~·~a.·~~ ·~l·iq~ q·~~ ·fil~4~1
Colloquial Tibetan A Textbook of the Lhasa Dialect with reference grammar and exercises (A contextual approach)
by
Tsetan Chonjore with Andrea Abi nanti
LIBRARY OF TIBETAN WORKS & ARCHIVES
© Copyright 2003 Tsetan Chonjore
All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN: 81-86470-30-1
Published by the Library of Tibetan Works & Archives, Dharamsala, District Kangra, H.P. India and printed at lndraprastha Press (CBn, Nehru House, New Delhi.
Dedication This textbook is dedicated to His _Holiness The Dalai Lama, the personification of Avalokiteswara, the Lord of Compassion. He works selflessly not only for the well-being of Tibetans, but for the well-being of every person and country in the world. I also dedicate this textbook to Ven. Lobsang jinpa (Ku-ngo Ponpo) Dhen Nyir Tsang who served both the 13th and 14th Dalai Lama with great sincerity and dedication.
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Preface
Colloquial Tibetan: A Textbook ofthe Lhasa Diakct was composed by Tibetan Language Analyst Mr. Tseten Chonjore at the behest of Mr. Gyatsho Tshering, the former Director of Library of Tibetan Works &Archives (LTWA), Dharamsala. Although the initial composition was undertaken during the former director, I am extremely happy to see it go through the final phases of completion in my tenure. Therefore, on behalf of LTWA, I would like to express my sincere thanks to the former Director Mr. Gyatsho Tshering and the author Mr. Tseten Chonjor for making this publication possible. During the 40 years in exile, Tibetans relied heavily on bilingual usage of1ibetan and English, thereby resulting in significant relations with modern developing countries throughout the east and west. The consequential growth ofliteracy and widening of experiential exposure in Tibetan community entailed the need for an unanticipated advancement in the field of Tibetan language. Situation further demanded that Tibetans move with time, thus motivating us in the production of literature with quality par excellence. Taking into account the author's long experience in teaching Tibetan and English as a language, I am confident that this book proves its relevance for all learners' of1ibetan language, especially in this most crucial period of our history. I congratulate him for his priceless contribution made through this virtuous endeavour. At this time, when new generation Tibetans are making an enormous effort in the preservation and dissemination of1ibetan language, I am hopeful that this book serves as an invaluable gift for the non-1ibetans seeking to learn and the ·libetans aspiring to improve their Tibetan skills. This book also adds to the treasure of other valuable texts published by LTWA and fulfills the main objectives of preserving Tibetan culture and tradition. I once again thank the author for collaborating in the publication of this book. Finally, I pray that the book provide inexhaustible joy to all its readers. Achok Rinpoche Losang Thupten Thinley Director, LTWA 21 November, 2002
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN • MADISON COLLEGE OF LETTERS AND SCIENCE D£PARTIIENT OF LANGUAGES AND CULTURES OF ASIA 1141 VAll Hill HALL, 1221 LIIIDE. Dlt1VI
IIIADIIOII, WIICOII... 13701, U.I.A. SOUTH. SOVTHEAST, WEST AND CENTRAL ASIA
Foreword It gives me great pleasure to write this Foreword to Tsetan Chonjore's Colloquial Tibetan. In 1983 Tsetan began teaching "Second Year Modem Tibetan" to the students in Kathmandu with the University of Wisconsin's College Year in Nepal program. Tsetan's unique gifts as a Tibetan language teacher were immediately apparent, and he was encouraged to author a Tibetan language textbook using his classroom approach. During the next decade and a halfTsetan 's book gradually evolved, both assisted and delayed by his multiple teaching commitments. By 2000 enough portions of Colloquial Tibetan had been completed so that Tsetan could use them when he taught our Department's "Elementary Modem Tibetan" course in Madison in summer school. In 200 I Tsetan once again taught "Elementary Modem Tibetan" in Madison in summer school, this time using a virtually completed version of Colloquial Tibetan. Tsetan's students have universally praised his book for its contents and style. Best of all, they have learned a great deal of colloquial modem Tibetan using his book. Tsetan Chonjore's Colloquial Tibetan is an exciting new addition to the growing list of available Tibetan-language textbooks. Our Department and our University are pleased to have provided the academic context within which Tsetan has developed his book that is now, after eighteen years of his hard work, at last being published.
Ellen Rafferty, Chair Department of Languages and Cultures of Asia University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.A.
TELEPHONE:
608/262~524,
August 10, 2001
6081262·3012 FAX: 6081265·3538 EMAIL:
[email protected]
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Table of Contents
Page Aclcnowledgment Author's Introduction Homage to the Great Scholar Thu mi Sam Bhota Overview Text Format Key of Symbols Key to Linguistic terms Phonetic Introduction I. The Tibetan Syllabic Letters II. Places and Manner of Articulation m. Phonetic Qualities of the Tibetan letters according to English Phonology IV. Pronunciation: Practice Drill V. The Seven Elements of Word Formation A. How to Identify the Root Letter B. Change of Pronunciation with Superjoined Letters C. Change of Pronunciation with Subjoined Letters D. Change of Pronunciation with the Five Prefixes E. Change of Pronunciation with the Ten Suffixes F. The two Post-Suffixes: VI. Reading Exercises VII. Vowel Harmony [External Sandhi] Vlll. The 'Natural' Classes of the Letters IX. Categories of Tibetan Nouns How to Write Tibetan Letters Lessont Expanded Table of Contents Text Vocabulary for Lesson 1
xm
XV XVI XVII
xxm xxm XXV XXIX XXIX XXXI
XXXV XXXVI XXXVII XXXVIII
XL
XLI XLIII XLV XLVIn XLVIn L
u Lil LV
1 3
16
Exercises
18
Vocabulary for Lesson 2
18
Lesson2 Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 3
21 23 39
40
Colloquial Tibetan
Lesson3 Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 4 Lessont Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 5 LessonS Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 6 Leseon6 Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 7 Lesaon7 Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 8 LessonS Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 9 Lesson9 Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 10 Lesson10 Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 11
LessonU Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 12 Leseon12 Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson U LeseonU Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 14 Lesson It Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Vocabulary for Lesson 15
0 45 58 59
61 63 72
73
., 75
90 91 93 95
120 121
205 207 221
221 223
225
239 239 241 20 269
270 273 275 299 299
Lesson15 Expanded Table of Contents Text Excercises Answers to the Exercises Index of 0\arta
123 125
140 140 10 145 159 159
163 165 180 181 183 185 202 203 XII
301 303 323 325 337
Acknowledgment
I would like to extend my extreme gratitude to my assistant Andrea Abinanti v·ithout whom this book would never have seen completion. She is a dedicated Buddhist student who came to Nepal in 1975. She began studying the Tibetan Language with me in Kathmandu in the early 80s. The University of Wisconsin Program hired her to assist me with the Colloquial Tibetan textbook project. I personally owe her a great debt for her tireless dedication. It is my pleasure to thank Dr. Asif Agha for introducing me to English linguistics. We met in 1986, when he was a summer language student at the University of Wisconsin. I imparted many of my insights concerning the Tibetan language and grammar to him. We worked together on several occasions in the United States and in Nepal. These periods of intense collaboration were filled with enormous excitement and a sense of mutual and intellectual gain. We presented a linguistic paper together at the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of Nepal, Tribhuvan University, November 26-27, 1987. The paper was titled: "On the partial formal syncretism of categories of clause structure in Lhasa Tibetan." I am very grateful to a number of individuals and institutions who have rendered assistance in the completion of this project. By far the most important of these individuals is Dr. Joe Elder, Director of the University of Wisconsin's Center for South Asia. From the very beginning of this project, Dr. Elder strongly supported all my research efforts. He has also been a constant source of inspiration, and if it were not for his help and support, this project would never have been completed. I would like to thank the former director of the Library ofTibetan Works and Archives, Gyatsho Tshering, for encouraging me to continue my Tibetan language research. He was a source of great inspiration. I would also like to acknowledge with gratitude the financial and institutional support rendered by the College Year in Nepal Program, the American Institute oflndian Studies, the University of Wisconsin and the Campus of International Languages, Tribhuvan University. I would like to thank my professor Ngawang Jinpa (Geshe Lharampa) who instilled in me a love for the Tibetan language. I would like to thank Michael Keller for the encouragement given when I first undertook the task of writing this Tibetan language textbook. I would like to thank Dr. John D. Dunne, Pamela Ross, and Manohari Upadhyaya of the University ofWisconsin's College Year in Nepal Program for their continual enthusiasm and cooperation over the years. I would like to thank my father-in-law, Mr. Tengyong Ia, and my family for their encouragement and continual support. And I would especially like to thank my wife, Dolkar, for her extreme patience. I would like to thank my sponsors, Mr. and Mrs. F. Larson, for supporting my education. I would also like to thank the following people: John and Sally Davenport, Dr. Geoff Childs, Willa Baker, Julia Elliot, Ani Ia Yeshi Wangmo, and Yeshi Tsomo. Last, but not least, I would like to thank all of the students I have taught over the years, for without them I would never have had the opportunity to develop my skills as a teacher or had the time to formulate my ideas concerning the Tibetan language. Among these students, I would like to thank especially the following for reading the text and offering invaluable suggestions: Kirk Moore, Peter, Jan Ronis, Eric, Chris, David, and Cara Virgina Coburn.
Author's Introduction The work presented in this text is the result of twenty years of teaching experience. During this time I have taught the Tibetan language to students in both the United States and Nepal I have come to understand the subtleties of how my native language functions throu~ years of research and constant encounter with students. It has been my goal, from the very beginning of my teaching career, to write a detailed grammatical analysis of the Lhasa colloquial. I would like to make the subtleties of this rich and unique language, ~~·~c:.·~"Ul~ ·~~ ~·~ -filqr, more accessible to students and other Tibetan language teachers. The poetic title ~'i!-Gl~4
Publications "On the Partial Formal Syncretism of Categories of Oause Structure in Lhasa Tibetan" with Dr. Asif Agha. Presented at the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of Nepal, Tribhuvan University. November 26-27,1987. Published in Nepalese Linguistics, 1988.
"Tibetan: A Non-tense Language" Presented at the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of Nepal, Tribhuvan University. November 26-27, 1993. Published in Nepalese Linguistics, 1994. "Contextual Ambiguity" Presented at the Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of Nepal, Tribhuvan University. November 26-27, 1994. Published in Nepalese Linguistics, 1995. Writing a concise textbook is a time-consuming task. Due to this, after several years of gathering materials, implementing them in classroom settings, then writing and rewriting, I decided to divide the book into two volumes, this being the first. Tsetan Chonjore Muntrul
Colloquial Tibetan
Homage to the Great Tibetan Scholar Thu mi Sam Bhota I would like to take this opportunity to pay homage to the Great Scholar Thu mi Sam Bhota for his outstanding contribution in formulating the Tibetan language. Due to this he is known as the father of Tibetan literature. In"the seventh century the Great Religious King, Songtsen Gampo i"~·~·~~~!fz::.·~.¢~ ·~Ol:cr reigned benevolently over Tibet. He was the thirty-third king to rule in the Land of the Snow, as Tibet was known in those days. This great king felt it essential, for both religious and secular purposes, to create a formal written script for the Tibetan language. For this, as well as for the extensive study of the Buddhist doctrine, he sent his most brilliant minister ~·~r~r'f Thu mi Sam Bhota1 with a group of young Tibetans to study
r·
at the famous Nalanda University in Northern India. According to scholar Tsetan Shapdrung, among the sixty-four languages that Thu mi Sam Bhota studied, Sanskrit and Urdu (a language related to Hindi but with many Persian words) were of most benefit when composing the Tibetan alphabet. He also studied the literature and grammar of these languages, along with other Brahman and Buddhist Arts under the Great Saint and Guru ~~·111·~· Lipikara, the Pandit (scholar) ~·~~·'J"il.·~z::.·~· Lharikpesenge and other eminent teachers of the time. Eventually he became a well known scholar in his own right. After spending many years in India, he returned to his homeland. On his return to Tibet, he resided in the castle at Ol'~· Maru in "'~t:. 'fl' Phapongka near Lhasa where he did a three year retreat.' Upon the completion of this retreat he
taught the Great Dharma King Songtsen Gampo the arts of language and literature. Realizing that without a formal written language, the immense task of translating religious, as well as other important texts, into Tibetan was impossible. After reverently bowing to Buddha, the most precious one, he then offered salutations and prayers to Manju ghosa (Manjushri), the Lord of Wisdom and Speech. With great enthusiasm he prayed that this extraordinary undertaking of creating a written script be successfully acoomplished. There are two views concerning the origin of the Tibetan script. The first view holds that Sam Bhota,
· in printed texts, was based on the~~· Lan-tsha (Sanskrit) characters. ~s·~~·ti mei, the hand written script,
with his phenomenal wisdom, formulated two different scripts. The ~s·~~ ti chen script, which is found
was based on the~~· Urdu script. The second view held by the scholar Gendun Chophel is that Sam Bhota shaped the Tibetan characters after the ~~·Ill·~· Gupta characters (Nagari).
The Sanskrit and Urdu languages consist of fifty consonants and vowels, while the Tibetan language has only thirty consonants ~~~·sl:)·~o.~·~· and four vowels '1St:.~·~·. Sam Bhota took only those consonants
and vowels which coincided with the Tibetan. There were six remaining Tibetan sounds which did not exist in these languages, r.pra.·~·cs· and~·. 1. 2.
Sam Bhota lrfr· means: ll· =good fr· =Tibetan. This name was given to him by his teachers' the good Tibetan' According to Owuira Das: 'The Bengali, Newari, and Tibetan characters, closely resemble one another, all three having had their origin in Mithila and having been shaped after the model of the form of Devanagari that was current there in the seventh century A.D. The ancient Maithili character bears a striking resemblance to the Lan-tsha (or Ranja. of Nepal) or the ornamental Deva-nagari which was little known in India.' An Introduction to the Grammar of the Tibetan Language, Olandra Das (p. Author's Introduction Ill), published 1915.
XVI
Author's Introduction According to legend, these non-existing letters were revealed to Sam Bhota while he was in deep contemplation. A brilliantly white stranger dressed in iron armor suddenly appeared in front of him. The following conversation took place:
Sam Bhota:
g"'l.t]I::.'~~~E::.'J
Where have you come from?
Stranger:
..,!::. ·~~::, ·~~~1::.'1
I came from Shanshung.
Sam Bhota:
1.7]1::.'~·~~
Where are you going?
Stranger:
··~~·~·a.~
I'm going to Sahor.
Sam Bhota:
For what purpose are you going?
Stranger:
l.t]t:.'$"~·~~ ~~~·a.~
To buy tea.
Sam Bhota:
~~l'Sl':J~l
When are you returning?
Stranger:
%'all
Why [are you asking that]?
"
As suddenly as the stranger appeared, he disappeared. In the course of this dialogue, the letters which were missing in order to make the new alphabet complete were derived:..,., .II',~·,~·, al' and ~·. Though most scholars agree that these are the newly introduced letters, my professor, Ngawang Jinpa (Geshe Lharampa), thinks that this theory may be incorrect. He feels the Tibetan letters -o·, a;· and~· are derived from the similar sounding Devanagari letters q, G and ~ rather than the generally believed eqivalents ~·, a)· and ('. Because of this hypothesis he believes the letters ~·, a)· and (' rather than the accepted letters -o·, a;· and~· are part of the new additions to the Tibetan alphabet. Satn Bhota wrote eight treatises on Tibetan grammar. Unfortunately, only two of these still exist today, ~cJJ':S't.l' sum chu pa and ;~~·~l.t]'I:J' tak juk pa. During the reign of 8Fl~'cJJ' Lhang Darma, the king who persecuted the Buddhists in the ninth century AD., many religious and literary texts were destroyed. Thanks to Sam Bhota' s great efforts, scholars and translators were able to translate and write commentaries on the religious texts from India, China and Nepal. In this way, the Buddha's teachings were brought to and spread throughout Tibet. Generally, before a Tibetan student begins to study they make salutations to Manjushri, the Lord of Wisdom, ~cJJ'"I:JQJ'"St:.~· (the sweet/ melodious voiced one) and recite the mantra: ~~·~·~·(·~~~~1 The syllable F,: should be repeated in one breath as quickly and as many times as possible. It is believed by Tibetan Buddhists that by the recitation of the root syllable~ Manjushri will remove ignorance and bl~ one by bestowing intellect and wisdom. Tibetan students recite this mantra early in the morning in order to increase their ablility to study. I was taught this mantra by my late father, Ugyen Dorjee, when I was a young child.
Overview During the past twenty years, teaching the Tibetan language has led me to reflect on its various aspects.
Thanks to the expertise of my teachers and the years of experience acquired by teaching Tibetan as a foreign language, I have developed some theories concerning the nature of the Tibetan language. When a student XVII
Colloquial Tibetan studies a foreign language, not only is it important to learn words, structures and grammar, but it is also absolutely essential to learn the various subtleties. Only when this is accomplished, will one become fluent in the language. Because of sentence structure differences, many English speaking students find it difficult to get accustomed to the Tibetan way of thinking. Standard English sentences follow a subject, verb and object word order, whereas Tibetan sentences follow a subject, object and verb word order:
Chart 1
English
f-----
Tibetan
subject
verb
object
I
went
to India.
""
~"'·~·U)"'·
~·lll~"'ll1 (incorrect)
subject
""I
object
verb
~·lll~"Qj"
~"'·~·U)"11
to India
went. (incorrect)
The placement of the English and Tibetan adjectives and adverbs is also in reversed positions:
Chart 2 Adjectives Incorrect
Correct English: Tibetan:
book new lll~~·~·~l;J·
new book
~l;J"Ill~~·~·
Adverbs Incorrect
Correct English: Tibetan:
before eating
eating before
i.l"~~·llf" "Ill"
llf""Ill"i.l"il ~.
I have found that many authors and teachers have tried to use English grammar as a model for teaching the Tibetan language. This approach has imposed an artificially rigid and incorrect tense structure upon Tibetan and has limited the multi-faceted usage of the Tibetan verb-endings. As I have experienced, this view limits the student, thus they are not able to use the language in a natural and correct manner. Let's take a look at the Tibetan verbs Ul"l" and~"·. These verbs are translated with English 'to be' verbs (am, is, are, was, were). Though these verbs are similar, their nature is quite different. The English 'to be' verbs denote tense. i.e., am(present tense) and was(past tense), whereas the Tibetan verbs Ul"l" and ~"·can be used in a variety of time settings, the exact nature of this time depends upon temporal adverb:; or the context of the ongoing conversation. In addition the English 'to be' verbs denote person. i.e., I am, you are, he is, etc., whereas the Tibetan verbs Ul"l" and~"· can be used for all three persons. Furthermore,
XVIII
Author's Introduction the English 'to be' verbs denote number, i.e., I am, we are, etc., whereas the Tibetan verbs U!~ ·and~"· can be used with both a singular or plural subject. The verbs Ul~· and~"· can also indicate a perspective shift depending on the person they are used with, i.e., I, you, she, etc. Ul~ · with the first person indicates a personal emphasis on the speaker him/ herself. It implies that the speaker is directing his/ her attention to him/ herself and stressing the personal perspective t:.' 'I'. On the other hand,~"· with the first person implies that the speaker is directing his/ her attention towards the object of conversation. In this case the speaker is speaking about him/ herself from an impersonal perspective Just as Ul~ ·and ~" ·, the verbs UJ" · and r.z.~~ · also perform similar functions concerning tense, person, number and personal/ impersonal perspectives.
Chart 3
Perspective Usage of the verbs fij~·f ~;·and iij";·fa.~'tl· &l~· and l.~· t:.'jit:.·~·i~·~!fJ·X.~ 1
(a) c:.·16""t:.·~·ic:r~~~~ 1
I am his student.
I am his student
•.·a~·~t:.·16""t:.·~·iCJ·~~-tAl~ 1
(b) a~·~c:.·16""t:.·~·iCJ·~~·x.~1
You are his student.
You are his student.
[I know, we were in the same class]
ar~· and Cl.~&tl' (c) c:.~·t.l~·~~·lll~~·ur~1
I::. :I\ 'l.l~ ·~~·lfl~lfj'O.~lfl
I have a camera.
I have a camera.
ji"'Qj't,j~ ·a;~·~~~ -ur~ 1
(d) jic:.'QI't,j~·a;~·~%~·o.~lfj He has a camera.
He has a camera.
[I bought it for him] In English, the 'to be' verbs, the verbs of possession have, has, had do not render the kind of personal/ impersonal perspective functions which Ul~'/ X."· and UJ"'/ r.z.~~· perform. Another concept introduced in this text is that Tibetan is a time-based rather than a tense-based language Linguists define tense as a verb form that expresses only one particular time. Thus it could be said that tense is subject to time, but time is not subject to tense. Using this as our point of reference, it could also be said that every language of the world has time, but not necessarily tense. In English the verb 'is' speaks of and about only events occurring in the present, and 'was' speaks of and about only events occurring in the past. These verbs can not be interchanged without a change of meaning. The most common Tibetan conjugations have previously been categorized as follows: present tense
XIX
Colloquial Tibetan
~·llJ~·j~·~~·
future tense
~·llJ~·j ~·~~·
past tense
The mistake of categorizing Tibetan as a tense-based language has caused a lot of confusion and misuse of verbs and conjugations among those learning the language. This concept limits the students and thus they are not able to grasp the language thoroughly. Though Tibetan is not considered a tense-based language, it does possess three times. ~"'£1l~~·~~·l:UI\~·
Presentation of Three Times
~~·Q,~~·~·
Past Time
~~'".'~'r;:J'
Present Time
~~·~~~~·~·
Future Time
The verbs UJ"''/ ~~·, tG'"~·j Q.~Q]· and the conjugations ~·tij'"~·j ~'Q.}Qj'/ ~·~sf ~·tG'"~·~·~~· and~·~~· each possess the quality of having more than one tense function. According to the context of the conversation or the adverb of time these verbs or conjugations may be used to express different time settings. Due to this particular aspect of the Tibetan language, I have categorized Tibetan as a time-based language. A detailed account of this is given in Lesson 1, 'UJ~ ·j~~ ·Non-Tense Vel'bs'. Chart 4 below presents the conjugation~· tG'"~ · in both present and past time contexts:
Chart 4 Adverb of Time (a)
X
Subject + MVS
Conjugation q,·tij'"~ 1
~·~·Q,~~·
Time
English Tense
non-specific
I drink tea./ I'm drinking tea./ I used to drink tea. (b)
(c)
~·w·
llas'll'l'llas'll'I'QI'
~·tij'"~1
~·~'Q,El~'
Now I am drinking tea. ..... ..__
r::.·~'Q,Elt;,'
13]'UJ~
1
present
present continuous
present
simple present
past
past habitual
Sometimes I drink tea. (d)
f~·~~·
~·tij'"~l
~·~'Q,El~·
[Before] I used to drink tea. The specific time indicated by the verbs UJ"''/ ~Sand tG""~·j Q.~~· and the conjugations ~~~·j ~·Q.~l3]'! ~· ~~·j ~·tG'"~·~·~~· and ::..r~~· is based on adverbs of time or the context of the conversation. In the case of main verbs, there are verbs with variable stems and verbs with invariable stems. The spelling of variable verbs change according to the particular time/ tense of the sentence. The verb tell (hon.) has two forms,~· present/ future and~~· past. The spelling of invariable verbs remains the same for all three times, the verbs Ql)t:.. send and s~· write, in colloquial, are an example of these kinds of verbs.
XX
Author's Introduction
In literary these different verb classifications also exist. The verb t:l~~~· sit/ stay(hon.} has only one spelling for all three times. The verb tell(hon.} has two different spellings,~· present/ future and~~· past. There is another group of verbs which has separate spellings for each of the three times:
Future
Present
Past
Imperative
~~~C.'I'Cl~·~~·
~·"·t:~~·~~·
C\~-'1·~~·
a~·~~·
send
~ry"'
~~~·
z;Jry~·
Er~~-4~·
teach
z;)~z;)'
~c:~·
t:l~t:l~'
~c:~~·4~·
write
9·
a.s·
-s~·
-s~·4~·
-
Contextual meanings in the Tibetan language are clearly expressed by the use of verb-endings which inherently provide the nature of the statement, i.e., evidential, noiH?Vidential, personal, impersonal, contextual relatiooships, etc. In order to express the precise nature of the acquisition of a statement one can choose from, i.e., the attestative verb-ending~~: which indicates that the speaker has first-hand knowledge concerning the matter, or the reportativeverb-endings a.~~·I ~~·which indicate that the said information has been found out from some outside source. Though the Englb~ translation of a sentence formed with either ~r:::: or a.~~·;~~· is the same, the Tibetan verb-endings automatically let the addressee know the evidential nature of the statement. The Tibetan language encompasses a variety of dialects. A few of the more widely spoken ones are:
~s~·~~ ·Lhasa dialect, ~-¢~ -~~ · Shigatse dialect, f~~-~~ · .Kham dialect, f~ -~~·the Upper region dialect, and~~·~\~~· Amdo dialect. This textbook is based on ~s~·~~·, which in English is known as the Lhasa dialect. Lhasa lies in Central Tibet, ~s~·~-¢~·. The etymological meaning is: ~s~·, Lhasa and the surrounding areas, and~-¢~·, Shigatse and the surrounding areas. Please note that generally one will not say "el·~r~~ · for the Lhasa dialector~~~-,~~·fortheShigatsedialect. Thesedialectsareknownas~~·~·and~.¢~·~·respectively. The Tibetan language includes lower non-honorific, non-honorific, honorific (polite}, high honorific and higher honorific forms of nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs. Depending upon the degree of respect being shown to the addressee, one of these forms is used. Tibetan speakers generally use both the honorific and non-honorific forms. In this text I have attempted to use the most common forms of both the non-honorific and honorific words appropriately, so students will be able to speak to all strata of people. Let's take a look at the noun food In Tibetan there are five different words:
f fa;-'1'
Lower non-honorific: I This is used when talking to people of low status, i.e., a beggar, a servant and for animals in general. It may also be used to indicate intimacy to a friend. Non-honorific: p!'~~· This is used when talking to peers, when someone of high status is talking to or about someone lower than them, or when talking about people or habits in general. It is also used for one's pets.
XXI
Colloquial Tibetan
Honorific:
~~·~~·
This is used when talking to parents, teachers, and older people in general. ~41~·~~· This is used when talking to lamas and monks, government officials and their family members, and by helpers in well-to-do households to their employers.
High honorific:
·
Highest honorific: ~~t.~·i~ This is used when talking to high lamas. Each noun form is followed by an appropriate verb form: f".iil", (Zl"
Lower non-honorific:
Non-honorific:
!J~·
This is used when expressing the action of giving in an informal manner, or is used when talking about giving something to peers, or someone in general.
Honorific:
~~·
This is used when talking about giving something to a lama, a government official, your parents, a teacher, or an older person, etc. !J~·~~c;·
This is used when the speaker is giving respect to the agent, but the recipient of the action is a peer or someone of general standing. ~~·~~c;·
This is used when the speaker is giving respect to both the agent and the recipient of the action.
Highest Honorific: ~~c;· This is used when telling that someone higher in status, i.e., a lama, your parents, a teacher, an older person, etc. is giving/ has given something to you or someone else. As there are distinct differences between honorific and non-honorific forms, there are also distinct differences between the literary and colloquial forms of words. The emphasis of this text is on the colloquial language of Lhasa, therefore only a few literary items are introduced. Some critics may not agree with my attempt of giving a distinct colloquial spelling, however I feel it is important to bridge the gap between literary spelling and the colloquial pronunciation. In the footnote sections the colloquial spelling of the pronunciation of some of the more commonly used words is provided in brackets. One such example is: ':J:!]''4~·.::J~·~9~·. When saying this word, there is a slight~· sound when pronouncing .::J:!]", the~· in the second syllable is dropped and the 9· in the last syllable is silent. Even though the colloquial is written as [.::J~·4·Q~'
AUJhor 's Introduction than the literary spelling. It is not possible to give a written colloquial form for each and every word, so it is absolutely essential that students pay careful attention to the teacher's pronunciation. The subtleties of the Tibetan language which have been touched on in the overview should not be thought of as insignificant. The speaker voluntarily uses these and other emphasis-markers for specific reasons. Students of Tibetan will never sound fluent without being able to take advantage of these subtleties. Extensive experience in conversing with native speakers is the only way to become proficient in the more complicated aspects of spoken Tibetan. It is my sincere wish that those who undertake the study of the Tibetan language do so not only for purely academic purposes, but for the purpose of gaining knowledge that will benefit oneself, others and the community in general.
Text Format The following format is used within each lesson: Roman numerals I., ll., ill., etc. represent section headings.
A, 8., etc. represent subsections within a section. 1.), 1.), etc. represent the next level of subdivision of a section. a.), b.), etc. represent the lowest level of subdivision of a section. This text contains 15 lessons, each of which is comprised of multiple sections that deal with specific grammatical structures that are supported by a set of sentence patterns followed by an analysis. Explanations concerning the main structure as well as other aspects of interest are provided. The numbering of sentences within each analysis section corresponds to the numbering of the sentence patterns within each corresponding lesson. However, when an additional sentence that does not exist in the text is required to clarify the subject matter, it is marked by (a), (b), etc.
In each sentence pattern section parts of several sentences are set off in bold font to emphasize the focal point of the construction. The grammatical sections are followed by colloquial conversations, each of which incorporate patterns introduced within the particular lesson. These are provided to reinforce the structures in a natural way. Related information of interest is included as additional information under the heading of general knowledge. Following each lesson a short exercise practice is provided to help students reinforce their understanding of the various structures and items introduced. In the final section a vocabulary list is supplied to prepare the student for the next lesson. At the end of the text answers to the exercises are provided.
Key of Symbols Tibetan words placed within a [ ] : The colloquial spelling and pronunciation of the word; e.g., Ill~~·=[~] or&!~·=[~~·].
XXIII
Colloquial Tibetan
English words placed within a [ ]: a.}
Indicates the English noun/ pronoun is essential, even though one is not used in the Tibetan, e.g., i"~:flc:.~-~~·,·sl·~·i~ll [I] don't work in a store.
b.)
When a noun used in the Tibetan sentence can be translated by an English pronoun, the translation
of the literal Tibetan is placed in brackets, e.g., c:.qrl~c:.·lllQ]~·~·~:3\ -~~Q]~·ill"~~·c:.·g.~.~~ ·UTll We were in Lhasa when Ngawang wasn't there[in Lhasa). c.)
Additional information that is implied by the various Tibetan verb-endings, e.g.,
~'O.~·~~q,~~ This tea is hot. [having tasted the tea];
~'0.~-~~Uj~l This tea is hot. [which I made, bought, etc.]; ~-~~·[6'c:.·~·~ll]~·'J·~·~Q]~·s~·.~:~~Q] Nyima helped him a lot. [I was told by Nyima 's friend.] d.)
In the section headings, brackets are used to indicate the English translation, e.g., The
a,
construction .. :i!~ 'Ill"~~~~ ·~~"l~~·~s [How do you say .../ How would one say... ?]; or structural equivalent, e.g., The construction:(~·+ MVS +lift:_·~·/ f~·~·) [before+ Verb]. •
Additional information concerning some aspect of interest covered in the lesson.
Bold Font: a.)
Bold font in Tibetan sentences is used to emphasize the tocal point of the introduced construction, e.g., ilf"~·~~~·Q]·X..·~~l·
b.)
Bold font in English sentences corresponds as closely as possible to the bold font used in the Tibetan sentences, e.g., jlf"·1i)·~t:,~·~·~~1 His name is Nyima.
c.}
Bold font in the analysis sections indicates the same as above, or some important aspect of the explanation.
Tibetan words within a ( ): a.}
When the formula of a construction is being introduced, e.g., (o.r + MVS +lift:_·~·/ f~·~·).
b.)
The English pronoun is essential, but the Tibetan is optional, e.g., <6l·~c:.·)
Q)''-1:3\ 'Q]''J~ ~~~·'-~~1
'Where did you go?' c.}
In the analysis section, parentheses are sometimes used to distinguish certain parts of a sentence from another for explanation purposes, e.g., (jff"'Q.J'} lS~·~t:,:cr-q,~~ 'He has a lot of money.'
English words within a ( ): Grammatical categories; e.g., (attestative}, (simple past), etc. MVS: Main Verb Stem These are the key verbs within a sentence, e.g., ('iii'/ present or future form according to the structure.
XXIV
Sl'/ r:::j~ I
s~·). These verbs are in their past,
Author's Introduction
MVI: Main Verb Infinitive Form These are the key verbs within a sentence. The infinitive form of the verb is always followed by the particle~· or z::r, e.g., <s~rc.r I S~ ·"~·I l:l~~·"~· I .:!~·'-~·). These verbs are in their past, present or future form according to the structure.
AV:
Auxiliary Verb These verbs, (ul~·j X..~·j ur~·j a.~~·/ ~t:.'/ ~~::.·),can be used as either an auxiliary verb or a main verb depending upon their usage within a sentence.
sing. Singular (h.)
Honorific
pL
Plural
(nh.)
Non-honorific
Tibetan words with /: a.)
When placed between two or more verbs or conjugations it means 'and' e.g., ~~·j ~~·,~~·and%..~··
b.)
When placed between words, verbs, conjugations or structures this symbol means 'or', e.g.,
~·a.~~·j ~·~l·"~·X..~·
ifj"t:.'llJ'/ f~'Qj'
~~·j ~~··
English words with /: When placed between two different verb fornis it indicates that either form is appropriate, e.g., They study! arestudyingTibetan. b.) When placed between words, it indicates that a choice of more than one word is appropriate to translate the sentence, e.g.,' Are the students well disdpHnedl - . · c.) This symbol is used to mean 'or', e.g., even though it is the motherI father who is talking ...' - vowel sound is lengthened in colloquial Tibetan; e.g.,~::.~·= [t:.-], ngaaa. -~.:1~ ~·jQ.·is attached to the end of the previous syllable. a.)
Key to Linguistic Terms Attestative: first-hand knowledge of an incident; an eye-witness account of an event. Such statements are marked by the verbs ur~·j a.~~·, the conjugation ~·a.~~· and the verb-ending~~::.·.
Copula verb:
.
a verb whidt links nouns or pronouns; it is used in statements concerned with the identity or qualityof something. An example of identity; this .is a book. In this sentmce 'is' identifies 'this' as being' a book'. An example of quality; the sky .isblue. In this sentence 'is' identifies the quality of the 'sky' as being 'blue'.
Emphatic: the personal perspective which places significance on a personal aspect of intimacy or association between the speaker or the addressee and the object of conversation, e.g., e~·~~::.~·r:·~~~·~·~~~~· CJ~·1:i-Gl~·c.~~1 Is your father well? XXV
Colloquial Tibetan
Non-emphatic: the impersonal perspective which places significance on the subjective aspect of the statement or question, e.g., ~')·~~~·r:·~IIJ~·~·IIJ!IIJ~·Q~~')'r.l~ Is your father well?
End Point Verbs/ Telic Verbs: an action that has a completed state, e.g., once one is in an upright position the act of standing is completed and no more movement is involved. Some examples of end point verbs are: 'l)t1.1' 'sleep', Q~')·
'sit' and Q.J~· 'stand'.
Events of Speech: any clause which is tenseless, like English infinitival forms and gerunds, e.g., ~=;:~·Q!Q'IIj~·~~·'-1· t'l:r~J I went shopping. (~a;·q~q·IIJ~·... 'to shop- infinitival I for shopping- gerund').
Factive: a statement which is concerned with a particular fact, either personally known or generally known by all. Such a statement does not carry any implication of the speaker's evidential source. e.g., ~~'J'~')l That is a book [beside you].
Gnomic: a brief expression or saying concerning a general truth, principle or rule of conduct. The gnomic verb Uil)''J'~')· and conjugation ~·Ui')''-1'~')· are used when the statement is concerned with a topic that is common knowledge to all, a general truth, or an actual situation believed by everyone to be the case. e.g., Cll)'t1.l'~UI~·Cli')·'J·X.')1 There are yaks in Tibet.
Identification: names of people, places, things, professions, and ethnic or cultural affiliations.
Personal Association: a~ relationship or experience that exists between the speaker and
the object (a person, event, or
the object of conversation). The emphasis is on some point of intimacy, e.g., 'Jt''"l' Q.J'~·~·~~ "t1.liG"~~~· B')'~~~~·~~~~~ When I came to India in 1969 you were young. [I know this, we lived in the same
apartment.)
Impersonal Association: lack of any personal relationship or experience between the speaker and the object. The emphasis is on the factor information, e.g., 'JI''"t' Q.J'~·~·Il'J~·Q,J·Uj~·~~·a')·.J\~·~~·~~·X.')l When I came to India in 1969 you were young.
Reportative: information that has been acquired from a second-hand source. Externally acquired information may be obtained from a person, books, newspapers, television and other media, e.g., fic:::.~')'t1.1';~· ~~ll'JI
Q41\llj He went to Tibet. [I found that out from his friend.] XXVI
Author's Introduction
Simple Present Tense: in this text the term simple present is used to mean: 1. a habitual action, e.g., We sit here every evening. 2. facts that remain the same for a long period of time, e.g., I live in Tibet 3. feelings, e.g., I lil<e, I want 4. thoughts, e.g., I think, I know
Temporal adverbs: this term is interchangeable with the term adverbs of time, e.g., f·~c=.· 'yesterday', ilf~%~·~·f~·'ll·
'a year ago', ~-af') ·~·'-!:.;,· 'at five o'clock', etc.
Tense-based verbs: particular verb forms that express only one specific period of time, e.g., made (past), make (present),
will make (future}.
Time-based verbs: verb forms which do not express a specific period of time by themselves, but are subject to adverbs of time or the context of the conversation. e.g., c:.~c:.1f~·:rQ~·UI')1 'I am eating fruit.' 'I eat fruit.'
'I used to eat fruit.'
XXVII
Phonetic Introduction
The Tibetan Syllabic Letters I.
The letters
The term 'alphabet' is used for a system of letters which represents each distinctive sound in a particular language. The English alphabet, for example, uses separate symbols to represent various distinct consonant and vowel sounds (the letters 'p' and 't', forexamplerepresentthesounds [p] and [t] whereas, 'e' and 'u' may represent sounds such as [e as in, bed] and ["as in, umbrella]). The Tibetan system of writing, however, has no letters which represent distinct consonant sounds. There are letters which represent syllabic sounds like [pa] and [ta], but none which represent consonant sounds like [p] or [t]. Thus one could say that every Tibetan letter represents a consonant which posseses an inherent Ill!' [a] sound. Accordihg to Tibetan grammar, a consonant that does not carry the sound Ill!' [a], is lifeless (![~·~~) '). From this point of view the Tibetan alphabet could also be considered syllabic. The Tibetan alphabet consists of thirty letters called ;J'~'/ ~~C1.1'SI)'~ii'Z:J~'· Each syllabic letter has an inherent pitch or tone quality. The tone quality of the .simple syllabic letters is either 'high' or 'low'. Fourteen of the thirty syllabic letters represent syllables which have a high inherent tone and the remaining letters represent syllables with a low inherent tone. This is explained in section vm, page u. The thirty Tibetan syllabic letters and their phonetic values are given in the chart below. In the phonetic transcription, a line above the consonant represents the fact that the syllable has a high inherent tone, and an underline represents a low tone The symbol's' is used for the sound [sh]; 'ft' is used for the sound [ny].
Chart 1
~"~·s;·~~·~,·
The 30 letters in their traditional order
"1' -o·
n
~·
kha
~·
)sha
c::
~a
cha
ar
chha
~·
chha
~·
fia
~r
fa
~·;
tha
;·
tha
~·
na
z:.J'
pa
1.4'
pha
~·
~a
~·
ma
~·
fSa
a;·
tsha
('
tsha
llf
~a
~·
~
il'
.§.Cl
a;
!!
ur
ra
~·
ra
~·
la
'9'
~
~·
Sa
''f
ha
~·
i
Colloquial Tibetan
There are six other letters known as the six 'reversecf ·letters ~9·U)9·~9·· These letters are primarily used to capture the sounds of Sanskrit and foreign words that have been incorporated into the Tibetan language:
r· !:!" r· 'f" p-· e·
Note that 28 of the 30 letters represent syllables which begin with consonant sounds. Only~· [a] and~· [a) represent sounds which have no consonantal quality. These two letters represent basic vowels which only differ in inherent tone quality. the former has a high tone and the latter a low tone. The letter~· [a], because of its similarity to~· [aL is sometimes termed 'little-a' c~·~~·>· The letter~· represents a vowel sound in isolation, while all of the other letters (except~·) represent syllables which possess a consonant-vowel-and-tone quality.. According to Tibetan grammar tr;!·Sl·; lS~~·£;1~·, the four vowels are:[~·],[~·],[~·] and [iff]. These and [j. The inherent~·/ found in all the letters of sounds are repre;ented by the symbols [ ... ] .,..J the alphabet, is also categorized as a vowel by some Tibetan grammarians. 1 [
1
r]
1
Chart 2
The four vowel symbols
~s~~·~-a·~~~·
Symbol
Name
...
khighu
9·~~r
....
§abgyu
~£;)~·~·
-
dengpo
~~~·s·
naro
'1"~
...
A letter acquires a distinctive vowel sound when one of the above symbols is added. These symbols cancel the inherent~· of the letter, and replace it with one of the other vowel qualities. In the following chart, note that only the first letter, which carries no additional vowel marker, retains the inherent~· sound. The other letters acquire the sounds [iJI'], [~·],[~·]and [ll;.], which are marked by r"] khighu, [:.J §abgyu, ['] dengpo and [ -1 naro respectively.
Chart 3
Vowel ~·
~· ~·
"'
~·
ll;.
= = = = =
Sound [a]; e.g. father, cart [i]; e.g. eat, eagle [u]; e.g. shoot, boot [e); e.g. day, way, play [o); e.g. orange, orphan
XXX
Phonetic Introduction
II.
Places and manner of articulation
According to Tibetan grammar the articulation of Tibetan letters originates from eight places. They are fi~· CJ" stomach, ~~~ ''J' glottis, ~~·palate,~· tongue, ~·nose, ~;q top of the head,~ teeth, and ~~·lips. The letters which originate from the ~~~·l:J· glottis (glottal),~· nose (nasal) and ~;q the top of the head are considered to have hard sounds. The letters which originate from the fi~·l:J· stomach, ~~·palate (palatal), 'ftongue and~ teeth (dental) are considered to have lighter I soft sounds. The tongue is the main instrument in forming sounds and the palate is the place where most sounds are formed. When reading about the following points of articulation, please refer to the diagram below. A sound in the ~·~~ "'J" glottis is made by the subtle opening or shutting of the space at the upper end of the wind pi~ between the vocal cords. The Tibetan term~~· includes, according to English, three distinct places of articulation in the palatal area .. The Alveolar ridge is just behind the upper front teeth. Sounds formed there are produced by placing the tip of the tongue on or near this region. Palate is the hard portion of the roof of the mouth. Sounds formed there are produced by placing the middle of the tongue near this region, these sounds are called palatal Velum is the soft portion of the roof of the mouth behind the hard palate. Sounds formed there are produced by placing the back of the tongue near the soft palate, these sounds are called velar. ~, dental sounds are produced by placing the tip of the tongue on or just behind the upper front teeth. ~~·,labial sounds are produced by bringing both lips dose together. Both the nose and the tongue are important instruments in the formation of proper sounds. The tongue ~· is divided into three sections; tip (~), middle (~~~·), and root (~). When a nasal ~· sound is produced the velum is raised against the back of the throat, allowing no air tb escape through the nasal passages.
1. (a) Alveolar - "']~· 3. Labial - ~~· 7. Stomach - fQ]"'J"
(b) Palatal - ~~· 4. Dental-~
8. Top of the head -
(c) Velar - ~~· 5. Tongue - ~· ~;q XXXI
2.Nose- ~· 6. Glottal - ~~~ "l:J"
>< >< ~
~
"'!
~
n
.Ji
~ 9i
~
.2
_.94
~
~
.s
.JiJ
.JiJ
Jl
2!2
~n
.2
Ii
1,~
~
~
.w ~
~
~
681
'8!
~
n
~
.2
.sn
~~
~
~
~
.J1
n ~ JJ.i
~ ~ l'J2}
Ll
~
Ii
~n
)4
Ii
Jt .2
.J1
~
.2
~
JV ~JJ.i
~
_.94
~
681
~
~
'8!
~
n
.Ji
Ii
~
Ii
.Ji
_.94
_.94
_.94
~
~
~
.J1
JJ.i
~
n
6i?
~
1!! Ll
_9i
ai
~
~
~
_.94
m, m, m, m,
~
,
.ti
ClJ) ..J'I
~
~ ...91
el!l
~
ClJ
..J'I
~
__fi' _.94
__fi' _.94
/1
§
::t.
~
::t.
~
i
!a. ~
;
1
& _,.
19i
w
J!!
_.=to
n
n
...J1
4
~
-1!
~
~
~
.Ji
n
.Ji
n
Ji' __w
.w-1 .w-1 -dJ -dJ
~
~
.J1 ~ .J1
'1JJ.il
__.ri
~
.q
...dV
.J1
)4
Ii
n ~ JJ.i
_.94
~i
~
~
..J'I
~
.J1
~ .J1
dtB'
_.=to
--9!
.q~
~
(lJ!?
dtBl JjJ
~~
--9!
~
--9!
.Jl.?
ClJ
1!!~
.Ji
,
~
~
.q
-dJ
n
.Ji
~~
~
_.94
.B
~
..J'I
JJ.i
~
.q
~
JU
.-...
.dl
~
.....91
.II!
Jl!.
8!.
d!o
-
~ .J14
£, £, uY
----
~
l:!
.&;
.q
I:
Ll
n
Ji'
)4
~
681 ~
'8!
I
1 1iJ
:f
~
dt~
--9!
~
,
'-'
r.
Ji _.94
.J1
~~
.a
E.
~I .-...
...91
..J'I
.1!!
...:1!
.
~~
~
dtB' Jl'
~
~
-- -
3 .... J!!i ~ .Ji
-dJ ~~
~
.w-1 r j -dJ .J1
~
Si~
~
n
.Ji
~
681
~
a-
--
61i' ~ ~i
dtBl JjJ
~
3
~ --9! '8!
01>
-- --........ .e-.... - --
~
Jl!
8!
d!
.q
-dJ
n
.J1
~i
6ti'
dtB' JjJ
--9!
-~
~
~
Ji
4
-
.....91
Ji
:'_Ai
....JI ~
,
~ .-...
...li!
~
~
)~
-
4ll2
Ii
.....91
2.l @
n
.Ji .Ji
.B
.2
6tj I! .-...
dtR' JjJ
~
_.94
- -....
~
~
- -
4
..J'I
~
"-:1i
...JN
811 .!!
4
"-:1i ~ ..J'I
-
I
I
i
~I ::t.
!.!
I...
(")
!a.
~ ~
•
J!!
_,.
~ e!J. .A
2)
·-----
1
...JN
___ j
§
~~ & ::t.l
.192!
<=i'
4 .!!B. ..» Clil ..J'I ...91
~
4
!I
..J'I
4
ClJ) ..J'I
~
~ ...91
el!l
~
~
::1
Dl
1""1
E. ~
1:1"•
Dl
a..
g
&
o-i
......
0
~
i»
~
fi
0
< ~.
t1)
:;:.
-~·
~
t1)
....
~
::r'
(")
:::::
.... §
II>
o-
~
a
.8s:::
g
Phonetic Introduction
The following is an English expanded description of Chart 4: 1.
ka
fl" k,ha
Syllables:
..,.
Root:
cl.l~3\ "tJ" Glottis
Action:
The back of the tongue is against the soft palate.
c::nga
The pronunciation of ~:;.· differs as it is nasalized, first the back of the tongue is raised obstructing the oral cavity and then it is released. Syllables:
IJ.I"
a
1· ha
Root:
cl.l'al~ "tJ" Glottis
Action:
(a) IJ.I" -A high pitched unaspirated sound formed in the glottis. The air stream is first stopped and then released. (b) 1· -- A high pitched aspirated sound is formed in the glottis. The air stream is first released and then stopped.
Syllables: Root: Action:
-o· Cha -'l1~ · Palatal (hard palate) (a) -o· a;· ~·-The surface of the tongue Gust behind the tip) is against the hard palate.
-'
(b)~·
-The middle of the tongue touches the hard palate, it obstructs the oral cavity before it is released producing a naSal sound. 3.
4.
5.
Syllables: Root: Action:
~r ta er ilia ~· tha ~· na ..r,~ · Alveolar I ~ Dental In the case of ry·, er and~· the surface of the tongue (just behind the tip) is in contact with the ridge of the upper teeth, with ~ · it touches the back of the teeth. The pronunciation of ~ · is nasalized.
Syllable: Root: Action:
~·la
Syllables: Root: Action: Syllables: Root: Action: Syllable: Root: Action:
..r,~ · Alveolar I ~ Dental The surface of the tongue Gust behind the tip) slightly curls and articulates against the alveolar ridge. tJ" pa
lei" pha
'3" ~
~r
ma
cJ:a)' Labial "' upper lip articulates against the lower lip and the flow of air is stopped momentarily. The t::l" has a low pitch which vibrates in the glottis. cl.l" is slightly nasalized.
~·
tsa
a)•
tsha
(• tsha
~~· Alveolar The surface of the tongue Gust behind the tip) is in contact with the ridge of the upper teeth. ~·~
~ Dental
There is a slight gap between the front surface of the tongue and the ridge of the upper teeth. The air which escapes through this opening is so small that friction is produced (similar to a slight whistling sound). ~·is low pitched which originates in the glottis. XXXIII
Colloquial Tibetan
6.
7.
8.
Syllable: Root: Action:
CZS' ~a
IJ~'
Labial The lips are first rounded and then open. The vocal tract is semi-closed.
Syllable: Root: Action:
~·.jet
Syllable: Root: Action:
~·A
"!~· Palatal There is a slight gap between the middle surface of the tongue and the hard palate. ~ air which escapes through this opening is so small that friction is produced (similar a slight whistling sound). The tongue is slightly lowered and a low pitch which vibrat in the glottis is produced.
&l~~·cr Glottis The mouth is opened before producing a low pitched aspirated sound. This sounl
originates from the glottis. 9.
10.
11.
11.
Syllable: Root: Action: Syllable: Root: Action: Syllable: Root: Action:
Syllable: Root: Action:
~·
ra
"!~· Palatal The middle of the tongue moves towards the hard palate causing the vocal tract to1 become semi-close. This sound originates in the glottis. ~·
ra
"!~· Palatal (hard palate) I tl~ A vibration felt at the top of the head] The surface of the tongue ijust behind the tip) moves towards the hard palate region, but does not touch it. A very slight and delicate vibration is produced, not a strong trill.
-
Sa
if Dental There is a slight gap between the front surface of the tongue and the ridge of the upper teeth. The air which escapes through this opening is so small that friction is produced (similar to a slight whistling sound). ~·is high pitched.
The pronunciation of the four vowels: Vowel: ;,. [i] Root: &I~~ 'CJ' Glottis Action: The sound is formed in the glottis. The middle of the tongue rises momentarily towards the soft palate. When~· is pronounced the mouth is opened wide, whereas with;,. the mouth expands slightly, as if starting to smile. XXXIV
Phonetic Introduction ~·
Vowel: Root: Action:
[u} Labial This is a deep glottal sound which is articulated with rounded lips. A slight stream of air is emitted from the vocal cords.
Vowel:
~·[e)
Root:
a\1~~ 'z:J' Glottis The sound is formed in the glottis. The back of the tongue rises momentarily towards the soft palate. While pronouncing~· the mouth expands slightly, however when pronouncing~· the mouth stretches slightly further as if one were smiling.
Action:
Vowel: Root: Action:
&!~·
lJf [o) a~~~·
Labial This is a deep glottal sound which is articulated with rounded lips. The vowel ~· is articulated with lips that are held slightly closer together, while the vowel iii is articulated with lips that are slightly more opened and rounded.
III. Phonetic Qualities of the Tibetan Letten According to English Phonology Chart 5 PHONETIC QUALITY
ROOT
LOW TONE
HIGH TONE unaspirated
aspirated
aspirated
jll' kha chha
E:' chha
Velar Palatal Alveolar /Dental Labial
,. ka ~· cha r.~·
~-- f.lpa
'4' pha
"' tha &;!'~
AFFRICATES
Alveolar
~tsa
a;· tSha
e::·
l§ha
Dental Palatal Glottal
~·
~·
.iii
FRICATIVES
STOPS&: NASAlS
ar E!'
~·
kha
ffia
Sa
~· ia
,. ha
~·!a
Palatal Labial
u.r
ya
9f
~a
LIQUID
Alveolar /Dental
~·
.la
TRILL
Palatal Vibration
~·
ra
VOWELS
Glottal
c:a.·
a.
GLIDES
~·
i
XXXV
unaspirated ~·~
~·
na
~·
na
~o~·ma
Colloquial Tibetan
Notes:
1. Stop:
Blockage of the airstream in the oral cavity. 2. Nasal: The oral cavity is completely obstructed and the velum (soft palate) is raised against the back of the throat, no air can escape through the nasal passages. 3. Affricate: The airstream is stopped and then released slightly so that friction is produced. (Stop + fricative) 4. Fricative: A nearly complete stoppage of the airstream. The opening through which the air escapes is so small that friction is produced. 5. Glide: Semi-closed vocal tract (any less constriction would produce a vowel sound). 6. Trill: Sound produced by rapid vibration of the articulator resulting from air passing quickly over it. 7. Liquid: An obstruction is formed by the articulators, but it is not narrow enough to stop the airflow or to cause friction.
The above definitions of phonetic qualities are based on the Sixth Edition of Language Files, Materials for an Introduction to Language&: Linguistics, Department of Linguistics, The Ohio State University.
IV. Pronunciation: Practice Drill The following exercises should be practised with the cassette tape: (1) Pronounce the following groups of letters. They may sound similar in the beginning. Practice them until you are sure of the sound differences. 1.
Ill'
(Zl'
Ill'
6.
2.
'0'
a;·
E:_'
7.
""' il'
~·
3.
ry'
~·
C)'
8.
~·
1'
4.
~·
q·
9.
~·
QJ'
5.
~·
"'as·'
('
10.
~·
~·
4' ~·
~·
(2) Read the following letters out loud. First read the rows and then the columns.
,.
Ill'
(Zl'
1'
Ill'
~·
~·
QJ'
~·
~·
ur
fl'
E:_'
~·
~·
~·
~r
q·
('
'0'
~·
4'
~·
'4'
~·
il'
~·
~
a;·
as·
(3) Read the following 30 letters with vowels:
~-
~·
~·
~·
"
~·
-a·
i1f
~·
rs·
~·
ii- ill'
~-
~·
!if
~
%·
~·
~·
~
a;·
~·
~
XXXVI
il·
"
Phonetic Introduction
~·
~·
1f !f if
<'-
~·
~
it
~·
~
Q.·
~·
~·
~·
~·
~·
Q'
(l·
i)·
~·
"'~·
(• ......
il' ......
'(· ~·
"'
"
~·
:1\'
~·
il·
~·
i:.t·
"
"
,.
(-
~·
..,...
:1\'
~
q· %'·
~·
~·
~
~·
~·
~·
~·
~·
\
~·
~·
~·
~ ._. "\'
~· ......
~·
~·
z;J'
~·
z;J'
~·
~·
t.f ¥-
~·
~·
~·
~·
"czr
~
~·
~·
"'~·
a.·
cq·
UJ'
ur
ar
~
....
~·
~·
~
~·
~·
~r "'
...-
"'
a.·
,.
~·
"
~·
Qj' ......
~·
~·
~·
-
"
"
..,...
~·
"'
g. ..,...
~·
4'
iii-
(4) Read the following words:
1'fl'
~·~·
alphabet parents
V.
~·
~:,·g.
person
we
~·
4'
~·
1:.'
~
~·a;·
who
meat
hill
I
teeth
place
a.·~·
"\'a)'
if
F
~·~·
~'4'
milk
sickness she
~·~· paper
life
fish (meat)
"
._.
~·~·
~·
~
mother
water
curd
he
The Seven Elements of Tibetan Word Formation
Chart 6 shows how Tibetan letters can be combined to make a word. The particular placing of these letters is referred to as elements. There may be as many as seven elements in a complex word, however, simple words may use only one or two.
Chart 6
The Seven Elements 3 Supetined letter
5 Prefix--~
~ ~ 9 - - 7 Post-suffix
""-6 1 Root letter
Suffix
"2Vowel
4 subjoined letter
(1) Root Letter:
All the basic syllables, from 11r (ka} to~· (a), can occur as root letters.
(2) Vowel:
There are four vowel signs, they are written above or below the root letter:
XXXVII
Colloquial Tibetan
~r
~·
"&)• -----
~bgyu
~·
a·
~·
~~r:.·s·
dengpo
~,.
~·~
naro
;:
~·
1.
~·~r
khighu
2.
~l;J~·~·
3.
••
-
-----
----~ ----~·
F"
(3) Superjoined: There are three superjoined letters,~.-, Ql", and~·. They are superjoined in the following cases, respectively: 1.
~·
2.
Ql"
3.
~·
"J"
~
~·
~·
t• f
~·
~·
~·
~·
If ¥" t• 'l"
'!" 1\" 1:!" 1"
~·
~·
~·
~·
'if
!" 'I"
~·
~·
~·
tr
ff JJ" t•
l)ll" '1"
There are four subjoined letters, ur, ~·, Ql", and~- They are subjoined in the following cases, respectively:
(t) Subjoined: 1.
= = • = •
u,r·
2.
~·
3.
Ql"
••
'if
(5) Prefix:
= = -J = • = •
~
(1) Post-suffix:
~·
rs· 1.9"
,. rr ar sr
~r
~f
s·
5"
§"
s· s·
51" i"
~·
II]"
•••
'i"
~· ~·
"!"
~
ff
af"
~·
s·
~·
!:!"
!{"
5"
~·
.,.
~·
~·
~·
,.
•
There are five letters that can occur as prefixes:
II)" '\" (6) Suffix:
~·
IIJ%~· '\"1~· ~·
_e.g.
q• &1" ~·
There are ten letters that can occur as suffixes: _e.g. IIJ" r:.· '\" ~· q• &J" ~· ~· Gf 41'
-----.
~%11)· ~r:.· ~·· ---- -.
There are two letters that can occur after the suffix, as post-suffixes: _e.g. '\" l;J~~"· Ql~·· Qlt:.41"---- -.
...
A
How to Identify the Root Letter
1.
A word that consists of a single letter: as in (a) below, that single letter is the root letter. A word that consists of two single letters: as in (b) below, each of those letters is a root letter:
a.)
c:.·
~·
~·
a;·
u,r·
I
fish
meat
pair
single
.,.
~·
~·
soil
tea
mouth
,.,. father
XXXVIII
II" mother
Phonetic Introduction
b.)
1
3.
"rrr
{)'CJ'
{)'4'
~·~·
r.r~·
alphabet
fisherman
fish (meat)
mother
parents
'l'i;'
l.d'Ul:
place
stepfather
A word that consists of two letters in one syllable: the first letter is always the root letter: ~!J·
~41J·
~~~·
,~.
qa~·
needle
wool
butter
listen
message/ answer
qaQ]'CJ'
~r:::.r
~c:z:.r
hand
Buddhist
house
A word that consists of three letters: if the last letter is a suffix (except 'I' when preceeded by Ill'"'~· or IS'), then the middle letter is always the root letter:
a.)
b.)
!JITJQ]'
!J~c.·
~~~·
Ill~~·
~~~·
stop
send
say
carpet
plant
~~~·
~1111.1,'
~"~:r:.~·
II)a&~·
sky
like
new
Qj'IQI=liclear
right
If the last letter is 'I' and the middle letters are 111""'1:1' or Jf, then the first letter is always the root letter:
t
5.
~Qj~·
PI~~·
obtain
Eastern Tibetan
A word that consists of four letters: the second letter is always the root letter: ~.-~~·~.-~~·11.1·
~'IQ]'-1'
sometimes
earn
A letter combined with a vowel, except for Q.· and a:, is always the root letter:
~·
~·
~·
rr-
~·~r
people
boy
that
he
girl
Q]C.~·~·
~·~
ir~c.·
Q]•~~=lf
~~Qj~·
mountain
those
public
body
sit/stay
~~~·
Ui"l:)·
cq~·
X-I:)·
seven
have
to be
to be
"'
"''
XXXIX
"'
Colloquial Tibetan
6.
A letter which is superjoined is always the root letter: "!1::.''-J'
,~~·
~~:r:r
~·
~·~~~·
leg
iron
dry
five
relatives
'J,'J~·
~·~~·
,~·if
~·~·
~Cl"•"l1Q1"
key
sour
Lhasa
chair
accomplish
7.
B.
"'I
A letter which is subjoined is always the root letter:
s·~
~Fir
tiC.'~~·
t.::J'SJ'
i~~·c:r
{::lilt:.'
hen
cold
elephant
school
friend
Losang (name)
~s~·,·
5
~~~·
i~::.·~a~·
summer
round
become
~c.·~~~· fan
city
Change of Pronunciation with Superjoined letters
~~q;:~"·ar"·'J~·~"·~~~·~r~""~·~~~·~Qll ~~~~~·~~~~~· the three superjoined letters are:~· e~~· 'I' These superjoined letters fall under three categories of pronunciation: a.) b.) c.)
those that retain the letter's original sound; those that acquire a deeper tone; those that acquire a higher pitch
1.
~·~~~(~)can be superjoined with only twelve root letters
a.)
The letters that retain the root letter's original sound are:
"1'ka b.)
t' jha
gha
~· bha
c· zha
~: fia
~· na
11· rna
a.)
~· dha
The following letters acquire a higher pitch and become nasalized: ~· nga
2.
~tSa
The following letters acquire a deeper tone and the sound of the root letter changes: ~·
c.)
;·fa
~·
~·
~·
~·
The letters that retain the root letter's original sound are: ~·
ka
~·
pa XL
2j'
~·
Phonetic lnlroduclion
b.)
The following letters acquire a deeper tone and the sound of the root letter changes: ~-
c.)
ea
~-
~-
jha
2i.
d.ha
bha
The following letter acquires a higher pitch and is nasalized:
!' nga d.)
The letter ~·is an exception. When pronouncing this letter the part of the tongue just behind the tip is placed at the back of the alveolar ridge forming a hollow space which creates a slight whistling
sound. The letter~· is pronounced with a distinct high pitched r;;· sound: S.
11'
fll'
~·
The letters that retain the root letter's original sound are: tj"
~· ta
b.)
pa
The following letters acquire a deeper tone and the sound of the root letter changes:
11· c.)
lha
'1'11lf (•) can be superjoined with only eleven root letters ~·
a.)
~·
ea
~·
!f. bha
d.ha
The following letters acquire a higher pitch and are nasalized:
t:'
!' nga
~- ila
ita
·~· rna
In summary: L
The following letters when joined with a superjoined letter always change to a 'deeper' tone: ~· ~· ~· q·
2.
The following letters when joined with a superjoined letter always change to a 'higher' pitch that is nasalized: ~:;.·
C.
t:
t)'
~·
II'
Change of Pronunciation with Subjoined Letters
a.~~~·~~ ·Cli'') ·r.~a. ·~"·~~a. '1!'~'1"~·~ X. ·~Qll ~~~41·;s~·~~· the four subjoined letters are:
L
arq~~-.· ("~:f)
-~r
~-
can only be subjoined to se~en root letters: ~-
s·
~·
Letters formed with aa·q~~-.· are divided into two groups:
xu
Colloquial Tibetan
a.)
~· kha,
When ar is subjoined to the letters
the basic sound of the root letter remains the same, becoming:
b.)
When cq· is subjoined to the letters
pa
'J'
1:4'
pha
'l' ~
~·
ma,
the sound of the root letter changes. The root letter with the subjoined ~ takes on the sound
1
of the following letters:
o' cha
as·
chha
~·
_chha
~· ~a,
becoming:
s·
,. chha
s·
chha
er
'J'
pa,
~·1:3~~~· (-J)
cha
~a
can only be subjoined to thirteen root letters
!!]'
rs·
~·
51'
~·
:r
!:i'
9'
~·
!!'
s·
Letters formed with ~·q~~41· are divided into three groups: a.)
b.)
ka
fa
When ~· is subjoined to the letters
111'
they become tra:
!!]' t:a
5' tra
!f tra
When ~· is subjoined to the letters
fl' kha
~·
'I'
they become trha:
19' trha
1' trha
!' trha
When ~·is subjoined to the letters
~· kha
,. tha
'l'
they become trha:
~·
trha
s·
trha
9· trha
When ~· is subjoined to the letters
~·
na
~·
ma
~·
~·
tha
pha,
e_ha,
Sa,
the root letter does not change, the sound remains the same. X.· is subjoined to these letters solely for the purpose of spelling:
!f Sa c.)
When
x.· is subjoined to the letter 1' the tongue curls and one pronounces a high pitched half ril
sound with a slight whistle: 3.
QI'C3~~41· (.) a~·
5 · hra
can only be subjoined to six root letters:
sr
ar
:t·
ar
~·
Letters formed with Ql'q~~_,. are divided into two groups:
XLII
Phonetic Introduction
a.)
~· kha
1· ka
When Ql' is subjoined to the letters
r:r ~
.z..• ra
~· 'Sa,
a high pitched <1f sound is produced. This sound originates from the back of the throat and is produced by touching the tip of the tongue to the hard palate:
1· fa b.)
II' fa
i' fa
i' Ia
When Ql" is subjoined to the letter~·, the sound changes completely; neither the root letter~· nor the subjoined letter Ill' is pronounced, instead a sound similar to, i.e.,~· dha is produced:
l
tf~~~~· 11]'
~·
tr~~~'l·
I' dha
( 4 ) can only be subjoined to thirteen root letters
llJ'
1'
~-
~-
fi'
~·
,.
~·
Qj'
"3'
,.
never affects the pronunciation of a root letter, however, it is still retained in the spelling of
certain words.
D.
Change of Pronunciation with the five Prefixes f~·~~~·!:!~·~·~~"~-~~~·~QI1
f~'Q.~~-~~· the five Prefixes are: ~· "' ~·
II'
a.·
Letters formed with prefixes fall under three categories of pronunciation: a.) those that retain the letter's original sound; b.) those that acquire a deeper tone; c.) those that acquire a higher pitch L
~~·a,~~·
a.)
The letters that retain the root letter's original sound are:
b.)
The following letter acquires a deeper tone and the sound of the root letter changes: ~~ dha
c.)
The following letters acquire a higher pitch and are nasalized:
~~ 1
a.)
~~
f\a
"~·a.~QI·
"11]
can only be used as a prefix for ten letters.
na
~Ul
ya
can only be used as a prefix for six letters I)~
~)"
I)CJ
I)~
1)01
The letters that retain the root letter's original sound are:
XLlll
Colloquial Tibetan
b.)
The following letter acquires a deeper tone and the sound of the root letter changes: 'l9
c.)
The following letters acquire a higher pitch and are nasalized: 'lt:.
d.)
~
rna
~~~
nga
The letter~· is an exception. When this letter is joined with the prefix 'l', the sound of the letter changes. ~q· is pronounced as a high pitched 9.(": ~~·
3.
a.)
~-.s·~~~· can only be used
q,
l:l9 ~~ cha
ka
1.1~·~~~· ~~~
CJ~ sha
tSa
~.i! ~
can only be used as a prefix for eleven letters
illll
ilt:.
ill!)
~~~
ill!) chha
~~~
o.!EI
il'9
~~~
il~ tsha
il£'1 ffia
~~~ ~
gha
nga
~~·~~~·
il~ dha
il( zha
il'9
na
~~~
fia
can only be used as a prefix for ten /etten
~Ill
~=
~~
~EI
~~
t:l."'
t:I.CJ
~~
~(
The letters that retain the root letter's original sound are: ~~
b.)
~~
The following letters acquire a higher pitch and are nasalized:
~~
a.)
~ry ta
The following letters acquire a deeper tone and the sound of the root letter changes:
lit:.
5.
~~
The letters that retain the root letter's original sound are:
1.19 c.)
~~
q~ dha
lltzl kha I
b.)
~'?
The following letters acquire a deeper tone and the sound of the root letter changes: q9 ~
a.)
~~
as a ptefix for ten letters
The letters that retain the root letter's original sound are:
q1 b.)
wa
kha
t:l.a) chha
t:I.ES tha
t:l.rc! pha
t:l.~
tsha
The following letters acquire a deeper tone and the sound of the root letter changes: ~9 ~
t:l.~
j!!a
t:l.~ dha
0.~
:Qha
XLIV
t:l.( zha
Phonetic Introduction
In summary: 1.
The following letters when preceded by a prefix always change to a 'deeper' tone: ~· ~· ~· Cl' ('
2.
The following letters when preceded by a prefix always change to a 'higher' pitch that is nasalized: £:.' ,.
E.
~·
II'
Change of Pronunciation with the Ten Suffixes (4l·~~~~4l·!·~~r;4l·~~~·~~1
}'!~~~·~~~· the ten Suffixes are: ~· £:.' ~· ~· ~· II' ~·
x.·
~· 'I'
Tibetan suffixes are used for the purpose of spelling. Although they are pronounced distinctly when reading a text (e.g., l'TlX. =lf), in colloquial Lhasa dialect the pronunciation of words often change (e.g., '=i'Tl-4). As in English, the pronunciation and the spelling of some words do not follow any particular rhyme or reason, e.g., knee, knife, gnaw, wrong, brochure, bronchitis, picture, archeology, psychology, climb, often, draught, etc. the same applies to Tibetan. Students must not only take particular care in learning the correct spelling of words, but they must also learn the proper pronunciation of the various letter combinations. It is impossible to make any specific rules concerning the exact pronunciation of certain letter combinations, because the actual sound of the word is dependent upon a number of conditions; i.e., the prefix, the suffix, the superjoined letters, the subjoined letters, as well as the word that follows. Students should note that not only do sound changes occur by the use of the various suffixes (i.e., 11]', r:::, etc.), but even within the same suffix group more than one sound change may occur. The following is an attempt to present some of the sound changes:
1.
Sound changes produced by the ~· suffix are divided into two groups: a.) When a word consists of one syllable, the II]' suffix is silent; the vowel ~· carries a slight 'h' sound, which drops slightly in pitch and is drawn out, 111-, for example: l,l~'
.t:J~~·
.t:J1~'
b.) When the first syllable of the word is modified by a vowel in the second syllable, the II]' suffix with~· produces
~~=tr 1
the sound"'!~·, for example:
~~=tr
~~=tr
Sound changes produced by the£:.' suffix are divided into two groups: a.) When a word consists of one syllable, the c:.· suffix with~· produces the sound "''E:.'; This sound originates from the stomach and is shorter and slightly deeper in pitch than (b) below, for example: .t:Jry£:.' b.) When the first syllable of the word is modified by a vowel in the second syllable, the vowel ~· carries a slight 'h' sound which is drawn out before the sound of c:: is produced. The pitch of
XLV
Colloquial Tibetan "f-z::.· is slightly higher than that of !lilt::. This sound originates from the back of the throat and
is more nasalized than (a) above, for example: ~~:;.~
3.
The~· and~·
EIZ::.~
~~:;.~
suffixes produce similar sound changes, so they are grouped together. These sound
changes are divided into three groups: a.) When a word consists of one syllable, the I)· and ~·suffixes cause the root letter to have a sound· similar to the English long
'a', however, it is slightly accentuated and drawn out, _,.~.I .,.~.
This sound originates from the back of the throat, for example:
b.) When the first syllable of the word is modified by a consonant in the second syllable, the sound is similar to the English short 'e' (i.e., bat), however, the pitch is slightly higher and drawn out,
"f4·1 "f-41·. A slight vibration occurs at the back Qi the throat, the sound is nasalized and the second syllable rises very slightly in pitch, for example: Ill~·,·
~~·(J·
~f~"'J·
c.) When the first syllable of the word is modified by a vowel in the second syllable, the sound is similar to section (a) above, however, the difference is that the long' a' sound is slightly drawn out "f~-/
yq~-,
~f~~ t
for example:
Q~~~
~.,~
The ~ · suffix is silent causing the root letter to take on a short 'e' sound, similar to the English 'e' in 'enter'. This sound originates from the back of the throat causing the root letter to become higher in pitch, more nasalized and drawn out, "f-~·, for example: ~~·
5.
"11)~·
Ill~·
Sound changes produced by the q· suffix are divided into two groups: a.) When a word consists of one syllable, the
Q"
suffix causes the root letter to have a short 'u'
sound, similar to the American English 'u' in 'up', "fq·, for example: b.) When a word consists of two or more syllables, the stress falls on the second syllable and the Q. suffix causes the root letter to have a short 'u' sound, similar to the British English 'u' in 'up', "f-q·, and is higher in pitch than (a) above, for example: e~q·a)r::..
6.
a:,q·t.ll~l::..
EJq~·
Sound changes produced by the ~· suffix are divided into three groups: a.) When a word consists of one syllable, the~· suffix causes the root letter to carry a similar sound to 'um' as in 'come'. The sound of the vowel!~~!· with the ~· suffix is not drawn out, but is cut short, yq~·, for example: f~~·
"1~~·
Q~~·
XLVI
Phonetic Introduction
b.) When a word consists of one or more syllables, the~· is drawn out ~-ar, producing a sound similar to 'urn' as in 'umbrella', however, the pitch is higher and more nasal in tone, for example: fll~"t.l"
~ll"t.l"
CISII"t.l"
c.) When a word consists of one or more syllables and the o.r suffix is followed by a syllable formed with the vowel'>~>, the sound~~~· is similar to that of (a) above, except the sound curls and is deeper in pitch:
fii"S' 7.
Sound changes produced by the ca.· suffix are divided into three groups: a.) When the Cl." suffix is the last part of a word that consists of one or more syllables the sound of Cl.'
rises, becoming~·. This sound is not drawn out, but is cut short, for example: ~~-~fC\"
~I"~C)C\"
C)C!]C\'
b.) When the Cl.' suffix is followed by a second syllable, the vowel~· carries a slight 'h' sound. The sound of ~-4· rises in pitch and is drawn out, for example: ~1c:a.·C)~C:::·
C)"lC\'C:::Qj'
l;!'1C\'i~.
~c:::c:a.·~C)Cij'
c.) When the Cl.' suffix is followed by a second syllable with the vowel'>~>, the sound of "t-4' curls and is deeper in pitch, for example: l;!"l(\"Cl,~X,.
8.
In colloquial speech
the~·
C)1C\"~Cij·
C)"lC\"Qj~·
suffix is silent, however in literary it is distinctly pronounced. In this
group the root letter slightly rises in pitch and takes on a slight nasalized sound which is drawn out. Some examples are: 9.
Sound changes produced by the ~· suffix are divided into two groups: a.) As with x.·, the QJ" suffix is silent in colloquial speech, but is distinctly pronounced in literary. In this group the root letters take on a sound similar to the English short •e' (i.e., bed), however it becomes
nasalized and higher in pitch. This sound is formulated in the hard palate, for example:
Clj~~:cr-
~QI~
~~"fC:::"
~~·q
b.) In this group the root letters take on a sound similar to the English long 'a', the tone is deeper in pitch than (a) above, for example: ~~-f~·
~QI·x.~~·
~~·~~C)·
XLVII
~~-~~r
Colloquial Tibetan
F.
The Two Post-Suffixes ~"·~~l!l·l!l~~~·: ~· ~·
The post-suffixed letters do not alter pronunciation, they are only used for the purpose of spelling. The following is an example of a complex word. The letter combinations, and the pronunciation ol the different combinations is shown step by step:
Chart 7
root letter
prefix and superjoined
t:l!j" dra
t:~~·
subjoined
vowel
dru
VI. Reading Exercise Listen to the cassette tape and repeat the following words: (1)
~"1·
Ul~:cJ tJll)"
(2)
~~·
t:lryt:."
~c:.:cr-
(3)
(4)
~';· ~~~· ~r;.·
s~·
QJ~·..,·
.Jlfl~"tJ"
~f~~
c:J~t;.~
~,.
~~·
04~-ry~· (5)
(6)
(7)
~t:~·
[!lt:l"
Elt:l"
Elt:I~"QJ.Jl"
Ejc:J"a)t;..
~~~· c:J~~·
~El.Jl"
'i. :!).Jl"
~~~·
ll)ry.Jl"';.Q"
fl.Jl~"tJ"
..,.Jl"tJ"
Cfl.Jl"tJ"
4.Jl·s·
fl.Jl·s·
~.Jl·s·
~(.Jl"t:~"'mt:..
~a.·
'"'
lllJ~:cr (8)
~x;
4~·
XLVIII
=
c:J~t:~~·
drub
suffix and post-suffix
Phonetic Introduction
(9)
~cq·
II]~~~ !J~·F~·
Reading Practice: (1) Once a nomad went on a business trip to a village on the other side of the river. He took butter, cheese and meat to trade for salt. Before returning home he sent a letter to his wife:
~·, ·a~·il~ 1 I'm not sick.
II]Uo.lll]'~,,~ '1114
~·F~·~~~·~~~·1
The yak with the white tail died.
Come to meet [me] at the bank of the river.
Most nomads being illiterate, the person requested to read the letter had little knowledge concerning spelling and had limited practice in reading. Because of the way the letter was read, the nomad's wife became very upset. What was actually written in the letter and what the reader concluded was completely different
4
~·,· a~·il~l
11]"'111]'~'"1~'
lam sick. No salt.
All five yaks died.
~·F:r_· ,~.111~~1 At the edge of the river food for the deceased was burned (offered).
Thus one sees from the above example, if sentences are not read with the proper pronunciation, if the spelling is incorrect, or if the reader misinterprets a particular spelling then what is actually written and what is understood can be completely different. Listen to the cassette and then repeat:
(2) The following Tibetan proverb conveys a Buddhist attitude towards motivation: whatever one undertakes, if it is done with a pure heart (motivation), the result will be good (fruitful); however, if one acts with an impure heart (motivation), then the result will be bad. From a Buddhist viewpoint, the motivation with which ooe undertakes any task is of great importance, thus one will often hear this proverb used by spiritual masters. This is a practice in reading sentences which carry no vowels:
1 ~~i.I'CJ'~'l.,·~·~ ~·~i.I'UI~ ·~, 1
Cl~i.I'CJ'Cl.il ~., ·~·~ ~ ·~i.I'UI~ 'Cl.il~
If one has good intentions, one's stages and path will have good results, If one has bad intentions, one's stages and path will have bad results. (3) The following is a reading practice which incorporates all aspects of letter formation. It is the Buddhist refuge a!Cl~'Q.~ prayer. In the Mahayana tradition it is believed that without the great kindness of the spiritual master, a disciple would never be able to hear the teachings of the Buddha. Thus the refuge prayer recited by Tibetans, includes the lama (spiritual master), as well as the Buddha, the Dharma (doctrine) and the Sangha (religious community):
§l'i.l'~·aCl~·~·i.l~~ ~~~·~~·'li'!Cl~·~·i.l~~ i"~·~·aCl~·~·i.l~~ ~~·Q.~,·'lr!!Cl~·~·i.l~~ I take refuge in the Spiritual Master, in the Buddha, in the Dharma and in the Sangha. XLIX
Colloquial Tibetan
VII. Vowel Harmony (External Sandhi) In this section some examples of colloquial pronunciation changes that occur in certain words are introducelJ. No Tibetan grammar textpresentsspecificrules concemir~ the colloquial changes of pronunciation. therefotl I have made an attempt to present some hypothesizes based on English phonological rules. One must listen carefully to Tibetans as they speak and become aware of the subtle differences at prmundation. As one gets aa:ustomed to the way natives speak. one's own prmtme:iatioo will graduall)l improve. A. The following words are examples of pronunciation changes that occur in the first syllable due to the letter combinations in the second syllable. Remember that in literary, the final suffix of the first syllable is
pronounced distinctly. 1.
Words that consist of two parts, both of which carry a 'stop' sound ((pas in spillL [bas in billL [t as in s!illL [d as in gill), (k as in s!911) and (g as in pi)), in order to make the pronunciation easier, the articulation of the first of these neighboring sounds is pronounced as a 'nasal' rather than a 'stop', i.e., the~· in ~~· rab becomes II' as in [~II'] ram: tam-din
nun-ding 2.
Words that consist of two parts, both of which carry a 'stop' and a '&icative' ([sas in lUll), (z as consOnant sound can become more vowel-like (vowel lengthening) when S\llTO\U\ded by vowels, especially open vowels. In Tibetan when vowel lengthening occurs the suffix, such as ~·and ~·,are not pronounced distinctly, but instead the consonant takes on a long vowel sound:
in ,lebra) and [s as in 11\eajure)), the
se-po
sai-po 3.
4..
Nasal assimilation occurs when a nasal directly precedes another consonant. In this kind of combination the nasal commonly assimilates to match the following consonant during the time that the nasal itself is being articulated, i.e., the~· in~~· kun becomes ungas in (~c:.·j kung:
~~"'"1~'
kung-ga
~~·~·
"lc:.~s·
kan-dres
jic:.·~
pem-pa km-tso
A nasal insertion occurs when a nasal precedes a 'stop', 'affricate' ([ch as in dlill) and ij as in ,ielly)) Ql' a 'fricative'. In English the following changes occur, a nasal preceding [p) or [b), becomes [mL a nasal preceding (t1 [dL [ts1 [dz), etc., becomes [nL and a nasal preceding [k) or (gL becomes [ngya1 similar changes also occur in Tibetan. i.e., the~· in~~~"J' dun-pa becomes II' as in ~~~II"J'] dum-pa:
dum-pa
~~·~
din-tso
pan-tso
~·a·
bmda
L
Phonetic Introduction B.
The following exemplifies how verbal conjugations change in colloquial pronunciation:
~~i'llloq·l_"1 tep 1o pa reh.
khala sago reh.
~~i'lll'~'l."1
rs·~111···~~~~1
tep low gi reh.
khala suhgi yin.
~·
~·~~"·
nan
rs·~lll···"lf..·l."1
§"&t·~oqfoq~~~"1 trom 1a drondu yuh. §"&J·~oq§·~~~" 1 trom 1a drogi yuh.
§"&1·~-q§t..~"1
iiangkhi yuh.
trom 1a drutsi yuh.
VIII. The 'Natural' Classes of Letten According to tone, or accent, such as high or low, the letters of the Tibetan alphabet are categorized into masculine, neuter or feminine' classes •. The high or low tone of letters is due to the origin of articulation. Those letters which have a high tone are grouped as li masculine. Those that are sounded moderately are grouped &tfJ,r:.: neuter. Letters with a low tone are grouped as if simple feminine. And those possessing still a lower or softer sound are grouped ~~~·if very feminine. Letters which possess an even softer sound are grouped ~4&1' sub-feminine. The last'letter of the alphabet 114' is not oo1y categorized as ~4&1', but is also called~·~!"· genderless. The following Tibetan rhyme is used to memorize these grammatical divisions:
"""'1
L
lll'~ry·CJ·~·~~~~~~
1
F'iEi'~'l.4'aJ"II~I0.1
S
L
lll"~""·~·("if"'1
c. ...~·~·~~·'4t~~·Jil " 114fJ,"IIar~·ia"·~·~r:.·s11
b.
.ii""-""~'4"~'~11~·Jil d. .1:.'QI"; "114"ifll1411'~1
The following is the English explanation of the above rhyme:
1 1 S.
The 'masc:u.line' letters lll'~ry'CJ'~ are pronounced with a high unaspirated tone. The 'neuter' letters rs·a;·~·l.4'al' are pronounced with a high aspirated tone. The three types of feminines are refered to as 'feminine' because most of them experience sound changes according to the prefixes and superfixes. L
'Simple feminine' stops: II'J'~'"'~'("if"'' Any prefix or superfix cancels the aspiration and the letter aquires a deeper tone.
Other 'simple feminine' letters: .il~""'·4·~· The sound of these aspirated letters remain unchanged. c. 'Vezy feminine' letters: r:.~~·~~~· These unaspirated letters aquire a higher pitch that is nasalized. d. 'Sub-feminine' letters: .1:. ·~·r; ,.. This is a residual aspirated category of feminines. The sound of these aspirated letters remains
b.
unchanged.
LI
Colloquial Tibetan
4.
The 'nameless gender', the letter~·, which is inherent in all the letters, is categorized genderless.
The following chart shows the categorization of the 'natural' classes of the 30 Tibetan letters:
Chart 8 High Tone Unaspirated
High Tone Aspirated
(1) Masculine
(2) Neuter
rr =·£1.
~~r
-o· ~r
Low Tone Aspirated (3a) Simple Feminine ~·
Low Tone Unaspirated
(3c) Very Feminine
".
~·
~·
~·
~·
t.~•
1'4.
cr
~
a;·
'(:
~·
'ij"
~·
(lb) Simple Feminine
(3d) Sub-Feminine
~·
.q·
4.
a: . ur
~·
~·
~·
Ql.
IX. Categories of Tibetan Nouns
3. ;~·tQI·!II'r~·~~·a-~·
Foreir influenced
4. ~~·a-~"Q.gQI·Ir
·(half~~gn)
u~--------------~t--------------_,11 a. e·~~·t l;lqj~qj· India/ Nepal
b. ~~~·t if~:zr Orlna/ Mongolia
c. ~5~~~· Western
There are four types of Tibetan nouns: minimal, compound, foreign influenced and mixed nouns.
Minimal nouns are nouns which can not be broken down any further to explain their meanings; e.g.,~· fish,~· water; etc.
Lll
Phonetic Introduction
Compound nouns are nouns that are formed by combining two or more words. These kind of nouns can be further explained by breaking the words down into their separate parts; e.g., ~~il· (sky)+~· (boat)= ~~il·~· airplane, ~c:.~· (snow)+~· (hill)= ~C:.L'r~· mountain, ~~111~· (body)+ i~Efc:.· (visible)+ ~c:.· (air)+ ll.~~· (message)= !!]~ll]~·i~Efc:.·~c:.·ll.~~· television, etc.
Foreign influenced nouns can be divided into three groups: a. and b. those words which have been incorporated into the Tibetan language from neighboring countries; and c. those words which have been incorporated into the Tibetan language from western countries. a./b.) Tibet is surrounded by China, Nepal, India, Lhadak, Bhutan and Sikkim. These countries had a significant influence on Tibet, and in the same way, Tibet also contributed to them. The Buddhist religion which originated in India, had one of the greatest influences on Tibet. Famous religious Kings, such as Songtsen Gampo and Trisong Deotsen, sent many scholars to India to study, translate and bring the religious teachings of the Buddha back to Tibet. Nepal's greatest influence on Tibet was through their artisans and architects. The great architect Arniko was first invited to Tibet and then went on to China. It is claimed that he is the architectural source of the pagoda style temple. Some Tibetan busmessmen spent years in Nepal and in the same way some Newari (Nepali) businessmen spent years in Lhasa and other parts of Tibet. Newari silversmiths and goldsmiths were especially influential, they set up shops all around Lhasa. There was a close rapport with the Newari and Tibetan Mahay~/ Vajaryana sects, teachings were exchanged and incorporated into each other's traditions. China had both secular and religious ties with Tibet. They had a great influence on Tibetan cuisine, introducing such things as chopsticks and momos (Tibetan steamed meat dumplings). The Mongolians influenced Tibetan clothing, and Bhutan, Sikkim and Lhadak had their own influences on Tibet as well. In the countries of Mongolia, Bhutan, Sikkim and Lhadak Tibetan Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism spread far and wide. Even today Tibetan texts and language is used in their ritual practices. Thus throughout all of these areas one will find an overlapping of cultural and linguistic influences. c.) Up until1947 the English had a great influence in India. From 1904 until1947 they were virtually the only western country allowed to have diplomatic ties with Tibet. Because of the English stronghold in India, there were many well managed private schools that boasted a good English cirriculum. Children from aristocratic and well-to-do families sent their children to these schools for a broader education. In this way, a few English words started to appear in the language. Before and after 1947, a few other foreigners found their way into Tibet, then in 1959 the Chinese took over and many Tibetans were forced to flee. Gradually Tibetans started having more contact with foreigners. They were introduced to the modern world and various inventions, etc. Due to new ideas or concepts, words that Tibetans had no equivalent for were incorporated into the language.
Mixed nouns are nouns which combine both a Tibetan word and a foreign word. With so many Tibetans living as refugees in various countries, a mix of local words with traditional Tibetan ones have cropped up, e.g., ~c:.·"-f!i~·[~c:.·~·~llr]bicycle. ~c:.·means 'foot' in Tibetan, while ~·~~·~means 'wheel' or 'vehicle' in Hindi or Nepali.
Llll
Colloquial Tibetan
(1)
(2)
Minimal Nouns: soil
water
book
dog
Compound Nouns:
~~~~·illf~·~~"Cl.9~· body + visible + air + message
television
~~il·~·
airplane
i~·Q~'
movie
electricity + image
;r~C)~rr:l\·~ sound + collect + wheel
cassette recorder
Foreign Influenced Nouns: a. ';'l'~r week b. f6"~·~ chopsticks c. :1\·~"!1' radio
(4)
steam engine/vehicle
steam + wheel
sky+ boat
(3)
a~ "Cl.fi":1\.
~~· {~·~
sugar table
c.r~·
pass
holiday
dumpling with soup movie ~·1~· ticket
Mixed Nouns: ~~·~·~Ql' bicycle
~~·~:1\• rubber shoe (tennis shoe)
LIV
How to Write Tibetan Letters
'lr
rr
~·
~·
~·
a;·
~:
~·
ry·
El.
l.
~·
~·
zq·
z::r
~:
~·
ffi•
(•
.:r QJ.
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 1
~ Page L
The Factive Verbs Gl~·f~~· A
Positive Constructions tAl~·~~~·
B. Negative Constructions
tAl~· til~·
~~'/&!'~~·
Sentences (1) - (8)
3 3
Sentences (9) - (U)
3
5 6
n.
Gl~·f~~· Non-Tense Verbs " The "The BasicParticle Tibetan Pronouns
m.
The Habitual-Attestative Construction
8 8
~~~·
7
(MVS + 111·~·/~r/~~~~·)f (MVS + 111·~·~·~~~"Cl.~~·) lfo
IV.
Sentences (13) - (20)
Literary Tibetan Particles 111·~·~·/c\·t&l· and~ •
9 10
The Habitual-Gnomic Construction (MVS + 111·~·~·~~~~~·r.r~~·)
Sentences (21) - (25)
10
v.
Common Phrases for Memorization
Sentences (26) - (36)
VL
name?': vs. " LWhat isyouyourJS~~·}·~·f ~=~·~·] "Conversation
u u
&I~~·
&!~~·~·
13
Thank
A
Greetings and Personal Introduction Adverb rJ4C•.'/ [04~']
"• Information for General Knowledge The Greeting ~!!!·~~·~~·~~~1 Names of Some Places in Tibet
vn. vm. IX.
"Vocabulary
for Lesson 1 i;lr::.·i;~·~~:r-·r.~·
Sentences (37)- (45)
13 13 14 14
14 16 16
Exercises
18
Vocabulary for Lesson 2 i;lr::.·is'~·~~:r-·r.~·
18
Lesson 1 I.
The Factive Verbs~~·~~"·
A.
Positive Construction ~~·~~"· Sentences (1) - (I)
(1) a.
~~J:r4~·~~ ·~9~1
Hello.
b.
~~r4~·~~·~9~1
Hello.
~~·~"~·o.~~~·9·X.-tll~t1/l.~l b. "~'~"'ii1J~1;1;. -fil~t1/l.~, (3) a. ii"~'o.l~~·qrX.·l."l b. jff"~~r~~::.~·cJ.I·x.~,
What is your name? (h.)
(2) a.
(4) a. b. (S) a.
His/her name is Nyimf.
"Q.·~~::_·9·X.·X.C) 1
What is my name?
61::) ';1;.t:_·~·o.~~~ ·~ii'C)'~cJ.I~'I1J9~'x.C) 1
Your name is Sonam. (h.)
{11J'\1;1;.'11J9~1
Dolkar. (h.)
11J9~
b.
My name is Dolkar. What is his/her name? (h.)
1
Yes. (h.)
61::)';1;."'9'~~-Gl~l/X."l or
Where are you from?
61::) ';1;." ·~" 'lJ'9'~~-Gl~ 1/X.I::)1
What country are you from?
C.~1·~~-tll'llfX.11 ~~·61·;1;.r:.·9·~~·ar~1
I am from Tibet. And where are you from?
b.
r:.~~"l~-tll~l
I am from America.
(8) a.
Fr:.·9·~~·X.C) 1
Where is he from?
(ir:.·~·9;1;.'~~·x."1
He is from India.
(6) a.
b.
<7) a.
b.
B.
Negative Construction ~~·~~·
~"·f~·~"· Sentences (9) - (U)
(9) jff"·1il·&l~::. ~ 'cJ.I'II'l."J ~i;" ''1cJ.I~'11J9~·X.1 1
His name is not Nyima. [It] is Sonam.
(10)
I'm not from America. [I) am from Tibet.
"~~·~~·l)~t 2 J/II'X.~· ~"·~~·UI~JIX.1·
(11) jir:.·~'9;1;."l~'cJ.I'X."1 jir:.·~I1J~I1J''l~·X.C)1 (U)
r:. ·~iii:) ''lcJ.I~'I1J9~·~·~9~·lJ·&l~ 1 6" ';1;.C. ~·~9~'lJ-ill~ 1
1. ~'1·=~1 =('I~')
1.
il•,-
He is not from India. He's from Nepal. I'm not Sonam 's friend. [I] am your friend.
Colloquial Tibetan
The verbs &1'\ ·and~')· are two of the six basic verbs used in Lhasa Tibetan. These two verbs are introduced simultaneously because identification is their chief function. files,· and X.')· act as a copula. A copula verb serves to link the subject with the complement (predicate) of a sentence. These verbs are used in statements concerned with the identity or the quality of something, for example (a), My name is Dolkar. In this sentence 'is' identifies the 'name' as being 'Dolkar', and in sentence (b) 'is' identifies 'this' as being' a book'. In sentence (c) the copula' am' identifies 'I' as being' a student', and in sentence (d)' is' identifies 'he' as being' Tibetan'. Categories of identification are names of people, places, things, professions, and ethnic or cultural affiliations. In these contexts the term identification is used throughout the text (a)
c:"a·ilc:'j'lll'')1~ ~"'
My name is Dolkar.
(b)
~~·~Q'~')l
(c)
C:'iQ·~~-tq" l ~"~')'CJ'~')l
This is a book I am a student
(d)
He is Tibetan.
In statements concerned with quality, the copula verb identifies the quality of the subject, e.g., in sentence (e) 'is' identifies the quality of the 'house' as being' new' and in sentence (f) 'is' identifies the quality of the 'sky' as being 'blue': (e)
~c:·q·~~·~~~·CJ·~')l
That house is new.
(f)
~1\l.t'fCS,~~"'
The slcy is blue
The factive verb !i:l'\' is used in personal perspective sentences of identification:
I am a teacher. In the preceding sentence, the verb files,· performs two functions: 1.)
2.)
&1'\·
indicates that the statement is a fad, and that the speaker knows from first-hand knowledge that he himself is a teacher. &1'\· identifies the speaker's profession. It indicates that c:· 'I' is spedfically a teacher, as opposed to any other profession.
The factive verb~')' is used in impersonal perspective sentences of identification: He is a teacher.
In the sentence above, the verb ~-')'performs two functions: 1.)
~')'indicates that the speaker is stating a known fact about the third person
2.)
~')'identifies the third person' sprofession. It indicates that (fie:: 'he' isspedlicallya teacher,
as opposed to any other profession
4
Lesson 1 These two verbs occur in a number of different constructions, which will be explored in the chapters to follow. In this lesson, one should treat Ul~ ·and ~1· as near equivalents to the English verb • to be'. One must remember, however, that there are important differences between U:l~· and ~1· and the English 'to be'. The finite forms of the English verb 'to be' denote tense(isvs. was), person (I am vs. you arevs. he is) and number(/ am-sing. vs. weare-pl.). The Tibetan verbs U:l~· and ~~)"lack all three of these distinctions. We will return to this point in the note below on •U)~·/ ~1· Non-Tense Verbs.' Another point that should be noted is, there is only a slight difference in meaning between Ul~ ·and ~~·, this being essentially a matter of emphasis. This will be discussed in detail in Lesson 5. For the time being, however, the reader should treat these two verbs as near-synonyms and focus on their shared meaning. Both verbs have negative forms which are shown below:
Chart 1 Positive
Negative
(9)
ii"~~"~"cJ.l"lrl.l)l ~lil)"~cJ.l~·lll~~·z_l)l
His name is not Nyima. [It] is Sonam.
(10)
"Vf~~~~~, ~·~~-0;)~1
I'm not from America. [I) am from Tibet.
In the first three lessons, selected patterns of verb usage in question-answer pairs are introduced in a specific order. The reader should pay careful attention to the way in which the verb usage in the answer mirrors the usage in the question. 1t
Sl~·/~1)· Non-Tense Verbs
The verbal categories ofTibetan are organized rather differently from those of English. The English language is a tense based language. Tense according to Webster's New World Dictionary is: "any of the forms of a verb that show the time of its action or existence" Linguists further specify tense as a particular verb form that can express only one particular time Thus it could be said that tense is subject to time, but time is not subject to tense. In fact, every language of the world has time but not necessarily tense The English verb • is', speaks of and about only events occurring in the present, and • was' speaks of and about only events occurring in the past. Therefore, these verbs can not be interchanged without a change of meaning. If the verbal conjugations of a particular language follow this rule, the language is considered to be a tense-based language In Tibetan, however, according to adverbs of time or the context of the conversation, U:l~· and ~1· may be used to indicate a past, present or occasionally a future time. Though the time changes, the verb form remains the same. This being the case, the Tibetan language is a non-tense language, and as all non-tense languages, it is categorized as time-based In general, the same Tibetan sentence can express a past, present or on rare occasions a future time. Let us take the sentence below: What is your name?
5
Colloquial Tibetan
In the text, sentence (2) is translated as 'What is your name?' But, since the Tibetan verbs UI~·JX.~· by) themselves are tenseless, depending on the context, this sentence could also read, 'What was your name? or 'What is your name going to be?' Thus strictly speaking, sentence (2) a. should be rendered as follows:
6~ ·~t:, ~·&~a)~ ·~·X.~~ 1/~" 1 1.) 2.) 3.)
Whatisyourname? What was your name? What is your name going to be?
As explained, the Tibetan verbs Ul~·f~~· by themselves are simply non-specific with regard to the distinction between past, present and future tense. Even though these verbs do not bear tense values, it is possible to distinguish the past, present and future times by the use of adverbs of time or the context of the conversation:
f~ ·~r·6~ ·~t:.~·&~a)~ ·~·X.~~1/~"1 What was your name before?
~·~r:::'ft:.·6~·~t:.~·&~a)~·~·x. ~~~ ~~"' What is your name these days?
~~l!ft:. ·~ry&~·z::if~ ·~t:. '
•
The Particle Q1~4f· In sentence (S) the particle Ql~.,. is used in two different contexts: (S) a. {111'~"1~'Q1~'11 b. QJ~'I1
Dolkar. (h.) Yes. (h.)
In a.~~· marks politeness to the person being referred to; it shows respect to j"111~1~·. And in b. 111~~· is not used as a suffix to a name, but as a polite acknowledgement to the addressee. Here {111'~"1~· acknowledges that she has been addressed and is willing to engage in further conversation. In English, this type of response is sometimes communicated by ' Yes'. In summary the particle 111~~· can be used as: 1.) 2.)
a polite suffix added to names and titles a polite acknowledgement
Another usage of 111~~· introduced in this lesson is: 3.) a mark of politeness when responding to a statement or question:
(38) a. 6~·~t:.·~·~~~~·'l~~-tl.l~·:.~~1
Are you well? I How are you?
b. Ql~.,-tl.l~1 t:.·~~~~~'l~~·UI~1
Yes, [I] am. I am well.
In sentence (38), 111~~· followed by the verb Ul~ · is a polite affirmative response to the posed question.
6
Lesson I
response, Ql~~·~" 1I Ql~~·i!·X. ~1 is used. The informal affirmative response is merely negative is ~"1/ii·X-~1 The various usage of the particle Ql~~· is outlined below: iQl·~, ~ "Ql~'ll Ql~'ll = [~]
polite reference to the addressee
Ql~'I"Ul" 1/X.~ 1 Ql~'l·~" 11 i!·X.~ 1
polite agreement, affirmative response
Ul"1fX-~1 and the
polite acknowledgement of the addressee polite negative response
InooDoquial Lhasa dialect,~~· is pronounced as~] when used as a polite acknowledgment by the addressee.
II.
The Basic Tibetan Pronouns
Chart 2
Person
Nominative
Genitive
1st
""6"·~"·
"~·
2nd
honorific non-honorific
3rd
honorific non-honorific
e~·~"·
rr"· jir/if
I
you you
he/she he/ she
my
6~·~"·~· 6~·~"~·
your
Fl"~·
his/her his/ her
~·J &iQ.·
your
Although there is a distinction between honorific and non-honorific forms with second and third person pronoWlS, this distinction does not occur in the case of first person pronoWlS. There are no first person honorific pronoWlS because one does not use an honorific form for oneself. Gender distinctions are made only in the third person non-honorific form. Though it is correct to use the non-honorific pronoW\S 6~·~"· when talking to a second person and ~ or if when talking about a third person, one will find that if respect is given to the addressee i.e.,
a~·~"·trr"·, their response will be reciprocal. There are many different dialects in Tibet. Even though each dialect is acceptable in its own particular region, the scope of appropriateness is limited. The most widely understood of the dialects is~~·~· the Ulasa dialect. This book focuses on the Ulasa dialect in which both honorific and non-honorific forms are used. It is advised that students learn to use the honorific forms of noWlS, pronouns and verbs from the
beginning. I would like to quote two Tibetan proverbs:
il·~~~·z:~~~ ·~~~~~~~~·~~'~ 1
s"·~"·l'ol·il~·z:~~z:~·s·fll"1
It is through the kindness of our parents that we are advised on the following three modes: The manner in which to eat, reside and relate [to others/ work, etc.).
Ul"~z:~~·il·~z:~~·f~ "tJ~·~~, One comes to lcnow another's character by their behavior [good or bad}. 7.
Colloquial Tibetan What I would like to impress upon the student here is, just as parents teach children to respect others and act in a polite manner at all times, I, as a teacher, feel it is important for the student to learn the polite and respectful colloquial forms. In general, if one shows respect to others then one will be treated with respect in return. Thus as the author of this textbook, I advise students to make a concerted effort to learn the honorific words and forms from the very beginning, so one will be able to speak to all strata of people.
III. The Habitual-Attestative Construction (MVS ~·~·J!·J~!-Qf~)/ (MVS + ~·~·f!·J~!·~~~) Sentenoes {13) - {20) {13) a.
e·r~~"'l·q~·~.,·~-ar~l
Where do you live? (h.)
b. (14) a.
~~"·~·~~~·~ "1 1r" ·~·~·q~ ·~~~·~-tij""1 1r"·~·'l·~~.3~~"·~-tij""1
I live in Tibet.
6" ·~~·~ir~~Q·~i"" ·~-tij"" ·q~1
Do you eat tsampa? (h.) Yes, [I] eat tsampa. What do you study? (h.) I study Tibetan. [I] don't study Nepali. And what work do you do?(h.) I work in a restaurant. [I] don't work in a store. Where does your friend live? He/ she lives in Shigatse. What does he/ she do? [profession/work] He/ sbe works in a store/shop. Where do I live? You live in India, not in China./You live in India. [You] don't live in China.
b. (15) a. b. {16) a. b. {17) a. b. (18) a. b. {19) a. b. (20) a. b.
Where do you live in Tibet?
In Tibet I live in Lhasa.
~~~·~~'l'.J'ii'Q~·Uj" 1
a"·~~·~·x.·iQ'f"·~~"·~-tij""1
~~".~"·iQ·f"·s"·~-tij""1 ~~·~"·iQ'f~·s~·l~~~l ~~·a"·~~·~~·~~·~·%.·~~" ~-tij"" 1 "'il'fl" ~·~~·,·s" ·~-tij"" 1 i"".F"~·~~·,·s"·~·~"1 &~ ·~~ ~·~IIJ'I'l'.J'IIJ'l'.J~ ·~lll"'~'Q.~IIl 14~·~~~·,·}~ ·~IIJ'~'lt7.~11J F"·~~·~~·~·x.·~~~~'Q.~~ fir:::i"~·F~~·~~·~·~~"~'Q.~~ ~-~·q~·Q~"'~'Q.~~
a~·~~·~·~~ ·~·Q~~~·~'Q.~~ ~·~~·~·~IIJ"'~'~'Q.~II]
The habitual-attestative construction is introduced in this lesson: (MVS +the particle ~·~·~·jQ~' +the auxiliary verb Ui"·j~~~·). The conjugation~·~·~· I Q~-iij"" ·is normally used with the first person subject when talking about one's own habitual actions or events which are known to persist over a certain interval or to recur periodically. ~·Uj"· by itself does not denote any specific tense; this is determined by an adverb of time or the context of the conversation. Sentence (17) is concerned with a present habitual action: 3. lf'IX.' ("'-'is a dative particle • ~)Dative particles are explained in Lesson 6.
8
Lesson 1 (17) a. ~~-~~·;t,"·~~-Ql~·~·~-~~"~-Qj~l And what work do you do? (h.) b. "'il'fl"·~·QI-a·111·s~·~-ur~1 i""'fl"·~·QI-a'lll'S'1·~-~~1 I work in a restaurant. [I] don't work in a store. The same construction can also express a past habitual action:
A year ago I used to wor.kin a restaurant. In the sentence above the adverb of time, Qf~~~~'f~ 'Ql' 'a year ago', distinguishes the time of the event as being past. The normal usage of the conjugation ~·~·~'/l:l~·o,~~· signals that the speaker is giving an eyewitness account of a habitual event concerning a second or third person: (18) a. ~~·;t,"~-~~"·r.r~·z.J;t.·~~-a~·~~~
Where does your friend live?
b. f"'~~~''1J'~;t,·~~"·l~~~
He/ she lives in Shigatse.
In sentence (18), the speaker assumes the addressee knows G~';t."~·~~~·z.J· 'your friend' very well, and therefore feels he (the addressee) will be able to give an evidentially based answer. This being the case, the addressee has answered with the habitual-attestative conjugation ~·a,~~·· In this lesson, the normal usage of~·~·~·/l:l~·Uf~· with the first person and the normal usage of ~· ~·~·I l:l~·a,~~· with the second and third person are introduced. Please note that the habitual-attestative ~ -Uf~ ·construction can also be used in second I third person sentences and~ ·o,s_ ~ · in first person sentences, however, a change of perspective and emphasis occurs. The conjugation~-~· and ~-a,~~· constructions are further explained in Lesson 10. The negative forms of tht! ~-Uj~· and~-~~~- are shown in chart 3 below:
Chart 3 Positive
Negative
~·~-~'/l:l~' Cli~· ~~~·
(16) b.
"~~-~~·il:l·j"·s~·~·ur~l
I study Tibetan.
l:lQJ'');1~·iz:rf"·s~·l~~1 (20) b. ~~·;t,"·~·~;t.·QJ·l:l~~"·~·o,~~ ~-~~·Qj·~~~-a·~·i)·~~~
*
[I] don't study Nepali. You live in India, not in China./ You live in India. [You] don't live in China.
In this lesson, the five traditional literary Tibetan particles ~·~·~·~·;til· and the contemporary
particle l:l~' are introduced. The particular particle usage depends on the suffix of the preceding verb, e.g.,
~QI·~·, l:l~~-a·~·, ~~"~·, .il'l:l~·. The correct usage of these particles is shown in Chart 4: 9
Colloquial Tibetan
Chart 4
Suffixes/ Post-suffix of preceding verb A.
literary particles (formal)
'I"
~· ~· ~·
~·
~·
z:r
~·
~·
~· ~ B. With the suffix a.· or suffixless
Colloquial particles (informal)
I
~
('Q.·JS:!·]! 'l~·
a.·~~·~f:1Q."i:~·
The particles ~· ~· ~· fo,: JS:!· and 'l~· in literary vary according to the suffix and post-suffix of the preceding verb, however, in colloquia/the pronundation for all forms is~·. In literary the suffixes q· and tAl· were traditionally used with suffixless verbs, e.g., FJ·~~·.ill~·..., 'l~·~·c:a.~~· ... The great scholar Gendun Chophel after in-depth research and contemplation introduced
the particle 'l~·. This has become an accepted literary form and my professor, Ngawang Jinpa, follows this scholar's style when teaching Tibetan grammar, e.g., FJ·~~·.ill·~~·..., '1~·~-c:a.f~!·... Please note that in the analysis sections only the standard particle i:J· is used when the conjugations
i:J·LG'~·f!ll·a.~~·f!ll-tG"~·z:r~~· are explained in a general manner. When a specific example is interpreted however, then the particular particle is applied.
IV. The Habitual-Gnomic Construction (MVS + ~·~·f!·Jr:~lt£f;·r.~·~;) (21) a.
Sentences (n) - (25) Where does your friend live? (h.) He/ she Jives in Shigatse. (h.) Doesn't he live in Lhasa? (h.)
a~·~"~·l;~~·q·~·q~·~~~~ilj~·q·~~41
b. ii"·~~~·,·~~·~~~~·3·a!"~·q·~~~ (22) a. rr~ ·~·~~ ·'l~~~·r~·Ui~ ·q·~·~~ "CJ~1 b. ~~~·Uj~·CJ·~·~~11f"·~·~~·~~-a·
No, [he] doesn't. (h.) He doesn't live in
3ili~·q·•.r~~sl
Lhasa. (h.)
(23) a. "·~·q~·'l~,~·Ui~·CJ·~,l
Where do I live? You live in Nepal. (h.) Don't you live in Nepal? (h.) No, [I] don't. (h.) I don't live in Nepal. Where does H.H. the Dalai Lama live?(h.) H.H. the Dalai Lama lives in India. (h.)
b. 6~ ·~" ·'l~·~~·~·'l~~~·~·Uj~ ·q·~, 1
(24) a. 6~·~"·'l~~~·~·'l~lf1~·~·Uj~·q·~·~,·c.:~1
b. ~~~·Uj,·q·~·~~1 ~·'l~·~~·~·'l~,·~·i:~1 (25) a. ~~·l:;l·~'l:c:r~·~·q~·~~~·lUi,·q·~,1 b. ~~·'l·~" :c:r~ ·~·~~ ·~·'l~~~·~·Uj~ ·q·~~1 4.
s.
ilil) "(I"~". =(ililll·~" •] ili"\·l.l·&~·l.l)· =(iliiiJ·,rl."\·J 10
Lesson I Both the positive and negative forms of the habitual-attestative and the habitual-gnomic are shown in Otart 5:
Chart 5 Construction
Positive
Negative
Habitual-attestative
~·~:~·~~~· ~~·
Habitual-attestative
~·~~~·
Habitual-Gnomic
iii"~·~·~·~~·
The habitual-gnomic construction is formed in the following way: (MVS + ~·~·~·~~~· +
ilf1'CJ'X.1·).
Gnomic means a brief expression or saying concerning a general truth, principle, or rule of conduct. The gnomic construction is used when talking about things which are common knowledge to all, a general
truth, or an actual situation believed by everyone to be the case. This construction indicates that that which is being said does not specifically come from the speaker's first-hand knowledge. This construction can be better understood by analyzing how it is formed:
1.) (MVS + ~·tG'"1·) 2.) [(MVS + ~·i:G'"~·) CJ'] 3.) {(MVS + ~·Ui1·) CJ']
1.) 2.)
X.1·
The (MVS +~-tG'"1') construction in this context is habitual; it indicates a habitwJl action. that particular habitual state
The second section, (MVS + ~-tG'"~'CJ'), indicates that being talked about, ' exists'.
(ilf1'1'.J' means that a thing/ something exists.) 3.)
The third section, (MVS + ~·i:G'"1'CJ'~1'), is similar to the former, but here the verb X.1· states that that particular habitwJl state which exists, ilf1'CJ', is a 'fact', X.1·· (21) b. fl~·~~(ll'l1]'8~·~~~~·~-af~·~·~"f
He/ she lives (h.) in Shigatse.
In sentence (21) b., the state of 'he/ she living in Shigatse' ~~~·1·g~·~~~(ll·~-tG'"1'CJ', is a fact/ the actual situation, ~1·· The use of the conjugation ~·tG"~·CJ·~1· does not specificaJJy indicate how one has obtained thi.s factive information. In sentence (18) b., the same sentence with the exception of the conjugation ~·Q.~~· is used: He/ she lives in Shigatse. The English translation of both sentences is the same; however, the Tibetan differs in its mode of evidentiality. The conjugation ~·ilf1'CJ'~1· indicates that the sentence is a general statement, while ~·Q.~~· indicates that the speaker has first-hand knowledge concerning the topic of conversation.
11
Colloquial Tibetan
There are several Tibetan verb-endings which provide specific evidence concerning how the information was obtained, i.e., a.~~·, l:l~~·, ijc;.· and§"'· The verb-ending a.s_~· is explained in Lesson 6, ij"c;.· and a.~~· I~~~· in Lesson 13 and ~t;."in Lesson 13, and Lesson 18, Volume II. The negative form of~'Ul')'CJ'l.C)· is shown in the Chart 6:
Chart 6
Positive
Negative
(22) b. lll~~'Ul')'CJ'&~'l.C)1 ifrc;.·~·~~-~~~·'&ilf"'CJ'IJ'l."l No, [he] doesn't. (h.) He doesn't live in Lhasa. (h.)
Ql'.
V.
In sentences (18) b. and (21) b., the dative particle ill\: (~~~-,·gil\') is used instead of the dative particle (The particle ~·is equivalent to the particle Ill'.) The function of these particles is explained in Lesson 6.
Common Phrases for Memorization Sentences (26) - (36) .
(26)
e')·~c;.~·~~ar~ 'QI·~·l. -~-l:l~i!i" 1
What is your name? (h.)/ (lit.: What are you called by?)
<27)
r:.~·~c:.·QI·l;l~·4~·~~~·slll~:J:..·~ilf"1
My name is TashiNamgyal./ Iam called TashiNamgyal.
f" ~-~~ar~ ·QI·~·l.-~·~::~silf" ·CJ·l."1 f" ~-~~a)~ 'lll'.J'I::I'Ill~~·~·l;l~'Ul') 'CJ'l.C)1
Whatishername?(h.)/ (lit: Whatnameisshecalled?)
&~6~ ·~r:.·r:.&~61
Her n.une is Dawa. (h.)/ She is called Dawa. (h.) Did you understand? (h.)
;·ar~~-~"·1
[I] didn't understand.
(28>
(29) (30)
(31) (32)
Please say it again.
(33)
~c;.·~~-~~c;.·')c;.'71 ~-Ci;j~·8~~c;.·')c;.'
(34)
;·1ffiic;.·1
[I've] understood.
{35)
~~~·~·~91
Thank you./ Thank you very much.
(36)
~"~~-~~~lll-Uir:.·1
See you tomorrow.
Please say it slowly.
B')'
• In section I- A of this lesson the Tibetan equivalent of 'What is your name?' is introduced as: ~"~·~~a)~ ·~·l. ·U!~ 1· In this particular structure it is appropriate to use either the honorific &~a)~· 'name, or the non-honorific &Jc;.· 'name, with the verb of identification U!~·· When forming the same question with the habitual-attestative construction however, it is mandatory to use the honorific &~a)~· 'name,. The dative particle Ill' explained in Lesson 6, is also an essential element of this honorific structure: 6.
c::11·
= (c::•rl
=
7. lll~C::'"C::' llll~c::·~·J l ll'!'a,~· =(111'~'1 9. '!lll'~'t'ii'
=~i&'l'~'l 12
Lesson I (26) 6~ ·~z::. ~·~~, "Qj"lll"'X. ·~·~~iii'~1 What is your name? I What are you called by? (lit.: What is your name called (by)?) The answer to question (26) is: (27)
z::.q ·~z::.·QI·~~·4~·~.Jr~<1ll~ ·~iii'~ 1 My name is Tashi Namgyal./ I am called Tashi Namgyal.
