Communication Skills for Educational Managers: An Exercise in Self Study
Prof. N. Pradhan Dr. Niti Chopra
Book Enclave Jaipur
India
First Published: 2008 ISBN: 978-81-8152-226-9 © Editors
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Contents
Part-I The Study 1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Introduction 3 20 Review of Literature Plan and Procedures for the Study 36 54 'Role Analysis' of College Principals Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis 76 Development, Implementation and Evaluation of the Module 101 113 Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations Part-II The Module 125 Conceptual Understanding of 'Communication' 183 Understanding Organizational Communication 230 Oral Communication 245 Written Communication 268 Use of Technology in Communication 288 Epilogue
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Part-I
The Study
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1
Introduction Preamble Communkation is the transfer of information from one person to another person. It is a way of reaching others by transmitting ideas, facts, thoughts, feelings and values. Its goal is to have the receiver understand the message as it was intended. When communication is effective, it provides a bridge of meaning between the two people so that they can each share what they feel and know. By using this bridge, both parties can safely overcome misunderstandings that sometimes separate people. Communication always involves at least two people-a sender and a receiver. One person alone cannot communicate. Only one or more receivers can complete the communication act. The transmission of a message is only the beginning. Several hundred messages may be sent, but there is no communication until each one is received, read, and understood. Communication is what the receiver understands, not what the sender says. The Importance of Communication Communication enables a person to enter into meaningful relations with other persons and exchange experiences with them. Persons often develop themselves on the strength of the relationships they have with others. For a person to attain his/
4
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
her full growth potential, 'communication' is important and a basic necessity too. This is because human beings need as much .. to communicate with others to lead a normal and fulfilling life, as they need to eat, sleep, and love. Communication involves an interaction with our environment-physical, biological, and social. A person deprived of communication is one inflicted with suffering. The basic need for communication can perhaps be traced to the process of man's evolution from lower species. Animals, for instance, have to be in sensory communication with their physical and biological surroundings to find food, protect themselves, and to reproduce their species. A loss of sensationthe inability to hear a predator, for example-can mean loss of life. Similarly, to be lost from primitive social communicationfrom the pack, the herd, or the tribe-is to be condemned to death. But sensory communication alone was not enough for man to survive. Hence the invention of symbolic communication called language-from non-verbal gestures ... to the verbal and then to the written and printed word; and further on of course, all the technological innovations and advancements for communication. All modes of communication have grown out of the same fundamental desire to express oneself and reach out to others. The human need to communicate remains the same, only the forms change over the years (Kumar, 2001).
Communication in Organizations Organizations cannot exist without communication. Central to any organization is the communication that happens within and from it (Kumar, 1997). It is one of the most important aspects that allow an organization to be what it is. Without communication employees would not know what their co-workers were doing, managements would not receive information inputs, and supervisors and team leaders would find it difficult to govern and give instructions. Coordination of work would become impossible, and the organization would collapse for lack of it. Cooperation among workers would also be difficult since people would not be able to communicate their needs and feelings to others. Every act of communication influences the organization in some way. Communication helps accomplish all the basic management functions-planning, organizing, leading, and controlling-so that organizations can achieve their goals and
Introduction
5
meet their challenges. When communication is effective, it tends to encourage better performance and job satisfaction. People understand their jobs better and feel more involved in them. In some instances they would even voluntarily give up some of their long established privileges because they see that a sacrifice is necessary. Such positive responses of employees support one of the basic propositions of organizational behaviour-that open communication is generally better than restricted communication. In effect, if employees know the problems which their organization is facing, as also what managers are trying to do to resolve the same, they would usually respond favourably and try to help. Thus, as Simon (1945) said, "Communication is absolutely essential to organization"; and as Bavelas and Barrett (1951) said, "It (communication) is the essence of organized activity and is the basic process out of which all other functions derive".
Effective Administration/Management In recent years, through many efforts at readjustment, Management has undergone a tremendous change-a change for self-improvement. In the process of change, one of the major realizations has been that at every point in managerial or administrative activity, communication is involved by implication. Many management consultants now have no doubt that just as the neglect of the positive role of communication led to serious weaknesses in the scientific management of organizations, _ emphasizing the understanding of the role of communication makes it possible to structure the organization well and control its activities. This approach, then, assumes that a proper organizational structure can be made to emerge from an effective communication system rather than the other way around. Therefore, it would be in the right spirit to say that ensuring appropriate communication is the only way to manage an organization in an effective way. Management is all about getting work done effectively in an organization, and communication is indeed an indispensable tool in enhancing the same. Good communication is the foundation of sound management in all organizations including educational institutes like colleges. In a managerial process, keeping everyone informed is vital; and this can be achieved by sharing information through the various communication channels, techniques, and networks.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
As an administrator, it is important to bind people together in the organization to ensure a smooth flow of work-within the designations, groups, activities, duties and responsibilities as assigned. Moreover, as a manager in a pivotal role, with multiple communication linkages; it would be important to discern and identify the appropriate modes of communication to use as also ensure an effective nature of treatment-in order to deal with different situations as they present themselves in the proceeds of one's job.
Communication for College Principals Communication has already been defined by us as the basic process of passing information and understanding from one individual to another. For conducting this process, one person alone cannot communicate. It would always involve two personsa sender and a receiver. In the case of any organization, these two persons are superiors and subordinates, generally a manager and the employee. In colleges, it is usually the principal and his/her subordinates at all levels. As an organization, a college is quite big and complex, thus making the instances of interaction and communication more significant. Groups and subgroups of persons in a college set up are large, varied, and multitudinous; and relationships within and among them are more involved and complicated in nature. The success of such organizations running smoothly largely depends upon the coordination of efforts of all its members, with , the College Principals relying heavily on the quality, amount and timeliness of relevant information reaching them. The rest of the, organization, in tum, depends upon the efficiency with which the principal can deal with this information and reach conclusions, decisions, etc. It is thus obvious that communication is not a secondary or derived aspect of organization, rather it is the essence of organized activity and forms the very basic and fundamental process out of which, as stated earlier, all other functions are derived. Numerous management problems arise due to failure in communication or miscommunication. Frequent conflicts between management and subordinates are very often traceable to communication failures. The cost of miscommunication in terms of the time factor, money, and energy involved is, undoubtedly,
Introduction
7
very high, but what is more alarming is the cost, arising as a consequence of hostility, inefficiency and misunderstandingwhich ultimately leads to indiscipline and low morale, resulting in poor productivity, the cost of which could be quite prohibitive to any organization (Newstrom and Davis, 1998). To avoid such adverse circumstances, it is important for managerial heads; in the context of this study-College Principals-to be equipped with good personal skills as a sender and receiver of communication. Moreover, developing sensitivity to language and emotional content of messages, cultivating an ability to overcome communication barriers and being competent enough to tap meaningfully the ideas and experiences of others; would go a long way in enhancing the College Principals effectiveness as an educational administrator. The Concept of Communication Communication denotes a process that is both interactive and purposeful (Kuppuswamy, 1984). The word 'Communication' is derived from the Latin "Communis", which means 'to share', 'to impart', or 'to transmit'. Through communication, people influence the behaviour of one another and unite themselves in groups. Thus, 'Communication' is a means for breaking down the barriers to human integration. It is a means for achieving mutual understanding. Communication implies sharing some information or an idea with another person or group of persons. Thus, in any attempt to define the term "Communication", 'interaction', 'interchange', a 'sharing', and a 'commonness' are ideas that come to the mind immediately. According to Denis Mcquail (1969), 'Communication' is a process which increases 'commonality', but also requires elements of commonality for it to occur at all. There are other factors too such as a shared culture and a common interest which bring about a sense of commonality, and significantly, a sense of community. Communication, in its simplest sense, is a human relationship involving two or more persons who come together to share, to dialogue, and to commune, or just be together at a time of celebration or mourning. Communication is thus not so much an act or even a process, but rather social and cultural 'togetherness' (Kumar, 2001).
8
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
Different Contexts of Communication Communication is a basic instinct of life. It is a fact of life not only for human beings, but also for animals and plants. It is a continuous process, fundamental to the very existence of all. Communication is indeed vital to human survival. Vital because every human society, whether modern or primitive, is founded on the capacity of its members to maintain a working consensus about the social order through communication. As Ashley Montagu and Floyd Matson in their book 'Human Communication' (1979), say, 'Communication is the name we give to the countless ways that humans have of keeping in touch-(not just words and music, pictures and print)-to every move that catches someone's eye and every sound that resonates upon the ears. Communication is not limited to human being alone. Animals, birds and bees, they all communicate by singing, croaking, and by the other sounds and gestures- they make. They also communicate through visual and olfactory signals. Communication is a social, political, economic and cultural need of human beings. It is a social need for the articulation of individual and community needs. It is essential politically to create an informed and enlightened public opinion. Culturally, communication is a means of individual and community expression, discovert) and enrichment and recreation. Communication includes all methods of disseminating information, knowledge, thought, attitudes and beliefs through such media as modern mass media, traditional media such as a puppet show, and interpersonal media.
The authors of the book The Human Communication quoted earlier, see 'Communication' as more than just media and message, information and persuasion. "Human Communication... also meets a deeper need and serves a higher purpose. Whether clear or garbled, tumultuous or silent, deliberate or fatally inadvertent, communication is the ground of meeting and the foundation of community. It is, in short, the essential human connection". Giving another angle to Communication, W.S. Cardon, a leading Kinesiologist (student of body language) says that interaction within a culture is governed not so much by language but by 'body synthesizers' set in motion almost immediately after birth and therefore are conditioned by culture. Communication is,
Introduction
9
therefore, not a matter of 'isolated entities sending discrete messages' back and forth; but a process of mutual participation in a common structure of rhythmic patterns by all members of a culture. Further, communication is viewed by Montagu and Matson (1979) from yet another angle: "Communication is the form of
interaction that takes place through symbols. The symbols may be gestural, pictural, plastic, verbal or any other which operate as stimuli to behaviour which would not be evoked by the symbol itself in the absence of special conditions of the person who responds". Thus, Communication is a multi-faceted activity and a term that has several meanings. It encompasses all forms of expression for serving the purpose of mutual understanding.
Better Communication Much emphasis is now placed on positive communication, and it is indeed a very important thing in management or administration. It is crucial though, not to communicate until the time is right. For example, planned changes in connection with reorganization, placement of staff or personnel, or promotion policies should not be announced prematurely. Plans at experimental stages should be kept under wraps. At a supervisory level, plans and programmes being brain stormed or considered, should not be announced outside of management levels. The timing of communication is very important to enhance better or appropriate impact. Particularly in organizational settings, when changes are in place, or plans and programmes are complete and final, only then should they be transmitted to those person'5 affected by them. Premature release of information may cause needless morale or other upsets. The following could be some of the other reasons for communication confusion or break down (Kumar, 1997) : • • • • •
When the receiver hears what he expects to hear. When the sender and receiver have different perceptions. When words mean different things to different people. When the emotional state of the receiver conditions what he hears, and The sender does not know how the receiver perceives the situation.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
Some of the above limitations and other barriers can be overcome to enhance better communication by practicing some of the following tips : • Maximising and utilizing feedback by using many channels of communication. • Using more face-to-face communication. • Being sensitive to the world of the receiver. • Being aware of symbolic meanings. • Tuning messages carefully. • Reinforcing words with action, and • Using direct and simple language. Better communication can raise aspirations and project a more meaningful future in the present. It can also raise awareness, meet information needs, and reinforce existing beliefs. Good communication can motivate towards better performance of ones duties through promise of self-gratification or reward. In institutes where there is a free flow of communication there is work efficiency and a clearer perception of goals, as also a greater possibility of goal realization. And most importantly, there is a greater acceptance of communication messages which are adapted to the psychological predisposition of the audiences, and where there is constant monitoring and adaptation of messages to feedback.
Communication Link to Organizational Effectiveness As early as 1938, Chester Barrand observed that in any organization, communication occupies a central place, because the structure, extensiveness, and the scope of the organization are almost entirely dependent on communication techniques. It is one of the most important aspects that allow an organization to be what it is. There would really be no organization if all the forms of communication are removed from it. Research studies have revealed that depending upon one's position within an organization, commwlication forms about fifty to ninety percent of activity of the working day. Poor communication causes tensions, anxieties and frustrations which have a dramatic effect upon the general atmosphere of the organization and the employee's mental and physical state in particular. The low morale further leads to decreased productivity and lagging
Introduction
11
output. Thus, communication is directly linked to organizational effectiveness and plays a significant role in enhancing the same (Mcphee, 1985). Communication in Educational Administration 'Communication' is one of those words like 'Organization' : it is not easy to define (Ludlow and Panton, 1995). One way of looking at it is as 'an interpersonal process of sending and receiving symbols with meanings attached to them'. It is therefore supposed to result in the exchange of information and shared understanding between people. So a measure of the effective management of interpersonal communication is that information is passed, and relationships are built. The success of information passing depends on the nature and quality of the relationship between the persons involved. People tend to experience personal satisfaction when communicating and interacting with friends, relatives and others they know well; in fact-with people with whom they feel comfortable they don't feel the need to be guarded because of the way they manage their relationships with each other. But managers frequently have to work with others with whom they have not developed close relationships in order to achieve organizational objectives. Misunderstandings often lead to disagreement, conflict and mistrust; which in tum may result in lack of cooperation and an unhealthy work climate. People may be polite to each other, and may appear outwardly cooperative. But because of the underlying interpersonal problems which remain undealt with, the quality of 'communication' and ultimately the work output suffers. Moreover, an organization consists of a number of people, and it involves interdependence. People are interdependent when the behaviour 3l1d performance of an individual affects and is affected by the behaviour and performance of others. Relationships between colleagues then-become more critical to the success of the organization as information would have to be transferred and integrated across internal boundaries. So, as a manager's role in gathering and passing information increases, his skills as an intelpersonal communicator will determine his effectiveness. Thus, communication consists of transfer of information and understanding between departments and people within an
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
organization (micro-level); as well as outside of it. Reaching out to people outside of the organization is also an important managerial! administrative function. For such macro level communicatio~ requirements the mass media become the vehicles of information transfer. Hence, an understanding of communication concepts and the sharpening of communication skills would be critical to be an efficient Manager/Administrator of a successful well-run organization. Pointers are certainly towards the requirement of a 'Communication Audit'. The Communication networks which the Educational Administrators use or are linked to-from the simple postage material to the modem electronic internet, or the government machinery; as well as all modes/types of communication-viz., intra, inter, group and mass communication -all need to be identified. Further, the loose chains in these linkages if tied together and strengthened-would certainly lenlend substance and credibility to the effort towards helping Educational Administrators like College Principals and many others attain proficiency in the performance of their delineated roles. Commtmication Skills for College Principals Communication awareness and skills for College Principals can be enhanced in terms of their conceptual understanding of 'Communication' and 'Organizational Communication', as also skills per se for written and oral communication, and use of technology in communication. Consequently, with consistently manifest effective communication on their part, the College Principals as administrators would enjoy better interpersonal relations, respect and support of the subordinates; and an overall healthy and good-spirited atmosphere would prevail in the organization-leading to good and meaningful work output. An administrator or manager, who seems, almost intuitively, to say the right thing at the right time, is actually exercising skills. Putting into practice some basic principles of communication would also help College Principals enhance communication performance. Few such principles of good communication are listed below (Kumar, 1997) :
Introd uction
13
• • •
Seeking to clarify ideas before communicating. Examining the true purpose of each communication. Considering the total physical and human setting before communicating. • Consulting with others, where appropriate, while planning the communication. • Being mindful while communicating of the overtones as well as the basic contents of the messages. • Taking the opportunity whenever possible to convey something of help or value to the receiver. • Following up the communication. • Communicating while keeping in mind a perspective for at least the near future. • Making sure that actions support the communication, and lastly • Seeking to be not only understood but also to understand by being a good listener. College Principals, of course, need to enhance communication skills necessary to be active and effective administrators. They should be equipped to take appropriate action vis-a-vis the different situation they face in the proceeds of their work. The communication challenges typically faced by College Principals have to do with oral and written communication, as also effective communication networking for all activities falling in the purview of their job, within and outside the educational institute they head.
Self-Learning through a Communication Module Research in the field of Education has established the usefulness of comprehensive modules in enhancing 'learning' in particular target groups. 'Need based' modules, are known to encourage creative learning, bring about desirable changes in knowledge, attitude, and skills (which ultimately help in solving problems); and also help create and sustain interest among learners. Moreover, it is now essential for organizations to remain 'learning' organizations-where the employees keep taking courses and programmes to better their qualifications and performance. It is important for professionals to learn from mistakes as well as the experiences of others, keep abreast with
14
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
the information media, and (ultimately) make it good in ones career in shorter time spans. In most organizations, employees are encouraged to attend seminars and conferences, but it is often not possible for all to take advantage of them and gain awareness or relevant new information. It is thus important that self-instructional material be developed vis-a.-vis learning requirements. A 'Communication Module' could help fill in the loose or missing links in the communication abilities of the College Principals-which in turn would lead to healthy and more effective communication networking on their part-enabling them to perform efficiently and optimally at their job. A selfcontained, self-explanatory module could facilitate self-learning at their own pace since College Principals do keep busy round the year. Setting of the Study: The Gujarat University Principals of colleges face an uphill task in terms of communication performance since they have to interact with hundreds of people at different levels as also dispense communication of the required type to higher authorities, co-staff, subordinates, students and others. The main problem they face is of maintaining amicable interpersonal relations particularly while putting across their problems, as also with communication articulation-both oral and written for different purposes as appropriate. The researcher decided to consider College Principals as the target group for the study, and the Gujarat University was selected for the purpose of carrying out the research owing to its proximity to Baroda, as also since its infrastructure and setting of colleges suited the purpose of the study. Moreover, Gujarat University being the largest affiliating University of Gujarat, the methodology evolved in terms of sampling and data collection (i.e., working with College Principals) could best be implemented at the colleges here. The University headquarters in the Navrangpura area of Ahmedabad covers a land- estate area of 260 acres. It was against a background of adventure and spirit of self-sacrifice that Gujarat University had been conceived since the nineteen twenties in the minds of public-spirited and learned men like Gandhiji, Sardar Patel, Acharya Anandshankar Dhruva, Dada Saheb Mavlankar,
Introduction
15
Kasturbhai Lalbhai and many others. It could not, however, achlally take birth till after the achievement of Independence, when in 1949 it was incorporated under the Gujarat University Act of the State Government as a 'teaching and affiliating University as a measure in the decentralization and reorganization of the University education' in the then Province of Bombay. During the course of its life of over 50 years the University has seen the rise of seven more Universities in the State, viz., the Sardar Patel University, Saurashtra University, Bhavnagar University, South Gujarat University, Gujarat Ayurveda University, Gujarat Agricultural University and North Gujarat University. Even so, the Gujarat University is the largest university in the state catering to the needs of higher education of more than 1.8 lakhs of students scattered over 188 Colleges, 15 recognized institutions and 23 approved institutions. There are 34 PostGraduate University departments and 213 P.G. Centres. Gujarat University is an affiliating University at undergraduate level, while it is a teaching one at post-graduate level. Indeed, the responsibility for post-graduate instruction has been statutorily given to the University, and accordingly it has evolved a plan of co-ordinated instruction under the direct control and supervision of the University so as to ensure efficient and diversified instructions. The University also offers good library and health centre facilities. The Gujarat University is run by an Academic Council and an Executive Council whose members are drawn from the Education fraternity of the university with the Vice Chancellor being the ex-officio chairperson of both the councils, and a 'Court' whose ex-officio members include the Chancellor (Governor of Gujarat), university officials, as well as persons from the government and corporation machinery and nominees from the SOciety at large (Gujarat University Diary, 2001-2002). Rationale for the Study If one looks at organizations today, whether they be schools, colleges or any other; it becomes clear that the required communication performance to be effective managers is sometimes difficult to enllance owing to different reasons-which could simply be coined as 'problems'. In reality, one of the greatest challenges as a manager is that other people are different from
16
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
the way one is. Two of the basic differences between people are personality and perception. These differences cause people to behave differently towards others in different situations, and cause communication problems. There could also be external problems like those of 'out-reach' or having to meet with certain societal/market situations which would require an awareness or knowledge of the media and communication skills. These problems manifest at different levels in different ways and create dysfunction and inefficiency in running of the organization. It is possible to overcome these problems by acquiring and enhancing the required communication knowledge and skills for becoming efficient educational managers-for the betterment of the field of education and the larger interest and well-being of the society as well. The solution may lie with the Educational Administrators themselves. They would have to gear-up and take relevant courses/training programmes to re-equip themselves with the required newer qualifications and experiences. In light of the ideas discussed above, the researcher thus proposed to develop an Instructional Module in Communication which would be useful for Educational Administrators (Educational Administrators here-refers to College Principalswho indeed--shoulder major responsibilities of Educational Administration) . The College Principals have major responsibilities in terms of planning, co-ordinating, communicating, maintaining human relations, evaluating performance and giving feedback, resource mobilization, and above all handling the financial matters. The leadership qualities and the g{;.~\eral personality traits of the College Principals contribute a lot to the overall organizational climate of the institution since all manifest performance is hinged on the role that they play within the framework of the managerial . needs and requirements. The overall competence and enhanced communication skills of the College Principals in performing that role would to a great extent determine their overall efficiency. Thus, in the complexity of todays interrelatedness in all spheres of academics and professional as well as social activity, 'Communication' has indeed become a key word; and the need for research and development in this area has thus become an imperative concern.
Introduction
17
'Communication' is indeed one of the most overlooked aspects of educational administration and teaching, yet it is fundamental to all organizational life, particularly life in educational institutes. Thus, review of the concept of 'Communication' in the context of formal and informal systems of the same in educational organizations; and academic and practical work related to the teaching and learning of 'Communication' would be of great significance and help in plugging the research gap, thereby contributing a lot to the field. If one were to work in this area then would it not be pertinent to look at the actual 'role' that educational administrators play in the purview of their job? And what exactly are their needs in 'communication'? How equipped are they to combat the demands of their duties and responsibilities, particularly in context of their communication abilities? And how useful really would a selfinstructional module in communication be to them to help enhance their communication skills? In light of the above research questions, the researcher formulated her study. Statement of the ProbLem The statement of the problem is thus articulated as under: "Development of a Self-Instructional Module to Enhance Communication Skills of College Principals". Objectives of the Study Stemming from the above rationale, the objectives of the study were drawn as follows: 1. To do a 'Role Analysis' of College Principals. 2. To identify the Needs of College Principals in 'Communication'. 3. To develop a Self-Instructional Module in 'Communication' for College Principals. 4. To administer the Self-Instructional Module in 'Communication' to the College Principals for self-study. 5. To evaluate the usefulness of the module through selfappraisal and feedback by College Principals. Operational Definitions For the purpose of this study, the following are the operational definitions of the key words from the statement of the problem under consideration for research :
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
1. Self-Instructional Module:
'Self-Instructional' means self-explanatory, self-contained material for self-study including progress-check questions and self-assessment exercises for the purpose of self-learning. There are three ways of preparing self-instructional educational material. One is the linear type of programming based on the B.F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, the second is the branching type of programming based on Norman A. Crowder's theorization, ilIld the third is the modular type of programming. For this study, the material is in printed form and is called the 'module'. The module is self-contained and consists of two sections, which are further divided into units and segments as appropriate to the content. The components and sequencing of the module is as follows: Section 1 deals with the 'Conceptual Understanding of Communication', while Section 2 deals with 'Organizational Communication and its Dynamics'. Section 2 is further divided into four units viz. (a) Understanding Organizational Communication, (b) Oral Communication, (c) Written Communication, and (d) Use of Technology in Communication. Both the Sections comprised detailed segments which provided information on particular delineated areas with the help of theoretical content which included models, graphics, illustrations and examples as required. Progress check questions were included to help them determine how much they had understood and could recall, and self-assessment exercises would help them analyse their own personality traits and routine managerial and communication habits which they may otherwise be taking for granted. References for further reading are also given at the end of the module to help the learners pick up more on the subject areas that may have interested them. Clearly, management and communication skills cannot be acquired through reading and understanding of theorization alone, and hence this activity based module would indeed be useful to college principals to gain information and the much needed practice of what they learnt through the assignments provided-thereby eventually, enhancing their manifest communication skills. 2. Communication : A process which is both-interactive and purposeful, a constant social interaction between an individual and the society
Introduction
19
for the mutual satisfaction of needs. For this study, communication is considered as the transaction that is essential between the College Principals and his higher-up officials, co-staff, subordinates, students and others. The interaction may include oral, written, or any other form of communication including the use of technology for the same. The 'communication module' developed for the purpose of this study includes conceptualization, theorization, information and applications for gaining knowledge, understanding and skills for communication enhancement and performance.
2
Review of Literature In this chapter, an attempt has been made to present findings from the review of related literature pertaining of organizational communication and preparation of self-instructional material for educational administrators and its effectiveness. Owing to the interdisciplinary nature of the study, the literature reviewed was quite varied in nature and content. Background to the Review of Literature The researcher initiated the review with a scrutiny of literature on organizational communication since it was important to address oneself as a researcher to this academic field, beginning by acknowledging two important facts: viz., (1) that the subject matter associated with the field has been designated by a variety of labels, of which 'Organizational Communication' is the most recent. Of course, this label did not achieve general use until the late 1960s or perhaps even the early 1970s; moreover, ill the 1980s uther labels frequently emerged, and (2) Academic course work and research programs dealing with organizational communication alw.l:. s have been, and still are, offered in a bewildering diversity of departments or other administrative units. These include such entities as business administration, financial management, industrial management, psychology, sociology, speech (oral) communication, and, finally, communication. The historical overview to the emergence of 'Organizational
Review of Literature
21
Communication' as a concept has been reviewed in detail for the present study. Next, the researcher reviewed some work on 'Job Satisfaction', since in her own study, she worked on the premise that job satisfaction is to a great extent determined by the 'communication' component as manifest in the varied demands of the nature of the work in all the different professions. Literature which emphasized the significance of 'life-long education' for all was also reviewed. The relevance of this concept lies in making a case for taking steps to sustain interest and cultivate an attitude among adult learners of keep~g a readiness for self-learning to enhance required skills. Literature in the context of 'Role Analysis' and 'Needs Assessment' was looked at vis-a-vis the methodology undertaken by the researcher for the purpose of the study. No relevant studies, though, pertaining to or focusing on the 'role analysis' and 'needs assessment in communication' aspects were found, and the researcher thus explored literature on the same in terms af conceptual understanding and in meaning per se. Lastly and importantly, literature pointing to the need for research and documentation in the area of communication for educational administrators was reviewed. Excerpts from Documents Reviewed Following are the relevant excerpts from the documents reviewed by the researcher : Orgallizatiollal Commullicatioll : The Story of a Label According to Redding (1985), labels can be no more than lexical tags, or they can speak volumes about their referents. When "business and industrial" was generally dislodged by "organizational" as a modifier, this symbolized what one could nominate as the most important conceptual shift in the history of the field: the final acceptance of the blatantly obvious fact that the world is full of many kinds of organizations in addition to just those we call businesses and industries. Moreover, the noun term" communication" is also noteworthy. It gradually came to replace narrower labels denoting such specific skills (or processes) as "speaking" and "writing", not to mention even narrower ones like "public speaking", "report writing", and "corporate publications". Although we can find
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
instances of "communication"-or its variants, "communicate" and "communications" -in the business literature as early as the late nineteenth century, the term appears to have become popular only after the United States entered World War II. A six-year period, 1942-1947, has been identified as "The Seminal Years" in the history of the field. It was during these years that "communication" emerges repeatedly in both academic and nonacademic publications. However, the cases in which "communication" was paired with "organizational" were extremely rare until the 1960s. We now get down to specifics about the phrase "organizational communication", in its literal lexical form. The answer to the question, "Who first used the label 'organizational communication', and when?" is that nobody knows. However, one can locate some early examples - very few before 1960. First we find that H.A. Simon, renowned authority on organization theory (and a Nobel laureate), used a phrase very similar to "organizational communication". In his classic treatise Administrative Behavior (1945) he discussed "organization communications" systems. Note the omission of the suffix aI, and the plural s. Simon left no doubt~ jn his separate chapter devoted entirely to "communication" (the generic term, no s), that the basic process of communication was of the highest importance in his theory of organizational behavior. Simon is famous for positing the "decisional premise" as the fundamental unit of organizational functioning. It was in this frame of reference that he offered a formal definition of communication as "any process whereby decisional premises are transmitted from one member of an organization to another" (Simon, 1945 : 154). However, despite his sophisticated theorizing, Simon was also able to slip into a less exalted view of communication in the organizational setting. Modem readers may be startled, for example, by such pronouncements as the following : The crucial point is whether the recipient of an order, or of any other kind of communication, is influenced by the communication in his actions or decisions, or whether he is not. The problem of securing employees' compliance with a safety rule is not ven) different from the problem of securing a customer's
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acceptance of a particular brand of soap [Simon, i945 : 164; emphasis added]. Indeed, Simon proposed that there are just two basic dimensions characterizing all organizational messages : "intelligibility" and "persuasiveness" (p. 171). Those who are familiar with "Boulwarism", the labor relations philosophy espoused by Lemuel R. Boulware, vice president of General Electric in the 1940s and 1950s, may recall that Boulware also insisted that persuasion was the major objective of corporate (that is, managerial) communication. It is not enough, Boulware said repeatedly, for management to "do right". The company must also persuade its employees that it is indeed doing right. In one of his earliest published statements, Boulware (1948) urged managers to sell their employees (see Baritz, 1960 : 242; also Northrup, 1964 : 25-36). Whether Boulware had read Simon (1945) is, of course, impossible to determine. What matters is that, at least in some limited respects, the views of the theoretician Simon and of the corporate manager Boulware overlapped. This can be said while at the same time honoring Simon for having made some of the most creative and sophisticated contributions to the theory of communication in this century. In 1951 Bavelas and Barrett, two mathematically oriented experimenters, published a paper that has become one of the most influential publications in the history of the field-a paper with the precise lexical phrase "organizational communication" in its title : "An Experimental Approach to Organizational Communication". Like Simon, they postulated communication as a fundamental determinant of organization : Simon (1945) : "Communication is absolutely essential to organization" . Bave/as and Barrett (1951) : It [communication] is the essence of organized activity and is the basic process out of which all other functions derive". The authors went further to suggest a minimum of three basic dimensions of organizational communication : (1) message content, (2) technique (for example, rhetorical devices), and (3) channels. Then they proceeded to devote their research report entirely to the last of these : channels-or networks. The paper
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
described experimental manipulations of communication channels in small (five-person) groups, operating in highly controlled lab.oratory settings. Results were couched largely in terms of effects upon speed and accuracy of problem solving, as compared with effects upon "morale". Although conducted with small groups in restricted settings, and with highly artificial modes of transmitting messages, the Bavelas and Barrett (1951) study was a pioneer in the network tradition. If we were to select a single contribution as the starting point for the network approach to the study of organizational communication, the Bavelas and Barrett paper would probably qualify. However, it would have to share this particular "first" with another influential paper published the same year (1951) by Jacobson and Seashore. The difference between the two is important. Whereas Bavelas and Barrett concerned themselves with a small laboratory group operating under artificial, controlled circumstances, Jacobson and Seashore applied network analysis to a large real-life organization (n=204), using a descriptive rather than experimental design. Also, Jacobson and Seashore spoke in terms of "communication practices in complex organizations" and especially of the "communication structure of organization"; at no time did they use the label" organizational communication". Five years after the Bavelas and Barrett article had appeared, the journal Advanced Management printed an essay by Professor Harold Zelko of Pennsylvania State University. A widely known professor of speech, and consultant to corporations and government agencies, Zelko addressed himself to the problem of determining the overall effectiveness of a business firm's total communication efforts : "How effective are your company communication?" (Zelko, 1956). What concerns us here is that the label "organizational communication" was a prominent feature of the Zelko article. More important, the article itself was a preview and summary of major topics discussed in a collegelevel textbook, written by Zelko and a coauthor, the following year: Management-Employee Communication in Action (Zelko and O'Brien, 1957). Both in the article and in the textbook, the phrase "organizational communication" was used in a less-thancomprehensive sense. First, two broad divisions of the total
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25
subject were delineated, under the labels "internal communication" and "external communication". No label was offered that would embrace both these divisions : Obviously, the title of the book, Management-Employee Communication in Action, could not logically subsume the heading "external". One might imagine that "organizational" would have been reserved to provide a single, comprehensive designator-at least for all "internal" communication phenomena. But such was not the case. The authors, rather surprisingly (as it appears from the vantage point of the 198Os), chose to subdivide "internal communication" into two areas, one of which was called "organizational"; the other, "interpersonal communication". In fact,they went so far as to declare, "It is a long jump from organizational to interpersonal communication", adding that "the close, personal relation between supervisor and worker and between employees themselves is the ketj to the communication system" (Zelko and O'Brien, 1957: 21; - emphasiS added). One can justifiably regard the Zelko and O'Brien (1957) book as the first comprehensive, college-level textbook taking a broad view of communication in the organizational setting-as contrasted to earlier titles that consistently dealt only with restricted aspects of communication, such as speaking or writing. Adapting principles taught in speaking and writing courses (especially group discussion), rather than findings from "scientific" research, Zelko and O'Brien set out to provide a general-purpose guide to practical application. Considerably more than half their book was devoted to specific, detailed instructions for improving communication skills-with heaviest emphasis upon the oral situations of public speaking, conversation, interview, and smallgroup conference. As the authors pointed out in the preface: The principles and suggestions in this book are the result of years of experience in organizing and conducting training programs in communication. We have found our proving ground for testing our theories and methods in many consultative activities with groups and industries (Zelko and O'Brien: xiii). Whereas Zelko and O'Brien (1957) were offering a practical textbook and singing the praises of communication as a humanizing elixir in organizational life, another book came out in the same year that could almost be regarded as a point-by-
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Communication Skills for Educational Manag~;s
point rebuttal of Zelko and O'Brien. Chris Argyris-who has since become one of the most famous authorities on organizational behavior-published Personality and Organization. Ostensibly a painstaking, scholarly review of the theoretical and research literature (and, in fact, a very good one), the book is much more. It IS a well-documented polemic, attacking the typical modem organization as an engine of destruction, frustrating any "mature" needs its members might harbor. It is included in the present discussion because : (a) it singles out "organizational communication" for special attention, and (b) it brings its heaviest artillery to bear against the then-popular precepts of "human relations", with partidIlar reference to corporate communication programs. Argyris directly challenges many of the most widely touted communication "rules", arguing that most organizational communication practices are based upon such assumptions as "management knows best", and employees "are inherently lazy" or stupid. Communication programs, he charges, are filled with mindless gimmicks derived from the "human relations fad" (Argyris, 1957 : 139-174). Although much of the research cited by Argyris is now outdated, contemporary students of organizational communication would do well to go back and read his book, for much of what he says still poses a cogent critique of important concepts and premises in the field. . Further, looking at publications that appeared until the end of the 19505, we find no important documents other than the few already cited that featured "organizational communication" as a title or chapter heading. What terminology, then, was in fashion during those early years? The fact is that no single label earned unanimous support. However, as the years passed, the terms "business", "industrial", and especially "business and industrial" appear to have been used more often than any others. When one adds such adjectives as "administrative", "managerial", "corporate", "employee", or "management-employee", about ninety percent of all the modifiers paired with "communication" are accounted for. One key development, however, must be noted : the rapid increase-after 1940---in the frequency with which "communication" (or one of its variants) was used. Two psychologists, Sexton and Staudt (1959) published an exhaustive review of the literature,
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using the overall label "business communication". This is the earliest systematic and comprehensive literature review to be completed in the history of the field. The authors listed a total of 178 titles, the great majority of which had appeared between 1945 and 1958. Of these 178 entries, the only one displaying "organizational communication" in the title was the piece discussed earlier by Bavelas and Barrett (1951). But a quick count indicates that about one hundred, or almost 60 percent of the whole list, contained "communications", or "communicate" in their titles. Before 1940, any derivative of the verb" communicate" was a rare occurrence in publications dealing with subject matter relevant to this chapter. However, while "communication" was steadily gaining ground throughout the 1940s, "organization" did not fare nearly so well. Of the 178 items in the Sexton and Staudt (1959) review, only three revealed in their titles any variant of the term "organization". This is a highly significant fact, for it reflects the astounding reluctance, on the part of both scholars and practitioners, to conceptualize "organization" as a genre in its own right. Everyone was preoccupied with one or more particular types of organization; business, industry, the military, government, and the like. But it was not until 1958 that March and Simon published their groundbreaking book Organizations. And when the pioneering anthology Modern Organization Theon) appeared the following year, the editor remarked, "Even ten years ago, it would not have been possible to bring together such a group of papers", considering that "the term 'organization theory' itself would have seemed out of place" (Haire, 1959 : 1). Reflecting upon this state of affairs, then, we can hardly be surprised that several years were to pass before the phrase "organizational communication" achieved a semblance of general currency. The fact is, the label "organizational communication" dfd not resurface with significant frequency until the late 1960s. A convenient landmark event is the "Conference on Organizational Communication", which took place at the Marshall Space Flight Center, in Huntsville, Alabama, August 8-11, 1967 (Richetto, 1967). Under the direction of Walter Wiesman, internal communication coordinator for the Marshall Center (NASA), the four-day conference brought together management representatives
28
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
from government agencies and MSFC contractors, as well as academic specialists from four universities. The major address, delivered by Phillip K. Tompkins (then of Wayne State University, and a consultant to the Center) consisted of a comprehensive . review of empirical research that had been completed in the field up to that time. It was a pioneering "state-of-the-art" effort, and the earliest (to my knowle0.ge) to be published explicitly under the title "organizational communication" (Tompkins, 1967). This 1967 conference at Huntsville was also, so far as can be determined, the first conference specifically devoted to theory and research (along with implications for practice) ever held under the label "organizational communication". Coincidentally, the earliest known bibliography of the field to be published under the "organizational communication" label also made its appearance in 1967 : Voos (167). Like the NASA conference at Huntsville, this project was also underwritten by a government agency, the Office of Naval Research. Thus, with these two events occurring in the same year, one could nominate 1967 as "The Year of Official Acceptance" in history. (An important literature review and bibliography had, indeed, appeared in 1965, under the authorship of Harold Guetzkow; but its title was "Communications in Organizations" (Guetzkow, 1965). Thus, it is no exaggeration to say that the basic contours of "organizational communication" were determined by around 1950, with no drastic changes for the next fifteen to twenty years, and the 'official acceptance' of the label accomplished in 1967. Organizational Communication in India: Preliminary Findings from an Empirical Study This study by Dholakia (2002), being essentially empirical in nature, is based on primary data relating to Indian organizations. The primary data has been collected through a sample survey based on a questionnaire focusing on the following aspects of organizational communication: (a) Nature of Communication, focusing on the proportion of working time spent in talking and listening and also the perceived extent of non-verbal communication. (b) Communication Content, focusing on the communication of compliments and criticism across levels.
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(c) Communication Outcomes, focusing on the communication goof-ups and the degree of satisfaction with one's communication dealings within the organization. An attempt has been made in the study to try and examine communication dealings by differentiating between the people working in the Corporate and Academic Organizations; and Males and Females. The study highlights significant differences between males and females in terms of several aspects of organizational communication. There are a few differences in some aspects of organizational communication between the people working in the corporate and academic organizations. The main findings of the study reflect that organizational communication has been viewed as highly significant by all the respondents without exception. While commenting on the significance of communication at the workplace, many respondents observed that communication is the lifeline of the organization and the overall effectiveness of the organization depends critically on the nature, content and outcome of organizationai communication. Based on the findings of the sample survey, the following preliminary conclusions can be drawn : • Persons working in the corporate and academic organizations in India spend more time in talking than listening. • Almost all employees use non-verbal communication at all levels and across all categories. • Frequency of complimenting is higher than that of criticizing and compliments are also conveyed much earlier than criticisms at all levels and across all categories. • Most of the employees face the problem of communication goof-ups regardless of the level or the category; though by and large they are satisfied in their communication dealings with their colleagues and subordinates but not so satisfied in their dealings with the boss. • There are significant differences between males and females in terms of several aspects of organizational communication.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers •
There are a few differences in some aspects of organizational communication between the people working in the corporate and academic organizations. In most cases, the differences in the given aspects of organizational communication across categories and levels observed in this study seem to corroborate the broad conceptual patterns emerging from the available literature on organizational communication. The Context of Job Satisfaction Being 'satisfied' is one of the most important criteria one ascribed to work. According to Hoppock (1935), job satisfaction is any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances that causes a person truthfully to say, "I am satisfied with my job". Job satisfaction stands for the complex state of the workers attitude towards work (Blun, 1956). In other words, it is a 'verbal expression of an incumbents evaluation of his/her job' (Katzell, 1957). According to Smith et. al., (1969), it represents the difference between what is expected and what is experienced in relation to the alternatives available in a given job situation. Thus it represents the degree of satisfaction obtained by the individual employee from performing the job (Chatterjee, 1970). It expresses the extent of agreement between ones expectations of the job and the rewards that the job provides (Davis, 1981). Several theories exist concerning the dynamiCS of job satisfaction and its general impact upon worker behaviour. Further, Kanungo (1982), has drawn a subtle distinction between job involvement and work hlVolvement. He regarded work involvement as a generalized cognitive state of psychological identification with work, when work is considered to have the power to satisfy ones needs and aspirations. On the other hand, according to him, job involvement refers to a specific cognitive belief-state of psychological identification with the present job. Besides, job involvement is influenced by the situational, personalpsychological, and the demographic variables of an individual in a specific socio-economic and cultural milieu. Importance of Life-Long Leaming According to Singh (2001), life-long education should enable people to develop a better awareness of themselves and their
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environment, of their strengths and weaknesses; and encourage them to play their social role at work, in the community, and in the government of the country. However, while planning any programme of education, its following characteristics should be kept in mind : (i) It should be need-based (ii) It should encourage creativity (iii) It should help in solving problems (i\') It should bring in desirable changes in knowledge, attitude and skills, and (v) It should create and sustain interest among the learners. An effective life··long education system is possible only through intelligent selection and proper use of various communication channels. Too often, we have pushed illconceived messages through weak communication channels to inappropriate audiences. In addition to the age-old person-toperson communication, the latest communication strategies to spread messages quickly and effectively should also be employed. Moreover, emphasis of research should also shift as suggested below: (i) Shifting attention from end users to decision-making process (ii) Emphasising the role of Education in the structural change process (iii) Shifting attention from individual effects to institutional effects (iv) Laying greater emphasis on improving quality output by ensuring peoples' professional upgradation too. A powerful and innovative communication programme can play a significant role in motivating masses towards self improvement. Communication and education are the primary tools for conscientizing the people towards organizing themselves to take actions necessary for their emancipation and development. Knowledge can prepare the people to discover their strengths and weaknesses and their potential role in the process of change and development. Communication is the tool in the hands of educators to bring desirable changes in the knowledge, attitude
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
and skills of the people through information, helping them to help themselves through active participation. An appropriate communication strategy based on a multimedia approach; deliberately planned, organized and directed in a manner and form which are popularly relevant to the changing environment and the desired change would be essential for the success of all the life-long learning programmes.
Tire Context of Role Analysis In the context of Role Analysis, Pande (1989) in her study A Study of Role Analysis - Role Enactment, Role Contentment and Role Constraint of Home Science College Teachers" stated that the role concept was introduced into the terminology of social sciences by Linton (1936) whose first formulation about role was: A status, as distinct from the individual who may occupy it, is simply a collection of rights and duties ... A role represents the dynamic aspect of a status .... When (an individual) puts the rights and duties into effect, he is performing a role ... Status and role serves to reduce the idea! patterns for social life to individual terms. They become models for organizing the attitude and behaviour of the individual so that these will be congruous with those of other individuals participating in the expression of the pattern. In this definition - status and role are pictured as two aspects of the same thing and quite inseparable. Linton (1945) in his later book shifted his emphasis to introduce new features. He states: The term 'role' will be used to designate the sum total of the culture patterns associated with a particular status. It thus includes the attitudes, values and behaviours ascribed by the society to any and all persons occupying the status. It can even be extended to include the legitimate expectations of such persons with respect to the behaviour towards them of persons in other statuses within the same system. In this definition 'role' is an ideal pattern of conduct which actual behaviour rarely quite fulfills. Newcomb T.H. (1950) does not follow Linton's use of 'status' but instead pictures every member of a society as occupying a 'position'; each position has -a function in the life of a group and consists of rules concerning behaviour towards others. The ways of behaving which are II
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expected of any individual who occupies a certain position constitute the role ... associated with that position. Talcott Parsons (1951) states that in his terminology every position consists of two halves-the role, denoting its obligations, and the status, referring to its rights. Though Parsons suggested that the consensus over the content of roles may be related to the stability and integration of the system, and to the commitment of individuals to particular roles, he also indicates to assume consensus in practice. Banton (1968) states that behaviour can be related to the individual's own ideas of what is appropriate (role cognitions) or other people's ideas about what he should not do (Norms). In this light, Banton states that a role may be understood as a set of norms or expectations applied to the incumbent of a particular position. The Context of Needs Assessment According to Dooley (1995), the Needs Assessment stage identifies goals, but does not determine whether the programme has met the goals. Thus, needs assessment occurs in the early, formative stages of programme planning. Often based on surveys or archival data, needs assessment searches for an unmet need and describes its size and location. The resulting data bothjustify the programme and set its goals. Ideally, programmes should dispense their resources giving priority to those areas and populations in greatest need. The failure to conduct a needs assessment can lead to waste. For example, an existing project may expand not because of documented need but because of staff enthusiasm. As a result, scarce resources may go to people with little needs or needs different from the ones best met by the programme. Needs assessment can also help in the later judgement of programme impact by setting clear goals against which to measure the intervention. In case of the present study, it would be relevant to look at or try to assess the communication needs of College Principals in the context of their job setting in order to ensure that the self-study module to be developed for them would serve the required purpose of skills enhancement. Relevance of Utility of Subject Matter/Content Thomas (1984) in her study stated that: for instructional purpose, deciding and preparing the content or subject matter is the most important and crucial task needing a great deal of
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
attention. The subject matter should be selected on the basis of its assurance of future utility. Tefler (1979) while discussing the theory of futurism in relation to the field of education indicated that, nothing should be included in a required curriculum unless it can be strongly justified in terms of future, even at the cost of scrapping a substantial part of the formal curriculum. It does not hint at total destruction of past or total removal of the basic knowledge. What it means is that the subjects whose 'present' and future utility is questionable should be removed to make room for more beneficial subjects. He suggested Mass Communication and certain common skills needed for human communication/integration as having high future utility. Musgrove (1968) also suggested that broad flexible curricula should be developed in line with major trends in the society. Need for the Development of a 'Communication Module' for Educatiollal Administrators An important concern that has been reflected in some doctoral researches and research projects is to draw, of course with discrimination, upon insights into administration derived from other fields and disciplines. Some of the neglected areas of research in educational administration are: administrative climate of educational institutions, administrative behaviours of principals, human relations, communication, evaluation as a feedback service, institutional and decentralized educational planning, the evaluation of the planning machinery in education, training of educational administrators in managerial skills and procedures of planning, university governance, and operational effectiveness of its authorities, boards and committees, decision making in universities, and educational administration as a social science discipline. The Second Survey of Research in Education (1979), stated that: Administration of Education, like any other field of administration, is oriented to human experiences and has concern about effective management, quality output and greater and speedier development in the area that it is administered. While some doctoral researchers did encompass the 'human relations' approach, and few others developed instructional material based on the assessment of 'learner stage'-in their work in the area of educational administration; no documentation that touched the areas such as 'Role Analysis' or examining the
Review of Literature 'Communication Needs' of College Principals as educational administrators, and developing a self-instructional module for the same-was found. Summation of the Review of Literature From all of the above Review of Literature, it clearly emerged that of all subject areas, communication skills needed for human communication and integration have the potential for very high future utility. Of course though, appropriate development and design of course content for any target group would be important if it was to lead to enhanced learning and practice. Moreover, it clearly emerges that communication is one of the neglected areas of research in educational administration of which there is a dearth of documented material, and hence it imperatively needs attention and application. It would be a significant contribution on part of researchers to take up required developmental studies which would fill in the gap in existing literature. Thematically and methodologically too, it would be interesting to look at the 'role' educational administrators play, as also assess their communication needs-studies of the nature of which, though required, have not been taken up nor adequately highlighted. Clearly there are pointers towards taking up studies like the present one where need-based self-instructional material is developed-in the case of the ·present study-for College Principals-to enhance their communication skills and performance.
