Conflict and Violence in Pubs and Pubs Design Issues

Conflict and violence in pubs

Conflict and violence in pubs

Conflict and violence in pubs © MCM Research 1990 Published by MCM Research ltd., 27/28 St. Clements, Oxford. OX4 1AB Tel (01865) 204211 FAX (01865) 793137 All rights reserved. No parts of this report may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means without written permission.

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Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1 Principal aims of research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 Research methods . . . 2.1 Sampling . . . . . 2.2 Procedures . . . . 2.3 Treatment of data .

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3 Levels and variations in conflict and violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 Types of incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 5 Factors influencing violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 6 Management style. . . . . . . . . 6.1 Firmness and fairness . . . . 6.2 Involvement and detachment 6.3 Monitoring and surveillance. 6.4 Anger control . . . . . . . . 6.5 Calming strategies. . . . . . 6.6 Face-saving . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Control strategies . . . . . . 6.8 Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 Limitations . . . . . . . . .

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7 House manager turnover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 8 Characteristics of customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 8.1 Social class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 8.2 Age of customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 9 Pool tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 10 Design features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 10.1 Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 10.2 Lay-out and monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 11 Alcohol and violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 12 Frustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 13 Closing time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 14 Selection and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 15 Summary and conclusions . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Improving management standards. . . 15.2 Improving staff skills . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Avoiding design faults. . . . . . . . . 15.4 Reducing frustration. . . . . . . . . . 15.5 Improving liaison and communication

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Conflict and violence in pubs

Acknowledgements We would like to thank the various brewery companies for permission to use material originally obtained in commissioned research. We are particulary grateful to Whitbread Inns, Bass Taverns North and The Portman Group for their encouragement and support in the development of this summary report.

The following were actively involved in the research projects which are summarised here: Research Director:

Dr Peter Marsh

Projects Director:

Kate Fox

Projects Manager:

Francesca Kenny

Senior Researcher:

John Middleton

Researchers:

Pauline Cooke, Jim Crittendon, Clare Fewell, Francesca Kenny, Alex Lowe, Jackie Mogridge, Catherine Searby, Joe McCann, Chris Wilson.

Project Assistants:

Janet Gallagher, Belinda Trenarth

Finally, thanks are due to the three hundred pub managers who spent considerable amounts of time with us, talking frankly about their problems and the ways in which they attempted to overcome them.

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1

Introduction This report contains an overview of research on conflict and violence in 300 public houses throughout England, with particular emphasis on managed, rather than tenanted, houses. Work in this area was originally undertaken between 1977 and 1979 by Dr. Peter Marsh in his capacity of Co--Director of the Contemporary Violence Research Centre in the Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University. This (academic) research was funded by Whitbread but also involved samples of pubs from other brewers. More recent work for various breweries has been conducted by MCM research between 1986 and 1990. A summary of the early research by the CVRC was published by the Whitbread Trust in 1979 as Aspects of violence and aggression in community contexts. As recently as 1988 a Health and Safety Executive publication commented: “The CVRC report is one of the main sources of ideas about prevention [of violence in pubs] so far available in this country” (Poyner,B. and Warne,C. Preventing Violence to Staff). The material from the most recent studies has not been published previously. This is principally due to the fact that the projects were commissioned on a commercial basis and the detailed findings were, and still are, the property of our clients. These companies, however, have now concluded that it is desirable to make the material more widely available since it has implications for the licensed trade generally and for all those with a direct concern for problems of violence and disorder in the community. The data summarised in Section 3 of this report refer to levels and patterns of violence in pubs prior to the introduction of various initiatives aimed at reducing the problems. MCM has, over the past four years, made a number of reccommendations regarding the actions which companies can take effectively to prevent or control disorder in their managed houses. Where these and other measures have been implemented, significant improvements have been observed and measurable reductions in acts of violence, assaults on licensees and rowdy conduct have been achieved. The particular aspects of pub management and policy which are most closely related to such changes are outlined in subsequent sections of this report.

The principal aims of the research are outlined on the next page.

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1.1

Principal aims of research

•

To establish the nature and scale of problems of conflict and violence experienced by house managers

•

To identify the causes of such conflicts and the circumstances in which they typically occur

•

To assess the effectiveness of various management strategies employed to avoid or resolve conflicts

•

To assess the impact of pub design features

•

To identify specific house manager selection and training requirements

•

To assess the need for increased liaison with police and other agencies

•

To examine levels of stress among house managers and to identify means for improving company support

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2

Research methods 2.1

Sampling

In each of three research studies a sample of 100 managed houses was selected by the operating companies. One third of the selected houses were known to have substantial problems of conflict and violence. A similar number were thought to have a potential for violence but were currently operating with considerably fewer problems. A final group was selected at random. In two of the studies samples were used covering pubs in both the North and South of England. The third study involved only pubs in the North. In such samples, of course, the problem pubs were greatly over-represented. The pubs with the higher levels of violence usually represent less than 10% of all managed houses. In this report we have, therefore, corrected the pooled data to take account of this systematic sampling bias. (See below)

2.2

Procedures

In-depth discussions were conducted by trained researchers with the selected managers on their own premises, using approaches developed from ethogenic social psychology. Accounts of problematic incidents were elicited together with managers’ perceptions of causes, appropriate methods of avoidance and resolution and related issues. These discussions were tape- recorded in most cases and transcripts were used to obtain quasi-quantitative data. More direct numerical data relating to the frequency of certain types of conflict were also obtained using traditional formal interview procedures. The material was obtained from managers in a ‘non-attributable’ manner in order to encourage frankness. While it is possible that there may be some biases in the data we are confident that it represents a more accurate picture of conflict and violence in pubs than could be obtained by the operating companies themselves. Notes were made concerning the design and decor of pubs in the samples and observation work was conducted in sub-samples of pubs to examine management styles and patterns of staff-customer interaction.

2.3

Treatment of data

Numerical and quasi-numerical data were transformed to take account of sampling biases. Firstly, the sub-samples of pubs which were ‘randomly’ selected were used to establish a baseline. These sub-samples, however, were established after pubs in the ‘high problem’ category had already been extracted and therefore under-represent the

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the levels of violence which would be found in a representative sample. To balance this, further corrections have been added based on the size of the sub-samples in proportion to number of pubs operated by the companies and on estimates of the size of the ‘problem’ sample in proportion to the total number of ‘problem’ pubs operated by the companies. While these procedures allow room for errors, we are confident that the figures included in this report give a reasonably accurate view of the levels and patterns of violence in managed pubs generally. Because of the way in which these figures have been tabulated and presented graphically, they also identify the extremes found in both the relatively trouble-free pubs and in the tougher, problematic houses.

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3

Levels and variations in conflict and violence Basic quantitative data obtained from managers has been used to compile the tables and figures in this section. In some cases it was evident from the discussions with managers that misleading estimates regarding the frequency of certain types of conflict had been given. Typically, a manager might report at the beginning of the interview that he rarely experienced any violence and then proceed to give several examples of violent incidents which had occurred in the preceding months. In these cases, the basic numerical data have been corrected in the light of the subsequent qualitative descriptions. It was clear from these data that there was considerable variation in the levels of violence experienced in different pubs. For this reason simple means, relating to various categories of conflict and violence, are almost meaningless. Where a small minority of pubs has excessively high levels of violence, averages simply distort the view of violence across the sample as a whole. For this reason we have included indications of the variations in levels of conflict and violence in the figures below. Fig 3.1 shows the percentage of pubs in the sample experiencing arguments between male customers in 6 frequency categories: 0 (never), <4 (less than four per year), 4 (four per year), 12 (monthly), 52 (weekly), >52 (more than weekly). % of pubs 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Fig 3.1. Arguments between male customers

0

<4

4 12 Frequency per year

52

>52

The arguments referred to in Figure 3.1 are those which managers perceive as being troublesome, rather than purely polemical. We can see that 36% of pubs experience such problems on a monthly basis while 24% have arguments such as these every week.

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Figure 3.2 shows the data relating to arguments among female customers and Figure 3.3 is concerned with arguments between customers and managers. The figures for female arguments and arguments with managers are slightly lower than those for arguments between males, although the modal frequencies are the same in each case (monthly).