When one respectfully asks the name of a third person, the structure ~·~~·Uj~·"l·~~· is used:
(28)
F" ·~·~~, ·Qj·~·~ ·~·~~·ar~·q·~~ 1 What is her name? I (lit.: What name is she called?)
The conjugation ~·Uj~·l:.J·'X.~· can also used with the first person, however, instead of the honorific verb~· the non- honorific verb~~· is used: What is my name? I What am I called? • The phrase~~~·}.·~· is translated in English as, Thank you, thank you velJ' much, etc. ~Ill~·}.·~· is the literary form often colloquially used by those who are educated in monasteries. Though this form may be used by the general public, the typical Lhasa colloquial form is (ife5~·~·]. The colloquial expression (i'e5~·~~f) is equivalent to the English colloquial expression, Thanks or Thanks a lot
VI. Conversation A.
Greetings and Persona/Introduction: Sentences {37)- (45)
(37) ~·4~·:
~~·4~·Cl~ ·~111~1
Hello.
~"'·~lllll.": ~~·4~·~~·~1ll~1
Hello.
(38) ~·4~·:
6~ ·~z::. ·~·~~Ill~·~~ ;zJ·UJ"' ""l~1
Are you well? I How are you?
~"1.~11111.": Cll!ll~·U)"' 1 z::.·lll~lll~:q~~ "tJ"Ul"l 1 3 < 9> ~"'·~111a.·: ~~·rs~·~",
ur4~·:
Yes, [I) am. I am well. And you?
z::.·Uiz::.·1 z::~;zJ·fil"l1
I am also well.
<40> U!·4~·= rs~·~z::.~·clla)"'·lll·x.·fil"'1 ~"'·~11]11.": z::.q·~z::.·~"'·~ll]r.!."Ul"l1 (41) ~"'""11]11.": ~~·6,·~z::.~·.Jla)"l"Cll"II]"~·~·~~·Uj,1 U!·4~·:
What is your name? (h.) My name is Kunga. And what is your name? Qt.)
z::.q ·~z::. "Cll·U!·4~~ ~ ·~ ·Uj~ 1
My name is Yeshi.
<42> U!·~·= ~"'·~llla.·Clllll~1 rs~·~"·lll·"l~·~lll~~·ur~1 ~"'·~lila.·: z::.·~·~~·~~~·~·ur,1 (43) U!·4~·: ~·~~·lll·"l~·~lll~·~·Uj~1
~"1.,11]11.": ~·~~·~~·~~·"l""Cll"~~~·~-ur~, to. 1.11r::: •
Kunga, where do you live? (h.) I live in Lhasa. Where in Lhasa do you live? (h.) In Lhasa I live in Barkor.
=[1.11~rJ 13
Colloquial Tibetan
(44) ur4~·=
tJ.~~·~·I:I1·l:J~·Q~')·~·ill')·l:J·'X.')1
And where do I live?
~~ '')1:11~': 6~ ·~~'QI1J~I1J'I1J'Q~I:I1~'~'UJ') ''J''X.') 1 (45) ilJ·4~·: ")~'")1:11''X.')1 ')'~Q~~~·,
You live in Nepal. (h.) 1bat' s right. Now take care and
~~·~~~~'cJ.IE:_I1J'UJ~'1
[I] will see you tomorrow.
~~·~1:11~': ~~~~'cJ.IE:_I1J'UJ~'1 at
See [you] tomorrow.
In sentence (39) the adverb Ul~' 'also' I 'too', colloquially pronounced [UI~'], has been used: I am also well.
Ul~'
is used in factive sentences of identification, modification and location, whereas another adverb 11J0.~'/11J'UI~·, introduced in Lesson&, is used in sentences of possession and location. The various uses of the adverb Ul~' are shown in the sentences below: ldentifica tion
G~ ·~~·')~·~~·X.') 1 ~'UI"'')~·~~ ·U!~ 1
You are a teacher. I am also a teacher.
Modification
ij"l:l1·ij"l:l1·~·q~~l:l1 4'QI:I1'~Q'UI"~cJ.l:q.~~l:l1
Momos are tasty. Fried meat bread is tasty, too.
Location
~·iQ·~~·ill')1 ~~'UI"'iQ'~~·~~I:I1
I am at school. He is also at schooL
The adverb Ul~' is also used in sentences dealing with verbs of action that express 'the agent is also doing something, going somewhere,' i.e., 0.~ 'go', ~1:11· 'run', ~cJ.l''J'Q~Q' 'walk', etc.:
f~'Ol"Y.I.~'t:l~·ilj~·l:J·'X.~l
*
He also goes [there}.
Information for General Knowledge
The Greeting q!!]·~~·q~ ·~~~· In the Conversation Section, sentence (37), the greeting Q~~·~·~~· is introduced. Nowadays this greeting is commonly used to mean hello(good morning, good afternoon, good evening) or good-bye Traditionally in Tibet this expression was used during ~1:11~~·, the Tibetan New Year, and not as a daily greeting. Q::!]'~~·Q~ ·~1:11~· when looked at etymologically can be divided into three words:
t:l::!J'~~·l:J·;
Q~ 'Q';
and
~1:11~:q.:
Q::!]'~~'l:J'
auspicious/ prosperity I blessing/ good luck
Q~· (Q~'Q' or t:l~=tf)
happire;s/ welfare, safety of health/ joyI enjoyment/ bliss/pm;perity
~1:11~:q. is the literary term for Ull:l1:q.: good/ well
14
Lesson I
This greeting of 'wishing one auspidous blessings ofgood health, prosperity and joy' was traditionally used only on the first day ofil:f~~~·. Rising especially early on that morning, upon meeting, family members would exchange the auspicious greeting z::J::r4~·z::J~ ·~"1~· in order to insure happiness, good health and success for all throughout the coming year. After the family had partaken in special early morning drinks and food, they would go from door to door greeting all their neighbors and relatives with the auspicious words z::J::!'4~·z::J~·il.JQ]~·. In the early 1960's late Mrs. Rinchen Dolma Taring popularized the greeting z::J::)~~·z::J~ ·~Q]~· among the Tibetans in exile in India. Mrs. Taring, a highly educated woman who received her education in India in the 1950's, is the author of Daughter of Tibet. She belonged to an influential noble family in Lhasa. In the 1960's while living in Mussorie, India, Mrs. Taring took an active role in helping organize schools for the Tibetan refugee children coming out ofTibet. She became the Secretary of the Tibetan Homes Foundation which helped set up schools and prepare educational materials for the refugee children. Mrs. Taring had boundless compassion for all Tibetan children and made no distinction, treating each as if they were her own child. Her untiring work and dedication won her the love of the entire Tibetan community. Everyone affectionately referred to her as~· o.!'QJQ]~· 'mother'. Having many foreign acquaintances, Mrs. Taring felt that the Tibetans needed a common expression for greeting. Because of her close involvement with teachers, students and the Tibetan community, she was able to popularize z::l::J'4~·z::J~ ·~~·. Soon z::l::J'4~·~~ ·~~~·sufficed as the Tibetan word for hello/ good morning/ good afternoon/ and good evening. This new usage rapidly caught on and spread throughout India, Nepal and other parts of the world where there were Tibetan coriununities. The expression z::l::J'4~·~~ ·~"1~· has now even gone back to Tibet where it is being used as the common everyday greeting. Traditionally there was no one specific greeting used by the Tibetans. According to a particular situation, one of several expressions were, and sometimes still are used. When one meets a friend on the street, one may ask:
Qj''J~ 'EtQ]~''-1'11 1
Where did you go? I Where have you been? I Where are you coming from?
or Where are you going? When one goes to pick someone up at the airport, train station, etc., upon meeting, one says: Welcome! (h.) If one has heard or knows that someone has just arrived, upon meeting, one greets them by saying:
~~·~z::J~·~~:::.·§t:.'l "l'~~·~z::J~''-~ 12 1 Welcome! (h.)
When did you come?
When one goes to a friend's house and sees that they are in the midst of doing something, one may address them by saying: Are you at home? Shall I help you? !;l~c:~·Uj~·~~1 ~::.~·~111~·~~·~ -------11. 111'~-'·a~~·~· = tai-~-·El~·~-1 • The sign- indicates a long sound. u. ll1·r;~·~tl~·"· = l'~rr;~?.:::l~·"-1
"'
"'
15
Colloquial Tibetan
A traditional Lhasa expression used when one gael' 'o a friend's house and finds them eating is: Shall I give you some more [food]? Or should I eat some of what's on your plate? As shown in the examples above, previously there was no one specific common greeting used in Tibet. Depending upon the situation, one of a variety of questions or expressions were used.
Names of Some Places in Tibet The following are names of some places that are mentioned in the textbook: ~·~·
The capital of Tibet.
"lf~rll·
The winter palace of His Holiness the Dalai Lama.
l1~·s~t:.·f·
The summer palace of His Holiness the Dalai Lama.
~Ill'
The downtown area of Lhasa.
z::~~·z::~{~·
A popular area in Lhasa where a large market and the Jo Khang Shrine are found.
The second largest city in Tibet and site ofTashi Lhunpo Monastery, the seat of the Panchen Lama.
VII. ~c::.·~~·~~~·r.~· Vocabulary for Lesson 1 Nouns i)~:;.·
name
lljt;. ''J'
name (h.)
country
~=~· "Q~·
Tibet
lJ.i'~'~'llJ'/ lJ.i~'
America
~·~~·
India
z::lllJ'UIIlJ'
Nepal
SJ'~~·
China
~·~·~·
Russia
~~t;.·~f?ja;·
a.~~·~~·
Germany
r.~·~a;·~·
Japan France
~·~·
Lhasa
~~~·,·~
Shigatse
z:;J~'CJlf~·
Barkor (market area in Lhasa)
~~~''J'
companion/ friend
llj~'lTJ'
work/ job/ profession restaurant
~~-llj~'
work/ job/ profession(h.)
gt:.'fl:;.'
"'
"'
"'"'
i!'flt:.'
~-~~~~·
~llj'CJ'~~ :q~.
body His Holiness the Dalai Lama
store/ shop body (h.)
~t:.~a;·
tomorrow
~~llj·~z::~·
tsampa {barley flour) (h.)
~~''J'
tsampa (barley flour)
~~~~:r:r
16
Lesson I
Pronouns ~·
I
~a.·
my
a,·:~:.~·
you
5,·:~:..~~·
your
ii~·
he/ she
fi~~·
his/her
CJ~,.
stay/ live
CJ~II]~·
stay (h.)
itJ'f~·s,· ~~·,·s,·
study
ftJ'j"r:.·IIJ~r:.·
study (h.)
work
SIIJ·~~·IIJ~r:.·
work (h.)
~Ill·
meet/see
~CJ·
say
i.l~~·
meet/ see (h.)
IIJ~r:.·
say (h.)
understand
1.15~·
understand (h.)
called
~·
called (h.)
Ulr:.·a:~:..·
again
II]'~~· /11]''-1:1:.. ·~~·
from where
Verbs
,.a;: ~:~:..·
Adjectives CJ~~
well/ good health
Adverbs 11]'~:1;..'
slowly
UIC:.'
also/ too
Prepositions ~~·
from
Conjunctions
~~·
and/ and then/ ·then
Interjections
'711J'ry!IJ'x.,1
That's right./ correct
Interrogative Words ~~]'X.·
what
11]''-1:1:...
where
Phrases CJ~~~·q~·~IIJ~l
Hello! (Good morning, Good afternoon, Good evening)
~111~·~·~11 (fa;~·~J]
Thank you.
~r:.~"'·~.~~~·urr:.·l
See you tomorrow.
~CJ~'IJ\IC:.'l
17
Take care./ Good bye.
Colloquial Tibetan
VIII. Exercises A.
Correct the following Tibetan sentences according to the English:
(1)
i!::: "fe1J"".,~ ·:::Q.·a:~1
My name is Dolkar.
(2)
lli·~·fi:::·iil:::·~·X-"1
What is his name?
(3)
I am from Tibet.
(4)
~"·~~r:::·U!Cl\1 ~·~~·:::~""C1J"~·~~~·~"1
In Tibet I live in Lhasa.
(S)
~·~~·~"·fic::.·1
Where is he from?
B.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
e~·~:::·~·~~~·~·~·c.:~·~~~~·~·--1
(2)
:;:'Q;il:::·a:·:t~~· I
'!
My name is Yeshi.
(3)
z:::~C1J"~C1J'C1J'~~"·~·
1
I stay in Nepal.
(4)
1
Where do you live?
(S)
a"·~:::·~·c.:~·~~~~·~· tf:::·~~~·,r~~·~~~~·~·
C
Translate into Tibetan:
(1) (2) (3) (4)
My friend lives in Nepal. Hello. How do you do? I don't live in India. I live in Nepal. Where do you stay in Madison?
D.
Match the following Tibetan sentence.f with the English sentences:
Where does your friend live?
1
He lives in Shigatse.
(1),
What work do you do? (h.)
(2)
H.H. the Dalai Lama lives in India.
(3)
I study Tibetan.
E.
Write a s/10rt introduction conversation.
IX. il"·a"~·~_,.x;r.r Vocabulary for Lesson 2 Nouns t.l'C1JQ1~·
father
~'cJ.:'C1J~~·
mother
'tj·C1JQ1~'
grandfather
lie1J~~·
grandmother
~C1J~~·
brother (elder)
~·~IX1~'C1J~~·
sister (elder)
~'tj
brother (younger)
~·l:f~~ ~q'l'lj' ~ I
sister (younger)
~· ......
boy/ son
z:rif
girl/ daughter
..
I
I
parents
.....,
"'
18
1
child
Lesson I ~o:·!,·
...o.l"
doctor
~~·l.l·
farmer
person
Tibetan
o.g~·l.l·
nomad
'E"""l.l" SJ"l.l"
i~·~~·
student
ar~·l.l·
businessman/ trader
' ~111·~~-
teacher
~~·
book
~~~·
1~1· ~·
pen
~~·
box
clothes
~·&l~·
key
=~r
religion
~~-f~·
nation
o.afo.s,·
leaderI head
~~-~~4.1"
teacher I sir I miss
~~.~.~~·
yak
~·
meat
=~·
Tibetan beer
il·~,Cl.·
gun
~~·~fll."
sky
~~"tJ"
cloud
fl·!,·
Muslim
4-l"cli"
place
~Q)·g.
table
~-v~·
table (large)
~~·~· ' ....
paper
il~~·
flower
~~·
wool
tr,-~,.
Tibetan language
;j"
sound/ pronunciation
s-~·
taste
"~{~-,~·
meaning
Cl.~~4.1"4.1"
birth place (h.)
f~"tJ"
house/ building
f~·&l~·
room
1:"·~4-!"tJ"
acquaintance
"E~6~·tJ·
acquaintance (h.)
~~4-l:q
friend (male)
~~4-l·lf
friend (female)
~~·~~4.1·
number
~~·1·
number I symbol
[!l"tJ~·
telephone
~~·l.l~·
telephone (h.)
s,·~f~·
the one who does something
monk
.
Pronouns ~·ar-
we
6,·~~·ar-
you (pl.)
rs-~·ar-
they
~~4'1·~~·;,~·
both
if
she (nh.)
F
he (nh.)
this
~·
that
~1:.4'1"'1"~!1~·
count
~'}s
forget
':.j.::;j4'j"
go/ come (h.)
Demonstratives a.~·
Verbs
19
Colloquial Tibetan
Adjectives ~%~·tJ· ~~;J;.·~·
same
F~.F~·
different
golden
QQj·~·
woolen
~%~·
one
two
~~~·
three
~~~· ~·
four
~·
five
~~·
six
Q~~·
seven
and
~·
as for I as far as
~·
who
~·~·
who(pl.)
~Q,·
whose
~·~~·
what [is the number]
Adverbs
~~
late
Prepositions
Q;J;."
until/ to
Conjunctions
~" Interrogative Words
Interjections tN"Ql~·
Ohl
Phrases
~~~·l'l,~ ~~·~~" ·~Qj'~l ~r:::·~~l ~Qj'r:::·~lll
Good night!
r:::~·Q"l~·Q~~
I forgot. [I just realized it.]
~~~~·~r:::·l
Please look!
Q~~~"IN£:::1
Good bye. [to the one staying]/ Take care.
j6"r:::·~~~~~·
as for those two
I have no idea!/ I don't know! Excuse me!/ Sorry!
20
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 2
~ L
n.
Yes/ No Questions with Factive Verbs A. Positive B. Negative Content Questions~· 'Who' and ~·X.· 'What' A. Questions in Second person/ Answers in First person B. Questions in First person/ Answers in Second person c. Questions in Third person/ Answers in Third person
• • • • m.
Page Sentences (1) - (7) Sentences (8) - (12) Sentences (13) - (18) Sentences (19) - (24) Sentences (25) - (2.9)
t:il~·tX.1· Near-synonyms
The agentive particle ~fl~ · The conjunctions 1~· and t.JJ~'
·,
The phrase F"~ ·~~~~~ 'as for those two'
28 28 2.9 2.9 2.9
•
IV.
P~vePronouns
2.4 2.4 25 25 2.7 2.7 2.7
Tibetan Genitive/ Connector (a.glll·~·) Particles ~·~·~·A·tfil·) A. Words with suffixes B. Words with no suffixes c. a.· suffixed words Pronunciation of Words with Genitive Particles: Compound noun instead of genitive form
• •
23 23 23
30 31
Sentences (30) - (36)
31 32
The word ~~'Ill~~·
v.
The P~ve Interrogative 'Whose' ~CO,·
Sentences (37)- (44)
32
VL
Numerals Chart 9 (Tibetan Numerals) Chart 10 (Colloquial Pronunciation)
Sentences (45)- (SO)
33 34 35
vn.
Phrases for Memorization The expressions ~q~~~· and q~~~~~·
Sentences (51) - (SS)
36 36
Sentences (56) - (66)
36 31
vm.
• Conversation expression 1af~~-,~· • The Information for General Knowledge • The Naming of a Child and other Customs
38
Colloquial Tibetan
Epithets of His Holiness the Dalai Lama Typical Tibetan Names and their Meanings
38 39
IX.
Exercises
39
X.
Vocabulary for Lesson 3 i!~::.·~~·~~~·CJ·
40
22
Lesson 2 I.
Yes/ No Questions with Factive Verbs Chart 1 Yes/No Questions (Positive Form) A statement ending with: ........Ul~· ........ ~~·
A.
becomes becomes
~~·e~-a· l.~·e~-a·
Positive Question Forms Sentences (1} - (7)
(1)
a')·~c::.·a,·~~::.-na~·e~-a1
Are you Tsering?
(2)
~C::.'tl.ltl.l·~ .1l.~'CI'I1
Is he a doctor?
(3)
C::..'~!::.'CJ'l.')'CI'I1
Am I a farmer?
(4)
Q~·4~~~ 'CJ'~~ 'CJ(f.fl
ls Tashi [a] Tibetan?
(5)
~~ ·f"~::.·~·~Q·~~ 'CJ(f.f1
Is this his book?
(6)
s~ ·~~::.·~s~·CJ-UJ~ 'CJ(f.f,
Are you a nomad?
(7)
~CJ
Is Paljor a monk?
Chart 2 Yes/No Questions (Negative Form) A statement ending with:
............&l~· ............ tl./·~~·
B.
becomes becomes
Negative Question Forms Sentences (S} - (12)
(8)
5~·~c::.'Wtl.l'~·~~·e~-a1
Aren't you a doctor?
(9)
Isn't she Tibetan?
(10)
~c::.~~'CJ'It'l.~·q-a, &;fiQ·~~·2 tl.l·~~·CJ~1
(11)
c::.·af~::_ 'CJ'It'l.') 'CI4f1
Aren't Ia businessman?I Ami not a businessman?
(U)
~~·~~·~c::.~·&l·X.~·tl~J
lsn 't this yours?
1. lll&l·~· = [\JI&l'~') 1. jz:r~llj·= [z:l:t'l·~-1
Isn't she a student?
Colloquial Tibetan
Yes/no questions can typically be answered by a simple yes or ria In English, the simplest questions of this kind are formed by the inversion of the subject and verb, and a characteristic rise of intonation at the end of the sentence:
Chart 3
Statement
Yes/no question
Positive: He is a student. Negative: He isn't a student.
Is he a student? Isn't he a student?
In Tibetan, yes/no questions involve neither a change in word-order nor a rise in intonation. Instead, the question marking particles CJ44' and ~44· are used after the verb at the end of the sentence. The question particle usage depends on the verb which precedes it. The verbs UJ~ ·and x.., ·,and their negative forms &l~ · and o.~·X..,·, are followed by the particle CJ~·. The particle~~· is preceded by the verb tl.~~·· This question particle is introduced in Lesson 6, section VI. In second person questions the normal ending is UJ~ "l.J~· and in first/ third person questions it is l.J~·. As with the verbs 'lJ~· and x..,·, 'lJ~·l.J~· may be used in first/ third person questions and x..,·l.J~· in second person questions, however as discussed in Lesson 1, a change of perspective occurs. The four Tibetan sentences in the Chart 4 correspond to the English sentences in Chart 3:
X.,·
Chart 4
Positive:
Statement
Yes/no question
~~:.·it::l·~~·X..,l
~~:.·it::l'~~·x..,·'J441 ~~:.·it::l·~qr~·x..,·'J441
Negative: ~~:.·it::l·~~·o.~·X.., 1
II.
Content Questions~· 'Who' and ~·l.· 'What'
In the following sections A- C pay careful attention to the grammatical person of the subject in the questionanswer pairs. Note how the form of the factive verb used in the question anticipates the form of the factive verb used in the answer.
A.
Question in the Second person/ Answer in the First person Sentences (13) - (18)
(13) a. e,·~"·~-&l~l b.
(14)
Who are you?
"·~~.,~Q.·~~l
lamKunga.
a. s,·~""5!"Q'&l~·l.J~1
Aren't you Dawa?
b. 'll~4'r&l~41 "'5!'t::l"&l~1
No, I am not Dawa.
=
3. ~~""\"1~· (:c::"i"l~") 4. ~Ol·il~. = ['ll"il~ •]
24
Lesson 2 (15) a. fS~·~~'Il1")'~~~·tl:l"'·~~~
Are you Kunga?
"~
b. Ql~~·hJ"\1
Yes, (lam].
(16) a. a~·~~·lll·);S)~1
What are you [profession, etc.]?
b. ~·i~·=3.:~r~"'1
I am a student.
(17) a. ~~~ ~~·~~·aT-~·~·~"11
b. (UI) a.
...:-S.-
And how about you? what are you? (pl.)
"
~·~· ~~':j9'Ul")J
We are students.
S~-~~·~-~~·~~.6~.~~1
Who is your teacher?
b. ~ca.·~~-~~·~~·i;)~·QI~~-~~1
B.
My teacher is Ms. Chimi.
Question in the First person/ Answer in the Second person
(19) a.
Sentences (19)- (24) Who am I? Do you know [me]? You are Tashi. What do I do? [lit: What am I the doer of?] You are a teacher.
"·,·)."1 ~4ll'·r~·~l:i9'9~1 \.1
b. a"·~~·~:'!]~(l.rQI~~r~"l (20) a.
"'IIJ'l-·s~ '.JJ(ZI~ ·~" 1
b. 6~·~~-~~·~~·~~1
(21) a. ~-g.~·~·~~~
Who are we?
b. G~ ·~~ .g.Q:!J·~~·QI~~·C)c:. ·ur4~·QI~~·~C)1
You are Tashi and Yeshi. And
~~·[6"c:.·g.~~~~·79%~~·~.~·~c:.·~%9'
as (or those two, one is Nyima and
i"~·~~·~~,
[the other] one is Chonden.
(22) a. ~·i.Q·~~·~~·l.l~l
Am 1 a student?
b. Cllll]~·~.~-~~1 ~l:i·~c:.·cl)~'Qill]~·~~1
No, you are a teacher.
(23) a. c:.·~~·'i:..·s"'""fl~·~~~
What do we do?
b. 6~ ·~c:. ·ar-w·~·~ -,ca.-~Q-~9·~"' 1
You are American students.
(24) a. c.~·~~L\I'l.J'L\I'L\I'~c:;l I ....,;) ~ l
Who are my friends?
b. 6~ ·~c:.·~r~9L\I·~-=-~ -~~·~c. .""g.~~ 1
C
Diki and Tsomo are your friends.
Question in the Third person/ Answer in the Third person Sentences (25)- (29) Who is he?
~"·~-~"1 b. ~"'I'Q'Cli~L\1·~"1
(25) a.
~
-
HeisDawa.
....
(26) a. flC:.'~c:.·~.::::·~~-~~·l.l~l
Is he also a student?
b. Ql~~·~~~
5. c::i"·
Yes, [he is].
=(c:.~·g.]
6. "\~'~'1· =("\~'~If) 7. (E"c::ir-z:'l~ll~ · - 'as for those two'
~·-'as for' /'as faz as'
25
Colloquial Tibetan
ji.:.·¥-8~·~·l_'11
(27)
a.
(28)
b. ~r::.·~~ 1 r::.~·,·~·l;J~·~~1 a. ji.:.·~·l_·l_'11 b.
Who are they?
[I] have no idea. I don't know. What is he?
[6'"r::.·UJr::. ·~.::r~~·:=.~ 1
He is also a student.
(29) a. t;JIT'!'~~r~·~c:1 -
I
Who is Tashi?
1
"
b. l;J~·4~·~~ ·lll~~·~·s·:=.~ 1
Tashi is the teacher's son.
English content questions are formed with 'WH-words' such as: who, what, when, where, why, etc. In the simplest ca..c;;es, answers to English content questions involve substituting the question word with a noun or noun phrase. Question: Answer:
Who ate the food? John ate the food.
Note that in this particular question-answer pair, there is no change in word-order, the noun john directly replaces the question word who. In other cases the English word-order is subject to change: Question: Answer:
What is this? This is a book.
In the above question-answer pair, the noun phrase a book replaces the question word what; however, the word-order of the sentence has changed. In Tibetan only the first of the two patterns is employed. When forming a question the word order need never change; only the question word itself is replaced by an appropriate noun or noun phrase in the answer: (13) a. fS~ ·~r::. ·~J~~ 1
Who are you?
b. r::.·~~·'1~~·~~1
IamKunga.
Note that in the Tibetan question-answer pair, the second word is the question word, in this case~·' who'. This is directly replaced in the answer by the word which supplies the new information, in this case :J~
·
'1~~·
'Kunga'. (17) a. ~~1 rs~·~r::.·¥-~·l_·~~1
And how about you? what are you? (pl.)
b. r::.·¥-it:~·~~·~~ 1
We are students.
In question (17} a., the question word~·:=.·' what' is directly replaced with the answer it;J·~~· 'students'. The following Tibetan question words should be memorized: ~· who, ~'a.· whose, ~·:=.· what, ~·tJ~' where, ~·~~· from where
a.
~c::~ = 1]6"~·~]
9. lllc:.·~.,. = (lljc:.·~·]
26
Lesson 2 It In this lesson, one should treat~~· and l.~· as near-synonyms. Until it is further explained, one should use the verb~~· when addressing a second person:
Who are you? When addressing a first or third person, the verb l.~· should be used: (19) a. c::~:l.~l
Who ami?
(25) a. F"c:.·~·l.~l
Who is he?
UJ~ · and
X."'· can be interchanged with any of the three persons, however these changes present
additional information. These changes are explained in LessonS. However, for the time being, the student should get a firm grasp and understand the root forms oftiJ~· and l."l· thoroughly. The agentive particle .Jlfl~ · found in sentence (20) i.e., S"l'.Jlfl~ ·, indicates the 'doer'. Sometimes when this particle is used with a noun, in English it is translated with an 'er' noun; e.g., driver, swimmer, dancer, etc.
It
S"l'.Jlfl~· ~ f'CJryC:. '.Jlfl~.
the one who does something driver I the one who drives
In sentence (21) b. the two conjunctions ~c:.· and "l~', both meaning' and', have been introduced. ~c:.· is used to connect and list nouns, adjectives and adverbs, while~~· is used to conjoin sentences. Besides' and',~~- can also be translated as' and then' or' then'.
It
(21) b. S"l'~c:.-g.CJ~·4~·<1.1!7]:'r~c:.·ur4~·<1.1!7]~·X."l1 yq~·[S"c:.·g.~~~· (~·) !7]%!7]~·.JJ;c:.·!t]%~·i'~·~~ ·X."ll You are Tashi and Yeshi. And (as for) those two, one is Nyima and [the other] one is Chonden. In the example above, l"'~ ·is used to conjoin the second sentence to the first one, i.e., 6"l·~c:.·af-z:::~~r4~·<1.1!7]~·
"lc:.·ut4~·<1.lll]~·X."l1 ~~· ... 'You are Tashi and Yeshi. And... '
The conjunction "'C:.'is used when listing two or more nouns, i.e.,CJ~!r4~'<1.1!7]~·~"·U!·~~·<1.1!7]~· 'Tashi andYeshi', and ll]~lt]~'.JJ'~C:.·~%qr~~·~~-X."l· 'one is Nyima and[the other] one is Chonden'. In some cases, the conjunction ~~ · is found at the beginning of a sentence, while this is not the case
with the conjunction "'C:.'. A sentence can never begin with the conjunction "'C:.'. The conjunction t~~· is sometimes used by itself. In such cases, it can be translated as an equivalent to the English colloquial expression. 'Well then' ... [tell me something/what happened? /what news do you have?, etc.] (17) a. yq~1 G"l'~c:.·af"ll]·X.·~~1
And how about you? [what are you?] (pl.)
In English it is grammatically correct to use either the 'and' or the 'and then' conjunction form: (a) C:.'<1.lll1':.l'O.~~-yq~·fl·<1.l!t]'::!'CJ~·UI"l1 I wash my hands and eat. or
I wash my hands and then I eat.
This is not the case for Tibetan, one never says:
c:. '<1.lll]':.l'Q.~~·"l "'fl'<1.1~ ·::a 'CJ~ 'Ul"l1 27
Colloquial Tibetan This kind of sentence structure is always conjoined with the conjunction~~·. The same is true for sentence
(b) as well; the conjunction~~· is always used, never~~:: (b) r:::.·~·~~·~·~"\,.~;cj~·~~·~r:::.·~·UI"\1
I will go to India and learn/ study Tibetan. or I will go to India and then I will learn/ study Tibetan. • In sentence (21) b. the phrase fir:::.·g.~~~~·, 'as for those two', is used. The particle~· is an emphasis marker and literally means, 'as for', 'as far as', 'for me'. The following sentence merely expresses the state of affairs: I'm not going. The use of~·, however, indicates that the speaker is emphasizing the fact that others may go, 'but as lor me I'm not going to go':
[As far as I'm amcemed/ As for me] I'm not going. The particle~· indicates the added emphasis of singling out and contrasting something or somebody from within a particular list, category or group:
~~ ·~r:::. ·fir:::. 'o.J'l)o.J'}'~r;J~'"\ ''l.~II]~·~·X..~ 1 r: :. ~ ·a.~·r;J~'~"\ 1 You can go with him. As for me, I'm not going.
Ill. Tibetan Genitive/ Connector (O.SQI'IP Particles @!·f&·f!·~·~·) The particles 'a)· ~· ~· ~· ~·are used in literary writing to represent the Tibetan genitive case (a.$r~1· The particular particle usage depends on the suffix of the preceding word, as shown in Chart 5:
Chart 5
Syllables ending in the following letters:
Literary form of
l~·o,~~· 'suffix, or ~J::.'a.~~· 'post suffix, A.
B.
~·
o.J' r;J'
~·
r:: .·
"\'
~·
the particle
'a)·
~· ~· ~·
"Q,· or Ul·
.a·
~· ~·
~·
~·
Colloquial form of the particle
With the suffix a.· or suffixless Cl, '"
r: :. 'o.JElO. ·~~.
28
Lesson 2
A.
After words having sufftXes(t. . ~'QJ!}1'Ui~·~·), the particles ~· ~·: ~·:
a;-·z:::;~·~·s·
"&' ~·are
111~~·~·~~·~·
Tsetan 's son;
used:
golden pen
~~·~·~·~~·10
the box's key /the key to the box;
Z:::<2f~·~~~~·
woolen clothes
15'r_;·~~·~~z:::·
Tibetan language book;
i""'·~·~"\·r.;~·
the meaning ofreligion
a;"~·S:.::r
the taste of beer
~QJ'(llQ'lQqpQsr.;· the leader of the nation;
~·:
B.
~UJ~·~·4·
After wordf having no suffiX( ~~r.r~~· ), the particles "a· and~' are used:
"' C
Yak meat;
person;
ilCl.·i)c: ;il·fil·i)"·
the person's name
I;
c.Cl.·~~l!-l'CJ' jc.·fil·~~~'CJ'
my companion/ friend
The particles "a· and~' are also used after words having the~· suffiX: a.·;~·:
"\~'~ft\'
sky;
"\~'~fCl.]"\'CJ' f"\~·~fQ.-Ul]"l·~·clouds of the sky
i!·~r-;1:\·
gun;
~r~r.;Cl.·;j·f~r~r_;q·Ur;r
sound of a gun
In many textbooks the particles Q)·~·~·;q·;Ul· are classified as genitive particles. The English concept of the genitive includes only the possessive form, i.e., Tsetan 's, hers, theirs, the class', etc. The Tibetan Q.SQJ' !f encompasses a broader spectrum. means
means
to join or connect; sound.
The literal meaning of 'l.SQJ"~ ·is connecting sound. Certain functions of Q.SQJ"gj" can be classified as genitive
according to English grammar i.e., an object is connected to a noun by possession: aJ"Cli"\"~·s· 'Tsetan 's son'. However, Q.SQJ';j' can also be used in structures which are classified as adjectives or modifying phrases in English, e.g., ~~.l\ ·~·~~·~·(golden pen) a pen made of gold. The English adjectives golden and woolen. or modifying phrases s~ch as, 'meaning of religion' i"~!-~·~·~"\·r.;~·, 'taste of food' [=l"QJ~~·S'.::::·, in
Tibetan are formed with a genitive particle. The Tibetan genitive is marked by the connecting particles ~·~·~·;q·;Ul·: 1.) he and the book are connected, [S'c.·-a,·~z:::· [his book) (The function of the English possessive's.) 2.) clothes which are made of wool, Z:::QJ"l~lll·~~· clothes made of wool [woolen clothes) (The function of the English of which is normally classified as an adjective.) 10. ~-~"'· = ~-~~-]
29
Colloquial Tibetan
The Tibetan genitive particles sen-e at least two functions, whereas the English possessives and modifiers are c:JassiJied as two distinct grammatical categories. As shown in Chart 4 of this lesson, in literary Tibetan the genitive of words with suffixes are formed with the particles ~·~·~·/Q.·jtll·, whereas in colloquial Tibetan only ~1' is used for words with suffixes and for suffixless words. Another term used for ~-sQ,J·~· is w·~~ In the case of the genitive, all five particles possess an inherent~· soW\d. The term~-~~ 'literally means tllat which possesses the [sound]~·. When studying the Tibetan ~'9<1.1·;r, one should not be limited by using the English genitive concept as the only basis for Wlderstanding its grammatical use. If ~SI1.l';j' is treated in this manner, one's Wlderstanding will be only partial.
a..
at
·.
Pronunciation of Words with Genitive Particles:
The Tibetan grammar rules for the usage of the various genitive particles are introduced in section m. The following sections of suffixless words are grouped according to the root letter to which the particle has been attached. The pronWlciation of these forms is discussed below:
A.
Root letter
+a. = ee (Vila')
c;:
I
c:.Q.·
my
lf"·r.~·
Tibetan
tr"·c.~Q.·
Tibetan
school
i~·~·
school's
i,;r~a.·"~·~~ ·
school teacher
~a.·&:~::: 'l'i5'~~a.·~·
person's name a person of this place
iq·~lll·~~a.·"~·~~.
the teacher of (the)
i~·~·ll
B.
Root letter
00\
c:.a.·~~:r I
,1i"·r.~"c\·r:r<1.1~·I I
Tibetan food
+a· = ;; (Vila"> i)Q.·
~~·
man this
~~a.·
(the) man's of this
~~·
four
~a.·
of four
i)·
my book
four students
c
Root letter
whose book
paper's
~a.·~!;l' 4111·sa.·~~lll·
boy's
q"c\'C.l'QJ~~·
the boy's father
of that
i)·~"c\·1;4'G.l~
tr.at person's parents
of the table
ilii ·elll'fc\ ·~.::~·~·
the shape of the table
Muslim's
F·~a. ·~·<1llll'
Muslim food
4J'
who
~a.·
whose
Jf111·s·
paper
4111·sa.·
~·
boy
~a.·
~
"
D.
..,.+a·= a ~a1
Root letter
....
"
""
"
paper flower
I
+a·- e ~a')
~·
that
illl·g.
table
~a.· f~·~·
rr~·
Muslim
F·~Q.·
11. iz:l·~· =[~::~·~·)
30
E.
Root letter ~Q]~~
-
ii-
~:::~
•
Lesson 2
+~· = 0 (\li'Q.')
friend
¥~~:a-~·
friend's
i~~J'~~·~~~~
friend's friend
he
~·
his
jia·
his work
we
1:::.
our/ ours
1:::.
·af
·ire\'t:l 1:::.'t:.
our house
I
Colloquially when talking about different kinds of meat, one uses a compound noun instead of the
genitive form, for example; ~U1~~·4· 'yak meat' becomes4UI~'4'· This is also true when talking about the skin {leather) or bones of various animals, e.g., ~lll~·~·tllll~·tJ· = ~~~·tl111~· 'tiger's skin', ~lll~·l~~·tJ· = ~111~·~~· 'tiger's bone'.
Some other commonly used compound nouns which are formed in the same way are: ~~::_~·
Though these particular Tibetan compound nouns correspond with English compound nouns, remember that this is not always the case.
IV. Possessive Pronouns Chart 6
I Honorific Form:
Second Person
Third Person
sg.
'61·~~:::.·~·
your
fi~::.~·
his/her
pl
rs"·~~::.·lll.·
your
fi~::.·~·
their
First Person
Chart 7
Non honorific Form: First Person sg. pl.
~·
my
~::.·lll.· our
Second Person
Third Person
6" ·~~:::. ·~·
your
fcl.·his
61·~~::.·l'l.·
your
;s:ll2, · !
~· her their
Sentences (30)- (36) (30) a.
b. (31) a.
b. (32) a. b.
z::J~·4~·.:::~·~~~1 'J~."~Cl.'
Hello, Kunga!
z::J~·4~·z::J~·~~~1 ~~·
Hello, Sir!
a"·~~·~~'ll'QI~~·~·~~-~·~·~·~11
What is your mother'sname?
~Q.~·II'QI"J~·z·llaS'~'~
My mother's name is Dolkar.
lf.l'cJI'
Where is {your) mother's birth place?
t::.Cl.V•l'~'
My mother's birth place is Lhasa./ My mother was born in Lhasa.
31
Colloquial Tibetan (33} a.
b. (34} a.
b. (35} a.
b. (36} a.
b.
~-~~1 ~-~-~~~-~-~-~~-~,·"l~1 6,"::1\t=.~·
Oh! Is[your]motherfromlhasa? Areyour
~-~-~~~·,t=.·r:r~~~-r.~.~t=.~·~·~%~·"l·~, ""l~l
mother and father's birth place the same?
~~~-~-~,1 fl~"fl~-~,1 t=.Cl_ ·r:f~~~-~~~·1·~~~-~, 1 6, ·::t;,t=.·~·r:r~~~-r~-~~~:aa.·~a)~ ·~·~ -~, 1
No, [they are] different.
t=."- ·z;;·~~~-~-~~~·lii2:~a)~ ·z::J~, -~~~-~~~-~, 1
My father's friend's name is Sonam.
z:i"'ll~~-l~~~·!j·~~-~~-~-~-~~t=. ~-i:G", ""l"~,l
What does your father's friend do?
1S't=.~~-~-~,,
He is a doctor.
s,·::t;,t;.~~-~-U:~·"l~l
Are you a doctor?
~111~·~~1 t;.~~-~-~~1 t;.•rs-t;.~"iz::J"~~-U:~1
No, I am not a doctor. I am his student.
My father is from Shigatse. What is your father's friend's name?
• In sentence (30} b. the word (J~'QI~-r· is used. This word is derived from the word ~~·(J~' 'teacher'. The term (J~ ·~~~· is generally used when addressing one's teacher, male or female, but it can also be used as a polite form of address for an older man. These days in Tibet, besides the traditional usage, ~~·~ll]~r is also used to address an employee, whether male or female, in an official office, such as a bank, a ministry, immigration, customs, etc. When used in this way,~~ ·~111~· is expressing respect to the position, therefore, even an older person can use this term to address a younger person.
The Possessive Interrogative -'Whose' ~'a,·
V. (37} a.
b. (38} a. b. (39} a.
t;.·s, ·::t;,t;. ~-("~~~-~·iz::J·~~·n:~ 1
I am your older brother's student.
t;.·~a.·,~·c!J~·~,, 4~·~·i:G",·"l~1
Whose teacher am I? Do you know?
6~ ·: t;,t=. ·[ij't=.·~·~~ ·~~~-~, 1
You are their teacher.
iz::J~t;.·~~~·~Cl_·,~·~~·~,,
Whose teacher is Lobsang?
b. [6"t=.'Uit=."t=."~·~~·~~~·~,1
He is also our teacher.
t;.·~·~Cl_·,~-~~ -~, 1
Whose teacher ami?
s,·::t;,t;.·~-'~t;.-,t;.~·~"-·~~·~~~·~,,
You are Tsering and Nyima' s teacher.
6, "::1\t;.·~0, ·~·~,1~"' 1
Whose child are you?
t=.w~~~·~~~·~·s·U:~1
I am Ugyen Dorjee's son.
6~ ·::t;,t;.·~"-·s·~-n:~ 1
Whose daughter I girl are you?
(40} a. b. (41} a. b. (42} a.
(43}
~~·,lllr.~., s,·::t;,t;.·~"-·i~·~lll·U:~,
Sentences (37}- (44} Kunga. whose student are you?
..,. .... b. t=.·~·z::Jiil. "S"cJ.l"UI\ a. fl-~Cl_·~4~·c.j,l ,1 b.
I am Dawa' s daughter. Whose acquaintance is he?
fJ-t=.·~·~4~"c.j"~,1
He is our acquaintance.
-------------------------------------13. ~"'!'" = [~'llj'l 14. t::-·4l'l'CJ" =~'1 ·t.r)
32
Lesson 2 (44}
a. if~Q_~·~~~·l.C)l b.
Whose [older] sister is she?
ifr.:.r~r::.~·~~·~~~·l.C)l
~· is the singular form of
She is Pasang's [older] sister.
who. When one wants to show who as plural, the repeated form: ~·~r is used.
In this lesson~·~· 'who' is connected with the genitive Q.· =~·~Q.· becoming whose. In sentence (40) a. the teacher is asking: Whose teacher am I? The literal meaning of this question is: 'Of many students, who do I teach?'
VI. Numerals "ft:.''li1' "ft:.'g]r::.~·
g]t:.~'"l'q$q'
-
number and symbols number (phone, address, etc.) to oount numerically
Chart 8 ~· 0
0 l:J~'
'JO 10
Sentences (45)- (SO) (45) (46)
a. ~~·~~QI'QI~~l GC)';z;.r::.·~·::.~;z;.·r.::u~~~·~·UJ"C)l
Chophel! Where do you live?
b.
r::.·qQj'~Qj'Qj'q~C)·~·tG"C)J
I live in Nepal.
a.
GC)';z;.r::.·~·plt:.'l:J~"'ft:.'g]t:.'l'll1'a)C)'l.C)1
What is your house number?
b.
r::.~'fl::.'l:J~~r::.·~r::.~·.,oo~
My house number is 1008.
l.C)J
a. ~~1 fdilll1~~r::.·~r::.~·ll1·a;C)·~"1 b. (llt:.'i!~·~~r::.·~r::.~·~~o~ l."J (48) a. SC)';z;,r::.·~·-,~·z:.~;z;.·;"'fr::.'g]C:.~·~·a)C)'~C)l b. r::.~'(ll'l.J~·~~r::.·~r::.~· ""~-~~~1' l.C)J (49) a. ~~qp~~·q~~·~;z;,·g]r::.~·"l·q!q'"r::.'l
And what is your room number?
(47)
What is your telephone number? My telephone number is 216-379. Please count from one to-seven. One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven.
a.
111~111· C~J~~· ~~J~o.~· q~· ~· a~· q~"~l 111-alll~'"t:.'l ~r::.;·~\Q]'a)"'l."l
b.
~r::.·1~·q~·::.~·l."1
That number is four.
b. (50)
My room number is 706.
Please look! What is this number?
33
Colloquial Tibetan
The following charts present the colloquial way of counting. One must note that the literary spelling shown in Chart 9, and the colloquial pronunciation shown in Chart 10, sometimes differ, e.g., .:::~·~~~· =[Z::"'Q'l'c:'lii-J . . . . .,. "I I I
""'I
Chart 9
I I
I
,o
~~·
11\0
,o
~~~,.~~·
"
....
~·~~~·
'{"\
1::.'111~~·
if~~&!'
~"'
~'lll'S&I'
't"'
1::.'11'1~1.1'
if.:::~·
H
~·.:::~·
'{~
.::.·.:::~·
~'{
~·~·
'{'{
~It
~·~Ill'
'{It
.::.·~111'
~·c:~~·
~~~
~·.:::!:\~' I .._; I
'{II
.::.·.:::~~·
if.:::Sj~'
~~
~·.:::~~·
'{~
.::.·~Si~·
~'1:\1:1' 1,1
'{('
.::.·~~r
?"\ .:::s.·:r·~~· "' I,
"\"\
~Ill~~·
"1"\
if~~~·
?"' .:::~'!ll'S.J.I'
"\"'
~Ill~&~·
I .. ~ "\'{
~~·
?'" .:::~'Sill'
"''"
~~Ill'
!]Jl
.:::~·z;:~~·
?~ z;j~~~~·
I ?t'
.:::~·~~·
~
"\~
~~~1·
"\('
~~~·
·J
I
I
Ito
I
'"? ~Qj·z;:~·~·l:]~~·
'""' '""'
~.:::,~·
I "'"'
~0
a~·~~·
~·111~~· 1/
~·llj~&l'
I
~·~Ill'
.......
""
"'I'
ire;~·
"
'\0
~~~·q~·
~~·~~~· ~~·Ill~~·
~~~
~~·.:::~·
~~·~·
"'"'
~·.:::~·
It'{
~·~·
II'{
'"'"
~·~q,·
olio
-
-~~·~Ill'
II
1:\~·z;:~·lj'll'l~~·
~"\
~·~~~·
{'"\
Q]·~~~·
~"'
~·Ill~&!'
('"'
ar~~&l·
~~
~r.:::~·
"~
iff.:::~·
~'{
~·~·
(''{
ar~·
~It
~·~~r
"'"
i!f~~· af.:::~~·
~·.:::Sj~'
{'~
i!f.:::S"J~'
~·~~r
('{'
~ai,·.:::~~·
~~~
~·.:::Si~'
~~~
~~·.:::SJ~·
~~
l.·~~· ...J ')00 90,000
?,ooo,ooo !J00 1 001J 1 000
hundred
l
ten thousand
"'"UU'
million
~.::.·§~·
hundred million
•-J
f'ol
~·.:::~~· ~
....... ~~·~~r
Q!'
~~·~~·
t'?
~·.:::~~·
olf'
f'O
~!·~~·
v !] 1 01JO ')00,000
!JO,ooo,ooo 'J,Ooo,ooo,ooo
I
!
'"
.......
Ill'~~·
f~·
thousand
~Q&J'
hundred thousand
s-~·
ten million
~
34
!::.''!'
~~·.:::~·,·~~111·
.,.,
\of'
v
I"
'i?
...
~I
~·
~~~
if~· .......
""'
'"~
loll
"'~
.:::~~·.:::~~~·~%111·
ol!]
~
·"'
"''t "''" "'"'
!'~~·
~·.:::~·~·llj~~·
~~.J.I'Z:::S'if~~~·
9'{ z;j~~·
1(0
'{!]
"'?
~z;:~·
I
~~·.:::~·~·111%~·
~·~·~~~Ill·
"'"'
~·~~·
~?
"\?
"~
I
"10
~~·~~~·
99
?~ .:::~·~~·
I
;-~·
~~·~~~.~· ~
billion
Lesson 2
Chart 10
,o ~~
l~·
"\0
~,.
~,qr~-
....
"\0
"""
~·~·~~-
~~
""~
~"·~~~·
~""
Q~~·Q~·~-%-
if-~~~·
~~
~-~~~·
~~
if-q,~~· ,....
~~
~-CI"~~· I ,...._.,
~~
if~·Q~'
~~
" ~~·:::~·
Q~"·~~~-
9~
Q~~·~~~·
?~
~~~·Q~·
~~
~~·Q~·I
']'(
~i""·~·
""'(
~"·~·
"''(
if-~·
~'{
']u
Q~·~~·
~u
~-~~·
"1\t
ij-~9·
~u
"'"'
if~"'J)~·
~~~
~~
if~·~~,.
~~
"'f'
if~·,~·
~·
Q~~'Q"~· ....,
9~
Q~~·Q~,.
9f'
Q~~·,ll!·
ItO
a~·~,.
u~
~·~~~·
~~''J)~·
"""'
~~·Q~,·
~'I
v
"
....
~~·Q~·~-~-
I
~~·,~·
flo
~~~·~,·
·~
'J)~'Q~·~~~-
,.
'\0
~~-~~·
~.,
'J~-'J~·,-~-
I
t:.~"t::l)~:
~~·Q~,.
'(~
t:.~''J5)"''
~~·,~·
'(("
c:.~·,~·
I
fO~~~·~,.
f'9
"'~~·~~·~-~-
~-~~~·
f'~
lf1-Q1~~· , ....
~~~
"~'Q~· ....,
~~
~~·t:l~·
f'~
9~·~~·
~~~~·~·
Ill(
~~·~·
~'(
~~~~·~·
l''l
'-4\t
~-~9·
.llu
~~·~9·
'\U
~-~9·
f'u
ull
~~·Q"~·
1111
'Ill
~~·t:l~~·
('II
\t~
" ~~·Q~~·
~~·t:l~~·
IIi
~~·~~~·
'I 'I
~~·~~,.
t''\
rl(f
~~·,~·
~~·,~·
f'f'
x..~·~~·
u'{
~~·,~·
'16('
v
""·~·
'{II
~~
u~
c:.~·Q~·
~~'Q"~'
)~·~~~·
·~
'(~
.....
~-~~·
~-~~~·
~-~~~·
t:.-ll!~~·
t:.-~11]·
f'~
\t"'
'(~
'{u
~-~~~·
"'""
£::.-~~~·
'{'{
~~
~-~~~·
'(""
~"·~·
" )~·~~~·
u~
~~·:::~·"-~-
'(~
"
v
~~·~~·
1(0
~~
~~~·Q~·ll-~-
~""
"""'
~~·~,.
tO
~~~~·~,.
ill-·~· C!l-~11]·
ar~·~~~·
-
I I I
~~·Q~,.
- I '11~'" !11' I
I
''\,;
When using numbers such as ten, twenty, etc. the ending El.J.I'~' may be used. This word literally means exactly(the round figure), thus 'J~.El~·~· is literally translated as exactly ten This ending is optional, its use is entirely up to the speaker: z;J~·
'J~'Q~· t:l~~·~·
= = =
~·~·
=
q~·Q~'El.J.I'~'
O:''J-5'
=
~·~~·El~·~·
~~·~·
q~~ ·~'El.J.I'~'
q~·l;J~'
=
I;J~'I;J~'fl~·~·
,~.Q~·
Q~'El.J.I'~'
"
z::.
"
~·~·El.J.J'~'
~~·~·
= .... " = ~9·~·El~'c.J' = '-J
~~·-o·El~·~·
r:;Ql''J~"ElclJ'~' '->
One should note the following generalizations concerning the colloquial pronunciation shown in Chart 10: when the prefix of the second number is ~·, e.g. 3-5
II]~~·,
the suffix of the root number becomes ~·,
Colloquial Tibetan ~~~~~·; when the prefix is ~·, e.g., ~!~ ~~·~··
·, the suffix is also~·, ~~"Z:;;!~ ·;and in the case of~· the suffix is~,
As one can see, this is not a fixed rule and several exceptions appear in the chart.
VII. Phrases for Memorization Sentences (51) - (55) Goodbye. [to the one leaving] Goodbye. [to the one staying] [I'm] sorry. I forgot. [I just realized it.] Sorry. [I'm] late. Goodnight.
at The expression C..~~~"·, colloquially pronounced [l.i~~Vj·], is a common farewell expression said to someone as they leave. It is also used when two parties happen to meet, exchange some words on the street and then depart. As each person goes his/ her own way, they say C..~~~"· to one another. Either of the following expressions may be said to the departee:
or
.
This expression literally means; 'Please go weU'. In English the closest equivalent for this expression is ' Take caref or 'So long'. The expression ~~9~~"·, colloquially pronounced [~-111·], is another common Tibetan farewell expression said to the person who remains behind:
or This expression literally means 'Please stay well'. In English the closest equivalent is again ' Take caref or
'So long'.
VIII. Conversation A. Context: A chance encounter occurs on the street between Nyima and Mr. Rinchen, the father of one of N~ 's friends. They have met before, but Mr. Rinchen does not remember. Two of Nyima 's friends, Jampa and Tsewang, are with him:
Sentences (56) - (66) (56) ,.~·: ~~·~~·:
(57) ~~·~~·: ,.~·:
~~·~~·~~·~9~·~~ ·~~ ·~9~1
Hello, Mr.Rinchen.
~~·~~·~~·~9~1
Hello.
~q;"~·~9 e~·~"·~·UI~1
Excuse me! Who are you?
"·6~·~"~·s~·~9~·li-U~~1
I am your son's friend.
15. ~~'lfoll:;" =['?.!~"If!·)
=
17. "\~'-'~""i"l" l"illf'-·~·J 19. ..,~~~Ill""'-.= [IIJ·~~·r~·J
36
Lesson 2 (58) ex.~-~~·:
~-~r: (59) ex.~-~~·:
~-~r: (60) ex.~-~~·:
~·or: (61) ex.~-~~·:
~-~r: (62) ex.~-~~·: ~·.Jr:
(63) ex.~-~~·: ~-~r:
(64) ex.~-~~·:
~·or:
~·111~1 U!~·CJ~1
Oh! Are [you)?
111~~·U!~1
Yes, [I] am.
rs~·~l::~~·s·U!~1
Whose son are you?
r::.·(S~·~r::.·~·~'l(S~·CJ-Ul·4~·111~~·
I am your acquaintance Yeshi's son./I am the
~·s-fil~1
son of Yeshi who is an acquaintance of yours.
~·111~1 U!~ 'CJ~l
Oh! Are you?
111~~·U!~1
Yes, [I) am.
~~·(!l-af-~~·~·~·~~1
And who are those two?
~%~·s~~·CJ~r::.·9%9·~·~~r::.·X.~1
One is Jampa and (the other) one is Tsewang.
"faf'~~~·r::.'0.·'("9~·CJ-U!~1
Both of them are my friends.
f5~·~r::.·9·CJ~·~~~·lt£J~1
Where do you live?
r::.·~·~~·~~~·~·ur~l
I live in Lhasa.
~-~~·9·CJ~-~~~·~:Ui"~l
Where do you live in Lhasa?
r::.·~-~~-~~·~{~·~r::.·111·~~~~·Uj~l
I live in Barkor in Lhasa.
~~-[S~·~r::.~·r:f1119~1
And (what about) your father?
'jS'"r::.·~111·111·~~~~-~-Uj~·CJ·~~l
He lives in Shol. (h.)
(65) ex.~-~~·:
~~ ·~·1119~·l~111·CJ~ ~r::.·~r::.~·9·cr;~ ·X:~ 1And what is [your] father's telephone number?
~·ar: (66) ·ex.~·~~';
~~~~·~111·CJ~~r::.·~r::.~· ""!'{o ou~~ X.~1 Father's telephone (h.) number is 250-0644.
~·'J·:
~~~·~·~~"'1 41~~~~::.·1
Thank you. Bye, take care!
41~~~r::.·1
Bye!
.. The expression ~q;-~:.~·~9· in sentence (53) is normally translated as 'sony', however, in some cases, such as in sentence (57), it can also mean 'Excuse me'. (I'm] sorry. I forgot. Often the expressions ~q;r::.~-~~ or ~q;r::.~·CJ''J'Q.~'I~1 are used when apologizing for being late or having done something wrong. If someone says, 'Excuse me, where is Mr. Rinchen?' or if someone is trying to get through a crowd saying, 'Excuse me... ' the Tibetan equivalent is ~~~-{~·~a~~- ...20 :
!~"'l~41~~41'1l'l'99~·~ryr::.·'("9~'9~"1
Excuse me, please let me through.
In sentence (51), Mr. Rinchen says:
Excuse me! Who are you? In this particular example, the actual implication of 'Excuse me!' is, 'I don't mean to be rude, but I don't remember who you are.' Therefore in such a case, one is actually apologizing, thus theuseof~~~9 is appropriate.
37
Colloquial Ti/:>etan
Information for General Knowledge The Naming of a Child and other Customs About a month after a child is born, the parents or relatives will request their ~qa:!iJ"cJI" 'root lama', or the lama residing in their native area to give a name to the child. If the opportunity arises for someone in the family to have an audience with His Holiness the Dalai Lama or some other high lama, they will request an auspicious name for the newborn child from him. For those living in remote areas where there is no lama, the head of the family gives the name. This name can be the name of the day on which the child was born or any other name such as;~·'%.~· 'long-life', q~·~~· 'auspiciousness', Q~ ·~~ • 'happiness', CJi · 'lotus flower' etc. The name which is given by a lama or the head of the family"!~~~· 'birth name', this is usually the child's first name. If one is ordained as a monk or nun, a second name is received, i'4l·i)~· 'religious name'. This i"~· i!~· is given by the lama who confers the vows. Most monks and nuns are called by their ~~·i!~::.· and not by their a~·i!~ ·. The i"~·i)~. consists of two names; the first part of the name is often the same as that of the lama who conferred the vows.
If a pregnant women gets the opportunity to meet or send a letter to His Holiness the Dalai Lama, or any other lama, she or her family will request them to give a name to the unborn baby. Such names are known as rr~~~::.· 'name of the unborn in the womb,. This name may be kept after the baby is born, or it may be changed. If a child or young person becomes extremely sick and there is fear that they may die, the family often has the child's name changed. In such cases, sometimes even slang names with uncouth meanings such as, 6·~~~· 'dog shit', are given for the purpose of keeping the child alive. It is believed that Yama (the Lord of Death) will be repulsed by such names, consequently losing interest in taking that particular person's life. Because this custom seems to have a positive effect, it is still practiced today. When someone encounters a period of great misfortune or seems to continually have one health problem after the other, a Tibetan antidote is to wear some kind of clothing or a color which is not normally worn. On the back of this piece of clothing a large, yellow swastika is sewn. The spokes of the Buddhist swastika point in a clockwise direction and represent a continuous flow of energy. Tibetans feel that by wearing this symbol any force that might be trying to harm one's life will be intercepted. The afflicted person may also hang a small astrological medal medallion from their belt or carry it in their pocket. Twelve animals are printed on this medallion. Each of these animals correspond to one of the years within the twelve year lunar cycle. Both the practice of wearing unusual clothes with a swastika sewn on the back and the carrying of an astrological medallion are done for the purpose of warding off all kinds of misfortunes.
Epithets of His Holiness the Dalai Lama There are many epithets used for His Holiness the Dalai Lama, who is considered to be a manifestation of
!!~·~~·~a~~·' Avaloketeswara' (the Lord of Great Compasssion). Among these epithets, several of the more commonly used titles are: The Venerated One The One with Precious Victory
38
Lesson 2
~~·~~"'~~·s·
The Wish-fulfilling Gem
&~~·~~~·'X."' :r:J-~.
The One in which you Take Refuge/ The One from whom you Take Refug2/ The Saviour
The title 'X."\·~· literally means: precious one/ gem.
Typical Tibetan Names and their Meanings The following are some Tibetan names and their meanings: Tara/The goddess who removes obstacles and quickly brings success.
White Tara/ The goddess who bestows long-life and sound health. She removes obstacles concerning one's life span and cures sicknesses.
~·~·
Sun/ Sunday
tJ~'1'"1~~· tJ:!)'~~·~ ~'!Jill'
Merit/ virtue/ fortune/ lucky
!'tJ'
Moon/ month/ Monday
lr.:tlJ·qs~·
Wealth/ economy
U!·4~·
Wisdom/ knowledge
i'~·~"'·
One who is religious/ a place in which religion flourishes
;!;·~~"'.
Stable/ sturdy life
~~"'·
Padma Sambhava/ Guru Rinpoche
Victorious auspidousness/ auspidous victory
tJ~"'·q~"'·
Holder of Dharma
IX. Exercises A.
Write the posses.fiveformfor the following words:
B.
Fill in the blanks:
(3)
G'1·~t:.·-~·llj~~·-~a)"' ·tlJ·~·~ ·~·-1 (!lt:.·-~~~:r:J--~t:.·r.:·~·"'~·~l1 t:.·_~t:.llll''1,~'-1
My name is Dolkar.
(4)
if---ft:.·~~·
What is the number of her room?
(5)
'!'-tJ~'
(2)
111'al'1'~'11 S]£::.~'1'
1
What is your father's name? Where is his friend from [country)?
Count from five to ten.
39
Colloquial Tibetan
C
Answer the following questions in Tibetan:
(1)
6" ·:.;,r::.~·~'llllll~'" r::.'W'l.l'llllll~·~·~.~a)~ 'lll'lll'X.·~·Q~'Uf" 1
(2)
~'llllll~'~lll'lll~'lll'X. 'Ill~" ~-ur" ''J'X."1
(3)
6" ·:.;.r::.~·~'llllll~'"" 'W'l.l'llllll~·~·~~r::.~·~·lll·'J:.;.·X."1
<4>
~·&~·~·lll:.;.·G"·:.;.r::.·lll·'J:.;.·Q~Ill~·~·ur"1
cs>
6" ·:.;.r::.·arfl·'J:.;.-wr::.·~r::.~·"".fl" ·&~111-wr::.·~r::.~·lll·¥" ·x."1
(6)
~"·:.;.r::.·iQlr::."'l·x.·111 ~r::.~·ur" 1 a"·:.;.r::.·~a.·iQ·~Ill·Uj~1 !lll'Q'~~~~·Ill·'J:.;.'Q~Ill~·~-Uf"·'J·X."1 6"·:.;.r::.-w·~·~~·x."·'J~1 ·:.;,r::. ~·r:fllllll~~~.~·~ ·X." ''J~1
<7) (8)
C9>
.
(10)
a"
D.
Write the Tibetan or English numeral for the following:
(1)
3
(2) 9
(8)
Q~'
(9)
X.
~r:::.·a-~·~~-"'14' Vocabulary for Lesson Three
Q!"'
(3)
0
(4)
u
(S) 7
(6)
(10)
t!'
(11)
Q~'
cu> alll·
(l3) Q~'lll~lll'
2
(7)
111~111'
Nouns ~lll''JC:.'
blackboard
illl'
electricity I light
W"~'l'oj"'/ ~~:.;.'QJ'
bag
~'llllll'
things/ goods
~Q'~Ill'
chair
~~·~r::.· ....
window
door
t'£-r·f
.
~Ill·~~·
motorcycle
pencil ~·~Ill' llJC:.'~fli":.;.•f ~r::.·~~Qj' bicycle owner Q"lll~
~"~Ill'
fruit
~·~·
apple
a)·~·~.~·
orange
~.~·s~·
cook I chef
~C:.''J'
Buddhist
monastery
:tr::.·~F":.;,·
car I vehicle
lil'l.l'
priest/ lama
~r::.·~·
Tingri
"l!f~''J' ~·~r Ill~~ 'Qjl.J'
a)lll''J:.;.'
newspaper
Q~~·'J:.;.'
magazine
"s~~·
Westerner I English
"s~~a.·~~·
English language
~~lll''J'
Bhutanese
~s~'fr::.~·'J·
Sikkimese
~~·¥"·
time
~~lll'flC:.'
guest house
40
layman Nyalam
Lesson2 i~·~·~~~~·~·
~&l'~ii~,21
school
~~·flr::.'
hospital
clothes (h.)
fl"'l;l~~·
landlord
Pronouns ~·~~·IITJ~·
all four
Demonstratives
~~·
this
~~·af-
these
~·
that
~·g.
those
'I~'
that (over there)
t.~•af-
those (over there)
that (up there)
tij'g.
those (up there)
that (down there)
&I'g.
those (down there)
of this
~~·a?a.·
of these
~'a,·
of that
~.ga,.
of those
r.j'~'a.·
of that (over there)
t.~•a?a.·
of those (over there)
tij'~'a.·
of that (up there)
tij•a?a.•
of those (up there)
&~~'a.·
of that (down there)
&!'~'
of that (down there)
do (h.)
s~·
do (nh.)
i.Jt;.'tj'
many/ a lot
f'4~'
some
a)r::.'&~'
all
~r::.·~·
all
~~~'tj'
new
~%~~
only/ alone
~Qj·~~~
important
so I therefore
Qj~~·~r::.·
yes
l;l~"~l
Stand!/ Get up!
Say [it]!/ Speak!
'41t:~~1
~~"1
Come!/ Go!
&l~'l;l~~~l
Please sit down!
ur~·
&!~' ~~'a.·
Verbs ~~r::.·
Adjectives
-
Adverbs tij~~
well/good
Conjunctions s~·~r::.·
Imperatives (h.)
%t
~ '(lil~'
=[~&J'CliiQ.') 41
Colloquial Tibetan Uj%,"~~t:.~1
Please stand up!
Please answer!
-s~·~~t:,·l
Qj~·a-~1
Please ask!
-s~·~~t:,·l
Please write!
t::l~~~·~~t:,·l
Please sit down!
F·~~t::~·~~t:.·l
Please close [it)!
~~·m-~·~~t:."l
Please read the book!
~~·F·s·~~t:.·J
Please open the book!
Uj%,"~~t:,~·,t:,,
Please stand up!
Ult:.·a%,·~~t:,·,t:,,
Please say (it) again!
Qj~·a-~·,t:,,
Please answer!
-s~·~~t:,·,t:,·l
Please ask!
s~r~~~·~~t:,·l
Please ask!
,.
Now ...
Interjections
Phrases
Q.~~~·~·l·'11
O.K.
42
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 3
Page I.
Demonstratives A. Singular B. Plural g.
• • n.
ill.
Sentences (1) - (7) Sentences (8) - (14)
Articles
47
The Plural Particle g.
48
Possessive Demonstratives A. Singular B. Plural~·
Sentences (15) -(19) Sentences (20) - (24)
Modifiers indicating Quantity A. ... Quantifier B. Number+ Particle (:0%..'/
N.
·1]%..')
Sentences (25) - (31) Sentences (32) - (36)
A. (Noun+ ~,·CJ~.rfc.r ... Noun + ~,1) (Noun+ U!~·CJ~'/CJ' .. .Noun + U!~p B. (Noun+ ~,·...Noun+ ~,1) (Noun + Ul~ ·.. .Noun + Ul~ (Noun+~,·... ~·~,p
p
c.
(Noun + Ul~ ·... &!~
p
v.
Conformation Seeking Questions [the particle ~·]
VI.
Requests for Translation-Equivalents A. The construction.. .!l%..·~·qr~·~%..·~·~,1 [What does...mean?] I [What is...in (Tibetan/ English, etc.?)] The construction...~%..·~ ·~t;. ·~s·~%.. ''lJCJ',~~·~, 1 [How do you say ...?I How would one say ...?]
48 48 49
49 49
so so
Disjunctive Construction ieither I or]
B.
45 45
Sentences (37)- (40)
so
Sentences (41} -{44)
51
Sentences (45)- (48)
51
Sentences (49)- (55)
52
54
Sentences (56)- (64)
54
Sentences (65) -(66)
55
vn. vm.
Polite Imperatives
Sentences (67)- (76)
56
Phrases for Memorization
Sentences (71) - (79)
57
IX.
Conversation
Sentences (80) - (89)
57
X.
Exercises
58
XI.
Vocabulary for Lesson 4 <.·~~·~~%..'CJ'
59
Lesson 3 I.
Demonstratives
Chart 1
Singular Forms
A.
~~·this
B.
1~·that (near you) J'4'~· that (over there)
I
~~·¥-these ~·¥- those(near you) A.
I
Plural Forms
'4'¥' those( over there)
t Ul~' that (above) 1~~· that (below)
I t~.~·¥-
those( above)
I~·¥-
those(below)
Singular Sentences (1)- (7)
(1) a. ~~ "r.J'~~~l
Penpa!
Yes.
b.~~~,
(2) a. ~~·~·l.·l.~l
What is this?
b. ~~~·l.~l (3) a. q~·~·l.·l.~l
That is a book [beside you].
b. '4'~·~~·t.~t::l.~,
What is that over there?
That [over there] is a blackboard.
(4) a. ~~~~·l.·l.~l
And what is that [beside you]?
b. ~~·~~·~·l.~l (S) a. cq~·~·l.·l.~l
This is a pen.
b. Ul~·i~·l.~l (6) a. ~~~·~·l. ·l.~
b.
~·~·w-~·'4~' ( ~~.%..·~·2) l.~l
(7) a. ,..,~·~·l. ·l.~l
b. '4~'UJt::'f~·'4~·l.~l
B.
Plural
What is that up there?
That [up there] is a [an electric] light. What is that down there?
That [down there] is a bag. What is that over there? That is also a bag [over there].
...= Sentences (8) - (lt)
~~·J=3~·l.·l.~1
What are these?
b. ~~·¥-~~·~~·l.~l
These are chairs.
(8) a.
1. ~ '"~"\ · Tibetan word for bag.. 1
Colloquial Tibetan
r.r¥-4~·~·~~1 b. ~·g.~~~·~~·sc::~~1 (10) a. ~·r~~~·lll·X.·X.~1
What are those [over there]?
(9) a.
Those are doors and windows. What are those two [things] [near you]?
b. a.\g-~~~·~·~~·~~~~·~~1 (11) a. a.~·g.a;~·o-~·~~·~~1
These two are a pencil and a book. What are all these lthings)?
b. ~·g.a;~·o.:·~~·~~·~C)1
Those are all chairs.
(U) a. o.:·g.lfr·~~·tJ~J
b.
Are those cars down there?
o.:·~~, o.~·~~, ~%~·~~·a.[S':z:.·7~~1 9 1i\~~·o-~·~·~~·~9·~~ 1
No! No! One is a bicycle and the other down there is a motorcycle.
(13) a. ars 9'~·~~,
What are those up there?
b. ~·~-~~~9·~~, (14) a.
They [those up there) are fruit.
~·s9~,<~.-~~·i9·~~1
Whose clothes are those down there?
b. o.:·i"~'O.:'QJ"l~·~·~·~iilr.l.'~~,
Those are mother's clothes down there.
In Tibetan there are four forms of demonstrative pronouns: nominative- a.~· 'this', possessive- a.~~· 'of this', dative- a.~x; ~here', instrumental- a.~~· 'by this'. In this lesson, the nominative form (which is not followed by any specialized case marking) and the possessive form are introduced. In Lesson 6, section II the dative form is introduced. Nominative demonstrative pronouns are used to represent spatial relationships. They are also used to indicate the distance and direction of an object relative to a central point, usually the speaker. English has a two-way distinction. this vs. that 'This' signifies objects which are closer, while 'that' signifies objects which are at a distance from the speaker. Tibetan'has a 6.ve way distinction, shown in Chart 2: Chart 2
Proximity to speaker (sing.) a.\ this
Proximity toaddresse ~· that (near you)
Distance from speaker and addressee ~·~·that (over there)
~·~·that (above)
(pl.) a.~·~ these ~·g. those(near you) ~·g. those( over there) ~·g. those(above)
o.:·q,· that (below) o.:·g. those(below) I
Eacl1 demonstrative has a singular (sing.) and a plural (pl.) form. The plural is formed by adding the particle "K' to the stem. Please note that with the demonstratives~·~·; ~·~·; and o.:·~·, the particle~· is dropped and replaced by the pluralization marker g., i.e., ~·g. J~·"g. I o.:·g., etc. 4. r.;·~ =~~~ ·~]
s.
6. ~·~· =(~;s,·~·]
7. ":C:'"-'16"~· = ,... c:·~,-x_Qf]
8. lij'~ =(u:~·~]
9.
46
~~·~c:· = l~r~c:·J
il'af· =[iJ0\'~1
Lesson 3 Each pronoun's function is as follows: a,~· 'this' is used to distinguish objects which are near the speaker. ~·'that (near you)' is used for objects which are close to the addressee but at a distance from the speaker. The other three demonstratives are used for objects which are at a distance from both the speaker and the addressee. ~~· 'that (above)' is used for distant objects vertically above the eye level of the speaker and addressee; ~t·'a!· 'that (below)' for distant objects, at or below the level of the feet; and t.~·'a!· 'that (over there)' for all other distant objects. The question-answer pairs in this lesson drill the reader in the use of these demonstrative pronouns. Note that in the question-answer pairs in sentence (2), 11.~ • is used in the question and~· in the answer to refer to the same object, namely a book; and in sentence (4), ~·is used in the question and 11.~ ·in the answer to refer to the object pen. In these contexts the demonstrative pairs are classified as asymmetric (2)a. o,~·~·~-~~1 b. ~-~'l·~~ 1
What is this? That is a book [beside you].
In the question-answer pairs in sentences (3) ,....~. (5) Ul~· and (6) .Jr~·, the demonstative used in the question is the same as used in the answer. Such question-answer pairs occur when the object being spoken about is distant from both the speaker and the addressee. In such contexts the demonstrative in the questionanswer pairs are classified as symmetric
(3)a. t.~~·~·~-~~1
Wllat is that over there?
b. ,....~.~~·c.jt:_'~~ 1
•
That is a blackboard.
Articles
In Tibetan there is no one word which corresponds exactly to the English indefinite articles a, an The modified form of the numeral~~~· 'one',~~·, maybe used as an indefinite article, e.g., ~'l·~~· 'a book'. Similarly, there is no one distinct form for the definite article the The demonstratives, in addition to representing spatial relationships, can also be used as a modifier to make an object definite:
This book is new./ The book is new. From the context of the ~nversation. however, if one understands that the speaker is referring to a specific object then the use of a demonstrative pronoun is not mandatory:
~'l'll.~ -~~~ 'c.j'~~ 'c.j~~t:. 'c.j'~~ 1
Is this book new or old?
~'l·~~~·c.j·~~1
[The] book is new.
The literary form of ~~·has two variant particles~~· and 4~·. These are called~~-~~· 'attached particles' in Tibetan grammar. Examplesofthesethreeformsare:~'l~~· 'a book',~~-~~-~~· 'a teacher' and ~t:.·as~·4~· 'a piece of furniture,. As with the genitive particles introduced in Lesson 2, section m, the use of these particles is dependent on the suffix of the preceding word. The particle~~· follows words
(
ending in~· ~· 'l' ~·s~· ~-s~· means~· as a post-suffix). The particle~~· follows words ending in t:.' ~· &l' a,· ~·
Qf,
And~ particle 4~· follows words ending in~·.
47
Colloquial Tibetan
•
The Plural Particle
¥-
Unlike English where some verbs agree with subject nouns in grammatical number, the Tibetan verb is never marked lor singularity or plurality. Nouns themselves can be pluralized by the optional particle~ in a way that appears to resemble the English plural suffix, •-s,. This similarity is rather misleading, however, because the English suffix is obligatory (it must occur if more than one object is meant), while the Tibetan particle is optional (it may or may not occur if more than one object is meant).
In Tibetan, the presence of the particle ~ marks the noun as plural. Its absence however, merely indicates that the noun is unspecified for number or is indefinite. Nouns which carry no plural suffix can be translated into English as either singular or plural because Tibetan nouns are inherently ambiguous with respect to number. Thus a word like iCJ'~Ill·~ will always be translated into English by the plural students, while the word iCJ'~Ill· may be translated as either the singular studentor the plural students. In the case of demonstrative pronouns, when one is pointing out a group of people or things, then the particle ~must be used, i.e., tc~·af', uraf', o.~·~ etc. However, in such a sentence the noun will not carry the particle af', e.g., tc~·~iCJ'~Ill·~~l Those are students [over there].
II.
Possessive Demonstratives
Chart 3
Proximity to speaker
Proximity to addressee
~~a.·
of this
~a.·
of that (near you)
~~·~·
of these
~·~·
of those (near you)
Distance from speaker and addressee l4·~'Q.· of that (over there)
UJ~'?J.· of ~t (up there)
o.~~'a.· of that (down there)
1'4·~· of those (over there)
UJ'~' of those (up there)
o.~·~· of those (down there)
A.
Singular Sentences (15)- (19)
(15} a. ~~·~"a·~r:;·lll·~·~~l
b. ~~·~~-a·~r:;·(2J~~·~·s·~~·~·Ui~·z:r~~1
What is the name of that book? The name of this book is called/ this book is
called Daughter of Tibet. (16} a. iCJ·~·~~Q.·~~·~~·~·~~l
b. iz::r~·~~Q.·~~·~~oU!·4~'12Jill~·~~1 (17) a. ~·,..~"a·~-a""l'lll'~·~~l
b.
fS'r:=.·o.~·s~.t~~,
Who is the teacher of this school?
Yeshi is the teacher of this school. What is the job of that person [over there]? I What work does that person over there do? He is a cook.
48
Lesson 3
~lf~·t.~·11~·~~·~·~~·~J~"1
(18) a.
"i5f~'Q"Uj~q·~·.J.!·~i:J~·i!ft::·~~:tj-~·~"1 {19) a. Jl'jiiC:.'II'~~·~~·s~·~·llf~~·~"·Q~l
b.
.:a·~~~r::.·.J.!~cq ..J.!.s~·~·~·~~·~"l
b. B.
Who is the lama of that monastery [up there]? The lama of that monastery is Serkong Rinpoche. Is the (X)()]( of that restaurant [down there] from Ulasa?
The cook of that restaurant [down there] is from Lhasa.
Plural~·
Sentences {20) - (M) (10) a. ~·~~~·~·~~~~~·~"1
Who is the owner of those things [near you]?
b. 'O'Ill~'O.\~'tl"~~tli!t::'lll~~·~~, (21) a. .il'jll c:.·a.~ ·i'a,·~~ "~~" 'Q'~" 'Cl~J b. .J.l'~~l il'flt::·a.~·~·tl')~~"'Cl'
Lobsang is the owner of these things. Is the owner of these restaurants [a] Tibetan?
No, the owner of these restaurants is not Tibetan.
.J.l'~"l ··~~~c:.·r.ria·~~~~"·CJ·~"l
The owner of those restaurants [over there] is Tibetan.
(12) a. !JIC:.'f.I'UI'arc\·jllc:.·~~"l·a.~~·CJ·~"·CJ~1
Is the land lord of those houses [up there] Bhutanese?
.J.!'~"l a.~~·Cl·.J.!·~"l a.s~·fr::.~·Cl·~"l a. a.~~·CJ·~·~·~·.J.!:cr"·t.~·~"'Cl~J
Is the lama of those Bhutanese people [over there) Tibetan?
b. ~", Q.~~·Cl·~·~·~·.J.!:cr"·Q·~",
Yes, the lama of those Bhutanese people is Tibetan.
b. (23)
No, he [is] not Bhutanese. He is Sikkimese.
(24) a. 'l'i&'&rl'a:~c:.·lll·~·~·~ ~ ·~iG'"" 'CJ'~" 1
What·are those places [down there] called?
b. ~%~·~'<}1':1.'1ll.J.l"'r::.·~%~~r::.·~·~~1
One is Nyalam and the other one is Tingri.
All demonstrative pronouns are suffixless; therefore, the genitive is always formed with the particlea:, e.g., a.~Q..·, a.~~~·, etc.:
(16) a. ~tl·~·a.~~·~~·~~·~·X-~1 (21) a. i!'flr::.·a.~·i'a.·tJ"~·'flS""·CJ·~"·Cl~J
Who is the teacher of this school? Is the owner of these restaurants [a] Tibetan?
III. Modifiers indicating Quantity A.
Quantifiers
(25)
~tl·~~·~~c:.:q;-£5\~~·x." 1
Many of the students are from Tibet.
(26)
l~'lll'.f:1'1'~~~·Q·X."J a.~·~~C:.'"J'fir::.~·X."J
Some [of] the apples are new.
Sentences (25)- (31)
(27)
All of these are hers.
(28)
a5·~t::·~%~~~·%"'Cl'~",
Only Tsering is a Tibetan.
(29)
t::·~·c:.·~~·~·~~·~~·t1!~1
All of us are from India.
(30)
'O'Ill~·~·~~r::.·~·fir::.·l-1:.J.!·~"1
All of those things over there are not theirs.
(31)
r::.·~fl·4~·~t::'Cl'tQ~ 1
Some of us are Buddhists.
11. "\~~ 'Q' =l"i~&J''J'] u. "1~<11~ =[
49
Colloquial Tibetan Quantity words like some, many, all, etc. are termed quantifiers. These words occur as modifiers of nouns, specifying the quantity or amount of the thing denoted. In Tibetan, as opposed to English, modifiers generally follow the nouns they modify. The words ~"~'many I much' and ~·4~· 'some/ a few' occur as quantifiers in such Tibetan noun phrases as i~·~ac;.· lf 'many men/many people', iQ·~~·~·-41-.,· 'a few students'.
B.
Number+ Particle -o~·f"J~· Sentences (32) - (36)
(32) a. UI"~Q~·~·~-~')1 b. Ul"~~·~~·i~-~')1
(33) a. ~-~~~~-~-~-~')1 b. ~-~~~..,·,~·.;"·Q.rr~-~')1
What are those four [things] up there?
All those four [things] up there are lights. What are those two [things] down there? Those two [things] down there are bicycles.
(34) a. F~~~~-~~·iQ·~~-~')·I:J~1
Are both of them students?
b. rs:~~~~-~~·iQ·~~-~')1
Both of them are students.
(35) a. tc~·~~~~-ll]~·rr"·~·s·~~-I:J~1 b. tc~·ar-~~~-,~ ·rr" -~·s·~-~~ 1
(36)
~-~·')""a)·~·~-~~~-,~·4"17~·~')1
Are both of the boys over there her sons? Both of the boys over there are not her sons. Both apples and oranges are fruit.
The Tibetan language has several particles which can be translated as all in English. In this pattern, the particle~~· 'all' is introduced. ~~·is only used with the numerals 2 through 10 when designating all of a specific group; e.g.,~~~-~~· 'all three', Q~~-~~· 'all seven',~~~-~~· 'both (i.e., all two)', etc. A variant form of this particle, "1~·, can also be used. These particles are only used with monosyllabic, never polysyllabic words. This being the case, the particles~~· and 111~· are never used with numbers above ten, i.e., Q~-~~~· 'twelve', ~-Q~· 'fifty', etc. There are no set rules differentiating the use of~~· and 111~·; both mean all or both. The particular usage depends upon one's own preference. Other Tibetan equivalents for all are a)"·~· and ~"·~·· These modifiers can be used with numerals, e.g., Q~-~~~·a)" ·~· 'all twelve', 'l;I"Q'S"El~"'J"~" ·~· 'all fifty', as well as with ordinary nouns, e.g., i)·a)"·~· 'all (the) men/people', s·~~"·~· 'all (the) girls'.
IV. Disjunctive Construction [Either/ or) A.
(Noun+ X.~·~~·f~·... Noun + X.~p (Noun +Ul~·~~·f~·... Noun + Ul~l)
(37) a. ~-~Q·~""CJ41"a)~·I:J~·~"1 b. Qj~~-~Q·~-~~1 a)~·I:J~-~~1
(38) a. a.~·~Q·~~-~""I:J"~Qj·8"~"1 b. Qj~~-~Q·~~-~~1
Sentences (37)- (40) Is that a book or a newspaper? No, it is not a book. It is a newspaper.
Is this a chair or a table? Yes, it is a chair. 50
Lesson 3 (39) a.
e~·;z;.~·~si'f\~·~~'t.l'l~~·,r~~,
b. ~~~·l.J-Uii'f\1 (40) a. e~·;z;.~·~iQ·~~·~~·t.~·i"~·l,J~~,
b. ~·~i"~·t.~·&li'f\1 i~·~~'Uli'f\1
Are you a westerner or a Tibetan?
I am a Tibetan. Are you students or businessmen? We are not businessmen. [We] are students.
(Noun+~~· ... Noun + ~~1)
B.
(Noun +&,}~· ... Noun + &,}~ 1) (41) a. rr~·s·~l).14s·lfl.l)1 b. rr~·s·~~1 s·ii-~.~·~~1 (42) a.
e~·;z;.~·~si'f\~-Gl~,l~~·l,J~~,
b. ~·~si'f\~·&~i'f\1 ~~·t.~·U!i'f\1 (43) a. r..~~·~i'f\'f~·~~·i-l"f'i'f\'f~·~~1
b. r..t~'i-l"f'i'f\"f~·~.~·~~1 Sii'f\'f~·~~1 (44) a. e~·;z;.~'SJ'l.l'Uii'f\·&I·~·Uii'f\1
b. ~'SJ''l'Uli'f\1 &,·~·&li'f\1
C
Sentences (41)- (44) Is he/ she a boy or a girl? He is a boy, not a girl. Are you a westerner or a Tibetan?
I am not a westerner. [I] am a Tibetan. Is that a hospital or a guest house [over there]?
That is not a guest house. [That] is a hospital. Are you a monk or a layman?
I'm a monk, not a layman.
(Noun + ~~·... 11·~~1) (Noun + &,}~ ·.J~~ 1) Sentences (45)- (48)
(45) a. rr~·s·~"'ll'~"1
b. Ql~~·~"1 rr~·s·~~1 (46) a. f~'l.J'r..t~'iQ'SJ'~~·~.~·~"1
b. Ql~~·~~1 rr:~·t.~·r..t~'Q~Q'SJ'~", (41) a. !6'~·e~·;z;.~~·li'i.l~~·~~1
b. CJJ!S]~·U!i'f\1 !6'~·~~'li'i.I'Uii'f\1 (48) a. e~·;z;.~·i"~'l,J'Uli'f\'&li'f\1
b. QJ~~~~·, ~·i"~'l.J'Uli'f\1
Is he a boy or not?
Yes, he is a boy. Is that building over there a school or not? Yes, that building [over there] is a school. Is he your priest [lama] or not?
Yes, he is my priest. Are you a businessman or not? Yes, (h.) I am a businessman.
Questions which pose a choice, or disjunction, between two nouns are introduced in this section, i.e., 'Is this an X or a Y?' In this lesson, three distinct patterns are presented. The first two patterns, illustrated in section IV A and B, are just stylistic variants of each other, and can be used interchangeably.
u.
"sa;~·=~~~~·~
lC.
l.'\· = (l.'\'-1 I til~·= [111'\'-1 In disjunctive questions formed with a double l.'\' or til~·, the first l.V til~· has a drawn out sound, [l."'-1/ [111~·-1, when spoken. 51
Colloquial Tibetan
Pattern A: (Noun X+ Verb+ l.J~"/l.J" +Noun Y +Verb): or Is that a book or a newspaper?
In disjunctive constructions when the speaker wants a factive reply the verb ~C)· is used, and when a personal perspective reply is desired UJ~ · is used. This perspective distinction is discussed in detail in Lesson 5. or Are you a westerner or a Tibetan?
Colloquially one hears the UJ~ "l.J"...UJ~ · construction more often than the UJ~ "l.J~· ...U:!~ · construction. When vocalizing the disjunctive questions of this section the question particle l.J~· or l.J" is drawn out [l.J~- ]I [l.J-] before continuing with the rest of the sentence, e.g., (38)a. Q.~"~Q·~~·~""l.J-f~·~~"l or Q.~"~Q·~~·~rfl.J'I-f~·~~C)l Is this a chair or a table? Pattern B: (Noun X+ Verb+ Noun Y +Verb): (4l)a. r.~·~·~~ "flr;:. ·~C)·~~~ "flr;:. ·~" 1
Is that a hospital or a guest house?
Both Patterns A and B consist of a two-part structure. In A, the first part of the structure ends with the particle l.J~·. In B, l.J~· does not occur; it is the intonation which lets the addressee know a choice question has been posed. In the questions of this section the first U:!~· or ~C)· is drawn out ful~·-]f[~C)·-] before continuing the rest of the sentence, e.g.,: Is he a boy or a girl? A third type of disjunctive structure is used to form questions such as 'Is this an X or not?, This is also a two-part construction. In this type of question, the noun or noun phrase, namely 'X,, occurs in the first part with the positive form of the verb; the second part consists simply of the negative form of the verb. Pattern C: (Noun X+ Verb+ Neg. Verb):
V.
(46)a. flr;:."Q"r.l"~·iQ"9J"~"·II·~"1
Is that building over there a school or not?
(48)a. 6C)":t;.r;:.·i"c:.·l.J-tl:l~·~~1
Are you a businessman or not?
Confirmation Seeking Questions [with the Particle 'j') Sentences (49)- (55) That is a newspaper, right [isn,t it]?
(49) a. ~ ·cr;~·l.J:t;. ·~" "':1 b. QJ~~~C)1 Q.~"CI)"l~·l.J:t;."~C)1
Yes (h.), this is a newspaper.
52
Lesson 3 (SO) a. a;"·~.c;.·s·~~·f;lt (51) (52)
Tsering is a boy, isn't he?
b. Qj~(l.f·~~t s·~~t
Yes, he is a boy.
a. ~~·~~~·r,j"~·)~·i~·~~·~1 b. '1"~~1 a.~~·CJQ.·~~·ill)·~~l
This is a Bhutanese dress, right?
a.
B~ ·x,.c;. ·l'".c;.·cr~'l ''i1
You are a businessman, aren't you?
b. Qj~(l.f·tlljJ
(53) a.
No, this is a Tibetan dress.
"·i'.c;. "CJ"tll~1 ~·~"l·s· ll'l.""'i1
Yes (h.), I am a businessman. That isn't paper, is iti
b. Ql~4-t·'~·~~1 4~·s·'~·~')1
No (h.), it isn't paper.
(54) a. F"~')"CJ'~')'~l
He is Tibetan, isn't he?
b. Qj~(l.f·'l·~~, ~s~~·~", (55) a. rs~·x,.c;.~s,~·~~,.'i1
No, he is a westerner. You aren't a westerner, are you?
b. Ql~4-l·il~t "~s~~·il~t
No (h.), I'm not a westerner.
In Lesson 2, section I A, Yes/ No questions are introduced. In these type of question patterns the question marking particles CJ4-!' and ~4-!· occur after the verb at the end of the sentence. In section IV A of this lesson, the question marking particle CJ4-!" is used in the disjunctive question pattern (Noun X + Verb + CJ4-l"/ CJ" +Noun Y +Verb) to mark a choice. In this section ~other question marking particle, 'i', is introduced. The particle f;i' forms another special type of question called a canfirma tion seeking question. In this lesson the question marking particle f;i" follows the factive verbs tll~·; ~~·or their negatives i!~·; '1"~')·, i.e.I tll<~"CJ" ~<~-1 'CJ" ~ c:l "CJ" I 'l"~ c:l 'CJ". -~ r.:t When using confirmation seeking questions, the speaker presupposes that the disclosed information is true, but is seeking confirmation from the addressee. literally the question marking particle f;i" can be translated ;a~.t1' . the lDlp . lication o f a tag question. . 1.e., . •.. .lSI\ . , t 1't?. , ' • .. .aren ' t they., ? , etc. as, 'nb". . This structure also cames When using this question structure there is a rise of intonation at the end of the sentence, similar to the characteristic rise of intonation at the end of English questions. Note that this type of question involves the expectation that the addressee will confirm the questioner's presupposition. This expectation, however, may or may not be met. In the following examples the presupposition inherent in the question is confirmed.by the response: Q
Q
Q
(SO) a. a;"·~.c;.·s·l.')''il
b. Qj~(l.f·~~l s·~"l (52)
a.
(S~ ·x..c;. ·i"'z:~:r.r!A)'I "'il
b. Ql~4-!"tll~1 .c;.·i'.c;."CJ-rll"1
Tsering is a boy, isn't he? Yes, he is a boy. You are a businessman, [right?] aren't you? Yes, I am a businessman.
In the following example the presupposition inherent in the question is not confirmed by the response:
(54) a. F"'~~·q·~~·'il b. Qj~(l.f·clr~~~ ~s,~·~~~
He is Tibetan, isn't he? [right?] No, he is a westerner.
53
Colloquial Tibetan Whether the question is confirmed or not, the addressee is expected to answer what the questioner is presupposing quickly and politely with a simple <1lllj~·~~1 or <1lllj~'•Jl'~~1· Confirmation seeking questions are often used within the context of a conversation to reconfirm an assumption based on a previously stated fact:
'fr::.~·r:·Qj~~~"·r.~·x.", s~r~r::.·F~:."Cq~:.~"·r.~·x."·r:l His father is Tibetan, so he's also Tibetan, right? I isn't he? The confirmation seeking question marking particle z;;· can also be used with the verb ur"·r.~·~~·, as well as with main verbs. In these kinds of sentences the particle z;;·'s function is the same as above. A variant form of the particle z;;· is ~ .. This particle follows the verb Q.~Ill'. The particle z;;· with ur~ ·r.r~ ~ ·, main verbs and the particle~· are introduced in Lessons 7 and 14.
VI. Requests for Translation-Equivalents A.
The Construction: •.•l.%.·~·~·l. ~.%.·~·l.C)1 [What does... mean?J I [What is... in (Tibetan/ English, etc.?)/ Sentences (56)- (64) What does ~Q· mean in English?
(56) a. ~Q~~·~·~s~~Q,·~~·<1J·~·l.·l~·;·l.')1 b. ~Q~~·~·~s~~Q_·~~·<1J· 'book'
~Q'means 'book' in English.
l~ll.')1 OJ(S~·iir::.·r::.a}61
Did you get it/ understand?
(51) a. '7'ilfOJ'iir::.·1 UJr::.·~~·111~r::.·~r::.·1
[I] didn't follow. Please say [it] again.
b. ~Q1 ~Ql ~·OJ6"1'iir::.·r::.OJ1
Book. Book. Now do you understand?
(58) a. UJr::.·a~·llj~C:.'')C:.'l
Please say [it] again.
b. ~Q,
Book.
(59) a. llj'~~·111~r::.·~r::.·1
Please say [it] slowly.
b. ~Ql
Book.
(60)a. ~·r;;·~r::.l UJ~~j:tJ-z;;·~r::.·l ~'11~·~·111~r::.·1
Now I understand. I understand well. Thank you.
(61) a. UJr::.·~~~~·~·'l1·~·1a~·~·~~1
What does UJr::.·~~· mean?
b. UJr::.·~~·1a~·~· 'again'1a~·~·~~1
UJI:.'~~·mt!ans 'again'.
(62) a. s~r~r::.·1a~·~·~s~~Q.·~~'<1l'llj'~·1a~·~·~~1
What is s~·~r::.· in English?
b. s~·~r::.~~·~·~s~~Q,·~~'<1l''therefore'1a~·~·~~1 s~·~r::.· is 'therefore' in English.
(63) a. 'Parents' 1a~·~·1r~·~~'<1l'llj'~·1a~·~·~~1
What is 'parents' in Tibetan?
b. 'Parents' 1a~·~;rr"·~~'<1J'lcl'OJ~~·~·~~1
'Parents' is lcl'OJ' in Tibetan.
(64) a. 'Whatareyoudoing?'1a~~~·~'<1l'llj'~~~~·~~1 What is 'What are you doing?' in Tibetan? b. 'What are you doing?' 1a~·"l;rr~·~"'<1J'fS"·~r::.·
'What are you doing?' in Tibetan is (5"·~~::.·
llj'~'llj~r::.~·Ui"1·
llj'~'llj~C:.~'Ui"~~·~·~"1
54
Lesson 3
B.
The Construction: ...l~·~·~~·~s·l~'QIQ''1~~·~'11 [How do you say... ?I How would one say... ?J Sentences (65) - (66)
(65) a. 'Hello' ~z-·"1~')-~')'"'l'~"~S~-2\.17
How do you say 'Hello' in Tibetan?
Qll:l'l)~..,·~l)l b. 'Hello' lz-''i ~') ·~') '"'J't:J~:T4~·~::~~ ·ii~ll]~'
'Hello' in Tibetan is ~::~~·4~·~::~~ ·ii~ll]~l·
-~.18Qil:l'l)~"'~l)l (66) a. fi~::.·~·X.'):a.2\'"1''1S'i~ct~')'lll'll]"'"-~·~z-·
How would one say fi~::.·~·X.')· in English?
"'li::J·"ar~·x.", b. fi~::.·~·X.')·~z-·'i·')s~~Q.·~')'"'l'
fi~::.·~·X.')· in English would be 'Who is he/she?'
'Who is he/she?' ~z-·"'lt:~'')ar~·x.'11 The verb l~· 'say' is used in forming requests for translation-equivalents. This is a useful construction for students to learn, because it allows them to use Tibetan to ask for the English equivalent of a Tibetan word, or the Tibetan equivalent of an English word. Constructions like this which promote the continuity of the Tibetan conversation are an invaluable habit in the classroom and when conversing with native speakers.
a.
Asking for the English equivalent of a Tibetan word:
[What does .....mean?) (56) a. ~l:l~.2\''i'll]'X.~.2\·~·X.')1 What does~~::~· mean? [literally: 'If~~::~· is said, what will be said (in English?)']
~"'C\S'l~'Qil:l'l)~..,·~l)l
[How do you say... ?I How would one say... ?]
<66> a. ii"·~·~l)·~~·'i·l)s'i~~·~I)·QI·Ill"'"'~·~.2\·"'l~::~·"ar~·~'11 How do you say fi~::.·~·~s in English? b.
Asking for the Tibetan equivalent of an English word:
[What is...in (Tib./ Eng., etc.)?) (63) a.
'Parents'~.2\''i~I)'~I)'QI'Il]'X.~z-·~·~')1 What is 'parents' in Tibetan? [literally: 'If 'parents' is said, what will be said in Tibetan?' )
[Howdoyousay-·?I Howwouktonesayin(Iib./Fng.,etc.)?) (65) a.
'Hello' ilz-·~~')'~I)'QI'Il]"'"-~~.2\'llli::J'')ar~·X.')J
How do you say 'Hello' in Tibetan?
=
17. IIJC:."'S~"'· [IIJ~"'S'~·il·] 11. il"'· =[11·] This is equivalent to an English quotation mark. The use ofil"'· is optional.
55
Colloquial Tibetan
VII. Polite Imperative Forms A dialogue between the teacher, Penpa and Nyima inside the class room: Sentences (67)- (76)
il"\':.1': (68) ~~'cfJ"\':
~"\':.1'~~~1 ~'1"'~1:;..191
Penpa, please tell [me]!
~~::.·~·~~::.·~·~-~-~~-~-ur~·l.l·~~1
What is his name?
~If]~·~;.~·,·~-~~-~~ 1
I don't know.
~~:;.·~~4('~'1"'~1::.'1
Please ask him.
Penpa asks Nyima' 5 name (69) if"'·:.~·: ~·ir:
6~ ·~~::. ~-cJ.!="' ·~"Ill·~ ·~-~~-ur~ 1
What is your name?
~:;.~·~~::.·~~·cJ.!:a~·~-ur~1
My name is Nyima.
After asking Nyima' 5 name, Penpa says to his teacher
(70) ~"\':.!': (71) ~~'cfJ"\':
~·ir: (72) ~~'cfJ"\':
cfJ"\'~~~1 ~~:;.~·~~:;,·QJ~'cJ.!:a~~~~lf]
Sir, his name is Nyima.
~·~-~~~, cq~·~~:;.4(,20~"1
Nyima, please stand up.
Ull::.'!j~-~~~::.·~c;.·1 6~·~c;.·~~"\1 c;.~·cJ.J·U!"\1 ~·cJ.!·~~~, ~~-:.~~·a,~·~·~·~":a.x.:
Please tell [me] again. Who are you? IamNyima. Nyima, please ask Penpa, 'What is this?'
~4(·l;~4('~"~:::1
Nyima asks Penpa Penpa, what is this?
(73) lil':
The teacher asks Penpa to answer Nyima' 5 question (74) ~~'cfJ"\':
~"\':.!': (75) ~~'cfJ"\':
~'il': (76) ~~'cfJ"\':
il"\':.1'~~~1 Ql'l'i'li"l
Penpa, please answer.
~-6~·~~:;,~-~~-~~1 ~·cJ.!·~~~,
That is your book.
~~~1
Yes.
~~~-~-~"1"'1 ~~~-~~ 41 1
Thank you. Sit down.
Nyima.
The polite imperatives (68) s~·~'l~::.·~~:;,· and (72) s~rl;~'l·~'l"' are both translated as 'Please ask.' It is correct to use-either form when making a polite request. However, when one wants to ask a favor of someone, the appropriate form is the (MVS + l;~41·~'1"'). Both imperative forms can be used with honorific or non-honorific verbs, e.g., ~~c;.·~~:;,·j~~r::.·~O]~·~~~::.· or~~·"t~:;,·j ~-1;~~-~~~::.· 'Please say'. (MVS+ l;~41· ~'11::.') is a stronger request then (MVS + ~'1~::.·~~::.·). 19. "1~~"1~'=(1;]~~·~·] 20. ~~or= [~~•r)
56
Lesson 3 ~r:;.· is the
polite fotm used when one is speaking to those of equal age or status and to those who are younger or below in status. ~Cil~'"l~r:;.·, on the other hand, signals honor or respect to the addressee. Figuratively speaking, the use of honorific forms puts the addressee in a higher position than the speaker. Note that the colloquial pronunciation for ~r:;.· is l'l'].
VIII. Phrases for Memorization Sentences (7'1) - {79) Pens and pencils are not the same. Newspapers and magazines are different. Is [it] ok if [I say it] like this? or Is [it] ok to say [it] like this? or Could you say it like this?
IX. Conversation A. Context: At a news-stand. (80) ~·~~·=
~~~'QJ"]~1 ~~·m~~r:;., ~~·"l·x...~~1
i"~·"'~~·= ~"l·~r~~1 (81) ~·~~·:
[It] is a pen.
~~·~~1 ~~·~~1 "'~·~~·~~1 0,~'"1'~·~~1
i"~·a,~~·: ~·~~1 ~afr:;.~·~"l ~·~(1'~~1 (82) ~·~~·:
~~·"~~1
a,~·~~·~~·q~·~"J'"'~·~~1
Are these books or newspapers?
i"~·a,~~·: ~·~"1~~·~~~~·~~1 ~"]'"1~·~~·~~1
Both of those are books, not newspapers. This is a book, not a newspaper, isn't it?
(84) ~-~~·:
"'~~~-~~·'";;1 ~111'"~~·~~·~~-~1 i'"~·a.~~·= ~"1~-~~1 ryll1'? 11r~-~1 (85) ~-~~·: ~-~Ujr:;.'~"J'"'~·~~·z;;1
Yes, [it] is. That's right. Those are also newspapers [near you], right? No, no. These are magazines. Oh, are [they]? Yes, [they] are.
i"~·a,~~·: ~~-~~'II'~~ 1 "'~ -~~~-~ ·q~ -~~ 1 (86) ~-~~·:
--
~-~~-~~-"~~1 ....
=~·"'"'~·: ~"]~
(87) ~-~~·:
No, no. Not that [over there]. What is this? Oh! Sorry, that is a book. Is it? Yes, [it] is.
i"~·a,~~·: ~"1~·~~1(83) ~·~~·:
Sentences (80) - (89) Chophel, please answer [me]. What is this?
.-::.. . ~1
~~~·q~~·lQ.·ilr:;.·~·Cil·~~~·~·iij'"~·q·~~1
i"~~~~·: a,~·lQ.·il~· 'Time' ~~1
51
What are the names of those magazines? The names [of these magazines] are 'Time'.
Colloquial Tibetan (88) ~·~r:
'Time' ~~·~~'i.~'\''ll'~·~·~~·~·~'\1 ~~r~~'ll·: 'Time' ~~·~~'i.~'\''ll'~~·f"'\·~~·~·~'11 (89) ~·~r: r;j\~'\''ll' 'time is important' ;.~·~·~~·~~·;.~·QJ~''i~~·~'\1 ~~·~~Ill·: 'Time is important' ;.~·~~'1.~'\''ll'
What is 'Time' in Tibetan? 'Time' is ~~·i"'\· in Tibetan. How do you say •time is important' in Tibetan? 'Time is important' in Tibetan is ~~·i"'i'~'ll'
~~~'11·
~~·~"'i'~'ll·~~~~'i·;.~·'ll~''i~~·~'i1
X.
Exercises
A.
Correctthefollowi~g
(1)
a)~·~:.~~·~~·~·~~1
Whose newspaper is this?
(2)
~~~z:;r~~~~·~:.~·~'\1
These books are new.
(3)
~'i·~:.~~·a)~·ori~·~~vri!·~·.,
Are all of the students American?
(4)
~·i)~·i~·~~ U!~·'\~·~~·~1
I am not a student. I am a teacher.
(5)
~~·4~·~~·~~~·~~·~·~'i·~~·~·~·~·'is~~~·~'\·'ll 1 Whatis~~·4~·~~·~~~·inEnglish?
B.
Fill in the blanks:
(1>
fS'i·~~·'i~·~~ ·--i~·~~·--1 ~~~·_"&''i'~'i·i~'f~·-1
(2)
Tibetan sentences according to the English:
(4)
~~·~~·~~~'Q'/'4'~--~'11 ;t·~~·'\~~·.J.l~Vf.J.l''ll~~·--1
(5)
f"~·~~~~~--~'i·;.~·~·--1
(6)
~~·&1'1'-~'i'
C.
Translate the following sentences:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
What do you do in Lhasa? Are all three pens his? Tashi, please stand up. Tsering, please ask him. Sonam, please answer.
(6)
fS'1·~~·~~-w~·~·~'i.z:i1
(7)
a)~·~:.~~·'i~·~~~·~~·~~·~a)~·~·-rr~·~'\1
(8)
'!forgot';.~·~·~·~·~~ ~·~'11
(3)
Are you a teacher or a student? I study Tibetan from a book. Whose new chairs are those? Who is Tsering and Nyima 'smother? How do you say, 'He is well?' Is Chimi a boy or not?
1
58
Lesson 3
D.
Cllange tile following into their corresponding negative forms: (2) Ul~·c.:~,
X." ·c.:~, <•> i~"fr:::.·s"·o·ur",
(1)
E.
(5) ~~~,·~r:::.·r:::.il1
Write the polite form for the following imperative words: ..,... say [it]
4~·
come
~"· Q,J~·i~·
sit /stay
F·s·
open [it]
answer
~~·
ask
~~·arr:::.·
stand up
Q,J~'
F"·il·il·x."·r:1
<3> <6> ~~·~~·rrr:::.~·x.",
~~~· ~·
go read [it]
il~'~"·
sit down
XI. ~~::;.·~~-~'~~·~· Vocabulary for Lesson Four Nouns ~~·il~~·j~~-~~-
color
~-
water
"~·f~·
prayer flags
"~·=·
flag
~~il'
sky
~~-~~·
space
~·
earth/ soil
~'f"'
teahouse
dog
~·i)·
a·
cat
~-§~~·
cow
i)·li\
Yeti
~-il~·
lamp
torch/ flashlight
~r:::.·Q,J~'
candle
~"~·
carpet/rug
i~·~· f"·~r:::.·
shirt
ar~·~r:::.·
pants
~i!~'
day of the week
~-~r:::.·
today
~r:::.·~~r:::.·
holiday
Verbs
"~~~
like/ appreciate
Adjectives
~~~ f~~
black
",~~
white
"il~~
red
blue
'l"'~'
green
~~~
yellow
r:s·r:r~·r:s·J r:s~-~~· ~~~
multi-colored
~-i)~·~·~~~
various
old
good
~r:::.·~r:::.·
small
'"'"l' ~~~
S!'~~~
large (in area)
~"~
long
l;~·c.:·
fresh
~~~-"~· ~ry~·~ry~·i!"·
other I other one ~ry~·~ry~· not sure/ not certain/not definite
sure/ certain/ definite
Adverbs
~%~·s~·~·
perhaps
Ul~·~·X."·
maybe
59
big/ large
Colloquial Tibetan
Conjunctions ~~·~a.~·
but
Phrases according to me......../ in my opinion....... .
60
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 4
Page I.
Color Terms
A. With Nouns B. With Demonstratives It
Sentences (1) - (8) Sentences (9) - (U)
The Adjectives r:l'r.9'~'r:l' and r.s~·~~·
ll.
Adjective Constructions
ill.
Use of Numerals in Sets A. Dual Sets B. Noun Phrases 1. Basic Multiple-Member Sets (Pattern A: Noun Phrases with Basic word-order) 2. Marked Multiple-Member Sets . (Pattern B: Noun Phrases with Marked word-order) 3. Distinguishing One Set of Things from Another (Pattern C: Noun Phrases with Distinguishing Reference, Marked word-order)
63 63 63 63
Sentences (13) - (21)
64
Sentences (22) - (26)
66 66
Sentences (27) - (33)
66 66
Sentences (34)- (37)
67
Sentences (38)- (41)
68
Sentences (42)- (46)
69
V.
Phrases for Memorization
Sentences (47)- (48)
71
VI.
Conversation
Sentences (49) -(56)
71
Vll.
Exercises
Vill. Vocabulary for Lesson 5 ~t:.·~~·~~~ 'CJ'
72
73
Lesson 4 I.
Color Terms
A.
With Nouns
(1)
(2) (3) (4)
~~~~·~c:~·l"~·~~~~~~:zrx.~1
~·~"Q.·i"~·~~'"ll~~1~~1
"~·f~~·¥~·~~·~·~~~·~·¥~~-tij""·r.r~~1 ~~i!·f~~51
Sentences (1) - (8) Abladcboard isblack. /The color of a blackboard is black. An apple is red./ The color of an apple is red. Prayer flags are multi colored. The sky is blue.
(S)
~~·~;111~~2~"1
Oouds are white.
(6)
C3~'C3~'1~il~~"1
The space (between the sky and the earth) is red.
(7) ~'!"15'~~1 (8}-- ~·~~~~"1
B. (9)
Water is green.
Soil /earth is yellow.
With Demonstratives
~~~~~~:zrx."1
Sentences (9) - (12) This is black. That over there is white.
(11)
,..~i"l~:zrx."1 ~ ·if""il~ ~~" 1
(12)
~·~a.·~~ ·=19'!5'1!1'!5'~~ 1
It
In sentence (U) the adjective l!i'l!i'~'l!i' has been used:
(10)
Those are red. The American flag is multicolored.
The American flag is multi colored. This adjective can be used to describe a piece of cloth. a painting, or anything that has many different bright colors. It is also appropriate to use when describing someone's face that has become blotchy due to bad blood circulation, an allergy, or drinking too much alcohol. Another adjective similar to r:r!5'l!l'r.9' is rs'·~, This word is used to describe multicolored designed cloth, paintings, wall paper, etc. When Tibetans descnbe interiors that are overwhelming to the eyes; a house, gallery, shop etc., decorated with innumerable objects, pictures, bright colors, etc., the adjective rs~· 1!1~' is used. Also when describing a scene with multicolored flashing lights such as found in Las Vegas or streets and houses lit up with various colored flashing lights, as during Christmas, rs~·l!l~· is the culturespecific response used to describe such visual stimuli.
.
I. '111~ ~ = ('1~jq'if tli-J
2. '1'11~ ~'= l'1"f-:zr-) 3. i4~;zr (i4Q.'lf)
=
Colloquial Tibetan Students who will be living in Tibetan communities are encouraged to be sensitive to traditional ways of describing things. They should realize that such language patterns can not always be anticipated by English equivalents.
II.
Adjective Constructions Sentences (13)- (21)
(13) (14)
~c:.·~·l'4·~lc:.·~·~'11
~~-~~ 'l'4~-~~.-..·~·~~ 1
That house over there is old. That teacher over there is new. This book is white.
(16)
~~-Cl.~''1'1~ ~'1i Cl.~ -~ ~-~ '1 ~ :cr-~ '11
(17)
l'4"~"fc;.·r/~c:.·'-J·~'11
That is an old house over there.
(18)
l'4"g.'1~-~~-ll"J~~·'-J'~'11
Those are new teachers [over there].
(19)
~~''1'1~ :cr-~c:.·~c:.·c:t._~ ·~·CX,c:.·~·~, 1
This small white book is Tsering's.
(15)
This is a white book.
(20)
f" 'c.J~c:. 'CJ'~ ·~~ :cr-sl'4·~·U!·4~·~·~'11
That large, old house over there is Yeshi's.
(21)
'1~·a;;·f"\~~~:cr-c:t.~·f"c:.~·~~1
This big blue flag is hers.
Adjectives: Predicative vs. Attributive Position In Tibetan when a demonstrative pronoun, i.e., c:t.~·, ~·, c:t.~·g., etc. is used to distinguish a noun,. the demonstrative prono~m always precedes the noun,. (Demonstrative Pronoun + Noun):
This is a book. When the speaker wants to modify a noun, however, the position of the demonstrative pronoun and the noun switches. This construction is, (Noun+ Demonstrative Pronoun+ Adjective):
This book is new. In English an adjective that follows the verb is said to be in the predicative position, i.e., the book is blue,~~·~~~~·, the pen is new, ~ll"]·~r~4f ....·~·X.~·· Below, sentence (13) is an example of a predicative construction! This book is white. When one wants to point out or stress something specific about a particular object, then an adjective in the attributive position is used. Such adjectives modify the noun directly, i.e., the blue book,~~-~ =!i', the new pen, ~ll"]·~~r~4f~·~·. In English, attributive adjectives precede the noun, while in Tibetan, they
follow the noun they modify.
--------------------------------------------------------------4. lll~~''J' =llll~O.''J') ~~ ~ =[~&:;zf I ~&:·l:i']
s.
64
Lesson 4
(16) ""~~I;!'" Ill~~~ 1 (17) r..t~·~~;.·~l"'~'~')1
This is a white book. That is an old house over there.
Another difference between the Tibetan and English structures is the placement of the adjective and the verb. In Tibetan sentences the adjective always precedes the verb, whereas in English it is the verb that
precedes the adjective Let's compare the predicative sentence and the attributive sentence shown below: Predicative (a.) "lll~'CliQI'O.~~"''J'i!OI'~"1 This cup is not old.
vs.
Attributive (b.) Q.~'"lll~ilfQitl"'::J'a;j'~"1 This [particular] cup is not old.
Predicative sentences like (a) are more commonly used in Tibetan than attributive sentences like (b). In predicative sentences, the noun is introduced first and then whatever additional information one wants to disclose is supplied. In predicative sentences, the object and demonstrative pronoun are pronounced together in one flow, e.g., "1~ ·~'l.l·a.~ · 'this cup'; this is then followed by the second half of the sentence which modifies the noun, t"''J'i!OI"~"· 'is not old'. Attributive sentences are used when one wants to specifically distinguish one particular thing from another, e.g. Q.~' 'this', "1~'Cli'l.ll"''J''I'~"· 'is not an old cup'. In attributive sentences there is a pause after the demonstrative pronoun, e.g., a.~· 'this'; then one continues with the modification, in this case, ')1~'~QJ~J;.''J'cJ.l'~"· 'is not an old cup'. In sentence (20), the adjectiveslJ;.''J' 'old', !l'~~~ 'big' and the demonstrative pronoun r..~·~· 'that over thePe', all modify the noun fl"''J' 'house'. The phrase fl"''Jl"''J'~·~~ ~r..~~· 'that old, large house over there', is a complex phrase with a series of modifiers: (20) fl"'::J\I;.'~'!'~~~r..t~·il!·~~~·~')1 That large, old house over there is Yeshi' s./ That house over there which is old and large is Yeshi' s.