3 Plan and Procedures for the Study This chapter deals with the plan and procedures followed for the study. Stemming from the rationale and objectives which have been presented in Chapter One, and the comprehensive Review of Literature presenfed in Chapter Two-the researcher evolved the required methodology. The population of the study ,. included all the principals of the colleges located in Ahmedabadaffiliated to Gujarat University. There are totally ninety-one colleges in Ahmedabad comprising thirteen facuIties-with an affiliation to Gujarat University. These were then sampled for the study-the details of which are discussed in the Sampling Plan. Design of the Study Nature/Type of Study As per the objectives of the study the present piece of work is of Developmental type. For the finalization of the module and to find out its utility an empirical approach was followed. Phases of the Study The study was conducted in three phases as per the objectives: Phase I comprised : (i) Role Analysis of College Principals, and (ii) Needs Assessment of College Principals
Plan and Procedures for the Study
37
Phase II comprised : The Development of the Module Phase III comprised: (i) Implementation of the module, and (ii) Evaluation of the module. In Phase I of the study, the researcher first undertook data collection for 'Role Analysis' of College Principals with the help of a 'Role Analysis Schedule'. The 'Role Analysis' was conducted in order to look at the nature of the work the principals attended to in all its nuances-in the context of communication. The researcher visited the sampled colleges twice and took notes on the observations made on the college premises and information elicited through interaction (informal discussions) with College _ Principals. Next, the researcher undertook the 'Needs Assessment' survey to determine their needs in communication with the help of a 'Needs Assessment Schedule'. The researcher visited the sampled colleges to meet the College Principals and elicit the required data through interaction (informal discussion) with them. The data for 'Role Analysis' was additionally in the form of statements and opinions-all of which was inferred through descriptive analysis; and data for the 'Needs Assessment' was in the form of ratings, statements, and opinions; as also of course information, observations, and notes-for which tallies and frequencies were marked and percentages calculated. The researcher also interacted with five retired College Principals to get their views and opinions on 'Role Analysis' and the 'Needs Assessment' planned for the study. Part of the data was inferred through a descriptive analysis. The Pilot Study . For the second part of Phase I of the study-viz. the Needs Assessment Survey, the researcher conducted a Pilot Study to test how well the tool-the Needs Assessment Schedule-would work. The Needs Assessment Schedule would help identify and determine meaningful parameters for inclusion in the selfinstructional module in communication. After the tool was constructed, and before it was used for the pilot study, it was validated through experts-who represented both the fields of Communication and Education. Two experts from the field of communication were :
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
1. Head of a Communication Research Group (Male), and 2. An Academician in Communication (Female). The other three experts from the field of Education were: 1. A senior retired College Principal (Male), 2. A senior officiating College Principal (Female), and 3. A deputy registrar-administration (Male). The validators approved of the tool, though there was a suggestion from one of them-that of including an open ended question immediately after the closed ended one on the understanding of the various parameters of communicationinquiring about information/understanding about'communication' already possessed by the respondents-viz., the college principals. This would help the researcher to guage their present level of understanding of the concept of communication and plan further inputs accordingly. Analysis of the Pilot Study Background Information and Profile of the Respondents : The pilot study was conducted on ten respondents who were selected on the basis uf them being representative of the Educational Administration System. Of the ten respondents, nine were males and one female; four were in the age group of 51 to 60 years, three were in the age group of 61 to 70 years, while three of the respondents were in the age group of 71 to 80 years. Of the ten respondents three had a Masters degree, two had a double Masters degree, one respondent had an M.Phil. qualification, and four of the respondents had Doctorate degrees as educational qualifications. Further, one of the respondents was currently a college principal, three were retired college principals, one was a retired Principal/Director of an Educational Organization; yet another respondent was an ex-principal-currently a Writer. Two of the respondents were directors of Open Universities-one at a State level university, and another at a national level; and two more of the respondents were registrars of the university system-one of the examination section and another of the administrative section. All of the respondents had over fifteen to twenty-five years of experience in varied educational organizations or academic set-ups. The profile of the respondents reflected their high academic qualifications, years of rich experience and a
Plan and Procedures for the Study
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good professional stature. Thus, in their capacity as Pilot Study respondents for the study, they formed a varied, yet comprehensive, holistic representative group. Responses to the Tool Questions one and two of the schedule on job satisfaction and the significance of the communication component of the same were understood and responded to well and the five point rating scale for the same from 'Highly Significant' to 'Cannot decide' seemed appropriate. The third question on the rating of professional performance in terms of communication abilities with people at the work place was also well responded to, and the five point rating of 'very good' to 'very poor' seemed appropriate. The fourth question on the usefulness of the understanding of the concept of communication had to he explained to a few of the respondents. An interesting finding from the responses here was that there was a strong endorsement of the categorization, and the open ended question too on understanding of the concept of communication already possessed-elicited appropriate answers. The next two questions on the problems encountered with written and oral communication by the college principals worked well too with the respondents. Along with the five point rating scale of' Always' to 'Never', two other options of 'Not in the purview of the job', and 'Would like to enhance the skills' were also added to give them more scope for answer. The next two questions on problems encountered by the college principals with using technology at work, and problems encountered with executing their administrative functions and responsibilities-were both well understood and responded to with a suggestion to include in the list of administrative functions the criteria of maintaining students records-which is indeed an important administrative responsibility of the principals office. For these two questions too, the five point rating scale of 'Always' to 'Never', and the two additional categories of response-were approved by the respondents. Finally, in response to the question whether a self-instructional module would help college principals in the enhancement of their communication skills, the answer was an emphatic "Yes". The responses and suggestions elicited from the pilot study paved the way for incorporating the required changes and
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
finalizing the Needs Assessment Schedule to be used for further data collection-viz., conducting the Communication Needs Assessment Survey of College Principals. The respondents had felt comfortable while answering the questions, and only on a couple of occasions did the researcher have to clarify what had been asked. Thus, the pilot study proved to be useful to the researcher since it instilled in her a conviction regarding the workability of the tool; and also helped her in getting a feel of actual data collection. She realized she would have to make it a point to interact as much as possible with the College Principals in order to gain better insights through meaningful data for the purpose of the study. In Phase IT of the study, the researcher undertook the development of the self-instructional module in communication for the College Principals-based on the findings of the role analysis and the needs assessment survey. The module included content in two sections on 'Communication' and 'Organizational Communication and its Dynamics'-which were presented in further break-ups of units and segments. The module was activity based and included progress-check questions and selfassessment exercises, and before it was implemented and administered to the College Principals, it was validated through subject experts. In Phase III of the study, the module was administered to the sampled College Principals by reaching it to them for self-study with an explanation of what was expected of them. They were requested to keep a time frame of eight to ten weeks for study and response. In the second part of Phase III of the study, data obtained through the Feedback Schedule (sent back by the College Principals after studying the module) in the form of ratings, information and comments/suggestions-were inferred through marking of frequency tallies and calculation of percentages. Some of the data was descriptively analysed. This phase of the study evaluated and helped determine the usefulness and future utilization of the module. Constructiott of Tools All the three tools (as mentioned above in the Phases of the Study) used for data collection were developed by the researcher, as no appropriate standardized tools were available which could
Plan and Procedures for the Study
41
focus on the required information drawn from the intended population. The three tools constructed were: ] . The Role Analysis Schedule used in the first phase (Appendix lA). 2. The Needs Assessment Schedule used in the first phase (Appendix IB). 3. The Feedback Schedule used in the third phase (Appendix IC). The tool for the 'Role Analysis'-viz.,-the Role Analysis Schedule comprised of open-ended observation criteria, the details of which would be filled up by the researcher herself during her data collection interaction with the College Principals. The tool for the 'Needs Assessment'-viz.,-the Needs Assessment Schedule comprised of both-open and close ended questions. The nature of the information needed to be elicited being such, the researcher on some occasions interacted with the College Principals and filled up the schedule herself; and at other times left it with the respondents to fill, who later mailed it back. The tool for the Evaluation of the Module-viz.,-the Feedback Schedule was included in the module itself and was required to be filled in and mailed back to the researcher by the College Principals after they had studied the module. The validity of all the three tools was est~blished by submitting them to a thorough scrutiny and subsequent approval of a panel of six experts representing the fields of 'Communication', 'Education', and 'Management'. The experts had been asked to gauge how well the tool would work in terms of the particular data that was required to be elicited through the same vis-a.-vis the real data collection situation. Sampling Plan The sample of college principals for the study was selected through the Probability Sampling (more specifically Multistage Cluster Sampling) Method; for which the following criteria was considered : (i) Type of funding of the college (ii) TImings of the college (iii) Gender of students (as eligibility for admission to the college)
42
Communication Skills for Educational Managers (iv) Medium of instruction at the college (v) Geographical location of the college.
The tables on the following pages represent the sampling details evolved for the purpose of the study. Table 3.1 Facultywise Colleges Located in Ahmedabad, Number Sampled and Representative Percentage for the Study Sr. Name of Faculty No.
Total Number in Ahmedabad
1. Arts Colleges 2. Arts and Commerce Colleges 3. Arts and Science Colleges 4. Commerce Colleges 5. Science Colleges 6. Dental Colleges 7. Education Colleges 8. Engineering ITechnology Colleges 9. Law Colleges 10. Medical Colleges including Nursing and Physiotherapy 11. Pharmacy COlleges 12. 'Bachelors of Business Administration' Colleges 13. 'Bachelors of Computer Application' Colleges 14. Post-Graduate University Departments* Total
Number Sampled for the Study
Representative Percentage
10
4
40
15 2 22 5 1 8
7 2 10 2 1 7
46.66 100 45.45 40 100 87.5
2 6
2 2
100 33.33
5 1
4 1
80 100
7
3
42.85
7
3
42.85
* 91
2 50
* 54.94
.. There are many post-graduate departments in the University but the departments of Management and Communication were included in the sample because of the relevance of the subject areas to the study.
Table 3.2 Facu lywlse ~r.
Name of
No. Faculty
Brea k ~o f All C o11lejtes of Ah medabad vis-i-via the Criteria for Sample Selection
Total No in
N<1ture of Fmance
Ahmed.bad
of the College Selffina-
1. 2
3. 4. 0;
..
b.
8 y
1U.
11 12
Art. Colleges Arts and Comm. Colleges Arts .md Science Colleges Commerce Colleges SCience Colleges Dental Colleges Education Colleges Fnhg /Techlllcal College. Ll\\' ColleSt's MedICJ:1 Colleges mcludlng NurslIlg and PhysIOtherapy Pharmacy Colleges B.lchelor~ of
need
Govt. finaneed
-
2 22
5 I
3
-
8 2
I
b
Morning
After- Even- Morning noon ing through Afternoon
10 14
7
1
13
3 I
I
I
I
I
-
-
19 5
8
-
-
1 8
5
1
6
3
2
14
5
-
7
13
7
7
I-t.
.
-
Totol
91
18 7 93 (91+2)
68
Both Boys and Girls
I 4
9 11
10 14
-
2
2
21 5 1 7 2
22 5
1
-
-
-
5
2 ,~
Only Girls
1
5
I 7
2
1
5
1
-
-
"
93 (91+2)
2
-
-
~
q
Medium of Instruction
GeographICal Location of the College English/ English Hindi N S E W Gujarati
I
Busmess Adm
Colleges Bachelor of Computer Applic.tions Colleges Post-Graduate l:ruverslty Deptt.
-
8 2
-
I
1 7
Gender of Students
Gront in-Aid
10 15
TImmgs of the College
-
7
93 (91+2)
1
3
3
1 2
I 2
-
I 7
6
4 3 2
8
6 5
6 6
2 1
3
-
8 1 I 1
13 2
3
3
2 1
5
2
)
-
1 7
-
2
5
7
-
7
I
6
2
-
2
R~
~7
25
93 (91+2)
1
-
2
"
93 (91+2)
N = North, S = South, E = East, W = West 'There are many post-graduate departments in the UniverSIty but the departments of Management andCommumc.tJon were mciuded in the sample because of the relevance of the subject area. to the study.
44
Communication Skills for Educational Managers •
As seen in Table 3.2, there are totally ten Arts Colleges in Ahmedabad, all of which are grant-in-aid financed; seven of which are morning colleges and three are afternoon colleges; one of the colleges is meant only for girls while the other nine are for both boys and girls. All the ten Arts Colleges are Gujarati/English medium onesi.e., the teachers would have an option to teach in English or Gujarati and students would have an option to appear in the examinations in either of the languages. Six of the Arts Colleges are located in the Eastern part of the city while four of them in the Western part. • Similarly, the break-up of all the other colleges under the different Faculties of the University in Ahmedabad are also presented in the table. • The number totals to ninety three-ninety one colleges and two post-graduate departments included in the sample for the study. (Please refer Appendix 3 for the list of 50 colleges in Ahmedabad sampled for the study).
Table 3.3 Facultywise Breakup of Sampled Colleges of Ahmedabad vis-a-vis the Criteria for Sample Selection Sr. Name of No. Faculty
Total No in Ahmedabad
Nature of Finance
Selffina· need
1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8 9. 10
II. 12.
Arts Colleges Arts and Comm. Colleges Arts and Science Colleges Commerce Colleges Science Colleges Dental Colleges Education Colleges Engg.!Technical Colleges Low Colleges Medical Colleges mcludmg Nursing and Physiotherapy Pharmacy Colleges Bachelors of
Govt
£ina-
Mornmg
After-
Even· Mornmg
Only
noon
ing
Girls
Both Boys and Girls
Enghsh/ Enghsh Gujarati
3 5
I I
I 2
3 5
4 6
2
2
9
10 2
2
I
1
.
10
7
·
1
3
3
.
3
3
I
3 2
I
·
· 7
3
1
1
2
I
.
Colleges Bachelor of
Geographical Locahon of the
Hmdi
College N S E
1
2
W
Afternoon
4 6
1
through
2 I
I
I
·
.
1
·
2 1 6 2 2 4
1 7 2
· ·
1
1
·
4
·
1 3
·
.
·
2
·
1
I I
2
1 1
3
3 2 2
·
·
I
.
.
3
2
2 I
7
·
·
6 I
1
2 I
2
2 4
I
·
3
·
1 3
3
·
3
Business Adm. 13.
Medium of
Gnmt in-Aid
need I
2 4
Gender of Students
Instruction
4 7
10 2 I 7 2
Timings of the College
of the College
I
·
.
3
I
I 2
1
2
Computer
14
Applications Colleges Post-Gradu.lte Uru\'erslty Deptt Total
50
7 50
7
36
2
2
2
2'
16 50
25
2
N = North, S = South. E = East, \V = \'\7es t "There are m.lny post-grJduolte depaltments mcluded in the 'iJ.lllplc bec.ll1se of the relevance of the subject .. reas to the study.
7
In
5 50
45
33
5U
2
·
16
1
" 5 50
7
12 26
the Umverslty but the departments of ~1.H\"S~ment .1ndCommUIlh...,t!on \\Nt
46
Communication Skills for Educational Managers •
•
As seen in Table 3.3, four Arts Colleges were sampled for the study. Of these, all the four colleges were grant-inaid financed; three of the colleges had morning timings while one was an afternoon college; one of the colleges was an "only girls" college, while the other three colleges admitted both boys and girls. The medium of instruction at all the four colleges was GujaratilEnglish; and geographically three of the colleges were located in the western part of the city while one in the eastern part.
Similarly, the break-up of all the other sampled colleges under the different faculties of the university in Ahmedabad are also presented in the table. • The number totals to fifty - fortyeight colleges and two post-graduate departments included in the sample for the study. The following table numbers 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7 and 3.8 present facultywise break-up of the total number (top columns) and sampled number (below columns in parentheses) vis-a.-vis the respective criteria evolved for the sampling-viz. (i) Nature of Finance (ii) Timings of the College (iii) Gender of Students (iv) Medium of Instruction and (v) Geographical Location of the Colleges. The total number of colleges and post-graduate departments (two-as sampled for the study) is ninetythree, while the sampled colleges (including the two post-graduate departments) totals fifty.
~kM
~
Facultywise Breakup of Total Number and Sampled Colleges vis-a-vis the 'Nature of Finance' Criteria Sr. Name of the Faculty / College Total Number Nature of Finance No. of Colleges (Sampled SelfGovernment Grant-inColleges) Financed Financed Aid 1 Arts Colleges 10(4) 10(4) 2 Arts and Commerce Colleges 15(7) 1(1) 14(6) 3 Arts and Science Colleges 2(2) 1(1) 1(1) 4 Commerce Colleges 22(10) 3(-) 19(10) 5 Science Colleges 5(2) 5(2) 6 Dental Colleges 1(1) 1(1) 7 Education Colleges 8(7) 8(7) 8 Engineering / Technology Colleges 2(2) 1(1) 1(1) 9 Law Colleges 6(2) 6(2) 10 Medical Colleges including Nursing and Physiotherapy 5(4) 3(3) 2(1) 11 Pharmacy Colleges 1(1) 1(1) 12 Bachelors of Business Administration Colleges 7(3) 7(3) 13 Bachelor of Computer Applications Colleges 7(3) 7(3) 14 Post-Graduate University Departments *(2) *(2) Total 7(7) 91(50) 18(7) 66(36) Figures in parentheses indicate sampled colleges.
§
" There are many post-graduate departments in the University but the departments of Management and Communication were included in the sample because of the relevance of the subject areas to the study.
~
::l P'U
an ro
0C
@ <Jl
0' "1
Table 3.5 Facultywise Breakup of Total Number and Sampled Colleges vis-a-vis the 'Timings of the College' Criteria Sr. Name of the Faculty / College Total Number Timings of the College No. of Colleges (Sampled Morning Afternoon Evening MQrning Colleges) through Afternoon 1 Arts Colleges 10(4) 7(3) 3(1) 2 Arts and Commerce Colleges 15(7) 13(5) 1(1) 1(1) 3 Arts and Science Colleges 2(2) 1(1) 1(1) 4 Commerce Colleges 22(10) 14(7) 8(3) 5 Science Colleges 5(2) 5(2) 1(1) 6 Dental Colleges 1(1) 7 Education Colleges 8(7) 8(7) 2(2) 8 Engineering / Technology Colleges 2(2) 9 Law Colleges 6(2) 1(1) 5(1) 10 Medical Colleges including Nursing and Physiotherapy 5(4) 5(4) 1(1) 11 Pharmacy Colleges 1(1) 12 Bachelors of Business Administration Colleges 7(3) 7(3) 13 Bachelor of Computer Applications Colleges 7(3) 5(2) 2(1) *(2) 14 Post-Graduate University Departments *(2) Total 91(50) 35(16) 41(25) 6(2) 9(7) FIgures m parentheses mdIcate sampled colleges. * There are many post-grad uate departments in the University but the departments of Management and Communication were included in the sample because of the relevance of the subject areas to the study.
-
-
-
-
Table 3.6 Facultywise Breakup of Total Number and Sampled Colleges vis-a-vis the 'Gender of Students' Criteria Sr. Name of the Faculty I College Total Number Gender of Students No. of Colleges (Sampled Colleges)
Colleges only for Girls
1 2 3 4
Colleges for both Boys and Girls
Arts Colleges 10(4) 1(1) 9(3) Arts and Commerce Colleges 15(7) 4(2) 11(5) Arts and Science Colleges 2(2) 2(2) Commerce Colleges 22(10) 1(1) 21(9) 5 Science Colleges 5(2) 5(2) 6 Dental Colleges 1(1) 1(1) 7 Education Colleges 8(7) 1(1) 7(6) 8 Engineering I Technology Colleges 2(2) 2(2) 9 Law Colleges 6(2) 6(2) 10 Medical Colleges including Nursing and Physiotherapy 5(4) 5(4) 11 Pharmacy Colleges 1(1) 1(1) 12 Bachelors of Business Administration Colleges 7(3) 7(3) 13 Bachelor of Computer Applications Colleges 7(3) 7(3) 14 Post-Graduate University Departments *(2) *(2) 84(45) Total 91(50) 7(5) Figures In parentheses indicate sampled colleges. .. There are many post-graduate departments in the University but the departments of Management and Communication were included in the sample because of the relevance of the subject areas to the study.
-
'"
§ ~
0..
g'" ('t)
0.. ~
@ Ul
a.... g:.
('t)
Vl
e-o..
'<
Table 3.7 Facultywise Breakup of Total Number and Sampled Colleges vis-a.-vis the 'Medium of Instruction' Criteria Medium of Instruction Total Number Sr. Name of the Faculty / College of Colleges No. Hindi (Sampled Gujarati / English Colleges) English 10(4) 10(4) 1 Arts Colleges 1 (1) 15(7) 14(6) 2 Arts and Commerce Colleges 2(2) 2(2) 3 Arts and Science Colleges 22(10) 22(10) 4 Commerce Colleges 5(2) 5(2) 5 Science Colleges 1(1) 1(1) 6 Dental Colleges 8(7) 7 Education Colleges 8(7) 2(2) 2(2) 8 Engineering / Technology Colleges 6(2) 6(2) 9 Law Colleges 10 Medical Colleges including NClrsing and Physiotherapy 5(4) 5(4) 1(1) 11 Pharmacy Colleges 1(1) 12 Bachelors of Business Administration Colleges 7(3) 7(3) 7(3) 13 Bachelor of Computer Applications Colleges 7(3) *(2) *(2) 14 Post-Graduate University Departments 1(1) Total 91(50) 67(33) 23(16)
-
Figures
10
parentheses mdlcate sampled colleges.
* There are many post-graduate departments in the University but the departments of Management and Communication
were included in the sample because of the relevance of the subject areas to the study.
Ul
o
Table 3.8 Facultywise Breakup of Total Number and Sampled Colleges vis-a-vis the 'Geographical Location of the College' Criteria Sr. Name of the Faculty/College Total Number Geographical Location No. of Colleges of the College (Sampled North South East West Colleges) 1 Arts Colleges 10(4) 6(1) 4(3) 2 Arts and Commerce Colleges 15(7) 3(2) 3(1) 6(2) 3(2) 3 Arts and Science Colleges 2(2) 2(2) 4 Commerce Colleges 22(10) 1(1) 8(3) 13(6) 5 Science Colleges 5(2) 2(1) 1(-) 2(1) 6 Dental Colleges 1(1) 1(1) 7 Education Colleges 8(7) 2(2) 3(3) 1(-) 2(2) 8 Engineering / Technology Colleges 2(2) 1(1) 1(1) 9 Law Colleges 6(2) 3(-) 3(2) 10 Medical Colleges including Nursing and Physiotherapy 5(4) 2(1) 3(3) 11 Pharmacy Colleges 1(1) 1(1) 12 Bachelors of Business Administration Colleges 2(1) 7(3) 5(2) 7(3) 13 Bachelor of Computer Applications Colleges 1(1) 6(2) *(2) 14 Post-Graduate University Departments *(2) 32(12) 42(26) Total 91(50) 6(5) 11(7) Flgures 10 parentheses 10dlcate ~ampled colleges. * There are many post-graduate departments in the University but the departments of Management and Communication were included in the sample because of the relevance of the subject areas to the study.
52
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
Table 3.9 Facultywise Breakup of Sampled Colleges Selected for the 'Communication Module' to be Administered to Principals Sr. Name of the Faculty Number of No. Sampled Colleges 1 Arts Colleges 2 2 Arts and Commerce Colleges 3 3 Arts. and Science Colleges 1 4 Commerce Colleges 5 5 Science Colleges 1 6 Dental Colleges 7 Education Colleges 3 8 Engineering/Technology Colleges 1 9 Law Colleges 1 10 Medical Colleges including Nursing and Physiotherapy 3 11 Pharmacy Colleges 1 12 Bachelors of Business Administration Colleges 1 13 Bachelor of Computer Applications Colleges 1 14 Post-Graduate University Departments 2 Total 25 As seen in Table 3.9, fifty percent (Le. twentyfive) of the fifty colleges sampled and selected for 'Role Analysis' and 'Needs Assessment' were further sampled for the implementation of the module. Non-probability, Purposive Sampling Method was undertaken. The researcher identified college principals from all of the Faculties-(number of principals from each faculty indicated in T:tble 3.9)-who had shown keen interest in the work and who, she expected, would go through the exercise in self-learning by studying the 'Communication Module' for the same; as also send the necessary feedback to the researcher in order to analyse how useful they had found the module, along with comments/ suggestions for the scope of its utilization in a larger context.
3.3
The Methodology Matrix Sr. Objective No. 1 To do d 'Role Analysis' of College Principals
Tool
Nature of the Data
Analysis
Remarks
Observation Schedule an< Informal discussion
• • • • •
• Descriptive Analysis
• Type of college premises and activity noted • College Principals to be observed at work • Researcher interacted with the College Principals informally • College Principals observed vis-a-vis their 'Communication' at work • Researcher to interact with the College Principals informally
Statements Opinions Information Notes Observations
2
To identify Needs of College Principals in 'Communication'
3
To develop the SelfInstructional Module in 'Communication' for College Principals To administer the Module to College Principals
-
-
-
-
-
-
To evaluate the Usefulness/Utilization of the Module
Feedback Schedule
• Rating • Information • Comments / Suggestions
• Frequency tallies and percentages • Descriptive Analysis
4
5
Needs • Rating Assessment • Statements Schedule and • Opinions , Informal • Information discussion • Notes • Observations
• Frequency tallies and percentages • Descriptive Analysis
• Module developed based on the Findings of the 'Role Analysis' and the 'Needs Assessment' conducted by the researcher • The Module distributed/reached to the College Principals • College Principals explained the contents and procedure and urged to undertake the exercise in self-learning • College Principals urged to undertake the exercise in selflearning and send feedback on the same
4 'Role Analysis' of College Principals Introduction A 'Role' may be understood as a set of norms or expectations applied to the incumbent of a particular position. A college principal holds a key position in the educational system, and all manifest work output depends to a great extent on his application to the job-to which are ascribed a number of rights and duties. The 'role' concept was introduced into the terminology of social sciences by Linton-whose formulation about 'role' was: The term 'role' will be used to designate the sum total of the culture patterns associated with a particular status. It thus includes the attitudes, values and behaviours ascribed by the society to any and all persons occupying the status. It can even be extended to include the legitimate expectations of such persons with respect to the behaviour towards them of persons in other statuses within the same system. In light of the above definition of role and in the context of the present study, it was thus pertinent to do a 'role' analysis of college principals (preceding the 'Needs Assessment' survey and the development of the module in Communication)-in terms of the nature of the work they attend to and their interaction with different people-in the overall cultural setting at work.
'Role Analysis' of College Principals
55
Procedure Undertaken for 'Role Analysis' The 'Role Analysis' was done with the help of a 'Role Analysis Schedule'. Clearly, as stated earlier, college principals shoulder major responsibilities at the work place and have to deal with people and issues of different nature and dimensionscutting across all levels of organizational hierarchy. This was amply evident to the researcher who visited over fifty colleges/ institutes (as sampled) at least twice-and met and interacted with the principals during office hours-with each session lasting for about 30 to 40 minutes. At twenty six of the colleges, the researcher was able to meet the principals both the times; at twenty two of the colleges the researcher met the principal once, and at two of the colleges she was unable to meet the principals at both her visits. Nevertheless, the visits to the colleges helped the researcher to make interesting observations and take notes (with the help of the tool)-which are elaborated below. In the descriptive analysis, the physical setting of the colleges is described since it is important to understand the dynamics at the work place in totality. The general ambience, and the nature of infrastructure and facilities available at the colleges, determine to a great extent the level of morale, as also work efficiency and output of the principals; as indeed it would affect any other professional. Descriptions of colleges have been clubbed together under various Faculty heads. The analysis of the 'role' of college principals has been presented in detail in the summation of the chapter since there were no particular attributes that could be ascribed to the principals vis-a.-vis the faculty-wise colleges that they headed. Description of the Physical and Infrastructural Setting of the Colleges and Interaction with the College Principals at Work The following is the 'Role Analysis' description highlighting the role of the principals in the work setting of their respective colleges. Medical and Paramedical Colleges The researcher had begun her work with the first visit made to the Civil Hospital compound, Asarwa, Ahmedabad; which housed four of the medical/paramedical colleges sampled for the
56
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
study-viz., the College of Nursing, the Dental College, the School (College) of Physiotherapy, and the B.}. Medical College. While the whole campus was abuzz with lots of activities(patients from all over Gujarat and even neighbouring states come here in huge numbers for medical attention to their problems)-the colleges portrayed a certain "quiet sense of importance" about them, after all they were the seat of learning of such important streams of education and application. The Principal of the College of NurSing, a lady, had an efficient air about her and conveyed that she had been with the institute for almost twenty years and knew the place and the system so well that she never faced any real problems in the performance of her job. She further elaborated that since most of her sh,tdents were young girls/women-she managed to strike a good rapport with them. She dismissed infrastructural and other problems with staff administration as 'routine' and conveyed that the important thing was to keep the academics going. The Principal of the College of Physiotherapy was more forthcoming in his interaction with the researcher and conveyed that he did have some problems performing his role as a principal. Having been with the institute for over twenty five years, he said he had 'grown' with the job. The biggest and most difficult obstacle that he had to contend with was the 'ego problem' of some of his staff, he said. And next to that and more frustrating according to him-was the problem of having to deal with the irresponsible 'absentism' of female staff. He conveyed that he did understand the social obligations and family responsibilities that weigh heavily on working women; but what about their accountability towards the work place then? Clearly frustrated by the problem, he also expressed anguish about having to keep a calm a..1d tactful approach all the time when the women in question had to be 'communicated' the problems that were created at the work place owing to their negligent and often indifferent attitude and behaviour. When questioned further he said the situation precipitated by absentism or late reporting most often percolated right down to students who keep waiting indefinitely for classes to happen, or patients waiting interminably for their tum for consultation or treatment, apart from so much other juggling of time with the administrative jobs at hand. All
57
'Role Analysis' of College Principals
of this, coupled with inadequate infrastructural support, he said, often made it difficult to keep a cool head at work. The Principal (Dean) of the B.J. Medical College was one of the busiest person visited by the researcher during her stint of data collection. A lot of students were seen walking around in the corridors, and staff was also seen making their way in and out of the Dean's Office, as well as the other offices lined along the corridor-with bundles/files of papers in their hands. The Dean apparently had many visitors, and the researcher after having patiently waited until the watch showed 5 p.m. (appointment time), walked into the office-to be immediately struck by its spacious interior; the Dean at a big oblong table, deeply immersed in some paperwork, surrounded by four men. Two of them were desperately trying to send across an urgent fax to Gandhinagar, one trying to make a phone call some place; and one of them attending to the Dean's queries to the work at hand. While patiently awaiting the Dean's attention, the researcher looked around the room to find almost all the information she was seeking-dearly displayed on a board on the wall. The courses available, recognized centers for internships/ scholarships, list of incumbents to the post of Dean since the inception of the college; and finally a list of the college level committees for the following task areas: viz.,-Advisory, College Council, Action Plan, Admission Cell, Library, Medical Educational Unit, Repairs, Purchase, Auction, Condemnation, P.W.D. (Public Works Department), Institutional, Regional, Class IV, Parks and Gardens, Curriculum Planning-all of this information was put up clearly for anyone to read. Amounts of grants received and spent the previous academic year-as well as information about the financial status for the current year was also put up on the board. Though wallowing in a spate of administrative jobs demanding his attention, the Dean kept remarkably composed, and though with a few words only-he attended to everyone who came into his room. Thus the atmosphere in the room remained amicable. It was the month of September, and central admissions to state colleges for medical and engineering were in progress (at another venue), and the Dean was often found making clarifications on queries about new admissions. Some of the other issues the Dean attended to in the presence of the researcher were: I
58
Communication Skills for Educational Managers •
Signing/Passing purchase bill for some books for the Department of Pathology. • Sorting out the problem of records of a transcript requested by a shldent who had passed out as early as 1977 from the college! • Attended to the draft of a letter brought in by one of the administrative office staff; and • Attended to the complaint of a representative of an airconditioning company, whose grievance was that despite his job at the college being done a few weeks ago; his bill for payment had not yet been passed. (The complainant left after an assurance from the Dean that he would sort out the matter in a few days.) All of the above gave the researcher an acute sense of deja vu, the administrative issues she realized were the same everywhere. It was a world of papers, documents, bills, signatures and approvals. Later, talking to the researcher, the Dean explained that for Heads of Government institutions like his, there were mainly four types of communication functions : (i) Functional Communication with the government machinery and affiliated university officials, (ii) Communication on legal matters, (iii) Policy level communication, and (iv) Communication with present and past alumni studentsboth local, within India and abroad. Communication at the work place, he elaborated, cuts across all levels of hierarchy at the college and he played a pivotal role in getting done all the day-to-day work requirements and the (near) futuristic planning for the institute in terms of academics as well as management. The researcher spent over an hour at the 8.}. Medical COllege and was quite satisfied with the data collected here. The Municipal (Corporation) Medical College (located in the Paldi area) presented a slightly different picture-in that it appeared to be a more 'techno savvy' place with the Dean hardly looking up from his computer to talk to anyone around him. He spoke to the researcher briefly and told her that his main 'role'
'Role Analysis' of College Principals
59
as Dean of the Institute was to interact with people at all levels to get different jobs done; and often, he said, he found himself more of a 'manager' than a 'doctor'! Government Colleges The researcher also visited the only other Government College in Ahmedabad-viz., The Gujarat College-located in the Ellisbridge area of Ahmedabad. Renowned for its high stature of discipline and academics since the time of the British Raj, the sprawling campus-as it appears presently-disappointed the researcher. While the red brick buildings retained their overt splendour, a close look at the grounds, corridors and classrooms, presented a dry landscape and a rather dull ambience, though a lot of students were around on the campus, and all offices functioning. The researcher met all the principals of the three colleges on campus-viz., The Gujarat Arts and Science College, The Gujarat Commerce College, and The Gujarat Arts and Commerce College (evening). The Principals of the Commerce Colleges had one major complaint-that of having to accommodate and manage a rush of over three thousand students in the Commerce stream against hardly even half that capacity to enroll; as also having to face inadequate infrastructure in physical terms as well as lack of teachers recruited to take as many classes. This they said was the main issue looming large over them year after year. The lady Principal of the Arts and Science College seemed more confident, disciplinarian, and confident in her stance in the performance of her role as a college principal. She admonished students for unnecessarily hanging around her office and rapped the peon for allowing the students to do so. Even in her brief interaction with the researcher she appeared in control of things, and requested to be seen again some other time for a more detailed talk. Engineering Colleges Of the two engineering colleges which the researcher visited, one was located on the Gujarat University campus, in fact, exactly opposite the main university office tower; and the other, a private institute, a long drive away on the outskirts of Ahmedabad, on the Sola-Gandhinagar highway. Both the college campuses were
60
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
huge and sprawling, the newer private institute with its arched structures and well maintained patches of green exuding a fresh feel of professionalism, and the other one-more staid in its ambience, with old low, single storied, red bricked buildings (the different departments), and a few new ones hidden amongst huge shady trees. Both the colleges had good facilities of laboratory and library, perhaps the private collegt! having more modem and updated amenities. Both the Heads of Institute, too, one designated Principal and the other Director (private college), turned out to possess quite opposite overt personality traits. The Principal of the University College was very outspoken and talked with pride about his personal achievements, while the Director at the private Engineering College, a soft spoken person, talked about his vision for the institute and how he envisaged his own role in it as a facilitator. The college principal expressed that his main role was to keep the academics going by looking after the overall administration; and the private college director said he was in the process of initiating newer courses and facilities each year, and trying his best to coordinate seminars, conferences, interface with industry and placements for students. Arts and Science Colleges The (only) other Arts and Science College in Ahmedabad (the previous one-the Gujarat Arts and Science College already discussed earlier)-the St. Xaviers College-is one of the best and most renowned in the city. Quite impressive in its setting near the Gujarat University, its principal briefly talked to the researcher about communication on different issues with the university authorities and the University Grants Commission (UGC) as one of the key functions which he had to perform, apart from the other jobs like managing the academics, co-curricular activities (including of course interaction with teachers and students); and most importantly financial matters of college administration. College of Pharmacy In proximity to the St. Xavier's College is located the only College of Pharmacy in Ahmedabad. Predictably, a strong stench of chemicals hit the researcher as she entered the premises. The students here too (like on the Medical College campus), wore crisp white apron coats.
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The principal of the college said he enjoyed his time with students and was very comfortable in his role as a teacher. He maintained a formality only when he was in his 'Principal's office/ cabin' in a managerial capacity. Otherwise, he said, everyone (specially students) could easily access him. He believed that as an administrator/and an academician, it was important to upgrade and update oneself. He said he earlier used the Overhead Projector and transparencies for presentations; but now was quite comfortable using Power Point on the computer. He said one may have to work hard, but that was imperative if one had to fulfill the many different expectations from a job like his. Science Colleges Neighbouring the Pharmacy College was located one of the two Science Colleges of the researchers sample. Surfing the net while talking to her, the Principal of the College was very clear in expressing that while he enjoyed academics per se-i.e., teaching and advanced research, he found playing the role of an administrator very difficult. He ascribed this to his personal inclination towards hard core academics on one hand and the frustrations of having to cope with the limitations within the university system/son the other. The Principal of the other Science College (located in the Maninagar area) which the researcher visited was a picture of composure and soft spokenness. Apparently all was well at the college; the classes were in progress, the office staff was hard at work and there was a sense of order on the premises. (Wall to wall to the college building, was also a school bustling with children.) The principal spoke briefly to the researcher but shared very pertinent information about his role as a Principal of Science College. He said that apart from having to manage the time-table for the academic sessions in terms of theory and practicals classes, conducting examinations, and seeing through co-curricular activities for the students-it was the purchase of laboratory mnterial and managing the funds and records of the same that became a major responsibility for him, and a peculiarity for a Science College.
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Law Colleges At the Law Colleges (evening) that the researcher visited, there wasn't much activity visible. The college principals, one of them a lady, appeared quite in control of things in their respective offices, one located on Ashram Road, and the other in the Ellisbridge area. They expressed that students of Law were usually pursuing the course along with some other degree/ diploma or even employment, and hence their involvement was restricted mostly to the classes that they attended and taking examinations, and thus their role too was to a great extent an administrative one. Arts Colleges In contrast to the Law Colleges, were the general stream colleges-where the student population was quite high. The researcher visited four of the sampled Arts Colleges; one of them located near Lal Darwaja being a college only for girls. The other three colleges too, one of them located in the Ellisbridge area, another on Ashram Road, and the fourth in the Gujarat University area, Navrangpura; which was one of the 'better looking' colleges of all-that the researcher visited. It was at this college that the researcher found the principal out in the compound supervising the parking lot, talking to students hanging around in the compound--either to get into the classrooms or leave the premises. He was also inquiring about their classes schedule for the day, urging them not to 'bunk' classes. The researcher was mistaken by some girl students to be a (fellow) student visitor, and they made small talk with her as she (the researcher) watched the principal 'in action'. They shared with her that on some occasions when students guilty of some mistake tried to make off on their two wheelers; the principal, quite uninhibited about it, would get into an autorickshaw and give them a chase! The principals of the other three colleges too were seen interacting a lot with students, staff and visitors. Two students were given encouraging words for their performances at co-curricular activities, one administrative staff member was allowed to go home early in order to take care of a health problem of a family member; an employee was admonished for not having opened the gate and cleaned/swept up the premises on time; while an academic staff member was taken to task for making too many personal phone calls from office.
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One principal was also found discussing in a meeting with colleagues-how the problem of waste of water and electricity on campus could be tackled. He lamented the carelessness of students in keeping the lights/fans on in the classroom despite not being in use. The principals were also seen attending to several phone calls one after the other; having to switch talk from 'courtesy speak', to confirming the lecture of an invited guest, to inquiring about . the health of the wife of a colleague ... ; playing multiple roles indeed! Arts and Commerce Colleges The researcner visited six Arts and Commerce Colleges scattered in different areas of Ahmedabad. Two of these, one in the Raipur area, and another in the Paldi area--were meant for girls only; and the latter even efficiently managed by a lady principal. The researcher found the principal of the college located in the Khanpur area standing at the gate of the college. He was personally checking the identity cards of students who were appearing for internal tests. Later talking to the researcher in his office, he told her that maintaining discipline and order among his students was his top priority. He said that he attended to all other matters as a principal quite 'routinely'; but took very seriously his role as an administrative head-in instilling a sense of responsibility and a value for good education in his students. Seated in a small ground floor office, the principal of the college located in the Navawadaj area shared with the researcher how lack of infrastructure and inadequate facilities bogged him down and made it difficult to keep things going. He also added that having to deal with problems all the time made it difficult to keep up ones enthusiasm for the job. Despite all the drawbacks, he said, he tried to do his best at his job. The Sabarmati Arts and Commerce College, tucked away in the folds of the Sabarmati area behind the picturesque old railway station; was located at the tip of a lane of a housing colony. Climbing up a steep spiral staircase the researcher found the principal seated in his small office on the first floor of the premises. He exchanged pleasantaries and talked briefly about
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how he managed the college (with a relatively small strength of students) by always trying to take care of day-to-day matters immediately, not postponing work indefinitely-to enable smooth functioning of the college. The researcher visited the 'Rashtra Bhasha Hindi Bhavan', the only Hindi medium college of Gujarat University located in Ahmedabad. Standing tall opposite a prestigious Municipal Eye Hospital in the Ellisbridge area, the lean three storied building was almost bursting at its seams with students. The principal spoke to the researcher in chaste Hindi, and his main problem he said was that of having to manage a huge strength of over three thousand students enrolled in the college, and being equipped with poor infrastructure to combat that. He expressed great pride though, which was quite valid, in being the head of a unique Hindi medium college which was doing its best to . sustain and popularize Hindi as a language. He said he was happy to have a significant role to play in such an important endeavour. They coordinated activities (apart from the regular curriculum of classes and exams) like poetry, essay and drama writing, reading, and performance, in Hindi; as also conducting the 'Rashtra Bhasha Hindi Parishad' school level examinations, and organizing meetings, seminars and rallies for public awareness too, he added. Commerce Colleges The researcher visited eleven Commerce Colleges. She had a tough time of finding the college located on the (Eastern) periphery of Ahmedabad (the Ghodasar-Vatva area); an only girls college. After inquiring at several places on the way, she had found the college housed in an interior residential area, the small premises of which were abuzz with activity. (There was also a school on the same premises.) Initially, a thought crossed the researcher's mind, 'Why was a college located here?' But she realized soon enough that this was so beneficial to the girls of the locality who coald attend classes here instead of having to commute right across the city to other colleges. The name of the college was the name of the principal himself, and he is obviously a revered name in the field of education in Ahmedabad. He spoke to the researcher briefly and told her how after so many years in the field he was quite above so many things and just as the
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65
researcher had surmised he said that he now simply envisioned his role as a facilitator for education, particularly for (underprivileged) young girls in order to help them better their future. The principal of the college located in the Vastrapur area was quite vocal about some of the problems he faced with teachers. Seated in his office was also the retired principal of the college and together they shared with the researcher information about the 'Protection Act' under which all teachers employed in the University were covered. Due to the 'protection' which they received owing to this Act, they said, it became difficult to take action against erring teachers who were falling short in dispensing their responsibilities. There were teachers who would remain absent a lot or would come in only for a few hours, or would be there in the college a lot of the time but not involve themselves as much as they should in academics or research. All this often led to piled up work and imbalance of work distribution-with the staff members who were sincere having to shoulder much more than their fair share; and most importantly, students-too often turning a disgruntled lot-not satisfied with the inputs that they got. Overall, the principal said, it became a mire of communication problems, which cumulatively led to a 'not-sopleasant' work environment. Coupled with this was of course the genuine problem of overcrowding in commerce colleges with students enrolled in thousands, and inadequate infrastructure to cope with the situation. Thoughts on similar lines (about the teachers' problems) were also expressed by another principal of a college located near the Laldarwaja area. He said it was a sorry state of affairs at most places and very few teachers were really academic in their inclination or sincere about their jobs. And of course, the problem of accommodating huge numbers of students in commerce colleges was a common thread of emphatic complaint running through the information shared by all the commerce college principals. At yet another college of the commerce stream, the researcher hund the principal in deep consultation with a colleague trying to figure out how they could act on a circular which reached them late making it difficult for them to get the instructions implemented. It appears from their talk that the circular was
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about the ensuing Youth Festival to be hosted by the Gujarat University, and the finalization of student teams to be participating in the same; and this information was necessary to be sent across to the main university office-within a few hours deadline. Despite the pressure of work, the principal spoke to the researcher, endorsing the importance of research in Education, and the support that he always tried to extend to all activities related to academics and co-curriculum. He did not need to elaborate much on that, his actions indeed (as the researcher observed during her brief stay in the office)-did speak more than probably his words could have! The principal of the college located in Ambawadi had a very commanding personality. He seemed totally in control of all things at the college. He took the researcher around the premises and showed her how each and every class was filled to capacity, and teachers were animatedly conducting the sessions. The parking spaces were full of hundreds of two-wheelers in neat rows. He also showed her the nicely maintained garden with pretty flower beds and trees in the compound; and also made her meet up with the security person explaining how he had tightened the security check for visitors, staff and students alike. The example of this college was really worth emulating. Clearly, the principal played a significant role in sustaining such impressive management of the college. Education Colleges The researcher visited seven colleges of Education, one of them meant only for girls. Much to her satisfaction, the researcher found the principals of these colleges the most interactive and responsive. Four of the seven colleges had affiliated school units, hence there appeared much more activity on those premises. The 'Education' colleges are scattered all over Ahmedabad, with only one located in the Gujarat University, Navrangpura area. Two were quite far on the Northern periphery of Ahmedabad, while another two were right across in the Paldi area-one of these two tucked away deep at the end of a row of residential houses. One of the colleges was located in the Vasna area, and yet another was (relatively) centrally located in the Ellisbridge area. All the principals talked to researcher of their role as Heads of Education Colleges-and the commonality in the job responsibility that
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67 I
emerged for them was that of having to coordinate exhaustive theory as well as practicals sessions for the students. Tutorials for B.Ed. and M.Ed. students had to be fitted in with school timetables; and a number of workshops and seminars had to be organized round the year to optimize inputs for this very important stream of higher education. Many activities/projects were also taken up I supported at the schools with which they affiliated academically. One of the college principals, a lady, even opined that since the students coming in were themselves quite serious about procuring jobs at the end of their studies, they remained a motivated lot; and thus as principals they too had to try their best to project professionalism into the curriculum and enthusiasm into its implementation as well. The principal of one of the better equipped colleges emphasized how his being Head of an Education College was very important since he trained future teachers, he said, who in tum taught many more students, thus individuals, groups and ultimately a society at large was cultivated and groomed. Self-financed Colleges The researcher visited six self-financed colleges, three of them offering a Bacherlors programme in Computer Applications and three offering a Bachelors programme in Business Administration. The Directors (Principals) of the Institutes (Colleges) said the main challenge they had was to cope with the expectations of students-which are indeed many more than what their counterparts in other colleges have-perhaps owing to the fact that they pay much higher fees too. The Director of one of the Trust Institutes located on Ashram Road, also a writer and visionary, expressed his reservations about many of prevalent practices in the present educational system. He said he was very much against the 'rote' mode by which the students had to study for examinations, and emphasized that more appropriate methods of evaluation needed to be introduced. It was important he said to provide students with more avenues for exploring their aptitudes and abilities-particularly at the higher education level-so that they could make their lives holistically meaningful. It was here, he opined, that the principals could go beyond the
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scope of their role as administrators and influence and motivate students towards meaningful tasks in life. He said he was trying to urge younger people to take up the mantle of these challenges. While the private institutes housed in the older college buildings seemed in their physical appearance and functioning just like regular colleges, the newer ones gave a distinctly different 'feel' (of private tuition classes?) to the researcherclearly they were more 'modem' in their functioning with the colleges being 'new look' kind of structures, with reception centers, lifts, and all other such facilities.
