaining space in the middle. WrapPanel A wrapping StackPanel. Elements are arranged sequentially in rows or columns (depending on the Orientation), each row or column wrapping to start a new one when it reaches the WrapPanel’s right or bottom edge, respectively. Content controls (derived from ContentControl) Border Adds a background or a border to the child element. GroupBox Surrounds the child element with a titled box. Window The application window. Also the root element. Expander Puts the child element in a titled area that collapses to display just the header and expands to display the header and the content.

Fig. 24.10 | Common controls used for layout.

24.8.2 Layout in Action Figure 24.11 shows the XAML document and the GUI display of a painter application. Note the use of Margin, HorizontalAlignment and VerticalAlignment throughout the markup. This example introduces several WPF controls that are commonly used for layout, as well as a few other basic ones. The controls in this application look similar to Windows Forms controls. WPF RadioButtons function as mutually exclusive options, just like their Windows Forms counterparts. However, a WPF RadioButton does not have a Text property. Instead, it’s a ContentControl, meaning it can have exactly one child or text content. This makes the control more versatile, enabling it to be labeled by an image or other item. In this example, each RadioButton is labeled by plain text (for example, lines 33–34). A WPF Button behaves like a Windows Forms Button but is a ContentControl. As such, a WPF Button

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can display any single element as its content, not just text. Lines 59–63 define the two buttons seen in the Painter application. You can drag and drop controls onto the WPF designer and create their event handlers, just as you do in the Windows Forms designer.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

Red Blue Green Black

Fig. 24.11 | XAML of a painter application. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Small Medium Large Undo Clear

Fig. 24.11 | XAML of a painter application. (Part 2 of 2.) Control A WPF GroupBox arranges controls and displays just as a Windows Forms GroupBox would, but using one is slightly different. The Header property replaces the Windows Forms version’s Text property. In addition, a GroupBox is a ContentControl, so to place multiple controls in it, you must place them in a layout container (for example, lines 27–43). GroupBox

Control In the Painter application, we organized each GroupBox’s RadioButtons by placing them in StackPanels (for example, lines 29–42). A StackPanel is the simplest of layout containers. It arranges its content either vertically or horizontally, depending on its Orientation property’s setting. The default Orientation is Vertical, which is used by every StackPanel in the Painter example. StackPanel

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Control The Painter Window’s contents are contained within a Grid—a flexible, all-purpose layout container. A Grid organizes controls into a user-defined number of rows and columns (one row and one column by default). You can define a Grid’s rows and columns by setting its RowDefinitions and ColumnDefinitions properties, whose values are a collection of RowDefinition and ColumnDefinition objects, respectively. Because these properties do not take string values, they cannot be specified as attributes in the Grid tag. Another syntax is used instead. A class’s property can be defined in XAML as a nested element with the name ClassName.PropertyName. For example, the Grid.ColumnDefinitions element in lines 11–14 sets the Grid’s ColumnDefinitions property and defines two columns, which separate the options from the painting area, as shown in Fig. 24.11. You can specify the Width of a ColumnDefinition and the Height of a RowDefinition with an explicit size, a relative size (using *) or Auto. Auto makes the row or column only as big as it needs to be to fit its contents. The setting * specifies the size of a row or column with respect to the Grid’s other rows and columns. For example, a column with a Height of 2* would be twice the size of a column that is 1* (or just *). A Grid first allocates its space to the rows and columns whose sizes are defined explicitly or determined automatically. The remaining space is divided among the other rows and columns. By default, all Widths and Heights are set to *, so every cell in the grid is of equal size. In the Painter application, the first column is just wide enough to fit the controls, and the rest of the space is allotted to the painting area (lines 12–13). If you resize the Painter window, you’ll notice that only the width of the paintable area increases or decreases. If you click the ellipsis button next to the RowDefinitions or ColumnDefinitions property in the Properties window, the Collection Editor window will appear. This tool can be used to add, remove, reorder, and edit the properties of rows and columns in a Grid. In fact, any property that takes a collection as a value can be edited in a version of the Collection Editor specific to that collection. For example, you could edit the Items property of a ComboBox (that is, drop-down list) in such a way. The ColumnDefinitions Collection Editor is shown in Fig. 24.12. Grid

Fig. 24.12 | Using the Collection Editor.

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The control properties we’ve introduced so far look and function just like their Windows Forms counterparts. To indicate which cell of a Grid a control belongs in, however, you use the Grid.Row and Grid.Column properties. These are known as attached properties—they’re defined by a different control than that to which they’re applied. In this case, Row and Column are defined by the Grid itself but applied to the controls contained in the Grid (for example, line 17). To specify the number of rows or columns that a control spans, you can use the Grid.RowSpan or Grid.ColumnSpan attached properties, respectively (for example, line 27). By default, a control spans the entire Grid, unless the Grid.Row or Grid.Column property is set, in which case the control spans only the specified row or column by default.

Control The painting area of the Painter application is a Canvas (lines 17–22), another layout container. A Canvas allows users to position controls by defining explicit coordinates. Controls in a Canvas have the attached properties, Canvas.Left and Canvas.Top, which specify the control’s coordinate position based on its distance from the Canvas’s left and top borders, respectively. If two controls overlap, the one with the greater Canvas.ZIndex displays in the foreground. If this property is not defined for the controls, then the last control added to the canvas displays in the foreground. Canvas

Layout in Design Mode As you’re creating your GUI in Design mode, you’ll notice many helpful layout features. For example, as you resize a control, its width and height are displayed. In addition, snaplines appear as necessary to help you align the edges of elements. These lines will also appear when you move controls around the design area. When you select a control, margin lines that extend from the control to the edges of its container appear, as shown in Fig. 24.13. If a line extends to the edge of the container, then the distance between the control and that edge is fixed. If it displays as a small hollow circle, then the distance between the control and that edge is dynamic and changes as its surroundings change. You can toggle between the two by clicking on the circle.

Rulers

Margin lines Gridlines

Fig. 24.13 | Margin lines and gridlines in Design view.

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Furthermore, the Design view also helps you use a Grid. As shown in Fig. 24.13, when you select a control in a Grid, the Grid’s rulers appear to the left and on top of it. The widths and heights of each column and row, respectively, appear on the rulers. Gridlines that outline the Grid’s rows and columns also appear, helping you align and position the Grid’s elements. You can also create more rows and columns by clicking where you want to separate them on the ruler.

24.9 Event Handling Basic event handling in WPF is almost identical to Windows Forms event handling, but there is a fundamental difference, which we’ll explain later in this section. We’ll use the Painter example to introduce WPF event handling. Figure 24.14 provides the code-behind class for the Painter Window. As in Windows Forms GUIs, when you double click a control, the IDE automatically generates an event handler for that control’s primary event. The IDE also adds an attribute to the control’s XAML element specifying the event name and the name of the event handler that responds to the event. For example, in line 34, the attribute Checked="redRadioButton_Checked"

specifies that the redRadioButton’s Checked event handler is redRadioButton_Checked. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

// Fig. 24.14: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Code-behind for MainWindow.xaml. using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Controls; using System.Windows.Input; using System.Windows.Media; using System.Windows.Shapes; namespace Painter { public partial class MainWindow : Window { private int diameter = Sizes.MEDIUM; // set diameter private Brush brushColor = Brushes.Black; // set the private bool shouldErase = false; // specify whether private bool shouldPaint = false; // specify whether

of circle drawing color to erase to paint

private enum Sizes // size constants for diameter of the circle { SMALL = 4, MEDIUM = 8, LARGE = 10 } // end enum Sizes // constructor public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor

Fig. 24.14 | Code-behind class for Painter. (Part 1 of 4.)

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// paints a circle on the Canvas private void PaintCircle( Brush circleColor, Point position ) { Ellipse newEllipse = new Ellipse(); // create an Ellipse newEllipse.Fill = circleColor; // set Ellipse's color newEllipse.Width = diameter; // set its horizontal diameter newEllipse.Height = diameter; // set its vertical diameter // set the Ellipse's position Canvas.SetTop( newEllipse, position.Y ); Canvas.SetLeft( newEllipse, position.X ); paintCanvas.Children.Add( newEllipse ); } // end method PaintCircle // handles paintCanvas's MouseLeftButtonDown event private void paintCanvas_MouseLeftButtonDown( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { shouldPaint = true; // OK to draw on the Canvas } // end method paintCanvas_MouseLeftButtonDown // handles paintCanvas's MouseLeftButtonUp event private void paintCanvas_MouseLeftButtonUp( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { shouldPaint = false; // do not draw on the Canvas } // end method paintCanvas_MouseLeftButtonUp // handles paintCanvas's MouseRightButtonDown event private void paintCanvas_MouseRightButtonDown( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { shouldErase = true; // OK to erase the Canvas } // end method paintCanvas_MouseRightButtonDown // handles paintCanvas's MouseRightButtonUp event private void paintCanvas_MouseRightButtonUp( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { shouldErase = false; // do not erase the Canvas } // end method paintCanvas_MouseRightButtonUp // handles paintCanvas's MouseMove event private void paintCanvas_MouseMove( object sender, MouseEventArgs e ) { if ( shouldPaint ) { // draw a circle of selected color at current mouse position Point mousePosition = e.GetPosition( paintCanvas );

Fig. 24.14 | Code-behind class for Painter. (Part 2 of 4.)

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PaintCircle( brushColor, mousePosition ); } // end if else if ( shouldErase ) { // erase by drawing circles of the Canvas's background color Point mousePosition = e.GetPosition( paintCanvas ); PaintCircle( paintCanvas.Background, mousePosition ); } // end else if } // end method paintCanvas_MouseMove // handles Red RadioButton's Checked event private void redRadioButton_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { brushColor = Brushes.Red; } // end method redRadioButton_Checked // handles Blue RadioButton's Checked event private void blueRadioButton_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { brushColor = Brushes.Blue; } // end method blueRadioButton_Checked // handles Green RadioButton's Checked event private void greenRadioButton_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { brushColor = Brushes.Green; } // end method greenRadioButton_Checked // handles Black RadioButton's Checked event private void blackRadioButton_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { brushColor = Brushes.Black; } // end method blackRadioButton_Checked // handles Small RadioButton's Checked event private void smallRadioButton_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { diameter = ( int ) Sizes.SMALL; } // end method smallRadioButton_Checked // handles Medium RadioButton's Checked event private void mediumRadioButton_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { diameter = ( int ) Sizes.MEDIUM; } // end method mediumRadioButton_Checked

Fig. 24.14 | Code-behind class for Painter. (Part 3 of 4.)

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135 // handles Large RadioButton's Checked event 136 private void largeRadioButton_Checked( object sender, 137 RoutedEventArgs e ) 138 { 139 diameter = ( int ) Sizes.LARGE; 140 } // end method largeRadioButton_Checked 141 142 // handles Undo Button's Click event 143 private void undoButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) 144 { 145 int count = paintCanvas.Children.Count; 146 147 // if there are any shapes on Canvas remove the last one added 148 if ( count > 0 ) 149 paintCanvas.Children.RemoveAt( count - 1 ); 150 } // end method undoButton_Click 151 152 // handles Clear Button's Click event 153 private void clearButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) 154 { 155 paintCanvas.Children.Clear(); // clear the canvas 156 } // end method clearButton_Click 157 } // end class MainWindow 158 } // end namespace Painter

Fig. 24.14 | Code-behind class for Painter. (Part 4 of 4.) The Painter application “draws” by placing colored circles on the Canvas at the mouse pointer’s position as you drag the mouse. The PaintCircle method (lines 32–45 in Fig. 24.14) creates the circle by defining an Ellipse object (lines 34–38), and positions it using the Canvas.SetTop and Canvas.SetLeft methods (lines 41–42), which change the circle’s Canvas.Left and Canvas.Top attached properties, respectively. The Children property stores a list (of type UIElementCollection) of a layout container’s child elements. This allows you to edit the layout container’s child elements with C# code as you would any other implementation of the IEnumerable interface. You can add an element to the container by calling the Add method of the Children list (for

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example, line 44). The Undo and Clear buttons work by invoking the RemoveAt and Clear methods of the Children list (lines 149 and 155), respectively. Just as with a Windows Forms RadioButton, a WPF RadioButton has a Checked event. Lines 94–140 handle the Checked event for each of the RadioButtons in this example, which change the color and the size of the circles painted on the Canvas. The Button control’s Click event also functions the same in WPF as it did in Windows Forms. Lines 143–156 handle the Undo and Clear Buttons. The event-handler declarations look almost identical to how they would look in a Windows Forms application, except that the event-arguments object (e) is a RoutedEventArgs object instead of an EventArgs object. We’ll explain why later in this section.

Mouse and Keyboard Events WPF has built-in support for keyboard and mouse events that is nearly identical to the support in Windows Forms. Painter uses the MouseMove event of the paintable Canvas to paint and erase (lines 76–91). A control’s MouseMove event is triggered whenever the mouse moves while within the boundaries of the control. Information for the event is passed to the event handler using a MouseEventArgs object, which contains mouse-specific information. The GetPosition method of MouseEventArgs, for example, returns the current position of the mouse relative to the control that triggered the event (for example, lines 82 and 88). MouseMove works exactly the same as it does in Windows Forms. [Note: Much of the functionality in our sample Painter application is already provided by the WPF InkCanvas control. We chose not to use this control so we could demonstrate various other WPF features.] WPF has additional mouse events. Painter also uses the MouseLeftButtonDown and MouseLeftButtonUp events to toggle painting on and off (lines 48–59), and the MouseRightButtonDown and MouseRightButtonUp events to toggle erasing on and off (lines 62– 73). All of these events pass information to the event handler using the MouseButtonEventArgs object, which has properties specific to a mouse button (for example, ButtonState or ClickCount) in addition to mouse-specific ones. These events are new to WPF and are more specific versions of MouseUp and MouseDown (which are still available in WPF). A summary of commonly used mouse and keyboard events is provided in Fig. 24.15.

Common mouse and keyboard events Mouse Events with an Event Argument of Type MouseEventArgs MouseMove Raised when you move the mouse within a control’s boundaries. Mouse Events with an Event Argument of Type MouseButtonEventArgs MouseLeftButtonDown Raised when the left mouse button is pressed. MouseLeftButtonUp Raised when the left mouse button is released. MouseRightButtonDown Raised when the right mouse button is pressed. MouseRightButtonUp Raised when the right mouse button is released. Mouse Events with an Event Argument of Type MouseWheelEventArgs MouseWheel Raised when the mouse wheel is rotated.

Fig. 24.15 | Common mouse and keyboard events. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Common mouse and keyboard events Keyboard Events with an Event Argument of Type KeyEventArgs KeyDown Raised when a key is pressed. KeyUp Raised when a key is released.

Fig. 24.15 | Common mouse and keyboard events. (Part 2 of 2.) Routed Events WPF events have a significant distinction from their Windows Forms counterparts—they can travel either up (from child to parent) or down (from parent to child) the containment hierarchy—the hierarchy of nested elements defined within a control. This is called event routing, and all WPF events are routed events. The event-arguments object that is passed to the event handler of a WPF Button’s Click event or a RadioButton’s Check event is of the type RoutedEventArgs. All eventargument objects in WPF are of type RoutedEventArgs or one of its subclasses. As an event travels up or down the hierarchy, it may be useful to stop it before it reaches the end. When the Handled property of the RoutedEventArgs parameter is set to true, event handlers ignore the event. It may also be useful to know the source where the event was first triggered. The Source property stores this information. You can learn more about the benefits of routed events at bit.ly/RoutedEvents. Figures 24.16 and 24.17 show the XAML and code-behind for a program that demonstrates event routing. The program contains two GroupBoxes, each with a Label inside (lines 15–28 in Fig. 24.16). One group handles a left-mouse-button press with MouseLeftButtonUp, and the other with PreviewMouseLeftButtonUp. As the event travels up or down the containment hierarchy, a log of where the event has traveled is displayed in a TextBox (line 30). The WPF TextBox functions just like its Windows Forms counterpart. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18



Fig. 24.16 | Routed-events example (XAML). (Part 1 of 2.)

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Click Here Click Here

Fig. 24.16 | Routed-events example (XAML). (Part 2 of 2.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

// Fig. 24.17: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Routed-events example (code-behind). using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Controls; using System.Windows.Input; namespace RoutedEvents { public partial class MainWindow : Window { int bubblingEventStep = 1; // step counter for Bubbling int tunnelingEventStep = 1; // step counter for Tunneling string tunnelingLogText = string.Empty; // temporary Tunneling log public RoutedEventsWindow() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // PreviewMouseUp is a tunneling event private void Tunneling( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { // append step number and sender tunnelingLogText = string.Format( "{0}({1}): {2}\n", tunnelingLogText, tunnelingEventStep, ( ( Control ) sender ).Name ); ++tunnelingEventStep; // increment counter // execution goes from parent to child, ending with the source if ( e.Source.Equals( sender ) ) { tunnelingLogText = string.Format( "This is a tunneling event:\n{0}", tunnelingLogText ); logTextBox.Text = tunnelingLogText; // set logTextBox text

Fig. 24.17 | Routed-events example (code-behind). (Part 1 of 2.)

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24.9 Event Handling

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

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tunnelingLogText = string.Empty; // clear temporary log tunnelingEventStep = 1; // reset counter } // end if } // end method Tunneling // MouseUp is a bubbling event private void Bubbling( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { // execution goes from child to parent, starting at the source if ( e.Source.Equals( sender ) ) { logTextBox.Clear(); // clear the logTextBox bubblingEventStep = 1; // reset counter logTextBox.Text = "This is a bubbling event:\n"; } // end if // append step number and sender logTextBox.Text = string.Format( "{0}({1}): {2}\n", logTextBox.Text, bubblingEventStep, ( ( Control ) sender ).Name ); ++bubblingEventStep; } // end method Bubbling } // end class RoutedEventsWindow } // end namespace RoutedEvents a)

b)

Fig. 24.17 | Routed-events example (code-behind). (Part 2 of 2.) There are three types of routed events—direct events, bubbling events and tunneling events. Direct events are like ordinary Windows Forms events—they do not travel up or down the containment hierarchy. Bubbling events start at the Source and travel up the hierarchy ending at the root (Window) or until you set Handled to true. Tunneling events start at the top and travel down the hierarchy until they reach the Source or Handled is true. To help you distinguish tunneling events from bubbling events, WPF prefixes the names of tunneling events with Preview. For example, PreviewMouseLeftButtonDown is the tunneling version of MouseLeftButtonDown, which is a bubbling event. If you click the Click Here Label in the Tunneling GroupBox, the click is handled first by the GroupBox, then by the contained Label. The event handler that responds to the click handles the PreviewMouseLeftButtonUp event—a tunneling event. The Tunneling method (lines 21–38 in Fig. 24.17) handles the events of both the GroupBox and the Label. An event handler can handle events for many controls. Simply select each control

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then use the events tab in the Properties window to select the appropriate event handler for the corresponding event of each control. If you click the other Label, the click is handled first by the Label, then by the containing GroupBox. The Bubbling method (lines 41– 56) handles the MouseLeftButtonUp events of both controls.

24.10 Commands and Common Application Tasks In Windows Forms, event handling is the only way to respond to user actions. WPF provides an alternate technique called a command—an action or a task that may be triggered by many different user interactions. In Visual Studio, for example, you can cut, copy and paste code. You can execute these tasks through the Edit menu, a toolbar or keyboard shortcuts. To program this functionality in WPF, you can define a single command for each task, thus centralizing the handling of common tasks—this is not easily done in Windows Forms. Commands also enable you to synchronize a task’s availability to the state of its corresponding controls. For example, users should be able to copy something only if they have content selected. When you define the copy command, you can specify this as a requirement. As a result, if the user has no content selected, then the menu item, toolbar item and keyboard shortcut for copying are all automatically disabled. Commands are implementations of the ICommand interface. When a command is executed, the Execute method is called. However, the command’s execution logic (that is, how it should execute) is not defined in its Execute method. You must specify this logic when implementing the command. An ICommand’s CanExecute method works in the same way. The logic that specifies when a command is enabled and disabled is not determined by the CanExecute method and must instead be specified by responding to an appropriate event. Class RoutedCommand is the standard implementation of ICommand. Every RoutedCommand has a Name and a collection of InputGestures (that is, keyboard shortcuts) associated with it. RoutedUICommand is an extension of RoutedCommand with a Text property, which specifies the default text to display on a GUI element that triggers the command. WPF provides a command library of built-in commands. These commands have their standard keyboard shortcuts already associated with them. For example, Copy is a built-in command and has Ctrl-C associated with it. Figure 24.18 provides a list of some common built-in commands, separated by the classes in which they’re defined. Common built-in commands from the WPF command library ApplicationCommands

properties

New

Open

Save

Cut

Copy

Paste

EditingCommands ToggleBold MediaCommands

Close

properties ToggleItalic

ToggleUnderline

properties

Play

Stop

Rewind

FastForward

IncreaseVolume

DecreaseVolume

NextTrack

PreviousTrack

Fig. 24.18 | Common built-in commands from the WPF command library.

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Figures 24.19 and 24.20 are the XAML markup and C# code for a simple text-editor application that allows users to format text into bold and italics, and also to cut, copy and paste text. The example uses the RichTextBox control (line 49), which allows users to enter, edit and format text. We use this application to demonstrate several built-in commands from the command library. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

Cut Copy Paste Bold Italic

Fig. 24.19 | Creating menus and toolbars, and using commands (XAML). (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 24.19 | Creating menus and toolbars, and using commands (XAML). (Part 2 of 2.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

// Fig. 24.20: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Code-behind class for a simple text editor. using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Input; namespace TextEditor { public partial class MainWindow : Window { public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // exit the application private void closeCommand_Executed( object sender, ExecutedRoutedEventArgs e ) { Application.Current.Shutdown(); } // end method closeCommand_Executed } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace TextEditor

a) When the application loads

b) After selecting some text

Separator

Fig. 24.20 | Code-behind class for a simple text editor. (Part 1 of 2.)

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c) After copying some text

Fig. 24.20 | Code-behind class for a simple text editor. (Part 2 of 2.) A command is executed when it’s triggered by a command source. For example, the 24.19). The Cut command has two sources, a MenuItem and a ToolBar Button (lines 26 and 39, respectively). A command can have many sources. To make use of a command, you must create a command binding—a link between a command and the methods containing its application logic. You can declare a command binding by creating a CommandBinding object in XAML and setting its Command property to the name of the associated command (line 10). A command binding raises the Executed and PreviewExecuted events (bubbling and tunneling versions of the same event) when its associated command is executed. You program the command’s functionality into an event handler for one of these events. In line 10, we set the Executed attribute to a method name, telling the program that the specified method (closeCommand_Executed) handles the command binding’s Executed event. In this example, we demonstrate the use of a command binding by implementing the Close command. When it executes, it shuts down the application. The method that executes this task is Application.Current.Shutdown, as shown in line 19 of Fig. 24.20. You can also use a command binding to specify the application logic for determining when a command should be enabled or disabled. You can do so by handling either the CanExecute or PreviewCanExecute (bubbling and tunneling versions of the same events) events in the same way that you handle the Executed or PreviewExecuted events. Because we do not define such a handler for the Close command in its command binding, it’s always enabled. Command bindings should be defined within the Window.CommandBindings element (for example, lines 8–11). The only time a command binding is not necessary is when a control has built-in functionality for dealing with a command. A Button or MenuItem linked to the Cut, Copy, or Paste commands is an example (for example, lines 26–28 and lines 39–41). As Fig. 24.20(a) shows, all three commands are disabled when the application loads. If you select some text, the Cut and Copy commands are enabled, as shown in Fig. 24.20(b). Close command is triggered by a MenuItem (line 23 in Fig.

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Once you have copied some text, the Paste command is enabled, as evidenced by Fig. 24.20(c). We did not have to define any associated command bindings or event handlers to implement these commands. The ToggleBold and ToggleItalic commands are also implemented without any command bindings.

Menus and Toolbars The text editor uses menus and toolbars. The Menu control creates a menu containing MenuItems. MenuItems can be top-level menus such as File or Edit (lines 22 and 25 in Fig. 24.19), submenus, or items in a menu, which function like Buttons (for example, lines 26–28). If a MenuItem has nested MenuItems, then it’s a top-level menu or a submenu. Otherwise, it’s an item that executes an action via either an event or a command. MenuItems are content controls and thus can display any single GUI element as content. A ToolBar is a single row or column (depending on the Orientation property) of options. A ToolBar’s Orientation is a read-only property that gets its value from the parent ToolBarTray, which can host multiple ToolBars. If a ToolBar has no parent ToolBarTray, as is the case in this example, its Orientation is Horizontal by default. Unlike elements in a Menu, a ToolBar’s child elements are not of a specific type. A ToolBar usually contains Buttons, CheckBoxes, ComboBoxes, RadioButtons and Separators, but any WPF control can be used. ToolBars overwrite the look-and-feel of their child elements with their own specifications, so that the controls look seamless together. You can override the default specifications to create your own look-and-feel. Lines 37–46 define the text editor’s ToolBar. Menus and ToolBars can incorporate Separators (for example, lines 29 and 42) that differentiate groups of MenuItems or controls. In a Menu, a Separator displays as a horizontal bar—as shown between the Paste and Bold menu options in Fig. 24.20(a). In a horizontal ToolBar, it displays as a short vertical bar—as shown in Fig. 24.20(b). You can use Separators in any type of control that can contain multiple child elements, such as a StackPanel.

24.11 WPF GUI Customization One advantage of WPF over Windows Forms is the ability to customize controls. WPF provides several techniques to customize the look and behavior of controls. The simplest takes full advantage of a control’s properties. The value of a control’s Background property, for example, is a brush (i.e, Brush object). This allows you to create a gradient or an image and use it as the background rather than a solid color. For more information about brushes, see Section 25.5. In addition, many controls that allowed only text content in Windows Forms are ContentControls in WPF, which can host any type of content—including other controls. The caption of a WPF Button, for example, could be an image or even a video. In Section 24.12, we demonstrate how to use styles in WPF to achieve a uniform look-and-feel. In Windows Forms, if you want to make all your Buttons look the same, you have to manually set properties for every Button, or copy and paste. To achieve the same result in WPF, you can define the properties once as a style and apply the style to each Button. This is similar to the CSS/XHTML implementation of styles. XHTML specifies the content and structure of a website, and CSS defines styles that specify the presentation of elements in a website. For more information on CSS and XHTML, see Chapters 19 and 27, and visit our XHTML and CSS Resource Centers at www.deitel.com/xhtml/ and www.deitel.com/css21/, respectively.

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Styles are limited to modifying a control’s look-and-feel through its properties. In Section 24.14, we introduce control templates, which offer you the freedom to define a control’s appearance by modifying its visual structure. With a custom control template, you can completely strip a control of all its visual settings and rebuild it to look exactly the way you like, while maintaining its existing functionality. A Button with a custom control template might look structurally different from a default Button, but it still functions the same as any other Button. If you want to change only the appearance of an element, a style or control template should suffice. However, you can also create entirely new custom controls that have their own functionality, properties, methods and events. We demonstrate how to create a custom control in Section 29.4.3.

24.12 Using Styles to Change the Appearance of Controls Once defined, a WPF style is a collection of property-value and event-handler definitions that can be reused. Styles enable you to eliminate repetitive code or markup. For example, if you want to change the look-and-feel of the standard Button throughout a section of your application, you can define a style and apply it to all the Buttons in that section. Without styles, you have to set the properties for each individual Button. Furthermore, if you later decided that you wanted to tweak the appearance of these Buttons, you would have to modify your markup or code several times. By using a style, you can make the change only once in the style and it’s automatically be applied to any control which uses that style. Styles are WPF resources. A resource is an object that is defined for an entire section of your application and can be reused multiple times. A resource can be as simple as a property or as complex as a control template. Every WPF control can hold a collection of resources that can be accessed by any element down the containment hierarchy. In a way, this is similar in approach to the concept of variable scope that you learned about in Chapter 7. For example, if you define a style as a resource of a Window, then any element in the Window can use that style. If you define a style as a resource of a layout container, then only the elements of the layout container can use that style. You can also define application-level resources for an Application object in the App.xaml file. These resources can be accessed in any file in the application. Figure 24.21 provides the XAML markup and Fig. 24.22 provides the C# code for a color-chooser application. This example demonstrates styles and introduces the Slider user input control. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7



Fig. 24.21 | Color-chooser application showing the use of styles (XAML). (Part 1 of 3.)

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Red: Green: Blue: Alpha: ‘

Fig. 24.21 | Color-chooser application showing the use of styles (XAML). (Part 3 of 3.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

// Fig. 24.22: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Color chooser application showing the use of styles (code-behind). using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Media; namespace ColorChooser { public partial class MainWindow : Window { public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); alphaSlider.Value = 255; // override Value from style } // constructor // handles the ValueChanged event for the Sliders private void slider_ValueChanged( object sender, RoutedPropertyChangedEventArgs< double > e ) { // generates new color SolidColorBrush backgroundColor = new SolidColorBrush(); backgroundColor.Color = Color.FromArgb( ( byte ) alphaSlider.Value, ( byte ) redSlider.Value, ( byte ) greenSlider.Value, ( byte ) blueSlider.Value ); // set colorLabel's background to new color colorLabel.Background = backgroundColor; } // end method slider_ValueChanged } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace ColorChooser

Fig. 24.22 | Color-chooser application showing the use of styles (code-behind). (Part 1 of 2.)

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track

thumb

a) R: 255 G: 128 B: 0 A: 255

b) R: 255 G: 128 B: 0 A: 128

Fig. 24.22 | Color-chooser application showing the use of styles (code-behind). (Part 2 of 2.) RGBA Colors The color-chooser application uses the RGBA color system. Every color is represented by its red, green and blue color values, each ranging from 0 to 255, where 0 denotes no color and 255 full color. For example, a color with a red value of 0 would contain no red component. The alpha value (A)—which also ranges from 0 to 255—represents a color’s opacity, with 0 being completely transparent and 255 completely opaque. The two colors in Fig. 24.22’s sample outputs have the same RGB values, but the color displayed in Fig. 24.22(b) is semitransparent. Controls The color-chooser GUI uses four Slider controls that change the RGBA values of a color displayed by a Label. Next to each Slider is a TextBox that displays the Slider’s current value. You can also type a number in a TextBox to update the value of the corresponding Slider. A Slider is a numeric user input control that allows users to drag a “thumb” along a track to select the value. Whenever the user moves a Slider, the application generates a new color, the corresponding TextBox is updated and the Label displays the new color as its background. The new color is generated by using class Color’s FromArgb method, which returns a color based on the four RGBA byte values you pass it (Fig. 24.22, lines 22–24). The color is then applied as the Background of the Label. Similarly, changing the value of a TextBox updates the thumb of the corresponding Slider to reflect the change, which then updates the Label with the new color. We discuss the updates of the TextBoxes shortly. Slider

Style for the Sliders Styles can be defined as a resource of any control. In the color-chooser application, we defined the style as a resource of the entire Window. We also could have defined it as a resource of the Grid. To define resources for a control, you set a control’s Resources property. Thus, to define a resource for a Window, as we did in this example, you would use Window.Resources (lines 8–26 in Fig. 24.21). To define a resource for a Grid, you would use Grid.Resources.

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Style objects can be defined in XAML using the Style element. The x:Key attribute (i.e., attribute Key from the standard XAML namespace) must be set in every style (or other resource) so that it can be referenced later by other controls (line 9). The children of a Style element set properties and define event handlers. A Setter sets a property to a specific value (e.g., line 12, which sets the styled Slider’s Width property to 256). An EventSetter specifies the method that responds to an event (e.g., lines 23–24, which specifies that method slider_ValueChanged handles the Slider’s ValueChanged event). The Style in the color-chooser example (SliderStyle) primarily uses Setters. It lays out the color Sliders by specifying the Width, HorizontalAlignment and VerticalAlignment properties (lines 12, 16 and 17). It also sets the Minimum and Maximum properties, which determine a Slider’s range of values (lines 13–14). In line 18, the default Value is set to 0. IsSnapToTickEnabled is set to True, meaning that only values that fall on a “tick” are allowed (line 15). By default, each tick is separated by a value of 1, so this setting makes the styled Slider accept only integer values. Lastly, the style also sets the AutoToolTipPlacement property, which specifies where a Slider’s tooltip should appear, if at all. Although the Style defined in the color-chooser example is clearly meant for Sliders, it can be applied to any control. Styles are not control specific. You can make all controls of one type use the same default style by setting the style’s TargetType attribute to the control type. For example, if we wanted all of the Window’s Sliders to use a Style, we would add TargetType="Slider" to the Style’s start tag.

Using a Style To apply a style to a control, you create a resource binding between a control’s Style property and the Style resource. You can create a resource binding in XAML by specifying the resource in a markup extension—an expression enclosed in curly braces ({}). The form of a markup extension calling a resource is {ResourceType ResourceKey} (for example, {StaticResource SliderStyle} in Fig. 24.21, line 58). Static and Dynamic Resources There are two types of resources. Static resources are applied at initialization time only. Dynamic resources are applied every time the resource is modified by the application. To use a style as a static resource, use StaticResource as the type in the markup extension. To use a style as a dynamic resource, use DynamicResource as the type. Because styles don’t normally change during runtime, they are usually used as static resources. However, using one as a dynamic resource is sometimes necessary, such as when you wish to enable users to customize a style at runtime. In this application, we apply SliderStyle as a static resource to each Slider (lines 58, 61, 64 and 67). Once you apply a style to a control, the Design view and Properties window update to display the control’s new appearance settings. If you then modify the control through the Properties window, the control itself is updated, not the style. Element-to-Element Bindings In this application, we use a new feature of WPF called element-to-element binding in which a property of one element is always equal to a property of another element. This enables us to declare in XAML that each TextBox’s Text property should always have the value of the corresponding Slider’s Value property, and that each Slider’s Value property should always have the value of the corresponding TextBox’s Text property. Once

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these bindings are defined, changing a Slider updates the corresponding TextBox and vice versa. In Fig. 24.21, lines 59, 62, 65 and 68 each use a Binding markup extension to bind a Slider’s Value property to the Text property of the appropriate TextBox. Similary, lines 71, 73, 75 and 77 each use a Binding markup extension to bind a TextBox’s Text property to the Value property of the appropriate Slider.

Programmatically Changing the Alpha Slider’s Value As shown in Fig. 24.23, the Slider that adjusts the alpha value in the color-chooser example starts with a value of 255, whereas the R, G and B Sliders’ values start at 0. The Value property is defined by a Setter in the style to be 0 (line 18 in Fig. 24.21). This is why the R, G and B values are 0. The Value property of the alpha Slider is programmatically defined to be 255 (line 13 in Fig. 24.22), but it could also be set locally in the XAML. Because a local declaration takes precedence over a style setter, the alpha Slider’s value would start at 255 when the application loads.

Fig. 24.23 | GUI of the color-chooser application at initialization. Dependency Properties Most WPF properties, though they might look and behave exactly like ordinary ones, are in fact dependency properties. Such properties have built-in support for change notification—that is, an application knows and can respond to changes in property values. In addition, they support inheritance down the control-containment hierarchy. For example, when you specify FontSize in a Window, every control in the Window inherits it as the default FontSize. You can also specify a control’s property in one of its child elements. This is how attached properties work. A control’s properties may be set at many different levels in WPF, so instead of holding a fixed value, a dependency property’s value is determined during execution by a value-determination system. If a property is defined at several levels at once, then the current value is the one defined at the level with the highest precedence. A style, for example, overwrites the default appearance of a control, because it takes higher precedence. A summary of the levels, in order from highest to lowest precedence, is shown in Fig. 24.24. Levels of value determination system Animation

The value is defined by an active animation. For more information about animation, see Chapter 25.

Fig. 24.24 | Levels of value determination from highest to lowest precedence. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Levels of value determination system Local declaration Trigger Style Inherited value Default value

The value is defined as an attribute in XAML or set in code. This is how ordinary properties are set. The value is defined by an active trigger. For more information about triggers, see Section 24.14. The value is defined by a setter in a style. The value is inherited from a definition in a containing element. The value is not explicitly defined.

Fig. 24.24 | Levels of value determination from highest to lowest precedence. (Part 2 of 2.)

24.13 Customizing Windows For over a decade, the standard design of an application window has remained practically the same—a framed rectangular box with a header in the top left and a set of buttons in the top right for minimizing, maximizing and closing the window. Cutting-edge applications, however, have begun to use custom windows that diverge from this standard to create a more interesting look. WPF lets you do this more easily. To create a custom window, set the WindowStyle property to None. This removes the standard frame around your Window. To make your Window irregularly shaped, you set the AllowsTransparency property to True and the Background property to Transparent. If you then add controls, only the space within the boundaries of those controls behaves as part of the window. This works because a user cannot interact with any part of a Window that is transparent. You still define your Window as a rectangle with a width and a height, but when a user clicks in a transparent part of the Window, it behaves as if the user clicked outside the Window’s boundaries—that is, the window does not respond to the click. Figure 24.25 is the XAML markup that defines a GUI for a circular digital clock. The Window’s WindowStyle is set to None and AllowsTransparency is set to True (line 7). In this example, we set the background to be an image using an ImageBrush (lines 10–12). The background image is a circle with a drop shadow surrounded by transparency. Thus, the Window appears circular. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12



Fig. 24.25 | Creating custom windows and using timers (XAML). (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 24.25 | Creating custom windows and using timers (XAML). (Part 2 of 2.) The time is displayed in the center of the window in a TextBox (lines 15–18). Its is set to Transparent so that the text displays directly on the circular background (line 16). We configured the text to be size 16, bold, and white by setting the FontSize, FontWeight, and Foreground properties. The Cursor property is set to Arrow, so that the mouse cursor doesn’t change when it moves over the time (line 18). Setting Focusable to False disables the user’s ability to select the text (line 18). When you create a custom window, there’s no built-in functionality for doing the simple tasks that normal windows do. For example, there is no way for the user to move, resize, minimize, maximize, or close a window unless you write the code to enable these features. You can move the clock around, because we implemented this functionality in the Window’s code-behind class (Fig. 24.26). Whenever the left mouse button is held down on the clock (handled by the MouseLeftButtonDown event), the Window is dragged around using the DragMove method (lines 27–31). Because we did not define how to close or minimize the Window, the only way to shut down the clock is to press Alt-F4—this is a feature built into Windows. Background

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

// Fig. 24.26: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Creating custom windows and using timers (code-behind). using System; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Input; namespace Clock { public partial class MainWindow : Window { // create a timer to control clock private System.Windows.Threading.DispatcherTimer timer = new System.Windows.Threading.DispatcherTimer();

Fig. 24.26 | Creating custom windows and using timers (code-behind). (Part 1 of 2.)

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// constructor public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); timer.Interval = TimeSpan.FromSeconds( 1 ); // tick every second timer.IsEnabled = true; // enable timer timer.Tick += timer_Tick; } // end constructor // drag Window when the left mouse button is held down private void clockWindow_MouseLeftButtonDown( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { this.DragMove(); // moves the window } // end method clockWindow_MouseLeftButtonDown // update the time when the timer ticks private void timer_Tick( object sender, EventArgs e ) { DateTime currentTime = DateTime.Now; // get the current time // display the time as hh:mm:ss timeTextBox.Text = currentTime.ToLongTimeString(); } // end method timer_Tick } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace Clock

Fig. 24.26 | Creating custom windows and using timers (code-behind). (Part 2 of 2.)

The clock works by getting the current time every second and displaying it in the TextBox. To do this, the clock uses a DispatcherTimer object (of the Windows.Threading

namespace), which raises the Tick event repeatedly at a prespecified time interval. Since the DispatcherTimer is defined in the C# code rather than the XAML, we need to specify the method to handle the Tick event in the C# code. Line 23 assigns method timer_Tick to the Tick event’s delegate. This adds a new EventHandler—which takes a method name as an argument—to the specified event. After it is declared, you must specify the interval between Ticks by setting the Interval property, which takes a TimeSpan as its value. TimeSpan has several class methods for instantiating a TimeSpan object, including FromSeconds, which defines a TimeSpan lasting the number of seconds you pass to the method. Line 20 creates a one-second TimeSpan and sets it as the DispatcherTimer’s Interval. A DispatcherTimer is disabled by default. Until you enable it by setting the IsEnabled property to true (line 21), it will not Tick. In this example, the Tick event handler gets the current time and displays it in the TextBox. You may recall that the Timer component provided the same capabilities in Windows Forms. A similar object that you can drag-and-drop onto your GUI doesn’t exist in WPF. Instead, you must create a DispatcherTimer object, as illustrated in this example.

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24.14 Defining a Control’s Appearance with Control Templates We now update the clock example to include buttons for minimizing and closing the application. We also introduce control templates—a powerful tool for customizing the lookand-feel of your GUIs. As previously mentioned, a custom control template can redefine the appearance of any control without changing its functionality. In Windows Forms, if you want to create a round button, you have to create a new control and simulate the functionality of a Button. With control templates, you can simply redefine the visual elements that compose the Button control and still use the preexisting functionality. All WPF controls are lookless—that is, a control’s properties, methods and events are coded into the control’s class, but its appearance is not. Instead, the appearance of a control is determined by a control template, which is a hierarchy of visual elements. Every control has a built-in default control template. All of the GUIs discussed so far have used these default templates. The hierarchy of visual elements defined by a control template can be represented as a tree, called a control’s visual tree. Figure 24.27(b) shows the visual tree of a default Button (Fig. 24.28). This is a more detailed version of the same Button’s logical tree, which is shown in Fig. 24.27(a). A logical tree depicts how a control is a defined, whereas a visual tree depicts how a control is graphically rendered. a) Logical tree

b) Visual tree Button

Button

String

Border

ContentPresenter

String

Fig. 24.27 | The logical and visual trees for a default Button.

Fig. 24.28 | The default Button. A control’s logical tree always mirrors its definition in XAML. For example, you’ll notice that the Button’s logical tree, which comprises only the Button and its string caption, exactly represents the hierarchy outlined by its XAML definition, which is Click Me

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To actually render the Button, WPF displays a ContentPresenter with a Border around it. These elements are included in the Button’s visual tree. A ContentPresenter is an object used to display a single element of content on the screen. It’s often used in a template to specify where to display content. In the updated clock example, we create a custom control template (named ButtonTemplate) for rendering Buttons and apply it to the two Buttons in the application. The XAML markup is shown in Fig. 24.29. Like a style, a control template is usually defined as a resource, and applied by binding a control’s Template property to the control template using a resource binding (for example, lines 47 and 52). After you apply a control template to a control, the Design view will update to display the new appearance of the control. The Properties window remains unchanged, since a control template does not modify a control’s properties. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37



Fig. 24.29 | Using control templates (XAML). (Part 1 of 2.)

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Templated Buttons a)

b)

Fig. 24.29 | Using control templates (XAML). (Part 2 of 2.) To define a control template in XAML, you create a ControlTemplate element. Just as with a style, you must specify the control template’s x:Key attribute so you can reference it later (line 12). You must also set the TargetType attribute to the type of control for which the template is designed (line 12). Inside the ControlTemplate element, you can build the control using any WPF visual element (lines 13–19). In this example, we replace the default Border and ContentPresenter with our own custom ones. Sometimes, when defining a control template, it may be beneficial to use the value of one of the templated control’s properties. For example, if you want several controls of different sizes to use the same control template, you may need to use the values of their Width and Height properties in the template. WPF allows you to do this with a template binding, which can be created in XAML with the markup extension, {TemplateBinding PropertyName}. To bind a property of an element in a control template to one of the properties of the templated control (that is, the control that the template is applied to), you need to set the appropriate markup extension as the value of that property. In ButtonTem-

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plate,

we bind the Content property of a ContentPresenter to the Content property of the templated Button (line 18). The nested element of a ContentControl is the value of its Content property. Thus, the images defined in lines 49 and 54 are the Content of the Buttons and are displayed by the ContentPresenters in their respective control templates. You can also create template bindings to a control’s events. Often you’ll use a combination of control templates, styles and local declarations to define the appearance of your application. Recall that a control template defines the default appearance of a control and thus has a lower precedence than a style in dependency property-value determination.

Triggers The control template for Buttons used in the updated clock example defines a trigger, which changes a control’s appearance when that control enters a certain state. For example, when your mouse is over the clock’s minimize or close Buttons, the Button is highlighted with a light blue background, as shown in Fig. 24.29(b). This simple change in appearance is caused by a trigger that fires whenever the IsMouseOver property becomes True. A trigger must be defined in the Style.Triggers or ControlTemplate.Triggers element of a style or a control template, respectively (for example, lines 21–28). You can create a trigger by defining a Trigger object. The Property and Value attributes define the state when a trigger is active. Setters nested in the Trigger element are carried out when the trigger is fired. When the trigger no longer applies, the changes are removed. A Setter’s TargetName property specifies the name of the element that the Setter applies to (for example, line 25). Lines 23–27 define the IsMouseOver trigger for the minimize and close Buttons. When the mouse is over the Button, IsMouseOver becomes True, and the trigger becomes active. The trigger’s Setter makes the background of the Border in the control template temporarily light blue. When the mouse exits the boundaries of the Button, IsMouseOver becomes False. Thus, the Border’s background returns to its default setting, which in this case is transparent. Functionality Figure 24.30 shows the code-behind class for the clock application. Although the custom control template makes the Buttons in this application look different, it doesn’t change how they behave. Lines 3–40 remain unchanged from the code in the first clock example (Fig. 24.26). The functionality for the minimize and close Buttons is implemented in the same way as any other button—by handling the Click event (lines 43–47 and 50–53 of Fig. 24.30, respectively). To minimize the window, we set the WindowState of the Window to WindowState.Minimized (line 46). 1 2 3 4 5

// Fig. 24.30: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Using control templates (code-behind). using System; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Input;

Fig. 24.30 | Using control templates (code-behind). (Part 1 of 2.)

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namespace Clock { public partial class MainWindow : Window { // creates a timer to control clock private System.Windows.Threading.DispatcherTimer timer = new System.Windows.Threading.DispatcherTimer(); // constructor public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); timer.Interval = TimeSpan.FromSeconds( 1 ); // tick every second timer.IsEnabled = true; // enable timer timer.Tick += timer_Tick; } // end constructor // drag Window when the left mouse button is held down private void clockWindow_MouseLeftButtonDown( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { this.DragMove(); } // end method clockWindow_MouseLeftButtonDown // update the time when the timer ticks private void timer_Tick( object sender, EventArgs e ) { DateTime currentTime = DateTime.Now; // get the current time // display the time as hh:mm:ss timeTextBox.Text = currentTime.ToLongTimeString(); } // end method timer_Tick // minimize the application private void minimizeButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { this.WindowState = WindowState.Minimized; // minimize window } // end method minimizeButton_Click // close the application private void closeButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { Application.Current.Shutdown(); // shut down application } // end method closeButton_Click } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace Clock

Fig. 24.30 | Using control templates (code-behind). (Part 2 of 2.)

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24.15 Data-Driven GUIs with Data Binding Often, an application needs to edit and display data. WPF provides a comprehensive model for allowing GUIs to interact with data.