Please note the flow of the following sentences; the correct and incorrect way of grouping the words together is shown: Predicative Construction ir(7'1:4~' lll~~''J'~"1
if(7' r..t~'ll]~::t. ''.!'~" 1 That car is new.
Correct Incorrect
Attributive Construction
,...~.
Mf''ll]~::t. "'.!'~" 1
r..~~·ifr· lll~~·'J·~')l Over there is a new car.
Correct Incorrect
65
Colloquial Tibetan Statement E::~!·q!)~~,
~· E:.'Q.i'
~!j·CJ~~~, CJ~~~l
Correct Correct Incorrect
lam going.
III. Use of Numerals in Sets A.
DualSets Sentences (22)- (26)
s~~·<~>~;..·F·~·~C)t <23> s·~·~~~C)'T.J'~C)l (24) •-ra~ "'l;..·rs-~:.~·~C)l
<22>
...
These two boys are Muslims. Those two gir1s are Tibetans.
(25)
E:'(Zll:.'a\l'~~·ijq·~C)l
Those two restaurants over there are his. Those two tea shops down there are hers.
(26)
i"~:.'(Zli:.'UI'"'l~'l:.""~~,
Those two shops up there are mine.
When demonstratives such as "1'~'/UI~'/a\1~', etc. are used in the plural, the particle~· is dropped and
replaced by the pluralization marker~' i.e., "1'¥' /UI'¥-I a\1'~, etc. When these demonstratives are used with the numeral ~~"'!' 'two', the pluralization marker
¥- is optional, thus one may either say "''~~~~· or
simply "1'~~"'1'.
B.
Noun Phrases
In Tibetan, modifiers follow the nouns they modify. A syntactic unit formed by a noun and its modifiers is termed a Noun Phrase. Different types of words are classified as modifiers: adjectives, demonstratives, the pluralizing particle, and numerals. Two types of word order are possible within the Noun Phrase; we will refer to them as the basic word-order and the marlced word-order, respectively. L)
Basic Multipl~Member Sets (Pattern A:. Noun Phrases with Basic word-order) Sentences (27) - (33)
(27)
a~·~~'l:.""'s""'~C)l
Those four dogs are my son's.
(28)
~·~·~t·i=~·f"~:.~·~,,
Those five cats over there are his.
(29)
~UI~'UI·~~Ilj~C)'~"'''~C)l CJ'~"'l~'a\l'~,~·f-~·~C)l F"'T.J'~:.·T.J·~~ :cr-"'·~~~&~·e,·:r..~:.~·~,, ~'a\l:l..'"'l~:l..'t.l'UI"'l~'Cl.~'g.CJ~16""~:.~·~C)1
Those six yaks up there are from Tibet.
(30)
(3t> (32) (33)
Ull:. 'Q.I:I..· \"1:1.. :tj~~:_ ~~~ ·~!'1:."" ·~C) 1
Those nine cows down there are theirs. Those three large old houses over there are yours. These four new good lamps are hers. Those fh e long white candles are mine.
66
Lesson 4 The first element of any Noun Phrase is always the noun itself. In the basic word-order pattern the noun is followed by a series of modifiers, occurring in the particular order specified here. Parentheses around the different modifier-types indicate that they are not obligatory constituents of every Noun Phrase. However, whichever of these elements occur, they will be arranged in the specified order shown in the pattern below:
(NOW1 +(adjective)+ (demonstrative)+ (pluralizing particle)+ (numeral) The following are examples of different combinations of the Pattern A type Noun Phrase. One should verify that each of the following examples is consistent with the basic word-order formula for Noun Phrases shown above. (a)
~Q'
book/books
(noun)
(b)
~Q'')111~~
white book(s)
(noun+ adjective)
(c)
~Q'')111~ ~· ~Q'')111~ ~ '(~)~~~· ~Q~·~ ~Q~'Ifl~~· ~Q~·~~~~·
that white book
(noun + adjective + demonstrative)
those two white books
(noun + adjective + dem. + numeral)
those books
(noun + demonstrative)
those two books
(noun + demonstrative + numeral)
those three books
(noun + demonstrative + numeral)
(d) (e) (f)
(g)
In examples (d), (f) and (g) numeral modifiers have been used. These modifiers signal the fact that more than
one object is being talked about. In Lesson 3 we saw that, unlike in English, the Tibetan pluralization marker g. is optional. However, in this numeral modifier construction, with the exception of the numerallfl~· 'two', the
pluralization marker g. must occur in the position immediately preceding the numeraL Thus one should say ~Q~if~~ 'those three books', ~·Jt~· 'those four people [over there]',~ (1'11"~ 'those five cars [down
there]', etc. One never says, ~Q~'£1]~~·, irr4·Q~·, ~r·~·~·, etc. Remember that in the case of dual sets, the pluralization marker g. is optional. Thus one may either say Z'4'g.~~· or simply !4'~~~·. 2.)
Marked Multiple-Member Sets (Pattern B: Noun Phrases with Marked word-order)
Sentences (34) - (37) 1hose four dogs are my son's. (that set of four dogs/that group of four dogs) (35)
~·~·Q~~·~~·z:.r~')l
Those four apples are fresh.
(36)
"'"'QI~·~~~·t~·~~~·~·[frr:;.~·~')l
Those two new candles are his.
(37)
i~·~")~~ :r:r~~~~ 'Ul~~a.~~
Those three red torches I flashlights are good.
Pattern B, noun phrase with marked word-order, differs from Pattern A (when used with numbers) only in the relative position of the numeral and demonstrative. In Pattern A the demonstrative precedes the numeral while in Pattern B it is the numeral that precedes the demonstrative:
(NOW1 +(adjective)+ numeral+ demonstrativ~ 67
Colloquial Tibetan
Though the English translation is basically the same for both constructions, in the Tibetan, there is a change of emphasis. In the following example both Patterns A and B are direct statements concerning a multiple member set. However, Pattern A places the emphasis on the location of the particular set, whereas Pattern 8 places the emphasis on the particular numbers in the set Pattern A (27) 6~·~Q~·c:"-·s"-·x.,, Those four dogs are my son's. [Those particular four dogs near you.} PattemB (34) 6·Q~·~·c:"-·s"-·x.,, Those four dogs are my son's. [That group of four dogs]
Another difference that should be noted is that in Pattern A the pluralization marker -g. is essential, whereas in Pattern Bit is never used. In Pattern B the numeral itself marks the pluralization of the sentence. Pattern A, the basic word-order, may be concerned with multiple-member sets, but multiplicity is not an essential condition In Pattern B, however, the marked word-order is only used when referring to multiple-member sets.
3.)
Distinguishing One Set of Things From Another (Pattern C: Noun Phrases with Distinguishing Reference, Marked word-order)
(39)
fiiJ'~IIJ~~~~~·fc: ~·X.') 1 ~'i11J'IIJ~~~·6~·:1\c:~·X.')l
Sentences (38)- (41) These two tables are his. Those three large tables are yours.
(40)
IIJ')~·~~~·fc:·~·x.,,
Those four carpets are theirs.
(41)
~Q'')11J:I\ :q:~c:·~c:·~~~:q:Q.~'~·X.c:~·X.')l
These two small white books are Tsering' s.
(38)
Patterns Band C refer specifically to groups or sets of things while Pattern A may be used with or without a number marker:
Pattern A:
without a number marker:
~Q'IIJ~:I\':J~' or with a number marker: ~Q·~~:I\':.)'~'~11]~~·
that new book
those two new books.
Pattern B is used to identify any group or set of things, while Pattern C is used only when there is more than one group of things and the speaker wants to specifically distinguish one group from another:
(Noun+ (adjective) +numeral +lf + demonstrativt$
68
Lesson 4 Some examples of Pattern C are:
~·");~~· ~·~·")~~~~~~·
Those two men (i.e., as opposed to these two men over here). These three cats (i.e., ~opposed to that group of three cats over there).
s·~~~·
Those four boys (i.e., as opposed to these four boys over here).
In English the meaning oO:f is sometimes conveyed by a stress or emphasis on the demonstrative, i.e., 4 these two books'. Just as in Pattern 8, the pluralization marker g. is never used in this pattern. In review, please study the following sentences carefully. Pattern A
rs~·g.~·~a_·so_·x.')1
Correct
rs·~"l~.g.~·~Q_·sQ_·%,')1
Correct
6·~·g.~"~~~~·~a_·so_·x.')1
Incorrect
PattemB
&·~~·~Q_·sQ_·%,')1
Correct
rs·~")~~~~·~Q_·sQ_·%,')1
Correct
rs·~~·~"l~.g.~Q_·sQ_·%,')1
Incorrect
6·~~.g.~"l~~Q_·sQ_·X,')1
Incorrect
PattemC
6·~~~·~Q_·sQ_·X.')1
Correct
rs·~"l~~~·~Q_·sQ_·X,')1
Correct
6·~~~"l~.g.~·c:tsa.·x.')1
Incorrect
IV. Statements of Uncertainty
~'l·lX.~JI ~'l·l~·l.~· [!Q'l·~fl I lil'l·~fl Sentences (42)- (46)
(42) a. ~"l·~·a.~~~~·~~·X.')·'-1~1
Is this pen from Japan?
b. ~ll)·~·~~~~·~~~~·~·%,~1 (43) a. S'~~'Q'Ill"l~·')~·~~·X.')·'-1~1
[I] think this pen is from Japan.
b. ~~·s~·~·s~~~·Q·IllllJ~·')~·~~ ~~·~·~~·~~l
(44) a. F~·~~·gll)~·~·~ll)~~~')·'-1~1
b. lllllJ~·fil~ ·~·~~·X.') 1
Is Jampa a teacher? According to me, [I] don't think Jampa is a teacher.
Is he Phuntsok 's friend? [I] don't think so. (h.)
69
Colloquial Tibetan
(45) a.
~~~~-~~·~~~·~~·l:.l~J
b. ~~~·s~·~·~~~~·~~·~~~·fi:l~·~·x..~,
U!~·~~~.9~ry~·~ry~·i)·~~~
{40) a. ~·~~·~.lii~·~·X..·%..~1
b. ~·~~·Q].q~·a~·c:rfi:I~·~·X..v[Sl~·~f11 'X..C)''jl
Is tomorrow a holiday? [I] think tomorrow may be a holiday.
But, [it's] not definite. What day is today? [I] think today is Monday, right?
When one knows a particular statement to be true, then the simple factive 'X.. C)· construction is used: He is a teacher. However, when one is uncertain about a statement made and has no evidence concerning the validity of the statement, then the phrase of uncertainty~~·~·'%..~· is used. This is translated as, 'I think/ maybe'. U!~· ~·'%..!:)·may also be used as a polite agreement when one does not want to contradict another. I think he is a teacher.
[but I have no idea, this is only a guess...] (44) a. fi~·~~-i'~~-~-~Q]~~C)'I:.l~1
b. £ll9~~~·!·1l·%..~1
Is he Phuntsok' s friend? I don't think so. [but I ~ve no evidence to back it up]
In the first example,~~~·'%..~· is used to specify that fi~· 'he' may be a~~-~~· 'teacher', as opp
that fi~· 'he', as opposed to any other person, is not a friend of Phuntsok's. The phrase ~~·~·cT.I·'%..1:)· automatically lets the addressee know the speaker is only guessing. The structure of uncertainty is formed as follows: (Noun/ Pronoun+ Noun+ U!~·~·'X..C)·). This structure is the same for all three persons. The negative structure is formed by adding cT.!' in front of l.C)· (ul~ ·~·ll·"X..~·). A colloquial variation of these structures is: [Ul~·~'9f] and [11~ ·~'9f]. Ui~·~·'%..1:)· is used in statements of uncertainty concerning possession, location and modification.
This structure of uncertainty is explained in Lesson 7. Similarly, bothfi:I~·~·X..~· and Ui~·~·X..~· can be used with verbs. In Lesson 19, Volume ll the construction (MVS + fi:l~·~-~~·f Uic:,·~·~~·) is introduced. When one wants the fact of uncertainty emphasized, the impersonal statements U!~ ·~·'%..!:) •(Uil) ·~·'%..~ · can be backed up by the phrase U!~-~~c:~ry~:~ry~·i)·~~Q]·, 'but it's not definite/ not sure': <45> b. Q]~~·s~·~·~~~~·~~·Q]~~·fi:l~·~·x..C)l ~~-~~"-Q]?~·Q]ry~·~-~~111 [I] think tomorrow may be a holiday. But, [it's] not definite. .. lll"'llj~t::· = ~:::.·~~:::.·]
'· Ui~ ·~~:::.· = [Ill~·~~·]
70
Lesson 4
In clause structures of identification the verb Ul~· is used for all three persons, never X..~:)·, i.e., Ul~·~·
X..I:)· but neverX..l:)·~·X-1:)·· Similarly, in clause structures dealing with possession, location, or modification, Uil:)· is used for all three persons, nevera.~~·, i.e., Uil:)·~·X..l:)·, but never a.~~~~·X..l:)·· Chart 1 Oauses of identification
Oauses of possessio~ location and modification
Ul~·
Uil:)·
=
~~·;·x..~·
a.~~·
iJf~·lX..~·
Uil:)"Z:J"X..')·
x..,· V.
=
Phrases for Memorization r;·~·'l~"Uil:)· I know [it]. (I have an understanding of this matter from before.)
or
~~·~·Uj').lO I know[it]. (I have already acquired the ability; i.e., to speak, to drive, to cook, etc.) Sentences (47)- (ts) (47) a.
Ql:)"'~ril·ljC)"Uil:)·c.rX..l:)1 '~rs~·~·Uil:)"'-1~1
There are Yetis in Tibet. Do you know that?
b. ~~~·Uil:)1 r;·~·t:l~-ai"~l (48) a. Ql:)"~l:)"'I[S~·~·Uil:)"'-1~1 b.
Yes, I do. [I] know that.
Do [you] know [how to speak] Tibetan?
~~~·Uil:)1 1;.~1:)"~1:)'~~·&-ai"l)l
Yes, I do. I know [how to speak] Tibetan.
VI. Conversation A Context: Yeshi is asking Norbu about different colors:
Sentences (49) - (56) (49) U~·~~·= ll~·s·~~~1 ~~~~·1~:;.1 a.~·,..,~~11 x..l)·~1 Norbu, please look [here). 1M is white, isn't it? Yes, it is. It is white. ll~·s·= ~~~·x..l:)1 1:)"'1~~1:)1 (SO) U!·4~·: ~~·a.~~·X..·X-1:)1
And what is this?
ll~·s·= ~·1:)'~~~1:)1 (51) U!·4~·: ~~'!·f~ :cJ-X..l:)1 X..I:) ·~1 ll~·s·= X-1:)1 X-1:)1 (52) U!·4~·: ~~·~~"'J"l:)!;.'~~·g~.'I~~·~·X..·X..~1
That is red.
The sky is blue, isn't it? Yes, yes. And what are the colors of clouds and water?
ll~·s·= ~~·'J·,..,~:cr-x..l:)1 ~·~~:;.·r~rX-1:)1
Oouds are white. Water is green.
71
Colloquial Tibetan (53} iil·4~·: ~~·~~~·~~·i~·~·af~·~~·~·X.·U!~l
What color are your clothes? I What is the color of your clothes?
~~·s·= t:.'Cl.·lf~·~t:.·~~~·!i·U!~l ~~r~t:.·~~~·U!~l (54} tiJ·4~·: ~~·s·
My shirt is red. My pants are black. Norbu, whose three new shirts are those
~~~·~'Q.·X,~l ~~·s·= ~~~~l'cl·~·t:.'rl.·t'il~l ~~~·~~·l'cl·g.
[over there]? That red one is mine and I think the other
~~~·~~'Q"
two are Lhakpa' s.
(SS) tiJ·4~·: ~~~·-s~·fi~~·~·X,~·&.~~l
Aren't all three of them his?
~~·s·= ~~~·~·x.~, ~~~·Q~·~·x.~,
No, not all three. One is mine and I think the
~~~·ut:.'Cl.·x.~, ~~~·rrt:_~·U!~·~·x.~,
[other] two are his.
<56> Uj·4~·: 6~·~t:.·~~~:r:r~·~~~~UI~·&.~~l
Do you like red?
~~·s·= ~Ill~·~~, t:.·~~~·:r~·~lll~~~~,
No, I don't like red. [I] like white.
~,~:r:r~·~~~~ur~,
VII. Exercises A.
Fill in the blanks:
(1}
·~~'Qt:.'~·af~·~~~·-x.~,
(2}
~~·&.~·_x.~,
(3}
t:.'rl.·f~·~t:.·~·ar~·lll~·~~~~-1
(4) (S)
t:.'~ll]'ill]'ll]~~·&.l~'~ll]~~-1 flt:.·~t:.~ll]·~·~ll]~~-1
B.
Correct the following Tibetan sentences according to the English:
(1)
~1~ ~.::;r~t:.·~t:.·~~·flt:.·X.~·~
This small white book is his.
(2)
t:_·~~~·!J-Uj~·~~~·Q~"~Il]'ill]
I like new clothes.
(3)
Those three old houses are hers.
(S)
~~~~l'cl'~'t:.'l:J'flt:.'&.l'f't:.·~·~~, ~t:. ~~·~~ '':l·~·a)·~·~·~~ ·~~~.,~1 U!~·~·~~·t:.·lil:~~·~~·f't:.'l
C.
Answer the following questions in Tibetan:
(1} (2} (3) (4) (S}
What color is your father's car? What color are your clothes? What food does your mother like? Do you like your school? Does he like his new house?
(4)
Both apples and oranges are fruit. I think he is our teacher.
72
Lesson 4
D.
Answer the following questions using statements of uncertainty:
(1)
~·~Cl.·C)::z:.·as·~·~·l!i·~·~C)·CJ~l
(2)
fC:."CJ·r.r~~c:.·CJ·o.r~C) ·CJ~1
(3)
~I:J"C)Il]::Z:. :r:f~c:.·~c:.·~~·as-·~c:.·~·~C) "CJ~l
(4)
fC:. "CJ~c:. ·CJ·~~ ·!J-"·g.~~~r6C) ·::z:.c:.~·~C) "CJ~l
(5)
i!"fC:."'I"~·c:.·~·~C) "CJ~l
E.
Answer the questions:
(1)
6C) ·::z;.c:. ~·fc:. ·~~~c:. ·~c:.~·~·=C) ·~C) 1
(2)
6C)·::z;.c:.·~·~~~·CJCl."f"CJ::I\ ~c:.·~c:.~·~·=C)·~C)l
(3)
6C)·::z:.c:.~·f·CJ::z:.~c:.·~c:.~·~·=\Ul~1
F.
Make phrases according to the given instructions:
(1)
Make tluee phrases using the basic word-order pattern: (noun + adjective + demonstrative + plural + numeral) Make tluee phrases using each of the following marked word-order patterns: (noun + demonstrative + numeral), (noun+ numeral+ demonstrative)
(2)
VIII.~c:.·~~·~~~·'J· Vocabulary for Lesson Five
Nouns ~·
tea
1.1::1\.
butter
I:J~"~I:J·
bread
~::z;.·
cheese
lfc:.·
egg
~~~·CJ·
artist (Thanka painter)
tt~·~~·
relatives
~UI~:t:f ~i!~ ·~rr::z:.. I l:J~~ ·~~·
servant (male)
~UI~·ii-
servant (female)
week
~·OJ·
day/ sun
5rz:~·
moon/month
f·~c:.·
yesterday
~~~·CJ·
morning
~~·~c:.·
noon
C)i!fc:.·s
evening
~i!~".;j"I:J"
Monday
~i!~·~~"C)OJ::I\"
Tuesday
~i!~·~~·CJ·
Wednesday
~i!~"'I::I\"I:J"
Thursday
~i!~·CJ·~c:.~·
Friday
~i!~·~~·CJ·
Saturday
~i!~~·~.~·
Sunday
s·as-~·
Western date
1JC)·a5'~·
Tibetan date
s·a~·
Western month
1JC)"!"
Tibetan month
" "
year/ age
73
Colloquial Tibetan ~'l.J'
Chuba (Tibetan dress)
{:t.~'l.J'
guard/ watchman
~;~·
etc./ and so forth
~'ilt:.:t.·if
cold drinks/ soft drinks, etc.
S'j'l.J'
rememberI miss
~:;.~·~~~!!~'
rest
&ij:t. Tot~~·
come in
iii'~·
eat/ drink (h.)
il'
eat
~~~:;.·
drink
if:q.
hot
!!)t:.'ii'
cold
~~t:.'il'
clean
ilt:.:t._•ii'
sweet
~it
sour
~il;zr-
thin/ skinny
poor/ sad
~ll]'l.J'
stupid/ foolish/ dumb
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
~·~~·
f'i ·~·t f'i'il'
at that time before/ previously
lnteTTogative Words
~·if~'/ ~·i"~·
how much/ how many I what
74
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 5
Page 1
II.
Perspective Marking with the Factive Verbs Ul~·;X.~· in Statements and Ul~·'J~·; X.~·'J~· in Questions [inanimate objects] A. Perspective Marking in Statements: Speaker-based B. Perspective Marking in Questions: Addressee-based
Sentences (1) - (5) Sentences (6)- (10)
Perspective Marking with the Factive Verbs Ul~·;X.~· in Statements [personal/impersonal] A. First Person 1. Personal Perspective on Self- Ul~· Sentences (11)- (18) 2. Impersonal Perspective on Self- X.~· Sentences (19)- (26) B. Second/ 1bird Person 1. Impersonal Perspective on Others- X.~· Sentences (27)- (32) 2. Personal Perspective on Others - Ul~ · Sentences (33) - (38) Jt
Two Adverbs ofTime: f~·o.~·; f~·lll·
77 77 78 79 79 80 81 81
82
Perspective Marking Ul~·'J~r/ 'X.~·'J~· in Questions [personal/impersonal] A. Second Person 1. Personal Perspective- Ul~·'J~·; Ul~· St>ntences (39)- (45) 2. Impersonal Perspective- X.~·'J~·f X.~· Sentences (46)- (51) B. First/ Third Person 1. Impersonal Perspective- X.~·'J~·f X.~· Sentences (52)- (57) 2. Personal Perspective- Ul~·'J~·; Ul~· Sentences (58)- (64)
83
IV.
Days of the Week
Sentences (65)- (71)
85
V.
Conversations A.
Sentences (72)- (75) Sentences (76) - (80) Sentences (81) - (88)
86 87 87
ill.
B.
c.
83 83 83 83
Jt
Gnomic/ Attestative/ Personal Association
88
Jt
lllll]~·
89
•
Listing Nouns
as an Honorific Particle
89
VI.
Exercises
90
Vll.
Vocabulary for Lesson 6 ~"·~11]·11]~~·'-l·
91
Lesson 5 I.
Perspective Marking with the Factive Verbs ~~·;l..~· in Statements and ~~'Col'l'/l..~·r.~4r in Questions [inanimate objects]
Each of the following English sentences can be translated into Tibetan in one of two ways. These variations are shown in columns (a) and (b). The difference in meaning between the two Tibetan sentences is one of perspective, in this case personal-based vs. impersonal-based.
A.
Perspective Marking in Statements: speaker-based (a)
(b)
Impersonal Perspective
Personal Perspective (speaker-based)
Sentences (1)- (S) (1) ~·a)~~l
~·a):t:ioSl~1
The tea is hot.
(2) ~·~t:.·lf~~1 (3) ~~~·a.\~~~·tJ·~~1
~·~t:_ ·ii·U!~ 1
The water is cold.
~~~·a.~·~~~·tJ'fil~1 o.~-,lll~·r.J·U)~ 1 ~~·i~·a.~·¥-~~t:.·~rfil~1
This carpet is new.
(4) 0.~'~111~~~1 (S) ~~·i~·a.~·¥-~~t:.·~r~~l
This is white. These clothes are clean.
The difference between the personal and impersonal perspectives in statements via &:1~· and~~· is an instance of the subtleties of Tibetan grammar and conceptualization. In English there is no single way of conveying the subtleties that Ul~· and~~· express. The verb of identification Ul~· indicates a personal association with the speaker himself, the addressee, or the object of conversation. This personal association is based on a personal relationship or experience that exists between the speaker and the object. This personal perspective is known as the personal emphatic form. The verb~~·, on the other hand, lacks any kind of subjective perspective emphasis. This impersonal perspectiveis known as the neutral (impersonal) or non-emphatic form. The crucial distinction in the perspective markings of the verbs Ul~· and~~· in statements is as follows:
Chart 1 Verb
Perspective
Emphasis
~~· ~~·
Personal Impersonal
Speaker-based Fact-based
Colloquial Tibetan
In speaker-based sentences, fil~· places the emphasis on the speaker's association to the object of conversation, whereas :X..C)· indicates the statement is a fact and there is no insinuation of any personal association to the objed: (1) a. ~·~~C)l
b.~ ·~:tj·UI~ 1
The tea is hot. [I know this having touched the cup] The tea is hot. [which I made, bought, etc.]
Though both of the above sentences are translated as, 1 This tea is hot,' each verb supplies a different contextual meaning. In sentence (1) a., the verb :X. C)· merely signals that the statement is a fact, i.e., the tea is hot. In sentence (1) b. however, the use of the verb Ul~ ·signals a speaker-based association, and therefore implies added information such as, tht ,;peaker has something to do with the tea, has some specific link or relationship to it, etc. The exact nature of this relationship is not specified in the sentence, but is generally construed from the context, i.e., one may have made the tea, purchased it, ordered it, etc.
B.
Perspective Marking in Questions: Addressee-based (a)
(b)
Impersonal Perspective
Personal Perspective (addressee-based)
Sentences (6) - (10) (6) ~~·~~·~~.rc.:·~C)'t.~'~t
~~·~~·~~·t.~·ti:l~·t.~~t
Is this butter fresh?
(7) l:IIIJ'illl:l~~·~~~·if"X.~·q~l
l:lll)'illl:l'~~ ·~~ ~ ·ii·U)~ 'CJ~l
Is this bread sweet?
(8) ~·~~·~~·~C)'CJ~1
Is this water cold?
(9) ~l:I·~~·IIJ~~·CJ'~C)'CJ~1
~·~~ ·~~ ·ii·fil~ 'CJ~1 ~ l;l'~~ 'II)~~ 'CJ'Ul~ 'CJ~1
(10) 4~~~·~\~~·lf~~·c.:~l
4~~11)'Q..~·~~·ii·fil~·CJ~1
Is this fruit sour?
Is this book new?
In questions, X.~ 'CJ~· signals that the speaker is concerned with the factive nature of the statement, whereas Ul~ 'CJ~' not only indicates concern of the factive nature, but also of the addressee's association to the object of conversation:
(6) a. ~~·~~·ii"~·q·~"'t.l411
b.~~·~~·ii""'t.l'ti:l~·q"l
Is the butter fresh? [have you tasted it?] Is the butter fresh? [which belongs to you]
Both questions (6) a. and b. are the same except for the final verbs "X.C)· and tAl~·· In both questions, the speaker wants to fi..'ld out from the addressee whether the butter is fresh or not. The two Tibetan sentences differ significantly in that question (a) is asked from an impersonal perspective, while (b) is asked from a personal perspective. In (a) one is only concerned with the objective matter of fact, the freshness of the butter. In (b), on the other hand, one is asking from a personal perspective. This sentence can be translated as: Is the butter [which belongs to you/ which you bought/ which is in your fridge] fresh? The crucial distinction in the perspective markings of the verbs U)~· and 'X. C)· in questions is as follows:
78
Lesson 5
Chart 2 Verb
Perspective
Emphasis
~~·~..-
Personal
Addressee-based
l."·~..-
Impersonal
Object-based
In section V of this lesson, Conversation A, the custom official is going through Tsering 's bag. When questioning him about the contents, he already knows the things belong to Tsering. Therefore, he uses the personalized question form,~~ ·~-a·: (73) a.~·~·~~~l
or a.~·~·~-61~·~'~1 What is this [thing of yours)?
In sentence (73), even though the question is concerned with an object, the use of the verb~~· implies that that thing has some special relationship to the addressee, i.e., it belongs to him, that which he is holding in his hand, put in his bag, etc. If the above question is phrased with the normal third person ~'1· however: or What is this? the verb ~"·indicates that the speaker is only interested in knowing what the particular object is; there is no implication of the particular thing having any personal association with the addressee.
II.
Perspective Marking with the Factive Verbs ~~·tX.r:..· in Statements [personal/ impersonal)
In factive statements, the verb ~cs,· implies a speaker-based perspective, whereas~"· is non-specific with regard to perspective marking.
A.
First Person
1.)
Personal Perspective on Self-~~·
Sentences (11) - (18) (11) (U)
"'i'c;. •t.~-61~ 1 ""'·i)c;.·!;·" ~"-t!Jcs,1
I am a businessman. My name is Tsewang.
(13)
"'~"~·s·~·~~1
We are not her children.
(14)
a.~·c;.Cl_~~·~cs,1
This is my book.
(15)
c;.·~~:z:l·~~1
lam thin.
(16)
"·¥-il'fZI" ·a.~Cl_ ''l'S'l -t!Jcs,1 c;.·~c;.~·~~~·t.~·U!cs, 1 "·¥~·~~·~~~ •t.~·il~ 1
We are the cooks of this restaurant.
(17) (18)
We are his friends/ companions. I am not a new student.
79
Colloquial Tibetan
2.) (19)
Impersonal Perspective on Self-~"·
"'i'"'Q'~"'
Sentences (19) - (26) I am a businessman.
(20)
"Q.·~"·~·lCJ"'x_ll
My name is Tsewang.
(21)
"·~"~rs·~·~r~~l
We are not her children.
(22)
This is my book.
(23)
~~·"Cl.~CJ·X,ll "·~~:t:r~ll
(24)
".g.il.fll"·~~~·~·s~·~ll
We are the cooks of this restaurant.
(25)
"·~" ·~·~Q]~·rl.l·X,ll "'iCJ'~Q]'Q]~~ 'l.j·~·X,ll
We are his friends.
(26)
lam thin.
I am not a new student.
In first person affirmative sentences or statements, ~I\· places a specific emphasis on the speaker, whereas
~"·is simply neutral
In til~· sentences the speaker can refer to him/herself by the use of the first person pronoun"' 'I'; however, in such sentences the pronoun"· 'I' is optional. Should one answer the question, Gl'~" ·Q]·X, ·til~ 1 'What are you?', by saying, i'"'l.l'Ul~ 1'A businessman', the verb U!~ ·automatically signals that the speaker is talking about him/herself. When the pronoun"' 'I' and the verb til~· occur together,.a kind of agreement between the subject and the object is denoted:
(11) r:::.·i'""·l.l~l\1 I am a businessman.
(14) ~~·r:::.~~q~l\1
This is my book.
If it were the case that til~· occurred exclusively with the first person pronoun, it could be said that this verb marks grammatical agreement with the first person subject. However, this is clearly not the case, as we can see below: (19) r:::.·¥c::.·Q·~~1
(22) ~~·"Q.~q·~"l
This is my book.
I am a businessman.
In sentences (19) and (22) the first person pronoun r:: .· 'I' is the subject, but instead of Ul~ · the verb ~l· has been used. Speaking in terms of grammatical rules, the use ofUl~ ·and X,l· is not governed by a grammatical agreement to a specific person, but is solely governed by the intended perspective emphasis of the speaker. If we compare sentences (11) and (19), we see that they differ only in the verb contrast,fi!~·vs. X,~·· In (11), the verb til~· is used to emphasize the fact that 'f am a businessman. Ul~· indicates that the speaker is pointing to himself and stressing the personal perspective, 'f. In (19), the speaker is asserting the same fact about himself, yet he uses the verb X,l· which lacks any specific speaker-emphasis. Here X,l· defers to the identifying fact of the speaker's profession. Thus X,l· is used when one wants to point towards the object of conversation rather then oneself, i.e., I am a 'businessman'. In contrast to (11), in (19) it can be said the speaker is talking about himself from an impersonal perspective
80
Lesson 5 The use of U!"' ·or X.."· is determined according to whether one wants to make the statement personal or impersonaL i.e., one wants to emphasize 'f or the 'object' of the conversation. In English this kind of emphasis marking is usually expressed by intonation or by a gesture of a hand towards oneself or the
object. There are no set rules concerning the usage of U!"'· and speaker's preference of emphasis.
B.
Second/ Third Person
1.)
Impersonal Perspective on Others-~')·
X.."·, it is completely dependent upon the
Sentences (27)- (32) (27} (28) (29)
~ ·~~·6" ·~l;. ·~l;. ·~l;. ·X.." 1
llfQ]~·~·~·QJ·a'1·~c::.1~-r~.t~'11 ~S'J1 Q.~ "6" ·~l;. "'1J"'X.." 1
At that time you were young. Two years ago you were a 1banka painter, right? This is for you.
(31)
fQl;."l;.~"~Q]~"'J"'X.."1 f"'"cl.l"2~·~c::.·.il·~c::.·a.~~·q')Q]~')1
Tsering used to be the owner of this restaurant.
(32)
~·~~·F'c::.·~~·s~·~~·~'1l
At that time he was not the rook.
2.)
Personal Perspective on Others-~~·
(30)
He is my friend.
The additional information in the square brackets on the English side has been provided so the student can get a sense of the various kinds of implications or suggestions that can be implied by sentences.
&!"'·in the following
Sentences (33)- (38) ~·~~·a"·~c::.·~l;..~l;.·~~1
At that time you were young.
(l;_~"UJQ]:qS"' ·~·r.~.~Q])
[I remember very well.]
llfQ]~~·~·f"' ·QJ·e" ·~c::.·~:s~·CJ-61~ 1
Two years ago you were a thanka painter
Ul"'"'Jl
[as I recall], right?
(35)
Cl,~
This is for you. [I bought it.]
(36)
16""c::.·c::.~·l:"Q]~·CJ·U!"' 1
He is my friend. [since childhood]
(37}
f"' "cl.l"~"~l;. "il"fll;. ·r.~.~~"Q"Q];zj"U!"'1
Tseringused to be theownerofthis restaurant. [as I recall]
(38)
~·~~·16""l;."cJ.J"S"'.~"'1
At that time he was not the cook. [I was there]
(33) (34)
"6" ·~l;. "'1J-U!"' 1
In second and third person sentences the normal verb marker is ~S· Just as in first person sentences, in sentences of this section, the verb X.."· is classified as the neutral (impersonal) or non-emphatic form.
He is my friend. 1. t~~~·(J·= lwrl.~·(J·J 1 ~~"&I"= 1!!~"&1")
81
Colloquial Tibetan
In sentence (30), the verb X..c:,· merely states the fact that rrr::.· 'he' is my friend; no other information is being implied. When at~· is used with the second or third person, it indicates that the speaker has some personal association with the person, the event, or the thing being talked about In sentences of this kind, U!~ ·places a personalized perspective emphasis on the speaker's association with the second or third person: (36) ~z:::c:~·l:"li]~·~-Ul~ 1
(37) f~ ·~·~·~r;:.·:qZlc:·~~Q.·~~~~-Ul~ 1
He is my friend. [since childhood]
Tseringused tobetheownerofthisrestaurant [aslreaill]
In sentence (36) the speaker is emphasizing the fact that [Qc:· 'he' is not just any ordinary friend, but there is a special bond between the two, for instance, they have known each other since childhood. In sentence (37) the speaker is emphasizing the fact that he himself reaUJs the event of Tsering being the owner of the restaurant. Let's take a look at one more sentence: This is for you. [I bought it for you]
In sentence (35) the speaker is emphasizing the fact that he bought the thing which is being presented to the addressee. As has been illustrated in the sentences above, the use of U!~ ·presents the added dimension of a personalized emphasis to the sentence. at
When recalling a past incident, one of the two adverbs of time[~·~~·/[~·~· 'before' can be used.
When a specific period of time is mentioned the adverb f~ 'Ill' must be used, i.e., Qf~,~·~·f~ 'Ill' 'two years ago (before)':
(2.8) ~~~~ 'QI'6c:,'~t;."W'~·r.r%..c:,1 ~C:, ~
(
Two years ago [be{ore] you were aThanka painter, right?
This adverb is always placed after the specified period of time, i.e., ar~,~· ~·) f~ 'Ill' 'two years ago'. The temporal phrase in sentence (28) can be translated as 'two years ago' or 'two years before.' 'f~ 'Ill' can also be used with demonstrative pronouns: o.~a.·f~ 'Ill' 'before this'; with a person: c::.~·f~'lll' 'before me';
and with places: ff~~·~·f~·lll· 'before India'. When referring to a general, non-specific period of time in the past, the adverb of time{~ 'If' 'before/ used to/ previously I in the past' is used, i.e., 'f~ ·~·f~ ·~· once upon a time, a long time ago, some time before, etc.: Tsering used to be the owner of this restaurant.
In sentence (31), ~·~·refers to an unspecified period of time; Tsering used to be the owner of this restaurant ~·~·does not tell us when Tsering was the owner or the period of time that he owned it.
The adverb of time f~ 'Ill' 'before/ previously' indicates a specific time reference, i.e., a'J''l'~ll]~·f~ · Ill' 'six months ago (before)'; whereas f~ ·~· 'before/ previously' gives no specific time reference, i.e., f~ ~"f~·~· 'sometime before/ a long time ago'. These two adverbs are further explained in Lesson 9.
·
In sentence (35) the dative particle Ill' means for. This particle however, depending on the context, can be translated as to, at, for, or on A detailed explanation of the dative particles is given in Lesson 6.
at
82
Lesson5
lll. Perspective Marking ~·q4fI l.~T..I41" in Questions [personal/impersonal) A.
Second Person
1.)
Personal Perspective- ~~·~er·~~· Sentences (39) - (45)
(39)
~~ ·~c:.·lll·~~-U)~ 1
Where are you from?
(41)
a~·~c:.·~·,·QI~'I·a·lll~lll~'Cl~:tJ~~·qer31 a~ ·~c:.·Cl~·~~·~~ ·q"l
(42)
~,·~c:.·~·li'r·,ii~·~·S~~·q~l
Is [the color of] your car red?
(43)
~,·~c:.·~-U)~l
Who are you?
(44)
~~·~,·~c:.~·~~·q~1 a,·~c:.·~·S)~·q~1
Isn't this yours?
(45) 2.)
Impersonal Petspective -l.~·~er·tl.~·
(40)
Is your father well? Aren't you Tashi?
Are you poor?
Sentences (46) - (51)
(46)
~,·~c:.~~·q·l,~·qer1
Aze you Tibetan?
(41)
6,·~c;.·a;·~c:.~·f!~'~lll'l.,·q~1
Are you Tsering's relative?
(48)
6,·~c:.~·li'r·,il~~,.,,~~,1
IS [the color of] your car red or white?
(49)
~,·~c:.~~·.,~·arl.~·qerl
Aren't you a teacher?
(50)
a, ·~c:. ~·':i·~lll~·a·lll~lll~·Cl~ ~, ·c.:~1
Is your father well?
(51)
~~·a, ·~c:. ~·i!·l., ·q~t
Isn't this yours?
B.
First/ Third Person
1)
Impersonal Petspective -l.~·~er·tl.~·
'>#
Sentences {52) - {57)
(52)
Cl~·~,l c:.·~·l.~1
(53)
C:.'~lll·q·l., ·q~1
Am I stupid/ foolish?
(54)
c:.·~~·.,~·l.~·qerl
Am I a teacher?
(SS)
il:l'~lll·~ ~·~~~ ·~ 'lll'l.·l.,l
Students, what is Lhasa?[a city, village, capital]
(56)
Ill,~ 'r.l,~'lll~~·q·l.,·q~l
(51)
I'Cl-v.arm·l.~·qer1
Is this carpet new? Is Dawa a doctor?
2.)
Personal Pet&pe\.-tive- ~~·q"·~~·
Qll:l',C:.'l
Dekyi, who am I? Tell me.
Sentences {58) - (64) (~)
c::.·~~~1 s~·~'r.l.~lll·lll~l
Who am I? [do you remember?)
(59)
c:.'lll'~~·S)~1
Where am I from? [can you recall?]
3. tli~·Q'I'= tll~·c.~·bothformsare used equally.
83
Colloquial Tibetan
~~:;.·a~·~r::.~·~~~·"'~~·"'~, (61) ~~·r::.~~~·"'~l (62) a5·~~:;.·f~ ·OJ·~:;.~·111 or111 ·tj·~~ ·t.~~ 1
Is he your friend? [from childhood]
(60)
Is this for me? [did you save it for me?) WasTseringmyservantbefore? [you were my neighbor]
(63)
~I:;.'I!J~~,
Who is she? [do you remember?]
(64)
~~·~·~·~~,
What is this? [this thing of yours]
In Lesson2,sectionsland IT, yes/ no and contentquestionsareintroduced. Yes/ no questions are formed by the use of the question marking particles l'.J~· and~~·. Content questions, on the other hand, are formed by the use of question words such as~·~· 'what ',Q']'t.J;z;.' 'where',~· 'who', etc. Even though it is not incorrect to use the question partidest.J~' or~~· at the end ofa content question, colloquially they are usually dropped (52) Cl~·~~l ~:;.·~·~~,
Dekyi, who am I?
or
Cl~·~~l ~:;.·~·l.~·q~1 Dekyi, who am I?
In Lesson 2, ~~·is introduced as the normal second person verb form in questions and~~· the normal first and third person verb form in questions. Sections I and IT of this lesson demonstrate how these verbs can be interchanged with any of the three persons, but by doing so a change of emphasis or perspective occurs. Based on this, second person questions formed with the personal verb~~·- &I~·~;~~· or its negative ~~ ·- il~ 'l.J~' are categorized as personal perspective based questjons. And second person questions formed with the impersonal verb~~· -l.~·t.~~· or its negative OJ'~~·- ~~·~~·l.J~' are categorized as impersonal
perspective based questions:
<«>
~~·a~·~r::.~·~~·"'~, Isn't this yours?
(51) ~~·6~'.".1\t;.~·~~·~~·q~,
Isn't this yours?
In sentence (44), thepcrsonalnegativeverb ~~·places the emphasis on the pronoun ~~·;z;.~:;.~· 'yours'. Here the speaker's emphasis is on the fact of the object belonging to )'ou'. In sentence (51), the impersonal negative verb or~~· places the emphasis on ~~· 'this', the object in question. The English translation remains the same for both; it is only intonation that distinguishes the emphasis expressed by the Tibetan verbs~~· and~~·· Tibetans often use the impersonal question form ~~·t.~~· when asking about a second person they are unfamiliar with. In such questions, it is the object associated to the second person that is the point of
emphasis not the personal association:
~~·;z;.~:;.vr~·q·~~·"'~l
Are you American?
In this sentence the speaker is stressing the impersonal aspect of being w·~ 'Cl' 'American' rather than the personal aspect of S~'."-1\t;.' 'you'. The fact that the addressee is American, not the intimacy, is the central point of interest. First and third person questions formed with the personal verb U!~ · - &)~ 'l'.J~' or its negative~~· il~ 'l'.J~' are categorized as personal perspective based questions. These questions indicate that the speaker 4. ~-~:q· = r~·~·~·~~n an American, ~SCS, ~-an English penon, foi'X.CS,'fl' a French person.lncolloquialspeechone will sometimes hear the name of the country used wht>n referring to a person as well.
84
Lesson 5 has some personal association with the person being asked about. First and third person questions formed with the impersonal verb X-1)·- X."·q~· or its negative ~·X-1)·- II"X."·q~· are categorized as impersonal
perspective based questions. <60> a. fic.·a"·~c.~·~~,..·~:,~-&l~·~:,~"1 b. ~c.·BI)·~c.~·~~,..·~:,~·X-"·~:,~"1 Is he your friend? [from childhood] Is he your friend? In question (60) a., the personal verb~~· indicates that the speaker is not only interested in a factual answer from the addressee but also wants to know if some personal association with the friend exists, i.e., you've known him since childhood, you went to the same school, you lived in the same town, etc. In question (b), the impersonal verb X-I)· indicates that the speaker is merely interested in a factual answer. This question pattern can be classified as neutral because no additional information is being asked.
IV. Days of the week (65) a. ~--~-o.rr~~~~·~~·~·~·i"l)iG"I)'I:,J'X-1)1
b. ~i!~-o.f"~·~~~·~~·~·q~~·Ui'I)'I:,J'X-1)1
~i!~·a·q·s
~it~ ·&1111'1)~~. 111-'!~ ·~111'1:,1' llli!~'lol~·q·
.I
~
~
111-'!~·r.r~c.~·
~i!~·t~~·q·
(fifi) a.
111-'!~~·~·' ~·~c.·s·as~·II1·¥1)·7X.I)1
b. ~·~c.·s·as~·a~·X-1)1 lrl)·as~·q~·x.l)1 (67) a. b.
S'I'II1'X.·X-1)1 s ·~·~~~·~:,~·X. I) 1 ~~~I) ·ar~,~·~:,~·X-1) 1
(fi8) a. ~·~c.'ll1i!~'II1'X.·X-1)1 b. ~·~c.·~i!~·~·q·X-1)1
(69) a.
(70)
(Q'~c.·8111i!~·~·X.·X-1)1
b. (Q'~C.'II1i!~~·~·X-1)1 a. 111.-~·if~·~:,~·II1·X.·X-1)1 b. 111--~·t~~·q·~c.·ll1~c.·X-1)1
Sentences (65)- (71) How many days are there in a week? There are seven days in a week. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday What is the date today? [according to the western calendar] Today is the [western] fith [an~] the [Tibetan] lOth. What month is it? [western] It is March. And the Tibetan second month. What day is today? Today is Monday. What day was yesterday? Yesterday was Sunday. What is Saturday? Saturday is a holiday.
5. 1·q· according to the context, this word c:an mean; Monday, month. moon. a person's name. i. ''II' according to the context. this word c:an mean: Sunday, sun, day, a person's name.
7. Ill'~""' .. [lll'if"') l !ll"'l'-' = [f'l'l''l'/f'l''l')
85
Colloquial Tibetan (71) a. ~t:~~·~~a.·~·:X.·:X.')J
What day is tomorrow?
b. ~t:~~·~~a.·~~·')o-~~·~')1
Tomorrow is Tuesday.
The Tibetan names of the days of the week are all formed with the prefix~·~· similar to the way that the English names are formed with the suffix '-day'. ~~a.· can also be used as an independent word for day, as in question (68) below: What day is today? The Tibetan word ~.qa_·;:X.·~.qa_·, however, is more specific in meaning than the English word day. ~~a_·; :X.·~~a.· refers only to the calendar names of the days of the week. The generic word for day is ~·o.~·. The Tibetan word for month is ;p::r,and for dateis ~~·c.r. The words~')· 'Tibet' and~· 'out(side)' are used as prefixes to distinguish between the Tibetan lunar calendar and the Western calendar: Tibetan month
Western month
Tibetan date
Western date
Q')·~~·, or ~~·CJ·, are frequently used by Tibetans when talking about Tibetan dates. According to the lunar calendar, each month has several days that are considered holy. On these auspicious days it is believed
that the merit accumulated by one's virtuous deeds and offe~gs will be multiplied. Therefore Tibetans often visit holy places, go for circumambulations, visit monasteries and make extra offerings of butter lamps, incense and prayers on these days: ~~·CJ·Z=l~')"(8th), ~~·CJ·z:!~· (lOth) 'quarter moon', ~~"CJ"z:!~~· (15th) 'full moon', ~~·'l~·~·~· (25th) 'three quarter moon', ~~~·~t:· the last day of the month. ~ The particle 'general/ shared' is sometimes used instead of~· when talking about the Western 'Western month' and l~~· 'Western date'. calendar. Thus one also finds the spellings:
l
V.
l6!"
Conversations
A. Ccntext:After looking atTsering 's passport the custom official (~·s~·'l") begins to examine Tsering 's bags~ Sentences (72)- (75)
<72> ~~·s')·'l·: ~·~t:·~~~l a;·~t:·:
~llJ~l
Tsering. Yes.
(73) ~~·$')"'1": a.\9·:X.·tl:l~J
What is this? [thing of yours)
~·~t:·: 0.~"§"'1~~1 (74) ~~·$')"'1": ~~·"~·~
This is [my] Tibetan dress.
~·~t:·:
"~~·t:~·sc;;_·§·q·&~~J
<75> ~~·s')·q·: ~·rs')·~t:·~·&~~·'~~1 ~·~t:·:
Ul~J a.~·t:Q,·U)~1
And that over there? That is my son's Tibetan dress.
Is this yours? Yes, this is mine. [it belongs to me]
86
Lesson 5 B. Context: Tsering is entering his office with his son, Tashi, and a friend Dorjee. The security guard addresses them:
Sentences (76) - (80) (76) lf~~·z:.r:
afx.~·= (TI) lf~~'"l': ~·-x.~·:
(78) Q~'4~·:
lf~~'C-l': (79) ~·-x.~·:
lf~~'C-l': (80) ~·-x.~·:
lf~~'C-l':
C. Context:
~·-x.~·~~~1
Tsering.
~~~1
Yes.
~~·~'fil~1
Who is he? [You should know him]
~~·~~·s·Q~·4~·U~~1
He is my son, Tashi.
BC)'~~·~·~·UI~1
What are you? [What do you do?]
"'~~~·C-l'fil~ 1 ~~·~·U1~1 ~~·~·a.~~·~~1
I am the guard.
~~·~·a.~~ ~~·el:)·~~~·~~~~ "Q·I1l~~·J'Ul~1 ~C)'l:f1
I remember [him]. He is your friend
Who is he? Do you remember [him]? Dorjee, right?
ry~ry~'~C)1
That's right. Please come in.
~~ ~Q~1
A student meets one of his teachers during the weekend:
Sentences (81)- (88) (81)
"Q·:
~~·11J~~1 6C)·~~·~:aa.·~~·"l'C)~'
Sir, what do you do on Saturday and Sunday?
l~~ ·~·~ ·~~~ ~·tG"C) 1
(82) ,~.~~·:
"Q·: (83) !:)~·~~·:
~·: (84)
"Q·:
~iiO.'tJ~'"l'C)~~·~·~~·~~~·~C)1
Saturday and Sunday are holidays,
s~·~~·~·~Ql·~~Q~Q·Q~,·~·tG"C)1
so I stay [home] and rest. What do you do?
el:)·~"·~·~·s,~·tij"C),
Sir, I study Tibetan. ~~·~~~1 ~~C).~C)·lfQ·i~·sl:)·~~i:)1 rsl:)·~~·~·~~~~~iQ"I~·sl:)·~iij"C)·'·l'~C)·C-l~1 Do your friends study? QJ~~iij"C)·C-l·~C)1 ~'UI~·~·i~·si:)~~C)·"l·~C)1 Yes, [they] do. They also study. Sir, where do you go on Mondays? ~~ '11J~~1 ~ia0.'51'Q~ ·~·C-l~ ·l.iQ~·~·tG"C) 1
!:)~·~~·: (85) !:)~·~~·:
~i!O.'a!'Q~ ·~·ljQ·~~ 'Q,~'Q~'tG"C) 1
On Mondays I go to school.
iSC)·~~~·~~~'C-l'g.Q,~'Q~~C) 'C-l'~C) '"l~1
Do your friends go [to school]?
"Q·:
~~~·tG"C) 'C-l'~C) 1 rs:g.~~ ·ljQ·~~ ·a.~·Q~'
Yes, [they] do. They also go to school.
tG"C)'C-l'~C)1 (86)
"Q·:
~~ '11J~~·~~~'C-l'9~·~ ·~i"C) ·~·tij"C) 1
Sir, what do you eat in the morning?
!:)~·~~·:
~·~~~'C-l'Q~'tlJQ'C)~·lf~·;a·Q~'tG"C)1
In the morning I eat bread and eggs,
~~·~·a.~~ ·~·tG"C) 1
and I drink tea.
87
Colloquial Tibetan
(87)
"~·~~·:
~·:
~~
·-s" ·~~:::.·,
And how about you?
~~~·~:::. ·~~~·c.qzr~~ril·~~·~" 1
I don't eat in the morning.
~~·~~:::.·to""·"iif"~ ~~.~~·il·~~·ur"l ~~ ·~~:::.·~·X.·i!·~~·ur" 1 or
•
I eat at noon and in the evening. What do you eat at noon?
~~~·~s~·"".4"""·c5~"""~~·
[I] {eat] rice, meat and vegetables.
~·~"~ ·ii·~ ·" ~·~ll" ·~·or" 1
And II] drink soft drinks {and other things].
~·~~:::.~·~""·~s~·""·4·"~:::.·c5~·
II drink] soft drinks and eat rice, meat and
~ "" ~·ii·~~·UJ'"" 1
vegetables {and other things].
Gnomic/ Attestative/ Personal Association
The question 'Do your friends study?' in section V, Conversation C, sentence (83} is formed with the gnomic conjugation, which is introduced in Lesson 1. This sentence could also be formed with the attestative or the personal association conjugations. The three possibilities are as follows: (83) 6"·~~:::.·~·'§'~~~g.i~"f"·s"·aii~·'~·l.cr'~'~1
(gnomic)
Do your friends study? {habitual action that is amunon knowledge/ known by all] (a)
6"·~~:::.·~·'§'~~~i~·i~:::.·s"·a·~~~·~"l (attestative) Do your friends study? [you are in the same class/ you have seen them studying]
(b)
s"·~~:::.~·'§'~~~i~·i~:::.·s"·aii~·'I.,J (personal association) Do your friends study? [you have a personal association to the third person]
All three questions are requests for the same information; they differ only in the type of cvidentiality signaled by them. In question (83) the gnomic conjugation ~·Uj"·c.r"X."·l.J~· with the third person signals that the speaker is requesting the addressee to give an answer based on generally known facts about his friends; there is no specific concern with first-hand knowledge. In the case of the gnomic, although one may have a personal association with the object of the sentence, it can also be used when, for example, the addressee has never seen his friends study, but has simply heard from others that they study. In question (a) the use of the attestative conjugation~·~~~·~~· with the third person signals that the speaker expects the addressee to give an attestativeanswer, i.e., based on some evidence. The emphasis of this sentence is on the first-hand, eye-witnessed evidence In question (b) the use of the personal association conjugation ~·Uj"·l.J~· with the third person signals that the speaker not only expects the addressee to answer the question on the basis of first-hand knowledge, but also believes that the addressee has some personal association with his friends. The addressee, for example, may spend a lot of time with his friends, they may study together, etc. The emphasis of this sentence is on the personal association between the addressee and the third person.
88
Lesson 5 If
Ql~41'
as an Honorific Particle
In Lesson l. section I A, l:llllj~· has been introduced as a polite suffix to names and titles, a polite acknowledgment marker indicating one will engage in further conversation, and as a polite or honorific agreement or affirmative response, i.e., 'Yes'. In this lesson l:llti]~· is used to show respect to the addressee. In affirmative or interrogative sentences when the speaker wants to extend respect towards the addressee during a conversation, l:llllj~' followed by a noun, pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, adjective or verb may be used to introduce an answer or statement (87)
~lfjef'""?{ll]~'l.l'[ll'l:llllj'~·~lil~ 1
(~If]~'+ pronoun"')
I don't eat in the morning. (88) ~lfj'f'0.9ef'~t::,·4·~r::_·(6Ql-1 [I] [eat] rice, meat and vegetables...
(~IIJ'f' +noun a.s~·)
In sentences (87) and (88), the sole purpose of using the honorific particle l:llllj~· is to show respect to the addressee; by itself it carries no specific meaning. When used in a reply to a question, however. in addition to being an honorific form, 11l!ll~· also carries the meaning,' Yes':
(85) ~lfj'f~~·l.l·'X.~1 Yes, they do. J1o
Sentence (88) b. is an example of listing nouns, in this case different foods. In order to avoid the
unnatural repetition of (Verb+ ~·Uj'1·) after each noun, the conjunction~"· is used. Two variations of the answer arc given below. In the first example the solid foods are listed first and the liquid beverage last:
l:llll]~·a.s~·~" ·4·~ r::.·c51:1l·~"· ~~ ·~·'~"x. ·ii·~·"111·a.~"~-ur'1 1 [I] [eat) rice, meat and vegetables. And [I) drink soft drinks [and other things). Notice that even though the speaker is talking about eating and drinking, only the verb a.~r::. · 'dri,nk' has been used. In Tibetan sentences concerned with the listing of food and drink, the final verb~·' eat' or a.~"· 'drink' is determined by the type of food stated last.
In the preceding sentence, note the simultaneous use of the conjunctions ~ r::. ·and \lol~ •• The function of the conjunction ~r::.· is to list items, whereas t~o~~· is used to contrast the list of solid foods from the liquid. There should be a slight pause after the utterance of the last~"·, before continuing with \lol~ ·and the rest of the sentence. Now let's look at the second example:
~·~r::. ~·if~" ·a.s~·~r::. ··r~r::. ··Qj~·~lll···q;·ili'') 1 [I drink] soft drinks and eat rice, meat and vegetables [and other things).
In the previous sentence ~·~r::.~·lf 'soft drinks' the liquid beverage is listed first and the solid foods follow; note the use of the verb~· 'eat' instead of a.~"·' drink'. Another point that should be noted is the sole use of the conjunction ~r::.·. Because only one liquid is mentioned before listing the solid foods one never says, ~·~r::.~·if
~r::.· t~o~~·a.s~~"'4")"'· .. However, if more than one liquid is listed, then both ~r::.· and t~o~~· can be used:
89
Colloquial Tibetan
~-cJ.l~;1\·if~~-~cl.l·~~· ~~·'l.s~-~~·4·~~-~~~-~~-~-l:l~-or~1 [I drink] soft drinks and milk and eat rice, meat and vegetables [and other things]. Once again I would like to reiterate the point that in Tibetan, contrary to English, when listing food and drink, one does not necessarily have to differentiate and state the verb~· 'eat' for all solid foods and il.~~· 'drink' for all liquid beverages consumed. In such sentences the use of the verb~· 'eat' or 'l.~~· 'drink' is determined by the final noun Another difference between the Tibetan and English verbs~· 'eat' and~~· 'drink' that students must note is: these verbs are never used by themselves, they are always accompanied by a noun. i.e. F·~~·~· 'eat [food]',~~~· 'drink [water]'. In English one can say, 'I eatat 12:00.' TheequivalentTibetansentence is:
~-~-g~ ·l:l~-~~~·~·ra·QI~·~·l:l~-ur~ 1
I eat [food/ lunch] at 12:00.
One neversays: ~-~.g~.l:l~-~~~·~·~·l:l~-tli"~l
This same rule applies to the verb 'l.~~ · 'drink'.
VI. Exercises A.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
cJ.l;1\ "'l.~ -~~"l:J' --1
x_~·fSI~'
(impersonal perspective)
(2)
~a.·~~-~-~l:l~'--1
~~·jS)~·
(personal perspective)
(3)
~~-l:J~·jS)~·l:J~·
(personal perspective)
~~·jS)~·
(personal association)
(5)
6~·;1\~~-~-~~~-~-~~~~-l:l~=1J--1 f~ ·cl.l·~·X.~·~·F~·Il.~"i2.·l:l~~=1J- - 1 ~·il:l·~~-~41;1\"l:J'_,
~~·j&~·x_~-
(impersonal perspective)
B.
Translate the following sentences into Tibetan:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Are you Yeshi's relative? Two years ago you were a student, right? He is my friend. There are seven days in a week. Today is August 6th.
C
Answer the following questions:
(1)
~-x.~-~-~~-~-g~-~~1
(2)
~~'l."l:l~~~-~-x_-~-x_-x_~1
(3)
~~'l.~"cJ.l;1\·6~·;1\~·~·x_·~~~-~-or~ 1
(4)
6~·;1\~~"r.j"cJ.l"g.~-~~~~-l:l~:fJ·S)~·l:J411
(5)
~-x.~-~~'l.·~-x_-x_~,
~
(4)
(personal perspective) (personal association) (impersonal perspective)
90
Lesson 5
VII. '"'a-"l'"l~~·q· Vocabulary for Lesson Six Nouns
II·
fire
~·¥"·
watch/ time
'J'I'cfl,.j"tq~' /r.!"tq~'
stepfather
~·~·
spouse
"'~~·ar
wheel
"'~'if
star/ minute
E!''llll'/t:I~~·E!IIl' (h.)
cigarette
~111·;r
matches
'J~·=~·
camera
film
E!t:l'~"·
kitchen
~"'4111' a.E:'~'9J'
class/ classroom
1)111·4~·
'{)asses/ spectacles
~·Jr
hat
PI'!"' ~?J·"~"'PI"'
address
lllll~·PI"'
post office
library
~·PI"'
barbershop
\!)~'PI"'
bedroom
11"'1'
park/ garden
~Sili'PI"'
bank
"s~·
money
~'1'111111'
road/ path/ way
'1¥'
lake
111~'~'111~~·
weather
~·
boat
. tilll~'
arcs·
wage
~·
salt
~~·
vegetable
{Jfl"''~'
Mt.Everest
mountain
~·
mountain pass
"'r!!lll~'tl'l'
refrigerator
Ill"~·~· ~Ill'{"~· "'r!!lll~''J''I"~·Jr
ii"lll'ii"lll'
Tibetan meat dumplings
i§'"i!'
market/ bazaar
~~'I'
thermos/ flask
~~'CJ'
gift/ present
~·~"·~·~·
Dharamsala (present residence of H.H. the Dalai Lama in India)
lj1·~·
Potala (winter palace of H.H. the Dalai Lama)
'4'111~111''~'111~111' iii"~~~·
siblings of the same father and mother
•
salary
scenery ice cream
a stupa/ chaitya/ Bodhanath stupa
Verbs bum give (h.)
flow !water]
went
made
give(nh.)
put/ pour [liquid]
91
Colloquial Tibetan
Adjectives s~~~
loving/ affectionate
~~·l~
beautiful
F~~
difficult
~~·~~
easy
l.lifl.f
high
~~~
happy I pleasant
~~~
delicious
a)'z:J'~~ ~
hot [temperature]
l.li~~·rr
quick/ soon
a.~·~'Q.~'
various/ all kinds of
~~4-I''J.ii~:tJ-
kind/ pure hearted/ good hearted
Adverbs ~·~~~·
a lot/ much/ very
~·~·
now
~·~~·~~·! ~~·~~·
these days/ nowadays
qj'Uj~'/~a.~·
also/ too
'i~·~·
on
~~'qj'
under
~'J·~·
back
~~~·~·
front
li'~~J'ITJ~.
upstairs/ roof
~~·~·.
downstairs
~~·~·
comer
~~qj·~· ~
middle
a.~~·~·
nearby
~~·~·
in
s·'1i~~·~·
outside
'J~·~·
between
PreposiJions
Locative Demonstralives around here
around there
up around there
down around there
lnteTTogatives ~~·a.~~~·f [~~·a.~~~·] what type/ kind
92
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 6
Page I.
Introduction to the Dative/ Locative Case and Ql~~· Particles
U.
The Attestative Verbs Uir::...,·f ~~Q']· in Statements of Possession A. Positive B. Negative Uir::...,·f ~r::...,· ~~Q'j'/ il·~~~·
m.
The Attestative Verbs Uir::...,· I ~~Q']' in Statements of Location at Demonstrative Pronouns in Locative Constructions at TheVerbsUir::...,·f ~~~·:'Possession' vs. 'Location' Constructions
95
Sentences (1) - (15) Sentences (16) - (21)
100 100 101
Sentences (22)- (42)
103 104 105
'V
at
Uir::...,·f ~~Q'j' Non-Tense Attestative Verbs
106
Post positional Constructions in Statements A. Simple Post position (Ql~~·) B. Complex Post position (with genitive parti<;Ies) at The post position ~~~·QJ·
Sentences (43)- (46) Sentences (47)- (49)
V.
Non-Tense Gnomic Verbal Constructions with Uir::...,·r. r~r::...,·t Uir::...,·r.r&r~r::...,·
Sentences (50)- (68)
VI.
Modification A. In Statements with the Verbs ~~~·1 Uir::...,·z:.r~r::...,· B. Possession/ Location/ Post pos1tion Constructions Uir::...,·t ~~Q'j'/ Uir::...,'t.l·~r::...,·
IV.
VU.
vm.
Yes/ No Questions at English translation of the negative forms ~r::...,·CJ~' and il·~~Q']·~~·
107 107 107 109 110
111
Sentences (69)- (78)
111
Sentences (79) - (87)
1U
Sentences (88) - (102)
114 115
Conversations Sentences (103) - (110) Sentences (111) - (118) Sentences (119) - (128)
A.
B. c. at at at
The Adverb !J4r~:/ [l.l4~'] Use of incomplete sentences in colloquial speech
115
116 117
117 118
Information for General Knowledge The Term §!'&!'
119
The Three Holy Sites in Nepal &~~r::...,~~·~~·~~&l'
119
IX.
Exercises
120
X.
Vocabulary for Lesson 7 il~·~Q']·~~~'CJ'
121
Lesson 6 I.
Introduction to the Dative/ Locative Case and Ql~~· Particles
The subject and object nouns of the U!~· and~"· sentences presented in the preceding lessons, with the exception of certain constructions noted in the analysis section, require no dative or locative particle. In sentences formed with ·and ll.~lf1·, however, it is essential that the subject and object nouns be followed by a dative or locative particle known as Ql~~ • in Tibetan. In English the dative case is the case which marks the indirect object ofa verbI or marks the object of certain verbs and prepositions. English datives are often marked by the prepositions to or for, they indicate the person to whom something is given, or for whom something is done. In English, when an indirect object directly follows the verb, the dative particle 'to' is not written, however the actual meaning is that something is being directed towards the indirect object:
UJ"
Tsewang gave Lobsang a book. = Tsewang gave a book to Lobsang.
In English the locative case is a word or phrase in_dicating place or direction; a case ofnoWlS, etc. that refers to the place at which the action described by the verb occurs. The Tibetan dative/ locative case markers consist of seven particles,~~·~~~·~·· These are labeled Ql~~·, because among the seven particles, Ql' is most commonly used. The Tibetan dative/ locative cases perform several functions, some of which coincide with the English dative/ locative cases. When used as a dative, a Ql~~ • particle can indicate that an action is being directed towards a place; that a beneficial action is being directed towards someone or something; it can indicate that the noun is inseparable from the action of the verb; it can indicate time; or it can indicate possession of an object to the subject. When a Ql' ~~·particle is used as a locative, it can indicate that a person or object has some spatial relation to a particular place. Please note the grammatical terms for the various parts of speech in Tibetan:
s"·tJ~
Qj~~·~·~"·
~t:.'a3!11' ~r~·
= = = =
subject (agent)
s·~'il.~Qj·
=
according to the context of the sentence
dative particle
in English, this part of speech can be
noun
labeled as the direct or indirect object,
action (verb + conjugation)
(the place to which an action is directed).
Colloquial Tibetan
Now let's compare the following sentences using the dative case, English vs. Tibetan:
Chart 1
English Sentence Pattern Subject I
Verb gave
Dative Part.
DirectObj. a book
to
Indirect Obj. her.
Tibetan Sentence Pattern ~~·~~
s·~:~a.~qr·
Ql~~·!·~~·
c:.~·
Ffc:.·
Ql'
ilc:.·a"~·
~~·
s·~:~·
!ji)'~·U!~l
Ffc:.·qr·
=to her gave to her = 'to' marks the indirect object of the verb.
Chart 2
English Sentence Pattern Subject I
Verb went
Dative Particle
to
DirectObj. America.
Tibetan Sentence Pattern ~~·~~
s·~:~a.~qr·
Ql~~·~·~~·
~·i)·~·,
c:.·
s·~:~·
~~·crtll~l
:.;,·
~·i)·~·..,~· =to America
went to America = 'to' marks the object of the verb.
Chart 3
English Sentence Pattern Subject She
Verb made
DirectObj. a dress
Dative Part. for
Ind.Obj. Pasang.
Tibetan Sentence Pattern s~·~~
fie:.·
~~·~a.·~~· .....
~~·
Ql~~·~·~~·
s·~:~a."!iQI'
.
Q,J'
~·~c:.~'Q.Jif!~r
Sl)'~~'!':!l)' =instrumental particle 'J'~c;.~·Q.J~~·QI' =for Pasang made for Pasang ='for' marks the indirect object of the verb.
96
ilc:.·~~·
~~~ri~~~·
s·~:~·
~l'"~·cr~l)l
Lesson 6 In the Tibetan sentence pattern charts 1-3, S'z:J', which means action, is the Tibetan grammatical equivalent used for the English term verb. S'I:J' is the Tibetan grammatical term for a (verb+ conjugation) construction, e.g., !:!"' •t.~·Ul~ · 'gave', whereas S'a,-11]. is the actual Tibetan term for verb, e.g., ~"' · 'give'. In literary Tibetan, Ill~~· consists of seven particles (Ill~~~·~"' 'I:J~~ "). These particles and the suffixes they follow are shown in the chart below:
Chart 4
Ql~~·l~'1·q~~· (The Seven Dative/ Locative Particles) Literary form of the particle
Syllables ending in the following
(-r·o.~111· suffix or DI~."O.SII'J' post suffix A.
Dependent particles
!I~'II'J~~;q~·~~·
~·
Ill'
~· ~
z::r "''Sll]'
~
~- "'' ~· ell' ~- Ill'
~·
The suffix a.· or suffixless
-~.1 and~-
0.'" r::. 'cli~O. -~"'. B.
~
Independent particles
!l~·~~·~q~·~~·
~-and Ill'
~"' -~~-"I:Jt:.''5~.
In literary Tibetan, among the seven literary particles, five,~·~·~~·~· are known as ~"·~t;~'"Qt::.' ~~ ·, dependent particles. These particles must follow their prescribed sUffixes, as shown in the chart above. The particles~· and ~·are known as ~"' ·~r::. '"z:Jr::. ''5~ ·, independent particles and have no prescribed suffixes that they must follow. In other words, it is correct to use these two particles after any one of the ten suffixes. The colloquial form and written form of the dative/ locative particles ~·and -~· depend upon the suffix of the preceding noun. If the preceding noun contains a suffix after its root letter, the dative/ locative particle is marked by the post position Ill', e.g., [Zlr::. · =[E"t::.'llJ'; and if the noun has no suffix, it is marked by the dative/ locative suffix-~·. e.g., r::.· =r::.~·. At this point students should not put a lot of emphasis on trying to figure out which nouns/ pronouns are suffixless and which are not. Gradually one will learn how to use the Ill' and-~· particles correctly. Tibetan grammar is divided into eight cases. Within these divisions, the dative/ locative particles are used in three cases and two sub-sections: 1. -~·is attached to a preceeding suffixless syllable.lf .:~:is attached to a word with the suffix~·. the~· is dropped.ln literary contexts,
especially in poetry, when an extra syllable is necessary the particle~· is used.
-97
Colloquial Tibetan
Chart 5 The three cases using dative/locative particles
..
Second Case :
~~r~s·~~J; "q·qj.,·~·s·~·
(Accusative Case)
Fourth Case:
~~~·~s·~·...,·~~..··~·
(Necessitative Case)
Seventh Case:
~~~~s·~~~·...,~~·lll~"·
(Locative Case)
The two sub-sections using dative/locative particles
..
Sub-section of Second Case:
~~~~s·~~J; ·...,~·~"·ar~~,~·
(Intrinsic Case)
Sub-section of Seventh Case:
~~~~s·~~~·...,~·~~::.·ar~·~·~~-r
(Tune Reference)
The five other cases are:
Chart 6 The Five Other Cases First
ease:
Third ease: Fifth ease: sixth ease:
~,.~s·~~::.~~~~-v~·...,·
~~~~s·~~J~~~·...,·s~·•·
..·
~~~·~s·'l!·...,"(\~l:;.·a~::. ~~~~s·a111 ·...,"(\sqj·11 •
Eighth ease: ~~~·~s·~~~·...,~li"~·11 •
(Nominative Case/ Nouns) (lns~tal Case: 'li)'l•/ ~..., ; ...,~..., ~-r) (Originative Case: ~'1·/
qj'f.- from/ tim~
(Genitive Case/ Connector: 'li)•J ~·1 l·J~·j ~·) (Vocative Case:~I
,.atI tPr - form ofaddressing)
Among the three cases and two sub-divisions in which~~~· particles are used, only the Seventh Case is categorized as locative, and the rest are dative. A description of each of the three cases and two sub-divisions in which~~~· particles are used is given below: 1.)
...
Second ease : ~~~·~s·~~J; ...,.qj.,·~·s·~· (Accusative Case)
The accusative case simply indicates that an action is being directed towards a place, direction, or person. In looking at lhe name of this case, as with much of Tibetan terminology, its etymology reveals the full range of the term's meaning. QJ(\1. is derived from QJ(\1•.,. 'work,,~ one of the~~~. particles meaning 'to', and s·~·, 'that which is to be done, any action or deed; a duty.' Thus the name of this case can literally be interpreted as; 'an action is performed/ the work to be done to...(a place)', e.g., went to India. In the preceding sentence, India (the direct object) is the place and wene the action (intransitive verb), is directed towards it. The~~~· particles of the Second Case are translated as 'to' in English. 1)
..
Fourth Case: ~~~~s·~·...,~~ ··~· (Necessitative Case)
The necessitative case not only indicates that an action is being performed or directed towards someone or
98
Lesson 6
something but that the action must also have some specific benefit on either the subject or the object. The name of this case is derived from ')iif~· 'something is needed or necessary,' and ~') · 'for the purpose of, on account of, etc.' literally the name of this case can be interpreted as; 'that which is (done] in order to benefit,' or 'on account of necessity,' e.g., ;~·.q!l')l
give grass to the horse
~')·r..~~·~~·!l')l
medicine was given to(the] patient
In the sentences above, the action of giving is directed towards the object, the horse and the patient. In the first sentence;;· 'the horse' is benefited by the grass which is its food; and in the second, ~')"r...' 'the patient' is benefited by the medicine. As in the Second Case, the Ql~~· particle in the Fourth Case is translated as 'to' or 'for'. 3.)
Seventh Case: ~"'"'S'c:!~~ 'r.J~~ ·~~_,.(Locative Case)
The locative case indicates that a person or object has some spatial relation to a certain place, i.e., in, on, near, under, in the middle of, etc.~~· means 'to hold or support (something)', while~~~· means 'a place, locality,' etc. This case can literally be interpreted as; 'the place where something is held or supported.'
1~·~·~~~~1::11 on the table (there is] a book
')~''~~')·F~~·~~~·iq·~ behind the library is a school
The intrinsic case indicates that the quality of the noun is inseparable from the action of the verb; like milk mixed with water, one can not be separated from the other. ~~')'means 'that itself.' water flows
fire bums
The noun~· 'fire' can not be separated from the verb ~q~ • 'bum', i.e., one can not point and say this is fire and this is burning; the noun and the verb exist as one entity. The same is true for~· 'water' and ~~~· 'flow'. Thus one could say that these kinds of nouns and verbs exist inherently. Similarly, this case can include adverb constructions such as:
~~ ~~q~l
Come quickly!
In this example the quality of the adverb is inseparable from the action of the verb. The adverb ~~·5.· 'quickly' can not be separated from the verb ~q~· 'come', i.e., one can not distinquish the quality of quickly from the action of coming. This Ql~~ ·usage is only found in literary texts. Colloquially the dative particle is dropped and one says ~·~q~·, ~·~~~·,etc. In the case of~~· however, one never says~~ ~q~·. ~~·is only used in literary. The colloquial word is '1"5~~:ey, thus one says '1"5~~~~·. 5.)
SuiH!ectionofSeventhCase: ~~~"'S'c:!~~·rt~·~~·ar~·~·~q'f'(TuneReferenceCase)
The time reference case indicates a particular time. ~·~q~· itself ~eans 'time' The Ql~~ ·particle used in these kinds of sentences in English is translated as 'at', 'on' and 'in':
99
Colloquial Tibetan
~·i", ·~~~·t.l~ 'fl'lll~'.il~1 ate at two o'clock
~i!r.l. ~ ·~~ iij'"r::, ~·~~ 1
ap~·~j~ ·t.~~ ~c.~·~~ 1 coming in July
coming on Saturday
According to the ~~·~~·t.~· (Tibetan Grammar), a locative particle is attached to or comes directly after the name of a place and is always followed by one of the verbs ·I a.j ~·I or ·t.~·X..,-. These verbs are not classified ass·~~· <s·~·), action verbs, but are classified as ~~·lf1~~·~·s·~~·, existential verbs:
ur,
ur,
Chart 7
Loca tional Structure Ill~~·~·~,. ~·
I am in class. A dative particle used in a Second Case structure on the other hand, is always followed by as·~·, action ' '"'~' go ''rlil-' Vierb, I.e.,'""'!! , ~- 1 went' , :t:'"r•' "'l"' come ' , e tc.:
Chart 8 Second Case Structure
Tsering went to India. The lll'f{"~· particles used in section ll, deal with possession and do not fit into any of the above mentioned cases, thus they are labeled non-case. The function of the non-case Ill~~· particles is to make a connection between the subject and the object These particles indicate that the 'subject' has possession of the 'object'. Please note that in sentences of~ the vexbs ~·1 ~~·1 ~'t.l·~,. are translated as have/has/had (6)
r::.~·=·~·~·Clj~l
I have an orange.
In sentence (6) the subject c.· 'I' has possession of the object =·~~r~· 'orange'. The dative particle-.:~:.. 'literally indicates ' to me'. A literal translation of this sentence could be 'to me an orange is had (possessed).'
II.
The Attestative Verbs af~·t ~~~·in Statements of Possession
A.
Positive
(1)
r::..:~:..·2~.g,i(j~1
Sentences (1) - (15) I have a watch.
(2)
~r::.·~·t.J'lcl'lci'UI~'~%~·a.~IIJ 3
He has a stepfather.
2. -"'suffix= a long a.- sound, e.g. c:."· = [c:.a.-)
3. ~~"1' = [ll.~'3'1
100
Lesson 6
You (pl.) have a dog.
(5)
~~·~~·~~·6·~~~ ')~.4]~ 'Cl;'iQ·~~·a.~~ lcl'il.l\'4 ~·~·a.~~
(6)
~.l;.·a)·~·il·~')1
I have an orange.
(7)
(i~·arlcl·il·~~~·a.~~
He has two parents.
(8)
iS') '.1\~'Qf~~~~~~il·a.~~
You have three friends.
(9)
I have a red apple.
(10)
~.1\·t~·')il.l\~~~·ur,l !i~· .1\·&r-r·~~.l\·CJ·~~~·a.~~
They have two new cars.
(11)
~.1\·4~~~'')il.l\ ~ii~·CJ·~·o;,,
I have five fresh red [pieces of) fruit.
(3) (4)
Teachers have students. Parents have children.
This house has three doors.
(14)
rr~·~·lcl·il·Scll~~Ul~~s~~~·a.~~ f~'CJ'Q.~ .1\ ·i'~~il·a.~~ &r-r·a.~:..:a.rr.l\·QfQ~') ·a.~~
(15)
~~il·~·~.l\ 'il'il~ ~a.~~
There are many stars in the sky.
B.
Negative ili"l)·f~l)'
(U)
(13)
He has two good loving parents. This truck/ vehicle has eight wheels.
a.~~·~·ct~~· Sentences (16) - (21) I have cigarettes, but I don't have matches.
(18)
~~·~·il~·llr') 1 tll"·"a.~·=~·~·~~1 ~·af.1;.·~~·ar') ·OJ'') 1 tll"·"a.~·~·s~~·i!') 1 il~·1il.l\'Qj·~~~·1J·&ra.~~ 61
(19)
a~·~~·QrCJ~ ·a;~·a.~~
You have a camera, but [you]
(20)
U:J" ''1Q.~ ~~ ·4f~·~·a.~~ ~'1 ·~~ ·~~~·~·~·ar7ira.~~
don't have film/ but no film. Rinchen doesn't have a spouse.
(21)
~~·QI·~·f~·~·~~~
He doesn't have a restaurant.
(16) (17)
We have time, but not very much.
Migmar doesn't have friends.
A crucial difference between the tll'1·1X..1· and OJ'')·/ a.~~· verbs is that the first are used in sentences of identification, whereas the latter are used in constructions of possession, location, modification and post position. When llr')'/ a.~~· are used in constructions of possession, the subject noun takes a ~·t;'1· particle and the object noun is in the nominative case
"~~Q-a;~1
~~'QI'~Q·~~~
I have a book.
He has the book.
The subjects of the two sentences above take the Ql~'1· particles
-.1\' and Ql' respectively. Note that the
objects of these sentences take no special markers. The absence of any specialized case marking is tenned ~~·a-~·, nominative case. ..
41"&1"-' = [41'&1~-1
5. ~~~ = ["<"1"~1 6. ~~-~~"1· = til&:~~~·] 7. a·.t· =Ia~·~~·] (used for either husband or wife)
101
Colloquial Tibetan
In the preceding chapters, the verbs Ul~· and ~~·require both the subject and the object to be nominatively marked: 1fs::.~~J.J·~·l.~1 He is a doctor.
S::.'=i~'ifJ~~~l I am a teacher.
The set of sentenres shown in charts 9and 10 further exemplify the contrast between these two types of verbs:
Chart 9
Factive verbs: CQ'l'/~;· in Sentences ofldentification SUBJECT
OBJECT
VERB
a.
~::.·
~~·q·
Sl~l
lama Tibetan.
b.
a~·~s::.· ~~·
~~·~~· iQ·~~·
l.~l ~~1
You are a teacher. This is a student.
c. Chart 10
Attestative verbs: Ui";·f~~'fl· in Sentences of P~on and Location
d. e.
f.
SUBJECf-DAT ~::.~·
e~·~s::.·QI" ~~~·
OBJECT ~-i'~·
9i~~:c:r iQ·~~·
VERB iii'~J
I have a watch.
~~~ ~~~
Here is a student.
You have a friend.
Unlike English which has separate verbs to denote possession (to have), and existence (to be), Tibetan has three verb forms UI"·;~~~·;UI~·q·~~· which encompass both meanings. Remember that the~~~· particles used in the constructions of possession are not included in any of the dative/locative cases; rather they are labeled as non-case particles. The verbs Ul~ · and ~~~· are categorized attestative because they indicate that the speaker has (or claims to have) first-hand kriowledge of what he has said. Whether or not the speaker actually has firsthand knowledge is, of course, a separate issue. The issue here is that the use of this construction denotes first-hand knowledge. In action-oriented sentences the~~~· particles indicate that the action is being directed towards the object. When writing, literary particles are used acccording to the preceding suffix: Action ~-~iJ.l·~·~-~~411
or
~·=iiJ.J'Qf~'~ZI1411
Put tea in the thermos.
In sentences of possession action verbs are never used and the dative particles indicate a relationship of possession between the subject and the object. In both literary and colloquial, anlythe particles ~·and ~ · are applicable. 102
Lesson 6 Possession [The] thermos has a handle. In this lesson, Ui" ·is used with the first person and Q.~Ill' I UT" 'tJ'~" ·with the second and third person. Just asUl~·j~"·can be interchanged with any of the three persons, so can Ui"'/Q.~Ill'/ and Ui"'tJ'~"·. These changes present additional information which is explained in Lesson 7.
III. The Attestative Verbs Clf~·jca.~~· in Statements of Location (22)
Sentences (22)- (42) lam here. I am in [the] class.
"'Q.~ ~·Bar~ 1
(24)
c:.·q,'(~·~~ -Uj"1 c:_·g.~.lll~''ll'Ui" 1
(25)
~c:.~c:.·~~·~·~~"l
She is not at home.
(26)
ii"!f~lll''ll'Q.~~
She is in China.
(27)
FQ.~~·~:~'Q.~~ ·~c:.·~q·arc:.'QI'~~"l 1fic:..g.~ '[Ill:.''ll'I:J'q,~Ill
He is not here.
{23)
(28) (29) (30)
e"
rs"·~"·"·~q,'(~·~~·q,~~
(32)
fic:.·~~~,l 'Q.~~ c:.Q. ·~ ·ifq,~ ~ -Uj"1
{33)
c:.Q.·~q·~~~·~"1
{31)
(34)
{35) (36)
We are in India.
You are in the kitchen. They are not in the restaurant. You are now in [the] class. He is not there. My hat is here. My book is not over there.
c:.·~-~~·i~·UI~~11ur" 1
i2
fie:.·~· 'f'r.l.~ ~ ·I:J·q,~ F~·~c:.·q,fi~·~·~~· Q.~~
Our clothes are up there. His car is not here. Their bicycles are down there.
(37)
~·s~·'ll~~r~·l:!~·4'1l·uq, ~·q,~~
The cook's glasses are here.
(38)
a"·~c:.~·fl·sc:.·q,~~·q,~~
Here is your address.
{39)
~·q~.l~·~c:.~q,~~
There are many people around there.
(40)
UI'Q~·i~·I:J·q,~~
There is no electrlcity up [around] there.
(41)
~·q ~ 'fl c:. ·q·I:J·q,~Ill
There are no houses down [around] there.
{42)
Q.~ 'tJ~ ·i'c:. '[Ill:.'"" 'il'fl c:. 'Q.~~
There are shops and restaurants aro~d here.
1. "'~"· =[n.~•rJ 10. r.t"S,"' [~·~e~·)
= u. ~~~"' =[&J~e!')
9. ~~·=["\~~·) 11. Ill~"'= [uf~e!') 13. ii~·~Qj' = l'1~·~'Q.·J
14. r.t''l"' =[r.t'f;l')
103
Colloquial Tibetan
Another major function of Ui~ ·and 0.~11]· is to express existence, i.e., something exists in a particular location. When used in this way, Ui~·f 0.~11]· are classified as existential verbs and are translated with 'to be' verbs in English. The location constructions of this section are formed as follows: (Nominative noun+ locational noun+ locative CJJ'/ ~·+verb Ui~·; 0.~11]'/ Ui~·"l·X.~·).
(24) t:.'g.!'IIJ~·cq-iq~l
(28) (S~·~c.·EScr~c.·cq·a.~"l You are in the kitchen.
Weare in India.
In constructions of location the cq~~ · particle is joined to, or in post position to, the object, i.e., !l'"l ~ ·cq· 'in/ to India', Elz:!'a)t:.·cq· 'in the kitchen', etc. Please note the position change of the Cll~~ · particle in constructions of possession vs. location. In constructions of possession the QJ~~ · particle is connected to, or in post position to, the first nominative noun, the subject; whereas in constructions allocation theQJ~~ ·particle is connected to, or in post position to the object Let's look at Chart 11:
Chart 11
The Placement of Ql~~· Particles Possession SUBJECf I have a book.
c.
He has a hat.
jic.·
-
cq~~·l!f~· + OBJECf ~· ~z:~· cq' ~·if
+
Ul~·; 0.~11]'
ar",
a.~"l
Location SUBJEer I am here.
He is at home.
OBJECf- cq~~·!·~~· + Ui~·f O.~ll]·
+
c.· ~c.·
a.~
~·
ar~,
~c.·
cq·
a.~~~~
In the sentences of possession the 12.1~~ • particle indicates the subject's possession of the object. In the first sentence the particle~·, connected to the subject c.· 'I', indicates the possession of the object ~z:~· 'book' to c.~· 'I'. In the second sentence, the particle Cll' follows the subject iS"c.· 'he' indicating possession of the object r.rif 'hat' to ~c.·Cll· 'he'. In the sentences of location the ll.I~'J ·particle indicates the location of the subject. In the third sentence the particle~·, connected to the object a.~· 'here', indicates the location of the subject c.· 'I' to a.~~· 'here'. In the last sentence, the particle QJ' follows the object, 'JI::: · 'home' indicating the location of the subject, [lie.· 'he' to'JC.'QJ' 'at home'.
*
In order to help students use the various demonstrative pronouns in locative constructions properly, we will now build upon material previously introduced in Lesson 3. This material is shown in Chart 12:
104
Lesson 6
Chart 12 Proximity to speaker (sing.) o.~· this
Proximity to addressee
~·
that (near you)
Distance from speaker and addressee t.~~· that (over there)
'-'!~·that (above)
il~· that (below)
(pl.) o.~·ar- these ~·g. those (near you) lcl"g. those (over there) Ul"g. those (above) iJ"g. those (below) I
Two series of locational adverbs may be formed from the nominative demonstrative pronouns shown in Chart 12. They are formed in the following way: Series 1.) (Demonstrative+ Dative .:c:) Series II.) (Demonstrative+ l.l" +Dative~·)
These variations are shown in Chart 13:
Chart 13 Proximity
Proximity
to ~m~>::tlciPI"
to addressee
Distance from both the speaker and addressee
Series 1: ~~·there (near you)
Col~~· over there '-'!~~· there (above) il~~· there (below)
o.~·Q~·
~·Q~·
t.~·~~·
Ul"l.l~·
il"'-l~·
around here
around there (near you)
around there (over there)
around there (above)
around there (below)
o.~~·here I
Series ll:
The demonstrative pronouns of Series I indicate a specific location, i.e., 0.~ ~ · •here', '-'!~~ · •up there',~~· •over there (near the addressee)', t.~·~~ · •over there'. Please note, according to Lhasa diaiect, the dative~· in the (demonstrative+ dative) construction is notpronounced •...ir', but takes on a long •a' sowld, i.e., o.~~· = [0.~~-], ~~· = ~~-], t.~·~~· = [t.~·~~-), ar ~~· =['-'!·~~-), il"~~· = [ii·~~-J. The pronouns of Series II are not specific, but rather indicate a more general area of location, i.e.,~· l.l~· •around here',~·:..:~· •around there (near the addressee)', l.oi"CJ~· •around (over) there', Ul"l.l~· •around there (above)', il"l.l~· 'around there (below)'. Here again one must note that the dative ~·is not pronounced as an English •r', but takes on a short •a' sound which is drawn out, i.e.(~-); o.~·l.l~· = [o.~·l.l-], etc.
•
The verbs Ui"'l) ·I ~~~·: •Possession' vs. •toea tion' Constructions
In the examples shown in Chart 10, page 102, sentences (d) and (e) indicate possession, while (f), though grammatically parallel, indicates location. 105
Colloquial Tibetan
In sentences (d) and (e), though the dative subject nouns are animate, i.e.,~:::.· 'I' and~')·~~:::.· 'you', inanimate subjects may also occur as in sentence (13), fl" "c.J"~ · 'this house': (d)
c::.~·~·~"·ar~ 1
(13) ~~::.·q·~~~·~ll]~'l·~~~
I have a watch.
This house has three doors.
In the sentences above, the
UJ\
(f)
~~~·'ij'q·~~·~~~ Here is a student/ Here are students.
(23) ~::.·~~~·9J~-tq~1
I am in [the) classroom
In sentence (f), the demonstrative pronoun Q.~· 'here' denotes a place, and the
at
iii"~)'/ Q.~~· Non-Tense Attestative Verbs
We have noted that the verbs UJ')' and Q."ll]" signal categories of evidential reckoning, they are attestative \.! and indicate that the speaker has first-hand knowledge of what has been said. Another important aspect of UJ')" and Q.jll]" is that they are not marked for tense, and are therefore inherently tenseless. (This fact has already been explained with the verbs fi!~· and~')· in the analysis section of Lesson 1; lG'"')· and Q.~ll]· are tenseless in the same manner.) The sentences in sections II and III of this lesson are all examples of the non-tense attestative construction. Tibetan sentences of this type may be translated into English by present or past tense verbs depending upon the context of the conversation. The sentences in sections II and m of this lesson have been translated into the English present tense. However, depending upon the context or the ad\-·erb of time, the same sentence could also be translated into the English past tense. Let us consider a few examples from the lesson:
106
Lesson 6 Possession (2)
fi"t:.·~·z:.~·l'4'f4'Uj~'lll%~·~~111
(t7>
fi"t:.·ar~·ifr·lll~~·z:.~·~~~·~~lll .:;.·ar~·~~·ar"~·ar~1 t11"·"q.:;.·~·s111~·~"~1
He has/ had a stepfather. They have/ had two new cars. We have/ had time, but not very much.
Location (2S) iit:.·~.:;.·~:,~~·~·~~lll
She is/ was not at house.
(32) .:;.'Q. ·~ ·ifq~ ~ -u;~ 1
My hat is/ was here.
Remember that 07"') ·and ~5.~·are not specific in regard to time, but their evidential value is specific. Evidentiality is a very important cl'imension of Tibetan grammar, thus several types of evidential categories exist in the language. All of the sentences in this section are attestative, and signal first-hand knowledge on the part of the speaker.
IV. Post positional Constructions in Statements A.
Simple Post position (QI~~") Sentences {43)- (46)
(43)
~lll·~·~~:r~IIJ~'~IIJ·cq.lSq~~
The pen is under the chair.
<44>
lf"l·~·~r~.:;.·&t·~~lll
The barbershop isn, t downstairs.
(45)
S!" '(QJ::: '')~r~(~ ·~.:;..l'a, ·~Q·'ll·~~111
or
')~·~(')·~.:;.~·!Q'~·S!~·~.:;.·~~IIl
The hospital is behind the library. Behind the library is [lies] the hospital.
(46)
'11~'111111~·~~·~·~~111~111·~~111
There is a flower at the comer of the road.
B.
Complex Post position (with genitive particles) Sentences (D)- (&9) That boat in the middle of the lake is his. ~~~·"'3QI·~·~·l'4·~·rr.:;.·~·~"' 1 That book under the table is yours. f~·~~~·~·~Q·~·6~·~.:;.·~·~~1 That building next to ~e school is the library. iQ·9J'a.·as~·~·~.:;. ·z:.~·~ ·~,r~(~ ·~.:;.·~"! 1
(47) (48) (49)
In English, particles which appear before the noun they modify are classified as prepositions, e.g., in front of the boy, behind the library, on the table, etc. In Tibetan, the corresponding structul'es are classified as post positions, because they occur after the noun they modify, e.g., ')~·~(')·~.:;.~·!Q'cq'/ ~·, beh.indthe library, fi"t:.~·~~~~·cq·j ~·,in front ofhim, f~·}Q.~IIJ·cq·f ~·, under the table. In both the Tibetan constructions, locative (Noun+~~"· particle) and post position (Post position+ 'll~" ·particle) the 'll~" ·particle is an essential element. In English, prepositions are used to translate both of these structures. 15. ~Ill·~· =(li-4;') 16.
"\(:'ill'""\ l'lc;. = l"\C:~ 'il'f"\ 'fll:;. ')
107
Colloquial Tibetan Please note that according to the context of the sentence, the Ql~~ ·particle by itself can be translated as 'to', 'in', 'at', 'for', or 'on'. Some examples of the locative structure are: ~·i1·~·1~· ~America', c::.~·~c::.'QI' 'in/ atmy house', iz::~·9J~· W atschool'. Some examples of simple post positions are: !z::l"QQ' 'behind', ~.~~~ "QQ' front of', 'ij"~·I!J~. 'upstairs'. When genitive connectors~· I~·;~·;~·; and 111· are joined to post positions a complex post position is formed. In order not to confuse the student, the two post position structures have been labeled as (1) and (2):
m
Chart 14
Example
Post position
Particle Structure
(1)
~z;J'QI'
Ql~~· (dative)
simple post position
(2)
!z::l'l
~slll·;r (genitive)
complex post position
Examples of the complex post position, structure (2), are: ~r::.'!· 'which [is] on' or 'the top's', OJ~~·~· 'which [is] in front of' or 'the front's', ~z::~·l 'which [is] behind' or 'the back's'. When the post position in structures (1)' or (2) is joined with a noun. the genitive connector~· I~· I~·I
!il.·; or Ul· must be placed between the noun and the post positipn, e.g., structure (1), iz::~·9J0.'!z::l'Ql' 'behind the school' asr::.•fllr::.'!·~~~'Qj' 'near the store'; structure (2), f~·~·~c::.~• '[that] which [is] on the table', f"' 1
.cJC\·1.1~~ ·~· 'that which [is] in front of the house'. Of the five genitive particles only~· and~· are used
colloquially. As stated above post positions can be simple or complex. The post position in structure (1) is termed a simple post position These kinds of sentences merely state that something exists in a particular location:
f~·~~~'QI'~z;J~~·~~~ Under the table is a book./ There is a book under the table. fcr~O.·~q·QI·C)'tl'I.I(C) 'f"iG"C) ·~;~·l.C) 1 Behind the achool is a library./ There is a library behind the school. The post position in structure (2) is termed a complex post position The first part of the sentence deals with a particularly placed object, while the second part of the sentence modifies it: (48) f~·~~~·~·~z::~·~·[SC)·~r::.·~·l.C)l
That book [which is] under the table is yours.
The first part of sentence (48) states the location of the particular object of conversation, ie., ~·~~~~~z::~~· 'that book under the table'. This phrase by itself is incomplete and must be modified in order to make a complete sentence, i.e., GC)'~r::.~·l.C)· 'is yours'. The same is true for the following sentence: iz::~·9JO.·~q·~·C)~l'OJ(C)'fr::.·~~~·:.J·X.C)1
The library [which is] behind the school is new.
Remember that in structures with simple post positions, the genitive partide follows the noun and the <".If~~· partide follows the post position
108
Lesson 6 (Noun+ Genitive ~·t a·t ~·t "c\·t ~· + Post position + Literary qj~~ ·particles or colloquial qj' I ~ ')
~r:3·~~~~11ll/ Ql'
under the chair
{C3·~~·o.~..·~·f Ql"
nearthe school
"?.I·~~""F"~·~~~·f Ql'
behind the library
qj~·~~~·~~~·f Ql"
m thecmne.rofthe road in the middle ofthe lake
~~~~qj~'/ Ql"
In structures with complex post positions, the first genitive partide follows the noun and the second genitive partide follows the post position.
(Noun+ Genitive 'I~I~t~·f at+ Post positioo + UteraJ.y Genitive '/~/~t~·t at or colloquial~)
•
~'3·~~~~111~'/ C)· {C3·~~"Q.~'l'l/ C)·
which [is] under the chair
"?.!·~~"'fll"~·~~·ltC)·
which [is] behind the library
qj~·~~~·!~·~·tC)·
which[is]on thecomeroltheroad
~~·"~"~·~·I C)·
which [is] in the middle of the lake
which [is] near the school
The English translation of the post position c:~.s~·qj· varies according to the context in which it is
used. When used with a noun and a verb of existence ('ifi"·f Q.~~·t 'ifi"'CJ'~"·),Cl.f.l~·qj·is translated as 'next to', 'near by', 'beside', etc. This structure is: (Noun+ genitive+ t:~.S~'qj' +Verb-ending):
to',
""!\~C3·~~"-11~~...Qj-ar"1 "?.!·~~" 'f~··~·jii~~~~...Qj'Q.~IIl
The library is next to the hospital
Qqj~qj'l'lll~ ·~·o.~'I'QI-ai'" ·q·~" 1
Nepal is near India.
My book is beside Tsering.
When c:~.F-1~~· is used with end point verbs such as ('3~"'/ '3~~·1 ~qj'), it is also translated as 'next 'beside', etc. This structure is: (Noun + genitive + c:~.s~·qj· + Conjugation):
~ear by',
"·~~"~~~'I'QI'~~" ·'&~~1 ~q··..,·~~·o.~'l'QI'~IIl·q~~ 1
I will sit next to Tsering.
[I] placed the book beside the pen.
With animate nouns/ pronouns and motion verbs such as (11.~ I~~ ·t 'ifi"· I Qry"'), c:~.'f!lr.:·~ is translated as 'to'. This particular structure is onlyused when referring that one is going to visit or meet someone, e.g., going toTsering's house/ place/ residence, etc.:
~ ·~·~E;_~'Q.~'I'QI'Q.!'~~~~1
I am going to Tsering' s. [his house]
""!\
I sent my son to you. [your place]
·s·e"·~"~'Q.~..·Qj·~~"·q~~1
109
Colloquial Tibetan Another appropriate usage of l':l.S~'Ill' is to express that one is going to/ went to see a doctor. I went to the doctor's. Though ~':~.~~·Ill· can be translated as to, it is never used when talking about going 'to' a place, other than someone' s house, residence or office. When talking about going towards a place/ going somewhere, a Ill~~· particle must be used:
I am going to India. Just as l':l.S~'Ill' is never used with inanimate noWlS, in sentences of location, a Ill'~~· particle is never used with animate noWlS. Please look at the following sentences carefully. The correct and incorrect usage of l':l.S~'Ill' and the Ill~~· particle is shown below: ~ ~t~t·mQ.·~~'f·~·"'~·Q~.u,~ 1
I'm going to the doctor's.
~v.~~·~·~·i'l.~·~~·U,~1
Incorrect
~ ~~~·· 'Q.~'Q~·U,~ 1
Incorrect
~·t·~~·l~~/l'f'~'Q.~'Q~'Ul"\1
I'm going near India.
~·!·~~ ·~·r.~.~·~~.u,~ 1
I'm going
to India.
~·~·~~·r.~.~·Q~·U,~ 1
Correct Correct Incorrect
~·~~·~·Q_~'Q~·U)~ 1
I'm going home.
Correct
~·~~·~~'f·~·Q.~'Q~·U,~ 1
[to my house]
Incorrect
~·~~·Q.~'Q~·U)~ 1
V.
Correct
Incorrect
Non-Tense Gnomic Verbal Constructions with Ui~·l'4·~~·j Ui~'l'4'&1'~~·
(SO)
if·l,~:;.·~·CJ~·a;~iii~·~:r~~1
(51)
~·~~·~~·a~·~~:;.·~·~~·gliij~·CJ·~~·~~1
Sentences (SO)- (68) Tsering has a camera. Nowadays you don't have time.
(52)
!Ill'~·~~~~·~ ·~~~·~·Ill~ -t1Jl'CJ'~l1
His Holiness the Dalai Lama is in Dharamsala.
~53)
il'(!l~'iQ'~O.·r.~.'i!J~·Ill'Ull'CJ'~l1
The restaurant is next to the school.
{54)
~~·~·~~.JJ·~~~·~c.·ifl(j~·CJ·~l1
The weather in Tibet is cold.
(55)
r~·CJ~ ~~ 'CJ0.'ii'[Q~'Ull'CJ'.JJ'~l1
There aren't [any] Tibetan restaurants armmd here.
(56)
~l'lll'~UI~'Ui~ ·r.r~~ 1
There are yaks in Tibet.
(57)
This job has a good salary.
(58)
lll~'lil'l':l.~ ~al·a; 'UI!l]''lJ-Ul~ 'CJ'~~ 1 ~~~·fl~' g~.fl~·~·.JJ~~·tll·Ui~·CJ·~~1
(59)
lll~'1'1':1.~ '[Q~:::i'Ui~ 'CJ'.JJ'~~1
This job isn't hard/ difficult.
17.
The post office is in front of the shop.
-----------------------------------------------------alll-[ll""/Wli]".Ur =Post office 110
Lesson 6 (60) (61)
'=\~~·r.J~"lil"'liij"'=\·~·~'=\1
There is a lama in the monastery.
fl"Qj~·~~~·~iij"'=\•r.J•'l·~'=\1
There isn't [any] salt in this food./ This food has no salt.
(62) (63)
'=i~Qj"flr;.li"~·,~ iij"~·r.J•'l"~'=\1
The bank isn't upstairs.
l;JQI~~·QJ·a)QJ"ii~·r.Jiij"'=\ "r.J"~~,
(64) (65)
1r1]"'ll"'lf~~ iij"'=i "r.J"~'=i,
There are hesh vegetables in Nepal. The Potala is in· Lhasa.
{"ifmr::. ·~~~'=~ ·C)r;."l;JQI~Qj~·r;J~ ·Qjiij"'=i "r.J"~'=i1
Mt. Everest is between Tibet and Nepal.
<">
flr::.·r.J·r..~~~·~r::.·QI·fl·t.l~·ur'=~·r.J·~~·l.C)l
There isn't a telephone in that house.
(61)
rr-~~tij"'=i·r,J·~~l
They are poor.
(68)
~=~~·~rr~·~%~·QJ~·~·r;J~~iij"'=~·r.J·~C),
There are seven days in a week.
The aiC)·q·~rf non-tense gnomic verb construction of this section is parallel to the aiC)'/ ~~~·non-tense attestative verb constructions introduced in section ill. Though there are many similarities between these two constructions, there are a few important differences: (1.)
The verbal marker of the non-tense gnomic construction, UlC)"t.l·~~·, is complex, consisting of the verb Ui'=i ·,which means to have or to exist. The verb and particle Ui'=i · r.J' mean that the particular state of having something or something existing, exists. The factual verb~'=\· implies that, that whic;h is possessed or existingis a fact.
(2.) The evidential value of this construction is gnomic, not attestative. The speaker is not committed to first-hand knowledge but is expressing a universal or general truth or principle which is generally Jcnown or believed by eveJ}'one to be the case. One should note that even though the speaker may have first-hand knowledge concerning a specific event, it is not mandatory to use the non-tnlSe atttestativeverb ~~Ill"· Let's suppose one has been to Tibet and has seen yaks with their own eyes. From the view point of evidentiality, one would use the verb ~~cr:·, lr'=\'QI'~UIQ]'~~~ when expressing, 'There are many yaks in Tibet.' However, it is equally correct to use the general verb Ui'=\'t.l'~C)·: (56) lrC)'QI'~Ul~;qC).q·~~l
There are yaks in Tibet.
By phrasing the sentence this way, one is emphasizing the general known fact rather than the attestative aspect.
VI. Modification A.
In Statements with the Verbs ~~111·1 a:f~·~;~·l,~·
Sentences (69)- (71) (69)
l;J~·4~·i:·il~tr·~·r;.·q~9·~~"1
Tashi is a kind-hearted person.
(70)
~Qj·fc;.~!~r::.·{:q.n,~~
The scenery is beautiful.
(71)
~'l'r.J"QJ''li=lfn.~lll
The Khampa Pass is high.
J.ll
Colloquial Tibetan (72) (73) (74)
(75) (76) (77) (78)
qr:(~~~~~ltl ~rsltl~·q·~~r:::.~ ·ir!r:::.·~~ ·l.j·~~ 1
Tibet is a nice [place].
iiltl·iiltl~~~~~ ~fltl~·a)·~;J·~~· . ~·l.j·~~l 'll~.,~~'flt1~18~~ltl
Momos are delicious.
Ice-cream is rold. India is very hot [temperature]. This job is hard/ difficult.
~;ifr.t~·~r:::.·l~~~~ Q"~·~~·'ll~'f'lfCJ'il·~~ltl
That girl over there is beautiful. Tibetan language is not easy.
In section n the verbs Uj~ ·I ~~ltl' are used in sentences of possession, in section mlocation and in section IV with post positional patterns. In section V, the verb Uj~·q·~~· is used in rorresponding sentences. The verbs ~~ltl·f Uj~·q·~~· of this section are used in sentences with modification patterns. Here ~~ltl'l Uj~·q· ~~·indicate that the quality of the adjective is contained within or possessed by the subject: Momos are delicious.
In sentence (74), ~~ltl· expresses the attestative fact that the quality of deliciousness is rontained within/ possessed by 'momos'. If the gnomic-ending Uj~·l.l·~~· is used, the emphasis of the sentence shifts from the attestive fact of momos being delicious to the general fact that Tibetans believe momos are delidous. A crucial difference. between the possession, location-and post position (1) patterns and the modification pattern is that no
r~:af~Q.~ltl
vs.
The tea is hot.
~·af~-tq"~l The tea [I made] is hot.
This aspect of ar~· and Q.~ltl· is explained in detail in Lesson 7.
B.
Possession/ Location/ Post position Constructions with Ui"~·jQ.~~·fiXi'~·crl.~· Sentences (79)- (81) I have a good book.
<so>
"X.·~ I:J 'Uiltl ~ ~ltl-Qj~ 1 rrr:::.·'ll'ls'll·~~.:;,~~~ltl
(81)
s~·~r:::.·'ll·irr·ltl~x.·q~ltl·~5ltl
You have a new car. There are many new students in the class.
(83)
~"(a:, ·~x.·iQ'~ltl·~~x. 'l.l''IC:.t:~~ltl q~ 'QI'ltl"~·x.. ''IF-Q-'lr:::. ~-Qj~·c.j·~~ 1
(84)
gr:::.·flr:::.·•lr~·'llltl'~s·il·~s·~~ltl
There are many different kinds of things in the shop.
(85)
Q.j5ltl'~'"II'~C:.'Q1'4r:::.1fltl'~~·q-Qi~·l.l·~~l
There is fresh fruit in the fridge [refrigerator].
(79)
(82)
He has a lot of money.
There are many high mountains in Tibet.
112
Lesson 6 (86)
f~·~·~~;·~·~·~~.~·~&j%,~~~'C\~~
On the table is a red thermos./ There is a red thermos on the table.
(87)
(lli:\'CJ'i\·~%,'411'il~~·~.~~;:ciiG"~·~:r~~1
There are many flowers at the comer of the house.
When a sentence of possession.lbcation or post position is modified, the 411~~· particle remaim an essential element of the central grammatical structure. The~~· particles of these sentences indicate possession, 'have', location, 'in/ to', post position, 'on/ next to/ behind', etc., they do not mark the modification pattern: (80) ~~;·~·~S411'i.!l:\:'lJ-~~~ He has a lot of money.
(poaaession)
In sentence (80), the 411·~~· particle denotes possession: fi:\'QI~~£11' 'He has'. The Ql'~~· particle is never placed between the noun, ~~QI' 'money' and the modifier, ~t:. ·CJ- 'many' or between the modifier &II:\'
CJ- and the verb a.~~·· {83) 1i~·QI·~~::.~·~·i.llflr-i.l~~iif~·CJ·~~1 Therearemany high mountains in Tibet.
(location)
In sentence (83), the 411~~· particle denotes a place, tr~·QI·tij"~·CJ·~~· 'there are in Tibet'. Again, the Ql~~· particle is never placed between the noun,~· 'mountain' and the modifier, 1.1Eflr- 'high' or between the modifier, ~.~~:'tJ- 'many, and the verb ur~·CJ·X.~·· (86) f~·~·~I:\'QI'~ii.!ii.!%, ~~~'C\S~ (post position [1]) On the table is a red thermos./'rhere is a red thermos on the table. In sentence (86), the 411~~ ·particle denotes the post position, ~C:.'411' 'on'. The 411~~ ·particle is never placed between the noun, 'table' and the post position, ~c;.· 'on'. In post positional phrase structures, the genitive particle is an essential element of the structure flll·~a;~c;.·QI·. Please look at the following sentences. They indicate what is acceptable to say and what is not:
f111·8'
(70) ~QI·f~;~·t:~;·(~a.~~
The scenery is beautiful.
Correct
~QI'fc:.~·QI·~c;. ·'l~a.~~
Incorrect
~QI·fi::.~·t:c:.·(~QI·a.~~
Incorrect
(72) 1;~-~~~t:l.~£11
'li~'QI'!~~a.~~
Tibet is pleasant.
Correct
[The weather I the conditions, etc.]
Correct
in Tibet is/ are pleasant.
Q~ -~~~~·a.~£11
Incorrect
Among the possibilities given for sentence (70), only the structure of the original sentence is considered to be correct, whereas in (72) both the original and second structures are correct. In sentence (72), the adjective can either modify the noun, i.e., Tibet is pleasant; or by the use of the Ql~~·particle, the noun becomes the locational object, i.e., in Tibet, and the adjective modifies the implied subject, the weather, the conditions, etc.:
[It/ the weather] is pleasant in Tibet. 113
Colloquial Tibetan
VII. Yes/ No Questions Chart 15 Yes/No Questions (Positive Form) A statement ending with: ........iXiC)· becomes
....... .C~)~'
········~'l:J'z_C).
becomes becomes
Chart 16 Yes/No Questions (Negative Form) A statement ending with:
........iiC)'
becomes
I!C)'J:I'I'
........~·~~~·
becomes becomes
~~~~·~.,.
........iXIC)'l:J'ail'z_C).
(88) (89)
a"·~.:;.·QI·&.:~·=~·ar"·J:I.,,
~1·~.:;,·¥~·~~·iii~C).l~C)'l:J~1 ~
(91)
5')'~1:;.'QI'~''J~·Il')'J:I'I1 't91·~~ ·~a)~·ao~~ ·~·"1·~~~-tG'C)'l:J~l
(92)
~1·~~ ·~·s·~~ ·iXiC)·l:J~l
(93) (M)
.:;.~·~~·i~·~~~·l:J~~~~"l
(95)
~~·~·¥C)'"'~)li'J'~~1
(96)
.:;.~ ~~~·~~:tjif')'J:I'II'~')'J:!'Il
(97)
~·~~~~·~·~·~~'iXIC)'l:J'a;j'~C)'l:J~l
(98)
~.:;.·c~r~·~~T.f'9~·ao~·~~· iii')·J:~·l.~·J:I'Il
(99)
rr~·~·~~·¥1·~~111·q,~,
(90)
~·¥~·fZI~'l:J'iXIC)'l:J'~C)'l:J~1
(100) ii~·~·~'Q.~~·~~l (101) ~~·t~ao~·~~ao~·~·~~~·~-., (102) ~~·!C)'QI'QI~'Ill'iXIC)'l:J'ai!'l. C)'l:J~l
iXi') 'l,l'a;j'~" 'J:I'I'
Sentences (88) - (102) Do you have a camera?
Do you have relatives? Dan'tyouhavea telephone? IYouhave a telephone, don 'tyou? Do you all have good jobs? Do you have a brother? Do I have new clothes? Do we have a house? Don't I have a watch? I I have a watch, don't I? Don't I have a good salary? Don't the two of us have [any] food? Does she have [any] brothers or sisters? [siblings from the same father and mother]
Does he have time? Does she have [any] children?Don't they have three boxes? I They have three boxes, don't they? Doesn't Chokyi have a job?
114
Lesson 6 Tibetan yes/ no questions do not involve any change of word order, i.e., subject, object, verb. Rather, the question marking particles (l41' and !!J41' are used at the end of a sentence to denote a question:
Chart 17 Question
subject (88) 6')·~~'011'
object
verb
'l~'CI)~'
iii'~'t.l41j
Do you have a camera?
Answer
subject
object
~~·
I:J%..'(1)~'
verb
ar~l
I have a camera. The particular question particle usage depends upon the preceding verb. In questions the verbs U!~ ·; X..c;,·f UJ')·I UJ') ·r..r"'X..c;, ·and their negatives are followed by the question particle I'.J~·. The verb a.~~· and its negative are followed by the question particle ~~·:
G') ·%..~''ll'I:J%..'CI)~i(f~·t.~., 1
Do you have a camera?
(93) ~%..'r;,ll]'ill]'ll]~%..'1'.J'Q.~~'!IJ411
Do I have new clothes?
(%)
Don't I have a good salary?
(88)
~%.. ~t:]~'UJ!l)~~·(l'II''X.~·t.l41j
Normally the question particles I:J~' and Ill~· are used when no specific question word like; ~·"'%..· 'what', ~'I'.J%..' 'where', ~· 'who', etc. is used. However, it is not inconect to use the '-!~· and ~~· particles with a question word. Sometimes one will hear the (question word + particle I'.J41' I ~~·) construction used colloquially.
*
The negative question forms &!c;, ''-141' and ~·a.~~ ·~41· are translated as, Don' t L.., Don' t you..., Doesn' t she..., etc. in English. Note however, it is not incorrect to translate these as English tag questions, ... don' t I, ... don't you, ... doesn't she. etc.:
(90) ac;,·;a:.~·qr(Zl'I'.J%..'~~·t.l41j
Don't you have a telephone?I You have a telephone, don't you?
(95) c.;a:.·~·i'C)·~·Q.~~·~.,,
Don't I have a watch? I I have a watch, don't I? Don't they have three boxes? I They have three boxes,don 't they?
(101) ~;a:.·~~~·~~~·~·a.~~·~41j
VIII. Conversations A Context: Tashi has his new camera slung over his shoulder. He meets Palden on a street comer: Sentences (103)- (UO)
(103) Q~(~41': C:..,'-~'ll'~~ '011~411
Palden. Yes.
C)C.:'ll'~~ ·: 011~411
115
Colloquial Tibetan
(104) Q~~~·: ~-a~~,t;., t;.~·~·~·a,~~
Please look [here]. What do I have?