Post-graduate Departments In addition to the above described forty-eight colleges, the researcher visited two post-graduate departments of the Gujarat University, one the School of Management Studies; and the second a Centre for Communication Studies. Low, one storied structures, open and spacious, nestled among shady trees on the Gujarat University campus, both institutes have over the years evolved distinct identities of their own. Of so many of the postgraduate departments of the Gujarat University, the researcher decided to include these two in her sample-since her study amalgamated the areas of 'Education', 'Management', and 'Communication'; and it was appropriate and pertinent for the researcher to elicit views and opinions of the heads (incidentallyboth women) of institutes teaching these subjects. The Director /Principal of the Management Institute expressed that as a post-graduate institute, they had to ensure quality curriculum and research, and try to help students groom themselves for fitting careers in the field. She perceived a need of better infrastructure and support from the university in order to function more efficiently and enhance better output. The CoordL.'1ator of the Communications Centre shared pertinent and interesting information with the researcher. From her experience, she said, it was best to be 'tactful' with studentsby being not too overpowering, nor too friendly or democratic. Post-graduate students, particularly of professional programmes, being of good caliber and quite mature; it always helped if one was transparent with them about administrative problems and infrastructural inadequacies. This dilutes their criticism or frustration and often helps them take more responsibility and
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remain co-operative as a group. As heads of such institutes it is important to be assertive in ones administrative style with people at all levels. But it is also important to perform sincerely ones own duties at the job. This way one can command respect for oneself and thus open up the communication channels. A lot hinges around the head/ (principal) in such organizations, she said, for he/she can make or break the staff and students confidence and trust, thereby setting the tone and pace for the way in which work could get done. Also, by taking a genuine interest in the students' well-being and interacting with them periodically, inquiring about their progress at studies and projects, sustains their academic interest and keeps them motivated. Coordinating visiting faculty, organizing workshops and seminars, students' training programmes and internships within a limited budget at hand- were some of the other challenges-the coordinator elaborated. But, she continued, at the end of it all, when students get good job placements in media/other institutes of repute-all of ones efforts seem well rewarded; and the satisfaction of a job done well and a role enacted appropriately-upto the expectations and stature of it-though intangible at times-is something one could not describe in words. And the researcher, herself a teacher and an administrator too at one level-<:ouldn't agree more with her! An Overview Significant Findings of Visit to Fifty Colleges Overall, it clearly appeared to the researcher that the nature, dimensions and intensity of the problems varied depending on the subjects being taught at the respective colleges-and the principals had to deal with the same according to the nuances of the situation presented to them. Moreover, there were some major duties and responsibilities which created a lot of stress to college principals but which they had to shoulder in their roles as heads of institutes. These the researcher discerned from her interaction with the college principals and are as follows : 1. Inadequate staff and infrastructure to cope with the thousands of students seeking admission each year. 2. Admission time pressures, including having to cope with threats, man-handling, destruction and violence by
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
blundering students, their leaders, and vested interest lobbyists. Conducting annual elections for student representatives which usually whip up a lot of positive and negative emotions and passion on campus-beginning with campaigning to the time the election results are announced. And it doesn't end there, because then the problems with the Students Union and its activities would begin. Hosting cultural events, activities, youth meets where thousands of students would gather and int~ract over a few days; and till all of it passed off peacefully, the principals remained under pressure. Hosting sports events (unfortunately sports activities are usually relegated to the background)-which really need to be encouraged by college principals; but end up being a lot of work for which not all staff members extend necessary cooperation. The main concern of all principals is the peaceful passing off of examinations-both internal and final. They said that almost every year they had to deal with delays in conducting examinations, sometimes owing to strikes by students-demanding postponement, cuts in syllabus, or full option in the question papers; and sometimes owing to disruptions in the academic routines owing to natural or manmade calamities. Conducting examinations is itself such a tedious affair-from getting papers set to organizing seating arrangements, ensuring smooth circulation of question papers and answer books; maintaining vigilance at the time of the exams, collection of the same at the end of the exam; and later distribution of answer books for correction, and finally announcing results on time. In colleges with a semester system, all of this procedure has to be conducted twice a year. And inextricably woven into the fabric of all of the above, in small or big measures, was the crime' element-and having to handle that-one of the most challenging tasks for the principals. Round the year, for different reasons; most of all for elections and examinations, the college I
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principals have to coordinate and arrange for security with the police. Sometimes the criminal activities of few students get out of hand, and beyond the purview of what the principals are expected to do. For example-trouble created by hostelites at the hostel (or outside), squabbles with the rector over food, admission or other matters, 'residential blocks rivalry'-which is usually prevalent since years and affects every small or big matter; theft, petty issues of harassment-specially with girls; and many such other problems. The problem of ragging encountered by new students who get admission to colleges every academic yearsometimes leads to grave consequences and is thus yet another cause of considerable worry to the principals. At a more serious level, involvement of students in incidents of stabbings or _ kidnappings-most of the time to vent personal vendetta are also sometimes noted. The college principals are not answerable for such behaviour of the students and consequences of the same, but their being on the college roll requires the principal to sometimes face interrogations about the attendance of the concerned students, their conduct at the college or perhaps even giving information about the people with whom they interacted on the campus. Thus, it was often that the college principals found themselves involved with tasks which were far removed from their academic or administrative responsibilities, playing a role they would have hardly envisaged for themselves. On a Positive Note Wherever possible, the researcher had taken a look around the college premises and found that at most places general facilities for both-staff and students were (simply) functional, at some places, perhaps inadequate. There was no grandeur at any of the offices (with the exception of a few), and the bosic decor and seating arrangements were simple and functional. At some colleges though, notably the private, self-financed ones, there were good library and laboratory facilities and office space; as also proper drinking water and washroom facilities. But the heartening thing was that work was getting done at the colleges, albeit at its own pace perhaps, and the University and its colleges did provide a platform to thousands of students i
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who passed out each year with degrees-and walked their future way. And that was ultimately the most important thing-the researcher thought. Interaction with Retired College Principals The researcher, in the initial phase of her study, had met five retired college principals-who gave interesting insights, provided additional information, and some detailing-which helped the researcher chisel the 'role' that college principal play in all its nuances. "One has to cultivate the 'Art of Human Relations' in order to perform the job"-a retired college principal opined. "Communication becomes a key element in all interactions cutting across all levels of hierarchy in the organization" -he continued. He said, in a college setting, while there was 'routine' communication on educational! academic and administrative matters; more important, though not in direct relevance to the job, was the 'social' communication. He elaborated on the same saying that as a principal, one had to sometimes extend conversation with peons, administrative staff, students and teachers, beyond work, and talk to them, often even counsel them about personal and family matters. This makes them feel good and positive, and creates a bond of understanding. They thus respond well to work entrusted to them. Sometimes even parents or guardians of students may have to be called and spoken to regarding their ward's lack of application to studies, problem behaviour, or may be even an aptitude for other subjects or . talents which may need encouragement from home. Another retired principal, on the same lines of thought expressed that the use of 'we' and not 'I' ought to be cultivated. He said it was unfortunate that when things worked out well it would be 'I did it', and when there were problems, it would be 'owing to them'-and this he said was not a fair attitude. He further stated that if college principals remained democratic in their style of functioning, rather than being autocratic or forming a' coterie' of few selected persons-it would help resolve problems faster and enhance a congenial work atmosphere. He also enlisted as follows some of the tasks that college principals ought to bring into the purview of their functioning as administrative heads of educational institutes :
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1. Hold meetings regularly with student leaders, and if possible even with groups of students and talk to them on relevant issues of concern. 2. Hold meetings regularly with administrative staff to discuss and prioritise work and resolve problems if any; as also to encourage them to always maintain all records well to enable easy retrieval of the same when necessary. 3. Hold meetings regularly with teaching staff, and in consultation with them, sort out pending academic or administrative matters; and always try to involve them in time-table setting, syllabus and curriculum development, as well as other concerns or issues related to their own (leave record or research matters) or students' welfare and well-being. Teachers, if necessary, may even be counselled about difficulties they may be facing in teaching their subjects. 4. Hold meetings from time-to-time with colleagues teaching the same subject to share and update academic information on the same. The principal needs to make sure that he is not seen in poor light as a teacher since being a good academician strengthens his image as an administrator. 5. Encourage teachers and students to have meetings or interactional sessions among themselves to resolve conflicts and to better academic or co curricular activities. 6. Invite suggestions for library orders of books and periodicals and prioritise the same to optimally utilize available funds. 7. Informally talk to students and elicit feedback from them about the different subject teachers, and tactfully (through someone trusted) also for himself. 8. Remain open and accessible (unless the situation really needs withholding some information or withdrawing oneself from something) to teachers or other staff for their comments on decisions which he takes which impact the functioning of the college as a whole. 9. Give sufficient time and attention towards maintenance of the premises, and providing basic facilities or amenities to staff and students.
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10. Should maintain his own credibility, as a head of organization and never indulge in any petty, small talk (nor encourage 'back-stabbing' /negative talk about those absent), thereby sustaining the required discipline, protocol and decorum of the office and institute. 11. Should show consideration towards the genuine health problems of students and staff, and concede to requests for leave or less workload or a retest/re-examination for students-if a genuine need is perceived for any of the above. While the above mentioned were some of the points that the principals were encouraged to work on, there were some grievances which principals themselves harboured, quite a few of them with the college managements. A lot of the problems would get resolved, the principal continued, if the Management Boards kept a positive and proactive approach towards the college principals-particularly on issues mentioned below: 1. While principals on their own worked towards procuring and accounting for grants, the managements should be open to giving a few thousand rupees extra in times of need. 2. Managements should remain interested in evolving/ updating curriculum and providing for facilities accordingly. . 3. They should involve principals in meetings where policy matters are to be discussed, and give them enough say on pertinent issues, since it is them (the principals)-who have to adhere to what is laid down and implement the same without much scope of flexibility. Summation of 'Role Analysis' of College Principals The role of the college principals may be summarized into two broad categories-viz.,-Academic and Administrative. The academic responsibilities include teaching, evaluation and research; and the administrative responsibilities involve-first and foremost-conceptual thinking driven by a vision-leading to policy level decision making and implementation; maintaining human relations, financial planning, and of course, attending to all the routine managerial functioning. (The college principals are
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also responsible for shouldering few other responsibilities which may not directly fall in the purview of the above two categories). Ultimately, concluded the researcher, it is the college principal" ~ who is the buffer between the students (the main beneficiaries of the educational institutes) and the management/university authorities; and in his role as such an important functionary, a college principal constantly seems to be performing a delicate balancing act. Thus, while he needs to keep his conscience and commitment, he also needs the total support of all those around him too-to fulfill all that is expected of him. After all, the principal is responsible for developing a college climate that encourages and supports the very best instructional and assessment practices, and doing this for adolescent/young students who differ in intelligence, emotion, learning styles, gender and culture-is really no easy task. Thus, in the final analysis, the role of a college principal is indeed a 'multi-dimensional' one; seeking to ensure that 'education' does not become a mere ritualistic practice, but a meaningful learning process-taking all those involved in it towards betterment. And given the nature of their job, college principals as education administrators would certainly benefit from an exercise in self-learning for the enhancement of their communication skills.
5 Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis Introduction College principals have major responsibilities in terms of planning, coordinating, communicating, maintaining human relations, evaluating performance and giving feedback, resource mobilization and above all, handling financial matters. The leadership qualities and the general personality traits of the College Principals contribute a lot to the overall organizational climate of the institution since all manifest performance is hinged on the role that they play within the framework of the managerial needs and requirements. The overall competence and enhanced communication skills of the college principals in performing their role-would-to a great extent determine their overall efficiency at work. College Principals shoulder major responsibilities of Educational Administration, and the researcher proposed to develop an Instructional Module in Communication for them. For the above purpose, the researcher initiated the study by conducting a Needs Assessment Survey of Communication Needs of College Principals in order to identify and determine meaningful parameters for the content of the module. The Needs Assessment was done with the help of a Needs Assessment Schedule (Annexure IB). The researcher had appraised the respondents through personal contact (visits/telephone talk) and mailed
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correspondence (please refer appendix 2B, 2C, 20 for the letters)about what was required of them in the context of the study, and this helped elicit the responses. The Needs Assessment Survey was preceded by a pilot study the procedure and findings of which are presented earlier in Chapter III. The pilot study paved the way for finalizing the Needs Assessment Schedule and using it for further data collection with college principals. The contents of the questions of the Needs Assessment Schedule had also explained (and clarified whenever the respondent sought any doubts to be cleared) to the respondents by the researcher in her one-to-one interaction with them so that they could attempt to answer with the best understanding .. Moreover, the stature of the respondents in terms of their academic qualifications, experience and present designations, and her meetings with them-had the researcher quite convinced that their responses would be honest and their drive towards selflearning genuine; and that their answers too would be given after due thought and clarity of the matter. Some of the respondents (16) answered the schedule immediately while interacting with the researcher, while some (23) discussed everything at length with the researcher-and mailed the schedule back later. And with the remaining 10 of the respondents, the researcher had an interaction and a detailed talk, and they had agreed to mail the schedule back but for some reason did not. One of the respondents who did not respondheld additionally the charge as a principal at another college (i.e., he was the principal at two of the colleges of the sample)-hence out of the 50 college principals whom the researcher had metthe total number of non-responses is 11. Analysis of the Survey of Communication Needs of College Principals The total number of Needs Assessment Schedules analysed is 39 (though some observations which had been noted have been inclusive for all of the sample of 50). Background Information and Profile of the Respondents • Of all the 39 respondents, four (4) were females and thirtyfive (35) were males; thirtyfour (34) of them being
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•
•
•
•
in the age group' of 45 to 55 years. Only five (5) of the respondents were over 60 years of age. Of all the respondents, 20 respondents had an educational qualification upto Masters level (one Masters degree), five respondents had a Masters degree plus additional diplomas like PGDTE (post-graduate diploma in technical education)/PGDBA (post-graduate diploma in business administration), additional Masters degrees; or even degrees in law. Thirteen of the respondents had a doctorate (PhD.) qualification; while one respondent had a PhD. plus additional post-graduate diplomas. The present designation of thirtytwo of the respondents was that of College Principals, two of the respondents were Deans of the two Medical Colleges of Ahmedabad, while three respondents were Directors-one of an Institute of Technology, another of an Institute of Computer Applications and one of an Institute of Business Management. One of the respondents was the coordinator of a Communication Centre; and one respondent was the Officiating Principal of a Commerce College. Of all the respondents, twentyfive of them had been college principals since a time period of 1 to 5 years, seven of them had been College Principals since a time period of 6 to 10 years, four of them had been College Principals since a time period of 11 to 15 years; while three of them had been at the position since over 15 years. Thirtysix of the respondents had begun their careers in colleges (only three of the respondents had begin their careers in schools)--either as Demonstrators, Assistant Lecturers or Lecturers and had steadily chartered their growth to the stature of College Principals. All the respondents had over twenty years of experience in educational institutes in and outside Ahmedabad-with most of them having been transferred at one point of time or another to different colleges/institutes within Ahmedabad and Gujarat or sometimes even outside. The profile of the respondents reflected their high academic qualifications, years of rich experience and a good professional stature; and thus in their capacity as
Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis
79
respondents for the study, they formed an appropriate representative group. Analysis of the Responses An analysis of the communication needs of college principals based on the needs assessment survey is presented below. Table 5.1 Level of Satisfaction of College Principals with the Nature of Work in the Current Job CRITERIA
Total
Responses 1
2
3
4
5
Respondents
Highly Quite Partially Insigni- Cannot significant significant significant ficant decide No. of respondents
25 (64.10)
12 (30.76)
2 (5.12)
-
-
39 (100)
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.
As evident from the Table 5.1 above, it is seen that a high level of satisfaction about the nature of work was conveyed by most of the respondents. One of the respondents, though did convey that the levels of satisfaction varied from place to place (referring to transfers to different colleges) depending on the designation .held and personal experiences with the work and the people around. Table 5.2 Significance of the Communication Component within the Varied Demands of the Job in Deciding the Extent of Job Satisfaction CRITERIA
Total
Responses 1
2
3
4
5
Respondents
Highly Quite Partially Insigni- Cannot significant significant significant ficant decide Frequency
18 (46.15)
18 (46.15)
3 (7.69)
-
-
39 (100)
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.
As evident from the Table 5.2 above, it is seen that a high level of significance was attributed to the communication component within the varied demands of the job in deciding the level of satisfaction atrthe work place.
80
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
Table 5.3 Rating of Professional Performance by College Principals in Terms of Communication Abilities with People at Work Sr. People at No. the work place
2
Very Good Superiors 2
Equals
3
Colleagues
4
Subordinates
5
Students
6
Research Associates Administrative Staff Parents/Guardians of Students Visitors
7 8 9
Total Respondents
Responses
18 (46.15) 19 (48.71) 15 (38.46) 16 (41.02) 25 (64.10) 9 (23.07) 14 (35.89) 14 (35.89) 16 (41.02)
3
4
5
Good Average Poor Very Poor 18 3 (46.15) (7.69) 17 3 (43.58) (7.69) 19 5 (48.71) (12.82) 21 2 (53.84) (5.12) 9 5 (23.07) (12.82) 23 7 (58.97) (17.94) 20 5 (51.28) (12.82) 17 8 (43.58) (20.51) 17 6 (43.58) (15.38)
39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100)
10 Any other:
i.
Visiting faculty
1 (2.56)
ii. Other organizations and industries iii. University authorities for different purposes iv. Dealers v. City police vi. NGO's vii. Union representatives viii. Govt. Dept. of Education
1 (2.56) 1 (2.56)
1 (2.56)
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.
As evident from the Table 5.3 above, it is seen that only about 20% of the respondents said they had average rapport, while the
Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis
81
rest (80%) of the respondents conveyed having a 'very good' or 'good' rapport with persons at work-which is a rating on the higher side in terms of communication abilities of the respondents. Some of the respondents additionally mentioned the following persons/institutes with whom they interacted at work: (i) Visiting Faculty (one respondent-2.56%) mentioned having a very good rapport with them; while one respondent each (2.56%) mentioned having a good rapport with the following: (ii) Other organizations and industries with whom there may be interface, (iii) University authorities (for different purposes), (iv) dealers, (v) City police, (vi) NGO's (Non-Government Organizations), (vii) Union representatives and (viii) Government Department of Education. None of the respondents mentioned having a poor or very poor rapport with persons at work. However there always remains ample scope for further development of communication with different people and organizations. Table 5.4a Rating of the Usefulness of the Conceptual Understanding of Communication by College Principals Sr. Parameters of No. the concept of communication 1
2 3 4 5 0
7
General understanding of communication Elements of communication Process of communication Nature of communication Types of communication Functions of communication Need of communication
2
3
4
5
useful
Quite Partially Not Cannot useful useful useful decide
21 (53.84)
17 (43.58)
1 (2.56)
13 (33.33)
23 (58.97)
2 (5.12)
15 (38.46)
22 (56.41)
2 (5.12)
1 (2.56)
39 (100)
15 (38.46)
21 (53.84)
2 (5.12)
1 (2.56)
39 (100)
12 (30.76)
25 (64.10)
2 (5.12)
9 (23.07)
20 (51.28)
9 (23.07)
17 (43.58)
21 (53.84)
1 (2.56)
Very 1
Total Respondents
Responses
39 (100) 39 (100)
1 (2.56)
39 (100) 1 (2.56)
39 (100) 39 (100)
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
82
Models of communication 9 Theories of communication 10 Barriers to communication Scope of communication
8
11
12 Organizational
communication and its dynamics
8 (20.51)
16 (41.02)
15 (38.46)
6 (15.38)
12 (30.76)
19 (48.71)
2 (5.12)
10 (25.64)
19 (48.11)
6 (15.38)
1 (2.56)
10 (25.64)
23 (58.97)
6 (15.38)
39 (100)
14 (35.89)
23 (58.97)
2 (5.12)
39 (100)
13 Any other
39 (100) 39 (100) 3 (7.69)
39 (100)
Nil
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.
As evident from the Table 5.4a above, it is seen that a very high number of responses are in the 'quite useful' category, while the responses in the 'very useful' category are also quite high. There were a moderate number of responses in the 'partially useful' category, and very few responses in the 'not useful' and 'cannot decide' category. Thus, it clearly emerges that the inclination on part of the respondents is towards knowing and understanding more about the concept of communication. 4b. Understanding about 'Communication' already possessed by the respond.ents : • Responses to the question asked regarding the. understanding about 'communication' as already possessed by the college principals are quoted below verbatim : (i) "More than anything else a 'closed door' situation/ attitude becomes a major barrier to communication. Language and nature of communication are important to understand". (ii) "Holding the responsible and accountable position as the principal of a leading college, communication becomes inevitable in coordinating multilateral aspects of the institute and its functional dynamics. The channels of these aspects should continue to operate smoothly through meaningful interactions and regular feedback or inputs".
Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis (iii)
83
"The meaning of communication is the response you get. If you do not like the response, change your method of communication". (iv) "To talk in a polite manner to anybody is the most impressive and the best way to communicate". (v) "Communication is of high importance for the right functioning of Educational Institutes as well as the position I hold". (vi) "In educational institutes, communication is a process between staff, students and parents". (vii) "Communication is a vital factor for administrative work and persons holding such posts. It has different aspects to it depending on the type of work and the people involved". (viii) "Understanding and initiating the process of communication is quite useful to expedite the problems" . (ix) "Two way communication is essential in teaching and other daily activities. Communication gap is a major problem in our life". (x) "Good communication skills are a must for effective and fruitful administration". (xi) "As a head of institute, I have a major role to play in undergraduate and postgraduate medical teaching; and I also have to strive to achieve best results for health of the community at large-for which curative and preventive aspects are to be taken care of. I also have to remain alert to unusual, natural calamitieslike major earthquakes, epidemics, school child health check-up programmes, vaccination camps, family planning awareness, Aids awareness, emergency and critical situations, disaster management, etc. For all these multidimensional responsibilities, communication is a continuous, interHnked process". (xii) "There are many different types of barriers to communication: (1) ego barrier wherein the receipients are not open to any suggestion/criticism, (2) communication with office staff who may have different social problems. Communication can be
84
Communication Skills for Educational Managers-
enhanced by small but effective practices such as: (1) Communication by using "post-it" adhesive slips for messages and, (2) Having boxes per person/unit/ department-put up in the central hall of the institutewhere letters/messages can be put directly into the boxes-to avoid lapses in communication". (xiii) "As a teach€:r in the area of 'management' subject, it is obvious for one to know about the need, usefulness, scope and impact of communication". (xiv) "Communication is the sole link between two individuals, among many individuals, between individuals and organizations, among institutes themselves. An 'event' is the result of 'communication'. Communication is the most integral part of any individual! group / organization". (xv) "Communication is a must for human relationships. It can be useful for empowering people by providing them information and education regarding their dayto-day lives and advancement of their skills". (xvi) "I have to communicate with students, teachers and parents on one hand, with non-teaching and administrative staff on the other hand-in different languages and modes altogether. The extent of the communication has to be precise, and the timing most appropriate" . (xvii) "During my period of work, the concept of communicatio:n and organizational behaviour were not clearly known or articulated. But obviously communication happened all the time and ones natural behaviour itself created/was a way to communication. Thus, in their own different ways, the respondents conveyed their understanding of communication as they perceived itfrom their own reading and experience of it. Most of their expression was correct, though perhaps not very articulate. The researcher was all the more convinced that the respondents would certainly find the module interesting since it would give them the required appropriate inputs in terms of communication terminologies and indepth understanding of the same.
Sr. Criteria No (Types of written communication)
Table 5.5a o elle p" nncloaIS 'In W' ntten Communication A ssessment 0 fN ee d so fCn Responses Always
1
Letters
2
Memoranda
-
3 4
Instructions/ Notices Agenda
5
Reports
6
Minutes
2 (5.12) 1 (2.56) 2 (5.12) 2 (5.12)
7
Speeches
8
Reviews
9 10
Articles/ Essays Proposals
11
Academic papers
12
Preparing a portfolio
2
1
1 (2.56)
-
1 (2.56) 1 (2.56) 1 (2.56)
3
Frequently Sometimes 3 (7.69)
-
2 (5.12) 2 (5.12) 1 (2.56) 2 (5.12) 2 (5.12) 2 (5.12) 1 (2.56) 2 (5.12) 3 (7.69) 2 (5.12)
13 Any other Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.
-
8 (20.51) 7 (17.94) 3 (7.69) 4 (10.25) 3 (7.69) 2 (5.12) 6 (1538) 9 (23.07) 10 (25.64) 7 (17.94) 7 (17.94) 6 (15.38)
-
Total
4
5
6
7
Rarely
Never
Not in the purview of the job
Would like to enhance the skills
9 (23.07) 14 (35.89) 11 (28.20) 9 (23.07) 11 (28.20) 11 (28.20) 12 (30.76) 11 (28.20) 12 (30.76) 12 (30.76) 12 (30.76) 12 (30.76) -
15 (38.46) 12 (30.76) 17 (43.58) 18 (46.15) 18 (46.15) 14 (35.89) 15 (38.46) 10 (25.64) 10 (25.64) 13 (33.33)
-
3 (7.69) 3 (7.69) 3 (7.69) 3 (7.69) 4 (10.25) 3(7.69) 4 (10.25) 3 (7.69) 5 (12.82) 4 (10.25) 5 (12.82) 4 (10.25)
11 (28.20) 11 (28.20)
-
3 (7.69) 1 (2.56) 2 (5.12)
-
5 (12.82)
-
4 (10.25) 1 (2.56)
-
3 (7.69)
-
-
39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100) 39 (100)
Nil
86
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
As evident from the Table 5.5a above, it is seen that the responses to the criteria 'sometimes', 'rarely' and 'never' having a problem with written communication in the performance of their job-were found to be higher in number. But interestingly, upto around twelve percent of the respondents also said they would like to enhance their writing skills for different types of written communication. In addition to the above, two respondents pointed out the following: (i) "'Writing' is very important, especially letters. How to write b~tter can be learnt from good letters - specially sometimes those arriving from abroad. For example - . they would use language like -'I urge you to ... ' etc. The' writing is certainly 'different' -simple yet emphatic and clearly makes the point". (ii) The respondent said that he faced a problem when he did not properly know the language in which he had to write; i.e., he could sometimes not find the appropriate words or sentences for expression. He added that he knew he himself needed to work on his vocabulary and practise writing to become more fluent with the same.
Table 5.5b Assessment of the Needs of College Principals in Oral Communication Sr. Criteria No (Types of oral communication) 1
Listening skills
2
4
Participating in meetings Participating in group presentations Presentation skills
5
Responses 1
Always
Total 2
3
Frequently Sometimes
4
5
6
7
Rarely
Never
Not in the purview of the job
Would like to enhance the skills
17 (43.58) 15 (38.46)
-
3 (7.69) 3 (7.69)
39 (100) 39 (100)
3 (7.69) 3 (7.69)
3 (7.69) 1 (2.56)
5 (12.82) 5 (12.82)
8 (20.51) 12 (30.76)
-
-
4 (10.25)
13 (33.33)
19 (48.71)
-
3 (7.69)
39 (100)
1 (2.56)
3 (7.69)
6 (15.38)
11 (28.20)
-
4 (10.25)
Conducting meetings
-
3 (7.69)
4 (10.25)
11 (28.20)
14 (35.89) 18 (46.15)
-
3 (7.69)
39 (100) 39 (100)
6
Conducting interviews
1 (2.56)
9 (23.07)
7 (17.94)
19 (48.71)
-
3 (7.69)
39 (100)
7
Public speaking
-
2 (5.12)
8 (20.51)
11 (28.20)
15 (38.46)
-
3 (7.69)
39 (100)
8
Impromptu speaking
-
1 (2.56)
9 (23.07)
14 (35.89)
11 (28.20)
1 (2.56)
3 (7.69)
39 (100)
2 1 Receiving and (5.12) (2.56) giving feedback 10 Any other Figures in parentheses mdlcate percentages.
8 (20.51)
12 (30.76)
12 (30.76)
-
4 (10.25)
39 (100)
-
-
-
-
-
Nil
3
9
-
-
88
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
As evident from the Table 5.5b below, it is seen that the responses to the criteria 'sometimes', 'rarely', and 'never' having a problem with oral communication in the performance of their job-were found to be higher in number. But interestingly, upto around ten percent of the respondents also said they would like to enhance their skills for different types of oral communication. One respondent mentioned that he sometimes encountered problems with 'listening' -specially when the speaker was a foreigner. This was because, he said-the pronunciations and the speed of delivery of the person who was speaking were difficult to comprehend. Additionally, another respondent pointed out two criteria which were part of their routine oral communication at the job: (i) Enforcing discipline, (ii) Maintaining good humour. Stating it as an example to elaborate his point, the college principal narrated an incident. He said that at his college some of the staff and students approached him with a suggestion to have a regular daily prayer meeting in the morning before the start of the classes. The principal said he would allow the same if and only if everybody maintained the timing, attendance, general discipline and the dignity of prayers. lilt should not be treated as a casual affair", he had said. His firm attitude and the way he communicated the same, made the staff and students reconsider their proposal. However, the respondent also emphasized that it was important to maintain an atmosphere of good humour at the work place in order to sustain a good ambience and work output. This, though possible through oral communication, was a very difficult thing to do-he said. It thus appears that most of the respondents never really encountered problems with the different types of oral communication, but there were a few areas where they would like inputs to enhance their skills. Overall it appears that most principals do not seem to be having any problems with written or oral communication since they have dealt with almost every type of situation, issues, and problems and with all kinds of people at different levels by the time they reach the position of a College Principal. And even in their seat as a Principal (since however many years they might have been so)-they need and most often they already possess/ have cultivated qualities which enable them to deal with their job
Table 5.5c Assessment of Needs of College Principals in terms of the Use of Technology at Work for Communication Sr. Criteria No (Types of office technology)
Total
Responses 1
Always
2
3
Frequently Sometimes
4
5
6
7
Rarely
Never
Not in the purview of the job
Would like to enhance the skills
1 (2.56)
3 (7.69)
-
11 (2820)
6 (1538)
12 (30.76)
6 (1538)
-
2 (5.12)
3 (7.69)
9 (23.07)
7 (17.94)
11 (28.20)
7 (17.94)
1 (2.56)
-
4 (10.25)
10 (25.64)
6 (1538)
(28.20)
7 (17.94)
39 (100)
4
Photocopy machine and fax Presentation using a computer Using internet / worldwide web Using e-mail
1 (2.56)
1 (2.56)
2 (5.12)
7 (17.94)
8 (20.51)
13 (33.33)
7 (17.94)
39 (100)
5
Using voice-mail
2 (5.12)
-
2 (5.12)
7 (17.94)
5 (12.82)
14 (35.89)
9 (23.07)
39 (100)
1 2 3
Any other: (i) OHP (Overhead Projector) (ii) Slide Projector for CR (iii) Video Cassette Recorder (iv) Television (v) Tape-recorder FIgUreS m parentheses mdicate percentages.
6
1 (2.56)
11
.
39 (100)
Z ttl
39 (100)
0-
ttl
fJJ
90
Communication Skills for Educational Managels
and the people around them as smoothly as possible. Their experience too as administrators which builds up over the years helps them sharpen their communication skills-and they may perhaps need only helpful tips for the same to enhance their performance. As evident from the Table 5.5c above, it is seen that responses to the criteria 'not in the purview of the job' -were found to be higher in number. Significantly though, up to around 35 percent of the respondents also wanted to enhance their skill for the use of technology at work. One respondent (2.56%) additionally mentioned the use of the following technology (audio-visual aids) at work: Overhead projector, slide projector, video-cassette recorder, television and tape recorder; and said she rarely had a problem with the use of the same. And another respondent additionally pointed out that no advanced technological facilities were installed at his college and there was no question of use of the same. The respondents of the study were mostly senior principals in whose earlier professional time the use of office technology (except perhaps the use of telephone and typewriter) was not as prevalent nor as indispensable--as present times. One of the respondents did convey that the use of office technology was not that prevalent or accessible in their prime time as now in any of the institutes he had served in his work tenure. Another respondent conveyed that he would like to update his skills on the use of office technology but faced two problems: (i) lack of time at work since as college principal/ educational administrator he remained burdened with administrative work/problems, and (ii) having a mental block and some inhibitions towards new technologies. Thus, most of the respondents said that the use of office technology did not directly fall in the purview of their job, though they would like to have an understanding and basic functional skills for the same.
Table S.Sd Assessment of Communication Needs of College Principals in Terms of their Administrative Functions/Responsibilities Sr. Criteria No (fypes of administrative functions and responsibilities ) Financial Planning 1 2
Staff Development
Total
Responses 1
Always
2
3
Frequently Sometimes
4
5
6
7
Rarely
Never
Not in the purview of the job
Would like to enhance the skills
11
3 (7.69)
5 (12.82)
(28.20)
16 (41.02)
-
(7.69)
1 (2.56)
39 (100)
2 (5.12)
2 (5.12)
8 (20.51)
16 (41.02)
11
-
-
(28.20)
39 (100)
-
39 (100)
1
39 (100)
3'
3
Student Development
2 (5.12)
4 (10.25)
3 (7.69)
16 (41.02)
14 (35.89)
-
4
Curriculum and Instructions Evaluation
1 (2.56)
5 (12.82)
3 (7.69)
17 (43.58)
12 (30.76)
-
1 (2.56)
3 (7.69)
4 (10.25)
16 (41.02)
15 (38.46)
-
-
39 (100)
-
4 (10.25)
6 (15.38)
15 (38.46)
13 (33.33)
1 (2.56)
-
39 (100)
-
3 (7.69)
7 (17.94)
16 (41.02)
13 (33.33)
-
-
39 (100)
1 1 Interaction with (2.56) (2.56) affiliated university Any other: 9 (i) Interaction with UGC Figures 111 parentheses 111dlcate percentages.
9 (23.07)
13 (33.33)
15 (38.46)
-
-
39 (100)
1(2.56)
-
-
-
-
-
5 6 7 8
Media/Public relations Government Relations
.
(2.56)
92
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
As evident from the Table 5.5d above, it is seen that the responses to the criteria 'sometimes', 'rarely' and 'never' having a problem with communication in administrative functions and responsibilities-were found to be higher in number. Also, significantly-only a negligible one percent of the respondents mentioned a desire to enhance their skills for the same. One respondent (2.56%) additionally mentioned that he sometimes faced problems in dealings/transactions with the UGC (University Grants Commission). Additionally, one of the respondents pointed out that one of the major problems he had with the affiliated university was that of receiving late circulars. because of which taking the required action on time became a , problem. Some of the problems that the College Principals did face stemmed according to them-more from lack of adequate infrastructural support, and losing a lot of time and energy following up matters with concerned authorities. In the process they said-there was often a loss of motivation; and as one of the College Principals pointed out - they were able to 'manage', but unable to 'innovate'. 6. The respondents were asked whether a comprehensive self-study instructional module in communication would help, and if they had any suggestions for the same • Thirtynine respondents said 'yes' and agreed that a selfinstructional module in communication would certainly be of interest to them and would also help them enhance their skills in communication. (Two respondents, though, expressed they would not like to undergo any exhaustive training for the same, since they felt quite equipped and did not feel the need for further inputs immediately-in their given present circumstances.) Approximately fiftyone percent of the respondents elaborated their views and the comments and suggestions given by them are quoted below verbatim : (i) "Yes, the module would be very useful". (ii) "It's important to overcome the barriers to communication. Language, vocabulary and connotations of words-is important to know and understand".
Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis (iii)
93
"Regular updating of information and statistical pata and better exposure to modem, latest-electronic means of communication (iv) liThe questionnaire (Needs Assessment Schedule) focuses on various areas and demands of communication at the upper level of an institute. Whosoever responds to it and later goes through the module would find it useful and interesting from the viewpoint of his/her own role in the context of the field of communication". liThe module would be very useful. Computers and (v) Internet-have become part and parcel of daily life". "Yes, the module would be very useful. Learning (vi) communication skills is a continuing process". (vii) "Yes, self study modules are always useful to enhance skills". (viii) "Self study instructional modules in different areas of communication would help very much. The training would be very useful to enhance skills in communication (ix) "Innovative printed material in communication should be provided to concerned learners (College Principals)" . "Yes, the module would be very useful; though (x) communication is more 'common sense' (than anything else). A clear and clean mind can 'see' things better and resolve matters of concern more appropriately". "I have always assisted ex-deans in all administrative, (xi) legal, and financial matters. However, because of recent installations of modem office and information technology (Le., use of computers, networking, etc.); and not having much time to spare to learn these properly-I find it little difficult at times to operate smoothly" . (xii) "In the communication process, psychological factors are important. Everything depends on ones (professional) status-the nature of interactions one has; and also on ones frame of mind, i.e., one may II •
II •
94
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
(xiii)
(xiv)
(xv)
(xvi)
(xvii)
(xviii) (xix)
react in a particular way depending on the situation at that point. Through education one should learn to improvise. Change is imperative. One has to be a sensible and responsible administrator". "Communication is a must for developing/ perpetuating culture. Creative output is a must. Even the educational system needs a change-specially from it being an 'exam-oriented education' for students to a 'communication-oriented' one. Also, an overall interdisciplinary (subjectwise) approach to education needs to be initiated". "Yes, a well designed module with specific objectives; and covering relevant areas in communication would definitely help". "Apart from skills for communication, 'attitude'becomes a very important thing. It works either as a 'booster' or a 'barrier' to communication. Unless one is ready to listen to another or opposite point of view-keeping self-ego aside, effective communication would be a problem. Being the head of Communication School-and having to deal with University authorities, administrative staff, students and visiting facultyincluding media professionals-has given me a true . understanding of human nature". "Communication through ones (own) behaviour is essentially one of the most important types-and not many people understand or follow that". "Communication skills in English, Hindi and Gujarati-all need to sharpened in order to ensure that harmonious relations and compatible cofunctioning exist amongst all those who are a part of any educational institute. Good and appropriate language communication would strengthen the organization" . "It would be a helpful and very satisfactory experience to improve communication skills". "The module in communication would no doubt help-but what about the inadequacies and loopholes
Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis
95
within the educational system itself? How does one handle that?" (xx) liThe module is a must. If this is not done, principals will remain ill equipped". Thus, the comments and suggestions of the respondents clearly make a very positive case for the preparation of the selfinstructional module in communication for them (college principals) to study. This interpretation is in keeping with the finding from the review of literature which supports the preparation and use of modules for knowledge or skills enhancement. Further, some of respondents shared additional information with the researcher from their experiences as educational administrators-which is described below. One of the respondents who spoke to the researcher in detail began by saying that his experience as a principal was different at different places. But because of his personal integrity, he said he could raise the standard of the college/s wherever he was posted. He said he was disappointed at some of the places because of the problem of indiscipline. At some places the behaviour of teachers was also problematic, he lamented. But he said that virtues are inborn, and inherent good qualities of the administrators themselves make a lot of difference. He conveyed that it was sometimes important to withhold important decisions even from subordinates; and strictness at different levelswhenever required-should be imposed. Talking of other administrative challenges-he said that for administrators in the educational systems-financial and legal matters and interaction with the UGC (University Grants Commission) on issues pertaining to the same, sometimes remain 'grey' areas, and they find the dealing difficult. It would help, he said, if concerned people got together and discussed the problems and share how they could circumvent the same-so that work may go on uninterrupted. Orientation Programmes for educational administrators would also help-he said. Emphasising personal qualities as the most important though-he said he always maintained his humility at all times. But one should also maintain wit and dignity-he added and cited an example. Once, he said, when he entered a hall to attend
96
Communication Skills for Educational Managers
a meeting as the convener, the people present in the hall went against the practice of standing up from their respective seated positions (Le., they did not stand up to greet). He found this completely unacceptable since, he said, he did not expect to be paid personal respect, but the decorum of the meeting and practice of giving respect to chair must be maintained. So he went up to the chair and stood by it-but did not sit down. The others present in the hall soon realized their mistake and they all stood up. Hence, he said, without uttering a single word he conveyed a big message to everyone around. One of the respondents gave an interesting practical suggestion for enhancing functional communication. He said that the 'studentteacher-principal' communication in a college set-up was very important and to facilitate the same he suggested that a 'Communication box be put up in the college premises hall or lobby so that whoever wanted to may drop their expressions, thoughts or messages into the box. The box would be opened on a weekly/fortnightly basis, the contents of which could be discreetly made known/discussed with the concerned persons. Care should be taken, though, he said, that this did not become an unsporty game of 'fish-pond' where everyone could vent whatever they wanted to. Another respondent who also discussed problems faced by educational administrators mentioned the following activities as sometimes turning problematic : (i) Conducting examinations (ii) Students elections (iii) Students union activities (iv) Sports activities. But, he added, with growing experience each year, they become equipped enough to handle any situation that may arise during the conduct of the above mentioned or any other event. Thus, the responses, comments and suggestions given by the College Principals are indeed interesting and useful enough to be incorporated into the module to be developed by the researcher. Moreover, the responses and comments also reflect the preparedness of the respondents towards self-learning through the module, thereby making a very clear and positive case for its preparation and implementation.
Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis
97 .
Summation of the 'Needs Assessment' in Communication of College Principals The following were the final Interpretations of the Communication Needs Assessment Survey : 1. Most of the college principals were able to convey an understanding of 'Communication', though not all were very articulate in their expression of the same. And all of them did show an eagerness to know more about the different parameters of the concept of communication as delineated by the researcher-viz.,-an understanding of 'Communication', its elements, process, nature, types, functions, need, models, theories, barriers, and scope. Most of the college principals used the written mode (letters, circulars, notices) and the oral mode (meetings \ and discussions) of communication most of the time at the work place, while only a few of them used the computers or any other office technology (except the telephone) by themselves. 2. From the Needs Assessment Survey it was found that a very low percentage (upto around five percent) of the respondents conveyed 'always' and 'frequently' having problems with the two main communication modes (oral and written) mentioned in the needs assessment schedule criteria; while a high percentage (upto around fiftyfive percent) of the respondents conveyed having problems only 'sometimes', 'rarely', or 'never' with the use of the same as also with administrative functions and responsibilities. With the entire criteria of the use of technology at work, and a few other criteria in written and oral communication-upto fifteen percent of the respondents conveyed that these areas of work did not fall directly in the purview of their job. And upto about twentyfive percent of the respondents conveyed that they would like to know more/enhance their understanding of the various parameters of 'Communication' as a concept. 3. The respondents who mentioned about the use of technology not directly falling in the purview of their job-additionally conveyed to the researcher that there
98
Communication Skills for Educational Managers were some pertinent reasons for their not being able to use office technology very easily : (i) They remained very preoccupied with policy and administrative matters and had little time to work at and attain expertise with modem technology. (They would thus hire help or get the work done with the help of office staff.) (ii) Due to budgetary constraints, all of the modem office/other new technologies could not be installed at their colleges; hence due to the problem of access, they remained inadequately equipped to handle the same. But most of the respondents also said that despite all constraints they recognized their usefulness and knew that they would certainly like to have an understanding of their use, and with persistent handson experience with the same, they would definitely like to acquire atleast the basic functional skills for operating the systems. 4. The researcher observed that the college principals were senior, experienced and equipped enough to combat any problems they may encounter· while dispensing their administrative functions and responsibilities. Almost all of the principals conveyed that whatever difficult situations did arise were more due to infrastructural constraints rather than any other factor. During the interaction with the college principals, some of them did talk to the researcher-rather informally though-about 'getting work done' and dealing with 'difficult' persons at all levels at the work place-being a bigger administrative challenge than any other! Thus indeed, the importance of recognizing and enhancing the importance of interpersonal communication skills. 5. The categorization of 'Communication' into the different functional areas in the Needs Assessment Schedule itself prompted the academic layout of the module to be prepared for college principals. This was as under: (i) Conceptual understanding of Communication (ii) Organizational Communication
Communication Needs Assessment-Survey Analysis
99
(iii) Oral Communication (iv) Written Communication (v) Use of technology in Communication. All of the above categories had been respectively broken down into different units or segments enabling the respondents to answer questions to these with ease and clarity. The respondents also approved of the above as the 'Heads' under which the content of the module would be developed. In the Needs Assessment Schedule the researcher had included 'Organizational Communication' as a parameter of the conceptual understanding of Communication. But since quite a high percentage of respondents showed an inclination towards knowing more about it and since it is an extensive subject area by itself, the researcher would later separate it out as a section in the module. Written and Oral Communication too are modes or channels of communication used by persons in organizations, and technology is used to facilitate all communication in an organizational setting. Hence 'Oral Communication', 'Written Communication', and 'Use of Technology in Communication' would be included as separate units in the section 011 Organizational Communication. This would enhance clarity of presentation and ease understanding as also allow for accommodating adequate information per se on all the topics to be covered in the module. The Needs Assessment Survey helped the researcher establish priorities in the content to be included in the module-which would cater to the precise needs in 'Communication' which emerged from the entire exercise with the college principals. Clearly, the respondents wanted inputs in specific areas of the 'Concept of Communication', and 'Written' and 'Oral' Communication. Most of them were not too keen on detailed inputs on the 'Use of Technology in Communication'; and confident of their administrative abilities they conveyed that they did not really need inputs for the same. Thus some of the criteria delineated under the 'Administrative Functions / Responsibilities' by the researcher which otherwise also came under the purview of 'Organizational Dynamics' could now be included in the section on 'Organizational Communication' in the module.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
Thus the Needs Assessment Survey affirmed that the preparation of a self-instructional module in communication would be definitely useful to fulfil the needs-as assessed-of the college principals to enhance their skills for the same. The assessment also paved the way for finalizing the structure and formulating specific content for inclusion in the module on Communication to make it optimally beneficial to the college principals.