Bindings A data binding is a pointer to data, represented by a Binding object. WPF allows you to create a binding to a broad range of data types. At the simplest level, you could create a binding to a single property. Often, however, it’s useful to create a binding to a data object—an object of a class with properties that describe the data. You can also create a binding to objects like arrays, collections and data in an XML document. The versatility of the WPF data model even allows you to bind to data represented by LINQ statements. Like other binding types, a data binding can be created declaratively in XAML markup with a markup extension. To declare a data binding, you must specify the data’s source. If it’s another element in the XAML markup, use property ElementName. Otherwise, use Source. Then, if you’re binding to a specific data point of the source, such as a property of a control, you must specify the Path to that piece of information. Use a comma to separate the binding’s property declarations. For example, to create a binding to a control’s property, you would use {Binding ElementName=ControlName, Path=PropertyName}. Figure 24.31 presents the XAML markup of a book-cover viewer that lets the user select from a list of books, and displays the cover of the currently selected book. The list of books is presented in a ListView control (lines 15–24), which displays a set of data as items in a selectable list. Its current selection can be retrieved from the SelectedItem property. A large image of the currently selected book’s cover is displayed in an Image control (lines 27–28), which automatically updates when the user makes a new selection. Each book is represented by a Book object, which has four string properties: 1. ThumbImage—the full path to the small cover image of the book. 2. LargeImage—the full path to the large cover image of the book. 3. Title—the title of the book. 4. ISBN—the 10-digit ISBN of the book. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15



Fig. 24.31 | Using data binding (XAML). (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 24.31 | Using data binding (XAML). (Part 2 of 2.) Class Book also contains a constructor that initializes a Book and sets each of its properties. The full source code of the Book class is not presented here but you can view it in the IDE by opening this example’s project. To synchronize the book cover that’s being displayed with the currently selected book, we bind the Image’s Source property to the file location of the currently selected book’s large cover image (lines 27–28). The Binding’s ElementName property is the name of the selector control, booksListView. The Path property is SelectedItem.LargeImage. This indicates that the binding should be linked to the LargeImage property of the Book object that is currently booksListView’s SelectedItem. Some controls have built-in support for data binding, and a separate Binding object doesn’t need to be created. A ListView, for example, has a built-in ItemsSource property that specifies the data source from which the items of the list are determined. There is no need to create a binding—instead, you can just set the ItemsSource property as you would

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any other property. When you set ItemsSource to a collection of data, the objects in the collection automatically become the items in the list. Figure 24.32 presents the codebehind class for the book-cover viewer. When the Window is created, a collection of six Book objects is initialized (lines 17–31) and set as the ItemsSource of the booksListView, meaning that each item displayed in the selector is one of the Books. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

// Fig. 24.32: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Using data binding (code-behind). using System.Collections.Generic; using System.Windows; namespace BookViewer { public partial class MainWindow : Window { private List< Book > books = new List< Book >(); public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); // add Book objects to the List books.Add( new Book( "AJAX, Rich Internet Applications, " + "and Web Development for Programmers", "0131587382", "images/small/ajax.jpg", "images/large/ajax.jpg" ) ); books.Add( new Book( "C++ How to Program", "0136152503", "images/small/cppHTP6e.jpg", "images/large/cppHTP6e.jpg" ) ); books.Add( new Book( "Internet and World Wide Web How to Program", "0131752421", "images/small/iw3htp4.jpg", "images/large/iw3htp4.jpg" ) ); books.Add( new Book( "Java How to Program", "0132222205", "images/small/jhtp7.jpg", "images/large/jhtp7.jpg" ) ); books.Add( new Book( "Operating Systems", "0131828274", "images/small/os3e.jpg", "images/large/os3e.jpg" ) ); books.Add( new Book( "Visual C++ 2008 How to Program", "0136151574", "images/small/vcpp2008htp2e.jpg", "images/large/vcpp2008htp2e.jpg" ) ); booksListView.ItemsSource = books; // bind data to the list } // end constructor } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace BookViewer

Fig. 24.32 | Using data binding (code-behind). Displaying Data in the ListView For a ListView to display objects in a useful manner, you must specify how. For example, if you don’t specify how to display each Book, the ListView simply displays the result of the item’s ToString method, as shown in Fig. 24.33. There are many ways to format the display of a ListView. One such method is to display each item as a row in a tabular grid, as shown in Fig. 24.31. This can be achieved by setting a GridView as the View property of a ListView (lines 16–23). A GridView consists

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Fig. 24.33 |

ListView

display with no data template.

of many GridViewColumns, each representing a property. In this example, we define two columns, one for Title and one for ISBN (lines 18–19 and 20–21, respectively). A GridViewColumn’s Header property specifies what to display as its header. The values displayed in each column are determined by its DisplayMemberBinding property. We set the Title column’s DisplayMemberBinding to a Binding object that points to the Title property (line 19), and the ISBN column’s to one that points to the ISBN property (line 21). Neither of the Bindings has a specified ElementName or Source. Because the ListView has already specified the data source (line 33 of Fig. 24.32), the two data bindings inherit this source, and we do not need specify it again.

Data Templates A much more powerful technique for formatting a ListView is to specify a template for displaying each item in the list. This template defines how to display bound data and is called a data template. Figure 24.34 is the XAML markup that describes a modified version of the book-cover viewer GUI. Each book, instead of being displayed as a row in a table, is represented by a small thumbnail of its cover image with its title and ISBN. Lines 11–32 define the data template (that is, a DataTemplate object) that specifies how to display a Book object. Note the similarity between the structure of a data template and that of a control template. If you define a data template as a resource, you apply it by using a resource binding, just as you would a style or control template. To apply a data template to items in a ListView, use the ItemTemplate property (for example, line 43). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17



Fig. 24.34 | Using data templates (XAML). (Part 1 of 3.)

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Fig. 24.34 | Using data templates (XAML). (Part 2 of 3.)

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b)

Fig. 24.34 | Using data templates (XAML). (Part 3 of 3.) A data template uses data bindings to specify how to display data. Once again, we can omit the data binding’s ElementName and Source properties, because its source has already been specified by the ListView (line 33 of Fig. 24.32). The same principle can be applied in other scenarios as well. If you bind an element’s DataContext property to a data source, then its child elements can access data within that source without your having to specify it again. In other words, if a binding already has a context (i.e, a DataContext has already been defined by a parent), it automatically inherits the data source. For example, if you bind a data source to the DataContext property of a Grid, then any data binding created in the Grid uses that source by default. You can, however, override this source by explicitly defining a new one when you define a binding. In the BookTemplate data template, lines 19–20 of Fig. 24.34 define an Image whose Source is bound to the Book’s ThumbImage property, which stores the relative file path to the thumbnail cover image. The Book’s Title and ISBN are displayed to the right of the book using TextBlocks—lightweight controls for displaying text. The TextBlock in lines 24–25 displays the Book’s Title because the Text property is bound to it. Because some of the books’ titles are long, we set the TextWrapping property to Wrap (line 25) so that, if the title is too long, it will wrap to multiple lines. We also set the FontWeight property to Bold. Lines 26–29 display two additional TextBlocks, one that displays ISBN:, and another that is bound to the Book’s ISBN property. Figure 24.34(a) shows the book-viewer application when it first loads. Each item in the ListView is represented by a thumbnail of its cover image, its title and its ISBN, as specified in the data template. As illustrated by Fig. 24.34(b), when you select an item in the ListView, the large cover image on the right automatically updates, because it’s bound to the SelectedItem property of the list.

Data Views A data view (of class type CollectionView) is a wrapper around a collection of data that can provide us with multiple “views” of the same data based on how we filter, sort and

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group the data. A default view is automatically created in the background every time a data binding is created. To retrieve the data view, use the CollectionViewSource.GetDefaultView method and pass it the source of your data binding. For example, to retrieve the default view of bookListView in the book-viewer application, you would use CollectionViewSource.GetDefaultView(bookListView.ItemsSource). You can then modify the view to create the exact view of the data that you want to display. The methods of filtering, sorting and grouping data are beyond the scope of this book. For more information, see msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms752347.aspx# what_are_collection_views.

Asynchronous Data Binding Sometimes you may wish to create asynchronous data bindings that don’t hold up your application while data is being transmitted. To do this, you set the IsAsync property of a data binding to True (it’s False by default). Often, however, it’s not the transmission but the instantiation of data that is the most expensive operation. An asynchronous data binding does not provide a solution for instantiating data asynchronously. To do so, you must use a data provider, a class that can create or retrieve data. There are two types of data providers, XmlDataProvider (for XML) and ObjectDataProvider (for data objects). Both can be declared as resources in XAML markup. If you set a data provider’s IsAsynchronous property to True, the provider will run in the background. Creating and using data providers is beyond the scope of this book. See msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ aa480224.aspx for more information.

24.16 Wrap-Up In this chapter, we discussed some basic XML terminology and introduced the concepts of markup, XML vocabularies and XML parsers (validating and nonvalidating). We then demonstrated how to describe and structure data in XML, illustrating these points with examples marking up an article and a business letter. Next, we discussed XML namespaces and namespace prefixes. You learned that each namespace has a unique name that provides a means for document authors to refer unambiguously to elements with the same name (that is, prevent naming collisions) from different namespaces. We presented examples of defining two namespaces in the same document, as well as setting the default namespace for a document. Many of today’s commercial applications provide GUIs that are easy to use and manipulate. The demand for sophisticated and user-friendly GUIs makes GUI design an essential programming skill. In Chapters 14–15, we showed you how to create GUIs with Windows Forms. In this chapter, we demonstrated how to create GUIs with WPF. You learned how to design a WPF GUI with XAML markup and how to give it functionality in a C# code-behind class. We presented WPF’s new flow-based layout scheme, in which a control’s size and position are both defined relatively. You learned not only to handle events just as you did in a Windows Forms application, but also to implement WPF commands when you want multiple user interactions to execute the same task. We demonstrated the flexibility WPF offers for customizing the look-and-feel of your GUIs. You learned how to use styles, control templates and triggers to define a control’s appearance. The chapter concluded with a demonstration of how to create data-driven GUIs with data bindings and data templates.

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But WPF is not merely a GUI-building platform. Chapter 25 explores some of the many other capabilities of WPF, showing you how to incorporate 2D and 3D graphics, animation and multimedia into your WPF applications. Chapter 29 demonstrates how to create Internet applications using a subset of WPF’s features that are available in the Silverlight runtime, which executes as a plug-in for several popular browsers and platforms.

24.17 Web Resources There is a tremendous amount of material on the web to help you learn more about WPF. Check out our Windows Presentation Foundation Resource Center www.deitel.com/wpf/

for the latest WPF articles, books, sample chapters, tutorials, webcasts, blogs and more.

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25 WPF Graphics and Multimedia

Nowadays people’s visual imagination is so much more sophisticated, so much more developed, particularly in young people, that now you can make an image which just slightly suggests something, they can make of it what they will. —Robert Doisneau

In shape, it is perfectly elliptical. In texture, it is smooth and lustrous. In color, it ranges from pale alabaster to warm terra cotta. —Sydney J Harris, “Tribute to an Egg”

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

To manipulate fonts.

■

To draw basic WPF shapes.

■

To use WPF brushes to customize the Fill or Background of an object.

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To use WPF transforms to reposition or reorient GUI elements.

■

To completely customize the look of a control while maintaining its functionality.

■

To animate the properties of a GUI element.

■

To transform and animate 3-D objects.

■

To use speech synthesis and recognition.

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25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 25.8

Chapter 25 WPF Graphics and Multimedia

Introduction Controlling Fonts Basic Shapes Polygons and Polylines Brushes Transforms WPF Customization: A Television GUI Animations

25.9 (Optional) 3-D Objects and Transforms 25.10 Speech Synthesis and Speech Recognition 25.11 Wrap-Up

25.1 Introduction This chapter overviews WPF’s graphics and multimedia capabilities, including two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes, fonts, transformations, animations, audio and video. WPF integrates drawing and animation features that were previously available only in special libraries (such as DirectX). The graphics system in WPF is designed to use your computer’s graphics hardware to reduce the load on the CPU. WPF graphics use resolution-independent units of measurement, making applications more uniform and portable across devices. The size properties of graphic elements in WPF are measured in machine-independent pixels, where one pixel typically represents 1/96 of an inch—however, this depends on the computer’s DPI (dots per inch) setting. The graphics engine determines the correct pixel count so that all users see elements of the same size on all devices. Graphic elements are rendered on screen using a vector-based system in which calculations determine how to size and scale each element, allowing graphic elements to be preserved across any rendering size. This produces smoother graphics than the so-called raster-based systems, in which the precise pixels are specified for each graphical element. Raster-based graphics tend to degrade in appearance as they’re scaled larger. Vector-based graphics appear smooth at any scale. Graphic elements other than images and video are drawn using WPF’s vector-based system, so they look good at any screen resolution. The basic 2-D shapes are Lines, Rectangles and Ellipses. WPF also has controls that can be used to create custom shapes or curves. Brushes can be used to fill an element with solid colors, complex patterns, gradients, images or videos, allowing for unique and interesting visual experiences. WPF’s robust animation and transform capabilities allow you to further customize GUIs. Transforms reposition and reorient graphic elements. WPF also includes 3-D modeling and rendering capabilities. In addition, 2-D manipulations can be applied to 3-D objects as well. You can find more information on WPF in our WPF Resource Center at www.deitel.com/wpf/. The chapter ends with an introduction to speech synthesis and recognition.

25.2 Controlling Fonts This section introduces how to control fonts by modifying the font properties of a TextBlock control in the XAML code. Figure 25.1 shows how to use TextBlocks and how to change the properties to control the appearance of the displayed text.

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25.2 Controlling Fonts

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Arial 12 point bold. Times New Roman 12 point plain. Courier New 16 point bold and italic. Default font with overline and baseline. Default font with strikethrough and underline.

Fig. 25.1 | Formatting fonts in XAML code. The text that you want to display in the TextBlock is placed between the TextBlock tags. The FontFamily property defines the font of the displayed text. This property can be set to any font. Lines 10, 14 and 18 define the separate TextBlock fonts to be Arial, Times

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New Roman and Courier New, respectively. If the font is not specified or is not available, the default font, Segoe UI for Windows Vista/Windows 7, is used (lines 24 and 33). The FontSize property defines the text size measured in points. When no FontSize is specified, the property is set to the default value of 12 (this is actually determined by System.MessageFontSize). The font sizes are defined in lines 10 and 18. In lines 14, 24 and 33, the FontSize is not defined so the default is used. TextBlocks have various properties that can further modify the font. Lines 10 and 19 set the FontWeight property to Bold to make the font thicker. This property can be set either to a numeric value (1–999) or to a predefined descriptive value—such as Light or UltraBold—to define the thickness of the text. You can use the FontStyle property to make the text either Italic or Oblique—which is simply a more emphasized italic. Line 19 sets the FontStyle property to Italic. You can also define TextDecorations for a TextBlock to draw a horizontal line through the text. Overline and Baseline—shown in the fourth TextBlock of Fig. 25.1— create lines above the text and at the base of the text, respectively (lines 26–27). Strikethrough and Underline—shown in the fifth TextBlock—create lines through the middle of the text and under the text, respectively (lines 35–36). The Underline option leaves a small amount of space between the text and the line, unlike the Baseline. The Location property of the TextDecoration class defines which decoration you want to apply.

25.3 Basic Shapes WPF has several built-in shapes. The BasicShapes example (Fig. 25.2) shows you how to display Lines, Rectangles and Ellipses. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24



Fig. 25.2 | Drawing basic shapes in XAML. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 25.2 | Drawing basic shapes in XAML. (Part 2 of 2.) The first shape drawn uses the Rectangle object to create a filled rectangle in the window. Notice that the layout control is a Canvas allowing us to use coordinates to position the shapes. To specify the upper-left corner of the Rectangle at lines 9–10, we set the Canvas.Left and Canvas.Top properties to 90 and 30, respectively. We then set the Width and Height properties to 150 and 90, respectively, to specify the size. To define the Rectangle’s color, we use the Fill property (line 10). You can assign any Color or Brush to this property. Rectangles also have a Stroke property, which defines the color of the outline of the shape (line 20). If either the Fill or the Stroke is not specified, that property will be rendered transparently. For this reason, the blue Rectangle in the window has no outline, while the second Rectangle drawn has only an outline (with a transparent center). Shape objects have a StrokeThickness property which defines the thickness of the outline. The default value for StrokeThickness is 1 pixel. A Line is defined by its two endpoints—X1, Y1 and X2, Y2. Lines have a Stroke property that defines the color of the line. In this example, the lines are all set to have black Strokes (lines 13–16 and 25–26). To draw a circle or ellipse, you can use the Ellipse control. The placement and size of an Ellipse is defined like a Rectangle—with the Canvas.Left and Canvas.Top properties for the upper-left corner, and the Width and Height properties for the size (line 23). Together, the Canvas.Left, Canvas.Top, Width and Height of an Ellipse define a “bounding rectangle” in which the Ellipse touches the center of each side of the rectangle. To draw a circle, provide the same value for the Width and Height properties. As with Rectangles, having an unspecified Fill property for an Ellipse makes the shape’s fill transparent (lines 29–30).

25.4 Polygons and Polylines There are two shape controls for drawing multisided shapes—Polyline and Polygon. Polyline draws a series of connected lines defined by a set of points, while Polygon does

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the same but connects the start and end points to make a closed figure. The application DrawPolygons (Fig. 25.3) allows you to click anywhere on the Canvas to define points for one of three shapes. You select which shape you want to display by selecting one of the RadioButtons in the second column. The difference between the Filled Polygon and the Polygon options is that the former has a Fill property specified while the latter does not. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

Polyline Polygon Filled Polygon Clear

Fig. 25.3 | Defining Polylines and Polygons in XAML. (Part 1 of 2.)

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a) Application with the Polyline option selected

b) Application with the Filled Polygon option selected

Fig. 25.3 | Defining Polylines and Polygons in XAML. (Part 2 of 2.) The code defines a two-column GUI (lines 9–10). The first column contains a Canvas (lines 15–22) that the user interacts with to create the points of the selected shape. Embedded in the Canvas are a Polyline (lines 17–18) and two Polygons—one with a Fill (lines 20–21) and one without (line 19). The Visibility of a control can be set to Visible, Collapsed or Hidden. This property is initially set to Collapsed for all three shapes (lines 18, 19 and 21), because we’ll display only the shape that corresponds to the selected RadioButton. The difference between Hidden and Collapsed is that a Hidden object occupies space in the GUI but is not visible, while a Collapsed object has a Width and Height of 0. As you can see, Polyline and Polygon objects have Fill and Stroke properties like the simple shapes we discussed earlier. The RadioButtons (lines 30–40) allow you to select which shape appears in the Canvas. There is also a Button (lines 45–46) that clears the shape’s points to allow you to start over. The code-behind file for this application is shown in Fig. 25.4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

// Fig. 25.4: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Drawing Polylines and Polygons. using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Input; using System.Windows.Media; namespace DrawPolygons { public partial class MainWindow : Window {

Fig. 25.4 | Drawing Polylines and Polygons. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// stores the collection of points for the multisided shapes private PointCollection points = new PointCollection(); // initialize the points of the shapes public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); polyLine.Points = points; // assign Polyline points polygon.Points = points; // assign Polygon points filledPolygon.Points = points; // assign filled Polygon points } // end constructor // adds a new point when the user clicks on the canvas private void drawCanvas_MouseDown( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { // add point to collection points.Add( e.GetPosition( drawCanvas ) ); } // end method drawCanvas_MouseDown // when the clear Button is clicked private void clearButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { points.Clear(); // clear the points from the collection } // end method clearButton_Click // when the user selects the Polyline private void lineRadio_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { // Polyline is visible, the other two are not polyLine.Visibility = Visibility.Visible; polygon.Visibility = Visibility.Collapsed; filledPolygon.Visibility = Visibility.Collapsed; } // end method lineRadio_Checked // when the user selects the Polygon private void polygonRadio_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { // Polygon is visible, the other two are not polyLine.Visibility = Visibility.Collapsed; polygon.Visibility = Visibility.Visible; filledPolygon.Visibility = Visibility.Collapsed; } // end method polygonRadio_Checked // when the user selects the filled Polygon private void filledPolygonRadio_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { // filled Polygon is visible, the other two are not polyLine.Visibility = Visibility.Collapsed; polygon.Visibility = Visibility.Collapsed;

Fig. 25.4 | Drawing Polylines and Polygons. (Part 2 of 3.)

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filledPolygon.Visibility = Visibility.Visible; } // end method filledPolygonRadio_Checked } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace DrawPolygons

Fig. 25.4 | Drawing Polylines and Polygons. (Part 3 of 3.) To allow the user to specify a variable number of points, line 12 declares a Pointwhich is a collection that stores Point objects. This keeps track of each mouse-click location. The collection’s Add method adds new points to the end of the collection. When the application executes, we set the Points property (lines 19–21) of each shape to reference the PointCollection instance variable created in line 12. We created a MouseDown event handler to capture mouse clicks on the Canvas (lines 25–30). When the user clicks the mouse on the Canvas, the mouse coordinates are recorded (line 29) and the points collection is updated. Since the Points property of each of the three shapes has a reference to our PointCollection object, the shapes are automatically updated with the new Point. The Polyline and Polygon shapes connect the Points based on the ordering in the collection. Each RadioButton’s Checked event handler sets the corresponding shape’s Visibility property to Visible and sets the other two to Collapsed to display the correct shape in the Canvas. For example, the lineRadio_Checked event handler (lines 39–45) makes polyLine Visible (line 42) and makes polygon and filledPolygon Collapsed (lines 43–44). The other two RadioButton event handlers are defined similarly in lines 48–55 and lines 58–65. The clearButton_Click event handler erases the stored collection of Points (line 35). The Clear method of the PointCollection points erases its elements. Collection,

25.5 Brushes Brushes change an element’s graphic properties, such as the Fill, Stroke or Background. A SolidColorBrush fills the element with the specified color. To customize elements further, you can use ImageBrushes, VisualBrushes and gradient brushes. Run the UsingBrushes application (Fig. 25.5) to see Brushes applied to TextBlocks and Ellipses. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13



Fig. 25.5 | Applying brushes to various XAML elements. (Part 1 of 3.)

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Color Image Video

Fig. 25.5 | Applying brushes to various XAML elements. (Part 2 of 3.)

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a)

b)

c)

Fig. 25.5 | Applying brushes to various XAML elements. (Part 3 of 3.)

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ImageBrush

An ImageBrush paints an image into the property it is assigned to (such as a Background). For instance, the TextBlock with the text “Image” and the Ellipse next to it are both filled with the same flower picture. To fill the text, we can assign the ImageBrush to the Foreground property of the TextBlock. The Foreground property specifies the fill for the text itself while the Background property specifies the fill for the area surrounding the text. Notice in lines 32–35 we apply the ImageBrush with its ImageSource set to the file we want to display (the image file must be included in the project). We can also assign the brush to the Fill of the Ellipse (lines 41–43) to display the image inside the shape.

and MediaElement This example displays a video in a TextBlock’s Foreground and an Ellipse’s Fill. To use audio or video in a WPF application, you use the MediaElement control. Before using a video file in your application, add it to your Visual Studio project by first selecting the Add Existing Item... option in the Project menu. In the file dialog that appears, find and select the video you want to use. In the drop-down menu next to the File Name TextBox, you must change the selection to All Files (*.*) to be able to find your file. Once you have selected your file, click Add. Select the newly added video in the Solution Explorer. Then, in the Properties window, change the Copy to Output Directory property to Copy if newer. This tells the project to copy your video to the project’s output directory where it can directly reference the file. You can now set the Source property of your MediaElement to the video. In the UsingBrushes application, we use nasa.wmv (line 52 and 64). We use the VisualBrush element to display a video in the desired controls. Lines 50– 54 define the Brush with a MediaElement assigned to its Visual property. In this property you can completely customize the look of the brush. By assigning the video to this property, we can apply the brush to the Foreground of the TextBlock (lines 48–55) and the Fill of the Ellipse (lines 61–67) to play the video inside the controls. Notice that the Fill of the third Row’s elements is different in each screen capture in Fig. 25.5. This is because the video is playing inside the two elements. VisualBrush

Gradients A gradient is a gradual transition through two or more colors. Gradients can be applied as the background or fill for various elements. There are two types of gradients in WPF— LinearGradientBrush and RadialGradientBrush. The LinearGradientBrush transitions through colors along a straight path. The RadialGradientBrush transitions through colors radially outward from a specified point. Linear gradients are discussed in the UsingGradients example, which displays a gradient across the window. This was created by applying a LinearGradientBrush to a Rectangle’s Fill. The gradient starts white and transitions linearly to black from left to right. You can set the RGBA values of the start and end colors to change the look of the gradient. The values entered in the TextBoxes must be in the range 0–255 for the application to run properly. If you set either color’s alpha value to less than 255, you’ll see the text “Transparency test” in the background, showing that the Rectangle is semitransparent. The XAML code for this application is shown in Fig. 25.6. The GUI for this application contains a single Rectangle with a LinearGradientBrush applied to its Fill (lines 20–30). We define the StartPoint and EndPoint of the gradient in line 22. You must assign logical points to these properties, meaning the x- and

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25.5 Brushes

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Transparency test Orientation="Horizontal"> Margin="5">Alpha: Margin="5">Red: Margin="5">Green: Margin="5">Blue:

255 255 255 255 Start Color Grid.Row="3" Orientation="Horizontal"> Name="toAlpha" Width="75" Margin="5">255 Name="toRed" Width="75" Margin="5">0

Fig. 25.6 | Defining gradients in XAML. (Part 1 of 2.)

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0 0 End Color

a) The application immediately after it is loaded

b) The application after changing the start and end colors

Fig. 25.6 | Defining gradients in XAML. (Part 2 of 2.) y-coordinates take values between 0 and 1, inclusive. Logical points are used to reference locations in the control independent of the actual size. The point (0,0) represents the topleft corner while the point (1,1) represents the bottom-right corner. The gradient will transition linearly from the start to the end—for RadialGradientBrush, the StartPoint represents the center of the gradient. A gradient is defined using GradientStop controls. A GradientStop defines a single color along the gradient. You can define as many stops as you want by embedding them in the brush element. A GradientStop is defined by its Offset and Color properties. The Color property defines the color you want the gradient to transition to—lines 25 and 27 indicate that the gradient transitions through white and black. The Offset property defines where along the linear transition you want the color to appear. You can assign any double value between 0 and 1, inclusive, which represent the start and end of the gradient. In the example we use 0.0 and 1.0 offsets (lines 24 and 26), indicating that these colors appear at the start and end of the gradient (which were defined in line 22), respectively. The code in Fig. 25.7 allows the user to set the Colors of the two stops. When fromButton is clicked, we use the Text properties of the corresponding TextBoxes to obtain the RGBA values and create a new color. We then assign it to the Color property of startGradient (lines 21–25). When the toButton is clicked, we do the same for stopGradient’s Color (lines 32–36). 1 2 3 4 5 6

// Fig. 25.7: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Customizing gradients. using System; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Media;

Fig. 25.7 | Customizing gradients. (Part 1 of 2.)

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namespace UsingGradients { public partial class MainWindow : Window { // constructor public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // change the starting color of the gradient when the user clicks private void fromButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { // change the color to use the ARGB values specified by user startGradient.Color = Color.FromArgb( Convert.ToByte( fromAlpha.Text ), Convert.ToByte( fromRed.Text ), Convert.ToByte( fromGreen.Text ), Convert.ToByte( fromBlue.Text ) ); } // end method fromButton_Click // change the ending color of the gradient when the user clicks private void toButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { // change the color to use the ARGB values specified by user stopGradient.Color = Color.FromArgb( Convert.ToByte( toAlpha.Text ), Convert.ToByte( toRed.Text ), Convert.ToByte( toGreen.Text ), Convert.ToByte( toBlue.Text ) ); } // end method toButton_Click } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace UsingGradients

Fig. 25.7 | Customizing gradients. (Part 2 of 2.)

25.6 Transforms A transform can be applied to any UI element to reposition or reorient the graphic. There are several types of transforms. Here we discuss TranslateTransform, RotateTransform, SkewTransform and ScaleTransform. A TranslateTransform moves an object to a new location. A RotateTransform rotates the object around a point and by a specified RotationAngle. A SkewTransform skews (or shears) the object. A ScaleTransform scales the object’s x- and y-coordinate points by different specified amounts. See Section 25.7 for an example using a SkewTransform and a ScaleTransform. The next example draws a star using the Polygon control and uses RotateTransforms to create a circle of randomly colored stars. Figure 25.8 shows the XAML code and a sample output. Lines 10–11 define a Polygon in the shape of a star. The Polygon’s Points property is defined here in a new syntax. Each Point in the collection is defined with a comma separating the x- and y- coordinates. A single space separates each Point. We defined ten Points in the collection. The code-behind file is shown in Fig. 25.9.

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Fig. 25.8 | Defining a Polygon representing a star in XAML. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

// Fig. 25.9: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Applying transforms to a Polygon. using System; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Media; using System.Windows.Shapes; namespace DrawStars { public partial class MainWindow : Window { // constructor public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); Random random = new Random(); // get random values for colors // create 18 more stars for ( int count = 0; count < 18; count++ ) {

Fig. 25.9 | Applying transforms to a Polygon. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Polygon newStar = new Polygon(); // create a polygon object newStar.Points = star.Points; // copy the points collection byte[] colorValues = new byte[ 4 ]; random.NextBytes( colorValues ); // newStar.Fill = new SolidColorBrush( colorValues[ 0 ], colorValues[ 1 colorValues[ 3 ] ) ); // creates

// create a Byte array create four random values Color.FromArgb( ], colorValues[ 2 ], a random color brush

// apply a rotation to the shape RotateTransform rotate = new RotateTransform( count * 20, 150, 150 ); newStar.RenderTransform = rotate; mainCanvas.Children.Add( newStar ); } // end for } // end constructor } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace DrawStars

Fig. 25.9 | Applying transforms to a Polygon. (Part 2 of 2.) In the code-behind, we replicate star 18 times and apply a different RotateTransto each to get the circle of Polygons shown in the screen capture of Fig. 25.8. Each iteration of the loop duplicates star by creating a new Polygon with the same set of points (lines 22–23). To generate the random colors for each star, we use the Random class’s NextBytes method, which assigns a random value in the range 0–255 to each element in its Byte array argument. Lines 25–26 define a four-element Byte array and supply the array to the NextBytes method. We then create a new Brush with a color that uses the four randomly generated values as its RGBA values (lines 27–29). To apply a rotation to the new Polygon, we set the RenderTransform property to a new RotateTransform object (lines 32–34). Each iteration of the loop assigns a new rotation-angle value by using the control variable multiplied by 20 as the RotationAngle argument. The first argument in the RotateTransform’s constructor is the angle by which to rotate the object. The next two arguments are the x- and y-coordinates of the point of rotation. The center of the circle of stars is the point (150,150) because all 18 stars were rotated about that point. Each new shape is added as a new Child element to mainCanvas (line 35) so it can be rendered on screen. form

25.7 WPF Customization: A Television GUI In Chapter 24, we introduced several techniques for customizing the appearance of WPF controls. We revisit them in this section, now that we have a basic understanding of how to create and manipulate 2-D graphics in WPF. You’ll learn to apply combinations of shapes, brushes and transforms to define every aspect of a control’s appearance and to create graphically sophisticated GUIs. This case study models a television. The GUI depicts a 3-D-looking environment featuring a TV that can be turned on and off. When it is on, the user can play, pause and stop the TV’s video. When the video plays, a semitransparent reflection plays simultaneously on what appears to be a flat surface in front of the screen (Fig. 25.10).

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Fig. 25.10 | GUI representing a television. The TV GUI may appear overwhelmingly complex, but it’s actually just a basic WPF GUI built using controls with modified appearances. This example demonstrates the use of WPF bitmap effects to apply simple visual effects to some of the GUI elements. In addition, it introduces opacity masks, which can be used to hide parts of an element. Other than these two new concepts, the TV application is created using only the WPF elements and concepts that you’ve already learned. Figure 25.11 presents the XAML markup and a screen capture of the application when it first loads. The video used in this case study is a public-domain NASA video entitled Animation: To the Moon and can be downloaded from the NASA website (www.nasa.gov/multimedia/hd/index.html). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13



Fig. 25.11 | TV GUI showing the versatility of WPF customization (XAML). (Part 1 of 5.)

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Fig. 25.11 | TV GUI showing the versatility of WPF customization (XAML). (Part 2 of 5.)

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Fig. 25.11 | TV GUI showing the versatility of WPF customization (XAML). (Part 3 of 5.)

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Fig. 25.11 | TV GUI showing the versatility of WPF customization (XAML). (Part 4 of 5.)

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Drop shadow

Fig. 25.11 | TV GUI showing the versatility of WPF customization (XAML). (Part 5 of 5.)

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WPF Effects WPF allows you to apply graphical effects to any GUI element. There are two predefined effects—the DropShadowEffect, which gives an element a shadow as if a light were shining at it (Fig. 25.11, lines 163–165), and the BlurEffect, which makes an element’s appearance blurry. The System.Windows.Media.Effects namespace also contains the more generalized ShaderEffect class, which allows you to build and use your own custom shader effects. For more information on the ShaderEffect class, visit Microsoft’s developer center. bit.ly/ShaderEffect

You can apply an effect to any element by setting its Effect property. Each Effect has its own unique properties. For example, DropShadowEffect’s ShadowDepth property specifies the distance from the element to the shadow (line 164), while a BlurEffect’s KernelType property specifies the type of blur filter it uses and its Radius property specifies the filter’s size.

Creating Buttons on the TV The representations of TV buttons in this example are not Button controls. The play, pause, and stop buttons are RadioButtons, and the power button is a CheckBox. Lines 9– 55 and 110–152 define the ControlTemplates used to render the RadioButtons and CheckBox, respectively. The two templates are defined similarly, so we discuss only the RadioButton template in detail. In the background of each button are two circles, defined by Ellipse objects. The larger Ellipse acts as a border (line 13). The smaller Ellipse is colored by a RadialGradientBrush. The gradient is a light color in the center and becomes black as it extends farther out. This makes it appear to be a source of light (lines 16–23). The content of the RadioButton is then applied on top of the two Ellipses (line 26). The images used in this example are transparent outlines of the play, pause, and stop symbols on a black background. When the button is applied over the RadialGradientBrush, it appears to be illuminated. In its default state (enabled and unchecked), each playback button glows red. This represents the TV being on, with the playback option not active. When the application first loads, the TV is off, so the playback buttons are disabled. In this state, the background gradient is gray. When a playback option is active (i.e., RadioButton is checked), it glows green. The latter two deviations in appearance when the control changes states are defined by triggers (lines 30–54). The power button, represented by a CheckBox, behaves similarly. When the TV is off (i.e., CheckBox is unchecked), the control is gray. When the user presses the power button and turns the TV on (i.e., CheckBox becomes checked), the control turns green. The power button is never disabled. Creating the TV Interface The TV panel is represented by a beveled Border with a gray background (lines 61–166). Recall that a Border is a ContentControl and can host only one direct child element. Thus, all of the Border’s elements are contained in a Grid layout container. Nested within the TV panel is another Border with a black background containing a MediaElement control (lines 70–76). This portrays the TV’s screen. The power button is placed in the bottom-left corner, and the playback buttons are bound in a StackPanel in the bottom-right corner (lines 79–154).

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Creating the Reflection of the TV Screen Lines 169–196 define the GUI’s video reflection using a Rectangle element nested in a Border. The Rectangle’s Fill is a VisualBrush that is bound to the MediaElement (lines 172–180). To invert the video, we define a ScaleTransform and specify it as the RelativeTransform property, which is common to all brushes (lines 176–178). You can invert an element by setting the ScaleX or ScaleY—the amounts by which to scale the respective coordinates—property of a ScaleTransform to a negative number. In this example, we set ScaleY to -1 and CenterY to 0.5, inverting the VisualBrush vertically centered around the midpoint. The CenterX and CenterY properties specify the point from which the image expands or contracts. When you scale an image, most of the points move as a result of the altered size. The center point is the only point that stays at its original location when ScaleX and ScaleY are set to values other than 1. To achieve the semitransparent look, we applied an opacity mask to the Rectangle by setting the OpacityMask property (lines 184–189). The mask uses a LinearGradientBrush that changes from black near the top to transparent near the bottom. When the gradient is applied as an opacity mask, the gradient translates to a range from completely opaque, where it is black, to completely transparent. In this example, we set the Offset of the black GradientStop to -0.25, so that even the opaque edge of the mask is slightly transparent. We also set the Offset of the transparent GradientStop to 0.5, indicating that only the top half of the Rectangle (or bottom half of the movie) should display. Skewing the GUI Components to Create a 3-D Look When you draw a three-dimensional object on a two-dimensional plane, you are creating a 2-D projection of that 3-D environment. For example, to represent a simple box, you draw three adjoining parallelograms. Each face of the box is actually a flat, skewed rectangle rather than a 2-D view of a 3-D object. You can apply the same concept to create simple 3-D-looking GUIs without using a 3-D engine. In this case study, we applied a SkewTransform to the TV representation, skewing it vertically by 15 degrees clockwise from the x-axis (lines 158–160). The reflection is then skewed vertically by 15 degrees clockwise from the x-axis and horizontally by 45 degrees clockwise from the y-axis (lines 193–195). Thus the GUI becomes a 2-D orthographic projection of a 3-D space with the axes 105, 120, and 135 degrees from each other, as shown in Fig. 25.12. Unlike a perspective projection, an orthographic projection does not show depth. Thus, the TV GUI does not present a realistic 3-D view, but rather a graphical representation. In Section 25.9, we present a 3-D object in perspective. Examining the Code-Behind Class Figure 25.13 presents the code-behind class that provides the functionality for the TV application. When the user turns on the TV (i.e., checks the powerCheckBox), the reflection is made visible and the playback options are enabled (lines 16–26). When the user turns off the TV, the MediaElement’s Close method is called to close the media. In addition, the reflection is made invisible and the playback options are disabled (lines 29–45). Whenever one of the RadioButtons that represent each playback option is checked, the MediaElement executes the corresponding task (lines 48–66). The methods that execute these tasks are built into the MediaElement control. Playback can be modified programmatically only if the LoadedBehavior is Manual (line 75 in Fig. 25.11).

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Fig. 25.12 | The effect of skewing the TV application’s GUI components. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

// Fig. 25.13: MainWindow.xaml.cs // TV GUI showing the versatility of WPF customization (code-behind). using System.Windows; namespace TV { public partial class MainWindow : Window { // constructor public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // turns "on" the TV private void powerCheckBox_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { // render the reflection visible reflectionRectangle.Visibility = Visibility.Visible; // enable play, pause, and stop buttons playRadioButton.IsEnabled = true; pauseRadioButton.IsEnabled = true;

Fig. 25.13 | TV GUI showing the versatility of WPF customization (code-behind). (Part 1 of 2.)

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stopRadioButton.IsEnabled = true; } // end method powerCheckBox_Checked // turns "off" the TV private void powerCheckBox_Unchecked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { // shut down the screen videoMediaElement.Close(); // hide the reflection reflectionRectangle.Visibility = Visibility.Hidden; // disable the play, pause, and stop buttons playRadioButton.IsChecked = false; pauseRadioButton.IsChecked = false; stopRadioButton.IsChecked = false; playRadioButton.IsEnabled = false; pauseRadioButton.IsEnabled = false; stopRadioButton.IsEnabled = false; } // end method powerCheckBox_Unchecked // plays the video private void playRadioButton_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { videoMediaElement.Play(); } // end method playRadioButton_Checked // pauses the video private void pauseRadioButton_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { videoMediaElement.Pause(); } // end method pauseRadioButton_Checked // stops the video private void stopRadioButton_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { videoMediaElement.Stop(); } // end method stopRadioButton_Checked } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace TV

Fig. 25.13 | TV GUI showing the versatility of WPF customization (code-behind). (Part 2 of 2.)

25.8 Animations An animation in WPF applications simply means a transition of a property from one value to another in a specified amount of time. Most graphic properties of a control can be animated. The UsingAnimations example (Fig. 25.14) shows a video’s size being animated. A MediaElement along with two input TextBoxes—one for Width and one for Height— and an animate Button are created in the GUI. When you click the animate Button, the

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and Height properties animate to the values typed in the corresponding by the user. As you can see, the animations create a smooth transition from the original Height and Width to the new values. Lines 31–43 define a Storyboard element embedded in the Button’s click event Trigger. A Storyboard contains embedded animation elements. When the Storyboard begins executing (line 30), all embedded animations execute. A Storyboard has two important properties—TargetName and TargetProperty. The TargetName (line 31) specifies which control to animate. The TargetProperty specifies which property of the animated control to change. In this case, the Width (line 34) and Height (line 40) are the TargetProperties, because we’re changing the size of the video. Both the TargetName and TargetProperty can be defined in the Storyboard or in the animation element itself. Width

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Width: 100 Height: 100 Animate

Fig. 25.14 | Animating the width and height of a video. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 25.14 | Animating the width and height of a video. (Part 2 of 2.)

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To animate a property, you can use one of several animation classes available in WPF. We use the DoubleAnimation for the size properties—PointAnimations and ColorAnimations are two other commonly used animation classes. A DoubleAnimation animates properties of type Double. The Width and Height animations are defined in lines 33–36 and 39–42, respectively. Lines 35–36 define the To property of the Width animation, which specifies the value of the Width at the end of the animation. We use data binding to set this to the value in the widthValue TextBox. The animation also has a Duration property that specifies how long the animation takes. Notice in line 33 that we set the Duration of the Width animation to 0:0:2, meaning the animation takes 0 hours, 0 minutes and 2 seconds. You can specify fractions of a second by using a decimal point. Hour and minute values must be integers. Animations also have a From property which defines a constant starting value of the animated property. Since we’re animating the video’s Width and Height properties separately, it is not always displayed at its original width and height. In line 13, we define the MediaElement’s Stretch property. This is a property for graphic elements and determines how the media stretches to fit the size of its enclosure. This property can be set to None, Uniform, UniformToFill or Fill. None allows the media to stay at its native size regardless of the container’s size. Uniform resizes the media to its largest possible size while maintaining its native aspect ratio. A video’s aspect ratio is the proportion between its width and height. Keeping this ratio at its original value ensures that the video does not look “stretched.” UniformToFill resizes the media to completely fill the container while still keeping its aspect ratio—as a result, it could be cropped. When an image or video is cropped, the pieces of the edges are cut off from the media in order to fit the shape of the container. Fill forces the media to be resized to the size of the container (aspect ratio is not preserved). In the example, we use Fill to show the changing size of the container.

25.9 (Optional) 3-D Objects and Transforms WPF has substantial three-dimensional graphics capabilities. Once a 3-D shape is created, it can be manipulated using 3-D transforms and animations. This section requires an understanding of 3-D analytical geometry. Readers without a strong background in these geometric concepts can still enjoy this section. We overview several advanced WPF 3-D capabilities. The next example creates a rotating pyramid. The user can change the axis of rotation to see all sides of the object. The XAML code for this application is shown in Fig. 25.15. The first step in creating a 3-D object is to create a Viewport3D control (lines 29–76). The viewport represents the 2-D view the user sees when the application executes. This control defines a rendering surface for the content and contains content that represents the 3-D objects to render. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7



Fig. 25.15 | Animating a 3-D object. (Part 1 of 3.)

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x-axis y-axis z-axis

Fig. 25.15 | Animating a 3-D object. (Part 3 of 3.) Create a ModelVisual3D object (lines 37–75) to define a 3-D object in a Viewport3D control. ModelVisual3D’s Content property contains the shapes you wish to define in your space. To add multiple objects to the Content, embed them in a Model3DGroup element.

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Creating the 3-D Object 3-D objects in WPF are modeled as sets of triangles, because you need a minimum of three points to make a flat surface. Every surface must be created or approximated as a collection of triangles. For this reason, shapes with flat surfaces (like cubes) are relatively simple to create, while curved surfaces (like spheres) are extremely complex. To make more complicated 3-D elements, you can use 3-D application development tools such as Electric Rain’s ZAM 3D (erain.com/products/zam3d/DefaultPDC.asp), which generates the XAML markup. Use the GeometryModel3D element to define a shape (lines 45–72). This control creates and textures your 3-D model. First we discuss this control’s Geometry property (lines 57–62). Use the MeshGeometry3D control (lines 58–61) to specify the exact shape of the object you want to create in the Geometry property. To create the object, you need two collections—one is a set of points to represent the vertices, and the other uses those vertices to specify the triangles that define the shape. These collections are assigned to the Positions and TriangleIndices properties of MeshGeometry3D, respectively. The points that we assigned to the Positions attribute (lines 58–59) are shown in a 3-D space in Fig. 25.16. The view in the figure does not directly correspond to the view of the pyramid shown in the application. In the application, if you change the camera’s Position (as you’ll soon learn) to "5,5,5", LookDirection to "-1,-1,-1" and UpDirection to "0,1,0", you’ll see the pyramid in the same orientation as in Fig. 25.16. +y 2. (–1,1,0) 0. (1,1,0)

–z

–x

+x +z

4. (0,0,2) 3. (–1,–1,0)

1. (1,–1,0)

–y

Fig. 25.16 | 3-D points making up a pyramid with a square base. The points are labeled in the order they’re defined in the Positions collection. For instance, the text 0. (1,1,0) in the diagram refers to the first defined point, which has an index of 0 in the collection. Points in 3-D are defined with the notation “(x-coordinate, ycoordinate, z-coordinate).” With these points, we can define the triangles that we use to model the 3-D shape. The TriangleIndices property specifies the three corners of each individual triangle in the collection. The first element in the collection defined in line 59 is (0,4,1). This indicates that we want to create a triangle with corners at points 0, 4 and 1 defined in the Positions collection. You can see this triangle in Fig. 25.16 (the frontmost triangle in the picture). We can define all the sides of the pyramid by defining the rest of the triangles. Note also that while the pyramid has five flat surfaces, there are six triangles defined, because we need two triangles to create the pyramid’s square base. The order in which you define the triangle’s corners dictates which side is considered the “front” versus the “back.” Suppose you want to create a flat square in your viewport.

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This can be done using two triangles, as shown in Fig. 25.17. If you want the surface facing toward you to be the “front,” you must define the corners in counterclockwise order. So, to define the lower-left triangle, you need to define the triangle as "0,1,3". The upper-right triangle needs to be "1,2,3". By default, the “front” of the triangle is drawn with your defined Material (described in the next section) while the “back” is made transparent. Therefore, the order in which you define the triangle’s vertices is significant. +y

3. (0,1,0)

0. (0,0,0)

2. (1,1,0)

1. (1,0,0)

+x

Fig. 25.17 | Defining two triangles to create a square in 3-D space. Using a Brush on the Surface of a 3-D Object By defining the Material property of the GeometryModel3D, we can specify what type of brush to use when painting each surface of the 3-D object. There are several different controls you can use to set the Material property. Each control gives a different “look” to the surface. Figure 25.18 describes the available controls. 3-D material controls DiffuseMaterial SpecularMaterial

EmissiveMaterial

MaterialGroup

Creates a “flat” surface that reflects light evenly in all directions. Creates a glossy-looking material. It creates a surface similar to that of metal or glass. Creates a glowing surface that generates its own light (this light does not act as a light source for other objects). Allows you to combine multiple materials, which are layered in the order they’re added to the group.

Fig. 25.18 | 3-D material controls. In the example, we use the DiffuseMaterial control. We can assign the brushes described in Section 25.5 to the material’s Brush property to define how to paint the 3-D object’s surface. We use an ImageBrush with cover.png as its source (line 68) to draw an image on the pyramid. Notice in line 61 of Fig. 25.15 that we define the TextureCoordinates of the 3-D object. This property takes a PointCollection and determines how the Material is mapped onto the object’s surfaces. If this property is not defined, the brush may not render correctly on the surface. The TextureCoordinates property defines which point on the image is mapped onto which vertex—an intersection of two or more edges—of the object.

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Notice we assigned the String "0,0 1,0 0,1 1,1 0,0" to the TextureCoordinates property. This String is translated into a PointCollection containing Points (0,0), (1,0), (0,1), (1,1) and (0,0). These points are logical points—as described in Section 25.5— on the image. The five points defined here correspond directly to the five points defined in the Positions collection. The image’s top-left corner (0,0)—defined first in TextureCoordinates—is mapped onto the first point in the Positions collection (1,1,0). The bottom-right corner (1,1) of the image—defined fourth in TextureCoordinates—is mapped onto the fourth point in the Positions collection (-1,-1,0). The other two corners are also mapped accordingly to the second and third points. This makes the image fully appear on the bottom surface of the pyramid, since that face is rectangular. If a point is shared by two adjacent sides, you may not want to map the same point of the image to that particular vertex for the two different sides. To have complete control over how the brush is mapped onto the surfaces of the object, you may need to define a vertex more than once in the Positions collection.