"l:J~·~~·: i3"·~t;.·~·l:J~·a;~~~"Q~~ (lOS) Q~·~~·: ~t::.-a.~~~·20a.~~
You have a camera.
What kind of [camera] do [I] have?
"l:J~·~~·: ~-U!·(fr~~~·a,~~
[You] have a Nikon.
(106) Q~·~~·: ~~·6"'~t;.·~·l:J~·a;~~"·l:J~l
And do you have a camera?
"l:J~·~~·: ~~~~"l t;.·~a,t;..2ll:J~·a;~~~~"l
Yes, I do. I also have a camera.
Q~·4~·= i3"·~t::.·~·l:J~·a;~·~t::.·a.~·~~~"1
What kind of camera do you have?
"l:J~·~~·: t;.~ 'l:J~ ·a;~·z:J~ ·~~·~·~~~ 'l:J'~~~" 1
I have a new Pentax camera.
·e"
Q~·~~·= ~~ ·~t;.~·~~~~·~·l:J~ ·a;~·~" ·l:J·%_" ·l:J~, And does your elder brother have a camera? My elder brother has three cameras. "l:J~·~~·: ~~~~·~·l:J~·a;~·lll~OJ'Ui"'l:J'%_"1 One is a Pentax. One is a Nikon. ~~~·l:J~'~ll]·~·~"l ~%~·~·U!·fi~·~"l And the other one is an Olympus. ~~·~~~·"~·~%~wi1JOJ'':f~·~"l Are all three of the cameras new or old? (109) Q~·~~·: l:J~·a;~·~~OJ·-o~·~~~·l:J·~r;;~t::.'l:J'~"l One is new. The other two are old. "l:J~·~,·: ~%111'111~~·l:J'~"1 ~~"·"~·~~~'t::.'l:J'~", Is that right? (110) Q~·~~·: %_"·l:J~l Yes. Yes, [it is]. "l:J~·~~·: ~"1 %_"1
B. Context: Dorjee is looking for his helmet and motorcycle key. He asks Pasang:
Sentences (111) - (118) (111) (112)
l(l·:
l:J'~t;.~·~ll1~l t;.~·~~·~ll1~·~·~~·l:J~·a,~~
Pasang, where is my helmet?
l:J'~t;.~·:
~~~·a,~~
It· s over there.
l(l·:
~·a,~ ·~·l:J~ ·a,~~
Where over there?
l:J'~t;.~·:
~Q'tf)t;.. ~t;..) ~1
In the kitchen.
~Q'tf)t;.·~·~·l:J~l
Where in the kitchen?
"'tSII1~'~0J·~·~t;.·~l
On top of the refrigerator.
a,~~·~~l
Is it there?
l:J'~t;.~·:
a,~~
Yes.
l(l·:
~~·~~·~~~·~·il~J1'il'a.~~
But, my motorcycle key is not here.
l:J'~t;.~·:
iS"·~" ·~·~·&l~·~~'fl"' ( ~".)~·a,~111
Your key is in the bedroom.
~~·fit;.' ( 'lt::.') ~'9'l:J~ ·a,~~
Where in the bedroom?
~OJ·~ ··~l"'~·a,~~
It's on the box.
t;.~·~·i'" 'UJ" ·~~'fl" ·~-a,~~·~~1
Is my watch also in the bedroom?
&l·a.~~ 1S"'~"·~·~·i'"V4'0J'~~~·~-a,~~
No, your watch is with mother.
(113) ~·: l:J'~t;.~·:
(114) ~·: (115)
(116) ~·: l:J'~t;.~·:
(117} ~·: l:J'~t;.~·:
(
10. "1"~S~"l·-= 1"1'!~S~I%·J 11. QA"' =(<1141')
116
Lesson 6 (118) ~·:
llf'l'QI~~·~·r.J~'Q.j~
Where is mother?
r.J'~~~·: ~''l'QI~~·~·~~~·QI~~·~~·a.j~
Mother is outside in the garden.
C. Context: Nyima is on the street looking for a telephone when he meets Namgyal. He asks Namgyal if he has his friend Tsering' s address and telephone number: Sentences (U9) - (128) (119) ~·'1·:
~'~'SIQI'QI£11~1 e~·~~·QI·~~~~·~·u~iG"~·"l4l1 Namgyal. Do you have Tsering 's address?
~'~'SIQI': Ui"~l
(UO) ~·1r:
[Yes, I do] have [it].
£11'"l~·ur~1
Where is it?
~'l'~QI': 'l.~ ~ -Ui"~ 1 (U1) ~''1': ~~·111~~:::~~·1
[It] is here. Please give [it] to me.
~'~'SIQI': lil£114-~'ii'j (122) ~·'1·:
Okay.
~~·~~·rr~·QQI'~QI'QI'~~~·~·Ui'~·r.J·~~·=-l~1 Is he staying in Nepal these days?
~'l'!JQI': Ql£11~ill~·r.J·~~1 (123) ~''l':
Yes, [he) is.
QQI'~QI'QI'£11'"l~1
Where in Nepal?
~'l'~QI': 'li'~~~·( s·~~·~·lf~·) Ql1 lltl~·~·"l~'tii~'S.]~~ilj~·"l~1
In Boudhanath. And do you have his telephone number?
~'1-~QI': ~·r.J~ 'llti~'S.]~~·a.~~·il~1 ~~·QI·Ui'~ 1
1don't have the telephone number here.
(U4) ~''1':
[It's] at home. (US) ~·~r:
~'l'~QI'QI£11~1 ~·~~·QI·~"a,·~·a~'Q.jlll"lll~l
Namgyal, does Tsering have my address?
~oli'!JQI': i)·a.j£11 No. (U6) ~''1': ~"a,·f·s~·~~·~·r.J~ 'lii~'SJ~~·rtr~·QI·II]~~·~~·1 Please give him my address and phone number.
~'~'SIQI': Cl.Sl£11~·~·~1)1 (127) ~''1':
Okay. Is there a telephone around here?
a.~·r.J~·~·r.J~'Ui"~·r.J·~~·"l~1
~'l'!JQI': Ui"~·r.J''l'~~1
(128) ~·'1·:
No, [there) isn't.
W~''4'r.J~'Cl.j£11'£11~1
And is there one anywhere over there?
~'l'!JQI': Cl.j£11 Cl.j£11 '4'r.J~·~·r.J~·a.jlll ~~''4'r.J~'
at [ti..I~'L
Oh yes, there's a telephone over there. And
llll~'f~·~~·i"~·~~'UI~'Cl.j£11 t'il~·~a.~·
there is a post office and a store over there as
il'~~·i)·a.j£11
well. But there is no restaurant.
In sentence (111}-<>f the Conversation section, the adverb is found:
t~.,~~·
'also/ too', colloquially pronounced
Is my watch also in the bedroom?
In sentences that require a Ql~~· particle, tl..l~• becomes QIQ.~·I QI'UI~·. One must not confuse these two advetbs. The adverb tl..l~ ·is used in factive sentences of identification, modification and locat:ial; w~ QIQ.~'/ QI'UI~' is used in sentences of possession and location. Both these forms are colloquially pronounced[~·]:
117
Colloquial Tibetan
(106) ~~~·tij'"~l c:.·~~c:.·j~'Uit:.'l:.l~'~~~~·tij'"~l
Yes, I do. I also have a camera.
Though both the adverb Ult:.' and ~a..c:.·; ~·UJc:.' can be used in locative sentences, one must note how each is used. ·when the speaker is expressing the fact that another person is/ was also at a particular place, the adverb UJC:.' is placed directly after the the person'sname or the pronoun, i.e., "jli"t:.'Ult:.' 'he is/ was also', ,.~'Ult:.' 'Nyima is/ was also': Location
(Zl'~t:.·c:. 'i'l'SJ~ -tij'"~l 1ft:.'Uit:.'i'l'SJ~·a..~~
Yesterday I was at school. She was also at school.
The adverb ~a..c:.·; ~'UJC:.', on the other hand, is used when the speaker is insinuating, i.e., 'as well as being at the market, she was al8o at the hairdresser's.' In these kinds of sentences, the adverb ~rl..C:.'/ ~·Ult:.' is placed directly after the name of the place, i.e., ~j'fi:.'~'UJC:.' 'also at the hairdresser's', ~c:.·~a..c:.· I ~·UJc:.' 'also at home': Location
F·~c:.·fic:.·~·i""~·~,~·l:.l~·i§'"~·~·a..~~ w~·cs·g~.Q~·l:.l~·!·~c:.·~'Uic:.·a..s~ Yesterday at twoo' clock she was at the market and then at fouro 'clock [she] wasaJsoat the hairdresser's. Below the adverb ~a..c:.· is used in sentences of possession and in sentences where the dative/ locative particle ~· follows an indirect object: Possession
6~·~c:.·~·~~·~·a..~~ t:.'~'Uit:.'/~a..c:.·~~·~·tij'"~l or c:.·r~~·]~~·~·tij'"~l You have a pen. I also have a pen. Indirect Object + Dative ~·
c:.~·Q~~-22~·e.~·tJ'ij~'tJ'Ut~ 1 ~~ ·c:.~·a;·~c:.·~'Uit:.'~~ 'l:.l'!j~ 'l:.I'UJ~ 1
I gave a gift to Tashi. I also gave a gift to Tsering.
•
The answer to question (112)
r.r'~~·~·l:.l~·a..~~
Where over there?
in Conversation B is merely: In the kitchen. Though this is an incomplete sentence, due to the context, the meaning is conveyed. In llte question and answer pair of (123), both the interrogative and affirmative sentences are grammatically incomplete: Where in Nepal? In Boudhanath. Such question and answers are acceptable forms and often used in colloquial speech. These short form question/ answers have been used throughout the conversation section of this lesson. 22. t::l~61· This is the abbreviated form of Tashi. t::l~(~41·
118
Lesson 6
•
Information for General Knowledge The term~·~·
The term ,g-~· used in sentence (60) is used in several ways throughout Tibet, India and Nepal. The strict sense of the term fil"OJ" is defined as: he who presides over a large number of disciples and who has rid himselfofpast sins and defilements. Among the many fil"OJ"(s), the particular fil"OJ" with whom one has a close affinity and from whom one has received extensive teachings is considered one's .¢z::J"-"fil"OJ", literally meaning root guru. By Tibetans, the term fil"OJ. is often used as a synonym for guru and designates highly qualified monks, accomplished scholars and other recognized masters of the various Buddhist traditions. fil"cl.l" is also used to designate incarnations and is sometimes used synonymously with ~~;cr~· 'precious one', a title given to highly realized masters. In Nepal, as ~ell as meaning a guru or incarnation. the term fil"cJ.l" i'> often loosely used when addressing or talking. about 'any' monk. This categorization of all monks as lamas is actually incorrect. The term §l"OJ" is also ~ to designate certain ethnic groups, e.g., Tamangs, Tibetans, and people from the mountainous border areas. One will often hear the Nepalese use the term fil"cJ.l" when addressing male members of these ethnic groups. Because of this, many Tamangs and Tibetans (in Nepal) use Lama as their surname.
The Three Holy Sites in Nep~ ~i"~ ~~·~OJ·~~~· Tilere are three Holy Sites in Nepal which which are considered by Tibetans to be of utmost importance to visit. They are known as cJ.Ja5~~~·~0J·~~OJ·: 1. 2.
3.
~~·&!-~~·~~· ~lcl~~·f.J·4£:_·~~~· s·~£:.·fl·lfx.·
(Nama Buddha) (Swayambhunath) (Boudhanath)
Tibetans feel no pilgrimage in Nepal is complete without visiting all three sites. The Tibetan name for the largest stupa, OJi"~~~·, is s·~£:.·fl·lfx.· (sentence 123). This stupa is situated in Boudhanath, a town about 3 kilometers northeast of Kathmandu. farungkashor was constructed in the fifth century by a woman named OJ"S~·OJ·, Ma]atsim;J, with the help of her four sons. Ma fatsimawas very pious and had an exceptionally virtuous desire to construct a religious shrine where countless number of beings would be able to worship. Even though extremely poor, because of this exceptional aspiration, she had the courage to go to the king of Nepal and make her humble request. Ma ]atsima requested to be permitted to build a stupa on a piece of land the size of a buffalo skin. The king, upon hearing this virtuous request, thought it a wonderful idea, and the amount of land asked for reasonable. Without a second thought, he naively granted Ma fatsima' swish. The Tibetan name for Boudha Stupa, s·~£:.·fl·"lfx.·, tells this part of the story; s· 'to do', ~£:.·'you may', [Zl" 'mouth', and "lfx.· 'to spill-out (unintentionally)'. Thus s·~£:.·fl·4~· can be literally translated as; 'You may do so,' as spilled from the mouth of the King. Having been granted permission from the King, Ma fatsima returned to the construction site ~d proceeded to cut a buffalo skin into one long, thin strip. Finishing that task, she encircled the whole area with it.
119
Colloquial Tibetan
The ministers, jealous of the favor granted her by the king, kept a close eye on her activities. When they, amazed by her daring, realized what she was up to immediately approached the king and complained. The king however, a man of honor, having already granted his permission, decided it improper to retract his word. With great devotion and effort Ma jatsima and her sons built this Buddhist stupa. It took seven years to complete, during which time Ma jatsima passed away. Before dying, she ferverently requested her sons to finish the stupa, which they did. At the time of the stupa 's consecration, each son stood in front of it and made a prayer. It is said that their prayers, as well as others, were fulfilled, and certain historical fi.gures ofTibet were the result. Because of this, Tibetans consider s·~~·~·lf~·an extremely important and holy shrine. They believe that the first time one stands in front of this stupa, whatever wishes or prayers made will materialize. After such an extensive project, many extra building materials were left unused. A discussion arose concerning the disposal of these remains. It was finally decided that a second stupa should be constructed. A smaller stupa in Chabahil (less than 1 kilometer west of Boudhanath) was built, using the leftover stones and earth from around the site of s·~~·~·lf~·. The Tibetan name for this particular stupa in Chabahil is ~i"~~~·-.·~IWI~~IWI'· The etymology of this word is;~· 'earth/ soil', '1111' (~~''!')'the remaining/ the leftover', and ~'stone'. Thus the name of this stupa ~1/~~t:~· is translated as 'the earth and stones which were leftover.'
IX. Exercises A.
Complete the following sentences:
(1)
(2)
~~·~·~~·--1 ji~·~·~~'Qj'--1
(3)
,.~~·,.,.·~·--1
<•>
a~·~~·Qj·CJ~ ·~~·
__,
(5)
lf~'Qj'~U.,~'--1
B.
Answer the following questions:
(1)
~·~~·~~·a~·~~·~·t.~~·~~~·~iij"~t
(2) (3)
a~·~~ ·Qj·~~ ·~~·,.,.·..,%~·~·111%~·111·~"~ ·(i"1 lj1Qj'~f~~ 'Qj"i~ 'CJ'~" 'CJ~l
<•>
~~~·a~·~~ ·Qj·Qj~·l!]·(ij"~ ·CJ~t
(5)
f~ ·~·a~·~~·~·~·Qj~~·s~·Qj~·ll1~~ ~iij"~ ·CJ·~~·CJ~,
c
Translate the following sentences:
(1)
~~·CJ~ ~~·CJa.'.il'fl~·(i~·~·~~l
(2)
ff~'F" ~·~rs~·Qj·~~ 'F" .~,~·~~~ "~~·rs"·~"·flq·af"·~"·Qj'Q.~IIl
(3)
120
Lesson 6 (4) (S)
Maybe Tsewang has many friends. Mt. Everest is between Tibet and Nepal.
X.
~"·~~·~~~·r.r Vocabulary for Lesson Seven
Nouns
~
baggage/ luggage
~~·~Ql"
binoculars
Q]t;~·
song
Q]'i~'Qry~ ''~F~.
singer
{~·if
Rupee/ dollar/ (any currency) Qj~·
{Q]'Qt~· ~~·Q.~~·j~ ~~·
movie
Q]~Q]~·~~lf~ ·~~ ~~~.
television
radio
~')'
voice/ speech/ language
'l')~'')ctf~·
last night
~'')'Ill'!'
dream
~~~·
face
Sj~'
mole/ medicine
Ql~'r.j"
hand
i"af
ball
Ql~·s~~·
office
'li'~'l'iQ'SJ'
university
'Ia,''I'
twins
Sl·~·
letter
"1~~~·~·
airplane
~~~~·~Q.·QQ~'EI~·
airport
')Sill~lll''~'
small change
~·s~·f')Sill·s~·
wallet/ purse
~Q'Q' ,.,
smallpox
~·
knife
Ql~'Q.6~·
permit
Ql~'Q.6~·jq·i:J·
passport/ ticket
~"~~·~·
members
games/ sports
')~Q.·~~~·
boyfriend/ girlfriend
~if ~·~Ql'~'Q{~'Q'
~'i~'Qry~·
sing
l:l.i"lll·~~~·
search/ look for (h.)
is~~·
go/ went (h.)
~if~
play (games)
~·
to be sick
s~·~~~·
remember I miss (h.)
~·~~·~~·
[I] haven't eaten/ never tasted
notes (currency)
foreign tourist
Verbs
Adjectives F·=~ '~F~~ ')CJ"Cl. 'UI~~
spicy hot
~
warm
talented
~~~
clever
extremely good
El~·~~~
far (in distance)
!~'1:,1'
fat
~Q~
naughty
121
Colloquial Tibetan
Adverbs
1~~·~iti~'
1'~iti'
really/truely a little while ago/ earlier
maybe/ perhaps
have everything
have nothing/ not anything
Pronouns
Prepositions ~~~~~~·
with/ together
Interjections Oh!
122
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 7
~ L
Page
Perspective Marking with the Attestative Verbs Uir;,·f ~~~·in Statements and Uir;,·CJ~"/ ~~~·~~·in Questions [inanimate objects]
n.
125
A. Perspective Marking in Statements: Speaker based
Sentences (1) - (5)
125
B.
Perspective Marking in Questions: Addressee-based
Sentences (6) - (10)
126
•
The Factive Verbs U!~·f ~r;,· vs. the Attestative Verbs Uir;,·f ~~~·
126
Perspective Marking with the Attestative Verbs Uir;,·f~~~· in Statements [animate objects] A. First Person:
127
1.
Personal Perspective on Self- Uir;,·
Sentences (11) - (16)
127
Sentences (17) - (21) Sentences (22) - (25) Sentences (26) - (28)
128 128 129
[attestative knowledge]
Sentences (29) - (36)
131
Personal Perspective on Others- Uir;,· [personal association]
Sentences (37)- (43)
131
Impersonal Persper'ive on Self-~~~· a. [aquired knowledge through searching] b. [external evidence about self] c. [second-hand knowledge/ reportative] Second/ Third Person:
2.
B.
1. 2.
m.
Impersonal Perspective on Others-~~~·
Perspective Marking Uir;,·CJ~"/ ~~~·~~·in Questions [animate objects] A. Second Person:
1.
Personal Perspective- Uir;,·CJ~· [self-knowledge]
Impersonal Perspective-~~~·~~· a. [knowledge through searching] b. [external evidence] c. [second-hand knowledge/ reportative] First/ Third Person:
132 Sentences (44)- (48)
132
Sentences (49)- (51) Sentences (52) - (55) Sentences {56) - (58)
133 133 133
2.
B.
1.
Impersonal Perspective-~~~·~~·
Sentences (59)- (64)
133
2.
Personal Perspective - Uir;, "CJ~·
Sentences (65) - (74)
134
IV.
Statements of Uncertainty Uir;,·~·xst Uir;,·~·~.r~r;,·
Sentences (75) - (81)
136
v.
Confirmation Seeking Questions Uir;,·~·f Uir;,·CJ·xs~·f ~~~·IIJ·
Sentences (82) - (92)
137
Colloquial Tibetan
VI.
Conversations A.
Sentences (93) • (98) Sentences (99) - (102)
B. •
vn.
The Phrase ~~~·~')~-a.~ ~~1
138 139 139
140
Exercises
140
124
Lesson 7 I.
Perspective Marking with the Attestative Verbs ilf~·t 0.~11)' in Statements and ai~·~"'/ 0.~~·~"· in Questions (inanimate objects)
Each of the following English sentences can be translated into Tibetan in one of two ways. These variations are shown in columns (a) and (b). The difference in meaning between the two Tibetan sentences is one of perspective. in this case personal-based vs. impersonal-based. A.
Perspective Marking in Statements: Speaker-based Personal vs. Impersonal Perspective (a)
(b)
Impersonal Perspective
Personal Pe:tspective (speaker-based)
(1)
~'Cl.~·a)·cr-~~..,
~"C:I,~·a);cJUi~1
Sentences (1) - (5) This tea is hot.
(2)
~·~"(l,~'g.l.lt:.~·if~~~ fl''ll~·~~·fl'a)'1J·&l·~~~ ~t:\~·~~ ·1J·I!·~~~ Ql~'"l~ 'fl~~~~~
~·~'Cl.~ .g.ill~~ ·ifUiC)1
These apples are sweet.
fl''ll~'t:\~ 'fl'a)~i!C) 1 ~'Cl.~·~~~ilC)l 'lj~'"l'~ 'fl~;cj-UjC) 1
This food is not spicy [hot].
(3) (4) (5)
This [piece of] baggage is not big. That job was difficult.
In speaker-based sentences, tG"" ·places an emphasis on the speaker's association to the object of conversation; whereas~~~· indicates that the sentence is attestative, with no implication of a personal association to the object.
(1) a.. ~·~~·sl?~~..,
b. ~·~~·ar~~l
This tea is hot. [having tasted the tea]
This tea is hot. [which I made, bought, etc.]
Though both of the above sentences are translated as, 'This tea is hot', each verb supplies a different contextual meaning. In (1) a., the verb~~~· implies that the speaker has tasted the tea and found out that it is hot. No other information than the first-hand knowledge of the tea being hot is connoted by this verb. In (1) b., on the other hand, the use of the verb Ui" ·signals that the speaker has some personal association to the tea. The exact nature of the association is not specified in the sentence, but is generally construed from the context; for instance, one may have prepared the tea, purchased it, or be talking about one's own cup of tea in an exclusive sense, i.e., implying that everyone else's tea is cold, etc. The simple English translation of Tibetan sentences such as (1) a. and (1) b., that are identical except for the use of Ui" ·or~~~·, are the same. The Tibetan sentences, however, carry an attestative personal and impersonal evidential implication which the English sentences lack.
Colloquial Tibetan All the sentences in column (b) in Lesson 7 section I A, are formed with the personal perspective verb (Students should work their way carefully through these sentences with their instructors, and try to come up with contexts that are appropriate for each sentence.)
Ui"·· B.
Perspective Marking in Questions: Addressee-based Personal vs. Impersonal Perspective (a)
(b)
Impersonal Perspective
Personal Perspective (Addressee-based) Sentences (6) - (10)
(9)
E:'~·a>::.f~~IIJ'IIJ~1 f'lllll]'~~·~cT.l::.f~~ll1'111~1 ~·~·lcl'g.cT.ll:.~'ir-~~111'111~1 f'lllll1'~~·f·a>·!i·~·~~ll1'111~1
(10)
~111'ill1·~~·~~~111'111~1
(6)
(7) (8)
E: ·~ ·a>:r:J-Ui" 'l.l~1
Is that tea hot?
f'lllll1'~~ ·~cT.l::.fUi" ''J~1
Is this food delicious?
~·~·lcl'g.cJ.ll:.~ ·&:l-Ui" ''J~1
Are those apples sweet?
f'lllll1'~~ 'f'a>::.f~" ''J~1 ~111'iii1·~~·~Ui"''J~1
Isn't this food spicy? Are these clothes warm?
In questions, ~~111·111~· signals that the speaker is only concerned with the attestive fact, i.e., of the tea being hot; whereas ~·'J~' signals that the speaker is concerned with the addressee's relationship to the object.
In Ui" ''J~· questions the emphasis is on the addressee's relationship to the object and not on the object itself: Is that tea hot? [have you tasted/ touched it?] Is that tea hot? [which you prepared/ bought, etc.] Both questions (6) a. and (6) b. are identical except for the final verbs ~~111· and Ui"· and their question marking particles 111~· and 'J~·. In both questions the speaker is inquiring whether the tea is hot or not. The two Tibetan questions differ only in that question (a) is asked from an impersonal perspective and (b) from a personal perspective. In (a) one is only concerned with the attestative fact, i.e., does the addressee know if the state of the tea is hot by having tasted it/ felt it. In (b) the speaker is not only interested in knowing the state of the tea, but the verb Ui"· implies that the tea has ~me personal association to the addressee, i.e., the tea which you prepared/ bought, etc. Question (b) can be translated as: Is the tea [which you made] hot? The personal perspective verb Ui" · carries two implications:
1.) Is that tea hot? 2.) that tea you have brewed, that tea you brought for me, etc.
at
(attestative aspect) (personal aspect)
The Factive Verbs Sl~·f ~~· vs. the AttestativeVerbs tl;~·f ~~~·
In Lesson 5 the differences signaled by the Tibetan verbs U:l~ · and ~S are examined. In this lesson, the differences signaled by the verbs Ui"· and ~5.111' are examined. Like~~· and ~S' the subtle differences signaled by Ui"· and ~~111· cannot be conveyed in any single way in English. The factive verbs U:l~· and~"· signal a difference in perspective The verb of identification~~·, indicates a personal association to the speaker himself, the addressee, or the object of conversation. This personal association is based on the 126
Lesson 7 personal relationship or experience that exists between the speaker and the object. This text refers to U!~ ·as the personalpaspective marker; whereas~" ·Jacks this specific perspective emphasis and is known as the impersonal paspe.:tive marker. The verbs Ui""· and Q.~C!]·, as shown in Chart 1, work in a parallel fashion:
Chart 1
Velbal Perspective Padive Verbs Attestative Verbs Despite the parallelism of the personal and impersonal perspective aspect, there are some important differences between the two pairs of verbs. The factive verbs U!~•f ~"·connote that the statement is a fact, but do not carry any implication of an evidential source. The verbs ~~·1 Q.~C!]·, on the other hand, indicate that the speaker has evidential or first-hand knowledge concerning the statement made. The verb~· informs us that the speaker has attestative knowledge as well as a pel50IUil assodatim to the object. Q.~CI]· also informs us of the speaker's attestative knowledge, but here the association is impersonal. The crucial distinction in the perspective mar.kin~ of the verbs Ui"" ·I Q.~~· is as follows:
Chart 2
Statements
Verb
Perspective
Emphasis
ar"·
personal impersonal
Speaker
personal impersonal
Addressee
~~~
Questions
ar"·q·· ~~~~
II.
...
Non-speaker
Non-addressee
Perspective Marking with the Attestative Verbs af~·t o.~~· in Statements [animate objects]
Ui""· implies a speaker-based (personal) perspective, whereas Q.~~· implies an impersonal-based perspective.
In statements, the verb
A.
First Person
L)
Personal Perspective on Self- ail)· [self knowledge)
"~,s~-ar"l (U)
(l3)
"~·~~·i""·&l~~la')l ~·~~~"<zl~~Ui"')l
Sentences (U) - (16) I have money. I don't have a lot of time. I sing well./ I'm good [talented) at singing [songs).
127
Colloquial Tibetan (14)
r:::~CJ'&I~~·fl&::.'Qlii~l
(15)
r.~·~·Qj~·~r.'UI&::.'~~,
I am in the library. I don't have anything.
(16)
r.·¥~·~r.'4Ql'UI~~~~ii~1
We have a good [pair of] binoculars.
2.) L)
Impersonal Pentpedive on Self- ~~111· (acquired knowledge through seudUng]
(The speaker has been asked ifhe has a Jive rupee note. Because he does not know oH-hand., he searches his wallet and then says): Sentences {17) - (n) I have a lot of ten rupee notes, [but] five rupee notes [don't have].
no
(The speaker is asked ifshe has a friend's camera. She thought she did nothave it, however, after searching
her bag she says):
Sorry, I [do] have your key.
(20)
~ar"~·~~ rrr.~·~~ ~·r.~·~"C4~~"'Qj'Q.~~ ~arc:.~·"~ a~·~c:.~·~·~..,·"~~~.., qf(l ~::.~·,..,·~·~·~~..,
(D)
~·~r.·r.~ oU!·~·~~~T.I.~~
There are two letters for me today.
b.)
[external evidence about self]
<18> (19)
I'm sorry! His camera is in my bag. Oh! I don, t have a pen!
.
In the following sentences, the speaker is relating something about himself from an external perspective. H one should unexpectedly see oneself on 1V, in a movie, or hear oneself on the radio, these kinds of occurrences provide suitable situations for using the impersonal Q.~~· when talking about oneself.
(22) (23)
C:.'UIE::~~~
Sentences {22) - (25) In the B.B.C movie there were many Tibetans. I was in it, too.
~"~~~·~·~&::_'Qj'r_~·~~'UI~~Q.~~
My voice sounded good on the radio.
~~·~~i"~·~~~·~c:.·QI~~'Q'&I&::.~~~~
(The speaker is describing his dream to a friend): (24)
&l~&::.'')aj&::.:~~~·Qj&J'Ql'l::.'"ll'~~·~~.., ~~·r.~·irr·~&l~·'lJ~~'UI~:.~~..,
~~·r.·a~·~r.·&l\}&1·~.1~~..,
Last night in my dream I was in Lhasa and I also had a red car. On top of that, I was with you.
.(The speaker is looking at a photo ofhimself and describing what he's doing): (25)
1.
r.~·~~~~~·~l~~i"'l
Look at this photograph of me.
r.~·~~&::.'QI'~~·~~~~~~
I have two moles on my face.
..~-~· =[~'li-/~~-1
128
Lesson 7
c.)
(26) (27)
(28)
~~ ·~:;.'Q.·QJ~'l',J~ ·lf~~~·a.~~
And I have a ball in my hand.
~:;.·~~·~~:;.~·a.~~·Ql·a.~~
I am next to you.
[second-hand lcnowledge/ reportative]
''v
Sentences (26)- (28} Cll't=.·~~:;.·~~:;.·~~1 ~·~~·~:;.·
In 1959 I was young. At that time I was in U\asa
li;'~'Qj9~·~~~·~·~·'l~·~~~
with [my] mother. [she told me]
1;~·QJ·c:.·¥~·~tlf~=lf~;'l·a.~9 ~:;. ·~c:~c:. ~~ ·~~·~~~ ·~~~·&l'a.~9
In.Tibetwehad twoservants. [Isawpicturesofthem]
I wasn't very naughty when I was little. [my grandmother told me]
In affirmative sentences or statements Ui~· places a specific personal emphasis on the speaker, whereas r.l.~ll]· places a specific emphasis on the object. Thus Ui~· is the perso.11.al pezspeetivemarker and Cl.~ll]' the impersonal pezspeetive marker. In Ui~ ·sentences the speaker can refer to himself by the use of the first person pronoun t=.• 'I'; however, in such sentences the pronoun~:;.· 'I' is optional. Should one say ~~Cll·lG"~ 1 '[I] have money', even without the pronoun~:;.· 'I', the verb Ui~· automatically signals that the speaker is talking about himself. When the pronoun~:;.· 'I' and the verb Ui~· occur t~gether, a kind of agreement between the subject and object is denoted: (11) c:.~·~~QJ-Qi~1 (16) c:.·~~·$"'4Qj'Uj~~~"1-Qj~1
I have money. We have a good pair of binoculars.
If it were the case that ur~. occurred exclusively with the first person pronoun, it could be said that this verb marks grammatical agreement with the first person subject. However, this is clearly not the case, as we can see in sentences (21) and (37) below:
(21) ~ ·~c:. ·c:.~ -t&l·~'Zil;'~'Q.~~
There are two letters for me today.
(37) a~·~c:.·Gr~"·4Qj'Uj~~~Qj-ui~,
You had a good pair of binoculars. [as I recall]
In sentence (21), the verb a.~9· has been used with the first person~:;.· 'I' instead of the personal verb Ui~·· The use of Cl.~ll]· shifts the emphasis from the subject"' 'I' to the object U!·~·~~~· 'two letters'. In sentence (37), even though the second person pronoun ~~·x..~:;.· 'you' occurs, please note the use of the verb Ui~· instead of a.s_~·· Here the speaker wants to emphasize a personal association to the topic of conversation, i.e., personally recalling the incident. In Lesson 6, Ui~· is introduced as the first person sentence marker and a.~9· as the second/ third person sentence marker. In this lesson however, it is explained how ur~· and c:!.~t:]· are independent of any grammatical agreement with first, second, or third person. This being the case, these verbs can be interchanged with all three persons because their function is not one of grammatical agreement, but rather one of indicating personal/ impersonal perspective emphasis, or personal association Ui~· and Cl.~ll]· are non-tense attestative verbs, the time/ tense is dependent upon the context of the conversation or the adverb of time. In Lesson 6 these verbs are introduced in a present time ron text, in this lesson however, both past and present time contexts are presented. 129·
Colloquial Tibetan There are three situations in which Cl.~~· is used with the first person pronoun:
When one does not recollect having something, however after checlcing, comes to find they are in possession ofit
a.)
Should someone ask:
Do you have any [small] change? If the addressee knows that he has or does not have [small] change, the answer is formed with the personal perspectiveverb~·;~·. However,iftheaddresseedoesnotknowoff-handwhetherhehaschangeornotandhas
to look in his wallet or pockets to find out, the answer is formed with the impersonal verb Cl.5~·~5~· instead: (17) c:.:~.-~~·~~·.J~c:.:c:f~~"l 1!·~~·1)·~~"1
I have many ten rupee notes, [but) no five rupee notes [don't have].
In sentence (17), Cl.5~· indicates that the speaker did not know he had ten rupee notes and no five rupee notes until checking his pockets or wallet. Here Cl."~· places the emphasis on the object~~·~~· 'ten rupee ._; notes' and 1!·~~· 'five rupee notes' rather than on the subject c:.· 'I'.
b.)
When relating a dream about oneself, when telling about what one is doing in a picture, or relating the unexpected incident ofseeing or hearing~ on the TVI radio, etc
(24)
cJI~t:.·~"lc:.·~~~·'llcJI"'lJ"t:."~"~~·~~"l ~~·c:.~·ii-r·~.JI~ :tj~~·Uic:.·~~~ w~ ·c:.·6~·~c:.·.J~~.JI"~"~~"l Last night in my dream I was in Lhasa. And I also had a red car and I was with you.
From the Tibetan perspective, when one is retelling a dream, the use of the personal pronoun c:.· 'I' does not refer to oneseU, but it refers to the c:.· 'I' in the dream. Understanding this view point, one sees how the pronoun c:.· 'I' actually represents a third person, not a first person in such contexts. The same concept holds true when talking about oneself in a picture or on the radio/ TV: My voice sounded good on the radio. There are two aspects the speaker must remember when using this particular usage of Cl.5~:
1.) When telling about one's appearance on the radio or TV, one was not aware of being recorded; thus, finding oneself on the radio or TV comes as a surprise. 2.) One is no longer, in this case the singer, but has become part of the audience, another listener. Though one was previously the singer, when relating the incident one takes a third person stance.
c.)
When relating information that has been acquired .from a second-hand source,~~"J"is categorized !IS a reportative verb. [I) wasn't very naughty when I was little. (28) c:.·~c:.·~c:.·U)~·~~·~q~·!S"l""il"~~"l [my grandmother told me)
\-\'hen retelling an incident about one's own childhood, one must often rely on information obtained from an external source rather than on one's own memory. The verb Cl.J~· signals that the speaker was, i.e., too young at the time, and therefore is relying on information provided from a second-hand source. 130
Lesson 7
In sentence (28), the speaker was too young to recollect his childhood behavior. Thus the fact of him/ her not being ve.ry naughty has been found out from the grandmother. In Lhasa dialect the colloquial vert ..!Ilding ~'i~· is used more frequently than a.~~· in reportative statements. Please note that the use of the impersonal verb-endings a.s_~·f ~'i~' does not exclusively indicate that the information has been acquired from a person. Facts that have been obtained from books, newspapers, television and other media are also considered to be externally acquired information. Thus the verb-endings a.~~·f ~'i~· add the implicit meaning, I found out from an outside source. These verbendings are further explained in Lesson 13.
B.
Second/ Third Person
L)
Impersonal Perspective on Others- Q.~"l· [attestative knowledge]
Sentences (29) - (36) (29) rzr~c.·a~·~c.·fic.·~·~~·~c.~·~-g,~"l
Yesterday you were in his office.
(30) rs~·~c.·~·~·~~·~c.'Uic.·a.~"~
You have everything. [all kinds of things]
(31} rs~·~c,·g.~~a.'UI~~a.~~
You are extremely I really very good.
(32} 1fc.·Qr~r~·il~·il~~'Q,5"~
She has a pair of twins. [children]
(33}
l;J·~c.~·~~·~~·~c.·rtr-a.~~
Pasang Dekyi is beautiful.
(34} ~·~~C.'"J~il·~a.·~~~·~c.·~·a.~~
Tsewang is at the airport.
(35) fic.·~~~·a.~~·a.~~
A little while ago he was here. Now he's not here.
(36} ~·fic.·a.~~·i)·a.~~
2.)
Personal Perspective on Others- af~· [knowledge through personal association]
The additional information in the square brackets on the English side are provided so the student can get a sense of the various kinds of implications or suggestions that can be implied by~· in the following sentences. (37) ~~c.·a~·~c.·QI·~c.·4~'UI~:t:i~~-ar~1
Sentences (37)- (a) Last year you had a good [pair of] binoculars. [as I recall...]
(38) fl·~c. ·rs~ ·~c. ·i~·~~ iG'~ 1
Yesterday you were in school. [didn'twerunintoeachother?...]
(39) rs~·~c.~·~~·c.a.·~c.·~iG'~1
You were in my house at that time. [I remember very well.... ]
(40} 6~ ·~c. ·~c.·~c. ·~c.·~·~ ·s~~·~c. :rriG'~ 1 You were very clever when you were small [I remember it well. ..] (41} 1fc.·QI·~·ij~Q.~~-ar~1 (42} f~ ·i~·f3-i'C1:~c.·~·~·~~·a.s ·il'Cl.s·ur~ 1
~~ ·~·QI~~ .g.fl'4~·~·~~ ·~~·U!~ 1
He has a gun. [He showed it to me) They used to have many different kinds of things in their house, [I went there many times... ], and some of those things were from India. [as I remember) At that time the four of them were in Nyalam. [I saw them.. ,]
13t
Colloquial Tibetan The normal second/ third person verb marker Cl.~~· indicates that the statement is attestative. The use of Cl.~~·signals that the speaker has first-hand knowledge and is giving an eye-witness account, i.e., the speaker has seen Dekyi, so he knows she is beautiful, he has tasted the food of a particular restaurant, so he knows it is delicious, etc.: Tsewang is at the airport. [I saw him there.]
In sentence (34), the use of the verb Cl.~~· indicates that the speaker has first-hand knowledge of Tsewang being at the airport, i.e., he was at the airport and saw him. In second/ third person sentences the use of presents a personalized dimension indicating that the speaker has some personal association to the person, event or topic of conversation:
ur".
(40) a~·~c:.·~c:.·~c:.·~c:.·QJ·~·s~ ...
I"if-ui~ 1
You were very clever when you were young. [I remember it weD]
(41) jic:.'QJ'~'cT.I"Cl.~~-ar~,
He has a gun. [He showed it to me]
In sentence (40) the speaker wants to emphasize the fact that he himselfremembers the incident well, i.e., he was your neighbor, he lived with you, he's a relative, etc. In (41), the speaker wants to emphasize that he himself recalls that the third person has a gun, i.e., it was shown to him, he saw it displayed in the hunting room, etc. Do not think of these subtleties as insignificant. The ~er voluntarily uses these and other emphasismarkers for specific reasons. Students of Tibetan will never sound fluent without being able to take advantage of these kinds of structures. Extensive experience in conversing with native speakers is the only way to become proficient in these more complicated aspects of spoken Tibetan.
III. Perspective Marking Ui"'l.l~f/ ~~"'1'"'141' in Questions [animate objects]
ur"·
In questions, the verb implies an addressee personal-based perspective, whereas Cl.~~· implies an addressee impersonal-based perspective.
A.
Second Person
1.)
Personal Perspective- ai~·q-.· [self-knowledge]
Sentences {«4)- {48) Do you have [any] money?
(44)
a~·~c:.·QI~'5ClJ-ar~·q ..,
(45)
Do you have your books?
(46)
~" ·~c:. .g::~;, ~CJ'tG'" ·~~1 ~" '::1\C:.'QJ'~'g".Q]~::t.·~·ur-"·~~1
(47)
a~·::~:.c:.·QI·~::~:.·=~·~~·q-.1
Don't you have a camera?
(48)
~~ ·~cT.I·g::~:, \'5ClJ'~QJ'cJ.I'tG'~ ·~~1
Do you have any [small] change?
Do you have a new watch?
132
Les.mn 7 2.) L)
(49)
Impersonal Feutpective- ~~111·111-r [knowledge acquired through searching] Ulc:.·m~·~~~·ll1~c:.~c:.l e~ ·~c:.·QI'C:.~ ·~·~111·~~~111·111'l1
<so>
a1·~c:.·~l~~~111·111~1 %111·111~111~·,c:.·1
<51>
11111~·Fc:.·~·E1111~·t.~~1
~·~~~111'111~1 b.)
Sentences (49) -(51) Please search/look again! Don't you have my keys? Do you have a pen? [in your bag or somewhere] Please check. Did [you] go to the post office? Was there a letter for you?
[external evidence]
When the speaker wants to know if the addressee was on TV I in a movie/ on the radio/ or in a photograph, the question form ~~111·111~· is used. Sentences (52) - (55) (52)
~~-a.~,·~f111oq~t~c::.'QI-e~·x.c::.~sll1'111'l1
(53)
~c::.·~~~·~·~c:.·~t1·~c:.~·~1'U1111:t:J·~·~~111·111~1 Your voice sounds nice on the radio, doesn't it?
(54)
&11c:.~Qfc:.'II1~'12J&J'~"B1·~c:.'IJJ'Mr~~~ll1'111~1 In"(your] dream last night, did you have a car?
(55)
t.l~·~~~·~c:.·~t1·~c:.·!ll1't.l'&l·~~ll1'111~1
c.)
[second-hand knowledge/ reportative]
Are you in the film 'Kundun'?
In this photo aren't you fat?
When the speaker expects the addressee's answer to be based on information acquired from a secondhand source, the question form ~~111·111~· is used. Sentences (56) - (58) Did you have a servant in Tibet? [Didanyme ten you?) (56) ~·~-e~·x.c::.~tli'II1~"CC.~II1'111'l1 (51)
,t'... t'
~-a,·~c:.·~·~c:.·l-,1 ~~~·a~·
X.C::.Vf&l'~ll1~'&l~&l'~'~''lX.~~111'111'l1
In 1959 you were young. Were you in Ulasa with your mother at that time? [Did you find out from your mother?]
(58)
B1 ·~c:.·~c:.·~c:.-Ul~ ~~·~Cl~~~111·111~1
B.
First/ Third Person
L)
Impersonal Perspective- ~~111·111-r
(59)
c::.x.''4'&l"CC.~'II1'f1
(60)
c:.·~~~~· 1"CC.~II1'111~1 ~c::.·QI·,s~·~~ll1'111'l1
(61)
Were you naughty when you were little? [Did your grandmother tell you?]
Sentences (59) - (M) Do I have parents? [you know my family.] Do we have time? [according to our schedule.] Does he have money? [you know his budget.]
133
Colloquial Tibetan (62)
f~·'ll·~·li·~·~5~·~~1
Doesn't she have a hat? [you saw her coming.]
(63)
f3-¥~·'ll~'1'~'~5~·~~1
Don't they have jobs? [Did you ask?]
(64)
~·~~~·'ll·l:~~'CJ'~5~·~~1
Do the two of us have friends?
2.)
Personal Perspective - af~ ·q-.· Ui~· indicates that the addressee has some personal association with the matter in question.
Sentences (65)- (7t) (65)
~·~~·~~·~r-ar~·q.,,
Did I have a car at that time? [Can you remember?]
(66)
6'1·~~~~·~~·u:r~·I'.J~1
Do I have your knife? [Are you sure you gave it to me this morning?]
(67)
~~·~'1·~·CJ~'(I)~·~~·Ui''1'CJ~,
Do I have Diki' s camera? [Do you think I've got it?]
(68)
1f~'Ql''lj~'~6~ -ar~·q.,,
Does she have a permit? [your wife, I mean. ..]
(69)
'1'f~''ll''1~'li'Ul'1'CJ~1
Does he have money now? [Did you give him enough?]
(70)
~ ·~·'ll~~, g~~·~·a)~ ·~·~~ ~ 'Ui'1'CJ~,
Nyima, are all the members here? [Did you ask them to come?]
(71) (72)
~'UI~:c:rs~·s~ ·~·~·~5~ ,,~~'( 'll·~·g.
I don't remember well. Were we together in 1975?
~~~·5'Ui'1'CJ~1
[Do you remember?]
F·~~f~·e'1·~~·~~~'5·i~·~~·u:r~·c.~~,
Was he at school with you yesterday? [you are in the same class]
(73)
~·~~ ·~~ ~~ '5~'9~~·~fl~~'Ui'1'CJ~,
Was I good at singing when I was little? [you've known me since I was a child]
(74)
f~·~li''UI~~Uj~·I'.J~1
Was he good at sports? [you should know, you were his trainer... ]
In Lesson 6, Ui~·I'.J~' is introduced as the second person question form and ~5~·~~· the first and third person question form. In sections II, A/8 and ill, A/8 of this lesson, it is explained how these verbs can be interchanged with any of the three persons, however, a perspective emphasis change occurs. Based on this, second person questions formed with the personal verb Ul'1'- Qi~·I'.J~' or its negative i/'1'- i!~·I'.J~' are categorized as personal perspective-based questions. And second person questions formed with ~5~· ~~~·~~·or its negative ~·~5~·- ~·~~~·~~·are categorized as impersonal perspective-based questions. (46) a~·~~·Ql·~·¥'1·~~~·CJ-ai~·q.,,
Do you have a new watch?
The use of the personal verb Ul'1'insentence (46), places the emphasis on the pronoun 6'1·~~· 'you'. Here the speaker is asking for a personalized answer from the addressee. There are three situations in which ~5~·~~· is used in second person questions:
134
Lesson 7 a.)
When the speaker feels the addressee will have to look in a bag, cupboard, desk, etc. in order to find out if they are in possession of a particular object (SO) a~·~r::.·QI·~·~·a.~~·~_,1 ~~·~"a~~.r~r::.·1 Do you have a pen? [in your bag/somewhere] Please check.
In question (SO), the information being sought is not merely, do you have, but also includes, have you checked and found out, or will you check and find out, if you have it. The question pattern a.~~·~~· is also used in situations such as, the speaker can not find his keys anywhere. (Earlier in the day the speaker remembers the addressee having his keys. Therefore, he ash):
..
(49) ~l:= ~~:a.ar'1l·~~r::.·~r::.·1 a~·~r::.·QI·r::."-·~·~~~·~~·a.~~·~.,1 Please search/ look again! Don't you have my keys?
b.)
c.)
When the speaker asks the addressee about his/her dream; what the addressee is doing in a picture, or about the addressee's appearance on the TVI radio, etc.: (54) cJJ~r::.~a]r::.~;~"QI~~·QI"a~·~r::."'1l·lfr~~-a.~~~.,,
.b1 [your] dream last night, did you have a car?
(55) CJ~·a.~~·~r::.·QI·a~·~r::.·$~·r.ri!·a.~~·~., 1
In this photoaren't you fat?
When the speaker asks the addressee about information they feel has been acquired from a second-hand sourre (57) 9(''{(' Qj·rs~ ·~r::. ·~r::. ·~r::. ·x..~ 1 ~·~~·a~ ·~r::.~·cJJ·Qj~~·cJJ~cJJ·~·~·.,~ ·a.~~·~.,, In 1959 you were young. Were you in Lhasa with your mother at that time? [Did you find out from your mother?)
Since the addressee was too young in 1959 to remember what happened, all that he knows concerning that period of time has been obtained from an outside SOl1J't'e, e.g., his mother told him. An implied meaning of a.~~· in this particular question could be: 'Did you find out from your mother?' In this case a.~~· is categorized as a reportativeverb. First and third person questions formed with the personal verb UJ~ ·- Ci~·'-1~· or its negative~~·-~·'-!~· are categorized as person;U perspective based questions. And .first and third person questions formed with
a.~~·- a.~~~~· or its negative ~'ll.~~·-~~~·~~·are categorized as impersonal perspective based questions. In first or third person questions, if the speaker is merely seeking a precise attestative answer from the addressee, a.~~· is used: (60) r::.·¥~·~~·ar~·a.~~·~.,1
Do we have time?
The context in sentence (60) is, the speaker knows he and the addressee have a previous engagement. Therefore, when requested to do something, the speaker asks the addressee, z:::·af~·~~·af~·a.s_~·~~1 'Do we have time?' Literally this means: According to our schedule do we have enough time to do it or not?
Does he have money?
135
Colloquial Tibetan
In sentence (61), the speaker presupposes the addressee has attestative knowledge concerning F"r::.·~· 'he' having "s~· 'money' because, i.e., he is the addressee's brother, good friend, close relative, etc. In first or third person questions ur"·r..~~· carries several contextual implications: L)
ii"· indicates that thereisaparticularassociationbetween thespederand the addressee regarding the presented situation (66) a"·~r::.·~~·r::.~-ar"·r..~~, Do I have your knife? [Do you remember/ are you sure you gave it to me this morning?)
ur"·
r::.·
In sentence (66), indicates that the emphasis is on the speaker 'I'. In this case the speaker wants to know if there is really the possibility of that particular knife, which belongs to ·~r::. 'you', being in 'I's' possession. The underlying meaning of this sentence is, 'I don't think &a, are you sure your knife is with me, do you remember giving it to me?' This type of structure is usually used in one of two situations:
1.) 2.)
'6" ·
r::.·
When the speaker does not really think the presented situation is true. When there is a possibility that the presented situation is true, but the speaker himself does not remember having done something, received something, etc.
This particular usage of ur"·r..~~· with the first person insinuates one is asking the addressee: 'do you
remember?' 2.)
ar~· indicates that the addressee bas some personal association to the speaker. (73) ~.-~r::. ·~r::. ·Sl~ ·~~·IIJ~~·~.~F~:crili'" ·r..~~1 Was I good at singing when I was little? [you've known me since I was a child]
r::.·
In sentence (73), the use of Ui""·with the pronoun 'I' indicates that the speaker and addressee know each other well Based oo. this, the speaker expects the addressee to be able to give a first-hand, personal petspedive answer.
3.)
ar~· is used when the addressee has some personal association to the third pertK1ft
(7o>
,.~.~·~~~ 1 ~""~~·~·a;-r::.·~~·~~~·ar~·r..~~ 1 Nyima, are all the members here? [Did you ask them to come?]
In sentence (70), ie., the boss requested his secretary, Nyima, to send around a circular concerning a meeting. As he enters the meeting hall, he turns to Nyima and asks her using the personal perspective form: ~~wa)r::.·~.t· a.~~iti""r..J~l 'Are all the members here?' In thissentenceLG""·implies: 'haveyouinformed themalltoattend?'
IV. Statements of Uncertainty ai~·l~~·;ai~·lc~~·~~· [ai~·~f] I[~~·~{'] Sentences (75)- (81) Does Wangchuck have a motorcycle? [I) don't know. Perhaps he has [one].
Lesson 7 (76)
a. ~:,::r;.·fl·l.l::r;. iij'" "I:J"l." "l.l~l
You probably have one [a telephone].
(7'7)
b. a"·::r;.~:.·~·fl·l.l::r;. a. ~"1·9J::r;.·ie~·~ll1""'~~·~~1 b. ~~:.·~~, ll;"·~·l."l
[I] don't know. Probably there are.
(78)
a. ~"~"l·Ff~:.·~·~~·aT"iij'"·l.l·l.~·l.l~1
Does he have time tomorrow?
I don't think he has time tomorrow.
(79)
b. ~"~"lili""·~·~~·af"·ll;"·"&·~rl.~l a. B"·::r;.~:,~·~·~llj·~:,::r;. iij'"l
Do I have a telephone?
ili"-a.!l
(80) (81)
Are there students in the class?
Do I have your key?
b. J:."S"l~·~,.~~ "~~ii~"B"·::r;.~:.~iij'"~·~rl."l I don't remember. I don't think you have my key. Are there foreign tourists in Nepal? a. Cl~~~·~·~·s~~·e~li::r;.•t;;~iij'" "l.l"l." "l.l~1 Perhaps there are./ Probably. b. ar"~·l." 1
a. $"~.1\·~·fl·~~~~;q.ar"·l.l·l."·l.l~l
Is Indian food tasty?
b. ~:.·.;;r~·~"l ~~;q.ar"~·l."1
I've never tried it./ I haven't eaten [it before]. It's probably tasty.
In Lesson 4statements of uncertainty with Ul"l ~·l."· are introduced. In this lesson, statements of uncertainty with ill1 ·~·l." · are introduced. This structure is used for statements concerning uncertainty of possession, location and modification: (75) b. ~r~·e~~·~"l ~%~·s~·"lii~·"&":\~1
(possession)
[J] don't know. Perhaps he has [one]. (7'7) b. ~~:.·~~1
( ~~·9J::r;.·ie~·~~·) ili"~·'&·l.~l
(location)
[I] don't know. Perhaps there are [students in the class]. (81) b. J:.".il·~·~r:.l ~&:~ili~·3·l.~1
(modification)
I've never tried it./ I haven't eaten [it before]. It's probably tasty. When the speaker is asked to make a comment or give an answer to a posed question, if he/ she is uncertain about the validity and has no clue or evidence to back up the answer, Ul"l ·~·l.1 ·or ill~ ·~·l."· is used. These phrases of uncertainty imply, 'I think such and such is true/ untrue..., but I have no evidence to back it up.' When the speaker has some clue or evidence to back up an assumption, other Tibetan structures of uncertainty are used, i.e., Ul"l•fll;"•e~"f-~~~· 'suppose, Ul"l"l lij"•l.j•~s• 'it seems l Ul"l"l ar,·~• l.~· 'it seems/ perhaps'. These structures are explaiiled in Lesson 11. 1
1
V.
Confirmation Seeking Questions ili'~·r:·tili'~·t.~·~~·r:·tC\~~·,·
(82)
a1 ·~~:.·as::r;. ~~·l.l~-'~·l.l·ilf~·'il
You have TJbetanacquaintana!S,right?/[elm 'tyou?]
<83>
q-~ ·~·~~:.~·~ ·~" ;q.ar~ ·r.~·l.~
There are many mountains in Tibet, aren't there?
<M>
~::r;.·s·~·~~~~~·IIJ
Sentences (82) - (92)
·r:1
They have a child, right?
s·~::r;. ·~~" ·l.l·~·s~~,.~~·~
There are a lot of Tibetans in India, arcn 't there?
137
Colloquial Tibelan
Jr~·Jr~·~&l~""t.J"l.""T;i1 a" ·~c:.·Ql"l:.a.~q·~~" T;i1 lfi"Ql"~~~·.,·8~ ~" "t.J"&I"l." "T;l1
The Potala isn't in Shigatse, is it?
~·Ql~"Q.~ ·i"~~~·~"Q.~~·IIJ
These things aren't good, are they?
(90)
s·ifr.~~·f:c:."l~"Q.~~"IIJ
The girl over there is beautiful, isn't she?
(91)
''f~~ "ITl"El~·~c;.~iij'"" "t.J"~" "T;l1
America is far [from hereL right?
(92)
~Cif~·~·~c:.·Ql"Q.~~"IIJ
The book is on the table, isn't it?
(86)
<87) (88) (89)
Momos are delicious, aren't they? You don't have my book, do you?
The question marking particle T;I" introduced in Lesson 3 section IV, forms a special type of question called a cmtirmatim seeking question. In Lesson 3, the particle t;r follows the verbs of identificatiml, ~·and ~" ·. In
this section the question marking particle T;I" follows the verbs~"· and Uf""t.J"l."·, while the particle IIJ" follows the verb ~5.~· in constructions of possession, location, modification, and post position. As with Ul~ · T;i" and l.""T;i", the forms ur""T;I"/ ur""t.J"l.""T;i" and ~~~·IIJ· are used when the speaker presupposes that the disclosed information is true, but is seeking confirritation from the addressee:
<M> ~~·~~r~r~~~~~.,
(possession)
They have a child, right? (83) ~'i·~c:.~·~·&lc:.~Ui'i·q·~'i"'i1
(location)
There are many mountains in Tibet, aren't there?
(90) s·ifr.~~·--c:.·(=ti~~~~~., (modification) The girl over there is beautiful, isn't she? (92) ~q"f~·~·-c:."QI"Q.~~~~, The book is on the table, isn't it?
(post position)
The literal translation of the question marking particles T;I" and IIJ" is 'right'. This structure also carries the implication of a tag question, i.e., .. .aren't there?, .. .is there?, etc.
VI. Conversations A. Cmtext: Two old &iends meet after a long time: Sentences (93)- (98) Welcome Dekyi! (h.)
(93) C:.ll!"" CIC:.": ~ ~~~ ~q~·~~~~ C:. ·~C:. "CI~ ·~" "QI~~1
q~·~"·: Ql~~~", ~~~·~"~~~~~~,
Yes, I'm glad you're here.
(M) c:.~""CIC:.": cq~ ~~""c:.1 ~~~""c:.1
Please come in. Have a seat.
q~·~"·: ~~~·~·~~c:., (95) C:.II!""CIC:.": ~~~·l_·&Ji"" "llj q~·~"·: lr"·~~~~~·~~c:.·~~~·~~~~c:., (96) C:.~""CIC:.": ~~~-a;~~", &li""""C:.1 q~·~"·= a"·~c:.·~~·~~c:.~·~"Q,~~~~,
Thank you. What will you have [to drink]? Please give me a [cup] of Tibetan tea.
This tea is hot. Please have/ drink it. Don't you remember?
c:.~" ·~ ~"" ~ ~~" "T;l1
I like Tibetan tea, right? 138
Lesson 7 (9'1) "~~(lc::: Ql~~iij'"'11 f~·~·fS&:)'-.1\"~'1·~~·
Yes, [I] do. You use to like Tibetan tea very much.
'1~"-~·s~~iij'"'11 l:l~·!,·= ,~~·~~~~'Q.~~~~·s~~'Q,~~
Really this tea is very delicious.
(98) "~~l:l"':
~~·~~"~"1fr"·~·~,1 l:l~'!C)': ii"'"~~~a,·l;~~~~1 ".g.~l·
And now, please tell me who is he? He is my boyfriend. We are in [go to] the
~~·il:l·~·~%~·t.l~~1
same university.
B. Context: Tsering wants to borrow some money from Rinchen at the grocery store:
(99)
a;~"':
~~·~·~~1 a,·~""Qf~·i?~~~1 iJC)1 "~~~Ql'l:l~Ql·~·iJC)1
~~·~~·: (100) i;·~"': Ui&:)·~·~C)1 Ui&:)·~·~C)1
~·~~·~"'Ql~·~a~l\1~"1 ~~·~~·: l:l~~~~"l
Rinchen, do you have ten rupeest,
No,Idon'thaveanychange. Yes, I think you do. Please look in your purse/ wallet. Please wait. Rinchen, do [you have any]?
(101) a;"·~"·: ~~·~~·Ql~~1 Q.~~·~~1
~~ ·~~ ·: ~·Ql~'Q.~~ Q.~~ ~~ ~"-"' (102) a;"·~"·:
Sentences (99) - (102)
Oh yes, yes I have. [Here I have.] But there's
lf~·ij-~'Q.~~ Q.~~~~·~C)'t.1~1
muy five rupees. Is that ok?
Q.~~~·~·~'11 ~~~·~·~~"1
[Yes,] it's fine. Thank you.
In Conversation A, sentence (93), the phrase ~~~·~,~~~~1 has been translated as 'fm glad
at
you're here'. According to the context, this phrase can be translated in several different ways: 1.)
When respectfu11y asking one to sit down:
Please sit down. 2.)
A Tibetan farewell expression said to the person who remains behind
~~~'ll1'1~·~~~1/~~~'1~~~~~~~1 Take Care! [lit. Please stay well./ Good bye.] The third and fourth usage is purely Lhasa colloquial: 3.)
A respectful reply used to aclcnowledge a greeting of welcome: The person who receives an arriving guest says:
s~~l:l~·~~".~"l
Welcome!
The reply is:
Ql~~iij'", 1 l:l~~~·~,~ 'Q.~ ~~1
Yes, (thank you),I'mglad you 'rehere [to greet me].
1 {~·Jr =any monetary unit; i.e. rupees, dollars, pounds, etc. t
rupees .. the cum!llCY used in Nepal and India.
139
Colloquial Tibetan
t)
A form ofgreeting used when one goes to a friend's house after a long time and is not sure whether they will be home or not: ~~~~·~'1~~~~1/ ~~~·~'1~~~~~~'1'l.l~1
I'm glad you're at home! How are you?
VII. Exercises
A.
ar~·~~~~·,ar~·q·~~·
Fill in the blanks:
~~·"·~~~·/af~·q·a~·l.~·
ar~·q•r/~~·~..-/ili~·q·~~·q-.· (1)
(ZI'~~·~~·~~~--1
(2)
~~~·~c:.~·}f
(3)
~~·i~~~ ·~-as~·"'~'(ZI'as~--
Are these clothes warm? [have you worn them)
(4)
(5)
9/'~·~·=·m~~--
Is Lhasa a pleasant place? [in general]
(6)
~~·111~~·(ZI~~
(7)
f~·~·"B'1·~c:.·~·~c:.·~~·Ul~;zj~~·--1 You used to have a good [pair of] binaculars. [as I recall]
(8)
'19c:.~·'1~ B'1'~C:.~~il~-c:.~·
I'msorry!l don ~thave your key. [I have looked everywhere]
(9)
Is Indian food tasty [in general]
(10)
~·~~·~·fl·~~~~~ ~c:.~~·(E""c:.·~·~~·i''1·
B.
Translate the following sentences:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1)
I am in Nepal and I have a good job. My friend Tashi is in India but he has no work. [I know this because I visited him recently.] Last night in [my] dream I was in your house and I had medicine in my hand. I don't have time these days, right? I have a lot of ten rupee notes, but no five rupee notes. [I looked in my wallet.] He has a camera. [general statement.] His daughter is beautiful. [I saw her.] Was I good at singmg when I was young? [You've known me since I was a child.]
(8)
l.l~·~~~·~ca~~·'1c:.·1 c:.·6'1·~c:.~~·~·~~~·~·!l~·~~~~ ~~·c:.a.·~~·l.I~·~·&~IIJ~~~~~
(9)
6~·~c:.·~c:.·~c:.~~·~~·~c:.~·s~~·~'1't;il
(to)
~·~~·as~~~~ ~i"'1·~c:.·1
The food is delicious. [I have tasted it]
1
This tea is sweet. [I have made it] Are those vegetables spicy [hot]? [the ones you cooked)
1
This work isn't hard. [attestative]
1 1
Shedoesn'thavetimetomorrow. [in general)
VIII.~"·~~·~-.~·q· Vocabulary for Lesson Eight
Nouns minute
calendar
family
family members 140
Lesson 7
ljr:::
price
~~~~
dance
~s~·
rice
111li"lll'".:;.i11111'
meat (h.)
1f !!'~"~i"~
teeth
~"~·
occasion/no. of times
one o'clock
five o ~clock
~111~'t.J'C\'~'QIII1'
breakfast
!!'~'"~'!'f.J' ~111~'T,JQ.·~ lll'lllll1'
~li"~'fZI'Illll1'
dinner
~li"~·~~'lllll1'
dinner (h.)
.:~{..~'
cloth
breakfast (h.)
Prepositions
""·~·~·
most of
Verbs ~q;.ll{,·
take(time)
t~~?,~~
like (h.)
~"·
get up/ stand up
lf~ij'
brush teeth
~ij~·~~~·
wash face
first
Adjectives Ui~·,~·
past(time)
~"~
~"'111~~'t.J'
second (position)
~"'9~11't.J'
lf"·~,~
expensive
~ ~~~~
quiet/ peaceful
~
..
third (position)
tasty I delicious (h.)
Adverbs
s~·,·
half
~11119'
exactly I sharp
~~~·
about
lfll1·~~~·
a little bit
iS,.,~.
never
Prepositions
l'l'l'.l.ll{..'
to (time)
Conjunctions ~"·f s~·
and
Phrases
~~111'~111~'111'1"'
please reduce (h.)
141
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 8
~
Page
L
Ordinal Numbers
Sentences (1)- (4)
145
n. m.
Telling Time
Sentences (5) - (14)
146
Sentences (15) - (20) Sentences (21) - (26) Sentences (27) - (30)
147 147 147 148 149
The Question Words 111·a)~·; 111·1"~· A 111·a)~· [what] B. 111·a)~· [how many] c. 111·a)~· [how much] Confirmation Seeking Questions
• •
The difference between ~·I'~· and ~~ri"~ ·
1SO
IV.
Constructions with ~Ill~~ [like]
Sentences (31)- (40)
151
V.
'Whether-or-not' Constructions tll,·~,·J ~~·~·~~·and Ui~·il~·
Sentences (41)- (SO)
154
VL
Verbs A. Verbs with Variable Stems B. Verbs with Invariable Stems
vn.
Conversations A.
B.
•
Listing of Nouns
155 156 156
Sentences (51) - (59) Sentences (60)- (64)
157 158 158
vm.
Exercises
159
IX.
VocabuJary for Lesson 9~~·~"1."1'~~ ·cr
159
Lesson 8 I.
Ordinal Numbers Chart 1 ~E:.:t:i1st
~~~·&.~· 2nd
'
....
~&.~·
~~·&.~·
lOth !JO
' (1) (2)
(3)
<4>
~4S~·&.~·
~~·&.~·
~·&.~·
3rd
4th
5th
" ~~·~%~·&.~· 11th
"
I(
\
~~·~~~·&.~· Uth ....
,
~~·~4S~·&.~·
a~·"'· 6th
.
~~·~~·&.~·
~~~·&.~·
~~~·&.~·
7th
8th
,
'\
~¥-~·&.~·
13th
14th
15th
'"
!J\
'I(
Sentences (1) - (4) E:.~~~"tl~E:.~~~~1 114~1Zl"qj~·.il-q~iij"~1 In the morning, first I wash [my face] and then I eat ~·~E::_·E:_"c\~"(~·:j~·~E:_·QlvtJ:;.·~-..·~·~~1 Tsering is second in my class. Yeshi used to be second in the class, but r~·~iQ·4~'1f4E:_·~~~·"'·~~, ~~·~~E:.~·~E:_· these days she is third. ~E:.·(iE:.'114E:.·~4S~·'-1·~~1 1 The first house [built] in Tibet is Yumbhu Lhaghang. ~~·~·~E:_·&.~~E:.~~~·s·lil·~E:.· ~~1
In Lesson 2cardinal numbers are introduced; in this lesson the locus is on ordinal numbers. The only difference between Tibetan cardinal and ordinal numbers is the addition of the particle &.~·. There is one exception to this rule; the cardinal number 'me',~~·, takes the particle lf, and becomes ~E:.~ 'first'. All other numbers are formed by adding the particle&.~· after the number, e.g.,~~""~· 'second',~~"'-!· 'third', and so forth. There are several contexts in which the noun 114E:.• 'number' is used: L) The Tibetan wordlf4J:;.'1" 'number' is used to mean a numeral or symbol, ie., lf4J:;.~~"tl·,
'two'
or 't: What's that number over there? That's [over there] number 1
2.) The Tibetan word 114E:..9JE:.~· 'number' is used when talking about a phone number or address:
a~ ·~~~·jll·q~ ·<;·)"4.:;.·!!1.:;.-..·~·¥~ ·~~ 1 6~ ·~E:_ ~11.:;.·q~·>".:;.·!!!.:;.-.r·~·¥~ ·~~ 1
What is your phone number? What is your house/ apartment number?
L According to historians, Tibetanci\ilization began in the Yarlung Valley (Ill~ ~c=.1 in 127B.C. It is said that Yumbhu Lllaghang (~11· s·i·~c;. •) was the first permanent structure to be built in Tibet.
Colloquial Tibetan 3.) The Tibetan word ~r::: 'number! position' is used to designate a position;(~"·+ ordinal number), i.e., ~"'1"~ 'first', ~"''l!''l' 'fifth', etc.:
i;~""'~~'('l'~"l"'qj~"~'~11
II.
Tsering is second in my class.
Telling Time Sentences (5) - (14) It's one o'clock now.
(6)
~·w·~·~"1'1"~11 ~·~"1'~'t.J?~J'1'~11
(7)
~·~"1'~'t.J'~ ~11
It's about five o'clock.
(8)
~·¥1 'Q~'~ '1"·s1 '"1'~1 1
It's half past seven.
(9)
It's ten past five.
or
~·¥1 ·~·t.J'aiQI"l'l'~~ ''J'Q~'~1 1 ~·¥1·~;"·~~''J'Q~'~11
(10)
~·¥1 ·~" 't,j-iij"~·"~·~~ ''J'Q~·~~~·~1 1
It's twelve past seven.
(11)
Q7i.'t.J ~·"~·~~''J'Q~~·~11
It's a quarter past seven.
(12)
~· 1'~~·t.J~~·l.I~·~~''I'~'Q,~~ Q~1'r:.l~~·t.J~·~~·'J'Q~·~~~ ~·~"1'Q~~·1"'~~·'1·~·Q~' 11 Q~1't.l~~·l.I~·~~''J'Q~~·~~~
It's four minutes to six.
(S)
(13) or
(14)
It's five o'clock sharp.
It's five [and] ten.
It's ten minutes to eight. It's 7:50. It's a quarter to eight.
In this section the correct usage of the verbs ~1· and~~~·, in correlation with time, is explained. The vezb ~1· is used when asking about time in a general manner: What time is it now? The verb~~~·, on the other hand, is used when one wants to know specifically how much time remains. Let's take the example; one was given three hours to complete a project. After working for some time one wants to know how much time is left In such a case one would ask: How much time do [I] have left to finish this work? [Howmuch timenmains?/Howmanyhoursdolstillhave7] Look carefully at the following expressions concerning time. Please note that they are all formed with the vezb ~1 ·:
~·¥1·a~·l.l·~~1 ~·¥1 ·a~·l.l?~?~·~~1
It is six o' clocJc.
~·¥1 ·a~·r.j-iij"QI·~.,·~~ ·'~·~·~~ 1
It isS minutes past six.
It is exactlysix./ It is six slwp.
1. ~·=[~')
146
Lesson8
The verb o.~~· is never used with any of the preceding time expressions, it is only used with the preposition. ill~·"~~'. This preposition designates that there is a certain amount of time left before the hour. It is five minutes to five. [lit.: There are five minutes left before the hour of five.] Though the above sentence is translated as 'It is five minutes to five,' the literal meaning is: 'there are five minutes left before reaching the (hour) of five o'clock.' Remember, when one wants to know bow much time is left, the verb 0.~"1' is used:
~~·&r~·="-a.~"l
How many minutes are left?
One .never says: ill~ 'l.l'~'a)" ·~~ 1
III. The Question Words ~·ar;·t~·l";· ~·aS;· [what)
A.
(15) a. 6"·~~·Ql·~~Ui"'"l~f
b. Ql~~~"1 ~~·~~Ui"1 (16) a. ~·~~·?:r"·~~'IIJ·af~·~~l
Sentences (15) - (20) Do you have a calendar? Yes, I hf1ye a calendar. What is the date today? [according to Tibetan calendar]
b. ~·-x.~~"·~~·~·X-"1 (17) a. fl'~~·s·~~·~·a)"'~"1
Today is the Tibetan 5th.
b. fl'~~·-s·~~·~~·~~~·X-"1 (18) a. "·~·~·i',·~·a;,·X-"1
Yesterday was the 11th.
b. "·~·~·i'"·~~~'"l'~"1 (19) a. 6"·~~·Ql~·~~·~~·i""~"'"l~1 b. Ql~~~"1 ~~·~·i""·~~~·Ui"1
~~~~~~~~M~"1 M~"~ b. Ql~~·~·X-"1 "C:~·~~~·~·~"1
(20) a.
B.
What was the date yesterday? [acoording to Western calendar] What time is it now? It is three o'clock now. Do you have time today? Yes, I have one hour. One hour isn't a lot of [long] time, is it/isn't that right? No, it's really not.
~·aS;· [how many)
Sentences (21)- (26) (21) a. ~~·i"~~·Ql~~1 rss~~·ar"l·-~~~1 b. ~·~~~1~·Ul~1
(22) a. iS"·~~·~·e~·CS"~'Ql'~~·il·"l·ar~ili"'
Phuntsok,howoldareyou?[lit.:howmanyyearsareyou?] I am nineteen years old. How many people/ members are there in your family?
b. ~~·e~·CS"~·Ql·~~·&~·~~~"1 ~~·'j·Ql~~· There are four people/ members in my family. They are my father and mother, and then [my] elder s~~·~·Ql~~·s~~~ ·(Ql~~·"~·~,
brother and me.
147
Colloquial Tibetan
{23) a. B1'~t::·g.~~~·~·'J~~~·lili1'l:J~1 b. Ql~~rili11 t::·g.a;t::·~·~t::·~~~·QI·
~~~·~·'J~,·~·ili11 (24) a. ~~·'J~,·~~~·QI·~~·~~~·-~~~111 b. ~~·~~·~,~·a.~~~~ ~~~·~~~·,·g~·
Do you live together?
Yes, we all live together in one house. And how many relatives does Sonam have? [He] has two cousins. One lives in Shigatse.
'J~, ·~"ill, 'Q'~, 1 {25) a. t:·~·~~·~~~·,·g~·ifr~~·~·~·=,· a.iij~·~·Ui,·z:J·~~1 b. ~·~·~~·~~~·,·g~·ifr~~·~·~~~·
How many days does it take [to get] from Lhasa to Shigatse by car? It takes one day [to get] from Lhasa to Shigatse by car.
a.a;~·~·ilj,·Q·~11 (26) a. B1'~t::~"Ft::'Q'~~·i'J'9J~·~~·~·~·a;1·
a.a;~·~-a.~~ b. t::~ '(Zlt::'Q'~~·i'J'9J~ ·~~ ·~·~~·~~~:cr
a.a;~·~-a.~~ C
house to school? It only takes ten minutes [to get] from my house to school.
~·as-~· [how much]
(27) a. "-~~·"l·ar~·~~1
or
How many minutes does it take [to get] from your
"-~~·llft::'J11'ar~·~~1 b. "'~~·{~·~'J~'~1l
{28) a. {~·ij-Q~·~t::·~~:cj-~~1
lf~·~~·'J-o~·l;~~·~~t::l
Sentences (27) - {30) • How much is this? How much is the price of this? It is ten rupees.
Ten rupees is expensive. Please reduce it a bit.
b. {~·if'J~~1 {29) a. {~·if!'~QI~'"-~!1]~·~·~1'C.I~1
Seven rupees. If [I] give you five rupees , is it ok?
b. "-~!!]~·~·~,, {30) a. ~~~·~·"l~t::·l
It's fine./ Ok. Thanks.
The meaning of the question words ~·CI)1 ·and ~·i"~ ·is exactly the same. In Lhasa dialect, however, ~·a;1 · is used more frequently. In English these two question words can be translated as 'what', 'how many', or 'how much', according to the context of the question. In questions dealing with times or dates, as in section ill A, ~·a;1· is translated as 'what': <18) 1'':f'~'i"1'"1'·~·~~1 {16) ~·'X.t:::tr,·~~·lll··~·~~l
What time is it now? I What is the time now? What is the date today? [according to Tibetan calendar]
In questions dealing with countable nouns (count nouns), as in section mB, ~·=1 ·is translated as hmr many':
{22) Bl)'~t::~~~·a)t::'QI'~t::·it·JI1·ar~ii~1 How many people/ members are there in your family?
148
Lesson 8
In the case of sentence (21), the English translation for tlflll'a)C) ·Ul~ ·I ~S is 'how old', however the literal meaning is 'how many years':
Phuntsok. how o1d are you? [lit: how many yeam are you?] In questions dealing with uncountable nouns (mass nouns), as in section
mC, Ill'(!)~· is translated as
'how much':
When asking about the cost of something, the dative particle Ql' I ~·is an essential element of the structure, i.e., a.~~:. The dative particle follows the subject noun/ pronoun and carries the meaning 'for'. The sentence above could literally be translated as, 'For this how much is the price?' As stated earlier, in English the question word changes according to whether the noun is countable or uncountable. In Tibetan however, the question word lll'alC)' remains the same for both 'how many' and
'how much': ~cJJ·~·ar~ii~1 ~cJJ-4Ql"C) cJJ·~·ar~ ·Ui~ 1
How much mille do [you] have?
How many bottles of milk do [you] have?
Please note that when one wants to know the quantity how much/ how many, i.e., kilos, liters, bottles, etc., . the term IIC:::.'ai4fii~·; ~~~·is generally used:
•
fS~ ·~c:::. 'Ql~cJJ'IIC:::.'ai4fif~ 1 How much milk do you have?
(personal perspective)
~cJJ"&fl::'.'ai4l·~~~ How much milk is there?
(impersonal perspective)
Confirmation Seeking Questions
Sentence (20) a. is an example of a confirmation seeking question:
Onehourisn'taJotof[Jmg] time, is it/ isn't that right? This sentence differs slightly from the confirmation seeking questions introduced in Lessons 3 and 7. The
questions in those lessons are categorized as simple constructions because only one verb precedes the question marking particle ~·I ~·:
~·i"~·lll~lll·~~~~·..~·~c:::.~&l'l.~·'i1
One hour isn't a long time, is it?
The confirmation seeking questions of this lesson are similar to English tag questions in that two verbs are used. The second of the two verbs is followed by the question marking particle~· or~·· Though similarities exist between this Tibetan confirmation seeking question structure and the English tag question structure, there is a major difference. The English tag question appears as a negative verb followed by a positive verb,
149
Colloquial Tibetan or a positive verb followed by a negative verb, i.e., He is a Tibetan, isn't he? I or He isn't a Tibetan, is he?; whereas the Tibetan~· I ~· question structure is formed with either two positive or two negative verbs: (Positive verb/ Positive verb+ ~·1 ~·)
lli"~~~oq·}.~1 }.~~1
or
He is a Tibetan, isn't he/ right?
or
(Negative verb/ Negative verb+ ~·1 ~·)
'F~~~·q·~rl-~1 ~rl.~·'i1 He isn't a Tibetan, is he/ right?
Remember that confirmation seeking questions are never formed with a positive/ negative verb or vice versa. Thus one never says: or There is another Tibetan confirmation seeking question structure that is formed with the question marking particle t:J~·. This structure not only uses a double verb construction, but also follows the English tag question structure of: (Negative verb I Positive verb + t:J~") or vice versa
'F~~~·t:J·Irl-~1 l.~·q~1 He isn't a Tibetan, is he?
•
or
'F~~~·q·}.~1 ~r·l.~·q~1 He is a Tibetan, isn't he?
The difference between ~·~·rand ~~·~~·
Please note the different usage of the nouns ~·i"C)· and ~~·i"C)· in the sentence below:
(20) a. ~·¥C)·~%~~~·¥~·~~:t;.O!·X-C)1 O!"X-')·~1 One hour isn't a lot of [long] time, is it/isn't that right?
The noun ~·i"C)'"has three distinct meanings, i.e., time in a specific sense, hour and watch The particular meaning is understood from the contextual use:
1.) ~·¥C)·~·a)C)"X-C)1
What time is it?
2.) ~·¥C)·~%~·~Qf~·if~,
It took one hour.
3.) ~-¥~~~"UI~:tr-~~~
This watch is good.
The noun ~~·i"C) ·,on the other hand, only indicates 'time' in a general manner:
~~·¥~·Ui"C)"l:J~1
Do you have time?
In the question above, the term ~~·i"C)" 'time' refers to 'time' in general; the speaker wants to know if the addressee has time or doesn't have time to do something. ~~·i"C) · 'time' is also used when one is expressing that the 'time' of an hour, a dayor ayearisa short time/ a longtime, i.e., ~·i"l·~%~-~~·¥C)·~~~-~~~·X.l1 'one hour is [too] short', QJ"~%~~~·¥')·~~~')1 'one year is [too] long'. ~~·i"C)· is also used when talking about 'a good time' ~~·i'C)"Ul~·Q- or 'a bad time'~~·¥')·~~-~~·· When talking about how people have
150
Lesson8
changed for the worse, i.e., people are no longer honest, they don't keep their promises, there is no respect for the elders, there is a lot of crime, etc., this is often conveyed by the term~~·¥') ·~"]'o"]' 'bad times.' One the other hand when wistfully talking about the ~old days,' ~~·¥') 'Ul"J:zr is Used. Though one talks about the times as being good or bad, it is not really the times that change, but it is the people themselves. This is expressed by the following Tibetan proverb: Time doesn't change, people change.
IV. Constructions with ~~Q.:q. [like) Sentences (31) - (to) I lib white.
(31) "illl~~~;~Q.~')1 (32)" ~::.·~~i&l~~;~r.a.~')1
I don't like red cloth.
(33) jfi'~::. '"1"~~ ~ '') "lCl.=li'-tG"') ·c.~·l.')1
He likes mountains.
(M) iS')'~E::.~')'c.J~·~·~"l'~i"lQ.~~~IIl
You like Tibetan food.
(35} ~·')q" 'f~·~.~~"l~·~·') ~r.a. ~·il·r.a.~"1
Tsewang doesn't like Dolma.
<36> ~5~~·~~-a;·~·~~.~~~·~·s"l~i"lr.a.~"·r.rl.",
Westerners like quiet places very much.
(37) ~::.·fi~::.·~;"lr.a.~')1
I don't like him.
(38)
My father likes (h.) Tibetan tea.
~::.~·r:·~"l~~"·~~ '&J}~:zr~~·c.~·l.~1
(39) "'"l~~·~~::.·~q~;g~· ~"lr.a.~tG"')J
I like music and dance.
(40) ~~~~~·~111~·~·"1~·~·ill1"q~~·~·~"lr.a.=li'-iG"')'c.J'l.')1
Norzin likes Indian movies.·
The word ')"]Cl.:ey 'like' introduced in this section can be used with both dative and non-dative structures. When the prcx:ess ofHlcinga particular person or object is the focus, in Lhasa dialect the use of the dative particle~I ~·is essential However, when the focus is on the particularperson Of' oi;ectthat is being liked, then the dative particle is not used. The difference between the use of the dative and the non-dative is as follows:
The dative (noun/ pronoun+ ~·1 ~· + ~"lr.a.~) structure states that someone has a lilcing to/ frz someone or something. The focus of these sentences is on the agent's lilcingof the object, (the process of liking). (31) ""i"'"-~~;~r.a.~')1
I lib white [lit.: I have a lilcing for white)
The non-dative structure states that the object is liked. The focus is on the object which one likes: I likewhite. [lit.: The color whi~e is lilcedby me.]
Sentence (31) uses the dative structure while (b) the non-dative. In English the translation of both sentences is the same, however in Tibetan there is a slight change of emphasis. In sentence (31), the agent's action of 'liking' C:'~"lr.a.~tG"')r 'I lilce', is the focal point; whereas in sentence (b), the liking of the object ')1~'cr')"]Cl.' 1r-tG"~ J, the 'liking of white', is the focus. I
3. ~~:z:r 'lilce' Is the honorific form ol "~:z:r
•. .,'1'1'9" = ,.,(l'l'~] 151
Colloquial Tibetan In the case of sentences dealing with animate objects the dative particle tal"/~· is essential, whereas sentences dealing with inanimate objects, it is optional. Another difference between the two structures is the intonation pattern. In dative sentences the subject, object and dative particle are all said in one flow; this is then followed by ~~a.~ and the verbending. In non-dative sentences there is a slight pause after the agent is mentioned, and then the rest of the sentence is spoken in one flow: vs. I like momos.
When asked about one's likes and dislikes, the student should pay close attention to the posed question and answer accordingly. However, one will find the (noun/ pronoun+ tal" I ~ · + ~~a.:cf) structure used more frequently in Lhasa dialect. In Lhasa colloquial speech, the following examples show the correct and incorrect usage of the (noun/ pronoun+ tal"/~·+ ~~a.:cf) structure:
animate t:. ~" ·q~·~~a. :crur~ 1
Correct
t:.~')·q·~~a.:cfi:G'"~1 I like Tibetans. (lit.: I have a liking to/ for Tibetans.)
Incorrect
(36) ~,Clt:."{tal"II"QI~Coi"Qf~~a.·(J·~·a.~~
Correct
~·~Clt:."{QI"II"QI~Col"~9a.·1J·~·a.~~
Incorrect
Tsewang doesn't like Dolma.
inanimate (33) i!i't:."~t:.Co1"~~·~9a.:cfa.~IIJ
Correct
i!i't:.·~r:::.Col~-,~a.:cfa.~~
Correct
He likes mountains. (lit.: He has a liking
to/ /or mountains.)
(34) iS')"~t:.~')·q~"JII"QI~"QI"~~a.:cfa.~~
Correct
a~·~t;.~"·q-a·ra·QI~·~~a.~a.~~
Correct
You like Tibetan food. The sentences of this lesson utilize the normal usage of the verbs, i.e., i:G'"~ · for first person and a.~~·j i:G'"~·c.~·X.~· for second and third person. As explained in Lesson 7, any of these verbs may be interchanged;
however a shift in perspective will occur. When ~~a_:q is used in a past time context, the verb-endings (§t:." or §t:." +verb-ending lit:.·/ c.~·"%..~·1 z:J""~·) are often used. The particular usage of these verb-endings is based on person and/ or the manner in which the speaker has acquired the disclosed information. In first person past time sentences, the structure
(~~a.:cf + §t:.") is used: r:::.•11ft:.~·~·IIJ~·')~~~§"1
I liked his work.
152
Lesson 8 In second/ third person past time sentences the speaker has several choices, i.e., §"'ii"t:.· (attestative)/§"' r.r~"· (factive)/ and s.:::.·~"l' (reportative):
"'
~t:.·t:.a·<1l~·1~'"11!~:q.~.:::.·ii.:::.·1 I~·~" 1I~~~~
He liked my work.
a"·~.:::.-r;:.a·<1J~·.,~"'"l~:q;~.:::.·1i.:::.1 f~·l."1 ~~~~~
You liked my work.
The usage of these various past time verb-endings are determined by the manner in which the speaker has obtained the information. These past time endings are explained in detail in Lessons 13 and 15. Another structure (~~o.·'f + UJt:.~·Ui~·), is used when one wants to express either a present or past habitual action. The time of such sentences is construed from the adverb of time or the context of the conversation. ~lllo.·'l-Uit:.·~-uJ~· can be used for all three persons:
Chart 2
~~(\~~~~·ar~· - for all three persons .:::.~·
~·~''lilll~·~~·
e~·~.:::.·Ql· ~.:::.·~·
I like I used to like You like/ used to like He/ she likes/ used to like
~s~·111~r::.·~~·
"'
51)'~"·
F"·
I)~~~~:zi-af.:::.~ -ur"1
it when mother gave me some money.
you " him/ her "
"
"
[as I recall] [as I recall]
With the first person ~lllo.:t;illr::.~i(i~· indicates a habitual action, and with the second/ third person it indicates that the speaker has some personal association to the object, i.e., 6~·x."· 'you', fir::.· 'he/ she/ they'. When relating a future time event, the verb-ending UJt:. ~·~~·is used. Please note that in future time sentences the dative particle QJ'/ X.'is neverused. The verb ~~o.::J-tG"r::.·~·~~· itself indicates that the 'liking'
will come to/ arise in the agent.
~ lllO. ·~~~·<1l·Ul·~·~r::. ·1r-t;:~ryr::. ·~ ·~r::."' ~~:zi-Gi.:::.~·~" 1 If [you] send many letters to [your] girl! boyfriend, she/ he will like it/ be happy. (lit.: the liking/ happiness will come to [your) girl/ boyfriend.)
In summary, simply speaking one could say that in past and present time sentences the action of liking is being directed outwards, towards the objt!\."t; whereas in future time sentences the action of liking is being directed inwards, towards the subject. The dira'ting of the liking outwards, towards the object in the past/ present r..me structure is the reason for the use of the dative particle, i.e., there is a 'liking to/ for someone or something_': I like music and dance.
In sentence (39), the ~~o.~ 'liking' arises in the agent r::.· 'I', and that liking(dative ~·)is directed towards the objects ~~~· •music', and ~.:::!~·9' •dance'. In the future sentence: 153·
Colloquial Tibetan
~~a.·~~~·QI~'~''ll::,~q,~::,·~·Ff~::.;~a.:zfii~::.·1tJ·X.~1 If [you] send many letters to [your) girl/ boyfriend, she/ he will like it/ be happy. the action U:l·~·'l~::.~qry~::.·~· 'if [you] send a lot of letters', is the cause for the emotion of ~~Cl.~ 'liking', to come to/ arise in the object, i.e., girl/ boyfriend. Thus it is the external force which causes the liking/ happiness to ar.se. The future ending Ui~::.~·X.~· is used for all three persons. In Lesson 14 the future construction is explained in detail.
V.
'Whether or not' Constructions~~·~~·! ~')'II'~')' and ili')';q').
(41) 'ji~::. ·i"~::.·'-1~~ ·~~ ·5~::.~·1·q;·q~·~~ 1 (42) a~·~~::,·q:n·~~·~·~~~·l:J·X.~·arX."·~::.~·
1·q;·q~·~~1 (43) 'lii::.'QI'r.l''liii"'""'/::.~'9~1::.~1::.1
(«) rzr~~::.·fi~::.~~·~::.~·a~·~~::,·~·~·~·6~f~~·
ur~·i~~·~,a.·a.s·~~~::~·a.~~ (45) ~~ ·~~::. ''Jl'~·~~·U:l~ ·i)~ ·iff~::. ~~·1·q;·q~·a.~~
Sentences (41)- (SO) I don't know whether he is a businessman or not. I don't knowwhetheryouare a friend ofTashi's or not. Please tell me whether or not she has parents. Yesterday he was asking me whether your wife
is in Lhasa or not. He knows if you are from Lhasa. (lit.: He knows whether you are from Lhasa or not.) Everyone knows if I am a Tibetan. (lit.: Everyone knows whether I am a Tibetan or not.)
(47) r.l~~" '&.lca.'"1"~ ·0;)~ ·il~ ·~::.~·~;;-q;;·q~·Ui~ 1
I know if that is a Tibetan carpet or not.
(4B)
Everyone knows what kind of person I am.
1::. ·i)·9·a.~ -Ui~ ·i!" ·i)·~~::.·~~·1·~·q~·Ui~ '&.~'X.~ 1
(49) tr~·~·~Uj~·i!~·'l~~·~iij'"~·'-l~1
Do you know (h.) if/ whether Tibetan tea is tasty (or not)? /Do [you] know how delicious Tibetan tea is? I don't know whether Tashi is a good person or not.
In this lesson the Ul~ ·~~·; X.~·il·~s and Ui"~·~~· 'whether or not' clause structure is introduced. Here Ul'l' il~·; X.~·'l·~"· and Ui""·i:!"· are treated as main verbs. In definite, factive sentences of identification the verbs U:l~· and~~· are used. In the same way, whether or not sentences of identification are formed with U:l~·i)~· or~~·~·~~·· In colloquial speech one finds fil~·i)~· used more frequently. In sentence (41), it is the subject's profession that is being questioned:
I don't know whether or not he is a businessman
5. Ill~ ·il~. =: ~~'&I~']
..
~·a·=[~·.~~-!
154
Lesson 8 In sentence (U) , it is the subject's association with the object that is being questioned: (U)
6" ·~r::. ·q!!l·4141·"&·~~41·q·l_~ ·~~·l_~ ·r::.~; ·q;·q~·~"1 I don't know whether you are a friend of Tasht sor not.
Ul"·;
In definite sentences of possession, location, or modification the verbs "-)~·;and Ul"·'"·~"· are used. In whether or not sentences concerned with these categories, only the~·~· construction is applicable. Sentences (43), (44) and (49) in the text are examples of these kinds of constructions. Please note one never says: a_~~·i!·a_~~· or UI"·'J·~" ·UI~ ·'J·~·~~·. In Tibetan, even when the speaker knows whether or not something has been done, someone is from a certain place, etc., or the addressee/ third person is expected to know whether or not something has been done, someone is from a certain place, etc. the t'll~·i!~· and Ul"·~"· constructions are used. These kind of t'll~·i~')· and Ul"·~"· sentences can be translated with the English conjunction 'if': (45)
6" ·~r::. ·~·l'l·')l'!"&l') ·~" •f!lr::.·~~·, ·q;·l;J~""-5.~ He knows ifyou are from Lhasa. (lit.: He knows whether you are from Lhasa or not.)
zr"'•t:•f£-af"
·~"·o-~6'1 ·~i(j" "'Jl'l1, depending upon the speaker, s intention, In the case of sentence (49), this question can be translated in one of two ways: 1.)
If the speaker himself thinks that Tibetan tea is exceptionally delicious, then
2.)
the tone of voice could imply, 'Do [you) know how delicious Tibetan tea is?' However, if one is merely asking the question in a general manner, than the normal 'if' translation is appropriate, 'Do you know if/(whether) Tibetan tea is tasty (or not)?'
Please note the difference between the tll~·i!~· and Ul"·~'i·, and the ~"·o.~·~'i· intonation patterns. The lll'l ·i!". and ·~,.constructions flow freely; there is no pause between the two verbs. When speaking the ~'i·o.~·~'i·construction,however, the long (a) sound of the first ~'\·is drawn out[~'\·-] before continuing on with o.~·~s:
ur,
(42)
B'i ·~r::. "l:l:!"4~·~·l;~~·'J·l.~·(pause) 11·%.~ "t:.l'l""; ·q;·l:l~·~'i 1 I don't know whether you are a friend ofTashi's or not.
The wl!etheror not endings U)~·i~')·, ur,·~,. and x.,·o.~·x.,· can be used with all three persons.
VI. Verbs The colloquial form of verbs is divided into two categories according to spelling: verbs in Group A consist of a present/ future form and a past form. 'Ibis group is divided into two categories: 1. 2.
simple verbs verbs formed with (noun+ S'i"/ Sl'l").
Verbs in Group B consist of only a single form for all three times.
155
Colloquial Tibetan
A.
Verbs with Variable Stems 7 Infinitive Form
Past Form
Pn!aent/ Future Form
SC)'r.r
to do
$!:)·
s~·
~~·
to buy
~
~~·
~"i-~·
to make
~"i-
~'i"~·
o.9f~·
togo
r.~.9f
~"i'
a.~·z;;:·
to wash
a.~·
a.~~-
\\''~'
to look/watch
~-
~w~·
to cry
c:: ....
t;.~·
c::~·
....
....
Verbs formed with (noun/ adj.+ the verbS~'/ s~·) Infinitive Form
B.
Present/ Fuhm! Form
Past Form
i~lt;.·s~·q·
to study
i~-¥t;.·s~·
i~'fc::.·s41·
"i!l :) -~=) ·s~ ·c.~·
to use
l!l~-~~·s~·
~~~·sl:)·c.~·
to help
~1:)·~\sl:)· ~~~·$!:)'
!!1'~9-SI:)'l.l'
to prepare
!!)'~~·$"'
~-~~-s~·
~~-~-a;~-~·s C)·~·
to be nervous
~~-~-a;9·~-s~ ·
~~-~-a;~-~-s~·
~~~-s~·
Verbs with lnvllriab/e Stems
Infinitive Form Present/ Future/ Past Form
O.!jt;.'
O.!jC::.'~'
to drink
s~·,.r
to write
...s~·
~~C)'l.l'
to sit/ stay
~~!:)'
Qj~'l.l'
to speak
~¥t;.·~· "i·~·
..._
Infinitive Form
Present/ Future/ Past Form
~~.::::rl.l'
to teach
~~~·
~C)'l.l'
-
to give
~C)'
~~'l.l'
to read
~~·
QJ.::r
Uj"t;.·~·
to come
to sell
~¥t;.·
Qlt:.'~'
to stand/ get up
UJt;.' Qjt;.'
to be sick
~·
~iJi'l.l'
to wear
~~·
~ilcJ,J~'l.l'
to sleep (h.)
"l·u:~·
I
....
s"·
..._
!t;.·~·
to learn
~Qj·~·
to sleep
~~·
O.(S~''J'
to be cold
0.6~'
~"i'l.l'
to take
~"i'
f~~''J'
to be hungry
w~~·
~iJi'l.l'
to listen
~"i'
~~'l.l'
to be bored
~~·
S";'l.l'
to remember
S"i'
~C::.'
to be angry
---7. When fonni!tg infinitive verbs the following rule for using the particles 'J' and cr is applied: Verb stems ending with "1' "\' ~- q· II' a.;·: the particle Lf is used. Verb stems ending with c.· q· ~- ~·:the particle Q' is used.
156
~C::.'Qjt;.'
Lesson 8 ~·t::~~QJ't::l'
to swim
~·t::~~lll·
E:!~·a;~·cr
to be tired
E:!~·a;~·
~·iOJ'Cf
to be thirsty
f'~il·
~il~'~t::l'
to be sad
~~~·a
i)~·t::~~l.;~'l.l'
to dose the eyes
~~·~01~·
'
I
to wash the hands (h.) !1~·t::~~lll·
~~·t::~~QJ't::l'
VII. Conversations A Context: Wangchen is asking what Kunga does everyday: Sentences (51)- (59) (51) ~z;J~·iS~·; 111~·~~Q,'QJ~~, ~~·~~·~~~·:_J·~~·i'~·
Kunga, what time do you get up (h.)
\,j
Q]'a)~ 'QJ't::I~~~·~·Uj~ 1
in the morning?
~~ ·~~Q,': ::::~~l\f:.J'~·i"~ ·~~·t.~~:QJ~ ~·Uj~ 1
I get up at six o'clock [in the morning].
(52) ~t::l~·~~·: ~~·t::~~t;.~·a-,~·111·~·~·~·~~~~·Uj~1
And what do you do after you get up?
~~·~~o,·: ~·~~~·t.~·~~wa.~·t::~~rtG""~1 ~~ ·o,~~·z;J~,:r~-ur~ 1 ~ ·~~·it::~·i~·s~· ~-ur~, ~·~~'[ll'Cll~'.il't::I~'Ul~1 (53) ~t::~~·~·= a~·~~~·il·~~·Cll·fl·lll 111 ~~~·~·a)~·ili"~~~~, ~~·~~o,·: ~~·il·~~ 111 ·11J·~·QJ~·-.a~~·~~~·... ·t::~~tur~r · (54) l:iZ.::~·~~·: ~-~·~~·~Qj~'l.I'~QJ'Illlf)'~'~ ·~.:i'~·~·Uj"1 ~~·~lllo,·: ~·~~~·r.:·t::~~·~c:·s~· f-~·s~·4~~~·s~· ~~·r;·o,'l&:;.'~·Ui~l (55) ~t::~~·~a-,·= ~~~~·~~:;.·~·~·~i"~·~·ur~ 1
In the morning, first I brush my teeth, and then I wash [my face). After that I study, then I eat. How many times a day do you eat? I eat twice a day. What do you eat for breakfast? I [eat] bread, [and] eggs, [and] fruit and I drink tea. And what do you eat at noon [for lunch)?
~~·~~Q,·: ~~·~~:;.·a.s~·~~·a)Qj'.il'l:J~·~~l
For lunch I cat rice and vegetables.
~ ·a)QJ'QJ·~~a. ~ ·s111~·ur~ 1
I like vegetables very much.
(56) I:)::J&:;.'~a-,·: l:)~&:;.~~lll'Cllll1'&:i"~·~·Ui~·l.l~1
Do you eat in the evening?
~~·~~o,·: lll£1l~·iJ~1 l:)~~·s-~·jll·lll~·g~·~~·
No, I never eat in the evening. I only
.:rz.::~·iJ~, r;·~%~~o,~~·~·ur~1 (57) ~t::l~ ·~~ ·: 15'~ 'CJ'¥-~~&:;. :S:f'lll~'.il't::I~·Uj~ 'l.l'il'~~ 'Q~,
15'1:)·'-l·~o~~·~·z:J·8
~~·~~a.·: &:·~~1 &:''X..I:)l ~·o,s·~o~·~~l rzl'lll~'i1'Cl~-t(j~ 'tJ'~" 1 fila-, ·~Cl~ ·~ '.if'Q~'JJI:) 1
(58} I:)Z.::~ ·~~ ·: ~~ ·~~ ·~~Qj·~ ~&l'&li"~ ·~·Uj~ 'tl~1
drink tea. Don't Tibetans eat in the evenings? No, no it's not like that. Most Tibeta."lS do [eat in the evening), but I don't. Do you eat meat (h.)?
~a-,·I:)~Cl.': JJ~l c:::+r6a-,·a-,~·.~~·t::~~·~~, c·~~Cl.~JJ~1 (59) l:)t::~&:;.·~a-,·: ~·UI~·~·s~"r~~1
No, I never eat meat. I don't like [it]. That is very good.
157
Colloquial Tibetan
B. Cattext Kunga is asking Pasang about her and others' likes and cmiilces a:I1Ceming colors: Sentences (60) - (64)
(60) ~~'z:l.i!C:.': r..r~c:.~·llllfl~l e~·~c:.·g~.IIJ~"'~~·
Pasang, do you like the color red?
1J~'')lllll.~Ul')'l:J~1 t.!'~c:.~·:
~1:)1 C:.'C)~~ ~~·1:)~11.~~')1 ')ITJ~:t:i~"'~a.:t:r-UTC)J No, I don't like red. I like white.
(61) ~~'z:l.i!C:.': ~~·s')·~c:.~-w·~·lll~~,
CJ'~c:.~·:
And your mother?
16"c:.·f~:t:i~-~~~~a.~~
She likes (h.) blue.
(62) ~~"tl.i!C:.': ~~·~~·~c:.·~·~·lll~~l
CJ'~c:.~·:
And your father?
':;"lll~~·~~:t:i~·~:~:t:i~C)'CJ'X..')l
My father likes black.
(63) ~~1z:l.i!C:.': c:.·~~·i~·g~-~~·~·X..~· ~llja.:t:i-a.~~
CJ"~c:.~·:
What color clothes do I like?
G')'~c:.·rs·rs·e:rr.s~·')~a.:t:i-a.~~
You like colorful [clothes].
(64) ~~'z:l.i!C:.': ~~·FiJ
CJ'~c:.~·:
And those people?
~~~·ilfl·g~·~~·~·X..~·')~a.~ar')·~')·
Idon'tknowwhatcolorclothestheylike.
c:.~·,·ifl·z:l~"~')1 • In the Conversation section, sentence (54), the conjunction ls~·] has been used to list nouns. This conjunction is placed immediately after each listed noun and carrieS the meaning 'and'. s~· performs the same function as the conjunction C)C:.", however, in colloquial speech it is used more often. (54)
6~ ·~c:. -~IIJ~l't.!"~lll'lll~'IIJ'X.. ·~i'~ -~
iij"1
What do you eat for breakfast?
c:.·~Q]~'CJ'z:l~·~z:l·s-a· lf~::.·s-a· 4t:.~Q]·s-a~~·~·a.~c:.~·UTC)1 I [eat] bread, [and] eggs, [and] fruit and I drink tea. Please note that the use of the conj~on [S~'] 'and' is not appropriate when listing actions. One should not confuse this conjunction form of ls~·] with the verb s~· 'to do'. When listing actions (verbs) in a sentence, either of the following two structures can be used:
1.)
The structure (MVS +conjugation~·; ~·1 ~'/z:l~"Ul"') is repeated at the end of each listed action. The conjunctions~·~~·;~~· are used as sentence connectors:
(52)
C:."~lf!~'CJ"C)C:.~Il.!g'z:lliil:)l ~~"Q.!g~'q!q·~-ar",
~ ·~~·iq'fc:.·s"·~-ar", ~ ·~~·~·qj~·.. ·q~.tq"", In the morning, first I brush my teeth, and then [I] wash [my face]. After that [I] study, and then [I] eat. All verbs, except the last, are in their past form and the conjunctions ~~~·I ~~·are used as sentence connectors: The last verb, which is the time indicator, is followed by (present/ future form verb+ ronjugation) or (past form verb + conjugation). ----------------------------------------9. qoo·%._~· =[I;"]"%..~- I
:.:.)
158
Lesson8
r:::.·~~~·l.J·1r:::.~ii'~ra"t ~~'a,ra"·~:~c~:~t ~·~~·i~:~'{r:::.·s-.t ~·~~·~·CII~~J'•·q~-ar", In the morning, first I brush my teeth, then [I] wash [my face]. After that [I] study and then [I] eat. Of the two structures used for listing actions, the second one (2) is used more frequently than (1) in colloquial
speech. When structure (2) is used to list actions, note that all the verbs are in their past form except for the last action, this verb may be in either the present/ future form or the past form depending upon the time/ tense of the sentence, i.e., ...~·~=IJ·.=a·~~·Uj111 ...~·CII~'.il~'l..loUl~J/ ...~·~IIJ'.ii'~~·UI~l· Even though the verbs used to list the actions are in their past form, they do not indicate the time (tense) of the sentence, it is the final verbal amjugation that is the time (tense) indicator. In this pa11:icular listing structure, the conjunction~~~· 'and then/ after that' or~~· 'and/ and then, is an essential element of the sentence.
VIII. Exercises A.
Answer the following questions:
(1)
<5)
B1'~C:.~''I'"l%"!'CII'~QI'CII'Il'~r:::.~·"l'af1'&Zi"1'~·Uj11 61 ·~r:::. ~·f;1·~"'~·~~·~111~·~"~~·1 r: :. ~~111~·qrar1 -ur1 ·i:1·'~~~ ·~ ·ur1 ·l.J~1 1·~r:::. ·Cl~~ ·~~·111% 111 ·~~ ·'~·111 ·ar1 ·iCl·~~ ·~"'~~·ur" 1 61 ·~r:::. ·~·~~ ·~"l''4'9%"l·&l·"l%"l·"l·~"1 ·tG'1 1 61 ·~r:::.~·~r:::. ·l.J·~~·iCl·~~ ·'ll~ ·'~·"~·ar, ·l'.l.ar~ ·~:ur, ·l.J·l-11
B.
Translate the following sentences:
(1)
(5)
~·ii~~~·~r:::.'"1'~1'l.11 1'.1.~~ ·~~~a:~r::. ·~·iCl'~"l·"l·~1-ur1 ·~·l.1 1 ,·~·~·g1 '!'l.J'Ui~·~~·'ll~''l'!'l."1 '~·~·~~·"1~~·,·~~ ·~·ar, ·111·~1 ·l'.l.ar~ ~-ur,·l.J·l.,1 Cl~·4~'CII"J~'I'.1.~~ ·~Q. ·~r:::.·QI~C:. '"J~~'l.J'l.1 f
C
Write the past form ofthe following verbs and then use each in a se11tence:
<1>
s1·
<2> <3> <4>
(2) (3)
<4>
a
<2> ~
<3> 1'.1.9f
Cl".f
<s> 1'.1.~·
<6> ~·
IX. ~"·a""l·IIJ41~·q· Vocabulary for Lesson Nine Nouns ~"!~·~· a;r:::.·~"l·f~·~"l·
"1~~·4"1'
morning tea/ breakfast alcohol
~Cl~'Cll;'~·
drcumambulations
~"~-.:·F
party
newspaper problem
s·'X.~·
sweets
~"!·~~·
lies
159
Colloquial Tibetan i{f~~~·
New Year
~i"'\~~·
stupa/ chaitya
~t::,·a,~·
vocabulary
~·'J~'
photograph
~~·
eye
~,·rzr~·
stomach
~~''J'
hand
l.4 111'
hand (h.)
~·~~~
""'
important person
~·~t::,·~~~
high-titled person
s~·
market
'J~~·
factory
~t::.·a.rr~·
fan
~~'4'
lamb
s·4·
chicken (meat)
'l)'4'
fish (meat)
SF4' ~~~·~~~·
beef
~~~·~~'UI~~
good heart
'
meat (h.)
Verbs ~~·~~·'J~
exercise
~~·4~i"~·
run
~~~~~'<1.~'
take a bath
~·~~·o.~t::.'/O.E!~·
smoke
Cl~~·"l~·~i"~·
smoke (h.)
~·~~~·
swim
~~·
wear
~,·~~·ss
use
~i"'\ ''J'Il.S~·
pray/ offer
Cl~~·i'~ryt::.'
think
i{f~~~''Jryt::.'
to celebrate New Year
~z::~·s-z::~Q'
dance
t::,'
cry
~~·'J~Q'
shout
be bored
~~'ifi'Cl4~'
speak
closed eyes
q;~·'J'Q~Cl'
walk
Q~~· ~~·Q,~~·~~t::,·
ride
l:l~
wash (h.)
recite prayers (h.)
s~·o.a~~·
prostrate
Cl~Cl'
teach
fi''J~ ''Jryt::.'
phone/ call
\l)~'
sleep
Ill~!.!~'
sleep (h.)
~·~~·~"'t::.'
prepare (h.)
\l)"''
listen
~~·~~'Cl4~'
tel! lies
~~·rr~·~~·
to be hungry
~t::,·~t::,·
to get angry
"-G~·
to be cold
f::lt::.'ifi~'
to be tired
[tl'~~·
to be thirsty
a)~·~·a,~·~·
nervous
~~~·~
sad/ pitiful
~"'·'X.t::.~
long time
"
~Cl' ~
~~·ej~~~· I
">
I
Adjectives
160
Lesson 8
Adverbs ~!ll''J~'
always
~Ill~·~~·
every morning
~~·~~·
everyday
~cl.l'~"l'
usually
~~·~ry~·
generally
cl.llllcl.I~'~CE)cl.l~'lll'
sometimes I occasionally
often
~lll'~cl.l~lll'~cl.l'
a little
lllcl.l'!ll~~·
immediately I right away
~·~~·
then
ar~·lll·
before
C)~~·lll~~·s~·~·
actually
cl.I~Qj~~
quickly
Conjunctions after that/ having done
161
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 9 Page L
Temporal Adverbs
II.
Clause Connector ~l'.l· [when/ while]
Sentences (1) - (17)
165 168
A. The Verbs~'!'/ ~~·with~l'.l· 1.
Identification- (ul't· + ~l'.l')
Sentences (18)- (22)
168
2.
Possession/Location/Modification/Post position - (Ui~ · + ~l'.l') Sentences (23) - (31)
168
(Main Verb Stem+ ~l'.l·) 1. Positive form 2. Negative form:(~·+ MVS + t.~"i~;~~::~l'.l·~·f "'t:.·~·)
Sentences (32)- (48) Sentences (49)- (51)
171 171
m.
The Construction:(~·+ MVS + ajc::.·~·f f't·~·) [before+ Verb]
Sentences (52)- (56)
172
IV.
The Construction: (MVS + 'tl'.l'/ [Sl'.l']) Sentences (51)- (62)
173 173
B.
[after+ Verb]/ [having+ Verb)/ [by+ Noun/Gerund] Jt
The Adverb tl'.l·~· vs. the Connector ~l'.l· [after]
V.
Verbs A. Verbs with Variable Stems B. Verbs with Invariable Stems
VI.
Conversations A.
•
175 175 176
Sentences (63) - (70)
f~·~· vs. f~·~· [before/ previously/ in the past)
B.
c. VII.
174
Excercises
Sentences (71)- (TI) Sentences (78) - (85)
lTI 178 179
180 180 181
Lesson 9 I.
Temporal Adverbs Sentences (1) -(17)
(1) r::.·~I!JIIf''-l'~IIJ·t:.l~·~~·~<11·~t:~~·Ui'l:)1
Every morning I exercise.
(2) ~·i'~·t:~~~·"l~·r::.·~9~·~·'l.!St:.~·Ui'l:)j
I drink [morning) tea at seven o'clock.
(3) ~~·~t:.'.if'(Zlt:.'<11'~'<11~'.if't:~!)·UII:)j Ul~·~a.r::.·
I eat lunch in a restaurant, but I
l:)afr::.:S:rzr<11~'.il'~!l·~l:)1
don't eat dinner.
(4) C:.'l:)afr::.·s~~·4~·i~·llti'l:)j
In the evenings I run.
(S) ~:!!·4~'<11!1]~'~"1~·~~·~~~·Q{~'<11'~"1~·~·'l.~ll)
Tashi goes for circumambulations every morning.
(6) 'jfft:.~~·~~·<11~·sr::.~·<11·~t:~~·~·i!··~~ll]
He doesn't go to the office everyday.
ll).ii'l.'fj~ ·~:.~·~r::. ~ '.JJ~ ·r::.~·"1ir-~~ ·s~·~"1~·~·'l.~"1
(7) f~'.JJ't:l:!J'4~·4·.il't:~!)'Cl.~ll) UJ'l''l'l.t:.' ~·~r::.·~r::.·[fir::.·4'.il'~!)·i:t·a..~"1
(8) l:)·~·~·~r::.·it:~'fr::.·sl:)·~·'l.jll) !:)~~· frr::.·ll)~ll]~~'l.~'t:~!)'Cl.j!IJ
(9) ~.JJ·~~ ·r::.·a;r::.·~~·'l.~r::.~·ill:) 1 Ul~ ''la..r::.· oJJ~D.J~'oJJCI)oJJ~'<11'!S~~'"f~·'l.!St:.'~'UJ'I:)1 (10) ~~ 't:~ryr::.·~Q.·r;r<11ll]~·~~·i"') 't:l~'.Q~ 'Q~r::.~·~'Cl.j~ U!~·~Q.r::'&~il)oJJt~:'cJ.lil)cJ.l~'<11'~=lJ~·t:~~t:.~·~·ll.~ll)
On Saturday and Stmdays lhe] stays [home] and rests. [Before) Tashi used to eat meat, but nowadays he doesn't [eat meat]. Now Tsering is studying. A little while ago he was taking a bath/bathing. I don~ t usually drink alcohol, but sometimes at parties I do [drink). Generally my father gets up at four o, clock, but sometimes [hel gets up late.
(11) ~.JJ·~~·fir::.·i:·~~·t:~~ll)~r~·UJ'')·.t.~~·:l:) 1
She doesn't usually stay I live in Lhasa.
(U) f~·cl.l~~·'l.~t:l'<1111)~·~~~·~~·oJJi')·~·Ui'l:)'"l'oJJ'~I:)1
Before, Dhondup didn't smoke (h.), but
~~'l.t:.~~r::.·~r::.F-·~~'E19'~'S"1~'cl.l~~~·"l·~l:)1 nowadays he smokes a lot. (13) J't:l'~ll)~·~~·l.li"l:)~~·<11·~t:~~·Q{~·~· 'l.9]·t:~~·UJ'')·t:.~·~') 1
Every morning Dawa goes to the stupa for circumambulations.
(14) fS~·~r::.~~·~~·~·<11~·E!r::.~·~~oJJ'oJJi"I:)·~·Uj,·.:r~')1
Ever1day you eat three times.
(15) fi't:.~I:)'<11'Ult:.'~·~"1~·~·'l. ... ll)
She often goes to Tibet.
(16)
Tsenam doesn't work here now.
I:)·~·~·~IJ''l.~~·<11~''1'S~~·Ui'l:)'.t.I'IJ'~')1
(17) ~~·~r::.~~·~~·"1~~·4~·i9·~~r::.·~·Ui'')'"l'~l:)1
Everyday you read the newspaper.
The verbs Ul~·j ~,.are introduced in Lesson 1 and 0::')'/ Cl.jll)' are introduced in Lesson 6. Just as U!~·j UJ'~· are the normal first person verbs and ~!:)'/ Cl.jll)' the second/ third person verbs, the corresponding conjugations; ~·U)~·;~·UJ'')· and~·~!:)'/ ~''l.59' are categorized in the same way. U!~·f%..1:)'/ UJ'"'/Il.j~· and t.G'"I:)·:.r%..1:)· are main verbs, while ~-!11~ ·;~·~1:)·7~-Ui'l:)'/~"l.jll)' and ~-Ui'')'"l'~')' are conjugations. Conjugations always follow a main verb stem, (MVS + conjugation).