6 Development, Implementation and Evalu'ation of the Module Development of the Module The researcher developed the 'Communication Module' to help strengthen the communication abilities of college principals based on a 'role analysis' and 'needs assessment'. It was decided to undertake a 'role analysis' since doing so would help the researcher understand the nuances of the nature of the work of college principals; and a 'needs assessment' to determine their actual needs in 'communication' vis-a-vis the demands of their job. The expectation of the module was that it would help the college principals to gain a better understanding of'communication', and to sharpen their communication skills, thereby enabling them to perform more efficiently and optimally at their job. It would also ultimately lead to healthier and more effective communication networking v,'hich would enhance work output and an overall sense of satisfaction. 'Need-based' modules encourage creative learning, bring in desirable improvements in knowledge, attitude, and skills-which ultimately help in solving problems, and also help to create and sustain interest among learners. During the proceeds of the development of the module, the researcher read up extensively and tried to understand theretiocally the subject areas of 'Communication', 'Management', 'Organizational Communication' and 'Educational Administration'. She also scrutinized daily newspapers thoroughly to check out
.- 1
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
reports of issues pertaining to college principals, special columns by subject experts, as also information on 'communication'which would help her enrich and contexualise the content of the module vis-a.-vis the challenges faced by the principals in the implementation of their work. The researcher attempted to make the module as relevant and interesting as possible. The process of the development of the module took an effort of about five to six months on part of the researcher. Care was taken not to dilute too much the contents of the module since the target group of college principals were adult learners of good caliber. The researcher carefully sorted and sieved out and developed material from all the available resources to include only the most relevant content in the module. To facilitate reading, understanding, and recall the module was divided into two sections : Section 1 dealt with the concept of 'Communication'presented in different segments; while Section 2 dealt with 'Organizational Communication' and its dynamics. This section was divided into four units, viz., A. Understanding Organizational Communication B. Oral Communication C. Written Communication D. Use of technology in Communication. Both the sections included theoretical as well as applications information on the delineated subject areas which would be of interest and use to the college principals. The researcher took care to include content in the module as prioritized from the findings and inferences of the needs assessment survey. Section 1 of the module was detailed with the conceptual understanding of communication. It included segments on definitions, process, characteristics, nature, types, scope and functions, need, models and theories of 'communication', as also barriers to, and feedback in 'communication'. Section 2A of the module included the conceptual understanding of communication with segments on classical principles of an organization, communication flow, self-concept and self-disclosure, conflict management, principals of good communication in any organization, etc. Section 2B and 2C on Oral and Written
Development, Implementation and Evaluation of the Module 103 Communication respectively included segments on Good Listening, Dyadic Communication, meetings, use of audio-visual aids, as also style in writing, writing notices, agenda, minutes and research papers. Section 2D on use of technology in communication included segments on management of information with the help of computers, and details on the Internet. Different segments were presented under each of the above unit. An Introduction at the beginning and a contextual interpretation at the end were written for each section. 'Progresscheck' questions were included at the end of each segment, as also self-assessment exercises as necessary and appropriate. The 'progress-check' questions included at the end of each segment in the module were based on the theoretical concepts presented in the particular segment. This was done to help the college principals take a test of how much they had understood and remembered about the topic covered in that particular segment. Also posed to the learners were 'problem situations' which the researcher had evolved from her observations from the 'Role Analysis' and the 'Needs Assessment' studies, asking how they, as administrators, would resolve the issue in light of enhanced learning through some new information which they may have gained through the exercise in self-learning. This would help the college principals to analyse and apply the knowledge and understanding gained to the practical situation they face. At the end of the module, a selfappraisal feedback schedule was included for the College Principals to fill in and send back to the researcher. The feedback schedule would help the researcher to evaluate the usefulness of the module. The college principals were asked to rate the module on a five-point scale of 'very good' to 'cannot decide' in terms of how interesting and useful they found it, if it had enhanced their communication skills and performance in any way, and if they had any suggestions for the same. Validation of the Module The module was given for validation to fifteen experts representing the fields of 'Communication', 'Education', and 'Management'; eight of them academicians, two retired College Principals, one person currently a College Principal, and four others practitioners in the field. The researcher personally handed over copies of the"1n.odule to the valida tors, explaining to them
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how the contents had been developed and included in the same for self-study (Please refer Appendix 2E for the letter). They were requested to give their feedback within a timeframe of three to four weeks, for which she would meet them again. The following were the suggestions given by the experts for modifications in the module: (i) Contervalise further the content of the module vis-a.-vis the role that College Principals play in the proceeds of their work and their needs in communication as assessed in context of the same. (ii) Include more examples to explain the different conflict/ problem situations faced by College Principals. (iii) Give more specific questions in the 'progress-check' sections. (iv) Try to do some more referencing for the 'written_. communication' section. (v) Cut out the unnecessary theorization and add more relevant examples particularly in the 'Organizational Communication' section. (vi) Include interpretations of the topics covered at the end of all units/sections. (vii) Try to improve formatting/presentation of the content. (viii) Detail the index. The above suggestions were incorporated in the module as necessary and the researcher revised and finalized the contents of the module after an interaction with the validators and few other experts. She realized that it was important to have just the appropriate amount of content in the segments for the learners to read, otherwise it would get tedious and uninteresting to go through. All the vaiidators, though, opined that the module was quite good in terms of content and presentation. It was a rich text, all of them said, with a good flow, logical arrangement and the coherence of the substance well maintained. (Please refer Volume 2 of the thesis for the Module). Implementation of the Module The researcher made the necessary modifications as suggested by the validators, after which the module was ready to be administered to the sampled College Principals of Gujarat
Development, Implementation and Evaluation of the Module 105 University at Ahmedabad. Twentyfive College Principals were handed the module for self-study with an explanation of what was expected of them. A covering letter (Appendix 2F) was also enclosed. The researcher personally met the college principals and explained to them how she developed the module based on the 'role analysis' and 'needs assessment' for which she had met them earlier. She clarified the doubts and questions that some of the principals had, and also explained to them that a Feedback Schedule (Appendix lC) had been attached at the end of the module along with the researcher's self-addressed envelope to facilitate their sending of the response. All of them agreed to cooperate and send feedback within the allotted timeframe of eight to ten weeks. After the implementation of the module the researcher kept in touch with the respondents clarifying their doubts as also later sending them reminder letters for the feedback (Appendix 2G). Evaluation of the Module The usefulness of the module to the target group of College Principals (as also its utilization by others) was analysed through the Feedback Schedule for self-analysis which had been administered along with the module itself (please refer Appendix lC for the feedback schedule). Of the twentyfive College Principals to whom the module had been implemented, twentyone (84%) responded with the necessary feedback within the timeframe allotted for self-study of the module. Four of the respondents, when contacted by the researcher expressed regret owing to personal circumstances for not being able to send the feedback to the module. They had gone through it in parts, they said, but not systematically enough to respond to the feedback schedule. The following is the analysis of the twenty one responses received: As evident from the Table 6.1 above, it is seen that a rating of 'good', followed by 'very good' for the module in terms of interesting new information provided in the particular delineated areas was attributed by most of the respondents. A negligible number of respondents rated the mod ule as 'average', while none of them rated it as 'disappointing'.
Table 6.1 Rating of the usefulness of the module given by the college principals in terms of interesting new information they may have gained in the particular delineated areas Sr. No.
a.
Rating of the Module
Conceptual understanding of communication b.(i) Understanding organisational communication b.(ii) Understanding oral communication b.(iii) Understanding written communication b.(iv) Use of technology in communication c. The self-assessment exercises
Responses 1 Very Good
10 (47.61)
Total 2 Good
3 Average
Disappointing
5 Cannot decide
11
-
-
-
21 (100)
4
(52.38) 8 (38.09)
2 (9.52)
-
(52.38)
-.
21 (100)
8 (38.09)
10 (47.61)
2 (9.52)
-
1 (4.76)
21 (100)
3 (14.28)
18 (85.71)
-
-
-
21 (100)
5 (23.80)
14 (66.66)
2 (9.52)
-
-
21 (100)
5 (23.80)
14 (66.66)
2 (9.52)
-
-
21 (100)
11
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages.
6.3.2
Table 6.2 Rating of the usefulness of the module given by college principals in tenns of inputs they may have gained in the various mentioned parameters
Sr. Usefulness of the Module No. in terms of the following
Total
Responses
(i)
Gaining insights into the conceptual understanding of communication (ii) Gaining understanding about organizational communication (iii) Gaining inputs for oral communication (iv) Gaining inputs for written communication (v) Gaining information about use of technology for communication (vi) Gaining insights through the self assessment exercises included in the module Figures in parenthesis indicate percentages.
1
2
3
4
5
Very useful
Quite useful
Partially useful
Not useful
Cannot decide
4 (19.04)
16 (76.19)
1 (4.76)
-
-
21 (100)
17 (80.95)
2 (9.52)
2 (9.52)
-
-
21 (100)
1 (4.76)
18 (85.71)
2 (9.52)
-
-
21 (100)
-
19 (90.47)
2 (9.52)
-
-
21 (100)
-
20 (95.23)
1 (4.76)
-
-
21 (100)
1(4.76)
18(85.71)
2(9.52)
-
-
21 (100)
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
As evident from the Table 6.2 above, it is seen that a rating of 'quite useful' for the module in terms of inputs gained in the various mentioned parameters was attributed by a high number of respondents, with a negligible number rating it 'partially useful'. A high number of respondents also rated the module as 'very useful' in terms of gaining an understanding about organizational communication. Enhanced 'Communication Experiences' as Recalled and Shared by College Principals Answers to question 3-where respondents were asked to recall and share any instances of a 'communication experience' . which may have occurred after they went through the module; and where they felt or realized that, their performance had been better than before and enhanced owing to their exercise in selflearning. Responses received to the above question and they are quoted below verbatim : (i) "I did not realize that I would enjoy becoming a 'leamer' again after many years. I found it refreshing to 'study' an interesting subject area, and definitely since then have found myself being more attentive towards the way in which I communicate". (ii) "I daily prepare a 'TODAY' paper sheet now (which I used to do even earlier, but now do it more systematically) which I use as a 'reminding media' for giving and receiving information and formulating 'work strategies'. This helps me in ensuring a smooth flow of work at the college". (iii) "Such modules certainly make one aware of how one communicates. After going through the module, one becomes conscious of his/her communicative responsibilities, as well as barriers faced. Going through the module does guide one towards self-assessment regarding ones communication abilities and what one experiences at work owing to the same as also how tonow-improve oneself regarding the same". (iv) "Th~re were a lot of ideas on 'communication' floating in my mind, on which I could actually act upon and consolidate after going through the module. This helped
Development, Implementation and Evaluation of the Module
109
me draw some favourable responses and enhance small but fruitful changes in attitude in the people in my organization" . The above statements are positive and reflect that going through the module did help the college principals did help the college principals in enhancing their communication understanding and performance. Though only four of the responses are quoted verbatim, more than fifteen of the respondents had also expressed that they had found the module useful for the same. Enhanced 'Communication Performances' as Recalled and Shared by College Principals Answers to question 4-where respondents were asked to recall and share an instance which may have occurred after they went through the module; where a colleague, subordinate, or an acquaintance may have complimented them on a 'communication performance' which they felt or realized had been better than before and enhanced owing to their exercise in self-learning. Responses received to the above question are quoted below verbatim : (i) "My colleagues and subordinates now seem happier with my communication techniques". (ii) "A better communication performance may not always depend upon such an exercise in self-learning. It does however make one review his/her communication style and functions more objectively". (iii) "Earlier I used to believe that the abilities to 'communicate' and 'convince' are 'in-born' in a person, but since I have read the module I feel sure that to a great extent these abilities can be cultivated and sharpened over a period of time". (iv) "There is an appreciation by subordinates and I can myself sense my improved communication performance at work, and also in many other personal matters". The above statements too are positive and reflect that working through the module helped the college principals in enhancing their 'communication' skills and performance. Thus, four respondents each, in answer to questions 3 and 4, shared their
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feelings and experiences on enhanced communication, experiences and performances at work owing to their exercise in self-learning through the module. All the eight statements made by them do convey a lot of meaning in context of the 'gain' and 'satisfaction' they derived from studying the module. 'The other respondents though may not have elaborated on the same, would surely have gained a lot too from the selflearning exercise of studying the module-as is reflected in their rating on the scales in questions 1 and 2, as also in some of the comments in response to question 5 (Please refer Appendix IC for the questions included in the Feedback Schedule). Moreover, it may have been too soon for them to actually _ 'experience' a change for the better in their communication abilities in a short span of eight to ten weeks which was the timeframe duration which the researcher methodologically utilized to implement the module to the College Principals and sought their responses. Material studied usually takes time to get processed, internalized and manifest into behaviour, and so would be the case with the utilization of the module. Comments and Suggestions for the Module given by College Principals Eight respondents gave their comments on the module and their statements suggest that they had indeed found it useful and interesting. The responses are quoted below verbatim : (i) "I have gone through the module almost three times over and found the contents very good and the entire exercise in self-learning really worthwhile". (Principal, Commerce College) "'The module is excellent and very well crafted. It will (ii) be of extreme help to both academicians and practitioners in society, and in fact all administrators may benefit from reading it. It is indeed a valuable piece of work". (Principal, Science College) (iii) "The module is very valuable since it contains selectively collected reference material excerpted from rich and exhaustive research, as also interesting relevant examples to explain different concepts". (Principal, Arts College)
Development, Implementation and Evaluation of the Module 111 (iv)
"It was interesting to go through the progress-check questions, particularly where I needed to apply my mind to the problem situations presented and resolve the issue as per my new understanding of the same. Going through the module really gave me new insights into the 'communication issues' that I handle as a College Principal". (Principal, Medical College) (v) "Many more such modules relevant to the subject areas of 'Education' and 'Communication' should be prepared". (Principal, Education College) (vi) "Your research and development of the selfinstructional module in communication are worth a lot of appreciation. Congratulations !" (Principal, Education College) (vii) "Communication is the main thing in successfully executing ones desired goals. In our body, the brain has developed an effective communication system through the central and peripheral nervous system. Through that-all body parts are linked with each other and they work as one unit. 'Vasudaiva Kutumbakam'-i.e., 'the whole world is a small family' -this feeling has been nurtured in the past by thinkers, poets and writers. Today the world is really a small global village-thanks to the developments of science and technology. All the different mediaviz.,-newspapers, telephones, radio, television, computers and the internet-have enabled quick and effective communication as one could never think of earlier". (Principal, Physiotherapy College) (viii) "Both the sections viz., 'Conceptual Understanding of Communication', and 'Organizational Communication and its Dynamics'-were very interesting to read. The module is well organized and broken down into interesting subheads. I now have great clarity on the subject area of 'Communication'; as also have gained helpful tips for Oral and Written Communication. The 'Use of Technology in Communication' unit also inspired me to try to know and learn the use of computers, the internet, etc." (Principal, Arts & Commerce College)
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers
Eight other respondents mentioned 'Good' or 'Very Good Work' as their comments for the module, and five others did not give any descriptive feedback on the same. Summation of the Development, Implementation and Evaluation of the Module It clearly emerges from the above analysis that the 'Communication Module' has definitely been useful to College Principals to help enhance their communication skills and competence to optimally perform at work. The most positive response was to the Sections 1 and 2A on the 'Conceptual Understanding of Communication' and 'Organizational Communication and its Dynamics' respectively. The Sections on Oral and Written Communication too had been found useful by the learners, while the last section on the use of technology for communication evoked an interest in them to know and learn more about computers and the Internet. The college principals also seemed keen to read up further on the areas which may have particularly interested them more and put in more conscious efforts into their manifest 'communication' at all levels. Moreover, though the module has been primarily prepared for College Principals, it clearly appeared from the opinions expressed by them (and other experts whom the researcher met during the proceeds of her work) that the module could also be of use, with necessary modifications, to all educational administrators, managers, leaders, academicians, or any other persons genuinely interested in the same; to place communication concepts in appropriate perspective and help enhance communication skills which ~ould enable more meaningful and satisfying work performance and output. Also, in context of future utilization in terms of research and policy prescription, the present study offers scope to explore possibilities to work further with different target groups; as also lay emphasis on 'communication' orientation/ stud y programmes for all groups of professionals and different sections of societyto impart (at least) a fundamental understanding of 'communication' to them and thereby attempt to infuse into the different strata of society-an appropriate and useful flow of knowledge, thought, and action.
7 Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations Introduction The researcher had undertaken in her study a 'Role Analysis' and a 'Needs Assessment' Survey before developing the selfinstructional module in Communication for College Principals, implementing it to them, and evaluating its utility vis-a.-vis ·he enhancement of their communication skills. Findings The following are the significant findings of all the procedures undertaken: Significant Findings of 'Role Analysis' It clearly appeared to the researcher that the nature, dimensions and intensity of the problems faced by principals varied depending on the subjects being taught at the respective colleges-and they had to deal with the same according to the nuances of the situation presented to them. Moreover, there were some major duties and responsibilities which college principals had to shoulder in their roles as heads of institutes. These the researcher discerned from her interaction with the college principals and are as follows : 1. Inadequate staff and infrastructure to cope with the thousands of students seeking admission each year.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers 2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Aumission time pressures, including having to cope with threats, man-handling, destruction and violence by blundering students, their leaders, and vested interest lobbyists. Conducting annual elections for student representatives which usually whip up a lot of positive and negative emotions and passion on campus-beginning with campaigning to the time the election results are announced. And it doesn't end there, because then the problems with the Students Union and its activities would begin. Hosting cultural events/ activities/youth meets where thousands of students would gather and interact over a few days; and till all of it passed off peacefully, the principals remained under pressure. Hosting sports events (unfortunately sports activities are usually relegated to the background)-which really need to be encouraged by college principals; but end up being a lot of work for which not all staff members extend necessary cooperation. The main concern of all principals is the peaceful passing off of examinations-both internal and final. They said that almost every year they had to deal with delays in conducting examinations, sometimes owing to strikes by students-demanding postponement, cuts in syllabus, or full option in the question papers; and sometimes owing to disruptions in the academic routines owing to natural or manmade calamities. Conducting examinations is itself such a tedious affair-from getting papers set to organizing seating arrangements, ensuring smooth circulation of question papers and answer books; maintaining vigilance at the time of the exams, collection of the same at the end of the exam; and later distribution of answer books for correction, and finally announcing results on time. In colleges with a semester system, all of this procedure has to be conducted twice a year. And inextricably woven into the fabric of all of the above, in small or big measures, was the 'crime' element-and having to handle that-one of the most challenging tasks
Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
115
for the principals. Round the year, for different reasons; mostly-for elections and examinations, the college principals have to coordinate and arrange for security with the police. Thus, it was often that the college principals found themselves involved with tasks which were far removed from their academic or administrative responsibilities, sometimes playing a role they would have hardly envisaged for themselves.
Significant Findings of the 'Needs Assessment' Survey in Communication The following are the significant findings of the Communication Needs Assessment Survey of College Principals : 1. Most of the college principals were able to convey an understanding of 'Communication', though not all were very articulate in their expression of the same. And all of them did show an eagerness to know more about the different parameters of the concept of communication as delineated by the researcher-viz.,-an understanding of 'Communication', its elements, process, nature, types, functions, need, models, theories, barriers, and scope. Most of the college principals used the written mode (letters, circulars, notices) and the oral mode (meetings and discussions) of communication most of the time at the work place, while only a few of them used the computers or any other office technology (except the telephone) by themselves. 2. From the Needs Assessment Survey it was found that a very low percentage (upto around five percent) of the respondents conveyed 'always' and 'frequently' having problems with the two main communication modes (oral and written) mentioned in the needs assessment schedule criteria; while a high percentage (upto around fiftyfive percent) of the respondents conveyed having problems only 'sometimes', 'rarely', or 'never' with the use of the same as also with administrative functions and responsibilities. With the entire criteria of the use of technology at work, and a few other criteria in written and oral communication-up to fifteen percent of the respondents conveyed that these areas of work did not
116
Communication Skills for Educational Managers fall directly in the purview, of their job. And up to about twentyfive percent of the respondents conveyed that they would like to know more/enhance their understanding of the various parameters of 'Communication' as a concept. 3. The respondents who mentioned about the use of technology not directly falling in the purview of their job-additionally conveyed to the researcher that there were some pertinent reasons for their not being able to use office technology very easily : (i) They remained very preoccupied with policy and administrative matters and had little time to work at and attain expertise with modem technology. (They would thus hire help or get the work done with the help of office staff.) (ii) Due to budgetary constraints, all of the modem office/other new technologies could not be installed at their colleges; hence due to the problem of access, they remained inadequately equipped to handle the same. But most of the respondents also said that despite all constraints they recognized their usefulness and knew L.1tat they would certainly like to have an understanding of their use, and with persistent handson experience with the same, they would definitely like to acquire atleast the basic functional skills for operating the systems. 4. The researcher observed that the college principals were senior, experienced and equipped enough to combat any problems they may encounter while dispensing their administrative functions and responsibilities. Almost all of the principals conveyed that whatever difficult situations did arise were more due to infrastructural constraints rather than any other factor. During the interaction with the college principals, some of them did talk to the researcher-rather informally though-about 'getting work done' and dealing with 'difficult' persons at all levels at the work place-being a bigger administrative challenge than any other! Thus indeed, the importance of recognizing and enhancing the importance of interpersonal communication skills.
Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations 5.
1] 7
The categorization of 'Communication' into the different functional areas in the Needs Assessment Schedule itself prompted the academic layout of the module to be prepared for college principals. This was as under: (i) Conceptual understanding of Communication (ii) Organizational Communication (iii) Oral Communication (iv) Written Communication (v) Use of technology in Communication. All of the above categories had been respectively broken down into different units or segments enabling the respondents to answer questions to these with ease and clarity. The respondents also approved of the above as the 'Heads' under which the content of the module would be developed. In the Needs Assessment Schedule the researcher had included 'Organizational Communication' as a parameter of the conceptual understanding of Communication. But since quite a high percentage of respondents showed an inclination towards knowing more about it and since it is an extensive subject area by itself, the researcher would later separate it out as a section in the module. Written and Oral Communication too are modes or channels of communication used by persons in organizations, and technology is used to facilitate all communication in an organizational setting. Hence 'Oral Communication', 'Written Communication', and 'Use of Technology in Communication' would be included as separate units in the section on Organizational Communication. This would enhance clarity of presentation and ease understanding as also allow for accommodating adequate information per se on all the topics to be covered in the module. The Needs Assessment Survey helped the researcher establish priorities in the content to be included in the module--which would cater to the precise needs in 'Communication' which emerged from the entire exercise with the college principals. Clearly, the respondents wanted inputs in specific areas of the 'Concept of Communication', and 'Written' and 'Oral' Communication. Most of them were not too keen on detailed inputs on the 'Use of Technology in Communication'; and
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confident of their administrative abilities they conveyed that they did not really need inputs for the same. Thus some of the criteria delineated under the'Administrative Functions / Responsibilities' by the researcher which otherwise also came under the purview of 'Organizational Dynamics' could now be included in the section on 'Organizational Communication' in the module. Thus the Needs Assessment Survey affirmed that the preparation of a self-instructional module in communication would be definitely useful to fulfil the needs-as assessed-of the college principals to enhance their skills for the same. The assessment also paved the way for finalizing the structure and fonnulating specific content for inclusion in the module'on Communication to make it optimally beneficial to the college . principals. Significant Findings of the Evaluation of the Module It clearly emerges from the above analysis that the 'Communication Module' has definitely been useful to College Principals to help enhance their communication skills and competence to optimall" perform at work. The most positive response was to the Sections 1 and 2A on the 'Conceptual Understanding of Communication' and 'Organizational Communication and its Dynamics' respectively. The Sections on Oral and Written Communication too had been found useful by the learners, while the last section on the use of technology for communication evoked an interest in them to know and learn more about computers and the Internet. The college principals also seemed keen to read up further on the areas which may have particularly interested them more and put in more conscious efforts into their manifest 'communication' at all levels. Moreover, though the module has been primarily prepared for College Principals, it clearly appeared from the opinions expressed by them (and other experts whom the researcher met during the proceeds of her work) that the module could also be of use, with necessary modifications, to all educational administrators, managers, leaders, academicians, or any other persons genuinely interested in the same; to place communication concepts in appropriate perspective and help enhance communication skills which would enable more meaningful and satisfying work performance and output.
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Also, in context of future utilization in terms of research and policy prescription, the present study offers scope to explore possibilities to work further with different target groups; as also lay emphasis on 'communication' orientation/ study programmes for all groups of professionals and different sections of societyto impart (at least) a fundamental understanding of'communication' to them and thereby attempt to infuse into the different strata of society-an appropriate and useful flow of knowledge, thought, and action. Further, the respondents had found the sequencing and flow of the module logical and smooth, and could work through the module within the timeframe allotted by researcher of eight to ten weeks. They said that they found the module to be a rich text and communication resource which had helped them to enhance their communication skills and performance. Conclusion 'Communication' is indeed the key element, a fulcrum-on which depends a lot of how the odds and evens of the organizational climate tum ..., and yet it is one of the most overlooked aspects of educational administration and teaching. 'Communication' is fundamental to all organizational life, particularly life is educational institutes. As Simon argued as early as 1957, in his volume' Administrative Behaviour', "Without communication there can be no organization". Yet, the diverse nature of the concept and its branched development among disciplines over time have led "the experimentalist, the historian, and theoretician alike in different and sometimes contradictory directions" (Dance, 1970). Review of the concept of communication in the context of formal and informal systems in educational organizations, and more research related to 'communication' teaching and learning would be of great significance and would contribute a lot to the field. It would also help provide alternative viable means by which sociocultural norms may be examined, debated and upgraded to encourage multicultural dialogue aimed at the reform and improvement of our nation's educational institutes. And indeed, the incorporation of the fonnal study of 'communication' into administrator and teacher preparation programmes can only enhance the achievement of this important objective.
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There could also be a case for the reconceptualization of the role of principal-i.e., to go beyond 'instruction' and being 'internally focussed' and to move towards the 'community' and external constituents-i.e., to have a 'community leadership role'. Current societal realities suggest keeping and cultivating an interdependence between educational institutes and communities from a transformative perspective. As far as the 'conflict management' and 'interpersonal communication' style of the principal is concerned, it was expected that they should have an ability to communicate organizational goals, and be able to exercise effective communication. Though conflict cannot be completely eliminated, the administration should be able to control the effects of conflict by altering the amount experienced at various levels. The principals ability to manage the different types of organizational conflict-impacts worker productivity and therefore directly influences the outcomes of the progress towards improving institutional achievement. Thus, the following are some of the essential qualities looked for in persons aspiring to be 'principals' : Administrative experience, instructional focus, finely tuned decision making skills, a sense of justice and fairplay, a focus on community and instructional leadership, and finally-sharp communication skills. But there are some factors which deter teachers from seeking principalship-the main ones being the nature of the responsibilities bringing with them expectations of high accountability to the management and university authorities and a not so high compensation to meet all of this. Moreover, difficulties of geographical locations of colleges, possibilities of transfers and placements in mofussil areas may also be at times demotivating factors for :1cceptance of principalship. In the context of the present study, the 'communication module' was developed with the expectation that the target learners, viz., the College Principals-who would go through the exercise in self-learning would enhance skills necessary to be active and effective administrators. They wou1d additionally cultivate/hone an appropriate attitude in terms of positive changes in their thinking; as well as gain inputs for grooming certain other personality traits-all of which together would work to help them resolve issues and conflicts which they
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commonly face in the proceeds of their work, as also enjoy a better sense of satisfaction and meaningfulness. ln conclusion, it may be reiterated that the 'communication module' worked out to be useful to the target group of College Principals and it also emerged that it had scope of broader utilization-with necessary modifications, to be of use to all present and future learners as also to any person genuinely interested-to place communication concepts in appropriate perspective and help enhance communication skills which would enable more meaningful and satisfying work performance and output. Thus, in light of all the above discussion and the parameters covered in the entire study and the module, it is imperative that the necessary 'communication inputs' through appropriate modes should cut across all sections of society and percolate and reach all persons-to enhance 'communication understanding and practice' -which indeed is now clearly emerging as essential in all its manifest utilization as an important 'life skill'. Recommendations It emerged from the study that the module may be recommended for study to all educational administrators including school principals, heads of autonomous institutes or any other since the issues they may be facing may be similar to those of college principals. All administrators involved with policy level work or even persons employed in the government administrative sectors would benefit from an exercise in selflearning in communication. Suggestions for further research in the area include trying out the module on an experimental basis and looking at the variations in enhanced learning, considering sampling of college principals based on different criteria for the colleges-namely, urban or rural location of the college, colleges for only girls or coeducational colleges, colleges of different mediums of instruction, different nature of funding of colleges, etc. Moreover the module could be translated in Gujarati to be of more use to persons with a knowledge and understanding of the vernacular language only. Ultimately, 'Communication' empowers. It is one of the most important elements that ensures interactional efficiency. A mutual
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exchange of information in appropriate ways among different users, across all levels of hierarchy in any organizational setting, facilitates the sharing of ideas and opinions and coming to a common level of understanding-regardless of any limitations. It is therefore important for administrators to focus on selfappraisal processes and taking up performance improvement action in order to equip themselves with comprehensive knowledge and understanding, and acquiring skills to enhance communication performance.
Part-II
The Module
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
1 Conceptual Understanding of JCommunication'
We begin the exercise in 'self-learning' by trying to grasp a conceptual understanding of 'communication' - in order to get acquainted with its various factors; as also to comprehend its nature and meaning in context of all its nuances and wide application. Understanding 'Communication' Communication denotes a process that is both interactive and purposeful. The word 'Communication' is derived from Latin "Communis", which means - 'to make common', 'to share', 'to impart' or 'to transmit'. Through Communication, people influence one another's behaviour and unite themselves in groups. Thus 'Communication' is a means for breaking down the barriers to human integration. It is a means for achieving mutual understanding. Communication implies sharing some information or an attitude with another person or group of persons. Thus, Communication always requires at least three elements : (a) the source, (b) the message, and (c) the destination. The classic definition of effective communication is found in Harold D. Lasswell's words: "Who says what, to whom, through which channel, and to what effect". In any attempt to define the
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tenn "Communication" : interaction, interchange, a 'sharing', and a 'commonness' are ideas that come to one's mind immediately. Communication is a basic instinct of life. It is a fact of life of not only human beings, but also of animals and plants. It is an ever-continuing process and it is fundamental and going on all the time. Communication is a social process and it is fundamental and vital to human survival. Fundamental because every human society, whether modem or primitive, is founded on the capacity of its members to maintain a working consensus about the social order through Communication. As Ashley Montagu and Floyd Matson in their book The Human Communication (McGraw Hill, 1979) say, 'Communication is the name we give to the countless ways that humans have of keeping in touch - not just words and music, pictures and print, nods and pecks, postures and plumages: to everyone move that catches someone's eye and every sound that resonates upon another's ear'. Communication is not limited to human beings alone. Animals, birds and bees, they all communicate by singing, croaking and by other sounds they make. They also communicate through visual and olfactory signals. The dance of the honey bee is a sophisticated means of communication for it conveys to other bees the precise direction and distance of the place where nectar will be found. Communication is a social, political, economic and cultural need of human beings. It is a social need for the articulation ot individual and community needs. It is essential politically to create enlightened public opinion. The economic needs served by communication are in extension and transfer of technology, in the modernization and development process. Culturally, Communication is a means of individual and community expression, discovery and enrichment and recreation. Communication includes all methods of disseminating information, knowledge, thought, attitudes and beliefs through such modem media as internet, television and radio, print media, as also traditional means such as folk media and interpersonal media. The authors of the book The Human Communication quoted earlier see Communication as more than just media and message, information and persuasion. "Human Communication ... also
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meets a deeper need and serves a higher purpose. Whether clear or garbled, tumultuous or silent, deliberate or fatally inadvertent, communication is the ground of meeting and the foundation of community. It is, in short, the essential human connection. Some Definitions of Communication
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"Communication is social interaction through messages". (unknown) "Communication is a purposeful process which involves sources, messages, channels, and receivers". (unknown)
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"Communication is a process effecting an interchange of understanding between two or more people". (unknown)
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"Communication is the mutual interchange of ideas by any effective means". (unknown)
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"When social interaction involves the transmission of meanings through the usage of symbols it is known as Communication". (unknown)
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"Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one person to another". Brooker
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"Communication is the control of behaviour through descriptive and reinforcing stimuli". HorIman
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"Communication is the discriminatory response of an organism to a stimulus". Stevens
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"Communication is the force by which an individual communicator transmits stimuli to modify the behaviour of other individuals". Howland
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"Communication is all the procedures by which one mind can affect another". Warren Weaver
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1.
2.
Please check your progress Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Elaborate briefly on the basic/fundamental understanding of 'Communication'.
(ii) State two definitions of 'Communication' which
according to you are the most appropriate in the context of your job.
The Process of Communication Communication is the process of enhancing meaningful interaction between individuals. This process that has been going on since the dawn of civilization is an essential element for the existence of society. Our ancestors communicated through symbols and gestures, and through the spoken word later on. With the strides ahead that mankind has made in technology, newer media for communication were discovered which made communication between people and even countries instantaneous and effective. To be successful, communication should be a two-way process: (1) Sending of message to an audience through a channel, (2) Reply or reaction to the message. The two-way process presupposes a communicator, a message, a channel, and a receiver. To put it in the language of researchers, the Communicator is the encoder, the message is the symbol, the channel is one of the media, the receiver is the decoder.
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To put it in another way, Communication takes place when the sender selects a certain message and gives it a special treatment for transmission over a selected channel from a receiver who interprets the message before taking the desired action. Graphically it can be seen as follows : Graphic 1 : The Process of Communication ISender I IMessage
I
ITreatment
I
IChannell
IReceiverl
These then are the elements of communication. 1. The Sender may be called the communicator/speaker / source. It is the person or apparatus that puts the process into operation. The sender decides what message to send, how to treat it so that the audience can follow it, what channels to use and which receivers or audience to reach. If the sender does not make the most appropriate or correct choice, the communication is likely to fail. 2. The message is the 'information' package for the use of the audience. It may be a single signal also. 3. The treatment of the message refers to the way in which the message is handled before placing it in the channel. Its purpose is to make the message clear, understandable and realistic to the audience. 4. The channel is the medium of communication through. which the message is sent. 5. The receiver/audience may be a single person or it may be a group of people or the masses. The more homogenous the audience is, the greater are the chances of effective communication. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
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Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Which are the elements involved in the process of 'Communication'?
(ii) Discuss briefly how the 'Communication' process
takes place?
The Characteristics of Communication The following are the significant characteristics of communication : 1. Communication consists of several different elements in constant interaction with one another. The elements most frequently mentioned are source, receiver, encoder, decoder, message, context, channel, effect, feedback and noise. 2. Communication has no clear observable beginning or end; communication transactions do not have fixed boundaries. 3. 'Noise' is often inevitable in any communication transaction. 4. Communication is dynamic: Communication is not a static event but rather one in constant process. 5. Communication is transactional; each element influences every other element. 6. Communication is complex. The numerous types of communication, the numerous purposes communication serves, the numerous contexts in which communication may take place, and the numerous forms communication messages may take make a vast array of communication
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acts possible. There seems little question that communication is complex. 7. Encoders and decoders are interchangeable. Each party continually encodes and decodes. 8. Feedback messages come from the source as well as from the receiver and provide the source with information as to the relative effectiveness of various messages. 9. Communication messages may be verbal as well as nonverbal, for e.g., Communication would take place when we squint our eyes as well as when we speak. 10. Communication takes place through the continual encoding and decoding of signals - a process whereby signals transmitted in one code are received and translated into another code. The Seven C's of Communication The following seven commandments of communication can further be listed as essential characteristics for effective communication : 1. Credibility: Communication starts with a climate of belief. This climate is built by performance on the part of the practitioner. The performance reflects an earnest desire to serve the receiver. The receiver must have confidence in the sender. He must have a high regard for the source's competence on the subject. 2. Context: A communication programme must square with the realities of its environment. The context must provide for participation and playback. The context must confirm, not contradict, the message. 3. Content: The message must have meaning for the receiver, and it must be compatible with his value system. It must have relevance for him. In general, people select those items of information which promise them greatest rewards. The content determines the audience. 4. Clarity: The message must be put in simple terms. Words must mean the same thing to the receiver as they do to the sender. Complex issues must be compressed into themes, slogans, or stereotypes that have simplicity and
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clarity. The further a message has to travel, the simpler it must be. An institution must speak with one voice, not many voices. 5. Continuity and Consistency: Communication is an unending process. It requires repetition to achieve penetration. Repetition-with variation---contributes to both factual and attitude learning. The story must be consistent. 6. Channels: Established channels of communication should be used---channels that the receiver uses and respects. Creating new ones is difficult. Different channels have different effects and serve effectively in different stages of the diffusion process. 7. Capability of Audience: Communication must take into account the capability of the audience. Communications are most effective when they require the least effort on the part of the recipient. This includes factors of availability, habit, reading ability, and receiver's knowledge. Please check your progress 1. Make some poir}ts of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point / s that may have struck you as significant:
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) State some of the significant characteristics of 'Communication' .
(ii) State and elaborate briefly the 7 "C's" of
'Communication' .
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The Nature of Communication The nature of communication is essentially of two types: (i) verbal and (ii) non-verbal. The VERBAL mode of communication encourages listening, speaking and writing; and research indicates that on an average a person spends about 70 per cent of his active time on communicating verbally, and language is the media used to express our ideas. Natural speech is communication of information by means of the codes of language. This means that, in order to communicate with someone else, we must have a definite motive or intention; and we must also have, a particular language. It is with this gift of speech that all our recorded knowledge begins. More complex really, is non-verbal communication. As the term suggests, NON-VERBAL communication avoids the verbal, or speech language. It means the communication of meaning through mime, gesture, posture, movement, facial contortions, spatial position or any other mode avoiding the use of words. What are the features then generally included under the rubric of non-verbal communication? They divide into those which do not depend on the voice (non-vocal) and those that do (vocal). Non-vocal means of communication take a number of different forms: facial expression, gestures, especially hand movements, bodily movements, positions of the body, visual orientation especially eye-contact, physical contacts such as handshakes, kissing, pats on the back, proximity and distance positions. We may choose to signal to another person that we wish the conversation to be informal; we sit beside them. If we wish to choose an adversarial position we tend to adopt a position facing the person addressed. There is the direct gaze to attract attention, the bodily shift to keep it; a.."l accompanying gesture to reinforce or supplement what we are saying, or to convey our reactions to a particular statement. The technical designations for these (non-vocal) activities include 'PROXEMICS', the communicative function of bodily touch, distance and posture; 'KINESICS', the systematic use of facial expression, movement and gestures to convey meaning. Both comprise body language, using the body movements and appearance as opposed to speaking, writing or using signs, e.g., mime.
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Non-verbal communication also comprises of 'ARTEFACTS' (which has to do with the collectables and aesthetics maintained in ones immediate environment) and 'CHRONOMICS' (which has to do with ones usage of 'time' patterns in Communication processes) . The vocal non-verbal forms include laughing, crying, groaning, yawning and other emissions of sound intended to convey meaning. This concept related to 'oracy'-is termed 'PARALANGUAGE', and it encompasses all those vocal features which intentionally or otherwise give information about the "speaker" I communicator-as well as the content and intention of the communication. (For more interesting information on 'Body Language', please refer Annexure at the end of Section 1.) Another nomenclature of non-verbal communication which also includes the following non-linguistic (devoid of language) modes of communication is as follows : The Auditory-Vocal Mode The auditory-vocal mode means just as it says : through ear and voice. The most frequent form of communication occurs when one person speaks in a particular language and the person spoken to hears and understands. These modes are based on sound which is the most universal and natural medium for the study of language. We use our vocal organs and the air stream from our lungs to initiate speech-in our case the vowels and consonants of the English language. There are several other types of speech sounds which do not use an air stream from the lungs, the most well known of these being the 'click-languages' of Southern Africa. Click sounds are sharp suction noises made by the tongue or lips, for example the noise we write as 'tut tut' or 'tsk tsk'. In European languages isolated click sounds are often used to convey meaning, but they are not part of the system of vowels and consonants. The Visual Mode We use our eyes as the primary mode of visual communication. A well-known way in which visual effects have a linguistic use is in the various sign languages for the deaf. H we exclude, for the moment, written language, we can think of other writing-based codes such as semaphore or morse.
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We also use the visual channel when we decode meanings in hcial expressions, in bodily gestures and in other modes of nonverbal communication. The Tactile Mode The term means 'touching'. Tactile communication (enhanced through skin) has an important linguistic function in deaf-blind communication. A widely known instance is Tadoma', a method of tactile speech communication between people who are both deaf and blind. Speech is perceived by placing a hand against the face of the speaker and monitoring the articulatory movements involved. Usually the thumb is used to sense the movement of the lips and the fingers fan out over the side of the face and neck. The communicative use of touching behaviour-proxemicshas, in recent years, attracted much research attention in the field of non-verbal behaviour. The Olfactory and Gustatory Modes Smelling and tasting (enhanced through nose and tongue) play an important part in our reception of information from the outside world, for example-the smelling and tasting of food. In comparison with the other modes of human communication these channels playa relatively minor role. One useful function of smelling is well known; detecting the smell of leaking gas. No less well known are the social functions of the fashions that surround perfumery and the social and economic activities these fashions generate. Language and Expression Corning back to the discussion on Verbal Communication, it :nay be reinforced here that 'language' and 'expression' are indeed its essentials. All languages seem to make use of a rising or falling pitch pattern. There is a vocal difference entailed in making a statement or in asking a question. 'You are coming to London' can· be expressed in two ways each using a different vocal pitch and expecting a different response. In written speech the rising pitch of 'You are coming to London?' is denoted by an interrogation mark. Both question (?) and exclamation (!) marks have an elocutionary as well as a punctuation function in a sentence. Increased volume in vocal delivery is usually associated with emotions such as anger or fright. Emphasis is used to denote the
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degree of force we use in pronouncing a word or syllable. Italics are most often used to indicate the words or phrase on which the writer wishes to lay the greatest emphasis. They represent the corresponding emphasis if the words are to be spoken. In addition we can also give a sense of urgency by speeding up the rate with which syllables, words or sentences are produced. This device is frequently used by storytellers and writers to convey intensity of feeling. We can also use a slower speech rate to emphasise deliberation or philosophical reflection. Voice quality or 'timber' may also alter the meaning of what is said, for example the use of a breathy or husky voice to express emotion. Consider too, the clipped tone of the military commander or the rapid patter of the salesman. An important point is the comparative freedom we have when we speak to someone in a face-to-face situation compared with the ways in which we have to adjust when we wish to express the same thoughts and emotions in writing. Likewise, there is a strong connection between listening and reading; and listening is an important facet of oracy. A good listener is alert, sympathetic and critical. He is concerned not only to take in the intellectual content of the message, but also to apprehend the emotive overtones exhibited by the speaker. In the written language we expect manner to match matter; in the spoken we also expect form to be appropriate to content. This point is best illustrated by the skilled newsreader on radio or television. News is largely factual and demands a straightforward business tone, - but news of a great disaster is usually delivered in grave and measured tones. If there is a humorous aspect of the day's news this is given an appropriate vocal colouring and rhythm. He listened before we began to read. Thus indeed, the world of listening and speaking precede the world of reading and writing. Please check your progress 1.
Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/s that may have struck you as significant :
Conceptual Understanding of 'Communication' 2.
137
Please attempt to answer the following questions: (i) What is 'Verbal' Communication? Elaborate briefly on the same.
(ii) What is 'Non-Verbal' Communication? Which are its main types?
(iii) Explain very briefly the following non-linguistic modes of communication: (a) Auditory vocal mode (b) Visual mode (c) Tactile mode (d) Olfactory and Gustatory mode The Types of Communication Communication has been classified into several types: in terms of the verbal and non-verbal; the technological and nontechnological; the mediated and non-mediated, the participatory and the non-participatory, and so on. Most of these typologies, however, are mainly for pedagogic or instructional purposes; in actual practice, there is much overlapping and mixing of the -. various types. The typologies must be seen as attempts at coming to grips with the apparently simple but really complex phenomenon of communication. One common typology relates to the size of a social group or the number of people involved in the experience of communication. Such a typology ranges from the intrapersonal and interpersonal to the group and the mass and is discussed below: lntrapersonai Communication Intrapersonal Communication is individual reflection, contemplation and meditation. Transcendental meditation, for instance, is an example of such communication. Conversing with the divine, with spirits and ancestors, may be termed
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'transpersonal' communication. 'This is a vital experience in the religious and monastic life, in ashrams and places of prayer, and among aboriginal and tribal communities. Intrapersonal communication becomes significant particularly in times when one is faced with stress in life. Looking inwards helps resolve conflict and helps one deal with difficult day-to-day situations with poise. It also helps one cultivate and enjoy a holistic approach and general well-being in life. It would be thus important and useful for all individuals to learn and practise intrapersonal communication. InterpersonallFace-to-face Communication This type of communication is the most prevalent in all organizations-including set-ups like schools and colleges-and therefore it has been detailed more than the others to enhance its understanding and practise in all its parameters. Interpersonal Communication is direct face-to-face communication between two persons. It is, in other words, a dialogue or a conversation without the intervention of another person or a machine like the telephone or a two-way radio or television set-up. It is personal, direct, and intimate, allowing for maximum interaction and exchange in word and gesture. Indeed, it is the highest, the most perfect form of communication that two persons can attain. It is more persuasive and influential than any other type of communication such as group communication or mass communication, for it involves the interplay of words and gestures, the warmth of human closeness and in fact all the five senses. All interpersonal exchange is, therefore a communion and a sharing at the most intimate and open level. It is total communication for it takes within its compass-words, body movements, physical characteristics, body odours, and even clothes. This is not to deny that interpersonal exchanges can be used by confidence tricksters and conmen to throw wool over people's eyes. A man may smile and smile and yet be a villain for all we know. That perhaps explains why we cherish our privacy, and are constantly on our guard in face-to-face encounters, much more so in group or mass gatherings. Only the ones who have our trust, and have proved themselves are allowed to cross the barriers of an intimate relationship. Most are kept at a distance.
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In the area of business communication that distance is ritualized. For instance, interpersonal exchanges between a medical representative and a doctor or that between a manager and a clerk, are generally carried out on a professional level. As the saying goes they usually 'talk shop', but on occasions, even business chatter can lead to close and abiding friendships. That potential lies in the nature of interpersonal communication; hence the frequent b'arriers we raise lest people invade our space, our 'territory'. According to Konrad Lorenz and Desmond Morris, the ethologists, animals and birds often turn aggressive when their territories are invaded by outsiders. This is because of the 'territorial imperative'-the obsession with protecting one's space (cited from Desmond Morris: The Naked Ape). The elephant has his herd, the wolf his pack, and the birds and bees their nests and hives. Any encroachment from other groups is resented, and fought off, sometimes violently. Human beings react in an equally savage manner when their spatial privacy is encroached upon. In European cultures, it is considered bad manners and bad communication to get too close (literally and figuratively) and too intimate unless you have been permitted to enter the sanctum sanctorum of another. Among Indians and Arabs, however, physical closeness in Interpersonal Communication does not generally imply intimacy, nor does constant gazing into each other's eyes. This is a part of West and South Asian cultures. According to Buddhism, the four social emotions that should guide interpersonal communication are: metta (loving kindness), karuna (compassion), murdita (sympathetic joy) and upekkha (equanimity) (Wimal Dissanayake : 'Asian Theories of Communication', in Media Development, 1983 [2], p. 9). The Three Stages of Interpersonal Communication The Phatic Stage : The initial exploratory stage of communication determines the course conversation will take. This first stage is known as the phatic period (from the Greek 'phasis', an utterance). It begins with a 'Hi!' or a 'Hello! How are you?', 'Good Morning' or even a simple 'namaste' or 'vanakkam' or 'Jairam'. The accompanying gestures are the meeting of the eyes, a smile, perhaps a handshake, and moving in closer to a talking distance. In a formal encounter, the distance is greater (though not among all cultures) than an informal friendly meeting.
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The conversation then may veer to talk about the weather or queries like "How's life?", "How are things with you?", "What have you have been doing with yourself?", "What's the news?", "How are the folks at home?". The Phatic stage is, therefore, a warming-up time during which ritualized greetings are exchanged. In themselves, the words and gestures exchanged during this period do not mean much. Indeed, the questions asked are not meant to be taken literally. They are only a formalized manner of showing interest and attention. They are a way of saying "I am glad to have met you. Let's have a chat". "I am fine, thank you", for example is a stock reply even if you are not doing too well. No deception is involved at all : what we are doing through words is merely sending signals that we would like to have a conversation. So at this stage we don't literally mean what we say, but WE MEAN WELL. It is the meaning after all, and not the words that really matter. The words are only symbols or ways of getting across. The meaning is more often than not behind the words rather IN them. More accurately, meaning lies in a situation and a context, seen not so much in isolation but in a social and cultural environment. This is as true of verbal as of non-verbal communication. For instance, the North Indian's gesture of touching an elder's feet connotes respect and reverence among people of that culture, but is considered a demeaning gesture in the cultures of the south and the north-east. The phatic stage then is patterned according to social and cultural norms and rituals. The Personal Stage : The second stage, called the personal stage, introduces a more personal element into the conversation. During this period we generally lower our social guard a little and are prepared to take some risk in exposing ourselves and our feelings. Having moved on to this personal stage, we are likely to be willing to talk about personal matters such as one's profession, the family, health problems and the like. If, on the other hand, we were hesitant to enter this stage, we would have broken off the conversation at the phatic stage itself or continued talking in a formal manner. Professional discussions rarely go beyond the personal stage. Most business communication, therefore, takes place at this level, for it does involve personal interests and we are ready to go along to promote them.