% of pubs 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

% of pubs 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

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Fig 3.2. Arguments between female customers

0

<4

4 12 Frequency per year

52

>52

Fig 3.3 Arguments between customers and managers

0

<4

4 12 Frequency per year

52

>52

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Figure 3.4 shows the percentage of pubs in the sample experiencing fights between male customers. Here we can see that 31% of pubs have no fights at all and a similar number have only one or two per year. In many cases these fights, although presenting a problem, often amount only to minor scuffles between two or more men. At the other end of the scale, however, we find 6% of pubs which have fights every week and 2% where the frequency of this type of violence is even higher. We will discuss the reasons for these and other variations in Section 4. Figure 3.5 presents corrected data for fights between females in pubs in the samples. % of pubs 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Fig 3.4. Fights between male customers

0

<4

4 12 Frequency per year

52

>52

(The data for male-female fights are very similar and have not been shown in bar chart form.) Here we can see that although the frequencies are much lower, fighting in pubs is by no means a sole preserve of male customers. Other data indicate that females are directly involved in about 16% of all types of violence in pubs. Figure 3.6 shows the variation in frequency of physical attacks on pub managers. Here we can see that the majority of managers do not expect to experience such problems in a given year. In contrast, 5% of managers are assaulted on average every month. As we noted in the Inroduction, however, these rates have been reduced even further in some cases by the introduction of effective selection and training programmes for licensed house managers. Attacks on staff tend to be much lower than those on managers. These are shown graphically in Figure 3.7. From Figure 3.7 we can see that in 70% of managed pubs, staff are not subjected to attacks by customers. However, in a minority of pubs the risks which staff face are

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quite considerable. As we note later, there is an increasing need for staff in these problem pubs to be given adequate training in dealing with aggressive customers. % of pubs 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Fig 3.5 Fights between female customers

0

4 12 Frequency per year

52

>52

52

>52

Fig 3.6 Attacks on managers

% of pubs 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

<4

0

<4

4 12 Frequency per year

The figures relating to vandalism, it has to be said, are probably the least accurate aspects of the data. Unlike fights or attacks on staff, vandalism is not easy to define. Graffiti in the toilets may be seen as an act of barbarism by one manager but pass without comment from another. However, since there is often a relationship between

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the amount of vandalism and the levels of violence in pubs, we have included the data in bar chart form in Figure 3.8. Here we can see that only a small minority of pubs (17%) are free from this problem and that the modal categories are monthly and % of pubs 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Fig 3.7 Attacks on staff

0

<4

% of pubs 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

4 12 Frequency per year

52

>52

Fig 3.8 Vandalism

0

<4

4 12 Frequency per year

52

>52

weekly.

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4

Types of incident Throughout our research we have found that the broad categories of violence considered so far consistently break down into various sub-categories, each accounting for a stable proportion of the total. These proportions are not significantly different between the problem pubs and those that are relatively trouble-free. Only the totals vary. The types of violent acts in which managers are directly involved, and the proportions of total violence acounted for by them, are broadly indicated in Table 4.1. Here we can see that in 75% of incidents the manager plays a central, active role. We are not suggesting that managers cause violent incidents. Rather, it is the case that the majority of violence occurs because the manager is obliged to control the behaviour of his customers. In this sense the manager is in a very invidious position. He knows that if he does not act, violence or law-breaking might result. In taking action, however, he also knows that there is also a risk of ending up in a violent confrontation.

Table 4.1. Proportions of violent incidents in which the manager is directly involved Type of confrontation

% of total violence

Violent confrontation between managers and individual customers

50

Violent confrontation between managers and groups of customers

25 75

Table 4.2 shows the various origins of conflicts between managers and customers. Here we can see that dealing with disorderly customers, many of whom are deemed to be drunk, either individually or in groups, accounts for nearly two thirds of all the violent encounters which a manager experiences. The majority of violence, therefore, arises out of attempts to control the behaviour of customers rather than from inter-customer disputes.

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Table 4.2 Origins of violent acts experienced by pub managers Category

% of all violence

Arising from refusal to serve because of disorderly behaviour etc.

32

Arising from attempts to eject customers for similar reasons

30

Arising from intervention in fights between customers

19

Arising from attempts to prevent theft, damage etc.

10

Revenge attacks on managers

5

Arising from other disputes such as allegations of short change, quality of products etc.

4

Table 4.3 shows various details of violent conflicts between customers and managers and among customers themselves. There are a number of striking features of this table. Firstly, there is a significant proportion of fights which involve the use of weapons. Secondly, there is a not unconnected 30% of incidents in which substantial injuries are sustained. We have good reason to believe that while overall levels of violence in pubs have not increased substantially over the past 5 years, there has been an increase in the use of weapons and in the seriousness of the consequences of violence. This is highlighted by managers themselves and also shows to some degree in our own empirical data. The second point to note from Table 4.3 is the significant proportion of conflicts which arise from the use of pool tables. We deal with this topic in more depth in Section 9.

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Table 4.3 Other characteristics of violent incidents Category

% of all violence

Fights between customers provoked by drunk individuals

32

Confrontations arising from the use of pool tables

20

Fights involving women as participants

18

Confrontations between rival groups

5

Fights involving the use of weapons

22

Fights resulting in substantial injuries

30

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5

Factors influencing violence We have noted in Section 3 that there is considerable variation in levels of violence in managed pubs. In this section we briefly summarise the factors which account for this variation. Table 5.1 lists the major factors, each of which is explored in more detail later in this section, together with estimates of the proportion of variance explained by them. These estimates are based on analysis of the quantitative data but have been rounded to the nearest 5% to avoid false impressions of precision. They do, however, give a clear picture of the areas which must be considered if violence in pubs is to be significantly reduced. While there were small differences between the three sub--samples, the rank order of factors in terms of variance explained was fairly stable. Note that the total variance explained by the individual factors is greater than 100%. This is due to interactions among the factors.

Table 5.1 Factors influencing levels of violence in pubs Factor

% of variance explained

Management skills and style

45

Length of time of manager in post

40

Social class of customers

25

Presence of pool tables

20

Total experience of manager

15

Age of customers

15

Location of pub

15

Design features

15

It is clear from Table 5.1 that characteristics of managers, and their length of experience in a particular pub, account for a large proportion of the variation in levels of violence. For this reason we will focus next on those skills and styles of management which seem to discriminate between the most effective and least effective managers in this context. The other factors, however, are still of considerable importance and require appropriate attention.

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6

Management style We have already noted that managers are personally involved in 75% of all conflict and violence which takes place in their pubs. Variations in the approaches and skills of managers account for 45% of the differences in levels of violence in pubs. For these reasons we have focused quite specifically in the research programmes on those styles and skills which are most characteristic of managers who are able to deal effectively with aggression and violence and which distinguish them from their less successful colleagues. There was a tendency in some areas of the brewing industry to prefer 'tough' managers with a physical presence for the running of potentially violent pubs. A few managers and line managers are of the opinion that violence can only be prevented or countered by similar violence, or the threat of it, on the part of the manager. This view, fortunately, is now much less common. The approach is now seen as being inconsistent with standards of professionalism within the industry. There is a second reason for being sceptical about the 'tough' management style; it does not work very effectively. Those managers who rely purely on authoritarian or intimidatory approaches may appear to be successful in the short term in coping with potentially violent customers. In our experience, however, this strategy is rarely effective for more than six months. Eventually the 'tough' manager meets even tougher customers and the credibility of his management vanishes. The most effective managers in our samples have relied on quite different approaches. Some have been prepared to use force if necessary, but have always seen physical confrontation or restraint as being the last resort. Some extremely effective managers are, in fact, of quite slight stature and freely admit that they could not use 'strong arm' tactics even if they wanted to. Below we list the most salient features which discriminate between effective and ineffective managers in this context.

6.1

Firmness and fairness

Managers who are able to deal effectively with potentially belligerent and aggressive customers emphasise the need for firmness (of an assertive rather than aggressive nature) but also insist that this will only be effective if applied fairly. They also note that a reputation for fairness is not something which can be acquired overnight. It is developed gradually in dealings with customers and is part of the more general process of winning respect. A manager who has such respect from customers is more able to impose his authority when required than one who simply relies on his role and official status as manager.

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While such attributes of effective managers may seem a little intangible, there were clear views on the process of gaining a reputation for fair dealing. Most managers emphasised the social nature of their job -- the need for essential skills in greeting customers, remembering their names, passing time with them in conversation, bidding them goodnight at closing time etc. Most important was the view that such a sociable approach should be applied to all customers without favour or discrimination despite personal preferences or prejudices. Treating all customers with equal respect was seen as essential if their respect was to be gained.

6.2

Involvement and detachment

While the essentially sociable nature of effective management requires a degree of involvement with customers, effective managers stress that this needs to be coupled with an appropriate sense of detachment. Being 'one of the lads', in their view, can lead to distinct problems when a manager needs to act in a more formal role and constrain the behaviour of certain customers.