Colloquial Tibetan Many Tibetan language text books have taken English as the model by which to explain the different Tibetan tenses and structures. Due to this, many previous authors have endeavored to make Tibetan verbal conjugations fit English tense patterns. They have taken the limited view that it is the verbal conjugation that exclusively determines the tense values. Thus, students automatically assume that these verbal conjugations are onlyused for the purpose of distinguishing past/ present/ and future tense. The most common Tibetan conjugations have previously been categorized as follows:
~i.G"~·~~~~
present tense future tense crUa~·/"1'~~· pasttense This categorization however, is not correct, as the conjugations themselves do not necessarily represent any specific tense. Rather, time [tense) in many Tibetan sentences is determined by adverbs of time or the context of the conversation. As explained in lesson 1, Tibetan language is a time-based language, not a tense-based language Jike English. According to linguists a language in which verbs can only express me time is categorized as tensebased. This is not the case with many Tibetan verbs, as has been explained with ~~·1 ~~·in lesson 1, and Ui~·f ~~~·in Lesson 6. Though TJbetan is considered a tenseless language, it does possess three times. ~·U!~·~·~~·
_ _
~··~'Jat'~II'~AIJ' ~(14·~·~·q·
Presentation of Three Timee Past Time Present Time
~(14'11~r:::.~·"'·
Future Time
~~~~(14'"1'
The misconception of categorizing Tibetan as a tense-based language has caused confusion and misuse of verbs and conjugations among those learning the language. This concept limits students, and thus they are not able to grasp the language thoroughly. This book introduces the proper usage of Tibetan verbs and conjugations step-by-step so students can understand and use the language correctly. Take a careful look at the following sentences:
Chart 1 Adverb of Time (a)
X
Subject+ MVS
Conjugation ~-Qj~l
r:::.·~~r:::.·
Time
English Tense
non-specific
I drink tea./ I'm drinking tea./ I used to drink tea. (b)
~.,.
~i.G"~l
r:::.·~·~r:::.·
present
present continuous
present
simple present
past
past habitual
Now I am drinking tea. (c)
11•11-r'II-11.,-QI"
3'Ui51
r:::.'E:3"'
Sometimes I drink tea. (d)
{~'II'
~i.G"~l
r:::.·E:~r:::.·
(Before) I uaed to drink tea.
166
Lesson 9 Sentence (a) has no time marker, and thus it is non-specific with respect to time. According to the context in which it is used, lt could be translated as:
1.) I am drinking tea. 2.) I drink tea. 3.) I used to drink tea.
(present continuous) (simple present) (past habitual)
In sentences (b), (c), and (d), time is specified by the addition of an adverb of time. In (b) the adverb of time C)~' 'now' signals the present time. Thus, it is the temporal adverb C)'""' that is the time marker, not the conjugation ~·UI" ·. Though sentence (c) is marked by the adverb of time OJaiOJ~fOJc5'0J~''ll' 'sometimes' (simple present) and (d) is marked by fi!i'OJ' 'before/ previously' (past habitual), the conjugation ~·UI~· remains the same. Thus one can see that it is the adverb of time or the context which signals the time [tense] of the sentence and not the conjugation. In most cases, the tense of the corresponding English translation is determined by the Tibetan adverb of time and not by the verb or the conjugation itself. Let's look at the negative conjugation ~·~·a.~llj':
<6>
1S'~,~·~x.·'ll~·~~~·'ll:qz::"·"&"~·a.~~ ~~Jila.·f!~·~"'~'·~x.·c:.QI·~iff~·s"·~lll"'~·a.~lll He doesn't go to the office everyday. On Saturday and Sundays [he] stays [home] and rests.
In sentence (6), the adverb of time ~il\'~"· 'everyday' l)Ot the negative conjugation ~·~·Cl.511)', signals the s~p!e present (habitual) tense of the first sentence. In the second sentence it is the adverb ol time ~.:sa.·~~· ~·"~~'OJ"' 'Saturday and Sundays, which governs the tense. again simple present. (7)
f~ 'il''l~·4~·~'il''l~'O,~IIJ tl.l~ 'ii\Cl.~ ~ ~~C:.''iC:.'iS'C:. ·~·-·q$·~·a.~lll [Before] Tashi used to eat meat, but nowadays he doesn't [eat meat].
In sentence (7), q~·a.~111· has been used in the first sentence and 'l~·~·a.~llj' in the second. In the first sentence, the adverb of time f~'OJ' 'before/ previously, signals a past time event. In the second sentence, ~·X.c:.·~c:.· 'these days, signals a simple present (habitual) time. (8)
~·~·~·x.c:.·fq'fc:.·s~·~·a.~~~J ~·~'\·1S'~·IIj~llj~l:eya.~·q~·a.~~~J Now Tsering is studying. A little while ago he was talcing a bath/ bathing.
In sentence (8), ~·a.~9· and 'l~'Cl.511)' are used with two different adverbs of time; C)'~' 'now' signals a present continuous time setting, whereas C)·~~· 'a little while ago, signals a past continuous time. Having carefully examined the examples above, one can see that the conjugations ~'Ull:) ·and ~·a.~111· do not signal any one speci6c time. .The tense of these conjugations is determined by the adverb of time or the context of the conversation. Please note that even though these conjugations are tenseless, the verbal conjugation ~·U.)il\· is strictiy a future time marker and the verbal conjugation CJ-tl.lil\· strictly a past time marker. In this lesson the conjugations ~·UJC)'/ ~·a.59· and ~'Uli:)'CJ'~S are introduced only in connection with temporal adverbs. These conjugations are further explained in Lesson 10.
167
Colloquial Tibetan ~-.,·
II.
Clau!.e Connector
[when/ while]
A.
The Verbs S,~·~~· Uf~·fi.l~· with ~41·
1.)
Identification-(fi:I~·Jil~·+ ~41')
(18)
t:.'Ifl:J'~Ill-&l~·~41'il::l'9J::I\'Cj~Cl.~&!c;J
Sentences (18)- (22) When I was a student, I didn't like school.
(19)
r::.·~r::.·~r::.-U!~·~~·s·~·~·~r::.~il·l:J~·urc; 1
I used to eat lots of sweets when I was little.
f!i"r::. '9J't.l'Ul~ ·~~·illl'l:J ~~ ·~·~lllCl. ~~c; ''J'~·~c; 1 (n) rsc;·x..r::. ·~·s'l -U!" '5~·rz:·~lll~~:eyurc; 1 <22> ~·lll~r::.·~·fil~ ·~~·r::.·Cl.~r::.·~·urc; 1
When he was a monk, he didn't like movies.
(20)
2.)
(25)
The food was delicious when you were the cook. I drink the water when it is clean.
Possession/ Location/ Modification/ and Poet position- (iJ.Ic;·;~~· + ~41') r::.::l\·c;s~·~r::.~ar~·~41·il·tZlr::.·~·Uir::.·~·Cl.S)·Q~·urc; 1
Sentences (23) - (31) When I have lots of money, I often go to restaurants.
He listens to music when he has time. f!i"r::.·~·~~·i'c; ·ore; ·~~·111~~·'<}~ ·~·Q,~~ fi'=-'Ql'Cj1Cl.·r::.~·~c;·~41·r.r~'tl.·Cl.s~r~·Cl.Sj'~:J~·~·Cl.~lll She doesn't go to her parents when she doesn ~ t have any problems.
(26)
r::.·~·lllx..·~ru.rc;·~~·as·~r:;.·~lll~·r::.'tl.·§'lll~~c;1
When I was in India, Tsering was my friend.
(27)
r::.lll·c;Qr::.·~lll~·r::.a.·fl~:'Ja·Cl,s~·~·urc; ·J~·
When Ngawang lived next door, he often came
Ulr:;.·i'rli.Tr:;. ·~i(ic; 1
to my house.
(28)
rsc;·x..r::.·6f-'4~X.. -ar~~4l·r::.·Cl.~~ i(ic;,
I was here when you were over there.
(29)
They used to go to Tashi Tagye restaurant often
(30)
l:J~·4~'illl~'l::l~Cj'il'flt:.'ii1"fll'~lll'UIIll~U:c;· ~~·rrr::.·6f'Uir::.·~rCl.SJ'Q~·or~·'J·~c;, r::. ·~~111 ~~l:J~ ~ore; ·~~·~~·~·~r::. :cr-sc; ·~·ore; 1
(31)
lll~~·94~·=~orc; ~~·~·l::l4J~·~·UTc; 1
When the weather is hot, [I] swim and [I]
~~·~r::.·Cl.f!i"x..·Uir::.~c;·~c;·sc;·~·orc; 1
also use a fan.
when the food was good. When I am healthy, I do a lot of work.
In this section, the'\~· clause structure is divided into two sections: ~
1.)
1.)
(uJ"·~~· +~~·),Clauses of Identification.
2.)
(UlCj'/ilc;· +~~·),Clauses of Possession, Location, Modification and Post position.
Clauses of Identification ~"·~-.·~"·~41·: (18)
r::. ·iq·~~~~ ·~41·Ijl::l'9J::I\ 'CjlllCl. ~i!c; 1
When I was a student I didn't like school.
In sentence (18), til~· identifies the subject r::.· 'I' as being the object ~l:J·~~· 'student'. ~~J· means at that time In this particular context,~~· is translated as 'when', i.e., r::.·Ijl::l·~~-&l"·~41· 'when I was a student'. Literally thiS clause means 'at the time of being a student.' 168
Lesson 9 2.) Clauses of Possession, Location, Modification and Post position iii~·~~~ ·~-r·. Ui'"C) ·~~·is a contraction for the phrase ur~·~:.~~·~.::J~"Qj" 'having/ possessing the time': (24) Fi~·l.ll·~-r·i"~-Ui"~~ltf·Qj~~·~~·~·a.~Qj
(Possession)
He listens to mus1c when he has time In sentence (24), Ui'"C)· indicates that Fi~· 'he', has/ possesses~~·i"C)· 'time'. ~~·i'C)·Ui'"C)·~~· 'when' could literally be translated as: ~~·i'C) -t{j~ ·~:.~~ ·~.::J~"l.ll" 'at the time of having time', 'fl~ "Qj~~·~~ ·~·a.~Qj 'he listens to music.' (26) ~·~-~~·Qj-iii~~.. ·~·~""l.llQ]~·~~·SfQ]~~C)1 When I was in India, Tsering wac; my friend.
(Location)
In sentence (26), Ui'"C)· indicates that at some time the subject was in a particular location, i.e.,~· 'I' was in ~f Qj~· 'India'. This sentence could literally be translated as: ~·Qj~·qrUi'"C)·c.J~·~.::J~·l.ll· at the time of being in India', ~·~~ "l.llQ]~·~~ ·SfQ]~~X.~ 1 'Tsering was my friend.' (29) .::J~·4~·;Q]~·.::J~C)·~·fl~~·jii·QI~"UI~:q-ii;~·~41·1fl~·g.UI~·~·a.~·.::J~-Ui'"C)·r.J·X.C)1
(Modification)
They used to often go to Tashi Tagye restaurant when the food was good. In the case of modification sentences, Ui'"C) ·indicates that at some time an object possessed a certain quality, i.e., [Zl"QIQ]" 'the food' possessed the quality of being UIQ]~ 'good'. Here the literal translation could be: fl" QIQj"UIQ]~ili"C)"l.l~"~.::J~·l.ll· 'at the time of the food being good', Fi~·g..::J~·4~·;Q]~·.::J~C)·~·fl""l.ll"UI~·~·a."i'.::J~· Ui~·r.J·X.C)1 'they used to often go to Tashi Tagye restaurant.' (27)
~Q]"C).::J~"C11Q]~·~a.·[Q~·'~a.·a.i!J.. ·Qj-iii~·~-r"UI~·~·ur~~-ur~1 When Ngawang lived next door, he often came to my house.
(Poet position)
In post position sentences, Ui'"C)· indicates that at some time an object was next to/ on/ in/ under, etc. a certain place, i.e., ~~·[Q~ "r.J~ ·a.i3~·l.ll· 'next door to my house'. Uterally this sentence could be translated as: ~Qj"C).::J~"l.llQ]~·~~·fl~·r.J~·a.13~·l.ll·Ui~·r.J'd.·~.::J~·l.ll· 'at the time when Ngawang lived next to my house/ next
_door', rr~"UI~·~-Uj"~~-Ui"C) 1 'he often came [over]., Certain modification clauses can be formed with eitherU!~·~~·orUi'"C)~~· depending on the speaker's point of emphasis. If the subject is being identified, U!~ ·is used; if the subject's possession of that quality is being emphasized, then Ui'"C) ·is used: (19) ~·~~·~~-U!~·~~·;urC)·~~·s·~l.ll·cll"~~·.::J~·~C)1 I used to eat a lot of sweets when I was little.
a.) ""~"·~~~~·~-r·... b.) ~-~~-~~-iii~-~41·...
Wheniwaslittle.. . When I was little... ['I' possessed the quality of being little]
169
Colloquial Tibetan
<30> c:·"l!"l"~~~·~·U~~·s.~rtur,·~~·~~·,·~.~c:~s,·~·ur,l When I am healthy, f do a lot of work. a.) C:'"J~II1~~~~·!i-&l~·~'f'... When I am healthy... b.) C:'1115111~T;T~~~~'f'... Wheniamhealthy... ['mybody' pcsse!18PSahealthyquality]
(3t> 111 ~~.~·"14~·~~·U~~·~~·t ur,·~~·~·~~~·~·ur~ 1 When the weather 1S hot, I swim. When the weather is hot... a.) 111~&1'1114~·=~-&l~·~.,·... When the weather is hot ... b.) 111~&1'"J4~·=~iiC)'~'f' .. . ['the weather' possesses the quality of being hot] The~~· clause by itself is tenseless, it introduces the main subject matter, but does not indicate the time or
tense of the sentence. Such clauses are categorized by linguists as events ofspeech. The verbal conjugations "a)• U!~·and CJ-Ul~· found at the end of the sentence, the adverb of time or the oontext of the oonversation is the tense indicator. Similarly the conjugations"a)'UfC) '/"a)'Q.5_111'/"a)'UfC) 'CJ'~')'/"a)'~') ·and CJ'~C)'by themselves, are tenseless; here again the time is determined by adverbs of time or the oontext of the oonversation. Understanding this, sentence (23), according to the oontext of the oonversation. can be translated as follows: (23) c:~ ., ~~·~.~c: ~;q~ 'S'f'.q'f!C:·~"U.IC:·~~Jj·~;;q~ 1 When I have lots oi money, I often go to restaurants.
(simple present)
or When I had lots of money, I used to often go to restaurants.
(past habitual)
Please note that the verbal conjugation·~·Sl~· is strictly a future time structure and the verbal conjugation CJ'Ul~ ·strictly a past time structure c:~·~~~·~.~c:~ii~·5."'il'flC:'Ql"U.IC:'~'O.Jl'~l~~1 When I have lots oi money, I will often go to restaurants.
(future)
c:~·,~~·~.~c:~ii~·~-a·.q·flc:·~·UJc:·~·s~·CJ~~l When I had lots of money, I often went to restaurants.
(past)
The U!~·~~· and ur,·~~· clauses can be used with all three persons:
Chart 2
ar;·~4{' Causes
~~·~4{' Causes c:· a~·~c:· ~c:·
c:~·
&I'S~·
when I was a cook... when you were a cook... when he/she was a cook...
~li~-a·...
a~·~c:·~t~· ~C:'Ql'
~~Qj'
ar~~-a·...
when I have/ had money... when you have/ had money... when he/ she has/ had money... 170
Lesson 9
In previous lessons both Ul~ ·I l.i) · are used in sentences ofidentification, and UJI) ·I a.~Q]' I in sentences of possession, location and modification. are used; thus it is incorrect to say:
UJI) ·q·l_I)· In~~· clauses however, only the verbs Ur~ ·and UJI) ·
l.l)·~~·l O.~Q]1~'1 ~·q·l_l)·~~·.
The negative form ofUI~·~~· is~~·~~· and the negative form of UJI)'~~· is ill)·~~·.
B.
(Main Verb Stem +
1)
Positive form
(32)
~~J
~·~·QI~··~~·~~I)'C.J-a.SQI'~·ilJI)1
rs" ·~~ ·Qj~'"l'SI) ·~~·Cl~~·iCl1~ ·~·a.~9 ~·Qj~'"l'SI) ·~~·Q]~~·Clry" ~·ur" 1 <35> rr"·liQ]·liQ]·Cla-~~·~9·4·?J"'!"·s"·~·a.~Q] (36) lfl) 'C,J'~Q]~~ 'Clry" ·~~·a;" ·a.~". Q]~~'Clry"' ~Cl~·s-q~Cj~·"Q]'S" ·~-ur"·q·l." 1
<33> <M>
Sentences (32)- (48) I say grace when I eat. You think when you work. I sing while I work. She uses mutton when she makes momos. When Tibetans celebrate the New Year they
(37)
~·~l)'i6"Q]'fQ]'~~·fl'QIQ]'~"~ii'Cl~'ilJI)1
drink beer, sing, dance and so on. I eat a lot of food when I am hungry.
<38>
"·~~·Qj"·~~·~" ·q~q·~·ur" 1
~en I
(39)
~·ii)9 ·~·~Q]·~·s"·~~·El·~Q]·a.~~·~·ur" 1
<40> rr~·fl·~~·~~·a;"·a.~"~·a.~Q] (41) !;·~"·~·~~·Sf~ 'ii'Cl~·a.~ Q]
"'O.fSQ]'~~·~Q]'iQ]~~-~·ilJI)1 (43) iSI)'~"'El"'a;I)~~·~QJ'~'O.~Q] <44> rs"·~"·~~~·f~~·s·q~·a.~Q]
am angry, I shout and carry on. I smoke when I am nervous. He drinks beer when he is thirsty. Tsering takes medicine when she is ill.
(42)
I wear warm clothes when I am cold.
(45)
~·r.r~·s~·~~·rr"·~~·~·~·q~·Cl~'Cl~·url)1
You sleep when you are tired. You cry when you are sad. When I miss my parents I look at their photograph.
(46)
"~Cl·~~·tlf~Cl~'UJI) 1
I play [games] when I am bored.
(47)
rr"·iCl'f"·s"·~~·tlf~Cl~·a.~9
He plays [games] while he studies.
(48)
t/'Clil"'~l)'a;'Cl41)'~~·~Q]'Cl~~~·~·a.~Q]
Lhasang closes his eyes when he speaks.
2.)
Negative form (II'+ MVS + q~·~Cl~'QI"I '1~'QI•)
(49)
"·~·~~·Qj~·"l·s"·~·~"1 ar~·~a."·~~~·q~· ~Cl4fQI'I ~"'QI'QJ~·"l·~~Q]~~I) ·~·ilJI) 1
(SO)
(51)
I)Cl" ·~Q]~'a;"·~·a.~" ·q~ ·~q~'QI'~'I)'?.l~· ~Q]~UJI) 'C.J'l.l) 1
Sentences (49)- (51) I don't work when I am sick, but when I am not sick I work quickly. When Wangdrak doesn't drink beer, he's a very
~~·~~ ·~·o.J~iCl'9J~ ·~·a.~C.J~ '~Cl~''ll'
good person. Gyatso usually comes to my house when he
~~ ·~" ''li'UJ"~-ur" 1
doesn't go to school.
171
Colloquial Tibetan
As in section A, the clauses of sedion B (MVS + ~(1.1'), are categorized as events of speech. Here again, the time [tense] of the ~(1.1' clause is determined by the verbal conjugations ~·U!~ ·and 'J'Ul~ ·,the adverb of time or the context of the conversation. Please note that the verbs in the clause are always in the present/ future form, never in the past form. These verbs do not determine the tense of the clause: l::.'f'lll~'il~(l.l'
~·a.~~::.·1i)ili'l) 1
I drink water when I eat.
(simple present)
l::.'f'lll~'il'~(l.l'
~·a.~~::.~r~~1 ~·a.~~::.·~-&1~ 1 ~~~:;.~;ql)1
I will drink water when I eat.
(future)
I drank water when I ate
(past)
I used to drink water when I ate
(past habitual)
l::.'f'lll~'il'~(l.l'
f~ '&l'l::.'f'lll~'il~(l.l'
As with the~~·~(~.!'/ Ull)'~(l.l' clauses, the clauses of this section can be used for all three persons:
Chart 3 (MVS + ~~·) Causes 1::.'
when II you eat/ ate...
when he/she eats/ ate...
The negative form of the (MVS + ~(1.1') clause is formed in the following way:
(&I'+ MVS + 'JCC\''5ll~(l.l'lll'/ ~t:'lll'...). ~::. 'Ql~'IIJ'SI) ~~·...
~::.·QI~'"l'll'SI)'~a.·"!~~·Qr/ ~c:.·QI·... when I don't work...
becomes
when I work. ..
(49) ~::.·~·~(I.I·Ql(l.l'·,rs"·~·~"1 U~~·~a.~::.·~.~·~·~a.·~~~·QI·j ~~·~·~a.·\1t:'Ql'Ql(I.I'IIJ'&I~'Il(l.l:cr-s"·~~"1 I don't work when I am sick, but when I am not sick I work quickly. One .neversays: J::.'Ql(I.I'IIJ'Il'SI)~~·...
III. The Construction: (i\1'+ MVS + ~"'QI'/ f~'QI') [before+ Verb) Sentences (52)- (56)
(52)
<53> <54>
Ff~::.·~l)·m·&~·~"11)'q;t:·lll·~(I.I&JVUIQ]'lf
He thinks well before speaking/
~ryt:·~·~~~ ~::.·i~'ft:·~.~·s'1·q;t:·Ql·f·lll'll'il'q~·~,1
before he speaks.
6'1 ·~~::. ·q'(~ ·~~ ·~.~~~(l.l·!!f~::.·Ql·j;j~::.·a5~·~(1.1~ ''-~'
Do you study the new vocabulary before
g~::.·'ll~~::.·~·UI'1 ''-~~1
coming to class?
I eat before I study.
172
Lesson 9
My daughter prostrates before she goes to sleep I
before going to sleep. (S6)
~-~"lll~"QJ"~~"Ili~S~~·~·~~T.J"MX-~1 He didn't know English before he came to India.
The English phrase before doing..., i.e., before working, before eating, before singing, etc., is formed with a positive verb. The equivalent Tibetan phrase, however, is formed with the negative partical ~r. Of the four Tibetan negative particles, in this structure only~J" can be used: (52) f~-~~···~a·.q~~·~~·QI·Q~iJ~UIIIJ~Q~~~·Q.~IIJ He thinks well before speaking/ before he speaks.
Even though no negative marker is used in the English translation, actually, the English aiso carries an underlying negative meaning. A literal translation of this sentence could be, 'Not having spoken, first he thinks.' Thus literally, the Tibetan structure (iJ"+ MVS + ~~·'ll·f f~"'ll") carries the negative sense of, i.e., not having worked..., not having eaten..., not having sung ... something else is/ was done. In English the adverb before precedes the verb: (before+ Verb); whereas in Tibetan it follows the main verb: (iJ'+ MVS + i!f~·'ll·f f~"'ll'). Either the present/ future form, i.e., s~·, or the past form of the verb, i.e., s~·, can be used with no change of meaning: {53)
r::.·i~"fr::.·~~·s~·~r::.·C21·f3··1l!IJ'i!'Q~·lG"~1 I eat before I [do] study.
or
r::.·iQ"ft:.'II'S'f~r::.·C21·fl·
r::. 'fl'
or
t:.'fl'
IV. The Construction: (MVS + ~4r/ [5~')) [after+ Verb)/ [having+ Verb)/ [by+ Noun/Gerund) (57)
r::.·q;~~J'r.J't\!3'1'~4l'fl'
(58)
f"::.·~~·'ll~~·~~·~r::.·~~·Q.'(~ -~~-~Q~·~·Q,~IIJ
(59)
Q~·4~'
{60)
Sentences (57)- (62) After washing my hands I eat./ or Having washed my hands, I eat. He comes to class after studying Tibetan at home. Everyday after taking a bath, Tashi goes to the
office. He doesn't go to the factory by ear, [he] walks [there]! goes by walking. I come to school by bicycle. After listening carefully, then I give my answer.
f"r::.·if~·Q~~·s-r·Q"f~~·"El~~J~·~.ur~·q·~J·X..~1
~~~·~·Q!~;:J'S'~'El!IJ~·r~.ur~ 'CJ·X..~ 1
(6t)
r::.·iQ·~~ ·~r::.·ll.f"~·Q~~ ·~~·U~r::.·~·ur~ 1
<&z>
r::.·~~ 'a5'UIIIJ:.!f~~ ·s~-w~ ·111~ ·Q~Q·~·UT~ 1
173
Colloquial Tibetan
The Tibetan (MVS past form+ 1.)
~-r· /[5'1'])
structure has two uses:
When expressing a sequence of actions in a chronological order, the adverb a:,~· indicates after one action is completed, another action takes place, or having completed one action, another action was done: After washing my hands I eat./ or Having washed my hands, I eat.
2.)
'14.1' is used to express that someone went 'by' a particular mode of tranSportation, i.e., by car, by bicycle, by foot, etc:
I come to school by bicycle. In English the adverbs alter and havingprecede the verb, (after I having+ Verb), whereas the Tibetan adverb a:,~· always proceeds the verb, (MVS + a:,~· I [S~r]). The adverb by, used to express a particular mode of transportation, precedes a noun, (by + Noun) or a gerund, i.e., by walking, by driving, etc. In Tibetan, this a:,~· structure is (Noun+ MVS + a:,~·f[s~·]). Please note that the verb preceding a:,~·f[s~·] is always in the past form:
<59> Cl~r4~·QI~~~,·~~·~!~":q:Q,~"·s.. ·I1J~·rsr::.~·lll·E!It1~·o·ur"·l,J·~"1 Everyday after taking a bath. Tashi goes to the office. In this lesson a:,~· is introduced as an adverb and is translated as 'after doing' I 'having done something'. When a:,~· is used with a noun, it is not an adverb, but rather a post position and is translated as 'from':
_....,'!.~Ill·~~ ·~·i"" ·~·Q,i!f~ ·~·Uj" 'l,J'~" 1 ~·I'"~ ·~~~·, .. ·lt]~~·Cl ~ 1 When used as an adverb
at
rs~·]
It takes five hours [to go] fromlJ\asa toGyaltse. ...from one [o'clock] to three [o'clock].
is the typical Lhasa colloquial form of,~·.
The Adverb l.~'QI' [after] vs. the Connector~~· [after]
In Tibetan there are two constructions, "t~·QI· and a:,~·, which express after doing/ having done one thing, another action is/ was/ will be done. The adverb "t~·lll· 'after' is used with a (noun+ genitive) construction, i.e., Q.~,·~a.·"t~·QI· •after class'. This structure is: (Noun+ genitive + t~'lll') ~·QI~~·}-a·car...
after [a/ the] meal [lunch, dinner, etc.] ...
~·QI~~·('I'QI'r::.·¥-~·i"1·!t]%!t]·r::.QI·It]ir-Cl~Cl·~-Ui~1 After meals we rest for an hour. The adverb a:,~· is always used in conjunction with a verb, i.e., c!"~·a:,~· 'having finished' or 'after finishing'. If one says •having finished class/ after finishing class/ after class is over... ' the construction is Cl.'(a:,·~·~~·, ..·. This structure is:
174
Lesson 9 (Noun + MVS past form + ~4.1') jll'~~·.il41'~41'...
[after] having eaten...
jll'~~·.il-r·~-.·~·¥-~·¥1·qj~~·~Ql·~ir~~~·~·ur11
After eating, we rest for an hour.
In this lesson ~4.1· has been translated as both 'after doing/ eating/ finishing,' etc. and 'having done/ eaten/ finished,' etc. On certain occasions the English phrases after doing and having done can be used interchangeably. On other occasions, however, there is a distinct difference. 'After doing' can be used when talking about a past, present, or future action, whereas 'having done' is only used to express a past time action which has a resultant effect. In sentences dealing with two unrelated actions, only the after doing translation is appropriate: After planting the vegetables, [I] did other work [things]. After [finishing] class, I returned home.
In sentences dealing with two related actions, the second the result of the first, then either the after
doingor having done translation is appropriate: Having planted the vegetables, they grew./ After planting the vegetables, they grew. Having practiced religion, he has developed a good heart./ After practicing religion, he has developed a good heart.
Remember that the Tibetan adverb ~4.1· performs both of the above functions; it can be used in sentences dealing with two related actions or two unrelated actions. One should note that t4tl'Ql' is always used with a noun, i.e.,'~ '1~~·jll·~~~·t4tl'Ql' 'after lunch',
~~~·~~·t~'Ql' 'after class', ~~-r·pl4t~'Ql' 'after the party', etc.; whereas the adverb ~4.1· is always used
with a verb in its past form, i.e.; ~·~~'.il'l'~4.1' '[after] having eaten',~~~ 'SJ~·;~·~~· '[after] having gone to class', ~1ti~"F~~·~~·~4.1' '[after] having returned from the party', etc. In the last phrase, the first~~· is a post position that is connected with the noun ~~~·f~~· meaning 'from the party'. The second ~~·is the adverb used with the verb ill~·- Qi~·~4.1· meaning 'having returned'.
V.
Verbs
.A.
Verbs with Variable Stems:
The following verbs have a separate stem for the present/ future, past and honorific forms: Present/ Future
Honorific
Past
(applies for all three tenses) .il'
175
'1i"1·
eat I ate
~~~4.1·
buy I bought
Colloquial Tibetan
~~
go/ went cry/aied look I looked- watch I watched
The Honorific Verb "J'\~' with a Main Verb Stem
The honorific form of the following (and many other) verbs is formed by the addition of ~'tC::': P!esent/ Future
Past
Honorific
~a-
~'i"4f'
~~I ~'i"4f' + "!'\~'
make I made
~r3·
~~4f'
~~·1 ~~(If'+ "1'1~·
wash I washed
Main Verb +
S'1'/ , ... becmnes Main Verb +
"111\~' in Honorific
The verb S'1'I 54f' by itself means do/ did However, when joined with certain nouns, the meaning of the noun changes into its corresponding meaning as a verb. The honorific form of S~'/ 54f' is ~'tC::':
Past
P!esent/ Future
iQ"fc::·s'1·
iQ'fc::·s•·
'?J~"f~·s~·
'?J~ 'i~ '54f'
iQ'iC::'IIJ'I~' '?J~·f~·~'tC::'
~~(lf·s~·
~~4f'54f' ~·~~'54f' a~~·~·a;~·~·s(lf·
~~(lf'~'tC::' ~-~~·~'tC::' ill~·~ ·!;Ill·~ 'lll'tC::.
~·~~·s~· a~~·~·i;~·~·s~· B.
Honorific '··
study I studied
use I used help I helped prepare I prepared nervous I excited was nervous I was excited
Verbs with Invariable Stems: The following verb stems are the same for all three tenses. The honorific is formed by the addition of ~'tC::~:
P!esent/ Future/ Past
Honorific
i"l'
i~·
94f·
94f·
!j~'
!!~·
QtfQ' !&'Q4'JQI'
QmQ· gc::· !&'Q4'JQI'
Q~c::·
Q~c::·
~rye::·
~rye::·
we::·
+ + + + + + + +
176
Ill'\~'
read I read
~'tC::'
write I wrote
"l~c::·
give I gave teach I taught learn I learned swim/swam sell I sold send I sent
IIJ'tC::' ~'\C.'
IIJ'tC::' ~'tC::'
IIJ'tC::'
Lesson 9 The following verb stems are the same for all three tenses. The honorific is a completely different word: Present/ Future/ Past
Honorific
Q.~l:.'
~Ji""·
drink I drank
ur~·
~q~·
come I came
q~"·
q~ll]~·
sit or stay I sat or lived
~~·
q~~~·
stand or get up
~ill·
q~~·
~ill·
~Ji""·
~q·
~~~·
~ill·
!~]~ill·
I took wear I wore speak I said listen I listened
it~·
~·
call/called
~~·
~~IJ~·
sleep
I stood or got up
take
I slept
VI. Conversations A. Context: Norbu is asking Ngawang about himself: Sentences (63)- ('TO)
<63> ~~·s·=
~~""q~·~111~1 ~·~~·~~·6'1·~~·111·'.1~·
Ngawang, where do you live these days?
q~ll]~·~-ttr"1
~111·'1q~·= ~~~·~~·~·q~~~·~·q~"·~·ur'11 <M> ~~·s·=
These days I live in Nepal.
fiii'IJ'6'1·~~·~"r.l~·q~ll1~·~·ur"1
Where did you live before?
~111"'1q~·= fiii·IJ·~·~·II1~ "Clj·q~"~·ur'11
Before I lived in India.
(65) ~~·s·=
~~·~a:fill·~·~·t.l~·q~~~·~-ur'11 ~111"'1qc:: ~·~.-fill ·~·~~'1·~·q~'1·~·ur'1 1
And where did you live before that? Before that I lived in Tibet.
<66> ii~·s·=
6'1 -~~·~~~·"~IJ·~Ji"" ·~-ur"·t.l~1 ~~·"1q~ ·: ~ ·~~ ·~~·~ '4';;a·q~·~" 1 Uli~~ 'illll.~ ·a~·q·~~· ~·f~ ·~·~·4·=a·q~·ur" 1 "~~·~ill~·s~·ill · f~ 'IJ'f~ 'IJ'~ '4'6~ ·~~·;;a·q~·~" 1
(67) ii~·s·=
fS'1·~~~·1J·;!I1·t.l~·s~r~·El~~·~-ur"·t.l~1
~~""q~·= ~~~·~'11 ~~~·~~·r.siJ·<1J·Q.!i·q~·~'11
<68> ii~·s·=
Do you eat meat (h.)? These days I don't eat meat, but six months ago I did [eat it]. Actually sometime before that, I never ate meat at all.
Do you go to the market everyday? No, I don't go to the market everyday,
U~ill ·iii~'IJa)'IJ~·IJa)~~·~·Q_!i·q~·ur" 1
but sometimes I do [go].
b~·qry~·6'1·~~·q~~·~~·~~~·<1J~·IJ·
Generally how many times a week do you go?
~·a)'1'El~~·~-ttr'11 ~~""q~·: ill~·~~ ·~·q~~ ·~II]'Q]~~·<1J~ 'IJ'II]~~·
Usually I only go twice a week. [I] don't go often.
~~~~~ -a.!j·q~·ur'11 UJ~·~·Cl.!j·q~·~'11 177•
Colloquial Tibetan (69) ~~:~;:
fS~':3\C.'IJ.f:3\~'o.Ji"~·~·~~·'J~1
Do you drink alcohol?
c.~·~~c.·: C.'W':3\~·g~·~~·~~c.~·i:~J a;c.1J~·-¢o.J'
I never drink alcohol. I drink a little bit of beer,
~·-¢o.J~~1 ~~~c.·~~~~~~~l but I don't drink much. (70)~:3\·s·:
•
~·UJ~~~~l
That'sverygood.
f~·~~· vs. f~·Qr [before/previously/inthepast]
The adverb f~ 'II' 'before/ previously/ in the past' is used when referring to a general, non-specific time period, i.e., f~ 'o.J'f~ 'o.J' 'once upon a time, a long time ago, some time before', etc.: I have gone to India in the past./ I have been to India previously. The adverb f~'QI' 'before/ previously/ in the past' on the other hand, is used when: a.)
a specific time is mentioned:
l'~'r''4!41'~'f~ 'Qj'
a few months ago
b.)
with numbers:
''ll'~%~·~·f~·~·
one day before
c.)
with demonstrative pronouns
~·t2:f~·~·
before that
d.)
with a personal pronoun
c.~·f~·~·
before me
e.)
with a place/ location
!'IIJ;r;~·f~·~·
before India
As shown in the list above, f~'QI' can also modify nouns and demonstrative pronouns:
Before me he was the teacher./ Previous to me he was the teacher.
~~~·r~·QI·c.·~~·~~·Sl~,
Before this/ previously, I was a teacher.
(66) ~ ·~c.·~c.·c.·4·.:r~~·i:~ 1 fil~ ·~~c.·1·~·
These days I don't eat meat, but six months
~111'1il'f~ 'QI'C. '4'il'r:;J~iG"~ 1 ~~~·~~~· s~·~·f'\·'~·f'\·~~·c.·4·6~·~~·il·~~·i:~1
ago I did [eat it]. Actually sometime before that, I never ate meat at all.
In sentence (66), the adverb of time f~ ·~· 'before/ previously' indicates a specific time reference, it is a postposition (has an object) i.e., ~r~·~~~·~'ll.l' 'six months ago (before)'; whereas ~·0o1· 'before/ previously' gives no sped11c time reference, it is simply an adverb i.e., f~ 'o.J·f~ 'o.J' {sometime before, a long time ago), C.'4'S~·~~·il·r:;J~·i:~1 'Sometime before that/ previously I never ate meat at all.' The reference distinction of non-specific time and specific time indicated by f~ 'o.J' and f~ ·~· also exists between the adverbs of time t~'o.J' 'later I in the near future' and}~·~· 'after'. "t~·0o1· refers to an unspecified time, whereas "t~·~· a sped11c time.
c. ·l41'11'l41·~~~o.J·~ ·s~ ·~·fil~,
Sometime in the future I will become a doctor.
~C.,'II'IIJ4jii'~'}41'Q1~~·~~~~·~·~~1
After three days he will go to Tibet.
178
Lesson 9
Though f~ 'Ill' has been introduced above as an adverb that indicates a past time, it can also be translated as first When used in this way it strictly modifies the verb: .
f~'QI'C:.''ll~''-l'a.~·~~~~1 ~·~~'F'
~"l·=~~~~~'f~'QI'Q.S'~~ ~~~·lll~'Z:l~~~-Uj~1 When [I] take an exam, first [I] read the question and then [I] give/ write the answer. In sentences where first modifies a noun, the ordinal number ~c:.~ is used, never f~ ''ll': Tashi Namgyal is our first child. B. Context: Pempa is asking Tseten about his and other's habits:
Sentences (71)- (7'1) (71) tl~''J':
~·~;~'lllll]~l "G~·~c:.-~Ql'
Tsetan, do you wash your hands (h.)
S"l'~~lll·~-Ui~·'-1~1
when you eat?
a;.~;~·: QJII]~'Ui~1 C:.jll'Cllll]'&l'.ii~~C:."ll"llii]''J'Q.~~~-Uj~1 Yes, I wash my hands before I eat. (72) tl~''-1': i~.iiC:.'Ql~'1'S~·~~·~~&I·i~ryc:.~·a.~"1·"1~1
~·~;~·: Q.~ll] a.~"l i~.iiC:.'~~&I·i~ryc:.~~-'ll~·-,·.
When Lobsang works does he think? Yes, yes. Lobsang thinks and then he works.
s~·~·a.~"l tl~''-1': ~·~c:.~~1 (73) tl~ ''-1': G~ ·~c:.·i~·9J~ '&l'~"l~·~c:. 'Ql'~'ll'
That's clever!
Do you eat before you go to school?
~-Uj~·'-~~1
~·~;~·: Cllii]~-Ui"~1 c::iQ'9J~'i.I'Q.~C:.''li'~C:.'
Yes, I eat at home before I go to school.
.ii'~~·Uj~1
tl~''-1': ~~"1~~1 That's good! (74) ~"--·: &~·~c:.~·c;;·Cllii]~~~~-~Ql'Q.~~-"1~"~~·cr~~1 When does your father recite [his] prayers? ~·~;~ ·: c:.'a.·c;;·
and evening before going to bed.
tl~''-1': ~~~~·"1~~·Ul11]~~1 (75) tl~ ''-1': 6~ ·~c:. ·iQ'~II]·af~ 'i.I'Q~t;~·~c:. ''li'S]'~"l·
That's really very good!
Do you prepare [your lessons] before you
II]~C:.~-Ui~·'-1~1
teach [your] students?
~·~;~·: lllii]~-Ui"~1 c:.·iQ'~II]·af~·i.I·Q~Q·~c:.·'l!·
Yes, I prepare [my lessons] before I teach
S]'~"l·s~·~-Uj~1
[my] students.
tl~''-1': ~'ll]lll'~~~~1
That's important!
(76) 'tl~''-1': Q~i.I'Q.~Q·~~·ff-~c:.~·~"l~~af~·~-,a.·c:.Cll·
Ui~·~~·Cll&I'II]~C:.'~"l~·s~·~·a.~"1·"1~1
Does Samdup immediately help his friends when they have problems?
1. !"\lie:.· is an abbreviated form of !'S'I)C:.'I)li"c:.·~. morning and evening. 1 Qlll"'l~c;· = [Qlii'~41C:.']
179
Colloquial Tibetan
i;·CJ;~·: 1'111'~£::.'~11 rs:~t:.~'~lll~~g~.,ITJ~'t:.QI'
ur,~~·f~·QI·rs:i"~·l:'lll~·s,·~t~~lll ~·~~·rs:~t:.~·QI~·ITJ·s,·~·~~lll fl~'I:J': ~·~111~~,~~·111~~·~·~11 (77) f!~ 'I:J': il·~~ ~~·~Ill·~~ 'CJ41'~'Q.~111'111~1 i;·CJ;~ ·: il·~~ ~,t:.'ilt:.·~~ ·c:r~·~.~~~.~~·~.~~~.~~· Qj'~lll·~~ 'CJ41'~·~~111 i!~·I:J·: ~·M·s111~·~11
That's right. When his friends have problems, he helps them first and then
he does his own work. That's a real friend!
Do important people tell lies? Sometimes important and distinguished [high-titled] people tell lies. That's really a shame [pity]!
C. Context: Tsewang is asking Kunga about her youth:
Sentences (78)- (85) Kunga.
(7B) i)·,CJt:.': ~~'1111~'Q1111~1 ('1'9) (80)
~~'1111~':QIII1~1
Yes.
a;-,CJt:.': 61'~t:.·~t:,·~t:.-Ul~ ~~'lll'I:J~ 'CJ~IIl~·~-ur,,
Where did you live when you were young?
~~·1111~·:~:.·~t:.·~t:.·UI~·~~·~·IIl~·QI·CJ~1~-u;11
I lived in Jndia when I was young.
i)·,CJt:.·:
~·Ill~ 'QI'I.!~CJ~'i!ft:.'QI'IIl'I:J~ 'CJ~IIl~·~-ur,,
~~ '1111~ ·:~'Ill~ 'QI'I,!'~ ~ ·i!ft:.'Qj'CJQI~QI'QI'~~,·ltl;11 (81)
i)·,CJt:.':
~~·I:J~l
a,.,CJt:.':
I lived in Nepal before I went to India. Really?
~~ '1111~': Qllll~Yi"t:.'l <82>
Before you went to India where did you live?
Yes.
~~ ·~·lll~·QI·~IIl~·~~·lll·~·~~t:.·~·ur,1
~~'1111~':t:.·~·lll~'QI'CJ~,·~~·~.~1!·~~.~·iCJ's,J~'iCJ'ft:.'
And what did you do while you were in India? While I was in India, I studied in college.
s1·~-ur11 (83) ~'1CJt:.': QJ-IIl~lll'QI'I'CJ'111'~1·i~'ft:.'Cil~t:. ~iij"11
(84)
<ss>
How many months a year did you study?
~~·,lll~·=QJ-IIl~lll·QI·~·CJ·s~·iCJ'jt:.·s,·~·ur,1
I used to study nine months a year.
itl-,CJt:.': ~'Ill~ 'EIIIl~t:.~~,, ~~ '!'CJ'1~·~~.
India is far away and nine months is a long time,
~£::.~11 ~1'":;1
~
isn't it?
~~'111l'l.':QIII1~'~11 ,~~·111~~·~,,
Yes, it is. It really is.
a,·1CJt:.·=
So [sometimes] when you missed your
s~·~t:. ·~.~~~.~~·~.~~~.~~·QI-e 1 ·~t:. ·lei·~.~·
s~·~~·lll·~·lll~t:.~-ur,, ~~·1111~·:t:.'lcl'&rs~~~·rs:i"~·fl·I:J~·CJryt:.~-ur11
parents, what did you do? When I missed my parents I would phone them.
VII. Exercises A.
Translate the following sentences:
(1) (2)
I don't usually sleep ten hours a day, but sometimes I sleep nine or ten hours. When I was small I used to eat sweets every day.
3. EI"J"'C:.'lf =[EI"J"~c;"'.j-I~~ 4. ~~ ·~c:. 'If = I~'I ·~c:. 'IfI ~I
180
Lesson 9
(3) (4) (S)
I am reading this book today. He did not know English before he came to India. When we have lots of money we go to good restaurants.
B.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
"'il;J·~~·--i&;J·~~·~~a.~·~~~·r~~l
(2)
a;·~r_·'ll~~~r¥~·
~&;J'~"~~:a,·a.~~
(3)
(5)
~'l~·~~~·r=~ "'UI~~~·~'l · "'fl'Cll~·!;l~
e&'l;J~'ll·~·tG"~ 1 'll'l 'I.\I~~&;J~&;J·4~r~)'~~ 1 4·a.~·~·a.~·'Q~·~~·s~·~-tG"~1
c
Answer the following questions:
(1)
~~·~~:;.~!;l·~~·~·~·~"r:.~·Ui~1 ~~·~r_·~f'Cll"')~·~·~·~'l"~·tG"~l Cll~·11rs~ ·)~·Cll~·"l·~·s~ ·i!f"'Clj'l;J~~·i~ry" ~-tG"~ ·c.j~1 G.~·~"·~·~~~~Eir:.·a;~·-~·~·~·s~·~·a.)~
(4)
(2) (3)
(4) (5)
b~·l;Jry"'il;J·~~·i·~~~~~·~~·~·~·s~·~·tG"~·c.j·~~l
VIII.~r::.·~qP'l~~·q· Vocabulary for Lesson Ten
Nouns play/ drama
~~~·Cll~' ~r:.·a.!:l'l'
broadcast
~~·a;·
religious texts
~~~·a.~~·
news
l;J~l;J·s·
advice
Qj~·a.~~·
responsibility
~~'l;J'
merit
~~~·
history
9-l;J'
taste
s·~Cll·
foreign
~"·~~~·
classmate
lesson
~r:.·
anger
a;~'Qii"')~'Qi!C.'
i!;l'co'l' ~~~·~"·
special holy occasions
'~·=·
sickness I illness
~ry~'l;Jf~·
dream
animal
Verbs
a;·
burn/ hurt/ cut
"·a;·Qry".
in pain
i'Qj~'
be surprised
flC.''-l'Q~Q'
build a house
~~·~~·Q~Q'
fight
~~~·s~·
help
Cll~·a.~~·a.~~·
take responsibility
Q.~
explain
Ul~::r-s~·
treat well
Q~'l'
show
181
Colloquial Tibetan show anger
Cl~"l~·
gather I accumulate/ seek
a,~~·
take
l:J~·q~q·
take photographs
~"l"'~s~·
like
SQI"CI"
busy
~""l~·q~"l~·o,~~·
want to I desire to
~·~c:.-=~·
tired (h.)
clear
!5"~·~q~
durable
"l~Qj~ ( Cl$&:1")
clearly
"'~·~~·
with each other I back &: forth
~"l~·~~·~·q~~· ~ ""l"~c:_·q~~.
every morning similarly I on top of that
~c::q~~·
accumulate (gain) merit
Adjectives "l~Qj~
Adverbs
Conjunctions "l·~·~~~~·~·f
because/ the reason why
"1"~ -t1!~ ·~~ ·~.
·Prepositions {"~"Qj"
about
Interjections ~·"1·
Ohno!
182
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 10
~ L
Page
Perspective Marking with the Coojugatioos @r!?; /~I~~+ ~·~~~·f ~T.I'~C)') in Statements A First Person: 1.
Personal Perspective on Self- (MVS +~~C)')
Sentences (1) - (S)
Impersonal Perspective on Self- (MVS +~·a.~~·) Sentences ( 6)- (15) a. [physical/ psychological) b. [external evidence about self) Sentences (16) - (20) c. [second-hand knowledge) Sentences (21) - (23) Second/ Third Person: 1. Impersonal Perspective on Others - (MVS + ~'Q.~~·f~~C)'CJ'~C)') [attestative/ general knowledge) Sentences (24)- (28) 2. Personal Perspective on Others- (MVS +~~C)') Sentences (29)- (37) [personal association]
185
185
2.
B.
n.
m.
Perspective Marking with the Conjugations @1·1 ~·f ~·1 ~~· + iliC)'CJ~'/ a.~~·~~·f iliC)'CJ'~C)'CJ~') in Questions A Second Person: 1. Personal Perspective- (MVS + ~·iliC)'CJ~') [self-knowledge) 2. Impersonal Perspective- (MVS +~-a.~~·~~·) a. [physical/ psychological) b. [external evidence) c. [second-hand knowledge) B. First/ Third Person:
189 190
191
Sentences (38)- (42)
191
Sentences (43)- (41) Sentences (48)- (SO) Sentences (51) - (53)
191 192 192
1.
Impersonal Perspective- (MVS + ~·a.~~·~~·f iliC)'CJ'~C)'CJ~')
Sentences (54) - (58)
193
2.
Personal Perspective- (MVS + ~~C)'CJ~')
Sentences (59) - (63)
193
Sentences (64)- (69)
194
The Conjunctions ~·~·~C)~~~ 'I ~·~-t'Q~ ~~~·[because/ the reason is... )
• •
185 185 186
The Construction: (MVS +~~:;.·+Verb) [to experience... )
195
~'lj·~·a.~~· vs. ~'lj'Q.~~·
196
IV.
The Conjunctions s~·~~:;.·f ~·a.s·~~::.·~~::.· [therefore/ so]
v.
Verbs Formed with Nouns
198
A. (Noun+ Verb ~ryt:.'/ ~rry~::.·~~t:.')
199
B. (Noun+ Verb ~~~·f ~~·)
199
Sentences (70)- (73)
198
Colloquial Tibetan VI.
Conversations A.
•
200
Sentences (80)- (87)
201 201
The Particles ~• and '!}.
B.
vn.
Sentences (74) - (79)
Exercises
202 203
184
Lesson 10 I. A. L)
Perspective Marking with the Conjugations @I·~·J;·/C3l + ili"I)'/Q.~~·Jili"I)·~·X.I)·) in Statements First Person Penonal Petspective on Self- (MVS + tt)~" ') [self knowledge]
(1)
.::.·~~~·l:J·!;!~QI.::.'tt)-af"l
(2)
.::.~itf.::.·ii·s~z;p~')·~·~')l
(3)
J::.'g.EI''-I~·a.'£!~·~·~')1
Sentences (1) - (5) I get up early in the morning. I don't stay up late at night. We don't smoke cigarettes.
(4)
J::.'+]'.ii'CI~~')l
I eat meat.
(5)
.::.·~%~=lf~·il:l·~~·a.~·CI~·Ui')1
I go to school alone/ by myself.
2.) L)
Impersonal Perspective on Self- (MVS + tt)·~~~·) [physical and psychological feelings)
(8)
"~'l;ll~~IIJ "'Fl'{"''~·r.~,~~ J::.''i') ·fi~l~~·r.~,~~
(9)
"'1!1 "'i6') ·~·a.~~
(10) (11)
J:;.'Q.(S~~·a.~~ J:;.'lififi'C!~·i)·a.~~
Sentences (6)- (15) I am sick./ I feel sick. [my body] I am thirsty. I am hungry. lam tired. I am cold. I don't understand.
(U)
J:;.'a)'l;l~'r.!,~~
I'm hurting./ It hurts./ I'm in pain. [a bum or cut]
(13)
.::.·~·a)'CiryJ::.~'Q.~~
(14)
"i''ll~·~·a.~~
I'm in pain. I'm surprised.
(15)
.::.·fi.::.''li'')~Q.'l;l~·a.~~
I like him/ her.
b.)
[external evidence about self]
(6)
(7)
{16)
(17)
q!l;l'l~5.~
Sentences (16) - (20) Last night I was walking on clouds in [my] dream. ['I' in the dream]
~~~~·~Efc:.·~.::.·a.~~·~.::.·Cll·.::.·~~·~c:.·~~~·~·~~·
In the TV [program] I was fighting with you.
"'" "·~ itf.::. ·~~~ ''lJ"'''lJ'J:;. ·~~ 'l:J~ ·~c:. 'Clj'~~·q·
~~·l;l~l;l·~·a.~~
Colloquial Tibetan
~ryil'.::if~ ·~"'QJ'" 'l.l~·~~~~~·~·~~Q.~~ ·~·a.~~ [Q'~"·~a;"~~·~~·~"·a.~~·~"'QJ'"'~·~~·
In the play I am in love with Perna.
Gry"·~·a.~~
'Delhi Broadcast'.
(20)
l.l~·a.~~·~"'QJ'"'~~·ifl:l9~·la.~~
In this picture I am laughing.
c.)
[seamd-hand knowledge/ reportative]
(18)
(19)
Yesterday evening I was singing on the
Sentences (21) - (23) I didn't study well when I went [used to go] to
school. [my father told me]
<22> (23)
"'ir~~·l;l~~·~~·i""·r'"~.QJ~·"l·s~·~·Q.~"l ~·~~·~~~·~~·"~.ll.~'ll.S~·~~"·~·a.~~
When I was living in Lhasa [I] was working
"'~" ·~" ·U!~ ·~~·~·ij-QJ~~·~·ll.~~·QJ'~i!ll.~'II' .,.. ~ ;~·l,j~'Cl.S)'Cl~'Q.~~
When I was little [I] used to go to my aunt's [house]
in a store. My mother told me that.
every Sunday. [she always reminds me of that]
In Lessons 6 and 7 the verbs ur~. and~~~· are introduced. Just as Uj~· is the normal verb for first person and ll.~~· for second and third person. the conjugations~·~·~·~~~-Uj~· and~·~·~'/l:l~·a.~~· are categorized in the same way. The particular usage of the particles ~·~·~·fG~' is shown in Chart 4 of Lesson 1. As previously stated when a conjugation is being explained in a general ~anner only the standard particle~·
is used. When a specific example is interpreted however, then the particular particle is applied. Ui~·ja.~~· and Ui~·l.l'~S are main verbs which denote existence (to be) and possession (to have),
while ~·Uj~·f i11·a.~~· and ~·Uj~·r.r:1:.~· are conjugations. Conjugations a/ways follow a main verb, (MVS + conjugation). The normal pattern of the conjugations is as follows: ~-Uj~·
~·a.~~·j~·Ui~·r,j·~~·
~·Q.~~·f ~-Uj"~·l.l·~~· The conjugation ~-Ui~· when used with the first person, indicates that the subject"' 'I' is the sole agent of the action, however, it does not indicate any one specific time [tense]. As explained in Lesson 9, the time element is indicated by adverbs of time or the context of the conversation. The normal verbal conjugation for first person sentences is ~-Uj~·; however, ~·a.~~· may be used if the speaker wants to state something from an impersonal perspective. There are three categories in which
~-a.~~· is used with the first person:
a.)
When expressing a physical or psychological state
In English many words which describe a physical or psychological state are categorized as adjectives, e.g., ~·'sick', [Q'{il' 'thirsty', ~~·fi~f~· 'hungry', etc. In Tibetan however, these words are always joined with a verb-ending and are categorized as verbs.
186
Lesson 10
(6) ~~·~:~~·~~~ (14) ~·r;·Qj~·~·~~~
I am sick I feel sick [my body] I'm surprised [my mind]
The English translation of sentence (6) is 'I am sick./ I feel sick.' From the Tibetan perspective, it is actually the body/ the system of c_· 'I' which has become sick and not the subject c_· 'I'. When analyzed in this way, one understands that c_ • 'I' is actually taking a third person stance, and therefore the impersonal perspective conjugation l:l~·~~~· is used. In sentence (U), c_· 'I' is surprised or astonished about something which happened externally to the sell. It is not~· 'I' which has become surprised, but it is the 'mincf of~· •r. Here again, c_· 'f is taking an impersonal third person stance. Let's look at one more example: I like him/ her. [the feeling arises from my heart] In sentence (15), it is not c_· 'I' from which the liking of him/ her arises, but from 'I's' heart, so to speak. In such sentences the impersonal perspective conjugation~·~~~· is appropriate. In any of the preceding sentences it is not incorrect to use the conjugation ~'Ul')', however by doing so, a change of meaning <X"CUTS. With Tibetan verbs that express a physical or psychological state, the use of~'Ul')' indicates a habitual tendency, or something the speaker used to do or think in the past: I~
to like him/ her.
The use of the conjugation l:l~'Ul')' in this sentence-implies that sometime in the past the speaker 'used to like him/ her.' Whether that feeling still exists or not is not explicit. ·wnen I was young, I often used to get sick.
The implication of l:l~~ ·in this sentence is: Often I would get sick as a child, itwa<>a tendency which keptnnruzring. Please remember that i.."'l first person sentences dealing with physical or psychological feelings, unless it is used in a clause structure,~·~~~· implies that a particular feeling is present at this very moment; whereas ~iG"')· indicates a previous occurren~or reoccurrence of the state According to this explanation, the following sentences show the correct and incorrect usage of these verbal conjugations: ~·'X.c_'Ujc_·c_·~~·~:~!·a.~~
Correct Incorrect
~·ex.~'Ujc_ ·~ '1\'l:l!~ 1 Today I also feel sick./ I am also feeling sick.
f~ '&l'~ '1\'t:I!'UJ') 1
Correct
f~·~·~·~~·l:l~·a.~~ I used to feel sick [before].
Incorrect
Contrary to the explanation above, a past habitual tendency is implied by the conjugation~·~~~· when the speaker wants to imply; I don't know why this problem is occuring/ I don't know why this happens to me. c_·~c_·~~·U)~·~~'Uic_'~·~~·~:~!·~~~ Correct When I was young, I often used to get sick. [I don't know why this used to happen to me.]
187
Colloquial Tibetan As the conjugation t:l~~~lll·in the previous sentence implies that the speaker does not know why a particular
feeling used to occur, the same meaning is implied when used with a conditional or a~~· clause:('!·+ past MVS)/ (MVS + ~~·). When the conjugation ~·Ui,·is used with a conditional or~~· clause,('!'+ past MVS)/ (MVS + ~~·), the spe.Uer is only relating the 'fact' of a particular habit existing in the past, no other additional information is being implied.
Chart 1 Conditional~· Cause
Verb+ Conjugation
~·QI"'"l'I.Jt:.~s~·
(a)
IS~···ra·c:~.~lll
If I work a lot, I get tired. [From past experience this has happened, but I do not know why it happens to me.]
~'GI-.·"l·~t:.~s..~·
(b)
1St:.·•,·a-ar,1
I used to get tired if I did a lot of work. [This is a fact; it used to happen"to me.] Connector~.,. Cause
Verb+ Conjugation
~·a·c:~.~111
~·~lll~rz:J·t!:zi"'GIK:;.'~"·
(c)
When I get up early in the morning, I feel lazy. [From past experience this has happened, but I do not know why it happens to me.]
~·~~~''l"t!:zi"'GIK:;.~'I'
(d)
;t:~·aii"1
When I got up early in the morning, I used to feel lazy. [This is a fact; it used to happen to me.] In sentences (a) and (c), an underlying meaning conveyed by the conjugation ~·r.~.~111· could be, why is this happening to me and not to others. This structure can be used when one notices a physical change in oneself, i.e., one is getting older, starting to feel sick, etc. Another situation in which the use of the corijugation ~·r.~.~111· is appropriate-is when a patient is talking to a doctor. "\$ The second case in which ~·r.~.~111· is used with the first person is: b.)
When relating a dream about onesel£ when telling about what one is doing in a photograp4 or relating the mtexpected/ surprising fact ofseeing or hearing oneself on the TVI radio, etc.:
ur,·f
ur,·
The verbs (.1.~9', and the conjugations ~'ili,·f ~~~~·,perform similar functions. The verb and the conjugation~·~,. with the first person indicate that the subject K:;." 'I' is the sole agent of the action;
188
Lesson /0 whereas the verb ~~Cf1' and the conjugation i11·~~~· insinuate that the subject c:: 'I' is no longer the agent, but is simply narrating the incident.
(16) OJ~~·~ 'If~.~,~ 'Qlii'Ql'~ ·~~·~"a_·~~ 'ell'~o.J''J'CI!CI'l~5_~ Last night I was walking on clouds in [my] dream. ['1' in the dream) (19) fl·~~")t!f~·-s·~·~a.·~~·~~~·~r::.·Ql·r::.·~~ ..·e~~r::.·'a!·~~~ Yesterday evening I was singing on the 'Delhi Broadcast'. ['I' on the radio]
In sentence (16), one is talking about the ~· 'I' in the dream and not about oneself. Likewise in sentence (19), one is talking about the~· 'I' who was singing on the radio. Because of this stance, the impersonal perspective conjugation~·~·~~~· is used. When talking about oneself in a photograph, the Tibetan conceptualization is that one is talking abou• the figure in the picture, not about oneself. Thus in this situation the speaker refers to himself in an impersonal manner by the use of the impersonal conjugation i11·~~~·: (20) 'J~·~~a.·~r::.·Ql·r::.·~~·ifq~~·~·~~~ In this picture I am laughing. [ I' in the photograph]
The third case in which i11·~~11]' is used with the first person is:
c.)
When relating information about oneself that has been found out .from a second-hand SOtua! (22) r::.·~·~~·e~~~·~~·i'r::.·~r::.·~·Qj-.·"l·s~·l~5.~ ~·o.~·Cll~~·~~·~~·~~·~s·~~~·i11·q~~ When I was living in Ulasa [I] was workg in a store. My mother told me that.
In sentence (22), the information is not based on the speaker's own recollection of the incident, but in this case, on information that has been told to him by his mother. In Lesson 13 the (past time MVS +~~~·)construction is introduced. In English this construction is translated with the simple past tense; whereas the (MVS +~·~~~·)construction is tenseless, the time is understood from the adverb of time or the context of the conversation.
B.
Second/ Third Person
L)
Impersonal Perspective on Others- (MVS + 'a!·~~~·f cq~·J:J·l.~·) [attestative knowledge/ general knowledge] Sentences (24)- (28) The conjugation i11·~~~· implies that the statement is attestative, the speaker has .first-hand knowledge and is giving an eye-witness account of the event. The conjugation i11·t(j~·'J·l.~· indicates that the statement is being expressed in a general manner or is a universal truth.
(24)
~r::.·~~·=l"~:qr~~~
He's reading religious texts.
(2S)
Ffg.fl~'C.J'~~~-~·~~~
They are building a house.
(26)
e~·~~·i~·!"~·s~·~·t(j~·~·l.~1
You are studying.
189
Colloquial Tibetan
(27)
<28> 1)
(29)
fi"·~~·ar~"~~4~·~·i:G"~·~·~-~~1 a"·~"-¥-IIJ~~ ~~~ .,~.~~~111
He doesn't talk much.
You are listening to the news.
Personal Perspective on Others - (MVS +1ijili"l)") [knowledge through personal association]
Sentences (29) - (37) She was teaming Tibetan at that time.
ii"~·~~~~·~~-."~ili"i)l
[we were in the same class]
"·1ffia·~"·~-~~~·~~·~~·F·~IIJ"UIIIJ~
When I was staying with them they used to
~l·~~iij"~l
make/ made good food. My son is studying in India. My daughter is eating now.
(33)
"~·s·~·lll~·~·icrf""SI)·~ilil)l "~·s·&i\~·F·~ 111 ·.~~·z::~·tG"~1 al)·~"-~".~"-~"·~·iz:rf"""'~IIJ~I)·~ilil)l
(34)
~-~~·e~·~"·4·.~~·~~-il~,
At that time you were not eating/ did not eat meat. [I remember very well]
(3s>
"·~·~~·a~·~"·¥-"~-~"·~·urz:.~-tG"~ 1
(36)
f~ ·~·6~·~z:.~~ -~~·F·q:~"Uiz:.·i;)·~l·&:J~·i:G"~ 1
When .I was sick you used to come to my house. Before you often used to make Tibetan food.
(30) (31)
(3z>
When you were young you used to study well. [as I recall]
[I enjoyed it]
<m
iti'~~~ ·f~ ·~·a~ ·~z:.·i;)~~-~~ ·r.~.s·&J·r.~.s~ -~~· &:l~~·~·Uj~l
As explained in section A, ~iij"~·
Ten years ago you were photographing all kinds of animals. (I know that was your hobby]
1S the normal first person verbal conjugation and ~-t:I.~IIJ·f~·i:G"~·"l·~~·the
normal second/ third person conjugations. In second/ third person sentences, as the verbs t:I.~IIJ'/ i:G"~·~· ~~·place an impersonal perspective on the subject, the verbal conjugations ~-t:I.~IIJ'/ ~iij"~·t..~·~~· perform the same function. Similarly both the verb i:G"~· and the conjugation ~-i:G"~· place a personal perspective on the subject. The conjugation ~~~111· implies that a statement is attestative, the speaker has first- hand knowledge and is giving an eye-witness account of the event. The conjugation ~-Uj~·~-~~· indicates that a statement is being expressed in a general manner or is a universal truth. They are building a house. [I've seen it] They are building a house. [a general fact]
In sentence (25), ~·~:~.~111· indicates, for example, the speaker has gone to the site of the house, has seen the plans, has gone shopping for some of the materials, etc. Having this first-hand information, the speaker knows that 1ff¥- 'they' are building a house F"·~-~~&:J·~·r.~.'\IIJ· If the conjugation ~-tG"~·~·~~· is used, then the speaker is merely indicating the general fact that they are building a house. ~
190
Lesson 10
Remember, even if one has evidential knowledge concerning the topic of conversation, it is not compulsory that the conjugation~·~5.9· be used. Should one prefer to relate an incident in a general manner rather than exposing one's first-hanCI experience, then it is correct to use l"e conjugation ~·Ui"" ''J'l." ·. As previously explained, the normal verbal conjugation for second/ third person is ~·~~9· f~·Ui"" '"'' l."·, however, if the speaker wants to indicate that the statement is· based on some personal association to the addressee, then the conjugation ~·(li""· is used: She was learning Tibetan at that time. [we were in the eame class]
·
In sentence (29), ~·Ui"" ·indicates that the speaker has some personal association to fl~ 'she' i.e., they studied together, lived in the same house together, she is a very close friend, etc. (31) ~a.·s·!f9~ ·~·iq"f~·s'i·lili'i 1
My son is studying in India.
lnsentence(31), the speaker wants theaspectof~~·S' 'myson' emphasized, therefore, the personal perspective conjugation lUi""· is used.
II.
Perspective Marking with the Conjugations @!·J'&·f!·ft:~'&' + ili'~·qlll'/~~111'111111'/ili'~· q·~~·qlll') in Questions
A.
Second Person
L)
Personal Paspedive - (MVS +'a!'ili'i ·q-r·) [self-knowledge]
<38>
a"·~~~~·~~·rzr~~rF~·"'~ ~q..·~-ar"·~:~-.1
(39)
<42>
Doyouwork? a"·~~·~~·,·s~·~-ur"·"'~1 a"·~~.g-111~9~·~-ii~·~·~~~·~~·Qr9~~·qv;~~iij"'l'.J~1 Do you sing on TV? Do you go to Ladhak by yourself? ·~~·~·19~r~·9~9~~ ~~·q~·Ui"') ''-~~1 Do you help Rinchen? ·~~·~~ ·~~ ·~·1;9~·~:~·9~~ ~·or" ·~:~~1
2.) L)
Impersonal Paspedive- (MVS + "a~-a.~~~~·~~~-r·) (physical and psychological feelings)
Sentences (38)- (42)
(40) (41)
Do you go to his house everyday?
5" 6"
Sentences (43)- (47) (43)
~'X.~ '5'i ·~~~ ·q~·a.~111'9..1
Are you sick today? [your body]
<">
Aren't you bored?
(~)
a"·~~~q·9~~~·il·~~c:r9~1 a"·~~·~~·~·"9~·q~·~~~:r"1~1
Do you like/ love her?
(46)
a"·~~·9·"'~·~·~·qv;r:~·~~9
Where do you hurt?
(47)
a"·~~·~":r:r-~~·q~a;r~·~~"l'9~1
Do you think that you are content? I
Do you feel you're contented? 191
Colloquial Tibetan
b.)
<48>
[external evidence] ~~~~~"l l,J;z;.·~~~·~~::.··~re•r;z;.~·~·i'";z;.·J;~-.·
Sentences (48) - (SO) Look [here]! Aren't you helping us in this
~~~~·~~~·~
photograph? ['you' in photo]
..,
(49)
-a,·;z;.~·~~~~~·~Er~·~~::.·~~~·~~:;.·
Were you singing on the TV?
<so>
~ryt:.~"Q.~~·~~l ~,"·,~~::.·~~,·
In your dream last night were you listening
~~~·~~1
to his advice?
c.)
(51) (52)
(53)
[second-hand knowledge/ reportative] Sentences (51)- (53) When you were living in Lhasa what work a"·z.~lf·~;z;.·~~~~~·s~"qj~·X.~~~~~~ were you doing (h.)? [Did you ask your parents?] Were you studying well at school? [Have you a,·;z;.~::.·i~·~z.·i~"f""Ul~~,·~·~~~·~~, seen your old report cards?) a,·;z;.~:;.·~~:;.·~~::.-tll~1~·~.q~~·~;z;.·~·~·~~t:.~·~~~ When you were little what did you [used to] do on Sundays? [Has anyone told you?]
The normal second person question pattern is ~·~,·l.J~·, and the normal reply to such questions is~~,·:
<39> e"·;z;.~::.·~-.·~·s"·~-cij""·l,J..,
~·~..·~·s"·a-cij""l
Doyouwork?
I work.
The personal perspective question pattern ~~, ·l.J~· indicates that the speaker is only interested in the personal aspect of )roo' working; no other information is being implied. As in first person statements, in second person questions, the use of ~Y.l.~~·~~· falls into three general categories: a.)
When the addressee is asked about their physical or psyc:hologicalstate ~·~~::.·a"·;z;.~::.·~·~!·g,~~·~ .. ,
Aze you sick today? [your body] Aren't you bored? [your mind]
<"> e,·;z;.~~·~~~~·~·g,~~·~ .., b.)
When the addressee is asked such things as: What are you doing in the photograph?/ What did you do in your dream?I What were you doing on 1V?, etc.: <48> ~~~~·,"l l,J;z;.·~~~·~~::.·
<so> ~,"·,~~::.·~~,.
192
Lesson /0
c.)
When the speaker asks the addressee about information they feel bas been acquired .from a second-hand sourre (51) e·r~.::.·~·~~ ·~~~~·~~·s~'QI'I'~·~·~,.::.~·~~~ When you lived in Lllasa what work were you doing? [Did you ask your parents?]
In question (51), the speaker may feel that when the addressee was living in Lhasa he was too young to be able to recall the incident of working. Because of this, the reportative question pattern (MVS + ~'0.~~·~~·) is used.
B.
First/ Third Person
1)
Impersonal Perspective- (MVS + ~~~~·~41'/ ili~·,r~~·~41')
(58)
Sentences (st) - (58) Don't I get bored when a movie isn't good? i~·~~, 'Uj~~C) ·~~·.::.~·a·;r~~~~"1 Don't I think when I work? .::.~·,·s~·~~·~~~f~ry.::.~ilil:)~·,.~~~.,1 Does he carry out his responsibilities well? ~.::.·~~·QI.,~~.,·UI~:r:r~a~·~~~~·~.,1 r:.~~·~r:.~oq~4~~~Cli!f~~Q'~~~~1 Do I explain [things] clearly to you? Does Dhondup study well? ~,·q_~~·i~"fr:.'Ul~:r:rs~·~oq~~·~~1
2.)
Personal Perspective - (MVS +~ilj~ ·~41')
(54)
<55) (56) (S'1)
Sentences (59)- (63) Do I drink water when I eat? [you know my habits]
(60)
.::.·~·~~·il·~~~·~!.::.~ili~·~:~411 rrr:. ~~·sl:) ·~.::.·~·~~~·~,r:. ~-tG"C) ·'-~~1
(61)
rrr:.~~·sl:) ·~.::.·~'Uj~:r:rs~ ·~·tij"C) ·'-~~1
Does he treat you well?
(62)
sl:) ·~.::.·s~·~·url:) ·~~'t:.~·~·~~·~iX~~·sl:) ·
When you are busy do I help you cook/ make
~·tij"C) ''-1~1
food?
~.::.·~~·,·sl:)·~~·~.::.·~~.,·lili~·~:~"1
Does he show anger [to others] when he works? I Does he get angry [with others] when he works?
(59)
(63)
Does she teach you?
[you work in the same office] The normal first/ third person question pattern is ~'0.~~~~·. The speaker uses this form when an attestative answer is expected from the addressee: (56) ~.::.·~i!Q. .QI.,~~., 'Uj~:r:r~a~ ·~~~~·~"1 Does he carry out his responsibilities well? In sentence (56), according to the situation, ~·q_~~~~· can be interpreted in either of the following two ways:
1)
The speaker has specifically asked the addressee to keep an eye onfi'r:.· 'he'. After a few days the speaker wants to know, did you watch him, did you notice, does 'he' carry out his responsibilities or not. When used in this way ~'0.1:\~·~~· insinuates, 'do you have first-hand knowledge ofseeing or watching[ him]?' ~
2.)
The speaker expects the addressee to be able to give an attestative answer because it is known that, i.e., the addressee works in the same office as f'r:.· 'he', the addressee knows [6""r:.· 'he' well, etc. 193
Colloquial Tibetan
Questions formed with the interrogative pattern ii1·Ui~·t.~·~~·t.~"'' indicate that the speaker is only interested in a general answer from the addressee:
<ss>
"'Qj~·1·s~·s."'·q~~:Tq~"~-u:~·t.~·~~~·CJ~1 Don't I thWt when I work? [Haven't you heard this?]
First/ third person questions formed with the question pattern ii1·Ui~ 'CJ"'' indicate that the addressee has some personal association to the speaker or the third person: (59) "'fl'lllll]'i!'~"''!§'~!"~-Ui~·t.~~1 Do I drink water when I eat? [you know my habits] In sentence (59), the speaker t:.• 'I' expects the addressee to be able to give a personal perspective answer based on a close relation that exists between the two of them. Due tl) this personal association, the addressee is able to 'recalf the speaker's habitual behavior, i.e., they are good friends, she is his sister, they live together, they have known each other since childhood, etc. Because of this close association to the speaker a personal perspective answer is expected from the addressee.
<63> ii"''ll"~'1·s~ ·~"'·~t:.·q~~ ·~-u:~·~~1 Does he show anger [to others] when he works? I Does he get angry [with others] when he works? [you work in the same office] In sentence (63), the speaker knows, or assumes, the addressee has some personal association to fit:.· 'he', i.e., t.ltey work in the same office, •he' is her boss, she used to work for 'him', etc. Because of this association, the speaker expects the addressee to be able to give a personal perspective answer.
III. The Conjunctions ~·X.·X.l:..::.-.·~·1 ~·X.~~·l::.-.·~· [because/ the reason is .•• ] Sentences (64) - (69) (64) (65)
"'il"flt:.'~~~~·~~·Cl~·i~~l ~·~·~~·lx..~·t:.~·
I don't go to big [fancy] restaurants because
~~'ll·~t:.:r:fi!~ 1
I don't have much money.
r:..~a;·~~:cr~'l;'Cll'CJ~-Ui~1 ll]·~·~~·i!~·CJ1 't:.''f"·l; ~· I make Tibetan tea everyday because I really ~~'Q:~ll]Q.~-t(i~1
(66)
like/ love [Tibetan tea] it. 2 t:.'~Cl]"~'~~·~·.:::~a;· all~~~~·'ll·~~·l:l·ClsCJ'~·UI~1 Every morning we circwnambulate the stupa
~·~ "Sl~ ~X..·~ 't:. ·~~Clj"''Cl"!Clj"'"Q.~~ ·Uj~ 1
because we want to accumulate merit.
s·II]~"UI"1:r:fro;-~·Cl~·Ui"1 ll]·~·~~·i!~·a;·t:.·s·C!Jx..·
[I] know India well because I have been there
'li'Elt:."''allt:.:r:f<'l.~~t:.·Ui~1
[to India] many times.
(68)
'ft:.·~QI'Q.~Clj Clj·~·~~~~·a;·[E"t:.·flr:..·a;~·q_~ll]
He is sleeping/ asleep because he is tired.
(69)
~~·~r:..·f'·q_Sll]'t.:i:t·~~·'ll·~·~ll]"~'a\lGa;·Cl~·q_~~
You know alot about nomads because your
ll]·~·~~·i!~·a;·6~·~t:.·~·~·a\l'Q.SII]'CJ'~~1
parents are nomads.
(67)
194
Lesson 10
The conjunctions I:IJ'~·~~~~·~·t I:IJ'~~~~~·~· are used when one is explaining the reason for performing an action. Tibetan sentences formed with these conjunctions are broken into two separate statements:
1.) 2.)
The original statement. ~·~·~~·)~~·~·; ~·~·U)~·i!~·~· +the reason for having made the statement
The equivalent English construction of reason often includes both the original statement and the reason, because, all in one sentence: (64) c.·~·Flc.·~~:tr~·~!J·~~·~"1 I:IJ·~·~~-•~·~"'s~·~c.~", I don't go to big [fancy] restaurants because I don't have much money.
The first sentence in Tibetan, c. ~jilt:.~ :rr~ "O.!j-z:::i'~)'&.~ 1 is the statement. 'I don't go to big [fancy] restaurants.' The second sentence, starts with~-~·~"~~·~· 'because', and then the reason for the original statement is given, i.e., c.~ ·"s~·~c. ~" 1 'I don't have much money.' Just as the English construction of reason includes both a statement and its reason in one sentence, an equivalentTibetanstructureis formed with the clauseconnector~c.·. Whether ~·~·~":a~·~·; ~-~-U)~·i!~· ~·or ~c.· is used, there is no change in meaning:
c.~·"s~·~c.~~·~c.·c.·.:a·Flc.·~~:tr~·~!J·z::J~·~~, Since I don't have much money, I don 't.go to fancy restaurants. The clause connector ~c.· is introduced in Lesson 17, Volume II. When expressing a factive or impersonal matter, the verb ~"·is used with the conjunction of rearon ~·~·~~·1\1~·~·· If one wants to express the same thing from a~ perspective, the verb~~· is used, ~-~'til~ ·)I~·~·. The English translation for both constructions is the same: (66)
c.·~~~·~~·~·t;~~~·~i'"~~·~·~~·~·z::Jsl;J·~·ur~, I:IJ·~-S~~~~~·c.·ar-i'"~~·t;~~lll~·~~~-tij'""1 Every morning we circumambulate the stupa because we want to accumulate merit.
Please note that~"· is an essential part of the factive impersonal conjunction. One never says:~·~~~·~·· The literal meaning of~·~·~\)~~·~· is: 'Why is(~"') it so?' The colloquial pronunciation of ~-~-ti)~·)j~·~· is [~c.·UI~·)j~·~·].
•
The Construction: (MVS +
f"' +verb) [to experience...]
In sentence (67) the construction (MVS +~c.·+ verb) is presented. ~c.· is derived from the noun "}~~·~c.· 'experience'. The long form of this construction is: (MVS + UJ~~· + "}~-l'r~c.· +verb);
e.g., ~~'Ul~·~·{'.~~·~c.·Ui"· [lit.: 'having had the experience of going,']
195
Colloquial Tibetan
(67)
!f~~~~~,·~·~~·~;, ~·~·~~~·~·~·~·~~·QJ·'El~~·&l~~~w~-ar~, [I] know India well because I have been there [to India] many times.
In sentence (67), ~ff~· 'have been' [lit: having had the experience of going) is used with the verb~;·. Note that in first person sentences the verb ~~·is optional; if it is dropped, no change of meaning occurs:
~'!'lll~'QJ~ff~ii~l
or ~'!'lll~'QJ-Q,ffr:.l I have been to India.
ColloqWally the contracted form is used more often. Another point that should be noted when using the (MVS + 5~· +~;·)construction, the present/ future form of the main verb must be used. In the contracted form however, either the present/ fu~ or past time form of the verb is acceptable:
Long form ~"QI~·1-q~·s~·5~~;1
Correct
C.'q!~·,-q~·s-.·5~·~;1 I've done this work [before].
Incorrect
Contracted form
~·QJ~·-,·~~·sr:;·5~, ~"qj~·,·~~·s-.·5~·, I've done this work [before]. Other examples of the contracted form are:
Correct
Correct
··5~·t•-a·5~· qq-~·t ql'"-a·5~·, etc.
In second/ third person sentences a verb at the end of the sentence is essential. According to the speaker's emphasis, either the verb~~~· or ~;·c.r~;· is used. Please note that the main verb of these constructions must be in the present/ future form; the past form is neverused. Even though the present/ future form of the verb is used, the action itself carries a past time context. The 5~· construction implies that someone 'has had the experience of doing something'. This construction is further explained in Lesson 12.
..
t)QI"!·~~~· vs. t)QI"Q,~~·
Certain verbs such as ~QJ· 'sleep' I~~;· 'sit' I and QJ~· 'stand' are categorized as telic/ end point verbs. The action of these kind of verbs has a t."'mpleted state, i.e., once one's mind and body is in the state of sleep the nervous system is inactive, the eyes closed, the muscles relaxed and the consciousness practically suspended, no more action is involved; once one is in an upright position the act of standing is completed andnomoremovementisinvolved. Whenendpointverbsareusedwith~·~·~·~~~·~l:\~',theyindicate ~ that the action is still in tJ..e process of getting to the particular state, i.e., sleeping, sitting, stand~
196
Lesson 10
16'"r::;-,qr;~~~ He is sleeping. [in the process of going to sleep]
iir::;•q;r::;·11)~~~ Jie is standing. [in the process of rising &om the dlair to standing position]
9·
In the above sentences the end point verb with ~·~·I ~~·~~Ill' indicates that one is getting ready to, i.e., go to bed/ sleep; one is going from a sitting position to a standing position. Generally~· ~-~·~~~-~5111' with an end point verb indicates a present time action, however, by the use of an adverb of time, tliis construction can also indicate a past time action. Even when used in a past time context, the implication is, the action was in the process of going on. e.g., jll''lr::;·r::;·16'"r::;~·~r::;·~·~i~~·16'"r::;-,qa·~·~~~ Yesterday when I went to his house he was getting ready to go to sleep. When end point verbs are used with a.~111·, they indicate that the action has been completed, the particular state of sleeping/ standing has already been reached. ~~ll]' also indicates that the speaker has witnessed the action:
iir::;·,qa~~~
He is sleeping. [already asleep]
iir::;•qar::;"Q,~~
He is standing. [already in an upright position]
As with (end point Verb+ ~-~~Ill') sentences, (end point Verb+ ~~Ill') sentences generally indicate a present time action. Again by the use of an adverb of time, this construction can indicate a past time action, e.g., jll' "r::;·r::;·16'"r::;~·~r::;·qa·~i~~·16'"r::;-,qa~~~ Yesterday when I went to his house he was asleep. Another point students should note is, the verbs ~Ill·~~Ill"/ ~~"'Q.~IIl'/ and 'll"'~~lll' each carry two meanings. The exact meaning being expressed by the speaker can only be understood from the context in which the word is used: ~'ll·~~lll'
~~"'Q.5111'
1.) asleep/ sleeping 1.) sitting (on a chair/ floor, etc.) 1) lying down (on the ground/ bed, etc) 2.) residing in a certain place
'ljr::;'Q.~IIl'
1.) standing up 1) one is awake
In sentence (68) below, the verb ~'li'Q.~IIl' can mean either 16'"r::;· 'he' is in the state of sleep (not in the process of going to sleep), or that 16'"r::;· 'he' is in the state of lying in a reclined position. (68) iir::;·,qa·~~~ lll'~'~"~~·~·iir::;•Ejr::;'a;"·~~~ He is sleePing/ asleep/ lying down beCause he is tired. The (MVS +~~Ill') construction, when used with verbs other than end point verbs, indicates that the discl~d information has been acquired from some second-hand source:
[I heard he] went... [I heard he] did something...
Whether ~111· indicates a reported event or an end point action, in Lhasa dialect it may be replaced by ~111·:
197
Colloquial Tibetan
'ft:.·~::.·~"l He is awake/ has gotten up. [I was told by his mother.] The reportative structure ~~If]"/ C3~1f]· is explained in detail in Lessons 13 and 15.
IV. The Conjunctions s~·~r:::.·j ~·a.s·ifr:::.·~r:::.· [therefore/ so] (70) (71) (72)
B')"Z..t:."')t:.'[llt:.~')·~·~ll]~·~t;.·C3~11]
Sentences (?0) - (73) This is good, that's why I like it. [Both] he and you have been to Tibet.
S41"~C:.~')·~·~~~"UJ!f]~~a~~·~~ll]
Therefore, [you] know Tibetan history well.
~~"Ullf]~~lll S'~"~c::t:.·')lf]~~~')1
a;·C)C3t:."C)t:."t:."(Q'~If]·~~·>a·~t;.·1 ~·~s·ii"c:.·~c:..3
Tsewang and I have eaten this food [before],
F'Qlii]'~~Q.·9''3·~r~·~~·Ui"" 1
(73)
80 we know
the taste of it [this food).
~·afC)·~~·~t:.~·~~·[J-~~If] ~·~s·irt:.·~t:.·t:.~'3~·Ul~1 This watch is durable, so I will buy [it].
The conjunctiom s~·~t;.· and ~·~s·ii~:::~t:.· are used when stating the reason for knowing something or performing a certain action. They are translated as 'sol therefore/ because of that' The literal meaning of ~~s·lrt:.·-ot:.· is 'since it is the case.' Of the two conjunctions of reason, ~'l'l.S'~t:.·~t;.· carries a stronger emphasis, 'because of that particular reason .. ' His Holiness the Dalai Lama often uses this conjunction during religious discourses when he wants to emphasize that 'because of a specific action a specific result will occur.' Just as with lf]"~"~')·ilz..·~· the s~r~t:.· and ~·~s·lrt:.·~t;.· patterns are formed with two sentences: (72) a;·"C3t:."" t:."t:. "(Q"~If]·~~ ".i! ·~t:."1 s•r~c:.·I ~ ·~s·irc:.·-oc:.'(Q"~II]·~~Q. ·9'C31"~·C3~·Ui"C) 1 Tsewang and I have eaten this food, 80 [we] know the taste of it [this food]. In sentence (72}, the first sentence states a;·"''3t:.""t:.'t:.'(Q"~IIl·~~·>a·~t;.·1 'Tsewang and I have eaten this food before.' The second sentence explains that, s~·~t;.· 'so/ therefore'' ~·~s·irt:.·~t;.· 'because of that,' (Q'~~· ~~~ "9"C3"1:j"~"'3~·Ui"" 1' [we] know the taste of it.' As the English translation includes both the statement and
its reason in one sentence, an equivalent Tibetan sentence can be formed with the clause connector ~t:. ·. Whether s~·-ot:.•j ~·~s·i.it:.·-ot:.· or ~t;.· is used, there is no change in meaning:
a;·C) C3t:."C) t:. "t:. "F"Qjlfl"~~ "ir~t:.·~t:. ·s-~·1·~·'3~·tG'C) 1 Since Tsewang and I have eaten this food, [we] know the taste. The ~t;.· connector construction is explained in detail in Lesson 17, Volume ll.
V.
Verbs Formed with Nouns
Some of the following vocabulary has already appeared in previous lessons. The objective of this particular section, is not to introduce new vocabulary, but to illustrate how the meaning of the verbalizers C3ryt:.·, which by itself is generally translated as 'send', and '3~~· 'strike' change according to the noun they are attached to:
198
Lesson 10
A.
(Noun + Verb r:.v;r:..·l r:.v;r:..·ll}~'l:..")
Non.hon
.
~~~·~~~
B.
Honorific sing
~~ol.IV~ry"·
~~~·~~"·..,~"· ~~ol.l~~ry"'~~E;_·
SlC:.'"J'~ry"'
Sl"'"l'Clry:::.·~~c:.·
~~~·f~ryC:.'
~~~·f~ryC:.'9~c:.·
~·~·ClryE;.'
Gl·~·~ryc:.·~~c:.·
~'ClryC:.'
~'Clryc:.·~~c:.·
Ji'f'ClryE;..
Ji'f'~ry" ·~~c:..
~·t.~~·~ryc:.·
~·t.~~·~ryc:.·~~E;.'
have a picrtic have a party send a letter sail a boat drive a vehicle to telephone/ call
(Noun+ Verb
J::Jtr:.'/ ~~1
Non. han
Honorific
a;c:.·~·~~~·
a;c:.·~·f~·
~ol.l'lJ'~~Cl'
think
~r::.·t.~·~~~·
afol.I'CJ'~~· ~E;.'lJ'~~·
~Cl~·s-t;~~~·
~~~·s-~~·
IJll~·~~~·
IJll~·~~·
lJ~·~~~·
lJ~·~~·
marry walk build a house dance shout photograph/ take a photo
The verb ClryE;.' by itself is generally translated as 'send', while~~~· 'strike'. When these verbs are used as verbalizers however, their mea."ling changes and becomes subject to the noun with which they are attached: ~rye:.· when joined with the noun Ul·~· 'letter' means 'to send' a letter, and when joined with II]~~· 'song', it means •to sing' a song. ~!JCl'when joined with the noun ~C:.'l.l' 'house' means 'to build' a house, and when joined with l.l~' 'photo', it means 'to take' photographs. In Chart 2 below, two honorific (honorific/ high-honorific) forms of the verbs ~ry"' and ~~Cl' are presented:
Chart 2
Non-honorific
Honorific
High-honorific
Verbs
~·lJ.~.'~ry:::.·
~·lJ~ ·~~"'IIJ~"'
~QI·c:~·~~"·
ar·~·~ryc:.·
tij·~·~~E;_·~~"·
a;c:.·~·Cl~Cl'
a;c:_·~'f~·
'~~.,·~~"·
to phone to send a letter
lJ~'Cl~Cl'
l.l~'f~·
199
~(3:::.41'41'f~·
to marry
~·t.~~'f~·tf~·
to take photos
Colloquial Tibetan Noo-hooori6cverbsformedwithCJ~'i.e.,~'l:.l~"l:Jryt;.', 'tophone',becomehororificbytheadditionoftheverbll]~"·
to the original verb, ~'l:.l~'CJ~~~~:;,·. High-halorific verbs are formed by the use of the honorific form of the 00\U\ ~QI'lJ~·, 'teleprone ',and the hooorific verb ~~~:;.·. The original verb CJryt;.' is dropped becoming, ~lll'l:.l~'111~"
·.
Non-honorific verbs formed with CJ~CJ' i.e., l:J~'CJ~CJ', 'to take photos', become honorific by the use of i~· i.e., l:J~·~~·· High honorific verbs a.re formed by the use of the honorific form of the noun ~·l:J~·, 'photograph', and the honorific verb a~· I {~·i.e., ~-z:J~ l~ ·I ~·z:J~ '{~ ·. The honorific forms of both nouns and verbs are explained in detail in Lesson 28, Volume II.
VI. Conversations A. Context: Tinley is telling Khedup about being on TV, as well as, what happened in his dream: Sentences (74) - (79) Khedup.
(74) q~~ 'Qj(ll': 'J~(II'~l;J'Qj~(ll, 'J~(II'~CJ':
Yes.
Qlll](ll1
(75) q~~ 'Qj(ll': I:;.'~'(III:;.'I)~":S:ll]~llj(ll'iji't;.·~~:;,~~~ ·~·~t;.'Qj'
Yesterday evening I was shown on TV.
l;J~~·~..q~9 ij~(II'~CJ': l)~(ll'llj~(ll,
Really?
(76) q~~·Qj~': ~1)~1 "'9~ll](ll'iji'~:;.·~~:;,~~~·~·~t;.·QI·~~·o:·
l;J~'~il'l:J'f~ ·~oq~ll] ij~(II'~CJ': ~~·~l)'~l:;.'llj'~'lll~"~~~~
Oh, yes. I was shown on TV for about ten minutes. And what were you doing?
(71) q~~'Qj(ll': ~:;.·~·~Qj'~'iCJ'~Ilj'ill:;.~ij~'J'~'q~~ ~~·
I was with many foreign students and
rrar-Ql:crl)·l)":crl)·z:J~'lf~·Qj·~l)·=·l:J41)·~·q~~
was talking to them about Tibet and
~ -~4.1'fi'4.1'1:;.~'l:J~·l;J~l;J'~·q~9 ~~'ill) I:;.'
Tibetans. Then they took/ were taking
l)~"'~'l)'lllil'Qjql:;.'l:;.'f~O:~il~'/:4~'~~· ~I) ·a; 'l:J41) ·~·q~9
my photo. And last night even in my
il~4.1'~CJ': ~~ '9'1) 'Qjij'lll'llj~~ '1)9'~·~ 'll]~"~~~9 (78) q~~'Qj4,1': ~:;,~·~Qj'Z:j'~~~·o:~Ql~'q~9
dream I was talking with them.
And what~ were you doing in the dream? I was having an audience with H.H. the
Dalai lama./ I was meeting with HH the il~4.1'~CJ': ~'I)CJl~.'Ulllj~l)1
Dalai lama. That's really good!
q~~'Qj(ll': ~~~·~~:;,·~llJ4.1'l:J'G:::.oq~~·lli'UI":crl)·l:J~·
And this morning on the radio I was also
{~'Qj'IJ\il)'ai'l:J41)'~'q~ll] l)'~'~l:;.'l;J~~~·~~:;,·
speaking about Tibetans. On top of that our
~94.1~~'1:.l~~~~'l:.l~~ll]
photos were in this morning's newspaper. Were they?
(79) &l~4.1'~CJ': q~ll]'ll]4.11
q~~'Qj(ll': q~~·~
Oh, yes they were. [For your information]
200
Lesson /0
•
The Particles ~· and ~·
The particles~· and~· can be used in several situations to imply such things as: I want you to know, for your information; ok, f m letting you know this, etc. The construction l.~')1 in sentence (76) implies 'oh
yes, I just want you to .know this.' l.~~1 r:.·ll]~ll]~·~'§'"r:.·~r:.·a.~~·~·~r:.·QJ'~~·~·~~·~~·~~~·la.~lll Oh, yes. [I just want you to know this) I was shown on TV for about ten minutes. In sentence (79) the construction 0.~11]·~ implies 'for your information.' (78) 0.~~·'11~': ...~·~r:.·~II]~'Q~'a;II]·Q~'QJ'UJr:.·r:.·~·Q~'O.~II] ...Our photos were also in this morning's newspaper. (79) ~f~r~z::J·: 0.~11]'11]~1
Were they?
0.~~·'11~': ~~Ill·~ Oh, yes they were. [For your information) The particle)' is used after the verbs l.~·; U!~·j ~~·j ~~·Q·l,~·while ~·,which has the same meaning, is used after the verb O.~IIJ·· These particles are explained further in Lesson 24, Volume ll.
B. Context: John came to see Lobsang's father. Lobsang told him that his father was taking a rest after his early morning circumambulations:
(80) ~(~·: iz::J-'Ir:.'I1J9~1 t;;'I1J9~·~r:.·QJ'J::l~"]~'~~·Q~1
iz::J-'Ir:. ·: J::l~9~·~~ 1 Ul~ ·~a.r:. ·~''1111]~·~ ''lf'll]il~·
Sentences (80)- (81) Lobsang, is father at home?
Yes he is, but right now he is sleeping.
z::J~9~'J::l"'9
(81)
~(~·: 9'~.:UI~·~~41 ~·'lf·~·g~.z::J~·9%~~J·l.~1
Why is that? It's eleven o'clock now.
iz::Ji!r:.·= 9·l. ·l.~ ·a~·~ ·~·11J9~·~"l~·Q·~=tr~z::J~·~~~·
[Because) father goes for circumambulations
11J'41z::J~·~-tG'~·:.J·l.~1 ~·a.s·~r:.·~r:.·r:f'1l"J~·
early in the morning, therefore he is tired
~·Elr:. '(5~ '"l~r:.·z::J"'II]
(82) a.(~·= lf~·Q·g.~·~i!fr:.·lll·l.·s~·~~·"'z::J~·~~~·QJ·
Why do Tibetans circumambulate [holy
4!'J~·~·~~·Q·l,~1
places) in the mornings and evenings?
iz::J-'Ir:.·: IIJ·l. ·l.~ ·a~·~ .g"l~·J::l~9~·~·~~ ·Q·l.~ 1
Because [they] accumulate merif. [In order to accumulate merit.]
(83) ~(~ ·: ~~ ·fj~ ·~r:.·~z:;J~·~~ 'QJ'~"l~·~iij'~ 'Q~l
And do you go for circumambulations?
iz::J-'Ir:.·:~~~·lll~~·s~·~·r:.~·~·~"l·Q~·a.~·z::J~·~~1
201
Actually, I don't go everyday.
Colloquial Tibetan
(84) tl.(~·: ~·l.·U!~ ·~~1
Why [not]?
iQ:ac::: ~.%.. ·~~.g~ ".%..~~·l&!·tl.~ ~ ~
~
U;j~ ·~Q.~ ·~~·
I don't get time, but I go on special
~=~~ ·"~"Qiil~ "Q.I"tl.SJ"Q~·lG'"~ 1
(85) tl.(~·:
" ~·UJ~~~1
holy occasions.
U!~·~Q.~·~~~~·~~~·~·;~·'l.%.."
'4::J~~~ Ql
That's good, but from tomorrow go everyday, ok.
gq:a~·: ~~~·~1
Ok.
(86} ~~·: gq:a~·Q,j~~1 ~·Q,j~~·~~.g~·~·a)~·Q,j·~~~~·l.~1 Lobsang, what time will [your] father get up?
iQ:a~·:~·g~.~~~·S,-(~·Q,j·Q~~~·~·l.~1
He '11 get up after an hour.
(87) tl.(~·: ~~·~·~·g~.~~~·S,·"t~·<1.1·Ui~~·~~1
Oh then, I' 11 come [back] after an hour.
iQ:ac:·:ry~ry~·l.~1
That's fine.
VII. Exercises A.
Answer the following questions:
(1)
6~ ".%.,~ ~·~·Q,j~~·q~~·El~·~f'~ ·~·Ui~ ·q·l_~ ·q~1
(2)
~·~·Q,j~~·~~~·q·~~Q~~~·lQ.~~·~~1
(3}
s~·.%..~·4·:a·Q~·Uj~·q~1 ~·l.·U!~·~~,
(4}
~··~rs~·.%..~·El~·a;~·~·Q.~~·~~1
(5}
~9~·~·~~~Q,j·~·Ui~·q~1
B.
Translate the following sentences:
(1) (2) (3} (4) (5)
He's listening to music. I am sick.
C.
Change the following verbs into their honorific form:
(1)
a;~·~·Q!JQ"
(2)
(3}
fl"'l.%.."Qry~·
(4)
'l.%.."Q!JQ" tl.9j-
(5)
~~~·Fqry~·
(6}
<1.1~·
(7)
'iq~·s-Q!JQ"
(8)
.iii"
Last night I was walking on clouds in [my] dream. I don't go to big [fancy] restaurants because I don't have much money. Why do you go to his house every day?
202
Lesson 10
Vllt.ll~·a""l·"l~~·r.r Vocabulary for Lesson Eleven Nouns Cl~:t.·~~·
chili
(Q~·s·
peach
~sl'rAJil~·
Lhasa dialect
lr"·a;~·
Tibetan dress/ clothing
Cl"f~·
designs/ style
expenditures
il~z::·if
~~"·
tea chumer
~~·~~·
season
~s:t.·,·
summer
winter
f~·,·
autumn
"~~·~·
"'l:t.·~·
Sherpa
"s"·,· u,·l:"z:r
spring
Europe Toyota
F~·~·r·
Canada
.... ~wr·
a;:t_·~·
rain
~~lll~rr~·
machine
Ql~·a;·
tools
s·~s~·
baby
~~·CI~:t.·
translator
~~·
milk
" ~CI~·r:t,·
car (h.)
~QI~
sleeps well
Verbs a;:t_ ·~·CiryZ::.
rain
Q.~Z::~
drinks well
Adjectives ~·~;
salty
IIJ~:q.
strong/ thick
":t.~
strong/ potent
~s~
similar I resembles
~"'!!"'!!"'
inexpensive
~~~·~"·
simple/ humble
Sl~·~·l.~·
suppose
Sl~·~~s·
seems
~~·¥z::·~·e~g,e~·
speaks perfectly
Ql~·z:~~·
by hand
~~~·
a bit/ OK
not that...[good]
~~s·
like that
except one
111%~·~%~~
only one
~·~~· ~~J%11J·~·IIllf~~· ~"~~~~·~e~·
~z::~s·
how I in what manner
~"~S~IIJ·
what kind (of thing)
lfl"~s·i!:t.· ~~-~~·
in what manner/ how
f~·~~·
how difficult (is it )
how tasty
93"·~~·
how cold
Adverbs
quite a lot
lnte"ogatives
203
Colloquial Tibetan
~C)·~~t~r
how pleasant
Ul"j'~~·
how good
011:;.'~~·
how many
~Ill·~~·
how well does [she] sleep
O.~t;.·~~·
how well does [she] drink
01~"1~·~~·
how quickly
204
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 11
~ Page L
Quality Emphasis Construction X..~·f a.~~· I Ui'~·z:.J·X..~·
n.
Statements of Uncertainty UI~·~·X..~·f z:.J"Cl.!:i"/ z::l"f-Cl.~l:lj·
• m. IV.
VI.
vn. vm.
Sentences (11) - (20}
208 210
[l:lj~·c:z.!:i~·]
The Question Form: I:I]""Cl.!:i"~l:l]·f [l:l]~·a.!:i~~·] [What kind of/ type of/ sort of thinr,?]
Sentences (21) - (27)
211 211
Sentences (28} - (34)
2U 2U
Personal perspective ~·Ui'~·
The Question Form: I:I]""Cl.!:i"~~·f [l:lj~·c:z.!:i~·1tr] [How? I In what manner?]
•
207
(MVS + C:Z.~l:!]·f [z::l~l:lj·])
The Question Form: I:I]""Cl.!:i"/ [How is it? I What is it like?)
• v.
Lij'~·~·X..~·f z:.J"Cl.!:i"/ z::l~Cl.~l:lj·
Sentences (1} - (10}
213
Sentences (35}- (42}
Listing of Actions
214 214 216
Adverbs of Degree A. Positive B. Negative c. Plural
Sentences (43}- (47) Sentences (48)- (52) Sentences (53) - (58)
216 216 217
Questions Formed with the Degree of Quality Particle ai~·
Sentences (59} - (66}
217
Conversations A.
Sentences (67)- (70}
219 219 220 220
•B.
Imperative Form~"· vs. the Conjunction~"·
c.
Sentences (71} - (79} Sentences (80) - (83}
IX.
Exercises
221
X.
Vocabulary for Lesson U &l"·a;-l:l]·l:l]~~·z:.J·
221
Lesson 11 I.
Quality Emphasis Constructions l.r::..;/ ct.~~· I "f~·c.rl.~·
The additional information in the square brackets on the English side are provided so the student can get a sense of the various kinds of implications that the verbs%..~·;~~~· and ur"·r.~·X..~· carry.
Sentences (1) - (10)
(1)
%~.1ilc~·ii-X..~1
(2)
%~·ilc.~·ifa.~IIJ
"
"
"
(attestative)
(3)
%~·ilc.~·ir-Cli~·r.~·X..~1
"
"
"
(a general known fact)
a;·a;·rzl~Ji~·r.~·X..c:l
Chili peppers are hot. Salt is salty. [as every one knows]
(6)
~-a.\sFif~~~
This water is cold. [I just dipped my hand in it.}
(7)
f"ClJ~·~~·a;~~~~
This food is hot. [I just tasted it.}
(8)
'E"~·~·~~ ~U:"·r.~·%.."1
Tibetan tea is strong.
(9)
IJI"~~·c.~ ~~ 1
Alcohol is strong/ potent.
(10)
(Qii"S"~~·~~·~~~~
This peach is sour. [I took a bite.)
(4) (5)
~~~·r.~"'.2Fra;~"1 • • R>
.
1
Sugar is sweet. (simple fact)
In this section the subtle differences between the usage of the verbs X..~· I~~~· and U:~ ·r.~·X..~ ·are explained. These verbs: a.) indicate the way in which the speaker has come to know about the expressed quality, (i.e., simple fact, attestative, general fact); b.) provide choice and flexibility to the speaker so that he/ she can modify statements and questions according to the current/ present context.
Chart 1
Simple Fact (1) %~·ijc.:~·~~1 Sugar is sweet.
Attestative (2) %~ "i!C.~ ·ii-a.~IIJ Sugar is sweet.
General Known Fact (3) %~ ·ilc.~ ·lfClicrr.~·X.." 1 Sugar is sweet.
'
In sentence (1) the verb%.."· indicates that the speaker is relating a simple fact; it simply identifies the fact that sugar is sweet.
-------------------------------------------------------
1. The word~~· was derived from the Indian (Hindi)/ Nepali languages when it was introduced and brought into Tibet around the beginning of the 1900's. The proper Tibetan name for sugar is S'll'')1:.'"'·
z.
1;1~" 'I:J'l
0
;
~"I:J'l ')
Colloquial Tibetan
In sentence (2) the verb ~~~· indicates that the statement is attestative, the speaker has personal .evidence upon which to base their statement, i.e., one has had the experience of tasting sugar. In sentence (3) the vero Uil) ·.c.:·X.')· indicates that the statement is a general known factor a universal truth. The sentence%~·cllt:.X.'~') ·:.:·X.C) lliterally means, '[In general] sugar has [possesses] the quality of sweetness.'
II.
Statements of Uncertainty- based on appearance/ manner, etc~
~r..·1 Cli'1·~·~·r> I ~r..·1 Cli'1·r.ro.s·> I ~".'I Cli'1·z:tT=o.~~·) (suppose/ seems to be/ seems that/ seems as though) Sentences (U) - (20) (11)
(13)
~z:3·~~ '{lll'cll''ll~·~·r~~'l''I'X-~1
[I] suppose this book is Dolma 's.
~~a.·~t:.''ll'fl£:. ~·&!~::. ·~~~
Her name is on it.
fi~::.··~r~·"~·~"·~·cll·x." 1 "~~·~" ·111 ~~::.·ell·
[I] suppose he is not from Lhasa. [He] doesn't speak
q~z:r~·&!·~~£11
Lhasa dialect perfectly.
&!·~:o~~~')·:.:~'l·r.a-o.sl 'q')·a;~·~'l·3~~~~~~
It seems that that person is a Tibetan. [He) is wearing a Tibetan dress. [I just noticed it.)
(14) (15)
(16) (17)
(18) (19) (20)
~'cll''ll~~·~·~~::.~·~·~~r&~'l·:.:·~sl
Nyima doe:;n 't seem to be Tsering's child.
~·~~::.·~s:cl·&!·~~~
[He] doesn't resemble him [Tsering].
~~ ·~')S'l ~·r•.r~'l.·~~·illl~'l·z:ii=Q.~'q
These seem to be the clothes of that westerner
~·l.·l.C)~X.''l'~~·~')S'l~Q.·q'f~·4i:~1
over there, because they are western designed.
')S'l ~·~:o~~·'l~::.·:.:·~'l''3l·&!'ll.~£11
It seems that that westerner is not a Buddhist.
~~·~~'ll·4~·~·&!·~)~
[He) doesn't know how to do prostrations.
4~'X.'3''ll'')~'ll'cllt:.'ljiif~·-.·l.~1
Perhaps Sherab has a lot of money.
~~~::.·~·s~~·t3ryt:.~~)lll
[He) spends lots of money.
i"~·~'ll''ll~~·~:s·ir~·l:Q·'lliif"·r.a·Q.sl
It seems that Mr. Chogyal's daughter is in Europe.
[5"t:.''ll'~·~q·'l~·~·~'Uit:.'~·Ui~::.~·~~~
He often gets letters from there [Europe).
~~·:.:x.=Q')·:.:·')t:.'4X.'.C.:.cq".qf=Q.~'q
ThereseemtobeTibetansandSherpas[living]around
(QC:.'.C.:'cllt:.'~'t3a.i'"~·1x.·')x.·~~·~~~
here. Most houses have prayer flags on [their) roofs.
~f.X.t:.ft:."ll''ll~'1itil)·~·cll·l."1 fi~::.·~~'3~·~~~ [I] think he has no work today. He is playing.
In Lesson 4, section IV, and Lesson 7, section IV, ~'l ~·l.C) ·and Uil) ~·l. ')·are introduced respectively.. These phrases of uncertainty are labeled 'speaker-based' as there is no evidence on which to base the statement; the speaker is merely expressing a personal opinion or making a personal judgment. The statements of uncertainty introduced in this section with ~'1'/ Uil)·~·l.C)·, ~'l·f Uil)·:.:~s· and U,'l·f Ui"C)·q"f~s~· are labeled 'evidence-basecl'. When the speaker, due to lack of information, is unable to give a factual statement or 3. w~·= ~'\·] 4. cii~· = (iCl~·]
208
Lesson I I definite answer, an assumption based on circumstantial evidence is made. Such statements are often accompanied by a sentence which refers to the evidence on which the speaker has based the assumption. Even if no accompanying evidential statement is provided the constructions themselves imply that the speaker has some due or information concerning the subject. The factive verbs U!~·; ~~·are used in definite statements, whereas iG'~·f Cl.~ll]· and iG'~·z;J·~~· are used in evidential statements. It is important to note that only the verbs U!~ · and iG'~ · are used in statements of uncertainty. In this construction these verbs are used for all three persons. The verb U!~· is used when identifying a person or object one is unsure of:
Definite Statement
Statement of Uncertainty
rr~~~·z;J·~~1 He is a Tibetan.
rr~ ~~ 'z;J-81~ ·q·~s 1 It seems as though he is a Tibetan.
the verb iG'~ ·is used when talking about the possession, location or modification of something one is uncertain of:
Definite Statement
Statement of Uncertainty
rr~·Qj·~·Ir~~~ He has a hat.
rr~·Qj·~·J.Jilj~·q·~s1 It seems as though he has a hat.
The usage of the various phrases of uncertainty,U!~·; iG'~·~·~~·, U!~·f Ul~'z;J'Cl.S', U!~·f iG'~·Q-r'll.~ll]' are based on appearance, quality, manner, etc. Although all three of these structures are similar in meaning and can be interchanged, there are subtle differences which should be understood by the student. The structure ~~·1 iG'~··r~~· in English is translated as, 'I suppose', 'perhaps', etc.: (U)
~Q'Cl.\j"QJ".J.J"QJII]~·~-fil~·"·~~1 I suppose this book is Dolma 's.
(17)
~~·~Q'QJ'~SQJ'.J.J~:tiili~·.,·~~1 Perhaps Sherab has a lot of money.
As previously explained, the non-evidential form U!~·; iG'~·l~~·, 'I think', 'maybe', is used when there is no evidence whatsoever to back up the statement and one is merely expressing a personal opinion or making a personal judgement. In this lesson the evidential form, Ul~ ·I iG'~ ·~·~~ ·, 'I suppose', 'perhaps', etc., is used when the speaker is unsure of a certain fact, but has some evidence on which to base the
statement Both the forms U!~·; iG'~'z;J'll.S' and U!~·; iG'~·Q~Cl.~ll]· mean 'seems to be' In order to distinguish the differences between the two structures one must etymologically examine the roots of the two verbs. The word Cl.S'in thephraseofuncertaintySl~·; iG'~·q~s·is derived from theadjectivell.s:t:r,meaning
'looks like', 'alike', or 'similar to', e.g., rr~·rr~~'W'.J.I'Qlll]~·~s~Cl.~£11 'He looks like his [own] mother.' (13)
i:)·z•r~~~ 'z;J-81~ ·q·~s 1 t:r~ ·a;~-~~ 'I:J~II]
It seems [looks like] that person is a Tibetan. [He] is wearing a Tibetan dress.
209
It seems [the appearance of the situation is) that Mr. Chogyal's daughter is in Europe. He often gets letters from there [Europe). The word :::'i- in the phrase of uncertainty tQ~·j Ui~·Q"io.~~· is derived from the noun z:::~~·, which depending on the context in which it is used, means 'design', 'shape', 'modef, etc., e.g., (ZIC:.''J"r.l.~ ~C) ''J'il.· Qi"·w·~~:;,1 'This is a Tibetan style/ designed house.' (15)
.
~·~"'s~ ~·r.s·~'Q.·~~·ill1·iil~·Q"io.~"l
These seem to be [have a western design] the
~-x_
clothes of that westerner over there, because
·x."' ·-a~-~ ·r.~.C;·~c;s~ ~·ct:z::~~-x."'l
they are western designed.
(19)
r.!.\l.i~ ·~c; ''J'c;c:.·-'1~ ''-''Ui'1'Q'f0.~"1
"There seem to be [the area has the resemblance
~::.·.::.rcJ.Ic:. ·d5 ·z::'Q.·Ef~·,.,.:.l\·c:: ~·~:n·r.~.c;:n
ofa Tibetan/ Sherpa area] Tibetans and Sherpas
'
I
I
1
-,
~I
[hving) around here. Most houses have prayer flags on [their) roofs. Negative statements of uncertainty are formed by using one of the negative particles. Look at the following structures carefully: U:~·~·~~·'X_C)·
tG'c;,·~·~~·'X_C).
~~·tlT.lS'
~'1':.J·r.~.s·
U:~·z::~·~·r.~_~~·
(ij'~ ·z::~·~·r.~_~~·
Examples of these negative structures are given in the text. When statements of uncertainty are formed with adverbs such as, l:!~~·s ~·~ · 'maybe', 41<11'~~ • 'most probably', ~ '<"lJ.J.l' 'possibly', etc., generally the statement will end with one of the phrases of uncertainty:
~~~·s~·~·~c:.·<"lJ·~~<"lJ·Ui'1·l"·~'11 Maybe/ It's possible he doesn't have[any] money.
1'.4QI·~~·z::::r4~·~ '.:.1\.J.l'~··'-J~ ·ur'1·~·~'11 Most probably Tashi is in Dharmsala.
(MVS + ~~"]'/ (~~~·]) In sentence (13) the verb-ending 'l.~~·j z:::~~· is used. In this sentence, the verb-ending indicates that the speaker has just found out, or just noticed that which is being expressed: Z5"'c::·a;:.J·~a.·o.~~~~ I [Q~IIJ] [He] is wearing a Tibetan dress. [as I just came to find out)
In the sentence above, r.~.c::1 ~·;
z::ta,~· indicates that the speaker has looked at the person and just noticed, or ~I ' just come to find out thd t he is wearing Q~ ·a;~· 'a Tibetan dress'. The structure (MVS + flr:..,q-.·j z:::r.u:r) is explained in detail in Lessons 13 and 15. "
I
.
I '
210
Lesson II
III. Tbe Question Form:
lfl"'~S'/ [~~·~s~·]
Sentences (21)- (27) Sir, you are from Nepal, arcn 't you? Yes, I am from Nepal.
(21) a. ~~''llll)(ll1 '&')'~l::.'t::l'll'~Ql·~~·~')'~1
b. ~')1 I::_'~Qj'~Qj'~(ll'U!~1 (22) a.
[How is it?/ What is it like?]
~~·~Qj~Qj'(ll'C!i'llli::.'~S·Sui"')·CJ·~')1
Then what is Nepal like? [How is it? I What kind of place?]
b. !')~~')'CJ'~')1 . (23) a. IIJ~'l'lll~~·~~~z::·Q.s·Ui"')'CJ'~')1
[It] is pleasant.
What is the weather like? /How is the weather?
b. ')s~·,·!,~ur~·CJ·'~·x.,, C!j.%.'CJ''J!::.~~1z::·
In the summer (monsoon) it is not pleasant, it rains a lot. But in the winter, fall and spring it is pleasant.