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The Intimate Stage: This stage is reserved for friends and relatives, the degree of intimacy depending upon the closeness of the relationship. To some we open our hearts out completely; to others, though good friends, we are reluctant to tell all. Nevertheless, it is a stage when social barriers fall and we are at ease; interpersonal communication achieves its highest form in this mode, and words seem inadequate. Says Robert Shuter, "In this period, communicators reveal their innermost thoughts and feelings - their fears and joys, weaknesses and strengths. Marked by intimate revelations, this stage is reserved for individuals who have established a deep union, one based on love, respect and understanding" (quoted in Lee O. Thayer : Administrative Communication, Illinois: Richard D. Unwin, 1961). Group Communication Group communication shares all these qualities, though in a much less measure. The larger the group the less personal and intimate is the possibility of exchange. In fact, as the group grows in size communication tends to become more and more of a monologue, for participation becomes problematic. The degree of directness and intimacy, therefore, depends upon the size of the group, the place where it meets, as also the relationship of the members of the group to one another, and to the group leader. Group communication is thus a more complex process than interpersonal communication. The level of mutual participation and understanding among the members suffers as a result. In Interpersonal Communication too understanding and participation may not be complete, especially if the non-verbal cues and the sociocultural contexts are not paid attention to. However, the possibility of checking up and correcting misunderstanding is much quicker and easier in much interpersonal communication. Feedback is the key word here. While in interpersonal communication, feedback is instantaneous, it is not so in group communication. Interpersonal communication allows for instant response to feedback received. In Group Communication, on the other hand, feedback is more difficult to measure, and to respond to It takes time before meanings are clarified and responses assessed. That explains why the art of effective public speaking (an example of one-way top-down communication) is more
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necessary at the group level than at the interpersonal lev~l. Feedback is a term from CYBERNETICS, the study of messages, particularly of effective message control. When feedback is employed for this kind of social engineering, as in advertising, it is no more communication but propaganda and manipulation. Face-to-face communication, nevertheless, is more persuasive and influential, particularly in an unequal communication situation. It involves the interplay of words and gestures and above all, the warmth of human closeness. Sincerity and enthusiasm are far easier to convey, and to react to in a face-toface situation. In Group Communication, particularly where the group is large, deception and pretence cannot be detected immediately. That must be the reason why 'acting' is associated with Group Communication. The threatre, religious services, dance performances, carnivals, the Kumbh Mela, Ram Lila, Rasa Lila and other folk events, are examples of Group Communication. Village markets, bazaars and melas too are instances of informal Group Communication. Then there are 'gossip groups' and other informal traditional groups that come together either regularly or occasionally for sharing information. These are 'micro-groups' that communicate among and within themselves in terms of their status and the nature of their relationships. Mass Communication Group Communication has now been extended by the tools of mass communication : books, magazines, the press(newspapers), the cinema, radio, television, video and the Internet. Mass Communication is generally identified with these modem mass media, but it must be noted that these media are processes/ facilitators-and must not be mistaken for the phenomenon of communication itself. Exaggerated claims have been made for the 'power' of the mass media. Daniel Lerner terms them 'mobility multipliers' and Wilbur Schramm considers them to be 'magic multipliers'. Indeed, both the terms 'mass communication' and 'mass media' are inappropriate in the context of developing societies. None of the 'mass media' reach the masses of people in these societies. So in every sense, these are 'minority' or 'elite' media, or even 'class' media, for only those who have the wherewithal can afford to purchase receivers for them. Where access to, and distribution of, the mass media in India is concerned,
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only the comparatively well-off in urban and rural areas are at an advantage. Newspapers, transistors, films and television are still beyond the economic reach of the majority of our people. Traditional community media like the keertana and yakshagana, and the whole treasure-house of folk song, folk dance and folk theatre are the real organs of mass media in India. They are far less expensive organs, are easy to access, are frequently participatory in nature and communicate much more effectively than the electronic media and at a direct and personal level. Their reach too is far and wide in the country. However, the modern mass media are produced and distributed like other consumer and industrial products-on a mass scale. 'Mass-line' Communication Mao Zedong, who led the Chinese Cultural Revolution, used a type of communication to talk to the masses. He termed it 'mass-line' communication. Mahatma Gandhi too employed a similar type of communication, the essence of which was personal example, respect for the peasant's knowledge, and nonmanipulative information. Kusum J. Singh's comparison of the two leaders' use of the mass-line type of communication brings out the relevance of this type of grass-root level communication even today for mobilizing the masses in developmental efforts (Kusum Singh : Gandhi and Mao as Mass Communicators, An Arbor, 1978). Interactive Communication Communication via the 'new' media such as video, cable, videotext, teletext, video-on-demand, tele-shopping, computers, and the Internet is usually termed 'interactive' communication'. Telecommunication-based services such as telephones, pagers, celluar or mobile phones, electronic mail are also considered to be 'interactive'. They are point-to-point communication systems, and can approximate to the interpersonal (as in the basic telephone and the various 'value-added' services), the group (as in teleconferences and videoconferences) or the mass (as in the Internet's World Wide Web) where companies or people with their own web-sites can reach millions of individuals across the globe at their own convenience. A major characteristic of interactive communication is 'asynchronicity', that is the sending
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and receiving of messages is at one's convenience, rather than at the same time, as in radio, television. Audio and video recording facilities listening and watching at a time later than the time of transmission; voice mail, electronic mail and pager messages, can be sent and accessed at times convenient to communicators. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Which are the main types of communication based on the size of the social group and the number of people involved in the experience of the particular communication?
(ii) Discuss Interpersonal! face-to-face communication
with some examples from your own job setting and experience.
The Scope and Functions of Communication Communication is studied and used in several disciplines of life-management, industry, education, extension, public relations, advertising, radio, TV, films, etc. Functions One of the main functions of communication (at the human level) is to establish, maintain, explain or alter the relationship
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of a person with another. The other functions of Communication are: (1) Information, (2) Command/Instruction/Education, (3) Influence or Persuasion, (4) Integrative function, and (5) Entertainment function. (1) The Information Function : Information constitutes the basic element of adapting one's self to the environment or adapting the environment to oneself. Unless we have information about the activities going on in our environment we cannot concern ourselves with them. And to concern ourselves with something we must have the information. Thus, the giving or getting of information underlies all Communication processes, either directly or indirectly. Information is basic to all applied functions of communication. There can not be any communication unless a person is acquiring or disseminating information about the person or the environment. (2) Command / Instruction / Education / Function : Those who are hierarchically superior, whether in educational set-ups, family, business, organizations or personal life, often initiate communication either to inform their subordinates or to tell them some thing, command them to carry out certain instructions. This form of communication is more prevalent in formal organizations than in informal organizations. Those who are hierarchically superior are both privileged and obliged to command and control. According to David Berlo, a person can and will accept a communication as authoritative only when the following four conditions prevail : (i) When a person can and does understand the communication; (ii) At the time of taking the decision, the person believes that it is not inconsistent with the purpose of organization; (iii) At the time of taking the decision, the person believes it to be compatible with his/her personal interest; and (iv) The person is mentally and physically able to comply with it. (3) Influence, or Persuasive Function : According to Berlo, the sole purpose of communication is to influence others; we communicate to influence, to intentionally affect or change the behaviour of other persons.
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Aristotle implied that the main aim of communication was 'persuasion'. The purpose of influencing another's comprehending system in some way would be to alter the receiver's general beliefs, understandings, values, orientations, in some desired way. (4) Integrative Function : The major function of communication at the inter-personal level is that of self integration or of continuously off-setting any dis-integration. At the level of formal organizations integrative functions are provided in part by bureaucratization, proceduralisation, etc. When a social system exceeds the integrative limits of face-to-face encounters, the necessary integrative mechanisms become embedded in the social systems, literature, art, folklore, mythology, movies etc.-and manifest as messages for integration through the various media. (5) Entertainment Function: Communication also enhances· the important function of providing entertainment to people though the different traditional and mass media. What can Communication Do? Communication has scope to achieve the following : (i) Communication can raise aspirations. (ii) It can project the future in the present. (iii) It can raise awareness, meet information needs, and reinforce existing beliefs. (iv) Communication can motivate through promise of selfgratification or reward. (v) Institutions where there is a free flow of communication (vertical and horizontal) lead to work efficiency and perception of goals and the possibility of goal realization. (vi) Communication wherever it meets the psychological needs of the people, releases motivation. (vii) There is greater acceptance of messages where communication messages are adapted to the psychological predisposition of the audiences, and where there is constant monitoring and adaption of message to feed-back. (viii) Communication also has scope to motivate persons towards a particular behaviour, encourage / facilitate
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expression of emotions; and take persons/situations towards conflict resolution. Please check your progress Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
Please attempt to answer the· following questions : (i) Discuss briefly the various. functions of 'Communication' .
(ii) Discuss briefly the scope of 'Communication' particularly of what you think it can achieve in the context of organizational! educational set-ups like schools and colleges.
The Need for Communication A human being's need for communication is as strong and as basic as the need to eat, sleep and love. It is both an individual and a social need. It is 'both a natural individual demand and a requirement of social existence to use communication resources in order to engage in the sharing of experiences, through 'symbolmediated interaction' (Luis Beltran : 'Farewell to Aristotle', in Communication 5, pp. 5-41). The severest punishment for a child is to be isolated, to be left alone, not to be spoken to. North Indian children mete out this punishment when they say 'kuttie' to their playmates, holding out their thumb as an accompanying gesture. Grown-ups too and especially the aged need company, need to communicate. Society punishes criminals by locking them up in solitary cells, thus starving them of the basic need, and indeed
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the fundamental right to communicate. Communication involves active interaction with our environment-physical, biological and social. Deprived of this interaction we would not be aware of whether we are safe or in danger, whether hated or loved, or satisfied or hungry. However, most of us take this interaction and this relationship for granted, unless we experience some deprivation of it. When that happens we adapt ourselves to the environment so that we don't lose touch, in both the literal and figurative senses. For, to lose touch is to suffer isolation. The basic human need for communication can perhaps be traced to the process of mankind's evolution from lower species. Animals, for instance, have to be in sensory communication with their physical and biological surroundings to find food, protect themselves and reproduce their species. A loss of sensation-the inability to hear a predator, for instance-can mean loss of life. Similarly, to be lost from primitive social communication-from the pack, from the herd or the tribe-is to be condemned to death (David Clark and William Blankenburg: You and Media: Mass Communication and Society, New York: Canfield Press, 1973). What happens to a person who is 'excommunicated'-literally, cut off from communication-by his group or his society? Malcolm X, the Black Muslim leader, described the experience of being expelled from his group as 'a state of emotional shock'. Elaborating, he said that this state was like that of someone 'who for twelve years had an inseparable, beautiful marriage partner and then suddenly one morning at breakfast the marriage partner had thrust across the table some divorce papers. I felt as though something in nature had failed, like the sun or the stars. It was that incredible a phenomenon to me-something too stupendous to conceive'. Others who have been isolated for a period of time from human company are known to have experienced nightmarish hallucinations. Indeed, social isolation can also be hazardous to the heart as much as to the mind. It is estimated that single men without close friends run two or three times the risk of developing heart disease as their more sociable counterparts. However, lack of communication can be as disorienting an experience as too much of it. Indeed, the apparent effects of sensory deprivation and sensory overload are frequently similar;
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anxiety, apathy, impaired judgement, strange VISIons, and something akin to schizophrenia. The 'information explosion' brought about by statellite television, the Internet and other technologies is an instance of this sensory overload. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Write a brief note on the Need for 'Communication' stating a few examples.
(ii) Discuss with an example how "Communication
Overload"can be almost as harmful as the lack/ dearth of Communication.
The Models of Communication Western theories and models of communication have their origin in Aristotle's Rhetoric. According to Aristotle, rhetoric is made up of three elements : the speaker, the speech, and the listener. The aim of rhetoric is the search for all possible means of persuasion. Harold Lasswell's Model Perhaps the most widely quoted definition of mass communication in terms of Aristotelian rhetoric is that of Harold D. Lasswell, the American political scientist. He stated that 'a convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions : (I
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Who - Says What - In Which Channel - To Whom - With What Effect?
Graphic 2 The Lasswell Model of the Communication Process WHO
SAYS WHAT ~
COMMUNICATOR
I
IN WHICH !cHANNEL ~
MESSAGE
I~
~
MEDIUM
Feedback Loop
WITH WHAT EFFECT?
TO WHOM
RECEIVER
EFFECT
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Lasswell saw communication as performing three functions: surveillance of the environment, correlation of components of society, and cultural transmission between generations. Such a mechanistic and 'effects' approach to communication was to influence communication theory for decades to come. Essential to this understanding were the notions of transmission and transfer of information for intended effects. A definition on similar lines was given by Berelson and Steiner: 'The transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, etc., by use of symbols-words, pictures, figures, graphs, etc. It is the act or process of transmission that is usually called communication' . The primary goal of communication, according to Western communication theory, is influence through persuasion. Osgood's definition is an illustration. In the most general sense, he explains, we communicate whenever one (the system or the source), influences another, (the destination), by manipulation of alternative signals which can be transferred over the channel connecting them. The Shannon and lVeaver Model The effects-oriented models or approaches to mass communication derive from Shannon and Weaver's Mathematical model of communication. Shannon and Weaver conceived of communication as a system composed of five essential parts plus
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'noise' : (1) an information source, (2) a transmitter, (3) a channel, (4) the receiver, and (5) the destination. As engineers during World War II at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in the United States, their primary concern was finding out the most efficient means 0f using the channels of communication (the telephone cable and the radio wave) for the transfer of information. They, however, claimed that the mathematical model they worked out as a result of their research at Bell, was widely applicable to human communication as well. Their graphic representation later included the 'Feedback Loop' which is very significant in any communication process. Graphic 3 The Shannon and Weaver 'Mathematical' Model of Communication Received Infor- Message Tr~ns- Signal Signal Receiver Message Destimation mltter~~ ~ nation
rI
Source
r
U
Noise Source
Feedback Loop Wilbur Schramm, whose theories have influenced much Indian planning on the role of communication in development, adapted Shannon and Weaver's model to human communication, but stressed the encoding-decoding aspects as crucial. He defined communication as 'the sharing of information, ideas or attitudes'. He endorsed the Aristotelian principle that communication always requires at least three elements-source, message and destination. The encoding and decoding of the message were the most important components to him. As he explained : Substitute 'microphone' for encoder, and 'earphone' for decoder and you are talking about electronic communication. Consider that the 'source' and 'encoder' are one person, 'decoder' and 'destination'
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are another, and the signal is language, and you are talking about human communication (Wilbur Schramm : Mass Media and National Development, Stanford University Press, 1964). The Osgood and Schramm Model In a communication model he developed with Charles Osgood, Schramm suggested that communication was circular in nature, where both the sender and the receiver were involved in encoding and decoding, and were equal partners in the exchange. Graphic 4 The Osgood and Schramm Circular Model
Berlo, on the other hand, saw communication as a 'process' . and the events and relationships of this process as dynamic, ongoing, ever-changing, continuous. He argued that you cannot talk about the beginning or the end of communication or say that . a particular idea came from one specific source, that communication occurs in only one way and so on. He termed this the 'bucket' theory of communication wherein ideas were dumped from the source into a bucket-such as a film, a lecture, a book, a television program or what have you-and moved the bucket over to the receiver and dumped the contents onto his head. In sum, Western communication theories and the models (especially of development communication) built on them have been largely uniltnear, wrongly postulating a mechanical notion of communication as the transmission of information from active sources to passive receivers. Further, these individual-based models wrongly assume that communication is an act, a static
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phenomenon privileging the source, not a dynamic process involving all elements in a social relationship. Semiotic Model In recent years, however, the focus in Western communication theory has shifted-from mechanistic 'effects' models of communication acts to those concerned with communication relationships and the communication 'experience'. SEMIOTIC models look at communication as 'social interaction through messages'. The focus of attention in these models is language (both verbal and non-verbal) as a sign-system; how 'meaning' is generated and understood is central to this approach. The crucial questions the semiotic approaches address are : What is a Sign? What is the Meaning of Signs? What is the relationship between signs, users and external reality? The user is seen as active, as a -creator of meaning, as one who makes his or her own meaning. Meaning is thus not so much in the words, gestures or symbols (the 'text') but in the cultural interpretation of the participants (the 'readers') of the communication experience. The semiotic approaches to communication are based on the work of C.S. Pierce, who established the American tradition of semiotics; c.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards of Britain; and the Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure. Frank Dance's Helical I Spiral Model As a further alternative to linear models, Dance (1967) advanced the notion of a helix to depict communication as a dynamic process. The helix represents the way communication evolves in an individual from his birth to the existing moment. As Dance elaborated: At any and all times, the helix gives geometrical testimony to the concept that communication while moving forward is at the same moment coming back upon itself and being affected by its past behaviour, for the coming curve of the helix is fundamentally affected by the curve from which it emerges. Yet, even though slowly, the helix can gradually free itself from its lower level distortions. The communication process, like the helix, is constantly moving forward and yet is always to some degree dependent upon the past, which informs the present and the future. The helical communication model offers a flexible communication process.
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As a heuristic model serving to discover; using trial and error device, the helix is interesting not so much for what it says as for what it permits to be said. Hence, it exemplifies a point made earlier. It is important to approach models in a spirit of speculation and intellectual play. If judged against conventional scientific standards, the helix does not fare well as a model. Indeed, some would claim that it does not meet the requirements of a model at all. More specifically, it is not a systematic or formalized mode of representation. Neither does it formalize relationships or isolate key variables. It describes in the abstract but does not explicitly explain or make particular hypotheses testable. Given such serious limitations, some might then ask what good it is. The answer depends on our inclination to speculate-to engage in what Chapanis (1961) called "sophisticated play". The following two paragraphs illustrate the possibilities of approaching models in a sportive manner : Graphic 5 The helical spiral as a representation of human communication
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The helix implies that communication is continuous, unrepeatable, additive, and accumulative; that is, each phase of
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activity depends upon present forces at work as they are defined by all that has occurred before. All experience contributes to the shape of the unfolding moment; there is no break in the action, no fixed beginning, no pure redundancy, no closure. All communicative experience is the product of learned, nonrepeatable events which are defined in ways the organism develops to be self-consistent and socially meaningful. In short, the helix underscores the integrated aspects of all human communication as an evolving process that is always turned inward in ways that permit learning, growth, and discovery. Interesting features notwithstanding, there is reason to question some implications that stem from likening communication to a helix. For example, does not the helix imply a false degree of continuity from one communicative situation to another? Do we necessarily perceive all encounters as actually occurring in an undifferentiated, unbroken sequence of events? Does an unbroken line not conflict with the human experience of discontinuity, intermittent periods, false starts, and so forth? Is all communication a matter of growth, upward and onward, in an ever-broadening range of encounters? If the helix represents continuous learning and growth, how can the same form also account for deterioration and decay? What about the forces of entropy, inertia, decay, and pathology? And does not the unbroken line of a helix tacitly ignore the qualitative distinctions that inevitably characterize different communicative events? Also, what about movements which we define as utterly wasted, forced, or contrived? Along similar lines, how can the idea of continuous, unbroken growth include events we consider meaningless, artificial, or unproductive? Countless other questions could be raised. And that is the point. The model brings problems of abstraction into the open. It suggests certain possibilities and rules out others. It also may trigger an awareness of assumptions we often take for granted. In particular, the helix illustrates the possibility of conceiving of communication in unusual and creative ways. Please note: There are many other models of communication; the relevant ones were discussed here.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Name and discuss briefly the linear and circular models of communication.
(ii) Write a note on the Helical model of communication.
The Theories of Communication Several Communication scholars have studied communication and how it affects an individual. Have the mass media brought about any perceptible change in a person's outlook, attitudes and . have they influenced a person to believe in a particular viewpoint, commit acts of crime or adopt an innovation? Theories concerning the impact of media on individuals and groups have undergone progressive change as a result of the discovery of important intervening processes between media and the people, that is between the stimulus and the response. The theories of communication belonging to the 'socio-psycho' nomenclature are discussed below-since they are the most relevant (in application too) to our day-to-day dealings with people-in any organizational settings, including schools and colleges. Once the conceptualization of these theories is understood, it would be posslble to determine where and how one needs to pitch ones communication in order to manifest behavioural changes, motivate towards performance, and elicit cooperation for the same.
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The Individual Differences Theory The basic proposition of this theory is that different people view or perceive particular events from different perspectives. The experimental study of human perception revealed that the individual's values, needs, beliefs, and attitudes played an influential role in determining how he selected stimuli from the environment and the way he attributed meaning to those stimuli within his acquired frames of references once they came to his attention. Perception differed from one person to another according to the nature of the personality structure. So it became clear that the audience of a given medium was not a monolithic collectivity that attend\?d uniformly to whatever content was directed towards it. The principle of selective attention and perception was formulated as a fundamental proposition regarding the communication behaviour of an ordinary person. It was not difficult to show that different types of people in an audience selected and interpreted mass communication content, the member of the audience selectively attended to messages, particularly if they were related to the person's interests, and were consistent with his/her attitudes and beliefs. His/Her response to such messages was modified by his/her psychological make-up. This is called the theory of individual differences in mass communication. The Psycho-Dynamic Model of the Persuasion Process The individual differences theory was, and remains, an important basic theory of mass communication effect. This conception has had a particular impact upon the advertising world and it has been the principal set of assumptions underlying a considerable number of social-psychological studies of the persuasion process that have accumulated in recent years. Persuasion is only one possible "effect" among many, but one upon which great attention has been focused. It has been assumed that an effective persuasive message is one which has properties capable of altering the psychological functioning of the individual in such a way that he/she will respond overtly in modes desired or suggested by the communicator. That is, it has been assumed that the key to persuasion lies in modifying the internal psychological structure of the individual so that the psychodynamic relationship between latent internal processes
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and manifest overt behaviour will lead to acts intended by the persuader. A common example would be an attempt to promote the purchase of a patent medicine (overt action) by instilling a fear of poor health or continued suffering (psychological-process). In simple graphic terms, this psychodynamic model of the persuasion process would be : Persuasive message~Change in attitudes ~Change in overt behaviour.
The Social Categories Theory Parallel with and sometimes overlapping the individual differences theory is the social categories theory. The latter assumes that there are broad collectives, aggregates, or social categories whose behaviour in the face of a given set of stimuli is more or less uniform. The characteristics like age, sex, income level, educational attainment, rural-urban residence, or religious affiliation provide examples for this. In fact, knowledge of several very simple variables-age, sex and education-provides a reasonably accurate guide to the suitable type of communication. The basic assumption of this above theory is that inspite of the heterogeneity of modem society, people who have a number of similar characteristics will have similar mass communication thought processes. These similar modes of orientation and behaviour will relate them to the mass media, in a fairly uniform way, and they will respond to it in roughly similar ways. The theo.-y of social categories is not equivalent to a descriptive formula, but it can serve as a basis for rough prediction and as a guide for research, and it has functioned as a crude theory in the study of communication. The Theory of Social Relationships The image of society in the minds of most students of communication, until very recently, was of atomized individuals, connected with the mass media, but not with one another, and little thought was given to the relationships implied thereby to more informal relationships. This theory stated that informal social relationships play a significant role in modifying the manner in which a given individual will act upon a message, which comes to his attention via the mass media. This theory began to suggest that there was a kind of movement of informa tion through two basic stages. First, information moved from the media to relatively well-informed individuals who attended to
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mass communications first hand. Second, it moved from those persons through interpersonal channels to individuals who had less direct exposure to media and who depended on others for their information. This kind of communication process was termed the two-step flow of communication. Those individuals who were more in contact with the media were called opinion leaders. These opinion leaders were not only passing on information, but also their interpretations of the content. This kind of personal influence w.as immediately recognized as an important intervening mechanism between a message and the kind of response to that message. Thus, contemporary theories of mass communication recognize not only the importance of individual psychological differences and the role of social categories in shaping the responses people make to the media, but the influence of informal group ties has also become increasingly clear. The Socia-Cultural Model of the Persuasion Process A socio-cultural model of the persuasion process follows from the idea that media effects in general are influenced by the social interactions a group member has with his fellows. As has been suggested, social and cultural variables play a part in the diffusion of new products, beliefs and attitudes. A substantial body of behavioural research and theory suggests that sociocultural variables are important sources of definitions for appropriate behaviour that occurs within groups, and for interpretations of realities for the person. The research also indicates the way in which such variables as organizational membership, work roles, reference groups, cultural norms, and primary group norms can playa part in shaping and channelizing overt action in ways that are to some extent not influenced by internal psychological predispositions. To explain, predict, or manipulate individual's behaviour, reference must be made to the social norms and culturally defined values, in order that it can be effectively understood. A persuasion model suggested from these considerations is based upon the assumption that new definitions can be given for instance by changing cultural norms to socio-cultural processes in groups with the use of the mass media. If individuals to be persuaded are members of these groups, it may by this means be possible to give new directions
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"
to their overt actions, somewhat independently of their psychological predispositions. It must be stressed that persuasion is not the only effect that mass communication can have. It is one among many. For this reason only the socio-cultural model of persuasion, flows from, and is a corollary to the more general social relationships theory of mass communication effects. Asian I Indian Communication Theories In recent years communication scholars in India and Sri Lanka have made attempts to develop theories of communication based on their own understanding and interpretations. According to Tewari, the Indian theory of communication forms a part of Indian poetics; and can be traced to a period between second century B.C. and first century AD. in the works of Bharata. It hinges on the concept of 'sadharanikaran' which is quite close in meaning to the Latin term communis, commonness, from which the word 'communication' is derived (IP Tewari : 'Indian Theory of Communication', Communicator, New Delhi, March 1992, pp. 35-38). The most important assumption in the process of sadharanikaran is that it can be achieved only among sahridayas, i.e., only those who have a capacity to accept a message. This is an innate ability acquired through culture, adaptation and learning. Thus communication is an activity among sahridayas. It is to be noted, says Tewari, that the concept of 'sahridaya' is not coterminus with predisposition-or in favour or against. It only denotes the quality of mind or receptivity on the part of the audience. It does not speak of the quality-positive or negative - of attitude on the part of the audience. It may, however, qualify the depth or level of sensory experience that shapes the human personality (Tewari, op. cit.) The human psyche in terms of this theory is composed of permanent moods, called sthai bhava. These moods are capable of arousing a corresponding state of feeling, rasa. There are nine permanent moods and they give rise to nine rasas or forms of aethetic pleasure. For instance, the permanent mood 'bayanaka' arouses the bhayanak There are nine permanent moods and they give rise to nine rasas or forms of aesthetic pleasure. For instance,
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the permanent mood bhayanaka arouses the bayanaka (furious) rasa, the harsha (joy) triggers the hasya (laughter) rasa, the dina (compassion) rasa and so on. The entire range of human emotions is encompassed in this categorization. The state of arousal of the nine permanent moods is termed 'rasa utpathi'. The sthai bhavas are accompanied also by many fleeting or secondary moods that are common to several dominant moods and serve the purpose of completely manifesting the permanent mood, such as nirveda (despondency) or glani (fatigue), and may help to manifest the permanent moods, like the erotic helps the pathetic. These are called sancharis or mJabhichari bhavas. In addition, there are vibhavas and anubhavas, the emotions that unite a man and woman in love. It is at the climax of this relationship that sadharanikaran is attained. The concept of sadharanikaran, one of the fundamental concepts of Indian aesthetics, also has religious in1plications. As in the Vedanta, objects of experience are held to be not the ultimate reality but only manifestations of that reality; so words and the expressed meaning are regarded as the mere external experience of art, and the emotional mood which a work communicates is thus the essence of reality - the highest communication endeavour indeed (ibid). There is a certain elitism present in the concept, however, Rasa is the art of the ordinary, but it can be understood only by the sahridaya and the only proof of its existence is the aswada, the taste, which only a saridaya has. He or she alone is capable of sadharanikaran. Yadava points out that the term was first used in the tenth century by Bhattanayaka in a commentary on the Natya Shastra to explain the sutras related to rasa. Bhattanayaka stressed that the essence of communication lay in achieving commonness and oneness (JS Yadava: 'Trends in Communication Research', Paper presented at the National Seminar on Communication Research: Trends and Priorities, New Delhi : Indian Institute of Mass Communication Research, 1984). Yadava draws out two implications or resonances of the term, sahridaya, literally of one heart. He believes that the term is synonymous with 'identification' and 'simplification'-the identification of communicator with the receiver through the
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process of simplification. Mahatma Gandhi, for instance, achieved this identification with the masses through 'simplification' of his message, the common religious symbols he employed, and above all, the utter simplicity of his life. At the community level, Yadava notes, the saints, Sufis and Brahmins of old propagated religious and cultural values through simplification and illustration. He sees this practice as continuing today in the conversation and traditional media of rural folk throughout the Indian sub-continent. This dimension of sadharanikaran seems to have become the common heritage of the Indian people. Yet, the process of sadharanikaran is fundamentally 'asymmetrical', and the sharing or oneness it connotes is among sahridayas alone, unequal perhaps but one in heart. The goal of sadharanikaran, therefore, is not persuasion so much as the very enjoyment of the process of sharing. At the same time, the source is perceived as having a higher status, and the receiver of the message, a lower status. As Yadava puts it, the relationship is hierarchical, of 'domination' and 'subordination'. The source is held in high esteem by the receiver of information, a relationship idealized and romanticized in the guru-chela tradition. Yadava hypothesizes that the asymmetrical aspects of sadharanikaran helped in the blossoming of Indian civilization in earlier times through efficient communication and division of labour, but in centuries resulted in highly rigid and hierarchical closed social structures. Wimal Dissanayake draws on the Vedas, the Upanishads and non-philosophical traditions (such as Bhartrhari's Vakyapadiya, a fifth century text on grammar) to build an Indian model of communication. The primary focus of interest in his model is how the receiver makes sense of the stimuli he receives so as to deepen his self-awareness. In Indian tradition, he argues, 'communication is an inward search for meaning-a process leading to selfawareness, then to freedom, and finally to truth'. Thus it transcends language and meaning and is interpretation or reception-oriented, not expression-oriented like the Western models. The intrapersonal dimension is of greater importance than the interpersonal in the Indian approach, for individualism and manipulation have no place in it.
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Neville Jayaweera, also a Sri Lankan with a deep interest is Indian philosophy, observes that the Vedantic philosophy of 'advaita' (absolute monism) has profound implications for contemporary understanding of communication (Gunaratne, 1991). Dissanayake also propounds a Buddhist theory of communication derived from the concept of dependent coorigination, pattica-samupadda/pratitya-samutpada. This concept lies at the heart of the Buddha's teaching. It is related to the three principles that sum up worldly existence: anitya or impermanence, . dukka or suffering and anatma or no-self. It is a highly connotative concept which implies that every phenomenon, including communication, is in a state of impermanence and flux. A Philosophical View T.B. Saral looks at communication theory from a Hindu philosophical perspective (TB Saral : 'Hindu Philosophy of Communication', Communication 6, pp.47-58. For another Indian analysis of Western transmission models, see Achal Mehra : 'Western Communication Theory: An Asian Critique', Paper presented at the IAMCR). The Hindu's concept of the universe is based on the 'Virat Purush' (cosmic man) view. A natural extension of this concept is that it espouses the systems approach, the authority of Universal law, the law of Dharma. Dharma is the basic principle of the whole universe and is existing eternally. This natural law of Dharma regulates human existence and governs relations of individual beings; communication too is governed by the same law. Saral believes that most western studies of communication are confined to the study uf what may be termed 'surface structure' features, such as verbal language, body language, nonverbal gestures, facial expressions, etc. But it is often the 'deep structure' features that make a critical difference to our understanding of communication. This 'deep structure' is shaped by the cultural and metaphysical ilssumptions about the definition of truth and reality, the place of an individual in the universe, and one's relationship with other living and non-living elements of the environment, the concepts of time and space, and so on. Western models and theories of communication are thus reflective of the biases of western thought and culture. The
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distinctive marks of this philosophy are categorization, classification, linear sequencing and rational logic. Indian philosophy, on the other hand, is characterized by complexity and pluralism; it IS holistic and intuitive, and believes that reality is one. In Indian rhetoric, opposites are coordinates, contradictions are illusory, and the world is a dramatic portrayal of God playing hide-andseek with himself, trying to reassemble all the divergent parts back into their original unity (T Oliver: Communication in Ancient India and China, Syraence : Syraence University Press, 1971). An Islamic 'Communication' View Hamid Mowlana and Majid Teharanian, two IranianAmerican media scholars have developed an Islamic or 'Communitarian' model of communication. The 'umma' or the community is at the center of communication in Islam, as against the individual who is the primary focus of attention in Western models. The primary purpose and experience of communication, according to this view, is to build relationships in a community rather than persuasion or propaganda. Please note: There are many other theories of communication; the relevant ones were discussed here.
1.
2.
Please check your progress Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant : Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) State and discuss briefly anyone of the socio-psycho theories of communication.which you find the most convincing in the context of building human relations at work. (ii) Describe briefly the salient features which distinguish
the Asian/Indian thought/philosophy on 'communication' from the western theorization/ implications.
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Barriers to Communication 'Barriers' are any obstacles or difficulties that come in the way of communication. They may be physical, mechanical, psychological, cultural or linguistic in nature. In business communication, for instance, the major obstacles arise because of the set-up of an organization-the organizational barriers. The size of an organization, the physical distance between employees of an organization, the specialization of jobs and activities, and the power and status relationships, are the main organizational barriers. Besides, there are the barriers raised by interpersonal relationships between individual and groups, the prejudices of both individuals and groups, and the channels they use to communicate. In the 'jargon' of communication, all barriers whatever their nature are clubbed under a common label-'noise'. A term from modem physics, it denotes not only atmospheriC or channel disturbance, but all barriers that distort communications in any manner. Is there such a thing then as 'perfect' communication free of all barriers? This is hardly ever true, except perhaps at higher spiritual or mystic levels wher~ cor:tmunication is transformed into a 'communion'. For us, mere mortals, the wrestling with imperfect communication must continue. Physical Barriers Four main kinds of distractions act as 'physical barriers' to the communication process. These are: 1. The Competing Stimulus in the form of another conversation going on within hearing distance, or loud music or traffic noise in the background. The cawing of crows or a plane passing overhead can, for example, drown out messages altogether. 2. Environmental Stress: A high temperature and humidity, poor ventilation, vibrations felt, a strong glare - all can contribute to distortions in the sending and receiving of messages. 3. Subjective Stress: Sleeplessness, ill health, the effects of drugs and mood variations give rise to forms of subjective stress that often lead to great difficulties in listening and interpretation.
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Ignorance of the Medium : The various media for communication are : oral, written, audio, visual and audiovisual. The use of a medium with which the communicators are not familiar would tum the medium itself into a barrier. For instance, the use of visual media like maps and charts to instruct workers who have not been taught to read maps and charts would alienate the workers immediately; they would 'switch off' for lack of knowledge of the medium. Psychological Barriers Each of us has a certain 'frame of reference', a kind of window through which we look out at the world, at people, and events and situations. A frame of reference is a system of standards and values, usually implicit, underlying and to some extent controlling an action, or the expression of any belief, attitude or idea. No two individuals possess exactly similar frames of reference, even if they should be identical twins. To a large extent our frames of reference are influenced by our experiences, particularly our childhood experiences, and the cultural environment we have grown up in. Heredity too has a great influence. However, learning and deeper experiences modify these 'mental sets' as we grow and mature, and develop diverse frames of reference to meet different needs-our own and that of the group we identify ourselves with. This is the 'reference group', whose attitudes towards religion, politics, education and so on we adopt as our own - without being fully aware that we are doing so. Self Image Tied up with the term 'frame of reference' is the term 'selfimage' or 'self-concept'-Le., the wayan individual looks at himself, or the picture he has of himself. It is this 'self-image' that makes us always defend our point of view, to interpret messages in the way we wish to interpret them, and to see 'reality' according to our own pre-conceived notions. That is why few people see things alike: Freud, Jung and Adler interpreted the same dream in three different ways; Indian historians differ on who was responsible for 'the partition', and people understand 'love', 'beauty', 'honour' and 'freedom' according to what suits
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their 'self-image'. The American poet Wallace Stevens wrote that there were 13 ways of looking at a blackbird. He was mistaken, for there were as many ways as there were cultural contexts. Thus, we tend to listen attentively to, and interpret favourably those messages which give a boost to our self-image, and reject or misinterpret messages which threaten that same image. The consequence is : Communication selectivity. It is not only with regard to the sending and receiving of messages that we are selective, but also in the extent we remember them. For instance, we retain only that information that is pleasant to us or reinforces our ego, and try to forget details that are unpleasant or humiliating. Resistance to Change liThe risk of being changed is one of the most frightening prospects many of us face" (Carl Rogers). No wonder, we resist change in any form except where we are convinced it is to our benefit. So new ideas that do not support our own views are resisted outright. In fact, most of the time we do not actually hear views which conflict with our own. But we hear with rapt attention any communication that reinforces our beliefs, and our self image. The effective communicator, therefore, does not wait till resistance builds up against an intended change or innovation, but takes the people into confidence even at the planning stage. Instead of springing a surprise on them, he listens to their point of view with respect, involves them in the change; talks to them about the benefits the change will bring; assures them their security will not be affected; and explains the reasons why the change is necessary. Defensiveness and Fear Closely related to the barrier raised by our 'resistance to change' is the barrier of defensiveness. One of man's most compelling needs is to justify himself. Even when we are convinced we are wrong, few of us admit it, as it means a loss of face. More often than not, therefore, we tend to 'rationalize' (explain away) the mistakes we make, the attitudes and opinions we hold so dear. 'Fear is an affect of great potency in determining what the individual will perceive, think and do' (Izard and Tomkins).
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Indeed, together with the allied emotions of nervousness, anxiety and tension, fear is the most constricting of all the affects, resulting often in 'tunnel vision' (near-blindness to a great part of the communication). It also gives rise to slow and narrow thinking which selects and distorts communication. During an interview, a candidate's fear, tension and anxiety tells on his performance: he fumbles for words, misinterprets questions and in general gives a poor show of himself. During a written examination, nervous candidates misread the instructions, misunderstand the questions asked. Some psychologists, however, are of the view that a little anxiety is good, for it brings into use brain-cells otherwise inactive, and heightens attention, improves performance, releases certain hormones, and facilitates learning by a greater spread of nerve messages in the brain. In other words, fear and anxiety can be turned into a source of energy and confidence. Linguistic and Cultural Barriers A language is the expression of the thoughts and experiences of a people in terms of their cultural environment. When the same language is made use of in a different culture, it takes on another colour, another meaning. When, for instance, English is employed in India, it comes under the influence not only of the accent of the local language, but also of the meanings and connotations of - words, phrases, and idioms of that language, and of the culture that has given rise to it. Each language shapes the reasoning of its speakers. Thus English enforces 'either/or' thinking and reasoning. Indeed, no human is free to describe nature with strict objectivity; he is a prisoner of his language and even the same language has to cross not only cultural :md generation gaps, but political and social gaps as well. What is more, in our own familiar environment we switch our type of language fairly frequently, probably quite unconsciously; we modify it according to whom we are talking to, where we are, and according to what we talk about; there is a different language for discussing profit margins and for talking about the merits of the domestic help ... we are aware of the situational differences. This is equally true of non-verbal language: a nod of the head does not mean assent in all cultures; the
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'thumbs up' gesture has different associations for urban and rural groups in India; the touching of an elder's feet is a mark of respect in North India, but not quite so acceptable in other cultures. Language and Meaning Language facilitates understanding, but there are times when it can be a barrier to communication. In the first place, a language (whether verbal or non-verbal) is ambiguous by nature. The words of language, for instance, are mere symbols, and by themselves rarely represent only one meaning. Further, these symbols are. understood differently by participants in communication. And words (or symbols) possess objective and subjective meanings. While objective (or denotative or dictionary) meanings point to objects, people and events, subjective (or connotative) meanings point to emotional and evaluational responses. The favourable and unfavourable associations of a word depend upon the cultural context in which it is used. Take the words 'fascist', 'capitalist' or 'communist', for example: they carry different associations in communist and non-communist states. Meanings, therefore, exist not in words themselves but in the minds of people who use them. Even simple words like 'love', 'freedom', 'happiness' and 'tragedy' carry numerous associations depending upon the political and cultural situations people find themselves a part of. Mechallical Barriers Mechanical barriers are those raised by the channels employed - for interpersonal, group or mass communication. Channels become barriers when the message is interfered with by some disturbance, which (1) increased the difficulty in reception or (2) prevented some elements of the message reaching its destination or both. The absence of communication facilities too would be a mechanical barrier. Technically, such barriers are clubbed together under one general term 'channel noise'. This type of barrier includes any disturbance which interferes with the fidelity of the physical transmission of the message. A telephone that is in poor working order, making demands on the yelling ability of Sender and Receiver, is a mechanical barrier in interpersonal communication. So also is 'cross-talk' often heard
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over an 'intercom' link in an office, or during long-distance calls. Thus, hearing is the physical act of receiving sound waves, a natural process. Listening, however, is a skill that has to be learned and developed, requiring hard work and practice. In Group Communication, a rundown or 'whistling microphone, and the wrong placement of loudspeakers are disturbances which are mechanical in nature. (The communicator who stands too close or too far from the mike is another matter.) In mass communication, mechanical barriers would include such disturbances as audio reception problems on the radio, smeared ink on a newspaper, a rolling screen on television, a barely readable point-size, or a film projector or video that does not function properly. Further, when a message is misunderstood even though it is received exactly as it was transmitted results in what is known as Semantic Noise. The communicator might use words or names that are unfamiliar to an audience member, i.e., the 'communication' may be outside the person's 'frame of reference'. Semantic noise occurs when the words used may have one meaning for the communicator and another for the receiver. Communication which challenges attitudes, value& and beliefs of the audience may get 'rejected', 'distorted' or 'misinterpreted' and is termed 'Rejection'. And lastly, 'Dissonance' occurs when an action is taken by a person and that action is inconsistent with what a person knows or has previously believed. TIle person is uncomfortable until some 'dissonance-reduction' is achieved by seeking out messages that help adjust beliefs to action. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions: (i) What is 'noise' in communication? State its various types and discuss briefly anyone which you think is the most significant of all.
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(ii) Elaborate briefly on the one barrier to communication
which you most
fr~quently
encounter at work.
Feedback in Communication Once the response or reaction of the receiver to a message become known to the sender, it becomes feedback. Through feedback, the source gets to know if the communication sent has achieved its objective. Feedback exerts control over the message that the source will send in future. In other words, the audience controls the communication it receives in future by the responses it makes or does not make. Thus the response or feedback acts as a check on the communication flow. In a communication process, a person is both a receiver and a source. The person receives a message from the source. The person reacts to the message and transmits the reactions or feedback to the source. Thus the receiver becomes the source of feedback and the source that originated the message becomes receiver of feedback. Feedback is of paramount importance for effective communication. A good communicator is one who is attentive to feedback and constantly modifies the messages in the light of the reaction of the audience to the message. We often overlook the power of feedback to affect the source. We fail to realize the extent to which the receiver affects the communicator. When the audience indicate that they do not understand, the source repeats the message. Person-to-person communication yields maximum f~edback then and there, where as the mass media have no such facility as the source and the receiver are separated. They have little opportunity to get feedback from the responses of others unless field surveys are organized and 'Letters to Editor', 'Letters from Listeners or Viewers' etc., are encouraged-which would help in the process.
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This difficulty in getting feedback by those who use mass media to send their message has given rise to an entire industrythe opinion poll, readership surveys, audience research, those who study the impact of advertisements etc. The aUdience-response in the shape of desirable action is needed in the form of free feedback in response to a message. The following gives an idea of the possible variety in response that may result on receiving a message. Understanding Vs. Knowledge Communication efforts often fail because they stop simply with the giving of facts to the people. There is no attempt to 'promote an understanding of the facts presented. People usually do not act on facts alone. They need to gain an understanding of the facts. Communication must promote understanding through effective and free feedback so as to remove all barriers between the sender and the receiver. Acceptance Vs. Rejection A thinking human mind requires that the facts should be understood before they are accepted. Mental acceptance precedes (the resorting to) action. Belief resulting from a thorough knowledge determines what one does, when free to act as one chooses. Feedback is most essential to help one act in a right way. Remembering Vs. Forgetting When opportunity for putting into practice what is learnt is not immediately available, what is learnt may be forgotten owing to delayed action. Transmitting the right message to the right people at the right time is often a crucial factor in successful communication. Mental Vs. Physical Action Change in the mind of a person must always precede change in his/her action. A message suggesting physical action could end at the source. So feedback is essential to remove the mental barrier in the way of implementing or acting upon a message. Rigllt Vs. Wmng The intent of communication is to promote desirable action by an audience as determined by the communicator. For a variety
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of reasons, people do not behave precisely according to instructions even when they have understood and accepted them. Whether as individuals or groups, human beings have their own ideas about how to act. This situation can be corrected through constant free feedback as also by rectifying the transmission errors entering the communication channels. Thus, effective communication is the core of successful education at all levels and also the key that unlocks the door to human relationships which is to exchange knowledge and thought. Communication refers to the exchange of knowledge, skills, and attitudes among persons and the social groupings. In other words, Communication implies the movement of knowledge in such way that they act on the knowledge in order to achieve results. Since the objective of all interactions is to bring about desirable change in the behaviour of the people, knowing and understanding the phenomenon of communication is indeed critical. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Discuss briefly the significance of 'Feedback' in communication.
(ii) Try to recall or note how an instance of 'feedback'
(received or given) helped enhance communication and a subsequent betterment of a relationship at work.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers Annexure : Body Language
What is Body Language? Body language is described simply by psychologists as a language of signals. They say we express our feelings and thoughts in gestures, movements and attitudes, unaware that we are doing so. lf you like, this language is what we say without speaking, which is a great deal. Only part of what we tell those around us is conveyed by the spoken word. Movements, usually controlled by the subconscious, say more. Every day we unconsciously send many signals through the body Proxemics and Kinesics, the study of face and body movement respectively, which will tell us that 50 per cent of information on the character, impact and credibility of a person is conveyed by body language. The Importance of Body Language You may use words to disguise your thoughts. You may leave things unsaid, even lie-but it is impossible to do this with body language. Sometimes it is easier to change your mind or your convictions than to control your posture, expression and gestureshow you tug at your ear lobe, perhaps. You may use a lot of words and fail to get your point across, but to anyone who can read the signs, the body 'speaks' simply and clearly. Understanding your own and other people's body language requires you to be both observer and interpreter. You must watch closely, since what you are looking for may not be obvious or dramatic, but small unspectacular signals. In private as well as professional life, body language is a major means of human communication. The ability to identify it in others and to know how to use it yourself will give you an immense advantage in dealing with others. You can : (a) liberate your body from the restrictions imposed on it by social mores and personal inhibitions; (b) communicate more forcefully by using your body effectively; (c) harmonise your inner and outer attitude, so that you feel more relaxed and experience less stress in yourself and in your relationships with other people;
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(d) learn more about others from their body language than from what they say; (e) learn the difference between studied and spontaneous body signals, making it difficult for others to hide their true selves; (f) develop your own body language and communicate more easily with others. Some of our movements and gestures are obvious: wrinkling the nose, wagging a finger, raising the eyebrows, glancing up in desperation, making a fist. All these movements are easy to see and interpret. But how should we read the subtler signals? Japanese mime theatre uses more than 40 positions of the eyebrow to convey different emotions. But we in the West do not . even know what it means when somebody holds a coffee cup with both hands in front of the chest. (This posture expresses insecurity; the cup is held protectively.) Why does the mobster in films keep his thumbs in his waistcoat? Why do Western heroes always swivel their hips when they walk? Why do we choose an empty tabl(' in a restaurant, rather than join another group? Why do we bow our heads almost imperceptibly when being introduced? Why do so many men find it attractive when a seated woman crosses her legs and wiggles her foot? Long before 'kinesics' entered the vocabulary of psychology, the existence of body language was well known. Otherwise how would these phrases have evolved? ..... 'Your eyes speak volumes' . . .... 'Someone is on your back' . ..... 'He's a pain in the neck' . ..... 'Hang your head' . . .... 'Head over heels in love' . ..... 'If looks could kill' . ..... 'You get cold feet'. The importance of body language as a means of communication was recognized in 1926 by the Hungarian choreographer and dance teacher Rudolf von Laban, who said :
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'We must not forget that movement is first and foremost a manifestation of man's inner will and his life. Remember that ... all sounds, and this includes speech, singing and screaming, are generated by physical movements of the diaphragm which occur during respiration .... Sound, volume and pitch serve the purpose of expressing movement...: A better understanding of body language is valuable if you remember that the signals you pick up from another person can have many meanings and that 'fraudulent' behaviour can easily cover up true feelings. Beware of making snap judgements. Understanding body language means more than just identifying and interpreting a particular gesture in isolation. If you want to slot everything neatly into place, you could end up making false assessments of other people. We should not assess a person before we have observed several body signals. We also have to look for the tiny expressions of someone's body language and add these tell-tale habits to the basic situation. Since these habits are unique to each individual, they are unlikely to be a deliberate blind. The only way to reach a more accurate judgement b every case is to sharpen your senses. Furthermore, you will find that your powers of observation and sensitivity will generally improve. Be cautious, self-critical and modest when judging others. As the German philosopher Georg Christoph Lichtenberg put it : 'Know yourself and you will know others. It is simply a matter of reflection: Self-Assessment Exercises At the end of this section, it may be interesting for you to work through the following exercises : 1. 'What Arms and Hands Tell us' Exercise --+ Non-Verbal Communication 2.
'The Key to Everyday Body Language' Exercise --+ NonVelbal Communication 3. 'Your Coat of Arms' Exercise --+ Intrapersonal Communication Please note : Work space pages are provided at the end of the Exercises.