6.3

Monitoring and surveillance

Very few aggressive incidents arise spontaneously or erupt 'out of thin air'. They have a distinct pattern of development which, if detected at an early stage, can often be curtailed. The diligence of the manager and his staff in detecting these antecedents is, therefore, directly related to the number of aggressive and violent incidents which a pub experiences. It is characteristic of effective managers that they rarely stay in one place in their pub for more than a few minutes. During busy sessions in particular they will be seen engaged in apparently trivial activities such as collecting glasses or emptying ash--trays. In this way they are able to see and to listen to the conversations of various groups of customers without being too obtrusive and without appearing to spy. Early signs of potential trouble can be 'nipped in the bud' with an appropriate intervention such as a humorous remark or a quiet warning. In the best run pubs, staff are also involved in this monitoring process and are able to warn their managers of impending problems. In some pubs, however, the design and lay--out are such that effective monitoring is difficult because of 'blind' areas in which covert activities can take place unobserved. Here additional strategies are required if trouble is to be avoided. We note in Section 10 how some of these design limitations can be overcome.

6.4

Anger control

It is clear from both our own research and from other sources that effective management of aggressive behaviour requires careful regulation of one's own aggressive responses. In any aggressive situation there are two natural reactions --

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flight (running away) and fight (responding with further aggression). Neither of these reactions forms the basis for an effective control strategy. Successful pub managers emphasise the need to stay calm and they use phrases such as 'not adding fuel to the fire'. By taking such an approach they are more able to reduce the anger and emotion in the customer or group of customers with whom they are interacting.

6.5

Calming strategies

In addition to the need for the manager to remain calm when faced with aggression there is an equal need to reduce the level of aggression in the customer before attempting to apply control measures. A highly emotional individual is unlikely to respond to direct instructions or demands. Only when the aggression has been reduced through the use of calming strategies can controls be effectively enforced. This calming process involves both verbal and non--verbal skills and is summarised in Table 6.1. While this process may look quite complicated, the majority of effective managers have an intuitive understanding of the principles which underlie it and employ the procedure routinely. It can also form the basis for effective training of new or relatively inexperienced pub managers.

6.6

Face-saving

A vital aspect of the calming and control process shown in Fig 6.1 is the avoidance of actions which will make a customer lose face in front of other people. A large proportion of pub violence occurs not because a customer has a strong desire to injure another (or the manager) but because he is engaged in self--presentation to his peers. Being seen as 'tough', 'macho' or 'Jack-the-Lad' by peers is a means of winning status and prestige within the young male cultures which dominate many pubs. Because of this it is clear that effective management strategies must allow an element of face--saving and that measures which belittle the status of the aggressor are likely to inflame the situation even further. The most effective managers attempt to deal with aggressive customers on a one-to-one basis, away from their peers. In this way the 'audience' effect is minimised and the prinicipal motivation for the aggressive display is removed.

6.7

Control strategies

Once calming procedures have been employed, the application of control strategies is likely to be much more effective. At this stage there is a need for managers to make clear what they require of the offender. Where ambiguities exist, there is the potential for further conflict. It is important, however, that this final stage of management action is conducted in a way which allows the encounter to be depersonalized. There is a major difference between objecting to a person's behaviour and attacking his or her personal qualities. Effective managers typically use phrases which allow the

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Table 6.1. Effective Aggression Reduction Strategies

1. Remove audience effect 2. Employ calming strategies: a. Language skills:

Allow aggressor to talk and express (release) anger. Use role-appropriate style of language. Avoid hostile phrases and questions. Respond indirectly to hostile questions, accusations etc. Express understanding of reasons for aggressor's emotional state.

b. Non-verbal skills:

Increase distance between self and aggressor. Avoid sustained and potentially threatening eye contact. Adopt relaxed, non-aggressive posture. Move slowly and avoid sudden changes of posture. Maintain calm, relaxed facial expressions. Control vocal signals of anxiety and stress.

3. Employ control strategies: Clearly establish requirements. Depersonalize encounter. Emphasise role requirements. Encourage offender's own decision making. Offer possibilities for face-saving. offender to accept easily the need for control measures to be used -- eg. 'I know that you're not a bad lad, but your behaviour this evening has really been out of order'.

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6.8

Groups

Where a manager is faced with a group of aggressive customers, rather than a single individual, further problems arise. The principles of effective management, however, remain substantially the same. There is, again, a need for calm, non--aggressive responses and a concern for face--saving outcomes. Most managers prefer to approach one member of the group and deal with him individually. The effect on his behaviour is then likely to influence that of his colleagues.

6.9

Limitations

While the strategies outlined above will lead to the peaceful resolution of the majority of conflicts in pubs, it has to be recognised that there will be some situations which a manager will be unable to control effectively. Where serious violence has already broken out, perhaps involving the use of weapons, there may be little that a manager can do to end the fracas. In these fortunately rare incidents there will be a need to take defensive action, ensure the safety of other customers and staff and quickly call the police. Where the risk of such incidents is highest, effective managers ensure that the availability of informal weapons -- heavy ash--trays, bottles, empty glasses etc. is kept to a minimum. Staff are also briefed to keep away from the violence and encourage other customers to do the same.

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7

House manager turnover The amount of conflict and violence experienced in a given pub is directly related to the length of time the manager has been in charge of it. Those managers who have been in post for less than 12 months experience considerably greater problems than those who have been there for longer periods. This effect is due to two main factors. Firstly, when a new manager takes over a pub there is a tendency for those who were previously barred to return and, in many cases, repeat the kinds of behaviour for which they were barred in the first place. Secondly, as we have noted, a manager needs to build up the respect of his customers before he is able to deal effectively with conflicts which occur in his pub. This process takes time and it is often a year before the manager has developed an appropriate reputation. Figure 7.1 shows the difference in the frequency of problematic arguments faced by managers with less than one year in post compared with those who have been in post for longer periods. The more established managers, on average, have only about one third the number of such problems as their more recently appointed colleagues.

N per year 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Fig 7.1. Frequency of arguments by time in post

Less than 12 months in post

12 months or more in post

Figures 7.2 and 7.3 show similar data relating to the frequency of fights among male customers on the premises and physical attacks on managers.

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N per year 14 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Fig 7.2. Frequency of male fights by time in post

Less than 12 months in post

12 months or more in post

From Figs 7.2 and 7.3 we can see that managers in their first year in post have, on average, twice as many fights in their pubs and are nearly three times more likely to be physically assaulted compared with managers who have been in their pubs for longer than a year. N per Fig 7.3. Frequency of attacks on managers by time in post year 14 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Less than 12 months in post

12 months or more in post

These differences in levels of conflict and violence cannot be seen solely in terms of the total experience of the manager. There is a correlation of –0.38 between length of

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service and levels of violence, but this does not account for the size of the effect due to length of time in post. A direct implication of these findings is that levels of management turnover are directly related to levels of conflict and violence. As turnover increases, there will be a higher proportion of managers in their first year in a pub. With turnover rates as high as 50% or 60% in the South East the levels of violence, particularly in terms of fights among customers, are consequently much higher than they would be if such turnover were to be reduced. The problem is less marked in the North of England where manager turnover is much lower -- typically 25%. Even here, however, significant reductions in violence would be expected if managers could be retained in particular pubs for longer periods.

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8

Characteristics of customers 8.1

Social class

As might be expected, very different levels of violence are found in pubs according to the social class of customers for which they cater. As can be seen from Fig 8.1, fights among males and attacks on managers are considerably higher in the working--class pubs than in those which cater for a predominantly middle--class population. Those with a mixed social--class customer profile experience intermediate levels of violence.

N per Fig 8.1. Frequency of conflicts by social class of customers year 14 Predominantly 12 working-class 11 Mixed 10 classes 9 Predominantly 8 middle-class 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Fights among male Attacks on managers customers

8.2

Age of customers

Violence in pubs is most often associated with young males and this is borne out by our research data. Pubs which cater predominantly for the age group 18--30 years experience far larger numbers of fights than do those which are used mainly by older customers. (See Fig 8.2). The levels of attacks on managers, however, are highest in those pubs which also cater for customers who are rather older -- the 'mixed' age category shown in Fig 8.2. This is because the average age of customers who physically attack managers tends to be around 32 years. The frequency of both fights and attacks on managers is lowest in those pubs which attract very few young people at all.

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N per year

Fig 8.2. Frequency of conflicts by age of customers

Predominantly 14 18-30 yrs. 12 11 Mixed ages 10 9 8 Predominantly 7 30-65 yrs 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Fights among male Attacks on managers customers

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9

Pool tables The research data show that pubs which have pool tables installed have significantly higher levels of conflict and violence than do pubs without such facilities. This is shown graphically in Fig 9.1.