Defining a Camera and a Light Source The Camera property of Viewport3D (lines 30–34) defines a virtual camera for viewing the defined 3-D space. In this example, we use a PerspectiveCamera to define what the user sees. We must set the camera’s Position, LookDirection and UpDirection (lines 32–33). The Position property requires a Point3D object which defines a 3-D point, while the LookDirection and UpDirection require Vector3D objects which define vectors in 3-D space. 3-D vectors are defined by an x-, a y- and a z-component (defined in that order in the XAML markup). For instance, the vector applied to the UpDirection is written as "0,0,1" (line 33) and represents a vector with an x- and y-component of 0, and a z-component of 1. This vector points in the positive direction of the z-axis. The Position defines the location of the camera in the 3-D space. The LookDirection defines the direction in which the camera is pointed. The UpDirection defines the orientation of the camera by specifying the upward direction in the viewport. If the UpDirection in this example were set to "0,0,-1" then the pyramid would appear “upsidedown” in the viewport. Unlike 2-D objects, a 3-D object needs a virtual light source so the camera can actually “see” the 3-D scene. In the Model3DGroup, which groups all of the ModelVisual3D’s objects, we define two DirectionalLight objects (lines 42–43) to illuminate the pyramid. This control creates uniform rays of light pointing in the direction specified by the Direction property. This property receives a vector that points in the direction of the light. You can also define the Color property to change the light’s color. Animating the 3-D Object As with 2-D animations, there is a set of 3-D animations that can be applied to 3-D objects. Lines 47–54 define the Transform property of the GeometryModel3D element that models a pyramid. We use the RotateTransform3D control to implement a rotation of the pyramid. We then use the AxisAngleRotation3D to strictly define the transform’s rotation (lines 50–51). The Angle and Axis properties can be modified to customize the transform. The Angle is initially set to 0 (that is, not rotated) and the Axis of rotation to the z-axis, represented by the vector defined as "0,0,1" (line 51). To animate the rotation, we created a Storyboard that modifies the Angle property of the AxisAngleRotation3D (lines 17–23). Notice we set the RepeatBehavior of the Sto-

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to Forever (line 18), indicating that the animation repeats continuously while the window is open. This Storyboard is set to begin when the page loads (line 15). The application contains RadioButtons at the bottom of the window that change the axis of rotation. The code-behind for this functionality appears in Fig. 25.19. With each RadioButton’s Checked event, we change the Axis of rotation to the appropriate Vector3D. We also change the Position of the PerspectiveCamera to give a better view of the rotating object. For instance, when xButton is clicked, we change the axis of rotation to the x-axis (line 19) and the camera’s position to give a better view (line 20). ryboard

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

// Fig. 25.19: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Changing the axis of rotation for a 3-D animation. using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Media.Media3D; namespace Application3D { public partial class MainWindow : Window { // constructor public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // when user selects xRadio, set axis of rotation private void xRadio_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { rotation.Axis = new Vector3D( 1, 0, 0 ); // set rotation axis camera.Position = new Point3D( 6, 0, 0 ); // set camera position } // end method xRadio_Checked // when user selects yRadio, set axis of rotation private void yRadio_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { rotation.Axis = new Vector3D( 0, 1, 0 ); // set rotation axis camera.Position = new Point3D( 6, 0, 0 ); // set camera position } // end method yRadio_Checked // when user selects zRadio, set axis of rotation private void zRadio_Checked( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { rotation.Axis = new Vector3D( 0, 0, 1 ); // set rotation axis camera.Position = new Point3D( 6, 0, 1 ); // set camera position } // end method zRadio_Checked } // end class MainWindow } // end namespace Application3D

Fig. 25.19 | Changing the axis of rotation for a 3-D animation.

25.10 Speech Synthesis and Speech Recognition Speech-based interfaces make computers easier to use for people with disabilities (and others). Speech synthesizers, or text-to-speech (TTS) systems, read text out loud and are an

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ideal method for communicating information to sight-impaired individuals. Speech recognizers, or speech-to-text (STT) systems, transform human speech (input through a microphone) into text and are a good way to gather input or commands from users who have difficulty with keyboards and mice. .NET 4.0 provides powerful tools for working with speech synthesis and recognition. The program shown in Figs. 25.20–25.21 provides explanations of the various kinds of programming tips found in this book using an STT system (and the mouse) as input and a TTS system (and text) as output. Our speech application’s GUI (Fig. 25.20) consists of a vertical StackPanel containing a TextBox, a Button and a series of horizontal StackPanels containing Images and TextBlocks that label those Images. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39



Fig. 25.20 | Text-To-Speech and Speech-To-Text (XAML). (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 25.20 | Text-To-Speech and Speech-To-Text (XAML). (Part 2 of 2.) Figure 25.21 provides the speech application’s functionality. The user either clicks an or speaks its name into a microphone, then the GUI displays a text description of the concept which that image or phrase represents, and a speech synthesizer speaks this description. To use .NET’s speech synthesis and recognition classes, you must add a reference to System.Speech to the project as follows: Image

1. Right click the project name in the Solution Explorer then select Add Reference….

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Chapter 25 WPF Graphics and Multimedia 2. On the .NET tab of the Add Reference dialog, locate and select System.Speech and click OK.

You must also import the System.Speech.Synthesis and System.Speech.Recognition namespaces (lines 5–6). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

// Fig. 25.21: MainWindow.xaml.cs // Text-To-Speech and Speech-To-Text using System; using System.Collections.Generic; using System.Speech.Synthesis; using System.Speech.Recognition; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Controls; namespace SpeechApp { public partial class MainWindow : Window { // listens for speech input private SpeechRecognizer listener = new SpeechRecognizer(); // gives the listener choices of possible input private Grammar myGrammar; // sends speech output to the speakers private SpeechSynthesizer talker = new SpeechSynthesizer(); // keeps track of which description is to be printed and spoken private string displayString; // maps images to their descriptions private Dictionary< Image, string > imageDescriptions = new Dictionary< Image, string >(); // maps input phrases to their descriptions private Dictionary< string, string > phraseDescriptions = new Dictionary< string, string >(); public MainWindow() { InitializeComponent(); // define the input phrases string[] phrases = { "Good Programming Practices", "Software Engineering Observations", "Performance Tips", "Portability Tips", "Look-And-Feel Observations", "Error-Prevention Tips", "Common Programming Errors" }; // add the phrases to a Choices collection Choices theChoices = new Choices( phrases );

Fig. 25.21 | Text-To-Speech and Speech-To-Text code-behind. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// build a Grammar around the Choices and set up the // listener to use this grammar myGrammar = new Grammar( new GrammarBuilder( theChoices ) ); listener.Enabled = true; listener.LoadGrammar( myGrammar ); myGrammar.SpeechRecognized += myGrammar_SpeechRecognized; // define the descriptions for each icon/phrase string[] descriptions = { "Good Programming Practices highlight " + "techniques for writing programs that are clearer, more " + "understandable, more debuggable, and more maintainable.", "Software Engineering Observations highlight " + "architectural and design issues that affect the " + "construction of complex software systems.", "Performance Tips highlight opportunities " + "for improving program performance.", "Portability Tips help students write " + "portable code that can execute on different platforms.", "Look-and-Feel Observations highlight " + "graphical user interface conventions. These " + "observations help students design their own graphical " + "user interfaces in conformance with industry standards.", "Error-Prevention Tips tell people how to " + "test and debug their programs. Many of the tips also " + "describe aspects of creating programs that " + "reduce the likelihood of 'bugs' and thus simplify the " + "testing and debugging process.", "Common Programming Errors focus the " + "students' attention on errors commonly made by " + "beginning programmers. This helps students avoid " + "making the same errors. It also helps reduce the long " + "lines outside instructors' offices during " + "office hours!" }; // map each image to its corresponding description imageDescriptions.Add( GoodPracticesImage, descriptions[ 0 ] ); imageDescriptions.Add( ObservationsImage, descriptions[ 1 ] ); imageDescriptions.Add( PerformanceImage, descriptions[ 2 ] ); imageDescriptions.Add( PortabilityImage, descriptions[ 3 ] ); imageDescriptions.Add( LookAndFeelImage, descriptions[ 4 ] ); imageDescriptions.Add( PreventionImage, descriptions[ 5 ] ); imageDescriptions.Add( ErrorImage, descriptions[ 6 ] ); // loop through the phrases and descriptions and map accordingly for ( int index = 0; index address1 ( #PCDATA )> address2 ( #PCDATA )> city ( #PCDATA )> state ( #PCDATA )> zip ( #PCDATA )> phone ( #PCDATA )> flag EMPTY> flag gender (M | F) "M">

closing ( #PCDATA )> paragraph ( #PCDATA )> signature ( #PCDATA )>

Fig. 26.1 | Document Type Definition (DTD) for a business letter. A DTD describes the structure of an XML document and enables an XML parser to verify whether an XML document is valid (i.e., whether its elements contain the proper attributes and appear in the proper sequence). DTDs allow users to check document structure and to exchange data in a standardized format. A DTD expresses the set of rules for document structure by specifying what attributes and other elements may appear inside a given element.

Common Programming Error 26.1 For documents validated with DTDs, any document that uses elements, attributes or relationships not explicitly defined by a DTD is an invalid document.

Defining Elements in a DTD The ELEMENT element type declaration in lines 4–5 defines the rules for element letter. In this case, letter contains one or more contact elements, one salutation element, one or more paragraph elements, one closing element and one signature element, in that sequence. The plus sign (+) occurrence indicator specifies that the DTD allows one or more occurrences of an element. Other occurrence indicators include the asterisk (*), which indicates an optional element that can occur zero or more times, and the question

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mark (?), which indicates an optional element that can occur at most once (i.e., zero or one occurrence). If an element does not have an occurrence indicator, the DTD allows exactly one occurrence. The contact element type declaration (lines 7–8) specifies that a contact element contains child elements name, address1, address2, city, state, zip, phone and flag— in that order. The DTD requires exactly one occurrence of each of these elements.

Defining Attributes in a DTD Line 9 uses the ATTLIST attribute-list declaration to define an attribute named type for the contact element. Keyword #IMPLIED specifies that the type attribute of the contact element is optional—a missing type attribute will not invalidate the document. Other keywords that can be used in place of #IMPLIED in an ATTLIST declaration include #REQUIRED and #FIXED. Keyword #REQUIRED specifies that the attribute must be present in the element, and keyword #FIXED specifies that the attribute (if present) must have the given fixed value. For example,

indicates that attribute zip (if present in element address) must have the value 01757 for the document to be valid. If the attribute is not present, then the parser, by default, uses the fixed value that the ATTLIST declaration specifies. You can supply a default value instead of one of these keywords. Doing so makes the attribute optional, but the default value will be used if the attribute’s value is not specified.

Character Data vs. Parsed Character Data Keyword CDATA (line 9) specifies that attribute type contains character data (i.e., a string). A parser will pass such data to an application without modification.

Software Engineering Observation 26.3 DTD syntax cannot describe an element’s (or attribute’s) type. For example, a DTD cannot specify that a particular element or attribute can contain only integer data.

Keyword #PCDATA (line 11) specifies that an element (e.g., name) may contain parsed character data (i.e., data that is processed by an XML parser). Elements with parsed character data cannot contain markup characters, such as less than () or ampersand (&). The document author should replace any markup character in a #PCDATA element with the character’s corresponding character entity reference. For example, the character entity reference < should be used in place of the less-than symbol (). A document author who wishes to use a literal ampersand should use the entity reference & instead—parsed character data can contain ampersands (&) only for inserting entities. The final two entities defined by XML are ' and ", representing the single (') and double (") quote characters, respectively.

Common Programming Error 26.2 Using markup characters (e.g., and &) in parsed character data is an error. Use character entity references (e.g., <, > and & instead).

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Defining Empty Elements in a DTD Line 18 defines an empty element named flag. Keyword EMPTY specifies that the element does not contain any data between its start and end tags. Empty elements commonly describe data via attributes. For example, flag’s data appears in its gender attribute (line 19). Line 19 specifies that the gender attribute’s value must be one of the enumerated values (M or F) enclosed in parentheses and delimited by a vertical bar (|) meaning “or.” Line 19 also indicates that gender has a default value of M. Well-Formed Documents vs. Valid Documents Recall that a well-formed document is syntactically correct (i.e., each start tag has a corresponding end tag, the document contains only one root element, and so on), and a valid document contains the proper elements with the proper attributes in the proper sequence. An XML document cannot be valid unless it is well formed. Visual Studio can validate XML documents against both DTDs and schemas. You do not have to create a project to use this facility—simply open the XML file in Visual Studio as in Fig. 26.2. If the DTD or schema referenced in the XML document can be retrieved, Visual Studio will automatically validate the XML. If the XML file does not validate, Visual Studio will display a warning just as it does with errors in your C# code. Visit www.w3.org/XML/Schema for a list of additional validation tools.

Fig. 26.2 | An XML file open in the Visual C# IDE. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 26.2 | An XML file open in the Visual C# IDE. (Part 2 of 2.)

26.3 W3C XML Schema Documents In this section, we introduce schemas for specifying XML document structure and validating XML documents. Many developers in the XML community believe that DTDs are not flexible enough to meet today’s programming needs. For example, DTDs lack a way of indicating what specific type of data (e.g., numeric, text) an element can contain, and DTDs are not themselves XML documents, making it difficult to manipulate them programmatically. These and other limitations have led to the development of schemas. Unlike DTDs, schemas use XML syntax and are actually XML documents that programs can manipulate. Like DTDs, schemas are used by validating parsers to validate documents. In this section, we focus on the W3C’s XML Schema vocabulary. For the latest information on XML Schema, visit www.w3.org/XML/Schema. For tutorials on XML Schema concepts beyond what we present here, visit www.w3schools.com/schema/default.asp. A DTD describes an XML document’s structure, not the content of its elements. For example, 5

contains character data. If the document that contains element quantity references a DTD, an XML parser can validate the document to confirm that this element indeed does contain PCDATA content. However, the parser cannot validate that the content is numeric; DTDs do not provide this capability. So, unfortunately, the parser also considers hello

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to be valid. An application that uses the XML document containing this markup should test that the data in element quantity is numeric and take appropriate action if it is not. XML Schema enables schema authors to specify that element quantity’s data must be numeric or, even more specifically, an integer. A parser validating the XML document against this schema can determine that 5 conforms and hello does not. An XML document that conforms to a schema document is schema valid, and one that does not conform is schema invalid. Schemas are XML documents and therefore must themselves be valid.

Validating Against an XML Schema Document Figure 26.3 shows a schema-valid XML document named book.xml, and Fig. 26.4 shows the pertinent XML Schema document (book.xsd) that defines the structure for book.xml. By convention, schemas use the .xsd extension. Recall that Visual Studio can perform schema validation if it can locate the schema document. Visual Studio can locate a schema if it is specified in the XML document, is in the same solution or is simply open in Visual Studio at the same time as the XML document. To validate the schema document itself (i.e., book.xsd) and produce the output shown in Fig. 26.4, we used an online XSV (XML Schema Validator) provided by the W3C at www.w3.org/2001/03/webdata/xsv

These tools enforce the W3C’s specifications regarding XML Schemas and schema validation. Figure 26.3 contains markup describing several books. The books element (line 5) has the namespace prefix deitel (declared in line 5), indicating that the books element is a part of the namespace http://www.deitel.com/booklist. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Visual Basic 2008 How to Program Visual C# 2008 How to Program, 3/e Java How to Program, 7/e C++ How to Program, 6/e Internet and World Wide Web How to Program, 4/e

Fig. 26.3 | Schema-valid XML document describing a list of books.

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Creating an XML Schema Document Figure 26.4 presents the XML Schema document that specifies the structure of book.xml (Fig. 26.3). This document defines an XML-based language (i.e., a vocabulary) for writing XML documents about collections of books. The schema defines the elements, attributes and parent-child relationships that such a document can (or must) include. The schema also specifies the type of data that these elements and attributes may contain. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23



Fig. 26.4 | XML Schema document for book.xml. Root element schema (Fig. 26.4, lines 5–23) contains elements that define the structure of an XML document such as book.xml. Line 5 specifies as the default namespace the standard W3C XML Schema namespace URI—http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema. This namespace contains predefined elements (e.g., root element schema) that comprise the XML Schema vocabulary—the language used to write an XML Schema document.

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Portability Tip 26.1 W3C XML Schema authors specify URI http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema when referring to the XML Schema namespace. This namespace contains predefined elements that comprise the XML Schema vocabulary. Specifying this URI ensures that validation tools correctly identify XML Schema elements and do not confuse them with those defined by document authors.

Line 6 binds the URI http://www.deitel.com/booklist to namespace prefix deitel. As we discuss momentarily, the schema uses this namespace to differentiate names created by us from names that are part of the XML Schema namespace. Line 7 also specifies http:/ /www.deitel.com/booklist as the targetNamespace of the schema. This attribute identifies the namespace of the XML vocabulary that this schema defines. The targetNamespace of book.xsd is the same as the namespace referenced in line 5 of book.xml (Fig. 26.3). This is what “connects” the XML document with the schema that defines its structure. When an XML schema validator examines book.xml and book.xsd, it will recognize that book.xml uses elements and attributes from the http://www.deitel.com/booklist namespace. The validator also will recognize that this namespace is the one defined in book.xsd (i.e., the schema’s targetNamespace). Thus the validator knows where to look for the structural rules for the elements and attributes used in book.xml.

Defining an Element in XML Schema In XML Schema, the element tag (line 9) defines an element to be included in an XML document that conforms to the schema. In other words, element specifies the actual elements that can be used to mark up data. Line 9 defines the books element, which we use as the root element in book.xml (Fig. 26.3). Attributes name and type specify the element’s name and type, respectively. An element’s type attribute indicates the data type that the element may contain. Possible types include XML Schema–defined types (e.g., string, double) and user-defined types (e.g., BooksType, which is defined in lines 11–16). Figure 26.5 lists several of XML Schema’s many built-in types. For a complete list of builtin types, see Section 3 of the specification found at www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-2. In this example, books is defined as an element of type deitel:BooksType (line 9). BooksType is a user-defined type (lines 11–16) in the http://www.deitel.com/booklist namespace and therefore must have the namespace prefix deitel. It is not an existing XML Schema type. Two categories of types exist in XML Schema—simple types and complex types. They differ only in that simple types cannot contain attributes or child elements and complex types can. A user-defined type that contains attributes or child elements must be defined as a complex type. Lines 11–16 use element complexType to define BooksType as a complex type that has a child element named book. The sequence element (lines 12–15) allows you to specify the sequential order in which child elements must appear. The element (lines 13–14) nested within the complexType element indicates that a BooksType element (e.g., books) can contain child elements named book of type deitel:SingleBookType (defined in lines 18–22). Attribute minOccurs (line 14), with value 1, specifies that elements of type BooksType must contain a minimum of one book element. Attribute maxOccurs (line 14), with value unbounded, specifies that elements of type BooksType may have any number of book child elements. Both of these attributes have default values of 1.

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Lines 18–22 define the complex type SingleBookType. An element of this type contains a child element named title. Line 20 defines element title to be of simple type string. Recall that elements of a simple type cannot contain attributes or child elements. The schema end tag (, line 23) declares the end of the XML Schema document.

A Closer Look at Types in XML Schema Every element in XML Schema has a type. Types include the built-in types provided by XML Schema (Fig. 26.5) or user-defined types (e.g., SingleBookType in Fig. 26.4). Type

Description

string

A character string. True or false. A decimal numeral.

boolean decimal

float

A floating-point number.

double

A floating-point number.

long

A whole number.

int

short date

time

A whole number. A whole number. A date consisting of a year, month and day.

A time consisting of hours, minutes and seconds.

Ranges or structures

Examples hello

true, false

true

i * (10n), where i is an integer and n is

5, -12, -45.78

an integer that is less than or equal to zero. m * (2e), where m is an integer whose absolute value is less than 224 and e is an integer in the range -149 to 104. Plus three additional numbers: positive infinity (INF), negative infinity (-INF) and not-a-number (NaN). m * (2e), where m is an integer whose absolute value is less than 253 and e is an integer in the range -1075 to 970. Plus three additional numbers: positive infinity, negative infinity and not-a-number. -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807, inclusive. -2147483648 to 2147483647, inclusive. -32768 to 32767, inclusive. yyyy-mm with an optional dd and an optional time zone, where yyyy is four digits long and mm and dd are two digits long. The time zone is specified as +hh:mm or -hh:mm, giving an offset in hours and minutes. hh:mm:ss with an optional time zone, where hh, mm and ss are two digits long.

0, 12, -109.375, NaN

0, 12, -109.375, NaN

1234567890, -1234567890 1234567890, -1234567890 12, -345 2008-07-25+01:00

16:30:25-05:00

Fig. 26.5 | Some XML Schema types. Every simple type defines a restriction on an XML Schema-defined type or a restriction on a user-defined type. Restrictions limit the possible values that an element can hold.

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Complex types are divided into two groups—those with simple content and those with complex content. Both can contain attributes, but only complex content can contain child elements. Complex types with simple content must extend or restrict some other existing type. Complex types with complex content do not have this limitation. We demonstrate complex types with each kind of content in the next example. The schema in Fig. 26.6 creates simple types and complex types. The XML document in Fig. 26.7 (laptop.xml) follows the structure defined in Fig. 26.6 to describe parts of a laptop computer. A document such as laptop.xml that conforms to a schema is known as an XML instance document—the document is an instance (i.e., example) of the schema. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34



Fig. 26.6 | XML Schema document defining simple and complex types. Line 5 (Fig. 26.6) declares the default namespace as the standard XML Schema namespace—any elements without a prefix are assumed to be in the XML Schema namespace. Line 6 binds the namespace prefix computer to the namespace http:// www.deitel.com/computer. Line 7 identifies this namespace as the targetNamespace— the namespace being defined by the current XML Schema document.

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To design the XML elements for describing laptop computers, we first create a simple type in lines 9–13 using the simpleType element. We name this simpleType gigahertz because it will be used to describe the clock speed of the processor in gigahertz. Simple types are restrictions of a type typically called a base type. For this simpleType, line 10 declares the base type as decimal, and we restrict the value to be at least 2.1 by using the minInclusive element in line 11. Next, we declare a complexType named CPU that has simpleContent (lines 16–20). Remember that a complex type with simple content can have attributes but not child elements. Also recall that complex types with simple content must extend or restrict some XML Schema type or user-defined type. The extension element with attribute base (line 17) sets the base type to string. In this complexType, we extend the base type string with an attribute. The attribute element (line 18) gives the complexType an attribute of type string named model. Thus an element of type CPU must contain string text (because the base type is string) and may contain a model attribute that is also of type string. Last, we define type portable, which is a complexType with complex content (lines 23–31). Such types are allowed to have child elements and attributes. The element all (lines 24–29) encloses elements that must each be included once in the corresponding XML instance document. These elements can be included in any order. This complex type holds four elements—processor, monitor, CPUSpeed and RAM. They’re given types CPU, int, gigahertz and int, respectively. When using types CPU and gigahertz, we must include the namespace prefix computer, because these user-defined types are part of the computer namespace (http://www.deitel.com/computer)—the namespace defined in the current document (line 7). Also, portable contains an attribute defined in line 30. The attribute element indicates that elements of type portable contain an attribute of type string named manufacturer. Line 33 declares the actual element that uses the three types defined in the schema. The element is called laptop and is of type portable. We must use the namespace prefix computer in front of portable. We have now created an element named laptop that contains child elements processor, monitor, CPUSpeed and RAM, and an attribute manufacturer. Figure 26.7 uses the laptop element defined in the computer.xsd schema. We used Visual Studio’s built-in schema validation to ensure that this XML instance document adheres to the schema’s structural rules. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Intel 17 2.4 256

Fig. 26.7 | XML document using the laptop element defined in computer.xsd.

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Line 5 declares namespace prefix computer. The laptop element requires this prefix because it is part of the http://www.deitel.com/computer namespace. Line 6 sets the laptop’s manufacturer attribute, and lines 8–11 use the elements defined in the schema to describe the laptop’s characteristics.

Automatically Creating Schemas using Visual Studio Visual Studio includes a tool that allows you to create a schema from an existing XML document, using the document as a template. With an XML document open, select XML > Create Schema to use this feature. A new schema file opens that conforms to the standards of the XML document. You can now save it and add it to the project.

Good Programming Practice 26.1 The schema generated by Visual Studio is a good starting point, but you should refine the restrictions and types it specifies so they’re appropriate for your XML documents.

26.4 Extensible Stylesheet Language and XSL Transformations Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) documents specify how programs are to render XML document data. XSL is a group of three technologies—XSL-FO (XSL Formatting Objects), XPath (XML Path Language) and XSLT (XSL Transformations). XSL-FO is a vocabulary for specifying formatting, and XPath is a string-based language of expressions used by XML and many of its related technologies for effectively and efficiently locating structures and data (such as specific elements and attributes) in XML documents. The third portion of XSL—XSL Transformations (XSLT)—is a technology for transforming XML documents into other documents—i.e., transforming the structure of the XML document data to another structure. XSLT provides elements that define rules for transforming one XML document to produce a different XML document. This is useful when you want to use data in multiple applications or on multiple platforms, each of which may be designed to work with documents written in a particular vocabulary. For example, XSLT allows you to convert a simple XML document to an XHTML (Extensible HyperText Markup Language) document that presents the XML document’s data (or a subset of the data) formatted for display in a web browser. (See Fig. 26.8 for a sample “before” and “after” view of such a transformation.) XHTML is the W3C technical recommendation that replaces HTML for marking up web content. For more information on XHTML, visit www.deitel.com/xhtml/. Transforming an XML document using XSLT involves two tree structures—the source tree (i.e., the XML document to be transformed) and the result tree (i.e., the XML document to be created). XPath is used to locate parts of the source-tree document that match templates defined in an XSL style sheet. When a match occurs (i.e., a node matches a template), the matching template executes and adds its result to the result tree. When there are no more matches, XSLT has transformed the source tree into the result tree. The XSLT does not analyze every node of the source tree; it selectively navigates the source tree using XSLT’s select and match attributes. For XSLT to function, the source tree must be properly structured. Schemas, DTDs and validating parsers can validate document structure before using XPath and XSLTs.

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A Simple XSL Example Figure 26.8 lists an XML document that describes various sports. The output shows the result of the transformation (specified in the XSLT template of Fig. 26.9) rendered by Internet Explorer 7. Right click with the page open in Internet Explorer and select View Source to view the generated XHTML. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Cricket More popular among Commonwealth nations. Baseball More popular in America. Soccer (Futbol) Most popular sport in the world.

Fig. 26.8 | XML document that describes various sports.

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To perform transformations, an XSLT processor is required. Popular XSLT processors include Microsoft’s MSXML, the Apache Software Foundation’s Xalan (xalan.apache.org) and the XslCompiledTransform class from the .NET Framework that we use in Section 26.8. The XML document shown in Fig. 26.8 is transformed into an XHTML document by MSXML when the document is loaded in Internet Explorer. MSXML is both an XML parser and an XSLT processor. Line 2 (Fig. 26.8) is a processing instruction (PI) that references the XSL style sheet sports.xsl (Fig. 26.9). A processing instruction is embedded in an XML document and provides application-specific information to whichever XML processor the application uses. In this particular case, the processing instruction specifies the location of an XSLT document with which to transform the XML document. The characters (line 2, Fig. 26.8) delimit a processing instruction, which consists of a PI target (e.g., xmlstylesheet) and a PI value (e.g., type = "text/xsl" href = "sports.xsl"). The PI value’s type attribute specifies that sports.xsl is a text/xsl file (i.e., a text file containing XSL content). The href attribute specifies the name and location of the style sheet to apply—in this case, sports.xsl in the current directory.

Software Engineering Observation 26.4 XSL enables document authors to separate data presentation (specified in XSL documents) from data description (specified in XML documents).

Figure 26.9 shows the XSL document for transforming the structured data of the XML document of Fig. 26.8 into an XHTML document for presentation. By convention, XSL documents have the file-name extension .xsl. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Sports

Fig. 26.9 | XSLT that creates elements and attributes in an XHTML document. (Part 1 of 2.)

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ID	Sport	Information

Fig. 26.9 | XSLT that creates elements and attributes in an XHTML document. (Part 2 of 2.) Lines 6–7 begin the XSL style sheet with the stylesheet start tag. Attribute version specifies the XSLT version to which this document conforms. Line 7 binds namespace prefix xsl to the W3C’s XSLT URI (i.e., http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform). Lines 9–12 use element xsl:output to write an XHTML document type declaration (DOCTYPE) to the result tree (i.e., the XML document to be created). The DOCTYPE identifies XHTML as the type of the resulting document. Attribute method is assigned "xml", which indicates that XML is being output to the result tree. (Recall that XHTML is a type of XML.) Attribute omit-xml-declaration specifies whether the transformation should write the XML declaration to the result tree. In this case, we do not want to omit the XML declaration, so we assign to this attribute the value "no". Attributes doctype-system and doctype-public write the DOCTYPE DTD information to the result tree. XSLT uses templates (i.e., xsl:template elements) to describe how to transform particular nodes from the source tree to the result tree. A template is applied to nodes that are specified in the match attribute. Line 14 uses the match attribute to select the document root (i.e., the conceptual part of the document that contains the root element and everything below it) of the XML source document (i.e., sports.xml). The XPath character / (a forward slash) is used as a separator between element names. Recall that XPath is a string-based language used to locate parts of an XML document easily. In XPath, a leading forward slash specifies that we are using absolute addressing (i.e., we are starting from the root and defining paths down the source tree). In the XML document of Fig. 26.8, the child nodes of the document root are the two processing-instruction nodes (lines 1–2), the two comment nodes (lines 4–5) and the sports element node (lines 7–31). The template in Fig. 26.9, line 14, matches a node (i.e., the document root), so the contents of the template are now added to the result tree.

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The XSLT processor writes the XHTML in lines 16–29 (Fig. 26.9) to the result tree exactly as it appears in the XSL document. Now the result tree consists of the DOCTYPE definition and the XHTML code from lines 16–29. Lines 33–39 use element xsl:for-each to iterate through the source XML document, searching for game elements. The xsl:foreach element is similar to C#’s foreach statement. Attribute select is an XPath expression that specifies the nodes (called the node set) on which the xsl:for-each operates. Again, the first forward slash means that we are using absolute addressing. The forward slash between sports and game indicates that game is a child node of sports. Thus, the xsl:for-each finds game nodes that are children of the sports node. The XML document sports.xml contains only one sports node, which is also the document root element. After finding the elements that match the selection criteria, the xsl:for-each processes each element with the code in lines 34–38 (these lines produce one row in an XHTML table each time they execute) and places the result of lines 34–38 in the result tree. Line 35 uses element value-of to retrieve attribute id’s value and place it in a td element in the result tree. The XPath symbol @ specifies that id is an attribute node of the game context node (i.e., the current node being processed). Lines 36–37 place the name and paragraph element values in td elements and insert them in the result tree. When an XPath expression has no beginning forward slash, the expression uses relative addressing. Omitting the beginning forward slash tells the xsl:value-of select statements to search for name and paragraph elements that are children of the context node, not the root node. Owing to the last XPath expression selection, the current context node is game, which indeed has an id attribute, a name child element and a paragraph child element.

Using XSLT to Sort and Format Data Figure 26.10 presents an XML document (sorting.xml) that marks up information about a book. Several elements of the markup describing the book appear out of order (e.g., the element describing Chapter 3 appears before the element describing Chapter 2). We arranged them this way purposely to demonstrate that the XSL style sheet referenced in line 5 (sorting.xsl) can sort the XML file’s data for presentation purposes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Deitel's XML Primer Jane Blue

Fig. 26.10 | XML document containing book information. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Advanced XML Intermediate XML Parsers and Tools Entities XML Fundamentals

Fig. 26.10 | XML document containing book information. (Part 2 of 2.) Figure 26.11 presents an XSL document (sorting.xsl) for transforming (Fig. 26.10) to XHTML. Recall that an XSL document navigates a source tree and builds a result tree. In this example, the source tree is XML, and the output tree is XHTML. Line 14 of Fig. 26.11 matches the root element of the document in Fig. 26.10. Line 15 outputs an html start tag to the result tree. The element (line 16) specifies that the XSLT processor is to apply the xsl:templates defined in this XSL document to the current node’s (i.e., the document root’s) children. The content from the applied templates is output in the html element that ends at line 17. Lines 21–86 specify a template that matches element book. The template indicates how to format the information contained in book elements of sorting.xml (Fig. 26.10) as XHTML. sorting.xml

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21



Fig. 26.11 | XSL document that transforms sorting.xml into XHTML. (Part 1 of 3.)

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22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73

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ISBN by

	( pages )
Chapter	( pages )
Appendix	Fig. 26.11 | XSL document that transforms sorting.xml into XHTML. (Part 2 of 3.) Download at www.wowebook.com 900 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 Chapter 26 XML and LINQ to XML ( pages )

Pages: Media Type:

Fig. 26.11 | XSL document that transforms sorting.xml into XHTML. (Part 3 of 3.) Lines 23–24 create the title for the XHTML document. We use the book’s ISBN (from attribute isbn) and the contents of element title to create the string that appears in the browser window’s title bar (ISBN 999-99999-9-X - Deitel’s XML Primer). Line 28 creates a header element that contains the book’s title. Lines 29–33 create a header element that contains the book’s author. Because the context node (i.e., the current node being processed) is book, the XPath expression author/lastName selects the author’s last name, and the expression author/firstName selects the author’s first name. The xsl:text element (line 31) is used to insert literal text. Because XML (and therefore XSLT) ignores whitespace, the author’s name would appear as JaneBlue without inserting the explicit space.

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Line 37 selects each element (indicated by an asterisk) that is a child of element Line 40 calls node-set function name to retrieve the current node’s element name (e.g., preface). The current node is the context node specified in the xsl:for-each (line 37). Line 44 retrieves the value of the pages attribute of the current node. Line 49 selects each chapter element. Lines 50–51 use element xsl:sort to sort chapters by number in ascending order. Attribute select selects the value of attribute number in context node chapter. Attribute data-type, with value "number", specifies a numeric sort, and attribute order, with value "ascending", specifies ascending order. Attribute data-type also accepts the value "text" (line 65), and attribute order also accepts the value "descending". Line 58 uses node-set function text to obtain the text between the chapter start and end tags (i.e., the name of the chapter). Line 59 retrieves the value of the pages attribute of the current node. Lines 64–77 perform similar tasks for each appendix. Lines 81–82 use an XSL variable to store the value of the book’s total page count and output the page count to the result tree. Such variables cannot be modified after they’re initialized. Attribute name specifies the variable’s name (i.e., pagecount), and attribute select assigns a value to the variable. Function sum (line 82) totals the values for all page attribute values. The two slashes between chapters and * indicate a recursive descent— the XSLT processor will search for elements that contain an attribute named pages in all descendant nodes of chapters. The XPath expression frontMatter.

//*

selects all the nodes in an XML document. Line 83 retrieves the value of the newly created XSL variable pagecount by placing a dollar sign in front of its name.

Performance Tip 26.1 Selecting all nodes in a document when it is not necessary slows XSLT processing.

Summary of XSL Style-Sheet Elements This section’s examples used several predefined XSL elements to perform various operations. Figure 26.12 lists commonly used XSL elements. For more information on these elements and XSL in general, see www.w3.org/Style/XSL.

Element

Description



Applies the templates of the XSL document to the children of the current node. Applies the templates of the XSL document to the children of the nodes matching expression. The value of the attribute match (i.e., expression) must be an XPath expression that specifies elements. Contains rules to apply when a specified node is matched.





Fig. 26.12 | XSL style-sheet elements. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Element

Description







Fig. 26.12 | XSL style-sheet elements. (Part 2 of 2.) This section introduced Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) and showed how to create XSL transformations to convert XML documents from one format to another. We showed how to transform XML documents to XHTML documents for display in a web browser. In most business applications, XML documents are transferred between business partners and are transformed to other XML vocabularies programmatically. In Section 26.8, we demonstrate how to perform XSL transformations using the XslCompiledTransform class provided by the .NET Framework.

26.5 LINQ to XML: Document Object Model (DOM) Although an XML document is a text file, retrieving data from the document using traditional sequential file-processing techniques is not practical, especially for adding and removing elements dynamically. On successfully parsing a document, some XML parsers store document data as trees in memory. Figure 26.13 illustrates the tree structure for the document article.xml discussed in Fig. 24.2. This hierarchical tree structure is called a Document Object Model (DOM) tree, and an XML parser that creates such a tree is known as a DOM parser. DOM gets its name from the conversion of an XML document’s tree structure into a tree of objects that are then manipulated using an object-oriented programming language such as C#. Each element name (e.g., article, date, firstName) is represented by a node. A node that contains other nodes (called child nodes or children) is called a parent node (e.g., author). A parent node can have many children, but a child node can have only one parent node. Nodes that are peers (e.g., firstName and lastName) are called sibling nodes. A node’s descendant nodes include its children, its children’s children and so on. A node’s ancestor nodes include its parent, its parent’s parent and so on.

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article

title

date

author

firstName

summary

lastName

content

Fig. 26.13 | Tree structure for the document article.xml. The DOM tree has a single root node, which contains all the other nodes in the document. For example, the root node of the DOM tree that represents article.xml (Fig. 24.2) contains a node for the XML declaration (line 1), two nodes for the comments (lines 2–3) and a node for the XML document’s root element article (line 5). Classes for creating, reading and manipulating XML documents are located in the System.Xml namespace, which also contains additional namespaces that provide other XML-related operations.

Reading an XML Document with an XDocument Namespace System.Xml.Linq contains the classes used to manipulate a DOM in .NET. Though LINQ query expressions are not required to use them, the technologies used are collectively referred to as LINQ to XML. Previous versions of the .NET Framework used a different DOM implementation in the System.Xml namespace. These classes (such as XmlDocument) should generally be avoided in favor of LINQ to XML. In LINQ to XML, the XElement class represents a DOM element node—an XML document is represented by a tree of XElement objects. The XDocument class represents an entire XML document. Unlike XElements, XDocuments cannot be nested. Figure 26.14 uses these classes to load the article.xml document (Fig. 24.2) and display its data in a TextBox. The program displays a formatted version of its input XML file. If article.xml were poorly formatted, such as being all on one line, this application would allow you to convert it into a form that is much easier to understand. 1 2 3 4

// Fig. 26.14: XDocumentTestForm.cs // Reading an XML document and displaying it in a TextBox. using System; using System.Xml.Linq;

Fig. 26.14 | Reading an XML document and displaying it in a TextBox. (Part 1 of 3.)

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using System.Windows.Forms; namespace XDocumentTest { public partial class XDocumentTestForm : Form { public XDocumentTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // read XML document and display its content private void XDocumentTestForm_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // load the XML file into an XDocument XDocument xmlFile = XDocument.Load( "article.xml" ); int indentLevel = 0; // no indentation for root element // print elements recursively PrintElement( xmlFile.Root, indentLevel ); } // end method XDocumentTestForm_Load // display an element (and its children, if any) in the TextBox private void PrintElement( XElement element, int indentLevel ) { // get element name without namespace string name = element.Name.LocalName; // display the element's name within its tag IndentOutput( indentLevel ); // indent correct amount outputTextBox.AppendText( ' elements ) { locateTextBox.Clear(); // clear the text area // display text inside all elements foreach ( var element in elements ) locateTextBox.AppendText( element.Value.Trim() + '\n' ); } // end method PrintElements // print the ID numbers of all games in elements private void PrintIDs( IEnumerable< XElement > elements ) { locateTextBox.Clear(); // clear the text area // display "id" attribute of all elements foreach ( var element in elements ) locateTextBox.AppendText( element.Attribute( "id" ).Value.Trim() + '\n' ); } // end method PrintIDs

Fig. 26.15 | Document navigation using XNode. (Part 4 of 6.)

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185 // returns text used to represent an element in the tree 186 private string NodeText( XNode node ) 187 { 188 // different node types are displayed in different ways 189 switch ( node.NodeType ) 190 { 191 case XmlNodeType.Document: 192 // display the document root 193 return "Document root"; 194 case XmlNodeType.Element: 195 // represent node by tag name 196 return ''; 197 case XmlNodeType.Text: 198 // represent node by text stored in Value property 199 return ( node as XText ).Value; 200 case XmlNodeType.Comment: 201 // represent node by comment text 202 return ( node as XComment ).ToString(); 203 case XmlNodeType.ProcessingInstruction: 204 // represent node by processing-instruction text 205 return ( node as XProcessingInstruction ).ToString(); 206 default: 207 // all nodes in this example are already covered; 208 // return a reasonable default value for other nodes 209 return node.NodeType.ToString(); 210 } // end switch 211 } // end method NodeText 212 } // end class PathNavigatorForm 213 } // end namespace PathNavigator a) Path Navigator form upon loading

b) The //name path is selected

Fig. 26.15 | Document navigation using XNode. (Part 5 of 6.)

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26.6 LINQ to XML Class Hierarchy

c) The //name path displays all name elements in the document

e) The First Child button expands the tree to show the first element in that group

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d) The //game[name=’Cricket’] path displays game elements with a name element containing “Cricket”

f) The Next button lets you view siblings of the current element

Fig. 26.15 | Document navigation using XNode. (Part 6 of 6.)

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The interface for this example allows the user to display selected elements in the or to navigate through the DOM tree in the lower TreeView. Initially, the TextBox is blank, and the TreeView is initialized to show the the root of the tree. The ComboBox at the top of the Form contains XPath expressions. These are not used directly— instead, the example uses the LINQ to XML DOM classes and a LINQ query to retrieve the same results. As in the previous example, the XDocument’s Load method (line 27) is used to load the contents of the XML file into memory. Instance variable current, which points to the current position in the DOM, is initialized to the document itself (line 30). Line 33 creates a TreeNode for the XElement with the correct text, which is then inserted into the TreeView (lines 34–35). The TreeRefresh method (lines 157–162) refreshes the pathTreeView control so that the user interface updates correctly. The SelectedIndexChanged event handler of locateComboBox (lines 39–70) fills the TextBox with the elements corresponding to the path the user selected. The first case (lines 45–47) uses the Elements method of the XDocument object document. The Elements method is overloaded—one version has no parameter and returns all child elements. The second version returns only elements with the given tag name. Recall from the previous example that XElement also has an Elements method. This is because the method is actually defined in the XContainer class, the base class of XDocument and XElement. XContainer represents nodes in the DOM tree that can contain other nodes. The results of the call to the method Elements are passed to the PrintElements method (lines 165–172). The PrintElements method uses the XElement’s Value property (line 171) introduced in the previous example. The Value property returns all text in the current node and its descendants. The text is displayed in locateTextBox. The second case (lines 48–50) uses the Descendants method—another XContainer method common to XElement and XDocument—to get the same results as the XPath double slash (//) operator. In other words, the Descendants method returns all descendant elements with the given tag name, not just direct children. Like Elements, it is overloaded and has a version with no parameter that returns all descendants. The third case (lines 51–53) uses extension method XPathSelectElements from namespace System.Xml.XPath (imported at line 8). This method allows you to use an XPath expression to navigate XDocument and XElement objects. It returns an IEnumerable. There’s also an XPathSelectElement method that returns a single XElement. The fourth case (lines 54–57) also uses the Descendants method to retrieve all game elements, but it then calls the Elements method to retrieve the child paragraph elements. Because the Descendants method returns an IEnumerable, the Elements method is not being called on the XContainer class that we previously stated contains the Elements method. Calling the Elements method in this way is allowed because there’s an extension method in the System.Xml.Linq namespace that returns an IEnumerable containing the children of all elements in the original collection. To match the interface of the XContainer class, there’s also a Descendants extension method, and both have versions that do not take an argument. In a document where a specific element appears at multiple nesting levels, you may need to use chained calls of the Elements method explicitly to return only the elements in which you are interested. Using the Descendants method in these cases can be a source of subtle bugs—if the XML document’s structure changes, your code could silently accept input that the program should not treat as valid. The Descendants method is best used for TextBox,

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tags that can appear at any nesting level within the document, such as formatting tags in XHTML, which can occur in many distinct parts of the text. The fifth case (lines 58–65) retrieves only the game elements with a name element containing "Cricket". To do this, we use a LINQ query (lines 61–63). The Descendants and Elements methods return an IEnumerable, so they can be used as the subject of a LINQ query. The where clause (line 62) uses the Element method to retrieve all name elements that are children of the game element the range variable represents. The Element method, a member of the XContainer class, returns the first child element with the given tag name or null if no such element exists. The where clause uses the Value property to retrieve the text contained in the element. We do not check for Element returning null because we know that all game elements in sports.xml contain name elements. The PrintIDs method (lines 175–183) displays the id attributes of the XElement objects passed to it—specifically, the game elements in the document (line 67). To do this, it uses the Attribute method of the XElement class (line 182). The Attribute method returns an XAttribute object matching the given attribute name or null if no such object exists. The XAttribute class represents an XML attribute—it holds the attribute’s name and value. Here, we access its Value property to get a string that contains the attribute’s value—it can also be used as an lvalue to modify the value. The Click event handlers for the Buttons in the example are used to update the data displayed in the TreeView. These methods introduce many other classes from the namespace System.Xml.Linq. The entire LINQ to XML class hierarchy is shown in the UML class diagram of Fig. 26.16. XNamespace will be covered in the next section, and XDocumentType holds a DTD, which may be defined directly in an XML file rather than externally referenced (as we did in Fig. 24.4, letter.xml).

XNamespace

XObject

XAttribute

XNode

XProcessingInstruction

XComment

XName

XText

XDocumentType

XContainer

XElement

XDocument

Fig. 26.16 | LINQ to XML class hierarchy diagram.

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As you can see from the diagram, the XNode class is a common abstract base class of all the node types in an XML document—including elements, text and processing instructions. Because all DOM node classes inherit from XNode, an XNode object can be used to keep track of our current location as we navigate the DOM tree. The firstChildButton_Click event handler (lines 73–95) uses the as operator to determine whether the current node is an XContainer (line 76). Recall that the as operator attempts to cast the reference to another type, and returns null if it cannot. If current is an XContainer and has children (line 79), we move current to its first child (line 81). These operations use the Nodes method of class XContainer, which returns a reference to an object of type IEnumerable containing all children of the given XContainer. Line 79 uses the Any extension method introduced in Chapter 9—all of the standard LINQ to Objects methods may be used with the LINQ to XML classes. The event handler then inserts a TreeNode into the TreeView to display the child element that current now references (lines 84–87). Line 84 uses the NodeText method (lines 186–211) to determine what text to display in the TreeNode. It uses the NodeType property, which returns a value of the XmlNodeType enumeration from the System.Xml namespace (imported at line 6) indicating the object’s node type. Although we call it on an XNode, the NodeType property is actually defined in the XObject class. XObject is an abstract base class for all nodes and attributes. The NodeType property is overridden in the concrete subclasses to return the correct value. After the node’s type has been determined, it is converted to the appropriate type using the as operator, then the correct text is retrieved. For the entire document, it returns the text Document root (line 193). For elements, NodeText returns the tag name enclosed in angle brackets (line 196). For text nodes, it uses the contained text. It retrieves this by converting the XNode to an XText object—the XText class holds the contents of a text node. XText’s Value property returns the contained text (line 199)—we could also have used its ToString method. Comments, represented by the XComment class, are displayed just as they’re written in the XML file using the ToString method of XComment (line 202). The ToString methods of all subclasses of XNode return the XML they and their children (if any) represent with proper indentation. The last type handled is processing instructions, stored in the XProcessingInstruction class (line 205)—in this example, the only processing instruction is the XML declaration at the beginning of the file. A default case returning the name of the node type is included for other node types that do not appear in sports.xml (line 209). The event handlers for the other Buttons are structured similarly to firstChildButton_Click—each moves current and updates the TreeView accordingly. The parentButton_Click method (lines 98–113) ensures that the current node has a parent— that is, it is not at the root of the XDocument—before it tries to move current to the parent (line 102). It uses the Parent property of XObject, which returns the parent of the given XObject or null if the parent does not exist. For nodes at the root of the document, including the root element, XML declaration, header comments and the document itself, Parent with return null. We want to move up to the document root in this case, so we use the Document property (also defined in XObject) to retrieve the XDocument representing the document root (line 104). The Document property of an XDocument returns itself. This is consistent with most file systems—attempting to move up a directory from the root will succeed, but not move.