~-~,1 U!~·~Q.!::_"~~-[Zl"')i::.'f~·'T]'')I::.' 1S1'1~·i'.%.·a,~Uj~·CJ·~,,
Now the teacher asks the student: (lf) a. ~~~~z::·~~::.·6')'~1::_~,·~')"5l::.'IIJ~I::.~iiJ')'CJ'~~"r;i1 And these days you are learning Tibetan, aren't you? Yes, I am learning Tibetan. b. 'lli!J~-ur~ 1 ~::.~~·~~·s~::.~·ur') 1 (25) a. 'i"c:·~~·l:l~::_'ll.S't:~'\r:n 1 '\..+ -~ I
How is Tibetan?
I
b. 'f')·~~·lll~·~~·i!·ll.~9 U!~·~Q.Z::'~IIJ~~
Tibetan is not easy. However, it is also not
UIZ::'i!'Cl.~ll'J
very difficult.
(26) a. ,~.~~·~z::·r.~s·r.~~IIJ
How is the teacher? I What is the teacher like?
b. UIIIJ~t:l~IIJ (21) a. ~·~z::·s~·~z::~·~~~·CJ·~llj'Cl'lf1Z::'Il.S't:~~lf1 b. ~·'i:.z::·(iiz::·~~~ll.~IIJ
How is your friend Lhakpa today?
[He is] good. Today she's well.
In questions concerning inanimate objects, the question word 1111::.'~5' means 'What is it like?' or 'How is it?' When asking about a person, IIJI::.'Q.S' indicates that the speaker is inquiring about:
a.) b.) a.)
someone' s condition, i.e., their health, happiness, etc. or what the person is like, i.e., nice, intelligent, beautiful, etc.
If one asks, 'How are you?', the closest Tibetan translation is, 61·~~::_·~11J~~~·t::l~=t:i-fil~ ':J_~l· However, if one wants to ask, 'What is your health like? I What is your condition (these days)?', the question word 1f1Z::'Q.S' is used:
~·~z::·~~::.·a')·x.~·lll~·~s·,~lll
How are you these days? [your health/condition]
In the text, the following example is given: (27)a. ~·~z::·6~·~~::.~·~11](1l":.!''llf1'CJ'IIl~·ll.S'Cl.~ll1 5. ~~"Q.S' = (:n~·~S4l']
How is your friend Lhakpa today?
----------~--------------
211
Colloquial Tibelan lhakpa may not hav~ been well recently, or the speaker may not have seen her for sometime, therefore he/ she is inquiring about her condition. Understanding this, the meaning of the above sentence is: 'What is lhakpa 's condition like today?' In this context ~~:::c:z.s· is used to inquire about someone's general condition or health. ~~·c:z.s·
b.)
is also used when one wants to know what another person is like; (manner, ability, etc.):
(26)a. ~~·4!~·~~·c:z.s·c:z.~~
How is the teacher? I What is the teacher like?
In question (26), the speaker is interested in knowing, i.e., what the teacher's teaching abilities or qualifications are like, how he is/ hls manner, etc, Answers to such questions always take an adjective: [He is] good.
In questions ~~·c:z.s· is placed between the subject noun and the verb; in the answer ~~·c:z.s· is replaced by an adjective, however, the order remains the same: (Noun+ ~~:c:z.s· +Verb) (Noun+ Adj.+ Verb)
fl"lll~·c:z.~ ·~~·c:z.s·c:z.~~
fl'lll~·c:z.~ ~'~~c:z.~~
How is this food?
This food is delicious.
~~·c:z.s· questions are always formed with either the verb c:z.~~· or Ui~·z:.~·~~·· The verb c:z.~~· implies that the speaker has first-hand knowledge upon which to base~ statement; whereas Ui~·z:.~·X:~· implies that the statement is a general known fact or a universal truth. Question (22) a. is phrased with the general factive verb Ui~·z:.~·~~·, therefore the addressee answers accordingly:
a. ~~'QQj~Qj'~'CI)'~"·c:z.siii~·z:.~·l.~l
b.
~~~iii~·crl.~l [It) is pleasant. [as everyone lc:nows]
Then what is Nepal like?
[How is it? I What land of place?] Question (25) a. is phrased with the attestative verb c:z.~~·, thus the addressee replies with the same ending:
a. ~~·~~·~"'c:z.S'C:Z.~~
b. ~~·~~'QI'I'~·li·~·c:z.~~ Tibetan is not easy. [from my experience]
How is Tibetan?
One should note that it is not mandatory for the speaker to answer according to the posed question, however in general this is the guideline one should follow.
IV. The Question Form: ~z::.·~s~~·f [~~·~s~~·] [What kind of/ type of/ sort or!) (28) a. a~·~"'Qj~Q~·r~·Ui~·z:.~~l b. Qj~~·or~ 1
(29) a.
~"·c:z.s~~·6ur~1
b. ~Uf(?~~·Ui~l
Sentences (28) - (34) Do you have a car? Yes, [I do]. What kind do [you] have? [I] have a Toyota.
212
Lesson I I (30) a. r::.~·~~iS'~"'tclJ~~~iij"~1 rs~·~r::."Cll"Z!Jr::.~s~~iij"~l
b.· r::.~"'~ 1 ~·!i~ctrur" 1
I have a red car. What color is yours?
I have a white one.
(31) a. [Qr::.·QJ·~~~·~r::.·~s~~·~~~
What kind of carpet does he have?
b. [Qr::.·QJ~~·'J~·~~~~~~~~
He has a Tibetan carpet.
(32) a. ~~·s~·f~·}"~r::.·~s·~'ll·~~'ll
What kind of table does Norbu have?
b. ~~·s~·f'll·}"~r::.·l~~'ll· ~~'11 (33) a. ~'JQJ·~s~·~·~r::.·QJ·s·M'llr::.~s·~'ll·~~'ll b. ~'JQJ~s~ ·~·~r::.·QJ·s·ii·~clJ(Ir~r::. ~'11·~~ '11
He [Norbu] has a beautiful one [table].
(34) a. rs~·~r::.~·s·~·ri'~·~r::.~s~~·QJ·~r::.·QJ·ilJr::.·~·ur~,
What time of day does your son come home?
What kind of girl is at Paljor's house?
A simple/humble girl is at Paljor 's house.
b. r::.~·s·~afr::.·S"~r::.·QJ·urr::.·~·ur~,
My son comes home in the evenings.
The compound question ~r::.·a.s~~· means 'what kind of,' 'what type of,' 'what brand of,' 'what sort of,' etc. The exact meaning being conveyed by 'llr::.·~s·~'ll· is specified by the preceding sentence or the context of the conversation: (30) a. r::.~·~~"'tclJ~:ey~~1 ~·~r::."Cll"Z~Jr::.~s~~l
I have a red car. What color is yours?
In the first statement the speaker is talking about the cqlor of his car. Therefore, in this context 'llr::.·~s~'ll·
means 'what color'. What lcind of carpet does he have? In this sentence the speaker is talking about a specific object and wants to know what kind it is 'llr::.~S~'ll·, ~e.,
what kind of carpet (34) a. B~·~r::.~·s·~'f·i'"~·~r::.·a.s~~·QJ·~r::.·QJ·Uir::.·~·Ui~l
What timeofdaydoesyoursoncomehome?
In this sentence the speaker is talking about time, thus in this context ~~·~~·'llr::.·~s·~'ll· is translated as 'what time of day.' In other contexts this question form could also indicate time such as, 'what season' (summer, autumn, etc.), or 'was it a good or bad time'. As explained here, it is important to translate 'llt:.'~S~'ll· according to the context of the question.
• In sentence (34) a. the verbal conjugation ~·Uj~· with the third person places the emphasis on the mother's association to her son, in this case, your son What time of day does your son rome home?
If the question is phrased with the normal third person verbal conjugation~·~~~·:
rs~·~r::.·~·s·~~·~~·'llr::.·~s·~'ll'Qj'~t:.·Qiilfr::.·if!·a.~~
Whattimeofdaydoesyoursonromehome?
the emphasis is solely on the 'san' and not the mother's association to him.
213
Colloquial Tibetan
In English, the personal association emphasis provided by the verbal conjugation ~-ill~· in first and third person questions, can only be communicated through intonation. If one asks, 'Does your son eat meat?' and the addressee replies, 'No, does your son eat meat?,' it is the stress placed on the noun phrase or pronoun, in this case 'your son', which is equivalent to the emphasis provided by the conjugation ~i(j~··
The Question Form: ~"·~s·l~·/ [~~·~s~·l·] [How ••• ?/ In what manner••• ?)
V.
(35) a.
Sentences (35) - (42)
6~·:t.c:'iz:J'SJ:t.'!~Jr:;.~s~:t.·~q'f''&ii~1
How do you come to school?
b. c:·iz:J'SJ:t.'.olJC:'O.iS":t.'z:J~~-~~rUic:~·Ui~l
I come to school by bicycle.
(36) a. tf4~·6~·:t.c:·~·~IIJ~·t.ll
And your friend?
b. c:Q.·~~~·t.~·iz:J'SJ:t.·~~·t.~·z:J~z:J·~~·Uic:~·Ui~·t.~·l.~l My friend walks to school./ [comes by walking]
(31) a. ~~~~'lf)C:"Cl,S:a:t.~'SC:~'QI~~~"tJ·l:.~l How does Chonden go to [his] office? b. iic:·~c:·o.ii:t.·~r:;.·Cll~z:J~·~·Ui~·t.~·l.~l
He goes by car.
(38) a. 6~·:t,r:;.·z:J'll~'ll·~~'tf4·~:t.·lllr:;.·o,s~:t.·it!~~·~·Ui~1 b. c:·~·lll:t.'~~'tf4·~:t.·lll~~·~:t.·o.!j·z:J~·Ui~1
How do you go to America from Nepal?
I go to America by aeroplane via India.
(39) a. lr~·:.:~·Q]~~·lllc:'Cl,s·i!:t.·z:Jl·z:J~'Ui~·t.~·l.~l
How are Tibetan carpets made?
b. lf~·t.~~·~~~·'lllll't.l~'z:Jl·~~·Uj~·t.~·~~l
They [Tibetan carpets] are made by hand.
(40) a. lf~·~·lllc:'Cl,s~:t.·z:Jl'z:J~·Ui~·:.rl.~1
How is Tibetan tea prepared?
b. ~~·'ll·~t)::.·i:i:t.·~-~111~· ~-~~·~:t,·~c:·~·z:J~z:J' 114~-z:J~'z:J~·Ui~·t.~·l.~l
First tea is put into the chum, thenbutterandsaltare added. And thenitisprepared[i.e.,bychuming].
(41) a. 'll~·..,·o.~·lllr:;.·o.s~:t.·s~·~~~·l.~l
How do you do this work?/ How doesthiswork have to be done?
b. 'll~·,·a.~·a.~Cll·a.rr:t.·~~-s~·~q;~·l.~,
This work has to be done by machine.
(42) a. 'lllll'~·o.~·~lllc:·o.s~:t.=i:l~'f~·s~·~~~-l.~l
How do you use these tools? I How do these tools have to be used? These tools have to be used by two people.
The adverbial question phrase lllc:·o.s·1!:t.· is translated as 'How...?' or 'in what manner?' This advetbial phrase modifies the main vetb, i.e., go= How do you grP., sing= How do you sirJd', play= In what manner is it played?
How do you go/ rome to school? The phrase l!lC:'O.S'il:t.· always appears in the question just before the verb. For instance, ~c:·o.s~:t.~q'f·~·
ur~ ,, lllr:;.·a.s·a:t. ·111~~·q~r:;. ~-ur~ ,, 111c:·a.s·a :t. ·~if-~~~-Ui~,.
214
Lesson I 1 Answers to these adverbial question phrases can be divided into three sections:
1)
Preposition~~·
'by':
In response to ~t:.·'4s·1!~· questions the preposition~~· is often translated as ·by', in the context of coming or going by a particular mode of transportation (35} a. rs~·~c:.·~l;J·~~·~c:.·a.s·~;r..~Q"'·~·ur~,
b.
How do you come to school?
t:.'~l;J·~~·"!t:.·Q,~;r..·~~·~~·Uj.;:~·~~, I come to school by bicycle.
The response to question (35) a. could literally be translated as, 'Having ridden/ after riding a bicycle I come to school.' (Refer to Lesson 9, section IV, sentence (61}.) In sentence {36) b.~"'· is used with the verb stem ~cJJ.!J't;J~t;J·. Here ~cJJ·z:.rt;J~t;J·~~'r has been translated as, 'walks to.' or 'by walking':
t:.~ ·~~~·I:J·~l;J·~~ ·~~·~·Q!IQ·~~·Uic:. ·~·Uj~ ·z:J·:X..~ 1 My friend walks to school. [comes by walking) Once again, the literal translation of this sentence could be, 'Having walked/ after walking, my friend comes to school.' According to its usage, the English translation of the preposition ~~·changes. On occasion it can be translated as 'from':
t:.•t;J"-1~"-l~~·!J·~~ '<1.1'~~ 'I:J·U!~ 1
~~·!J·'4~·fS'"c:.·~~·s~·~"·"-~·:x..'1, This present is from him to you.
I w~t from Nepal to India. 1)
Dative
Ql":
In this section the dative <1.1. is translated as 'by', 'on', particular mode of transportation (37)a. i"'~·~~ ·"-~~~·~c:.-a.s~:r..·"-~~·~::.~·"-~·
'in' when expressing to come/ go byI on/ in a b.
~~~·"&iij'"~ ·~·~ ~ 1 How does Chonden go to [his] office?
[S'"t:."it:.·a.~:r..·~c:.·"-l'~l;J~·~·:11~ ·c.:·:X..~ 1 He goes by car.
Other examples of the dative <1.1' usage concerning responses to ~t:.·Q,s·1!~· questions are:
[S'"t:. ·~l;J·~~ '"1'=-·a.~:r..·QI'tqt:. ·~-u:r~ ·I:J·:X..~ 1
~:;.·g.~~~·~;r..·Q,~"l;J~·U!~ 1 We're going in/ by a plane.
He comes to school on bicycle.
S.)
Instrumental particles:
The instrumental particles,~~·I ~~·I ~~· and ~~·I U!~· in this section are translated as 'by' or 'with':
(42}b."-l~·ilj·Q,~·a;·~·~~·'&.,·"i!l~'f~·s~·~~~·:x..~, These tools have to be used by two people. 215
or
~·~~.,.'&.,·"-~~·ar;·C4~·~~·~~·s~~ar~·:x..~, [By] two people have to use these tools.
Colloquial Tibetan
In example (42) the instrumental particle ~~·presents the subject of the action. Here the particle~~·
indicates 'who', ~·~~~·~~·'by two people', must use the tools Ql~'a3"'\~·~~·~~·sl:)·~i!f~·~~1 When a word is suffixless the literary particles ~~·1 U:!~· can be replaced by~·. This is joined to the end of the word, i.e., Ql~'z:J~~· =Ql~'z:J~·:
a. l;IQI~QI·~·~·g.QIII)T.I~·~·QI~·~·~;~~·t(j"C)·z:J·~~l Nepalese eat with [their] hands. •
Sentence (40) b. is an example of a progression of actions:
f~'QI'&I~c::·ii~·~·811J~· ~·~~·&~~ 1c::·~~;~~q· ~~·ql·q'ilj~·r.r~~l First tea is put into the chum, then butter and salt are added. And then it is prepared [i.e., by churning]. In the previous sentence each listed action is marked by a past time main verb, i.e.,(~·~~~·I ~·~;~~~;~·). The conjugation used after the last listed action is the actual time indicator and/ or perspective indicator of the sentence. Another example of this pattern is:
c::·~~~'z:J'QI~'Ql"-' II)~"~~~· ~~~"· ~~·fq·~~~!·qlili~l In the morning I get up, wash my face, drink tea, and then go to school
VI. Adverbs of Degree A.
Positive Sentences (G)- (47) It, s difficult.
(43)
~II)·CJ-~~
(44)
~·~· ~~:cr~9
(45)
~~~·11)~~·~9~ 'll.~ll)
It's a bit difficult. It, s really difficult.
(46)
~9~'SII)~'Il.~9
It, s very difficult.
or (41)
~·sll)~·~9~1l.~9 ~ll~·~9:cr"C:\~9
It, s very difficult.
B.
NegaJive
It,s extremely difficult.
(48)
~9~'~"'\~9
Sentences (48) -(52) It, s not difficult.
(49)
~·59~·~~tj·~·ll.~9
It, s not very difficult.
(SO)
or (51) (52)
~~s·~".t ~9:ci·~·ll.~9 ~·~~1'~9~·~·1l.~9 ~~~·~9:cj·~·ll.~9 F9~a~·~~·~·ll.~9
It's not that difficult. It's not that difficult. It, s not extremely difficult. It's not difficult at all.
= =
9. lfll1'~&1' (lj~'fl 10. ~~s·~~;.· ~~~~s~·~~;.·J
216
Lesson II
C
Plural Sentences (53) - (58) These [things] are difficult. One or two of these are difficult. Some of these are difficult. Most of these are difficult Except [for] one, all of these are difficult. Only one of these is not difficult All the others are difficult.
~~·¥-(ll~:t:r~~~ ~~·¥-IIJ~~·~;-.·(Il~=lr~~~ ~~·i"'fll'41"''fl~=lr~~~ ~~·¥-i~.::.'5·q·(Zl~:t:r~~~
(53) (st) (55) (56}
~~·¥-IIJ~~·~~·IIJlfiiJ-r·ar.::.·~~·fl~=lr-a.~~ ~~·¥-IIJ~IIJ'IIJ~IIJ=lrZ.'(Zl~~·ll~~~ IIJ~~·~~·ar.::.·~~·fl~:t:r~~~
(57) (58}
VII. Questions Formed with the Degree of Quality Particle ai41· (Adjective + ai'l'/ Adverb + ai'l'/ Verb + ai'l') Sentences (SIJ) - (66) How many Tibetans are there in Canada? There are quite a lot of Tibetans in Canada. Peter, how difficult is Tibetan? It's ok. It's not too difficult. How tasty are momos? They are very delicious. In the winter how oold is it [the weather] in Tibet? In the winter the weather is very oold. How pleasant is Mussoorie in the summer? It [Mussoorie] is really pleasant in the summer. How fast is this car? This car is very fast. These days how well does your baby sleep? These days my child sleeps well. [He] doesn'tay. Is [your] daughter drinking milk properly? My daughter is still not drinking_ milk properly.
(59} a. (Zl~·~·rz.:t;~·CJ·II.::.'3f-r·(ij"~·CJ·~')1
fl~·~·rz.:t;~·c.ril.::.:t:r~~~·z.q·n(ij"~·CJ·~~1 (60) a. "Zl·!!]z.j ~~·~~·~IIJ·3f-.~~~ b. b.
~~il·u~~~ (Zl~:t:rz.r:::ll·~~~
(61} a. ii~·ii~~~~·3f-.·(ij"~·CJ·~~1
b. ~il~·s~~iij"'~·CJ·~"1 (62} a. ~I)·~·~)~~ '(Zl'~~il·~4~·!].::.·3f-riij"'l) 'CJ'~I) 1 b. (63} a. b.
"~~ ·fl·~~il·~4~·!1" -~ ·s~~iij"'" 'CJ'~"1
I)SZ.'11J'il'~:t"~·)~·3f-r·13~5~
1)5Z.'11]'il'~'~'l)~~·!l):t:r~l)'lJ'~I)1
(M) a. ii::.~fZ.~~·IIfiiJ-r·3f-riij""l)·lJ·~I)1 b. it:.~f"z. ·~~·il~~~~·s~~·(ij"" 'CJ'~" 1
(65} a. ~·~c:.·~c:.·al)·z.c:.~·s·il·~sz.·\)~·3f-r·~~~
b. ~·~c:.·~.::.·.::.~·s·~~:t:r~~~ s·q~·ll·~~~ (66} a. s·~~~~.::.·3f-r·~~~ b. l)~.::.·.::.~·s·~il·~~c:.~·ll·~~~
When forming 3f-r· questions, the adjective, adverb or verb stem is used, i.e., (ilt:.:t:r + Qi~· =111::.'~-r·) 'how
much', (Ol~~~:tj- + Qi~· = i~f11J"1'3i'"'') 'how fast', (~~:tj- + Qi~· = \)~·3f-r·) 'how well sleep.' Similarly, this particle can be used with an adjective or adverb in oonjunction with an action verb: 1L ~"11:\"-'Q" =[~1111:\"-'1:\") 12. ~~~~· =~~~·) u. ~~ -~· = l'!Q"iSi"41")
217
Colloquial Tibetan a.)
16"c:.-w·~ll]·ll~:.·4;.,~!1:.~~~111 How much alcohol is he diinldng/ does he drink?
b.> B') ·~~:.·fl·~lll~~~·4f.,·ql·q~iiil) 1 How tasty is the food you are making/ you make?
When answering such questions, the 4;~· particle is dropped and the end particle 'li' is added to the adjective or adverb of the affirmative sen~ce:
,~:.,.·~lll·~·slll'~'~c:.:t:i"~!~:.~·~~~lll He is not drinking/does not drink very much alcohol
1:."fl"t.l.lll]"~ll~z:ii'·t:~~·Uj')
1
I am making/make delicious food.
Remember the~· particle i<; only found in questions, never in the response or any other affirmative sentence. The following sentences show the correct and incorrect forms of adjectives and adverbs in statements: Ff~:.-w·~IIJ·(i·s~~J~·~~~:.~~El~:.~·~·q,~lll Ff~:.-w·~ll]·(i "Sil]~·~~~:.·4;.,·q,~c:_ ~·~·q,~Ill He is not drinking/ does not drink very much alcohol.
Correct
l:."fl~ll]~ll~t:!l·t:~~"Ui')l
Correct
1:. "fl"~ll]~ll·4f.. ·t:~l•t:~~iii'l)
1
Incorrect
Incorrect
I am making/ make delici.ous food. 1.)
Adjective + Qj.,· :
The particle~ when used with an adjective indicates that the posed questioo is cmcemed with a degree of quality: (61) a. ifll]·ifll]~ll·4i"'I·Ui')·CJ·%.')1
How tasty are momos?
(63) a. ')s~·.,·~·~·~·j')·Qj.,·q,~lll How pleasant is Mussoorie in the summer?
In sentence (61i the speaker wants to know about the quality of the momos, ~~·ar~· how tastythey are. In sentence (63) the speaker wants to know about the quality of the weather, ~') ·Qi'~· how pleasant is the weather in Mussoorie during the summer.
2.)
Adverb + 4i"'l':
The particle Qi'~· when used with an adverb indicates that the posed question is concerned with a degree of modification
How fast is this car? In this sentence the speaker wants to know about the speed of the car, ~!IIJ~·4;~· how last is the car. 3.)
Main Verb Stem+ 4i"'l':
The question form (MVS + ~~·):
Ffc:. ·~'QIIIl'-''4i"'l'~~lll
How does she eat [these days]?
is another way of posing the question: 218
Lesson//
fi'z::.·fl·lllli]"Uill]~=rz::J~·a.~lll·lll~l i~·a.~lll Does she eat well or not? I Is she eating well or not [these days]?
or
fi'z::. "fl"lllll]"ll]t:. -o.s·:~·z::J~·a.~lll How is she eating?
All three of the above questions carry a similar meaning.
(65) a.~ ·~z::. ·~z::. ·ec:, ·~z::. ~·s·'~·a.s ~ "t}QI·Qi~·~~~
(66) a. s·~il·~~z;.·Qi~·~~~
These days how well does your
Is [your] daughter drinking milk properly?
baby sleep?
[lit.: How is she drinking?)
In sentence (65) the speaker knows that the baby has been having some problem sleeping, i.e., it has been sick, it is teething, etc., therefore she is interested in knowing how well the baby sleeps. In sentence (66) the speaker knows that her friend's daughter has not been able to drink milk properly due to some physical or emotional problem, therefore she is interested in knowing how well the daughter drin1cs.
VIII. Conversations A. Context: Discussing the quality of Sherap 's apples: Sentences (67)- (70)
(67) ~~·~l::J·:a.~·g.lll;~.x_c:,, (68)
What are these?
'4" i"!~]·: ~ .g.~·~·X.c:, 1
Those are apples.
~~·~z::J·:l~·'~tc:,1 lllz::.·a.s·a.~lll
Please have an apple. How is it?
'4""1fll]·: 'IZ::.~:ira.~lll
It is sweet.
(69) ~~·~l::J·:~·slll~·'~z::.~ ·ira.5111·111~1
Is it very sweet?
~=i111·: ~·slll~·~z::.·'~z::.~·ij·Ma.~lll ill"~a.z::.w
Not very sweet, but ok.
~"C:I.~ll] 'li\c:,z::.·1 (70) ~~·~z::J·: l~·a.~ .g.11r4·il~ ·"~·x.c:, ·!.l~1
Please try it. Are these apples from Kashmir?
'4"·1f111·: ill"·~·'~·x.c:,,
~~·z::Jryz::.·11r4·~~·~·~·~· ~·slll~·'~z::.~·ir~c:,·r.J·X.c:, 1 ill"' ·"a.z::. ·a.~· ~·slll~·'~z::.~·ii·~·a.~lll
They don't seem to be. Generally apples from Kashmir are very sweet, but this [one] isn't very sweet.
In sentence (69) the imperative, honorific form 'li"c:,·c:,z::.· 'Please [eat/ drink] it,' has been used. This imperative form is introduced in Lesson 3 and is further explained in Lesson 30, Volume II. For now it is important that one does not confuse this imperative form of c:,z::.· with the conjunction c:,z::.· 'and':
It
(23) b. ...ill"·"a.z::.·c:,~"·fl·~z::.l"·1·~~·c:,sc:,·1·~c:,~~c:,·r.J·x.c:,, ... But in the winter [and], fall and spring it is pleasant.
219
Colloquial Tibetan B. Context: Dorjee and Tashi are sitting in the living room, Nyima enters: Sentences (71) - (79)
(71) ~·: ~·~·:
(72) ~·:
o.~·II1·X.·X.~1
What is this?
~·~:X-~1
That is tea.
~'cli'QJII1~·~~;z;. ~~~·~~·1
Nyima, please come here.
~·~~·~::!r4~·QJ·II1~~·~~·1
Please give this tea to Tashi.
Nyima gives the tea to Tashi. (73) ~·:
~·~·QJQ)~'~Q]~·~·Q]~~·l ~~Q]~l
Thank you Nyima. Please sit down.
Nyima sits on the chair. (74) ~·:
~~·4~'QJQ)~1 ~·Q]·X.·X.~J
~~·4~·: ~~·~·X.~J ~·: clli"~J
Tashi, what is that?
This is tea. Please drink [it].
Tashi drinks the tea. (75) ~·:
~~r4~'QJQ)~1 ~·a)·~~·o.~Q]
~~·4~·: a)~·~111~f~~111 (7&> ~·=
111-a111~·~~·1 ~·cli'QJQ)~·Q]·X-·s~~·~~Q]
~~~~·: ~·~·QJQ]~~~:mQ]·II1~~~·~~111 (77) ~·:
~'cli'QJII1~~s~~·~ll1:cr-ur~·,rX.~·t.~~J
Tashi,.how hot is the tea? It'sveryhot. Look. What is Nyima doing? Nyima is reading a book. Is Nyima 's English good?
~::!1~·: f"~·~s~~~ll1~~·t.~·~~1 ~·~~;z;.·X.~t ItseemsasthoughhisEnglishisgood.Heisatranslator. (78) ~·:
~~·~·111·X.·s~·~·~~111
~~·4~·: 6~·;z;.~·~·af;z;. ~~·~·~~~·111~~·~·o,~Q] (79) ~·:
6~·;z;.~~·~·~s~~·s~·Q]~~·~·UI~·t.~~J
~~·4~·: QJII1~·i:l~J ~·~·~·a)ll1't.~;z;.·i~~·UI~J
And what am I doing? You are making Tibetan tea for us.
Axe you studying English right now? No, I am reading the newspaper now.
C. Context: A student is asking the teacher about his mode of transportation: Sentences (80)- (83)
(80) m-~·~111': ~~'QJII1~1 ~~·;z;_~·m-~·r:J;z;.'ll1~·~~·
Sir, how do you come to school?
~;z;.~~~~-UI~J
~~·QJ~~·=~·i~·r:J;z;.·~~·~(lJ;z;.·~~·QJ·UI~·~·UI~J
I come to school by car.
(81) m-~·~111': 6~·;z;_~·QJ·~~~·f;z;.·II1~·~~·~111'Ul~J
What kind of car (h.) do you have?
~~·QJII1~·=~;z;.·~·~;z;.·~·~~·~rzr;z;.~ll1·ur~~ (82> m-~·~111·= ~·111;z;.·~-~~·~f";z;.~ll1·'ll~·ur~·t.~·X.~J
I have an Indian car.
~~ 'QJII1~·: ~~cli·UI~ ·t.~·X.~ 1
How good are Indian cars? [How is the quality?] They'reok.
220
Lesson II (83) fz:r~~·: 4J~·~~~1 it·1.1r.::.~1J·~~·~·:tr.::.'Cl.(i:=r;:z:n7~: Sir, many people drive Indian cars. I
~·~~~ afr.::.·~r.::.·~r.::.iij'"~·I:J'tl.S1 l.~·1:.1~1
suppose they are inexpensive, is that so?
4J~·~~~·:~·qr~r.::.·l.~1 1J·~~·~·:.r.::.'Cl.fi~·afr.::.·~r.::.·
That's right. Indian cars are inexpensive,
~r.::.·l.~1 s~·~r.::.·it·~.~r.::.·~·~~~~-s~·
that's why most people use [them].
s~·~iij'"~·~:.~·l.~1
IX. Exercises Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate ending:
~'f/ ~~"}"/ Cli'l)·q·~l)·) (t)
,·~·it~·~·ar~·s~~·'!~~
(2)
~s~·,·!f~~·~·a;·~·~·s~~·
(3)
Q~~·~"(~·~~~·~~~·it"UI~~-
(t)
(attestative)
(5)
~~'Cl.~~·~·=·~·~~.~:cr~·~~~~--1 ~~'tl.~~·4;·as·~·~~.~:cr~·~~~~--1
(6)
~~'tl.~~·~·as·~·~~.~:cr~i~~~--1
(general)
B.
Insert the correct form: ("}.::.·~~·/ 'q.::."CC.~"~'q·/ "}.::,·~~~it..')
(1)
~~·~~·~·~l~·
(2)
"~;~·~·~~~.~·~~~
<3>
a~·~r.::.·~·~·~~·~~4;·,·~~·
(t)
~·~~·~~·
(5)
1;~·~·
C
Translate the following sentences into English:
1 1 1
(general) (attestative) (factive) (factive)
~~~
tt~·~:.~·l.~l ~~4;·~iij'"~1
~~~ ~·a)~~~~·~4;1 ~l·~~·(ij""~·c.~·l.~1
(1)
~~·~~'Cl.~·~r.::.·l(ij"~'Q.~~ ~r.::.~~~~~·~~1
(2)
~~·(ij""~·!~ ·(ij"4;iij'"~ ·~:.~·l.~ 1 ~?J~ ·!~ :cjiij'"~ ·~·l.~1
(3) (5)
~r.::.·~:.~·ll]~~·~~4;·~r.::.·~r.::.·l.~1 ~~~·~~·a;r.::.·~.~·~~~~1 ~~'Cl.~ ·~~.~r.::. ·~ "Q"44!.:~~·~·l.~ 1 U!~ ·~~r.::. ·~·44;"(ir.::. ~·~.~·l.~ 1 ~·~·~~·~~4;·~~~·~.~·~~~4;·a)r.::.·I.I"UI~:cJ'Cl.~~
X.
".::.·~"1""14flt..·cr Vocabulary for Lesson Twelve
(t)
Nouns ~~r.::."f~· iC..'tl.f.:I\"Q~~·~·
toilet/ bathroom
prayer room
garage
living room
221
Colloquial Tibetan ~· ~·~~· r.j~'4'
~~·~·
!~~"B~·
-
"'~~·
~01~·~~·
horse noodle soup pork ink town/ city dragon
{1·~· ~UI~'4' ~·4'
i~·~~t:l'
discipline/ character yak(meat) mutton (meat)
~~·~·
village snow lion
l;"~·~~·
beginning
t:~~t:~·s·t:~~t:~·
advise clean cook/ make food (h.)
experience
Verbs t:l~t:1¥~·t:~~t:l'
repair
~~~·
listen (h.) pay respect (h.)
~~~'ll't:l~
give borrowI lend be careful (h.)
i't:~'t:!i;f~·
~~·~t:~~·~·
t:l~~· ~UI~' it~'itt:l'~~~·
~~~t:l~~·t:~ry~· t:l~,.
F·~~·t:~~~~~·
~~·~·i;~·~·~~~·
joke catch fire get nervous/ excited (h.)
cheat hit
t:l~t:l'
cut/ slice
careless person left (side)
~UI~·~·
right (side)
ii'Q,l;l~'
Adjectives &l·r:;·~~·
~ur~·~·
Interrogatives
~~~·
by which one
222
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 12
~ Page L
n. Ill.
Subject [Nominative Case vs. Instrumental Case) A. Nominative Case: Subject B. Instrumental Case: Subject Direct Object [Nominative Case vs. Instrumental Case) A. Nominative Case: Direct Object B. Instrumental Case: Direct Object
Sentences (13) - (18) Sentences (19) - (22)
226 226 227
Indirect Object [Nominative Case vs. Instrumental Case] A. Nominative Case: Indirect Object
•B. IV.
Sentences (1) - (7) Sentences (8) - (U)
225 225 225
The difference between the verbs !1'1' and Cl~~· 'to give' Instrumental Case: Indirect Object
The Question Words(~·~·/~·~·+ Instrumental Particle~·) [with what/ with which)
• •
229 Sentences (23) - (29)
229 229
Sentences (30) - (33)
229
Sentences (34) - (37)
231
Compound Nouns
231
Note on Yaks ~UI~'
231
v.
The ~~:;.·Construction: (MVS + ~~:;.· + i:ij'"'1·f a.~~·f Ul'1''~'~'1') [to experience...] A. Affirmative Sentences Sentences (38)- (47) Sentences (48)- (57) B. Interrogative Sentences
232 232 235
VL
Review of the Dative/ Locative Particles ~·1
Sentences (58)- (65)
235
vn.
Conversations A.
Sentences (66)- (71) Sentences (72) - (81) Sentences (82) - (87)
237 237 238
~·
B.
c.
•
The expression ['1 ·~ ~·i!·] 'just', 'just to pass the time'
238
vm.
Exercises
239
IX.
Vocabulary for Lesson 13 <:.·~~·~~~·'l·
239
Lesson 12 I.
Subject [Nominative Case vs. Instrumental Case)
A. ' Nominative Case: Subject
Sentences (1) - (7) (1)
.::."F·~~·Ql·Q~~~,
I make/ am making food.
(2)
~.::.·fi~·"1~·iQ-fr::.·s~·~·a.~~
They studyI are studying Tibetan.
(3)
ii"lll~r::.·f~·~~r::.·~·Ql·Q~·a.~~
She is cleaning the toilet/ bathroom.
(4)
c.;·~~~·~i"~ "fll:."~·~~·a.~~ ·~~r::.~-a.~~ a~·~r::.·ifr·Q~~·~~ ·ifr·o.~·Q~"Q.~~ iir::.·s·ar~~·~·~~·~·~Q~·a.~~ r::.·~~~·~r::.·~r::.·~·~~~~·~'C)~~·~~~~·~i'r::.· ~·a.~~·Q~"£:1~~~1
Father recites prayers in the prayer room.
(5)
(6) (7)
You wash the car in the garage. He is exercising outside.
I am watching television in the living room with [my) older brother.
B.
Instrumental Case: Subject
8)
'=.'f"F·~~·£:1l·£:1~~,1
(9)
~.::.·r--.~~·"1,·i£:~"fr::.·s,·~·a.~~
(10)
~·'X.r::.·a,~·~ ·~~·~-a.~~
Tsering is riding a horse.
(U)
r::.~·~r::. -a.rr~ ·Q~Q~~·Q!Q·~·ur, 1
I repair bicycles.
(U)
{'~~~·~·~·r~~'-r'-~~.1~~~-a.~~·~~~·~~,.'-~.~,,
(Sentences (B) - (U) I make/ am making food. [made by me/ being made by me) They study I are studying Tibetan. [the studying is being done by them]
[My] elder brother listens to the morning news.
Tibetan nouns and pronouns which act as the subject of a verb and have no specialized case marking are categorized nominative. The Tibetan nominative case places the emphasis on the action that is being perfonned by the agent. fl·~~·qt·qs~,,
(1)
r::.·
<2>
rrr::.·~ zr,."1~·iQ"f.::.·s,·'&"Q.~~
I make/ am making food. They studyI are studying Tibetan
In sentence (1), no ca.c;e marking particle follows the nominative subject noun r::.· 'I'. The emphasis of this sentence is on the action, ql·qbiJi',· 'make/ am malcing', and not on the agent r::.· 'I'. Sentence (2) follows
the same pattern, the emphasis is not on the agent, j6'r::.·g. 'they,, but on the action, F"j"r::.·s,·~"Q.~~· 'study/ are studying'.
Colloquial Tibetan
Nouns and pronouns which act as the subject of a verb and are marked with the special particles, ~~·f ~~·f ~~·f"C\~·f Ul~·f or~·, are categorized instrumental The Tibetan instrumental case places the
emphasis of the sentence on the agent of the action As with the Tibetan genitive particles explained in Lesson 2, the particular usage of the instrumental particles depends upon the preceding suffix. The correct usage of these particles is shown in the chart below:
Chart 1
Syllables ending in the following letters: l~·~~~· 'suffix' or~"·"-~~· post 'suffix' A.
B.
~·
~·
~·
C)"
Q"
~·
~·
~:::.·
Literary form of the particle
Colloquial form of the particle
Q,J"
With the suffix a: or suffixless ~·C)t::."~fl~"i'JC)"
-4.1"
Both the nominative sentences (1) and (2), can be formed with an instrumental subject, however an emphasis
change occurs. In sentence (8) below, the speaker uses the instrumental form ~:::.~·to emphasize the fact that it is the subject~:;.· 'I' who is making the food, whereas the emphasis of nominative sentence (1) is on the ac:tial of making food Generally the English translation for both forms is the same. The shift of emphasis that occurs in the Tibetan can be communicated by intonation in English, i.e., I'm making food, vs. I'm making food. (8) I:;..,'(Q"Q.J~'::j~·~~·Uj~l I make food./ I'm making food.
..
(9) rr~·~ ~~·~~·i~'f'~::.·s~·~~~ll]
They study Tibetan./ They're studying Tibetan. [the studying is being done by them]
[made by me/being made by me]
In Sentence (8), the use of the instrumental particle~· shifts the emphasis from the action, (Zl"Q.J~'Qi"Q~"i~ 1
'making food' to the instrumental subject of the verb, ~.,·Ql'Q~'UJC)l 'by me. it is being made.' A literal translation of this sentence is, 'the food is being made by me [no one else].' Likewise, in sentence (9) the emphasis shifts from the action, f!l~::.·~C)'"'~'iQ'f~·s~·~·~~ll] 'they study/ arestudyingTibetan' to the instrumental subject of the verb, jff~·i".,·iQ'it::.'SC)'~·~~~ 'by them the studying is being done.' A literal translation of this sentence is, 'the studying of Tibetan is being done by them'
II.
Direct Object (Nominative Case vs. Instrumental Case]
A.
Nominative Case: Direct Object Sentences (13) - (18) What is Perna doing? Pema is looking at Rinchen.
(13) a. c.Jji.l~·~.:s~·~·~~~ b. c.!ii·l.~·m~·Q,J·Q~.Q~·~~"l
1. The T~ word meaning lotus. is written in this way 'Ji'• not 'J"'II'.
226
Lesson 12 (14) a. iliii'~~·~"'Cfj''J~"·~·Q.~~
b. (15) a. b. 16) a. b. (17) a. b.
Who is Tsomo talking to?
ilg.ift;;~~·4~·~·~" ·a:; ·t;;~~" ·~ 'Q.~~
Tsomo is talking to Tashi.
61·~r::.·~·~·~~r::.·~·ur"1
What are you doing?
r::.·~~·~~-a·crs"·~ili"1
I am helping them.
s·~·i·a1:t:i'Cl.~~·~~1 ~~~·Q.~~ e"·~r::.·s·~·i"~·UI~:c:r~~"~·Q.~~
Are the children happy?
Yes, you treat the children well.
it;;~·~~·~·i1'CJ'UI~~ur"·Q'~1'CJ~1
Axe the students well disciplined/mannered?
~~~·ur1·Q·~11 it;;~·~~·g."~·~~·~·~~·~t;;~~·
Yes, the students have a lot of respect for
~·s~~·~·t;;~~·ur" 'Q'~" 1
the teachers.
(18) a. 11fr::.·r::.~ i~Q.:cj-Q.~~~~1
Does he like me?
b. 11fr::.·[S"·~r::.·~i~Q.'li'il'Cl.~~
B.
He doesn't like you.
Instrumental Case: Direct Object Sentences (19}- (22) Who is looking at Rinchen?
(19) a. ~~·~~·~·~~·t;;~~·t;;~~'Q.~~
b. CJj'l'~~·~~·~·t;;~'!l''Jl'~~~ (20) a.
Perna is looking at Rinchen. Who's telling lies to whom? Tsering's telling lies to Yeshi. Who is talking to Tashi? Tsomo is talking to Tashi. Who helps them? I help them.
~~·~~·~~·~~·lf1·~·Q.~~
b. ~·l.r::.~-a·ur4~·~·~~·g~·4f"·~·~~~ (2l) a. ~~·t;;~~·4~·~·~1·a:;·lf1·~·Q.~~ b. ilg.iJ~·t;;~~·4~·~·~" ·a:; '41 ·~-Q.~~ (22) a. f~"~·~~·l."~~·Q·s"·~·Q.~~
b. r::.~·'fi"~ ·l."~~·Q·s1 ·~·or" 1
In English the direct object of a sentence is the person or thing to whom or to which the action of the verb is being done To find the direct object one asks the question 'what'. Look at sentences (13) a. and b. If one asks, 'What is Perna loolcing af?', the answer is 'Rinchen.' Rinchen is the direct object of the sentence.
(13) a. CJI)'~·~·s"·~·~~~
What is Perna doing?
Chart2
Nom. Subject (13) b.
Object &: Dative
Verb +Conjugation
CJfi'
l;l'il'l;ll'~~~ Perna is looking at Rinchen.
As shown in Chart 2, Perna, the subject, is performing the action of looking. Where is she looking? At Rinchen
s. 4.
~;r,·=
fi6''l·i"-)
4f'\. = ['l"l"\ •]
227
Colloquial Tibetan In this section, the direct object of both nominative and instumental sentences takes a dative particle. Again, the only difference between these two structures is the point of emphasis. The nominative case places the emphasis on the action that is being performed by the agent. The instrumental case, on the other hand, places the emphasis on the agent of the action:
(19)a. ~"l.~"l·~·~lll'~'iJ·~"&"~~~
Who is looldng at Rinchen?
Chart 3 Instrumental Subject
Object &: Dative
Verb +Conjugation
~,.~,.QI.
Pema is looking~ Rinchen. In Chart 3, the emphasis is on whom the action is being performed by, in this case Perna The dative particle indicates the place to which the action is being directed, i.e., at Rinchen. In question (13) a., the addressee is interested in knowing what action is being performedby Pema, 'li·~·~·s"!·~·Q.~~ 'What is Perna doing?'; whereas in question (19) a., the addressee wants to know whom the action is beirig petfrrmed by ~"''~"'·~·~~·t;~~·:;:~'Q.~~ 'Who is looking at Rinchen?' The instrumental particles~~·; ~~·1 ~~·;r.t~·j ~~r/ and~· convey the meaning 'by'; an action was done by someone or something. The adverb 'by' is not always an essential element of the English (by + agent) construction, however even if absent, it is understood by the context of the sentence:
Sonam is giving Kunga a camera. A camera is being given to Kunga by Sonam. In review the difference between the nominative and the instrumental case is:
Chart4
Emphasis
Case Nominative Case
s·~·
- the agent's action
Instrumental Case
s~·q:q:
- the agent of the action
In sentences where there is no object, generally the nominative case is used. If one wants to emphasize that a particular action was carried out by the agent, however, then it is correct to use the instrumental case:
j6"z:.·~41·~·~t;~!l'Q.~~
He is exercising.
vs. j6"z:.·~41'~41·~·~t;~~'Q.~~
He is exercising. [Ut. The exercising is being done by him]
228
Lesson 12
III. Indirect Object [Nominative Case vs. Instrumental Case) A.
Nominative Case: Indirect Object Sentences (23) - (29) What is the teacher doing? The teacher is asking the students questions. (h.)
(23) a. 41~-~~~-~-~-~~r:.~-~~~
b.
41~-~~~·fq·~~·~z.·q"l~~~-s~~r:.~·~~~
(24) a. ~rfl·~~·qa·q~-~~~
Who is making food?
b. ~-~~-~~~·~·~·i'"z. "fl"~~·ql'"~·~"r:. ~-~~~ (25) a. ~-~~·~:.;.~q·!j,.~-~~~
Mother is making food for the children. Who is Nyima giving the book to?
b. ~-~~·qir,"'l"~·~·~q·!l,.~~~~
Nyima is giving the book to Sonam.
(26) a. ,:.;.·!~·az.·~·~·q~z.·~-~~~
What is Dargye giving the dog? Dargye is giving food to the dog. What are you doing?
b. ,z.·~~·az.·fl·~~-q~z.·~·a.~~
(27) a. 6,·z.r:.·~·~-~~r:.~·Uj',1
b. r:.·f~ir:.·~·l:Jz."q!q·~·Uj',,
I am taking a photograph of him. Whose picture are you showing him?
(28) a. 6,·z.r:.·f~ir:.·~-~~·l:Jz.·q~~·~·Uj',,
b. r:.·f~ir:.·~·r:.~·l:Jz.·q~~·~·Uj',, (29) a. B') ·z.r:. ·~:.;. ·i"q·q1~·~ ·Ui'')1 b. r:.·f~ir:.·i'"z. ·i"q·q;-~·~·Uj', 1
I am showing him my photograph.
Who are you joking with? I am joking with them.
One should note that in sentences (25) and (26) two different verbs, !j,. and q~z.· respectively, have been translated as 'to give'. The verb is used when expressing the action of giving in an informal manner. It may also mean 'to return' in the context of returning something borrowed. The verb q~z.·, on the other hand, is a non-honorific form and is only used when one wants to distinguish that the one spoken to, or spoken about, is lower in status. q ~z.· is also used in the context of ~giving' something to an animal. It
!j,.
B.
Instrumental Case: Indirect Object Sentences {30) - {33) Who is giving the book to whom?
(30) a. 4j~"4jZ.~q·!j,·~·a.~~
b. '""""q~, -~~~~-~~q"ll')'~·~~~ {31) a. ~~~-~~·~·,qr:,·~·4j~·,st~f~UIZ."~·Uj',·l:J·~')1
..
b. ~~~-l~~-~~-~ ·~·,qr:.·~·,s~·~cqz.·l·
ili'')"l:.l"l.')1 (32) a. flir:.~~·~z.·qilq"S"q!q·~~~
b. flir:.~~r~~·s,·l:J·i'"z.·qilq·s·q!q·~~~ (33) a. fi"~I:."W"'I"~~~-~~·fl·~~·~·~·ql'"~·~~r:.~~~
b. ~-~~-~~~-~~·r:.·i'"z.·!·~~·ql'"~·~~r:.·~~~
229
Nyima is giving the book to Sonam. [The book is being given to Sonam by Nyima.] Who usually lends money to Tsewang? Yeshi usually lends money to Tsewang. [Money is usually lent to Tsewang by Yeshi.] Who did he advise? He advised the staff. Yesterday what food did mother make? Mother made noodle soup for us.
Colloquial Tibetan
The Tibetan dative case is introduced in Lesson 6. The subject or object noun/ pronouns of this case are followed by a Ql~~ • particle, colloquially Ql' I ~·. In English, the dative case only refers to indirect objects. However in Tibetan, this case includes not only the recipient of the action, but the place, as well as the time when the action takes/ took place. The dative case nouns and pronouns of this section answer the question, 'to whom' or 'for whom'. These particular dative nouns and pronouns perform the same function as the English indirect object. The nominative case, however, indicates that the subject's action is being directed towards the indirect object
Chart 5 Nom. Subject (24) b. ~''l'QIIIl~·
Indirect Obj. &: Dative 3'~·1"~·
Object (ll'QIIIl'
Verb +Conjugation qi".,·~~"~l'~~~
Mother is making food for the children. (28) b.
'"·~·
"'
c::.~·tJ~'
qff~·'&ii~l
I am showing him my photograph
In sentence (24) b., the nominative subject, ~·'l'QIIIl~· 'mother', is making food for the indirect object, ~·~· ¥~· 'for the children.' In sentence (28) b., the nominative subject,"' 'I', is showing the photograph to the
fi"
indirect object, 'QI' 'to him.' In Section B the instrumental case is introduced. In sentences formed with an instrumental subject, the emphasis is on the agent of the action Who is giving the book to whom? [By whom is the book being given to?)
Chart 6 Instrumental Subject (30) b.
Indirect Obj. &: Dative
"~"·
Verb +Conjugation
~~~·~·~~~
l:l~"t ·~'l~'Qj'
Nyima is giving the book!£ Sonam. [The book is being given to Sonam by Nyima.]
(25) a.~·'l·~~~q·~~~·~·~~~
Who is Nyima giving the book to?
[To whom is Nyima giving the book?]
b.~ ''l'l:lii~·~~.,·~~l:l'!l~·~·~~~
Nyima is giving the book to Sonam.
The speaker's focus in the instrumentally formed question (30) a. is 'who is the book being given by.' In this case, 'Nyima' is the sole agent of the action; the act of giving is being carried out by Nyima. In the npminative sentence (25) a., the focus is 'who is the recipient of Nyima 's action?' 230
Lesson /2
IV. The Question Words ("1·~·/ "1~· +Instrumental Particle ~f) [with what/ with which) Sentences (M) -(37) (M) a. ii~·ii~·~·~·X.-a·Ql·Q~-tG""·tJ·X."1
Momos are made with which meat?
b. ii~·ii~·~ua~·~-a·Ql·Q~-tG""·tJ·X." 1 (35) a. ~~·ar·~·1i!-a·UI·~~~·~·Ui"" 1 b. ~~·a)·~~~-r·U~·~·s~·lur" 1
Momos are made with yak meat With which ink do [you] write?
(36) a. f""
Which hand does he eat food with? I
[I] write with black ink With which hand does he eat food?
b. f""
(37) a. (ZI"~"~~"'l.~·~~·I:J~"a)~·~~~·I:J~·Q~Q"'l.~~
He eats with his right hand. Yesterday which camera did Dhundup take photographs with? [He] took photographs with [his] new camera.
The suffixless question words ~·X.· 'what' and ~~· 'which', when joined with the instrumental particle~· become~·~~· 'with what' and ~·~~· 'with/ by which', e.g.: Which hand does he eat with? I With which hand does he eat? Adjectives used in response to such instrumentally formed questions also take an instrumental particle: He eats with his right hand.
The usage of the various instrumental particles is shown in Chart 1 of this lesson. It
Compound nouns such as ~~~·4· 'yak meat' are an exception to the above rule. In such cases, it is
not the modifier~~~· 'yak' which takes the instrumental, but rather the second half of the compound 4·
'meat', i.e., ~~~·4~· made 'with yak meat.' Momos are made with yak meat. It
Westerners have a tendency to call all the cattle type of animals with long horns and shaggy hair of
Tibet 'yaks'. It is incorrect to do so. As a distinction is made in English between the male and female cattle by the names 'bull' and 'cow', Tibetan cattle are differentiated in a similar manner. The male cattle are called~~~· 'yak', while the female are called a.s· 'dri'. In Nepal there is one kind of cheese called 'yak cheese'. This sounds rather strange to Tibetans, because a yak does not give milk. Imagine a cheese in the West being called 'bull cheese'! Another cattle type of animal found in Tibet is o.J(" 'dzo' (male) and o.J~Jf 'dzo-mo' (female). These cattle are a cross-breed of Sl" · 'ox' and a.s· 'dri'.
231·
Colloquial Tibetan
i"'
V.
The Construction: [to experience••. )
A.
Affirmative Sentences
<Mvs + i"' + C(i;·t
a.~~·I C(i;·~·l.;·>
Sentences (38)- (47) I have been to Asia. or
"~'4'UI~·~ff"'1
"
"
(39)
~"·4~·~"·~~·~~~·5"ii~·cr~~1
He has been to Shasingma.
(40)
rs~·~"·~~·lll~·~~·~~".~"·~"~ ~ ~·~"'ll1~~·~~·~~1 s~·~"'~"·rs~·6~·
You have done this work [before]. Lhamo is from the village, so [she] has never
~~·~~"f"'5"'~·~~~
seen a city.
"o.·s·~·~~·~~1 s~·~"'QJ~·1·s~·~"i(j~·q·~·~~1
My son is a student, therefore he has never
(41) (42)
worked/ hasn't had the experience of working.
(43) (44)
(45)
r~:iz::r~~·~~~·~~'fl'lll~·~·s~·~~·~l·~~·tij'"~·q·~~1 When I was at school the food was prepared by s~·~"'"'fl'lll~·g~·~~·~~~·~r::1
a cook. That's why I have never cooked [food].
~"·~·~"·~~~·tij'"~·q·~~1 "~·~~~·1~·~1i""· ~·~"'1 fil~·~~"·"~·~·~li""·~·i:l~·q·~r~~1
Snow lions and dragons exist. I haven't seen
~·~~·~1
exist. Isn't tflat so?
~" ·f~ ·~·lli~'ITJ'~~ ·s~ ·~" -tG'"~ ·q·~·~~ 1
He didn't have the experience of doing/ had
Ul~·~~"~·~".~"~·~·;~·q~·s~~·tG'"~·q·~~1
never done this work before, but these days he
either. But not seeing doesn't mean they don't
does it everyday. (46)
~~·i'~~·lll~~·ij-(?·~ry"·~~"·~~·~r~ ~·~·~~~ -'~~·il~·~~"~·~~lll fil~·~~"·~·s~~·~ry"·~~"·
When Phuntsok drives [a car] he is not careless,
he is careful. Since he hasn't driven much,
~"·~·~~~ ~·~s·ir"·~"·=~·~·~~·~·~~"·~·~~~ he gets nervous. (47)
"·1i"~·~~~·lj;j~·~~~·~"·i:l~1 s~·~"·fl~~§"'1 ~~~·~" ·i:l~ ·~ 'lll~'llJ'~" 'UI"'QI~·~:r:J·~·~~~
In the beginning I had never taught Tibetan, therefore I [found] it difficult. Whatever the work is, without experience it's not easy.
The particle
5"' of the (MVS + ~"· + AV) construction is derived from the noun~~~·~"· meaning
'experience'. This contracted construction carries the same meaning as the longer construction (MVS + Ul~·~·~~~·~"' + ur~·), e.g.,
~~~·5"' =~~~'UI~·~·~~~~·5"ili'~· ~"'in conjunction with a verb clause denotes that an action has been/ has not been experienced by the subject:
232
Lesson 12
"-a, ·s·iq·~~·~r:;1 s~·~"·~-.·,·sr:; ·f"-arr:; ·r.~·ar·~r:;1 My son is a student, therefore he has never worlced. [lit.: hasn't had the experience of working.] In English the evidential nature of the 'experience' expressed by the Tibetan particle ~"· is often communicated by the present perfai: tense or by the adverbs 'ever' and 'never' instead of the word 'experience' itself. The English present perfect tense is used in the following situations: 1.) 2.) 3.)
when relating an action with no specific time; when relating an action which starts in the past and continues to the present; when relating a past action, the result of which still has an effect on the present.
this,!""
An ~ence' once had, the result of it will always have an effect on the subject. Due to sentences often fall under category (3), and therefore are usually translated into English with the present perfect ten9e: (41) ~·~"·~~z::n~~·~r:;1 s~·~".~"·6::~;.·g~·~~·ari"""i"·~·Q,~~ Lhamo is from the village, so [she] has never seen a city. lnsentence(44),cJJ'i'"·~"·i)·~:~.~~·istranslated with a (present perfect verb+ 'never'), 'has never seen'. This verb indicates that the experience of 'has seen', or in this case, 'has never seen,' is an action which started in the past, yet continues to the present time and has animmediate effect on Lhamo, i.e., she has a limited view of the world. As with other Tibetan structures,' time' according to English grammar may change according to the adverb of time. Understanding this, occasionally~"· sentences may be translated with a simple past, past habitual or past perfect verb:
<•7)
L)
"ii~·cll~r:;·~r:;·J:3t.Q"fi"·llr:;1 s~·~"·F~~~"·1 ~cll~·~"·&rr:;·~· (past perfect> ~~·lll·~""UI"·~~·~rZJ·i!·~:~.~~ In the beginning I had no experience teaching/had never taught Tibetan, therefore I [found] it difficult. Whatever the work is, without experience [if one doesn't have the experience}, it is not easy.
First Person
In first person sentences the verb orr:;. is optional If dropped only a slight change of meaning occurs, and the English translation remains the same. Q.~~"iij"r:; ·means that the speaker JX18Se88!B the experience ofa particular activity, in &is case 'has had the experience of going... ' ~:~.ff" ·,on the other hand, indicates that the experience ofgoing has arisen. The negative structure is similar, ~:~.ff"·&rr:;· means that the speaker does not have the experience of going, whereas, t:~.9]"cJJ·~"· means that the experience of going hits not arisen In colloquial speech, the contracted form is used more frequently:
(3S) "~"4"UI::I\""'fi"·ili'r:;1
or I have been to Asia.
233"
Colloquial Tibetan When using the (MVS + ~"· + Ui~·) construction. the present/ future form of the main verb must be used:
"·~~·1-a.\sl)·~"-tG'~t " " s~·~"·Uil)t
Correct Incorrect
I've done this work [before]. In the contracted form (MVS +~""),either the present/ future or past time form of the verb is acceptable:
"·~~·.,-a.~·sl)·~"1 "·~~'r11J·~~·s~·~"·1
Correct Correct
I've done this work [before]. Other examples of the contacted form are: II'~"· I~~~·~"·
~~"'/~·~·~"·,etc. b.)
Second/ Third Person
In second/ third person~"· sentences the main verb must be in the present/ future form and it is accompanied by ~~Ill· I Ui~ ·q·~'=) · or Ui~ ·. The past form of the main verb is never used. Although the verb is in the present/ future form, the action itself carries a past time meaning, someone 'has bad the experience of doing something,' i.e., bas bad the experience of goingleating/ seeing, etc. According to the speaker's emphasis, either the verb~~"]· or Ui~·q·~~· is used.~~"]' indicates that the speaker has first-hand information concerning the action or experience, and Ul'=) ·q·~'=) · mdicates that the action or experience is a general known fact:
<42> "a.·s·iQ·~"l·~~~ s~·~"·QI~·.,·sl)·lf"-ail)·l.l·ll·l.l)t My son is a student, therefore he hasn't had the experience of working. In sentence (40), the attestative ending~~"]· indicates that the speaker can see from the addressee's work, that the addressee has had some previous experience of doing this particular work before In sentence (42), even though it is the mother/ father who is talking about 'my son', it is a general known fact that students do not work. therefore, the verb Ui~·q·o.~·~~· is used. Ui~ · is the normal first person verb-ending, however, it is correct to use in second I third person sentences when the speaker wants to indicate a personal association. i.e., the speaker was ther-e and recalls the agent having had a particular experience:
"'a.·s·
You have done this work [before). [We did this work together two years ago.) In the sentence above Ui~ ·indicates that the speaker was with the addressee two years ago, so he personally recalls that s~·~"' 'you, have had the experience of doing this work ~~·~~·~~·~~"'~"·Ui~J·
234
Lesson /2
~~~·and ili"·"'·~"· are the normal second/ third person verb-endings; however, if the first person wants to relate something about himself from an impersonal perspective, then ~~Q]· is used. In (MVS + ~c::·) sentences, ili"'/ ~~Q]"/ ili"·"'·~"· are used, never tll'l· and~"·. An experience is something which is poB8t!BS«l by the subject, not something that is being identified
B. (48)
or
Interrogative Sentences a"·~~r~.JII'r.l'll5"·r~iif~·r.~-.1
a;·~~r~.rll'r.l'll5;·r~·~~~ 71
(49)
ii~~;·~~~~·r~iif~·r.~·l.~·r.~-.1
(SO)
~'QI""'r"'~·s;·r~~~~·~-.1 a;·~c::·lf~Q]·~"·"~~1
(51) (g)
a;·~~~·~"·"'~·~Q]~~·r.~~c::·~"·"~~1 jic::·~~r.~~·s-~Q]·~c::·~·~~Q]'Q]~1
(54)
l(QJ~~·r.tQ]'4'11i""·~c::·ili"·"'·~~·~"·"'~1
(52)
(55) (56) (57)
Sentences (48)- (57) Have you (h. pl.) eaten Tsampa?
"
"
"
"
Has he ever drunk Tibetan tea? Have I done this work [before)? [you tell me]
Have you ever played 'Sho '? Have you ever celebrated Tibetan New Year? Haven't they ever danced? [had the experience of dancing]
Hasn't grandmother tried pork? 6;·~c::·;·4· 5'4' ~·4· 11"'4'1"'Q]UlQ]'4' Have you ever eaten mutton, chicken, fish, beef, yak %'1Q]'IIi""·~c::·c::111 and other such meats? 5;·~c::~~·~·Q]~'l'"Q]'QI'II~r.l~~·r.~~c::·~c::·c::ll1 Have you ever cheated other people? ~~·~~·~Q]·~'l'r.14"'~C::'C::II1 Have you ever lied to yourself?
In second person questions the contracted form ~c::·c::11·, colloquially pronounced ~c::· [c::~·] may be used instead of5"c::·ili"·"'~': (48)
a;·~~~·~.rll'r.l'lla~·r~iif~·r.~-.1 or 6;·~~~·~.rll'r.l'll5~·r~·~~~1 Have you ever eaten tsampa?
For first and third person questions the question particle depends on the verb; ili; •t.~·l." ·takes t.~~· and ~~Q]' takes~~·:
<•9> F"~"·~~~c::·f~iii~·r.~·l.~·r.~-.1 <so> c::·QJ~·ITJ·~~·s;·i~~~~·~-.1
Has he ever drunk Tibetan tea? Have I done this work [before]?
VI. Review of the Dative/ Locative Particles ~·t-x..· (58)
r.~!!J·~~·~~~ ·~·~~ ·Qr~~·r.~~-ili" ·t.~·l." 1
(59)
~r.~·f~~·,~·QJ·~~Q]
(60)
,.II.~Q]~·t.~·~·J"~'!'r.I~'QJc::~·ilj"·l:J·~"1
7. lfr:::z:;&~· = l!fz:; ·z:;~- J
Sentences (58) - (65) Tashi goes to India every year. The book is on the table. Nyima gets up at five o'clock in the morning.
--------------------------------------·------235
Colloquial Tibetan
(61)
~a.~·~~·~"'"'~'Sj~·~"·~·a.~~
The doctor is giving medicine to the patient.
(62)
1'.4'~-'·il·a_q"·~·a.~~
(63)
')·({f~r;J'~Clj·af~~·ra.f"-'·')r:Jt:.'~~·QJ·a.!j·r:J~-uJ')·r.ra.sl It seems as though the students arc going
Fire is burning over there. to go to the Kalachakra Initiation this year.
(64)
f~·~·r~·~-'·l:'"~~·L:J·~~c.·~~~
They helped poor people.
(65)
')(lj~·l:J'Q:~c.·QJ·l!J·l.l·G.It:.:r:fa.~~
There are many monks in the monasteries.
The Tibetan dative case, as explained in Lesson 6, includes a wide range of usage, whereas the English dative case only marks an indirect object. Below are examples of the various Tibetan dative/ locative cases. The '11~~· particle is an essential element of these kind of sentences.
DativeQJ~~· particles used in Case 2-~"'''')S'~~~·'J''ll~·~·s·z::r (Accusative Case), indicate 'where the action takes place': (63)
')·~i~·~~.g-~4l·a.1f~·"qc.·~~·QI·a.!J·r;J~-ur')·L:J·a.s1 It seems as though the students are going to go to the Kalachakra Initiation this year.
QJ~~· particles used in Case Y"'~'')S''l~'L:J'~(Ij~·~')' (Necessitive Case), indicate that the action is being directed towards something and that the action has some benefit to the subject or object. (61) ~"'1·~~·~"''-~"'S!~'~')·~-q_~~ Tibetan
The doctor is giving medicine to the patient.
post positions, classified as prepositions in English, are categorized under Case 7~a.~·"s·
'l~~ 'L:J~~ ·~~~·(Locative Case): (65)
"~~·&.~~·~r::.'QI'~'L:J'.J.It:.:t:l-q_~~
There are many monks in the monasteries.
When the quality or existence of the noun is inseparable from the action of the verb, the QJ~~ ·particles are categorized under the Sub-section of Case 2-~o.l'')S'Il')~~·l.J'Q:~c.·a)~·~~~· (Intrinsic Cabe): (62)
1'4'~-'·if·a_q~·~'a.~9
Fire is burning over there.
The literary form of the above sentence is: i!·~·a_q"l The '11~~ • particles used for telling time are categorized w1der the Sub-section of Case 7~&l'"S' z:l~~ 'L:JC2.·~c.·a)~ ·~·~~~·(Time Reference Case): (60) ~·"''·~~~·L:J·~·i""·'!·"'~'Qit:.'~'UJ')'l.l'x_') 1
Nyima gets up at five o'clock in the morning.
When talking about times of the day, i.e., morning, afternoon, evening; or the four seasons, a dative particle is never used:
15'"~ 'Qj'" S"'ltl·~~a.~·'t]4~·~') :r:fa.~~ c. ·~~'l'Q'[Il'QJ~·~ 'r;J~'~') 1
In the summer, the weather is nice in Tibet. I don't eat food in the moming./1 don' teat breakfast
Examples of the varied range of usage of the dative/ locative cases have been shown in this section to help reinforce your understanding of the QJ~~ · particle.
236
Lesson /2
VII. Conversations A. Context: I
Sentences (66)- (71)
(66)~:c.·s·: ~~il"'~~1 6"':1\"~~"lll''X.'9~"~-tij"1 Kelsang what are you doing here? ~Ql'.::Jil"': "'"S"~·~~'t\19~'~9~~"1 I'm waiting for Yangki. (67) ~:c.·s·: "S"~·~" 'tl!Q]~·~·~" 1 ~Ql'~!l~': 16""'"~9~·:.1~9·%."1
Who is Yangki? She is a friend of mine.
(68) ~:c.·s·:
Where is she?
ili"'9''-~:C. -tG""·'-~·X."1 ~Ql'.::Jiil"': "·~·~?.!·.;J~~'f"'QJ~"''J'%."1 (69) ~:c.·s·: llj·'X.·9~"~-tG""·'-~·~"1 ~QI'~iil"': f"'"?.!·o:~"'fl"'QI'i~'f"'9"l"~·Ui"·~·X."1 (70)~:c.·s·: f"~~·6"':C."'Q1'~9'~9~'9~"'9~"~·
Right now [she] is in the library. What is [she] doing? I think she is studying [in the library]. Did she ask you to wait?
~~9'"i~1
~QI'~il"': "'llj':C."'%."1 "'~llj~~'il'rz'"'llj%!1]'QI' That's right. The two of us are going to a ~!':J~rtll~1 restaurant. (71)~:c.·s·: s~·~·"''-'~"'6"';c.~·~o:~o:·~·Ui"·~·Cl~llj~· uthat's so, is it ok ifl come with you? ~·l.~·'-~~1
~Ql'~!l"': Sl~·"dil~1 ~.::1~'49
Of course, please come.
B. Context: Lobsang is describing different activities happening in the kitchen: Sentences (72) - (81) (72) ~·if:
{".::Jil"': (TJ) ~·if:
{".::J!!"': (74) ~·if=
i~il"': <75) ~·if=
i.::Jil"': (76) ~·if:
{".::Jil"': (77)
i~!!"'QIIIj~1 Qjll1~1
Lobsang.
~~''J:I\'~'"Q"~~ll]'llj~l a;'C)~"'Q.::J'a;"·~"'QI'~SIIj '\t El~·="·~"·Qj·~·x.·s"·~·~"9 . v ~Qj'Qj9'Q~~·9~"~~~11j ~~·o:·s~·Qj9~·9·x.·s"·~~~9 o:·s~·Qj9~·=Qj·""·~·~~~~·~~9 =Qj~"'4'll1'~~·:::~~~·~·~~9 a;Qj'~"·~~~·Q~Q·~~59
Is Tsewang around here?
Yes. Tsewang is in the kitchen. What is he doing in the kitchen? [He] is making food. (h.)
And what is the cook doing? The cook is cutting vegetables and- meat. \\-'hat is [he] cutting the vegetables and meat with?
[He] is cutting the vegetables and meat with a knife. Who is making Tibetan tea and sweet tea?
~·if: q"'lf_'""'lf.'0:":1\'~~~~l·~~·~~9
i~il"': ~'O:'QIIIl~·~~·~-r~·9~"~~~9 (78) ~·if: ~~ '"ll1"'fl'tll9'11j''X.·X."1
Mother is making them. What is for lunch? Today, lunch is momos.
i~ 31 "': ~~"~~·"~"'ii9'ii9'l."1
237
Colloquial Tibetan
('19)
1fif:
i.i~·ii~·4·~·~~·Ql'Q~'~~·'-I·~~,
What [kind of) meat are they making the momoswith? They are making the momos with yak meat. What are you doing? I am eating breakfast.
{"Q,;s~·: if~·if~·~UI~'4~'l:ll'l:l~·~~·CJ·~~1 (80) ~·if:
6~·:r.~·~·~·~~~~·~~, i"Q,;s~·: ~·~~~·'-~~·fl·~~·.;s·Q~·or~,
(81) ~·if:
6~·:r.~·~~·~~·~~·~·Q~~·'Ii"~·~·~~, {"Q,;s~·: ~·~~''-I'~UI~'CJ~'.il'l:l~i.G"~J
Which hand do you eat with? I eat with my right hand.
C. Context: WOser' is asking Wongmo about the whereabouts and activities of her maid and daughter: (82) ~~·l:r.·:
Sentences {82) - (87) Where is my maid? Your maid is in the kitchen. What is she doing? She is just sitting [there]. And where is my daughter? Your daughter is in the bedroom. What is she doing in the bedroom? Sleeping. Please look again. Is my daughter awake or asleep? Still [your daughter] is asleep. And is the bedroom door closed? The door is not shut. It's open.
~a.·~~~·if~'£.1::1\ 'Q.~~
~Q~·if: 6~·:r.~~·~tij"~·ir-Ell:l'~~·~~·~oq,~~
<83> ~~·a:r.·: ~·~·s~·~·o.~~ ~Q~·if:
~·~:r.·]I·Q~~·Q~~
(84) ~~~:r.·: ~~·~a. ·s·ii-~·CJ:r. 'Q.~~ ~Q~·ii': s·if~~~~·~·o.~~
(85) ~~~:r.·: ~~·r:~·~·~·~·s~ ·~·o.~~ ~Q~·ii': ~~·~~~·Q~~ (86) ~~~:r.·: Ul~·a~ ·~%~·~~~~·~~·, ~~·s·ii-~~· 0.~~·~~· ~~'Q.~~
~Q~·if:
~·~~·~~·Q~~·t:~~~
(81) ~"~:r.·:
~~·~~·fll~''&J'lfl:l~Q'Q.~~·~~, ~Q~·if: ~~Q·i)r._~~ ~·t:~~~
It
In sentence (83), the colloquial expression [~·~:r.·l·] is used: ~·~~~·l:l~,·l:l~~
She is just sitting [there]. [just to pass the time]
In the sentence above this expression is translated as, 'lust', literally meaning, 'lust to pass the time.' However, according to the context in which this expression is used,[~ ·~:r. ·31·] also carries meanings such as: 'for no specific purpose or reason', 'not for the purpose of earning money or personal gain', or 'just for the sake of doing it', etc.:
F·~~·~·Ff~·~·~~·QJ·~·~~~·~~·'-~·Ul~1 Yesterday I just went to his house. [for no specific purpose/ reason]
rr~·~~·,·o.~·~·~~~·s~·~·~~·'-1·~~, He's just doing this work. [just for the sake of doing it, not for personal gain or to earn money, he just wants to help others, etc.]
238
Lesson 12
VOl. Exercises A.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
Cl~·4~·!f~~·--s~·tr~~,
Tashi went to India.
(2)
"~-~~~·s~·~-lG'~,
I help them.
(3)
r:::_~t:.~fi~·z:J~·~~· - - z:J'foz:J~~·z:J~Z:J'CJ'~~, Dekyi repaired/ fixed my bicycle. Qj~·s~ ·CJ·~--z:J~z:J·s·z:J~Z:J·CJ·~~, He advised the employees.
(4)
rr"· --
(5)
~--6~·~~:;.·--~~·~~·z:J~'l'CJ'~~,
B.
Translate the following sentences into Tibetan:
(1)
I'm studying with Yeshi. She is cleaning her house.
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
Who taught you Tibetan?
My older brother listens to the morning news everyday. Pema is looking at Nyima. Who is lying to whom? Yeshi lent money to Tsewang. Tsering's telling lies to Yeshi. He eats with his right hand. I gave a new book to my daughter. I'm washing my clothes with mother.
IX. ~"·~~·~~~·q· Vocabulary for Lesson Thirteen
Nouns ~~~:;.·f ~~~:;.·
last year
~~·i'~·
time/ watch (h.)
\ff~t:.·
uncle (maternal)
~·~·
uncle (paternal)
'f9:1\'~111~'
eastern direction
~t:.'Z:J~~·
independence
a.(~ll"'
world
~·Z:J~'
peace
~·111~~·
Bodhgaya
'l=I~'CJ'
patience/ tolerance
111~~·Cl{l\'
pilgrimage
~qj·g.
Gyaltse/ [Gyangtse]
irll1~
Mongolia/ Mongolian
~~~'CJ'
peasant
,.111~111~'
umbrella
~~·
tiger
Q,Q'
insect/ bug
fl'~'l'
the night before
}'Cl~~ ·~·qj·~~'CJ'
Milarepa (Tibetan saint)
~·111%111·~~·~%~·
a single lifetime
111i;QJ·~~~·
attendant of a lama
~~:;.~·~~·
Buddha
111~1::.'(5~'
discourse I religious teachings
~~·~·1Z:J'
movie/ film
F"'Cl~ll1·
land lord
fl"'9l'
rent
~
~
-
-
239
Colloquial Tibetan
dice
playing cards
lll~41'Q.~
news/information
a.~t:.41·~·~s~·t:j~
H. H. the Dalai Lama's birthday celebration
Q.(~:m~::.·~·t;J~Q.·~~·~!i~·~·lllia"41't;JW"~·s·~lll"-'
Nobel Peace Prize
Verhs ~t;l~'
reach/ got there
t;l41~ :r:ft;J'.f41'
bother I annoy
t;Ji!~·'J·i~·
be pati~t/ tolerate
t;l~~·
to be sick (h.)
~·t;Ja·
drunk/ intoxicated
~ll'j41'
get
lll'9~ 'lll'9~ ·~ryE::.'
scold
~i"~·
wear (h.)
~Uicr!41'
throw
s~~~"·
show affection/ love
i"t;l' t;l41')'
gain/ win/ get
Qj-~'i'
get older
kill
be born (h.)
~fill~lll 41 't;J~Q,J'
J."'~l:;.41'
bathe (h.)
I~
I
~I
't;J~t;l'
cough
break
'S'o.J'Q,6~·
smell
4-!t;l' S'il""~~·
play dice
" ~ll']·~·~t;l'
'9't;J~t;l'
play dice
41£::.~.1'~41'~~"'
-
play cards
gained enlightenment/ became enlightened
" t;J-olll'
smell
Adverb at that time
except for
recently
Pit rases ~·~r~·~lll·~·; ~~~·~·
for instance/ for example
Qj-i.lt:.'-m.·~t:.·Q,J·
for many years (lit. for the period of many years)
240
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 13
Page L
n.
Ill.
IV.
Past Time Factive Statements A First Person 1. Personal Perspective on Self - (MVS + CJ'Ul~ ') a. Simple Past 2. Impersonal Perspective on Self- (MVS + CJ'~~·) B. Second/ Third Person 1. Impersonal Perspective on Others- (MVS + CJ'~"') a. Simple Past b. Past Habitual c. The varied usage of CJ'~"· Past Time Factive Questions A. Second Person 1. Personal Perspective - (Question wd. + MVS + CJ'Ul~ ') 2. Personal Perspective - (MVS + CJ'Ul~ 'CJ~') 3. Contracted Form- (MVS + CJ~'/ CJ') at Use of both a negative/ positive response to a question B. First/Third Person-(Question wd. + MVS Hr~"')/(MVS + CJ~"~ Past Time Attestative Questions (MVS + ii~·~~r) and Statements (MVS + ii~·) First/ Thi.ood Person
243
Sentences (13) - (25) Sentences (26) - (28) Sentences (29) - (31)
243 243 244 246 246 246 246 247
Sentences (32) - (39) Sentences (40)- (44) Sentences (45) - (49)
249 249 249 250 250
Sentences (SO) - (56)
251 251
Sentences (57) - (66)
252
Sentences (1) - (8) Sentences (9) - (U)
Past Time Reportative Statements- (MVS + Q.~~·f Cl~~·) A First Person- Impersonal Perspective
Sentences (69) - (76) at Note on "S~ ~Q.·iCl'SJ' 'Private, English Medium Christian Schools' B. Second/ Third Person- Impersonal Perspective on Others 1. Nominative Sentences (11) - (81) 2. Instrumental Sentences (82) - (86)
V.
Past Time Reportative Questions- (MVS +a.~~·~~·) A Second Person- Impersonal Perspective B. First/ Third Person- Impersonal Perspective a. Nominative b. Instrumental
Sentences (87) - (91) Sentences (92) - (95) Sentences (96) - (100)
253 253 255 255 255
256 257 257 258 258 258
Colloquial Tibetan
VI.
The Past Time Main Verb §r:::.·t (~r:::.· +verb-endings) [have/ has got]/ [had/ got] A First person- sr:::.· Sentences (101)- (103) B. Second/ Third l>erson- ~r:::.·iir:::.·t ~r:::.·c.r:X.~·t §r:::.·a.~~·f ~~· Sentences (104)- (106)
259 259 259
Vll.
The Past Time Verb-endings ~r:::.·t iir:::.·t CJ-fil~·t CJ·'X.~·t Q.~~·f ~~· A. Active Verbs 1. First Person Recipient a. Personal Perspective- (MVS + sr:::.·) Sentences (107)- (109) b. Impersonal Perspective- (MVS ~·I CJ·'X.l:)·I a.s.~·I ~~·) Sentences (110) - (tu} 2. Second/ Third Person Recipient- (MVS + iir:::.·t CJ·~~·f CJ·'X.~·f a.~~· I~~) Sentences (113)- (116) B. Unintentional Verbs 1. Recipient of the Action [with a Genitive Particle] a. First Person Personal Perspective- (MVS + §r:::.·) Sentences (117) - (UO) Impersonal Perspective- (MVS + iir:::. •) b. Second/ Third Person- (MVS + iir:::.·tCJ·'X.I:)· /a.~~·~~~~·) Sentences (W) - (U4) 2. Recipient of the Action [with a Dative Particle] a. First Person Personal Perspective- (MVS + §r:::.·) Impersonal Perspective - (MVS + iir:::.·) Sentences (125) - (U7) b. Second/ Third Person- (MVS + iir:::.·t CJ·X.r:...,·t Q.~~·t ~~~·) Sentences (128)- (130)
261 261 261 261 261
VITI. Conversations A
Sentences (131) - (140) Sentences (141) - (150) Sentences (151) - (157)
B.
c.
•
261 263 263 263 263 263 265 265 265 265 266 266
267 268
Information for General Knowledge The City of ~QJ·~
269
IX.
Exercises
269
X.
Vocabulary for Lesson 14 i)r:::.·i)~·~~·P\'CJ.
270
242
Lesson 13 I.
Past Time Factive Statements
A.
First Penon
L) a.)
Personal Pe:spedive on Self- (MVS + ~-&.'~~ ') Simple Past- an activity or situation which began and ended at a particular time in the past
(1)
1:\~S'~~I:\"are~~·...r~-&.'1~1
Sentences (1) - (8) I ate rice and vegetables.
(2)
~s~"f~~·Ql~·&J·~~·~~,·r.~-1ll~J
[I] stayed ten days in Sikkim.
(3)
~~~r~~·rr~~·Ql~·1·s~·r.~·U~~1
At that time I did her work.
<•>
~~~.t~.g.~·qr~:Ql·~~·r.~·U~~ 1
Last year we went to India.
(5)
~-.·~~·~~·~!~·~-&.'1~1
I photographed them./ I took their picture.
(6)
~·¥~·~, ·~~ ·¥~ ·E!~~·f·4~'Ql~'r.J-1ll~ 1
We told you a few times.
<7)
~·ar&J~ ~·~~·Ql·a·~·~%~·Ql·E!~~·~%~·
<s>
ff:r_·s~·r.~-1ll~J ~·ar~~·~~-1ll~~~·s*.Ql·~·s~~·~~·r.~-1ll~1
For many years I went to Lhoka once a month. I ate a lot of sweets when I was little.
The verbal conjugation r.~-1ll~·indicates that an action began and ended at a particular time in the past: (1)
l:\·~s~·,~·~Q~·•-.·r.~-1ll~ 1 I ate rice and vegetables.
<•> ~~~·l:\·¥-~·~:r_·Ql·s~·~-S~~ 1 Last year we went to India.
The verbal conjugation r.~-1ll~·is only used with the first person subject This being the case, r.~-1ll~·automatically indicates that the speaker is the agent of the action, thus the first person pronoun~· 'I' is optional: [I] stayed ten days in Sikkim. In past time r.~-1ll~ ·sentences the stem of the main verb must be in its past form Some examples are:
Chart 1 Present/ Future Form
.I
Past Form
eat
ate
go
went
stay
stayed
Colloquial Tibetan As explained in Lesson 8, the present/ future and past forms of some verbs are the same, e.g., CJ~')· 'std.y I will stay I stayed'.
2.)
Impersonal Perspective on Self- (MVS + q·~')') Sentences (9) - (12)
(9)
')ll)~ ~QJ"O.~ '""·q~~·q·~, 1
I broke this cup. [if you insist)
ar111,~·~·~~·QJ·~·S1·Q]~·QJ·~~·r.J·x.,1
Two years ago I went to India.
(11)
r:·~~·~·f"~·J.J~O!·~·QJ~·IlJ·s~·r.J·X.')l
Yesterday I worked with him. [but I really don't like to admit it]
(12)
l~·~·QJ~4'.r~~·~~ ·s~~~~·~~~·Ql.·~'J~·ti~·
I used to cry when my mother wasn't kind/
"·s·q·~,l
didn't show affection to me. [that was my habit)
r.J"Ul~ ·is the normal first person past time conjugation, and tJ'X. ')·the normal second/ third person past time conjugation. Occasionally z:.:·X.')· is used in a first person context. In such sentences the perspective is impersonal and the object rather than the agent of the action is the focal point. When no person is specified, i.e., ~~·QJ·~~·r.J·X.')· 'went to the market,' or in sentences where the context is unclear, the addressee may ask, ~·~~·r.J·~')l 'Who went?' First person sentences formed with r.J'~')· can expr~s a simple past or a past habitual action. There are four situations in which this conjugation can be used with the first person:
L)
The speaker wants toemphsize theobjectoltheactionrather than the agent,"" 'I':
Two years ago I went to India.
a,·~"·~·r.J~·~·r.J~ ~qaa·CJ.,l
Where did you go?
",.~."" ~'~"~""" '")QJ'")'(7'QJ'~~ "CJ'~') 1
I went to DeJhi, Bombay and Calcutta.
In the first and last sentence, the speaker wants the fact ofhaving gone to India and having visited Delhi, Bombay, and Calcutta the focus of attention. Because of this emphasis, the verbal conjugation r.J'X.')· is used. If the fact of the agent "" 'I', having gone is the main point of focus, then the verbal conjugation q·
fil~· is used, i.e., "·~~'r.J'UJ~] 'I went.'
2.)
The speaker insists that the addressee has done something. Even though the addressee has not done the stated action, in order to avoid a conflict or argument, the addressee agrees by using the impersonalpespectiveconjugation'·I'X.')·· Theemphasisofsuchsentencesison theactionrather than an the speaker. The equivalent meaning in English is, '...oJc., if insist, ve done that,':
you
r
~·;~·q·~"l I went. [if you insist, I did go there]
2. In Lesson 6 it is explained that a suffixless noun takes the dative sufflX -" •. Normally this is the Cas.?, however, when the name of a foreign place is used, e.g., 'l)qz''!j'f'· the qz~~ ·particle qz· is sometimE'S used instead.
244
Lesson 13 3.)
T1le spea1cer does not rel!11y want to admit what "' 'I' did ~::.~·rr~::. ·~~~·5 'QI"'"l·s-a·r..~·l.", I worked with him. [but I really don't want to admit that]
4.)
T1le speaker wants to emphasize tbe past habit, ie., that is what I used to do: <12> ,,r~·QI~~-~~-r.~·s~~~~-~~~::.·r..~a.·~z:;)~·QI·;;.·s·q·l."1 I used toay when my mother wasn't kind/didn't show affection to me. [that was my habit)
Even though it is correct to use q·~"· when stating a first person past habitual action, the most commonly used conjugation isilliij'l)·: ~-~-QI~~-~~-~::.~·s~~~~·~~~::.·t::a.·~::J~·QI·~:;.·s·q~ii"l I used to [at that time) ay when my mother wasn't kind/ didn't show affection to me.
In sentence (12) q·~~·/ z:;J'~I).'places the emphasis on the l'UJbit of crying, S'z:;J'~I)'; whereas in the second sentence S'z:;J~·Uil) ·places the emphasis on the time, at that time I used to cry. Please note the usage of the particle z:;J' instead of q· in senten<."e (12). The literary and colloquial particle variations are shown in the chart below:
Chart 2 PARTICLE LITERARY COLLOQUIAL
SUFFIX
VERB
~·
i~·
read
~:;.·
ii~::.·
q•
~:;~·
1:;1'/ q'
~:;.·
~:;~·
q'
~:;~·
~:;~·
"' ~·
~~·
came stayed/ lived went
q'
Qll:;l'
told
~:;~·
~:;~·
II'
"!!]~·
displayed
~:;~·
~:;~·
"~~·
liked
q'
~-
borrowed/ lent slept
q·
1:;1'/ ~·
J:;J'fq•
~· ~:;~·
~·
~·
1:;1~1)'
~ua~·
Ill'
\l)QI'
41'
.~~~·
ate
q•
...
cried
q•
1111~'~"·
1:;.'
245
~-
~~·~~"· Sl~·; ~"·
U,~·; ~"· Sl~·f~l)'
Sl~·f ~"·
Sl~·; l.l)·
Sl~·; ~"· l."·
Sl~·; ~"· Ul~·; ~"· Sl~·f ~"· Sl~·; ~"·
Colloquial Tibetan
B.
Second/ Third Person
L) a.)
Impersonal Petspective on Others- MVS + ~·l.•r> Simple Past Sentences (13) - (25)
(13)
rr~r::.·~~r::.·~~·~r::.·~:z:i-,qr·~·l.~1
Last night you went to sleep/ to bed late.
(14)
~·~r::.·~lll~·t.~·6s~r::.·~~Cllr::.~·,,rl.~1
This morning you got up/ woke up early.
(15)
F"~r::.·6~·~r::.·a;·~~r::.·'lllll~·~\}~·~·o,~lll·'l~·
Yesterday you came from Bhutan with
~~~·t.~·~~1
Tsewang.
6~·~r::.~~·U!·4~·'ll·~lll~·s~·t.~·~~1
You helped Yeshi.
(16) (17)
~·ar
' "'I(
ar
r1
a;~·
It
~'l"!'ll·q·~'~~·
OnJuiy6th,193SHisHolinesstheDalaiLama
'f~·4:~;.·~9~·~9·o,a;:~;.·'ll·if'l~·t.~'d.·'6~·a)r::.·~9·
was born in Taktser in Eastern Tibet, to a
Qj"~""-13"41"CI"l_~1
peasant family.
(18)
~·af ''~rJ iij":~;,·~·9:~;.·:~;.r::.·~~'li"~·t.~·~~1
In the year 1947, India gained its independence.
(19)
~·ar
In 1950, the Chinese first arrived in/came to Tibet.
(20)
l~~'l ·&l·Cll·:~;.~·t.~·a;·9~9·~~·9~9·'ll·~r::.~·~~·
Milarepa gained enlightenment/ became
9'lr::.·t.~·~~ 1
~ghtened in a single lifetime.
(n)
~·~·9~~·~-f'l "Cll·~·'!l:~;, ·~r::. ·~'ll~Cll"'ll~~ ·&l·i'~·
Two months ago the Tibetans celebrated His Hol-
(22)
o,~r::.~·~r~s:~;.·9if'll·3~~·t.~·~~ 1 'I ~r::. ·~Cll·~~'l ~~~·~·9:~;, "Ql"~~""-F:I\ "')~C::. ·~'I·
"I(
o QT:~;.·~·&l~~·'ll·~r::.~~~~·t.~·~~1
9'1C::."t.~·~~1 (23)
"v
iness the Dalai Lama 'sbirthdayinindia and NepaL Last year His Holiness the Dalai Lama gave the Kalachakra Initiation in India.
iij":~;,""-(~lJr::.~·~~a.~~·~tr'l·~·9lr::.~·~f~· The Nobel Peace Prize was presented to
~·s·~9"-"~QI·~·~'l~~:~;.·~'ll·t.~·~~1
His Holiness the Dalai Lama in 1989.
(24)
6~·:~;.r::.~~·~r::.·~~9"'ll"Cll~""-9'1"9~:~;.·t.~·9'1C::."t.l"~~1 You gave new responsibilities to Chungdak.
(25)
f¥~·6~·:~;.r::.·i':~;.·~9~·9'lr::.·t.~·~~1
b.)
Past Habitual- an action which was done habitually some time in the past.
They helped you.
Sentences (26)- (28)
(26)
<27) (28)
f'l·~fr::.·~~'l"F"i9"t.~:l\ ~·lll~'l·'ll·9'l~·~W":~;.·Ql·
He used to go [before] on pilgrimage to Bodhgaya
"qq.,·c.rl.~ 1
every winter.
r::.·~·9:~;.·Ql·~~~·~~-a~·:~;,r::.·r::.a.·"'s~·Cll·Uir::.·~·
When I was in India you used to often rome to
Gir::.·c.rl.~1
my place.
f"·~·rrr::.·~a)~~·~a)~~·Qj·~·lll:~;.·Qj·i'r::.·~~~·t.l·~~1 Sometimes he used to do business in India.
3. q~r::.'f1/""\S~ ~ii'QJ' = His Holiness the Dalai Lama's birthday celebration On this particular occasion Tibetans gather together at local mountains, holy places or public areas and offer prayers, put up prayer flags and bum juniper incense for His Holiness' long life and good health. After the rituals are finished, everyone spends the rest of the day socializing. They have picnics, sing. dance and enjoy a day of rest.
246
Lesson 13 c.)
The varied usage of "''l.I)·The following section presents sentences that integrate the varied usage of "''l.C)·; simple present, simple past and past habitual Though it is correct to use this verbal conjugation in sentences dealing with a simple present or past habitual time, in Lhasa dialect such usage is only heard occasionally. The most amunonstructures used for these tenses are ~·j~·j~·j ~~~C)'r.!'~C)· and~·j~·j~·f ~~'r.l.~~··
Sentences (19) - (31) Usually Wangyal smokes a lot, but today [he] didn't smoke. Chukyi used to eat meat everyday, but thesedays [she] doesn't eat it [meat] except on Saturdays. [Ut.: Except for Saturdays she doesn't eat meat.]
(29)
~Clc:.·s~~~~·t~ ·~·~~~·~ ·s~~·o.~~ ·"~·l." 1 ~~ ·~a.c:. ~ ·~c:.·~·~~~·~~·o.~~ '"''l.l) 1
(30)
I~ ·~~·i"~·~C) ~~ ·~~ ·~···Cl·l." 1 U~~ ·~a.c:. · ~~:~c:. '11]-'!r.l. ·~~ 'r.J'OJ'~1f~~·~·-·z:r~J'l.l) 1
31)
csr~~·~~~·f~·~·rs:~~rl1r~·s~~I'SC)'r.!'~C)1 ')'~ ~~·~c:.·~~'"]'OJC:.~C)'r.!'cJf~C)1 'j!i"c:.·~c:.·~·~~C)·
He used to work a lot forty years ago, [but] now because he is old he doesn't do much [work].
~~ri"~rSC)'r.!'~C)1
He stays at home and does his religious practice.
Many Tibetan language textbooks have categorized the verbal conjugations r.J'Ul~· and r.J'~C)· as strictly simple past time endings. This is true for r.J'Ul~·, however r.J'~C)·, depending on the adverb of time or the context of the conversation can indicate a simple past, a past habitual, or even a simple present action.
a.)
Simple Past
In second/ third person sentences the verbal conjugation r.J'~C) ·indicates that one is simply stating a fact, no evidence concerning the evidential nature of the information is supplied:
<15) f·~c:.
·a"..._c:.·a;~~c:.·~~~·OJ~OJ·~·a.~~·~~~Cle.l'"''l."1
Yesterday you came from Bhutan with Tsewang. Often the verbal conjugation r.J'~C) ·has been introduced as the most commonly used past time ending, however, colloquially one will hear the endings lic:.·j a.~~·j ~'i~'/ and §C:.' used more frequently. When relating past time facts, in the context of, i.e., a speech, talking about historical facts, telling a story, etc., r.J' ~Sis the preferred ending. Even in these cases, if the evidential nature of the statement is of importance,
then Tic:.·j a.~II]'I ~'ill]'/ or §C:.' is used. In sentence (a) below, the speaker is merely relating a past factive statement. r.J'~C) ·indicates that the speaker is simply stating a fact; no evidence concerning how the information was obtained is supplied: (a)
[Q'~C:.'C)!fjc:.·~C) ·~c:.·~~\}~'"''l.l) 1 Ul~ ·~a.c:.~ ·~c:.·~ll]~'r.J'~~~c:.e.~·r.J·l.l) 1
(factive)
Last night you went to sleep/ to bed late, but this morning you got up early. Even though it is not incorrect to use r.J'~C)· when relating past time actions, the repeated usage sounds monotonous and artificial; it clearly distinguishes the student from a native Tibetan speaker. The 247
Colloquial Tibetan
endings iir:.:j ~~~·j ~Cil'l and~~:;.· are used more frequently because they indicate the evidential nature of the statement. Thus to improve one's fluency and to acquire a natural flow of the language the proper usage of these endings is essential. In sentence (b) the attestatiye ending~~:;.· indicates that the speaker has first-hand knowledge; he
saw with his own eyes, s~·~~:;.· 'you', go to bed late and get up early: (b)
rzr~t:. ·~!fit:.·~~·~~:;.·~ ~,o.rif~:;.l Ur~ ·~~!:;. ·~ ·~~:;. ·~~~l'tl't!:cJ-~t;.41'ift;.•1 [I saw you go to bed late and get up early.]
(attestative)
In sentence (c) the reportative ending ~5_Q]' indicates that the speaker has acquired the information from some outside source; the speaker was tola. that, rs~·~~:;.· 'you', went to bed late and got up early:
(c)
fl'~t;.·~!fit:.·~~·~~:;.·~~,~.~~ Ur~ ·~~.::. ~ ·~~:;.·~~~·'"·t!:Q-~~:;.~·.q"\~ [I was told by your mother.]
(reportative)
In Lhasa colloquial the verb-ending z::!~"J· is used more frequently than~~~·· 1be verb-endings~~:;.· and ~5"]'express the precise nature of the acquisition of the statement, whereas c.J'?(.~·lacks this and only indicates"that the past time statement is a fact. Remember, even if one has firsthand knowledge of a completed action, one is not obligated to use the attestative ending lie:.
b.)
Past Habitual
As previously mentioned, tl''X.~ · is not strictly a simple past time verb marker; adverbs of time or the context of the c:onversation are used to specify the time of the sentence: (26)
f'i' rfi'"t:. ·~~~ "fl'i"l"'~~~·"1~~ ·~·"l~~·z::~~~·~·~.q~·t.~·X.')1
(past habitual)
He used to go [before] on pilgrimage to Bodhgaya every winter. In sentence (26), the adverb of time, f~
"cJJ" 'before', indicates a past habitual action, and is translated into
English as, 'used to'. The use of c.J''X.~· places the emphasis on the habit, ~~~·z::~{~·qr~z::!~'c.J''X."· 'used to
goon pilgrimage', rather than on the past time element, f~'cJJ' 'before'. Let's look at the two sentences below: a.)
f~'cJJ'ts'"t:.·~ ·z::~~;~:~ l~~·rg·z::!.f:l')''l'l.')J [Before] he used to cause problems if he got drunk.
b.)
f~ ·~ ·z::~~:r;~ {~~'[S't.l.f:l')'~ili"') ·q·'X_" 1 [Before] he used to [at that time] cause problems if he got drunk.
' l'fi'"t:.
In sentence (a) the speaker is emphasizing the habit of having caused problems 'f"l~'(3'z::!4~ ·q·l_" ·, whereas in (b) the time is the point of emphasis, 'he used to cause problems' {"1~'(3'z::!+J~·~ili""·r.r'X."·, Please remember that ~iG'"~ · is used when one wants to express that a personal association exists between the speaker and the second or third person. This perspective marking is explained in Lesson 10.
248
Lesson /3
c.)
Simple Present
In CJ'~~· sentences that denote a simple present time, it is the temporal adverb which is the time indicator. In the sentence below, the verbal conjugation c..J'~'1' is used to denote both a simple present and
a simple past time: (137) il!·~~·llJil1~·~111"'cr~IIJ·f.I~·~Q~•rQ~:2\'IlJ'ftll1.,.f.l.~~1
~·?:ra;·Q~Il1·~~·~~::.·~11J"'f.l'
~ll1·f"~ ·~'c..J:2\ 'ft!IJ'I'CJ'~~ 1 UJ~ ·~a,~::, ~~I::.~IIJ'I'CJ'Il'~~ 1 Every morning Yeshi goes to circumambulate [the stupa]. For instance, this morning he went to circumambulate [the stupa] at five o'clock. But he doesn't go in the evenings.
(simple present) (simple past) (simple present)
In sentence (137), it is the adverbs of time that determine the 'time, factor, i.e.,~ll1~'c..!'ill1'1:.1:2\' 'every morning,, ~·~c;,·~ll1~'c..J' 'this morning', and ~~c;.·5" 'in the evening'.
Though it is correct to use c..~·~~· when expressing a simple present time, this form is only used occasionally, the most commonly used conjugations are~·~~· or ~·tG"l·c..~·~~·: f"'~ll1~'c..J'~·i"~·Q~'c..J:2\'1fJii"Qf':f~'lli'~·~·l.~1 At ten in the morning he takes [his] medicine (h.):
r~::.·~~·m·l!t;.:.£f~41~·"&-iij'~·CJ·Il'l.~1 He doesn '~talk much.
II.
Past Time Factive Questions
A.
Second Person
1)
Personal Perspective- (Question word + MVS + f.l~~ ') Sentences (32)- (39)
(32)
a~·~"·IIJ·l.·~~i'~·r.j~~1
What did you eat?
(33)
6~':2\t;.'ll1'c..!:2\~Q~'c..J'Ul~1
(34)
6~':2\t;. .g.cJI·~·~ 'llJ~ 'cJI'Il1'a)'1'~1l1~'c..JoUJ~ 1
Where did you go? How many days did you stay in Mussoorie?
(35)
6~·:2\c;.·~·i"~·ll]·a.s~ll1~~·c..~·U!~1
What kind of watch did you buy?
(36) a. 6~':2\t;.~l·~~·ll1~.,·sc;_'ll1~c;,·c..~·U!~1
When did you learn/ study Tibetan? I learned/ studied Tibetan two months ago. Who did you give my umbrella to? I gave your umbrella to Chukyi. What did you borrow from Tsering? I borrowed a camera from Tsering.
b. t;, 'f1!'Q'Il1~~·~·f~ ''lJ'!jt;, ·c..~·U!~ 1 (37) a. 6~':2\l::.'~~·c;,~~·ll1~1l1.,.~:2\'ll1~c;,·c.rU!~1 b. c;,~·a~ ':2\" ·~~ ·ll1~ll1~·i'~·~'1·11J·~~ ·c..~·U!~ 1
(38) a. 6~':2\t;.~.,·~·~~::,·~~·ll1·~·1l1UI:2\'c..J'Ul~1
b ~·~c;,·~~·~c..J:2\'a)~~ll1'1l1UI:2\'c..J'Ul~1 (39) a. 6~':2\1::.'~~·~:2\'c..J:2\'~~·c..~·U!~1
Who did you take a picture of? [I] took a picture of the students.
b. iQ'~Il1'i":2\'c..J:2\'Q~Q'c..J'Ul~1
249'
Colloquial Tibetan Personal Perspective- (MVS + erG.~~ 'l.l4l')
2.)
Sentences (40)- (44) (40) a. B~'"-"'S~'Ql4l'~~"'l.I'G.l~·l.I41J
Did you do the work? I Did you work?
b. ~ ·~"·c.·111~·~·~~rs~1 (41) a. rs~·~"·~~·~·llfz::r4 a.~·~~~~·crU!~·"l~1
Today I didn't do the work/ didn't work. Did you watch this movie?
b. CJ~~''J'Ul~1 ')~'7.·Ul~~"'~~ \,l
I watched [it). [It) was really good!
b. ~·~')1 a.~·a.s~·~·~')1 ~~·"~·U1~1
No, it's not like that. I listened [to it).
(42) a. 6')·~"~~·~·111 ~~·lCJ~CJ·s·~·~~~·"~·UI~·'-~~1 (43) a. S')'~"·~~·~~·CJ~~·"l·fil~·"l~1
Did you kill a tiger?
b. ~·~~')1
(44) a.
Didn't you listen to father's advice?
[I) didn't kill [one].
S') ·:t,c. ~~·fic.·~Q.·~c.·111·~~~~·'-l·fil~ ''-~~1
Did you throw him into the water?
b. ~~~~''J'UJ~ 1
[I] threw [him in].
Contracted Form- (MVS + l.l4l'/ l.l') for Second Person Questions
3.)
The normal second person question form (Quest. wd. + MVS + 'J'Ul~ ') and (MVS + 'J'il:~ ''J~') can be contracted to (MVS + l.l4l') or [MVS + l.l') with no change of meaning.
Sentences (45)- (49) (45) a. S')'~"~~·f"c.·111·~~~~"·l.l'f1
Did you hit him?
b. c.~·~·CJ~l1 fic.~~·~·~')''-1'~')1
I didn't hit [him]. He hit [me).
(46) a. fSl·~c.·~~·fE'"c.·111·111~·~~·CI'f~·q1
Did you show him the way?
b. CJ~~''J'Ul~1
[I] showed [him].
(47) a. rs~·~c.·~·'J~--~~~·'-~~1 b.
Where did you go?
c.·a>·lCJC. ~·CJ'a-~~...~~ ''J'Ul~ 1
I went to Tsewang's factory.
(48) a. fl'~c.·el·~c.·l§"~·111·~·~~~·'-l~1
Didn't you go to the market yesterday?
b. ~·~ ~ 1 c. -w·~·l1j~~·~~~·~·~c. '11j'~~l''J'Ul~ 1 (49) a. EICJ'a)C. ·~~c.·~·CJ~~·'-~1
[I) didn't go. I stayed home with [my) mother. Did [you) clean the kitchen?
b. CJ'i~''J'Ul~J
[I] cleaned [it].
In this lesson, questions formed with question words, i.e.,~·~· 'what',~·"~~· 'where', !~]'a)')' 'how many', etc. and questions formed with the particle 'J~· are introduced separately. Generally the question particle 'J~· is not used with question words, however occasionlly, one may hear it used colloquially: (32) rsl·~"·~·~·~i'~·l.I-G~~ 1 , ~i'~·l.I'G.l~·l.l41 1 What did you eat? 4. ~~·i~·'i\i.::l' This commonly used term for movie/ film is derived from the English word bi-scope. The Tibetan word for movie or motion picture is i111·q~~ ·(i.e by the use of electricity, a body or an image is seen).
250
Lesson 13
In previous lessons the full or long question forms have been introduced: Did you do the work? I Did you work?
Both questions (32) and (40) are examples of the long question form. In colloquial speech however, the contracted forms r..~~· and r..~· are heard more often. These forms do not change the meaning of the question in any way. The contracted forms of the preceding questions are shown below:
Remember that these contracted forms are not used in literary texts. It
The answer to the question below entails both a negative and a positive response:
No, it's not like that. I listened [to it].
Didn't you listen to father's advice?
In English the response to such a question would be positively phrased, 'Yes, I listened to it.' Though it is correct to use a positive response in Tibetan as well, i1.11lj~·UI~ 1 ~~ ·r..~·UI~ 1' in lhis particular case, the use of &.~·X.~l indicates that the negative question which has been asked is not correct. Thus the above answer could literally be rendered as, 'No, no. That's not right. I did listen to it.'
B.
First/ Third Person (Ques. wd. + MVS + ~·l,"·) I (MVS + ~·l,"·~41·) Sentences (SO)- (56) What time (h.) did Yeshi get up (h.)
(SO) a. ~ ·~z::rcflll~'r..J'U!·~~·i1.1ll]~·sll]·i'" ~·~"'QI'.
~J::.41'l.l'l." 1 b. fi~·~~·f"~·~~·t.l~·~~~~·c.r~~1 (51) a. ~~·~·l.·IIJ~~·~·l,"1 b. (Jl~ ·~·~~~~·~~Q,j'!,J'~~ 1
this morning?
(52) a. ~·~~·~:~~·9J~'~IIJ41'~·l."·~411
And then did [she] go to school?
She got up at six o'clock. And then what did she do? Then she had a bath/ bathed (h.).
b.&.!'~~~ rcflll~'l;_'&.l~~·r..~·~~1 rcf~~·r;_·~~~·~~~~· No, she had breakfast. After eating breakfast
i~·SJ~ ·E!~~·r..~·~~ 1 i~·~~ ·~·~"~ ·lll~~·~s~ ~· ~·s~·~~:=.·r..~·~~1 ~·~~·"':=.·Q.I·Qjlll~~·r..~·~~, (53)a. ~·~·g~·llj·g~··1J'i1.1~~·r..~·~~1
she then went to school. At school she studied English for two hours, and then came home. What time did I get up?
b. 6~·~~·~1l]·f"~·~~~·r..~~·~~~~·r..~·~~1
You got up at seven o'clock.
(54) a. ~~·~~~·.::J~~·r..~·~'1'r..l~1
Did I wash my face?
b. OI''X.~1 i1.1~·~~~·~i1.1'i1.1~·~~~·r..~·~'11 (55) a. X.~·r..~~1
No, [you] had breakfast right away.
Is that right?
b. x.~, x.~,
Yes, Yes.
251
Colloquial Tibetan (56) a. ~·~~·lll·~·s~·c.r~~~
And then what did [I] do?
b. ~·~~·~·(lllll~·lll·~lll~·c.r~~1
And then [you] went out.
The use of ~~·l:J~' in first and third person questions indicates that the speaker is requesting a general factive answer and is specifically interested in the action that took place, not the evidential manner in which the addressee has acquired the information.
(SO) a. ~·'X_~ ·~lll~'z:Jil.l·4~·llllll~·slll·i''\ 'IIJ'a;'\ 'QI·~~~-a·q·X.'\ 1 What time did Yeshi get up this morning?
b. f"~·s~~J·~'"·alll·q~·~~-a·q·x.", She got up at six o'clock. In the question above the emphasis is on the general knowledge of 'the time Yeshi got up.' The speaker is only concerned with the general fact, not with the addressee's attestative or acquired knowledge. Please note that there is no contracted form for first and third person questions.
III. Past Time Attestative Questions (MVS + ~'Qf) and Statements (MVS + ~) First/ Third Person
Sentences (57)- (68) Did he phone me yesterday? [Did you answer the phone?] b. ll.llll~·~~l [Q'~~1S"~~~·~~·~~·Il.l·~ll.l't.IX..'lll~~·~~l Yes, he phoned you yesterday. (58) a. ~·UI~~s~·~·~·il.~lll r::.-a·ll.l~'llJ'il.~'IIJ~'I·
I .don't remember very well. When did I do this
s-r·irr::.·1
[work]? [Were you there?]
b. ~~·UI~~s~·~·il.~lll 11.~·~~·x..~·~~·ll1~~·~·~~·1 (59) a. ~·'X_~·~~~·l:J·~·ffi"~·ll.l·~~·~~·~~~
I remember well. You didn't do this. Did I go to the market this morning?
b. ll.lll1~·~·~~·1 fl·~~·~lll~'l:J'~'1·x..~·s~·ll.l·~lll~fir~·1 No, you didn't. You went to the market yesterday morning. (60) a. ~~~~~~16"~'Q.I~~·lfx..·Q.I'r.l.~·~4'1'~~~·i;r:;,"t;.~1 Did Tashi explain [about] this to her? b. ll.llll~·~~l ~~~'ll.IQ]~~~f~·ll.l'r.l.~'~4'1'j"~·~r:;.l Yes, Tashi explained it to her. (61) a. f"~·~·i"'1'lll'a)'1'{)ll.l'ii"~·1 ~·~~·lll·~·s~·ij~·l
How many hours did he sleep? After that what did he do?
b. f"t::~·i''1·~~·{)ll.l'ii"~·1 ~·~~·Q,J~~·i;~·,
He slept for four hours and then woke up.
(62) a. ~~·f"~'Q.j'lll4'1'~4'1'~ry~·ij~·~~, s~~lll~~·~~·, Did I scold him? Tell the truth! b. ~ ·'1'(~·Q]~~·~·~'11 ·x..~ ~~·f"~ 'Q.j'lll4'1'll14'1' It's not true. You didn't scold him.
6'\
~ry~·lll~~·~·ij~·,
(63) a. ~~·f"~·ll.l~~·~'1'1l.1'~'1·=·~4'1·ij~·c:.~1
Did I speak to her in Tibetan?
b. 6'1·~~ ~~·f"~ 'll.l~'1'~'1'1l.1'~'1·= ·~4'1·~~·,
You spoke to her in Tibetan.
252
Lesson 13
(M) a. jir::.''!')r::.~a]r::.f"z:J~z:J·irr::.·r::.il1
Did he cough last night?
b. prr::.·"""'"afr::.·E!·'~Q]'"-~~·"·~....1 s~·~r::.· iz:J!l:J'~·~r::.·1
He didn't smoke [cigarettes] last night. That's why he didn't cough.
(65) a. I:.'Q]~~·rs'~·~·a.i-~~·~~ ·~~·~Q]~'i!li"r::.·
When the two of us went to the market did I
~"'"'~1
see Rinchen?
b. "~~·r::.·Q]~~·l§"i!'~'Q.i-~~·6')'~"~~·~~·~~· ~Q]~'Q]~Q]~·irr::.·1 (66). (67)
<68>
A little while ago when the two of us went to the
~~ ·~Q]~·~~·ci(~ ·~~ ·a.~~·z:J+J') ·a-~ ·~~·iz:J·~Q]· i"~·,·~r::.·1 rr~z:J·~~~·i~·rrr::.·~·l:J~~ "'-~Q] a;r::,'ijl:.~
market you saw Rinchen. When the teacher explained [the lesson] in class the students understood.
z:J~r::. ·~...'"'~1
The night before last he got drunk at the party. Did [he] drink a lot of beer?
a.s·~·l:J~·~r::.·z:J·il~·~r::.·1
The big insect ate the little one.
The past time attestative verb-ending ii"r::.· is used when the speaker is giving an eye-witness account of a particular event. This ending is precise in nature, it signals that the stated information has been acquired from first-hand experience: (62) a. r::.-r·f6"r::.·~~~')'Q]~')'r:l~r::.·ii'c:.·c:.&~1 S"~Q]~":')"l Did I scold him? Tell the truth! b. ~·""(~·Q]~~'i!'l.')1 a')·~r::.~-a·r;r::.·~·"!~')'"!~')'r:l~r::.·"l~"''rii'r::.·1 It's not true. You didn't scold him. In question (62), the attestative ii"r::.· is used because the speaker assumes that the addressee was present at the time of the event, and therefore, is able to give an eye-witness account. The literary interrogative ending particle 1:.'1' is colloquially pronounced [r::.~·]. The use ofii"r::.· is further explained in Lesson 18, Volume II.
IV. Past Time Reportative Statements (MVS +~~~·~~~Ill) A.
First Person Impersonal Petspective on Self [second-hand knowledge/ reportative] Context: Uncle Sonam has just told Dorjee about a number of events that happened during his childhood. Dorjee is now retelling these incidents about himself to a friend:
Sentences (69)- (76) (69)
...~...·~r::.·t~r::.·~·~·Q]~·~~~·~~"!/ r:~-,"1
When I was little [I] went to India. [as I was told by Uncle Sonam]
(70).
r::.·~·~~·~r::.~1Jr::.·~·~Q]%Q]'l:J~')'z:J~Q]
I lived in Darjeeling, in India, for one year.
253
Colloquial Tibetan
<71>
c=.~~c=.·Ql·r::;s~~Q.·il;J·~~·sa~·l;J·~"l·~~·l;J~Ifl
I went to [a private, English medium] school in Darjeeling for six months.
(72)
!JI'\to 'll~~c=.·Ql·~·~·cllc=.~~·:;J~If)
In 1960 a lot of children in Darjeeling got sick,
U:l~·~~c=.·t:.·6~·~~·~·~·~~1f]
but I didn't get sick at all.
(73)
~·~~·t:.~'l~.r~c=.·Clllf]~·Ql·:;J~~~·slf]~·:;J-:i~·:;J~If)
In those days I used to annoy my uncle a lot.
(74)
~·~s·ii"c=.·-¢c=."t:.~·~·U!·~~·Clllf]~·~·Fc=.·r.:~ ~·If]~~· Because of that [he] sent me to Uncle Yeshi'shouse in Bodhagaya.
(75)
Ql':;Jryt:. 'lf)~t:. 'l;J~If] "Q·If]~~·Ql·t:.~·~'U!·~~·Clllf]~·cll~cll~·Q(If]%1f]· :;J~~·:;J~If]
I lived with Uncle Yeshi for a year in Bodhgaya.
c=.·iS"t:.~·s·~·g.cll~cll·~·i:;J'~~·~~·:;J~If)
I went to school with his children.
(76)
I stayed a year in Bodhagaya with Uncle Yeshi./
The (MVS past form+ ~~"1· I :;J~ll]·) construction is used to express a past time incident that one has found out from an outside source. Unlike the personal perspective (MVS + Uf~ ') construction which signals the speaker's own recollection of the action, this construction explicitly implies that the speaker has obtained the information from an external source. Students should remember that in past time sentences, the verbendings ~~111· (literary form) and :;J~"l· (typical Lhasa colloquial form), are categorized as reportative verb endings. In questions and negative constructions, only the verb-ending qc;t1" 1' is applicable, neverZ::tall1'· ,. 1 When relating an incident about one's own childhood, one must often rely on information that has been obtained from an external source rather than on one's own memory. The impersonal perspective construction (MVS + ~5.'1]'/ l;J~ll]') is used to relate such incidents. In sentence (70), l':>orjee is giving an account of his childhood based on information obtained from Uncle Sonam, the informant. In this particular case, Uncle Sonam is the external source of evidence:
(7o>
t:.·s ·"1~ ·~t:. ~ ~t:.·QJ·Q(IfJ~IfJ·~~~ ·~lfJ I lived in Darjeeling, in India, for one year.
vs.
t:.·s·"l~·~t:.U~t:.·ll;·Q("l~lfJ·r:l~~·r.:·~~, I lived in Darjeeling, in India, for one year.