N per year

Fig 9.1. Frequency of conflicts in pubs with and without pool tables.

14 12 With pool 11 tables 10 9 Without 8 pool tables 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Fights among male customers

Attacks on managers

There are three main factors which account for this effect. Firstly, pool is played by, and attracts, mainly young men in the 18--25 age category. As we have seen, it is this group which is most often involved in conflict and violence in pubs. Secondly, pool tables provide a source of arguments and disputes concerning turn--taking, the rules of the game and perceived cheating. Finally, the tables provide potential weapons, such as balls and cues, which may lead to the escalation of such disputes. The most effective managers recognise the potential problems which might arise from pool playing and take steps to prevent them. This involves providing a clear means for turn--taking, such as a chalk--board, ensuring that all the equipment is in good repair and carefully monitoring the activities of players and spectators. Such managers also prevent games being played for substantial sums of money.

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10 Design features As we noted in Section 5, various aspects of pub design account for, on average, about 15% of the variation in levels of conflict and violence. These include such elements as ease of surveillance, flow patterns, colour, lighting etc. A fuller analysis of these aspects is contained in a separate report Pub Design, Conflict and Violence, available from MCM research. Here, however, we focus briefly on two basic aspects of design and decor which have been shown to relate directly to levels of conflict and violence.

10.1 Colour There is much in the psychological literature which relates to the use of colour in both domestic and commercial environments. Various colours have been shown to effect mood and behaviour in significantly different ways. Short wavelength colours, such as green and blue, are known to produce restful states while colours with long wavelengths (reds etc.) have the opposite effect. More saliently in this context, reds are also associated with aggressive states and behaviour. This is due to the direct, physiological effects of red which result in increased levels of arousal. There is, however, a major problem in generalising from the results of largely laboratory experimental studies to 'real life' settings. The effects of large areas of saturated red, for example, tend to wear off after a short period of time as subjects habituate to the stimuli. More importantly, other variables, such as the texture of the coloured surface, lighting conditions and the visual complexity of the environment all modify the impact of the colour. Visual complexity refers to the amount of variation present in a given setting. Different patterns and colours; changes in surface texture, reflectivity, and lighting; the level of ornamentation etc. all contribute to this factor. Such variance in complexity affects behaviour in a similar way to variance in colour, with highly complex environments producing effects similar to those of red while visually simple environments evoke the restful states associated with green. In reality it is usually impossible to separate the effects due to colour and those attributable to complexity. Some pubs are highly stimulating but contain little or no red. Others in contrast, while containing large amounts of red, seem almost innervating because of their lack of internal variation. The development of appropriate designs for pubs, therefore, involves achieving a balance between colour and complexity which, on average, is perceived as neither over--stimulating nor psychologically 'flat'. In recent years there has been a tendency on the part of the major brewers to remove the more energetic colours from pubs during refurbishment. Reds, in particular, are

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used with much less frequency. This shift has been based, at least in part, on the assumed associations between such colours and the aggressive behaviour of customers. Our own data show that there is, indeed a small effect on levels of aggression due to the dominant colour of pub interiors, as shown in Fig 10.1. N per Fig 10.1. Frequency of conflicts in 'red' and 'non-red' pubs. year 14 12 Dominantly 11 red colours 10 Dominantl 9 y non-red 8 colours 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Fights among male customers

Attacks on managers

The differences attributable to red, however, may be largely due to the customer profile associated with 'red' pubs. Many of the 'red' pubs in the samples were aimed at a predominantly young market and provided a high level of games and amusement machines, loud music systems and related facilities. It is also the case that the significant differences in levels of conflict between 'red' and 'non--red' pubs are found only in those houses which experience moderate levels of conflict and violence. In the very low and very high frequency bands there are no discernible differences due to colour. The six most violent pubs in the samples had no strong red colours in them at all while red was dominant in three of the least violent pubs. Our conclusions, therefore, are that the effect of red interiors on levels of aggression among customers may have been exaggerated. While it seems sensible to minimise the risk of over--stimulation one should also be concerned with the potentially negative consequences of under--stimulation. Pubs, after all, are places where people expect a degree of psychological arousal. Where such expectations are not met there is a risk of aggression arising directly, or indirectly as a result of frustration. To produce settings which evoke a balanced level of stimulation it is also necessary to consider the interactions between colour and complexity and to be aware of the extent to which customer reactions are influenced by the texture and reflectivity of surfaces within the interior. Highly reflective interiors, in particular, can have distinctly energising effects.

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10.2 Lay-out and monitoring The general interior lay--out of a pub presents the designer with a number of difficulties. Principally, there is a need to balance two conflicting requirements. On the one hand there is a need to ensure ease of surveillance and monitoring of customers by the manager and staff, which is essential for conflict prevention and control. This involves the removal of potential blind spots and leads one towards an open--plan design. (Such designs have the additional benefit of increasing trading space etc.) On the other hand, one must consider the needs and desires of customers who, typically, prefer a sense of enclosure and a degree of social isolation. Where groups of customers are not separated (physically or psychologically) there is also an increased risk of behavioural contagion, where the actions of an individual or group of individualsencourage similar behaviour in others around them. In open--plan or single--bar designs, we find increased frequencies of fights among customers, as shown in Fig 10.2. This, we assume, is due to a lack of appropriate separation leading to the contagion of conflict and aggression within the pubs. While a manager may be able to prevent a number of violent incidents because of the increased ease of monitoring, this advantage is often outweighed by the fact that aggressive behaviour will tend to spread more widely in such settings. There is a need, therefore, to minimise the risks of contagion while retaining the advantages which come from ease of surveillance. This can be achieved by subdividing the open space in such a way that groups of customers are psychologically, if not physically separated from each other. There are many ways of achieving this using, for example, changes in lighting and decor or installing fixed seating and tables to isolate groups etc. More effective separation, however, can be obtained using screens between groups of tables which do not obstruct the manager's view but at the same time provide customers with an illusion of isolation. In our research we have noted the effectiveness of screens which consist of a diamond lattice -- the mesh size being about two inches. It is clearly possible to see through these screens but, to customers who are enclosed by them, they function as solid surfaces. In other words, customers rarely pay attention to the behaviour of customers on the other side of the screens. Thus, if aggressive behaviour is present in one group, it is less likely to spread to others. Such screens and dividers have additional benefits in that they define more clearly the flow routes within a pub. They can be positioned so that customers have easy access to the bar counter but are deterred from moving about close to other tables and groups of people. In this way the potential frustration caused by jostling is reduced.

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N per year

Fig 10.2. Frequency of conflicts in open-plan and 'traditional' designs.

14 12 Open-plan 11 designs 10 'Traditional' 9 designs 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Fights among male customers

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11 Alcohol and violence

The majority of managers in the sample saw alcohol as being related to aggression only in certain circumstances. The effects of alcohol were generally felt to vary with the age of the drinker and with the social context of drinking. Young men, who were not used to consuming large quantities, were more likely to react adversely than mature drinkers. Our own approach is to see the relationship between alcohol and violence as being essentially a social one. There is little evidence to support the idea that drink inevitably causes aggression. Nor is there much evidence to suggest that there are purely chemical reasons for specific psychological changes. Alcohol is essentially a depressant which acts on the central nervous system and slows down its functioning. The psychological experience, however, is often one of stimulation following small doses. Such an effect, however, is rarely directly related to actual behaviour or even mood. The context in which the alcohol is consumed, and the expectations which one has regarding its effects, are of greater significance than the amounts consumed. Something rather more elaborate than the `booze = violence' model is required to explain why violence might arise in a drinking context. Such an explanation (derived from Pernanen) is summarised in Figure 11.1. Although this diagram looks quite complicated, it appears to account for the `real--life' effects of drinking. Note that no direct route between alcohol and violence is shown. The `bottom' route in the diagram takes into account the effect that alcohol has on intellectual functioning. Our ability to think clearly and logically is impaired through intoxication. This, in turn, reduces our ability to employ coping strategies when in situations which are frustrating or aggressive. We are less able to `think through' the situation and what is happening in it. For this reason we are more likely to show aggressive responses. The `top' route takes into account the effects of alcohol on our perceptual abilities. After a few drinks, we are less able to take in everything which is happening around us. We are more likely to focus on one part of the situation at a time. If there is an aggressive incident in the situation we are more likely to pay attention to that and disregard all the non--aggressive activity in the rest of the environment. Our reactions therefore, are more likely to be dictated by these parts of the general activity and thus become more fluctuating and extreme. Among these responses is the increased probability of aggression.