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The event handlers for the Previous (lines 116–132) and Next (lines 135–154) Butuse the PreviousNode (lines 119 and 121) and NextNode (lines 138 and 140) properties of XNode, respectively. As their names imply, they return the previous or next sibling node in the tree. If there’s no previous or next node, the properties return null. tons

26.7 LINQ to XML: Namespaces and Creating Documents As you learned in Chapter 24, XML namespaces provide a technique for preventing collisions between tag names used for different purposes. LINQ to XML provides the XNamespace class to enable creation and manipulation of XML namespaces. Using LINQ to XML to navigate data already stored in an XML document is a common operation, but sometimes it is necessary to create an XML document from scratch. Figure 26.17 uses these features to update an XML document to a new format and combine the data in it with data from a document already in the new format. Figures 26.18 and 26.19 contain the XML files in the old and new formats, respectively. Figure 26.20 displays the file output by the program. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

// Fig. 26.17: XMLCombine.cs // Transforming an XML document and splicing its contents with another. using System; using System.Linq; using System.Xml.Linq; class XMLCombine { // namespaces used in XML files private static readonly XNamespace employeesOld = "http://www.deitel.com/employeesold"; private static readonly XNamespace employeesNew = "http://www.deitel.com/employeesnew"; static void Main( string[] args ) { // load files from disk XDocument newDocument = XDocument.Load( "employeesNew.xml" ); XDocument oldDocument = XDocument.Load( "employeesOld.xml" ); // convert from old to new format oldDocument = TransformDocument( oldDocument ); // combine documents and write to output file SaveFinalDocument( newDocument, oldDocument ); // tell user we have finished Console.WriteLine( "Documents successfully combined." ); } // end Main

Fig. 26.17 | Transforming an XML document and splicing its contents with another. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// convert the given XDocument in the old format to the new format private static XDocument TransformDocument( XDocument document ) { // use a LINQ query to fill the new XML root with the correct data var newDocumentRoot = new XElement( employeesNew + "employeelist", from employee in document.Root.Elements() select TransformEmployee( employee ) ); return new XDocument( newDocumentRoot ); // return new document } // end method TransformDocument // transform a single employee's data from old to new format private static XElement TransformEmployee( XElement employee ) { // retrieve values from old-format XML document XNamespace old = employeesOld; // shorter name string firstName = employee.Element( old + "firstname" ).Value; string lastName = employee.Element( old + "lastname" ).Value; string salary = employee.Element( old + "salary" ).Value; // return new-format element with the correct data return new XElement( employeesNew + "employee", new XAttribute( "name", firstName + " " + lastName ), new XAttribute( "salary", salary ) ); } // end method TransformEmployee // take two new-format XDocuments and combine // them into one, then save to output.xml private static void SaveFinalDocument( XDocument document1, XDocument document2 ) { // create new root element var root = new XElement( employeesNew + "employeelist" ); // fill with the elements contained in the roots of both documents root.Add( document1.Root.Elements() ); root.Add( document2.Root.Elements() ); root.Save( "output.xml" ); // save document to file } // end method SaveFinalDocument } // end class XMLCombine

Fig. 26.17 | Transforming an XML document and splicing its contents with another. (Part 2 of 2.)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Christopher

Fig. 26.18 | Sample old-format input for the XMLCombine application. (Part 1 of 2.)

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7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

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Green 1460 Michael Red 1420

Fig. 26.18 | Sample old-format input for the XMLCombine application. (Part 2 of 2.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7



Fig. 26.19 | Sample new-format input for the XMLCombine application. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7



Fig. 26.20 | XML file generated by XMLCombine (Fig. 26.17). Lines 10–13 of Fig. 26.17 define XNamespace objects for the two namespaces used in the input XML documents. There’s an implicit conversion from string to XNamespace. The TransformDocument method (lines 32–40) converts an XML document from the old format to the new format. It creates a new XElement newDocumentRoot, passing the desired name and child elements as arguments. It then creates and returns a new XDocument, with newDocumentRoot as its root element. The first argument (line 35) creates an XName object for the tag name using the XNamespace’s overloaded + operator—the XName contains the XNamespace from the left operand and the local name given by the string in the right operand. Recall that you can use XName’s LocalName property to access the element’s unqualified name. The Namespace property gives you access to the contained XNamespace object. The second argument is the result of a LINQ query (lines 36–37), which uses the TransformEmployee method to transform each employeelisting entry in the old format (returned by calling the Elements method on the root of the old document) into an employee entry in the new format. When passed a collection of XElements, the XElement constructor adds all members of the collection as children.

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The TransformEmployee method (lines 43–55) reformats the data for one employee. It does this by retrieving the text contained in the child elements of each of the employeelisting entries, then creating a new employee element and returning it. The expressions passed to the Element method use XNamespaces—this is necessary because the elements they’re retrieving are in the old namespace. Passing just the tag’s local name would cause the Element method to return null, creating a NullReferenceException when the Value property was accessed. Once we’ve retrieved the values from the original XML document, we add them as attributes to an employee element. This is done by creating new XAttribute objects with the attribute’s name and value, and passing these to the XElement constructor (lines 52–54). The SaveFinalDocument method (lines 59–70) merges the two documents and saves them to disk. It first creates a new root element in the correct namespace (line 63). Then it adds the employee elements from both documents as children using the Add method defined in the XContainer class (lines 66–67). The Add method, like XElement’s constructor, will add all elements if passed a collection. After creating and filling the new root, we save it to disk (line 69).

26.8 XSLT with Class XslCompiledTransform Recall from Section 26.4 that XSL elements define rules for transforming one type of XML document to another type of XML document. We showed how to transform XML documents into XHTML documents and displayed the results in Internet Explorer. MSXML, the XSLT processor used by Internet Explorer, performed the transformations. We now perform a similar task in a C# program.

Performing an XSL Transformation in C# Using the .NET Framework Figure 26.21 applies the style sheet sports.xsl (Fig. 26.9) to the XML document sports.xml (Fig. 26.8) programmatically. The result of the transformation is written to an XHTML file on disk and displayed in a text box. Figure 26.21(c) shows the resulting XHTML document (sports.html) when you view it in Internet Explorer. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

// Fig. 26.21: TransformTestForm.cs // Applying an XSLT style sheet to an XML Document. using System; using System.IO; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.Xml.Xsl; // contains class XslCompiledTransform namespace TransformTest { public partial class TransformTestForm : Form { public TransformTestForm() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor

Fig. 26.21 | Applying an XSLT style sheet to an XML document. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// applies the transformation private XslCompiledTransform transformer; // initialize variables private void TransformTestForm_Load( object sender, EventArgs e ) { transformer = new XslCompiledTransform(); // create transformer // load and compile the style sheet transformer.Load( "sports.xsl" ); } // end TransformTestForm_Load // transform data on transformButton_Click event private void transformButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // perform the transformation and store the result in new file transformer.Transform( "sports.xml", "sports.html" ); // read and display the XHTML document's text in a TextBox consoleTextBox.Text = File.ReadAllText( "sports.html" ); } // end method transformButton_Click } // end class TransformTestForm } // end namespace TransformTest

a) Initial GUI

b) GUI showing transformed raw XHTML

c) Transformed XHTML rendered in Internet Explorer

Fig. 26.21 | Applying an XSLT style sheet to an XML document. (Part 2 of 2.)

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Line 6 imports the System.Xml.Xsl namespace, which contains class XslComfor applying XSL style sheets to XML documents. Line 18 declares XslCompiledTransform object transformer, which serves as an XSLT processor to transform XML data from one format to another. In event handler TransformTestForm_Load (lines 21–27), line 23 creates and initializes transformer. Line 26 calls the XslCompiledTransform object’s Load method, which loads and parses the style sheet that this application uses. This method takes an argument specifying the name and location of the style sheet—sports.xsl (Fig. 26.9) located in the current directory. The event handler transformButton_Click (lines 30–37) calls the Transform method of class XslCompiledTransform to apply the style sheet (sports.xsl) to sports.xml (line 33). This method takes two string arguments—the first specifies the XML file to which the style sheet should be applied, and the second specifies the file in which the result of the transformation should be stored on disk. Thus the Transform method call in line 33 transforms sports.xml to XHTML and writes the result to disk as the file sports.html. Figure 26.21(c) shows the new XHTML document rendered in Internet Explorer. The output is identical to that of Fig. 26.8—in the current example, though, the XHTML is stored on disk rather than generated dynamically by MSXML. After applying the transformation, the program displays the content of the new file sports.html in consoleTextBox, as shown in Fig. 26.21(b). Line 36 obtains the text of the file by passing its name to method ReadAllText of the System.IO.File class, which simplifies file-processing tasks on the local system. piledTransform

26.9 Wrap-Up In this chapter, we continued our XML introduction from Chapter 24 by demonstrating several technologies related to XML. We discussed how to create DTDs and schemas for specifying and validating the structure of an XML document. We showed how to use various tools to confirm whether XML documents are valid (i.e., conform to a DTD or schema). You learned how to create and use XSL documents to specify rules for converting XML documents between formats. Specifically, you learned how to format and sort XML data and output it as XHTML for display in a web browser. The final sections of the chapter presented more advanced uses of XML in C# applications. We demonstrated how to retrieve and display data from an XML document using various .NET classes. We illustrated how a DOM tree represents each element of an XML document as a node in the tree. The chapter also demonstrated loading data from an XML document using the Load method of the XDocument class. We demonstrated the tools LINQ to XML provides for working with namespaces. Finally, we showed how to use the XslCompiledTransform class to perform XSL transformations.

26.10 Web Resources www.deitel.com/XML/

The Deitel XML Resource Center focuses on the vast amount of free XML content available online, plus some for-sale items. Start your search here for tools, downloads, tutorials, podcasts, wikis, documentation, conferences, FAQs, books, e-books, sample chapters, articles, newsgroups, forums, downloads from CNET’s download.com, jobs and contract opportunities, and more that will help you develop XML applications.

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27 Web App Development with ASP.NET: A Deeper Look … the challenges are for the designers of these applications: to forget what we think we know about the limitations of the Web, and begin to imagine a wider, richer range of possibilities. It’s going to be fun. —Jesse James Garrett

If any man will draw up his case, and put his name at the foot of the first page, I will give him an immediate reply. Where he compels me to turn over the sheet, he must wait my leisure. —Lord Sandwich

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

To use the Web Site Administration Tool to modify web application configuration settings.

■

To restrict access to pages to authenticated users.

■

To create a uniform look-and-feel for a website using master pages.

■

To use ASP.NET Ajax to improve the user interactivity of your web applications.

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27.1 Introduction 27.2 Case Study: Password-Protected Books Database Application 27.2.1 Examining the ASP.NET Web Site Template 27.2.2 Test-Driving the Completed Application 27.2.3 Configuring the Website 27.2.4 Modifying the Default.aspx and About.aspx Pages 27.2.5 Creating a Content Page That Only Authenticated Users Can Access 27.2.6 Linking from the Default.aspx Page to the Books.aspx Page

27.2.7 Modifying the Master Page (Site.master) 27.2.8 Customizing the Password-Protected Books.aspx Page

27.3 ASP.NET Ajax 27.3.1 27.3.2 27.3.3 27.3.4 27.3.5

Traditional Web Applications Ajax Web Applications Testing an ASP.NET Ajax Application The ASP.NET Ajax Control Toolkit Using Controls from the Ajax Control Toolkit

27.4 Wrap-Up

27.1 Introduction In Chapter 19, we introduced ASP.NET and web application development. In this chapter, we introduce several additional ASP.NET web-application development topics, including: •

master pages to maintain a uniform look-and-feel across the Web Forms in a web application

•

creating a password-protected website with registration and login capabilities

•

using the Web Site Administration Tool to specify which parts of a website are password protected

•

using ASP.NET Ajax to quickly and easily improve the user experience for your web applications, giving them responsiveness comparable to that of desktop applications.

27.2 Case Study: Password-Protected Books Database Application This case study presents a web application in which a user logs into a password-protected website to view a list of publications by a selected author. The application consists of several ASPX files. For this application, we’ll use the ASP.NET Web Site template, which is a starter kit for a small multi-page website. The template uses Microsoft’s recommended practices for organizing a website and separating the website’s style (look-and-feel) from its content. The default site has two primary pages (Home and About) and is pre-configured with login and registration capabilities. The template also specifies a common lookand-feel for all the pages in the website—a concept known as a master page. We begin by examining the features of the default website that is created with the ASP.NET Web Site template. Next, we test drive the completed application to demonstrate the changes we made to the default website. Then, we provide step-by-step instructions to guide you through building the application.

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27.2.1 Examining the ASP.NET Web Site Template To test the default website, begin by creating the website that you’ll customize in this case study. Perform the following steps: 1. Select File > New Web Site... to display the New Web Site dialog. 2. In the left column of the New Web Site dialog, ensure that Visual C# is selected, then select ASP.NET Web Site in the middle column. 3. Choose a location for your website, name it Bug2Bug and click OK to create it. Fig. 27.1 shows the website’s contents in the Solution Explorer.

Account folder expanded to

show the default pages for login, registration and changing passwords

About page

Default home page Master page that specifies the site’s look and feel

Fig. 27.1 | The default ASP.NET Web Site in the Solution Explorer. Executing the Website You can now execute the website. Select the Default.aspx page in the Solution Explorer, then type Ctrl + F5 to display the default page shown in Fig. 27.2. Navigation bar contains links to the Home and About pages

You can customize the content of each page and the look-and-feel of the website

Click this link to log into the website

Fig. 27.2 | Default Home page of a website created with the ASP.NET Web Site template.

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Navigation and Pages The default ASP.NET Web Site contains a home page and an about page—so-called content pages—that you’ll customize in subsequent sections. The navigation bar near the top of the page allows you to switch between these pages by clicking the link for the appropriate page. In Section 27.2.7, you’ll add another link to the navigation bar to allow users to browse book information. As you navigate between the pages, notice that each page has the same look-and-feel. This is typical of professional websites. The site uses a master page and cascading style sheets (CSS) to achieve this. A master page defines common GUI elements that are displayed by each page in a set of content pages. Just as C# classes can inherit instance variables and methods from existing classes, content pages can inherit elements from master pages—this is a form of visual inheritance. Login and Registration Support Websites commonly provide “membership capabilities” that allow users to register at a website and log in. Often this gives users access to website customization capabilities or premium content. The default ASP.NET Web Site is pre-configured to support registration and login capabilities. In the upper-right corner of each page is a Log In link. Click that link to display the Login page (Fig. 27.3). If you are already registered with the site, you can log in with your username and password. Otherwise, you can click the Register link to display the Register page (Fig. 27.4). For the purpose of this case study, we created an account with the username testuser1 and the password testuser1. You do not need to be registered or logged into the default website to view the home and about pages.

Click here to register

Fig. 27.3 |

Login page.

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27.2 Case Study: Password-Protected Books Database Application

Fig. 27.4 |

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Register page.

27.2.2 Test-Driving the Completed Application This example uses a technique known as forms authentication to protect a page so that only registered users who are logged into the website can access the page. Such users are known as the site’s members. Authentication is a crucial tool for sites that allow only members to enter the site or a portion of the site. In this application, website visitors must log in before they’re allowed to view the publications in the Books database. Let’s open the completed Bug2Bug website and execute it so that you can see the authentication functionality in action. Perform the following steps: 1. Close the application you created in Section 27.2.1—you’ll reopen this website so that you can customize it in Section 27.2.3. 2. Select Open Web Site… from the File menu. 3. In the Open Web Site dialog, ensure that File System is selected, then navigate to this chapter’s examples, select the Bug2Bug folder and click the Open Button. 4. Select the Default.aspx page then type Ctrl + F5 to execute the website. The website appears as shown in Fig. 27.5. Notice that we modified the site’s master page so that the top of the page displays an image, the background color of the top of the page is white and the Log In link is black. Also, the navigation bar contains a link for the Books page that you’ll create later in this case study.

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Fig. 27.5 | Home page for the completed Bug2Bug website. Try to visit the Books page by clicking the Books link in the navigation bar. Because this page is password protected in the Bug2Bug website, the website automatically redirects you to the Login page instead—you cannot view the Books page without logging in first. If you’ve not yet registered at the completed Bug2Bug website, click the Register link to create a new account. If you have registered, log in now. If you are logging in, when you click the Log In Button on the Log In page, the website attempts to validate your username and password by comparing them with the usernames and passwords that are stored in a database on the server—this database is created for you with the ASP.NET Web Site template. If there is a match, you are authenticated (that is, your identity is confirmed) and you’re redirected to the Books page (Fig. 27.6). If you’re registering for the first time, the server ensures that you’ve filled out the registration form properly and that your password is valid (at least 6 characters), then logs you in and redirects you to the Books page.

Fig. 27.6 |

Books.aspx

displaying books by Harvey Deitel (by default).

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The Books page provides a drop-down list of authors and a table containing the ISBNs, titles, edition numbers and copyright years of books in the database. By default, the page displays all the books by Harvey Deitel. Links appear at the bottom of the table that allow you to access additional pages of data—we configured the table to display only four rows of data at a time. When the user chooses an author, a postback occurs, and the page is updated to display information about books written by the selected author (Fig. 27.7).

Fig. 27.7 |

Books.aspx

displaying books by Greg Ayer.

Logging Out of the Website When you’re logged in, the Log In link is replaced in the upper-right corner of each page (not shown in Figs. 27.6–27.7) with the message “Welcome username” where username is replaced with your log in name, and a Log Out link. When you click Log Out, the website redirects you to the home page (Fig. 27.5).

27.2.3 Configuring the Website Now that you’re familiar with how this application behaves, you’ll modify the default website you created in Section 27.2.1. Thanks to the rich functionality of the default website, you’ll have to write almost no Visual C# code to create this application. The ASP.NET Web Site template hides the details of authenticating users against a database of user names and passwords, displaying appropriate success or error messages and redirecting the user to the correct page based on the authentication results. We now discuss the steps you must perform to create the password-protected books database application.

Step 1: Opening the Website Open the default website that you created in Section 27.2.1. 1. Select Open Web Site… from the File menu. 2. In the Open Web Site dialog, ensure that File System is selected, then navigate to the location where you created your version of the Bug2Bug website and click the Open Button. Download at www.wowebook.com

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Step 2: Setting Up Website Folders For this website, you’ll create two new folders—one that will contain the image that is used on all the pages and one that will contain the password-protected page. Passwordprotected parts of your website are typically placed in a separate folder. As you’ll see shortly, you can control access to specific folders in a website. You can choose any name you like for these folders—we chose Images for the folder that will contain the image and ProtectedContent for the folder that will contain the password-protected Books page. To create the folders, perform the following steps: 1. Create an Images folder by right clicking the location of the website in the Solution Explorer, selecting New Folder and typing the name Images. 2. Create a ProtectedContent folder by right clicking the location of the website in the Solution Explorer, selecting New Folder and typing the name ProtectedContent. Step 3: Importing the Website Header Image and the Database File Next, you’ll add an image to the Images folder and the database file to the App_Data folder. 1. In Windows Explorer, locate the folder containing this chapter’s examples. 2. Drag the image bug2bug.png from the images folder in Windows Explorer into the Images folder in the Solution Explorer to copy the image into the website. 3. Drag the Books.mdf database file from the databases folder in Windows Explorer to the project’s App_Data folder. We show how to retrieve data from this database later in the section. Step 4: Opening the Web Site Administration Tool In this application, we want to ensure that only authenticated users are allowed to access Books.aspx (created in Section 27.2.5) to view the information in the database. Previously, we created all of our ASPX pages in the web application’s root directory. By default, any website visitor (regardless of whether the visitor is authenticated) can view pages in the root directory. ASP.NET allows you to restrict access to particular folders of a website. We do not want to restrict access to the root of the website, however, because users won’t be able to view any pages of the website except the login and registration pages. To restrict access to the Books page, it must reside in a directory other than the root directory. You’ll now configure the website to allow only authenticated users (that is, users who have logged in) to view the pages in the ProtectedContent folder. Perform the following steps: 1. Select Website > ASP.NET Configuration to open the Web Site Administration Tool in a web browser (Fig. 27.8). This tool allows you to configure various options that determine how your application behaves. 2. Click either the Security link or the Security tab to open a web page in which you can set security options (Fig. 27.9), such as the type of authentication the application should use. By default, website users are authenticated by entering username and password information in a web form.

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This will say 0 if you have not yet created an account to test the website

Fig. 27.8 | Web Site Administration Tool for configuring a web application.

This will say 0 if you have not yet created an account to test the website

Fig. 27.9 | Security page of the Web Site Administration Tool. Step 5: Configuring the Website’s Security Settings Next, you’ll configure the ProtectedContent folder to grant access only to authenticated users—anyone who attempts to access pages in this folder without first logging in will be redirected to the Login page. Perform the following steps: Download at www.wowebook.com

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Chapter 27 Web App Development with ASP.NET: A Deeper Look 1. Click the Create access rules link in the Access Rules column of the Web Site Administration Tool (Fig. 27.9) to view the Add New Access Rule page (Fig. 27.10). This page is used to create an access rule—a rule that grants or denies access to a particular directory for a specific user or group of users.

Fig. 27.10 | Add New Access Rule page used to configure directory access. 2. Click the ProtectedContent directory in the left column of the page to identify the directory to which our access rule applies. 3. In the middle column, select the radio button marked Anonymous users to specify that the rule applies to users who have not been authenticated. 4. Finally, select Deny in the Permission column to prevent unauthenticated users from accessing pages in the ProtectedContent directory, then click OK. By default, unauthenticated (anonymous) users who attempt to load a page in the ProtectedContent directory are redirected to the Login.aspx page so that they can identify themselves. Because we did not set up any access rules for the Bug2Bug root directory, anonymous users may still access pages there.

27.2.4 Modifying the Default.aspx and About.aspx Pages We modified the content of the home (Default.aspx) and about (About.aspx) pages to replace the default content. To do so, perform the following steps: 1. Double click Default.aspx in the Solution Explorer to open it, then switch to Design view (Fig. 27.11). As you move the cursor over the page, you’ll notice that

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sometimes the cursor displays as to indicate that you cannot edit the part of the page behind the cursor. Any part of a content page that is defined in a master page can be edited only in the master page.

This cursor indicates a part of a content page that cannot be edited because it’s inherited from a master page

Fig. 27.11 |

Default.aspx

page in Design view.

2. Change the text "Welcome to ASP.NET!" to "Welcome to Our Password-Protected Book Information Site". Note that the text in this heading is actually formatted as small caps text when the page is displayed in a web browser—all of the letters are displayed in uppercase, but the letters that would normally be lowercase are smaller than the first letter in each word. 3. Select the text of the two paragraphs that remain in the page and replace them with "To learn more about our books, click here or click the Books tab in the navigation bar above. You must be logged in to view the Books page." In a later step, you’ll link the words "click here" to the Books page. 4. Save and close the Default.aspx page. 5. Next, open About.aspx and switch to Design view. 6. Change the text "Put content here." to "This is the Bug2Bug password-protected book information database example."

7. Save and close the About.aspx page.

27.2.5 Creating a Content Page That Only Authenticated Users Can Access We now create the Books.aspx file in the ProtectedContent folder—the folder for which we set an access rule denying access to anonymous users. If an unauthenticated user requests this file, the user will be redirected to Login.aspx. From there, the user can either log in or create a new account, both of which will authenticate the user, then redirect back to Books.aspx. To create the page, perform the following steps:

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Chapter 27 Web App Development with ASP.NET: A Deeper Look 1. Right click the ProtectedContent folder in the Solution Explorer and select Add New Item…. In the resulting dialog, select Web Form and specify the file name Books.aspx. Ensure that the CheckBox Select master page is checked to indicate that this Web Form should be created as a content page that references a master page, then click Add. 2. In the Select a Master Page dialog, select creates the file and opens it.

Site.master

and click OK. The IDE

3. Switch to Design view, click in the page to select it, then select DOCUMENT from the ComboBox in the Properties window. 4. Change the Title property of the page to Books, then save and close the page You’ll customize this page and create its functionality shortly.

27.2.6 Linking from the Default.aspx Page to the Books.aspx Page Next, you’ll add a hyperlink from the text "click here" in the Default.aspx page to the Books.aspx page. To do so, perform the following steps: 1. Open the Default.aspx page and switch to Design view. 2. Select the text "click here". 3. Click the Convert to Hyperlink ( ) Button on the toolbar at the top of Visual Web Developer to display the Hyperlink dialog. You can enter a URL here, or you can link to another page within the website. 4. Click the Browse… Button to display the Select Project Item dialog, which allows you to select another page in the website. 5. In the left column, select the ProtectedContent directory. 6. In the right column, select Books.aspx, then click OK to dismiss the Select Project Item dialog and click OK again to dismiss the Hyperlink dialog.

Fig. 27.12 | Selecting the Books.aspx page from the Select Project Item dialog.

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Users can now click the click here link in the Default.aspx page to browse to the Books.aspx page. If a user is not logged in, clicking this link will redirect the user to the Login page.

27.2.7 Modifying the Master Page (Site.master) Next, you’ll modify the website’s master page, which defines the common elements we want to appear on each page. A master page is like a base class in a visual inheritance hierarchy, and content pages are like derived classes. The master page contains placeholders for custom content created in each content page. The content pages visually inherit the master page’s content, then add content in the areas designated by the master page’s placeholders. For example, it’s common to include a navigation bar (that is, a series of buttons or menus for navigating a website) on every page of a site. If a site encompasses a large number of pages, adding markup to create the navigation bar for each page can be time consuming. Moreover, if you subsequently modify the navigation bar, every page on the site that uses it must be updated. By creating a master page, you can specify the navigationbar in one file and have it appear on all the content pages. If the navigation bar changes, only the master page changes—any content pages that use it are updated the next time the page is requested. In the final version of this website, we modified the master page to include the Bug2Bug logo in the header at the top of every page. We also changed the colors of some elements in the header to make them work better with the logo. In particular, we changed the background color from a dark blue to white, and we changed the color of the text for the Log In and Log Out links to black. The color changes require you to modify the CSS styles for some of the master page’s elements. These styles are defined in the file Site.css, which is located in the website’s Styles folder. You will not modify the CSS file directly. Instead, you’ll use the tools built into Visual Web Developer to perform these modifications.

Inserting an Image in the Header To display the logo, we’ll place an Image control in the header of the master page. Each content page based on this master page will include the logo. Perform the following steps to add the Image: 1. Open Site.master and switch to Design view. 2. Delete the text MY ASP.NET APPLICATION at the top of the page. 3. In the Toolbox, double click Image to add an Image control where the text used to be. 4. Edit the Image control’s ImageUrl property to point to the bug2bug.png image in the Images folder. Customizing the CSS Styles for the Master Page Our logo image was designed to be displayed against a white background. To change the background color in the header at the top of the page, perform the following steps: 1. Just below the Design view is a list of Buttons that show you where the cursor is currently located in the master page (Fig. 27.13). These Buttons also allow you to select specific elements in the page. Click the Button to select the header portion of the page.

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i

Fig. 27.13 |

Buttons

for selecting parts of a page in Design view.

2. Select View > Other Windows > CSS Properties to display the CSS properties (at the left of the IDE) for the currently selected element (the header of the page). 3. At the top of the CSS Properties window, click the Summary Button to show only the CSS properties that are currently set for the selected element. 4. Change the background property from #4b6c9e (the hexadecimal value for the current dark blue background) to white and press Enter. 5. The Log In and Log Out links use white text in the default website. Now that the background of the header is white, we need to change the color of these links so they’ll be visible. In the upper-right corner of the master page click the HeadLoginView control, which is where the Log In and Log Out links get displayed. 6. Below the Design view, click the Button to display the styles for the HeadLoginView in the CSS Properties window. 7. Change the color property from white to black and press Enter. 8. Click inside the box below HeadLoginView. Then, below the Design view, click the Button to display the styles for the Log In/Log Out link in the CSS Properties window 9. Change the color property from white to black and press Enter. 10. We chose to make some style changes directly in the Site.css file. On many websites, when you move the mouse over a hyperlink, the color of the link changes. Similarly, once you click a hyperlink, the hyperlink is often displayed in a different color the next time you visit the page to indicate that you’ve already clicked that link during a previous visit. The predefined styles in this website set the color of the Log In link to white for both of these cases. To change these to black, open the Site.css file from the Styles folder in the Solution Explorer, then search for the following two styles: .loginDisplay a:visited .loginDisplay a:hover

Change each style’s color property from white to black. 11. Save the Site.master and Site.css files.

Adding a Books Link to the Navigation Bar Currently the navigation bar has only Home and About links. Next, you’ll add a link to the Books page. Perform the following steps: 1. In the master page, position the mouse over the navigation bar links, then open the smart-tag menu and click Edit Menu Items. 2. In the Menu Item Editor dialog, click the Add a root item ( ) Button. 3. Set the new item’s Text property to Books and use the up arrow Button to move the new item up so the order of the navigation bar items is Home, Books and About. Download at www.wowebook.com

27.2 Case Study: Password-Protected Books Database Application 4. Set the new item’s NavigateUrl property to the tectedContent folder.

Books.aspx

page in the

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5. Click OK, then save Site.master to complete the changes to the master page.

27.2.8 Customizing the Password-Protected Books.aspx Page You are now ready to customize the Books.aspx page to display the book information for a particular author.

Generating LINQ to SQL Classes Based on the Books.mdf Database The Books.aspx page will provide a DropDownList containing authors’ names and a GridView displaying information about books written by the author selected in the DropDownList. A user will select an author from the DropDownList to cause the GridView to display information about only the books written by the selected author. To work with the Books database through LINQ, we use the same approach as in the Guestbook case study (Section 19.8). First you need to generate the LINQ to SQL classes based on the Books database, which is provided in the databases directory of this chapter’s examples folder. Name the file Books.dbml. When you drag the tables of the Books database from the Database Explorer onto the Object Relational Designer of Books.dbml, you’ll find that associations (represented by arrows) between the two tables are automatically generated (Fig. 27.14).

Fig. 27.14 | Object Relational Designer for the Books database. To obtain data from this data context, you’ll use two LinqDataSource controls. In both cases, the LinqDataSource control’s built-in data selection functionality won’t be versatile enough, so the implementation will be slightly different than in Section 19.8. So, we’ll use a custom Select LINQ statement as the query of a LinqDataSource.

Adding a DropDownList to Display the Authors’ First and Last Names Now that we have created a BooksDataContext class (one of the generated LINQ to SQL classes), we add controls to Books.aspx that will display the data on the web page. We first add the DropDownList from which users can select an author. 1. Open Books.aspx in Design mode, then add the text Author: and a DropDownList control named authorsDropDownList in the page’s editable content area (which has a white background). The DropDownList initially displays the text Unbound. 2. Next, we’ll bind the list to a data source, so the list displays the author information in the Authors table of the Books database. Because the Configure Data

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Chapter 27 Web App Development with ASP.NET: A Deeper Look wizard allows us to create LinqDataSources with only simple Select LINQ statements, we cannot use the wizard here. Instead, add a LinqDataSource object below the DropDownList named authorsLinqDataSource. Source

3. Open the smart-tag menu for the DropDownList and click Choose Data Source… to start the Data Source Configuration Wizard (Fig. 27.15). Select authorsLinqDataSource from the Select a data source drop-down list in the first screen of the wizard. Then, type Name as the data field to display in the DropDownList and AuthorID as the data field that will be submitted to the server when the user makes a selection. [Note: You must manually type these values in because authorsLinqDataSource does not yet have a defined Select query.] When authorsDropDownList is rendered in a web browser, the list items will display the names of the authors, but the underlying values associated with each item will be the AuthorIDs of the authors. Click OK to bind the DropDownList to the specified data.

Fig. 27.15 | Choosing a data source for a DropDownList. 4. In the C# code-behind file (Books.aspx.cs), create an instance of Context named database as an instance variable.

BooksData-

5. In the Design view of Books.aspx, double click authorsLinqDataSource to create an event handler for its Selecting event. This event occurs every time the LinqDataSource selects data from its data context, and can be used to implement custom Select queries against the data context. To do so, assign the custom LINQ query to the Result property of the event handler’s LinqDataSourceSelectEventArgs argument. The query results become the data source’s data. In this case, we must create a custom anonymous type in the Select clause with properties Name and AuthorID that contain the author’s full name and ID. The LINQ query is

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from author in database.Authors select new { Name = author.FirstName + " " + author.LastName, author.AuthorID };

The limitations of the Configure Data Source wizard prevent us from using a custom field such as Name (a combination of first name and last name, separated by a space) that isn’t one of the database table’s existing columns. 6. The last step in configuring the DropDownList on Books.aspx is to set the control’s AutoPostBack property to True. This property indicates that a postback occurs each time the user selects an item in the DropDownList. As you’ll see shortly, this causes the page’s GridView (created in the next step) to display new data.

Creating a GridView to Display the Selected Author’s Books We now add a GridView to Books.aspx for displaying the book information by the author selected in the authorsDropDownList. 1. Add a GridView named titlesGridView below the other controls in the page’s content area. 2. To bind the GridView to data from the Books database, create a LinqDataSource named titlesLinqDataSource beneath the GridView. 3. Select titlesLinqDataSource from the Choose Data Source drop-down list in the GridView Tasks smart-tag menu. Because titlesLinqDataSource has no defined Select query, the GridView will not automatically be configured. 4. To configure the columns of the GridView to display the appropriate data, select Edit Columns… from the GridView Tasks smart-tag menu to display the Fields dialog (Fig. 27.16). 5. Uncheck the Auto-generate fields box to indicate that you’ll manually define the fields to display.

Fig. 27.16 | Creating GridView fields in the Fields dialog.

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Chapter 27 Web App Development with ASP.NET: A Deeper Look 6. Create four BoundFields with the HeaderText ISBN, Title, Edition Number and Copyright, respectively. 7. For the ISBN and Copyright BoundFields, set the SortExpression and DataField properties to match the HeaderText. For the Title BoundField, set the SortExpression and DataField properties to Title1 (the IDE renamed the Title column to Title1 to avoid a naming conflict with the table’s class— Title). For Edition Number, set the SortExpression and DataField to EditionNumber—the name of the field in the database. The SortExpression specifies to sort by the associated data field when the user chooses to sort by the column. Shortly, we’ll enable sorting to allow users to sort this GridView. Click OK to close the Fields dialog. 8. To specify the Select LINQ query for obtaining the data, double click titlesLinqDataSource to create its Selecting event handler. Assign the custom LINQ query to the LinqDataSourceSelectEventArgs argument’s Result property. Use the following LINQ query: from book in database.AuthorISBNs where book.AuthorID == Convert.ToInt32( authorsDropDownList.SelectedValue ) select book.Title

9. The GridView needs to update every time the user makes a new author selection. To implement this, double click the DropDownList to create an event handler for its SelectedIndexChanged event. You can make the GridView update by invoking its DataBind method.

Code-Behind File for the Books Page Figure 27.17 shows the code for the completed code-behind file. Line 10 defines the data context object that is used in the LINQ queries. Lines 13–20 and 23–31 define the two LinqDataSource’s Selecting events. Lines 34–38 define the authorsDropDownList’s SelectedIndexChanged event handler, which updates the GridView. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

// Fig. 27.17: ProtectedContent_Books.aspx.cs // Code-behind file for the password-protected Books page. using System; using System.Linq; using System.Web.UI.WebControls; public partial class ProtectedContent_Books : System.Web.UI.Page { // data context queried by data sources BooksDataContext database = new BooksDataContext(); // specify the Select query that creates a combined first and last name protected void authorsLinqDataSource_Selecting( object sender, LinqDataSourceSelectEventArgs e ) {

Fig. 27.17 | Code-behind file for the password-protected Books page. (Part 1 of 2.)

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16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

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e.Result = from author in database.Authors select new { Name = author.FirstName + " " + author.LastName, author.AuthorID }; } // end method authorsLinqDataSource_Selecting // specify the Select query that gets the specified author's books protected void titlesLinqDataSource_Selecting( object sender, LinqDataSourceSelectEventArgs e ) { e.Result = from book in database.AuthorISBNs where book.AuthorID == Convert.ToInt32( authorsDropDownList.SelectedValue ) select book.Title; } // end method titlesLinqDataSource_Selecting // refresh the GridView when a different author is selected protected void authorsDropDownList_SelectedIndexChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { titlesGridView.DataBind(); // update the GridView } // end method authorsDropDownList_SelectedIndexChanged } // end class ProtectedContent_Books

Fig. 27.17 | Code-behind file for the password-protected Books page. (Part 2 of 2.) Configuring the GridView to Enable Sorting and Paging Now that the GridView is tied to a data source, we modify several of the control’s properties to adjust its appearance and behavior. 1. In Design view, use the GridView’s sizing handles to set the width to 580px. 2. Next, in the GridView Tasks smart-tag menu, check Enable Sorting so that the column headings in the GridView become hyperlinks that allow users to sort the data in the GridView using the sort expressions specified by each column. For example, clicking the Titles heading in the web browser will cause the displayed data to appear sorted in alphabetical order. Clicking this heading a second time will cause the data to be sorted in reverse alphabetical order. ASP.NET hides the details required to achieve this functionality. 3. Finally, in the GridView Tasks smart-tag menu, check Enable Paging. This causes the GridView to split across multiple pages. The user can click the numbered links at the bottom of the GridView control to display a different page of data. GridView’s PageSize property determines the number of entries per page. Set the PageSize property to 4 using the Properties window so that the GridView displays only four books per page. This technique for displaying data makes the site more readable and enables pages to load more quickly (because less data is displayed at one time). As with sorting data in a GridView, you do not need to add any code to achieve paging functionality. Figure 27.18 displays the completed Books.aspx file in Design mode.

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Fig. 27.18 | Completed Books.aspx page in Design mode.

27.3 ASP.NET Ajax In this section, you learn the difference between a traditional web application and an Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) web application. You also learn how to use ASP.NET Ajax to quickly and easily improve the user experience for your web applications. To demonstrate ASP.NET Ajax capabilities, you enhance the validation example of Section 19.6 by displaying the submitted form information without reloading the entire page. The only modifications to this web application appear in the Validation.aspx file. You use Ajax-enabled controls to add this feature.

27.3.1 Traditional Web Applications Figure 27.19 presents the typical interactions between the client and the server in a traditional web application, such as one that uses a user registration form. The user first fills in the form’s fields, then submits the form (Fig. 27.19, Step 1). The browser generates a request to the server, which receives the request and processes it (Step 2). The server generates and sends a response containing the exact page that the browser renders (Step 3), which causes the browser to load the new page (Step 4) and temporarily makes the browser window blank. The client waits for the server to respond and reloads the entire page with the data from the response (Step 4). While such a synchronous request is being processed on the server, the user cannot interact with the web page. Frequent long periods of waiting, due perhaps to Internet congestion, have led some users to refer to the World Wide Web as the “World Wide Wait.” If the user interacts with and submits another form, the process begins again (Steps 5–8). This model was designed for a web of hypertext documents—what some people call the “brochure web.” As the web evolved into a full-scale applications platform, the model shown in Fig. 27.19 yielded “choppy” user experiences. Every full-page refresh required users to reload the full page. Users began to demand a more responsive model.

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27.3 ASP.NET Ajax

Server

2

6

Process request

Generate response

Process request

Generate response

3

7

Page 2

Page 3

Form

Form

Request 1

Request 2 Form 4

Client

Page 1 1

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Form

Page reloading

Form 8

Page 2 Form

Form

Form

Page 3

Page reloading

Form Form

5

Fig. 27.19 | Traditional web application reloading the page for every user interaction.

27.3.2 Ajax Web Applications

Server

Ajax web applications add a layer between the client and the server to manage communication between the two (Fig. 27.20). When the user interacts with the page, the client requests information from the server (Step 1). The request is intercepted by the ASP.NET Ajax controls and sent to the server as an asynchronous request (Step 2)—the user can continue interacting with the application in the client browser while the server processes the request. Other user interactions could result in additional requests to the server (Steps 3

Process request 1

Generate response

Process request 2

Generate response

5 data 2

data 7

User interaction initiates asynchronous request

Partial page update

4

Client

Request object Callback function Response processing

Page 1

1 Update

Form

8 Update

Callback function Response processing

Form 6 Partial page update

Request object

3 User interaction initiates asynchronous request

Fig. 27.20 | Ajax-enabled web application interacting with the server asynchronously.

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and 4). Once the server responds to the original request (Step 5), the ASP.NET Ajax control that issued the request calls a client-side function to process the data returned by the server. This function—known as a callback function—uses partial-page updates (Step 6) to display the data in the existing web page without reloading the entire page. At the same time, the server may be responding to the second request (Step 7) and the client browser may be starting another partial-page update (Step 8). The callback function updates only a designated part of the page. Such partial-page updates help make web applications more responsive, making them feel more like desktop applications. The web application does not load a new page while the user interacts with it. In the following section, you use ASP.NET Ajax controls to enhance the Validation.aspx page.

27.3.3 Testing an ASP.NET Ajax Application To demonstrate ASP.NET Ajax capabilities we’ll enhance the Validation application from Section 19.6 by adding ASP.NET Ajax controls. There are no C# code modifications to this application—all of the changes occur in the .aspx file.

Testing the Application in Your Default Web Browser To test this application in your default web browser, perform the following steps: 1. Select Open Web Site… from the Visual Web Developer File menu. 2. In the Open Web Site dialog, select File System, then navigate to this chapter’s examples, select the ValidationAjax folder and click the Open Button. 3. Select Validation.aspx in the Solution Explorer, then type Ctrl + F5 to execute the web application in your default web browser. Figure 27.21 shows a sample execution of the enhanced application. In Fig. 27.21(a), we show the contact form split into two tabs via the TabContainer Ajax control. You can switch between the tabs by clicking the title of each tab. Fig. 27.21(b) shows a ValidatorCalloutExtender control, which displays a validation error message in a callout that points to the control in which the validation error occurred, rather than as text in the page. Fig. 27.21(c) shows the updated page with the data the user submitted to the server. a) Entering a name on the Name tab then clicking the Contact tab

Fig. 27.21 | Validation application enhanced by ASP.NET Ajax. (Part 1 of 2.)

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b) Entering an e-mail address in an incorrect format and pressing the Tab key to move to the next input field causes a callout to appear informing the user to enter an e-mail address in a valid format

c) After filling out the form properly and clicking the Submit button, the submitted data is displayed at the bottom of the page with a partial page update

Fig. 27.21 | Validation application enhanced by ASP.NET Ajax. (Part 2 of 2.)

27.3.4 The ASP.NET Ajax Control Toolkit You’ll notice that there is a tab of basic AJAX Extensions controls in the Toolbox. Microsoft also provides the ASP.NET Ajax Control Toolkit as part of the ASP.NET Ajax Library ajax.codeplex.com

The toolkit contains many more Ajax-enabled, rich GUI controls. Click the Download Button to begin the download. The toolkit does not come with an installer, so you must extract the contents of the toolkit’s ZIP file to your hard drive. Note the location where you extracted the files as you’ll need this information to add the ASP.NET Ajax Controls to your Toolbox.

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Adding the ASP.NET Ajax Controls to the Toolbox You should add controls from the Ajax Control Toolkit to the Toolbox in Visual Web Developer (or in Visual Studio), so you can drag and drop controls onto your Web Forms. To do so, perform the following steps: 1. Open an existing website project or create a new website project. 2. Open an ASPX page from your project in Design mode. 3. Right click inside the Toolbox and choose Add Tab, then type ASP.NET Ajax Library in the new tab. 4. Right click under the new ASP.NET Ajax Library tab and select Choose Items… to open the Choose Toolbox Items dialog. 5. Click the Browse Button then locate the folder where you extracted the ASP.NET Ajax Control Toolkit. Select the file AjaxControlToolkit.dll then click Open. 6. Click OK to close dialog. The controls from the Ajax Control Toolkit now appear in the Toolbox’s ASP.NET Ajax Library tab. 7. If the control names are not in alphabetical order, you can sort them alphabetically, by right clicking in the list of Ajax Control Toolkit controls and selecting Sort Items Alphabetically.

27.3.5 Using Controls from the Ajax Control Toolkit In this section, you’ll enhance the application you created in Section 19.6 by adding ASP.NET Ajax controls. The key control in every ASP.NET Ajax-enabled application is the ScriptManager (in the Toolbox’s AJAX Extensions tab), which manages the JavaScript client-side code (called scripts) that enable asynchronous Ajax functionality. A benefit of using ASP.NET Ajax is that you do not need to know JavaScript to be able to use these scripts. The ScriptManager is meant for use with the controls in the Toolbox’s AJAX Extensions tab. There can be only one ScriptManager per page. ToolkitScriptManager

The Ajax Control Toolkit comes with an enhanced ScriptManager called the ToolkitScriptManager, which manages the scripts for the ASP. NET Ajax Toolkit controls. This one should be used in any page with controls from the ASP. NET Ajax Toolkit.

Common Programming Error 27.1 Putting more than one ScriptManager and/or ToolkitScriptManager control on a Web Form causes the application to throw an InvalidOperationException when the page is initialized.

Open the

Validation

website you created in Section 19.6. Then drag a

Toolkit-

ScriptManager from the ASP.NET Ajax Library tab in the Toolbox to the top of the page—

a script manager must appear before any controls that use the scripts it manages.

Grouping Information in Tabs Using the TabContainer Control The TabContainer control enables you to group information into tabs that are displayed only if they’re selected. The information in an unselected tab won’t be displayed until the

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user selects that tab. To demonstrate a TabContainer control, let’s split the form into two tabs—one in which the user can enter the name and one in which the user can enter the e-mail address and phone number. Perform the following steps: 1. Click to the right of the text Please fill out all the fields in the following form: and press Enter to create a new paragraph. 2. Drag a TabContainer control from the ASP.NET Ajax Library tab in the Toolbox into the new paragraph. This creates a container for hosting tabs. Set the TabContainer’s Width property to 450px. 3. To add a tab, open the TabContainer Tasks smart-tag menu and select Add Tab Panel. This adds a TabPanel object—representing a tab—to the TabContainer. Do this again to add a second tab. 4. You must change each TabPanel’s HeaderText property by editing the ASPX page’s markup. To do so, click the TabContainer to ensure that it’s selected, then switch to Split view in the design window. In the highlighted markup that corresponds to the TabContainer, locate HeaderText="TabPanel1" and change "TabPanel1" to "Name", then locate HeaderText="TabPanel2" and change "TabPanel2" to "Contact". Switch back to Design view. In Design view, you can navigate between tabs by clicking the tab headers. You can drag-and-drop elements into the tab as you would anywhere else. 5. Click in the Name tab’s body, then insert a one row and two column table. Take the text and controls that are currently in the Name: row of the original table and move them to the table in the Name tab. 6. Switch to the Contact tab, click in its body, then insert a two-row-by-two-column table. Take the text and controls that are currently in the E-mail: and Phone: rows of the original table and move them to the table in the Contact tab. 7. Delete the original table that is currently below the TabContainer.

Partial-Page Updates Using the UpdatePanel Control The UpdatePanel control eliminates full-page refreshes by isolating a section of a page for a partial-page update. In this example, we’ll use a partial-page update to display the user’s information that is submitted to the server. To implement a partial-page update, perform the following steps: 1. Click to the left of the Submit Button and press Enter to create a new paragraph above it. Then click in the new paragraph and drag an UpdatePanel control from the AJAX Extensions tab in the Toolbox to your form. 2. Then, drag into the UpdatePanel the control(s) to update and the control that triggers the update. For this example, drag the outputLabel and the submitButton into the UpdatePanel. 3. To specify when an UpdatePanel should update, you need to define an UpdatePanel trigger. Select the UpdatePanel, then click the ellipsis button next to the control’s Triggers property in the Properties window. In the UpdatePanelTrigger Collection dialog that appears (Fig. 27.22), click Add to add an AsyncPostBackTrigger. Set the ControlID property to submitButton and the

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Chapter 27 Web App Development with ASP.NET: A Deeper Look property to Click. Now, when the user clicks the Submit button, the intercepts the request and makes an asynchronous request to the server instead. Then the response is inserted in the outputLabel element, and the UpdatePanel reloads the label to display the new text without refreshing the entire page. Click OK to close the dialog. EventName

UpdatePanel

Fig. 27.22 | Creating a trigger for an UpdatePanel. Adding Ajax Functionality to ASP.NET Validation Controls Using Ajax Extenders Several controls in the Ajax Control Toolkit are extenders—components that enhance the functionality of regular ASP.NET controls. In this example, we use ValidatorCalloutExtender controls that enhance the ASP.NET validation controls by displaying error messages in small yellow callouts next to the input fields, rather than as text in the page. You can create a ValidatorCalloutExtender by opening any validator control’s smart-tag menu and clicking Add Extender… to display the Extender Wizard dialog (Fig. 27.23). Next, choose ValidatorCalloutExtender from the list of available extenders. The extender’s ID is chosen based on the ID of the validation control you’re extending, but you can rename it if you like. Click OK to create the extender. Do this for each of the validation controls in this example. Changing the Display Property of the Validation Controls The ValidatorCalloutExtenders display error messages with a nicer look-and-feel, so we no longer need the validator controls to display these messages on their own. For this reason, set each validation control's Display property to None. Running the Application When you run this application, the TabContainer will display whichever tab was last displayed in the ASPX page’s Design view. Ensure that the Name tab is displayed, then select Validation.aspx in the Solution Explorer and type Ctrl + F5 to execute the application.