[I remember/ it was my personal experience]
[I found out from Uncle Sonam]
The first person subject t:.• 'I' with the verb-ending l;J~If]· alerts the listener to the fact that the speaker is reporting the incident based on information obtained from an external source, not from one's own personal recollection. Here the speaker Dorjee is retelling an incident that occurred during his childhood based on information acquired from Uncle Sonam. In this sentence the verb-ending ~~!l!'/ ::::li"9' implies, 'I found out from Unde Sonam.' The (MVS + t.l'Ul~ ')construction used in the second sentence implies that the agent of the action, t:. · 'I', is relating the incident based on his own recollection. Remember that -t.l'Ul~ · indicates that the agent clearly recollects the stated action. This ending is never used when the speaker is relating information that has been extemally acquired Please note that the use of the impersonal verb-endings~~~·; :;J~Qj· implies 'I found out from an outside source.' These verb-endings do not exclusively mean the information was acquired from a person. 5. ')S"'I('It·i~·~~·- Literally' English school', however, this term among Tibetans means 'a private Engli~h med!um schooi" This is further explained in the analysis section.
254
Lesson 13
Information that is found in books, newspapers, television and other media is also considered externally acquired evidence. The past time (MVS + Ui~ •) construction, which is introduced in Lesson 15, is often translated into the
English present perfect tense, while both the (MVS + ~~111· I J:J~~·) and (MVS + '-l"Ul~ ·I~~ •) constructions in this lesson are translated into the simple past tense Even though the English translation of the latter two constructions is the same, there is a distinct difference of emphasis. The verb-endings ~~9·1 l:J~9· indicate
that the speaker is reporting the information, while '-1-fil~·j ~~·indicate that the information is based on the spealcer' s own recollection of the experience In sentence (71), the term ~S~~'q·i~·~·, '(a private] English Medium School' is used. Before 1959, the sons and daughters of wealthy noble families were sent on the back of yaks to India for their studies. In those days, India was under British rule. In the late 1800's English medium schools such as, St. Joseph's and Mt. Herman were established in the hill station of Darjeeling and Dr. Graham's Homes and St. Joseph's Convent in Kalimpong. Many of these popular schools were founded by Christians. Due to this, the term ~S~ ~'Q.·i~·~·literally, 'English School' ,carries the connotation of a 'Chr'.stianSchool' with a British based curriculum. After 1959, even though many Tibetan schools were opened in India and Nepal, the children of wellto-do families and those children with foreign sponsors eontinued going to these ~s~··~q·i~·~· 'Christian schools', because of the high English standard and British curriculum. Many of these schools now offer Tibetan language classes due to the large Tibetan student body. It
B.
Second/ Third Person
Impersonal Perspective on Others [second-hand knowledge/ reportative] 1.) (Tf) (78) (79)
Nominative
~c::.~".~"·fz:rfc::.'Zfl~"·a.~~
Sentences \!1)- (81) He has studied Tibetan language. [so, I've heard]
'fc:."f~·o.J~~·a.:·4!J:J~·~~~
He has gone to Tibet before. [I saw his slide show.]
~ ·~.::. "?{lll~·'-l·a,·~c:. ·~·~~ ·~·'-.1:1\ "'lJC:.~"l:J~9
This morning Tsering got up at five o' cloc..l<. [He woke me up.] Yesterday morning you didn't sleep late.
<81>
~-'~~·~~·'-~·f~ ·o.~~:l\
~.~·~~9
·s"":1\C.'f!9·~c:.·tr:l\·
[Your roommate told me.] Last Saturday you traveled a long distance/ far. [Your son telephoned me.]
255
Colloquial Tibetan 1)
Instrumental
(82)
f.l'41~41·~-.a·~a;~~·~~1'1lJ''J~ ·a;~·~~~ ''J~~·
(8.1)
iQJ·~~·fi~·QJ·~~·'J~'I:J~~·I:J~~
(84)
,.~'[Q'4~·~·f~ 'QJ~'QJ~~·~~·i!·~~~·
Sentences (82)- (86) Pasang has given a new camera to Tsamchu. [This is the rumor I heard.] Dolma has shown my photo to him. [The matchmaker told me.] A few days ago Dorjee helped many poor people. [It was written in the newspaper.] At that time you had not told him about me. [I understood this from his conversation.] Last night Sonam fought/ argued with you, but you were patient. [One of your neighbors told me.]
""'~~
lj~ ·~~~-~~~-I:J~~
~·~~·G1·~~-~~·~G"~·QJ·~~·~~·~,·a;·
1:J41'il'~~~ (86)
~,~·,a;~ 'I:Jif,·~~~·QJ~~·~~·61'~~ 'llJ'!1~'
~~-i~ ·I:J~~ U!~ -~~~·61·~~~~·1:Ja1·"'·
i~·~~~·I:J~~ The nportative(MVS past form+ ~~~·1 ~Q]') structure is also used in second/ third person past time sentences. Here again these verb-endings indicate that the information concerning the agent or the situation has been acquired from some second-hand source, i.e., another person, a a newspaper, the radio, etc. As stated in the previous section,~~~· is the literary form, while I:J~~· is the typical Lhasa colloquiai form.
!'ook.
<m
rr~~".~"·i~:J"f~·~~~~~~~
(78) rr~·f~·~~"·QI~I:J'I'I:J~~~~
He has gone to Tibet before. [I saw his slide show.]
He has studied Tibetan language. [so I've heard]
In negative constructions and questions, only the verb-ending~~~· is applicable, neveri:J~~·: (80) [Q'~~ ·~~~''-''6" ·~~ ·~:t;f,QI·~·~s.~
(91)
Yesterday morning you didn't Sieep late. [Your roommate told me.]
6" ·~~ 'QJ·~·ii'~~ ·~'lj41'~~41·~~~ Where did you get this hat froln? [Did anyone tell you?]
As already stated, the construction (MVS + ~~~·1 I:J~~·) implies that the speaker had no previous knowledge of the matter, but has found out from an outside source. The speaker is not required to state how the information was obtained, this may or may not be made clear from the ongoing conversation. The F1rst Person (MVS + ~~~·1 ~~·) consbuction, the Second/ Third Person (MVS + ~~~·1 ~~·) construction, depending on the context, can be translated into a variety of English past tense structures, i.e., simple past, present perfect, or on occasion the past perfect tense: (79) ~ ·~~ ·r.f~~·"'·~·~~·~·~" ·~·"'~ 'Q1~41·~~ (simple past) This morning Tsering got up at five o'clock. [He woke me up.] (82) r.r~~~-~~·~a;~~·~i"1'1lJ''J~ ·a;~·~~~ 'r.J~~·~~" ·~~ (present perfect) Pasang has given a camera to Tsamchu. [This is the rumor I heard.]
256
Lesson 13 (85) ~·~·~·rfS"·~t:.~~·fi~::.·ClJ·r::.'a·{:~t.·~"·a;·q~~·~·~~"l (past perfect) At that time you had not told him about me. [I understood this from his conversation.] Remember that the ~~~·f q"'~· structure is never used when relating an eye-witness account of an event that has already occurred. For such statements the verb-ending ~t:. · is used. This past time verbending is explained in detail in Lesson 18, Volume II.
V.
Past Time Reportative Questions (MVS + ca.~~·~~·)
A.
Second Person
Impemonal Perspective [second-hand knowledge/ reportative] The impersonal perspective in second person questions is used when the speaker expects the addressee's answer to be based on evidence gathered from an external source. Sentences (87)- (91)
(87) (88) (89) (90) (91)
e~·:~t.r::.·~~::.·~~::.·~t:.·QJ·~·~~·QJ·~q~·~&~·
Did you ever get to/ go to India when you
~~"1·"1~1
wereyoung?[Whathaveyourrelativestoldyou?)
fS"·~"~"·QJ·q~"·~~·~·~~~·~~1 ~·~·QJ~~·QJ·
Were you sick when you lived in Tibet?
Q11]~·~s·~~·:.J,
Did you ask your mother?
fS"·~t:.·f!·~~::.·t\~~·i~ ·~ ·q'a·~~~·~~l
Were you drunk at the party yesterday?
i)·~"'~ ·"~·~~·QJQ"§"""~l
Did someone tell you?
rr~r::. ·fS" ·~~::. ·~~~~·~~" ·~t:. ·~~~ ·~t::. "QJ"~~·i~· IIJ .~..~i""·~~~ ~'aiiJ~·§t:.·r::.~1 ·~t:.·QJ·~ ·~~~ ·~·~~·~~~·~~IIJ
Yesterday what clothes were you wearing
6"
on T.V? Did [you] see? Where did you get this hat from? [Did anyone tell you?]
The (MVS + ~5~·~~·) question structure is used when it is expected that the addressee will not be able to give a personal recollection of the experience but will have to rely on externally acquired information:
(87)
6""~"·~~::.·~~::.·~~::.·QJ·~·~~ ·QJ·~q~·~~"~·6 1s~ ~~"~·"~~1 Did you ever get to/ go to India when you were young? [What have your relatives told you?]
In question (87), the speaker is interested in knowing if the addressee has found out any information from someone, i.e., his parents or relatives concerning his childhood. The ending ~~111·~~· is used when the speaker presupposes that the addressee's reply will be based on external evidence. (69) t:.·~~::.·~~::.·~t:.·QJ•t•"J:I\'QJ'S~·~~IIJ I ~IIJ When I was little I went to India. [Uncle Sonam told me]
In sentence (69), the affirmative response~~·~~~· confirms the questioner's presupposition that the information is based on external evidence. Thus affirmative responses to~~~· questions carry the underlying meaning, 'I was told .../ informed .../ or found out... '
257
Colloquial Tibetan
In questions the verb-ending~~~· is never used. One never says: (MVS + ~~lll·Q]~.r). The correct and incorrect usage of this structure is shown below: (89) s')·~::.·~·~::.·~Q]~-I~·~·~•·~~Q]·~~1
Correct
s')·~r::.·rzr~r::.·~"i~·~~ ·~ ·~•·~-,~·Q]~1 Were you drunk at the party yesterday?
Incorrect
B.
First/ Third Person
a.)
Impersonal Perspective [second-hand knowledge/ reportative] Nominative Sentences (92) - (95)
(92)
rr::.·i~-j::.·s.,·~~"j'~'fj
Has she studied? [Did you see her certificate?]
(93)
fir::.·~ ·9~ ·QJ·~~~:t·o.~~r9~1
(94)
r::.~·')s'l t.·UJQ]~~r::.·~~~·~~1 r::.O.·C)s'l ~·
Have I learned English well? How is my English?
~r::.·o.c:;·c::.l:\~ I ~
Please tell me.
Ql~::_·r;;::.·, I..., l I
-,j7'
(95)
Hasn't he gone to India? [Have you heard?]
r::.·~~·~~· ~'l'C::.~!ll'Q]~1 G')'~r::.·~~·~·Q],~'l'~Q]·
Have I gone to Gyangtse? Did you ask anyone?
QJ·o.·'1a·qs·Q]~r::.·CJ1
b.)
InstrUmental
Sentences (96)- (100) Has he worked? I Has the work been done by
(96)
him? [Did you ask anyone?] (97)
Has she given the money to Tsering?
(98)
Have I lied? Please tell me the truth. [Have you
found out the truth?) (99)
r::.~rfir::. 'QJ·~ ·z::-9') ·o.~9'Q]~1
fS"r::. ~~rs') ·~r::. 'QJ'
Have I told him that? Did he tell you?
.':l+J')'Sr::.·r::..;:1 (100)
r::.~·'4~~ ·;(~~·(
1
I
1
I
""'
Have I helped my parents? Did they tell you?
lll~r::.·~·o,c;!li'Q1~1 .,.._, . '\) ·1 I
1
As with first/ third person statements formed with (MVS + O.~l:j'), the question construction (MVS + 0.~9· IIJ~') is used when the speaker assumes the addressee has obtained the information from an outside source: (93) fir::.·~·IIJ~'QJ'"S~·iJ-q~IIJ'IIJ"1
Hasn't he gone to India? [Have you heard?]
(98 ) ::.~·~11]'~'1 ·~4~ ·~~II] '111"1
Have I lied? Please tell me the truth.
r::.~·st::.::J-ll'l~r::.·r;;~:;,·, ,..., l I
[Have you found out the truth?]
7. SJ.--1·~~· = {~::;,·~-] Information about Gyangt.se is given in the Information for General Knowledge !ot!Ction.
258
Lesson /3
Sentence (93) could literally be translated as 'Did you find out from someone if he went to India or not?' and sentence (98), 'Did someone tell you that I lied or not?'
VI. The Past Time Main Verb ~r::::/~r::.· +verb-endings) [have/ has got]/ [had/ got] A.
First Person-
~c:.·
Sentences {101) - {103) (101) a. a~·~c:.'QI'C:.'a.~·~~~~·~c:.·c:.~o~1
Have you got my umbrella?
b. ~~·§c:., c:.~·s,·~c:.~~"9~~~"§c:., ~~~iij",l
(102) a. ·e~·~c:.·l1l·c:."a.·l:'~~·t~"a.·~·lf§C:.'C:.Ol1
Have you got my friend's hat?
b. 11lllj~'OJ].C:.'1 c:.~·6,·~c:.~·:(~~·t~"a.·~·ifor§c:.'1
(103) a. 6,·~c:.·a~~·f!r~·~·IJ~·§c:.'C:.OJ1
No, I haven't. I haven't got your friend's hat. Have you got their keys?
b. c:.·i"~·~iQ.~·iJ~·OJ·sc:.·1 1.. "i . ~
B.
Yes, rve got your umbrella. Here it is.
We haven't got their keys?
SecontV Third Person- ~c:.·iic:.·t ~c:.·r.rl.~·t ~c:.·Q.~~·t ~~~· Sentences {104) - {106) Has Sherab got Chime's bicycle? Yes, [he] has. Sherab has got [it].
(tiM) a. ~-.·~q'QIY.I.~·~,·~·~c:.·~rzr~·~c:.·t.J·l.~·l.J.,l
b. Qlll]~·~,1 ~-.·~.q'QI'~C:.'l.J'~~l
(105) a. F~ll1,~'11l'S'~·~·~,·§c:.··~~~
How many children did the two of them have?
b. 7Q-~al"d.~·l1l':.l'Q'I'al~~· r.: c:::~~"l 'I'} "J I :s .'
lhe two of them had two children.
I
c:.~·~·~s·~§c:.'l (106) a. ::.~·~J~·~I1l·e,·~c:.·l1l·~c:.·::.~i
lhat' s what I've heard. Have you got my glasses?
b. 11l~~'OJ'§C:.'1 6,·~c:.·~·IJ~·~I1l'6,·~c:.~·
No, [I] don't. Your daughter has got your glasses.
s·ii~·§c:.·~c:.·, c:.~·OJf:i'c:.·§c:.·,
I saw that. /[I saw her with them.]
The past time verb ~c:.· performs several functions. In this section it is presented as a main verb that is often translated with the English present perfect verbs have/ has got(gotten) or the simple past tense verbs had/ got. In the first person sentences of this section § c:.· is used in two ways: 1) 2)
~c:.·
implies that the subject did not actively go out and get the object, rather it was acquired lrom an outside source. The subject may have actively acquired the object, however, the speaker uses -~c:.· in questions when he/ she is interested in whether the addressee is in posses..'iion of the object or not.
Let's compare the two sentences below: I've got your umbrella. I took your umbrella.
259
Colloquial Tibetan
Sentence (a) can be interpreted in one of two ways: 1) the umbrella was given to c;.· 'I' by someone, c;.· 'I' did not actively go out and get it. In this case the subject c;.· 'I' is passive. 2) at some point c;.· 'I' went and actively got the umbrella, soc;.· 'I' is now in possession of it. In this case.§"" is used to place the emphasis on c;.· 'l's' possession of the umbrella. Whether the first person subject is the recipient or the agent, the function of the verb 5"" is to place an emphasis on the subject's possession of the object. In first person sentences the verb ~c;.· indicates a personal perspective, therefore the pronoun c;.· 'I' is optional, e.g., [SC)·~c;.~~·ll]~ll]~·~c;.·1 '[I] havegotyourumbrella.' The subject of these §" · sentences is always dative. The dative particles (QJ" I~ •) can indicate either: an action or an object is being/ has been directed towards the first person subject, i.e., the subject is the recipient of the object; or it can indicate a relationship of possession between the first person subject and the object.
In sentence (b) the subject c;.· 'I' is the sole agent of the action took, i.e., c;.· 'I' was not given the umbrella, but c;.· 'I' actively went and took it. In first person sentences when the emphasis is on the action that was performed by the speaker, the normal first person verb-ending 'J"Ul~ · is used, never §c;. ·. In first person sentences it is correct to use the main verb§"" with the verb-endings ~c;.·j'J·'X.C)· and ll.~llj·f z::J~Ilj·, however, a change of perspective occurs. Please note that§" "'J"Ul~ ·is never used. In second/ third person sentences, the evidential category is determined by the main verb§"" with the verb-endings ~c;.·f 'J"'X.C)"/ andll.~ll]·f z::J~Ilj·. (a) [SC)·~c;.·~·&lllJ·~Q,j·~l·~c;.~·s·~~-§"·irc::.·1 Your daughter has got your glasses.
[attestative]
(b > 6C)·~" ~·&lllJ·~Q,j·6C) ·~" ·~·s·~~ ·§"·~·x.~ 1 Your daughter has got your glasses.
[£active)
(c) 6C)·~c.·~·~!lf·4:JQJ·rsl·~c;.~·s·~~·§"·~~ Your daughter has got your glasses.
[reportative)
In sentence (a) the use of §c;.·ifc;.· indicates that the speaker witnessed the event, in this case, actually saw yourdaughtertaking your glasses. In sentence (b)§" "'J"'X.C)· indicates that the sentence is a factive statement. And in sentence (c) ~c;.·z::J~Ilj· indicates that the speaker acquired the information from an outside source and is now reporting 1t. As previously explained, only the reportative ending r.z.~111· is used in questions and negative answers, never l::l~llJ··
260
Lesson 13
Vll. The Past Time Verb-endings ~"·t4i'"'l Q'~~·l Q'~.l)"/ ~~~·1 z:J<;~· A.
Active Verbs
1.) First Person Recipient a.) Personal Perspective- (MVS + §C:.') {101)a. fir;:~~ra~·~r:.·QI·IIJ·~·!I~·~r:.·1
Sentences (107)- (109) What did she give you?
b. fir:.·~~·r:.:~;~IIJ'illl'IIJ~::r_·CJ~IIJ'!j~'§C:.'1 {108)a. ~~-'6~·::r_r:.·llJ·l;ll]~·IIJ~C:.·~r:.l
She gave me some new clothes. Who helped you?
b.6~·::r_r:.~~·r:.::r_·l;IIJ~·IIJ~r:.·§r:.·1
You helped me. Did they show you my pictures? No, [they] didn't. They didn't show us your
{109)a. fir:.·f"~·s~·::r_r:.·f"::r_·r:.'a.·CJ::r_'z:;J~~·§r:.·r:.il.l1 b.QIIIJ~·il.l·~r:.l f'r:.·f"~·rr:.·g::r_·rs~·::r_r:.·~·CJ::r_' z:;J~~'il.I'§C::.'1 IIJ'i~·~IIJ'z:;J~~·§r:.·1
b.)
pictures. [They] showed us some other ones.
Impersonal Perspective- (MVS + iir:.·t cr~~·f ~~IIJ'I z:;Jt;IIJ) Sentences (110)- (112) Who lent you a camera? He lent me his camera. What did the teacher teach? He [the teacher] taught [us] Tibetan. Did your mother phone you this morning? [was there a message on your answering machine?] Yes, [she] did. My mom called me, but I wasn't at home.
{llO)a. 6~ ·::r_r:.·QI·~~·~~·as'f'IIJcq::r_·iir:.·1 ~. fir:.~~·r:.::r_ ·f'r:.~·~~·as.,·lllcq~·iir:.·1
(111) a.~~ 'llJIIJ~·~~·Il]·~ 'z:;J ~z:;J'IIJ~I::. 'CJ'~~ 1 b.~~ 'llJIIJ~·~~~~ ·~~ 'z:;J ~l:;!'IIJ~C::. 'CJ'~~ 1 {lU)a. ~·X.r:.·iai'IIJ~'CJ"'l'il.l'llJIIJ~·~~·s~·::r_r:.·QI·(Zl·CJ::r_' z:;JryC::.'IIJ~C::. 'l'l.~ll)'lll~1
b. Qlll)~'O.~IIJ ~'il.)'llJil)~'~~·r:.::r_ 'fl'CJ::r_'z:;JryC::. 'll]~C::.' l:;!'iiiJ ill~ ·~o.r:. ·r:. ·~r:. 'llJ'il~ 1 2.)
Second/ Third Person Recipient- (MVS + iir:.·t~~~·t~·~~·f~~IIJ'/l:;I~IIJ')
Sentences (113) - (116) Yesterday did you help Yeshi? {tl3)a. fl·~c::.·s~ ·::r_c::.~~~·~"'QI'~IIl"'lll~r:.·~"1 Yes, [I] did. I helped Yeshi for an hour. b. Qlll]~~1 c::.~ar~~'lll~~"'S'I'f.l~1 What did I lend him? (114)a. r:.~·fir:.'llJ'IIJ'~ 'IIJUI::r_ 'CJ·X.~ 1 You lent him some money. b. 6~·::r_r:.~~·f'r:.·llJ~SilJ'IIJUI::r_'l.J'X.~1 Did Sonam pay the rent? {115)a. z:;J~~·~il.l~·~~·flr:.'SJ'~~·o.~ll]'IIJ~1 b.llJIIJ~""'~IIJ z:;J~~~il.l~~~·flc::.'z:;J~IIJ'IlJ'flC::.'Sl'!j~'~IIJ Yes, [he] did. Sonam gave the rent to the landlord. Did she show Tsering the way to my house? {116) a. fir:. ·~~1;-·X.c::. 'llJ't:.'a. 'fl r:. 'l.J'a. 'llJil.l'll]IIJ'l:;! ~~ ·~r:. 'C::.il.l1 No, [she] didn't. She didn't show Tsering b. il.l·~r:.·1 f'r:.·~~-a;-·x.r:.·llJ·s~ ·::r_z:::~·llJil.I'IIJIIl' l:J~~ 'il.)'~C:. '1
the way.
261
Colloquial Tibetan
In this section ~;;:is introduced as a verb-ending along with~::::/ r.r~~·; and Q.~Qj· I l:lf
She gave me some new clothes. [Lit.: by her to me new clothes were given]
In sentence (107) b., the instrumental agent, rzr~·~~· by her, performed the action, while ~~· to me, is the recipient of the object, i.e., new clothes. In the dative sentences of this section the indirect object, e.g., ~~·,is the s·I:JQ. ·~QJ' the place ofaction When~~· is the verb-ending of a dative sentence, the emphasis is on either the object that was given to the indirect object, as in sentence (107) b. or on the action that was directed towards the indirect object, as in the sentence below: 6~·~~~~·~~-Qj~r:;.~·§~'l You told me. [Lit.: by you to me the telling was done] The instrumental agent, 6~·~~~~· by you. performed the action, while r:::.~· to me, is the recipient of the action, i.e., being told. In dative sentences the emphasis is on to whom the object was given. or to whom the action was directed. In these kinds of sentences both the agent and the recipient take an active role, one instigates the action, while the other responds to it simultaneously. In sentence (108) b., the verb-ending §1::.' indicates a personal perspective. The pronoun r:::.· 'I' is optional; even in its absence the addressee automatically knows that the occurrence happened to the speaker: (108) b. rs~·~r:::.·~~·~~·l:'~~J~·lll~~·~~·, You helped me.
or
The use of the verb-ending ire:::.· changes the emphasis from personal to impersonal: You helped me.
In this sentence the emphasis of~ll]~'ll]~t::.·ii"r:::.· 'helped' is not on the indirect object::;.~· 'I'. ii"~· shifts the emphasis from the personal aspect of~· 'I' to the objector the action of the sentence, in this case 'helped'. In sentences where the second and third person are the recipient of the action, the verb-endings "'i~·f l.J·UI~·; l.J'~~·; and Q.~llj'/ l:lf
In sentence (113) b., the agent of the action is~~· 'I' (by me), therefore the first person verb-ending l.J·t1:~ ·is used. The recipient of the action is the third person U!·~~· 'Yeshi'. In these sentences the recipient always ' takes a dative particle, i.e., U:l·~~·QI·.
262
Lesson 13 As explained previously, if~:.· is used when the speaker actually witnessed the event and is now relating itto another. !:J ·~ '1' is used when the speaker is relating a general known iact. And Q.~~·I z::~~ · are used when the speaker is relating something they have found out from, i.e., someone else, a newspaper, radio, book, etc.
B.
Unintentional Verbs
1.) a.)
Recipient of the Action [with a Genitive Particle] First Person
Personal Perspective- (MVS + ~r:::)/ Impersonal Perspective- (MVS +if~:.·) Sentences (117)- (120) (ll1) a. ~~l:.~~~"J~'~I:.~!:.~:X.~~·cl.l'Q]~~~'r::.Jil b. QJ~~·~~:_·,
~"Jcl.l'q14~·UJ~~Ul'1'~l:.·r::.~.r~~:.~·~·
~&f~J:.'cJ.l'lli"!:.'~l:.'l (118)a.
Did you see Mt. Everest yesterday morning? Yes, [I did]. Because the weather was nice I saw Mt. Everest.
~·~~:.·~·~~ ·~·~~ 'QJ1·~~:t;.. ·a.~~·~~"l'§l:.'l:.cJ.l1
Thic; nnning did you hear any news about Irdia?
b. QJ~~·~~:_·l ~:.~· VOA "J~·~·~:t;..·~·~:t;..·QJ·9~:t;..·Q.~:t;..·
~~:J\''J~~·i!f§!:.l
Yes, I heard some news about India on Voice of America.
(119)a.~·cJ.l·QJ~~1 ~cJ.l·~~·QJ~~~·~:t;..·'E!!!J~·!:J·~s~l
Nyima, Namgyal went to America [I want you to know this]. Is that right? I didn't know that he went to America.
(uo)a. ~cJ.l~'l:J'~:t;..·~·flcJ.l~·Qj·q~~·cJ.lfl"J'QJ'a:t;..·~·X..~1
Khampa means a person who lives in Kham.
cl.l6"J·~~:.·~:.cl.ll
[Now] do [you] understand?
b. QJ~~·ir~:.·l ~:_·g~·~9·a.~ ·~~QJ~z;:;·"f'~~:.·,
Yes, [we] do. We understand the meaning of this word clearly.
b.)
Seamd/ Third Person- (MVS + iir::.:f crl."·f ~~~·1 q~~·) Sentences (121)- (124)
(121)a. ~.,·~·X..·~~~~
What did Dorjee hear?
b.~.,·~~cJ.l·~~·~~·~~~
Dorjee heard the sound of an airplane.
(122)a. ~ ~"l·~:.~·~·~·.s.J£i"~:.·i.i~:.·1
A little while ago what did
b. 6~ •:t;..~:_·~~·6·~"1:t;.. :t:i~~·~~!!]~·~~:_·,
I~?
You saw a white dog.
(123)a. ~·.s.J'QJ~~·~~·6~·~~:.·s"l·~"l~:.·a.~~·~~1
Did your mother miss you?
b. QJ~~·a.~~ ~·.s.J·QJ~~·~~·~:.·~·s~~·s~ ·~"1~:. ·q~~ (U4)a. ~:J\'fl'QJ~~~·.s.J·a.6:J\'!:.l''X..~1
Yes, [she] did. She missed me a lot. Who smelled the food?
b . .s.Jg.lj':t, '[Zl'QJ~·~~·.s.J·n.~:t;..·!:J·X..~ 1
Tsomo smelled the food.
263
Colloquial Tibetan
In this section the verb-endings §~:;.·f if~:;.·f c.J'~~ ·and Cl.~llj· I z:J<;llj" are presented with unintentional verbs. Even though the subject is the agent, i.e.,~:;.~·~'ij"~:;.·§~:;.· it was seen by me, the action occurred accidentally. Because of the incidental nature of these verbs, they are classified as unintentional Let's compare the unintentional verbs o.JEf~:;.· see and
ilf hear with the intentional verbs Q~· see/look
and ~~ · listen
(117) b. 'llll]~·~~:;.·1 lll~o.J·lll4~·""lll;:J·Ui~ ·~~:;.·"~q·lll~::.~·~ ·{"ifm~:;.·o.J·c~~if"·~"·l Yes, [I] did. Because the weather was nice I saw Mt Everest. [lit.: bY me Mt. Everest was seen)
In sentence (117) b., the unintentional verb o.JEl!:;.·implies that the agent~:;.~· 'I' just happened to see something because of a particular situation. In this case, clear weather caused Mt. Everest to be visible, thus the agent happened to see Mt. Everest, llj~:;.~·~·'(ifm~:;.·o.J·o.Jif~:;.·~"l o.J1i"~:;.· does not necessarily imply that~:;.~· 'I'
purposely went to look at Mt. Everest The intentional action of 'look/ see' is z:l'lf', i.e., 11]~:;.~·~ ·{'ifs]t:.'OJ' q1f'q~'S'l'c.rtil'l1 'I went to see Mt. Everest.' (The double verb construction, i.e., Q~'llj-1\'~~· is introduced in Lesson 15.} In first person§~:;.· sentences the pronoun~:;.~· is optional. Therefore it is also correct to say:
lll~o.J·lll4~·""lll~Ui~·~~:;.·'qt:.~·~·{'ifm~:;.·o:·~1f~::.·~"·1 In sentence (118}, the unintentional verb
ilf implies that the radio was on and the agent c:.~· 'I' just happened
to be in the room or walking by when the news was being broadcast and heard it, 11]~.1\'Cl.~-1\·~~t:.l (118} b. 'llll]~~~:;.·1 "!Jf' VOA ~~·~fllj.1\'~·~.1\·
ar does not imply that the agent turned the radio on specifically to listen to the VOA news. The intentional action of listening is~~·, i.e., llj~.1\'Cl.~.1\·E)~·c.rtil'l1 '[I] listened to the news.' When the agent purposely goes to see/ to look at something the intentional verb Q~· is used. In the same way, when the agent purposely listens to something the intentional verb~~· is used. The unintentional verbs o.J'Ei"~:;.· and~ on the other hand, indicate that the act of seeing or hearing happened accidentally. First person sentences formed with the verb complement§~:;.· carry a personal perspective. §1:.' indicates that the action is being directed towards the subject: (119} b.
~~·"l~l fi~:;.1Jf~.1\'Elll]~·t.r"-a·~~q·c~~·~"·1 Is that right? I didn't know that he went to America.
The use of§~:;.· with~~· automatically indicates that it is ~:;.~·
'I' who has come to know. If if~:;.· is used
instead, the emphasis shifts from the personal perspective of "~q·~~·o.J·§~:;.· I didn't know, to the impersonal perspective
ifi" ·~'q!Jf'l.l'"~·~~·o.J·~~:;.· 'I didn't know he went': X.~ '"l~l ifi"-w·~-1\ ·~'q!Jf'l.l'l:;.~·~~q·c~~·ii'"·l Is that right? I didn't knowthat he went to America. 264·
Lesson 13
In second and third person senten~es, as previously explained, the verb-endings~~:::, tJ'~~·, or ~~ll)'/ 'J'ill)' are used according to the speaker's evidential preference.
2.)
Recipient of the Action [with a Dative Particle]
a)
First Person Personal Perspective- (MVS + ~c::)/ Impersonal Perspective- (MVS + ii"')
(12S)·a 6~·~"·~·~:.Cl_·r;f'llll]~'llj'tl~'~~~·~"·1 b. ~~&:.~ll)~T.I"'~ ~·~&:.~ll]~"ll&J~~"ll'll~~~l
(U6) a. 6~ ·~"·~~QJ'~"''ll'~Q~'tl~1
Sentences (t2s)- (127) Where did you meet/ see my father? I met/ saw your father on the street this morning. Did you go to the bank?
b. 'll'l]~·~~ 'tJ'UJ~ 1 UJ~ ·~~~:.·~~QJ·~~~·&J'§"l
Yes, [I) went. But I didn't get any money.
(U7)a. 6~ ·~r::. ''lJ'~''ll'l)~'~&:. 'W'&J''ll'l)~·~~·Uj·~·
Have you received any letters from your
..,~s~·~&:.'&:.&J1 ..,-
mom and dad?
b. ~·ll1·~"·~~1 ~·~~:.·~"1ll·~~ll1·~s~·ir"·1
That's right. Just yesterday I received a letter from [them].
b.)
Second/ Third Person- (MVS + ii"·fq·l_~·f ~~~'/CJ'ill)) Sentences (128)- (130) Yesterday who did he meet/ see at my house? He met/ saw Tsewang's uncle.
(128) a. ~·~~:.·~:.Cl.·~~:.·'ll·pi"·~·~JII~~·q·l_~1 b. ~&:.'QI'aJ'~Q&:.''ll'l)~·~·'i"''i&:.''ll'l]~·~~~~·q·l.~l ~ ·~~r~:.·~~ll)·~·Q~.::rQ~~ ·Uj~ 1
At that time we were sitting there playing cards.
(129)a.llj.:!~·~~·t~~·s~·~~:.·~"1f~~·~~·~~·EiCJ·ii""·1
OnSaturdaywhenyouwercplayingdiccwhowoo.?
b. 6~·~~:.~·r;f'll'l]~"ll~Q·~~&:.·~~:.l fi"t:.'E)~'&J~~~~~Il)Your father won. He's really good.
(130) a. CJ~~ ~&J~.'ll~~·~~·~~~·~~·~~~·t~·~s~ 'tl.~'l)~~l Has Sonam received any news from Tibet recently? b. ~~·~~ll) fi"t:.''lJ'Il)~~'tl.~'ll·llj~~·t~·~·4~'Cl.S4.'~1l)
Yes, [he] has. He has received some current news.
In this section the verb-endings§"'/ ii"~:.·j 1'.1'~~·1 and ~~ll)'/ CJ'ill)' are used in sentences pertaining to unintentional actions that affect ilie subject. In the previous sections the dative particle is used to indicate that an action is being directed towards the indirect object. In this section however, the dative particle indicates that the movement of the action is being directed towards the subject. The verbs introduced here deal with actions that were not premeditated, but occurred either accidentally or by chan~: (US) b. ~ ·~~:. ·~ll)~'tJ'"~ 'G~ ·~~:.·~·~''llllj~''lJ&J'~Il)''lJ'II~ ~·~"'1 I met/ saw your father on the street this morning. In sentence (US), &J~'ll'§&:.' 'met', indicates that the agent&:.~· 'I' did not make any specific plans to go and see your father, the meeting was purely accidental, i.e., 'lJ&J'Il)ll)''lJ'~~~~· 'while walking down the street', &:.~ · 'I' 'just happened to meet/ see your father', G~ ·~~:. ~·~''ll'l)~'&J~ 'll'§ &:.'J- Literally the event of meeting came to~:.~· 'I'.
265
Colloquial Tibetan
§~· with the first person presents a personal perspective, the emphasis is on the recipient of the action, ~~·'I'. ~~·on the other hand, presents an impersonal perspective, the emphasis is on the action, in this case, ~~QJ' meet:
~ ·~~ ·~~~·l,j·~~ ·a~·~"~·r:·~IIJ~·QJ~·~~·QJ·~~~~·ii"·1 I met/ saw your father on the street this morning. The first person past time ending l,I'Ul~ · is never used with unintentional verbs. An unintentional action can carry an active connotation when used in a double verb construction. In these kinds of sentences the verb-ending l,I'Ul~ · can be used:
~·~~-~~~·l,j·"·s~·~~~·';i·QJ~~·~~~~·IIJ~·s~·~~~1 This morning I went to meet/ see your father.
In second and third person sentences the verb-endings ~c:, l,l'~~ ·,or a.~~· I t:l"'~· are used according to the speaker's evidential preference.
VIii. Conversations A Context: Yeshi is going to be Nyima 's house guest. Nyima wants to be a good hostess, so she is asking Yeshi's nephew, Dawa, about her habits and daily routine:
Sentences (131) -(140) (131) ~·or: a!'t:l1 ~·~~·QJ~~·~~~·l,l·~~.g~·~·al')'~·
Dawa, what time does Yeshi get up in
~~~·~·~')'l,l'~')1
the morning?
!'t:J': f6'~·~~~·l,j·;~·l,l~·~~-g').~'l,l~·t:l~~~·~·Uj')·l,l·~')1 Every morning she gets up at five [o'clock]. (132) ~·~·: ~:~~-~~~·l,lilJ·~~·QJ~~·~~·~')·~·al')'QJ'ri;~~·l,l·~')l What time did Yeshi get up this morning?
a!'t:l': f6'~~·~~·~~~·l,j·~~·~')·~·l,j~'t:l~~~·~~·1
She got up at five [o'clock] this morning.
(133) ~ ·~·: ~~·~~ ·ut~~-QJ~~·t;QJ'QJ~·~~~·~·~·~ ·~i"') ':.J'~') 1 What does Yeshi usually drink with [her] food?
!'t:l': ~~-~~ ·ur~~·QJ~~·t;QJ'QJ~·~~~·~·a;t:J·~i"')'l,l'~') 1 Usually Yeshi drinks water (h.) with [her] food. (134) ~·~·: ~-F~'QJ'~QJ·QJ~·~~QJ'')~~·Uj')·l,l~~·t:Jl·~-U)~l
rr~·~~QJ'')~~·~i"')·~·~')'l,l'~')'l,l~1
I am going to make a meat dish for her. Does she eat meat?
!'t:l': Cl.~~~·~·~')1 f6'~·~~Q.I'')~~·~i"')'l,l'~')1 t:J-:€'~·~~~·1 '
That's fine. She eats meat. Please [go ahead and] make it.
(135) ~·~·: ~~·~')~'')Qf~·s')·~~·~·~~·QJ·rr~·t:l~~·~~· ~i"')·~~·~~1
And last night did she drink some alcohol at your house?
~·t:l·: rr~·t:l~~·~~·~i"')·~-~~·1 ~~·t:lry~·rr~·t:l~~·~~·
~i"')·~·QJ~·~~~·t:l~~·~·r.z.~ll]
She didn't drink any alcohol. Generally
if she drinks, she immediately gets sick.
266
Lesson 13
(136)~·~·: t:·f~·Q~~·'ll·~~r.l.~Ul~l ~~·rs-~:f~·Q~~''lj' ~Q~·~·UI~ 'CJ'~~ 'CJ~1
I like movies. Tell me, does she go to movies?
!'Q': Cll~~·UI~·CJ·~~1 f~·Q~~·'li"UJt:'ii~Q~·CJ·~~1 ~~t:·~~t:'Uit:·t:O.·s·~~1J~·~·~Q~·Q~~
Yes, [she] does. [She] often goes to movies. In fact, [she] went to [a movie] last night with my daughter. Yeshi goes for circumambulations [around the stupa], doesn't she?
A'I'Q':
Cll~~·~~l ~~~·Q·;~·Q~'~Q~'Q~~·'ll·f!~~·Q·~~1 Yes, every morning [she] goes to ~tl'i5'Q~~·~~·~t:·~~~·CJ·~~.g~·~·CJ~·fi~~·CJ·~~1 circumambulate [the stupa]. For instance, Ul~·~r.~.t:·~~t:~~~·CJ·~·~~1
this morning she went to circumambulate
[the stupa] at five o'clock. But she does not go in the evenings. What does [she] do at home (h.) in the evenings?
(138) ~·~·: ~~t::S~~~'[Qt:'Qj'~·~·~~t:'Q'~~l
!'Q': ~~t:·S"~~~·[Qt:''li'~·~~~~·Q~~~·Q·~~1
In the evenings she just sits at home.
(139)~·~·: f"t:~~·~~·~Qj'Qj~'flt:~·~~~·~i"~·~-UI~·Q·~~·c:1
She eats three times a day, doesn't she?
I'Q': Cll~~·~~· ~~1 f!t:~·~~~·~i"~·lUI~·CJ·~~1 (140)~·~·= t:·ii~~~ 1 f"t:·ii~·m·~'ll·'ll~·~i"~·~~;.·
Oh yes, she eats three times [a day]. I am a Mongolian. Has she ever eaten/ had Mongolian food?
~~~·~~1
. a·Q·: Qj~~·r.~.~~ f~·~·rrt:·ii~:t.J.2t~Cll·'ll~·~i"~·
Yes, [she] has. She has eaten/had Mongolian
~t:'Q~~
food [before).
B. Context: The teacher requests Tsering to demonstrate several actions: Sentences (141) - (150) Tsering.
(141) ~~·Qj~~·: ~·~t:''ll~~1 ~·~t:·:
'll~~1
Yes?
(142) ~~·Qj~~·: r.t·~·~·~·~~1
~·~t:·:
What is that [over there]?
r.t~·~~1
That is a door.
(U3) ~~·Cll~~·: ~~·~~t:'CJ'f~·CJJ
a5'·~t:·:
Have [you] opened the door or closed it?
~~·~~1 Q~Q'Q~~
[I] have not opened the door, it is closed.
(144) ~~·Qj~~·: ~~·~~~·~~t:'1
Please open the door!
Tsering opens the door.
(145) ~~·Qj~~·= rs~·~t:~~·~·~·~~t:·CJ1 ~·~t:·: t:~'~'CJ'Ul~ 1
What did you do? I opened the door.
267
Colloquial Tibetan
(146} ~~ ''lllll~r: lcl~'lll'~ ·~~ 1 a;-·~z::::
What is that [over there]?
lcl'~·~~·~z::.·~~ 1 ~~·~z::.·~·tl~lll· tJ ~ tJ ·&!·~~Ill
That is a window. The window is opened,
~~·~z::.-&~·~z::.·1
Please dose the window!
not dosed.
Tsering doses the window. (148} ~~'Ill Ill~·: 6~ ·~z::. ·~~·Ill·~ 'lll~Z::. ' J1
a;-·~z::.·:
What did you do?
z::.~·~~~·~~·~z::.·tJ~tl''J'til~ 1
I opened the door and then I closed the window.
(149} ~~''lllll~·: a;-·~z::. ''llll1~1 Ill'~ ·~~Z::.''J1 a;-·~z::.·:
Tsering, what did you say? Did [you]
~~~·tJ~1
close the door?
'lllll~·o.rtJ~tl1 z::.~·~~·'J·til~1
No, [I] didn't close [it]. I opened the door.
(150} ~~ ''lllll~·: l"l~·~~·~z::.·~~·'J~1 a;-·~z::.~:
And did [you] close the window?
'll~~·til~ 1 ~~·~t:.'UIZ::.'tl~tl''J'til~1
Yes, [I] did. [I] also dosed the window.
C. cOntext: Tsewang is taking his brother Tashi's children's photographs to the Sponsorship Office: Sentences (151)- (151) (151) ~~ ·~~tl':
Ul~ ~::::~·a;-·~tJZ:::.''ll~~-1
Tsewang, please come in.
~lll~·~·lll~Z::.'1 (152) ~~·~~tl': s~·~t:.''lJ'tJ~:~r4~·~·~·~·~·tJ~·~z::.·z::.o.l1 a;-·~tJZ::.': lllQ]~·~z::.·1 z::.~·"F~·'J~'§Z::.'1 lll~Q]·~z::.·1 ~~l'll'o.l'~Z::.·~~·z::.~·~tl~·~~1 c::. ·"FQ]~~·~·~c::. ·~c::. ·til~1 ~~·'J~1 tl~r4~·~c::.·tJ~·~~·IIl~~· 'll'~·~·~·a)~ ·Uj~ ''J'~~ 1 fi·lll~~·'ll·~·~·~~~·04 ·11l~~~·ur~ ·'J·o.l·~~ 1 i'll'o.l'~ ·~~'(~ ·~·tl~~ ''J'~Z::. 'Z::.IIl'~tJZ::.' a;-·~tJZ::.':
(154) ~~·~~tl': a;-·~tJZ::.':
Thank you. Did you get Tashi 's children's photos? Yes, [I] did. I've got their photos. ·Please look here. This is Dolma and
this is Ngawang. I'm their uncle. Is that right? How many children do Tashi and Dekyi have? The two of them have only two children. This year Dolma is studying in class eight
tl~~ ·'J~ ·itJlZ::. ·s~ ·~·ur~ ·tJ·~~ 1
and Ngawang in class seven.
6~ ·~z::. ·~~·~·~·~Q]~Q]~'§ z::. 'Z::."'l1
Have you seen the children?
'll~~~z::.·1 m·tl·~~·~·f~ ·'ll·r::.~·"FIIl~~· ~·~·~·Q]~~ ..,~ ·~·Q] ~ ' lJ'04ElZ::.'§Z::.'1 l"l~ ·~ ·~z::. ·~z::. ·z::. ·~lei~·~~ ·til·~·tJryt:. ~·UI~ 1
Yes, [I] have. Six months ago I saw the
l"l''ll~·~~·'J~l l"l~~·~a;~·"F~~·
Oh is that right? And have you received
~~-Ul·~'r.l,s~ .§ z::. ·r::.o.ll
any letters from the two of them recently?
~·~a;~ ·U)·~·~s-~'04'§ Z::.'l
I haven't received a letter recently,
til~ ·~~z::.·f·~z::. ·f·'J~ ~111·~s-~ ·§ z::.·,
but yesterday I got a call [from them].
268
two of them in India. And these days we are sending letters to each other.
Lesson 13
(156) ~~ ·q~~·:
f''JX.'~t:.·lll·~·~·lli~'St:.'1
What did [they] say [on the phone]?
a;"'qt::: F~~~'ri~·~~::.·Ul~'~C)·lilil:)1
They told me that they both are studying
C)'~·~~::.·~~~·rs:~·i~·~x,·C)·(lf~~::.·~C)'~Qf
well. On top of that they said their school
Er~·~~::.·ax.·111~·§~::.· 1
had won the soccer match this year.
~'Ul"1~1:)'~1 t:.'C)'2:J'Q.·C)"lq~§l::.'1 <"
It
~
~
That's nice! I'm very delighted/ very
~
"(""'
~:!1'4{\J'\J ·~·~·ci)'C)l::.(IJ'"l~(IJ'Ul"l'~·
happy [to hear that]. It seems that Tashi 's
SC)'~'ilii:)''J'q51 111"1{\J'Ul~~l:) ·~·ill!:) ''J'~C) ".}1
children are really doing very well. Yes, [they're] doing well!
Infonnation for General Knowledge The City of ~111·~
In sentence (95) the speaker asks: t:.'~lll·~x,·~~·q~~·~(IJ1 'Have I gone to Gyangtse?' The city of Gyangtse is a site of historical importance. In March 1904, Col. Francis Younghusband attacked Guru and treacherously massacred hundreds 'of Tibetan troops. For a century and a half the Tibetans had watched the British conquer and colonize neighboring India, and they were determined not to undergo a similar fate. Hence, when Col. Younghusband arrived with his soldiers the Tibetans resisted with dauntless courage. The citadel of Gyangtse fell only after an artillery bombardment had battered down what the British themselves described as an incredibly gallant stand by the primitively-armed defenders. Afterwards, Younghusband pushed his way on to Lhasa. Israel Epstein, Tibet Transformed (1983: 45S.57)
IX. Exercises A.
Answer the following questions:
f'('.Jt:.'fSC) ·x.~::. ·~111'111"1·~~::.{\J·"l·a)l:) ·cJJ~~ ·'J-tll~ 1
(2)
~ ·~~::. ·~"1(\J''J'~~·i'l:) ·~·a)!:) 'llj'~~t:.(IJ''J1
(3)
cl.ll:) t:. 'C)ilft:. ~'cJJ'Ilj~(IJ'~ {\J'~ 111'111"1'~·~ ·~'i{\J'~~t:. ·~~::. '1
(4)
rsl:)·x.~::.·lli·~::.'Q.·~~·.§~::.·~::.cJJ 1
(5)
~C) 'X.t:.'cJJ~C) ·~~~ '111'"1'~'"1'~ '"lii~{\J'§l::.'1
B.
Translate the following sentences into Tibetan:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Tashi bought a new car for his son. Pasang lied to you, so you got angry. Yesterday Tsering got money from the bank. She gave new clothes to her friend. His Holiness the Dalai Lama went to many countries.
269
(factive) (attestative) (reportative) (attestative) (reportative)
Colloquial Tibetan
C.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
Bl)·~~~~-~~-~11]~'11]~~·--
tl~~1/ ~~·11 if~1 (Personal Perspective)
(2)
fi~·~~·~~·~IIJ~·s~·--
ii~·11 t~·~~1/ ~~1 (Impersonal Perspective)
(3) (4) (5)
fi~·~~'BI)'~~·qr~IIJ~·s~·--
ii~·11 t~'~l)1/ ~Ill (Attestative)
X.
~"-~IIJ'II}~~·q· Vocabulary for Lesson Fourteen
~·~~~~~l)·~·lf~'QI'II]~~~~~·II]~~·t~~ll]·~-- tl'Ul~1/ ~~·11 Q~ll] (Reportative) ~~~l)·~·lf~'QI'II]~~~~~~~· if~·11 t~·~~1/ ~~·1 (Personal Perspective)
Nouns ~l)q;~·
tonight
Ulll]'il)l)'
exam/ test
!~·~~· Qllll'"-B ~.I CJ'4!·
Ill~~·
snow
~IIJ~·o,~·
~~)·if ira.rr~·~ ·~·
showI movies
~Ill~~
train
il)'~l)'
I)~'Q~~·
iQ'iiJ'
~lll~'tl'
Geshe/ religious teacher a fool (male)
~ll]~'ill'
birthday ticket/ travel document meeting day manure/ fertilizer disciple a fool (female)
~~~ii~'I)Q~·~~·
I
~~·~II]~'
tomorrow morning
~lll~'fgQI'IIl~~·
lf~·
worry leave
Qfll]·
o,C!fQ~II]~'
begin
Ullll'il)I)'Qf~·
~~·
fit compete attend a meeting get married annoy face difficulties wait (h.)
"-s~·
worry (h.) return to pass exams receive/ get/ arrive practise give up get married (h.)
~
Verbs 41ll!~·rsQI·sl)·
"'~~·Q~~·sl)· ~lll~·o,~·~ll]~' =~·~·Q~Q'
is'lll'tl'.iil' I)ITJO.'QI~'~Q'
~II]'Q~IIl~' a)~·
a.~·a.s·sl)·
u~·Q~~·sl)· t~~·
finish act in this manner I do like this
Adjectives
~Ill~
rich
270"
"'r§~~·~-m~. ~~· ~·iii 1~SSI)' QliQI' CfO.S'SI)'
make a mistake
continue doing boil behave/ do like that
Lesson /3
Adverbs
~~~~·
after a while
'El~::.~·o.II]O.'.ll\q'
a number of times
~·~~·Q~t:,·
from now on
"'~'.11\t:.'
this very moment/ just now
Ull::.'~'
often
Phrases ~::,~·
As forme ...
~~·i'~·~~l
I don't have time.
ll]~ll]'~ll] Ul~~t:.~~l
Forget it!
Of course!
~~ll]~·~·~~·Q~l
Is thatok?
~'ll]'.ll\1::.'~~1 ~.11\·~·ll]%1l]'Q~II]~'WI::.l
That, s right.
lflll·~~·~II]~'WI::.l ~·t:.~II]~~~:;.~·Q·~·q~l
Please wait a bit!
Please wait a minute. Now please excuse me.
271
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 14
Page I.
Future Time Statements (MVS + ~·1 ~·1 ~·jQ~·U)~·)f (MVS + ~·1 ~·1 ~·jQ~·~'1·) A. First Person 1. Personal Perspective on Self - (MVS + ~·U)~ •) a. The Future 'will' Sentences (1)- (6) b. The Future 'be going to' Sentences (7)- (12) c. Present Continuous with Future Meaning Sentences (13) - (18) d. Simple Present with Future Meaning Sentences (19) - (21) It
The Preposition ~"'as for ...'
277
It
The Adverbial Phrase~~:;.~·~~~ ·~Q· 'a number of times'
277
It
The Adverb of Time '1. 'now'
278
It
Listing of Actions
278
Impersonal Perspective on Self- (MVS + ~·~'1·) a. Emphasis on the Situation b. Physical or Psychological State c. Direct Object Emphasis B. Second/ Third Person 1. Impersonal Perspective on Others- (MVS + ~·~'1·) a. The Future 'will' b. The Future 'be going to' c. Present Continuous with Future Meaning d. Simple Present with Future Meaning 2.
n.
275 275 275 275 275 276 276
Simple Present/ Past Habitual Statements (MVS + ~·; ~·; ~·jQ~·~'1·) A. Second/ Third Person 1. Impersonal Perspective on Others- (MVS + ~·~'1·) a. Simple Present [habitual actions] b. Past Habitual [one used to do something] B. First Person 1. Impersonal Perspective on Self- (MVS + ~·~'1·) a. Simple Present b. Past Habitual
Sentences (22) - (23) Sentences (24) - (26) Sentences (27) - (29)
279 279 279 279
Sentences (30) - (36) Sentences (37) - (40) Sentences (41)- (44) Sentences (45)- (47)
281 281 281 282 282 284
Sentences (48)- (51) Sentences (52) - (55)
284 284 284
Sentences (56) - (59) Sentences (60) - (62)
285 285 285
Colloquiul Tibetan
ill.
Future Time Questions (MVS + ~·j ~·j ~·jz:J~·t\l~·c.~~·)j (MVS + ~·1 ~·j ~·jz::J~"~')·c.~~·) A. Second Person 1. Personal Perspective- (MVS + ~·U!~·c.~~·) Sentences (63)- (73) 2. Impersonal Perspective- (MVS +~·~')·c.~~·) Sentences (74)- (80) B. First/ Third Person 1. Impersonal Perspective- (MVS +~·~')·c.~~·) Sentences (81)- (90)
286 286 286 287 288 288
IV.
Simple Present/ Past Habitual Questions (MVS + ~·1 ~·j ~·iz:J~"~')·c.~~·) A. First/ Third Person 1. Impersonal Perspective- (MVS +~·~')·c.~~·) a. Simple Present b. Past Habitual B. Second Person 1. Impersonal Perspective- (MVS +~·~')·c.~~·) a. Simple Present b. Past Habitual
289
V.
Contracted Form for Second Person Questions (~~·j First Person Statements @1·1 ~·j ~·jz:J~")
Sentences (91) - (94) Sentences (95)- (98)
289 289 289
290 Sentences (99) - (102) 290 Sentences (103) - (lOS) 290
~·)and
Sentences (106) - (lU)
291
VI.
Confirmation Seeking Questions (MVS + ';f I ·:r>
Sentences (113) - (122)
292
Vll.
The Future a;~~· Construction (Adjective/ Noun+ a;lll~· + ~·~')")
Sentences (123)- (129)
294
Sentences (130)- (135)
295
Sentences (136) - (146) Conversation It Information for General Knowledge ')~"z::J4~·- A Doctorate Degree in the Field of Buddhist Philosophy The Tibetan Custom of Offering Tea and Chang Other Related Customs
296
Exercises
299
Vlll. The Future ill~::: Construction (Adjective/ Noun+ Uir:::.· + ~·~')") IX.
X.
'1!/1 298 298
299
274
Lesson 14 A.
First Person
L)
Personal Perspective on Self- (MVS + ~-rl!~~ •) The Future 'will' [I will.../ won't do something] an ac.t which is still to take place
a.)
Sentences (1) - (6) (1)
~·af~·Q~·z:J·~~~ ~·fQ"f~::.·s~·a·~~~~
(2)
t:."ilt:.·a.~~::.·~-Glirjl
It's ten o'clock. Now [I]'llstudy.
Ulirj·~a.t:.·EI·~~~·a.~~·~·~~~ I will drink chang, but as for cigarettes, [I] won't
smoke [them]. (3)
Q~~i"Qryt:.~·UI~l ~~·~·~~~·Q~~~~"1
Just a minute, [I]'ll thi'lk it over.
(4)
"~~·~~·e~·~~::.~·a.~~·Qrur~::.~·UI~l
In a little while, I'll come to your place.
'l.~~~·~·~~·z:J~l
Is that ok?
(S)
~::.·g.~z:J'll·'i;~·Qia.~::.·~~~·s~·~·UI~l
We '11 also help Palden.
(6)
~~~·r:l'll·~·~~"·l ~::.·~C)·~~::.·QJ·~~~'r'O·Q~-UI~j Don't worry! We' 11 help (h.) you.
b.)
The Future 'be going to' [I am going to.../ not going to do something] one has made a plan to do a future action
(7)
"~·PI·~~·a.~···q!·Qil\1 ~~::.·z:J·~C)l
(8)
'l.~"UI~ii·~·a.~~ ~:;.~·Q~·~~~ lll~~·Q~~
Sentences (7)- (U) As for me, I'm not gang to eat this food. It's old/ stale. Tirls is not good. I'm not going to buy [it]. Leave it!/ Forget it!
(9) (10)
(11)
~::.·f·'li~·Q.il~·~~~ ~·~QJ·~·UI~l ~~~·a.~~~·
I've finished eating, now I'm going to sleep.
~~~:;.·~iif~l
Goodnight!
~::.-,·~·Qjt;.~·~~~ ~~~~
I'm not going to get up ijust] now. It's [too] early.
t:.~·r.r~~ ·~~·~~ ·~~::.~·a.~a.·~Q.1Q4~ ·z:J-UI~ 1
I've lied to my parents a number of times/ on a
Ul~·~a.~::.·~·~~·Q~t;.·~:;.·g~·~~·4~·~·~~1
number of occasions, but from now on, I'm never going to lie [again].
~::.·Eit:.·il)~·~·a.~~ ~-a.s·~~::.·~"~~iif~::.·~:::r ~QJ·~·UI~l
I'm tired, therefore [I]' m going to go to sleep early tonight.
Colloquial Tibetan
(13)
PresentContinuouswithaFutureMeaning [lam. ../ amnotdoingsomething] an action whichhas been arranged to be done in the future Sentences (13) - (18) Now it's late. I'm going home. ~ ·~ ·'lf~ ~ 1 ~:;"\t::."Cll"Cl.!i·c::l~"l 1
(14)
r.::.~·'X.r.::.·E?~·~r.::.·~·~r.::.·Cll·Uir.::.~·~"ll ~~.g~.~~l
(15)
t::.'4\Jt::.~"\"~94'l":.J"~·g~.l;J~"'·q~·~·~,~·Ef·\~"~"l1 Tomorrow morning I'm leaving for Lhasa at seven o'clock.
(16)
r.::.·~·ilf~s~·ITJ·l;l~"\·:Sll1"9~o.J~~·~·t;J~~·~·U!~1
This summer I'm staying three weeks in Tibet.
(17)
~ ·~r.::.·i~·~1~ ·~~:~]~·~·~~·~~·~~ 1 r.::.·~.:qllt::
Today is Dolkar 's birthday. We are eating/ having
UJQj"CJ~IIl·~·f·CllQj":!"l;J~·tij~1
dinner at a nice restaurant.
~·'X.::·r.:.~"l·~r.t·~~·Cll·r.::.·"lr.::.·~·~~· 0.~·~-r~s:::J·
After class today I'm going home, washing,
c.)
(18)
I'm not coming to your house today. [I] don't have time.
~r.::."fr.::.·s~· rq~·~~~~·~~·t;Jst;J·%·~!11·s~·~·tij"\1 doing my homework, speaking Tibetan [with
others] and doing other [such] things. d.)
Simple Present with a Future Mea.Tting- a future action which is on a definite schedule or timetable. Sentences (19) - (21)
(19)
4\lt::."~9~·r.::.·~·af",·ZJ~"l·q~·QJ'l"ITJ"Cl.~Q~lll""a·fll~JTomorrow morning I start work at seven.
(20)
Q~"\":S9"~4'l·o.~~·r.::.·~·~o.~·~·'ll~·~"l·~·U!~1
(21)
Next week I leave for Dharamsala.
"' 4\lt::."~9~·r.::.·9~~·11J·8~·Qj9·'a'J·U!"\1
Tomorrow mo!J1ing I return to Shigatse.
In this section, the personal perspective, first person future time construction (MVS + ~·; ~·; ~·; ZJ~·U!~·) is introduced. According to the context, this structure can be translated into the following English tenses; the future 'will', 'be going to', and the present continuous or the simple present with a future meaning. The English future constructions are categorized as follows:
1.)
When predicting a future action, as opposed to expressing an action which is pre-planned, the (will + verb) future structure is used. Will is also used when one spontaneously decides to do, or expresses a willingness to do something in the future: (4)
"~"' ·~4'1·6~ ·~r.::.·~·c:z.f54'J"Cllili'r.::.·~·U:s~ 1
(6)
Cl.~94'l"~·~~·q4\jl
In a little while, I'll come to your place.
~94'l"r.3'll"o.!"9"\r.::.·1 r.::.·~~·~r.::.·Cll·
~~.,·~·z::~·~~l Don'tworry! We'llhelpyou.
Is thatok?
l.)
When one has made a decision or a prior plan to do something, the future 'be going to' is used to
translate the sentence:
1:;.4\j·rq·o.~~ ·~9·~"' ·~r.::.4\l·o.9o.·~tJ·tJ4~ ·q·U)"' 1 U!"' ·~a.::.·~ ·"'4\l·tJ~C. ·r.::.·a'~ ·~.,·1f~·li)~, I've lied to my parents a number of times. But from now on I'm never going to lie [again].
276
Lesson 14 S.)
The present continuous with a future meaningis similar to the 'be going to' structure explained in category 1. ·It is used in future sentences dealing with pre-planned events or definite intentions. (16) z::.·~·~~s~··"]"l:l~~·~l:lj·!:!j~or"Q~·QJ·Q~"·~·Gl~l This summer I'm staying three weeks in Tibet.
4.)
The simple present tense is used to express future time in sentences concerned with events that are on a set schedule or timetable Adverbs of time denote the future context: Next week I leave for Dharamsala.
As explained previously, the time /tense of many Tibetan sentences is marked by an adverb of time or the context of the conversation, not by the verb form as in English. The English translation of the future sentences in this section follows the above given categories. Another aspect of the ~·111~ ·construction that students should note is, ~·111~ · is only used with the first person subject, thus the first person pronoun t::.• 'I' is optional:
(3) It
Q~il·fq~z::.·~·fil~ 1 ~~·OI·!:!j%!:!j·l:l~l:lj~Volt::."1
Just a minute, [I]'ll think it over.
In sentence (7) the preposition~· 'as for... ' is introduced: As for me, I'm not going to eat this food.
This preposition can be applied to both animate and inanimate nouns, such as:
But as for cigarettes, I won't smoke them. It
In sentence (11) the adverbial phrase ~t::.~"0.90."Z.l:l" 'a number of times' is used: (11) t::.~"lci"OI~ ·~9·~~ ·~t::.~"O.Q]O."~Q"l:l4" "Q"Ul~ 1 ...
I've lied to my parents a number of times/ on a number of occasions. There are several adverbial phrases of occasional time that are derived from the noun ~t::.~· 'time' I 'time5', i.e., ~t::.~"Oit::.:tf 'many times', ~t::.~·9%9·9~~· 'one or two times', ~t::.~·fl·4~· 'a few times'. Over the years I have noticed that students when trying to say 'a few times' often use the incorrect phrase: ~t::.~·~t::. ·~t::. ·. The correct phrase is: ~t::.~·f·4~·. Please note that the adjective~;:;. ·~t::.· is .neverjoined to the noun it::.~·. The adjective ~t::.·~t::.· 'a little/ a few' refers to a quantity, and modifies a noun or pronoun; while adverbial phrases such as~ t::.~·o.90. ·~Q· refer specifically to an action being carried out a number of times. Examples of sentences with ~t::. ~t::. ·are shown below: ~t::.·~ ·~t::."f"QJI:Ij"Oit::.~~·l:l~·~·o.~9 [f"QJI:Ij"] ~t::.·~t:;.·~·l:l~·o.~9 Because he is sick, he doesn't eat a lot of food, [he only] eats a little [food]. ~·~t:·l:lj~t::.·i"~·QJ·~·~z::.·~z::.·o.~9 Today at the [religious] teaching there were [only] a few people.
277
Colloquial Tibetan
F~~~·~x.·fl·~ll]·~c:.~·~c:.·~~·~·q~·a,Jll1
One neversays:
Everyday she eats food a little times. [This is also inaJrrect in English] The correct form is:
f'~~~·~~'fl'~ll]·~c:.~·~~~·.f:l~·i!·Q~·a,Jlll Everyday she eats food a few times.
at
In sentence (13) the adverb of time"' ~w' is used. This is a contracted form of the adverb"~ 'now'. (13) "·~~'11·
...
Now it's late./ It'slatenow.
at
In Lesson 8 two structures for listing actions (verbs) are introduced.
1.)
The structure (MVS +conjugation~·;~·;~·; Q~-ui"') is repeated after each listed action and the conjunctions~ ·~o\\f I ~~·are used as sentence connectors:
~·r.;111~·l.J·"~ ~"'~·q~-ur~ 1 ~~ ·a.~'I'Q!q·~-ar" 1 ~ ·~~·iq'fc:.·s" ·"&-ur"1 ~ ·~~·fl·~lll·~·q~i'ff~1 In the morning, first I brush my teeth, and then [I] wash [my face]. After that [I] study, and then [I] eat. 2.)
All verbs, except the last, are in their past form and the conjunctions ~~~·; ~~·are used as sentence connectors. The last verb, which is the time indicator is followed by (present/ future form verb + conjugation) or (past form verb + conjugation):
c:. ·r.;111~·l.J·"~ W"-ij'~1
~~ ·~~~·q!Q1 ~ ·~~·iq'fc:.·s~1 ~ ·~~·~~~·QI~·~·q~i'ff~ 1
In the morning, first I brush my teeth, then [I] wash [my face]. After that [I] study and then [I] eat. In this lesson another verb listing structure is introduced. This structure is similar to the second in that all the listed actions are in their past form. The final verb ($"'/ s~· +conjugation/ evidential verb-ending) structure is the time indicator, this follows the conjunction~"'Ill' 'and so forth' I 'and doing other such things': (18) ~·~~-a,"(~·~·l~·QJ·~·~~·Qj·s~· ~~~·q~q· ~c:.'qj.,-s.,. 1:4x.·~x.~~·~~·q~q~,lll·s~·'&~~1 After class today I'm going home, washing, doing my homework,
speaking Tibetan [with
others] and doing other [such] things. Remember, all the verbs except for the final verbal conjugation are in their past time form. These verbs do not indicate the time (tense) of the sentence, it is the final verbal conjugation/ evidential verb-ending that is the time (tense) indicator. In this particular listing structure, the conjunction~~~· 'and so forth', is an essential element of the
s"·;
s"·
sentence. This conjunction always precedes the time indicator~·"~·+ s~· + conjugation). is used in present habitual, past habitual, and future time sentences; whereas s~· is only used in past time sentences. Adverbs of time may also be used to determine the exact time setting:
278
Lesson 14
Chart 1 Adverb of Trme lll"~lll""~~· f~·~~· ~
.......
....
~.
Verb Ending
Tense
s'1·~·ur'111 ~~~~ ur'1·r.~·~'11 S'1·~·ur'111 ~~~/ Uj'1·r.~·~'11
present habitual past habitual
s~·r.~·U~"11f r.~·~'111 ir.::.·v
past
and so forth ~·'1~· ~·'1~· ~·'1~·
~~~~ r~t;~J
~·'1~·
s'1·~·U1~1t ~·~'11
future
The verbal conjugations t.l~~ ·;cr~'1· are explained in Lesson 13 and the verb-ending ii"t:.· is explained in Lesson 13 and Lesson 18, Volume ll.
1) L)
Impersonal Perspective on Self- (MVS + 'a!·l.~·) Emphasis on the Situation Sentences (22)- (23}
(22)
6'1·~...~~ .... ~ "fi'"QIIIl~~:q~~·~~ ...·~ .2.._.
(23)
··~;·l.~1/ Ul~l ...~ ·QI~·IlJ-a.~ ·~~~·~ ·t:.·s'1·~. ~'11' ~~1
b.)
Physical or Psychological State
If you give me food that is delicious/tasty, I will eat [it] .
If I get this job, I' ll do [it].
Sentences (24) - (26)
(24)
6'1·~t:.·af~·t;.~·Ul~~~·s~·~·.::.·~.::.·Qit:.·'a!·l.~1
If you don't treat me well, I'll get angry.
(25)
.::.·~·af'1·~t:.~Ql~·llJ·s~·~ ·~t:.·a;'1·~·~'11
If I work for many hours, I'll get tired.
(26)
~·~·~~Qj·~·.::.·~·~~-~'11
If [you] don't boil the water, I' ll get sick.
c.)
Direct Object Emphasis Sentences (27)- (29)
(27) (28) (29)
t:.-&a~·ar~·Qi.::.~·l.~1 ~·~·l.'1~~·~·.::.~·i~"f.::.·
I will pass the exam, because I have studied
~·s~~·s~·r.~·fil~ 1
very hard.
.::.·ar~·~·~~·~·(~·Qj·if"r·~ry.::.·~~·~·~'11
After a few months I'll know how to drive a
~·~·~'1~~·~~t;.·~.::.·t:.·st;.~·ur'11
car, because these days I am learning [to drive].
t:.~·'1~·~~"UI~:t:i~~·ur'11 s~·~t;.·t;.·~~~~~
I have a good teacher, therefore,_ I'll soon be able
Q'1"~'1 "UI~~~~·~~·~·~'11
to speak Tibetan well.
The impersonal verbal conjugation ~·l,'1· can be used with the first person .::.· 'I' in three different situations:
2. (Vezb stem+~·) is a conditional clause structure, e.g., (!j"\·~·) if(you) give.
279
Colloquial Tibetan a.)
When the speaker,"-' T, wants thesituatianrather than thefutureactianemphasized: (22) 5"'Z."-'~~·~z.·fl·~~·~&~·li·%9'~'1"-''I'~·~·CJ~'~11 If you give me food that is delicious/ tasty, I will eat [it].
In sentence (22), CJ~·~1· places the emphasis on the clause G1'Z."-~~'9'1~'(UI~~·) 'that which you [will] give,' instead of on the first person's action ~·CJ~'~"· 'will eat.' If the sentence is written with the normal first person future conjugation CJ~'Ul'l·, the emphasis is on the first person's action, ~·~·CJ~)'Ul'l· 'I will eat': G1 ·z.~ ·~~·~z. ·fl·~~·~~·li~~·9'1~ ·"~·" ···~~·Sl'l1 If you give me food that is delicious/ tasty, I will eat [it]. As stated above, when the situatianis the focal point, the impersonal perspective verbal conjugation~·~"· with the first person~· 'I' is appropriate. In such sentences often an underlying meaning concerning the situation is implied, i.e., 'if such a chance arises, who would pass it up1' A literal translation of sentence (22) could be, 'if delicious food is given, who would pass up the opportunity of eating such tasty food?'.
(23) ~z.·~~·,·~~·z.~~·"·~·s,·~·~,1 If I get this job, I will do [it]. In sentence (23), the emphasis is on~~·..,·~~·z.~~·'l· '[under the circumstance] if I get this job,' ~·s1·~·~"· 'I will do [the job I it].' The underlying meaning is; how could I pass up such an opportunity? The situation of getting the job is the point of emphasis, not the subject~· 'I' who is going to do the work. b.)
When a physical or psychological state is expressed: ~·~~·~~''I'!\F"~·'I·~~·~"1 If I eat this, [my) stomach will get upset./ [I'll] get an upset stomach.
As explained in Lesson 10, section I A, English adjectives which express a physical or psychological state are categorized as verbs in Tibetan. These Tibetan verbs imply, so to speak, it is the bod_v or the mind of the subject that reacts and not the subject~· 'I'. In the sentence above, it is not~· 'I' which will become sick
[get upse~, but it is the 'stomach of I'. In these kinds of sentences~· 'I' takes a third person stance, thus the impersonal perspective verbal conjugation~·~"· is used. In sentenceS conceming physical or psychological states, the personal perspective verbal conjugation ~·U)'I· is neverused. c.)
When the emphasis of the sentence is an the direct object rather than an the subject "-' T:
<29> ~z. ·"~·~'I'UI9·li·%~·ur, 1 s~·~~·~ ·&~~~~·~"."'" 'QI~~!~·JS~·~·x." 1 I have a good teacher, therefore, I'll soon be able to speak Tibetan well. The emphasis of the sentence above is not on what~· 'I' will do, but on the direct object, t:r1·~1· 'Tibetan language'. It is the Tibetan language which will be spoken well, !5"1 ·~1 'UI~~~~·~CJ·~·~1 1· Because the focus is on the direct object, the future time verbal conjugation ~·~1· is always used, never~·Uj'l··
280
Lesson 14
B.
Second/ Third Person
L)
Impersonal Perspective on Others- (MVS +~·X.•r> The Future 'will,
a.)
Sentences (30)- (36) (30)
~·~c.·~~·z"~·~~·l::J41~·a·~~·x.~1 il·~c.·cr:
Tsering won't lie. He's an honest person.
Uj~·Q·~~1
(31)
l;l!!J'4~'Ili'"J~Il'~Q.·Q·~·3 ~"1~'~'Q.~~ "~~·~·~c.·
Tashi didn't get [wasn't able to get] a plane ticket.
fi'CJ~·a.s~·§"1 s~·~c.·~·~c.~c.·~·~~·~~1
I just got a phone call [from him]. So [he] won't be coming today.
(32)
~~·~c. •4c. 1f~·a.~ ·i"~ ·~~~~=lf,~c. ~·~~·~~ 1
You won't like (h.) these fruits.
(33)
1G'"C.'lci'Q.~'~~·~·~~·~~1 a.~·a.~·~~·~·~~1
(34)
[instead]./ He won't do like that, he 'II do like this. 6 ~c.~~·~~'Q4~· 1l!~~·~·~~c.·i"~·~~·~c.~Ui~·~· Tomorrow if Geshe 's [religious] teaching is
He won't behave like that. He 'II act in this manner
iQ'OJ'~Q·~·~~ 1
too long, the disciples will get bored.
(35)
Q~~sc.~·lli~~·Q~~·Q~·~~i"~~-Uj~·CJ·Il·~~1 s~·~c.·Tayang doesn't eat chilies. So today when [she]
(36)
~~c.·~lll'lll~·~~i"~~~·Q~~'CJ~=?J~·~~'IIl~"~·~~·~~1 .eats [she] won't use chilies. ~·ilf~~~·Fl·~~~~·~4~·~·~~~·~c.·iJ'Q.~~ This winter the weather is very cold. ~c.~·~~r::.~Q~Q·~·~~1
It will snow a lot.
b.)
The Future 'be going to'
<m
~·~c.
(38)
~·ifa.~·~~·~r::.·lll·~~·~·~~·~~1 ~c.·~r::.·~~1
This hat isn't going to fit you. [It's] [too] small.
(39)
~~ll'lli'~~·CJ·Ilr::.:rj'Q.~~ ~ry~·~ry~~·~r::.·
There are a lot of clouds in the sky. It's definitely
a;~'Q'Qryc.~·~~l
going to rain today.
~~·~r::.·~c.~~·~~·ij~·~Q~'lll'~~l ~·~·~~·
Tomorrow you aren't going to come to the show
l~·~·~"~~·s~·~r::.·lll·~~·i"~·Uj~·Q·~~·~~ 1
[movie, play, concert, etc.], because you don't
Sentences (37)- (40)
{40)
·pre. ·¥-Q:~r4~·~ ·n.~~·lll·a.!"·~;~;·~~ 1
Today they're going to go to Tashi's [house].
have time.
3. Q"Gl"~llllll" = [';!·i~·~a.·) The term Q"Gl" is derived hom the English word pass/ passport Sometimes colloquially the term ~-,.,·i;j· is used, this term is derived hom the English word tidcet The actual Tibetan word for any travel document (i.e., passport, ticket, etc.)
is ....,.~~·. f. lii"CJ.S" = (t.~~"CJ.SIII")
5. "-~"CI.S" = ["-~~"a. Sill") 6. '\~-,.~~~~··A monastic doctorate degree in the field of Buddhist philosophy. This is further explained in the section, Information for General Knowledge.
281
Colloquial Tibetan
c.) (41)
(42) (43) (44)
d~)
Present Continuous with a Future Meaning F~·~·~z::.·r..~:;~~·~·~;,
Sentences (41)- (44) He is coming today. A litt1e while ago I got a
;·~~·z::.~·rrz::.·~~·F·z:J~·
a.s~·~z::.·,
phone call from him.
~z::.~~·rs:~a.~~·z::~~~·s;·~·~;, s~·~z::.-;··~r
Tomorrow they arc competing/playing in a
i"·z::~~~·s"·~·a.~~
match. That's why [they] are practicing now.
~~·~·~Qj'Q'~~ :rr-~·~·~q·Qj·~~~·~q~·~~~·
Next year His Holiness the Dalai Lama is going
~·~;1
to stay in Europe for ten days.
~~"~~~ .76; ·~z::.·iz::~·~lll·i'~ ~i ·~~~·~:;~~~:;~·
The day after tomorrow you are teaching
~~~:;.·~·~;,
Tibetan songs to the students.
Simple Present with a Future Meaning
Sentences (iS)- (47) (45) (46)
~" ·;~z::. ·~~:; 'IJ'Q11114f'Q14f'"l'0.~1:;J~IIl~''&'~i 1 Nyima starts work from tomorrow evening. Tomorrow is Friday; the library closes early. ~z::.~~·~.;;JQ.''J'~Z::.~'~i1 ;~·~~i'fl~·~:rr-~ z;J~~:;~·~·~i1
(47)
z::.a.·{"'l:~~~ ·~z::.·~r~·~~·a.s~ ·~·~; 1
M}t brother arrives from Lhasa today.
The (MVS +~·!Q~ ')construction introduced in section A is an exclusive future time structure, however, this is not the case with the second/ third person construction (MVS + ~·1 ~·1 ~·~~~·~;·>. Accordi.."lg to the adverb of time, this structure can be translated into the various English future tenses; 'will,' 'be going to', the present continuous or the simple present with a future meaning, as well as the simple present or past habitual tense. In this section only the future usage of~·~;· is introduced, while in section II the simple present and past habitual usage are introduced. In English the future constructions are categorized as follows:
1.)
The future indicator willis used when 'predicting' an action which is to take place sometime in the future, i.e., predictions about things that will or will not happen, (weather, the outcome of sport matches, future accomplishments, etc.). It is also used when one spontaneously decides to do something in the future, or when one expresses a 'willingness' to do something: (34) ~"~~·;~·z::~~~·~ 111 ~·l~~~·ar~·~~·~z::.:cJ-(ij";·~·f"~:;~·~~·~~:;~·a·~; 1 (future 'will'> Tomorrow if Geshe' s [religious] teaching is too long the disciples will get bored.
(36)
i ·~;~~ 'fl'~~~·94~·~ 'SIIl~·:Jz::. ·1J-a.5111
lll~.,·~z::. :cr-~:;~!~:;~·'&·~; 1
This winter the weather is ~re.z:v cold. ft will snow a lot.
In sentence (34) the speaker is predicting how the disciples will react if Geshi' s teaching is too long. In sentence (36) the speaker is making a prediction, i.e., because 111~~·~4~·~z::.·ii·a.~~· 'the weather is cold', lll"~·~z::.~z::~~z::~·~·~i1 'it will snow a lot'.
282
Lesson 14
1)
'Be going to' ic; used to translate sentences which deal with a future decision or a pre-planned event In second/ third person sentences, this structure can also express a strong probability that something is 'goingtohappen' becauseofthepresentsituation (39) 9'1~'<1f~"\ '(J'G.jl;. ~~~~ ~ry"\ ·~ry"\ ·~·~~;.'iii~ ·~·q?r;.·'a)·~~ 1 There are a Jot of douds in the sky. It is definitely going to rain today.
('be going to')
(40) 6~·~r;_·~r;_~"\·~~·if~·~q4J'~'OI'~~1 ~·~·~~·a~·"\·~r;_~"\'61·~r;.·<1r~~·i"1'iij1·(J·G.I·~11 Tomorrow you aren't going to come to the show because you don't have time
In sentence (39), because of the present situation, i.e., ~"\G.I'<11'~"1 '(J'G.II;. :c:r~~~ 'there are a lot of clouds in the sky', there is a strong possiblity that mx:z:r~ryr;.~·~11 'it's going to rain'. In sentence (40), the speaker knows the addressee has a pre-planned engagement, therefore he makes the comment, ~r;.~"\'61·~~;.·<11' ~~·I"~~~'Q'G.I'%.11 'tomorrow you don 'thave time'. Based on that, there isastrongpossiblity that 61·~~;.·
~~-ij~~z:J~'~'D.J'%.11 'you aren't going to come to the show'.
3.)
The present continuous with a future .meaning is used to translate sentences dealing with definite intentions or previously arranged events
(43) ar(~·oz·~011·~·~"1 :c:f~ ~·7;~·~·~~41:c:f~~·~~41·"&"~~ 1 (present cont./ future meaning) Next year His Holiness the Dalai Lama is gOing to stay in Europe for ten days. t)
The simple present tense is used to express future time in sentences concerned with events that are on a set schedule or timetable Adverbs of time are used to denote the future context:
(45) 4!1;.-,4jr;.·~41~'G.I'<11~~·~41',.~~z;J~~41'~'~~1 Nyima starts work from tomorrow evening.
(simple present/future meaning)
In the sentence above the adverb of time ~~;.·1~~;.· 'tomorrow evening' designates this as a future time sentence. Another futuretimestructureintroduced in Lesson 17,sectioniV, Volume Ilis~·%.1·1 (J'~~~·· These future forms are used when one makes a prediction based on some evidence: ~'.?1~~·"~;.·1 ~"'o.~·<11·~"'·(J·o.~r;.~·~rrx.·~~ ~·~r;.·i!i~·~·q?"'41'~~1 1 ~·~r;.·i!i~·~·q?"·~·~~~ Look! The sky is overcast [full of clouds]. [I feel] like it's going to rain today I it might rain.
In the sentence above, because of the overcast sky and black clouds, the speaker makes the prediction~·~~;.· •~·~·~?"'41'~111 t.l?"·~·~~~ 'Today it's going to rain./ Today it [feels) as though it might rain.'
283
Colloquial Tibetan
II.
Simple Present/ Past Habitual Statements (MVS + ~·~·J;·jQ~·~;·>
A.
Second/ Third Person
1.) a.)
Impersonal Perspective on Others- (MVS +~·l.~ •) Simple Present- [habitual actions] Sentences (48)- (51)
(48)
j!fc.~~~·c.J·s~·af~·Q~·c.J~~lica!·JJ~·~i'~·ll.~l
At ten in the morning he takes [his] medicine.
(49)
~·~·~c:.·~~l o:alo:~~ro:alo:~·~·f'~~·Q.~~·s~·
That's right. Sometimes he does like that. He's a
~·~~1 il·~~~·c.J·~~l
fool [foolish man].
(SO)
"' ~o:·~~·6~·~c.·~~Q~c.~·~~1 ~·'X.c.·~·~·s~· ~~·~:tj:Q~c,~·c.J·t'il~1
(51)
b.)
Usually you get up early. Why did [you] get up late today?
6~·~c,·QJ·~sQJ·Uj~·~~·[Zl·QJ~·Q.~·i)·Q.~·ii·Q~·~~1 You eat all kinds of food when you have money.
fil~·~Q.C.'~5QJ·~~·~~·!]~·(S'~·fc.·CJ~·~QJ'~·~~1
But when [you] don'thave money, [you] sleep on
Q.~ ·~o:~·~4~·Ul~~o:·~~ 1
an empty stomach. This isn't a good habit.
Past Habitual- [one used to do something] Sentences (52)- (55)
(52)
6~·~c.·~c.·~c.·~c.·QJ·~·~II1~·~·~;~~·l,~l
(53)
f~·o:·U!·4~·Ero:~·~·~~~·Q.~~·~·~~1 fil~·~Q.c.· Before Yeshi used to smoke a lot, but nowadays
You used to get verysickwhenyou were young.
~c.·~c.·Q.~~·~·i)·Q.~~
he doesn't [smoke].
(54)
ilrfl·4~·~·f~·QJ~·c.a:~c.·QJ·Ulc.'il·Uic.·~·~~1
AfewyearsagoDorjeeusedtocometomyhouseoften.
(55)
~·~Qc.·f~·o:·.;c.·Q.f'~·Qryc.~·~~1 U!~·~Q.c.·
Tsewang used to ride a bicycle, but nowadays
~c:.·~c:.·~~1"QryC.·~·~~1
he drives a car.
The second/ third person conjugation~·~~· is not only a future time indicator, but on occasion is used to express a simple present or past habitual action If the habit, daily routine, or behavior of the subject is the focal point rather than the subject, the impersonal perspective verbal conjugation~·~~· is used: (48) f'c.·~~~·c,j·s~·ar~·Q~·CJ~·~iiQI· 1 ~·~i'~·~·l.~ 1 At ten in the morning he takes [his] medicine. In sentence (48), it is the habit of taking medidnethat is the focal point, ~iica!·JJ~ ·~i'~ ~·l.~ 1 'takes medicine,'
not the subject (S'c.· 'he'. If the sentence is formed with the normal second/ third person verbal conjugations ~·Ui~ ·t.~·~~· or ~·Q.~~· an emphasis shift occurs. ~·Uj~ ·t.~·~~ ·shifts the emphasis from the habitual action to
the generalknownfactof(S"c:.· 'he',~~~·t.~·s~·af~·Q~'c.J~·, at ten in themoming,~iica!·JJ~·o:i'~·lilf~·,.rl.~1 'takes medicine'. ~·Q.~~· shifts the emphasis to the speaker's attestative knowledge of (S'c.· 'he' takes medicine at ten in the morning ~~~·t.~·s~·i'~·Q~·t.~~·~iica!'JJ~·~i'~·~·~:~,~~ [I have seen him take his medicine/ I give him his medicine, etc.] If a past time adverb is used, i.e., f~ ·o:· 'before', ~c:.·~c:.·~~::.· Ql. 'when [I] was young', etc. the time/ tense of the sentence becomes past habitual:
284
Lesson 14
f~·~~·f!lc:·~"l~·~·~"l·f",·~~·~:I\"IIJifQI"JI~"IIi'"'1·~·~'11 [Before] he used to take [his] medidneat ten in the morning. The following two sentences (SO) and (54) show how the time/ tense of~-~,. sentences can be
determined by adverbs of time:
<so> ~~~-~~ ·6, ·:1\c: ·~=lf~~c:~·~" 1 ~ ·~c: ·111·~ ·s~·~~·s =lf~~c:~·~oU~~ 1 UsuiJlly you get up early. Why did you get up late today?
(simple present>
(54) qj-F·~'~·lf~ ·QI~·c:~ ""l""QI"u.jr:::~·iic:·'a)·~'1 1 A kw years ago Dorjee used to often come to my house.
(past habitual)
In Lhasa dialect the verbal conjugation~·~,· can be used to express a simple present or past habitual time, though it is only used occasionally, ·~-ur, ·~·~,·and ~~~111· are the ronjugations ma;t rommonly used.
B.
First Person
L)
Impersonal Perspective on Self- (MVS + 'a)·~'1") Simple Present
a.)
Sentences (56) - (59) . Whenidon'twanttowork, [I]don't.
[that is my nature]
'l~o.~~·~~o,j~"ClJ"I;.""l"~~·~"l·flc:"t.li"Q.~·~~·
Sometimes when I'm sick, I don't go to the
o.~·~'11 ~~·~"l"Ulc:·.:r~~·o.~·~,1
hospital and [I] also don't take medicine. Actually I'm a fool.
(58)
"~~-~"'~·s~·"'·c:·0~~-~-~, 1 c:·~"~"l"fl"~"ili"l~"t.ll"o.!C:=l:i'a.!j·~~·o.~·~, 1
During the winter we don't go out very much.
(59)
ilf"l~:l\·t.ll·c:·ar-fl·Cll"l"a.s·&~·a.s·~l·~~·~,1
For Losar we make [many] different kinds of
(51)
food/ dishes.
b.)
Past Habitual
Sentences (60)- (62) (60) (6t)
f~ "IJ"C: ·~·~~111·~ "S"l~·a.~~ ·;·~" 1
I used to smoke a lot of cigarettes.
c:·~i~·~:I\·UI,·~~·~"l~·~·~=lflllc:~·~,1
When we were at school, [we] used to get up early in the morning.
(61)
c:·~c:·~c:·U!"l·~~·~·s"l~·~·~~·~'11
[I] used to cry a lot when I was young.
The conjugation~·~,. can also be used when expressing a first person simple present or past habitual action. In such cases the emphasis falls on, 'I do that', that is the nature which exists When I don't want to work, [I] don't.
[thatismynature]
285
Colloquial Tibetan
In sentence (56), the nature of 'll~·.,·s~ "UU~~·c:z.'t{~ ·'J·~~ "'J" 'the feeling ofnot wanting to work,' exists. Hthe same sentence is written using the normal ending~~·, instead of ell·~~·, the emphasis shifts from, 'that nature exists,' to 'that is my nature, I don't do that.' Adverbs of time or the context of the conversation determine the time of the sentence:
[I] used to cry a lot when I was young.
In this sentence, the habit of crying, ~·Q~·~~ ·,is the focus, not z:::: 'I'. If the normal conjugation Q~·Uj~· is used instead, the emphasis shifts to the personal perspective z:::.·~·Q~·w~· 'I' used to cry: [I] used to cry a Jot when I was young. Though it is correct to use the impersonal perspective verbal conjugation~·~~· to express a first person simple present or past habitual action, this form is only used occasionally; ~·ill~· is the form that is most commonly used.
A.
Second Person {will you. .. ?I are you going to... ?j
1.)
Personal Perspective- (MVS +~-Ul~ "'J41")
Sentences (63)- (73) Will you study Tibetan? I Are you going
to study Tibetan? Will you come to my house? I Are you coming to my house? (65)
fS~·~z:::.~cJ.r~·c:z.s~·'ll~Q~·~·Ul~·'J~l
Will you go to the doctor's?
(66)
fS~·~z:::.·~~·'ll~·Q.~·~~z:::.·~·U)~·'J~l
Are you going to do this work?
(67)
;·~~~·'ll~~l fS~·~z:::.·z:::.·~'l]~·~·c:z.i'"z:::.l~·~·U)~·'J~l Tamdin, will you do business (h.) with me?
(68)
~"~~ ·e"·~z:::.·z:::.·af~·lf"·lll,.,.~z:::.·_,Q.,.iQIQ"
Are you going to teach us Tibetan songs and
lll~"·~·~~·'Jl
dances tomorrow?
(69)
fS~·~z:::.·~·~~·'ll·~·Q;)~·~Q~·~·~~·'J~l
Won't you go to India by train?
(70)
~~·'ll~~l ~z:::.~~·z:::.·i'"~·Q~Q·~~z:::.·~·~~·'Jl
Sir, aren't you going to teach (h.) us tomorrow?
(71)
Sl
~z:::.·~·~~S\iQlz:::.·s~·~·~~·CJ~l
Son, aren't you going to continue studying/ your studies?
(72)
6"t ·~z:::. ·~QJ"QJ~·Q.~ ·~i"~ ·~·Ul~ "'Jl
Are you going to eat this food?
(73)
a"·~z:::.·~~~·,·~~·lll·~.,·iljlll·lll~"·~·~~,
When do you return to Shigatse? I When are you going to return to Shigatse?
The second person question form (MVS + ~·1 ~·1 ~·jQ~·Ul~·r..:~·) indicates that a personal perspective answer is being requested. As with the first person statement form (MVS + ~·Ul~·), the question form can 286
Lesson 14 aJso be translated into the various English future tenses; the future 'will' 'be going to', or the present continuous or simple present with a future meaning:
(61) ;·~~~"'1Jil]~1 "B,·~~·~·~~~~~i'~;."f't"l~'t"'-~ 41 1
(future 'will')
Tamdin, will you do business with me?
m> s1
~c:·~-o.~siz:rf~;.·s"·~·~,."'-..1
('be going to')
Son, aren, t you going to continue studying/ your studies?
(68)
~~t~~ "6C\,"~C: ·~;,·I'~ :zfi)·~~41·,~·~CI41"i"CitCI"~'t~;."'li!"fi'l't"f.l1 Are you teaching us Tibetan songs and dances tomorrow?
...
(73) 6,·~~·~~~··1J·~~ ·~·~ ·ii~·~~~;.·'a!·~,1 When do you return to Shigatse?
1)
(present cont./
future meaning) (simple present/
future meaning)
lmpemonal PeiS}'t!'-"tive- (MVS +'li!"~'1"CI41")
Sentences (74) - (80) (74)
rr~;,·~~·a~·~~·Ql·~~·,·~~·~,·~·eC)·~~·s')·'&"~')"'-1411 If he gives you a job, would/ will you do it?
(75)
rsC)·~~·~·C)~ClJ·~c:.~ur,·~·~~·i~·~~·~il\~ ~·~~·~C)"t.l~l
(76)
~(G"i51·~~·~a·~~;,·~·~llj·~~·s~·~·a~·~~;.·ur~~·~"·t,~~1 If I ask you to come to my house, would
If you have a lot of money, will [you] buy expensiveclothes? you rome?
<m
~~·a"·~~·~·~~,·~·e"·~~;,·~~;.·-1J~;,~·~"·q~,
If I hit you, will you get angry?
(78)
:zrca:~·~·~~;.·QI·~~~·q~·~~·ll-Ui"C)"il\"iSC)·~~;,·
If there is a lot of chili in the food, will your mouth bum? Will you pass the test? After a few months will you know how to drive a car?
jQ"~II]·~·~" ·q~l ('1'1)
i5C)·~~~~·~C)·i1rc:~·~,·t.~~1
(80}
I"CI"jQ"4~·~·l~·C1J·fS1·~~ ·irr·~ry~;,·~~·~,.~., ·q~l
As with the impersonal first person statement (MVS +~·~C)"), the impersonal second person question form (MVS + 9·~·t~·f~!}·Z.C\,·t.~~·j can be used in three different situations:
1)
The speaker is interested in the addressee' ssituation rather than the per.sona1pezspectiveiS')""-1;."
'you': (74) rr~ ~~-a" ·~~;.·QI·ClJ~··,~Ilj·~~,·, ·a"·~~;, ·s"·~·~" If he gives you a job, would/ will you do it!
."'. .,
The use of the impersonal perspective verbal conjugation ~·~C)"t.lt\1" in question (74) places the emphasis on the verb 'do,. When written in this way, the question should read, 'would you do it [that work]?' If the normal personal perspective verbal conjugation ~·t'il't ·q~· is used, the emphasis shifts from the action,'s~·~•lC)'Q(\1" 'would [you] do it' to the subject, iSC)"~~· 'you, • When written with ~·U;J~•q~•l the sentence should read, 'would you do it [that work]?'
SS
1
2a7
Colloquial Tibetan
2.)
Thequestionisroncemedwith thephysicalorpsychologicalstateofsomeone (78) f'~ll]·~·~~::_·~·z;J~~·l;J~·~~::.~ili"~·~·~~·~~::_·jii·~IIJ·1i)·~~·Q'I1 H there is a lot of chili in the food, will your mouth bum?
As explained earlier, Tibetan verbs which express a physical or psychological state imply that it is the body or mind of the subject that reacts in a certain way, not the person. In sentence (78), it is the mouth that reacts to the burning sensation rzra;-11]·~·~~·, not~~·~~::_· 'you'. In these kinds of second person questions, it is the addressee's physical or psychological state that is in question, therefore~~·~~::_· 'you' takes a third person stance. Here the impersonal perspective verbal conjugation ~·~~·l;J~' is always used, never the personal perspective verbal conjugation ~·U!~ 'l;J~·.
3.)
The emphasis of the question is on thedirect object rather than on the subject 6'-r~~::.· 'you': (79) 6~·~t:.'Slllj·~~·aj~::_~·~~·~;J~1
Willyoupassthetest?
In sentence {79), the emphasis is on the direct object, Ul!!]'a)~ ·'the test,' and not on the subject,~~·~~::_· 'you'. Because of this emphasis shift,~~·~~::_· 'you' takes a third person stance, therefore the use of the impersonal perspective verbal conjugation~·~~ 'l;J~· is appropriate. Again the personal perspective verbal conjugation ~·U!~·l;J~· is neverused in these kinds of questions.
B.
First/ Third Person
1.)
Impersonal Perspective- (MVS +1i)·~~'Q'I') Sentences (81) - (90)
(81)
f"t:. ·~IIJ"'~~~·~l:l'l'l~~·Q-.,
Will she come to the meeting? I Is she coming to the meeting?
(82)
z:J~·a~·a;~::_·~·~II]~·~~·~;J~l
Will Diki get married? I Is Diki going to get married?
(83)
~·ilf~~~·f·~~·l:l·~~~~~·~~·a.f!i~·~l:lt:.'~~·
Will His Holiness the Dalai Lama give the
ll]~t:.·~·~~·l;J~l
I
(84)
~C:~·~~~·II]i!Cl.'!'~~"Fqy~~~·~~~l Is Ngodup going to begin his work from Monday?
(85)
a.~IIJ~·;J;,~·~~·re:g~·~IIJ~·s~·~·~~·l;J~l
Will Jigme help them?
(86)
l:l~~ ·~ll]·t~·~~·~::.·~s"·f~::."·QI·~~·Ql~~·l;J'Il
Am I going to Si.kkim next week?
(87)
~::.·[S"~::.·~·~~·'ll·~·.JI!~SS~·~·~~·l;J~l
Will I continue his work?
(88)
[S"t:. .g~'a!'l:l'z:J~Q. ·t~·~·il'fl::.'ll]~~ 'l;J'~II]·{'
Are they going to open a new restaurant
~·l:l~)'~~·l;J~l
after four months?
(89)
[S"r::~~·a~ ·~~::.·~·~~·a.ll]~ ·a~·~·~~ 'l;J~l
Is he taking over your responsibilities?
(90)
;·~~~·~~::_~~·~~·~-.·"l·~~Q~IIj"'~·~~·Q'Il
Does Tamdin start work from tomorrow?
The first/ third person question form (MVS + ~·~·;~·jz:J~·~~·l;J~') of this section indicates that the speaker wants the addressee to give an impersonal perspective answer concerning himself or someone else.
288
Lesson 14 As with the future second/ third person statement form (MVS + ~·~·~·/t.l~·X."·), the future question form can also be translated into the English future 'will,' 'be going to', the present continuous or simple present with a future meaning, as well as the simple present and past habitual tenses. The following questions are examples of the various future meanings conveyed by ~·~·~·ft.l~·X."·: <82> t.l~
·a"
·a;c.·.,·~lll·~·~~·q.,, Will Diki get married? Is Diki going to get married?
(future 'will') ('be going to')
(89) f"c:~~rrs" ·~t::~·QI.,·~ 111 ~·e ~·~·~~·q.,, Is he taking over your responsibilities? (90)
(present cont./ future meaning)
i ·~~~ ·~~ ~~ ·~~·QI_,.,.~~t.lii!J41"~ ·~~ ·q.,,
(simple present/ future meaning)
Does Tamdin start work from tomorrow?
IV. Simple Present/ Past Habitual Questions (MVS + ~·f&·~·f~l%..;·r.J4r) A.
First/ Third Person
L) a.)
Impersonal Perspective- (MVS +~·X.~·q41·) Simple Present Sentences (91) - (94)
(91)
t.l4f~·~~q·g~·~~·~~·~·~·~~·q.,,
Doesn't Samdup ever make mistakes?
(92)
Don't they work together these days?
(93)
rs:~·~~·~~·~~~·~·QJ~·,·s"~·~·x."·I:J~, ~~ ·il)·t.l-UJ" ·~~·a.rs~·I:J·~~~ ·ifil·t.l~·x." ·I:J~ 1
<M>
~~·~~ ·~~~·'J·c.·~·~~Yl.e~ ·~·~·x." ·'J~ 1
Don't I usually smoke cigarettes in the morning?
b.)
Past Habitual
.
Do I eat ice cream when I have a fever?
Sentences (95)- (98) (95)
f~·~~·GI·~.,·~:r~I!J·~~~ ·~ ·~~·q.,l
Did Yeshi smoke cigarettes before?
(96)
f~·~~·rs"·~~·~·~~·QJ·Uj~~·x."·I:J~,
Did Dorjee used to come to your house [before]?
<m
~~~~~·f~·QJ·a,·"t.l~·~~·a.rr~·qrx.·qry~·~·x.",
What did Tsewang drive a year ago?
(98)
~·~~·~~·U)~·~~"UI~·~·~·t.l~·X."·I:J~l
When I was young, did I [used to] often get sick.?
The simple present questions of this section are denoted by adverbs of time such as g~ ·~~· 'never', ~·~~·~~·'these days',~~·~~· 'usually',etc.: (92) f"·~ ·~c.·.,c.·~~~·~·QI4f"lll"S~·~·~·~~·q.,1 Don't they work together these days?
(simple present)
Even though it is correct to use the impersonal perspective verbal conjugation ~·X.~·I:J~· when asking a simple present time question, it is only used occasionally. The personal perspective verbal conjugation~· ·I:J·X.~ "I:J~·, which carries a similar meaning, is the form most rommonly used. When one wants to know
ill"
289
Colloquial Tibetan
about someone' s habit ~·~~·q~· is used; whereas ~·tti~·q·~~·q~· is used when one wants to know about the general fad concerning the situation
rr-~·~"·~~::;.·a~,~~·~·~-.·,·s~·a-ar~·q·a~·~"·q-. 1 Don't they work together these days? The past habitual questions of this section are denoted by adverbs of time such as f~ 'II' 'before' ar~%~~· {~'Cll' 'a year ago',~~:;.·~~:;.~~·~~· 'when [I] was young': I
..,
(98) ~:;.·~~:;.·~~:;.·Fij~·~-.·UJ~:;.'~'~'q!•~~·q When I was young, did I [used to] often get sick?
(past habitual)
It is appropriate to use the impersonal perspective form ii)·~ ~ ·q~· in simple present time questions, as well as with past habitual questions, however an emphasis change occurs. ii)·~~ ·q~· places the emphasis on the habit; whereas ~·tlj~ ·q·~~ ·~:.~~·,which is the most commonly used form, places the emphasis on the general known fact of the habitual action: ~:;.·~~:;.·~~:;.·~~·~~·UJ"'~'~'q&·Ui~·q·~~·q-.,
B.
Second Person
1.) L)
Impersonal Perspective- (MVS + ~·~~'l.l'l')
(99)
Did I [used to] often get sick when I was young?
Simple Present Sentences (99) - (102) Do you help other.! if you have time?
e~·.:~;_r:::·i"~·~~.g~~~·~·~·~~~·~~·q;·t:~ ...
s~·a·~~·q .. ,
(100) ija)ij~·~a)Oj~''ll'6~·~~:;.·~"·q;~:;.~·~~·q~1 (101) B~ ·~"'Q.I'liJ'CS'~~ ·~ 'Clj~'"l'S~ ~·~~ '&.J~l
Sometimes do you get angry? If you don't get a salary, do you work?I
(102) e~·;:;.=~..~~·q~~·~"·4·.il·ql~~ ·q~,
Will you work if there is no salary? Since you are a Buddhist, do you eat meat?
b.)
Past Habitual
(103) IS~·.:~; "·~r.·~~:;.·~~ ·~~·~~·t~ ·q~~·a·~~·q-.1 (104) ~~:::.·~~:;.·6~·~~:;.·ar~·~·s~~·s~·~-a.~~ f~·~~· '61·~"·i:"·rs~·~·:;.._~.l:J~1 (105) 6~ ·~:::. ·i"~·~~ ·q~~ ·~~~ 'IJ'qi~~·Cll·~-i"~. q~·~~·Cll~·,·s~·~·~~·q~l
Sentences (103) - (105) Did you used to lie when you were young? These days you a--re doing a lot of religious practise. Did you practise religion before? When you lived in America, did you [used to] work sixteen hours a day?
As with first person ii)·~~· statements, in second person questions, ii)·~~·q~· pia~ the emphaiis on the habit, routine, and behavioral patterns rather than on the subject 6~·~~::;.· 'you': Since you are a Buddhist, do you eat meat?
290
Lesson 14 In question (102), the use of ~~·X.~·q~· places the emphasis on the behavioral pattern of being a Buddhist, ~~:_·qoU)~ ·~~::;.· 'since [you're] a Buddhist.' If the normal conjugation .:::1~ ·Uj~ ·q~· is used, the emphasis shifts to the slibject fS~·~~:;.· 'you', S~'.:li.t:.'4'ii'::J~·lG'"~·'-1~1 'do you eat meat?' Though it is correct to use ~·X.~·'J~' in second person questions dealing with simple present or past habitual time, ~·tG"~ ·~~· is the form most commonly used.
V.
Contracted Form for Second Person Questions (~~·;~·) and First Person Statements @!·~·J!·fCJ!') The normal second person question form (MV'S + ~·UI~ 't.l~') can be contracted to (MVS + ~~·) or (MV5 +~·)with no change in meaning. Likewise, the affirmative first person form (MVS + ~.U,~·) can be contracted to (MVS + O'l ::J'!') with no change in meaning.
'9·1
;·1
Sentences (106)- (112) When will you get married?
(106) a. j5~'.:1i."'~'1~'0.1at:.41'41'f~·~ b.
"'OJ~"]~·!j-~"'41'!~·~
I'll get married soon.
(107) a. j3~'.:1i."'f~·f"·~~"'ll'!~1
b.
Are you going to study?
111t!J~·U~~1 "·i~'f"·s~·s1
Yes, I'm going to study.
(lOS) a. a~·~~:;.·"J·~~·~:;.~·o_s~·QI·~::J~·"J
When are you going to come to my place?
b. ~l:;.~~·~:;.·s"·.::;.~:;.~·"'~~-Qj·ur~:;.~
I'm going to come to your place tomorrow.
(109) a. 6~·~t:.·111·~s111·tG"~-tJ~1
b. ~::;.~·~slll·i-!~1
Do you have any money?
s~·~~:;.·t,J·~~:;.~·~~·{.:!i.·ii'·~·
~tq;lii.'!1
I don't have any money, so [I] 'll borrow 20 rupees from Pasang. Will you have Tibetan tea or sweet tea?
(110) a. 'f~·~·~i'~·~ ~·G.lt:.~·&.f&Ji'~·"l
b. "'~'OJE::_~·&::o_JSt:.~
I will have sweet tea.
(111) a. a~·.::;.~:;.·"l·~~·cs::.·tjt:.'~~1
When are you going to give up I giving up chang?
b. ~:;.~·~~:;.·~~·cs~:;.·~~:;.·4·~~:;.·~
From today I'm going to give up/ giving up chang and meat.
(1U) a. iS~·~~::;. '"l~t:."'l~~ '::J~OJ'UJ~'Ql'~::J~'"l
Are you going to Samye the day after tomorrow?
b. '11"J~·U!~ 1 !:;.'"]~'~~~ ':;J~&J'UJ~'Qj'Q.~':;J~1
Yes, I'm going to Samye the day after tomorrow.
The contracted form for the second person, personal perspective question structure (MVS + ~·U:l~,·:.;~r) is (MVS +"]~')or (MVS + ~·). The meaning of all three structures is identical. One should note however, that
the contracted forms("]~'/"]') are only used colloquially, whereas (MVS + ~·U!~·t.l~') can be used both colloquially and in literary. There is no specific rule that determines the usage of"]~' and "]',however of the two foims, "]'is used more frequently in Lhasa dialect: (106) a. i5~'.:1i."'ll1')~·o.~t:.'f'41'f~·~; ~'~1
When will you get married?
(107) a. j5~'.:1i."'f~·f"·~~"'~411/ ~
Are you going to study? 291
Colloquial Tibetan
In affirmative first person statements, a similar colloquial contracted form is used. The structure (MVS + "ilj·f ~·1 ~·1 t;J~"UliJ\") can be contracted to (MVS + ~·1 ~·; ~·; t;J~') in colloquial. Just as the contracted question form, the contracted statement form does not change the meaning of the sentence in any way: (106) b. ""cll~~~·tr-5""""~~·~
I'll get married soon.
Yes, I'm going to study.
"·iz:rf"·s·ra1
Please note that the rontracted question form is m9' used fr:r secatd persar, never for first or third person. Likewise, the rontraded altirrnative form is m9' used fr:r first person, never for second or third persoo.
VI. Confirmation Seeking Questions (MVS + ':'/~') (113)
~~ ·;;.,"·~·~;;.. ·~~·~l;J'I"~·~~ '':1
Sentences (113)- (122) You have come from India, right?
(114}
s~ ·;;..~·~~·rr~·QJ·l;~~·"1~~·,rtll"\ ·~1
You have helped him, right?
<m>
~·'X.~ ·~c: ·s~ ·;;..c: ·~-w·clJ·QJ"1~·a~·QJ".~"".
These days your mother doesn't work, does she?
~·ar~·~·~~·~~·'i1 (116)
rr-g.~·~·~QJ·QJ~"·"~~·a·~~~·"l
They are eating now, aren't they?
(117) a. ~~·;;..c:·~c:~~·c:~·"\c:'QJ'~l;J'I'a·til"·~1
Tomorrow you are coming to my house, nght?
b. llJQ]~·ar"\ 1 ~·ur~~ (118} a. rrr~·~·~~'QJ'il;J-jc:·~"\C:'Q'~~·~1
Yes, I'm coming. He studied in India, didn't he?
b. llJ~~·X-~1 fic:·~·~~"QJ"il;J'¥C:'~"\C:'Q'~~1
Yes, [he] did. He studied in India.
(119) a. c:·af'cll~cll~·icric:·~"\C:~·tlj~·~l
[You] are going to study with us, right?
b. QJQ]~·J.J"11 ~·~·c:~·~~·i"~·~~,
No, [I'm] not. Now I don't have time.
(UO} a. ~·cll~·~c:·~~·QJ~"'TS~·~·&l·~~"1'1lj
Th~
b. QJ~~·6:l·~~"1 ~·~~·~~·,·~"1~·6:l·~)"1
days Nyima isn't working, is she?
No, [she] isn't. She [Nyima] hasn't found a job.
(Ut) a. !l'l;J"IlJlll~·~c:·r.f"1~·~·~QJ·IlJ·'alt;J~·~:x,~·~1
Tomorrow morning Dawa is going abroad, isn 'the?
b. QJ"j~·x.~, [!rc:·~~.g~.~~·Q~'fl"j~·~·X-~1
Yes, [he] is. He will go at six o'clock.
(122) a. \~i!fc:·c:·g.4.ii~·ij~·t;Jl·t;J~·U!"\·~1
Tonight we are going to make meat momos, right?
b. llJ"j~~C:'1
Yes, [we are].
The question marking particle~·, first introduced in Lesson 3, section IV, forms a special type of.question called a confirmation seeking question. Confirmation seeking questions are used when the speaker presupposes that the disclosed information is true, but is seeking confirmation from the addressee Literally the question marking particle ~· can be translated as, 'right?' lbis structure also carries the implication of a tag question, i.e., ' ...isn't it?,' ' ...aren't they?,' etc. The confirmation seeking questions in Lesson 3 are concerned with identification. In that lesson, the question particle z:i' follows the verbs of identification,~"\· and~~·:
292
Lesson 14
s~·~r:::J'"~:::~r~~·c:l You are a businessman, aren't you?
i5'·~c:.·s·x.~·c:l Tsering is a boy, isn't he? [right?]
The confirmation seeking questions introduced in Lesson 7 deal with possession/ location/ modification as well as post position statements. In the questions of that section, the particles ~· and ~· follow the verbs, Ul~· I ~~~·1 Uf~·'J·X.~·:
if'l'"~·s·~·~s.~·IIJ They have a duld, right?
(possession)
1f~·QI·~t:.~·~·o.~t:.·&r-Ui~·~·~~·'i1
(location)
There are many mountains in Tibet, aren't there?
s·lf~·~ ·1 t:.·l·if~~"l'IIJ
(modification)
The girl over there is beautifuL isn't she?
~'l'f"J·i'~ ·~~::. 'QI'~S. "l'IIJ
(post position)
The book is on the table, isn't it? The confirmation seeking questions in Lessons 3 and 7 are categorized as simple constructions because only one verb precedes the question marking particle ~·1 ~·~ The confirmation seeking questions in Lesson 8 are formed with a double verb construction; a double positive verb or a double negative verb. The verbs LIJ~·f '%..~·1 Ui~·f ~~~·1 or UI~·'J·X.~· are used. In this construction the question marking particles ~·1 ~·follow the second verb.
~·g~·~%~·~.,·J'"~·~c:.·1f&r~~1
~~·~~''il
One hour isn't a lot of [long] time, is it/ isn't that right? The confirmation seeking questions in this section are formed with both a main verb stem and a verbal conjugation: (MVS +conjugation- ~11!~·1 ~·X.~·, ~-Ui~·f ~·~~~·! ~·UI~·'J·X.~·, 'J'LlJ~·f 'J·X.~· + ~·1 ~·). The verbal conjugation. the adverb of time, or the context of the ongoing conversation indicates the time/ tense of the questions in this section:
<115) ~ ·~"."" ·rs~ ·~" ·~ ~·o.~·~~~·s"l·QI.,."l~" ·~·Ui~ ·~·~~·~~ ·c:1
(simple present)
These days your mother doesn't work. does she?
.,
(116) rr·g.~ ·~QI'QI"l"'"~'~ ·~ ·~s. "l'IIJ They are eating now, aren't fuey?
(present continuous)
(118) [Ire:.·~·~~ ·~·i'l'ft:.'"l~"·~·~~''il He studied in India, didn't he?
(simple past)
(Ul) !''l'~~~·.,t:.·~"J'I'~·~~·~·~'l'l'~·~~·'il (future) Tomorrow morning Dawa is going/ will go abroad, isn't/ won't he?
293
Colloquial Tibetan
Remember, the particle~· is used with all verbs and conjugations except for ~~llj· and ~·a.~~·; these are followed by the particle ~·· Also, confirmation seeking questions are often used within the context of a conversation to reconfirm an assumption that is based on a previously stated fact:
f r:, ·~·'i·G~~~·li"c; ·~·~c; 1 s{'.r\5r:_ ·~r:,·cqr:, ·1:1c; ·~·%.c; ''i1 His father is Tibetan, so he's also Tibetan, right? I isn't he?
VII. The Future as~~· Construction [to become] (Adjective/ Noun +a;~~·+~·~~·) Sentences (123) - {129) If [you) work hard/ do a lot of work, [you) will .become rich. If fertilizer is put on the vegetables, they [the
vegetables] will ~""Ome big. (125) (U6)
cll'5~ ·~~·~Q]·a:~·llj~~ 'cljl:, ~~~~·~r:,·1
Th~
s~·;5r:,-c;·cJ~c.~·lfa;~~·~·~,1
so now it will be sweet. I exercise a lot. Because of this, I'll be healthyI my body will become healthy. After two years Perna will become a doctor. [You] must use Tibetan everyday, then your Tibetan will improve/ get better. After getting married, if [you] give birth to/ have a baby [you'll] become a mother.
r:,·~~·~llj·cljr:,~c;J~·tij"c;1 ~·o.s·~r:,·;5r:,·r:,·
~~~~~tq~~~~~·~·X.c;1 (U7)
~i·~~~~·~·~~·llj~~~·~·c151lj~·a·%.,1
(128) ~·cli·;~·CJ~~~·~~·"?Jc;·"§"c;·sc;·"i!f~·x.l:)1 ~~· (129)
6c; ·~r:,·~r1Jc; ·~, ·UI~~~~~·~·x.c; 1 a;r:, ·~·~$~-;~~·~~r~·~~·~ -w·cll·a;~~~·~c; 1
cook has put a lot of sugar in the cake,
In future time sentences, when the verb a;9~· is used with adjectives or nouns, it is often translated as 'to become' in English, (Adjective/ Noun+ Cli9~· + ~·X.c;·):
<123> llj~·,·cljr:, ·cr-s~·~ ·§t~·qoj5~~·a·%.c; 1 If [you] work hard] do a lot of work, [you] will become rich. (129)
(Adjective Construction)
a;r:, ·~·~~~·~~·s·~·~~·~ ~·~~·i!~~·~·%.c; 1
(Noun Construction) After getting marned, if [you] give birth to/ have a baby [you' 11) become a mother.