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Fig 11.1

Relationships between alcohol and violence

Fewer cues Perceived in situation

Alcohol Use

Extreme & fluctuating responses

Greater dependence on cues in immediate situation

Abstracting and conceptual ability reduced

Increased probability of violence

Coping mechanisms reduced

The two paths between alcohol and violence interact with each other. Because we can't think so clearly we come to depend much more on cues in the situation to help us understand what is going on. By relying on these cues, we become more responsive to them. If the cues are aggressive, we are more likely to become aggressive ourselves. We include this model here because it has immediate implications for the management of pubs. Because the social context in which drinking takes place largely determines the effects which alcohol will have, it is essential to remove aggressive cues from that environment. A heated argument among a group of people, for example, can trigger aggression in others who have been drinking and witness it. Hostility from managers or staff becomes magnified in the eyes of people who are intoxicated. Levels of frustration can become far more significant. (See Section 12). In contrast, a pub which has a friendly and non--aggressive atmosphere is likely to provide an environment in which alcohol leads to increased sociability and well--being among drinkers. Many acts of violence among serious drinkers can, therefore, be avoided if steps are taken to ensure that their mood is not negatively influenced by perceived aggressive cues.

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12 Frustration An important psychological approach to the understanding of aggression and violence is known as the Frustration–Aggression Hypothesis. This approach, stemming orginally from the work of Dollard et al and modified by Berkowitz and others, has considerable relevance to conflict and violence in pubs. Briefly, the approach assumes that frustration will produce a readiness for aggression which, if triggered by appropriate cues, will result in overt expressions of aggression. Frustration is defined here as 'interference in goal--directed activity'. Thus, if individuals are frustrated in obtaining what they want, or what they might reasonably expect to get, they will respond aggressively to triggers which, in a non--frustrated state, would evoke little reaction. Sources of frustration are evident in many pubs. Slow or inefficient bar service may mean that customers have to wait for considerable periods in order to obtain drinks. Inappropriate flow patterns within the pub may result in jostling and the spilling of drinks. Vending machines may not work properly, resulting in the loss of money or a shortage of cigarettes. Noise levels may be too high and heat and humidity may also rise to uncomfortable levels. In these circumstances, even quite meek individuals can respond aggressively to apparently innocent remarks from staff or the manager which act as triggers. Other sources of frustration can often be observed. Toilet doors which have no locks or a lack of toilet paper are a source of distinct irritation to many customers. Poor--quality or defective furnishings may damage clothing; dirty glasses or sub--standard products may be served to customers who have higher expectations; products may be advertised which are not available. Potential triggers may include not only aspects of management and service style but also authoritarian notices and even objects which are associated with violence. One psychologist has suggested that pictures of rural hunting scenes should not be displayed in pubs because they remind customers of aggressive activities and can, therefore, trigger the frustration. We think that this is overstating the case. We are, however, concerned about the presence of such items as cudgels and other weapons which are used as 'decoration' in some pubs.

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13 Closing time Approximately 45% of all conflict and acts of violence in pubs occurs in just two hours of the week -- between 10.00pm and 11.00pm on Friday and Saturday nights. This pattern is changing slightly with the recently extended licensing hours and some managers report trouble occurring earlier in the evening. Despite such slight differences, however, it is clear that closing time at weekends is a critical period for most managers. From our research it is evident that many problems can be reduced by having clearly developed routines for dealing with the end of these evening sessions. Conflicts can arise when there are ambiguities concerning the point at which the serving of drinks has finished. To avoid this many managers employ simple routines which convey crystal--clear messages to customers. Bar towels are draped over pumps and taps; staff move into the customer areas and are not, therefore, in a position to be asked for further service; the lighting in the pub is changed; sound systems are turned off; further games on the pool table are prevented. Prior to such action, clear announcements of 'last orders' and 'time' have been made, often using a microphone connected to the sound system in the bigger pubs. Some managers subsequently begin to move tables and chairs and instruct staff to clear tables in order to signal the approaching end of drinking--up time. These simple tactics can reduce conflicts at closing time by up to 60%. Managers also recognise, however, that there is a need to 'wind down' much earlier than this, especially if the pub is particularly busy or there is noisy and boisterous behaviour among customers. It is essential, for example, that customers are not allowed to purchase excessive quantities of drink which they will be unable to consume by the end of drinking--up time. Attention must also be paid to the type of music which is played during the last hour. It is during this period that the conduct of staff is also very important. There is an increasing need towards the end of evening sessions for calm and professional service in order that a peaceful atmosphere is maintained. The effects of these strategies are felt not only in the pub but in the surrounding neighbourhood as customers leave the premises. Our research on disorder in town centres clearly indicates that where customers are hastily, and often aggressively, ejected from pubs at weekends, there is an increased probability of subsequent disturbances. We will deal with this subject in more detail in a future report.

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14 Selection and training Because of the central role which managers and their staff play in the prevention and resolution of conflict and violence, attention must be paid to issues of specialist selection and training procedures. A number of breweries have now developed, or are currently developing, new assessment methods and training programmes. MCM research has been closely involved with many of these initiatives and is currently working on further programmes. In all cases our approach has been a pragmatic one and has involved the following stages: 1) identifying those skills and approaches which are most characteristic of effective management. 2) these discriminators are used as the basis for assessment techniques which identify the potential of individual applicants for effective management in this context. 3) the proven effective strategies are embodied in training programmes for both house managers and their staff. Two selection techniques developed by MCM (in conjunction with Whitbread Inns and Bass Taverns) are currently being used within the brewing industry. A structured interview protocol, derived from critical incidents approaches, examines candidates' experiences of conflict and violence and the strategies they have employed to resolve such problems. The second technique is a more sophisticated self--completion procedure which involves responding to ten or twelve conflict scenarios presented in captioned cartoon form. Trials of this procedure have shown exceptionally high levels of discrimination between known effective and known ineffective managers (in terms of their ability to deal with conflict and violence) and it is currently being used as an assessment and prediction tool. The training programmes in which MCM has been involved range from focused workshops for senior and line--management to video--based packages for bar staff. In the courses for house managers and staff the emphasis has, again, been on the communication of effective skills rather than abstract theory. Experienced licensees, with a proven track--record of running difficult pubs, have been used as role models and exemplars of both general approaches and specific techniques in courses developed with Whitbread Inns. The reactions of managers to these training programmes has been extremely positive and there are now data to demonstrate their effectiveness in reducing the frequency of incidents of aggression and violence through skilled defusing and calming techniques. Two of the major programmes in which MCM has been involved have won awards. Training courses for licensed house managers, developed with Whitbread Inns, received an award from the National Training Agency in 1989. The video--based

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package Running The Marathon, developed for The Portman Group, received a CBI award for excellence in 1990. Full details of our selection and training approaches are available in a separate document.

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15 Summary and conclusions It is clear to us, on the basis of substantial research over the years, that problems of violence in pubs have been distorted by overly--sensational media reporting. Newspaper stories of particular incidents in pubs have a tendency to become incorporated into generalised mythologies about drinking and violence. Those who rarely visit them are led to believe that pubs are dangerous places, inhabited almost exclusively by 'lager louts' and similarly visible subjects of current moral panics. The distorted perceptions contribute to a further increase in the problem since those in search of an arena for aggressive displays are drawn to pubs for that purpose in greater numbers. While we wish to correct such false perceptions, we also recognise that there are, indeed, substantial problems of conflict and violence in a minority of pubs. In one sense, this is not surprising. One has only to read contemporary accounts of social life in taverns and ale--houses through the ages to realise the timeless quality of the macho rituals and aggressive behaviour which are still in evidence in some pubs today. It would be Utopian in the extreme to believe that in a society where violence and disorder are everyday facts of life, pubs could be unique oases of passivity and refined civility. There is, then, a level of conflict which, whatever preventative steps are taken, will always be with us. Equally, however, our research has shown that radical reductions in aggression and violence can be achieved. We have noted the wide variations in levels and patterns of conflict and violence which exist and the factors which seem to be most closely associated with those variations. Some of these factors, especially the location and typical clientele of pubs, are hard to change. But even between pubs with very similar customer profiles and locations we find substantial variations in violence which are attributable, in the main, to the manner in which the pubs are managed. The central importance of management style and skills is highlighted unequivocally by our research data.

15.1 Improving management standards The immediate implication is that standards of management need to be raised through the development of further selection and training methods which focus specifically on conflict avoidance and resolution strategies. Such skills are required throughout the trade and particularly in the effective management of that minority of pubs where the potential for violence is uncomfortably high. We have outlined in this report the general skills which are closely associated with the effective avoidance of conflict and aggression and detailed those strategies which are most effective in the management of violent incidents.