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Fig. 27.23 | Creating a control extender using the Extender Wizard. Additional ASP.NET Information The Ajax Control Toolkit contains many other extenders and independent controls. You can check them out at www.asp.net/ajax/ajaxcontroltoolkit/samples/. For more information on ASP.NET Ajax, check out our ASP.NET Ajax Resource Center at www.deitel.com/aspdotnetajax

27.4 Wrap-Up In this chapter, we presented a case study in which we built a password-protected web application that requires users to log in before accessing information from the Books database. You used the Web Site Administration Tool to configure the application to prevent anonymous users from accessing the book information. We used the ASP.NET Web Site template, which provides login and registration capabilities for a website. You also learned to create a uniform look-and-feel for a website with a master page. Finally, you learned the difference between a traditional web application and an Ajax web application. We introduced ASP.NET AJAX and Microsoft’s Ajax Control Toolkit. You learned how to build an Ajax-enabled web application by using a ScriptManager and the Ajax-enabled controls of the Ajax Extensions package and the Ajax Control Toolkit. In the next chapter, we introduce web services, which allow methods on one machine to call methods on other machines via common data formats and protocols, such as XML and HTTP. You will learn how web services promote software reusability and interoperability across multiple computers on a network such as the Internet.

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28 Web Services

A client is to me a mere unit, a factor in a problem. —Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

How to create WCF web services.

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How XML, JSON, XML-Based Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) and Representational State Transfer Architecture (REST) enable WCF web services.

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The elements that comprise WCF web services, such as service references, service endpoints, service contracts and service bindings.

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How to create a client that consumes a WCF web service.

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How to use WCF web services with Windows and web applications.

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How to use session tracking in WCF web services to maintain state information for the client.

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How to pass user-defined types to a WCF web service.

...if the simplest things of nature have a message that you understand, rejoice, for your soul is alive. —Eleonora Duse

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28.1 Introduction

28.1 Introduction 28.2 WCF Services Basics 28.3 Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) 28.4 Representational State Transfer (REST) 28.5 JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) 28.6 Publishing and Consuming SOAPBased WCF Web Services 28.6.1 Creating a WCF Web Service 28.6.2 Code for the WelcomeSOAPXMLService

28.6.3 Building a SOAP WCF Web Service 28.6.4 Deploying the WelcomeSOAPXMLService

28.6.5 Creating a Client to Consume the WelcomeSOAPXMLService

28.6.6 Consuming the WelcomeSOAPXMLService

28.7 Publishing and Consuming RESTBased XML Web Services 28.7.1 HTTP get and post Requests 28.7.2 Creating a REST-Based XML WCF Web Service 28.7.3 Consuming a REST-Based XML WCF Web Service

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28.8.1 Creating a REST-Based JSON WCF Web Service 28.8.2 Consuming a REST-Based JSON WCF Web Service

28.9 Blackjack Web Service: Using Session Tracking in a SOAP-Based WCF Web Service 28.9.1 Creating a Blackjack Web Service 28.9.2 Consuming the Blackjack Web Service

28.10 Airline Reservation Web Service: Database Access and Invoking a Service from ASP.NET 28.11 Equation Generator: Returning UserDefined Types 28.11.1 Creating the REST-Based XML EquationGenerator Web Service 28.11.2 Consuming the REST-Based XML EquationGenerator Web Service 28.11.3 Creating the REST-Based JSON WCF EquationGenerator Web Service 28.11.4 Consuming the REST-Based JSON WCF EquationGenerator Web Service

28.12 Wrap-Up 28.13 Deitel Web Services Resource Centers

28.8 Publishing and Consuming RESTBased JSON Web Services

28.1 Introduction This chapter introduces Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) services. WCF is a set of technologies for building distributed systems in which system components communicate with one another over networks. In earlier versions of .NET, the various types of communication used different technologies and programming models. WCF uses a common framework for all communication between systems, so you need to learn only one programming model to use WCF. This chapter focuses on WCF web services, which promote software reusability in distributed systems that typically execute across the Internet. A web service is a class that allows its methods to be called by methods on other machines via common data formats and protocols, such as XML (see Chapter 26), JSON (Section 28.5) and HTTP. In .NET, the over-the-network method calls are commonly implemented through Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) or the Representational State Transfer (REST) architecture. SOAP is an XML-based protocol describing how to mark up requests and responses so that they can be sent via protocols such as HTTP. SOAP uses a standardized XML-based format to enclose data in a message that can be sent between a client and a server. REST is a network architecture that uses the web’s traditional request/response mechanisms such

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as GET and POST requests. REST-based systems do not require data to be wrapped in a special message format. We build the WCF web services presented in this chapter in Visual Web Developer 2010 Express, and we create client applications that invoke these services using both Visual C# 2010 Express and Visual Web Developer 2010 Express. Full versions of Visual Studio 2010 include the functionality of both Express editions. Requests to and responses from web services created with Visual Web Developer are typically transmitted via SOAP or REST, so any client capable of generating and processing SOAP or REST messages can interact with a web service, regardless of the language in which the web service is written. We say more about SOAP and REST in Section 28.3 and Section 28.4, respectively.

28.2 WCF Services Basics Microsoft’s Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) was created as a single platform to encompass many existing communication technologies. WCF increases productivity, because you learn only one straightforward programming model. Each WCF service has three key components—addresses, bindings and contracts (usually called the ABCs of a WCF service): •

An address represents the service’s location (also known as its endpoint), which includes the protocol (for example, HTTP) and network address (for example, www.deitel.com) used to access the service.

•

A binding specifies how a client communicates with the service (for example, SOAP, REST, and so on). Bindings can also specify other options, such as security constraints.

•

A contract is an interface representing the service’s methods and their return types. The service’s contract allows clients to interact with the service.

The machine on which the web service resides is referred to as a web service host. The client application that accesses the web service sends a method call over a network to the web service host, which processes the call and returns a response over the network to the application. This kind of distributed computing benefits systems in various ways. For example, an application without direct access to data on another system might be able to retrieve this data via a web service. Similarly, an application lacking the processing power necessary to perform specific computations could use a web service to take advantage of another system’s superior resources.

28.3 Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) The Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) is a platform-independent protocol that uses XML to make remote procedure calls, typically over HTTP. Each request and response is packaged in a SOAP message—an XML message containing the information that a web service requires to process the message. SOAP messages are written in XML so that they’re computer readable, human readable and platform independent. Most firewalls—security barriers that restrict communication among networks—allow HTTP traffic to pass through, so that clients can browse the Internet by sending requests to and receiving re-

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sponses from web servers. Thus, SOAP-based services can send and receive SOAP messages over HTTP connections with few limitations. SOAP supports an extensive set of types. The wire format used to transmit requests and responses must support all types passed between the applications. SOAP types include the primitive types (for example, int), as well as DateTime, XmlNode and others. SOAP can also transmit arrays of these types. In Section 28.11, you’ll see that you can also transmit user-defined types in SOAP messages. When a program invokes a method of a SOAP web service, the request and all relevant information are packaged in a SOAP message enclosed in a SOAP envelope and sent to the server on which the web service resides. When the web service receives this SOAP message, it parses the XML representing the message, then processes the message’s contents. The message specifies the method that the client wishes to execute and the arguments the client passed to that method. Next, the web service calls the method with the specified arguments (if any) and sends the response back to the client in another SOAP message. The client parses the response to retrieve the method’s result. In Section 28.6, you’ll build and consume a basic SOAP web service.

28.4 Representational State Transfer (REST) Representational State Transfer (REST) refers to an architectural style for implementing web services. Such web services are often called RESTful web services. Though REST itself is not a standard, RESTful web services are implemented using web standards. Each operation in a RESTful web service is identified by a unique URL. Thus, when the server receives a request, it immediately knows what operation to perform. Such web services can be used in a program or directly from a web browser. The results of a particular operation may be cached locally by the browser when the service is invoked with a GET request. This can make subsequent requests for the same operation faster by loading the result directly from the browser’s cache. Amazon’s web services (aws.amazon.com) are RESTful, as are many others. RESTful web services are alternatives to those implemented with SOAP. Unlike SOAP-based web services, the request and response of REST services are not wrapped in envelopes. REST is also not limited to returning data in XML format. It can use a variety of formats, such as XML, JSON, HTML, plain text and media files. In Sections 28.7– 28.8, you’ll build and consume basic RESTful web services.

28.5 JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) is an alternative to XML for representing data. JSON is a text-based data-interchange format used to represent objects in JavaScript as collections of name/value pairs represented as Strings. It is commonly used in Ajax applications. JSON is a simple format that makes objects easy to read, create and parse, and allows programs to transmit data efficiently across the Internet because it is much less verbose than XML. Each JSON object is represented as a list of property names and values contained in curly braces, in the following format: { propertyName1 : value1, propertyName2 : value2 }

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Arrays are represented in JSON with square brackets in the following format: [ value1, value2, value3 ]

Each value in an array can be a string, a number, a JSON object, true, false or null. To appreciate the simplicity of JSON data, examine this representation of an array of addressbook entries [ { { { {

first: first: first: first:

'Cheryl', last: 'Black' }, 'James', last: 'Blue' }, 'Mike', last: 'Brown' }, 'Meg', last: 'Gold' } ]

Many programming languages now support the JSON data format.

28.6 Publishing and Consuming SOAP-Based WCF Web Services This section presents our first example of publishing (enabling for client access) and consuming (using) a web service. We begin with a SOAP-based web service.

28.6.1 Creating a WCF Web Service To build a SOAP-based WCF web service in Visual Web Developer, you first create a project of type WCF Service. SOAP is the default protocol for WCF web services, so no special configuration is required to create them. Visual Web Developer then generates files for the WCF service code, an SVC file (Service.svc, which provides access to the service), and a Web.config file (which specifies the service’s binding and behavior). Visual Web Developer also generates code files for the WCF service class and any other code that is part of the WCF service implementation. In the service class, you define the methods that your WCF web service makes available to client applications.

28.6.2 Code for the WelcomeSOAPXMLService Figures 28.1 and 28.2 present the code-behind files for the WelcomeSOAPXMLService WCF web service that you’ll build in Section 28.6.3. When creating services in Visual Web Developer, you work almost exclusively in the code-behind files. The service provides a method that takes a name (represented as a string) as an argument and appends it to the welcome message that is returned to the client. We use a parameter in the method definition to demonstrate that a client can send data to a web service. Figure 28.1 is the service’s interface, which describes the service’s contract—the set of methods and properties the client uses to access the service. The ServiceContract attribute (line 6) exposes a class that implements this interface as a WCF web service. The OperationContract attribute (line 10) exposes the Welcome method to clients for remote calls. Optional parameters can be assigned to these contracts to change the data format and method behavior, as we’ll show in later examples. Figure 28.2 defines the class that implements the interface declared as the ServiceContract. Lines 7–12 define the method Welcome, which returns a string welcoming you to WCF web services. Next, we build the web service from scratch.

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// Fig. 28.1: IWelcomeSOAPXMLService.cs // WCF web service interface that returns a welcome message through SOAP // protocol and XML data format. using System.ServiceModel; [ServiceContract] public interface IWelcomeSOAPXMLService { // returns a welcome message [OperationContract] string Welcome( string yourName ); } // end interface IWelcomeSOAPXMLService

Fig. 28.1 | WCF web-service interface that returns a welcome message through SOAP protocol and XML format. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

// Fig. 28.2: WelcomeSOAPXMLService.cs // WCF web service that returns a welcome message using SOAP protocol and // XML data format. public class WelcomeSOAPXMLService : IWelcomeSOAPXMLService { // returns a welcome message public string Welcome( string yourName ) { return string.Format( "Welcome to WCF Web Services with SOAP and XML, {0}!", yourName ); } // end method Welcome } // end class WelcomeSOAPXMLService

Fig. 28.2 | WCF web service that returns a welcome message through the SOAP protocol and XML format.

28.6.3 Building a SOAP WCF Web Service In the following steps, you create a WCF Service project for the WelcomeSOAPXMLService and test it using the built-in ASP.NET Development Server that comes with Visual Web Developer Express and Visual Studio.

Step 1: Creating the Project To create a project of type WCF Service, select File > New Web Site… to display the New Web Site dialog (Fig. 28.3). Select the WCF Service template. Select File System from the Location drop-down list to indicate that the files should be placed on your local hard disk. By default, Visual Web Developer places files on the local machine in a directory named WCFService1. Rename this folder to WelcomeSOAPXMLService. We modified the default path as well. Click OK to create the project. Step 2: Examining the Newly Created Project After you create the project, the code-behind file Service.cs, which contains code for a simple web service, is displayed by default. If the code-behind file is not open, open it by double clicking the file in the App_Code directory listed in the Solution Explorer. By

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Fig. 28.3 | Creating a WCF Service in Visual Web Developer. default, a new code-behind file implements an interface named IService. This interface (in the file IService.cs) is marked with the ServiceContract and OperationContract attributes. In addition, the IService.cs file defines a class named CompositeType with a DataContract attribute (discussed in Section 28.8). The interface contains two sample service methods named GetData and GetDataUsingContract. The Service.cs contains the code that defines these methods.

Step 3: Modifying and Renaming the Code-Behind File To create the WelcomeSOAPXMLService service developed in this section, modify IService.cs and Service.cs by replacing the sample code provided by Visual Web Developer with the code from the IWelcomeSOAPXMLService and WelcomeSOAPXMLService files (Figs. 28.1 and 28.2, respectively). Then rename the files to IWelcomeSOAPXMLService.cs and WelcomeSOAPXMLService.cs by right clicking each file in the Solution Explorer and choosing Rename. Step 4: Examining the SVC File The Service.svc file, when accessed through a web browser, provides information about the web service. However, if you open the SVC file on disk, it contains only

to indicate the programming language in which the web service’s code-behind file is written, the Debug attribute (enables a page to be compiled for debugging), the name of the service and the code-behind file’s location. When you request the SVC page in a web browser, WCF uses this information to dynamically generate the WSDL document.

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Step 5: Modifying the SVC File If you change the code-behind file name or the class name that defines the web service, you must modify the SVC file accordingly. Thus, after defining class WelcomeSOAPXMLService in the code-behind file WelcomeSOAPXMLService.cs, modify the SVC file as follows:

28.6.4 Deploying the WelcomeSOAPXMLService You can choose Build Web Site from the Build menu to ensure that the web service compiles without errors. You can also test the web service directly from Visual Web Developer by selecting Start Debugging from the Debug menu. The first time you do this, the Debugging Not Enabled dialog appears. Click OK if you want to enable debugging. Next, a browser window opens and displays information about the service. This information is generated dynamically when the SVC file is requested. Figure 28.4 shows a web browser displaying the Service.svc file for the WelcomeSOAPXMLService WCF web service.

Fig. 28.4 | SVC file rendered in a web browser.

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Once the service is running, you can also access the SVC page from your browser by typing a URL of the following form in a web browser: http://localhost:portNumber/virtualPath/Service.svc

(See the actual URL in Fig. 28.4.) By default, the ASP.NET Development Server assigns a random port number to each website it hosts. You can change this behavior by going to the Solution Explorer and clicking on the project name to view the Properties window (Fig. 28.5). Set the Use dynamic ports property to False and set the Port number property to the port number that you want to use, which can be any unused TCP port. Generally, you don’t do this for web services that will be deployed to a real web server. You can also change the service’s virtual path, perhaps to make the path shorter or more readable.

Fig. 28.5 | WCF web service Properties window. Web Services Description Language To consume a web service, a client must determine the service’s functionality and how to use it. For this purpose, web services normally contain a service description. This is an XML document that conforms to the Web Service Description Language (WSDL)—an XML vocabulary that defines the methods a web service makes available and how clients interact with them. The WSDL document also specifies lower-level information that clients might need, such as the required formats for requests and responses. WSDL documents help applications determine how to interact with the web services described in the documents. When viewed in a web browser, an SVC file presents a link to the service’s WSDL document and information on using the utility svcutil.exe to generate test console applications. The svcutil.exe tool is included with Visual Studio 2010 and Visual Web Developer. We do not use svcutil.exe to test our services, opting instead to build our own test applications. When a client requests the SVC file’s URL followed by ?wsdl, the server autogenerates the WSDL that describes the web service and returns the WSDL document. Copy the SVC URL (which ends with .svc) from the browser’s address field in Fig. 28.4, as you’ll need it in the next section to build the client application. Also, leave the web service running so the client can interact with it.

28.6.5 Creating a Client to Consume the WelcomeSOAPXMLService Now that you’ve defined and deployed the web service, let’s consume it from a client application. A .NET web-service client can be any type of .NET application, such as a Win-

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dows application, a console application or a web application. You can enable a client application to consume a web service by adding a service reference to the client. Figure 28.6 diagrams the parts of a client for a SOAP-based web service after a service reference has been added. [Note: This section discusses building a client application in Visual C# 2010 Express, but the discussion also applies to Visual Web Developer 2010 Express.] Client Client code (web service consumer)

Service reference

Proxy class

WSDL copy

Fig. 28.6 | .NET WCF web-service client after a web-service reference has been added. An application that consumes a SOAP-based web service actually consists of two parts—a proxy class representing the web service and a client application that accesses the web service via a proxy object (that is, an instance of the proxy class). A proxy class handles all the “plumbing” required for service method calls (that is, the networking details and the formation of SOAP messages). Whenever the client application calls a web service’s method, the application actually calls a corresponding method in the proxy class. This method has the same name and parameters as the web service’s method that is being called, but formats the call to be sent as a request in a SOAP message. The web service receives this request as a SOAP message, executes the method call and sends back the result as another SOAP message. When the client application receives the SOAP message containing the response, the proxy class deserializes it and returns the results as the return value of the web-service method that was called. Figure 28.7 depicts the interactions among the client code, proxy class and web service. The proxy class is not shown in the project unless you click the Show All Files button in the Solution Explorer. Client

Client code

Proxy object

Network

SOAP web service

Fig. 28.7 | Interaction between a web-service client and a SOAP web service.

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Many aspects of web-service creation and consumption—such as generating WSDL files and proxy classes—are handled by Visual Web Developer, Visual C# 2010 and WCF. Although developers are relieved of the tedious process of creating these files, they can still modify the files if necessary. This is required only when developing advanced web services—none of our examples require modifications to these files. We now create a client and generate a proxy class that allows the client to access the WelcomeSOAPXMLService web service. First create a Windows application named WelcomeSOAPXMLClient in Visual C# 2010, then perform the following steps.

Step 1: Opening the Add Service Reference Dialog Right click the project name in the Solution Explorer and select Add Service Reference… to display the Add Service Reference dialog. Step 2: Specifying the Web Service’s Location In the dialog, enter the URL of WelcomeSOAPXMLService’s .svc file (that is, the URL you copied from Fig. 28.4) in the Address field and click Go. When you specify the service you want to consume, the IDE accesses the web service’s WSDL information and copies it into a WSDL file that is stored in the client project’s Service References folder. This file is visible when you view all of your project’s files in the Solution Explorer. [Note: A copy of the WSDL file provides the client application with local access to the web service’s description. To ensure that the WSDL file is up to date, Visual C# 2010 provides an Update Service Reference option (available by right clicking the service reference in the Solution Explorer), which updates the files in the Service References folder.] Many companies that provide web services simply distribute the exact URLs at which their web services can be accessed. The Add Service Reference dialog also allows you to search for services on your local machine or on the Internet. Step 3: Renaming the Service Reference’s Namespace In the Add Service Reference dialog, rename the service reference’s namespace by changing the Namespace field to ServiceReference. Step 4: Adding the Service Reference Click the Ok button to add the service reference. Step 5: Viewing the Service Reference in the Solution Explorer The Solution Explorer should now contain a Service References folder with a node showing the namespace you specified in Step 3.

28.6.6 Consuming the WelcomeSOAPXMLService The application in Fig. 28.8 uses the WelcomeSOAPXMLService service to send a welcome message. You are already familiar with Visual C# applications that use Labels, TextBoxes and Buttons, so we focus our discussions on the web-services concepts in this chapter’s applications. Line 11 defines a new ServiceReference.WelcomeSOAPXMLServiceClient proxy object named client. The event handler uses this object to call methods of the WelcomeSOAPXMLService web service. Line 22 invokes the WelcomeSOAPXMLService web service’s Welcome method. The call is made via the local proxy object client, which then communicates with the web service on the client’s behalf. If you’re using the downloaded exam-

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// Fig. 28.8: WelcomeSOAPXML.cs // Client that consumes the WelcomeSOAPXMLService. using System; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace WelcomeSOAPXMLClient { public partial class WelcomeSOAPXML : Form { // declare a reference to web service private ServiceReference.WelcomeSOAPXMLServiceClient client; public WelcomeSOAPXML() { InitializeComponent(); client = new ServiceReference.WelcomeSOAPXMLServiceClient(); } // end constructor // creates welcome message from text input and web service private void submitButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { MessageBox.Show( client.Welcome( textBox.Text ), "Welcome" ); } // end method submitButton_Click } // end class WelcomeSOAPXML } // end namespace WelcomeSOAPXMLClient a) User inputs name and clicks Submit to send it to the web service

b) Message returned by the web service

Fig. 28.8 | Client that consumes the WelcomeSOAPXMLService. ples from this chapter, you may need to regenerate the proxy by removing the service reference, then adding it again, because ASP.NET Development Server may use a different port number on your computer. To do so, right click ServiceReference in the Service References folder in the Solution Explorer and select option Delete. Then follow the instructions in Section 28.6.5 to add the service reference to the project. When the application runs, enter your name and click the Submit button. The application invokes the Welcome service method to perform the appropriate task and return the result, then displays the result in a MessageBox.

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28.7 Publishing and Consuming REST-Based XML Web Services In the previous section, we used a proxy object to pass data to and from a WCF web service using the SOAP protocol. In this section, we access a WCF web service using the REST architecture. We modify the IWelcomeSOAPXMLService example to return data in plain XML format. You can create a WCF Service project as you did in Section 28.6 to begin.

28.7.1 HTTP get and post Requests The two most common HTTP request types (also known as request methods) are get and post. A get request typically gets (or retrieves) information from a server. Common uses of get requests are to retrieve a document or an image, or to fetch search results based on a user-submitted search term. A post request typically posts (or sends) data to a server. Common uses of post requests are to send form data or documents to a server. An HTTP request often posts data to a server-side form handler that processes the data. For example, when a user performs a search or participates in a web-based survey, the web server receives the information specified in the XHTML form as part of the request. Both types of requests can be used to send form data to a web server, yet each request type sends the information differently. A get request sends information to the server in the URL. For example, in the following URL www.google.com/search?q=deitel

is the name of Google’s server-side form handler, q is the name of a variable in Google’s search form and deitel is the search term. A ? separates the query string from the rest of the URL in a request. A name/value pair is passed to the server with the name and the value separated by an equals sign (=). If more than one name/value pair is submitted, each pair is separated by an ampersand (&). The server uses data passed in a query string to retrieve an appropriate resource from the server. The server then sends a response to the client. A get request may be initiated by submitting an XHTML form whose method attribute is set to "get", or by typing the URL (possibly containing a query string) directly into the browser’s address bar. A post request sends form data as part of the HTTP message, not as part of the URL. A get request typically limits the query string (that is, everything to the right of the ?) to a specific number of characters. For example, Internet Explorer restricts the entire URL to no more than 2083 characters. Typically, large amounts of information should be sent using the post method. The post method is also sometimes preferred because it hides the submitted data from the user by embedding it in an HTTP message. If a form submits hidden input values along with user-submitted data, the post method might generate a URL like www.searchengine.com/search. The form data still reaches the server for processing, but the user does not see the exact information sent. search

28.7.2 Creating a REST-Based XML WCF Web Service Step 1: Adding the WebGet Attribute IWelcomeRESTXMLService interface (Fig. 28.9) is a modified version of the IWelcomeSOAPXMLService interface. The Welcome method’s WebGet attribute (line 12) maps a meth-

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od to a unique URL that can be accessed via an HTTP get operation programmatically or in a web browser. To use the WebGet attribute, we import the System.ServiceModel.Web namespace (line 5). WebGet’s UriTemplate property (line 12) specifies the URI format that is used to invoke the method. You can access the Welcome method in a web browser by appending text that matches the UriTemplate definition to the end of the service’s location, as in http://localhost:portNumber/WelcomeRESTXMLService/Service.svc/welcome/ Paul. WelcomeRESTXMLService (Fig. 28.10) is the class that implements the IWelcomeRESTXMLService interface; it is similar to the WelcomeSOAPXMLService class (Fig. 28.2).

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// Fig. 28.9: IWelcomeRESTXMLService.cs // WCF web service interface. A class that implements this interface // returns a welcome message through REST architecture and XML data format using System.ServiceModel; using System.ServiceModel.Web; [ServiceContract] public interface IWelcomeRESTXMLService { // returns a welcome message [OperationContract] [WebGet( UriTemplate = "/welcome/{yourName}" )] string Welcome( string yourName ); } // end interface IWelcomeRESTXMLService

Fig. 28.9 | WCF web-service interface. A class that implements this interface returns a welcome message through REST architecture and XML data format.

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// Fig. 28.10: WelcomeRESTXMLService.cs // WCF web service that returns a welcome message using REST architecture // and XML data format. public class WelcomeRESTXMLService : IWelcomeRESTXMLService { // returns a welcome message public string Welcome( string yourName ) { return string.Format( "Welcome to WCF Web Services" + " with REST and XML, {0}!", yourName ); } // end method Welcome } // end class WelcomeRESTXMLService

Fig. 28.10 | WCF web service that returns a welcome message using REST architecture and XML data format.

Step 2: Modifying the Web.config File Figure 28.11 shows part of the default Web.config file modified to use REST architecture. The endpointBehaviors element (lines 16–20) in the behaviors element indicates that this web service endpoint will be accessed using the web programming model (REST).

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The nested webHttp element specifies that clients communicate with this service using the standard HTTP request/response mechanism. The protocolMapping element (lines 22– 24) in the system.serviceModel element, changes the default protocol for communicating with this web service (normally SOAP) to webHttpBinding, which is used for RESTbased HTTP requests. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26



Fig. 28.11 |

WelcomeRESTXMLService Web.config

file.

Figure 28.12 tests the WelcomeRESTXMLService’s Welcome method in a web browser. The URL specifies the location of the Service.svc file and uses the URI template to invoke method Welcome with the argument Bruce. The browser displays the XML data response from WelcomeRESTXMLService. Next, you’ll learn how to consume this service.

Fig. 28.12 | Response from WelcomeRESTXMLService in XML data format.

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28.7.3 Consuming a REST-Based XML WCF Web Service WelcomeRESTXMLFo(Fig.

28.13) uses the System.Net namespace’s WebClient class (line 13) to invoke the web service and receive its response. In lines 23–25, we register a handler for the WebClient’s DownloadStringCompleted event. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

// Fig. 28.13: WelcomeRESTXML.cs // Client that consumes the WelcomeRESTXMLService. using System; using System.Net; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.Xml.Linq; namespace WelcomeRESTXMLClient { public partial class WelcomeRESTXML : Form { // object to invoke the WelcomeRESTXMLService private WebClient client = new WebClient(); private XNamespace xmlNamespace = XNamespace.Get( "http://schemas.microsoft.com/2003/10/Serialization/" ); public WelcomeRESTXML() { InitializeComponent(); // add DownloadStringCompleted event handler to WebClient client.DownloadStringCompleted += new DownloadStringCompletedEventHandler( client_DownloadStringCompleted ); } // end constructor // get user input and pass it to the web service private void submitButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // send request to WelcomeRESTXMLService client.DownloadStringAsync( new Uri( "http://localhost:49429/WelcomeRESTXMLService/Service.svc/" + "welcome/" + textBox.Text ) ); } // end method submitButton_Click // process web service response private void client_DownloadStringCompleted( object sender, DownloadStringCompletedEventArgs e ) { // check if any error occurred in retrieving service data if ( e.Error == null ) { // parse the returned XML string (e.Result) XDocument xmlResponse = XDocument.Parse( e.Result );

Fig. 28.13 | Client that consumes the WelcomeRESTXMLService. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// get the element's value MessageBox.Show( xmlResponse.Element( xmlNamespace + "string" ).Value, "Welcome" ); } // end if } // end method client_DownloadStringCompleted } // end class WelcomeRESTXML } // end namespace WelcomeRESTXMLClient a) User inputs name

b) Message sent from WelcomeRESTXMLService

Fig. 28.13 | Client that consumes the WelcomeRESTXMLService. (Part 2 of 2.) In this example, we process the WebClient’s DownloadStringCompleted event, which occurs when the client receives the completed response from the web service. Lines 32–34 call the client object’s DownloadStringAsync method to invoke the web service asynchronously. (There’s also a synchronous DownloadString method that does not return until it receives the response.) The method’s argument (i.e., the URL to invoke the web service) must be specified as an object of class Uri. Class Uri’s constructor receives a string representing a uniform resource identifier. [Note: The URL’s port number must match the one issued to the web service by the ASP.NET Development Server.] When the call to the web service completes, the WebClient object raises the DownloadStringCompleted event. Its event handler has a parameter e of type DownloadStringCompletedEventArgs which contains the information returned by the web service. We can use this variable’s properties to get the returned XML document (e.Result) and any errors that may have occurred during the process (e.Error). We then parse the XML response using XDocument method Parse (line 45). In lines 15–16, we specify the XML message’s namespace (seen in Fig. 28.12), and use it to parse the service’s XML response to display our welcome string in a MessageBox (lines 48–49).

28.8 Publishing and Consuming REST-Based JSON Web Services We now build a RESTful web service that returns data in JSON format.

28.8.1 Creating a REST-Based JSON WCF Web Service By default, a web-service method with the WebGet attribute returns data in XML format. In Fig. 28.14, we modify the WelcomeRESTXMLService to return data in JSON format by setting WebGet’s ResponseFormat property to WebMessageFormat.Json (line 13). (WebMessageFormat.XML is the default value.) For JSON serialization to work properly, the objects being converted to JSON must have Public properties. This enables the JSON serialization to create name/value pairs representing each Public property and its corresponding

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value. The previous examples return String objects containing the responses. Even though Strings are objects, Strings do not have any Public properties that represent their contents.

So, lines 19–25 define a TextMessage class that encapsulates a String value and defines a Public property Message to access that value. The DataContract attribute (line 19) exposes the TextMessage class to the client access. Similarly, the DataMember attribute (line 23) exposes a property of this class to the client. This property will appear in the JSON object as a name/value pair. Only DataMembers of a DataContract are serialized. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

// Fig. 28.14: IWelcomeRESTJSONService.cs // WCF web service interface that returns a welcome message through REST // architecture and JSON format. using System.Runtime.Serialization; using System.ServiceModel; using System.ServiceModel.Web; [ServiceContract] public interface IWelcomeRESTJSONService { // returns a welcome message [OperationContract] [WebGet( ResponseFormat = WebMessageFormat.Json, UriTemplate = "/welcome/{yourName}" )] TextMessage Welcome( string yourName ); } // end interface IWelcomeRESTJSONService // class to encapsulate a string to send in JSON format [DataContract] public class TextMessage { // automatic property message [DataMember] public string Message {get; set; } } // end class TextMessage

Fig. 28.14 | WCF web-service interface that returns a welcome message through REST architecture and JSON format.

Figure 28.15 shows the implementation of the interface of Fig. 28.14. The Welcome method (lines 7–15) returns a TextMessage object, reflecting the changes we made to the interface class. This object is automatically serialized in JSON format (as a result of line 13 in Fig. 28.14) and sent to the client. 1 2 3 4 5

// Fig. 28.15: WelcomeRESTJSONService.cs // WCF web service that returns a welcome message through REST // architecture and JSON format. public class WelcomeRESTJSONService : IWelcomeRESTJSONService {

Fig. 28.15 | WCF web service that returns a welcome message through REST architecture and JSON format. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// returns a welcome message public TextMessage Welcome( string yourName ) { // add welcome message to field of TextMessage object TextMessage message = new TextMessage(); message.Message = string.Format( "Welcome to WCF Web Services with REST and JSON, {0}!", yourName ); return message; } // end method Welcome } // end class WelcomeRESTJSONService

Fig. 28.15 | WCF web service that returns a welcome message through REST architecture and JSON format. (Part 2 of 2.)

We can once again test the web service using a web browser, by accessing the Serfile (http://localhost:49745/WelcomeRESTJSONService/Service.svc) and appending the URI template (welcome/yourName) to the address. The response prompts you to download a file called yourName, which is a text file. If you save it to disk, the file will have the .json extension. This contains the JSON formatted data. By opening the file in a text editor such as Notepad (Fig. 28.16), you can see the service response as a JSON object. Notice that the property named Message has the welcome message as its value. vice.svc

Fig. 28.16 | Response from WelcomeRESTJSONService in JSON data format.

28.8.2 Consuming a REST-Based JSON WCF Web Service We mentioned earlier that all types passed to and from web services can be supported by REST. Custom types that are sent to or from a REST web service are converted to XML or JSON data format. This process is referred to as XML serialization or JSON serialization, respectively. In Fig. 28.17, we consume the WelcomeRESTJSONService service using an object of the System.Runtime.Serialization.Json library’s DataContractJsonSerializer class (lines 44–45). The TextMessage class (lines 57–61) maps the JSON response’s fields for the DataContractJsonSerializer to deserialize. We add the Serializable attribute (line 57) to the TextMessage class to recognize it as a valid serializable object we can convert to and from JSON format. Also, this class on the client must have public data or properties that match the public data or properties in the corresponding class from the web service. Since we want to convert the JSON response into a TextMessage object, we set the DataContractJsonSerializer’s type parameter to TextMessage (line 45). In line 48, we use the System.Text namespace’s Encoding.Unicode.GetBytes method to convert the JSON response to a Unicode encoded byte array, and encapsulate the byte array in a MemoryStream object so we can read data from the array

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using stream semantics. The bytes in the MemoryStream object are read by the DataConand deserialized into a TextMessage object (lines 47–48).

tractJsonSerializer

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// Fig. 28.17: WelcomeRESTJSONForm.cs // Client that consumes the WelcomeRESTJSONService. using System; using System.IO; using System.Net; using System.Runtime.Serialization.Json; using System.Text; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace WelcomeRESTJSONClient { public partial class WelcomeRESTJSONForm : Form { // object to invoke the WelcomeRESTJSONService private WebClient client = new WebClient(); public WelcomeRESTJSONForm() { InitializeComponent(); // add DownloadStringCompleted event handler to WebClient client.DownloadStringCompleted+= new DownloadStringCompletedEventHandler( client_DownloadStringCompleted ); } // end constructor // get user input and pass it to the web service private void submitButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // send request to WelcomeRESTJSONService client.DownloadStringAsync( new Uri( "http://localhost:49579/WelcomeRESTJSONService/Service.svc/" + "welcome/" + textBox.Text ) ); } // end method submitButton_Click // process web service response private void client_DownloadStringCompleted( object sender, DownloadStringCompletedEventArgs e ) { // check if any error occurred in retrieving service data if ( e.Error == null ) { // deserialize response into a TextMessage object DataContractJsonSerializer JSONSerializer = new DataContractJsonSerializer( typeof( TextMessage ) ); TextMessage message = ( TextMessage ) JSONSerializer.ReadObject( new MemoryStream( Encoding.Unicode.GetBytes( e.Result ) ) );

Fig. 28.17 | Client that consumes the WelcomeRESTJSONService. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// display Message text MessageBox.Show( message.Message, "Welcome" ); } // end if } // end method client_DownloadStringCompleted } // end class WelcomeRESTJSONForm // TextMessage class representing a JSON object [Serializable] public class TextMessage { public string Message; } // end class TextMessage } // end namespace WelcomeRESTJSONClient a) User inputs name.

b) Message sent from WelcomeRESTJSONService.

Fig. 28.17 | Client that consumes the WelcomeRESTJSONService. (Part 2 of 2.)

28.9 Blackjack Web Service: Using Session Tracking in a SOAP-Based WCF Web Service In Chapter 19, we described the advantages of maintaining information about users to personalize their experiences. In particular, we discussed session tracking using HttpSessionState objects. Next, we incorporate session tracking into a SOAP-based WCF web service. Suppose a client application needs to call several methods from the same web service, possibly several times each. In such a case, it can be beneficial for the web service to maintain state information for the client. Session tracking eliminates the need for information about the client to be passed between the client and the web service multiple times. For example, a web service providing access to local restaurant reviews would benefit from storing the client user’s street address. Once the user’s address is stored in a session variable, web service methods can return personalized, localized results without requiring that the address be passed in each method call. This not only improves performance but also requires less effort on your part—less information is passed in each method call.

28.9.1 Creating a Blackjack Web Service Web services store session information to provide more intuitive functionality. Our next example is a SOAP-based web service that assists programmers in developing a blackjack card game. The web service provides methods to deal a card and to evaluate a hand of cards. After presenting the web service, we use it to serve as the dealer for a game of blackjack. The blackjack web service creates a session variable to maintain a unique deck of cards for each client application. Several clients can use the service at the same time, but

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method calls made by a specific client use only the deck stored in that client’s session. Our example uses a simple subset of casino blackjack rules: Two cards each are dealt to the dealer and the player. The player’s cards are dealt face up. Only the dealer’s first card is dealt face up. Each card has a value. A card numbered 2 through 10 is worth its face value. Jacks, queens and kings each count as 10. Aces can count as 1 or 11—whichever value is more beneficial to the player (as we’ll soon see). If the sum of the player’s two initial cards is 21 (that is, the player was dealt a card valued at 10 and an ace, which counts as 11 in this situation), the player has “blackjack” and immediately wins the game. Otherwise, the player can begin taking additional cards one at a time. These cards are dealt face up, and the player decides when to stop taking cards. If the player “busts” (that is, the sum of the player’s cards exceeds 21), the game is over, and the player loses. When the player is satisfied with the current set of cards, the player “stays” (that is, stops taking cards), and the dealer’s hidden card is revealed. If the dealer’s total is 16 or less, the dealer must take another card; otherwise, the dealer must stay. The dealer must continue to take cards until the sum of the dealer’s cards is greater than or equal to 17. If the dealer exceeds 21, the player wins. Otherwise, the hand with the higher point total wins. If the dealer and the player have the same point total, the game is a “push” (that is, a tie), and no one wins.

The Blackjack WCF web service’s interface (Fig. 28.18) uses a ServiceContract with the SessionMode property set to Required (line 5). This means the service requires sessions to execute correctly. By default, the SessionMode property is set to Allowed. It can also be set to NotAllowed to disable sessions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

// Fig. 28.18: IBlackjackService.cs // Blackjack game WCF web service interface. using System.ServiceModel; [ServiceContract( SessionMode = SessionMode.Required )] public interface IBlackjackService { // deals a card that has not been dealt [OperationContract] string DealCard(); // creates and shuffle the deck [OperationContract] void Shuffle(); // calculates value of a hand [OperationContract] int GetHandValue( string dealt ); } // end interface IBlackjackService

Fig. 28.18 | Blackjack game WCF web-service interface. The web-service class (Fig. 28.19) provides methods to deal a card, shuffle the deck and determine the point value of a hand. For this example, we want a separate object of the BlackjackService class to handle each client session, so we can maintain a unique deck for each client. To do this, we must specify this behavior in the ServiceBehavior attribute (line 7). Setting the ServiceBehavior’s InstanceContextMode property to

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PerSession creates a new instance of the class for each session. The InstanceContextMode

property can also be set to PerCall or Single. PerCall uses a new object of the web-service class to handle every method call to the service. Single uses the same object of the web-service class to handle all calls to the service. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

// Fig. 28.19: BlackjackService.cs // Blackjack game WCF web service. using System; using System.Collections.Generic; using System.ServiceModel; [ServiceBehavior( InstanceContextMode = InstanceContextMode.PerSession )] public class BlackjackService : IBlackjackService { // create persistent session deck of cards object List< string > deck = new List< string >(); // deals card that has not yet been dealt public string DealCard() { string card = deck[ 0 ]; // get first card deck.RemoveAt( 0 ); // remove card from deck return card; } // end method DealCard // creates and shuffles a deck of cards public void Shuffle() { Random randomObject = new Random(); // generates random numbers deck.Clear(); // clears deck for new game // generate all possible cards for ( int face = 1; face 21 ) 271 GameOver( GameStatus.LOSE ); 272 else if ( total == 21 ) // if player has 21, dealer's turn 273 { 274 hitButton.Enabled = false; 275 DealerPlay(); 276 } // end if 277 } // end method hitButton_Click 278 279 // play the dealer's hand after the player chooses to stay 280 private void stayButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) 281 { 282 stayButton.Enabled = false; // disable Stay Button 283 hitButton.Enabled = false; // disable Hit Button 284 dealButton.Enabled = true; // enable Deal Button 285 DealerPlay(); // player chose to stay, so play the dealer's hand 286 } // end method stayButton_Click 287 } // end class Blackjack 288 } // end namespace BlackjackClient

Fig. 28.20 | Blackjack game that uses the BlackjackService web service. (Part 6 of 9.)

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a) Initial cards dealt to the player and the dealer when the user presses the Deal button.

b) Cards after the player presses the Hit button once, then the Stay button. In this case, the player wins the game with a higher total than the dealer.

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c) Cards after the player presses the Hit button once, then the Stay button. In this case, the player busts (exceeds 21) and the dealer wins the game.

d) Cards after the player presses the Deal button. In this case, the player wins with Blackjack because the first two cards are an ace and a card with a value of 10 (a jack in this case).

Fig. 28.20 | Blackjack game that uses the BlackjackService web service. (Part 8 of 9.) Download at www.wowebook.com

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e) Cards after the player presses the Stay button. In this case, the player and dealer push— they have the same card total.

Fig. 28.20 | Blackjack game that uses the BlackjackService web service. (Part 9 of 9.) Method When the player clicks the Deal button, the event handler (lines 205–255) clears the PictureBoxes and the Labels displaying the final point totals. Line 218 shuffles the deck by calling the web service’s Shuffle method, then the player and dealer receive two cards each (returned by calls to the web service’s DealCard method in lines 221, 223, 228 and 230). Lines 239–240 evaluate both the dealer’s and player’s hands by calling the web service’s GetHandValue method. If the player and the dealer both obtain scores of 21, the program calls method GameOver, passing GameStatus.PUSH. If only the player has 21 after the first two cards are dealt, the program passes GameStatus.BLACKJACK to method GameOver. If only the dealer has 21, the program passes GameStatus.LOSE to method GameOver. dealButton_Click

Method If dealButton_Click does not call GameOver, the player can take more cards by clicking the Hit button. The event handler for this button is in lines 258–277. Each time a player clicks Hit, the program deals the player one more card (line 260), displaying it in the GUI. Line 267 evaluates the player’s hand. If the player exceeds 21, the game is over, and the player loses. If the player has exactly 21, the player cannot take any more cards, and method DealerPlay (lines 78–118) is called, causing the dealer to keep taking cards until the dealer’s hand has a value of 17 or more (lines 88–97). If the dealer exceeds 21, the player wins (line 105); otherwise, the values of the hands are compared, and GameOver is called with the appropriate argument (lines 111–116). hitButton_Click

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Method Clicking the Stay button indicates that a player does not want to be dealt another card. The event handler for this button (lines 280–286) disables the Hit and Stay buttons, then calls method DealerPlay. hitButton_Click

Method Method DisplayCard (lines 121–165) updates the GUI to display a newly dealt card. The method takes as arguments an integer representing the index of the PictureBox in the List that must have its image set, and a string representing the card. An empty string indicates that we wish to display the card face down. If method DisplayCard receives a string that’s not empty, the program extracts the face and suit from the string and uses this information to find the correct image. The switch statement (lines 146–160) converts the number representing the suit to an int and assigns the appropriate character literal to suitLetter (c for clubs, d for diamonds, h for hearts and s for spades). The character in suitLetter is used to complete the image’s file name (lines 163–164). DisplayCard

28.10 Airline Reservation Web Service: Database Access and Invoking a Service from ASP.NET Our prior examples accessed web services from Windows Forms applications. You can just as easily use web services in ASP.NET web applications. In fact, because web-based businesses are becoming increasingly prevalent, it is common for web applications to consume web services. Figures 28.21 and 28.22 present the interface and class, respectively, for an airline reservation service that receives information regarding the type of seat a customer wishes to reserve, checks a database to see if such a seat is available and, if so, makes a reservation. Later in this section, we present an ASP.NET web application that allows a customer to specify a reservation request, then uses the airline reservation web service to attempt to execute the request. The code and database used in this example are provided with the chapter’s examples. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

// Fig. 28.21: IReservationService.cs // Airline reservation WCF web service interface. using System.ServiceModel; [ServiceContract] public interface IReservationService { // reserves a seat [OperationContract] bool Reserve( string seatType, string classType ); } // end interface IReservationService

Fig. 28.21 | Airline reservation WCF web-service interface. 1 2 3

// Fig. 28.22: ReservationService.cs // Airline reservation WCF web service. using System.Linq;

Fig. 28.22 | Airline reservation WCF web service. (Part 1 of 2.)

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public class ReservationService : IReservationService { // create ticketsDB object to access Tickets database private TicketsDataContext ticketsDB = new TicketsDataContext(); // checks database to determine whether matching seat is available public bool Reserve( string seatType, string classType ) { // LINQ query to find seats matching the parameters var result = from seat in ticketsDB.Seats where ( seat.Taken == false ) && ( seat.Type == seatType ) && ( seat.Class == classType ) select seat; // get first available seat Seat firstAvailableSeat = result.FirstOrDefault(); // if seat is available seats, mark it as taken if ( firstAvailableSeat != null ) { firstAvailableSeat.Taken = true; // mark the seat as taken ticketsDB.SubmitChanges(); // update return true; // seat was reserved } // end if return false; // no seat was reserved } // end method Reserve } // end class ReservationService

Fig. 28.22 | Airline reservation WCF web service. (Part 2 of 2.) In Chapter 18, you learned how to use LINQ to SQL to extract data from a database. We added the Tickets.mdf database and corresponding LINQ to SQL classes to create a DataContext object (line 8) for our ticket reservation system. Tickets.mdf database contains the Seats table with four columns—the seat number (1–10), the seat type (Window, Middle or Aisle), the class (Economy or First) and a column containing either 1 (true) or 0 (false) to indicate whether the seat is taken. This web service has a single method—Reserve (Fig. 28.22, lines 11–32)—which searches a seat database (Tickets.mdf) to locate a seat matching a user’s request. If it finds an appropriate seat, Reserve updates the database, makes the reservation and returns true; otherwise, no reservation is made, and the method returns false. The statements in lines 14–18 and lines 24–29, which query and update the database, use LINQ to SQL. Reserve receives two parameters—a string representing the seat type (that is, Window, Middle or Aisle) and a string representing the class type (that is, Economy or First). Lines 15–18 retrieve the seat numbers of any available seats matching the requested seat and class type with the results of a query. Line 21 gets the first matching seat (or null if there is not one). If there is a matching seat (line 24), the web service reserves the that seat. Line 26 marks the seat as taken and line 27 submits the changes to the database. Method Reserve returns true (line 28) to indicate that the reservation was

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successful. If there are no matching seats, Reserve returns false (line 31) to indicate that no seats matched the user’s request.

Creating a Web Form to Interact with the Airline Reservation Web Service Figure 28.23 shows an ASP.NET page through which users can select seat types. This page allows users to reserve a seat on the basis of its class (Economy or First) and location (Aisle, Middle or Window) in a row of seats. The page then uses the airline reservation web service to carry out user requests. If the database request is not successful, the user is instructed to modify the request and try again. When you create this ASP.NET application, remember to add a service reference to the ReservationService.

Fig. 28.23 | ASPX file that takes reservation information. This page defines two DropDownList objects and a Button. One DropDownList displays all the seat types from which users can select (Aisle, Middle, Window). The second provides choices for the class type. Users click the Button named reserveButton to submit requests after making selections from the DropDownLists. The page also defines an initially blank Label named errorLabel, which displays an appropriate message if no seat matching the user’s selection is available. The code-behind file is shown in Fig. 28.24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

// Fig. 28.24: ReservationClient.aspx.cs // ReservationClient code behind file. using System; public partial class ReservationClient : System.Web.UI.Page { // object of proxy type used to connect to ReservationService private ServiceReference.ReservationServiceClient ticketAgent = new ServiceReference.ReservationServiceClient(); // attempt to reserve the selected type of seat protected void reserveButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // if the ticket is reserved if ( ticketAgent.Reserve( seatList.SelectedItem.Text, classList.SelectedItem.Text ) ) {

Fig. 28.24 |

ReservationClient

code-behind file. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// hide other controls instructionsLabel.Visible = false; seatList.Visible = false; classList.Visible = false; reserveButton.Visible = false; errorLabel.Visible = false; // display message indicating success Response.Write( "Your reservation has been made. Thank you." ); } // end if else // service method returned false, so signal failure { // display message in the initially blank errorLabel errorLabel.Text = "This type of seat is not available. " + "Please modify your request and try again."; } // end else } // end method reserveButton_Click } // end class ReservationClient

Fig. 28.24 |

ReservationClient

code-behind file. (Part 2 of 2.)