(128) ~·cll·ry~·&.J~~,·~c;~c;lc;·sc;·c;i!f~·x.,l
(Adjective Construction)
~~ ·rsc;·~r:_·S)·1Jc; ·~, 'GI!fj.q:C!lfl~·a·)., 1 [You] must use Tibetan everyday, then your Tibetan will improve/ get better. L C6'1]01' =(~-)Please note that there is a difference in pronunciation between the future and past time constructions. The pronunciation of the(~] sound in the (~'I·+~·~"\') is low in tonal pitch 1~-1 whereas the pronunciation of the(~! sound in the (C6'1]~ + l:l''X."\·) is similar to 1~-].
294
Lesson 14 ht sentence (128), though the English translation of u.J~~a;~~·~·~1· is, 'will improt'e/ get better', the underlying meaning is, 'your Tibetan will become better I it will become good.' In this lesson, a;~~· is introduced-as a future time verb. Please note that a;~~· can also be used in past and present time sentences.
VIII. The Future a:ic:: Construction (Adjective/ Noun +a!.:::.·+ ~·~•)') Sentences (130) - (135) (130) ~~·~~'111Jil.'QJ~'l:J$l:J'9~·l~·.;J·!~·7;-cq"'iil'%.~1
If [you] work hard when you are young, later on [you) will be happyI everything will tmnoutwell.
(131) 6~·~~~~''4',;J~·t'i)·~'UI~'~'l:Jry~·1~~·~11
You must often send letters to your parents.
~~·rr~·g-1~'l.::J~~~·~11
Then they '11 be pleased.
(132) ~"~·Q~Q·~·~sQJ·arc:.·ii!·%.~1
If [you) do business [you] will get money.
(133) c;.'Q.·~;~·Clj'~~·QJ'Q.~~~·c;.~·f·l'.J;(.',;j'l:JryC:.'~'"''
When my son travels, if he doesn't phone me
~,;J~'(.I3'l!'Ui~ ·~·~11
I get worried.
(134) ~·j~'UI~=Q-s~~'61·~~~-tll~·a;1'UI~:qu:r~~~r~~i If [you] study well, you will do well on the exam. (13S) s~·~~·:("Q]~·q·~~·~~·,;J~,;J·~·~~·~·s1·~~·Qj· If you hang out with bad frienqs, you' 11 have
~11]1l.'J:;.QJ~~~·~~1
problems.
ht this section the verb Ui~· 'to come' is used in future time constructions, (Adjective/ Noun+ Ui~·+ ~·~1'). This particular structure carries the meaning, 'something will come to/ arise in' oneself or someone else. This construction can be used in two ways:
L)
To express that certain feelings will arise, or come about iza someone: (131) 61·~~ ·~~·r.,r.;J~ ·U!·~·u.J~ ·~·z:Jry~ '1~~·~11 ~~ ·f"c:. .g.l)~ll.:q.Ui"·ii!·%.~ 1 You must often send letters to your parents. Then they '11 be pleased.
ht sentence (131), the phrase [S'~·g-1~'l.::J~~~·~1'literally means 'the liking will come to them.' This is translated as 'they will be pleased.'
1)
To express an experience that will be .had by someone because of the situation: (135) 61'~1:;. ·:("~~·q·~~·-o~·,;J~,;J·~·~ ~ ·~ '61'~1:;. 'QJ'~"la. '"Qj'Uit::ii!·%.~ 1 If you hang out with bad friends, you will have problems.
ht sentence (135), 1111a:~QJi(i~ ~·~1· 'the experience of having problems will arise/ or come about' because of the situation, :("~~·rl'.J·~·~·.;J~.;J~~~·~· 'if [you] hang out with bad friends.' The phrase 11'l.'~'l!ilic:.~·~~·
literally means ;problems will be had/ will come to you.' This is translated as, 'you will have problems.' 9.
~"F'Ql41'Cl~Cl'- The noun 'i"f-'11141' means,' difficulty'
and Cl~Cl· is the verb. The combination of this noun and verb literally means, 'to face difficulties' .III this text ')"f-'<11-GI'Cl~Cl·has been translated as, 'to work hard'. This expression is often used colloquially by TibetaN.
295
Colloquial Tibetan
In this lesson Ujr::: is introduced as a future time verb. Please note that Uj~· can also be used as a present
time verb, but not as a past time verb. In past time sentences the verb ~~·,explained in Lesson 13, is used.
IX. Conversation Context: Sherab has come to invite Sangye to a party at his house. Since he is not at home he speaks with his sister Dekyi and invites her as well: Sentences (136) - (146) Good afternoon, Dekyi.
(136) ~~'::1\z::J': l:J::!J'4~·l;J~·a,~~1 l;J~·~~·<11~~1
t:J~·~~·= l;J~·4~·l;J~·a,~~1 ~~·s~·::~:..~·~~·~· &)·~~~ ~·(1)"11 (137) ~~·::~:..z::J': ~·~~·::~:..z::J'Ul"J1 5"1'~"1~·~·&1·~~~·~~1 l;J~·&~·: ~·~~~·l-~1 ~·~~·s"J·~~·1 rs~·::~:..~· ~~~Y.IJ~~~·~~~·r:J·U)"J·'J1 Qfl;J~~ 'f"J'<11' rs~·::~:..~"''·~::~:..·iz::J·f~·~"'~·~::~:..·?4z::J~·'J· lll·l.~·'J~1 ~"1 ~·s~~·a;~~·l;J~~
Good afternoon. I don't know you.
Who are you? I am Sherab. Don't you remember [me]. Oh yes, that's right. Now I remember [you]. You're my elder brother's friend, right? Didn't you go to America to study four years ago? You've become so big.
(138) ~~'::1\z::J': <11~~·l.~1 ~·~·::~:..~·l-~1
Yes, that's right.
~·s~·::~:..~·~~·s"'·~"'~·~~,
Now you remember [me].
l;J~·a~·= tlj'<11~·UI::~:..·?4z::J~1 ~~<11·~·J.1i"~1
Please come on in and have some tea.
(139) ~~'::1\z::J': ~~~·~·~"l~l ~~~·~~·Uj~·'J~1
Thank you. Is Sangye here?
l;J~·~~·: ~~1 ~~1 ~<11~~·~·~·~·~~~'<11'
No, no. My brother has just gone out.
%~·~~~·~~·1 (140) ~~'::1\z::J': ~~~·"'~ '<11'~~·?4z::J~·~·l.~ 1
When will [he] return [home]?
l;J~·a~·= J.l~~~~~~·?4z::J~·ll.~1
[He]'ll come back/ return soon.
(141) l;J~·a~·= ~~111·~·J.~i"~·~~·1 ~·~::~;..·l;J~~~·~~·
Please have some tea. I don't think you
drank Tibetan tea when you were in America. e~·::~:..~~~·~·J.li"~·~·ar~·~·!ll·l-~1 ~~·::~:..z::J·: 111 ~~·~~1 ~~111 ·~·~~·M·r:J~~·~~~·Il.l No, I didn't. [I] must admit that this tea is very tasty! Tomorrow there is a party at my house, (142) ~~'::1\z::J': ~~~"'·~~·"1~'<11'~~~l~~-Uj~1 [therefore] will [you] come? s~·~~·?4z::J~·~
l;J~·~~·= ~·~ry"J·~ry"J·ur~·~ t1l"'·"'~~·~111~~· ?4z::J~'!ll''?4z::J~'1'i!fz::J~'~~ 1
For sure I'll come. But [I] don't know if my
(143) ~~'::1\z::J': ~~·~~~·~~~~·~~'<11'Ul"J'~~~·&l"J·~~·
~~~·~~~·~"1~'1 l;J~·~~·: Ul"J'~~·U)"l1 ~~·~<11~~'<11'~ry"J'~ry"J' ~~·~ 16"~~l;J~·"'·~·g.=~·J.l·~~~ur~· ~·l-~1 !ll'l.~·'J~1
296
brother will come or not. Please you must tell my friend Sangye to come! Of course [I] will. I will definitely tell my brother. If he comes we'll all have fun, won't we?
Lesson 14 (144) 4~·~Q·: ~lf1~·~~1 ~·lfl·~c:.·~~1 ~:;.·g.~~~·lfl~~·
Yes that's right, we'll really have a great time.
~~~Uic:.~·~~1 ~·c:.~lfl·~ilfc:.~·~·~·~1 (145)
Thank you. Now please excuse me.
Q~ ·~~ ·= l'j·~~·~c:.·a.~c:.·o.~·a~ 1 ~~~·lflt:.·cl.li\~c:.·1
a.~ ·c:.·~c:. ·~~·~a.·.~~~·~~·~~ ")1 (146) 4~·~Q·: ~lfl~·~·~~l::.l
You can't drink just one cup. Have one more. This is our Tibetan custom!
Thanks a lot.
After finishing a second cup of tea Sherab says:
~·c:.·%1f1·~ilfc:.~·t.~·~·Q~1
Now please excuse me. And [I'll] see
~~ ·~~:;.~~ ·o.~~~·Uic:.·1
[you] tomorrow.
Q~·~~·: 41Q~~c:.·1 ~t:.~~·o.~~~-Uit:.l
•
Take care and [ij'll see you tomorrow.
Information for General Knowledge: I)~.Q~~· -A Doctorate Degree in theFieldofBuddhistPhilosophy
In sentence (34) the title ~~·Q4~· is used. ~~·Q4~·, a title earned after many years of religious studies, indicates that the monk holds a doctorate degree in the field of Buddhist philosophy and has mastered metaphysics as well as the important branches of sacred literature. ~~·Q4~· is a contraction of ~~·QQ.·Q~~·~~~·: ~~·Q·: merit/ virtue Q4~·~~~ ·: one who knows/ possesses knowledge/ one who knows how to accumulate merit and rid oneself of faults and defilements
Thus it could be said that a ~~·Cl4~· is one who leads a pure life and is possessed of learning and good character. To gain a ~~·Q4~· degree one does not necessarily have to be a~~·~~· (a title for a reincarnate &r~r). After many years of hard work and study, it could be as many as 20-25 years, a monk may be able to receive the ~~·Q4~· degree. Traditionally, only after receiving this degree would a monk begin teaching philosophy to others. A ~~·Q4~· may become a great master and acquire disciples 1jQ·o.~·g. who develop great faith in him. These disciples may address their master ~~·Q4~· as~~~~· or ~~·Q4~·~~ ~·based on the qualities he has accumulated over the years. Among geshes there are four levels: ~·~o.~·~·:
~~~·~o.~·~·:
~'lfl~·~o.~·t.~·:
highest grade next to lowest grade
me:. "lflilQ·~:c
297
second highest grade lowest grade
Colloquial Tibetan
The Tibetan Custom of Offering Tea and Chang Tibetans are renowned for their unlimited consumption of tea. The winters in Tibet are cold and long, thus to sustain themselves, Tibetans drink innumerable cups of salty buttered tea. Each member of the family has their own designated cup; this is continuously filled and refilled throughout the day. Another drink regularly enjoyed by them is an alcoholic refreshment made from fermented barley, chang. As people in the West invite their friends over for a glass of wine, .Tibetans invite their friends over for a • cup' of tea or a • bowf of chang. When someone comes to the house for a specific reason or just to chat, a cup of tea or a bowl of chang is offered. If one should meet a friend on the road or outside the house, they too may be invited in for ~ inevitable •cup'. Once seated, a guest can not escape the host's hospitality. It is considered impolite to drink only one cup; at least one refill is required before being allowed to leave. Though a refill is a necessity, one is not obliged to drink the whole cup; one or two sips will suffice. Should one try to leave without the traditional refill, the host will say: ~·'ll~'lll"'~~~:;.·~·i~1 ~lll~'lll"'~i"'')·')~:;.·1 'You can't drink just one cup. Please have one more.' Should one stay for an extended period of time, one's cup will be endlessly refilled until leaving.
Other Related CJJStoms The people of Eastern Tibet (e.g., I
298
Lesson 14
X.
Exercises
A.
Translate the following sentences:
(1)
Cl~~s~~·lli~~·Q~::I\ ·CJ~ ·~i'~ ·~·ur~ ·CJ·~·~~ 1 5 ~·~~ ·ii~ ·F·Ill~·llj·Q~::I\ ·CJ~ ~~ "f~ ·~~~ ~·ur~ ·CJ·~·~~ 1
(2)
~~-u:~~s~ ·~·a.~~ 13~ ·::1\~·~~·~~·~~·lli"UI~·~·~·Cl~·ur~ 1
(3)
rr~~~·"G~ ·::1\~·lll·lll~·.,~~·~~ ·~ ·"G~ ·:I\~ ·s~ ·~
(4)
cr~·'ll~·~~~~..i:l~·~~·s~·~·"G~·::I\~·~~~·~~"UI~~a;~~·~·x.~1
(S)
lol·~·i'::I\-Ur·~"UI~·~·Qry~·~·ii~·¥-~~a.~ur~~·~~ 1
(6)
Your daughter studied in India, right?
(7)
Tomorrow morning Dawa is going abroad, isn't he?
B.
Make sentences using the following words and structures:
(1)
~~·~~·Q4~·
(6)
~~~·r.slll·
(2)
(7)
~.,a.·~~·
(3)
a.~~·Cl~::l\·s~· i~·Cl~::l\·s~·
(8)
~~"0.13::1\"
(4)
~·~IS~·
(9)
Adjective+ a;~~·~·~~·
(S)
a;~·~·Q~Q·
(10) . Adjective+ t:!;"~~·~·~~·
C
Answer the following questions:
(1)
~~~·a.'(~·~jl:l~·lll·l3~·::1\~·~·~·~·~·~~~·~-Ur~1
(2) (3)
'~ ·~~~ ·F·Ill~·ii~·~~·~·CJ::I\ ·E!~~·~ ~""!.~ ·s~ ·::~\~~·~·~~~·~~·~"~·~·a)~ ·llj·Q~~~·~·~~ 1
(4)
~~·~~~·"G~·::I\~·~~·a.s~::l\·iQ·~::I\~Q~·~-ur~1
(5)
i'l·~~·¥-Qill~lll·lli·~·Cl·~·a)~ ·Q~~ ·l~~1
XI. ~"·~~·~4f~"Q" Vocabulary for Lesson Fifteen Nouns
IJfCl.
child/ son/ daughter (h.)
~Ill~·
bed
4·Cl~·~Q·
fried meat bread
~~Ill~ :I\·
Tibetan white scarf (h.)
~t:.·OI~~·
blessing cord
~~·i'~·
Buddhism
~~·~~·
a Saturday outing
~·~Ill·~·&)·
Westerners
~r~:Jry:l\-a.~~·
telegram
ry::I\·F~·
telegram office
~~·~~~·
culture
tt~·
story
'5~·~"ft:.·F~::.·
gym
~~lli·~Cj~·
lama's attendant
~~:sl!~::.·.,·
Norbulinka (the summer palace of HR. the Dalai Lama in Lhasa)
299
Colloquial Tibetan
Pronouns you (yourself)/ I (myself)
Verbs ~·~~II]~'CJ~CJ'
f~·~~·s~· ¥~:_·¥~· ~~·
~~ 'CJ~~·II]~c:_· CJ~~·
~iS~·
take (a person, animal)
~a;·CJ~CJ'
buy/ shop
promised do business (h.)
'CJl.~~CJ~CJ'
exchange/ change send (by hand)
tell get medical treatment (h.) go to meet someone (h.)
{!~]'fj~'
offer I give (h.) insist
CJ~:I\'
CJ~II1·~s~ ·111~~:_· CJ~II]~'II]~~ ·~~II]~'
Adjectives W"l:_'z:.)'
empty
Conjunction then
300
switch on the light get a [physical] check-up (h.) stay I live (h.)
Expanded Table of Contents for Lesson 15 Page L
Past Time Statements (MVS + Ui"l·f Ui"l·'-~·X.l·) A First Persan 1. Personal Perspective on Self- (MVS + Ui"l·) a. Nominative b. Instrumental It
Sentences (1)- (4) Sentences (5) - (8)
Nominative Case vs. Instrumental Case
General Statement- (MVS + Ui"'1''-l'X.'1·) a. Nominative b. Instrumental B. Second/ Third Person 2.
U.
Sentences (9) - (13) Sentences (14) - (16)
303 303 303 303 303
304 304 304 305 307
1.
Personal Perspective on Others - (MVS + Ui"l·)
Sentences (17) - (19)
307
2.
General Statement - (MVS + Ui"'1''-l'X.'1·) ..
Sentences (20) - (22)
308
Sentences (23) - (30) Sentences (31) - (34)
309 309 309 309 309
Usage of the Negative Particles (&I' and &1'1') in Past Time Contexts 2. General Statement- (MVS + Ui"'1''-~'X.'1·'-~~') Sentences (35)- (38) B. First/ Third Person
310 311 311
Past Time Questions (MVS + Ui"l·'-~~'/ Ui"l·'-~·X,l·'-~~') A Second Person 1. Personal Perspective- (MVS + Ui"l·'-~~') a. Nominative b. Instrumental It
1.
Personal Perspective- (MVS + Ui"l·'-~~')
Sentences (39)- (41)
311
2.
General Statement- (MVS + Ui"'1''-l'X.'1·'-~~')
Sentences (42)- (45)
312
Past Time Reportative Questions (MVS +a.~~·~~·) and Statements (MVS + a.~~·f Q~~·) First/ Third Person
Sentences (46) -(SO)
313 313
IV.
The Verbal-endings X.l·a.~~·j [X.l·Q~~·]
Sentences (51) - (56)
314
V.
Clause of Purpose~~· (MVS +~~·+Motion Verb+ Conjugation) A. Past Time Construction B. Present Time Construction C. Future Time Construction
Sentences (57)- (64) Sentences (65)- (74) Sentences (75) - (79)
316 316 316 317
m.
Colloquial Tibetan
VI.
Clause of Pretense (MVS + "1~· + S')"/ s~· +Conjugation)
Vll.
A Short Story: a·q_~')·e.OJ~·;o~·~·~t:.·l The Greedy Dog Vocabulary
Sentences (80) - (85)
319 319
VIII. Conversations
A. B.
Sentences (86) - (96) Sentences (97) - (107) Sentences (108) - (114)
c. lfo
IX.
Contracted Form of Statements and Questions
Exercises
318
320 320 321 322 322 323
302
Lesson 15 I.
Past Time Statements (MVS + ilf~·;ilf~·~·~~·)
A.
First Person
a.)
Personal Perspective on Self- (MVS + Ui•r> [self knowledge] Nominative Sentences (1)- (4)
(1)
t;:fcrfr:::s41-Ui~ 1
I have studied.
fq"f~:::5 .,-ar~ 1
[I] have studied.
(2)
~~::.·lll~·rs~rUi~t
[I] have done [my] homework.
(3)
[I] have made food.
(4)
F'lll~·~~~-Ui~t F'lll~·a~·:i!~ 1
b.)
Instrumental
t)
or
[I] have not eaten.
Sentences (5) - (8) (5)
~:;.~·~~ ·~~ 'Qj'~"·~·q=q-l(j~ 1
I've taught Rinchen everything.
or
~~·~~'Qj'~"·~·t~t~ti-Ui~t
[Everything has been taught by me.]
(6)
~·~~t;.'Qj'~~Qj'~UJ%..'Ui~1
[I]'ve lent money to Tsewang.
(1)
~::.~·"'~ ·&:~ ··11·s~ ·;;..~::. ·ilJ·~9·4'lJ.t~~%.. ·tG"~ 1
(8)
"F~::.·Ql·"'~ ·~4"l.~l1
I've sent your glasses with Chimi. [I] haven't said this to him.
In this section the first person past time construction (MVS past form+ Ui~ ')is introduced. This construction is similar to the English present perfect tense. Just as subtle differences exist between the English simple past tense and present perfect tense, similar differences exist between the Tibetan past structure of this section, (MVS +~')'),and the Tibetan simple past structure, (MVS pastform + c..!'Ul~ ·I X.')·), introduced in Lesson 13. The (MVS + z::·tll~·f X.~·) construction emphasizes the·~· that the action took place and/ or indicates that the particular action has been completed. The (MVS + Ui~ ')construction on the other hand, is used for an action which has onlyjust finished The emphasis of this structure is not on the past action itself, but on the effect the action has on the present moment Let's examine the following two sentences: (MVS + z::·U:~ ') (MVS + UiC)')
~::.·it~'f~::.·s.,·c:'fil~ 1 I studied.
vs.
(t)
~::.·it~'f"'S41'Ui~t I have studied.
Colloquial Tibetan In both Tibetan and English, the statement r:::i~'fC:.'S41'"1~~1'lstudied,' affirms the fact that the action of studying has been completed at a particular time in the past The statement c:.·i~-fc:.·s41·or~1 'I have studied,' however, implies that the subject z::.• 'I' has studied, and the result of that study still has an effect on the subject c:.· 'I' at this very moment An underlying meaning of this sentence could be; the understanding of those lessons exists in my mind Please note that verbs used in the past time constructions introduced in this lesson are in their past form. The first tim~ a structure is introduced in this section, the code (MVS past fonn) is written; thereafter the contracted (MVS) is used. lfo
In Lesson 12 the Nominative and Instrumental Cases are introduced. In several sections of this lesson,
a distinction between nominative and instrumental sentences has been made so the student can take a closer look at their distinct functions. Sentences (1-4) take a nominative subject. The nominative case places the emphasis on the action that is being performed by the agent. [I] have made food. In sentence (3), the emphasis is on theaction,~l"41-tij"'~· 2JaveJ:l!ilde',ratherthanon the agent of theaction,c:.· 'I'. Note the a~sence of the pronoun c:.· 'I' in the sentence above. The verb or~· automatically signals that the speaker is referring to him/ herself, therefore the first person pronoun usage is optional. Though it is
correct to use the personal pronoun in nominative sentena!S when answering questions, Tibetans generally tend to drop it. Sentences (5-8) take an instrumental subject. The instrumental caseplaces the emphasis on the subject, the agent of the action, whereas the nominative emphasis is on the performed action:
I've taught Rinchen everything. [Everything has been taught by me.] In sentence (5), the emphasis is on the instrumental subject Z::.41' 'by me,' performing the action ~~~·or~·
'have taught., As in nominative sentences, the use of the first person pronoun is optional in or~. sentences. It should be noted that the direct object or indirect object of an instrumentally formed sentence always ta1ces a dative particle, i.e.,~~·~~·qr· ' (to) Rinchen' 1) a.)
General Statement- (MVS + Cli~·CJ·l.~·)
Nominative
(9)
c:.·~t::~c:.·Ul~·~41·!·111::.;;qr;~-cq~.CJ·l.~1
(10)
'!~c:.·~q;c:. ·~41'1TJ''IC:. ~(ij~ ·~c:. ·c:. ·~~·Uic:. ·~~·
or~ ·q·"· ~ 1 ~ ·~41·c:.·~·~~41·"~"·~·~~·~~·~·-s ~ ·ur~ ·"l·'~·x.~1
<12>
c:.:~;. ·~~"·~~ ·"l·~·:~;. 111 41·or~ '"l''~;x_~ 1
x.
Sentences (9)- (13) I must have gone to India when I was young. Last night none of us went to sleep because there was so much work to do. At that time I mustn't have gone to Nepal with [my] father. I didn't get a plane ticket.
304
Lesson 15 (13)
b.)
fl'~" ' iS') '::1\1:;. ·~:;.(\·~~:;. ·~·~Q~·~~.2"'Qt:').
Yesterday when you came to my house, I
tij')'Cfij'~')1
wasn't there.
Instrumental Sentenees (U) - (16)
(14)
"'~.rs'1 ·::t;." ·~·'1s~·m~ ,q~ ·~·~~·~~ 1
I haven't given you any money.
~'ij'~CIJ~·~~·CIJ~I;. 'Cf~') 1
[Your] mother gave [it to you].
fi"~·~~·,·~·"'·!'~·s~·tij'1·~·il·~'11 "~·fi" ·~·C!Jry~ ·C!Jry~ ·fl~·a,~ ·s~·tij'1 'CJ'i1'~'1 1
We haven't done his work. I'm quite sure I mustn't have promised him.
InLessons6and 10 respectively, theverb-endingili')'CJ'~')· and theconjugation~·ili')'CJ'~')· are introduced. As these verb forms indicate that the statement is concerned with a general known fact so does the construction (MVS past form + ill') 'CJ'~ ') ') of this section. The verb-ending ill') 'CJ'~ ') · carries the underlying meaning, 'as
everyone knows'. In this particular structure the main verb is always in its past form. (13) [ll'~I;.'[S')'::t\I;.'I;.C\·~~;.·~·~Q~'~~·~;.·Q~~iq~·~·~~·~~1 Yesterday when you came to my house, I wasn't there. [as everyone knows] vs. [ll'~I;.'[S')'::t\I;.'I;.(\·~~;.·~~Q~·~~·~;.·Q~~·~~1 Yesterday when you came to my house, Iwasn' t there.
In sentence (13), "'Q~') "ili').'CJ'il'~') 1 'I wasn't there,' emphasizes the fact, ie., everyone in the house knew I was notat home; I had goneout[mypresencedid not exist). The second sentence, ~;.·Q~"~')1 'I wasn't there,' places the emphasis on the subject~:;.· 'I' rather than on the situation that is generally known by all. The habitual-gnomic construction introduced in Lesson 1 is defined as the existence(~·) ofa particular habitual state(ili')'CJ") is a fact(~')'), the (MVS past form+ ili')'CJ'~')') can be explained in a similar fashion: s~·ili')·CJ·<~·> ~')· That particularactof going S~'ili')'CJ'(~•) 1 is a fact~')··
Another usage of (MVS past form +ill') 'CJ'~') ') is to indicate that even though one thinks something is true/ happened, etc., one is not absolutely sure. These kinds of sentences are often translated into English with the auxiliary verb must and a present perfect verb, i.e., I must have done .., I must have eaten. .., I must have gone .., etc.: I must have gone to India when I was young. In sentence (9), ill') 'CJ"~') ·indicates that the speaker is not quite certain whether he went to India or not when he was young. Even though this uncertainty exists, due to the situation, or things he has heard, it seems as
305
Colloquial Tibetan
though he must have gone If the speaker knows for sure that an action was completed at a particular time in the past the conjugation '-l"Ul~ · is used: I went to India when I was young. According to the adverb of time or the context of the conversation, the (MVS + aj~ "'J"~~ ")construction can be translated with an English simple past time verb. In such cases, Ul~ "'J"~~ ·still carries the implication of the speaker not being completely sure of the situation: (10) o.:~r::. -~~r::. "'ll~""]"Oolt:. ~UJ~ ·~r::.·•::::¥-4j"Cqt:."\}Ql"Uf;·t.~·~·~;, Last night none of us went to sleep because there was so much work to do.
In sentence (10), ~lll·Uf~·'J·c~r~~· could literally be translated as, 'as far as I can recollect, none of us slept' Here again, the structure carries an element of uncertainty, implying 'as far as I know'. If the speaker definitely knew that no one had slept all night, the verb o.:·~'ll" would be used:
r::. -g.~·Ulr::. ·~"\}Qll
None of us slept.
In sentence (12) below the use of UJ~ "'J"Ool"~~ ·places the emphasis on the impersonal perspective of the situation that occured to the speaker:
r::..:~;,·ll"J~O.:·~Q ·'J·~·.:~;.~~·Uf;·l.l·~·~;l
·1 didn • t get a plane ticket.
Here ~~o.:·~C:t.·'J·~·.:~;,~~~~·l.l·or~~l could literally be translated as, 'the drcwnstanc:e is, a plane ticket hasn't been gotten'. If one wants the emphasis on the personal perspective, 'by me a plane ticket hasn't been gotten', the verb §C.' is used: r::.,~;~~o.:·~C:t.·'J·~·.:~;.~~·~·~c:.·l
I didn't get a plane ticket.
The adverb ~ory~·~ory~· is often used in past time (MVS + Ui~·'J·~~·) sentences. When ~ory~·~ory~· is used with (.MVS + 'J'Ul~ ") it means, 'certainly', 'surely', 'for sure', 'no question about it', etc.· When it is used ·with or~ "'J'~~· it indicates that the speaker is quite sure that he has done/ not done something, however, there is still an element of not being fully convinced:
(16)
r::.~·pr::.·'ll~~~·~~~111~·~~·s~-ur;·l.l·~~;,
I'm quite sure I mustn't have promised him.
vs.
r::.~·rrr::. ··ll·~-'4·~~ ·s~·iij'";·l.l·~·~;,
I mustn't have promised him. vs. I didn't promise him.
In the first sentence, the use of ~or;~ ·~ory~ · v.ith Ul~ "'J'O.:"~~ ·signals the fact that the speaker is not a hundred percent sure about not having made a promise; however it does suggest a stronger sense of certainty than uncertainty, I must not have done that In the second sentence, the sole use of Ul~ "'J'~-~~ ·implies that it is generally known that a promise must not have been made. In the third sentence, the use of OJ"S~· indicates that the agent is certain that he did not make a promise.
306
Lesson 15
B.
Second/ Third Person
L)
Personal Perspective on Others- (MVS +ail)') [knowledge through personal association]
Sentences (17) - (19) (17)
rs·~c:.~·~·QI~~·c:.·~·~t.ll'flC:.'t.li~Q~I'~~rc:.·QI~:;.'
(18)
Q~"-cq~, tll~·~~c:.·a"·~c:.·"c:.···l;'I·~·~~·~QI·~~· I was standing, but at that time you and Dawa were lying on the bed. Isn't that so? ~C:.'t.li''QI'l;'I~~·Cii~l ~~'f;fl 1;'1~·4~·QI~~·QQI~QI't.ll''2~~·)~'6" ·~c:."'c:.·c:."'C:.' When Tashi went to Nepal, Nyima, you and I,
Yesterday when mother came into our bedroom
l~·c;,·~a;~:;.·~·~~~·t.li·Q~~~~l ~~'l;fl (19)
all of us, were living in India. Isn't that right?
rr~c:.·:::::i:mc:.·,x.·~~~·~·'2~1!1.1'5~·~~·x.c:.~l!l.l'
Some time ago when we went on a pialic together
4'Q~'~Q~~·1j~~·Q"i~·~~c:.~~ 'f;fl 1:;.1!1.1~~~
you made some delicious fried meat bread, didn't you? I remember well. They were really delicious.
s~·~~~~ ~·"~~·~~~~~~
The second/ third person construction (MVS past form+~~') is used when the speaker wants to emphasize a personal ~tion to the second or third person, i.e., he is a relative, a roommate, an old friend, etc. The verb can also be used when the speaker wants to indicate that he has some personal association to the incident as well:
Ui"·
(17) fi'I!I.IC:. '\lf~'QI~I!I.I'I:;.·~ ~t.ll'flC:. 'QI'lsQ~~1!1.1'1:;.'QIC:.'Q~" -cq" 1 tl)~ ·~~c:.
'51) ·~C:.'I)C:.'
l'l;'I~·~~~Qj·~~·~c:.·t.ll·,a,·l;'I~"·Cii"l ~~'f;fl Yesterday when mother came into our bedroom, I was standing, but at that time you and Dawa were lying on the bed. Isn't that so? Note that~~· has been used in two different contexts in the preceding sentence. In the first sentence,~~· marks the first person personal perspective, i.e., c:. 't.lll:;. 'Q~~ -tij"~ 1 'I was standing,'; whereas~~· in the second sentence performs three functions, i.e., ...~t.li'Q~~ ·~~ • ~ ..were lying':
1.) 1.) 3.)
It indicates a personal association between the speaker~:;.· 'I' and the second/ third person subjects 6~·x,~:;.·~c:.·;·Q· )'ou and Dawa.' It indicates the speaker was present at the time of the action. The speaker~:;.· 'I' assumes that the subjects e"·x.~:;.·~~:;.·;·Q· )'ou and Dawa' were aware of the fact that mother came into the room, but feeling they may have forgotten, the speaker wants to remind them.
The emphasis of the second/ third person structure (MVS + ~" ') is on the speaker's association to the second/ third person subject and/ or to the particular situation Thus in sentence (17), e~·x,~:;.·"c:.'!'Ql)QI' q~l)ilfl)' )'ou and Dawa were lying [on the bed]' emphasizes the speaker's personal association to the subjects as well as to the situation Some added implications of this construction could be: 'we were all together at that time,' or 'I was part of that event as well' 3.
~~·~~~~'!~'!· = (&~¥~~- lii'I'~GI·]
-------------------------------
30'7
Colloquial Tibetan If this sentence is formed with the verb-ending ii'"~ ·, the emphasis shifts from personal to impersonal, indicating the statement is an eye-witness account
...~~·~~~'5~·~~~~·~·~~~~~QJ~Q.·~~·11J't)QI'l;l~~·iir;.·1 ...but you and Dawa were lying on the bed at that time. The (MVS + ii'"r;.·) construction merely presents the speaker's eye-witness account of the past event No personal association to either the subject and/ or the event is being implied. According to the context, the (second/ third person: MVS + UT~ ') construction can be translated into
the English past continuous or simple past tense structures: (18) ~~·~~·Qj~~·~QJ'~Qj'QJ'~~~·~~·f3~·~~·~r;.·~·~r;. ~ '1.1'1;.'~!)~·~~·
(past cmtinuous)
ff~~·QI·~~'\ii'\1 UT~·~1 When Tashi went to Nepal, Nyima, you and I, all of us, were living in India. Isn't that right? (19) fl'~" ·~ ·i·mr;.·1 ~ ·~~~~~·~·~~~·~~·f3~·~" ·~~·~·q~·~q·~~~·?j~~·
(simpJepast)
~:~l'"-a·~~"ili~·~1 "~'Ul~~s~~·~~~ ~~l:la.~~~~~~~ Some time ago when we went on a pimic together, you made some delicious fried meat bread, didn't you? I remember well. They were really delicious.
2.) (20) c21)
<22>
General Statement- (MVS + CJ;'\·q·~'\') fl'~" -a,·:c,~~~·~ii~ ~~~~·QI·l:""l•rs-aii'\ ·q·~'\1 ~~Qj~~·~~·s·~·~~·~'5Qj·~~"·tG'~ 'l.J'I.J·x.~ 1 6'1 ·~" ~~·Qj~·,·~~ i!r;.~·~%~·s~·tG', ·l.J·x." 1
Sentences (20) - (22) Yesterday Yeshi must have helped Sonam. Father hasn't given [any] money to the children. You must have done this work [at least] once.
The function of the (MVS + tG'C) 'l.J'X.C)·) construction in second/ third person sentences is the same as in first person sentences. According to the context, (MVS past form + LG"C)'l.J'X.C)') is used to indicate a general fact; to suggest a slight feelingof uncertainty; or to emphasize the circumstance rather than the subject. As mentioned earlier, the adverb ~ry~·~ry~'isoften used in past time (MVS + UlC)'l.J'X.C)')sentences. When ~ry~·~ry~'isusedwi~(MVS+l.J'X.C)')itmeans 'certainly', '~, 'for5ure', 'noquestionaboutit',etc. When used with tG'C)'l.J'X.C)· however, it indicates that the speaker is quire sure that he has done/ not done something, however, there is still an element of uncertainty. Other advetbs which may be used in (MVS + Ui~·c.rX.~·) sentencesare;~~·'mostprobably',r;'QlM'justabout/nearly',~a."r::l~I.J'CJ~··Ithink',andr;.~·s~~·'according to me/ as far as I'm concerned'. By the addition of these advetbs, a change of implication occurs:
(a.) f"r;.·~q~'\ii~·q·,rX.'\1
They are not here/ at home.
vs.
(b.)
rr~·~"l~~·"l~~·q~"i:i"·q·~~·~"t [I'm} quite sure that they are not here/ at home.
In sentence (a.), it is a general known fact that rrr;.·~ 'they' are not at home, e.g., 'they' told everyone they were going. In sentence (b.), ~17~ ~ry~ ·implies that f m notcompletelysure, but because, e.g., I haven't seen lights on in thcir house, they must not be there.
308
Lesson 15 One should not confuse the (MVS + tG'')'CJ''X.')') construction with the phrases of uncertainty Ul~ ·~·"X.r:) · andtG'')·~·X.l·introduced in Lessons4and ?respectively. (MVS + tG'')·c.r'X.')') is used when, based on one's own recollection, more certainty than uncertainty exists. U)~·~·'X.')· and tG'')·~·'X.')·, on the other hand, are used when the speaker has no clue or evidence concerning the validity of a previously made statement. These phrases t>f uncertainty imply, 'I think such and such is true/ untrue..., but I have no evidence whatsoever to back it up.' Inreview,theusageofthevariouspasttimev~gsinsecond/thirdpersonsentencesisasfollows:
~~,·iir:.l: ~~l·r.rX.lt: ~~,~~~/ [~~·J:.
speaker's personal association to the second I third person general known fact quite certain something happened, but not absolutely sure; emphasis on the circumstance rather than the agent attestative account a fact an account based on information obtained from a second-hand source
II.
Past Time Questions (MVS + Cli~·q•r/ Cli~·q·l_~·q~·)
A.
Second Person
L)
Personal Perspective- (MVS + Ull'CJ'I') [self knowledge] Nominative Sentences (23) - (30)
a.) (23)
rs" ·~r:. ·r~·rr:.·s-.·iQl·q-.,
Have you studied? I Have you done [your] studies?
(24)
B') ·~r:.·f~ ·~·Ql~·111·r.~.~ llr:. i!i" ·q~l
Have you learnt this work before?
(25)
a,·~r:.·rzr~r:. 'r.I.'E:~ -~~ ~~~·&l')'CJ~t
Didn't you come to class yesterday?
(26)
F'Qj~·111·X. ·~-r~·lll~r:. i£i') 1
What food have you made?
(27)
~·~r:.~ ·li'~-r~·ur" ·q~,
Have you made sweet tea?
(28)
~~~~i£i')'CJ~t
Have [you] closed the door?
(29)
~~·~r:.
Have [you] opened the window?
(30)
ill]·~~ 'il')'CJ~l
b.)
Instrumental
·siij"'"·q~,
Haven't [you) switched on/ turned on the light?
Sentences (31) - (34) (n)
al·~r:.·~-.·f"q·fr:.·s-.·cql'CJ4ft
Have you studied? I Have you done [your] studies? [Have the studies been done by you.)
(32)
a,·~r:. ~~·F'Qlllj·~-r~i!i" ·CJ~,
Have you made food?
(33)
fS')'~r:.~~~·~~·lll~r:.·~')'CJ~t
Haven't you told Nyima?
(34)
a,·~r:. -~~·~·~r:. 'QJ'l;~~~r~~r:. ·iJ') 'CJ~t
Haven't you helped Tsering?
309
Colloquial Tibetan The second person construction (MVS past form+ Ui'1·z:.~~·) is used when the speaker is interested in the present effect ofa past action. rather than the mere past time element of the action: Have you studied? I Have you done your studies?
In question (23), the ending Ul~'"'4f alerts the addressee to the fact that the speaker is not only interested in knowing whether 6'1·~~· 'you' have done your studies or not, but also implies i.e., having studied, does the wtderstanding ofthe lessons exist in your mind, are you ready for the test, am you answer my questions, etc. As explained in section I A, the use of the personal pronoun~· 'I' is optional when responding to such questions:
{'crf~·5"·Cf~1 [Yes, I] have studied.
or
i'~·r~·5"·~~1 [No, I] haven't studied.
If one merely wants the past time emphasized, then the (MVS + z:.~oU!~ ·z:.~~·) construction is used:
6" ·~~·i~·r~·5.,·"1·~,."1.,1 Did you study? The response to this question is:
i'~·r~·5.,."~.~'~1 [Yes, I] studied.
•
or
{'~·r~-·~·5"1 [No, I] didn't study.
Usage of the Negative Particles (II' and ill)') in Past Time Contexts
Two common negative past form constructions are: (&I'+ MVS) and (MVS +ill)'): ~'5 41 1
[I] didn't do [it].
vs.
541'~~1 [I] haven't done [it].
The negative construction (~ + MVS) is used in the following situations:
1.) 2.)
The agent could not do something because of the circumstances. The agent deliberately did not do a task, even though the consequence of not doing it is known.
The negative construction (MVS +~~·)is used in the following situations:
1.) 2.) 3.) 4.)
The agent was asked to complete a task, however for some reason was not able to complete it The agent has the intention of doing something, but has not completed it yet. The agent has never done something. The agent has forgotten to do something.
The main verb of both of these past time negative constructions is always in the past form
310
Lesson /5
1.)
General Statement- (MVS + CJ;"·~·l."·~41') Sentences (35)- (38)
(35)
"~t=:rs" ·~~·CJ~ ·a~ ·'ll~~·cl.l~cl.l·~·~~~iij" ·~·
By the way, last year weren't you living
(36)
cl.l'~"'t.l~1 ·~~~"'Ill'~~~·~~·"~"J't.l'iil ·~·~.-f~.
with Diki?
6"
When you went to Tibet, did you happen to
a;"·~·%." ·~"1
take pictures of [any] monasteries?
6" ·~~.g.l:J'll~'ll''li'El~~~~·~ ·~ ~'QIQ,~·E!~~·
When you went to Nepal did you also happen to/
(37)
ar" 'CJ'~') ·t.l~1
(38)
get the chance to go to India?
6" ·~~~~·'ll~·'1·a.~·g.s~iij" ·t.l·~" ·t.l~·
By the way, have you done these jobs or not?
Ui"')'t.l'cl.l'~"1 ~~·~~::r-111~~·"~'1
Tell me the truth.
The second person question construction (MVS + Ul"'t.l'~"·t.l~') is used when the speaker wants to imply, 'did you happen to.. .,' 'by chance, have you...':
-ur"
(36) a"·~~ ·15"') .'ll.~l:J~·}~·"~"'·CJ·a?il. ·~~'f~ ·~·l." ·~ .. , When you went to Tibet, did you happen to take pictures of [any] monasteries?
(38)
6"
·~~·~~·QI'~'"l·o.~·¥-s"·ar" 'CJ'%."·~"· a;" ·rnr%."1 ~~ ·~~·lf-~~~·"~'1 By the way, have you done these jobs or not? Tell me the truth.
Uf"
As in first person (MVS +or" 't.l'~" ')statements, in second person (MVS + '!.!'~" 'CJ~') questions, a sense of uncertainty concerning the addressee's completion of a particular action can be implied:
(a)
a"·~~~" 'QI'~~"iq" 'l~t'l." 1 ~~ ..·or" ·~·l." ·~ .. ,
Did you go to Tibet?
[I] don't think you've been to Tibet, have you [been)?
In sentence (a), the phrase of uncertaintyor~·~'cl.l'~"· is used with the verb-endingor"'t.l'~"'t.l~'toreinforce the speaker's sense of doubt concerning a"·~~· 'you' having been to Tibet. In sentence (b), the (MVS + t.l' ~~·C.J~') construction is used when the speaker wants to simply ask the addressee whether he has been to Tibet, with no other implication.
B.
First/ Third Person
1)
Personal Perspective- (MVS + CJ;"·~41') [personal association] Sentences (39)- (41)
(39)
~")CJ~"l1~~1 [S"·~~~~·~"l.~"l~~~~~·~~1
Tsewang, do you remember? Yesterday when
f·~~·~~~·CJ'cl.lf~·~CJ·~Cl.·a.'I.S~·'li·Ui~·~~·~·
Khedup came to my place, was I in the kitchen or
ss~·as~·QI·~~"·CJ;"·~41· ~ti"" ·~~·QI·~~" ·CJ;" 1 in the prayer room?
lll
Colloquial Tibetan
(40)
rs~ ·~r::.·~·s·ifa;r::.·~·r~!~·UI~ ·~~1
Is your daughter married?
(41)
~r::.~·!~'lll~~1 r:·~~~~r::_·Qr~~~·Ui"')'t.l~1
Sangye, is [your] father at home?
The first/ third person question construction (MVS + Ul~ ·t.~~·) is used when the speaker presupposes that the addressee will be able to give a reply based on a personal association to the speaker or third person: (39) ~·,~r::.·~~~1 rsC)·~r::.·~~·s~·~~r::.~·~~~·lfJ~1 F·~r::.·~~~·~·~F~·~~·
r::.~·~~~·llJ·Uir::.·~~·r::.·~q·~r::.·~·q~')-ai"')'t.l41' t~~i'')'fll"'~·q~')'tq')1 Tsewang, do you remember? Yesterday when Khedup came to my place, was I in the kitchen or in the prayer room? [you were with me at the time]
In question (39) the use of (MVS + UlC) ·~~·) indicates that the speaker expects a reply that is based on the. addressee's association to him. (MVS + Ui"C)·~~·) in first/ third person questions indicates that a personal association exists between the addressee and the speaker I third person. i.e., the addressee was present at the time of the action. the addressee has known the speaker or third person lor a long time, etc. Based on this kind of association, the speaker expects the addressee to know his/ her habits, what he/ she likes, how they will respond, etc. If the impersonal ending ~r::.·r::.~· is used instead of ·~~·, the English translation remains the same, but in Tibetan the speaker's priority shifts. UfC) 'tJ~· indicates that the speaker wants a personal perspective answer from the ad~ i.e., you were with me, so you know what I did. ~-r::.o.r, en the other hand, is used when the speaker is specifically requesting an eye-witness account from the addressee, ie., what did you see:
ur,
...r::.·~q·~"·~·q~')'ii""'"&l' t~~i"')'fll"'~·q~"·if"'l ...was I in the kitchen or in the prayer room? [you were there, what did you witness?] 2.) (42)
<43> (44)
(45)
General Statement- (MVS + Ui"l)'t.l'l.')'l;l41')
Sentences (42)- (45) f~·~·[S"r::.~~·s~·~.,·~~·~s~·~~"-ur')·t.~·l.'1·~;~.,1 By the way, has he done this kind of job before? SC) ·~r::. ~~·~~~ ~·~, 1 r::.~·~~·QJ·~~ iG", ·~·l., ·~~1 You [should] know, have I been to Europe? r::.~~·'X.'Q, ·-m~·~~.g~ ·
The first/ third person question construction (MVS + Ui"C)·~·l.C)·~~·) is used when the speaker wants to insinuate 'by the way...' or 'by the way... do you happen to know this1': (43) e,·~r::.~~·~s~ll.,, r::.~·~q·~·-s~·ur')·~;~·l.')·~;~.,, You [should] know, have I been to Europe? [Is this fact known by you?] (44) r::.~~·'X.'Q, ·-m~· ~ll]·g~ ·
Lesson 15 As previously explained, the verb-endings~~~· and ii"~·express the precise nature of the statement. ~~IIJ·IIJ~r implies 'have you heard..., found out...,' etc.; while lr~ ·~i.l· is used when asking for an attestative answer. Ui') ·CJ·X.') ·CJ~· on the other hand, implies either, 'by the way, is this fact known by you', or it is used when one wants the circumstance rather than the agent emphasized.
m.
Past Time Reportative Questions (MVS + a.~~·~•f) and Statements (MVS +a.~~· I~~·) First/ Third Person
Sentences (46)- (SO) Yeshi, did I receive a letter today? [Did my roommate tell you?]
b. Qlll]~·~~~ ~·~~·a·rz-~·Qj~·G,l·QI~~·~·~~~·
Yes, today you got a letter from [your] mother.
~~·&l·~·~~·~sz-·~~~ (D) a. lat'~·J6"~·Qj·~~"·s'~·~~~·~e~1 b.lat'~·J6"~·Qj·~~"·~·s~~·s'~·~-,~
Did Nyima help him? [Did you inquire?]
(48) a. ;i·~~~~·~~~~z.· ~·X-·~11.1·~~~
What did Tsering offer to Rinpoche (h.)?
b. f!:.~~·~~~z.·o.l~QI·')z.·~Qj·'J~~ (49) a. ~~~~~·;i·~~·Qj·~·X.·~~~·~~~
He offered a scarf to him [Rinpoche].
[your friend told me] Nyima helped him a lot. [I was told.]
What did Rinpoche give Tsering?
b. ~~ ~~~·;i·~~ ·11.1·~~ ·i.l~') ·~~!:. ·'J~~
Rinpoche gave him [Tsering] a blessing cord.
(SO) a. ~·~·X.·s~·~~·~~·ll.l~~·~~~
Why did I get angry?
b. CJ·~~~·~~·s')·~~·Qj·~~·~~ ·l:l4') ·l:J~~
Pasang lied to you, so you got angry.
s~·~~·e')·~~·~~·Qj~~·'J~~
The past time reportative verb-endings~~~· I 'J~~· are precise in that they inform the addressee that the speaker has acquired the stated information from a second-hand source, i.e., another person. a book, a newspaper, the 1V, radio, etc. The exact nature of how the information was acquired may or may not be mentioned. In sentences (46) and (47) examples of the various kinds of implied information ~~~·1 r:J~~· have been supplied in the brackets: (46) a. Ul·4~1
~·~~·~z.·&l·~·~sz-·~~~·~"1
b. Qj~~·~~~ ~·~~·a')·z-~·Qj~·o.l·QI~~·
Yeshi, did I receive a letter today? [Did my roommate tell you?] Yes, today you got a letter from fyour] mother.
~·~19~·~~·&l·~·~~·~sz-·~,~
[your friend told me]
(47) a.;-at41·J6"~·11.1·~~'~·s'~·~~~·~'~1
Did Nyima help him? [Did you inquire?]
b.lat'~·J6"~ ·11.1·~~"·~ ·s~~·s'~·~_,~
Nyima helped him a lot. [I was told.]
313
Colloquial Tibetan ~~~·in
question (48) below alerts us to the fact that the speaker knows the addressee was not with Tsering when he met Rinpoche: What did Tsering offer to Rinpoche? Since the act of Tsering offering a scarf to Rinpoche is not an eye-witness account, but has been found out from some outside source, i.e., Tserhtg told the speaker, Rinpoche 's attendant told him, etc., the addressee answers using the reportative ending l:l~~·: He offered a scarf to him [Rinpoche].
If the speaker had beert with Tsering and had seen him offer a scarf to Rinpoche. the verb-ending ~r::;.· would be used instead: He offered a scarf to him [Rinpoche].
In questions, only the verb-ending~~II'!' followed by the question particle Ill'~' is used, never l:l~~·· In Lhasa colloquiall:l~~· is used more frequently than~~~· in statements.
IV. The Verbal-endings ~~·~~~·; [:X..')·Q~~·] The verbal-endings~')·~~~·! [~')'l:l~~·] indicate that the speaker has just acquired the disclosed information from some external source. Sentences (51)- (56) Nyima, where is your camera from?
Nyima isn't sure, he checks the label and replies: b. l:J~ 'a5~·~~ l'4'r:::. ·~~·~~·l:l-,II'J
This camera is from Japan. [as I just found out]
(52) a. z:J~~·~&J~·~·~r::;.·~r::;.·j~i!r:::.~~·~·~~·~~l
Which part of Tibet are Sonam Tsering and Lobsang from?
Once again Nyima doesn't know. He asks a friend and answezs: b. ~~~·1~·~r~·~~·~~·l:l~~
Both of them are from Lhasa.
(53} a. ~·~·~·af~·~·a)~·~~l
What time is it now?
Nyima doesn't know offhand. He looks at his watch and then replies:
b. ~·~·~·af~·~~·~r::;.·~~·I!J·~~·~)~ (54) a.
It is half past six now.
~t:IJ"l:li!l:;.'?fii'QJ-~·a)~·~~l
How old is Kalsang Lhamo?
Looking at Kalsang' s birth cerificate Nyima says: Kalsang Lhamo is eleven years old.
314
Lesson /5 Is Dhondup our teacher's son (h.)?
Not knowing the answer, he asks th~ teacher and then replies: b. ~"JY:l.~l;I'QI~~·"·ia·~"l'QI~~·~~·l;l·l.l)·iJ·a,~~
(56) a. ~"~"l.~"·~i:~"·l.I)·CJ~1
Dhondup is not our teacher's son. Is tomorrow a holiday?
Again he asks his teacher and then replies: b. 41"~"1''!l"'~i:l"·l.l)·iJ·a,~~ ~"1"~~"1·
Tomorrow is not a holiday. The day after
~" ·~i:l" ·l.l) 'l;l~~
tomorrow is a holiday.
The Verbal-endings l."~~~·j [l.l)·~~·] indicate that the speaker had no previous knowledge of the fact, rather he/ she has just come to know the stated information from an external source. This reported information may be either intentionally sought out or unexpectedly found out, e.g., from the situation, from the observation of an object, or from sources such as a person, a book, a letter, a newspaper, a radio program, etc. This structure often expresses surprise concerning the acquired information. This element of surprise can be further shown through the speaker's facial expression or heard in the tone of voice. l.I)Y:t.~~·j l.l)·~~· are used in statements ofidentification. When the simple factive verb l.~·is used by itself, the speaker is merely stating a fact that is already known. The use of l.I)Y:t.~~· or l.l)'l;l~~·, however, indicates that the speaker did not have any previous information concerning the matter, rather
the information has just been found out from some outside source (a.) ~·~"")~·~"l·l."1 Tsering is a teacher.
(b.) ~·~"'')~'~"J·l."·~~
Tsering is a teacher.
vs.
[He just told me, I didn't know before.)
[I know it for a fact.]
As illustrated above, the verb l.l) · by itself indicates that the statement is a well known fad, something the speaker already knows. In sentence (a), the speaker is, e.g., a friend of Tsering' s, a relative, a student's parent, etc., therefore the fact of Tsering being a teacher is known. The verb-endings l.I)Y:t.5.~· or l.l)·~~·, on the other hand, indicate that the information has been acquired from an outside source In sentence (b), ~')·~~·automatically informs the addressee that the speaker has just found out that Tsering is a teacher. The speaker's external source of information may or may not be revealed through the context of the conversation. It is not necessary to explicitly state the source. The verb-ending l.l)·"'-~~· is used in literary texts as well as colloquially. Of the two verb-endings, however l.l)·l;l~~· is used more frequently in colloquial Lhasa dialect. Please note that negative statements and questions, whether literary or colloquial, are always formed
with"'-~~·, i.e., l.l)·iJ·a,~~· and l.')·"'-~~·~~·, never with l;l~~··
315
Colloquial Tibetan
V.
Clause of Purpose (MVS + 'tl~· +Motion Verb+ Conjugation) [an act was done for the purpose of •.• ] The dause ofpurpose, a double verb construction, is used to express that one action was performed for the purpose of another. T'ne first verb stem is tenseless; while the second verb, a motion verb, e.g.,~~· 'went', a.f5')''take ', z:::Jryc_· 'send', with a conjugation, is the time indicator.
A.
Past Time Construction Sentences (57)- (64) c_·fl·~c_·~lll~rz:.r~~rg·~ri•::fl"'lll'~.;·,s-QI'
Yesterday morning I went to the gym
i'·~~·;~·q·~'i1
to exercise.
[I] didn't go to do his work.
(60)
~"·~·Qj~·,·s')·~~·~~·s'i1 F"'91ll'lll~·lll~"·~~·'El~~·irr:::·1 &~·s~·lll~~·'"'lll'
The cook went to make food. [so I was told]
(61)
f~ '&!'"~ 'lif.J.I'g.~ ·~~ 'lll'i'r::: ·j~ ·~~ ·f!c_~·~.~c_~
[Before], on many occasions, my parents went to
Ellll~·~~
India for business. [as I found out]
~~~·q+J~ ·~~·~·~~.~·~~a.·lli~.~·Qj·Qj~·llJ·s') ·~~·
Lekshay took Tsenam to Nyalam for work.
C':l.~')·~~
[lheard this.]
~·~~.~·~·r.r&~~·Fr:::·~~~·z:::J+J')'&~~&I·j·lll~a.·lll&~'lll'
Tsenam 's parents have sent him with Lekshay
Qj~·1·s') ·~~ ·qryr:::·~·x.') 1
to Nyalam for work.
')S"~·~~·Ill~~1 ~~·~~.~·q~~~~"·1 r:::~·s·if
Yangkyi (h.), please wait for a while! I have sent
~~.~~~ ~ 'z:::Jry" ·~·lll~ 1 6') ·~" ·9irlll·~ ·~.~ar') ·
[my] daughter to buy milk. [Please] have some
~~·'Ellll~l
tea and then go.
(57j
<ss> <59>
(62) (63)
<64>
B.
He went to [do] work. (h.)
Present Time Construction Sentences (65)- (74)
(65)
r:::~ ·~r;~·~~ ·iq·9J~ ·fcrfc_·s~·~~ ·~~·qlii~ 1Everyday I go to school to study.
(66)
~"'a.~·&l~·c_·i§"&~'ll!~a;·~~·~~·a.~·q~·Uj')1
(67)
~·~c_·~c_·r:::·~')·if~·~~·a.~·q~·il')1 r:::~·~~·l'~·~')1 These days I don't go to see movies. I don't
On Sundays I go to the market for shopping. have time.
(68)
~"~ ·~r:::·~c_·'"'q~·s-~~·~~·a.~·q~·~-a.~~
These days he doesn't go dancing/ to dance.
(69)
')Qc_'iflli~~·Qj~'fS"~'Qj'~~·lll~·~~c_·~~·~q~·
Wangmo doesn't go to the office to ~ork.
~·Uj')·~·~.~·l.')1
<70> (71)
Fr:::·ar~~ ·~~~~~Q;~·')s') ·lli~"·~~ ~·~~.
Every year she goes to America for a physical/
'E!~~·~·Uj') ·~·l.')1
medical checkup.
~ ·~lll·~-~-g.~-El~·~r::: ~~~·~·~~'')" 'Qilj'~Qj'
Westerners come from far away [places] to
Qj·~r:::·~L'-l·iqlr:::·s~·~~·urr:::~·ur"'·~·l.')1
study Buddhism in India and Nepal.
')s~·,·~')·~c_·i]lr:::·f·z:::lry"·~~~~·s~"·f~·
In summer you go to the Norbulinka
'E!~~·~-Uj~·~·X.C)1
for picnics. 316
Lesson 15 (73)
~" ·i"~·Clj~~·~·~Q'Qj'~~ 'Qi~·~~c::. 'llj:l\.
Sicho goes to Europe for medical treatment.
(7t)
ill~~·~·tij"" 'l;J'~" 1 ~~·l;J·Qj~~·~~a.·fj~ ·l:J:r..:qmc::.·f:r..·fj~ ill~~·~·a.~~
On Saturdays Lhakpa goes to Po Park
c
·m" ·~~c::.·~:r..·
for outings.
Future Time Construction
(75)
Sentences (75) - (79) Today [I] won,t go to exercise. It, s raining outside.
~ ·~c::.·~·'o!'Ga'i''"l~'O.i'Q!'~~ 1 s·ar~~·~·a;:r..'l:J'QryC::.'~~1
(78)
~c::.~~·~~·~·~lll:I\'Q,~'Q~~~1 "·c::.·QI~·JTrs"·lll:r..·a.~·Q~·Ul~1 ~%~·s~·~ ·i"~·a.'rQI'Qj~~1J:r..·llj~c::.·I!J:r..17:r...
(79)
fC::.'QI'"Q~·~·~" 1 ~ ·~~·riffc::. ·¥~~"a.~·¥1!J~'IIl:r.. ·ill~~·~·~" 1
(76) (TI)
Tomorrow I will go to exercise. Now going to go to work. Perhaps Chopel will go to the telegraph office to send a telegram. And then he ,ll go to attend a meeting.
rm
The clause of purpose (MVS + ~:r..· +motion verb+ conjugation/ verb-ending) is a double verb construction colloquially used when one wants to express that one action was performed for the purpose of another action. Literally this structure expresses, 'I did an action for the purpose of... ,: (60) ~· 5 ~ ·Qj~~·~~·~"l·':IF"l~ ·~"1'~'':141\"1 The cook went to make food. [Lit The reascxt the cook went is for the purpose of malcing food.]
.
The first verb of this construction is always in the present/ future form, i.e.,~· 'eat,, Q.~c;:.· 'drink,, Q~ 'make, 'do,, etc. According to lingvists this part of the sentence is catego~..zed as an event of speech. Such clauses are tenseless, i.e., "'Cll'Cllllj'Q1r-Qj:r..' 'to make food., The second verb, which follows the particle ~:r..·, must be a motion verb such as; a.!" 'go', s~· 'went', tij"c;:.· 'come/ came,, Qryc::: 'send/ sent', "'~"·'take/ took', Cl.(5" -tij"c;:.· 'bring,, a.(5" ·s~ · 'brought/ took', etc. this is followed by a verbal conjugation. The final conjugation, the temporal adverb and/ or the context of the conversation determine the timeof the
S"'
sentence:
Chart 1
(a) ~~o,~·~:r..·
Clause of Purpose
Conjugation
Time
English Tense
c::.·if~a·QI·~a;·!"l'"l~.
s~·e~·&~~1
past
simple past
On Sunday I went to the market for shopping/ to shop.
(b) ~~a.~·~:r..·
a.!'Q!'if~l
c::.·if~a·QI·~m·!"l'"l~.
preosent
simple present
On Sundays I go to the market for shopping/ to shop.
(c) ~~a.~·~~:r..·
c::.·r~·GI·~e·!"l'"l~·
a.!'Q!'&I~1
future
On Sunday I will go to the market for shopping/ to shop.
!17
future 'will,
Colloquial Tibetan
The verbal clause, in this case, o/='!111'111~· 'for shopping/ to shop', in English is usually translated with an infinitive verb. Just as the Tibetan clause is tenseless, the English infinitive also carries no time. The second verb with a conjugation, i.e., ~~·z:.r~~· 'went', Q.~'t::~~·(ij'"')· 'go', Q.~·t::~~·~~· 'will go', is the time indicator. Please note the reversal of the verbs in English, the feme indicating verb is first and the infinitive second: (65) Everyday I go to school to study. In colloquial speech the ~·is silent and one says [111-] and not 11J ~•• In literary the particles of purpose ~:.~~·or t::~~· are generally used instead of 111~·.
VI. Clause of Pretense (MVS + "J~· + S~'/ s~· +Conjugation) [pretend to••J pretended to••• ) The clause ofpretense is used to indicate that someone pretends/ pretended to do something. The first veib of this double verb amstruction is tenseless while the second verb, either S')' or 541', is the time indicator.
Sentences (80)- (85) (80)
r:.•i!ic::~·F·~IIJ·il·t::~~·il~1 ~~ ·~Q.r:.·rrr:.~-~~~~ ·~· jii'QI~···~~'S') ·a-&:~~ 1
(81)
I won't eat his food, but in front of him, I'll
•pretend to eat [it]./ I'll force [myself] to eat [it].
Fr:.~41·r:.~ ~'Q.~IIJ41'ilr:.~t::~!Jt::l'~r:.1 5"~'~r:.·r:.41' He insisted so much, so I pretended to drink •r:.~r:.~x.·s.,·~:.~-&:1~1 ')~41'11J~"~·5"~'~·r:.·=r:.·
the chang. Actually I never drink [chang].
a~·~"'-Q.JS"~-~"1 (82)
r:.·~·t::~~'il'Q.~IIJ ~~·~Q.r:.·r:::.~·~r:.·~r:.·=')'~'Q.~IIJ
(83)
~·Q.s·~r:.·~r:.·r:::.·~·lll~·s"·~-~~1 t::l!!J'4"~'~··r:.'Q.~~~~:t.i·i)"Q.~IIJ ~~-~Q.r:.'il'
This chang ofTashi's is not tasty, but if [I] don't
Q.JSr:.·~·rrr:.·as-IIJ·~:.~·•·t::~~·x."1 s"~-~"~!"·~.-.· (84) (85)
I'm not sick, but I'm tired today. Because of that, I'll pretend to be sick.
s'1·lai'11
drink it he'D get angry. That's why [I'm] pretel~ to drink [it]./ [I'm] forcing [myself] to drink [it].
')~41'11J~41'541'~ ·r:.·~'iiiiJ'Q.~~ ·~-(ij'"" 1 ~~ ·~Q.r:,'
Actually I smoke, but in front of my father
l;i'~lll"~'~·~~~~ ·~·~·"lll'"'Q.a~ ·111~ ·s"·~-(ij'"" 1
I pretend not to [smoke].
~·~r:::.·"'r:.·r:::.·~·t::~~'Q.~IIJ ~~-~Q.r:.~·~~·~IIJ41'~'
These days I'm sick, but I pretend not to
~~~~·~·r:::.·~~~·IIJ~·s"·~-(ij'""1 111·X.·X.')·r.~·~·r:.'a:
be sick in front of my mother, because
l"''il'~lll"~'JSIIJ41'1.9~'11J~I:.~'%.')1
she will worry.
This particular 111~·structure has two functions: 1.)
~X.· is used to indicate someone pretended/ pretends/ is pretending to do something.
meaning is, 'I acted like/ I pretended I did...':
318
The literal
Lesson 15
<85) ~·-x.r:.·~r:.·r:.·~·Q~~~~ U~~·~Q.r:.~·~·QI~~·~·~~~·QI·r:.·~'ll'lx.·s"·~-cq-"1 ~·~ ·~" ·~ ~ ·~ ·r:.a~·~·QI~~·~~~'f.sCll·~~r:. ~·~" 1 These days I'm sick, but in front of my mother I pretend not to be sick because she will worry.
1)
._,z.· am also be used when one does not/ did not .really want todosomething,however,in order to please thatperson the action is done reluctantly:
<so> r:.·f6"r:. ~·fl·Cll~'.ii'Q~·il~ 1 tAl~ ·~Q.r:.·f6"r:. ·~·~~~ ·QI~·QI~···~x.·s" ·'&~~ 1 I won't eat his food, but in front of him. I'D pretend to eat [it]/ or I'D force [myself] to eat [it]. There is another situation in which the use of this structure is appropriate:
r:.~·i~·Q~~·~·~r:.·QI·~·~~~~~·~~·s~·l,J~~1 I pretended to smoke in the movie [I performed in].
In this sentence~~· indicates that in normal circumstances r:.· 'I' does not smoke. In this particular case, however, because of the role in the movie, r:.· 'I' was required to do so. Even though the agent actually performed the action of smoking, i.e., r:.· 'I' held the cigarette in his/ her hand, put it up to his/ her mouth and also inhaled it, the implication of~~· is, 'I was only pretending because this is not my normal habit.' Theclauseofpretense,justastheclauseofpurpose~isadoubleverbconstruction,(MVS+~~·+s~·f s~· +conjugation). The first verb is always in the present/ future form As with the previous construction, this part of the sentence is tenseless and is categorized linguistically as an event of speech. In the clause of purpose, the second verb is always a motion verb plus a conjugation. In the clause of pretense however, only the verbs ors~· plus a conjugation are used, i.e., s~·CJ-fi!~. I CJ'~~. I "liz:.. I Q~~· 'pretended',$~·~·~~·! Q.)ll]'/ ~~·CJ·~~· 'pretend' /'pretending', s~·~·U)~·j ~~·'will pretend'. Again, the final conjugation, the ad'verb of time and/ or the context of the conversation determine the spedfic time of the sentence.
S"'
Vll. A Short Story:
a·"'~"·~~~.,·~"'·s·,r:.·, f~ ·~'f~ ·~·~·~%~-iG"~ ·CJ·~" 1
The Greedy Dog
~*'~~ ~ ·~·~%~·ts·~ ·rr~r:. ·~·Fa~r:. ·QI·4~~·~%~·a.ax-~~·.~~~·CJ·~%~·~·~r:.·
Ql·~~ ·CJ·~~ 1 a·~ ·.~~~·CJa·~r:. ·QI·a.f~~·rr~r:. ~·111~~~·Q~~ ·~a ·~r:.·QI·~lfr:.·r.J·~" 1 a·~a·q~~·r.Jx.·~a ·~r:. ~·a· ~~a·4~~~·r:.~·~~~-~~~·r:.~·4~~·~~~·~r:.~·~~·q~~·l,J·~"1 s~·~r:.·a·~~·Q.~·Q_s·Q~~·s~·QI~·~~r:.· ~Q;~r:.·QI·~i'r:.~·CJ·~~1 U~~·~Q.r:.·~a·~r:.~·4~~·~·~·~~~·CJa·~r:.·QI·rr~r:.~·fla·~r:.·QI-iG"~:CJa·4~~~~r:.·~a·
~Z:.'QI'ii~~·CJ·~~ 1 ~ElQ. ·~·~~ 'fl'lfr:. 'Cll"l'fr:. 'QI'Q.{""~~·~r:.·r.J·~" 1 Vocabulary: ~~~·~~~·~~· rr~r:.·
great desire/ greedy
f~·~·f~·~·
once upon a time/long, long ago
himself (nh.)
flil.·~r:.·
in the mouth
319
Colloquial Tibetan
~·~~·
piece of meat
.ill.l"l:.l"
bridge
~~~~·Cl~~·
shadow I reflection
Cl~l.l"l:.l'
thought
~~~·
get/ find
~·
if
~·~s·irr:::.·~r:::.·
because of that
l.li"r:::.~·
not only that
.~~~~·q·
jumped fall/ drop
completely empty
l.IEI~ '1.1'
in the end
l.l'il'). !'3-fr:::."Qll j"'fr:::.'QJ' QJI.I"~~r:::.·
immediately I right away
VIII. Conversations A. Context: The teacher wants to know if Norbu and his friend Nyima have completed their studies: Sentences (86) - {96)
<86> "~."1~·= ~~·s1
Norbu.
~~·s·= QJ~~1 "l~.QJ~~l (87) "~."1~·= ~"·~r:::.·iCl-jr:::.·s~-tG""·q~l
Yes, sir. Have you studied/ done [your] studie5?
~~·s·= s~-tG""l
[Yes], I have.
(88) "~."1~·= ~~·~"·~r:::.·~·~~~·q~·~.~·iCl'fr:::.·s~·
And has your friend Nyima studied/ done [his] studies?
~~~·~~,
~~·s·= ''r~·Cl~·~",
I don't know.
(89) "~."1~·: ,.~.~~·~')'Cli~~·')r:::.l
AskNyima.
Norbu asks Nyima (90) ~~·s·= ''1.1':
(9t> ~~·s·=
li.!':
<92> ~~·s·= ,.~.~·:
(93) ~~·s·= ,.~.~·:
,.~.~,
Nyima.
Y'jl
Yes.(nh)
~r:::.·iCl"fr:::.·s~·ur" ·q~l
Have you studied/ done [your] studies?
s~·ur",
[Yes], I have.
a3r:: . ·~.~·g r: :.·Uj" ·q~l sr:::.·ur",
Have you learned everything?
'rllr:::.·~·4~·~·UiC)'l:.l~1 4~·~-Ui')l
Do you understand all of it?
[Yes, I] have learned [it all].
[I] do. [I know it all.]
After asking Nyima these questions, Norbu answers his teacher:
<94> ~~·s·= "l~.QJ~~l ,.~.~·iCl'fr:::.·s~·~~
Sir, Nyima ha:l done [his] studies.
a;r:::.·~.~·sr:::.·Cl~~
He has studied everything.
<95) "~."1~·= ~~~·~r:::., a;r:::.·~.~·sr:::.~~, ~~ ·s·= "i!fr:::.~·"~."l~ ·QJ~~, a;r:::.·~.~·sr:::.·~" 1
And whataboutyou?Have [you] studied everything?
I'm sorry sir. [I] haven't done it all.
320
Lesson 15 (96)
'1~'il!'l ·: ~·~ -RJ" ' 11.11
Why [haven't you done it all]?
ii~·s·:
~·~·~'1~~·"·~.~'1"''1q;"·~·¥'1·'!·1:J·"~·
Because the electricity went off at five o'clock
i~·4·ir~:;.·1 s~·~" ·=~:;.·~,~·s~·&~'11
last night, therefore I haven't done it all.
B. Context: Thupten wants to know what Yeshi did this morning so he is asking Wangyal. He then asks if Wangyal knows what he did as well:
Sentences (9'1) - (107) (9'1) ~l:l'l:l~'l': '1l=l"'~~·~"1~1
Wangyal. Yes.
'1l=ll;.'~~·: ~~~1
(IJII) ~l:l'l:l~': ~~"~"l~'I:JoU!·~~·g'1·~·ci)'1'~'Qll:;.~~~~
'1l=l" ·~~·: ~·~"'1'~11]'1:J~ ·~~;.~·l:l~~
What time did Yeshi get up this morning? [He] got up at six o'clock.
(99) ~l:l·l:l~'l·= B'1'~"~~·"1"·~s·i!~·z:;·a:;·§"'1
How do you know?
'1l=ll;.'~~·: '1 ~"·a;·~~;. ·~"1~·~~·~:;.~ '"1~"·~~:;.1 (100) ~~·l:l~'l': a;·~~:;.·~~~~~·"·~·~'11 '1l=lt:.'~~·: a;·~~:;.·~~~oU!·4~·~"1~·~·~~:;.·t;t:.'~'1'l:l~~
A little while ago Tsering told me. Tsering is Yeshi's [maternal] uncle.
(101) ~l:l'l:l~'l': ~'1'1:J~1
Is [he]?
'1l=lt:.'~~·: ~'11 ~'11 (102) ~l:l·l:l~'l·: ~~~·"~·~·~·s~·~5~
Oh yes, [he is].
Who's Tsering?
And then what did he do?
'1l=l"'!~': ~·"~oU!·~~·"l~~~~~~~· ~~~·~~~~:;.·
After that Yeshi bathed, had breakfast,
~~·il=I·SJ~·il=l"j"t:.·s'1·"1~·~'l·l=l~9 (103) ~l:l·l:l~" ·: ~·4 ~-~·~.~~~.~-~-s~ -~~9 "l:l" -~~·: rr~" -~·;("l~·l:.l~IIJ·~.~"'~~-~ ~ ·l:I~IIJ
and then went to school to study.
(104) ~~·~~"': it-'l'"~~~:;.·~~~·I:J·~~~·l:l~l:l'~~~·~~1
All right then, this morning did I wash my face?
Who did Yeshi go with? [He] went with one of his friends.
'1l=l"'!~·= 6'1-~"~~~:g~·i!·~~~ ~cll·IIJ~"· ~"1~·~ 'ili"'1'l:l~~
You didn't wash your face. You had breakfast right away.
(105) ~l:l'l:l~~·: ~~~~~·~~~
Who told [you]?
'1l=l"·~~·: 6'1-~"~·~111~~~-~~·I:J~·'l"·~·~:;.~·~~·
~s~·~~"~·~·~~"l (106) ~r:j·l;:j~~·: ~·~~·9 ·~·s~·~~~ '1l=l"'!~': ~·~~'Uit:.'~~-IIJ~&.:~·~~~ ~·Qj"~.~~·"14~· tqiiJ~i.l'~'11 1.1'~'1'r:1 (107) ~l:l'l:l~'l': ~·"~~·~"~·~"1 t:.'aJ1.1~'"14~·~~· l=lt'1 ~l:I!Jl:I'~'Ul'l1
321
Your friend told me [like] this on the phone. And then what did I do? And then you went back to sleep [again]. That's not a good habit, is it? That's true. I'm going to change this habit.
Colloquial Tibetan
C Cootext: Lawa has gone to meet Rinpoche. He is talking with the Rinpoche 's attendant (~~~"lj~ ·~~r):
Sentences (108) - (1U) (108) QMS":
~~l"lj~·~~1 'X_~~·~~~~"~·
Sulpiin-lak, is Rinpoche here?
Q.~~~·Ui')"'J~1
~il
[No,) Rinpoche is not here.
~·'-l.:~.-'El~~·'-l·~~1
Where has [he) gone?
~ii
[He) has gone to Europe.
~·~~1
When [did he go)?
~ii
[He went) three days ago.
~·~·~~~:;.·~.:1\1
For what purpose [did he go)? I What did [he go) for?
~ii
[He) went to give teachings on Buddhism.
~~·~·:("l:;l·QJ·~t;.·CJ·~·'-l.:l\'~~~·~"~·
And where is [he) staying in Europe?
Q.~~~-iG'')"'-l"~')1
~ii
~~~·~.:1\~1:;1~·~·~')1
. When will [he) return?
~ii
<m) QJ~: •
[He) is staying in France. [He) will return after one month.
~~~·~·~~&::;., s~·~·~:;.·.~·l:;l·~~~~·l~·QJ·
Thank you. If that's so, I'll come [again)
l:;l~.:I\·~·U)~1 l:;l~~~·~"~·r.~.~~
after a month. Take care./ Good-bye.
Contracted Form of Statements and Questions
In colloquial Tibetan the use of contracted statements and questions is an accepted and common form of communication. Some examples of the contracted colloquial form are found in Conversation C: (110) QJ~:
~·~~1
When [did he go)? [He went) three days ago.
~ii
For what purpose [did he go)? I What did [he go) for? [He) went to give teachings on Buddhism.
QJ~:
~ii
Contracted constructions are always used within the context of an ongoing conversation. Even though the speaker may leave out the noun, pronoun, second verb or the verb-ending of a sentence, the addressee understands who or what is being talked about by the context of the conversation. Such contracted constructions are also heard in colloquial English.
322
Lesson 15
IX. Exercises A.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
(6"~::.·~~::_·~~::.·U!~·~~·~·lll~·QJ·~~·
li~::.·j l.J"X-=)·J l:l~~
(Reportative)
(2)
~::_~·~~·~~·~·a)~::.·OJ·l:l~l:l·
~~Ill"/"%..~·; Ul~1
(First Person Subject)
(3)
~·'lff"llllll"l:l~~·
OJ·\~·; &l·~~lll"/ ~~1
(First Person Subject)
(4)
tJ1f~·~ 01 ~·1lllll~·~r~·~~·
~~·l:l~~·; ~~~·; U~~·Q~~
(Reportative)
(5)
~::.~·UJ~~s~·~·~~~ ~~a:,-w·OJ·QJ~~·~::.·¥ch~lll·f~::.·~·~l:l~·~~rrs~·::1;~::.·
~Ill·~~~·
~~~·; Ul~1
B.
Translate the following sentettces:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
I stayed a year in Lhasa. This camera is from Japan. Dorjee worked with my father for a couple of years. Did you get drunk at the party last night? Has he worked before?
C.
Answer the following questio11s:
(1)
rs~·~~::.·l:JQJ~QJ·QJ·~·x.·~~~::.·~~ ~.q~·~·U!~ 1
(2)
rs~·~~::_~~·OJ~t:.·~i!f~::.·~·~~::.l~::.·a;·a)~::_•s~·ur~·l.J~1
(3)
~~·~~::.·~'(~·~~·1·~·~l.Ja.·~l:l~·QJ·,·qr~~·s~~·ur~·l.J~,
<4>
~·ar~s~·11r6~·~~::.·~·~·~~~::.·~~~q~·l.J~1
(5)
rs~·~~::.~~QJ~~·~~::.·ll"~~~·~~::.·l.J·~·~~.,~·~~·~q~·~~lll
D.
Answer the following questions from the story:
(1)
6·~·ilOJ·'J?l_·~~::.·QJ·~~~~·~a.·~~::.·I1J·~·x.·.J.i€~::.·l.J·x.~1
(2)
s·~{j_·q~Oj"l.J~·~·X.·Q~o.fl.J"X-~1
(3)
~·~~·9·l.J~"OJi"t:.~·l.J·X.'"i1
(4)
~a.·~~;. "11J"4~~·0Ji'r:::~·l.J·X.~ ·q~·il~~·l.J·X.~ 1
(5)
~~~·~OJ~·s~·~·~·X-·UI~::.·~·x.~1
323
(Recalling)
[as I was told by my mother] [it's written on the camera] [as I learnt from my father] [did others tell you] [did you ask anyone}
Answers to the Exercises Lesson 1 A.
Correction of the Tibetan sentences:
(1)
r::.~ ·~r::. "iQI''1 "JZ. ~~1 iir::.~·~r::.·~·~·~'11
My name is Dolkar. What is his name?
(4)
"~'1·~~·UI~1 "~'1·QI·,r~:r.·Q~'1·~-tij"'11
(5)
jir::.·~~~·~'11
I am from Tibet In Tibet I live in Lhasa. Where is he from?
B.
FiU in the blanks:
(1)
(5)
6'1·:-r.r::.~·J:~~·q·~·q:r.·~~~·~-ai~-q-l.~l r::.~·~r::.~·~~~~l r::.·QQI'~QI·QI·Q~'1·~·ar'11 6'1·:-r.r::.·~·q:r. 'Q~~~·~-ai'11 iir::.·~~~·,.g:r.·Q~~~·~~·q·~~l
c.
Tibetan Translations:
(1)
(4)
r::.~ ·9J~~:cr-QQI~QI'QI'Q~'1·~-tij"'1'T.I'~'11 Q!!]"4~·Q~-a.~~1 ~·~~~~·Q~~oUI~·q~l I::.'!'~Z.'QI'Q~'1·~·i1'11 QQI~QI'QI'Q~'1·~-tij"'11 ~~~·~~ 'QI'i5'1·:r.r::.·~·q:r. 'Q~~~·~·ur'11
D.
Matched sentences:
(1)
(3)
!QI'~·~~~·!·~:r.·QI·~~~·~iij"'1·q·~'11 "~'1.~'1·iQ"fr::.·s'1·~ '11 6'1·:-r.r::.·s~·QI~·~·~ ·~~" ~iij"'11
E.
Introduction conversation should be correcied by your teacher.
(2) (3)
(2) (3) (4)
(Z)
(3)
(2)
Where does your friend live?
My name is Yeshi. I stay in Nepal. Where do you live? He lives in Shigatse.
H.H. the Dalai Lama lives in India. I study Tibetan. What work do you do? (h.)
Colloquial Tibetan
Lesson 2 ~.
J>ossessivej(or~:
iS') ·~t:. ·~· i"~·~"'·;·
B.
Fill in the blanks:
rs')·~t:.·~·~·QJ~~·~·~="'·QJ·qrx.·~·~!·ai~·~·x.~1
What is your father's name?
(2)
Where is his friend from [country]?
(3)
fi"t:.·~·9f~~·t!c\·~t:.·~·~·"'~·x.')1 t:.~·<:.'QJ'iQJ'~"'l~·l~·!·iij'"~1
My name is Dolkar.
(4)
lJC\•[Qt:.'il~~t:.·!]t:.'l'~'a)') ·X.') 1
What is the number of her room?
(S)
~·~-r·Q~·~~·!]t:.~'"'JlQ1
Count from five to ten.
C.
~nswer the j(ollowing questions in
(1)
S') ·~t:. ·~·~·QJ~~·')t:.~·~·QJ~~·~·~="~ ·QJ·~·x.·~·Q~·ur')1
(2)
~·QJ~~·~~·QJ~·~·X.·~"'t:.~'Ul')'~'x.')1
<3>
S') ·~t:. ·~·~·QJ~~·') t:. ~·~·QJ~~·l'l.~t:.~·~·~·CJ ~·X.11
(4)
IJI'il'~'"'l~'fS') ·~t:.·~·CJ~'Q~~~·~·Ui"') 1
(S) (6)
fS') ·~t:. ·~·fl·CJ~ ~t:.'!]t:.~'')t:.'[Zlt:. ·&l~~t:. '!]t:.~·~·g') ·X.') 1 iS') ·~t:.'iQlt:.·~·X. ·~"'t:.'~'Ul') 1
<7)
e')·~t:.·~Q.·~Q·~~·U!"',
(8)
~QJ'Q'~"'~~·~·CJ~'Q~~~·~·Ui"')'CJ'X.')1
(9)
fS')·~t:.~·~·"'~·X.')'CJ~1
(1o>
6') ·~t:.~·~·QJ~~~~·~ ·x.') ·CJ~ 1
D.
The Tibetan and English numerals: (1) ' (8) 4
(2) ' (9) 8
Tibetan and have them corrected by your teacher:
(3)
0
(4) !1'"1
(S)
.,
(10)
s
(11) 10
(12) 6
(6)
'"I
(7) 1
(13) 11
Lesson 3 ~.
Correction oj( the Tibetan sentences:
(1)
a)~·CJ~·q~·~~·X.')l
Whose newspaper is this?
(2)
~~·~~·~~~~'CJ'X.')J
These books are new.
(3)
r~·~~·a)t:.·~~·&l·~ 'IIJ·X.~·~"1
Are all of the students American?
(4)
~::iQ·~~·~~1
Iamnotastudent. Iamateacher.
<s>
Q~·4~·Q~·~~~·l~:~·')s"'·~~·~')·QJ·~·X.·l~·;·x.~1 What is Q~·4~·Q~·~~~· in English?
E::.'')~'cl]"\~~1
326
Answers to the Exercises
B.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
rs~·.x..~:.·~~·ll]~·&l~·~:.~-.·iCJ'~CI]·Sl~l
Are you a teacher or a student?
(2)
~:.·~CJ·~-.·~\~~·iCJ·~~:.·s~·a-a;~l
I study Tibetan from a book.
(3)
~CJ'~CI]·CI]~.x..·~·'4·g.~a:~~ 1
Whose new chairs are those?
(4)
~·~~:_·~~:_~·,~ta."l.J.l·JJ·
Who is Tsering and Nyima 'smother?
(5)
f6't:.·CI]~CI]~·CJ-q~·1f~~·~.x..·~·~~:.·~s·l.x..·Qiq'~~.,·~~~ How do you say, 'He is well?'
(6)
a.tti·;i;)~·s·~~·~~·~~~
C.
English to Tibetan and Tibetan to English translations:
(1)
rs~·.x..~:.·'lr~.x..·CI]·~·CI]~t:.~·tij'~,
(2)
~CI]·~·CI]~cll·~.x..·f6'~:.~·~~·~~~
(3)
CJ~·4~'<1JC!]~l UJ.X..'CJ~t:.~·~~:_·l
(4)
~·~t:.'
(5) (6)
CJi:f~ ·~cll~'
(7)
All of these newspapers and magazines are th~.
(8)
What does 'I forgot' mean?
D.
The corresponding negative forms:
(1)
~~·~~·~~~
(2)
il~·~~~
(3)
fl:.'§l'cli'IJ'~~·z:il
(4)
i"CJ'f~:.·s~·~·~~~
(5)
UICI]:cr-"]·i!fat·~~:_·~:_cliJ
<5)
~CJ·~·rr~:.·~·~~·x.~,
E.
The polite imperative forms:
Is Chimi a boy or not?
Cl]~t:.·
say [it]
~CJ~'
come
sit /stay
fl'~'CI]~I:.'
open (it)
iti]'CI]~t:.·
read [it]
ask
JJ.X.. ·~111~· sit down
UJ.X..'CJ~t:.~· stand up
Lesson 4 A.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
~CI]·~~:_·~·i'~·JJ~CI]·~~~~~~
(2) (3)
~~·~·~,.x..·lf~~~ t:.Ci.l~·~~:_·~·~.. ·~~·~JJ.X..~~~~
(4)
I:.'~CI]'iti]'C!]~.X..·~.x..·~CI]Il.'CJ-ai~l
(5)
f6't:. •4t:.1)CI]·
Colloquial Tibetan
B.
Correction of the Tibetan sentences:
(1)
~q~lll~ ~~c:~t:.'Cl.~·Ffc:.~·l.~l c:.·~~·i~·~~~·Q~·~~Q.~Ul~l fC:.'Q'C:.'Q'~~~~r.ri=flc:.~·l.~l
(2) (3)
This small white book is his. I like new clothes. Those three old houses are hers.
(5)
l~·~c:.·c5'·~·~·~~·,~·4c:.~~·l.~1 Ffc:.·c:.·la.·~~·~~ ·U!~ ·~·l.~l
C.
Answer thefollowing questions in Tibetan and have them corrected by your teacher:
(1)
What color is your father's car?
(2)
What color are your clothes?
(3)
What food does your mother like?
(4)
Do you like your school?
(5)
Does he like his new house?
D.
Answers using statements of uncertainty:
(1)
~·~~·~~·a;·r.s·r.s·~·r.s·~~·~·~"1/ ~~·~·~~·~"1
(2)
fC:.'Q'I
(3)
~q·~111~ ·cr-~c:.·~c:.·a.~ ·a5·~c:.·~~~ ·~·~" 1I til~·~·~~·~" 1
(4)
Both apples and oranges are fruit. I think he is our teacher.
(5)
fC:.'Q''C:.'Q'~~~'4'g.~~~·6~·~c:.·~~~·~·~"1/ Sl~·~·~~·~"1 .ii'fC:.'"l'~·c:_·ga:~~·;·~"J/ Sl~·;·~~·~"1
E.
Answer the following questions and have them corrected by your teacher:
(1)
6~·~c:_~'fC:.'~~~C:.'S]t:.~·~·=~·l.~1
(2)
6~ ·~c:. ~·~~~·Q~ 'f'l:J~ ~c:. 'S]t:.~·~·cS'~ ·l.~ 1
(3)
6~ ·~c:. ~'f'l:J~ ~c:. 'S]t:.~·~·cS'~ -U!~ 1
F.
Some examples ofphrases made according to the given instructions:
(1)
noun + adjective + demonstrative + plural + numeral:
(4)
~q·~~~·Q'Cl.~ .g.~~~·
(2)
fC:.'Q·~~ ~1:4·g.~~~·
noun + demonstrative + numeral:
~·a.~·~~~·
~q\~~~·
fq·~~·"l·~~~·
noun + numeral + demonstrative
328
s·ii·~c:.l~~.g.~~~·
Answers to the Exercises
Lesson 5 A.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
~~·~~·~~·c.r~~l
(impersonal perspective)
(2)
~~·~~·a5'·lQ~iil~1
(personal perspective)
{3)
(personal perspective)
(4)
6~ ·~~·~·':i'Qjlll~·G·Ill~lll~·Q~ ·!i~~·~"l f~·~·a5'·~~·~·fl~·~~~·Qlll]::Jiil~1
(5)
~:iz::r~ll]'ll]~~·t.J·~·~~l
(impersonal perspective)
B.
Translations:
(1)
<3>
a"·~~·U!·~~·~·t~~ ·~Ill·~~·~.,, " Qfll]~~·~·f~ 'Qj'fSl·~~ 'iQ'~Il]-&1~ 1 ~~ '';il rr~·~~·~ll]~·rr-~~,
(4)
Q5~ ·~ll]'ll]~ll]'QI~ ·~·c.:~~ ~l't.J'~ll
<s>
~·~~·s·a~·Q~"·t.J~·a;-~·
c
Answer the following questions in Tibetan and have them corrected by your teacher:
<1> (2)
~·~~·s·a5'~·1l]·i'"·~~, ll]~~·Q~~~·Il]·~·ll]·~·~ll
(3)
ll]il~~ ·~~ ·sl·~~·lll·~'lll~~ ~~",
<4>
al·~~~·,r~·~G·Ill~lll~·Q~·!i·~~·'J~l
(5)
~·~~·ll]~~·ll]·~·~ll
(2)
\t
(personal association)
(personal perspective) (personal association) {impersonal perspective)
~l,
Lesson 6 A.
The Completed sentences:
(1)
~~·~·i'lii~l f!l~·~·ll]~ 'Qj'cq~·t.J·~~ 1
(2)
<4>
~·~~·'4·~·ii~·~·~·~~ 1 ; ar~·~·~~ 1 e"·~~·Qj·t.J~·=~·o.~"~
(S)
~l'QI'Il]UIIl]'ii~·r.r~~l
B.
Answer the following questions in Tibetan and have them corrected by your teacher:
(1)
~·~~·~~·fSl·~~'ll]'t.J~'Q~Il]~·~~ll
<2>
al·~~ ·QI·tj~ ·~ll]·'4·1l]~ll]·~·lll~lll·lll·i'l ~l, " rr1·Qj·~·111~·QI-tG"l·t.J·~l·t.J~1
<3>
<3>
329
Colloquial Tibetan
(4)
~·~c::.·6')'~C::.'Ill'lll~'l1l'ili"')'r.l~1
<s>
f~ ·~rrs"·~c::.·~·~·lll 111 ~·~ 111 ·1l1~·111 ~c::. ~-ur"·:.~·X-"·:.~~1
C.
Translations:
(1)
I think there are Tibetan restaurants around here.
(2)
There are two shops near the post office.
(3)
A little while ago you were in the kitchen.
<4>
~·"qc::.·ll!·~lll~·:.~·~c::. ~ur"·~·~'11
(5)
{";Jf:ijc::.·~~')'')C::.'qllj~llj·~·q~·lll-ili"')':.J'X-')1
Lesson 7 A.
Fill in the blanks: ~·~~~ll]·filrl·:.~·X.l· ~·~~ll]'filr'1'r.l'lfX.'1· ur"·:.~.,·t~~lll'lll-rttli'""':.J·X."':.J"
(1)
fl'lllll]'tl,~·~~~~~lll
The food is delicious. [I have tasted it]
(2)
E,'Q,~·~c::.~·ifaj'"')J
This tea is ~eet. [I have made it]
(3)
~ll]'ill]'tl,~·g.~~~li]'IIJ"1
Are these clothes warm? [have you worn them]
(4)
a)llj'lcf~'fl'a)'rJoai'"')'r.l'l1
Are those veget~bles spicy [hot]? [the ones you cooked]
<s>
Is Lhasa a pleasant place? [in general]
(6)
·~r~·~·a;·~"·~·ar"·:.~·x."·:.J.,1 lli~'1'Q,~ 'fl!lJ''tJ-il·~~lll
(7)
f~'cJ.l'~')·~c::.·ll!·~c::.·4lli'UI~·c:i·%~-c(jl1
You used to have a good [pair of] binaculars. [as I recall]
<s>
"~~:.~·"~ 6'1·~c::.~·~·~lll·"~·il·~~lll
I'm sorry! I don't have your key.
(9)
~·If]~·~ 'fl'lllll]'~~r~·ai'"')·:.~·X.l·:.~.,1
Is Indian food tasty? [in general]
(10)
~c::.~~·fic::.·lll·~~·gl.a;l·r.~·lrX-'11
She doesn't have time tomorrow. [in general]
B.
Translations:
(1)
c::.·qlll~lll·lll-ili"')1 ~~ ·c::.~ ·lll~·l1l'Uilll'c:;~lll·ur"1 U!~·~q,c::.·fic::.·ll!·lll~·l1l·~·q,~lll
This work isn't hard. [attestative]
c::.CO. ·9flll~~q~r4~·sflll~ ·llj·q~"·~·ur"·:.~·x.'11
[I know this because I visited him recently]
(2}
~"c::. ·"~:::. ·111~'1·lll~·ll!·c::. ·fS'1·~c::. ·~·~c::. ·llj·q,~Ill ~~ ·c::.ca. 'llllll·:.~~ ·~~ ·q,~lll
(3)
~·~c::.·~c::.·c::.~·~~·g').&!')1 ili"')'Q'~·X.l·~1
(4)
c::.~·q~·~~·~c::.~q,5111 ~·~~·~·q,~lll
(5)
fic::.·q;·r.~~ 'a)~'Ul')'r.l'~')1
(6)
fic::.~·s·ii·~c::.·l~q,~lll
(7)
c::.·~c::.·~c::.·U!~~~·~~~·~fl~~url·:.~~1
[general statement] [I saw her] [You've known me since I was a child]
330
Answers to the Exercises
(8)
Look at this photograph. I am [standing] behind your mother and I have a key in my hand.
(9)
You were very clever when you were small, right?
(10)
The tea is hot. [I have made it for you] Please have it.
[I remember it well ... ]
Lesson 8
A.
Answer thefollowing questions in Tibetan and have them corrected by your teacher:
(1)
(S)
rs~ ·~r::.' ·~·~~~·'ll·~'ll·'ll~·~r::.~·~·i'~ ·~i'~ ·~·ur~ 1 6~ ·~r::. ·~·z;;·'ll~~·'ll-w·~~~·'ll~~·~ r::. ·~'ll~~r~·a)~ ·ur~ ·~~ ·~6~ ·~·ur~ ·:..1~1 rs~ ·~r::. ·t:;~~~ ·~lll·lll~lll·lll~ ·~·~·~"~·it:;~·~~ ·~~~·~·ur~ 1 6~ ·~r::.''ll'tj~ ·~~·z•r~~~·~·~~~·~·i'~ ·Ui~ 1 " ·:..l·~~·it:;~·~~ ·~~·~·~·a)~ ~"1~ ·~-Ui~ ·:..1·~~ 1 rs~ ·~r::. ~·fr::.
B.
Translations:
(1)
How much is this hat?
(2)
How many students are in this class?
(3)
It is five past five now.
(4)
How many hours does it take from Lhasa to Shigatse?
(5)
Tashi is second [position] in the class.
c.
Use each of the following past form verbs in sentences and have them corrected by your teacher.
(2) (3) (4)
(1) s~·
(2) ~~·
(3) ~~·
(4) l:;J~~·
(5) Cl.r§~'
(6)
l:;J~~·
Lesson 9 A.
Translations:
(1)
<2>
~~·~~ ·r::. ~ ·~·~~~·'ll·~·i'~ 'l:;J~'~'ll·~·~~ 1 fil~ ·~a.r::. ·~a)~~·~a)~~·llJ·~·i'~ ·~~·t:;~~'~llJ·~·Ui~ 1 r::.·~r::.·~r::.-Ul~·~~~·~·~lll·:..l~·s·~llJ·~·t:;~~-UI~1
(3)
~·~r::.·r::.·~t:;~'Cl,~'ill]~·Ui~l
(4)
fir::.·~·~~·llJ·~-Uir::.·!!fr::.·'ll·~s~~·4~·~-UI~·:..l·~·~~1
(5)
r::.·i'~·~sllJ·~r::.~ur~·~~·~·fr::.'UI~:r:r~·a.~·t:;~~·ur~,
331
Colloquial Tibetan
B.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
r::.·i~·~~-61~ -s.-r·i~·9J~ ·~~a.~ ·s~~r~~ 1
(2)
~·~r::.·~1~·~·ar~~-.·~~·~r::.~9·~·a.~~
(3)
~~~·~4~·=::r-ar~ ~"·~·~~~·~·ar~ 1
(4)
C::.'U19'lf~·\}~·~~·~~'I'QI'~~·UI~~~!l~·~~·~·~~1
(5)
r::.·F·~~·~~~"·4·a.s·i:!-a.s~~l~·s~·~-ar~1
C.
Answer thefollowing questions in Tibetan and have them co"ected by your teacher:
(1)
(2)
~~·~r::.~·~~'lt]·X.·9~r::.~ii~1 ~~·~r::.·~r::.·Qlr::.·~~·~·x.·~~r::.~·ar~1
(3)
~~·,·s~·~~·~~·,·~·s~ ·a;r::.·~·~~~·i~ryr::.~-ar~·~~1
(4)
6~·~r::.~·sr~~~~r::.·a;~~~·~·x.·s~·~-a.~9
(S)
b~·~ryr::.·i~·~~·i·~~:cr~~·~~·9·x.·s~·~·ar~·~·x.~1
Lesson 10 A.
Answer the following questions and have them co"ected by your teachers:
<1>
<s>
6~ ·~r::.·~·~·~9~·~~~·~~·~i'"~ ·~-ar~ ·l;J·x.~ 'l:J~1 ~·~·QJ~~·~~~'l:J''l:!~~~r::.~·~-a.~9·~~1 6~·~r::.·4·~·~~·ar~·l:J~1 9·X.·U1~·~~1 "·~·s"·~r::.·~r::.·a;l·~-a.~~·9~1 ~a;r::.·ii·s:cr-\}QJ·lar~·~~1
B.
Translations:
(1)
<4> <5>
frr::.·~~~·\}~·~·a.~~ r::.·~·~~·a.~~ ~~r::.·lafr::.·~~~·~~·~·r::.·1!~'l;J~·~r::.·~·a.!j·~~·a.~~ r::.·~·Fr::.·~~::r~·a.!i·~~·~l1 ~·x.·x.l:a~·~·r::.~·ls~·~r::.~"1 Bl·~r::.~·~·;~·l;J~·rrr::.·~·Fr::.·l:J~·9·x.·s~·~~~~~·~·ar~1
C.
Honorific verb form:
(1)
a;r::. ·~·i~.
(2) l;J~·i~·
(3)
<s>
~~~·F~ryr::. ·~~r::.·
(6) ~~r::.~·
<7) ~~~·sl~.
(2)
<3> (4)
(2) (3)
~~·l;J~ ·~ryr::. ·~~r::..
332
(4) 41~~· (8) ~i'"~·
Answers to the Exercises
Lesson 11 A.
Below are the completed sentences with the appropriate endings: (l.~·~~~·~"':fl.cr)
(1)
IIJ·~·il~·~·a;·~·s~~·~~·CJ-Ui"~·cr~~l
(general)
(2)
~5~ .,.~·~~ ·~·=·~·~ ·s~~·~~~ ~~~·a.~~·~~~·~~~·il·UI~:cJ-~~1
(attestative)
(3) (4)
1)'~ ·a.~~·~·a; ·~·~cJl~~ ·~~a. :cJ-~~~
(attestative)
(5)
1)'~~~~·~·a;·~·~cJl~~·~~a.:cJ-~~1
(factive)
(6)
1f~·a.~~·~·a;·~·~cJl·Cj~·~~a.~-Qi')·cr~~1
(general)
B.
Correct form of the sentences using ( ~r:;.~s·t ~r:;.·~s~~·t ~r:;.~s·l~·):
(1)
~~·~~·~·~~~·~r:;.·~s·~~·a.~~ ti~·~·~~cJl·~~~·~r:;.~s·ur~·Q·~~l rs~·~r:;.·~·~·~~·~~~·1'~~·~r:;.~s·l~·~~~·~·ur~,
(2) (3)
(factive)
(5)
f·~~·a.~·~r:;.~s·a.5~ f·=:cra.~~·~~l ti~·~·~r:;.·~s·l~·~-a·~~·ur')·CJ·~~l
c.
The English translations:
(1)
How pretty is this dress? Is it pretty?
(2)
How pleasant is New York? I think it's really pleasent.
(3)
One or two houses are small. All the others are big.
(4)
Most of these books are Sherab 's. But some of them are not [his].
(5)
Of these apples, all are good except for one.
(4)
Lesson 12 A.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
~~-~~'!f~~·QI·~~·Q·~~l
Tashi went to India.
(2)
r:;.·11fi'~·~Q]~·s~·~·ur~ 1
I help them.
(3)
Dekyi repaired/ fixed my bicycle.
(4)
"~·JlJr:;.·a.rr~ ·~~ ·~~ ·a~·~~~~~·~~~·Q·~" 1 fi"r:;.·~~·~~·s~·CJ·i'~·~~~·s·~~~·Q·~",
(5)
~~·s"·~r:;.·Qj~~·~~-~~~·Q·~",
Who taught you Tibetan?
B.
Translations:
(1)
r:;.-t~r4~·cJl~cJl·~·i~'f"·s~·~·ur~ 1 fi"c.·fi"r:;.·~r:;.~·fr:;.'Q'Q]~"'cJl'~~·~~·a.~~
(2)
333
He advised the employees.
Colloquial Tibetan (3)
t:.Cl.·~QJ~~~·o.r;~·=.J~·~~~-~~-~-~~~-a.~~-~~~-~-ur~·z;rX.~1
(4}
=.J~~-cJ.I~"l:l?ftl~·a.~~
(5)
~~-~~-~~-~~"l:l4~·~·a.~~
(6)
ur4~-~~-~-~::Jt:."QJ·~~QJ.Q]UJ~·::J·X.~1
(7)
<s>
~·~t:.~~·U!·4~"Qf~~-~~-4~·la.~~ f"t:.~~-QJ~·=.J·~UJ~·:_J~·fl·QJ~·~·l:l~·ur~ ·:_J·x.~ 1
(9)
t:.~·t:.CJ.·s·~~ ·~l:l·~~~-=.J~~-~~·=.J·U!~ 1
(1o)
t:.~·cJ.I·QI~~-cJ.I~cJ.I·~·t:.a.·~Q]·i~·a.~·l:l~·ur~1
Lesson 13 A.
Answer the following questions in Tibetan and have them corrected by your teacher:
(1)
fl·~t:. ·s~ ·~t:. -~QJ·QJ~·~t:.~·~·=~ ·cJ.Ii"~ ·=.J-U!~ 1
(2)
~ ·~t:. -~~~·=.J·~ ~-g~ ·~·=~ "Qj"l:J~t:.~·Ql
(3)
cJ.I~t:.·~i!ft:.~·cJ.I·QJ~~-~~-~QJ·QJ~·~·X.·tJi"~·~~t:.·i.rt:.•l
(4)
e~·~t:.·QJ·t:.a.~l:l·§t:.·t:.cJ.I1
(5)
a~ ·~t:.·cJ.Ii"~ ·l:l~~ ·QJ·~·x. ·~·x.·~~~~·§t:.·1
B.
Translations:
<1>
(factive)
(2}
l:l~~r4~·~~·filt:.~·s~·lfrr·~~~·Q~'ll~~·=.J·X.~1 Q"~t:.~·~~·s~ ·~t:. "Qj"~~-~~ "l:l4~ ·i.rt:. "1 s~·~t:. ·s~ ·~t:. ·~t:. "Qit:.~·i.rt:. "1
(3)
r-r~t:.·~·~t:.·QJ·~~QJ.flt:.·~~·~~QJ·~Il]~·l:l~~
(reportative)
(4)
f"t:. ·~~·filt:. ·~-~~~·Q~ ·~ll]"ill]·~~~ "Q~Ili·~~ ·i.rt:..,
(attestative}
(5}
~QJ"l:l"~~~~·~t:.·Q•cJ.It:.~~·"?.!l:l~·!ll~t:.·l:l~~
(reportative}
C.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
a~·~t:.·~~·t:.~·~'ll~·Q]~t:.·~t:.·,
(personal perspective)
<2> <3>
filt:.·~~·t:.~·~~~-s~·ift:.·l
(impersonal perspective)
fit:.·~~-s~·~t:.·QJ·~~~-s~·ift:.·1
(attestative}
(4)
~·~t:. -~~-rr~ ·~·~~ ·QJ·'ll~~ ·a.~~ ·111~~ ·I".J·%'ll·af~~
(reportative)
(5}
t:.~·"Q~ -~ -~~ "QJ"Ilj~~ ·a.~~-~~ "=.J-fil~ 1
(personal perspective)
334
(attestative)
Answers to the Exercises
Lesson 14 A.
Translations:
(1)
Tayang doesn't eat chilies. So she doesn't use chilies in [her] food.
(2)
I remember very well. When you were little [young], you used to often get sick.
(3)
If she gives you a job, will you do it?
(4)
After studying Tibetan, if you use it, your Tibetan will improve.
(5)
If you often send letters to your parents, they will be happy.
(6)
6~·~~~·s·ir-~·~~·lll·i~"f~·s~r'J·~~·~1 ~~·~~~·ar~·Cll~~·~·~Cll·Cll~~~·~·~~·~1
m B.
Make sentences using the following words and structures. Have them checked by your teacher:
(1) (5)
~~·~~·~ 4 ~·
(9)
Adjective+ a;~~·~·~~· (10) Adjective+ tJr~·~·~·~~·
a;~·~·~~~·
<2> ~~~·~l'l~·s~· <'>
(3) (7)
~~~·rs~·
f~·~~·s~·
~1~·~Cll·
(4) ~·~~~· (8) Cll~·~6~·
C
Answer thefollowing questions in Tibetun and have them corrected by your teacher:
(1)
~·~~·~"(~·~·l~·Cll·6~·~~·~·~·~·~·~~~~~~1
(2) (3) (4)
~~ ·~~~ "[Zl"Cll~".i!~·~~·~·'J~ ·~~~·~ ~~l~ ·6~ ·~~~·~·Ill~~·~~·¥~·~·=~ "Ill"~~~~·~·~~ 1 ~~·~~~·6~·~~·~~·~s~~·i~·~~~~~·~·U!~1
(5)
i~·~"l·g.~i11~i11·i11·A'!·~·"l·a)~ ·~~~ ~·~~ 1
Lesson 15 A.
Fill in the blanks:
(1)
~~·~~·~~·U!~·~~·~·~~·i11·~~·~~~~~ ~~·~~ ·~~ "Clj"a)~ ·~·~~~·Clf" 1
(reportative)
""'~ffl"Cll~·~-~·~"1
(first Person Subject)
~~~·~~~·Cll"J~·~·~·~~·~"·~~~~ ~~"UI~~s~·~-a.~"l ~~~"lltl·irl11ctJ~·~·ii\·~Qj·F~·l11· ~~~·~~·6,·~~·,Qj·~~"·Clf"1
(reportative)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
(first Person Subject)
3-35
(recalling)
Colloquial Tibetan
B.
Translations:
(1)
~:.·~·~~·~~%~·CJ~I)·~~
[as I was told by my mother]
c2>
q~·a;~·~~~ ~s·"~ ~s~~
[it's written on the camera]
C3>
~~ ·(·~~~·~:.Q.·~·~~~·~~~~·~F·4~·s~·~~·~'l~:.·~~
[as I learnt from my father]
<4>
~')l:.'l)!if~:.·~~~I~·ai)·~~:.·~·CJa~ 'Q.~~·~~1
[did others tell you]
(5)
f'I·~·F'~:.·~~·ITJ·S~'Cl.~~·~~1
[did you ask anyone]
C.
Answer thefollowing questions in Tibetan and have them corrected by your teacher:
<1>
<2>
BI)·~~:.·CJ~~~·~·~·l. ·~'~~:.·~~ ~~·~-t:Q'I1 Gl)·~~:.·~~·~l)~:.·l)!if~:.~·~~:.'j"~:.·a;·~~:.·s~·url)·l.l~1
<3>
al)·~~:.~"·~~-,·~·q;:qQ.·~~·~·,.rq;:~~·sl)·~·url)·l.l~l
(4) C5>
I) ·~I)S ~ 'ITJ'GI) ·~~:.·~~~·il'l·~·~·~ ·~'!~:.·~~ ~CJ~·q~l Sl) ·~~:. ~~~~~~~:. ~~~~·~~:. ·q·~·'l~~·~~ ·~CJ~·~~~
D.
Answers to the questions from the short story:
(1)
e·~ ·il~·qQ.·~~:.·~·~~~~·rr-~~:.~·~~~~·CJt'~·~Q.·"~:. ·~·~If~:. ·q·l_l)1
(2)
iS~Q. 'CJ~~·q~ ·~Q. ''II:. ~·6·~~Q.·4~~~ ·~~~·'!· .~~ ·~:.~ '4~~·~~~-UI~:.·~·~I) 'CJ~~·q·l_l) 1
(3)
e·~~·il~·qQ.·~~:.·"~·~Q.·"~:.·~·~i'~:.~·q·l_l)1
(4)
~Q. ''11:.'~'4~~'i!Qj~'l.l'~l) 1
(5)
~~l)·~~~·s~·'I·6~·'~~:.·CJ~'1·~~:.·~~1~·~:.~·ur~:.~·~l)1
.
336
Index of Charts Overview
Chart
Page
1
English vs. Tibetan Sentence Structures
2
The Placement of Adjectives/ Adverbs: English vs. Tibetan
3
Perspective Usage of the Verbs tll~·f~')· and Ull:)'/~~11]'
t
Time of Sentences based on Adverbs of Time
xvm xvm XIX XX
Phonetic Introduction
Chart 1
The 30 Letters IIJ~IlJ·s" ·~~·~~·
XXIX
2
The Four Vowel Symbols ')S~~·~~i1:;11]~·
XXX
3
Vowel Sounds ')S~~·~·;rll]')~~·
XXX
Diagram of the Places of Articulation
XXXI
t
Places of Articulation tll·~Cl, ·~·II]~~·
XXXII
5
Phonetic Qualities of the Tibetan Letters
XXXV
According to English Phonology
xxxvn
6
The Seven Elements of Tibetan Word Formation
7
Elements of a Complex Word
8
'Natural' OassesofTibetan Letters
Lll
Diagram of the Categories of Tibetan Nouns
Lll
XLVlll
Lesson 1
Chart 1
Positive/Negative Forms of Sl~·f~')·
5
2
Basic Tibetan Pronouns
7
3
Positive/ Negative Forms of ~·~·f ~·~~~·
t
Literary Particles ~·~·f ~·jCl,·j tll· and ~~·
10
5
Positive/Negative Forms of the Habitual Attestative and the Habitual Gnomic
11
6
Positive/Negative Forms of ~·~·~·/l:J~·Uil:)·"'·~')
u
Ull:)'/~~11]·
9
Colloquial Tibetan
Lesson 2 Chart 1
Yes/No Questions (Positive Form) Ul~·j~~·
23
2
Yes/No Questions (Negative Form) ~~·J~r~~·
23
3
English Statement and Question Patterns
24
4
Equivalent Tibetan Statement and Question Patterns
24
s
Genitive/Connector (a.s
28
6
Possessive Pronouns-Honorific Forms
31
7
Possessive Pronouns-Non-honorific Forms
31
8
Numerals
33
9
Literary Spellings of Numerals
34
10 Colloquial Pronunciation of Numerals
35
Lesson 3 Chart 1
Demonstratives (Singular/Plural Forms)
45
2
Five-way Distinction of Tibetan Demonstratives
46
3
Possessive Demonstratives
48
Lesson 4 Chart 1
Clauses of Identification/ Causes of Possession, Location , Modification
n
Lesson 5 Chart 1
Perspective Markings of the Verbs Ul~· and~~·
Tl
2
Perspective Markings of the Verbs Ul~ ·t.~~· and~~ ·t.~~·
79
Lesson 6 Chart 1
English Sentence Pattern vs. Tibetan Sentence Pattern
96
2
English Sentence Pattern vs. Tibetan Sentence Pattern
96
3
English Sentence Pattern vs. Tibetan Sentence Pattern
96
338
Index of Charts
4
Dative/ Locative Particles ~~3i·~·s~·!:J~3i·
5
The Three Cases and Sub-sections of the Dative/Locative Particles
"'
6
The Five other Cases
98
7
Locational Structure
100
8
Second Case Structure
100
9
Factive Verbs Ul3i"/~~· in Sentences of Identification
102
10 Attestative Verbs Ui~·;~~~· in Sentences of Possession and Location
98
102
11
The Placement of ~~3i · Particles
104
12
Demonstrative Pronouns in Locative Constructions
105
13
Demonstrative Pronouns: Series I and IT
105
14
The Two Post position Structures
108
15
Yes/No Questions (Ui~·;~~~·;Ui~·c.~·~~·)
1U
16
Yes/No Questions (~~·io)·~~~·tUI~·c.~·c~r~~·)
1U
17
Word Order of Questions vs. Answers
115
Lesson 7 Chart 1
Verbal Perspective-Factive and Attestative Verbs
127
2
Perspective Markings in Statements and Questions (Ui~·~~~~·)
127
Lesson 8 Chart 1
Ordinal Numbers
2
~~~:cJ-Uit::~·Uj~·
145
-
153
for all three persons
Lesson 9 Chart 1
Time/Tense based on Adverbs of Time
166
2
Ul3i·~~· and Ui~·~~· Clauses
170
3
( MVS + ~~·) Clauses
172
339
Colloquial Tibetan
Lesson 10
Chart 1
Conditional Connector
~·
188
Clause/Verb+ Conjugation
~~·Clause/Verb
+Conjugation
Non-honorific, Honorific, High-honorific of verbs formed with l:lry~: and t:l~t:l·
2
199
Lesson 11
Chart 1
l.~·- Simple fact vs. ~~~·-Attestative vs. Ui'~·r.l'l.~·-General known fact
207
Lesson 12
Chart 1
Instrumental particles
226
2
Nominative Subject-Object with Dative
'lll
3
Instrumental Subject-Object with Dative
228
4
Nominative vs. Instrumental Case Emphasis
228
S
Nominative Subject-Indirect Obj. with Dative and Object
230
6
Instrumental Subject-Indirect Obj. with Dative and Object
230
Lesson 13
Chart 1
Present/ Future Form Past Form of Three Verbs
2
Literary Particle
CJ' I t:l
and Colloquial Forms
243 245
Lesson 14
Chart 1
Adverbs of Time+ Conjunction %1~· and so forth
219
Lesson 15
Chart 1
Clause of Purpose ~~•
317
340