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Some of the major companies, of course, have either developed, or are developing, selection and training programmes along these lines. We anticipate that as some of the smaller companies acquire additional houses, following the MMC rulings, they too will feel the need for similar initiatives.

15.2 Improving staff skills When you walk into a largish pub it is not the manager who usually serves you -- it is one of the staff. Many managers rightly see their primary role as a supervisory and social one and therefore leave the pulling of pints to others for most of the time. Effective monitoring of activity in a pub during busy periods is reduced if a manager is constantly serving customers. In addition, the introduction of all--day licensing hours has meant that staff are sometimes left in sole charge of a pub for certain periods. For these reasons there is a need for greater attention to be paid to the interpersonal skills of staff which can significantly effect the behaviour and mood of customers. The Portman Group has already taken a lead in this area with its Running The Marathon training package. Many companies are now using this package and are developing specialist courses around it. Others include some reference to conflict management in their own basic courses for staff. We perceive a need, however, for further developments in this area with greater emphasis being placed on the critical role which staff can play in resolving potentially violent incidents.

15.3 Avoiding design faults While the effects of design on violent behaviour are sometimes over--stated, there is a need to avoid particular aspects of design which are known to be closely linked with aggression. A balance needs to be struck between environments which are overly stimulating and those which are depressingly bland. The use of red colours is appropriate only in designs which are fairly simple and lacking in complexity. The combination of red and high visual complexity, especially when hard, reflective surfaces dominate, has the potential to induce aggression through heightened levels of arousal. Flow patterns within pubs need to be carefully designed in order to minimise jostling and inter--customer friction. The separation of customers within open spaces is essential in order ensure the desired level of perceived privacy and to prevent the spread of conflict and aggression through contagion. Such separation needs to be achieved while still enabling adequate levels of monitoring and surveillance.

15.4 Reducing frustration We have noted the significant role which frustration plays in arousing aggression and violent behaviour. This influence can easily be reduced if managers are alerted to the

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dangers which can arise from seemingly trivial irritations. A single source of frustration may have little effect on its own. When it is compounded, however, with other sources, the consumption of alcohol and abrasive, 'triggering' behaviour by the manager or staff, the effects on customers can be substantial. Because the presence of pool tables is significantly linked to levels of conflict and violence, there is a particular need to avoid sources of frustration in and around the pool area. Equipment which varies in quality, ineffective turn--taking arrangements and jostling by other customers can have very detrimental effects.

15.5 Improving liaison and communication Pub managers can sometimes feel rather isolated when faced with problems of conflict and violence. It is they who must maintain order within their houses and meet the legal obligations which are placed upon them. In times of acute difficulty some managers are reluctant to call for police assistance in case this is taken as a sign of weak management. The police, on their part, are also occasionally less than enthusiastic in their response to calls for assistance. Without close links between pub managers and the police the task of reducing problems in pubs becomes more difficult. In those areas around the country where initiatives have been taken to improve communication between managers and the police, positive benefits have resulted. Pubwatch schemes have also, in some cases, made managers feel less isolated.

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Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues

Copyright ©MCM research Limited 1992 27/28 St. Clements, Oxford. OX4 1AB Te: (01865) 204211 Fax: (01865) 793137

Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues

Contents Section 1

Using this report .............................................................2

Section 2

Introduction ....................................................................3 Summary 2 .....................................................................5

Section 3

Basic concepts ................................................................6 Summary 3 .....................................................................8

Section 4

Expectations and discomfort...........................................9 Summary 4 ...................................................................12

Section 5

Frustration ....................................................................13 Summary 5 ...................................................................14

Section 6

Atmosphere ..................................................................15 Summary 6 ...................................................................16

Section 7

Lighting ........................................................................17 Summary 7 ...................................................................18

Section 8

Colour and complexity .................................................19 Physiological effects.....................................................19 Visual complexity.........................................................19 Summary 8 ...................................................................21

Section 9

Psychological characteristics of colours........................22 Red ...............................................................................22 Pink ..............................................................................23 Orange ..........................................................................23 Yellow ..........................................................................24 Green ............................................................................24 Blue ..............................................................................24 Purple ...........................................................................24 Grey..............................................................................24 Black ............................................................................24 Summary 9 ...................................................................25

Section 10 Interactions ...................................................................26 Summary 10 .................................................................28 Section 11 Lay-out .........................................................................29 Monitoring and open-plan designs................................29 Flow patterns ................................................................30 Pool tables ....................................................................30 Relative heights ............................................................30 Summary 11 .................................................................32 Section 12 Concluding summary....................................................34

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Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues

Using this report

Section 1 Using this report

MCM Research

Any discussion of design and its effects on behaviour must, necessarily, involve the use of some technical terms and concepts. We have attempted to minimise the use of such terms and to give explanations where their use is unavoidable. For some purposes, however, readers may wish to skip the more theoretical treatments and focus solely on the practical implications for pub design. For this purpose we have included non-technical summaries at the end of each section and a final summary at the end of the report. These may also serve as handy references when considering refurbishment of specific houses or where there is a perceived need to alter a pub’s design in order to reduce existing levels of conflict and violence.

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Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues

Introduction

Section 2 Introduction

Problems of conflict, aggression and violence in pubs will not be eradicated through improved design and lay-out. It is unreasonable to suppose that any measures, however drastic, will put an end to the timeless macho rituals, arguments and occasional fights which have been associated with drinking ever since the first taverns and ale-houses opened their doors to thirsty customers. Equally, however, it would be absurd to suggest that the design of a pub has no influence on the mood and behaviour of people who spend time in it. We are all deeply affected by the environments in which we live and work, and also by those in which we spend our leisure. Our research suggests that between 15% and 20% of all aggression and violence in pubs can be directly attributed to factors such as: n

problems of surveillance due to inappropriate lay-out

n

frustration caused by restricted flow patterns

n

overly energetic decor - complexity and colour schemes

n

inappropriate lighting

n

discomfort due to noise, heat, furnishings etc.

In some pubs, the influence of these factors is very much above the average, contributing strongly to levels of conflict and violence. In other pubs, however, design features seem to have little or no effect on the conduct of customers. Even so, the resolution of such faults is likely to result in decreases in conflict across the range of pubs and, more importantly, produce very significant changes in particular houses. It is clear, however, that design effects interact with such factors as management skills and style, service standards, customer profile etc. An experienced and effective manager may be able to overcome potential problems arising from faulty design because of the skills he employs. A less effective manager may not be as sensitive to such issues and, as a result, experience recurring difficulties with aggressive customers. A much more substantial decrease in levels of violence and aggression, therefore, will be achieved if attention to design is coupled with measures aimed at improving manager selection and training and reducing other factors which might contribute to higher levels of aggression. Because design effects interact with other variables, it is clear that there can never be a single ‘formula’ which can be applied to all pubs. In particular, the trading style and customer profile of a given pub will dictate the range of design criteria which should be employed and the psychological issues which are most relevant to consider. The issue is further complicated by the fact that even within a narrow customer profile (defined in terms of age, socio-economic class, lifestyle etc.) there will be considerable differences in individual responses to features in the built environment. People MCM Research

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Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues

Introduction

differ in their tolerance of frustration and in their reactions to noise levels, lighting, colour schemes and overall activity levels. They also vary in terms of their proneness to mood changes and aggressive responses irrespective of immediate situational influences. The complexity of the relationship between design and aggression has prompted, in recent years, a tendency for architects and designers to ‘play safe’. This is particularly noticeable in the use of colour in pub refurbishment schemes. Deep red colours are largely excluded, for sound, psychological reasons, but are often replaced with schemes lacking intensity and saturation of any hues at all. Such ‘solutions’ reduce the potential for over-arousal of customers but introduce the distinct possibility of under-arousal and psychological dissatisfaction in some people. Similarly, the response to problems of surveillance and monitoring of behaviour has often been to remove walls and partitions and create one-bar environments. While such arrangements allow the manager and his staff to detect potentially troublesome behaviours at an early stage, they introduce the risk of behavioural contagion and run counter to the desire of customers for a sense of physical and social enclosure. This report aims to establish a set of basic design criteria for minimising the risks of aggression arising from environmental and situational sources. It considers the risks implicit in certain types of design modification and aims to establish the most appropriate point of balance between often competing requirements and influences. The report also aims to identify the most appropriate ways of tailoring the environment according to the types of activity and clientele for which it caters. The major conclusions are drawn from existing psychological theory and research and from our own fieldwork.