Lines 8–9 of Fig. 28.24 creates a ReservationServiceClient proxy object. When the user clicks Reserve (Fig. 28.25(a)), the reserveButton_Click event handler (lines 12–34 of Fig. 28.24) executes, and the page reloads. The event handler calls the web service’s Reserve method and passes to it the selected seat and class type as arguments (lines 15–16). If Reserve returns true, the application hides the GUI controls and displays a message thanking the user for making a reservation (line 26); otherwise, the application notifies the user that the type of seat requested is not available and instructs the user to try again (lines a) Selecting a seat

b) Seat is reserved successfully

Fig. 28.25 | Ticket reservation web-application sample execution. (Part 1 of 2.)

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c) Attempting to reserve another seat

d) No seats match the requested type and class

Fig. 28.25 | Ticket reservation web-application sample execution. (Part 2 of 2.) 31–32). You can use the techniques presented in Chapter 19 to build this ASP.NET Web Form. Figure 28.25 shows several user interactions with this web application.

28.11 Equation Generator: Returning User-Defined Types With the exception of the WelcomeRESTJSONService (Fig. 28.15), the web services we’ve demonstrated all received and returned primitive-type instances. It is also possible to process instances of complete user-defined types in a web service. These types can be passed to or returned from web-service methods. This section presents an EquationGenerator web service that generates random arithmetic equations of type Equation. The client is a math-tutoring application that inputs information about the mathematical question that the user wishes to attempt (addition, subtraction or multiplication) and the skill level of the user (1 specifies equations using numbers from 1 to 10, 2 specifies equations involving numbers from 10 to 100, and 3 specifies equations containing numbers from 100 to 1000). The web service then generates an equation consisting of random numbers in the proper range. The client application receives the Equation and displays the sample question to the user.

Defining Class Equation We define class Equation in Fig. 28.26. Lines 33–53 define a constructor that takes three arguments—two ints representing the left and right operands and a string that represents the arithmetic operation to perform. The constructor sets the Equation’s properties, then calculates the appropriate result. The parameterless constructor (lines 26–30) calls the three-argument constructor (lines 33–53) and passes default values. Download at www.wowebook.com

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// Fig. 28.26: Equation.cs // Class Equation that contains information about an equation. using System.Runtime.Serialization; [DataContract] public class Equation { // automatic property to access the left operand [DataMember] private int Left { get; set; } // automatic property to access the right operand [DataMember] private int Right { get; set; } // automatic property to access the result of applying // an operation to the left and right operands [DataMember] private int Result { get; set; } // automatic property to access the operation [DataMember] private string Operation { get; set; } // required default constructor public Equation() : this( 0, 0, "add" ) { // empty body } // end default constructor // three-argument constructor for class Equation public Equation( int leftValue, int rightValue, string type ) { Left = leftValue; Right = rightValue; switch ( type ) // perform appropriate operation { case "add": // addition Result = Left + Right; Operation = "+"; break; case "subtract": // subtraction Result = Left - Right; Operation = "-"; break; case "multiply": // multiplication Result = Left * Right; Operation = "*"; break; } // end switch } // end three-argument constructor

Fig. 28.26 | Class Equation that contains information about an equation. (Part 1 of 2.)

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// return string representation of the Equation object public override string ToString() { return string.Format( "{0} {1} {2} = {4}", Left, Operation, Right, Result ); } // end method ToString // property that returns a string representing left-hand side [DataMember] private string LeftHandSide { get { return string.Format( "{0} {1} {2}", Left, Operation, Right ); } // end get set { // empty body } // end set } // end property LeftHandSide // property that returns a string representing right-hand side [DataMember] private string RightHandSide { get { return Result.ToString(); } // end get set { // empty body } // end set } // end property RightHandSide } // end class Equation

Fig. 28.26 | Class Equation that contains information about an equation. (Part 2 of 2.) Class Equation defines properties LeftHandSide (lines 64–74), RightHandSide (lines 78–88), Left (line 10), Right (line 14), Result (line 19) and Operation (line 23). The web service client does not need to modify the values of properties LeftHandSide and RightHandSide. However, a property can be serialized only if it has both a get and a set accessor—even if the set accessor has an empty body. Each property is preceded by the DataMember attribute to indicate that it should be serialized. LeftHandSide (lines 64–74) returns a string representing everything to the left of the equals ( =) sign in the equation, and RightHandSide (lines 78–88) returns a string representing everything to the right of the equals (=) sign. Left (line 10) returns the int to the left of the operator (known as the left operand), and Right (lines 14) returns the int to the right of the operator (known as the right operand). Result (line 19) returns the solution to the equation, and Operation (line 23) returns the operator in the equation. The client in this case study does not use

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the RightHandSide property, but we included it in case future clients choose to use it. Method ToString (lines 56–60) returns a string representation of the equation.

28.11.1 Creating the REST-Based XML EquationGenerator Web Service Figures 28.27 and 28.28 present the interface and class for the EquationGeneratorService web service, which creates random, customized Equations. This web service contains only method GenerateEquation (lines 9–26 of Fig. 28.28), which takes two parameters—a string representing the mathematical operation ("add", "subtract" or "multiply") and a string representing the difficulty level. When line 25 of Fig. 28.28 returns the Equation, it is serialized as XML by default and sent to the client. We’ll do this with JSON as well in Section 28.11.3. Recall from Section 28.7.2 that you must modify the Web.config file to enable REST support as well. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

// Fig. 28.27: IEquationGeneratorService.cs // WCF REST service interface to create random equations based on a // specified operation and difficulty level. using System.ServiceModel; using System.ServiceModel.Web; [ServiceContract] public interface IEquationGeneratorService { // method to generate a math equation [OperationContract] [WebGet( UriTemplate = "equation/{operation}/{level}" )] Equation GenerateEquation( string operation, string level ); } // end interface IEquationGeneratorService

Fig. 28.27 | WCF REST service interface to create random equations based on a specified operation and difficulty level. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

// Fig. 28.28: EquationGeneratorService.cs // WCF REST service to create random equations based on a // specified operation and difficulty level. using System; public class EquationGeneratorService : IEquationGeneratorService { // method to generate a math equation public Equation GenerateEquation( string operation, string level ) { // calculate maximum and minimum number to be used int maximum = Convert.ToInt32( Math.Pow( 10, Convert.ToInt32( level ) ) ); int minimum = Convert.ToInt32( Math.Pow( 10, Convert.ToInt32( level ) - 1 ) );

Fig. 28.28 | WCF REST service to create random equations based on a specified operation and difficulty level. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Random randomObject = new Random(); // generate random numbers // create Equation consisting of two random // numbers in the range minimum to maximum Equation newEquation = new Equation( randomObject.Next( minimum, maximum ), randomObject.Next( minimum, maximum ), operation ); return newEquation; } // end method GenerateEquation } // end class EquationGeneratorService

Fig. 28.28 | WCF REST service to create random equations based on a specified operation and difficulty level. (Part 2 of 2.)

28.11.2 Consuming the REST-Based XML EquationGenerator Web Service The MathTutor application (Fig. 28.29) calls the EquationGenerator web service’s GenerateEquation method to create an Equation object. The tutor then displays the lefthand side of the Equation and waits for user input. The default setting for the difficulty level is 1, but the user can change this by choosing a level from the RadioButtons in the GroupBox labeled Difficulty. Clicking any of the levels invokes the corresponding RadioButton’s CheckedChanged event handler (lines 112–133), which sets integer level to the level selected by the user. Although the default setting for the question type is Addition, the user also can change this by selecting one of the RadioButtons in the GroupBox labeled Operation. Doing so invokes the corresponding operation’s event handlers in lines 88–109, which assigns to string operation the string corresponding to the user’s selection. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

// Fig. 28.29: MathTutor.cs // Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceXML to create equations. using System; using System.Net; using System.Windows.Forms; using System.Xml.Linq; namespace MathTutorXML { public partial class MathTutor : Form { private string operation = "add"; // the default operation private int level = 1; // the default difficulty level private string leftHandSide; // the left side of the equation private int result; // the answer private XNamespace xmlNamespace = XNamespace.Get( "http://schemas.datacontract.org/2004/07/" );

Fig. 28.29 | Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceXML to create equations. (Part 1 of 4.)

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// object used to invoke service private WebClient service = new WebClient(); public MathTutor() { InitializeComponent(); // add DownloadStringCompleted event handler to WebClient service.DownloadStringCompleted += new DownloadStringCompletedEventHandler( service_DownloadStringCompleted ); } // end constructor // generates new equation when user clicks button private void generateButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // send request to EquationGeneratorServiceXML service.DownloadStringAsync( new Uri( "http://localhost:49732/EquationGeneratorServiceXML" + "/Service.svc/equation/" + operation + "/" + level ) ); } // end method generateButton_Click // process web service response private void service_DownloadStringCompleted( object sender, DownloadStringCompletedEventArgs e ) { // check if any errors occurred in retrieving service data if ( e.Error == null ) { // parse response and get LeftHandSide and Result values XDocument xmlResponse = XDocument.Parse( e.Result ); leftHandSide = xmlResponse.Element( xmlNamespace + "Equation" ).Element( xmlNamespace + "LeftHandSide" ).Value; result = Convert.ToInt32( xmlResponse.Element( xmlNamespace + "Equation" ).Element( xmlNamespace + "Result" ).Value ); // display left side of equation questionLabel.Text = leftHandSide; okButton.Enabled = true; // enable okButton answerTextBox.Enabled = true; // enable answerTextBox } // end if } // end method client_DownloadStringCompleted // check user's answer private void okButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( !string.IsNullOrEmpty( answerTextBox.Text ) ) {

Fig. 28.29 | Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceXML to create equations. (Part 2 of 4.)

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// get user's answer int userAnswer = Convert.ToInt32( answerTextBox.Text ); // determine whether user's answer is correct if ( result == userAnswer ) { questionLabel.Text = string.Empty; // clear question answerTextBox.Clear(); // clear answer okButton.Enabled = false; // disable OK button MessageBox.Show( "Correct! Good job!", "Result" ); } // end if else { MessageBox.Show( "Incorrect. Try again.", "Result" ); } // end else } // end if } // end method okButton_Click // set the operation to addition private void additionRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( additionRadioButton.Checked ) operation = "add"; } // end method additionRadioButton_CheckedChanged // set the operation to subtraction private void subtractionRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( subtractionRadioButton.Checked ) operation = "subtract"; } // end method subtractionRadioButton_CheckedChanged // set the operation to multiplication private void multiplicationRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( multiplicationRadioButton.Checked ) operation = "multiply"; } // end method multiplicationRadioButton_CheckedChanged // set difficulty level to 1 private void levelOneRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( levelOneRadioButton.Checked ) level = 1; } // end method levelOneRadioButton_CheckedChanged

Fig. 28.29 | Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceXML to create equations. (Part 3 of 4.)

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119 // set difficulty level to 2 120 private void levelTwoRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, 121 EventArgs e ) 122 { 123 if ( levelTwoRadioButton.Checked ) 124 level = 2; 125 } // end method levelTwoRadioButton_CheckedChanged 126 127 // set difficulty level to 3 128 private void levelThreeRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, 129 EventArgs e ) 130 { 131 if ( levelThreeRadioButton.Checked ) 132 level = 3; 133 } // end method levelThreeRadioButton_CheckedChanged 134 } // end class MathTutor 135 } // end namespace MathTutorXML a) Generating a level 1 addition equation

b) Answering the question incorrectly

c) Answering the question correctly

Fig. 28.29 | Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceXML to create equations. (Part 4 of 4.)

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Line 20 defines the WebClient that is used to invoke the web service. Event handler (lines 33–39) invokes EquationGeneratorService method GenerateEquation (line 36–38) asynchronously using the web service’s UriTemplate specified at line 12 in Fig. 28.27. When the response arrives, the DownloadStringCompleted event handler (lines 42–62) parses the XML response (line 49), uses XDocument’s Element method to obtain the left side of the equation (lines 50–52) and stores the result (lines 53–55). We define the XML response’s namespace in lines 16–17 as an XNamespace to parse the XML response. Then, the handler displays the left-hand side of the equation in questionLabel (line 58) and enables okButton so that the user can enter an answer. When the user clicks OK, okButton_Click (lines 65–85) checks whether the user provided the correct answer. generateButton_Click

28.11.3 Creating the REST-Based JSON WCF EquationGenerator Web Service You can set the web service to return JSON data instead of XML. Figure 28.30 is a modified IEquationGeneratorService interface for a service that returns an Equation in JSON format. The ResponseFormat property (line 12) is added to the WebGet attribute and set to WebMessageFormat.Json. We don’t show the implementation of this interface here, because it is identical to that of Fig. 28.28. This shows how flexible WCF can be. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

// Fig. 28.30: IEquationGeneratorService.cs // WCF REST service interface to create random equations based on a // specified operation and difficulty level. using System.ServiceModel; using System.ServiceModel.Web; [ServiceContract] public interface IEquationGeneratorService { // method to generate a math equation [OperationContract] [WebGet( ResponseFormat = WebMessageFormat.Json, UriTemplate = "equation/{operation}/{level}" )] Equation GenerateEquation( string operation, string level ); } // end interface IEquationGeneratorService

Fig. 28.30 | WCF REST service interface to create random equations based on a specified operation and difficulty level.

28.11.4 Consuming the REST-Based JSON WCF EquationGenerator Web Service A modified MathTutor application (Fig. 28.31) accesses the URI of the EquationGenerator web service to get the JSON object (lines 35–37). We define a JSON representation of an Equation object for the serializer in Fig. 28.32. The JSON object is deserialized using the System.Runtime.Serialization.Json namespace’s DataContractJsonSerializer (lines 48–49) and converted into an Equation object. We use the LeftHandSide field of the deserialized object (line 55) to display the left side of the equation and the Result field (line 67) to obtain the answer.

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// Fig. 28.31: MathTutorForm.cs // Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceJSON to create equations. using System; using System.IO; using System.Net; using System.Runtime.Serialization.Json; using System.Text; using System.Windows.Forms; namespace MathTutorJSON { public partial class MathTutorForm : Form { private string operation = "add"; // the default operation private int level = 1; // the default difficulty level private Equation currentEquation; // represents the Equation // object used to invoke service private WebClient service = new WebClient(); public MathTutorForm() { InitializeComponent(); // add DownloadStringCompleted event handler to WebClient service.DownloadStringCompleted += new DownloadStringCompletedEventHandler( service_DownloadStringCompleted ); } // end constructor // generates new equation when user clicks button private void generateButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // send request to EquationGeneratorServiceJSON service.DownloadStringAsync( new Uri( "http://localhost:50238/EquationGeneratorServiceJSON" + "/Service.svc/equation/" + operation + "/" + level ) ); } // end method generateButton_Click // process web service response private void service_DownloadStringCompleted( object sender, DownloadStringCompletedEventArgs e ) { // check if any errors occurred in retrieving service data if ( e.Error == null ) { // deserialize response into an Equation object DataContractJsonSerializer JSONSerializer = new DataContractJsonSerializer( typeof( Equation ) ); currentEquation = ( Equation ) JSONSerializer.ReadObject( new MemoryStream( Encoding.Unicode.GetBytes( e.Result ) ) );

Fig. 28.31 | Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceJSON. (Part 1 of 4.)

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// display left side of equation questionLabel.Text = currentEquation.LeftHandSide; okButton.Enabled = true; // enable okButton answerTextBox.Enabled = true; // enable answerTextBox } // end if } // end method client_DownloadStringCompleted // check user's answer private void okButton_Click( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( !string.IsNullOrEmpty( answerTextBox.Text ) ) { // determine whether user's answer is correct if ( currentEquation.Result == Convert.ToInt32( answerTextBox.Text ) ) { questionLabel.Text = string.Empty; // clear question answerTextBox.Clear(); // clear answer okButton.Enabled = false; // disable OK button MessageBox.Show( "Correct! Good job!", "Result" ); } // end if else { MessageBox.Show( "Incorrect. Try again.", "Result" ); } // end else } // end if } // end method okButton_Click // set the operation to addition private void additionRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( additionRadioButton.Checked ) operation = "add"; } // end method additionRadioButton_CheckedChanged // set the operation to subtraction private void subtractionRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( subtractionRadioButton.Checked ) operation = "subtract"; } // end method subtractionRadioButton_CheckedChanged // set the operation to multiplication private void multiplicationRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( multiplicationRadioButton.Checked ) operation = "multiply"; } // end method multiplicationRadioButton_CheckedChanged

Fig. 28.31 | Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceJSON. (Part 2 of 4.)

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105 106 // set difficulty level to 1 107 private void levelOneRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, 108 EventArgs e ) 109 { 110 if ( levelOneRadioButton.Checked ) 111 level = 1; 112 } // end method levelOneRadioButton_CheckedChanged 113 114 // set difficulty level to 2 115 private void levelTwoRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, 116 EventArgs e ) 117 { 118 if ( levelTwoRadioButton.Checked ) 119 level = 2; 120 } // end method levelTwoRadioButton_CheckedChanged 121 122 // set difficulty level to 3 123 private void levelThreeRadioButton_CheckedChanged( object sender, 124 EventArgs e ) 125 { 126 if ( levelThreeRadioButton.Checked ) 127 level = 3; 128 } // end method levelThreeRadioButton_CheckedChanged 129 } // end class MathTutorForm 130 } // end namespace MathTutorJSON

a) Generating a level 2 multiplication equation

b) Answering the question incorrectly

Fig. 28.31 | Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceJSON. (Part 3 of 4.)

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c) Answering the question correctly

Fig. 28.31 | Math tutor using EquationGeneratorServiceJSON. (Part 4 of 4.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

// Fig. 28.32: Equation.cs // Equation class representing a JSON object. using System; namespace MathTutorJSON { [Serializable] class Equation { public int Left = 0; public string LeftHandSide = null; public string Operation = null; public int Result = 0; public int Right = 0; public string RightHandSide = null; } // end class Equation } // end namespace MathTutorJSON

Fig. 28.32 |

Equation

class representing a JSON object.

28.12 Wrap-Up This chapter introduced WCF web services—a set of technologies for building distributed systems in which system components communicate with one another over networks. You learned that a web service is a class that allows client software to call the web service’s methods remotely via common data formats and protocols, such as XML, JSON, HTTP, SOAP and REST. We also discussed several benefits of distributed computing with web services. We discussed how Visual C# 2010 Express, Visual Web Developer 2010 Express, and WCF facilitate publishing and consuming web services. You learned how to define web services and methods using both SOAP protocol and REST architecture, and how to return data in both XML and JSON formats. You consumed SOAP-based web services using proxy classes to call the web service’s methods. You also consumed REST-based web services using class WebClient. We built both Windows applications and ASP.NET web applications as web-service clients. After explaining the mechanics of web services through our Welcome examples, we demonstrated more sophisticated web services that use session tracking, database access and user-defined types.

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28.13 Deitel Web Services Resource Centers

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28.13 Deitel Web Services Resource Centers To learn more about web services, check out our web services Resource Centers at: www.deitel.com/WebServices/ www.deitel.com/RESTWebServices/

You’ll find articles, samples chapters and tutorials that discuss XML, web-services specifications, SOAP, WSDL, UDDI, .NET web services, consuming XML web services and webservices architecture. You’ll learn how to build your own Yahoo! maps mashups and applications that work with the Yahoo! Music Engine. You’ll find information about Amazon’s web services including the Amazon E-Commerce Service (ECS), Amazon historical pricing, Amazon Mechanical Turk, Amazon S3 (Simple Storage Service) and the Scalable Simple Queue Service (SQS). You’ll learn how to use web services from several other companies including eBay, Google and Microsoft. You’ll find REST web services best practices and guidelines. You’ll also learn how to use REST web services with other technologies including SOAP, Rails, Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) and more. You can view the complete list of Deitel Resource Centers at www.deitel.com/ResourceCenters.html.

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29 Silverlight and Rich Internet Applications

Had I the heavens’ embroidered cloths, Enwrought with gold and silver light. —William Butler Yeats

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

How Silverlight relates to WPF.

■

To use Silverlight controls to create Rich Internet Applications.

■

To create custom Silverlight controls.

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To use animation for enhanced GUIs.

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To display and manipulate images.

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To use Silverlight with Flickr’s web services to build an online photo-searching application.

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To create Silverlight deep zoom applications.

■

To include audio and video in Silverlight applications.

This world is but a canvas to our imaginations. —Henry David Thoreau

Something deeply hidden had to be behind things. —Albert Einstein

Individuality of expression is the beginning and end of all art. —Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

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29.1 Introduction 29.2 Platform Overview 29.3 Silverlight Runtime and Tools Installation 29.4 Building a Silverlight WeatherViewer Application

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29.6 Images and Deep Zoom 29.6.1 Getting Started With Deep Zoom Composer 29.6.2 Creating a Silverlight Deep Zoom Application

29.7 Audio and Video 29.8 Wrap-Up

29.4.1 GUI Layout 29.4.2 Obtaining and Displaying Weather Forecast Data 29.4.3 Custom Controls

29.5 Animations and the FlickrViewer

29.1 Introduction Silverlight™ is Microsoft’s platform for building Rich Internet Applications (RIAs)— web applications comparable in responsiveness and rich user interactivity to desktop applications. Silverlight is a robust, cross-platform, cross-browser implementation of the .NET platform that competes with RIA technologies such as Adobe Flash and Flex and Sun’s JavaFX, and complements Microsoft’s ASP.NET and ASP.NET AJAX (which we discussed in Chapter 27). Developers familiar with programming WPF applications are able to adapt quickly to creating Silverlight applications. The “sizzle” of Silverlight is multimedia—the use of images, graphics, animation, sound and video to make applications “come alive.” Silverlight includes strong multimedia support, including state-of-the-art high-definition video streaming. WPF and Silverlight, through the .NET class libraries, provide extensive multimedia facilities that enable you to start developing powerful multimedia applications immediately. Among these facilities is deep zoom, which allows the user to view high-resolution images over the web as if the images were stored on the local computer. Users can interactively “explore” a high-resolution image by zooming in and out and panning—while maintaining the original image’s quality. Silverlight supports deep zoom images up to one billion by one billion pixels in size! [Note: The WeatherViewer and FlickrViewer examples require web service API keys from WeatherBug and Flickr, respectively, before you can execute them. See Sections 29.4–29.5 for details.]

29.2 Platform Overview Silverlight runs as a browser plug-in for Internet Explorer, Firefox and Safari on recent versions of Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. The system requirements for the runtime can be found at www.microsoft.com/silverlight/faq/#sys-req. Silverlight is also available on Linux systems via the Mono Project’s Moonlight (mono-project.com/Moonlight). Like WPF applications, Silverlight applications consist of user interfaces described in XAML and code-behind files containing application logic. The XAML used in Silverlight is a subset of that used in WPF. The subset of the .NET Framework available in Silverlight includes APIs for collections, input/output, generics, multithreading, globalization, XML, LINQ and more. It

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also includes APIs for interacting with JavaScript and the elements in a web page, and APIs for local storage data to help you create more robust web-based applications. Silverlight is an implementation of the .NET Platform, so you can create Silverlight applications in .NET languages such as Visual C#, Visual Basic, IronRuby and IronPython. This makes it easy for .NET programmers to create applications that run in a web browser. Silverlight’s graphics and GUI capabilities are a subset of the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) framework. Some capabilities supported in Silverlight include GUI controls, layout management, graphics, animation and multimedia. There are also styles and template-based “skinning” capabilities to manage the look-and-feel of a Silverlight user interface. Like WPF, Silverlight provides a powerful data-binding model that makes it easy to display data from objects, collections, databases, XML and even other GUI controls. Silverlight also provides rich networking support, enabling you to write browserbased applications that invoke web services and use other networking technologies.

29.3 Silverlight Runtime and Tools Installation Silverlight runs in web browsers as a plug-in. To view websites programmed in Silverlight, you need the Silverlight Runtime plug-in from www.silverlight.net/getstarted/. After installing the plug-in, go to Microsoft’s Silverlight Showcase (www.silverlight.net/ showcase/) to try some sample applications. The examples in this chapter were built using the Silverlight 4 SDK, which is available from bit.ly/SilverlightDownload

and Visual Web Developer 2010 Express, which is available from: www.microsoft.com/express/web/

Additional information about Silverlight is available at: www.silverlight.net

29.4 Building a Silverlight WeatherViewer Application Silverlight is a subset of WPF, so the two share many capabilities. Since Silverlight produces Internet applications instead of desktop applications, the setup of a Silverlight project is different from that of WPF. A Silverlight application created with the Silverlight Application project template has two XAML files—MainPage.xaml and App.xaml. MainPage.xaml defines the application’s GUI, and its code-behind file MainPage.xaml.cs declares the GUI event handlers and other methods required by the application. App.xaml declares your application’s shared resources that can be applied to various GUI elements. The code-behind file App.xaml.cs defines application-level event handlers, such as an event handler for unhandled exceptions. Content in the App.xaml and App.xaml.cs files can be used by all the application’s pages. We do not use App.xaml and App.xaml in this chapter. In Visual Web Developer 2010 and Visual Studio 2010 there is also a Silverlight Navigation Application project template for creating multipage Silverlight applications. We do not cover this template.

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Differences Between WPF and Silverlight To create a new Silverlight project in Visual Web Developer Express, select File > New Project.... In the Installed Templates pane under Visual C#, select the Silverlight option. Then in the Templates window, select Silverlight Application. After entering your project’s name (WeatherViewer) and selecting its location, click OK. A New Silverlight Application dialog appears, asking how you would like to host your application. Ensure that the Host the Silverlight application in a new Web site option is selected. In the New Web project type dropdown menu, select ASP.NET Web Application Project. Keep the default project name and click OK. MainPage.xaml

The MainPage.xaml file displayed in the XAML tab of Visual Studio (Fig. 29.1) is similar to the default XAML file for a WPF application. In a WPF application, the root XAML element is a Window. In Silverlight, the root element is a UserControl. The default UserControl has a class name specified with the x:Class attribute (line 1), specifies the namespaces (lines 2–5) to provide access to the Silverlight controls throughout the XAML, and has a width and height of 400 and 300 pixels, respectively. These numbers are systemindependent pixel measurements, where each pixel represents 1/96th of an inch. Lines 9– 11 are the default Grid layout container. Unlike a WPF application, the default Grid’s x:Name (the name used in code that manipulates the control) and Background attributes are set by default in a Silverlight application.

Silverlight project Web application project

Fig. 29.1 | New Silverlight application in Visual Studio.

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File A compiled Silverlight application is packaged by the IDE as a .xap file containing the application and its supporting resources (such as images or other files used by the application). The web page that hosts the Silverlight application references the Silverlight plugin and the application’s .xap file. The Silverlight plug-in then executes the application. The test web application that was created for you contains the file WeatherViewerTestPage.aspx, which loads and executes the Silverlight application. A Silverlight application must be hosted in a web page. The Web Application Project is used to test the Silverlight application in a web browser. Building the solution automatically copies the compiled application into the Web Application Project. You can then test it using the built-in web server in Visual Studio. After the application is built in the IDE, this part of the application contains the .xap file that was described in the preceding paragraph. .xap

Desiging Silverlight User Interfaces As in WPF, you can use the Design view and the Properties window to design your user Silverlight interfaces, but the Visual Studio designer for WPF and Silverlight is not as robust as that provided by Microsoft Expression Blend. Expression Blend is beyond the scope of this chapter. Trial versions are available from www.microsoft.com/expression/. Introduction to the WeatherViewer Application Our WeatherViewer application (Fig. 29.2) allows the user to input a zip code and invokes a web service to get weather information for that location. The application receives weather data from www.weatherbug.com—a website that offers a number of weather-related web services, including some that return XML data. To run this example on your computer, you need to register for your own WeatherBug API key at weather.weatherbug.com/ desktop-weather/api.html. This application uses LINQ to XML to process the weather data that is returned by the web service. The application also includes a custom control that we designed to display more detailed weather information for a day of the week selected by the user. Figure 29.2 shows the application after the user enters a zip code (Fig. 29.2(a)) then clicks Monday to see its weather details (Fig. 29.2(b)).

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Fig. 29.2 | WeatherViewer application displays a seven-day weather forecast. The program can also display detailed information for a selected day. (Part 1 of 2.)

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b)

Fig. 29.2 | WeatherViewer application displays a seven-day weather forecast. The program can also display detailed information for a selected day. (Part 2 of 2.)

29.4.1 GUI Layout The layout controls of WPF described in Chapter 24—Grid, StackPanel and Canvas— are also available in Silverlight. The XAML for the layout of the WeatherViewer application is shown in Fig. 29.3. This application uses nested Grid controls to lay out its elements. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25



Fig. 29.3 | WeatherViewer displays day-by-day weather data (XAML). (Part 1 of 3.)

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Fig. 29.3 | WeatherViewer displays day-by-day weather data (XAML). (Part 2 of 3.)

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Fig. 29.3 | WeatherViewer displays day-by-day weather data (XAML). (Part 3 of 3.) Lines 12–16 contain the RowDefinitions of the main Grid. Lines 20–24 contain the of a nested Grid which displays the top row of the page containing the light gray title Border, the search TextBox and the search Button, as shown in Fig. 29.3. Line 28 defines the Border’s Margin property, which specifies the amount of space between the Border and any adjacent elements. Lines 43–47 define a Border that contains a TextBlock in which we display an error message if the user enters an invalid zip code. Lines 49–75 define the ListBox used on the main page to display each day’s weather image. Line 55 defines the StackPanel that is used as a template by the ListBox’s ItemsPanel, allowing the ListBox’s items to display horizontally. Lines 62–72 define a StackPanel for each individual item, displaying the weather Image and the TextBlock containing the day of the week in a vertical orientation. Lines 65 and 69 bind data from the web service’s XML response to the two elements that display weather information. Lines 78–79 create a WeatherDetailsView custom control element. The code for the custom control is shown in Section 29.4.3. This control’s Visibility property is initially set to Collapsed, so it is not visible when the page loads. The Visibility of a control defines whether it is rendered on the screen. We also set the Grid.RowSpan property to 3. By taking up two rows, the GUI is blocked when the custom control is displayed, so the user can no longer interact with the main page until the control is closed. Notice that WeatherDetailsView is in the namespace Weather. This namespace (defined in line 3 of the XAML file) allows you to use the custom control in the application. The custom control must be referenced through the namespace since it is not a pre-defined control. If we did not define the namespace, there would be no way to reference WeatherDetailsView. ColumnDefinitions

29.4.2 Obtaining and Displaying Weather Forecast Data The WeatherViewer example uses Silverlight’s web services, LINQ to XML and data-binding capabilities. The application’s code-behind file appears in Fig. 29.4. You must insert your WeatherBug API key in line 18 in place of "YOUR API KEY HERE".

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// Fig. 29.4: MainPage.xaml.cs // WeatherViewer displays day-by-day weather data (code-behind). using System; using System.Linq; using System.Net; using System.Text.RegularExpressions; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Controls; using System.Windows.Input; using System.Xml.Linq; namespace WeatherViewer { public partial class MainPage : UserControl { // object to invoke weather forecast web service private WebClient weatherService = new WebClient(); private const string APIKey = "YOUR API KEY HERE"; private const int messageRowHeight = 35; // constructor public MainPage() { InitializeComponent(); weatherService.DownloadStringCompleted += new DownloadStringCompletedEventHandler( weatherService_DownloadStringCompleted ); } // end constructor // process getWeatherButton's Click event private void getWeatherButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { // make sure the input string contains a five-digit number if ( Regex.IsMatch( inputTextBox.Text, @"\d{5}" ) ) { string zipcode = Regex.Match( inputTextBox.Text, @"\d{5}" ).ToString(); // URL to pass to the WebClient to get our weather, complete // with API key. OutputType=1 specifies XML data is needed. string forecastURL = "http://" + APIKey + ".api.wxbug.net/" + "getForecastRSS.aspx?ACode=" + APIKey + "&ZipCode=" + zipcode + "&OutputType=1"; // asynchronously invoke the web service weatherService.DownloadStringAsync( new Uri( forecastURL ) ); // set the cursor to the wait symbol this.Cursor = Cursors.Wait; } // end if

Fig. 29.4 | WeatherViewer displays day-by-day weather data (code-behind). (Part 1 of 4.)

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else // if input string does not contain a five-digit number, { // output an error message and do nothing else messageBlock.Text = "Please enter a valid zipcode."; messageRow.Height = new GridLength( messageRowHeight ); messageBorder.Width = forecastList.ActualWidth; } // end else } // end method getWeatherButton_Click // when download is complete for web service result private void weatherService_DownloadStringCompleted( object sender, DownloadStringCompletedEventArgs e ) { if ( e.Error == null ) DisplayWeatherForecast( e.Result ); this.Cursor = Cursors.Arrow; // arrow cursor } // end method weatherService_DownloadStringCompleted // display the received weather data private void DisplayWeatherForecast( string xmlData ) { // parse the XML data for use with LINQ XDocument weatherXML = XDocument.Parse( xmlData ); XNamespace weatherNamespace = XNamespace.Get( "http://www.aws.com/aws" ); // find out if the data describes the same zipcode the user // entered and get the location information via LINQ to XML var locationInformation = from item in weatherXML.Descendants( weatherNamespace + "location" ) select item; string xmlZip = string.Empty; string xmlCity = string.Empty; string xmlState = string.Empty; foreach ( var item in locationInformation ) { xmlZip = item.Element( weatherNamespace + "zip" ).Value; xmlCity = item.Element( weatherNamespace + "city" ).Value; xmlState = item.Element( weatherNamespace + "state" ).Value; } // end for // if the zipcodes don't match, display the data anyway, // but display a message informing them of it if ( !xmlZip.Equals( inputTextBox.Text ) ) { messageBlock.Text = "Zipcode not valid; " + "displaying data for closest valid match: " + xmlCity + ", " + xmlState + ", " + xmlZip; messageRow.Height = new GridLength( messageRowHeight );

Fig. 29.4 | WeatherViewer displays day-by-day weather data (code-behind). (Part 2 of 4.)

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messageBorder.Width = forecastList.ActualWidth; } // end if // store all the data into WeatherData objects var weatherInformation = from item in weatherXML.Descendants( weatherNamespace + "forecast" ) select new WeatherData { DayOfWeek = item.Element( weatherNamespace + "title" ).Value, WeatherImage = "http://img.weather.weatherbug.com/" + "forecast/icons/localized/65x55/en/trans/" + ( ( item.Element( weatherNamespace + "image" ).Value). Substring( 51 ).Replace( ".gif", ".png" ) ), MaxTemperatureF = item.Element( weatherNamespace + "high" ).Value, MaxTemperatureC = convertToCelsius( item.Element( weatherNamespace + "high" ).Value), MinTemperatureF = item.Element( weatherNamespace + "low" ).Value, MinTemperatureC = convertToCelsius( item.Element( weatherNamespace + "low" ).Value), Description = item.Element( weatherNamespace + "prediction" ).Value }; // end LINQ to XML that creates WeatherData objects // bind forecastList.ItemSource to the weatherInformation forecastList.ItemsSource = weatherInformation; } // end method DisplayWeatherForecast // convert the temperature into Celsius if it's a number; // cast as Integer to avoid long decimal values string convertToCelsius( string fahrenheit ) { if ( fahrenheit != "--" ) return ( ( Int32.Parse( fahrenheit ) - 32) * 5 / 9 ).ToString(); return fahrenheit; } // end methodconvertToCelsius // show details of the selected day private void forecastList_SelectionChanged( object sender, SelectionChangedEventArgs e ) { // specify the WeatherData object containing the details if ( forecastList.SelectedItem != null ) completeDetails.DataContext = forecastList.SelectedItem; // show the complete weather details completeDetails.Visibility = Visibility.Visible; } // end method forecastList_SelectionChanged

Fig. 29.4 | WeatherViewer displays day-by-day weather data (code-behind). (Part 3 of 4.)

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160 161 // remove displayed weather information when input zip code changes 162 private void inputTextBox_TextChanged( object sender, 163 TextChangedEventArgs e ) 164 { 165 forecastList.ItemsSource = null; 166 167 // also clear the message by getting rid of its row 168 messageRow.Height = new System.Windows.GridLength( 0 ); 169 } // end method inputTextBox_TextChanged 170 } // end class MainPage 171 } // end namespace WeatherViewer

Fig. 29.4 | WeatherViewer displays day-by-day weather data (code-behind). (Part 4 of 4.)

The code for the main page of the WeatherViewer invokes the WeatherBug web service and binds all the necessary data to the proper elements of the page. Notice that we imported the System.Xml.Linq namespace (line 10), which enables the LINQ to XML that is used in the example. You must also add a reference to the System.Xml.Linq assembly to the WeatherViewer Silverlight project. To do so, right click the WeatherViewer project in the Solution Explorer and select Add Reference…. In the dialog that appears, locate the assembly System.Xml.Linq in the .NET tab and click OK. This application also uses the class WeatherData (line 114) that includes all the necessary weather information for a single day of the week. We created this class for you. It contains six weather information properties—DayOfWeek, WeatherImage, MaxTemperatureF, MinTemperatureF, MaxTemperatureC, MinTemperatureC and Description. To add the code for this class to the project, right click the WeatherViewer project in the Solution Explorer and select Add > Existing Item.... Find the file WeatherData.cs in this chapter’s examples folder and click OK. We use this class to bind the necessary information to the ListBox and the custom control in our application.

Using the WebClient Class to Invoke a Web Service The application’s method for handling the getWeatherButton click grabs the zip code entered by the user in the TextBox and checks it against a regular-expression pattern to make sure it contains a five-digit number (line 36). If so, we store the five-digit number (lines 38–39). Next, we format the web service URL with the zip code (lines 43–46) and asynchronously invoke the web service (line 49). We use the WebClient class to use the web service and retrieve the desired information. We registered the event handler that handles the response in 26–28. Line 49 calls the weatherService object’s DownloadStringAsync method to invoke the web service. The web service’s location must be specified as an object of class Uri. Class Uri’s constructor receives a String representing a uniform resource identifier, such as "http://www.deitel.com". In this example, the web service is invoked asynchronously. When the web service returns its result, the WebClient object raises the DownloadStringCompleted event. Its event handler (lines 63–70) has a parameter e of type DownloadStringCompletedEventArgs which contains information returned by the web service. We

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can use this variable’s properties to get the returned XML (e.Result) and any errors that may have occurred during the process (e.Error).

Using LINQ to XML to Process the Weather Data Once the WebClient has received the response, the application checks for an error (line 66). If there is no error, the application calls the DisplayWeatherForecast method (defined in lines 73–136).The XML that the service returns contains information about the location the user specified, which can be used for error-checking. If the user enters an incorrect zip code, the service will simply provide data for the correct zip code which is the closest match to the one the user entered. A sample of the web service’s XML response appears in Fig. 29.5. The web service returns XML data that describes the high and low temperatures for the corresponding city over a period of several days. The data for each day also contains a link to an image that represents the weather for that day and a brief text description of the weather.

Fig. 29.5 | Sample web service XML response. We use class XDocument’s Parse method (line 76) to convert a string—containing the contents of the XML response—to an XDocument to use in the LINQ to XML queries (lines 83–86 and 111–132). Lines 78–79 get the namespace for the XML returned by the web service. Each XML element in the response must be qualified with that name.

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Error-Prevention Tip 29.1 When invoking a web service that returns XML, ensure that the namespace you specify in your code precisely matches the namespace specified in the returned XML. Otherwise, the elements in the returned XML will not be recognized in your code.

The first query pulls information from the document about the location the XML describes, which can be compared against the input string (line 101) to determine whether they denote the same location; if not, the input string is not a valid zip code, so we display an error message. We still display the data that is returned. The second query gathers the weather information and sets the corresponding values for a WeatherData object. The query gathers more information from the XML than is initially displayed on the main page of the application. This is because the selected object is also passed to the custom control where more detailed information about the weather is displayed. Also, the returned XML data only provides temperatures in Fahrenheit—getting them in Celsius would require a second invocation of the service with different parameters. As such, the program has a convertToCelsius method (lines 140–147) which converts a Fahrenheit temperature to Celsius as long as the temperature is numerical rather than two dashes "--" (the default when a temperature is not returned). If this is the case, convertToCelsius does nothing. The returned XML does not always provide both a maximum and minimum temperature for one day.

Using Data Binding to Display the Weather Data We bind the results of the weatherInformation LINQ query (an IEnumerable containing WeatherData objects) to the ListBox (line 135). This displays the summary of the weather forecast. When the user selects a particular day, we bind the WeatherData object for the selected day to the custom control, which displays the details for that day. The ListBox’s SelectionChanged event handler (lines 150–159) sets the DataContext of our custom control (line 155) to the WeatherData object for the selected day. The method also changes the custom control’s Visibility to Visible, so the user can see the weather details.

29.4.3 Custom Controls There are many ways to customize controls in Silverlight, including WPF’s Styles and ControlTemplates. As with WPF, if deeper customization is desired, you can create custom controls by using the UserControl element as a template. The WeatherViewer example creates a custom control that displays detailed weather information for a particular day of the week. The control has a simple GUI and is displayed when you change your selection in the ListBox on the main page. To add a new UserControl to the project, right click the project in the Solution Explorer and select Add > New Item.... Select the Silverlight User Control template and name the file WeatherDetailsView (Fig. 29.6). Once added to the project, the UserControl can be coded similar to any other Silverlight application. The XAML code for the custom control’s GUI appears in Fig. 29.7. This control contains two StackPanels embedded in a Grid. Since the aquamarine Rectangle (lines 12–13) in the background has an Opacity of 0.8, you can see that the control is treated as another element “on top of” the main page. Figure 29.8 shows the codebehind file for this control. The Button’s Click event handler collapses the control, so the user can continue interacting with the main page of the application.

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Fig. 29.6 | Adding a new UserControl to a Silverlight application. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29



Fig. 29.7 | WeatherViewer’s WeatherDetailsView custom control (XAML). (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 29.7 | WeatherViewer’s WeatherDetailsView custom control (XAML). (Part 2 of 2.) 1 2 3 4 5

// Fig. 29.8: WeatherDetailsView.xaml.cs // WeatherViewer's WeatherDetailsView custom control (code-behind). using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Controls;

Fig. 29.8 | WeatherViewer’s WeatherDetailsView custom control (code-behind). (Part 1 of 2.)

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namespace WeatherViewer { public partial class WeatherDetailsView : UserControl { // constructor public WeatherDetailsView() { InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // close the details view private void closeButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { this.Visibility = Visibility.Collapsed; } // end method closeButton_Click } // end class WeatherDetailsView } // end namespace WeatherViewer

Fig. 29.8 | WeatherViewer’s WeatherDetailsView custom control (code-behind). (Part 2 of 2.)

29.5 Animations and the FlickrViewer Animations in Silverlight are defined in Storyboards, which are created as Resources of a layout control and contain one or more animation elements. When a Storyboard’s Begin method is called, its animations are applied. Silverlight has several animation types, including DoubleAnimations, PointAnimations, and ColorAnimations.

Example Our FlickrViewer example (a sample screen capture is shown in Fig. 29.9) uses a web service provided by the public photo-sharing site Flickr. The application allows you to search by tag for photos that users worldwide have uploaded to Flickr. Tagging—or labeling content—is part of the collaborative nature of social networking. A tag is any user-generated word or phrase that helps organize web content. Tagging items with self-chosen words or phrases creates a strong identification of the content. Flickr uses tags on uploaded files to improve its photo-search service, giving the user better results. To run this example on your computer, you need to obtain your own Flickr API key at www.flickr.com/services/api/ keys/ and add it to the MainPage.xaml.cs file (which we discuss shortly). This key is a unique string of characters and numbers that enables Flickr to track usage of their APIs. The application shows you thumbnails of the first 20 (or fewer if there are not 20) public results (as specified in the URL that invokes the web service) and allows you to click a thumbnail to view its full-sized image. As you change your selection, the application animates out the previously selected image and animates in the new selection. The Border shrinks until the current Image is no longer visible, then expands to display the new selected Image. As shown in Fig. 29.9, you can type one or more tags (e.g., “deitel flowers”) into the application’s TextBox. When you click the Search Button, the application invokes the Flickr web service, which responds with an XML document containing links to the photos that match the tags. The application parses the XML and displays thumbnails of these photos. The application’s XAML is shown in Fig. 29.10. FlickrViewer

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Fig. 29.9 | FlickrViewer allows users to search photos by tag. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25



Fig. 29.10 | FlickrViewer allows users to search for tagged photos (XAML). (Part 1 of 3.)

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Fig. 29.10 | FlickrViewer allows users to search for tagged photos (XAML). (Part 2 of 3.)

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Fig. 29.10 | FlickrViewer allows users to search for tagged photos (XAML). (Part 3 of 3.) Lines 18–50 define the Grid’s Resources, which contain three Storyboard elements to facilitate various animations. The animateIn Storyboard (lines 21–30) contains a DoubleAnimation that animates the Height property of the largeCoverImage’s Border. Though this animation is a From/To/By animation, the To property is not set. We set this value in the C# code to allow the border to fill the available space in the window regardless of the browser window size. Lines 26–28 contain an EasingFunction. Silverlight animations provide smooth, linear change of an item’s attribute over a set period of time, but an EasingFunction allows animations to follow other patterns. This particular EasingFunction, ElasticEase, will cause animateIn to oscillate like it is attached to a spring. The animateOut Storyboard (lines 33–38) shrinks the Border until the image inside is no longer visible. Storyboards can also contain multiple animations; the buttonRotate Storyboard (lines 41–49) will rotate the button in all three dimensions when it’s clicked, but a separate DoubleAnimation must be declared for each dimension. Like animateIn, buttonRotate’s To property is set programmatically. The rest of the layout is similar to that of the WeatherViewer. Lines 11–16 define the main Grid’s three rows. The first row contains a StackPanel with an embedded search TextBox and a Button (lines 53–63). To give the three-dimensional buttonRotate anima-

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tion a target, the Button’s Projection must be declared and named; an item’s Projection lets you control its rotation in three dimensions. The second row contains the Border with an embedded Image (lines 66–78) to display the large version of the selected thumbnail. The third row contains the ListBox (lines 81–95), which displays the thumbnails of the photos returned from Flickr. This ListBox is organized and coded in the same way as in the WeatherViewer, except that the DataTemplate contains only one Image—one of the photos returned by the web service. The screen capture in Fig. 29.10 shows the empty layout of the FlickrViewer before the user enters a search query. The C# code for the application can be seen in Fig. 29.11. This example uses web services and LINQ to XML.

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// Fig. 29.11: MainPage.xaml.cs // FlickrViewer allows users to search for photos (code-behind). using System; using System.Linq; using System.Net; using System.Net.NetworkInformation; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Controls; using System.Xml.Linq; namespace FlickrViewer { public partial class MainPage : UserControl { // Flickr API key private const string KEY = "YOUR API KEY HERE"; // object used to invoke Flickr web service private WebClient flickr = new WebClient(); // constructor public MainPage() { InitializeComponent(); flickr.DownloadStringCompleted += new DownloadStringCompletedEventHandler( flickr_DownloadStringCompleted ); } // end constructor // when the photo selection has changed private void thumbsListBox_SelectionChanged( object sender, SelectionChangedEventArgs e ) { // set the height back to a value so that it can be animated largeCoverImage.Height = largeCoverImage.ActualHeight; animateOut.Begin(); // begin shrinking animation } // end method thumbsListBox_SelectionChanged

Fig. 29.11 | FlickrViewer allows users to search for tagged photos (code-behind). (Part 1 of 3.)

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// this makes sure that the border will resize with the window private void animateIn_Completed( object sender, EventArgs e ) { largeCoverImage.Height = double.NaN; // image height = * } // end method animateIn_Completed // once the nested image is no longer visible private void animateOut_Completed( object sender, EventArgs e ) { if ( thumbsListBox.SelectedItem != null ) { // grab the URL of the selected item's full image string photoURL = thumbsListBox.SelectedItem.ToString().Replace( "_t.jpg", ".jpg" ); largeCoverImage.DataContext = photoURL; animate.To = imageRow.ActualHeight - 20; animateIn.Begin(); } // end if } // end method animateOut_Completed // begin the search when the user clicks the search button private void searchButton_Click( object sender, RoutedEventArgs e ) { // if network is available, get images if ( NetworkInterface.GetIsNetworkAvailable() ) { // Flickr's web service URL for searches var flickrURL = string.Format( "http://api.flickr.com/services/rest/?" + "method=flickr.photos.search&api_key={0}&tags={1}" + "&tag_mode=all&per_page=20&privacy_filter=1", KEY, searchBox.Text.Replace( " ", "," ) ); // invoke the web service flickr.DownloadStringAsync( new Uri( flickrURL ) ); // disable the search button searchButton.Content = "Loading..."; searchButton.IsEnabled = false; flipButton(); // start 3D Button rotation animation } // end if else MessageBox.Show( "ERROR: Network not available!" ); } // end method searchButton_Click // once we have received the XML file from Flickr private void flickr_DownloadStringCompleted( object sender, DownloadStringCompletedEventArgs e ) {

Fig. 29.11 | FlickrViewer allows users to search for tagged photos (code-behind). (Part 2 of 3.)