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Exercise (1)1 What Arms and Hands Tell Usl Self-Assessment Exercise
We use our arms and hands to make gestures: Latin gestus, meaning 'posture' or 'bearing'. The language of gesture can be seen as an accompaniment to the spoken word. Public speakers, conductors and actors all show the importance of gestures. In the art of mime, gestures speak for themselves. And when we travel abroad, our hands and feet can help us through language difficulties. Our range of expressions with hands and feet is extremely varied. Try to assume the following postures in front of a mirror and watch your own expression. Please tick the response which you think is appropriate : 1. Let your arms hang loose with the back of your hands showing. The posture is full of tension powerless 2. Bend your arms and put your hands on your hips. Raise your head slightly, moving your left hip forward. The posture will be recognized as being 0 Negative positive 0 3. Cross your arms in front of your chest and move your head slightly to one side. The posture symbolizes 0 openness, defence and barrier 0 willingness to talk 4. Cross your arms in front of your chest and hide your hands in your armpits. Leave the upright thumbs on your chest. The posture symbolizes limited expectations defence and barrier 5. Hide your arms behind your back. Both hands hold the other forearm. The posture symbolizes 0 resoluteness: insecurity and the 0 'Now I will act!' search for support
o
0
0
0
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Place your arms akimbo on your hips. Your elbows are bent forward, and your legs are slightly apart. Move your head back a little. The posture symbolizes compensation for strength, stability superiority weakness and embarrassment The correct answers to questions are overleaf. Solutions to the Questions on Body Language 1. This attitude is powerless. It is the classical expression of 'I have alrea~y given up'. 2. This is positive. The dynamic position of the hip and the hands (as a result of the position of the arms) says: 'I am ready for a relationship'. 3. Defence and barrier are conveyed here. The crossed arms imply: 'I am closing up'. 4. Cautious expectation is expressed. Although the upright thumbs are a sign of strength, the hidden hands do not signify security or emotional stability. 5. This attitude signals insecurity and the search for support. The back serves as a shield against any possible danger. The hands hidden under the forearms signify the attempt to free oneself from an uncomfortable situation. There is no sign of activity. 6. An excessive show of power here compensates for weakness and inhibition. This is often connected with a primitive or aggressive challenge.
D
D
Exercise (2) I The Key to Everyday Body Language ISelf-Assessment Exercise
You have understood the importance of body signs. So you may have got the impression that is very easy to assess somebody's mood. If this is the case, we should also be able to adjust or control our own body signals. It is as if we have been given a box of bricks containing all the different elements with which to build a new, individual body language for ourselves. But be careful. You could let yourself down with body signals which appear artificial.
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Why is this so? Stangl wrote: 'Body and soul are one .... The driving force for our body language comes from our inner being, which cannot be changed or "created" out of the blue. In this superficial sense we can hardly achieve anything'. Nevertheless, the knowledge of connections and the critical observation of our own body language are first steps towards real changes that do not come across as artificial. Just ask yourself the following: Do I maintain eye contact with others? Yes No How does my mouth move when I talk? Relaxed Tense What attitude does my body convey? ~ffi
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Do my gestures fit in with my personality? Yes No What is my tone in conversations? Relaxed Impatient Steady Irritated Friendly Angry Factual Aggressive Quiet Noisy Mumbling Clear Is my mood written on my face? Yes No Discuss with your friends and acquaintances and ask them to help you. Exercise (3) I Your Coat of Anns I Self-Assessment Exercise This exercise in Intrapersonal Communication gives you an opportunity to affirm important values in your life, through such indicators as interests, activities, aspirations, hopes and beliefs. Historically a 'coat of arms' was a symbol of what a family stood for or valued. They used pictures to depict these ideals, achievements or qualities, e.g., a lion meant strength, a lamb meant gentleness.
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A coat of arms has 7 segments - each meant to depict the response to a given statement. You will make your own coat of arms. Use symbols and pictures, not words, except in segments 6 and 7. 1. Two things I do well or two of my favourite activities (Draw)
2. My 'Psychological' home or the place where I feel at home (Draw)
3. My personal achievement or my one success in life I am really proud of (Draw)
4. The three people influential in my life (Draw)
5. My Life's Dream (Draw)
6. The three adjectives or phrases I would like said about me (when I die) or my personal motto by which I (try to) live (Write)
7. What is something you would like to hide behind the coat? (Your negative) for e.g. INSECURITY
Workspace for your thoughts I notes I comments
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Interpretation and Application It is important I believe, for you as College Principals, to have this fundamental understanding of the concept of 'Communication' in the delineated parameters; since here-in lies the key to all meaningful interaction within organizations like schools and colleges, and to an extent-outside of it. While it is certain that before you went through this matter (and the progress check questions and self-assessment exercises) you had an awareness of 'communication' as an important ingredient of your professional setting, I do hope that this section enabled you to gain a clearer understanding and perspective on the same. While the notes on the Process, Characteristics, Nature, Types, Scope, Functions, and the Need of Communication-may have been interesting for you to go through; the Models and Theories of Communication, perhaps a little too academic may have become tedious to plough through. They have been included here since their understanding would help decipher behavioural patterns of the people with whom you interact routinely or otherwise-and enable you to deal with them amicably, ascertain their work output and ensure a smooth organizational flow. The reflections on Asian!Indian communication thought viz.-a-viz., the western interpretations should also have been interesting and useful to learn about. Indian theorization is characterized by complexity and pluralism as opposed to the distinctive linear (as some of the models of communication suggest) and rational logic implied by western culture. Clearly, our communication structures are deeper and more layered and thus the Indian psyche more complex in its societal orientations owing to mindsets rooted in traditionalism; (but) struggling to branch out into a more open and modem environment. The same mindsets also (eventually) tend to become mind-blocks-barriers to communication; and have to be tactfully handled. Similarly, appropriate and timely 'feedback' on important issues can also help attune ones own behaviour or help colleagues! subordinates! students circumvent difficult situations and steer them through to clear, work friendly pastures-particularly on the career front. The exercises in 'Body Language' were included to help you observe your overt personality traits and shed or chisel some of your mannerisms-if! as required; while the exercise in intra-
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personal communication would help / compel you to take time off work and to look inwards towards "yourself" and dwell on some of your personal hopes and beliefs in life; and take you towards holistic, meaningful thought, behaviour and well-being. Thus, <1s College Principals-shouldering immense responsibility and interacting with people at different levels all the time; this conceptual understanding of communication should have served to be an avenue for you to have put the pieces of your thoughts on 'communication' processes together-into a significant whole.
2 Understanding Organizational Communication Understanding an Organization At the beginning of this Section, in Unit A, I have tried to present a theoretical understanding of 'Organizational Communication' - which I believe is important to comprehend before we get into the detailing of the types and nuances of communication which take place within an organizationparticularly in the context of educational institutes-viz., colleges. Basic communication patterns cut across all types of organizations and are similar in all set-ups except ofcourse that the nature of work differs from place to place-and in keeping with that-the communication (per se) does so too. As a college principal, I am sure you will find it interesting and useful to go through this unit. An organization can be visualized as a social grouping that creates tasks and/or interpersonal patterns of relationships for the achievement of a specific objective. Analyzing this definition critically, it can be concluded that every organization has a structure, people, and an external environment with which it interacts. An organization may be considered as a system of overlapping and interdependent groups, which could be the different departments, located either on the same floor of a
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building, or scattered over the face of the earth. Other things being equal, people will communicate very often with those people geographically closest to them, even within a relatively small organization. Spatial distance itself thus proves to be a barrier to effective communication. Each one of the subgroups in an organization demands allegiance, loyalty and compliance from its members. It has its own immediate objectives/ goals, strategy and means for attending them. It distributes material as well as immaterial rewards to members of the group, based on their contribution to these objectives. When any particular communication is sent to a member of subgroups in an organization, each group extracts a different meaning from the message, depending upon its significance for the values and things the group cherishes most, and is trying to attain. The groups in an organization represent different subcultures-as different, for example, as those inhabited by salesmen, engineers, accountants, managers and includes such diverse departments as engineering, manufacturing, finance, materials, and industrial relations. Similarly in Educational Organizations like colleges too there would be different departments, different subgroups and varied responsibilities shouldered by all. Each occupational or professional group contains its own idealized image, and value system based on its past traditions. These are closely and zealously guarded because they give the members of that group their feelings of identity from others. Other groups in an organization, based on experience, age, sex and marital status have to varying degrees, identical tendencies. Each group develops alongwith its peculiar value system a somewhat specialized system of meanings and interpretation of the contents of information conveyed to it. It is also one of the main characteristics of organizations that persons are structured into different pattems of relationships. A work structure prevails which permits certain persons to perform certain jobs alongwith other persons. An authority structure exists implying that some people have overall responsibility for guiding and directing the activities of other persons. This authority in colleges rests with the principal. The status structure determines which persons possess what rights and privileges. The prestige
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structure allows certain persons to expect differential behaviour from others. The friendship structure is dependent upon feelings of interpersonal trust and confidence. These systems of relationships overlap but are not similar. Each has an important bearing on the communication process in an organization, because each greatly influences the expectations people have regarding who should communicate to whom, about what, and in what manner. Now, the question arises, how often people openly and freely discuss these matters and come to agreement? Since these areas involve ranking of persons with discriminating distinctions, these discussions are commonly held back. Yet disagreements and twisted and distorted perceptions about questions of relationship in an organization create many communication problems. Another chief characteristic of the organization and which greatly intensifies these communication problems is the fact that relationships among persons are in a continual state of flux and liquidity. A basic unavoidable feature of any organization is that the people in them do not work in isolation. For example-in colleges-there is need for coordination amongst all staff (whether academic or administrative); particularly teachers need to go by their time-tables for classes, maintain timings for practicals, examination schedules, and all other students activities. Personnel losses, transfers, promotions, and replacements are occurring constantly and decisions about new policies and procedures taken simultaneously, often modifying and affecting relationships in organizations. For example-uncertainty about the appointments of temporary lecturers/visiting faculty-most often creates a lot of tension and abrasion amongst teachers. Some people are informed about changes before others; whereas some are not informed at all. As a college principaJ, it should be your common practice to communicate decisions to all the persons who are affected by them. We should be extremely sensitive to the social structure of our organizations otherwise we will restrict communication too narrowly. This restrictive communication of decisions about change, however, may prove highly disruptive to any concern people may have about their relationships to one another, and this, in turn, can create communication problems in an organization.
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Please check your progress Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant:
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) What do you understand by 'Organizational Communication'?
(ii) Try to recall and write about an incidence of 'change' that may have occurred in the recent past in your college (For example-when you may have had to convey to a temporary lecturer who has been working for a COli pIe of years in your college-the termination of his/her contract). How did you deal with the situation then, and would you handle it differently if faced with a similar predicament now?
The Classical Principles of Organization The classical principles of organization generally applicable to all types of set-ups-including colleges-are based upon the fundamental assumptions that : (a) People behave as individuals; (b) All activities are impersonalised; (c) All relationships are ideal; (d) Ideal lines of communications can be created and maintained. The first of the classical principles is the principle of the objective which is simply stating the obviollS, for an organization must have an objective or objectives to be fulfilled for maintaining
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its identity in the social structure. An organization is a means to an end and not an end in itself. Further, each unit in the organization should contribute to the attainment of the overall objectives in some way or the other, and that each one should have an objective that will explicitly make clear as to what it is supposed to contribute to the common goal! objectives of the organiza tion. Another classical principle insisted upon by many writers is the principle of coordination. 'Coordination', says James D. Mooney, 'expresses the principles of organization in toto: nothing less', an organization strongly needs coordination of activities because if people are to work together for a common objective, it is absolutely essential to coordinate their activities. As a college principal, this indeed is your main task at work-viz.-, that of binding all staff and students together; working in coordination towards academic output and administrative maintenance. Communication Flow and Organization Communication problems of an organization might satisfactorily be solved by a careful analysis of the situation in which the problem occurs, and applying the general principles directing the flow of communication. Recent researches in this field have revealed the feasibility of formulating the general principles about the forces in an organization guiding communication flow. It has often been said that although communication flows top to bottom smoothly, the problem remains with an upward flow of communication. In fact, any generalization about the flow of communication, either upward, downward, horizontal or sideways is equally deceptive. It goes without saying that motivational forces are the guiding factors in determining the directionality of communicationflow. People communicate or avoid to communicate with a view ' to achieving some goals/objectives, satisfying some personal need or improving their present position. In a study made about the communication patterns among the personnel of a medium-sized government agency Gagson 1953) it was found that people communicate largely with members of their own subgroups than to any other persons. They also like
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to communicate with the higher-status persons than themselves, and tend to avoid communicating with lower-status persons. The only exception to this trend was seen when a person had supervisory responsibilities which removed his constraints against communicating with lower-status persons. A supervisor can accomplish his work-objectives/goals, etc., only by having relatively frequent contact with his subordinates, and he would probably like to have more such contacts. It was also found that when people communicated with others belonging to their status-level, they preferred communicating with those who were more socially influential and avoided those who made little contribution. These results can, however, be explained by working out a principle. The formal subgroups in an organization are dependent upon the maxim of joint work responsibilities. Consequently, there exist strong motivations for people to communicate more and more with the persons whose work-goals are identical. Again, the people WhO can offer the best advice and information, are valued most. These findings point out to the following conclusion : 1. In the achievement of their objectives/goals, etc., people' have strong forces and motivations which compel them to communicate with those persons who help them in achieving such objectives/ goals, etc" on the other hand, there are also forces restraining people not to hold communication with those persons who are unable to assist in the achievement of their objectives/ goals, etc. This kind of (self) interest and ambiguity lead to what is known as 'rumour', Rumour is that information which is communicated without secure standards of evidence being present. It is unverified and untrue and could by chance be correct-but it is generally incorrect; and therefore quite dangerous-since it could sometimes lead to difficult, undesirable circumstances. During the course of a study of a housing settlement (Festinger, 1948), a rumour was spread through the community which considerably dislocated the research proceedings. The investigators then directed their attention towards this rumour, and were successful in tracing out its path from person to person, and understanding the forces or circumstances which led people to
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communicate. Afterwards, they also tested their hypothesis by deliberately initiating a rumour in an organization, and again, discovering its path by the use of informants (Back, Festinger et. al., 1950). They came to the conclusion that people spread rumours under two circumstances, i.e., (i) when they are confused and perplexed about what is going on; and (ii) when they are helpless to act upon their own destinies. Findings from research studies conducted in industry, in hospital and in a government agency reveal the same result; people like to communicate to the higher-status persons rather than with lower-status individuals (Mishler and Tropp, 1956; Jackson, 1953; and Bums, 1954). And similar things happen in educational institutes as well, and have to be guarded against. The reason for a possible precipitation of this state of affairs can be traced to the following factor, viz., higher-status individuals are able to create either enlivening and satisfying conditions in the form of tangible decisions, rewards or simple expressions of approval and confidence for their employees. Conversely, also, they (high-status individuals) can bring about depriving conditions for their employees. Again, lower status persons need encouragement and reassurance about their superior's behaviour, evaluations and intentions towards them. On the basis of these findings we can draw another general conclusion. 2. People have strong motivations as well as powerful forces acting upon them to enter into communication with those individuals who could satisfy their needs, and make them feel secure. Conversely, they will restrain their communication activities with those individuals who are likely to tum a deaf ear to their aspirations and needs. It has been observed that the personal and individual needs and aspirations playa significant role in determining the contents and flow of communication to others of different positions and status. Ample evidence exists that subordinates are often unwilling to ask for help from their superiors since this might be taken as a threatening admission of inadequacy. Again, superiors are also reluctant in their communication to their employees to confess their own mistakes or errors in judgement. We can again work out a third principle which greatly helps us to understand the flow of communication in organizations.
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3. The ambitious people who are working in an organization and strive to promote their position and status, have to communicate effectively with their subordinates, management and others with whom they need to interact on a regular basis. They mayor may not be aware of the operation of this principle in their own behaviour towards others. But the fact is that they like to improve their position or status; belong to a more socially higher group and obtain more authority and power to influence their decisions. Persons in an organization who want to join more prestigious department or a group are seen more inclined to communicate in that direction. Even if they are debarred from membership of that particular department or group, they increase the volume of their communication still further, as if doing so, represents a substitute for actually moving into the desirable group. In a study (conducted by Zander, Cohen and Scotland, 1957) of the role relationships of three types of professionals who worked together in the mental health field, viz., psychiatrists, clinical psychologists and psychiatric social workers-it was revealed that the direction, amount, and content of their communication to one another can be largely determined from these two factors: (1) their insight of the other professions, power as compared with their own and (2) how much satisfaction they derive from their own power positions as contrasted to that of the other groups. Thus, it is obvious that the general principle, viz., that forces act on persons to communicate with a view to improving their relative position in the organization seems to be supported by all these findings. And thus it would be important for you as a college principal to be aware of this and recognize such behaviour, if any, amongst subordinates in order to be able to monitor the overall administration of the college accordingly. The Communication Flow in the Enterprise In an effective enterprise, communication flows in various directions : downward, upward, and crosswise. Traditionally, downward communication was emphasized, but there is ample evidence that if this is the only direction of communication flow, problems will develop. In fact, one could argue that effective communication has to start with the subordinate, and this means
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primarily upward communication. Communication also flows horizontally, that is, between people on the same or similar organizational levels, and diagonally, involving persons from different levels who are not in direct reporting relationships with one another. Downward Communication Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels in the organizational hierarchy. This kind of communication exists especially in organizations with an authoritarian atmosphere. The kinds of media used for downward oral communication include instructions, speeches, meetings, the use of telephones, and sometimes even microphones/ loudspeakers to address large gatherings. Examples of written downward communication are memoranda, letters, handbooks, pamphlets, policy statements, and procedures. Unfortunately, information is often lost or distorted as it comes down the chain of command. Top management's issuance of policies and procedures does not ensure communication. In fact, many directives are not understood or even read. And this is often true for educational institutes as well. Consequently, a feedback system is essential for finding out whether information was perceived as intended by the sender. Downward flow of information through the different levels of the organization is time-consuming. Indeed, delays may be so frustrating that some top managers insist that information be sent directly to the person or group requiring it. Upward Communication Upward communication travels from subordinates to superiors and continues up the organizational hierarchy. Unfortunately, this flow is often hindered by managers in the communications link who filter the messages and do not transmit all the information-especially unfavourable news-to their bosses. Yet, objective transmission of information is essential for control purposes. Upper management needs to know specifically about production performance, marketing information, financial data, what lower-level employees are thinking, and so on . .There is also a human perspective to upward communication, which is primarily non-directive and is usually found in
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participative and democratic organizational environments. Typical means for upward communication-besides the chain of command-are suggestion systems, appeal and grievance procedures, complaint systems, counselling sessions, the grapevine, group meetings, brain-storming sessions, the practice of open-door policy, morale questionnaires, the exit interview, and the ombudsperson. The concept of the ombudsperson, used relatively little in the United States until recently, now seems to be gaining somewhat wider acceptance. Effective upward communication requires all environment in which subordinates feel free to communicate. Since the organizational climate is greatly influenced by upper management, it means that the responsibility for creating a free flow of upward communication rests to a great extent-although not exclusively-with superiors. And therefore in a college setting-such a responsibility rests clearly on the shoulders of the college principal. Crosswise Communication Crosswise communication, as pointed out earlier, includes the horizontal flow of information with people on the same or similar organizational levels and diagonal flow with persons at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships. This kind of communication is used to speed information flow, to improve understanding, and to coordinate efforts for the achievement of organizational objectives. A great deal of communication does not follow the organizational hierarchy, but cuts across the chain of command. Because information may not follow the chain of command, proper safeguards need to be taken to prevent potential problems. Specifically, crosswise communication should rest on the understanding that (1) crosswise relationships will be encouraged wherever they are appropriate, (2) subordinates will refrain from making commitments beyond their authority, and (3) subordinates will keep superiors informed of important interdepartmental activities. In short, crosswise communication may create difficulties, but it is a necessity in many enterprises in order to respond to the needs of the complex and dynamic organizational environment. In a college setting, one has to guard against any misinformation that might get thrown up owing to crosswise
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communication amongst academic/administrative staff and students; and as a college principal-take preventive/corrective action as necessary. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
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Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Discuss briefly the various types of 'Communication Flow' in an organization.
(ii) Try to recall and write about an instance of 'upward communication' at work, where-in, your subordinates/ students may have tried to convey something to you. (For example-putting forth a request for suspension of classes for rehearsals for a programme). How did you deal with the situation then, and would you handle it differently if faced with a similar predicament now?
Problems of Communication in an OrganizationOften Symptomatic It is obvious that communication problems are often only the symptoms of other difficulties which exist among persons and groups in an organization. Concisely, we would like to point out the following four problems which must be solved in organizations -even educational institutes - with a view to overcoming the barriers to communication. (a) The problem of trust or lack of trust: It has been proved that communication flows along friendship channels. In a more reliable and trustworthy atmosphere, communication contents are more freely passed, absorbed and
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assimilated. The recipient is more accurate and definite in perceiving the sender's opinions and attitudes. (b) The problem of maintaining interdependence among persons; creating common goals and agreement about means for accomplishing them : When persons have various goals/objectives, and value systems in organizations, then it is especially vital to create mutual understanding about needs and motives. (c) The problem of distributing rewards impartially: This is vital so that people's needs and aspirations are being met, and they are motivated to contribute significantly to the overall goals/objectives of the organization. There is a free flow of ideas and infOlmation in the organization from persons who are assured to get thei.r basic due. (d) The problem of understanding and coming to common agreement about the social structure of the organization: Consensus about questions of work, performance-standards, authority, status relationships, etc., is most vital to the free flow of communication in organizations. Organizational Elements Affect Communication It goes without saying that the organization exercises it's farreaching influence upon the communication behaviour of the people who deal with it. The very structure of the organization is so portrayed as to give rise to a multiplicity of communication . situations, decision points, and defining the direction of communication flow. Besides, the orgamzation affects the communication behaviour of people as individuals. These two communication aspects, though they are overlapping, are mutually distinguishable, and are referred to by W. Charles Redding as 'structural and personal communication'. This applies to communication in educational institutes as well. Structural Communication It means communication activities which are not chiefly connected or associated with any individual person as transmitter or receiver but denotes messages required by the intrinsic 'structural-functional' demands of the organization e.g., general or impersonal notifications, bulletins, manuals and handbooks,
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advertisements, company announcements, safety instructions, union contracts, employee publications and orientation materials for new employees. Personal Communication It includes the writing, reading, speaking, listening, and nonverbal forms of communication behaviour of individual persons in an organization. Examples include orders or instructions issued to the employees, listening to suggestions and complaints, conducting appraisal interviews of candidates, visiting the plant premises; participating in conferences, congresses and seminars, . and talking to employee groups. These two aspects of organizational communication involving both structural and personal dimensions can be seen as existing at either end of a continuum as shown below. Relationship between Structural and Personal Communication Structural Personal Communication ........... Messages ........... Communication As we approach nearer to the midpoint of the continuum, we move closer to those messages that involve both structural and . personal aspects, e.g., business meetings are conducted very often in organizations for planning the effective operation of day to day performance of workers, and these consist of persons both listening and speaking, and stand for the personal aspects of communication. Again, these meetings are affected to a considerable extent by the organizational system itself, in view of the fact that they echo and reflect a structured superior-subordinate relationship. It is obvious that the very structure of an organization determines the communication pattern in organizations. This is since organizations consist of interrelated and interconnected parts known as departments with communication linkages existing all over between and among these parts. This is applicable to a college set-up as well-where the linkages are between the college principal who is the central person-connected to others around him-viz.,-the office and academic staff, students, guardians, visitors, management and other university officials, dealers and many others. If we were to reorganize an organization, we would actually be changing as well as creating afresh the channels of message flow (paths) and networks (interconnected
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paths). Adjusting the parts automatically causes changes or adjustments among the interconnected communication linkagt's existing in organizations. The division of labour brings forth the concept of verticalcommunication. Vertical communication consists of upward communication (reports, ideas, suggestions, complaints, grievances, protests, attitudes and information services, union publication, etc.), and dcwnward communication (directive demanding actions from subordinates). Therefore the chains of command are, in fact, the lines of authority and accountability which represent the formal channels of communication in organizations. The hierarchical structure of most tall organizations compels the manager, (in colleges-the principal), i.e., the decisionmaker, to be isolated from the people above and below him or her. Consequently, organizational communication is less spontaneous, and it does not echo and reflect the real circumstances surrounding problems. The Grapevine The informal communication system of an organization is usually referred to as the grapevine. It co-exists with the management's formal communication system. Such a channel of . communication is inevitable, since the people constituting the' organization will form both work groups and social groups. The grapevine arises from social interaction, and it is as fickle, dynamic and varied as people are. Since much of the information transmitted by grapevine is fallacious, many managers become disturbed at its existence. Furthermore, the speed of informational exchange is sometimes much quicker through the grapevine than through the formal channels of communication since the former is not restricted by concern about the unity of command, or any strictly established channels. Modem organization theory stresses the importance of lateral and informal communication networks within organizations. Both have tremendous influence on diverse organizational phenomena and their interrelationship needs to be further explored with a view to effecting improvement in organizations. The manager's task is not to impede such information flows, but rather to help assure that information so transmitted is accurate and relevant to organizational success.
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The Span of Control Span of control decides whether we should have a tall or flat organization. This in turn has an important bearing on the number of levels the organization will have. Tall organizations add significantly to the number of communication channels. Moreover, this tendency greatly increases the possibility of message distortion. Another outstanding feature of tall organization lies in the fact that they have few power and decision-making points. Consequently, there is better control over the decision-making process. But decisions are often delayed, and they are not immediately responsive to emergencies. On the other hand, flat organizations greatly reduce the number of organizational levels through which messages travel. This tendency often leads to information overload to the manager's office. Authority, and decision making are greatly dispersed throughout the organization, allowing for more immediate response to emergent communication situations. The span of control for college principals is quite extensive-and he does have to deal with a large number of issues and people, thereby always having to face a time constraint (for 'communication' at different levels)-most of the time. Organizations also affect the communication behaviour of the individual as a person. As a member of an organization we are also members of a structural set of interper~onal relationships. Each of us is assigned a role to play in accordance with the prescribed standards or rules of conduct. Our roles compel us to develop mutual interdependence and expectations among ourselves. They also determine whom we interact with, how and when we interact, and indeed, whether we interact. Besides, simple membership in a large complex organization creates tensions on professional, social and personal levels affecting our daily communication. Thus, in an organization, there exist both formal and informal communication channels. Formal channels represent the 'official' lines of communication as specified on the organizational chart and as embodied in the link representing the chains of command. Formal messages theoretically do not need any persuasion, and are indeed accepted by members of the organization without question.
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1.
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Please check your progress Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Discuss briefly the following types of communication in an organization with examples : (a) Structural Communication: (b) Personal Communication :
(ii) Try to recall and write about an instance, wherein, owing to a rumour spread through the grapevine (For example-a rumour about a lecturer having favoured a few students in a viva-voce examination) considerable damage may have been done to the reputation and morale of a colleague. How did you deal with the situation then and would you handle it differently if faced with a similar predicament now? .''.
Communication and Leadership While defining leadership, Keith Davis says, "Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically". It is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards goals. This ability depends very largely upon the art of communication. Without communication it is quite impossible for a leader to bind his group together for achieving the ultimate goals of the enterprise. The relationship between leadership and communication can be very well understood when one considers a small group, for example, the employees of a college. Let us assume that this
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group consi.sts of a principal who acts as a leader. Assume in the beginning they do not communicate with each other. Eac.h man has around him a 'Wall of Silence' blocking all forms of communication. It is obvious that under these conditions the leader (principal in this case), neither leads his employees nor can they follow him. Because the employer / staff has no means to know what/how he is expected to perform. The principal, owing to the 'wall of silence' around him is not in a position to give orders and instructions, nor is he able to motivate his men because he may be quite ignorant of their needs, wants and aspirations. Further, the workers cannot see even the facial expressions of their leader as the 'Wall of Silence' is so high that each worker cannot see even his colleague. When there is a total lack of communication, group effort is impossible. If the 'Walls of Silence' are removed from the leader and his men, they are able to work together. Not only this, the leader can now lead his men more effectively as communication provides the necessary information and understanding so essential for group effort and dynamic leadership. Coordination of activities and open communication are indeed so imperative in organizational settings like colleges. The quality of communication skills possessed by managers or administrators and organized personnel determines the degree of achievement motivation that can be generated for desired behaviour. The principal responsibility of management (leadership) may be viewed as the coordination and control of relations between the organization and its internal environment in order to optimize organizational goal achievement. Just how a manager will communicate within the organization will depend largely upon the leadership style he is employing at any given point in time. The leadership style and corresponding communication pattern is extremely important because, according to Marlick and Van Nese, lito a considerable extent the holders of power in an organization hold their power because they are able to get their definition of the situation accepted by others". Communication serves two main purposes for the organizational leader : 1. It provides a vehicle through which he can implement his plan of action.
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It provides a means by which members of the organization can be motivated to execute the plans. Hence, it is important that the principals in colleges-be sensitive to the needs and wants of the employees, demonstrate a concern for their welfare, and impart understanding of the reason for work and the value to be derived by the employee. Redding has drawn a number of conclusions regarding good communication and effective leadership : 1. The better supervisors/principals tend to be more communication-minded; e.g., they enjoy talking in meetings; are able to explain instructions and policies; enjoy conversing with subordinates. 2. The better superyisors/principals tend to be willing, emphatic listeners; they respond understandingly to socalled silly questions from employees; they are approachable; they will listen to suggestions and complaints with an attitude of fair consideration and willingness to take appropriate action. 3. The better supervisors/principals tend to ask or persuade in preference to telling or demanding. 4. The better supervisors/principals tend to be sensitive to the feelings and ego-defence needs of their subordinates, e.g., they are careful to reprimand in private rather than in public. 5. The better supervisors/principals tend to be more open in pushing along information, they are in favour of giving advance notice of impending changes and explaining the reason behind policies and regulations. Following is a list of do's and don'ts that have direct bearing on one as a leader of 'Communication' in an organization : 1. Do make yourself available for frank, unhurried discussions of employee's problems or complaints. 2. Don't attempt such discussions between phone calls or on the run. 3. Say 'no' tactfully and always explain why. 4. Don't belittle or criticize anyone in front of others and never in front of fellow employees.
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Do consider timing for corrective counselling. An evening criticism, for example, is exaggerated by darkness and day-end fatigue. An employee will accept criticism with less resistance and hostility if it is (a) prefaced with a sincere compliment for something the associate did well; (b) if you show the other person how he or she can do it better; (c) if you limit the criticism to one subject at a time, rather than a barrage of fault-finding that covers many problems; (d) prior to the counseling session if you make notes of what you want corrected and ways in which to correct, it will help focus the session and contribute to constructive improvement. Don't play favourites even though they may be your most productive employees. You can reward the best employee through the annual wage review system and with recommendation for promotions. Don't show up or put down an employee by doing a particular job better or faster than the employee. You may indeed hit the home and lose the ball game. Do be sensitive to little things. The death of an employee's pet dog may not generate a great deal of concern on your part, but it could seriously affect her productivity for a number of days. Try to remember the birthdays and anniversaries of the employees/staff of your college. Do give praise when appropriate. This would well be. your most effective management tool. Try to spend 50 per cent of your time as a manager listening. Ask for and listen to employees' ideas and opinions. Do delegate as much as possible. The key to participatory management is the delegation of responsibility and authority. An employee's sense of self-worth increases proportionately to the trust you place in him or her. Do review the performance of your employees on a regular basis. They want and deserve the feedback. Only make promises that you can keep. Don't take yourself too seriously, keep a healthy sense of humour.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
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Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Discuss briefly some do's and dont's to be followed in order to be a good leader and ensure healthy communication flow in your college.
(ii) Try to recall and write down an instance where-in
your leadership qualities came to the fore. (For example-when your having taken a prompt decision on some matter, helped some students avail of monetary benefits). How did you deal with the situation then and would you hapdle it differently if faced with a similar predicament now?
Self-concept and Self-disclosure Self-concept refers to the perception of our own self, whereas self-disclosure is the sharing of the view of self with ethers. One's own self-concept and self-disclosures are responsible for developing interpersonal relationships in an organization structure. Organizational leaders (here-college principals)need to be cautious of behaviours on their part which pose a threat to others self-concept and consequently, cause them to become defeneive. Selectivity is one of the means we use to maintain our selfconcept. "Selectivity takes many forms, all of which serve to give some stability to one's self-concept. In general (i) we can selectively expose ourselves to individuals who support our self-concept, (ii) we can selectively interpret either our or the other person's behaviour, and (iii) we can selectively choose the goals we wish to achieve.
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Thomas Harris has beautifully demonstrated the interrelatedness of our perception of ourselves with others in an interpersonal relationship in his popular transactional analysis book. He states that there are four possible positions in this respect : 1. I'm not O.K., You're O.K. "Somehow everyone else seems to have things going for them-it's just me who is out of line". When a person is in this position, he communicates to others that he has rejected the personal self and needs other's acceptance and support before feeling O.K., about ones own self. 2. I'm not O.K., You're not O.K. : A person in this position has given up hope of developing meaningful relationships since he can neither give nor receive help from others. This person communicates both rejection of the self as well as rejection of others. 3. I'm O.K., You're not O.K. : This person feels that she can support her own self-concept without anyone's help. She is ultraindependent and rejects other's support. She communicates to others that she is fine; it's everyone else who is not. 4. I'm O.K., You're O.K. : According to transactional theory, this is the healthiest approach. Here the individual has a strong self-concept and also accepts others in positive ways. She sees herself and others as worthwhile and consequently is able to develop close personal relationships. When people communicate with each other, especially faceto-face, their physical and emotional behaviours are exposed to a considerable extent. This exposure is sometimes disturbing because our culture places a high value on self-concealment. In a competitive society, concealment is frequently more useful than self-exposure or self-revelation. Communication experts believe that if we revealed more of ourselves to each other, it would help us to understand each other better. When people wish to reveal themselves to each other, they talk about personal matters such as beliefs and fears, worries and anxieties, loves and hates, perceptions about work, themselves and each other. Can satisfying communication take place if at least a few of these subjects are not discussed? Of course, the atmosphere for self-disclosure must be one of mutual acceptance
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and goodwill or mutual self-defence systems will automatically switch our psychk 'early warning systems' on to 'red alert', 'defensive barriers' will be raised, and communication will be short-circuited. Recent researchers have laid great stress on the multidimensional nature of self-disclosure. In any setting, and especially in an organizational setting, there are appropriate and inappropriate moments when one is expected to self-disclose. It is evident that too little or too much self-disclosure are destructive to an interpersonal process. Gilbert and Whiteneck have studied not only the amount of self-disclosure between persons, but also the multidimensional approaches to the study of self-disclosure. They found that more positive disclosures are made in the initial stages of building relationships with the staff; whereas personal disclosures come at a much later stage of the relationship. Trust Building The importance of trust in building effective relationship cannot be over-emphasized. Giffin and Patton define trust as "reliance upon communication behaviour (speaking and/or listening) of another person while attempting to achieve a desired but uncertain objective in a risky situation". Risk in this case means that a person's potential loss, if trust is violated, is greater than the potential gain if it is fulfilled. To quote an example: One young woman with a limited corporate experience, was appointed in an organization as an in-house consultant to advise managers who had recently been released from the company on their career planning. The situation became ridiculous for she was to advise some 40 and 50 years old executives having much more corporate experience than her. But she took a risk at the beginning of the relationship by admitting openly that she could share with them whatever information she had on career planning. She further told them that the best possible course of action would be through mutual consultation. This situation allowed her to develop a trusting environment in which to operate. Rossiter and Pearce state that trust can be increased in the same way, the self-disclosure is increased. They conclude, "Trusting behaviour on your part sometimes produces trust in the other, but distrusting behaviour almost always produces distrust". Consequently, they define trust as a reciprocal process, where
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each person suggests to the other person that he trusts the other a little more than him. As a college principal, it IS important to create and build trust with staff and students to ensure a smooth functioning flow within the institute. Ofcourse, a measure of discretion would be necessary; but most of the time - trust begets trust; whether it is to get work done or for a 'confessional' session-where a student/staff member wants to confess a mistake. Talking it out-and winning and keeping trust at the work place always helps. Recent research on trust indicates that individuals have certain personality traits which identify people as high or low trustee. III a study on trust, conducted by a researcher it was found that high trustees continue to trust even if they have been deceived. These individuals allow one or two mistakes on the part of the defaulters and will trust again provided the mistake is admitted and an apology made. In a study conducted by a researcher, it was found that a high level of self-confidence as well as respect for each other were indispensable for building trust in interpersonal relationships in an organizational setting. Without a positive self-concept, an individual cannot be expected to trust others since any feedback he or she gets will be depreciated. If the sender does not establish an atmosphere of trust and confidence, the communication process will be burdened with distortion and rejection. Trust, is thus, not a one-sided affair. In summary, the research evidence indicates that the reactions to a communication are significantly affected by the communicator's intentions, expertness and trustworthiness. The very same presentation tends to be judged more favourably when made by a communicator of high credibility than by one of the low credibility. In the case of two of the three studies conducted on credibility by an eminent researcher, it was found that the immediate acceptance of the recommended opinion was greater when presented by a highly credible communicator. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
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Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Discuss briefly the significance of 'self-concept', 'selfdisclosure', and 'trust-building' in developing interpersonal relationships in an organization. (ii) As a college principal (suppose) you sense a feeling
of 'lack of trust' for you on the part of a colleague, how will you handle the situation and work towards 'trust-building' to enhance a better relationship with him/her and a congenial work atmosphere.
Feedback in Organizations The concept of feedback involves nothing more than allowing for two-way communication. After a receiver has -decoded a message, he is allowed to send a message back to the original sender. This does not necessarily mean that the return message must be verbal. It may be sent via facial expressions or by various other actions. For instance, Ram may send a message to Shyam, and by observing Shyam's expression or return message, determine, if he (Shyam) understood the original message. If Shyam makes known to Ram that he is confused, Ram can attempt to convey his idea by using a different encoding system, - by using synonyms, or possibly by changing to a graphic explanation. The teacher in the classroom attemps to use feedback by observing his students. If he has stressed an important and complex point, and the students look blank and confused, he attempts to reword his statement stressing the point in a more cleaner and intelligible language. The manager also attempts to use feedback by encouraging the subordinates to ask questions or otherwise to respond to the messages received. If the manager does not receive immediate feedback from his subordinates, he cannot ascertain whether the message was received and understood. His feedback may come later in the form of poor production, high waste, or low morale. The manager who desires functional feedback may well work towards an atmosphere of mutual acceptance and respect.
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Basic reinforcement theory provides the foundation for the use of feedback. Feedback may deal with work performance, interpersonal relationship issues, or structured organizational information. The style of giving feedback often has a greater effect on interpersonal relations than the content of the feedback. This is indeed very important. For example-conveying to a student his/her mistake in a calm yet emphatic tone-, has better impact rather shouting at her in harsh, loud language. It has been observed that people give the following three types of feedback to others in an interpersonal relationship : Evaluative In this type of feedback one observes the other's behaviour and responds with his own critique of it. For instance, Ram told Shyam, "You are very much indifferent and in my view it is not a good way to be for a person in your position." Interpretive In this type of feedback one observes the behaviour and tries to analyze why a person is behaving in that particular way, viz., A told B "You are acting very indifferently towards your employees, and I think it is because you have not liked your new assignment./I
Descriptive In this type of feedback, one observes a person's behaviour and simply gives feedback to the person which are one's own specific observations without evaluation. However, one shares with the person how the latter's behaviour affects the former. For instance X told Y : "Quite often it becomes difficult for me to understand as to what you mean, simply because you look so stem and speak so abruptly which gives me impression that you are angry./I Feedback Summary Chart Do lIlake feedback Descriptive Specific Relevant to both persons needs Directed towards behaviour Well timed
DO/l't make feedback Judgemental General and vague Irrelevant to either Directed towards personality Inappropriate for the setting or occasion
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The question now arises that if feedback is so beneficial, why is it not used more often? People do not allow feedback for several reasons. First, the use of feedback consumes time and the time factor might be scarce. Secondly, an emergency situation may not allow feedback. Thirdly, people often avoid feedback because they view questions from subordinates as a threat to their status and power. Fourthly, managers/administrators, often at high positions at work, (sometimes) feel that questions may expose their lack of a sound knowledge about a subject. The conclusion that should be drawn is that feedback and reinforcement of that feedback can make significant changes not only to the individual but also in the total organizational structure. Finally, there is skill to receiving and giving feedback and, depending on the skill used, feedback can be destructive or extremely helpful to furthering interpersonal relationships. Feedback is indeed about an open mind and an open attitude (at all levels of hierarchy in the orgru.,ization) to give and receive the truth in its true spirit. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant : 2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions: (i) Explain briefly the following three types of Feedback: (a) Evaluative Feedb"ck (b) Interpretative Feedback
(c) Descriptive Feedback (ii) As a college principal, (suppose) you are required to
give feedback to your office superintendent (who is almost the same age as you are) on his work performance through the year. State some points on how you would go about this 'feedback session'.
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Conflict Management As a college principal, resolving conflict, is, I'm sure, one of the main activities with which you remain preoccupied and busy. It IS important to handle conflict tactfully-since on it hinges the sustenance of an amicable and friendly atmosphere-in which work output has to be enhanced; and good, meaningful interpersonal relationships built. Conflict situations have certain characteristics that indicate the degrees of polarization. The only way to solve a polarized issue is through careful communication. Conflict has been defined as all kinds of opposition or antagonistic interactions in or among individuals, groups, and organizations. This happens a lot in most educational institutes and colleges as well. A conflict is a dispute, difference, or struggle between two parties that is indicated by open expression of hostility and/ or intentional interference in the goal achievement of the opposing party. Likert views conflict as the active striving for one's own preferred outcome which, if attained, prevents the attainment by others of their own preferred outcome, thereby prohibiting harmony and coordination and producing undesirable hostility and opposition in the organization. There appear to be two types of conflicts in the organizational setting: (i) content conflict, which is conflict over the goals of the organization, its structure, policies, or networks, and (ii) personal conflict, which takes the form of emotional and personal differences among the individuals within the organization. A conflict over content or issues might revolve around staff relations or salary increases while a personal conflict may precipitate owing to the inability of a group to talk openly with a superior because he or she is so dictatorial and unfair. The attitude of the person at the helm of affairs (in case of colleges-the principal) thus becomes a significant factor. His openness and transparency can help resolve conflict. Five Stages of Conflict Development L.R. Pondy has identified five distinct stages of conflict development : (i) Latent Conflict : It deals with underlying sources of organizational conflict like competition for scarce resources.
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(ii) Perceived Conflict: It is the second stage and is comparable to role conflict. . (iii) Felt Conflict : In the third stage, perceived conflict is converted into felt conflict in which emotional reactions develop and feelings are brought into conflict situations. In a felt conflict we have the personalization of conflict because it is at this stage that conflict actually affects the individual directly. (iv) Manifest Conflict: In the fourth stage of conflict, emotions and feeling give rise to open or unconcealed behaviour, i.e., verbal or physical aggression, apathy or indifference, work to rule tactics, etc. (v) Conflict Aftermath: It is the last stage in the process of conflict but it also sets the stage ready for subsequent conflict episodes. The legacy of conflict episodes is known as conflict aftermath. If the conflict is not settled but merely suppressed, the latent conditions of conflict may be aggravated and the conflict may explode in a more serious form until the conflict is resolved or until the relationship between the conflicting parties are terminated. Alan Filley has identified some of the causes of conflict in the organization as follows: Ambiguity in fixing responsibilities; conflict of interests (or competition for scare resources) barriers to communication creating misunderstanding and confusion; need for consensus; dependence of one person on another; suppression of conflict; status problems; individual traits; and personalization of the situation. Five Interpersonal Styles of Dealillg with Conflict Situations Jay Hall has identified five interpersonal styles of dealing with conflict situations. Individuals may use all these five styles at one time or another : (i) The Win-Lose Style: It is used when individuals associate winning with status and competence and relate losing to losing status. Such an individual becomes aggressive, dogmatic and inflexible. (ii) The Yield Lose Style: It is based on the assumption that human relationships are so fragile that they cannot bear
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the process of working through differences. Here the person's need for affection and acceptance is paramount, and, this in tum, causes submissive behaviour on the part of the person. (iii) The Lose-leave Style: It views conflict as hopeless and thus the individual simply tries to protect himself from a punishing experience by withdrawing from the situation entirely. (iv) The Compromise Style: According to this style, a little bit of winning and losing are better than losing altogether. This strategy helps to soften the effects of losing by limiting the gains of winning. Consequently, this results in a climate of suspicion for both the individuals because none of them is perfectly satisfied with the results or the relationship. (v) The Synergistic Style : It is the most desirable for an organizational setting. In this style of relationship great stress is laid on achieving the goals of the participants in the relationship and to the well being of the relationship at the same time. The main components are: (i) solving the differences in a problem-solving way and (ii) tolerance for difference. Besides these interpersonal styles, that may go a long way towards conflicting situations, definite attitudes such as : (1) belief in the existence and desirability of a mutually acceptable solution, (2) belief in cooperation rather than competition, (3) belief that the other person is useful and reliable and (4) belief that the other person can compete but may also choose the way to cooperate; also help considerably in the resolution of conflicting situations in an organizational setting. Methods of Analysing a Conflict Situation Phelps and DeWine have suggested the following methods to analyze a conflict situation: (i) Assess Immediacy: Firstly, a person must decide if the relationship is important enough for him to try its resolution. Once a person is committed to the relationship, he will go in for its resolution. (ii) Identify type of Conflict
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Communication Skills fur Educational Managers (a) Intrapcrsonal conflict: It exists within a person and may not involve others, and requires a decision between two choices. (b) Interpersonal conflict: It exists between two or more persons. A relationship is not in conflict unless both the parties are aWdre of its existence. The existence of a conflict may be known to everyone, or it might be hidden from someone. (iii) Decide basic Coping Strategtj: We must decide whether we can merely control the conflict (not let it go out of hand, cool it down but not really resolve it) or we actually are able to resolve it. (iv) Distinguish Symptoms from Cause: We often waste time in trying to resolve symptoms instead of the real underlying cause of the conflict. One of the difficulties in resolving or managing conflicts is that the real cause or issue is often hidden behind symptoms. A careful analysis of the real cause is a crucial step towards managing the conflict situation. (v) Identify Methods used so far: We must be aware of our basic coping techniques for handling conflict. What methods have we already tried to adopt for resolving the conflict and what success have we gained in this direction? (vi) Alternatives Available: When trying to arrive at a solution for resolving the conflict, a person must be able to brainstorm ideas. He must be competent to put forth as many ideas as possible for it might be that anyone of them might be a clue to the solution. (vii) Evaluate Outcome of each Alternative: Quite often it is difficult for us to imagine the best possible outcome of a behaviour. When there is a conflict, we are in the habit of seeing only the negative results. We must evaluate each alternative negatively and positively, i.e., both the worst and the best possible outcomes of an alternative in use.
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(viii) Select Alternative Communication Skills : We must determine what communication skills are needed to resolve conflict. In a large and complex formal organization we always have greater potential for conflict. Any kind of conflict tends to divert energies and affects productive work. As disproportionate amounts of energy are consumed in conflict inspite of vast resources of money, technology and talents, large organizations give only moderate economic performance and profitability. Hence, better management of differences and conflicts through effective coordination and communication can go a long way in improving interpersonal relationships in an organizational setting. Open communication technique is very useful when the issue or - conflict can be clearly defined. For example: A conflict may have arisen in your college, owing to some teachers who want additional help for examination superv'ision, and the administrative staff not willing to concede. At such a time, an open discussion with both the concerned groups can help bring about a solution acceptable to all. And the decision can be internalized and followed through each time there are exams so that the problem does not arise again. Intergroup meetmgs with open, frank and sincere communication can easily be organized which develop enduring understanding of the other party's point of view. This will help to create a healthy organizational environment for harmonious and peaceful collaboration. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Describe briefly the types of conflict in an organizational setting and discuss some of the ways in which the conflict situations may be analyzed in order to work towards resolving the same.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers (ii) As a college principal, (suppose) you need to resolve a conflict which has arisen amongst your teaching staff, owing to one of them being a very good teacher-thereby enjoying immense popularity with students; but disappearing from college as soon as he is done with his classes. The other teachers resent this since he would never offer to share any day-to-day responsibilities, nor would he be around for any meeting/ other activities of the college. How will you tackle this situation?