Summary 2

Between 15% and 20% of violence in pubs may be attributable to a range of design factors. The impact of design on violence varies from pub to pub. It might be quite irrelevant in some but of much more significance in others. Design problems might only become apparent after a change of management. Experienced and effective managers can often overcome design problems while for less effective managers these additional problems lead to a lack of coping. There is no single design formula which can be applied to all pubs. While there are certain principles which need to be considered in all cases, the trading style, typical clientele, location and basic physical features of the pub will dictate different treatments. “Playing safe”, in design terms, is not always a satisfactory solution. By removing all the features which have the potential, in some circumstances, to increase aggressive feelings, we may end up with

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Introduction

interiors which are so bland and unappealing that nobody wants to spend any time in them. This report identifies the critical design issues which are relevant to new developments, refurbishment schemes and ‘trouble-shooting’ in pubs which have recurring problems of conflict and violence.

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Basic concepts

Section 3 Basic concepts

For pub design, or any other environmental factor, to have an effect on a person’s psychological state or behaviour, it must first be perceived and interpreted. In other words, a particular meaning must be given to the signals which an individual receives from his or her situation. This process of interpretation is largely unconscious, but we are able to act as social persons only by virtue of our ability to render meaningful the contexts in which we find ourselves. Walk into any pub and immediately you sense an ‘atmosphere’ of the place - the kind of people who use it, the patterns of behaviour and social interaction which you expect to take place inside -even if the pub is empty. Such initial impressions, of course, are not always accurate, but we find it very difficult to be at ease in any environment without at least some basic understanding of where we are and what to expect. This process of interpreting the surroundings is the only way in which the built environment can have any effect at all. It is even a necessary stage when certain features directly effect our physiological reactions. The colour red, for example, is known to increase levels of arousal in people. As we note in the section Colour and complexity in this report, blood pressure rises, respiration rates increase and this, in turn, creates the conditions for changes in psychological states and mood. This increased arousal, however, can have very different effects. In some circumstances it can produce aggressive feelings, while in others it can lead to increased sexual urges (which is why most brothels are decorated in red). The relationship between the environment and behaviour is summarised, rather crudely, in Figure 1. Figure 1.

Signals

à

Perception

à

Physical features of the Recognition and environment, decor, attribution of meaning colour etc. to physical features

Behaviour Responses to meanings attached to physical features

This basic approach warns us against some of the more simplistic assumptions concerning environmental effects. Take, for example, theories which relate to the effects of density and crowding on human behaviour. Some writers suggest that overcrowding leads to increased aggression, hostility, mental disturbance and numerous other negative effects. In some circumstances this, indeed, might be the case. But it depends on how we interpret the overcrowding. If we see it as unavoidable and unwelcome, we will react negatively. In some situations, however, we positively enjoy the sensation of crowding MCM Research

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Basic concepts

such as at a football game or a New Year’s Eve celebration. Even on public transport we are prepared to suspend our claims to personal space without any seriously deleterious effects. Noise levels can similarly be interpreted in different ways. When trying to conduct an intimate conversation, loud music can be intrusive and produce intense irritation. In the context of a disco, however, the same level of sound might be seen as feeble and lacking in excitement.

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Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues

Summary 3

Basic concepts

Be wary of very simplistic ideas about the links between design features and violent behaviour. The relationship is often indirect. Physical features do not, in themselves, cause aggression - it depends on how people perceive and react to them. Some people may get very aggressive in highly stimulating rooms or as a reaction to loud noise levels. Others, however, may feel quite comfortable in such environments. Some people can show aggression if they expect a stimulating environment but find it totally lacking in excitement. All design considerations must take into account the intended or projected customer profile and the various expectations which those customers will have.

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Expectations and discomfort

Section 4 Expectations and discomfort

The significance and meaning attached to any feature in the environment will vary according to the expectations which individuals have about a given situation. For example, consider a particular pub which is known to be very crowded on weekend evenings. Because customers have prior knowledge about the crowding they are more likely to tolerate the lack of space, slow service, smoky atmosphere etc. than if they were in an environment where the problems were not anticipated. Indeed, it is clear that in many city-centre pubs around the country the ‘packed’ effect is what draws other customers in. Problems arise when customers anticipate one kind of atmosphere in a pub but are confronted by something which is quite different. It is here that certain design features become quite important. The messages of the facade of the building are of particular relevance. The outside of a pub conveys certain information. By looking at the outside, we create a mental picture and a set of expectations regarding the interior, service standards, range of products, comfort and management style. Where the facade signals are consistent with what customers experience inside, there should be relatively few problems, even if these experiences are not entirely positive. It is when the facade leads us to expect, say, a comfortable lounge with a range of food and ‘up market’ drinks, but the reality is a loud, basic bar with few amenities, the likelihood of frustrated responses is increased. Similarly, customers in working clothes might enter a pub with a relatively scruffy facade and feel uncomfortable when they find plush upholstery and a ‘yuppie’ style of products and management. Even more serious problems are likely to result when the signals of the facade and the interior have an inherent ambiguity. In these cases there are no clear expectations at all. This can happen when a pub is really neither one thing nor the other. It may have some very smart features, but also some very worn and scruffy ones. From a newly decorated lounge one may visit almost Dickensian lavatories. Antique beams and similar decorative features may be accompanied by loud music systems, video displays and a lack of products most usually associated with ‘olde worlde’ pubs. The need, then, is for a consistent set of signals within a pub and in terms of the relationship between the exterior and the interior. This, in turn, suggests that piecemeal refurbishment schemes, which upset this consistency, may be significantly counter-productive. Indeed, in some cases, it might be best to do nothing at all rather than give a pub a modest facelift. This conclusion derives not merely from our research in pubs around the country but also, indirectly, from some basic psychological

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Expectations and discomfort

research regarding the effects of unanticipated discomfort on human behaviour. Discomfort can be defined in a variety of ways. Psychologists typically consider factors such as heat and noise, but to these can be added quality and availability of furnishings, cigarette smoke levels even toilet facilities. The research shows that as discomfort increases, there is a corresponding change of mood in those who experience it. In a number of cases, these mood changes increase the probability of aggressive responses. These responses may arise indirectly as a result of ‘stimulus overload’, (decline in helpfulness toward others or antipathy to strangers). They can also arise because of triggered frustration (see next section). However they are mediated, the aggressive responses are much more likely to occur if the levels of discomfort are unexpected. A rather surprising effect occurs, however, when levels of discomfort rise above the moderate level and become more extreme. From Figure 2, which shows the theoretical association between discomfort and aggression, we can see that aggression declines as discomfort rises towards a maximum. This can be explained in terms of people feeling powerless to change their environment in highly uncomfortable conditions and simply ‘giving up’ rather than being aggressive. A customer faced with such conditions is more likely to leave than to start a fight. Again, however, it is when the high levels of extreme discomfort are anticipated that this lack of aggression will be manifest. The discomfort, for example, may have built up progressively over the evening and therefore cause little surprise. Alternatively, a pub may already be known to be a highly uncomfortable pub, but attracts customers for other social or personal reasons. Given that moderately uncomfortable conditions appear to cause more problems of aggression than those which are extremely uncomfortable, we again see implications for refurbishment policies. A pub which is in the ‘High’ category poses particular problems for the designer and the company who do not wish to invest too heavily in its refurbishment. The temptation is to apply a relatively cheap ‘face-lift’ involving little more than redecoration and renewal of some furnishings. It is our view, however, that this can often shift a pub from the ‘High’ discomfort to the ‘Moderate’ discomfort category, and an increase in aggression is a possible outcome. Avoidance of aggression is likely to be achieved only by refurbishing to a standard which brings a pub into the ‘Low’ discomfort category.

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Summary 4

Expectations and discomfort

Discomfort can be defined in terms of inadequate or uncomfortable seating, high noise or heat levels, overcrowding etc. The relationship between discomfort and aggression, however, is a little unusual and it depends, to a large extent, on the expectations of customers. If they anticipate discomfort, they are less likely to become aggressive than if the discomfort is unexpected. For this reason it is essential that the outside of the pub gives an accurate picture of what to expect inside. If the facade suggests a comfortable, quiet and up-market setting, but the interior is shabby, noisy and distinctly down-market, customer frustration can be expected. In addition to these considerations, aggression is likely to be experienced not in the most uncomfortable pubs but those which are in the ‘moderately uncomfortable’ category. Great care must be taken in refurbishment schemes to prevent pubs which are currently very uncomfortable becoming just moderately uncomfortable by applying a low-cost face-lift. Such schemes are likely to result in increased conflict and violence. The only safe option in the case of pubs with a very high level of discomfort is to transform them so that they lie at the opposite end of the scale and have very little discomfort. Otherwise it would be best to leave them alone.