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93 searchButton.Content = "Search"; 94 searchButton.IsEnabled = true; 95 96 if ( e.Error == null ) 97 { 98 // parse the data with LINQ 99 XDocument flickrXML = XDocument.Parse( e.Result ); 100 101 // gather information on all photos 102 var flickrPhotos = 103 from photo in flickrXML.Descendants( "photo" ) 104 let id = photo.Attribute( "id" ).Value 105 let secret = photo.Attribute( "secret" ).Value 106 let server = photo.Attribute( "server" ).Value 107 let farm = photo.Attribute( "farm" ).Value 108 select string.Format( 109 "http://farm{0}.static.flickr.com/{1}/{2}_{3}_t.jpg", 110 farm, server, id, secret); 111 112 // set thumbsListBox's item source to the URLs we received 113 thumbsListBox.ItemsSource = flickrPhotos; 114 } // end if 115 } // end method flickr_DownloadStringCompleted 116 117 // perform 3D Button rotation animation 118 void flipButton() 119 { 120 // give all the animations a new goal 121 rotX.To = buttonProjection.RotationX + 360; 122 rotY.To = buttonProjection.RotationY + 360; 123 rotZ.To = buttonProjection.RotationZ + 360; 124 125 buttonRotate.Begin(); // start the animation 126 } // end method flipButton 127 } // end class MainPage 128 } // end namespace FlickrViewer

Fig. 29.11 | FlickrViewer allows users to search for tagged photos (code-behind). (Part 3 of 3.) The library System.Net.NetworkInformation contains tools to check the status of the network. Using the NetworkInterface.GetIsNetworkAvailable function (line 67), the program attempts to connect to Flickr only if connected to a network (lines 67–84) and simply displays an error message otherwise (lines 85–86). Line 16 defines a constant String for the API key that is required to use the Flickr API. To run this application insert your Flickr API key here. Recall that the To property of the DoubleAnimation in the animateIn Storyboard is set programatically. Line 58 sets the To property to the Height of the page’s second row (minus 20 to account for the Border’s Margin), animating the Height to the largest possible value while keeping the Border completely visible on the page. For animations to function properly, the properties being animated must contain numeric values—relative values "*" and "Auto" do not work. So before animateOut begins, we assign the value largeImageCover.ActualHeight to the Border’s Height (line

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35). When the Border is not being animated, we want it to take up as much space as possible on screen while still being resizable based on the changing size of the browser window. Line 43 resets the Border’s Height back to Double.NaN, which allows the border to be resized with the window. Notice that when you click a new picture that you have not previously viewed, the Border’s Height increases without displaying a new picture inside. This is because the animation begins before the application can download the entire image. The picture is not displayed until its download is complete. If you click the thumbnail of an image you’ve viewed previously, it displays properly, because the image has already been downloaded to your system and cached by the browser. Viewing the image again causes it to be loaded from the browser’s cache rather than over the web. Lines 102–110 of Fig. 29.11 use a LINQ query to gather the necessary information from the attributes of the photo elements in the XML returned by the web service. A sample of the XML response is shown in Fig. 29.12. The four values collected are required to form the URL to the online photos. The thumbnail URLs are created in lines 108–110 in the LINQ query’s select clause. The “_t” before the “.jpg” in each URL indicates that we want the thumbnail of the photo rather than the full-sized file. These URLs are passed to the ItemsSource property of thumbsListBox, which displays all the thumbnails at the bottom of the page. To load the large Image, use the URL of the thumbnail and remove the "_t" from the link (lines 52–54), then change the source of the Image element in the Border (line 56). Notice that the data binding in lines 77 and 92 of Fig. 29.10 use the simple "{Binding}" syntax. This works because we’re binding a single String to the object rather than an object with several properties. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20



Fig. 29.12 | Sample XML response from the Flickr APIs. Method flipButton (lines 118–126) activates the buttonRotate Storyboard. The method sets the To property in all three dimensions to 360 degrees greater than its current

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value. When we call the each dimension.

Storyboard’s Begin

method, the button rotates 360 degrees in

Out-of-Browser Experience Silverlight’s out-of-browser experiences enable you to configure a Silverlight application so that any user can download a local copy of it and place a shortcut to it on their desktop and in their Start menu. To configure the FlickerViewer application for an out-of-browser experience, perform the following steps: 1. Right click the FlickerViewer project in the Solution Explorer and select Properties. 2. Ensure that Enable running application out of the browser is checked. 3. Click the Out-of-Browser Settings… button. 4. In the Out-of-Browser Settings dialog (Fig. 29.13), you can configure the application’s settings, including the window’s title, width and height. You can also specify the shortcut name, the application’s description and icons to represent your application. In this case, we kept the default settings, but set the width and height of the window. 5. Click OK to save your settings.

Fig. 29.13 |

Out-of-Browser Settings dialog.

Once you’ve configured the application for an out-of-browser experience, the user can right click the application in the browser to see the menu in Fig. 29.14. Selecting Install

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presents you with a dialog that allows you to choose where you want the shortcut for the application to be installed. After clicking OK, the application will execute in its own window. In the future, you can run the Silverlight application from its shortcut. FlickrViewer onto this computer…

Fig. 29.14 | Right-click menu for a Silverlight application that supports an out-of-browser experience.

29.6 Images and Deep Zoom One feature in Silverlight that is not in WPF is the MultiScaleImage. In most desktop applications, you’ll have no trouble viewing and zooming in on a high-resolution image. Doing this over the Internet is problematic, however, because transferring large images usually takes significant time, which prevents web-based applications from having the feel of desktop applications. This problem is addressed by Silverlight’s deep zoom capabilities, which use MultiScaleImages to allow you to zoom far into an image in a web browser while maintaining quality. One of the best demonstrations of this technology is the Hard Rock Cafe’s memorabilia page (memo.hardrock.com), which uses Silverlight’s deep zoom capabilities to display a large collage of rock and roll memorabilia. You can zoom in on any individual item to see its high-resolution image. The photographs were taken at such high resolution that you can actually see fingerprints on the surfaces of some of the guitars! Deep zoom works by sending only the necessary image data for the part of the image you are viewing to your machine. To split an image or collage of images into the Silverlight-ready format used by MultiScaleImages, you use the Deep Zoom Composer (available from www.microsoft.com/uk/wave/software-deepzoom.aspx). The original images are split into smaller pieces to support various zoom levels. This enables the server to send smaller chunks of the picture rather than the entire file. If you zoom in close to an image, the server sends only the small section that you are viewing at its highest available resolution (which depends on the resolution of the original image). If you zoom out, the server sends only a lower-resolution version of the image. In either case, the server sends just enough data to give the user a rich image-viewing experience. A MultiScaleImage’s Source is an XML document—created by Deep Zoom Composer. The MultiScaleImage uses the data in the XML to display an image or collage of images. A MultiScaleSubImage of a MultiScaleImage contains information on a single image in a collage.

The DeepZoomCoverCollage Example Our DeepZoomCoverCollage application contains a high-resolution collage of 12 of our book covers. You can zoom in and out and pan the image with simple keystroke and mouse-click combinations. Figure 29.15 shows screen captures of the application. Figure 29.15(a) shows the application when it’s first loaded with all 12 cover images displayed. Eight large images and three tiny images are clearly visible. One cover is hidden Download at www.wowebook.com

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within one of these eleven covers. Test-run the program to see if you can find it. Figure 29.15(b) shows the application after we’ve zoomed in closely on the leftmost small a)

Small images nested among larger images in the collage b)

Fig. 29.15 | Main page of the DeepZoomCoverCollage. (Part 1 of 2.)

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c)

Fig. 29.15 | Main page of the DeepZoomCoverCollage. (Part 2 of 2.) cover image. As you can see in the second screen capture, the small cover image still comes up clearly, because it was originally created in the Deep Zoom Composer with a high-resolution image. Figure 29.15(c) shows the application with an even deeper zoom on a different cover. Rather than being pixelated, the image displays the details of the original picture.

29.6.1 Getting Started With Deep Zoom Composer To create the collection of files that is used by MultiScaleImage, you need to import the image or set of images into Deep Zoom Composer. When you first open the program, create a new project through the File menu, and specify the project’s Name and Location. We named the project CoverCollage. Figure 29.16 shows the New Project dialog.

Fig. 29.16 | Deep Zoom Composer’s New Project dialog. The Import tab in Deep Zoom Composer is displayed by default. It enables you to add the image(s) that you want in the collage. Click the Add Image… button to add your images. (We provided our book-cover images with this chapter’s examples in the Cover

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folder.) Once you’ve added your images, you’ll see their thumbnails on the right side of the window. A larger version of the selected image appears in the middle of the window. Figure 29.17 shows the window with the Import tab open after the book-cover images have been imported to the project. Images

Fig. 29.17 | Deep Zoom Composer showing the imported image files. For our CoverCollage example, we use high-resolution .jpg images. Deep Zoom Composer also supports .tif, .bmp and .png formats. After importing the images, you can go to the Compose tab to organize them on your collage. Drag the thumbnail of each desired image onto the main canvas of the window. When you drag a file into the collage, its thumbnail is grayed out in the side bar and you cannot add it to the collage again. Figure 29.18 shows what the composer looks like, once you bring files into the project. When images are in the composition, you can move the images to the canvas and resize them to be as large or small as you want. Deep Zoom Composer has features such as snapping and alignment tools that help you lay out the images. Yellow pins throughout the collage in Fig. 29.18(a) indicate that there are small images at those locations. You can zoom in on the composition by scrolling the mouse wheel to see the smaller image. Figure 29.18(b) shows the smaller cover marked by one of the pins. A small screen in the bottom-left corner shows the entire collage and a white rectangle indicating the view displayed in the window. The panel on the right showing all the images also has a Layer View option, which indicates the layer ordering of all the composition’s images. This view is used to control the order of overlapping images. The layers can be rearranged to allow you to place certain images on top of others.

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a)

b)

Fig. 29.18 | Deep Zoom Composer showing the editable composition. Once you have a completed collage, go to the Export tab to export the files to be used by a MultiScaleImage in your application. Figure 29.19 shows the contents of the window when the Export tab is open. You’ll need to name the project. For this example, select the Custom tab, then name the project CoverCollageCollection and keep the default Export Location. The files are

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Fig. 29.19 | Deep Zoom Composer’s exporting capabilities. exported to a new folder inside the directory that you created earlier for the Deep Zoom Composer project. By default, Deep Zoom Composer selects the Export as Collection option using a JPEG file format. By exporting as a collection instead of a composition, subimage information is included in the output XML files. Keep the JPEG Quality at 95— lower values result in smaller file sizes and lower-quality images. From Templates, select the Deep Zoom Classic + Source option, then click Export. Once the project is done exporting, you’ll be ready to import these files into a Silverlight project and use them to create a deep zoom application.

29.6.2 Creating a Silverlight Deep Zoom Application Deep zoom images are created in Silverlight Projects by using the MultiScaleImage element, which takes an XML file as its source. A MultiScaleImage can be treated in the XAML code similar to a simple Image element. Previously, we showed you screen captures of the DeepZoomCoverCollage example. Figure 29.20 is the XAML code that produces the layout of this application. 1 2 3

MouseLeftButtonDown="Image_MouseLeftButtonDown" MouseLeftButtonUp="Image_MouseLeftButtonUp" />

Fig. 29.20 | DeepZoomCoverCollage employs Silverlight’s deep zoom (XAML). (Part 2 of 2.) The main page contains only a StackPanel with TextBlocks that display instructions, a TextBlock to display the selected book’s title and the MultiScaleImage to display the collage we created in the previous section. To use the collage, you must add the entire GeneratedImages folder to your Silverlight project. If you kept the default Deep Zoom Composer export location, this folder can be found in the CoverCollage project’s folder under the subfolder \Exported Data\covercollagecollection\DeepZoomProjectSite\ClientBin\. Copy the GeneratedImages folder into the ClientBin folder of the web application project by dragging it from Windows Explorer onto that folder in the Solution Explorer. If the CoverCollageCollection folder was copied correctly, you should see a GeneratedImages folder (Fig. 29.21). You can now refer to this collection in your application. Once the necessary files are in the project, they can be used by the MultiScaleImage element that displays the deep zoom image. Line 24 of Fig. 29.20 defines the source of the MultiScaleImage to "/GeneratedImages/dzc_output.xml". The source address in this case is relative to the ClientBin, meaning that the application searches for the given path in the ClientBin folder of the project. Now that the MultiScaleImage is ready, we can program the application’s event handlers for zooming and panning the image, and for displaying a book’s title when its cover is clicked (Fig. 29.22). We use a LINQ query to find the title of the cover image the user selects. We have several instance variables that help us determine which operation is to occur when you click the mouse.

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Fig. 29.21 | Solution Explorer after the deep zoom files have been added to the project. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

// Fig. 29.22: MainPage.xaml.cs // DeepZoomCoverCollage employs Silverlight's deep zoom (code-behind). using System; using System.IO; using System.Linq; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Controls; using System.Windows.Input; using System.Xml.Linq; namespace DeepZoomCoverCollage { public partial class MainPage : UserControl { private const double ZOOMFACTOR = 2.0; private private private private private

bool zoomIn = false; // true if Up button is pressed bool zoomOut = false; // true if Down button is pressed bool mouseDown = false; // true if mouse button is down Point currentPosition; // position of viewport when clicked Point dragOffset; // mouse offset used for panning

// constructor public DeepZoomCoverCollagePage() {

Fig. 29.22 | DeepZoomCoverCollage employs Silverlight’s deep zoom (code-behind). (Part 1 of 4.)

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InitializeComponent(); } // end constructor // when a key is pressed, set the correct variables to true private void mainPage_KeyDown( object sender, KeyEventArgs e ) { if ( e.Key == Key.Up ) // button pressed is Up { zoomIn = true; // prepare to zoom in } // end if else if ( e.Key == Key.Down ) // button pressed is Down { zoomOut = true; // prepare to zoom out } // end else if } // end method mainPage_KeyDown // when a key is released, set the correct variables to false private void mainPage_KeyUp( object sender, KeyEventArgs e ) { if ( e.Key == Key.Up ) // button released is Up { zoomIn = false; // don't zoom in } // end if else if ( e.Key == Key.Down ) // button released is Down { zoomOut = false; // don't zoom out } // end else if } // end method mainPage_KeyUp // when the mouse leaves the area of the image we don't want to pan private void Image_MouseLeave( object sender, MouseEventArgs e ) { mouseDown = false; // if mouse leaves area, no more panning } // end method Image_MouseLeave // handle events when user clicks the mouse private void Image_MouseLeftButtonDown( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { mouseDown = true; // mouse button is down currentPosition = Image.ViewportOrigin; // viewport position dragOffset = e.GetPosition( Image ); // mouse position // logical position (between 0 and 1) of mouse Point click = Image.ElementToLogicalPoint( dragOffset ); if ( zoomIn ) // zoom in when Up key is pressed { Image.ZoomAboutLogicalPoint( ZOOMFACTOR, click.X, click.Y ); } // end if

Fig. 29.22 | DeepZoomCoverCollage employs Silverlight’s deep zoom (code-behind). (Part 2 of 4.)

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else if ( zoomOut ) // zoom out when Down key is pressed { Image.ZoomAboutLogicalPoint( 1 / ZOOMFACTOR, click.X, click.Y ); } // end else if // determine which book cover was pressed to display the title int index = SubImageIndex( click ); if ( index > -1 ) { titleTextBlock.Text = string.Format( "Title: {0}", GetTitle( index ) ); } else // user clicked a blank space { titleTextBlock.Text = "Title:"; } // end else } // end method Image_MouseLeftButtonDown // if the mouse button is released, we don't want to pan anymore private void Image_MouseLeftButtonUp( object sender, MouseButtonEventArgs e ) { mouseDown = false; // no more panning } // end method Image_MouseLeftButtonUp // handle when the mouse moves: panning private void Image_MouseMove( object sender, MouseEventArgs e ) { // if no zoom occurs, we want to pan if ( mouseDown && !zoomIn && !zoomOut ) { Point click = new Point(); // records point to move to click.X = currentPosition.X - Image.ViewportWidth * ( e.GetPosition( Image ).X - dragOffset.X ) / Image.ActualWidth; click.Y = currentPosition.Y - Image.ViewportWidth * ( e.GetPosition( Image ).Y - dragOffset.Y ) / Image.ActualWidth; Image.ViewportOrigin = click; // pans the image } // end if } // end method Image_MouseMove // returns the index of the clicked subimage private int SubImageIndex( Point click ) { // go through images such that images on top are processed first for ( int i = Image.SubImages.Count - 1; i >= 0; i-- ) {

Fig. 29.22 | DeepZoomCoverCollage employs Silverlight’s deep zoom (code-behind). (Part 3 of 4.)

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126 // select a single subimage MultiScaleSubImage subImage = Image.SubImages[ i ]; 127 128 129 // create a rect around the area of the cover 130 double scale = 1 / subImage.ViewportWidth; Rect area = new Rect( -subImage.ViewportOrigin.X * scale, 131 132 -subImage.ViewportOrigin.Y * scale, scale, scale / subImage.AspectRatio ); 133 134 135 if ( area.Contains( click ) ) 136 { 137 return i; // return the index of the clicked cover 138 } // end if 139 } // end for 140 return -1; // if no cover was clicked, return -1 141 } // end method SubImageIndex 142 143 // returns the title of the subimage with the given index 144 private string GetTitle( int index ) 145 { 146 // XDocument that contains info on all subimages in the collage 147 XDocument xmlDocument = 148 XDocument.Load( "SparseImageSceneGraph.xml" ); 149 150 // LINQ to XML to find the title based on index of clicked image 151 var bookTitle = 152 from info in xmlDocument.Descendants( "SceneNode" ) 153 let order = Convert.ToInt32( info.Element( "ZOrder" ).Value ) 154 where order == index + 1 155 select info.Element( "FileName" ).Value; 156 157 string title = bookTitle.Single(); // gets book title 158 159 // only want title of book, not the rest of the file name 160 title = Path.GetFileName( title ); 161 162 // make slight changes to the file name 163 title = title.Replace( ".jpg", string.Empty ); 164 title = title.Replace( "pp", "++" ); 165 title = title.Replace( "sharp", "#" ); 166 167 // display the title on the page 168 return title.ToUpper(); 169 } // end method GetTitle 170 } // end class MainPage 171 } // end namespace DeepZoomCoverCollage

Fig. 29.22 | DeepZoomCoverCollage employs Silverlight’s deep zoom (code-behind). (Part 4 of 4.)

Zooming a MultiScaleImage To zoom in or out with a MultiScaleImage, we call its ZoomAboutLogicalPoint method (lines 74 and 78–79), which takes a zoom factor, an x-coordinate and a y-coordinate as

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parameters. A zoom factor of 1 keeps the image at its current size. Values less than 1 zoom out and values greater than 1 zoom in. The method zooms toward or away from the coordinates passed to the method. The coordinates need to be absolute points divided by the entire collage’s Width. To convert the absolute coordinates raised by a mouse event to these coordinates, we use MultiScaleImage’s ElementToLogicalPoint method (line 70), which takes the Point’s absolute coordinates as parameters.

Panning a MultiScaleImage The viewport of a MultiScaleImage represents the portion of the image that is rendered on screen. To pan, change the ViewportOrigin property of the MultiScaleImage (line 116). By keeping track of the offset between where the user initially clicked (line 67) and where the user has dragged the mouse, we can calculate where we need to move the origin (lines 110–115) to shift the image. Figures 29.23–29.24 demonstrate what values are returned by various MultiScaleImage properties. Assume the “container” of Fig. 29.23 is the viewport while the “image” is the entire collage.

x imageHeight

containerWidth

y

containerWidth

imageWidth

Fig. 29.23 | Various values used to by MultiScaleImage’s properties.

Property

Value

ViewportOrigin

–x –y § ------------------------------ ------------------------------- · © imag eWidth , imag eWidth ¹

ViewportWidth

containerWidth ----------------------------------------imag eWidth

AspectRatio

imag eWidth -------------------------------imag eHeight

ActualWidth

containerWidth

Fig. 29.24 | Values returned by MultiScaleImage’s properties.

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To determine the new x-coordinate of the ViewportOrigin, we first find the difference between the x-coordinates of the current mouse position (e.GetPosition(Image).X) and the mouse position where the user initially clicked (dragOffset.X), which we’ll refer to as the mouse offset. To convert this value to one we can use for the ViewportOrigin, we need to divide it by the width of the collage. The MultiScaleImage’s ViewportWidth returns the ratio of the viewport’s width and the collage’s width. A MultiScaleImage’s ActualWidth property returns the width of the piece of the collage rendered on-screen (viewport’s width). Multiplying the mouse offset by the ViewportWidth and dividing by the ActualWidth returns the ratio of the mouse offset and the collage’s width. We then subtract this value from the ViewportOrigin’s original x-coordinate to obtain the new value. A similar calculation is performed for the y-coordinate (keep in mind we still use ActualWidth in this calculation since ViewportOrigin’s coordinates are given in terms of the width).

Determining the Title of the Clicked Cover To determine a clicked image’s book title requires the SparseImageSceneGraph.xml file created by Deep Zoom Composer. In the Solution Explorer, find this XML file in the collection folder we imported and drag the file to your Silverlight deep zoom project so that you can use it in a LINQ query later in the application. The file contains information on where each subimage is located in the collage. To determine which cover the user clicked, we create a Rect object (lines 131–133) for each subimage that represents the on-screen area that the image occupies. A Rect defines a rectangular area on the page. If the Point returned by the mouse-click event is inside the Rect, the user clicked the cover in that Rect. We can use Rect method Contains to determine whether the click was inside the rectangle. If a cover was clicked, method SubImageIndex returns the index of the subimage. Otherwise the method returns -1. A MultiScaleSubImage’s properties return the same ratios as a MultiScaleImage’s properties (Figs. 29.23–29.24), except that the “container” represents the entire collage while the “image” represents the subimage. Since the ElementToLogicalPoint method of a MultiScaleImage control returns points based on a scaled coordinate system with the origin at the top-left corner of the collage, we want to create Rect objects using the same coordinate system. By dividing the subimage’s ViewportOrigin by the subimage’s ViewportWidth, we obtain coordinates for the top-left corner of the Rect. To find the Rect’s Width, we take the inverse of the subimage’s ViewportWidth. We can then use the subimage’s AspectRatio to obtain the Height from the Width. Next, we use the subimage’s index in a LINQ to XML query (in method GetTitle) to locate the subimage’s information in the SparseImageSceneGraph.xml document (lines 151–155). Each subimage in the collage has a unique numeric ZOrder property, which corresponds to the order in which the images are rendered on screen—the cover with a ZOrder of 1 is drawn first (behind the rest of the covers), while the cover with a ZOrder of 12 is drawn last (on top of all other covers). This ordering also corresponds to the order of the subimages in the collection Image.SubImages and therefore corresponds with the index that we found in the SubImageIndex method. To determine which cover was clicked, we can compare the returned index with the ZOrder of each subimage in the collection using our LINQ to XML query. We add 1 to the returned index (line 154), because the indices in a collection start at 0 while the ZOrder properties of the subimages start at 1. We then obtain and return the title from the subimage’s original file name (lines 157–

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168) and display the title above the deep zoom image (lines 87–88). If none of the covers were clicked, then no title is displayed (line 92).

29.7 Audio and Video Silverlight uses the MediaElement control to embed audio or video files into your application. A MediaElement’s source can be a file stored with the Silverlight application or a source on the Internet. MediaElement supports playback in many formats. For a list, see: msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc189080(VS.95).aspx

Silverlight supports high-definition video. Microsoft’s Expression Encoder can be used to convert files into a supported format. Other encoders that can convert to Windows media format will work as well, including the free online media encoder at media-convert.com/ MediaElements

can be in one of the following states—Buffering, Closed, Paused, or Stopped. A MediaElement’s state is determined by its CurrentState property. When in the Buffering state, the MediaElement is loading the media in preparation for playback. When in the Closed state, the MediaElement contains no media and displays a transparent frame. Our VideoSelector application (Fig. 29.25) shows some of Silverlight’s media-playing capabilities. This application obtains its video sources from a user-created XML file and displays small previews of those videos on the left side of the screen. When you click a preview, the application loads that video in the application’s main area. The application plays the audio only for the video in the main area. Opening, Playing

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22



Fig. 29.25 | VideoSelector lets users watch several videos at once (XAML). (Part 1 of 2.)

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Fig. 29.25 | VideoSelector lets users watch several videos at once (XAML). (Part 2 of 2.) The videos for this example were downloaded from the Wikimedia Commons website (commons.wikimedia.org) and are in the public domain. This site contains many

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images and sound and video files that you can use in your programs—not all items are in the public domain. The videos in the screen capture in Fig. 29.25 were obtained under the science videos section at commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Science_videos

The files were .ogg files that we converted to .wmv files using the online video converter at media-convert.com/. The application displays one preview video on the side of the page for each source defined in a user-created XML file (discussed shortly). The GUI contains a Grid with two Columns. The first Column contains a ListBox that allows you to scroll through previews of the videos (lines 33–40). The second Column contains a Rectangle element with a VideoBrush for its Fill (lines 43–47). A VideoBrush displays a video as a graphics object’s Fill—similar to an ImageBrush. The SetSource method of VideoBrush takes a MediaElement as a parameter and sets the video to be played in the brush. The Grid element contains two Storyboard Resources, which contain the main video’s fade-in and fade-out animations (lines 19–29). These animations are DoubleAnimations that target the Opacity property of the Rectangle that displays the video. To make the Rectangle display the selected video, we’ll change the VideoBrush’s source to the video the user clicks. When the page loads, the application performs several initialization tasks. It first loads a new MediaElement for each source that is included in the sources.xml file (Fig. 29.26). We query this XML file using LINQ to XML. To specify your own list of videos, you must edit our sources.xml file, or create a new one and add it to the project. To do this, open a new XML file by right clicking the application project—in this case VideoSelector—in the Solution Explorer and go to Add > New Item.... Select Visual C# in the Categories section of the window, then select XML File in the Templates section. Change the file’s Name to sources.xml and click Add. Open the file to begin editing it. The sample file in Fig. 29.26 shows the format required to list the sources of the desired videos. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

/newfractal.wmv /fractal.wmv /bailey.wmv

Fig. 29.26 | VideoSelector’s list of video sources. The XML document defines a videos element that may contain any number of video elements. Each video element contains a url element whose value is the source URL for

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the corresponding MediaElement. Simply replace the value in the url tag(s) with the path to your video(s). These videos also need to be included in your Web Project’s ClientBin if you want to play them from the same location as the Silverlight application. If your source URLs link to online videos, then you’ll need to change the UrlKind in line 31 (Fig. 29.27). To add the local files, right click the ClientBin folder in the Web Project associated with your Silverlight application (VideoSelector.Web) in the Solution Explorer and select Add > Existing Item.... Locate the videos you want to add and click Add. Now that we’ve added the necessary files to the project, we can continue with the code-behind file shown in Fig. 29.27. The VideoSelector uses LINQ to XML to determine which videos to display in the side bar. Line 22 defines the XDocument that loads sources.xml. Lines 25–35 contain a LINQ query that gets each video element from the XML file. For each video element that has a non-empty url element, the query creates a new MediaElement with that url as its relative Source. If your video is in the same location as the application or any subdirectory of that location, you may use a relative Source value. Otherwise, you need to use an absolute Source, which specifies the full path of the video. We set each element’s Width, Margin and IsMuted properties to specify how the videos appear and perform when the application loads. Setting a MediaElement’s IsMuted property to true (line 34) mutes its audio—the default value is False—so that we do not hear the audio from all videos at once. We then assign the videos to the ItemsSource (line 38) of the ListBox to display the preview videos. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

// Fig. 29.27: VideoSelector.xaml.cs // VideoSelector lets users watch several videos (code-behind). using System; using System.Linq; using System.Windows; using System.Windows.Controls; using System.Windows.Media; using System.Xml.Linq; namespace VideoSelector { public partial class VideoSelectorPage : UserControl { private MediaElement currentVideo = new MediaElement(); // constructor public VideoSelectorPage() { InitializeComponent(); // sources.xml contains the sources for all the videos XDocument sources = XDocument.Load( "sources.xml" ); // LINQ to XML to create new MediaElements var videos = from video in sources.Descendants( "video" ) where video.Element( "uri" ).Value != string.Empty

Fig. 29.27 | VideoSelector lets users watch several videos at once. (Part 1 of 2.)

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28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

Chapter 29 Silverlight and Rich Internet Applications

select new MediaElement() { Source = new Uri( video.Element( "uri" ).Value, UriKind.Relative ), Width = 150, Margin = new Thickness( 10 ), IsMuted = true }; // send all videos to the ListBox previewListBox.ItemsSource = videos; } // end constructor // when the user makes a new selection private void previewListBox_SelectionChanged( object sender, SelectionChangedEventArgs e ) { fadeOut.Begin(); // begin fade out animation } // end method previewListBox_SelectionChanged // change the video if there is a new selection private void fadeOut_Completed( object sender, EventArgs e ) { // if there is a selection if ( previewListBox.SelectedItem != null ) { // grab the new video to be played MediaElement newVideo = ( MediaElement ) previewListBox.SelectedItem; // if new video has finished playing, restart it if ( newVideo.CurrentState == MediaElementState.Paused ) { newVideo.Stop(); newVideo.Play(); } // end if currentVideo.IsMuted = true; // mute the old video newVideo.IsMuted = false; // play audio for main video currentVideo = newVideo; // set the currently playing video brush.SetSource( newVideo ); // set source of video brush } // end if fadeIn.Begin(); // begin fade in animation } // end method fadeOut_Completed } // end class VideoSelectorPage } // end namespace VideoSelector

Fig. 29.27 | VideoSelector lets users watch several videos at once. (Part 2 of 2.) The application uses previewListBox’s SelectionChanged event handler to determine which video the user wants to view in the main area. When this event occurs, we begin the fade-out animation (line 45). After the fade-out animation completes, the appli-

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cation determines which video was clicked by grabbing previewListBox’s SelectedItem object and stores it in a MediaElement variable (lines 55–56). When a video has finished playing, it is placed in the Paused state. Lines 59–63 ensure that the selected video is restarted if it is in this state. We then mute the audio of the old video and enable the audio of the selected video (lines 65 and 66 respectively). Next, we set the source for the VideoBrush of the Rectangle’s Fill to the selected video (line 69). Finally, we begin the fade-in animation to show the new video in the main area (line 72).

29.8 Wrap-Up In this chapter, you learned how to use Silverlight (a cross-platform, cross-browser subset of .NET) to build Rich Internet Applications (RIAs) in Visual Web Developer 2010 Express. We began by introducing the WeatherViewer application to portray some of the key features of a new Silverlight application. Silverlight and WPF have similar programming environments with slight minor variations. The GUI of any Silverlight page is created by a XAML file in the project. All event handlers and other methods are created in the codebehind files. With the WeatherViewer example, we showed that you can use web services, LINQ to XML and data binding to create a web application with desktoplike capabilities. We also showed you how to create a custom control by using a UserControl as a template. Unlike Styles and ControlTemplates, custom controls allow you to manipulate the control’s functionality rather than just the visual aspects. The GUI and code-behind of a custom control are created in their own .xaml and .xaml.cs files. We showed you our FlickrViewer example, which, similar to the WeatherViewer, shows how to use web services to enhance the capabilities of your application—specifically in this example with the Image control. This application combines a web service—provided by Flickr—and animations to create a photo-searching website. We also introduced Silverlight’s out-of-browser experience capabilities. You learned about Silverlight’s deep zoom capabilities. You saw how to use Deep Zoom Composer and Silverlight to create your own deep zoom application. We showed how to implement zooming, panning, and subimage recognition in the code-behind file of your application using MultiScaleImage and MultiScaleSubImage. Silverlight supports audio and video playback using the MediaElement control. This control supports embedding Windows media format files into the application. We introduced our VideoSelector application to show how to program MediaElements in your application. The example also showed the VideoBrush control being applied to the Fill of a Rectangle (applicable to any graphics object) to display the video within the graphic. In the next chapter, we begin presenting our object-oriented design case study.

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30 ATM Case Study, Part 1: Object-Oriented Design with the UML Action speaks louder than words but not nearly as often. —Mark Twain

OBJECTIVES In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

A simple object-oriented design methodology.

■

What a requirements document is.

■

To identify classes and class attributes from a requirements document.

■

To identify objects’ states, activities and operations from a requirements document.

■

To determine the collaborations among objects in a system.

■

To work with various UML diagrams to graphically model an object-oriented system.

Always design a thing by considering it in its next larger context. —Eliel Saarinen

Oh, life is a glorious cycle of song. —Dorothy Parker

The Wright brothers’ design … allowed them to survive long enough to learn how to fly. —Michael Potts

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30.1 Introduction

30.1 Introduction 30.2 Examining the ATM Requirements Document 30.3 Identifying the Classes in the ATM Requirements Document 30.4 Identifying Class Attributes

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30.5 Identifying Objects’ States and Activities 30.6 Identifying Class Operations 30.7 Identifying Collaboration Among Objects 30.8 Wrap-Up

Answers to Self-Review Exercises

30.1 Introduction Now we begin the optional portion of our object-oriented design and implementation case study. In this chapter and Chapter 31, you’ll design and implement an object-oriented automated teller machine (ATM) software system. The case study provides you with a concise, carefully paced, complete design and implementation experience. In Sections 30.2– 30.7 and 31.2–31.3, you’ll perform the steps of an object-oriented design (OOD) process using the UML while relating these steps to the concepts discussed in Chapters 3–12. In this chapter, you’ll work with six popular types of UML diagrams to graphically represent the design. In Chapter 31, you’ll tune the design with inheritance, then fully implement the ATM in a C# console application (Section 31.4). This is not an exercise; rather, it’s an end-to-end learning experience that concludes with a detailed walkthrough of the complete C# code that implements our design. It will acquaint you with the kinds of substantial problems encountered in industry. These chapters can be studied as a continuous unit after you’ve completed the introduction to object-oriented programming in Chapters 3 and 10–12.

30.2 Examining the ATM Requirements Document We begin our design process by presenting a requirements document that specifies the overall purpose of the ATM system and what it must do. Throughout the case study, we refer to the requirements document to determine precisely what functionality the system must include.

Requirements Document A small local bank intends to install a new automated teller machine (ATM) to allow users (i.e., bank customers) to perform basic financial transactions (Fig. 30.1). For simplicity, each user can have only one account at the bank. ATM users should be able to view their account balance, withdraw cash (i.e., take money out of an account) and deposit funds (i.e., place money into an account). The user interface of the automated teller machine contains the following hardware components: • a screen that displays messages to the user • a keypad that receives numeric input from the user • a cash dispenser that dispenses cash to the user • a deposit slot that receives deposit envelopes from the user Download at www.wowebook.com

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Welcome! Please enter your account number: 12345 Screen Enter your PIN: 54321

Take cash here

Cash Dispenser

Keypad Insert deposit envelope here

Deposit Slot

Fig. 30.1 | Automated teller machine user interface. The cash dispenser begins each day loaded with 500 $20 bills. [Note: Owing to the limited scope of this case study, certain elements of the ATM described here simplify various aspects of a real ATM. For example, a real ATM typically contains a device that reads a user’s account number from an ATM card, whereas this ATM asks the user to type an account number on the keypad (which you’ll simulate with your personal computer’s keypad). Also, a real ATM usually prints a paper receipt at the end of a session, but all output from this ATM appears on the screen.] The bank wants you to develop software to perform the financial transactions initiated by bank customers through the ATM. The bank will integrate the software with the ATM’s hardware at a later time. The software should simulate the functionality of the hardware devices (e.g., cash dispenser, deposit slot) in software components, but it need not concern itself with how these devices perform their duties. The ATM hardware has not been developed yet, so instead of writing your software to run on the ATM, you should develop a first version of the software to run on a personal computer. This version should use the computer’s monitor to simulate the ATM’s screen and the computer’s keyboard to simulate the ATM’s keypad. An ATM session consists of authenticating a user (i.e., proving the user’s identity) based on an account number and personal identification number (PIN), followed by creating and executing financial transactions. To authenticate a user and perform transactions, the ATM must interact with the bank’s account information database. [Note: A database is an organized collection of data stored on a computer.] For each bank account, the database stores an account number, a PIN and a balance indicating the amount of money in the account. [Note: The bank plans to build only one ATM, so we do not need to worry about multiple ATMs accessing the database at the same time. Furthermore, we assume that the bank does not make any changes to the information in the database while

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a user is accessing the ATM. Also, any business system like an ATM faces reasonably complicated security issues that go well beyond the scope of a first- or second-semester programming course. We make the simplifying assumption, however, that the bank trusts the ATM to access and manipulate the information in the database without significant security measures.] Upon approaching the ATM, the user should experience the following sequence of events (see Fig. 30.1): 1. The screen displays a welcome message and prompts the user to enter an account number. 2. The user enters a five-digit account number, using the keypad. 3. For authentication purposes, the screen prompts the user to enter the PIN (personal identification number) associated with the specified account number. 4. The user enters a five-digit PIN, using the keypad. 5. If the user enters a valid account number and the correct PIN for that account, the screen displays the main menu (Fig. 30.2). If the user enters an invalid account number or an incorrect PIN, the screen displays an appropriate message, then the ATM returns to Step 1 to restart the authentication process. After the ATM authenticates the user, the main menu (Fig. 30.2) displays a numbered option for each of the three types of transactions: balance inquiry (option 1), withdrawal (option 2) and deposit (option 3). The main menu also displays an option that allows the user to exit the system (option 4). The user then chooses either to perform a transaction (by entering 1, 2 or 3) or to exit the system (by entering 4). If the user enters an invalid option, the screen displays an error message, then redisplays the main menu.

Main menu 1 - View my balance 2 - Withdraw cash 3 - Deposit funds 4 - Exit Enter a choice:

Take cash here

Insert deposit envelope here

Fig. 30.2 | ATM main menu.

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If the user enters 1 to make a balance inquiry, the screen displays the user’s account balance. To do so, the ATM must retrieve the balance from the bank’s database. The following actions occur when the user enters 2 to make a withdrawal: 1. The screen displays a menu (shown in Fig. 30.3) containing standard withdrawal amounts: $20 (option 1), $40 (option 2), $60 (option 3), $100 (option 4) and $200 (option 5). The menu also contains option 6, which allows the user to cancel the transaction.

Withdrawal menu 1 - $20 4 - $100 2 - $40 5 - $200 3 - $60 6 - Cancel transaction Choose a withdrawal amount:

Take cash here

Insert deposit envelope here

Fig. 30.3 | ATM withdrawal menu. 2. The user enters a menu selection (1–6) using the keypad. 3. If the withdrawal amount chosen is greater than the user’s account balance, the screen displays a message stating this and telling the user to choose a smaller amount. The ATM then returns to Step 1. If the withdrawal amount chosen is less than or equal to the user’s account balance (i.e., an acceptable withdrawal amount), the ATM proceeds to Step 4. If the user chooses to cancel the transaction (option 6), the ATM displays the main menu (Fig. 30.2) and waits for user input. 4. If the cash dispenser contains enough cash to satisfy the request, the ATM proceeds to Step 5. Otherwise, the screen displays a message indicating the problem and telling the user to choose a smaller withdrawal amount. The ATM then returns to Step 1. 5. The ATM debits (i.e., subtracts) the withdrawal amount from the user’s account balance in the bank’s database. 6. The cash dispenser dispenses the desired amount of money to the user. 7. The screen displays a message reminding the user to take the money.

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The following actions occur when the user enters 3 (from the main menu) to make a deposit: 1. The screen prompts the user to enter a deposit amount or to type 0 (zero) to cancel the transaction. 2. The user enters a deposit amount or 0, using the keypad. [Note: The keypad does not contain a decimal point or a dollar sign, so the user cannot type a real dollar amount (e.g., $147.25). Instead, the user must enter a deposit amount as a number of cents (e.g., 14725). The ATM then divides this number by 100 to obtain a number representing a dollar amount (e.g., 14725 ÷ 100 = 147.25).] 3. If the user specifies a deposit amount, the ATM proceeds to Step 4. If the user chooses to cancel the transaction (by entering 0), the ATM displays the main menu (Fig. 30.2) and waits for user input. 4. The screen displays a message telling the user to insert a deposit envelope into the deposit slot. 5. If the deposit slot receives a deposit envelope within two minutes, the ATM credits (i.e., adds) the deposit amount to the user’s account balance in the bank’s database. [Note: This money is not immediately available for withdrawal. The bank first must verify the amount of cash in the deposit envelope, and any checks in the envelope must clear (i.e., money must be transferred from the check writer’s account to the check recipient’s account). When either of these events occurs, the bank appropriately updates the user’s balance stored in its database. This occurs independently of the ATM system.] If the deposit slot does not receive a deposit envelope within two minutes, the screen displays a message that the system has canceled the transaction due to inactivity. The ATM then displays the main menu and waits for user input. After the system successfully executes a transaction, the system should redisplay the main menu (Fig. 30.2) so that the user can perform additional transactions. If the user chooses to exit the system (by entering option 4), the screen should display a thank-you message, then display the welcome message for the next user.

Analyzing the ATM System The preceding statement presented a simplified requirements document. Typically, such a document is the result of a detailed process of requirements gathering that might include interviews with potential users of the system and specialists in fields related to the system. For example, a systems analyst who is hired to prepare a requirements document for banking software (e.g., the ATM system described here) might interview financial experts and people who have used ATMs to gain a better understanding of what the software must do. The analyst would use the information gained to compile a list of system requirements to guide systems designers. The process of requirements gathering is a key task of the first stage of the software life cycle. The software life cycle specifies the stages through which software evolves from the time it’s conceived to the time it’s retired from use. These stages typically include analysis, design, implementation, testing and debugging, deployment, maintenance and retirement. Several software life-cycle models exist, each with its own preferences and Download at www.wowebook.com

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specifications for when and how often software engineers should perform the various stages. Waterfall models perform each stage once in succession, whereas iterative models may repeat one or more stages several times throughout a product’s life cycle. The analysis stage of the software life cycle focuses on precisely defining the problem to be solved. When designing any system, one must certainly solve the problem right, but of equal importance, one must solve the right problem. Systems analysts collect the requirements that indicate the specific problem to solve. Our requirements document describes our simple ATM system in sufficient detail that you do not need to go through an extensive analysis stage—it has been done for you. To capture what a proposed system should do, developers often employ a technique known as use case modeling. This process identifies the use cases of the system, each of which represents a different capability that the system provides to its clients. For example, ATMs typically have several use cases, such as “View Account Balance,” “Withdraw Cash,” “Deposit Funds,” “Transfer Funds Between Accounts” and “Buy Postage Stamps.” The simplified ATM system we build in this case study requires only the first three use cases (Fig. 30.4).

View Account Balance

Withdraw Cash

User Deposit Funds

Fig. 30.4 | Use case diagram for the ATM system from the user’s perspective. Each use case describes a typical scenario in which the user uses the system. You have already read descriptions of the ATM system’s use cases in the requirements document; the lists of steps required to perform each type of transaction (i.e., balance inquiry, withdrawal and deposit) actually described the three use cases of our ATM—“View Account Balance,” “Withdraw Cash” and “Deposit Funds.”

Use Case Diagrams We now introduce the first of several UML diagrams in our ATM case study. We create a use case diagram to model the interactions between a system’s clients (in this case study, bank customers) and the system. The goal is to show the kinds of interactions users have with a system without providing the details—these are shown in other UML diagrams (which we present throughout the case study). Use case diagrams are often accompanied by informal text that describes the use cases in more detail—like the text that appears in the requirements document. Use case diagrams are produced during the analysis stage of the software life cycle. In larger systems, use case diagrams are simple but indispensable tools that help system designers focus on satisfying the users’ needs.

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Figure 30.4 shows the use case diagram for our ATM system. The stick figure represents an actor, which defines the roles that an external entity—such as a person or another system—plays when interacting with the system. For our automated teller machine, the actor is a User who can view an account balance, withdraw cash and deposit funds using the ATM. The User is not an actual person, but instead comprises the roles that a real person—when playing the part of a User—can play while interacting with the ATM. A use case diagram can include multiple actors. For example, the use case diagram for a real bank’s ATM system might also include an actor named Administrator who refills the cash dispenser each day. We identify the actor in our system by examining the requirements document, which states, “ATM users should be able to view their account balance, withdraw cash and deposit funds.” The actor in each of the three use cases is simply the User who interacts with the ATM. An external entity—a real person—plays the part of the User to perform financial transactions. Figure 30.4 shows one actor, whose name, User, appears below the actor in the diagram. The UML models each use case as an oval connected to an actor with a solid line. Software engineers (more precisely, systems designers) must analyze the requirements document, or a set of use cases, and design the system before programmers implement it in a particular programming language. During the analysis stage, systems designers focus on understanding the requirements document to produce a high-level specification that describes what the system is supposed to do. The output of the design stage—a design specification—should specify how the system should be constructed to satisfy these requirements. In the next several Software Engineering Case Study sections, we perform the steps of a simple OOD process on the ATM system to produce a design specification containing a collection of UML diagrams and supporting text. Recall that the UML is designed for use with any OOD process. Many such processes exist, the best known being the Rational Unified Process™ (RUP) developed by Rational Software Corporation (now a division of IBM). RUP is a rich process for designing “industrial-strength” applications. For this case study, we present a simplified design process.

Designing the ATM System We now begin the design stage of our ATM system. A system is a set of components that interact to solve a problem. For example, to perform the ATM system’s designated tasks, our ATM system has a user interface (Fig. 30.1), contains software that executes financial transactions and interacts with a database of bank-account information. System structure describes the system’s objects and their interrelationships. System behavior describes how the system changes as its objects interact with one another. Every system has both structure and behavior—designers must specify both. There are several distinct types of system structures and behaviors. For example, the interactions among objects in the system differ from those between the user and the system, yet both constitute a portion of the system behavior. The UML 2 specifies 13 diagram types for documenting system models. Each diagram type models a distinct characteristic of a system’s structure or behavior—six relate to system structure and seven to system behavior. We list here only the six types of diagrams used in our case study—of which one (the class diagram) models system structure and five model system behavior. We overview the remaining seven UML diagram types in Appendix E, UML 2: Additional Diagram Types.

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Chapter 30 ATM Case Study, Part 1: Object-Oriented Design with the UML 1. Use case diagrams, such as the one in Fig. 30.4, model the interactions between a system and its external entities (actors) in terms of use cases (system capabilities, such as “View Account Balance,” “Withdraw Cash” and “Deposit Funds”). 2. Class diagrams, which you’ll study in Section 30.3, model the classes, or “building blocks,” used in a system. Each noun, or “thing,” described in the requirements document is a candidate to be a class in the system (e.g., “account,” “keypad”). Class diagrams help us specify the structural relationships between parts of the system. For example, the ATM system class diagram will, among other things, specify that the ATM is physically composed of a screen, a keypad, a cash dispenser and a deposit slot. 3. State machine diagrams, which you’ll study in Section 30.5, model the ways in which an object changes state. An object’s state is indicated by the values of all its attributes at a given time. When an object changes state, it may subsequently behave differently in the system. For example, after validating a user’s PIN, the ATM transitions from the “user not authenticated” state to the “user authenticated” state, at which point the ATM allows the user to perform financial transactions (e.g., view account balance, withdraw cash, deposit funds). 4. Activity diagrams, which you’ll also study in Section 30.5, model an object’s activity—the object’s workflow (sequence of events) during program execution. An activity diagram models the actions the object performs and specifies the order in which it performs them. For example, an activity diagram shows that the ATM must obtain the balance of the user’s account (from the bank’s account-information database) before the screen can display the balance to the user. 5. Communication diagrams (called collaboration diagrams in earlier versions of the UML) model the interactions among objects in a system, with an emphasis on what interactions occur. You’ll learn in Section 30.7 that these diagrams show which objects must interact to perform an ATM transaction. For example, the ATM must communicate with the bank’s account-information database to retrieve an account balance. 6. Sequence diagrams also model the interactions among the objects in a system, but unlike communication diagrams, they emphasize when interactions occur. You’ll learn in Section 30.7 that these diagrams help show the order in which interactions occur in executing a financial transaction. For example, the screen prompts the user to enter a withdrawal amount before cash is dispensed.