The Helping Process Organizational leaders (college principals) often have to act the role of helpers, solving personal and organizational problems. Unless they are able to solve these problems successfully, organizational effectiveness will be nullified. The helping process may involve dealing with performance and emotional problems of employees, inter and intra-personal dynamics as well as content-oriented issues. Various Types of Helping Processes Aubrey Sanford distinguishes between the various types of helping processes as follows : 1. Direct Counselling : It involves finding solutions to problems of others and then persuading and motivating them to accept and implement solutions. 2. Non-directive Counselling: It focuses on helping people to understand their own problems and then to develop their solutions. It goes without saying that many of the situations faced by managers require some combination of the two approaches. Nondirective approach is most suitable when employees come to the manager or leader for help, and the directive approach is more appropriate when managers initiate the session to confront employees. Although direct counselmg may indeed help to solve problems, it is by nature, highly manipulative, if misused, and may destroy trust in an interpersonal relationship.
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Key Elements in a Helping Process Lawrence M. Brammer has suggested a formula for identifying the key elements in a helping process : Personality + helping skills of helper traits attitudes values
= growth facilitating conditions
for understanding for comfort for action
trust respect freedom
specific outcomes for the person for society
This formula lays great stress on certain personality traits on the part of the helper as well as specific helping skills. It is clear that a combination of both the elements is essential to produce the desired results. Eagan also emphasizes these initial traits of the helper when he says, "A helper is first of all committed to his own growth - physical, intellectual, social, emotional- for he realizes that he must model the behaviour he hopes to help others achieve. He knows that he can help only if, in the root sense of the term, he is a 'potent' human being, a person with the will and the resources to act'. In fact, the helping process starts with your own environment because modeling is one of the most effective ways of changing behaviour. Basic Steps of the Helping Process Robert Carkhuff identifies four basic steps of the helping process : physically and emotionally attending to the other person; responding to the content of his or her message as well as to the 'feeling' level of the message; initiating additional empathy to help the other person in understanding his or her particular situation at deeper levels; and extending your support of healthy behaviour and non-support of unhealthy behaviour. What the helper is required to do is to give the other individual some encouragement to continue the conversation. This may simply be direct eye contact, head nods, smiles, and repetitions of the last few words said by the other person. Further, open-ended statements/questions help give direction to the conversation. "How do you feel about your new assignment?" is an open question which allows the respondent to express fully on the matter; whereas "Do you like your new assignment?" is
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a closed question that forces the respondent to make a choice. Once the feeling level has been identified, the helper may inquire from the person concerned whether he or she has understood the message correctly. The helper can then move to help the person in a more positive way by using specific terms instead of general terms. There are, of course, some distinct pitfalls as giving advice, criticizing, preaching, always agreeing with the other individual, etc., which the helper should avoid, in resolving conflicts. What the organizational leaders need, is a good understanding of the helping process which will go a long way towards improving the flow of communication and increasing productivity in an organizational setting. Introspection on part of the Helper In the final analysis there are some important questions which a helper should answer introspectively before attempting to play his role effectively : (i) Do you consistently try, in conversations, to put yourself in the other persons' shoes? (ii) If someone is making a decision, do you refrain from giving to that person the solution, and try to help him in finding out the solution himself. (iii) When others are expressing their feelings of deep anguish and sorrow, do you allow them their expression without trying to divert the situation elsewhere to some less difficult situations? (iv) If a person says that he does not need your help, do you accept it without feeling hurt or rejected by him? It is, thus, quite clear, that an individual in an organizational setting has great potentiality for the development of interpersonal relationships which can be meaningful and productive. Developing an Organized Approach to Communication Developing an organized approach to communication would in the long run help manifest the messages in the manner they were supposed to be received and understood. And this holds true for all organizations-including educational institutes like colleges.
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Plan the Communication What are some questions to be considered in planning? 1. What is the objective? What do I want this communication to accomplish? 2. What to communicate? The information which is needed to do the job or which will make people feel a part of the show and thereby help motivate them to do the job? 3. Have I checked the information - to avoid inaccurate, conflicting or incomplete statements? 4. Who should be told and when? What is the best timing? 5. What do I know about the person or persons to whom I will be communicating? Their values, goals, interests, opinions, level of knowledge? 6. Who should tell? Who should do the communicating? "Communicate" ! 1. Identify your subject, arouse listeners interest, use words commonly understood, avoid talking in general termsbe specific, use examples, illustrations, specific instances; explain technical terms or special slang terms. 2. Remember-Your tone of voice and your actions, or lack of it also convey messages. Basic or Effective CommunicationIThe Ten Commandments! Principles of Good Communication in any Organization The person who seems, almost intuitively, to say the right thing at the right time is actually exercising skills, not intuitionputting into practice certain basic principles of communication which they know so well that they require no conscious thought. As a principal of your college, your prime responsibility is to get things done through people. However sound your ideas or well reasoned your decisions, they become effective only as they are transmitted to others and achieve the desired action-or reaction. Communication, therefore, is your most vital management tool. On the job you communicate not only with words, but through your apparent attitudes and your actions. For, communication encompasses all human behaviour that results in an exchange of meaning. How well you manage depends upon how well you communicate in this broad sense. These ten commandments are
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designed to help you improve your skills as a principal by improving your skills of communication-with superiors, subordinates and associates.
Seek to clarify your ideas before communicating The more systematically we analyse the problem or idea to be communicated, the clearer it becomes. This is the first step towards effective communication. Much communication fails because of inadequate planning. Good planning must consider the goals and attitudes of those who will receive the communication and those who will be affected by it.
Examine the true purpose of each communication Before you communicate, ask yourself what you really want to accomplish with your message-to obtain information, to initiate action, to change another person's attitude? Identify your most important goal and then adapt your language, tone and total approach to serve that specific objective. Don't try to accomplish too much with each communication. The sharper the focus of your message, the greater its chances of success.
Consider the total physical and human settmg whenever you communicate Meaning and intent are conveyed by more than words alone. Many other factors influence the overall impact of a communication, and the manager must be sensitive to the total setting in which he communicates. Consider, for example, your sense of timing, i.e., the circumstances under which you make an announcement or render a decision; the physical setting-whether you communicate in private, for example, or otherwise the social climate that pervades work relationships within the company or a department and sets the tone of its communications; the degree to which your communication conforms to or departs from custom and past practise, and the expectations of your audience. Be constantly aware of the total setting in which you communicate. Like aU living things, communication must be capable of adapting to its environment.
Consult with others, where appropriate, in planning communication Frequently it is desirable or necessary to seek the participation of others in planning a communication or developing the facts
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on which to base it. Such consultation often helps to lend additional insight and objectivity to your message. Moreover, those who have helped you plan your communication will give it their active support.
Be mindful, while you communicate, of the overtones as well as the basic content of your message Your tone of voice, your expression, your apparent receptiveness to the responses of others-all have tremendous impact on those you wish to reach. Frequently overlooked, these subtleties of communication often affect a listener's reaction to a message even more than its basic content. Similarly, your choice of language-particularly your awareness of the fine shades of meaning and emotion in the words you use-predetermines in large part the reactions of your listeners. Take the opportunity, when it arises, to convey something of help or value to the receiver Consideration of the other person's interests and needs-the habit of trying to look at things from his point of view-will frequently point up opportunities to convey something of immediate benefit or long-range value to him. People on the job are most responsive to the manager whose messages take their own interests into account.
Follow up your communication Our best efforts at communication may be wasted, and we may never know whether we have succeeded in expressing our . true meaning and intent, if we do not follow up to see how well we have put our message across. This one can do by encouraging the receivt!rs to express their reactions, and by subsequent review of performance. Make certain that every important communication has a 'feedback' so that complete understanding and appropriate action result.
Communicate for tomorrow as well as today While communications may be aimed primarily at meeting the demands of an immediate situation, they must be planned with the past in mind if they are to maintain consistency in the receiver's views; but, most important of all, they must be consistent with long-range interests and goals. For example, it is not easy to communicate frankly on such matters as poor
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performance or the shortcomings of a loyal subordinate-but postponing disagreeable communications makes them more difficult in the long run and is actually unfair to your subordinates and your company. Be sure your actions support your communications In the final analysis, the most persuasive kind of communication is not what you say but what you do. When a man's actions or attitudes contradict his words, we tend to discount what he has said. For every manager this means that good supervisory practices such as clear assignment of responsibility and authority, fair rewards for effort, and sound policy enforcement-serve to communicate more than all the gifts or oratory. Last, but by no means least : Seek not only to be understood but to understand. Be a good listener When we start talking we often cease to listen-in that larger sense of being attuned to the other person's unspoken reactions and attitudes. Even more serious is the fact that we are all guilty, at times, of inattentiveness when others are attempting to communicate to us. Listening is one of the most important, most difficult and most neglected skills in communication. It demands that we concentrate not only on the explicit meanings another person is expressing but on the implicit meanings, unspoken words, and undertones that may be far more significant. Thus we must learn with the inner ear if we are to know the inner man. Thus, good and effective communication is indeed the bedrock of coordination of all activity in any organization, and enhanced communication skills would certainly help to manifest the desired work output at all levels. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant : 2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Try to recall and enlist some of the principles of good communication in an organization.
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(ii) As a college principal, (suppose) you need to help a
lecturer who has been struggling to complete his doctoral research. Owing to a difficult family situation which has given rise to an acute financial and time constraint, the lecturer is under great stress and almost unable to cope with his situation. How would you help him steer himself through this crisis phase of his career?
Self-Assessment Exercises At the end of this section, it may be interesting for you to work through the following four exercises: An Exercise on 'Listening' (i) (ii) An Exercise on 'Interpersonal Behaviour' (iii) An Exercise on 'Resolving Conflict' (iv) 'Personality Check' Exercise. Please note : Work space pages are provided at the end of the Exercises. Self-Assessment Exercise Exercise 1 LISTENING For each of the following statements, select the one that best suits your listening habits : While Listening ... 1 I maintain eye contact with the speaker. 2 I determine whether or not a speaker's ideas are worthwhile solely by his or her appearance and delivery. 3 I try to align my thoughts and feelings with those of the speaker. 4 I listen for specific facts than for "the big picture". 5 I listen for both factual content and the emotion behind the literal words. 6 I ask questions for clarification and understanding. 7 I withhold judgement of what the speaker is saying until he or she is finished.
Usually Some- Seldom times
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While Listening ...
Usually Some- Seldom times
8 I make a conscious effort to evaluate the logic and consistency of what is being said. 9 While listening I think about what I'm going to say as soon as I have my chance. 10 I try to have the last word. SCORING KEY AND INTERPRETATIONFor Questions 1, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8 give yourself 3 points for "Usually", 2 points for "Sometimes", and 1 point for "Seldom". For Questions 2, 4, 9 and 10 give yourself 3 points for "Seldom", 2 points for "Sometimes" and 1 point for "Usually". Sum up your total points. A score of 27 or higher means you are a good listener. A score of 22 to 26 suggests you have some listening deficiencies. A score below 22 indicates that you have developed a number of bad listening habits.
p.
Self-Assessment Exercise Exercise 2 INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOUR For each statement below, decide which of the following answers best applies to you. Place the number of the answer to the left of the statements. Never true 112. Sometimes true 113. Often true 1 14. Always truel I respond with more modesty than I really feel when my work is complimented. 2. If people are rude, I will be rude right back. 3. Other people find me interesting. 4. I find it difficult to speak up in a group of strangers. 5. I don't mind using sarcasm (taunting) if it helps me make a point. 6. I ask for a recognition when I feel I really deserve it. 7. If others interrupt me when I am talking, I suffer in silence. 8. If people criticize my work, I find a way to make them back down. 9. I can express pride in my accomplishments without being boastful. 10. People take advantage of me. 1.
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11. I tell people what they want to hear if it helps me get what I want. 12. I find it easy to ask for help. 13. I lend things to others even when I don't really want to. 14. I win arguments by dominating the discussion. 15. I can express my true feelings to someone I really care for. 16. When I feel angry with other people, [ bottle it up rather than express it. 17. When I criticize someone else's work they get mad. 18. I feel confident in my ability to stand up for my rights. SCORING KEY AND INTERPRETATION To calculate your interpersonal style scores, refer to the responses you gave. Sum up your answers to items 1,4,7, 10, 13 and 16. That is your passive score. Put that number in the appropriate place below. Your aggressive score is the total of your answers to items 2, 5, 8, 11, 14 and 17. Your assertive score is the total of your answer to items 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18. Put these scores in the appropriate box below. Your score in each box will range between 6 and 24. Passive Assertive Aggressive This score evaluates your basic interpersonal style in terms of the emphasis you place on passive, aggressive and assertive behaviours. Passive behaviour is inhibited and submissive. Individuals who score high in passive behaviour seek to avoid conflicts and tend to sublimate their own needs and feelings in order to satisfy other people. Aggressive behaviour is the opposite of passiveness; it is domineering, pushy, self-centered and without regard for the feelings or rights of others. People who score high in assertiveness express their ideas and feelings openly, stand up for their rights, and do so in a way that makes it easier for others to do the same. The assertive person is therefore straight forward yet sensitive to the needs of others. Assertiveness improves interpersonal communication because the more assertive you are, the more assertive you encourage others to be. So assertiveness facilitates more effective interactions because it lessens defensiveness, domination, putting down other people, 'wishy-washiness' and similar dysfunctional behaviours.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers Self-Assessment Exercise Exercise 3 RESOLVING CONFLICT Self Assessment Exercise Indicate how often you do the following when you differ with someone:
When I differ with someone ...
Usually Some- Seldom times
1 I explore our differences not backing down, but not imposing my view either. 2 I disagree openly, then invite more discussion about differences. 3 I look for a mutually satisfactory solution. 4 Rather than let the other person make a decision without my input, I make sure I am heard and also that I hear the other out. 5 I agree to a middle ground rather than look for a completely satisfying solution. 6 I admit I am half wrong rather than explore our differences. 7 I have a reputation for meeting a person halfway. 8 I expect to get out half of what I really want to say. 9 I give in totally rather than try to change another's opinion. 10 I put aside any controversial aspects of an issue. 11 I agree early on, rather than argue about a point. 12 I give in as soon as the other party gets emotional about an issue. 13 I try to win the other person over. 14 I work to come out more victorious no matter what. 15 I never back away from a good argument. 16 I would rather win than end up compromising. SCORING KEY AND INTERPRETATION Total your choices as follows: Give yourself 5 points for "Usually"; 3 points for "Sometimes"; and 1 point for "Seldom". Then total them for each set of statemen(s, grouped as follows : Set A : Item 13 - 16 Set B : Item 9 - 12
SetC:Item5-8 Set D : Item 1 - 4
Treat each set separately. A score of 17 or above on any set is considered high; scores of 12 - 16 are moderately high; scores of 8 to 11 are moderately low; and scores of 7 or less are considered low in resolving conflict.
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Sets A, B, C and D represent different conflict-resolution strategIes: A
~
ForcIng/Domination ~ I WIn, you lose.
B
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Accommodation /
C
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Compromise. Both win some, lose some.
D
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Collaboration. Adjustment. I win, you win.
Distancing~
I lose you lose. I lose, you win.
Everyone has a basic or underlying conflict-handling style. Your scores on this exercise indicate the strategies you rely upon most.
Self-Assessment Exercise Exercise 4 PERSONALITY CHECK Do you have an abrasive personality? You might ask yourself these questions. Then ask them of your spouse, your peers, your friends-and even your subordinates: 1. Are you condescendingly critical? When you talk of others in the organization, do you speak of "straightening them out" or "whipping them into shape"? 2. Do you need to be in full control? Does almost everything need to be cleared with you? 3. In meetings, do your comments take a disproportionate amount of time? 4. Are you quick to rise to the attack, to challenge? 5. Do you have a need to debate? Do discussions quickly become arguments? 6. Are people reluctant to discuss things with you? Does no one speak up? When someone does, are his or her statements inane? 7. Are you preoccupied with acquiring symbols of status and power? 8. Do you weasel out of responsibilities? 9. Are you reluctant to let others have the same privileges or perquisites as yourself? 10. When you talk about your activities, do you use the word "I" disproportionately? 11. Do your subordinates admire you because you are so strong
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and capable or because, in you, they feel strong and capableand supported? 12. To your amazement do people speak of you as cold and distant when you really want them to like you? 13. Do you regard yourself as more competent than your peers or your boss? Does your behaviour let them know that? Interpretation What if you are abrasive? If you ask yourself the questions in the ruled insert on this page and find that you answer three of them in the affirmative, the chances are that your behaviour is abrasive to the people around you. If you answer six or more affirmatively, it takes no great insight to recognize that you have more problems than are good for your career. Of course, none of these questions taken by themselves is necessarily indicative of anything, but enough affirmative answers may reveal an abrasive profile. If you are the problem and it troubles you, you can work at self-correction. Most often, however, you need the help of a third person--your spouse, a friend, your boss, or a professional. If your behaviour causes you serious problems on the job, then a professional is indicated. Managers and executives with naturally heavy orientations to control, need to check themselves carefully for this kind of behav iour lest unconsciously they defeat their own ends. Workspace for your thoughts I notes I comments
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Interpretation and Application Communication is indeed an effective tool in management. Good communication is the foundation of sound managementin all organizations-as also in educational institutes like colleges. In a managerial process, keeping everybody informedis vital; and this can be achieved by freely sharing information through the various communication channels, techniques and networks. As a principal, it is important for you to bind together all the people working in your college-to ensure a smooth flow of work-within the scope of their designations, groups, activities, duties and responsibilities. As a principal, it is also important for you to take people into your confidence-(sometimes of course, you may need to discreetly keep some information to yoursdf); build rapport, and keep their trust. By not remaining sensitive and conscientious, the trust built with difficulty over a period of time-can be easily lost. For example-going back on a simple promise and withdrawing a holiday (declared by you earlier), can create a rift of doubt and uncertainty towards you. It is also important to have an attitude of understanding towards the students and staff of your college; as also patience with dealers and visitors and regards for parents/guardians-who may be frequenting your office for various reasons. Sometimes, as a principal-you may need to prepare your students and staff for changes-for example-new timings, upgraded syllabus, or rotation of duties; and it is important for you to inform them in such a way that a smooth transition is ensured, and misunderstandings and conflicts avoided. And if for any reason dissatisfaction/ conflict do arise, you should be able to handle it through discussion or sound argumentation if required. Sometimes tactful negotiations too might be required with student leaders-some of who may create problems during crucial times like admission, examination, elections or youth meets. Explaining things to them in an open manner in their socio-cultural context, in which they can understand and perceive the consequences of their irresponsible behaviour will have the most impact. For example-telling them that postponement of examinations would only lead to academic loss for them-may help them see some reason, rather than threatening them with
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some dire consequences. Equally important is leading by setting an example yourself. In matters of punctuality too-it would be exemplary to be in yOUl place on/ before time, in order to {!licit similar behaviour from students and staff. Another leadership quality is to keep ones composure when dealing with an errant student or staff member. It would be better not to admonish the concerned person in front of others, and later-in a one-to-one sitting-first offer praise for the good things he might have achieved and then deliver the real message. This too should be done with sensitivity and due concern, since people have ego problems and are usually very touchy about criticism-specially if you are pointing out a lack of application, or some workoutput inadequacy. There are some other ways of informal communication, for dealing with difficult interpersonal issues. If for example-a group of persons is the cause of some trouble in the college; then it sometimes becomes necessary and works well to play smart and pose the problem situation to that group itself (either collectively or individually) in the form of a 'story', and ask them how they would resolve the situation. Another idea could be-playing a game of 'who is who' during a tea-break or 'off-work' hours-when persons in the group are posed with personality traits (including giving a hint about the behaviour which needs corrective measures) of one of them-and the rest of them would have to guess who the person in question is. This may trigger introspection on part of the concerned person--and a lot can be rectified without directly having to take it up. Other informal means which can be used in a college set-up are writing notes, or even indulging in conversation, when pertinent issues can be picked up, talked over and sorted out casually outside or in office itself. Formal communication includes letters, circulars, financial! annual reports and other official statement writing-all of which becomes quite routine after years at the job. As a principal, you have to maintain communication with people outside of the college too. For example-participating in public meets on various : -::casions, conducting interviews/viva in educational organizations or in industry or other public/private sectors on invitation. Interacting with persons/reporters from media houses-viz.,press, radio and television for notifications or sharing of significant happenings like seminars/academic programmes that may have
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taken place at the college/university is also one of the 'out-reach' responsibilities of the principals. Thus, as a college principal, you are indeed in a pivotal rolewith multiple communication linkages emanating from-and coming towards you ... , and you would have to be able to discern the appropriate mode/channel to use, and decide on the nature of treatment to administer to your 'communication'-according to the situations as they present themselves to you-everyday; day after day ... in the proceeds of your job. Thus, in light of all the theorization and parameters discussed in the section, the self-assessment practical exercises; and the perspectives and tips presented in the above interpretation and application, it would indeed be useful for you as a college principal to understand organizational communication in all its dynamics; thereby enjoying better control and confidence at your job.
3
Oral Communication We begin to discuss oral communication with the art of listening since it is equally important to be a good listener as a good talker. A great deal of information is communicated orally. One study found that 70 per cent of the respondents stated that superiors gave 75 per cent of their assignments orally. Oral communication can be a face-te-face meeting of two people, or a manager addressing a large audience; it can be formal or informal, and it can be planned or accidental. The advantages of oral communication are that it can provide for speedy interchange with immediate feedback. People can ask questions and clarify points. In a face-te-face interaction, the effect can be noted. Furthermore, a meeting with the superior may give the subordinate a feeling of importance. Clearly, informal or planned meetings can greatly contribute to the understanding of the issues. However, oral communication also has disadvantages. It does not always save time, as you may know since you may have attended meetings in which no results or agreements were achieved. These meetings can be costly in terms of time and money. Good Listening for Improved Communication The Art of Listening Listening is a very difficult thing to do. A cardinal mistake
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is to be so anxious to say what we want to say, that we are not really listening to what is being said. Very often when we are speaking to someone, we notice that he is not really listening. He is just waiting for us to finish so that he can say his piece. If neither person is listening to the other, there is a complete breakdown in communication. "We hear ourselves say something, the other person heard us say something, but interpreted what he heard in the light of his own experience and what we said in the light of our experience. There is a very simple test of effective communication. When a serious impasse is reached in a dispute or an argument, the opponents in the argument should pause and then each in tum should try and repeat exactly the point of view of the other person. It will soon be discovered where the breakdown of communication really is. Grand Rules for 'Listening' 1. Perceive your power as a 'listener'. 2. A poor listener can destroy the speaker's desire to talk or his confidence in his ability to communicate. 3. An interested listener can sway the direction of the talk. 4. Ask questions: do not ask questions just to be polite but rather to clarify what is going on. 5. Reflect feelings that will show you understand what is spoken. 6. Do not be swayed by personal attitudes. Some of the biggest barriers to effective listening are the personal attitudes and prejudices that distort what we hear. 7. Do not react subjectively. When you hear of government offices, you may immediately think of bureaucratic inefficiencies, for example. It is a subjective reaction that clouds the issue and damages the power of an otherwise perceptive listener. Guide to Good Listening-Face to face i. Put the speaker at ease: By your attitude, help the speaker become relaxed and aware of a willing listener. Be not only 'seen' to listen, but 'felt' to listen. And use eye contact.
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Listen patiently: The speaker is entitled to be heard, even if you feel his approach is wrong. Avoid premature arguments: Don't interrupt to question or argue about facts. Interjections only serve to abort the discussion. Stay objective : Try to avoid emotional involvement. Simply try to understand the feelings, or "point of view" of the speaker. Do your evaluating later. Avoid mental rebuttals: Too much time is spent mentally preparing a rebuttal or counter argument, instead of listening. Let the speaker finish before you reach a decision. Remove distractions: Don't doodle or play with papers, pencils or anything else. It helps to shut a door or window to eliminate extraneous sound, and turning off the radio. Indicate acceptance: An occasional "yes" or "I see" or even a nod of the head, indicates attention. It can also acknowledge what is being said (not necessarily agreement). Hold your temper: An angry person almost inevitably gets wrong meanings from words. Anyway, any fool can lose his/her temper. It takes a real person to keep it. Respect pauses or silence: It is all too common for us to ~'jump in" when the speaker pauses. Silence is an ~mbarrassment for too many people. Don't fall victim to ihls fault. Redirect a direct question: With few exceptions this helps a great deal. If the speaker asks, for example, "What do you think I should do? The reply might be "What do you think you should do?" Be on guard against too much of this, that might be frustrating. Be honest with answers: When faced with a genuine request for your opinion, give it honestly (if you have enough information to do so). Listen between the lines: What is not said is important. Be alert to this. Attitudes, moods, feelings often convey
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far more than words. It calls for a strong feeling of empathy on the part of the listener. Try to find the right "wave length". Please check your progress Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Discuss briefly why 'Listening' is more important than 'speaking' in oral communication.
(ii) State some points which one should keep in mind and cultivate in order to make oneself a good listener.
Dyadic Communication The term 'dyadic communication', in general, refers to an interaction between two persons. Even if more than two persons are present in a situation, it is only two communicators who play a fundamental role. Basically therefore it is a person-te-person transaction and one of the commonest forms of speech communication. It provides ideal conditions for close-range continuous feedback. The meaning exchanged between the sender and the receiver is marked by high fidelity. There is frequent change in the role of the participants and body language acquires a greater significance. This is so because the minutest reactions are mutually observable. . Face to face Conversation: Conversation is the most common form of dyadic communication. It links people together, be it in social or professional life. Conversation may be defined as oral and usually informal or friendly exchange of views, ideas, etc.
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In a conversation the participant has to play the role of a speaker or a listener interchangeably. Very often we form an impression about an individual from the way he talks and the topic(s) on which he converses. . Most of us find it easy to converse with our friends, relatives and colleagues whom we like and trust. That is why conversation rarely finds a place in a programme of formal instruction. Since every professional is required to participate in this form of dyadic communication let us briefly look at some of the important points to be borne in mind. However, the rule that 'the best practice for conversation is conversation itself' still holds true. In case of 'conversation' as well as 'instruction', sometimes a serious problem may be that of communication in English. There may be a problem of delivery on part of the teacher / s or a problem on part of the receipients (viz., the students)-who may not have a good command on the language. The only way to circumvent this problem is by encouraging the concerned persons to learn the language well and rehearse and get better in their expression. It would be useful first to analyze your own conversation habits and then try to change them for greater effectiveness. Ask yourself questions such as the following for self-analysis : (i) Do I find it difficult to start a conversation? (ii) Am I unable to pick a topic? (iii) Am I unable to keep the conversation flowing smoothly? (iv) Do I always agree with what others say or disagree with them all the time? (v) Do I frequently talk about myself, my family and my interests? (vi) Have I a tendency to dominate every conversation situation? (vii) Do I give the other participants a chance to speak? (viii) Have I any mannerisms likely to annoy people? (ix) Do I respect other people's time and interests? (x) Am I self-conscious about the language I use-grammar, pronunciation, articulation, etc.?
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(xi)
Am I able to convey what I really want to, even if it is something the receiving person may not be open to? The answers that you get would prove useful both for formal and informal conversation. Now, given below are a few helpful hints. Helpful Hints • The conversation should be of interest to the participant and may begin with a topic in which both of you have some interest. As it flows into new channels adjust yourself to the comments and new points of view. Occasionally there would be spells of silence. These need not bother you because often during these spells new thoughts are generated. •
•
• • •
Be alert to the attitudes that others may have and don't be surprised when you realize that the attitudes are likely to change. Occasionally, call the person by name and look at him while speaking. If you speak the name aloud you would be generating a more friendly feeling. To cap it all, take care of your language and oral demeanour. Be always courteous and cheerful. Feel interested in what is being said. Being dogmatic and argumentative may spoil your conversation, but it is useful to have a point of view. Avoid pet and supertluous words and phrases. Often we develop a fancy for a particular expression. An analysis of your own speech may reveal that you have a fad for certain words or phrases (e.g., 'time frame', 'allergic', etc.). Avoid using them frequently in conversation. Similarly, expressions that smack of affectation and exaggeration should be shunned. The smooth flow of conversation is likely to be hampered if you deliberately use foreign words or use high-flown vocabulary to impress the listener. An overuse of words such as 'very lovely', 'wonderful', 'excellent' may also mar the pleasant informal atmosphere in which conversation ought to take place.
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Telephonic Conversation One form of dyadic conversation is interaction between two persons on the telephone. In this form the advantage of using body language and eye-contact is lost. But it is one of the commonest and fastest ways of contacting persons; particularly in a college setting like yours, perhaps, where it may be one of the most accessible forms of communication to keep the work going. It is simple, handy, and in the long run economical. It has therefore been termed as 'a priceless means of communication'. Here are a few guidelines for telephonic conversation : • Cultivate a cheerful and friendly tone. • Modulate your voice. • Never sound hurried, flustered or impatient. • Enunciate your words clearly. • Do not use slang. • Speak distinctly. If you use a word which is likely to be misunderstood, spell it out. • Listen attentively to the caller. If the message is long, keep reassuring that you are listening by speaking words such as 'Yes', 'OK', 'Yea', etc. • Be courteous in all circumstances. • Don't engage your telephone longer than necessary. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Write a brief note on how one can maintain pleasant and meaningful dyadic communication.
(ii) As a c011ege Frinci.pal, you need to talk to students
and staff (both academic and administrative) of your
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college about the wastage of water (taps left running) and electricity (lights and fans left on unnecessarily). You need to address this issue in the assembly gathering, and perhaps offer some incentive to students/ staff who may be ready to take responsibility for the same. How will you plan and convey this (oral) communication?
Meetings Very often you may be required to participate in discussion groups which may be small, consisting of 3 or 4 persons, or large, consisting of several hundred members. A group may be assigned a specific time-bound task or meet at periodic intervals when there is a need, or may share common experience, concerns or interests. This coming together of persons is labeled by different names on the basis of one or more of the following criteria: the purpose for which the group meets, the types of participants, and communicative pattern. The following are some of the more common labels used to name different types of discussion groups: meeting, seminar, conference, symposium, panel discussion, and convention. In this section we shall have a close look at the meeting. The word 'meeting' is used in two senses : one, to refer to a small group meeting, committee meeting, meeting of Board of Directors, cabinet meeting, meeting of sectional heads, etc., and two, to refer to any coming together of two or more persons, whatever be the label applicable to such a group. As a college principal, calling for meetings with different persons-viz.,-teachers, students, parents, visiting faculty, office staff and others; for varied reasons-like-syllabus revision, rescheduling an agenda, examination and evaluation duties, annual day preparations etc.,-is perhaps one of the most common activity at the workplace that you engage in. A meeting is indeed the most commonly used form of discussion in a professional organization. The person who chairs the meeting (the college principal) acts as the leader of the group and usually has a higher status or enjoys authOrity over the other
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members. Every meeting is result-oriented and therefore the discussion is directed towards a specific end. The Purpose of a Meeting There are a number of purposes for which meetings are held. It is difficult to prepare an exhaustive list but some of the following are typical of most situations : • • • •
To save time on communication. To convey information to a group at one time. To instruct a group. To brief members on plans already made or work already done. • To give and get new ideas. • To get immediate reactions to new ideas, proposals and plans. • To exchange ideas and experiences. • To discuss and solve problems. • To resolve conflicts, confusions and disagreements. • To arrive at widely acceptable decisions or to advise persons in power to take decisions. • To generate enthusiasm and a positive attitude. Many of these purposes cannot be achieved through personto-person interaction because of the nature of the business to be transacted and every organization's desire to enlist the support and to draw on the expertise of as large a number of persons as possible. The group activity which a meeting generates leads not merely to the achievement of the objective for which it is called but also to the development of a correct perspective. Thus the test of success of a meeting lies not so much in what happens at the meeting but in what happens when the members have returned to their jobs. If nothing positive happens afterwards, howsoever efficiently the meeting might have been conducted, it has in fact failed. Similarly, if the participants feel at the end of the meeting that they have gained nothing, the meeting has failed. Remember that the meeting raises an expectation among the members-an expectation to get something out of it. Failure to fulfil the expectation may exercise a negative impact, besides causing loss of precious man-hours which could otherwise have been devoted
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to productive work. So to obtain results the organization of a meeting needs expertise, careful planning and prompt follow-up action. Moreover, do jot down important points at the meeting. Date and file them for reference in future. Note-taking serves two purposes; it will help you keep your attention focused throughout the meeting and fix the important points in your mind. Keep the following points in mind while taking notes : • Write rapidly and legibly. Write in block letters if you can. • Let the entries be like the newspaper headlines-just adequate to trigger off the thought later. • Don't falter over terms. Using your judgement make changes when necessary. • Don't record any irrelevant information. However, rather than miss any important point, record more than what ultimately may be found essential. It is easier to eliminate than to recall. • Be tactful in selecting pertinent material, exercising your editorial judgement. Ten Rules for a Successful Meeting (i) Convene a meeting when it is essential to consult others for taking action/ decision. (ii) Hold a meeting when consultations on telephone would not yield the desired result. (iii) Invite or,ly those who are essential to the meeting. (iv) Insist on punctuality. (v) Be clear about the objective of the meeting. (vi) Prepare an agenda breaking the issue into its smallest components. (vii) Circulate the agenda giving adequate time for members to prepare for the meeting. (viii) Set a time-limit for the discussion of each item on the agenda. (ix) Summarise the conclusions briefly. (x) Close the meeting on a pleasant note, indicating the future course of action.
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1.
2.
Please check your progress Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant:
Please attempt to answer the following questions: (i) Write a brief note on how a manager / administrator can successfully convene a meeting.
(ii) As a principal, you need to convene and conduct a meeting with the academic staff of your college to appraise them of changes in the evaluation procedure suggested by an experts panel. How would you go about this task?
Regulating Speech Here we shall briefly look at the vocal elements of communication, namely-pitch, volume, rate, quality, animation and pause. These are all imporLnt to Oral Communicationparticularly for Public/Impromptu speaking. In case of impromptu speaking, you may not be very well prepared with the content of your speech since you may have been asked to/ had to speak at a very short notice. But having an overall (cultivated) control over vocal elements certainly would help. Pitch is the tone of sounds depending upon the rate of vibration of the vocal chords. You must have observed that when you speak, there is a continual variation in the levels at which your voice is pitched. The variation ranges from the soprano level to the bass level. Volume refers to the power of the sound and it ranges from very loud to very soft. Rate is the degree of speed at which you speak words (on an average, a person speaks about
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150 words per minute). The characteristic tone of a voice is its quality. Sometimes a voice may be termed as creaky or jarring to the ears, while some persons may be blessed with a pleasant voice. The liveliness of speech is known as animation. Pause (some people use expressions such as 'er', 'hmm' etc., as fillers of the pause) refers to junctures in speech. Except the quality of the voice you can control and regulate all vocal elements by careful perception and repeated practice. A well-prepared presentation can be lost if you speak in a monotone, i.e., when you use a constant pitch, volume and rate. Similarly, lack of animation and inappropriate pauses can cause communication breakdown. If you want to be a successful speaker you should exploit fully the potential of all the six vocal elements. Your speech will then have the variations and effects to suit the material you are presenting. What you can do ... For self-improvement you may tape-record your speech and critically examine it. In the subsequent efforts try to suitably amend your delivery in the light of your self-analysis. You should also test your oral presentation among friends and observe their reactions. Through systematic and persistent efforts you can certainly become a good speaker. Hints for Self-improvement (Group Dynamics) You may sometimes be called upon to participate in/ or chair a group discussion in your college. The discussion may be on some current affairs issue, on a controversial topic to look for a possible solution, or it could be of an academic nature. Each time after participation, you should analyze your performance so that there is continuous improvement. This is important in the light of the fact that you are the college principal and all the attention is on you most of the time. While analyzing your performance try to guage for yourself the following : (i) Whether you articulated your words clearly and distinctly and put the required stress on appropriate syllables. (ii) Whether you regulated the speed of your speech and paused whenever necessary to make your presentation clear and effective.
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(iii) Whether in your judgement, what you said was grasped by other participants and reflected in their responses. (iv) Whether your intervention, if any, annoyed the concerned speaker. (v) Whether you could keep your mind focused all the time on what was being said. If you find yourself deficient in any of the areas mentioned above, you should try to attain the required levels of these skills. You may go in for self-training or seek the help of experts. Do not hesitate to take the latter path as it is never too late to learn. An Assignment... A few topics for group discussion are given below. Formulate your views on each one of them, make points and rehearse what you would like to say and how-as a participant in a group consisting of your peers/colleagues. • Relevance of Gandhian Philosophy in present times • The Internet Revolution • The Sports Scenario in our Country • The Beauty Business • Global Environmental Concerns Use of Audio-Visual Aids There would be many occasions when as a professional college principal you are required to make oral presentations. The use of audio-visual aids can greatly enhance the value of the spoken words. The impact of what is seen and heard lasts longer than what is only seen or merely heard. Audio-visual aids also help sustain interest in what might otherwise become a monotonous speech. We are concerned with the following audio-visual aids since these are the ones most commonly used in college settings : blackboard, overhead projector, filmstrip and slide projector, movie film projector, video tape recorder, audio tape recorder and models. (Sometimes the graphic aids used to support written presentations such as charts, diagrams, maps, etc., are also referred to as visual aids.)
(
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Basic Principles and Guidelines Keep the following principles and guidelines in mind when you decide to use an audio-or a visual-aid : (i) Decide the content you wish to support with an aid. (ii) Choose the appropriate medium. (iii) Integrate the aid with the presentation. (iv) Choose a suitable place for the equipment to be kept. Whatever you present through the aid should be capable of being heard or seen by everyone in the audience. (v) Ensure that you have a basic technical knowledge of how to operate the equipment. If you hate machines (as some people do), have somebody to help you. Fumbling may prove counter-productive. (vi) When not in use, keep the equipment away or at least covered. If it is left in view throughout the presentation, it may distract the audience. (vii) Inspect the venue of presentation if possible, to check the physical arrangements such as switches, power supply, size of the room, lectern, pointer, etc. (viii) Prepare the audio-visual material with great care emphasing those aspects which you consider significant. Do not clutter it with irrelevant or excessive information. Use devices such as underlining, arrows, heavy lettering, colour, etc., for emphasis, whenever possible. But in no circumstances should the display material become the center of attraction. It should remain supportive of what you are presenting orally. (ix) When you use several items of visual material, number them. Ensure that their appearance and exit are properly timed. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant:
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Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) State briefly how audio-visual aids can help in oral presentations and the points to be kept in mind while preparing and using the same :
(ii) Try to enlist fresh input you may have got for 'oral communication' from reading this section and think about how you could use the information to enhance your style and skills for the same in the performance of your job.
4
Written Communication With all your experience as a college principal (and even from prior experience), you may already be quite adapt at handling all the required written communication. I have, however, briefly presented some fundamentals which might help enhance your skills for the same. Written communication has the advantage of providing records, references, and legal defenses. We can carefully prepare a message and direct it to a large audience through mass mailings. Written communication can also promote uniformity in policy and procedure and can reduce costs, in some cases. The dis-advantages are that written messages may create mountains of paper, may be poorly expressed by ineffective writers, and may provide no immediate feedback. Consequently, it may take a long time to know whether a message has been received and properly unde{stood. Effective writing may be the exception rather than the rule; nor do education and intelligence guarantee good writing. Many people fall into the habit of using technical jargon that can be understood only by experts in the same field. Common problems in written communication are that writers omit the conclusion or bury it in the report, are too wordy, and use poor grammar, ineffective sentence structure, and incorrect spelling. Yet a few
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guidelines suggested by Keith Davis may do much to improve written communication : Use simple words and phrases. Use short and familiar words. Use personal pronouns (such as "you") whenever appropriate. Give illustrations and examples; use charts. Use short sentences and paragraphs. Use active verbs such as "The principal plans .... Eeonomize on adjectives. Express thoughts logically and in a direct way. Avoid unnecessary words.
If
K. Davis, HI/man Behavior at Work, Organizational Behavior, 6th ed. (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1981), p. 411.
Style in Writing A report is a verbal c;tructure, and style is the way we select and arrange the elements of structure. So to attain a style that works, we need to know what to select and how to arrange the selected material. In specific terms a report consists of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences which form paragraphs and the paragraphs constitute the text of a report. The marks of punctuation and graphic aids enhance comprehension and sharpen understandh,g but these, I thought, are not necessary for me to include here since you may already be very familiar with their usages. I propose to discuss style from a practical point of view-how to attain an effective report writing style-and not to enter into a theoretical discussion-such that it helps you in general to enhance your writing skills. What I say here would be in many ways-applicable with certain modifications to other forms of professional writing also. One cannot of course give you a complete list of do's and don'ts for every writing problem that you, as college principals may face, but I hope that the discussion which follows would help you write more effectively. First let us look at the importance and features of professional writing.
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Importance of Professional Writing Professional writing is an extension of your responsibility. It is hard work, requiring enormous patience and rigorous practice. The ability to communicate effectively is one of the greatest assets anyone can acquire, but the most common and perhaps the greatest communication problem today is that many people are unaware that they lack communicative ability. The organizations also are unable to realize what a heavy price they have to pay because of miscommunication (if we read what a person has written but fail to understand properly what he means, it is a case of miscommunication). Communication inefficiency exercises negative effects on productivity and staff relations, and can result in many problems with teaching staff, administrative staff, students, visitors, parents, suppliers and others. Features of Written Communication At this stage it would be helpful to review briefly the main features of written communication. Often a written communication is the only link between the writer and the reader and thus it determines the reader's attitude towards the writer. Once it leaves the writer's hands, for all practical purposes he has no control over it. He cannot clarify or amplify what he has written, neither can he add or delete. Further, in written communication there is no effective substitute for gestures, facial expressions and modulation of voice which make oral communication vibrant. To be an effective writer, a professional should cultivate certain habits, attitudes and qualities of mind. Let us briefly examine some of the important ones : • Visualise what you wish to say. If the picture you want to communicate is clear to you the words would automatically follow to express it. Remember, ch::ar thinking and clear writing go together. Adequate preparation-organization of data and their analysis, generalizations based on them, and the plan of writing as manifested in your outline-would certainly help you in attaining clarity of thought. • Prepare the first draft without caring much for the mechanics of writing. Attention to such details disturbs the flow of thought. The sole concern at this stage should be to present your ideas.
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Stop when you have finished saying what you wanted to say. There is no need to add the so-called concluding sentence. Remember, a professional writes to express and not to impress. • Revise the draft carefully, this time taking care of all the required details. And have the courage to delete a word, phrase, sentence or paragraph which does not add any meaning to the point under discussion. • Approach the problem with a scientist's objectivity, detachment and passion for truth. This would help make your writing plain, concise and precise. • Don't belabour a point unnecessarily, keep your writing crisp and sharp. Choice of Words and Phrases Choosing the right words and phrases is the first important step in writing. Words have different meanings in different contexts. Their polysemantic nature makes the task of selection appear to be suitable in the first instance. To perceive their aptness requires a sophisticated sense of language use. Constant concern for the selection of the right word at the right place and an unfailing desire to extract meaning is helpful in attaining an effective style. Given below in the form of "Do's" and "Don't's" are a few helpful hints. We are however not suggesting that the words which we have termed as abstract, long, general or unfamiliar should never be used; in fact they may be the best words in certain contexts. Sometimes their use may be advisable for variety. Do's (i) Prefer concrete to abstract words. A concrete word permits a limited interpretation and conveys more definite meaning. Its meaning is generally fixed. A few examples are names of persons, number words, dates, etc., words pointing to one specific person (e.g., I, he, she, etc.). Concrete words tend to be more forceful, direct and exact than their abstract counterparts. Abstract words have a tendency to be general and vague. Look at the use of words in the original sentences given below and notice how the suggested revision improves communication.
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Original Sentence Revised Sentence For example Slides are popular because The reason for the popularity they are easy to prepare of slides is the simplicity of their preparation Words such as 'nature', 'condition', 'character', 'situation', 'progress', 'ideas', 'excellence' convey abstract meaning and yet we cannot avoid using them. We can make them less abstract by providing proper context. For example, 'His ideas' is less abstract than 'ideas'. Similarly, 'human nature' is less abstract than 'nature'. (ii) Prefer specific to general words. The use of specific words makes the writing clearer and immediately creates an image in the mind of the reader. Often specificity and concreteness go together. A few examples are given below: General Specific countenance face reside stay volume book appellation name terminate end The above list is only a small sample to show the point I am emphasizing. Let us also see how the replacement of a general word by a . specific word given in brackets makes a sentence more effective: For example (i) The company has brought out forty publications this year ... (books) (ii) They have produced a book on style ... {written) Prefer plain and familiar to long and unfamiliar words. Inexperienced writers often believe that pomposity is the hallmark of an effective writer. Therefore, they are tempted to use long and unfamiliar words instead of plain words, which are short and familiar to the reader. One should not deliberately use such words which may compel the reader to consult the dictionary
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frequently. The use of plain words saves time-the writer's, the typist's and the reader's. The list given below would give you an idea of what we are suggesting : Plain and familiar Long and unfamiliar facilitate . ease discern see workers, staff personnel live dwell foresee envisage In a speech written for him President F.D. Roosevelt once changed the sentence "We are endeavouring to construct a more inclusive society" to "We are going to make a country in which no one is left out". On another occasion the President replaced "Terminate the illumination" by "Tum out the lights". Both these examples show how plain words make the message more effective. Unless you are alert, high flying and fancy words may completely drown your meaning and one should guard against this. Notice how in the following example a simple, straightforward message is completely lost. A famous lecturer was once asked the formula of success in public speaking. "Well", he said, "in promulgating your esoteric cogitations and articulating superficial, sentimental and psychological observations, beware of platitudinous ponderosity. Let your extemporaneous decantations and unpremeditated expatiations have intelligibility and veracious veracity without rodomontade and thrasonical bombast. Sedulously avoid all polysyllabic profundity, pusillanimous vacuity, pestiferous profanity and similar transgressions. Or to put it a bit differently", he concluded, "talk simply, naturally, and above all, don't use big words" ! Don'ts (i) Avoid cliches: A cliche is a faded word or a phrase which has lost its effectiveness because of overuse. When it is first coined, it is fresh and vigorous and conveys the meaning vividly. With the passage of time it loses sharpness and ceases to exercise the desired impact. Very often when you start writing, such words and phrases would come to your mind and if you are not alert, find a place
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in the text of your report and thus weaken it. Although cliches are not necessarily unsuitable or wrong, their frequent use would tire the discriminating reader. In the beginning you may have some difficulty in recognizing cliches. Soon, however, you would discover that phrases such as 'worthwhile areas', 'inter-disciplinary techniques', 'broader fields', the 'long-range view', mean little or merely serve as substitute for real ideas. We feel tempted to use them because they readily occur to us. The following extract makes excessive use of cliches. Notice how tiresome it is to read: Original Extract : He left no stone unturned in his efforts to achieve tenure. Finally, a sadder but a wiser man, he learned that in this day and age, tenured professorships are few and far between. His campaign ground to a halt, and at subsequent faculty meetings, he was conspicuous by his absence. He concluded his farewell to his students with these words of wisdom "Last but not least, follow this advice : do as I say, not as I do" . Suggested Revision: He tried strenuously to gain tenure. But finally he became aware that few tenured professorships are available. He ceased his efforts and stopped attending faculty meetings. In his farewell to his students, he exhorted them not to follow his career as an example. Some cliches commonly used are given below : Food for thought, crowning glory, part and parcel, sum and substance, the vast majority, burning question, level best, spare no efforts, overriding considerations, desperate need, discuss threadbare, teeming millions, leave no stone unturned, untiring efforts, eminently satisfactory, kind perusal, favourable consideration, resource personnel, hotbed of politics, explore every avenue, iron hand of the law, day in and day out, awake to one's duty, heart and soul, melting pot, etc. Here is a caution. There are a few cliches which communicate an idea so clearly that it would be difficult to think of a substitute. The familiar phrases like 'a drop in the ocean', 'wear and tear', 'practice what you preach' are hard to improve upon. (Try to recall some of the cliches you may be using frequently in your oral/written communication; and think if you really
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need to do so ... , and make an effort to eliminate the usage of the really redundant ones.) (ii) Avoid Excessive use of Jargon: Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary defines jargon as 'the technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a special activity or group'. Every group of specialists has developed a set of highly specialized terms; yet these are the very words that cause readers a lot of difficulty. Communication of technical matter in non-technical language is not easy but the ability to do so can be acquired with practice. For report writing it is essential to acquire this ability, for the reader of your report may not be a specialist in the subject. Only an inexperienced writer would think that. the use of jargon is the mark of intellectual superiority. If he does not check the habit of using jargon, he would meet the fate of other jargonists. His writing would be weak, and unintelligible and tire the reader soon. However, remember that every profession has its jargon and it would be difficult to communicate to fellow professionals without its use. Jargon saves time but this is not the only reason which makes our writing jargonridden. Jargon is sometimes used to nourish one's ego and enable a group to speak in terms that impress or mystify the outsider. Its use is also justified on the ground that complex thought cannot be expressed without the use of highly technical language. But the fact is that just as lethargy prompts us to use cliches, false pride impels us to use jargon. Let your writing be as jargon-free as possible. Try to use. words more widely understood so that those who do not belong to the specialist group are also able to follow you. For exampleJargon-ridden: The responsibility of a person involved in pedagogical pursuits is to impart knowledge to those sent to him for instruction. Jargon-free : The teacher's job is to instruct students. (iii) Avoid !Ising Foreign Words IIl1d Phrases: Foreign words and phrases also, like jargon, are often used to impress and mystify the reader or to parade one's scholarship. Some
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writers believe that their use ~ould make the writing dignified. Thus, instead of 'see above' they use 'vide supra' and for 'the justification for', 'raison d'etre'. To keep your writing simple, use plain English for foreign words and phrases. In report writing the use of accepted abbreviations is unavoidable. However, certain abbreviations derived from foreign words and phrases, masked as time-savers such as op.cit., loc.cit., create a lot of confusion specially if the report has a large number of references. They demand extra work from the reader although they save the labour of both the author and the printer. Abbreviations like, e.g., i.e., vs., viz., a.m., p.m., etc., are well understood and you need not avoid them. (iv) Avoid Redundancy: Redundancy is the part of a message that can be eliminated without loss of information. It may be either the use of unnecessary words or needless repetition of an idea. It has been well said that a sentence should have no unnecessary words, just as a drawing should have no unnecessary lines, and a machine no unnecessary parts. Extra words do not confer extra value to the thought. To win the race in this highly competitive world we need an alert and agile mind. A ponderous mind breeds, among other things, redundancy in writing. Cut out the unnecessary words from your writing and see how the thought begins to shine clearly. If you prune your language with patience and discernment, your writing would automatically become pointed and sharp. Unfortunately, superfluity is the most common cause of woolliness in expression and yet it is most easily avoidable. For example -
I wish to take this opportunity to acknowledge the help of my laboratory assistant. In the above sentence, six words are redundant. The sentence is more appropriately written as follows :
I acknowledge the help of my laboratonJ assistant. There are many other parameters, but at least keeping in mind the few points discussed above would certainly enhance the effectiveness of your professional writing.
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1.
2.
Please check your progress Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
Please attempt to answer the following questions: (i) Discuss briefly the importance of professional writing and some of its Significant factors.
(ii) Elaborate briefly on some of the do's and dont's to
be kept in mind for effective, professional writing.
Some Ideas for the Final Draft We close the discussion on style with three ideas which would help you to prepare the final draft of any write-up. First, whatever be the form of writing, provide signposts for the reader. Pause and tell him what you have done and what you propose to do. This would help the reader enormously. He would be able to follow the line of thought you are pursuing and prepare himself for what is to follow. The devices that you use for this purpose (a sentence or sometimes even a short paragraph) are like traffic signs along a highway. They have to be written clearly, accurately, and well, and therefore it is important that they are structured to appropriate length and style. Second, view the style of your writing in totality. You may sometimes have to sacrifice one quality for the sake of another. Weigh and consider what serves you best. 'No surrender to words' should be your motto. The primacy of thought must be maintained. In practice you would observe that a good piece of writing contains many qualities and that the removal of one flaw improves your writing in several ways. Third, no clear writing is ever achieved without rewriting. Let the process of revision follow this pattern :
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Correct mechanical errors such as wrong punctuation, misspelling, improper capitalization, etc. • Bring your writing to the stylistic convention of the form to which it belongs. • Add, delete or rearrange the material to achieve greater clarity and coherence. These stages of revision are, however, not mutually exclusive. Writing Proposals Every proposal, whatever be its purpose, suggests a particular way of doing a thing, specifies a plan of action and contains an estimated cost of execution. The key to the success of a proposal is whether it is able to persuade and gain acceptance. In the case of college principals, the purpose of writing proposals could mainly be towards two causes : 1. raising money/resource mobilization for college amenities, and 2. academic proposals for grants/projects. Every proposal writer should therefore know the factors of persuasion-the factors that can convert a proposal into a project or contract. To persuade the receiver of your communication, you should: 1. Present the anticipated objectives in your proposal. 2. Keep the proposal short and precise. 3. Let your writing exude zeal. 4. Indicate the advantages of your study/proposal if conducted. 5. Make the terms of your proposal easy for compliance. 6. Emphasise distinctive features of your proposal. 7. Let your proposal look neat and attractive. Thus you would see that the elements mentioned above do not merely relate to the language of the proposal. In this context the word persuasion has acquired a new connotation. So mere use of persuasive language would not win the customer. However, a proposal is more creative than certain other forms of professional writing and hence its style permits informality and personal approach to some extent.
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The Summary of the Proposal : The summary is the entire proposal in a nutshell. It is likely to be read by more persons in positions of higher authority than any other section of your proposal. Summary is often circulated separately to those responsible for taking a decision on your proposal. A well-written, comprehensive and yet concise summary would persuade the reader to appreciate your idea. Besides the name of the proposer, his designation, and the organization to which he belongs the summary of a proposal should specifically include: (i) A clear statement of the requirements of your proposal. (ii) An analysis of the problem which your proposal addresses. (iii) The method of research/solution proposed by you. (iv) The significance of the findings/ end-product resulting from the proposal. (v) The duration of the planned project. (vi) A realistic cost-estimate. (vii) An assurance of the capabilities and experience to execute the project. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) State some important points to be kept in mind while drafting any proposal.
(ii) As a college principal how would you draft a proposal to an autonomous funding agency for an Environmental Science/any other project to be taken up and executed by first year student of your college?
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Notices, Agenda And Minutes For every important meeting that you need to hold in your college, you would have to issue a notice, draft the agenda, and after the meeting is over, perhaps even write (or delegate/ supervise) its minutes. Here we shall briefly discuss how notices, agenda and minutes are written in the professional world. Notices Usually every organization devises rules of procedure for the conduct of meetings. These rules indicate the frequency of meetings for different purposes and prescribe the notice period for calling a meeting besides indicating the person who has a right to call it and the persons who have a right to attend it. When you are required to call a meeting, send a written notice within the specified time to every member of the group. The notice should mention the name and address of your college, and the date on which it is issued besides indicating the day, date, time and venue of the meeting. The business to be transacted should be mentioned in the notice if the number of items is small; otherwise it should be indicated in a separate sheet and enclosed with the notice as annexure. Agenda Agenda is an official list of items of business to be transacted at a specific meeting. It helps in conducting the meeting in proper order, minimizes irrelevant discussion and preserves continuity in the proceedings. Since it is circulated along with the notice, every member knows beforehand the items of discussion and can make up his mind what he wishes to say on a particular issue. The agenda would also help you to control the members from going off the track and to organize the time to be devoted to individual items. The items of the agenda are arranged in increasing order of importance and each item bears a number. However, almost every agenda has confirmation of the minlltes of the previolls meeting as the first item and any other matter with the permissio1l of the Chairman as the last item. If there is any matter left over from the preceding meeting for enquiry and report it usually appears as the second item of the agenda. Before finalizing the items, get the appropriate approvals.
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Minutes Minutes are the official record of the business/work transacted at a meeting. Keeping minutes of meetings is often a legal requirement but it is anyway always helpful to record minutes of every meeting. The reason is obvious; minutes act as an aid to memory and provide a basis for decision and action. In fact a run-through of the minutes can give a fairly good idea to a reader of how a college/organization has been functioning/ conducting itself. As the minutes of every meeting are approved by the members at the next meeting and signed by the principal! the chairman, they are considered very important records and preserved carefully. The style of minutes is impersonal, objective and matter-offact. The display of emotions, strong feelings and anger has no place in minutes. A cool, concise and accurate account of the main points of discussion, the decisions arrived at, recommendations made and the assignment of tasks to individual members or subcommittees is all that is required to be recorded. When you ask to write minutes, take notes bearing these points in mind. The actual writing of minutes can obviously be done only after the meeting is over. There should be no hesitation to check or verify particular points with the chairman or any other member before recording it in the minutes. Minutes follow the pattern of agenda and bear the same numbers. For each item a heading is given and the discussion! decision on it is recorded. When a resolution comes up for consideration the names of the proposer and the seconder may be mentioned. Sometimes, however, the practice is only to state whether the resolution was accepted or rejected. As minutes are self-sufficient records, it is customary to give the following details : • Name of the college • Day, date, time and venue of the meeting • Number of the meeting, if in a series • Names of the chairman/office bearers • Names of members present • Names of members absent
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•
Names of persons who attended the meeting by special invitation, if any • Record of transactions, item-wise • Signature of the chairman/office bearers. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant:
2. Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Briefly state the significance of writing/maintaining records of the following to successfully convene (formal) meetings in colleges/any organizations: (a) Issuing notices (b) Preparing an agenda
(c) Recording minutes (ii) As a college principal you need to convene a meeting for
discussion on setting new rules for admission to professional courses as per a University circular. How would you go about the task?
Research Papers As a college principal, though -you are performing manifold administrative tasks; as an academician, you may, at some point of time, decide to carry out research-individually-on your own initiative, or as a member of a research project team of your college. You may often even need to encourage students to pursue Action Research',-for example-they could research how library facilities could be improved, or conduct a Needs Assessment I
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(Survey) of first year students on their perception of facilities for sports/co-curricular activities that ought to be provided to them at the under-graduate level in colleges. This would help studentsparticularly at post-graduate levels to understand the significance of scope of academic research. For any research undertaken, the results arrived at would hardly be of any value unless they are made known to others working, or interested in, the same sphere of activity or knowledge. This you can do by presenting your findings in a professional gathering or if you wish to reach a wider audience, by publishing them in a journal. In either case you will have to organize the material (date, analysis, results, etc.), in the form of a research paper. It is obvious that the knowledge from research should be . quickly publicized. There are two reasons for it; one, to avoid wasteful duplication of work and two, to establish the researcher's claim to the priority of discovery. That is why to accord a permanent value to the effort, the results must be published in the form of a research paper, maintaining the originality and quality of contribution. Research is not the preserve of scientists or any such specialist group of persons; it is, in fact, any systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge. Sometimes a research work may replicate previous research with a view to testing the reported findings in the context of different cultural milieu or social settings. It may also be undertaken to follow up new leads to refine or qualify the findings of earlier studies. Research may be based on a careful search of material in journals, books and other publications or carefully designed experiments. Whatever be the method of enquiry, every piece of research must make an original contribution to knowledge. The definition of research given in Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary is comprehensive and worth quoting here : "Investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws." Definition We may define a research paper as a documented (it indicates that the sources of borrowed material are acknowledged and
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those consulted in the writing of the paper are listed) prose work, incorporating the results of an organized analysis of a subject. In its style, structure and approach it closely resembles a formal report. Therefore most of the principles discussed in earlier sections are applicable to the writing of a research paper. Similarly, the detailed information given is relevant in this context also. However, a research paper differs from a formal report in certain respects. It is written mainly to disseminate knowledge whereas a report is written for decision-making or action. The reading of a research paper is optional but a report must be read by someone. The incentive for a research paper may be the enhancement of one's own professional status, whereas a report is always prompted by a specific need of the organization. Characteristics You are already familiar with the features of a formal report. I have given below, if only for the sake of emphasis, four characteristic features of a research paper. You will observe that they are not exclusive to this form of writing; they are ~iven here only to complete this thought process. (i) A research paper may be written about any subject social, cultural, scientific, technical, etc., but the treatment is scholarly and is supported by evidence. (ii) There is a relatively high concentration of certa.in writing techniques such as definition, classification, interpretation and abstraction or description of a process, procedure or a mechanical device. (iii) Its formal elements are generally those of a report and the writing is characterized by the use of graphic aids and scientific, technical or specialized vocabulary. (iv) The emphasis is on the presentation of information accurately and concisely and an attitude of complete impartiality and objectivity is maintained by the writer. Types At this stage it might be useful to differentiate various forms of writing that are usually termed as research papers. Let us first make a distinction between what an advanced level student may be required to do as an academic exercise and what a researcher reports as his contribution to knowledge. It cannot however be
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denied that sometimes the contribution of a student may attain a high level of excellence and reach the same status as that of the latter but this is not its primary purpose. A student's paper is sometimes called a library research paper, or a term paper or a theme paper. There are three preparatory steps in writing such a paper, namely-selecting a subject, locating sources of information and note-making. Usually such a paper is written under the guidance of an instructor and the student is advised how to go about it. He may also be provided with a preliminary reading list so that he can proceed on the right course and plan his work effectively. Two other terms, namely-scientific paper and technical paper are often used interchangeably to refer to a research paper. When a distinction is made it is on the basis of its contents. The former deals with a scientific subject and furthers the theory of a discipline; the latter deals with new ideas, relationships, processes or equipment related to the practice of some technology.
Elements Although a research paper does not contain all the elements of a formal report, it can be made effective if the matter is broken up into logical sections with suitable headings and sub-headings. Its usual elements are as follows; they are self-explanatory. • Abstract or Summary • Introduction • Materials and Methods • Experimental Section, Design or Procedure • Results • Discussion • Conclusion and Recommendations • Acknowledgements • List of Symbols • References or Bibliography There is a large variety in the presentation of matter in a research paper. Every paper does not have all the elements mentioned above. In certain papers results, and discussion are combined. In some Notes are combined with References. A paper may also have an Appendix. As in reports in some research papers the element 'Discussion' does not appear as a heading and the matter relating to this part is broken into a number of sub,
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headings. A number of journals give detailed instructions about presentation and the contributor has then to follow them. Evaluation Occasionally you may even be required to evaluate a research paper. We give below some questions that are likely to prove helpful in assessing the merit of a paper. 1. What is the author's purpose? To detail an experiment? To establish a principle? To make an evaluation? 2. Does the writer include all the information that the audience may need to know? 3. Is it at a level of technicality that will be understandable to the audience? 4. Does it have an appropriate structure? 5. Are the central thesis and supporting data integrated into a logical presentation? Can you follow the arguments? 6. Is documentation given in an acceptable form? ScientificlTechnical Articles A scientific or technical article may deal with subjects similar to those of a research paper, but its approach is different. It is more general and informal and is intended for a wider audience. The articles are usually written for a newspaper or a periodical. Sometimes they are semi-technical in nature, but in either case they try to answer in as plain a style as possible the following questions: 'How does something happen?'; 'Why does it happen?'; 'In what way does it help us?'. The emphasis in the articles is on the communication of the human implications of a device, discovery or invention rather than on the details of the process or mechanism used for arriving at the results. For example, a research paper on environmental pollution may explain how it is caused, give the reasons and suggest ways of controlling it in scientific terms. On the other hand, an article on the same subject is likely to emphasise the impact of the pollution on plants, animals and human beings, and the role of the common man in preventing it. In an article there is greater flexibility in the sequencing of material. Formal headings may not appear at all. The author may decide to dramatise or highlight a particular aspect and therefore mention it in the very beginning and then unfold the story. Thus you will notice that an article is a piece
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of communication which permits greater flexibility in its approach, style and structure. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Discuss why it is important for you as a college principal to initiate research work and also publish research papers/articles from the same?
(ii) Please try to work out a research paper/article from
a study/project that may be ongoing/nearing completion at your college, and send it for publication to an academic journal of repute. Make a note of the experience as a whole-from conceptualizing the paper to receiving feedback from the publishers/ readers.
Graphic Aids You may often have to work with a mass of statistics and a complexity of ideas when you write a formal piece of communication such as a report, a technical proposal, etc. Many a time you would find that you can use graphic aids to make your communication easy to understand. In fact, these aids have become a sort of vocabulary for the professional. Uses Graphic aids are mainly used to : • Communicate more effectively and accurately. • Make description, explanation and comparison more vivid and eye-catching. • Clarify and supplement the verbal analysis.
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• •
Reinforce and support verbal communication. Enable the writer to present information in an organized way. • Present a large number of details in less space and with greater precision. You should however never permit a graphic aid to compete with your verbal presentation. And don't be tempted to use an aid solely for dramatic or aesthetic effects. Each aid must present some significant information relevant to the content. There are several types of aids which a professional uses. Here are a few general rules which are applicable to all aids: (i) Give an aid when it is the best way to communicate information. (ii) Each aid must be neat, accurate and self-contained. (iii) The content of an aid should be closely related to the text. (iv) An aid should be explained in the text howsoever briefly and placed as close to the first reference as possible. (v) The size of an aid should be such that on reproduction it remains clearly legible. (vi) Each table and figure should be numbered and captioned. Usually the number in consecutive Roman numerals and the caption of the Table are given on the top, e.g., Table I, Table II, etc. The number and the caption of the figures are given in Arabic numerals, e.g., Fig. 1, Fig. 2, etc. Earlier, graphics used to be prepared manually but now with computer software (like Excel)-one can have, with minimal inputs, the statistical analysis neatly presented. Please cheCK your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Discuss the importance of having graphic aids in research documents.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers (ii) Draw up a list of ten emotionally powerful words. Write out the 'associations' or 'connotations' they have for you. Request office colleagues/others to do the same, then compare your 'associations' / 'interpretations' with theirs. Note the similarities and the discrepancies between what you and your colleagues wrote. This exercise would help you realize whether you use words while writing-in appropriate context. Workspace for your thoughts I notes I comments
Interpretation and Application Oral and Written Communication are indeed the most indispensable modes of communication in any organizational setting. Practising and having a good command over these facilitates effective communication. As a college principal-I'm sure, you need to 'talk' and 'write' a lot most of the time. And to do so appropriatelydepending on the demands of the situation and the people involved in the same-is imperative and significant-as discussed in Units C and D. The 'helpful hints' and other information provided in both these units (on oral and written communication), were included to help you to recognize your strengths and limitations of the same, and to eventually of course, help to hone your skills for style and performance of the same.
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It was important to dilute and present some of the material in order to take you 'back to the basics'-which is indeed often helpful-to make one dwell on the fundamentals, get them right, and then build on them with work and practise. Moreover, a college principn.l is perceived in a particular way by others from the manner of his oral and written communication; and often it is through these that professional relations may be sealed or broken. And this is really important for all educational institutes-like the college you may be working in .
•
5 Use of Technology in Communication The use of technology in communication is now indispensable. The world is networked today into a global village, and computer literacy is as important as basic alphabetical and numerical literacy. The significance and scope of the use of technology in communication is much more in organizations-particularly educational institutes like schools and colleges where huge datal records of students and teachers have to be maintained; and where day-to-day administrative matters need to be sorted out on a regular basis. We begin this section by trying to understand the different facets of communication in the context of the use of technology in any organization, and how to optimally utilize the same for efficient work output. There are two aspects of communication in organizations : one, the development and maintenance of a communication pattern to ensure harmonious relationships among the employees and two, the use of technology to secure quicker and more effective flow of information-(in this context 'information' may be defined as an orderly, concise and useful arrangement of facts/ data) from one department or office to another or from one city or country to another. In this section we shall briefly touch upon some of the ways of doing the first task and draw your attention to certain technological aids to fulfill the second.
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Pattern of Communication An organization is a body of persons working for a welldefined goal. To achieve it-each member of this body has to be in a state of constant touch with the others. There is both horizontal and vertical movement of information from one source to another. The horizontal flow keeps individuals of the same status and peer groups informed of what others are doing and what is expected of them. The commonality of interest towards the achievement of organizational goals sustains the flow. The vertical communication is both downward and upward. The top management keeps on sending information to the employees and also devises ways of eliciting information from them and thus the lines of communication are kept open. The two-way movement is essential to keep the organization in a healthy state. Mere downward flow is like talking to a person continuously without giving him a chance to respond. In such a situation the pattern of communication will take the following form: A instructs B; A speaks to B; A directs B to do something; A conveys to B a piece of information and so on. Enlightened managements however realize that communication is essentially interactive in nature, demanding the interchange of roles of the sender and the receiver and therefore, lay equal emphasis on upward flow of communication. Any obstructions on the line are carefully looked into and quickly removed. The two-way flow then forms the following pattern : A instructs B; B reports to A; A speaks to B; B reports to A and so on. Communication performs a number of functions and plays a significant role in the running and growth of an organization. We may classify these functions as follows : (a) Internal, that is, within the organization: (i) to generate and disseminate information, (ii) to direct and instruct employees viz. teachers and administrative staff, (iii) to maintain and improve morale, and (iv) to cultivate a sense of belonging.
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(b) External, that is, outside the organization: (i) to sell and obtain goods and services for maintenance of laboratories, organizing workshops, etc. (ii) to liaise with other educational/industrial organizations and, (iii) to create goodwill. Usually within the organization, members need the following types of information: 1. Information of immediate concern, such as working schedules for classes, practicals, examinations; skills required for the job, method of training available for advancement, etc. 2. Working environment related information such as rules for punctuality, discipline, work norms, facilities for clubs, societies, unions, cafeteria, etc. 3. Information about personal benefits such as pay and allowances, health and insurance, holidays, etc. 4. Information about the organization as a whole-work of other departments and sections, relationship of one's department with others, ultimate objective, etc. H is obvious that conveying all the information to everybody would be a meaningless exercise. For proper functioning of a communication system the following questions should be asked and the answers constantly reviewed on the basis of reliable feedback: (i) What information is to be conveyed? (ii) Who requires it? (iii) What should be its form? (iv) What techniques of dissemination should be used? (v) What technological aids should be used? There is a network of communication within every organization. Such a network indicates clearly the lines of communication, viz., who is to speak to whom and for what. Generally there is no direct communication between the top management and the employee at the lowest rung of the hierarchy. The vice versa is also true. The longer the distance, the greater are
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the chances of communication distortion or failure. Therefore an efficient organization often provides for an informal contact outside the usual channels of communication. It is difficult to specify the various methods of this kind of contact; each organization keeps on evaluating and modifying these methods. Further, any information received through the grapevine must be rigorously filtered to ensure that mere gossip may not pass off as truth. In recent years the importance of communication has greatly increased as a result of the growing complexity in organizational and individual behaviour under the impact of rapid industrialization and modern technology. In the fast changing world of today it is clear that today's communication systems will not meet the demands of tomorrow. There is a need for constant review and modification particularly in the Education sector, which does not enjoy much priority of funding or government support. Appropriate, timely measures need to be initiated for upgrading and updating the system. Management of Information One of the greatest concerns of an organization is how to deal with the accumulation of information and at the same time keep its communication pattern strong and healthy enough to bear the burden of handling enormous data. Here technology has come in a big way to help organizations keep their communication pattern vibrant and meaningful to meet the increasing demands. Now aids are available to store, process and disseminate information, so much so that professionals have begun talking in terms of a paperless offIce, discarding the traditional ways of maintaining hundreds of paper files for communication purposes. The ('mphasis is on speed, efficiency and facility to recall the required information at a short notice. If you go to a well-equipped office you will find a number of technological aids buzzing with activity. Until recently the emphasis was on using electronic equipment for recording and preserving oral communication. Now there is an equal stress on using technology for what traditionally used to be recorded and transmitted on paper. (Particularly in colleges, computers can be very useful to store, retrieve, and handle records of thousands of past and present students.)
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Now we shall turn our attention to some of the equipment which have quickened the pace of communication and made it more convenient and efficient-especially if they are based on a computer system. Word Processor A word processor can type more rapidly, efficiently and effectively than a typewriter, and do many other things which a typewriter cannot do. It can perform the following functions : • Display on the screen whatever is being typed, even the line-breakups, paragraph settings, page breakups, margins, etc. • Rearrange a given text without retyping the entire matter. • Adjust lines automatically. • Shift a word automatically to the next line, if it goes beyond a line. • Hyphenate long words occurring at the end of a line. • Replace a word or a phrase anywhere in the text, without disturbing the rest of the matter. • Move the text, insert the text from different files. • Edit the text. • Proofread. • •
Prepare indexes. Mail merge (merging of routine form letters and the addresses). • Sort information in alpha"vetical order. • Store the text on magnetic tapes or on magnetic disks (the magnetic disk is of two types-floppy and hard. The former is detachable, while the latter is inbuilt in the system) and get various combinations of output of the text stored. • Retrieve the text as and when required. • Get some special formatting effects such as setting of margins, automatic indentation, etc. The components of a word processor, viz., the input and output devices are those through which the user communicates
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\\'ith the machine. These devices translate the user's language into the machine language (through some electrical and electronic signals), and the machine language back to the user, The devices are the keyboard, screen, and printer. They are a part of the hardware system. The keyboard is an input device, and is similar to the keyboard of a typewriter, but has a number of special keys. Apart from the normal keys, it has numeric keypad for the numeric information, function keys for operational use, and cursor keys to adjust the position of the cursor (cursor is a blinking underscore or a block of light or a similar indicator on the screen which marks the place where the next data would appear). Any character when keyed is enclosed, stored in memory and is also displayed on the screen. The screen is a primary output device in a personal computer (PC), and is similar to a T.v. screen in appearance. The data, graphic and the text, are both displayed on the screen. It normally displays twenty-four lines at a time, each line consisting of eighty-four characters. The printer is an output device through which information is transferred on to paper. Thus we see that a word processor is very useful for day to day work of an organization. Through it we can get maximum output in minimum time, keep the information stored, and retrieve it as and when needed. Desk Top Publisher (DTP) A DTP is another device which can help you escape from tedious tasks like cutting, pasting, designing, and redesigning the material when you are assigned a printing job. It has made publishing easier and it is increasingly being used for bringing out reports, manuals, brochures, bulletins, etc. A unique feature of this device is its ability to combine the text and graphics and to produce finished typeset quality printed material. Its production process is integrated and it enables the user to move directly from the author's design to camera ready artwork. Thus when you use a DTP you will have a greater control over the information structure. Briefly stated, its functions are as follows: • Creating text and visuals on the PC with the word processing and graphic software.
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Integrating text and visuals into a page using layout software. • Printing with a laser printer, document with typeset quality appearance, and • Designing, editing and producing high quality communication at a fraction of the time and expense required by conventional production techniques. Usually a DTP has a laser printer which ensures quick and effective printouts. It is run by a computer system and uses software such as word processor, business graphics, picture designer, font designer, etc. Others Micro computers are used for storing documents of all kinds in large data bases. The information contained in these documents can be recalled quickly, modified or revised or completely erased. Similarly, micro-films can store a mass of written or printed material which can be magnified and read. Electronic mail (e-mail) refers to a system (the Internetmore information on which follows in the next segment) by using which it is now possible for a person to transmit information both orally and visually to another person without personal contact. This is done by electronic impulses controlled by a computer system through a network of terminals located at the desired places. The data is displayed on the screen and the person transmitting the data can orally explain its significance. It is also possible for a professional to use his terminal for the display of required information by drawing upon a centrally located memory bank. Though e-mail tends to miss subtle emotional nuances of the message, and rather comes across as impersonal, its sheer speed and convenience make it popular; and it is here to stayto be used all over the world for communication. Voice-mail essentially allows one to 'talk' to people even across the seas with help of an appropriate software and microphone attached to the computer. Technological advancement also now enables the person to be seen through the use of a webcamera. Whatever devices and methods you use, remember. transmission of the message is the only concern; the sophisticated
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technology that might be used to construct and transmit it is of no consequence if the message is lost. Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Discuss briefly the different facets of communication in an organization and the scope of the us€. of technology to facilitate the same.
(ii) Explain in a few lines how the following computer
based systems can enhance the use of technology to facilitate the management of information in any organization. (a) VVord Processor (b) Desk Top Publishing
(c) Electronic Mail The Internet For more interesting information on the Internet please go through the following article "The Net in a Nutshell" by Sarita Rani (New Delhi); published in 'Sunday Magazine', February 1997. This article makes for light yet interesting reading, and quite appropriately dilutes and presents relevant information one would be looking for in order to make a beginning to access the net...
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The Net in a Nutshell All you wa1lted to know about the Internet but were too confused to ask ... Introduction Nirupa's elder son had run away from home ten years ago. Always the black sheep of the family-moody, unpredictable and a little too independent--no one knew where he was now or even whether he was alive. Vinod, the stay-at-home younger brother, took over the mantle-studying under street lamps, living on a few pieces of bread and studiously ignoring all girls-till he finally got his engineering degree and a job in a computer company. The company had an Internet connection and after office hours, Vinod took to surfing the Net, languorously changing from site to site looking for nothing in particular. (That's what most Internet surfers do most of the time by the way.) Then, somebody told him of a site called fourll.com. With equal disinterest Vinod typed in the address. Four 11 said you could search for other people's addresses here : just type in the minimum particulars. Abstractedly Vinod typed in : Name ~ A-M-I-T-A-8-H ~ A-M-I-T Fun Name Suddenly, the screen went into a flurry and came up with a 'hit'. It had found some address in California. Vinod was a little excited but not much. He left a mail at the address: Hi, my name is Vinod Khanna. I have a brother called Amit who ran away from home a long time ago. If you are the same or if you have heard of him, get back to me at : vinodcland.com Next day he found a mail in his computer. It said: Bhai, Main hoo bhai. Maa kaisi hai reo Mai tum logon se bahut door chala gaya tha. Par ab nahin. Ab main tujhe roz e-mail bhejoonga. There it is. The Internet has even replaced The Locket. But the Bollywood touch and the change of names apart; his is a true story. There is a site on the Internet called four 11.com. And it does help you find people across the globe. What if Amit was not working in a computer company? Never mind, you can always hope he is like that taxi driver in
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California who is so obsessed with the Net that he devised a mobile version that he carries with him in the taxi everywhere ... But, before one gets on to the regular binge of how much (or little?) the Net can do for you, one myth needs to be broken. Thanks to the language used by regular columnists on the Net-surfing the Net, 'hitting' the spot etc., and more importantly, thanks to Hollywood movies whose new pet obsession is the Internet (Fair Game, Mission Impossible etc.) one gets the impression that all you have to do is type in an address and ask a question and presto! There you have the answer that solves the intrigues of intricate spy network, tells you who the murderer is and warns you that your house is being burgled. Sorry. It doesn't work that way. 'Surfing on the Net' is not like hitting a remote button and changing channels on the TV. Far from it. You first type in the address; then, at the bottom of your screen the computer will take its time to work and tell you 'contacting server'. After having 'contacted' the address, it will tell you for interminable minutes "data being transferred"-2 per cent of 12 K transferred. 23 per cent of 12 K transferred. And so on, till it will say, "Document Done". Then, if you happen to go to an address that has a lot of graphics·-example RPG Musics' Saregama.com \\
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gymanastics later, it's an interesting way of spending time indoors. Besides, for couch potatoes, it's break from using the TV remote. Others have better uses for it. For students who've spent hours scouring libraries and directories for universities in the United States to migrate to, it can be quite a boon. Just about every well-known university in the States is now on the web-MIT edu. Amherst.edu. Texuniv.edu -the list is endless. Each university typically gives you details of courses offered, advise on how to apply, a special page for international students, scholarships available and cost per . semester. Some universities also allow you to send direct messages to the Student/Admissions adviser before you actually get an admission. This helps you do away with half-baked information gleaned desperately from either friends in the US or those who've tried before and failed. Business houses are increasingly using the Internet, not only for advertising their products, but to make actual transactions. Some companies have a mail order form on the Internet that requires you to type in your credit card details and after verification, you have the order at your door. This is being done by companies that have evolved method of protecting against defaults, so obviously, it is not so widespread a phenomenon yet. Also, this is still restricted to the United States and certain European countries. In the U.S. you can also advertise for a house available for rent, lease or purchase. The site-homes.com-will allow you to choose the state, the town, the configulation of the house (two bed-rooms, one full bath etc.), the price range and then put on your screen actual pictures of houses that fulfill that category. In fact, if you have something called the VRML softwareVirtual Reality Modelling Language - then you could even 'enter' the house, 'walk' through all the rooms, look at the furnishings etc., and then make your choice. This is in fact the latest development on the Net. Says Rajesh Nambiar, manager projects at Silicon Graphics India, "The virtual reality technology for the Net was developed and pioneered by us and is now the de facto standard in the industry to bring 3-D objects in the web domain".
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SGI is now trying hard to make this concept popular in India and the Cosmo vrml 2.0 plug can be downloaded free from the Net. Or, if you're still interested in good old books, you could go to the site of any of the major publishers and get a list of their new releases. But the services offered by each publishing house differ. For instance, while Penguin (Penguin.com) just give you a list, Random House (randomhouse.com) provides a brief profile of the author and an exerpt from the book. The list is really endless: access to libraries, official records that are now in the public domain, job advertisements, matrimonial alliances, admissions to colleges, history of the FBI (one month ago, the FBI had advertised on the Net for a Japanese translatorunfortunately, only those with green cards could apply), access to pharmaceutical companies that will tell you where to find a particularly rare drug and information on how to fix your plumbing. You could argue that books on plumbing are available; that you don't really mind driving down 15 kilometres to get a directory on universities in the US; that you read the papers, thank you, and you don't mind continuing to deal with companies in the real world; and no thank you, you'd rather not look at the picture of a house before you buy it. You'd rather see the cracks in the walls yourself. You could be right. But that is not the Internet's greatest gift: creating a virtual world. Like every new technology has its downside, this might in fact, be the Internet's downside. BL.t the Net's greatest gift is that it connects. An endocrinologist can now seek advice about a particularly troublesome case by posting a query on the Net. The tata.com site did not work last time but when it does, people look for information on India anywhere in the world, don't have to run to a harried officer at the Indian embassy; they can get it from an Indian site. More importantly, in a world where people increasingly commute between office and home like puppets on a string : where discussion and yes, disagreement, is a rare affair, here is a communication machine that puts you in touch with
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Marxists; with Bible thumping die hards; with new age Hinduismmarketing managers (hindunet.org); with Islamic preachers (wings, buffalo.edu/sa/muslim/isl/thought); with mainline aberrations (Cafe Nirvana at tricycle.com/cafe) and sidelined objectivists. And if it leads to new relationships, it also leads to rather bizarre disagreements. For instance, there is an organization in America called People for Ethical Treatment for Animals (PETA). It found to its extreme shock one day that somebody else had put up a site on the Internet also called PETA. Only, this PETA stood for People Eating Tasting Animals. It created a mighty row and at the time of going to press, the PETA site existed but it was blank. Presumably, the fight is not yet over. Sociologists have for long complained about the alienation that technology creates. Here's one technology that will put you right back into the arena-and this time, your stomping grounds are as wide as the planet you live on. It's a world without bars-neither of time, space nor language. Most non-English speaking people, Indians in particular, tend to write in their own language using the Roman script. That last barrier is being broken too as language converting software is fast catching on. But if this gives you the impression that the Internet is the answer to life, the universe and everything, well, it is not. Nothing ever is. The Net's day has come-though it is still to set __ the Yamuna on fire--and it will go. The Net will either pass into everyday life as telephones have; or we will find a better method of communicating. But meanwhile, there's a world to look out upon out there and people and ideas to meet. So, log on .. How it all began (The story of the Internet, A Historical Perspective ... ) Some of the best ideas are born in the worst of times. And so it was that the seeds of the internet were sown in the ashes of World War II. On 6 and 9 August, 1945 a horrified world stood by and looked helplessly as the United States dropped its nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. And as the mushroom cloud settled
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down to reveal the devastation below, the world believed this was one holocaust it wouldn't survive. But having dropped the nukes, no one was more terrified of the results than the United States military itself. They had done it to someone else without much thought. Now, they began to wonder: what if someone was to pay them back in the same coin? So, for many years after the war, most of the US military research concentrated on ways and means to survive a nuclear holocaust. And one of the most important strategic problems was: how would US authorities communicate with each other in the aftermath of a nuclear attack? Computers had already arrived. But communication networks of the time were primitive, connected to each other in a sort of a chain; somewhat like an electricity line in your home. This meant that if even one chain in the middle was blown up, the whole network became useless. The American military could hardly afford that. Then in the 1960s-at the height of the Cold War-the problem was taken up by America's foremost military thinktank, the Rand Corporation. After a lot of ideas put up and knocked down, one of the Rand "Thinkers"-a man called Paul Baran-hit upon a new idea. What if, he said, the network was not built like a chain but like a fishnet? If one strand on a fishnet broke, the net would still be functional. Even if numerous strands broke, the net would still . work if it was big enough. The idea was revolutionary and Baran spent many agonizing hours over it till he came up with an 11volume report for the Pentagon. As is the nature of administrations the world over-they shelved it. But by then, younger engineers had caught on to the idea and before the decade was over Baran's Cold War musings had led to the creation of the first net-called the ARPANET - connecting four American research organizations: Stanford Research Institute, the University of Utah and the University of California in Los Angeles as well as Santa Barbara. Years later Kleinrock-a pioneering computer science professor at LCLA University-described in an interview how he
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and his students first logged on to the Stanford computer on the ARPANET. With his graduate students huddled around him, Kleinrock said: "We set up a telephone connection between us and the guys at SRI." "We typed L and we asked on the phone, "Do you see the L?", "Yes we see the L," came the response. We typed 0, and we asked, 'Do you see the O?" "Yes, we sees the 0." "Then we typed the G, and the SYSTEM CRASHED ..." The Growth of the Internet (How tile men and tile technology carried on) In the strict sense of the term, Kleinrock's experiment could be called a failure. But Kelinrock didn't think so. For, he told the Knight Ridder Newspaper: "Yet, a revolution had begun". And begun it had. Things began to happen in fast succession. By this time, the ARPANET was still an essentially defence operation. ARPA stood for--Advanced Research Projects Agency-that president Dwight Eisenhower hastily put up after the Soviets launched their Sputnik in 1957. ARPA set up the United States' first successful satellite in the next 18 months and then took over the job of forming the networking technology. Then somebody decided that a public demonstration was required to get people motivated enough to use this limited version of the Net. So, Bob Khan from BBN was given the job of organizing public demonstration It took one year to set that one up but when it was opened to the public-in the basement of the Washington Hotel-it was a roaring success. This was in 1971. By this time, the ARPANET had grown. It now had 23 universities and government research centers around the United States hooked on to it. But even then, the fundamental idea was very limited: to allow scientists and researchers to share data and access remote computers instead of having to wait for days for the public post office or the local courier service to get them their floppies in paper bags, sometimes in too tattered a condition to be of any use.
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But scientists are human beings too, with an equal-if not greater-desire to chat and so the electronic-mail soon became ARPANET's most-used facility. E-mail was (and still is) a digital post office of sorts. It was an incredible boon. Now, it did not take long hours of letter writing to collaborate on research and share ideas. And soon there were all kinds of mails being passed to and fro between the best minds in the U.5.; what do you think of my research on xyz vaccine? What do you think of my new method of generating power? Even, what do you think of my orchid collection? Now that the net was growing, it inevitably needed controls. So in 1972, the InterNetworking Working Group was set up to govern the net with a man called Vinton Cerf as its first chairman. He was later to be known as the "Father of the Internet". Technology moved fast. The Net was still lengths of cables connected to each other without which communication was still impossible. The Transatlantic cable-a huge cable running under the surface of the Atlantic ocean and connecting the United States to the United Kingdom-had been successfully. As a feat, it was compared to Man's landing on the Moon. Though that may be contentious, it was ideal for connecting computers in the United States to computers in the United Kingdom. The satellite communication era began in the 1980s, when for the first time a satellite was used to link two local networksit was called the CERNET after Vincent Cern. Still, the problem remained, you had to be specifically linked to the Net to be able to access. But by 1989, a man called Tim Bermers-Lee was creating something called the World Wide Web that would help even remote computers and desktops (like the one I'm writing this story on right now) to access the Net. This was the next stage of the revolution. The first Web server and client machines were built by CERN-the European Laboratory for Particle Physics in November, 1990-and the stage was set for that unique gift of our generation : the world at our fingertips. The Net Connection (This is all you need) • The Computer
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Obviously, yO'J first need a computer. Actually, any old computer will do. But the more limited your computer's capabilities, the less you get to see on the Net. Ideally, well not ideally, but for decent access, any 486 computer with about 50 to 60 MB (megabytes) of disk space will do. A colour monitor is not a must. A black-and-white monitor will do, but it will not show you any graphics (and believe me, there are a lot of interesting graphics on the net). If you have multi-media on your computerwell, nothing can be better. (Cost: Rs.30,OOO to Rs. llakh) • The Software Your computer should be able to support and must have a Windows programme (any updated version is okay) it should also have a browser-a programme that helps you browse the Net. There are many browsers available in the market, the best known of which are of course the Netscape Navigator and the Microsoft Internet Explorer. (Cost: depends on whether you're using pirated software or buying it) • Telephone Obviously, you also need a telephone connection. It does not have to have an STD facility. Now Internet access through cable is possible. • Modem It is the modem that transfers data from the telephone/cable to the computer on your table. • The Inclination Last, or shall we say, the first thing you need, of course, is the inclination to spend hours in front of a computer screen to find out what's going on in the world out there.
Netspeak (Don't get scared by the apparent gibberish in which computer nerds speak) If your friend's computer screen shows these abbreviations that make you cringe, here's a short-list of some basic words used on the Net. Once you're through them and on the Net, you don't need any more help. . A typical address on the Net could read like this : http/ /:www.whitehouse.gov/
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• http : Stands for hyper-text transfer protocol. You don't have to know what it means. Just type it whenever you want to access the internet. • www : Stands for World Wide Web. It's the machine that helps you access the Net. Again, don't bother to dig behind it. Just use it. • Whitehouse : If you don't know what the Whitehouse stands for, you shouldn't be reading this article. In any case, this is the place you put the name/address of whoever you want to connect to : Tatas, Penguin, Absolutvodka, etc. • gov : short form for government. It is one of the four widely used affixes. gov: for government. edu : for educational institutions (for example : MIT.EDU) org : for organizations (for example: redcross.org). com: for most other addresses (for example: Tata.com). Please check your progress 1. Make some points of what you may have understood and remember so far, or try to make a note of any point/ s that may have struck you as significant :
2.
Please attempt to answer the following questions : (i) Try to list and analyse technology based modes of communication you presently use in the performance of your job.
(ii) Try to enlist any new information you may have recently acquired for the use of technology in communication, and think about how you could use the same in the future to enhance your skills.
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers Workspace for your thoughts I notes I comments
Interpretation and Application ... I included this section on the use of technology in communication in the module, since I think it is very important in present times to be updated with technological modes of communication, which have advanced over the years into an integral and indispensable part of organizational set-ups. While there is no denying it that despite great progress on the technological front, there is no escape from using traditional ... means-(for example-resorting to the good old postage stamp and the postal system to send loads of mail across); the fact now is that computers definitely facilitate work-administrative, academic, and personal; and once you begin to use them, you cannot do without them. Most beginners suffer from an unwarranted 'learning block', which has to do with either an inhibition with handling "equipment"; or otherwise a lack of inclination to find time to learn and actually use work-friendly technology. What one could easily do is to begin by reading simple texts/material (like the article on the Internet in the unit), and then go on to self-learning manuals with the help of which one can start working on the equipment/ computer hands-on. With regular practise, there is nothing that one cannot achieve. Moreover, to be seen in a thorough professional light and for self-satisfaction too, one needs to become adept at and use
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computer aided presentations-be they printed reports (worked on Word and Excel software), or audio-visual support (Powerpoint software). At meetings, seminars, conferences; these have indeed replaced the Overhead Projector! other aids; and they work out better too in terms of clarity and aesthetics-if handled competently. Not only computers, all other technologically updated office! laboratory equipment should be encouraged for use in organizations. It would be absolutely a worthwhile exercise for you as college principals to initiate, encourage and sustain the use of technology in colleges,-particularly computers-which not only facilitate work; but also, quite literally, open up so many "windows" to the world of knowledge and information.
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Epilogue The entire module was planned and developed based on a 'Role Analysis' and a 'Needs Assessment' of college principals; also keeping in mind that they are adult learners of good stature. Care was thus taken not to dilute information too much, and to present in an interesting manner, the content in question. The learners (college principals) were expected to enhance communication skills necessary to be active and effective managers/ administrators. Thus, all relevant theoretical and practical inputs were included to help learners know, understand, and internalize the significant concepts and parameters of communication in all their nuances. A holistic comprehension of the same would thus help trigger appropriate thought, analysis, and action; when any challenging situation presented itself thus taking one towards cultivating the all important personality attribute of being composed and level headed in application--particularly at work. At the practical level, an attempt was made by the researcher to relate the information, exercises, discussions and illustrations presented-to the communication challenges typically faced by college principal in day-to-day proceeds of their work; thereby helping them recognize their strengths and limitations and refining their "communication practise" as necessary. In the end, really, the college principals job, I think, is not exactly an enviable one. And despite every attempt to cultivate
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and sustain appropriate communication skills and a composure befitti.ng his stature, a college principal can sometimes get bogged down and feel frustrated, since having to deal with adolescent students, office and academic staff, higher authorities, and to top it all inadequate infrastructure-all of it together-could get very very difficult. But to smile despite (inner) turmoil is the final test. And so I break off here, leaving you to try and take this ultimate 'Smiling Test'. •
Just imagine yourself really angry after a rather difficult interaction/ conversation. Now you must try to smile! Of course, you do not at all feel like smiling; and the result is probably a very unhappy grin. However, even a forced smile is a smile. At least you must slightly move the comers of your mouth; and with this ... physical and emotional values interact !
•
Just 'grin' for 20 seconds and your feelings will change surprisingly quickly. You will think that your unsuccessful grin looks rather odd; you will be able to make fun of yourself-and you have already achieved a betterquality smile! Soon you will discover that your mood improves which, in tum, leads to clear thinking. And on this basis and at this point of time, you can try to analyse the situation which made you angry in the first place. Remember to think about the possible motives of the person who made you angry. You will understand the reasons and eventually conclude: 'Really, it's not that bad!' And you will be able to smile happily without having to force it !
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Please Note:If you feel interested in reading up/getting more information on the subject area of Communication/ Organizational Communication/Ed ucational Administration, you could access the following websites: • •
www.UCEA.org (Publications) • www.ERIC.or& • www.communication.or& www.UNESCObkk.or&
•
www.leadership.or&
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Communication Skills for Educational Managers FEEDBACK SCHEDULE FOR (SELF) ANALYSIS OF USEFULNESS I UTILIZATION OF THE MODULE
Respondent Information Principal of
College Date _ __
Q. 1
How would you rate the module in terms of interesting new information provided in the following delineated areas? (Please tick the appropriate response)
Sr. No. a.
Rating of the Module
b.(i)
Very Good Average Disapp- Cannot Good ointing decide
Conceptual understanding of communication Understanding organisational communication
b.(ii) Oral communication b.(iii) Written communication b.(iv) Use of technology in communication c.
The self-assessment exercises Comments, if any on the above criteria/your rating:
Q.2
Sr. No.
How would you rate the usefulness of the module in terms of inputs gained in the various parameters mentioned below? (Please tick the appropriate response) Very Quite Partially Not Cannot Usefulness of the Module in terms of the following useful useful useful useful decide
(i)
Gaining insights into the conceptual understanding of communication
(ii)
Gaining understanding about organizational commlmication
(iii)
Gaining inputs for oral communication
(iv)
Gaining inputs for written communication
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(v)
Gaining information about use of technology for communication
(vi)
Gaining insights through the self assessment exercises included in the module Comments. if any on the above criteria/your rating:
- Q. 3
Please try to recall and share an instance of a "communication experience" which may have occurred after you went through the module-where you felt/realized that your performance had been better than before/ enhanced owing to your exercise in self-learning.
Q. 4
Please try to recall and share an instance which may have occurred after you went through the module-where a colleague/subordinate/ acquaintance may have complimented you on a "communication performance" which you feel/realize had been better than before/ enhanced owing to your exercise in self-learning.
Q.5
Do you have any other comments/suggestions for the module or for this subject area (Communication for Educational Administrators) of study as a whole?