In Section 30.3, we continue designing our ATM system by identifying the classes from the requirements document. We accomplish this by extracting key nouns and noun phrases from the requirements document. Using these classes, we develop our first draft of the class diagram that models the structure of our ATM system.

Web Resources We’ve created an extensive UML Resource Center that contains many links to additional information, including introductions, tutorials, blogs, books, certification, conferences, developer tools, documentation, e-books, FAQs, forums, groups, UML in Java, podcasts,

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security, tools, downloads, training courses, videos and more. We encourage you to browse our UML Resource Center at www.deitel.com/UML/ to learn more.

Self-Review Exercises 30.1 Suppose we enabled a user of our ATM system to transfer money between two bank accounts. Modify the use case diagram of Fig. 30.4 to reflect this change. 30.2 model the interactions among objects in a system with an emphasis on when these interactions occur. a) Class diagrams b) Sequence diagrams c) Communication diagrams d) Activity diagrams 30.3

Which of the following choices lists stages of a typical software life cycle in sequential order? a) design, analysis, implementation, testing b) design, analysis, testing, implementation c) analysis, design, testing, implementation d) analysis, design, implementation, testing

30.3 Identifying the Classes in the ATM Requirements Document Now we begin designing the ATM system. In this section, we identify the classes that are needed to build the ATM system by analyzing the nouns and noun phrases that appear in the requirements document. We introduce UML class diagrams to model the relationships between these classes. This is an important first step in defining the structure of our system.

Identifying the Classes in a System We begin our object-oriented design (OOD) process by identifying the classes required to build the ATM system. We’ll eventually describe these classes using UML class diagrams and implement these classes in C#. First, we review the requirements document of Section 30.2 and find key nouns and noun phrases to help us identify classes that comprise the ATM system. We may decide that some of these nouns and noun phrases are attributes of other classes in the system. We may also conclude that some of the nouns and noun phrases do not correspond to parts of the system and thus should not be modeled at all. Additional classes may become apparent to us as we proceed through the design process. Figure 30.5 lists the nouns and noun phrases in the requirements document. Nouns and noun phrases in the requirements document bank ATM user customer

money / funds screen keypad cash dispenser

account number PIN bank database balance inquiry

Fig. 30.5 | Nouns and noun phrases in the requirements document.

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Nouns and noun phrases in the requirements document transaction account balance

$20 bill / cash deposit slot deposit envelope

withdrawal deposit

Fig. 30.5 | Nouns and noun phrases in the requirements document. We create classes only for the nouns and noun phrases that have significance in the ATM system. We do not need to model “bank” as a class, because the bank is not a part of the ATM system—the bank simply wants us to build the ATM. “User” and “customer” also represent entities outside of the system—they’re important because they interact with our ATM system, but we do not need to model them as classes in the ATM system. Recall that we modeled an ATM user (i.e., a bank customer) as the actor in the use case diagram of Fig. 30.4. We do not model “$20 bill” or “deposit envelope” as classes. These are physical objects in the real world, but they’re not part of what is being automated. We can adequately represent the presence of bills in the system using an attribute of the class that models the cash dispenser. (We assign attributes to classes in Section 30.4.) For example, the cash dispenser maintains a count of the number of bills it contains. The requirements document does not say anything about what the system should do with deposit envelopes after it receives them. We can assume that simply acknowledging the receipt of an envelope—an operation performed by the class that models the deposit slot—is sufficient to represent the presence of an envelope in the system. (We assign operations to classes in Section 30.6.) In our simplified ATM system, representing various amounts of “money,” including the “balance” of an account, as attributes of other classes seems most appropriate. Likewise, the nouns “account number” and “PIN” represent significant pieces of information in the ATM system. They’re important attributes of a bank account. They do not, however, exhibit behaviors. Thus, we can most appropriately model them as attributes of an account class. Though the requirements document frequently describes a “transaction” in a general sense, we do not model the broad notion of a financial transaction at this time. Instead, we model the three types of transactions (i.e., “balance inquiry,” “withdrawal” and “deposit”) as individual classes. These classes possess specific attributes needed to execute the transactions they represent. For example, a withdrawal needs to know the amount of money the user wants to withdraw. A balance inquiry, however, does not require any additional data if the user is authenticated. Furthermore, the three transaction classes exhibit unique behaviors. A withdrawal involves dispensing cash to the user, whereas a deposit involves receiving a deposit envelope from the user. [Note: In Section 31.3, we “factor out” common features of all transactions into a general “transaction” class using the object-oriented concepts of abstract classes and inheritance.] We determine the classes for our system based on the remaining nouns and noun phrases from Fig. 30.5. Each of these refers to one or more of the following: •

ATM

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30.3 Identifying the Classes in the ATM Requirements Document •

screen

•

keypad

•

cash dispenser

•

deposit slot

•

account

•

bank database

•

balance inquiry

•

withdrawal

•

deposit

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The elements of this list are likely to be classes we’ll need to implement our system, although it’s too early in our design process to claim that this list is complete. We can now model our system’s classes based on the list we’ve created. We capitalize class names in the design process—a UML convention—as we’ll do when we write the C# code that implements our design. If the name of a class contains more than one word, we run the words together and capitalize each word (e.g., MultipleWordName). Using these conventions, we create classes ATM, Screen, Keypad, CashDispenser, DepositSlot, Account, BankDatabase, BalanceInquiry, Withdrawal and Deposit. We construct our system using all of these classes as building blocks. Before we begin building the system, however, we must gain a better understanding of how the classes relate to one another.

Modeling Classes The UML enables us to model, via class diagrams, the classes in the ATM system and their interrelationships. Figure 30.6 represents class ATM. In the UML, each class is modeled as a rectangle with three compartments. The top compartment contains the name of the class, centered horizontally and appearing in boldface. The middle compartment contains the class’s attributes. (We discuss attributes in Sections 30.4–30.5.) The bottom compartment contains the class’s operations (discussed in Section 30.6). In Fig. 30.6, the middle and bottom compartments are empty, because we’ve not yet determined this class’s attributes and operations. ATM

Fig. 30.6 | Representing a class in the UML using a class diagram. Class diagrams also show the relationships between the classes of the system. Figure 30.7 shows how our classes ATM and Withdrawal relate to one another. For the moment, we choose to model only this subset of the ATM classes for simplicity. We present a more complete class diagram later in this section. Notice that the rectangles representing classes in this diagram are not subdivided into compartments. The UML allows the suppression of class attributes and operations in this manner, when appropriate, to create more

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readable diagrams. Such a diagram is said to be an elided diagram—one in which some information, such as the contents of the second and third compartments, is not modeled. We’ll place information in these compartments in Sections 30.4–30.6.

ATM

1

0..1 Executes currentTransaction

Withdrawal

Fig. 30.7 | Class diagram showing an association among classes. In Fig. 30.7, the solid line that connects the two classes represents an association—a relationship between classes. The numbers near each end of the line are multiplicity values, which indicate how many objects of each class participate in the association. In this case, following the line from one end to the other reveals that, at any given moment, one ATM object participates in an association with either zero or one Withdrawal objects—zero if the current user is not performing a transaction or has requested a different type of transaction, and one if the user has requested a withdrawal. The UML can model many types of multiplicity. Figure 30.8 explains the multiplicity types. Symbol

Meaning

0 1 m 0..1 m, n m..n * 0..* 1..*

None One An integer value Zero or one m or n At least m, but not more than n Any nonnegative integer (zero or more) Zero or more (identical to *) One or more

Fig. 30.8 | Multiplicity types. An association can be named. For example, the word Executes above the line connecting classes ATM and Withdrawal in Fig. 30.7 indicates the name of that association. This part of the diagram reads “one object of class ATM executes zero or one objects of class Withdrawal.” association names are directional, as indicated by the filled arrowhead—so it would be improper, for example, to read the preceding association from right to left as “zero or one objects of class Withdrawal execute one object of class ATM.” The word currentTransaction at the Withdrawal end of the association line in Fig. 30.7 is a role name, which identifies the role the Withdrawal object plays in its relationship with the ATM. A role name adds meaning to an association between classes by identifying the role a class plays in the context of an association. A class can play several roles in the same system. For example, in a college personnel system, a person may play the role of “professor” when relating to students. The same person may take on the role of “col-

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league” when participating in a relationship with another professor, and “coach” when coaching student athletes. In Fig. 30.7, the role name currentTransaction indicates that the Withdrawal object participating in the Executes association with an object of class ATM represents the transaction currently being processed by the ATM. In other contexts, a Withdrawal object may take on other roles (e.g., the previous transaction). Notice that we do not specify a role name for the ATM end of the Executes association. Role names are often omitted in class diagrams when the meaning of an association is clear without them. In addition to indicating simple relationships, associations can specify more complex relationships, such as objects of one class being composed of objects of other classes. Consider a real-world automated teller machine. What “pieces” does a manufacturer put together to build a working ATM? Our requirements document tells us that the ATM is composed of a screen, a keypad, a cash dispenser and a deposit slot. In Fig. 30.9, the solid diamonds attached to the association lines of class ATM indicate that class ATM has a composition relationship with classes Screen, Keypad, CashDispenser and DepositSlot. Composition implies a whole/part relationship. The class that has the composition symbol (the solid diamond) on its end of the association line is the whole (in this case, ATM), and the classes on the other end of the association lines are the parts—in this case, classes Screen, Keypad, CashDispenser and DepositSlot. The compositions in Fig. 30.9 indicate that an object of class ATM is formed from one object of class Screen, one object of class CashDispenser, one object of class Keypad and one object of class DepositSlot—the ATM “has a” screen, a keypad, a cash dispenser and a deposit slot. The hasa relationship defines composition. (We’ll see in the Software Engineering Case Study section in Section 31.3 that the is-a relationship defines inheritance.)

Screen 1 1 DepositSlot

1

1

ATM

1

1

CashDispenser

1 1 Keypad

Fig. 30.9 | Class diagram showing composition relationships. According to the UML specification, composition relationships have the following properties: 1. Only one class in the relationship can represent the whole (i.e., the diamond can be placed on only one end of the association line). For example, either the screen is part of the ATM or the ATM is part of the screen, but the screen and the ATM cannot both represent the whole in the relationship.

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Chapter 30 ATM Case Study, Part 1: Object-Oriented Design with the UML 2. The parts in the composition relationship exist only as long as the whole, and the whole is responsible for creating and destroying its parts. For example, the act of constructing an ATM includes manufacturing its parts. Furthermore, if the ATM is destroyed, its screen, keypad, cash dispenser and deposit slot are also destroyed. 3. A part may belong to only one whole at a time, although the part may be removed and attached to another whole, which then assumes responsibility for the part.

The solid diamonds in our class diagrams indicate composition relationships that fulfill these three properties. If a has-a relationship does not satisfy one or more of these criteria, the UML specifies that hollow diamonds be attached to the ends of association lines to indicate aggregation—a weaker form of composition. For example, a personal computer and a computer monitor participate in an aggregation relationship—the computer “has a” monitor, but the two parts can exist independently, and the same monitor can be attached to multiple computers at once, thus violating the second and third properties of composition. Figure 30.10 shows a class diagram for the ATM system. This diagram models most of the classes that we identified earlier in this section, as well as the associations between them that we can infer from the requirements document. [Note: Classes BalanceInquiry and Deposit participate in associations similar to those of class Withdrawal, so we’ve chosen to omit them from this diagram for simplicity. In Section 31.3, we expand our class diagram to include all the classes in the ATM system.]

1 Keypad

1

1

1

CashDispenser

1

Screen

DepositSlot 1

1 1

1

1

ATM

1

0..1 Executes 1

0..1

0..1

0..1

Withdrawal 0..1

1 Authenticates user against 1 BankDatabase

Contains

1

Accesses/modifies an account balance through

1 0..*

Account

Fig. 30.10 | Class diagram for the ATM system model.

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Figure 30.10 presents a graphical model of the structure of the ATM system. This class diagram includes classes BankDatabase and Account and several associations that were not present in either Fig. 30.7 or Fig. 30.9. The class diagram shows that class ATM has a one-to-one relationship with class BankDatabase—one ATM object authenticates users against one BankDatabase object. In Fig. 30.10, we also model the fact that the bank’s database contains information about many accounts—one object of class BankDatabase participates in a composition relationship with zero or more objects of class Account. Recall from Fig. 30.8 that the multiplicity value 0..* at the Account end of the association between class BankDatabase and class Account indicates that zero or more objects of class Account take part in the association. Class BankDatabase has a one-tomany relationship with class Account—the BankDatabase can contain many Accounts. Similarly, class Account has a many-to-one relationship with class BankDatabase—there can be many Accounts in the BankDatabase. Recall from Fig. 30.8 that the multiplicity value * is identical to 0.] Figure 30.10 also indicates that if the user is performing a withdrawal, “one object of class Withdrawal accesses/modifies an account balance through one object of class BankDatabase.” We could have created an association directly between class Withdrawal and class Account. The requirements document, however, states that the “ATM must interact with the bank’s account-information database” to perform transactions. A bank account contains sensitive information, and systems engineers must always consider the security of personal data when designing a system. Thus, only the BankDatabase can access and manipulate an account directly. All other parts of the system must interact with the database to retrieve or update account information (e.g., an account balance). The class diagram in Fig. 30.10 also models associations between class Withdrawal and classes Screen, CashDispenser and Keypad. A withdrawal transaction includes prompting the user to choose a withdrawal amount and receiving numeric input. These actions require the use of the screen and the keypad, respectively. Dispensing cash to the user requires access to the cash dispenser. Classes BalanceInquiry and Deposit, though not shown in Fig. 30.10, take part in several associations with the other classes of the ATM system. Like class Withdrawal, each of these classes associates with classes ATM and BankDatabase. An object of class BalanceInquiry also associates with an object of class Screen to display the balance of an account to the user. Class Deposit associates with classes Screen, Keypad and DepositSlot. Like withdrawals, deposit transactions require use of the screen and the keypad to display prompts and receive inputs, respectively. To receive a deposit envelope, an object of class Deposit associates with an object of class DepositSlot. We’ve identified our ATM system’s classes, although we may discover others as we proceed with the design and implementation. In Section 30.4, we determine each class’s attributes, and in Section 30.5, we use these attributes to examine how the system changes over time.

Self-Review Exercises 30.4 Suppose we have a class Car that represents a car. Think of some of the different pieces that a manufacturer would put together to produce a whole car. Create a class diagram (similar to Fig. 30.9) that models some of the composition relationships of class Car.

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30.5 Suppose we have a class File that represents an electronic document in a stand-alone, nonnetworked computer represented by class Computer. What sort of association exists between class Computer and class File? a) Class Computer has a one-to-one relationship with class File. b) Class Computer has a many-to-one relationship with class File. c) Class Computer has a one-to-many relationship with class File. d) Class Computer has a many-to-many relationship with class File. 30.6 State whether the following statement is true or false. If false, explain why: A UML class diagram in which a class’s second and third compartments are not modeled is said to be an elided diagram. 30.7

Modify the class diagram of Fig. 30.10 to include class Deposit instead of class Withdrawal.

30.4 Identifying Class Attributes In the previous section, we began the first stage of an object-oriented design (OOD) for our ATM system—analyzing the requirements document and identifying the classes needed to implement the system. We listed the nouns and noun phrases in the requirements document and identified a separate class for each one that plays a significant role in the ATM system. We then modeled the classes and their relationships in a UML class diagram (Fig. 30.10). Classes have attributes (data) and operations (behaviors). Class attributes are implemented in C# programs as instance variables and properties, and class operations are implemented as methods and properties. In this section, we determine many of the attributes needed in the ATM system. In Section 30.5, we examine how these attributes represent an object’s state. In Section 30.6, we determine the operations for our classes.

Identifying Attributes Consider the attributes of some real-world objects: A person’s attributes include height, weight and whether the person is left-handed, right-handed or ambidextrous. A radio’s attributes include its station setting, its volume setting and its AM or FM setting. A car’s attributes include its speedometer and odometer readings, the amount of gas in its tank and what gear it is in. A personal computer’s attributes include its manufacturer (e.g., Dell, Gateway, Sun, Apple or IBM), type of screen (e.g., LCD or CRT), main memory size and hard-disk size. We can identify many attributes of the classes in our system by looking for descriptive words and phrases in the requirements document. For each one we find that plays a significant role in the ATM system, we create an attribute and assign it to one or more of the classes identified in Section 30.3. We also create attributes to represent any additional data that a class may need, as such needs become clear throughout the design process. Figure 30.11 lists the words or phrases from the requirements document that describe each class. For example, the requirements document describes the steps taken to obtain a “withdrawal amount,” so we list “amount” next to class Withdrawal. Figure 30.11 leads us to create one attribute of class ATM. Class ATM maintains information about the state of the ATM. The phrase “user is authenticated” describes a state of the ATM (we discuss states in detail in Section 30.5), so we include userAuthenticated as a bool attribute (i.e., an attribute that has a value of either true or false). This attribute indicates whether the ATM has successfully authenticated the current user—userAuthenticated must be true for the system to allow the user to perform transactions and

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30.4 Identifying Class Attributes

Class

Descriptive words and phrases

ATM

user is authenticated account number account number amount account number amount [no descriptive words or phrases] account number PIN balance [no descriptive words or phrases] [no descriptive words or phrases] begins each day loaded with 500 $20 bills [no descriptive words or phrases]

BalanceInquiry Withdrawal

Deposit

BankDatabase Account

Screen Keypad CashDispenser DepositSlot

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Fig. 30.11 | Descriptive words and phrases from the ATM requirements document.

access account information. This attribute helps ensure the security of the data in the system. Classes BalanceInquiry, Withdrawal and Deposit share one attribute. Each transaction involves an “account number” that corresponds to the account of the user making the transaction. We assign integer attribute accountNumber to each transaction class to identify the account to which an object of the class applies. Descriptive words and phrases in the requirements document also suggest some differences in the attributes required by each transaction class. The requirements document indicates that to withdraw cash or deposit funds, users must enter a specific “amount” of money to be withdrawn or deposited, respectively. Thus, we assign to classes Withdrawal and Deposit an attribute amount to store the value supplied by the user. The amounts of money related to a withdrawal and a deposit are defining characteristics of these transactions that the system requires for them to take place. Recall that C# represents monetary amounts with type decimal. Class BalanceInquiry does not need additional data to perform its task—it requires only an account number to indicate the account whose balance should be retrieved. Class Account has several attributes. The requirements document states that each bank account has an “account number” and a “PIN,” which the system uses for identifying accounts and authenticating users. We assign to class Account two integer attributes: accountNumber and pin. The requirements document also specifies that an account maintains a “balance” of the amount of money in the account, and that the money the user deposits does not become available for a withdrawal until the bank verifies the amount of cash in the deposit envelope and any checks in the envelope clear. An account must still record the amount of money that a user deposits, however. Therefore, we decide that an account should represent a balance using two decimal attributes—availableBalance and

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totalBalance.

Attribute availableBalance tracks the amount of money that a user can withdraw from the account. Attribute totalBalance refers to the total amount of money that the user has “on deposit” (i.e., the amount of money available, plus the amount of cash deposits waiting to be verified or the amount of checks waiting to be cleared). For example, suppose an ATM user deposits $50.00 in cash into an empty account. The totalBalance attribute would increase to $50.00 to record the deposit, but the availableBalance would remain at $0 until a bank employee counts the amount of cash in the envelope and confirms the total. [Note: We assume that the bank updates the availableBalance attribute of an Account soon after the ATM transaction occurs, in response to confirming that $50 worth of cash was found in the deposit envelope. We assume that this update occurs through a transaction that a bank employee performs using a bank system other than the ATM. Thus, we do not discuss this transaction in our case study.] Class CashDispenser has one attribute. The requirements document states that the cash dispenser “begins each day loaded with 500 $20 bills.” The cash dispenser must keep track of the number of bills it contains to determine whether enough cash is on hand to satisfy withdrawal requests. We assign to class CashDispenser integer attribute count, which is initially set to 500. For real problems in industry, there is no guarantee that requirements documents will be rich enough and precise enough for the object-oriented systems designer to determine all the attributes, or even all the classes. The need for additional classes, attributes and behaviors may become clear as the design process proceeds. As we progress through this case study, we too will continue to add, modify and delete information about the classes in our system.

Modeling Attributes The class diagram in Fig. 30.12 lists some of the attributes for the classes in our system— the descriptive words and phrases in Fig. 30.11 helped us identify these attributes. For simplicity, Fig. 30.12 does not show the associations among classes—we showed these in Fig. 30.10. Systems designers commonly do this. Recall that in the UML, a class’s attributes are placed in the middle compartment of the class’s rectangle. We list each attribute’s name and type separated by a colon (:), followed in some cases by an equal sign (=) and an initial value. Consider the userAuthenticated attribute of class ATM: userAuthenticated : bool = false

This attribute declaration contains three pieces of information about the attribute. The attribute name is userAuthenticated. The attribute type is bool. In C#, an attribute can be represented by a simple type, such as bool, int, double or decimal, or a class type. We have chosen to model only simple-type attributes in Fig. 30.12—we discuss the reasoning behind this decision shortly. We can also indicate an initial value for an attribute. Attribute userAuthenticated in class ATM has an initial value of false. This indicates that the system initially does not consider the user to be authenticated. If an attribute has no initial value specified, only its name and type (separated by a colon) are shown. For example, the accountNumber attribute of class BalanceInquiry is an int. Here we show no initial value, because the value of this attribute is a number that we do not yet know. This number will be determined at execution time based on the account number entered by the current ATM user.

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30.4 Identifying Class Attributes

ATM userAuthenticated : bool = false

1063

Account accountNumber : int pin : int availableBalance : decimal totalBalance : decimal

BalanceInquiry accountNumber : int Screen Withdrawal accountNumber : int amount : decimal

Keypad

Deposit accountNumber : int amount : decimal

CashDispenser count : int = 500

BankDatabase DepositSlot

Fig. 30.12 | Classes with attributes. Figure 30.12 does not contain attributes for classes Screen, Keypad and DepositSlot. These are important components of our system for which our design process simply has not yet revealed any attributes. We may discover some, however, in the remaining phases of design or when we implement these classes in C#. This is perfectly normal.

Software Engineering Observation 30.1 Early in the design process, classes often lack attributes (and operations). Such classes should not be eliminated, however, because attributes (and operations) may become evident in the later phases of design and implementation.

Fig. 30.12 also does not include attributes for class BankDatabase. We have chosen to include only simple-type attributes in Fig. 30.12 (and in similar class diagrams throughout the case study). A class-type attribute is modeled more clearly as an association (in particular, a composition) between the class with the attribute and the attribute’s own class. For example, the class diagram in Fig. 30.10 indicates that class BankDatabase participates in a composition relationship with zero or more Account objects. From this composition, we can determine that when we implement the ATM system in C#, we’ll be required to create an attribute of class BankDatabase to hold zero or more Account objects. Similarly, we’ll assign attributes to class ATM that correspond to its composition relationships with classes Screen, Keypad, CashDispenser and DepositSlot. These composition-based attributes

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would be redundant if modeled in Fig. 30.12, because the compositions modeled in Fig. 30.10 already convey the fact that the database contains information about zero or more accounts and that an ATM is composed of a screen, keypad, cash dispenser and deposit slot. Software developers typically model these whole/part relationships as composition associations rather than as attributes required to implement the relationships. The class diagram in Fig. 30.12 provides a solid basis for the structure of our model, but the diagram is not complete. In Section 30.5 we identify the states and activities of the objects in the model, and in Section 30.6 we identify the operations that the objects perform. As we present more of the UML and object-oriented design, we’ll continue to strengthen the structure of our model.

Self-Review Exercises 30.8

We typically identify the attributes of the classes in our system by analyzing the in the requirements document. a) nouns and noun phrases b) descriptive words and phrases c) verbs and verb phrases d) All of the above

30.9

Which of the following is not an attribute of an airplane? a) length b) wingspan c) fly d) number of seats

30.10 Describe the meaning of the following attribute declaration of class CashDispenser in the class diagram in Fig. 30.12: count : int = 500

30.5 Identifying Objects’ States and Activities In the previous section, we identified many of the class attributes needed to implement the ATM system and added them to the class diagram in Fig. 30.12. In this section, we show how these attributes represent an object’s state. We identify some key states that our objects may occupy and discuss how objects change state in response to various events occurring in the system. We also discuss the workflow, or activities, that various objects perform in the ATM system. We present the activities of BalanceInquiry and Withdrawal transaction objects in this section.

State Machine Diagrams Each object in a system goes through a series of discrete states. An object’s state at a given point in time is indicated by the values of its attributes at that time. State machine diagrams model key states of an object and show under what circumstances the object changes state. Unlike the class diagrams presented in earlier case study sections, which focused primarily on the structure of the system, state machine diagrams model some of the behavior of the system. Figure 30.13 is a simple state machine diagram that models two of the states of an object of class ATM. The UML represents each state in a state machine diagram as a rounded rectangle with the name of the state placed inside it. A solid circle with an

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attached stick arrowhead designates the initial state. Recall that we modeled this state information as the bool attribute userAuthenticated in the class diagram of Fig. 30.12. This attribute is initialized to false, or the “User not authenticated” state, according to the state machine diagram. bank database authenticates user User not authenticated

User authenticated user exits system

Fig. 30.13 | State machine diagram for some of the states of the ATM object. The arrows with stick arrowheads indicate transitions between states. An object can transition from one state to another in response to various events that occur in the system. The name or description of the event that causes a transition is written near the line that corresponds to the transition. For example, the ATM object changes from the “User not authenticated” state to the “User authenticated” state after the bank database authenticates the user. Recall from the requirements document that the database authenticates a user by comparing the account number and PIN entered by the user with those of the corresponding account in the database. If the database indicates that the user has entered a valid account number and the correct PIN, the ATM object transitions to the “User authenticated” state and changes its userAuthenticated attribute to the value true. When the user exits the system by choosing the “exit” option from the main menu, the ATM object returns to the “User not authenticated” state in preparation for the next ATM user.

Software Engineering Observation 30.2 Software designers do not generally create state machine diagrams showing every possible state and state transition for all attributes—there are simply too many of them. State machine diagrams typically show only the most important or complex states and state transitions.

Activity Diagrams Like a state machine diagram, an activity diagram models aspects of system behavior. Unlike a state machine diagram, an activity diagram models an object’s workflow (sequence of tasks) during application execution. An activity diagram models the actions to perform and in what order the object will perform them. The activity diagram in Fig. 30.14 models the actions involved in executing a BalanceInquiry transaction. We assume that a BalanceInquiry object has already been initialized and assigned a valid account number (that of the current user), so the object knows which balance to retrieve. The diagram includes the actions that occur after the user selects a balance inquiry from the main menu and before the ATM returns the user to the main menu—a BalanceInquiry object does not perform or initiate these actions, so we do not model them here. The diagram begins with the retrieval of the available balance of the user’s account from the database. Next, the BalanceInquiry retrieves the total balance of the account. Finally, the transaction displays the balances on the screen. The UML represents an action in an activity diagram as an action state, which is modeled by a rectangle with its left and right sides replaced by arcs curving outward. Each

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get available balance of user’s account from database

get total balance of user’s account from database

display balances on screen

Fig. 30.14 | Activity diagram for a BalanceInquiry transaction. action state contains an action expression—for example, “get available balance of user’s account from database”—that specifies an action to perform. An arrow with a stick arrowhead connects two action states, indicating the order in which the actions represented by the action states occur. The solid circle (at the top of Fig. 30.14) represents the activity’s initial state—the beginning of the workflow before the object performs the modeled actions. In this case, the transaction first executes the “get available balance of user’s account from database” action expression. Second, the transaction retrieves the total balance. Finally, the transaction displays both balances on the screen. The solid circle enclosed in an open circle (at the bottom of Fig. 30.14) represents the final state—the end of the workflow after the object performs the modeled actions. Figure 30.15 shows an activity diagram for a Withdrawal transaction. We assume that a Withdrawal object has been assigned a valid account number. We do not model the user selecting a withdrawal from the main menu or the ATM returning the user to the main menu, because these are not actions performed by a Withdrawal object. The transaction first displays a menu of standard withdrawal amounts (Fig. 30.3) and an option to cancel the transaction. The transaction then inputs a menu selection from the user. The activity flow now arrives at a decision symbol. This point determines the next action based on the associated guard conditions. If the user cancels the transaction, the system displays an appropriate message. Next, the cancellation flow reaches a merge symbol, where this activity flow joins the transaction’s other possible activity flows (which we discuss shortly). A merge can have any number of incoming transition arrows, but only one outgoing transition arrow. The decision at the bottom of the diagram determines whether the transaction should repeat from the beginning. When the user has canceled the transaction, the guard condition “cash dispensed or user canceled transaction” is true, so control transitions to the activity’s final state. If the user selects a withdrawal amount from the menu, amount (an attribute of class Withdrawal originally modeled in Fig. 30.12) is set to the value chosen by the user. The transaction next gets the available balance of the user’s account (i.e., the availableBalance attribute of the user’s Account object) from the database. The activity flow then arrives at another decision. If the requested withdrawal amount exceeds the user’s available balance, the system displays an appropriate error message informing the user of the

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display menu of withdrawal amounts and option to cancel

input the menu selection

[user canceled transaction]

display cancel message

[user selected an amount] set amount attribute

get available balance of user’s account from database

[amount > available balance]

display error message

[amount available cash]

display error message

[amount = billsRequired ); } // end method IsSufficientCashAvailable } // end class CashDispenser

Fig. 31.16 | Class CashDispenser represents the ATM’s cash dispenser. (Part 2 of 2.) Method IsSufficientCashAvailable (lines 24–31) has a parameter amount that specifies the amount of cash in question. Line 27 calculates the number of $20 bills required to dispense the specified amount. The ATM allows the user to choose only withdrawal amounts that are multiples of $20, so we convert amount to an integer value and divide it by 20 to obtain the number of billsRequired. Line 30 returns true if the CashDispenser’s billCount is greater than or equal to billsRequired (i.e., enough bills are available) and false otherwise (i.e., not enough bills). For example, if a user wishes to withdraw $80 (i.e., billsRequired is 4), but only three bills remain (i.e., billCount is 3), the method returns false. Method DispenseCash (lines 16–21) simulates cash dispensing. If our system were hooked up to a real hardware cash dispenser, this method would interact with the hardware device to physically dispense the cash. Our simulated version of the method simply decreases the billCount of bills remaining by the number required to dispense the specified amount (line 20). It is the responsibility of the client of the class (i.e., Withdrawal) to inform the user that cash has been dispensed—CashDispenser does not interact directly with Screen.

31.4.5 Class DepositSlot Class DepositSlot (Fig. 31.17) represents the deposit slot of the ATM. This class simulates the functionality of a real hardware deposit slot. DepositSlot has no attributes and only one method—IsDepositEnvelopeReceived (lines 7–10)—which indicates whether a deposit envelope was received.

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// DepositSlot.cs // Represents the deposit slot of the ATM public class DepositSlot { // indicates whether envelope was received (always returns true, // because this is only a software simulation of a real deposit slot) public bool IsDepositEnvelopeReceived() { return true; // deposit envelope was received } // end method IsDepositEnvelopeReceived } // end class DepositSlot

Fig. 31.17 | Class DepositSlot represents the ATM’s deposit slot. Recall from the requirements document that the ATM allows the user up to two minutes to insert an envelope. The current version of method IsDepositEnvelopeReceived simply returns true immediately (line 9), because this is only a software simulation, so we assume that the user inserts an envelope within the required time frame. If an actual hardware deposit slot were connected to our system, method IsDepositEnvelopeReceived would be implemented to wait for a maximum of two minutes to receive a signal from the hardware deposit slot indicating that the user has indeed inserted a deposit envelope. If IsDepositEnvelopeReceived were to receive such a signal within two minutes, the method would return true. If two minutes were to elapse and the method still had not received a signal, then the method would return false.

31.4.6 Class Account Class Account (Fig. 31.25) represents a bank account. Each Account has four attributes (modeled in Fig. 31.10)—accountNumber, pin, availableBalance and totalBalance. Lines 5–8 implement these attributes as private instance variables. For each of the instance variables accountNumber, availableBalance and totalBalance, we provide a property with the same name as the attribute, but starting with a capital letter. For example, property AccountNumber corresponds to the accountNumber attribute modeled in Fig. 31.10. Clients of this class do not need to modify the accountNumber instance variable, so AccountNumber is declared as a read-only property (i.e., it provides only a get accessor). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

// Account.cs // Class Account represents a bank account. public class Account { private int accountNumber; // account number private int pin; // PIN for authentication private decimal availableBalance; // available withdrawal amount private decimal totalBalance; // funds available + pending deposit // four-parameter constructor initializes attributes public Account( int theAccountNumber, int thePIN, decimal theAvailableBalance, decimal theTotalBalance ) {

Fig. 31.18 | Class Account represents a bank account. (Part 1 of 2.)

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accountNumber = theAccountNumber; pin = thePIN; availableBalance = theAvailableBalance; totalBalance = theTotalBalance; } // end constructor // read-only property that gets the account number public int AccountNumber { get { return accountNumber; } // end get } // end property AccountNumber // read-only property that gets the available balance public decimal AvailableBalance { get { return availableBalance; } // end get } // end property AvailableBalance // read-only property that gets the total balance public decimal TotalBalance { get { return totalBalance; } // end get } // end property TotalBalance // determines whether a user-specified PIN matches PIN in Account public bool ValidatePIN( int userPIN ) { return ( userPIN == pin ); } // end method ValidatePIN // credits the account (funds have not yet cleared) public void Credit( decimal amount ) { totalBalance += amount; // add to total balance } // end method Credit // debits the account public void Debit( decimal amount ) { availableBalance -= amount; // subtract from available balance totalBalance -= amount; // subtract from total balance } // end method Debit } // end class Account

Fig. 31.18 | Class Account represents a bank account. (Part 2 of 2.)

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Class Account has a constructor (lines 11–18) that takes an account number, the PIN established for the account, the initial available balance and the initial total balance as arguments. Lines 14–17 assign these values to the class’s attributes (i.e., instance variables). Account objects would normally be created externally to the ATM system. However, in this simulation, the Account objects are created in the BankDatabase class (Fig. 31.19).

Read-Only Properties of Class Account Read-only property AccountNumber (lines 21–27) provides access to an Account’s accountNumber instance variable. We include this property in our implementation so that a client of the class (e.g., BankDatabase) can identify a particular Account. For example, BankDatabase contains many Account objects, and it can access this property on each of its Account objects to locate the one with a specific account number. Read-only properties AvailableBalance (lines 30–36) and TotalBalance (lines 39– 45) allow clients to retrieve the values of private decimal instance variables availableBalance and totalBalance, respectively. Property AvailableBalance represents the amount of funds available for withdrawal. Property TotalBalance represents the amount of funds available, plus the amount of deposited funds pending confirmation of cash in deposit envelopes or clearance of checks in deposit envelopes. public

Methods of Class Account Method ValidatePIN (lines 48–51) determines whether a user-specified PIN (i.e., parameter userPIN) matches the PIN associated with the account (i.e., attribute pin). Recall that we modeled this method’s parameter userPIN in the UML class diagram of Fig. 31.9. If the two PINs match, the method returns true; otherwise, it returns false. Method Credit (lines 54–57) adds an amount of money (i.e., parameter amount) to an Account as part of a deposit transaction. This method adds the amount only to instance variable totalBalance (line 56). The money credited to an account during a deposit does not become available immediately, so we modify only the total balance. We assume that the bank updates the available balance appropriately at a later time, when the amount of cash in the deposit envelope has be verified and the checks in the deposit envelope have cleared. Our implementation of class Account includes only methods required for carrying out ATM transactions. Therefore, we omit the methods that some other bank system would invoke to add to instance variable availableBalance to confirm a deposit or to subtract from attribute totalBalance to reject a deposit. Method Debit (lines 60–64) subtracts an amount of money (i.e., parameter amount) from an Account as part of a withdrawal transaction. This method subtracts the amount from both instance variable availableBalance (line 62) and instance variable totalBalance (line 63), because a withdrawal affects both balances. public

31.4.7 Class BankDatabase Class BankDatabase (Fig. 31.19) models the bank database with which the ATM interacts to access and modify a user’s account information. We determine one reference-type attribute for class BankDatabase based on its composition relationship with class Account. Recall from Fig. 31.9 that a BankDatabase is composed of zero or more objects of class Account. Line 5 declares attribute accounts—an array that will store Account objects—to implement this composition relationship. Class BankDatabase has a parameterless constructor (lines 8–

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15) that initializes accounts with new Account objects (lines 13–14). The Account constructor (Fig. 31.25, lines 11–18) has four parameters—the account number, the PIN assigned to the account, the initial available balance and the initial total balance. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

// BankDatabase.cs // Represents the bank account information database public class BankDatabase { private Account[] accounts; // array of the bank's Accounts // parameterless constructor initializes accounts public BankDatabase() { // create two Account objects for testing and // place them in the accounts array accounts = new Account[ 2 ]; // create accounts array accounts[ 0 ] = new Account( 12345, 54321, 1000.00M, 1200.00M ); accounts[ 1 ] = new Account( 98765, 56789, 200.00M, 200.00M ); } // end constructor // retrieve Account object containing specified account number private Account GetAccount( int accountNumber ) { // loop through accounts searching for matching account number foreach ( Account currentAccount in accounts ) { if ( currentAccount.AccountNumber == accountNumber ) return currentAccount; } // end foreach // account not found return null; } // end method GetAccount // determine whether user-specified account number and PIN match // those of an account in the database public bool AuthenticateUser( int userAccountNumber, int userPIN) { // attempt to retrieve the account with the account number Account userAccount = GetAccount( userAccountNumber ); // if account exists, return result of Account function ValidatePIN if ( userAccount != null ) return userAccount.ValidatePIN( userPIN ); // true if match else return false; // account number not found, so return false } // end method AuthenticateUser // return available balance of Account with specified account number public decimal GetAvailableBalance( int userAccountNumber ) {

Fig. 31.19 | Class BankDatabase represents the bank’s account information database. (Part 1 of 2.)

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Account userAccount = GetAccount( userAccountNumber ); return userAccount.AvailableBalance; } // end method GetAvailableBalance // return total balance of Account with specified account number public decimal GetTotalBalance( int userAccountNumber ) { Account userAccount = GetAccount(userAccountNumber); return userAccount.TotalBalance; } // end method GetTotalBalance // credit the Account with specified account number public void Credit( int userAccountNumber, decimal amount ) { Account userAccount = GetAccount( userAccountNumber ); userAccount.Credit( amount ); } // end method Credit // debit the Account with specified account number public void Debit( int userAccountNumber, decimal amount ) { Account userAccount = GetAccount( userAccountNumber ); userAccount.Debit( amount ); } // end method Debit } // end class BankDatabase

Fig. 31.19 | Class BankDatabase represents the bank’s account information database. (Part 2 of 2.)

Recall that class BankDatabase serves as an intermediary between class ATM and the actual Account objects that contain users’ account information. Thus, methods of class BankDatabase invoke the corresponding methods and properties of the Account object belonging to the current ATM user.

Utility Method GetAccount We include private utility method GetAccount (lines 18–29) to allow the BankDatabase to obtain a reference to a particular Account within the accounts array. To locate the user’s Account, the BankDatabase compares the value returned by property AccountNumber for each element of accounts to a specified account number until it finds a match. Lines 21–25 traverse the accounts array. If currentAccount’s account number equals the value of parameter accountNumber, the method returns currentAccount. If no account has the given account number, then line 28 returns null. private

Methods Method AuthenticateUser (lines 33–43) proves or disproves the identity of an ATM user. This method takes a user-specified account number and a user-specified PIN as arguments and indicates whether they match the account number and PIN of an Account in the database. Line 36 calls method GetAccount, which returns either an Account with userAccountNumber as its account number or null to indicate that userAccountNumber is invalid. If GetAccount returns an Account object, line 40 returns the bool value returned by that obpublic

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ject’s ValidatePIN method. BankDatabase’s AuthenticateUser method does not perform the PIN comparison itself—rather, it forwards userPIN to the Account object’s ValidatePIN method to do so. The value returned by Account method ValidatePIN (line 40) indicates whether the user-specified PIN matches the PIN of the user’s Account, so method AuthenticateUser simply returns this value (line 40) to the client of the class (i.e., ATM). The BankDatabase trusts the ATM to invoke method AuthenticateUser and receive a return value of true before allowing the user to perform transactions. BankDatabase also trusts that each Transaction object created by the ATM contains the valid account number of the current authenticated user and that this account number is passed to the remaining BankDatabase methods as argument userAccountNumber. Methods GetAvailableBalance (lines 46–50), GetTotalBalance (lines 53–57), Credit (lines 60–64) and Debit (lines 67–71) therefore simply retrieve the user’s Account object with utility method GetAccount, then invoke the appropriate Account method on that object. We know that the calls to GetAccount within these methods will never return null, because userAccountNumber must refer to an existing Account. GetAvailableBalance and GetTotalBalance return the values returned by the corresponding Account properties. Also, methods Credit and Debit simply redirect parameter amount to the Account methods they invoke.

31.4.8 Class Transaction Class Transaction (Fig. 31.20) is an abstract base class that represents the notion of an ATM transaction. It contains the common features of derived classes BalanceInquiry, Withdrawal and Deposit. This class expands on the “skeleton” code first developed in Section 31.2. Line 3 declares this class to be abstract. Lines 5–7 declare the class’s private instance variables. Recall from the class diagram of Fig. 31.10 that class Transaction contains the property AccountNumber that indicates the account involved in the Transaction. Line 5 implements the instance variable accountNumber to maintain the AccountNumber property’s data. We derive attributes screen (implemented as instance variable userScreen in line 6) and bankDatabase (implemented as instance variable database in line 7) from class Transaction’s associations, modeled in Fig. 31.9. All transactions require access to the ATM’s screen and the bank’s database. Class Transaction has a constructor (lines 10–16) that takes the current user’s account number and references to the ATM’s screen and the bank’s database as arguments. Because Transaction is an abstract class (line 3), this constructor is never called directly to instantiate Transaction objects. Instead, this constructor is invoked by the constructors of the Transaction derived classes via constructor initializers. Class Transaction has three public read-only properties—AccountNumber (lines 19– 25), UserScreen (lines 28–34) and Database (lines 37–43). Derived classes of Transaction inherit these properties and use them to gain access to class Transaction’s private instance variables. We chose the names of the UserScreen and Database properties for clarity—we wanted to avoid property names that are the same as the class names Screen and BankDatabase, which can be confusing. Class Transaction also declares abstract method Execute (line 46). It does not make sense to provide an implementation for this method in class Transaction, because a generic transaction cannot be executed. Thus, we declare this method to be abstract, forcing each Transaction concrete derived class to provide its own implementation that executes the particular type of transaction.

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// Transaction.cs // Abstract base class Transaction represents an ATM transaction. public abstract class Transaction { private int accountNumber; // account involved in the transaction private Screen userScreen; // reference to ATM's screen private BankDatabase database; // reference to account info database // three-parameter constructor invoked by derived classes public Transaction( int userAccount, Screen theScreen, BankDatabase theDatabase ) { accountNumber = userAccount; userScreen = theScreen; database = theDatabase; } // end constructor // read-only property that gets the account number public int AccountNumber { get { return accountNumber; } // end get } // end property AccountNumber // read-only property that gets the screen reference public Screen UserScreen { get { return userScreen; } // end get } // end property UserScreen // read-only property that gets the bank database reference public BankDatabase Database { get { return database; } // end get } // end property Database // perform the transaction (overridden by each derived class) public abstract void Execute(); // no implementation here } // end class Transaction

Fig. 31.20 |

abstract

base class Transaction represents an ATM transaction.

31.4.9 Class BalanceInquiry Class BalanceInquiry (Fig. 31.21) inherits from Transaction and represents an ATM balance inquiry transaction (line 3). BalanceInquiry does not have any attributes of its own, but it inherits Transaction attributes accountNumber, screen and bankDatabase,

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which are accessible through Transaction’s public read-only properties. The BalanceInquiry constructor (lines 6–8) takes arguments corresponding to these attributes and forwards them to Transaction’s constructor by invoking the constructor initializer with keyword base (line 8). The body of the constructor is empty. Class BalanceInquiry overrides Transaction’s abstract method Execute to provide a concrete implementation (lines 11–27) that performs the steps involved in a balance inquiry. Lines 14–15 obtain the specified Account’s available balance by invoking the GetAvailableBalance method of the inherited property Database. Line 15 uses the inherited property AccountNumber to get the account number of the current user. Line 18 retrieves the specified Account’s total balance. Lines 21–26 display the balance information on the ATM’s screen using the inherited property UserScreen. Recall that DisplayDollarAmount takes a decimal argument and outputs it to the screen formatted as a dollar amount with a dollar sign. For example, if a user’s available balance is 1000.50M, line 23 outputs $1,000.50. Line 26 inserts a blank line of output to separate the balance information from subsequent output (i.e., the main menu repeated by class ATM after executing the BalanceInquiry). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

// BalanceInquiry.cs // Represents a balance inquiry ATM transaction public class BalanceInquiry : Transaction { // five-parameter constructor initializes base class variables public BalanceInquiry( int userAccountNumber, Screen atmScreen, BankDatabase atmBankDatabase ) : base( userAccountNumber, atmScreen, atmBankDatabase ) {} // performs transaction; overrides Transaction's abstract method public override void Execute() { // get the available balance for the current user's Account decimal availableBalance = Database.GetAvailableBalance( AccountNumber ); // get the total balance for the current user's Account decimal totalBalance = Database.GetTotalBalance( AccountNumber ); // display the balance information on the screen UserScreen.DisplayMessageLine( "\nBalance Information:" ); UserScreen.DisplayMessage( " - Available balance: " ); UserScreen.DisplayDollarAmount( availableBalance ); UserScreen.DisplayMessage( "\n - Total balance: " ); UserScreen.DisplayDollarAmount( totalBalance ); UserScreen.DisplayMessageLine( "" ); } // end method Execute } // end class BalanceInquiry

Fig. 31.21 | Class BalanceInquiry represents a balance inquiry ATM transaction.

31.4.10 Class Withdrawal Class Withdrawal (Fig. 31.22) extends Transaction and represents an ATM withdrawal transaction. This class expands on the “skeleton” code for this class developed in

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Fig. 31.11. Recall from the class diagram of Fig. 31.9 that class Withdrawal has one attribute, amount, which line 5 declares as a decimal instance variable. Figure 31.9 models associations between class Withdrawal and classes Keypad and CashDispenser, for which lines 6–7 implement reference attributes keypad and cashDispenser, respectively. Line 10 declares a constant corresponding to the cancel menu option. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

// Withdrawal.cs // Class Withdrawal represents an ATM withdrawal transaction. public class Withdrawal : Transaction { private decimal amount; // amount to withdraw private Keypad keypad; // reference to Keypad private CashDispenser cashDispenser; // reference to cash dispenser // constant that corresponds to menu option to cancel private const int CANCELED = 6; // five-parameter constructor public Withdrawal( int userAccountNumber, Screen atmScreen, BankDatabase atmBankDatabase, Keypad atmKeypad, CashDispenser atmCashDispenser ) : base( userAccountNumber, atmScreen, atmBankDatabase ) { // initialize references to keypad and cash dispenser keypad = atmKeypad; cashDispenser = atmCashDispenser; } // end constructor // perform transaction, overrides Transaction's abstract method public override void Execute() { bool cashDispensed = false; // cash was not dispensed yet // transaction was not canceled yet bool transactionCanceled = false; // loop until cash is dispensed or the user cancels do { // obtain the chosen withdrawal amount from the user int selection = DisplayMenuOfAmounts(); // check whether user chose a withdrawal amount or canceled if ( selection != CANCELED ) { // set amount to the selected dollar amount amount = selection; // get available balance of account involved decimal availableBalance = Database.GetAvailableBalance( AccountNumber );

Fig. 31.22 | Class Withdrawal represents an ATM withdrawal transaction. (Part 1 of 3.)

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// check whether the user has enough money in the account if ( amount