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Frustration

Section 5 Frustration

A major theoretical perspective in the psychology of aggression and violence concerns the role played by frustration. Frustration, in this context, is defined as interference in goal-directed activity. In other words, frustration occurs when individuals are prevented from achieving what they want, or what they expect, because certain obstacles are placed in their path. The state of frustration does not, in itself, lead to aggressive responses. Rather, it produces a ‘readiness for aggression’ which, if triggered by some stimulus or event, can result in overtly aggressive behaviour. The triggers of frustration can be seemingly trivial stimuli which, in the absence of frustration, would arouse little or no hostility. Numerous experiments have shown that the mere presence of objects associated with violence, such as weapons, can act as effective triggers. In the context of pub violence and aggression, this approach has considerable relevance. Many sources of frustration can be present in poor service or inappropriate management style. Equally, high levels of frustration can derive from design features and aspects of the pub environment. Lack of seating, jostling caused by poor flow patterns, inappropriate noise and lighting levels, insufficient bar counter space etc. can have cumulative effects on levels of frustration among customers. Potential triggers are equally evident in many pubs. While abrasive management style may be the most common reason for frustration turning into aggression, hostile stimuli in the pub environment may have a similar effect. Aggressive notices, for example, such as ‘Do not ask for credit as a smack in the mouth often offends’, may seem trivial and even amusing. To a highly frustrated customer, they can be like a ‘red rag’ to a bull. Certain features in the design may also act as ‘reminders’ of violence. While we do not subscribe to the view, expressed by one psychologist, that pictures of rural hunting scenes will trigger frustration because of their aggressive content, other ‘decorative’ components might be more influential. The tendency of some publicans to keep cudgels or truncheons on display behind the bar, for example, may be very counter-productive. The use of antique weapons and militaria as decorative features also gives cause for some concern.

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Summary 5

Frustration

Frustration arises when customers are prevented, in one way or another, from achieving what they want or what they expect to obtain. This frustration, if triggered in some way, can , and often does, result in conflict and violence. Up to 45% of aggressive incidents in pubs may be due to frustration. There are many sources of frustration in pubs which are directly linked to design factors - insufficient bar serving areas, resulting in delays and jostling; poor lay-out, resulting in physical contact between customers; inappropriate heat, sound and light levels; poor quality fittings which are easily damaged, resulting in further damage to customers’ clothing, spillage of drinks etc.; fittings in lavatories which are easily vandalised or damaged, resulting in discomfort to customers; inappropriately sited AWPs, cigarette machines, pool tables etc., resulting in irritation to seated customers. Existing sources of frustration can easily be observed if one spends an evening as a customer in a particular pub. The solutions can often be simple and cost-effective. Customer frustration is most often triggered by abrasive management styles. Other triggers, however, can be simple reminders of violence which are present in the decor, such as guns, militaria, wooden clubs etc. Such decor items should be removed wherever possible. Some of the signs and notices which are displayed by licensees can also trigger frustration - especially those which are (jokingly) offensive. All notices in pubs, which convey instructions to customers, should be professionally produced, clear, polite and non-aggressive.

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Atmosphere

Section 6 Atmosphere

The atmosphere of a pub is a very elusive and unquantifiable phenomenon. From personal experience, however, it is clear that we all make assessments of the ‘mood’ or ‘ambience’ of pubs and our attitudes, moods and behaviour within the pub are strongly influenced by such judgements. While it is impossible to design-in a specific atmosphere, it is important to avoid features which might contribute (indirectly) to aggressive moods and behaviour. We have noted in the previous section how abrasive signs and notices can act as triggers of frustration. They can, of course, also contribute to a more generally aggressive atmosphere – one where belligerent and violent behaviour is not out of place. The presence of other aggressive symbols (pictures, objects on display, content of music and video systems etc.) can also doubly act as triggers and as negative influences on ambience. This issue is particularly important because of the psychological effects of alcohol consumption. Drinking produces a number of changes, ranging from disinhibition to impaired cognitive functioning. The behavioural effects, however, (ie. what people actually do when they have had a few drinks) are strongly related to situational factors. Among these are signals from the immediate environment which may or may not be conducive to aggressive behaviour. When the atmosphere is such that there are feelings of aggression ‘in the air’, drinking is likely to be associated with fighting. Where such feelings are absent, the effects of alcohol are more likely to lead to increased sociability and positive social behaviour. Some contributors to the atmosphere are, of course, outside the control of designers. Perhaps the most significant influence comes from the style of management within the pub. Even so, reducing aggressive signals in the design, decor and facilities can have a significant impact on routine patterns of interaction. In addition to ensuring that all signs and notices have a polite, professional quality, there also needs to be a general concern for appropriate lighting, colours, surfaces, and degrees and styles of ornamentation. These are discussed in subsequent sections.

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Summary 6

Atmosphere

While the ‘atmosphere’ of a pub is often difficult to predict or create through design every attempt should be made to exclude potentially hostile or aggressive elements which might negatively influence the atmosphere. This is important because the effects of alcohol depend very much on the general ambience in which it is consumed. The content of music and video in a pub, for example, can easily alter the moods of inebriated customers and should, therefore, be carefully selected. Lighting, colour, reflectivity of surfaces and levels of ornamentation can also contribute directly to overall atmosphere, and hence to the behaviour of customers. These are considered in the following sections.

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Lighting

Section 7 Lighting

Levels and colours of artificial lighting within a pub are central to the creation of an appropriate atmosphere. Quite simply, agreeable moods are more likely to be established when people look good. In some pubs the lighting is such that the faces of customers appear almost ghostly because of the colours of shades and even the bulbs themselves. Bright, dazzling lights present in some pubs create irritation while in other houses we have found lighting levels so low that it is almost impossible to monitor and control the behaviour of customers effectively. Strongly tinted lights near the serving areas can make it very difficult to discriminate between, say old-style 5p and £1 coins, providing a basis for arguments and disputes. To create ‘flattering’ lighting, within the normal range of illumination appropriate to pubs, involves following a simple principle (Kruithof’s) which many designers, unfortunately, seem to ignore. In relatively low levels of illumination, normal skin tones and appearances are created by the addition of light tints ranging from pink to yellow. With higher levels of illumination the same effect is achieved using ‘cooler’ colours such as blue. In all cases, however, the added tints are relatively small and give the effect of ‘normal’ rather than coloured lighting. This principle, in itself, provides the basis for a ‘friendly’ environment. The mood of the interior can be further enhanced by the addition of directional lighting. This creates a degree of variation between light and shade and is important in defining spatial separation within the pub. As we note in the section on lay-out, there is a need to break up large, open areas into smaller units which are more conducive to small-group social interaction. Directional lighting, which creates pools of light interspersed with less brightly illuminated areas, can aid this process very significantly by creating psychological divisions between areas and the people within them. A further important aspect of lighting within a pub is the degree of control which a manager can exercise over it. Effective managers understand the need to ‘wind down’ customers towards the end of evening sessions and to provide clear messages regarding closing time. Manipulation of lighting is often useful in this context. Some managers dim the lights while others increase the brightness. In either case, customers are aware that a change is occurring. In all lighting installations, therefore, it is advisable for sufficient switches and dimmers to be easily available to managers for this purpose.

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Summary 7

Lighting

Lighting in pubs should be designed so that facial colours of customers appear normal and the light generally flatters their appearance. If customers think they look good their mood, and behaviour, should also be good. For this reason strongly tinted lights should be avoided. Where relatively low levels of lighting are appropriate to the setting, light tints ranging from pink to yellow should be used. In settings with relatively high illumination, slightly cooler, blue tints should be used. Lighting around the serving areas should be neutral so that colours of products, coins etc can easily be judged. Extremes of lighting, ranging from dingy to dazzling should be avoided. It is often very useful, however, for a manager to be able to control light levels to cater for varying customers’ needs, the time of the evening etc. A bank of dimmers and switches should be provided for this purpose.

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Colour and complexity

Section 8 Colour and complexity

When we refer to colour we usually emphasise its particular hue - ie. the wavelength of light which is reflected from the coloured surface. Colours, however, differ in two further important ways. Firstly, they vary in terms of their intensity or weight. In paints, this is directly related to the amount of pigment which is contained in the clear base. Secondly, colours vary in terms of their greyness. These sources of variation are defined in the British Standards codes which apply to paints and building materials. Two colour patches may contain the same basic pigment, but look completely different because of differences in the amounts of pigment and grey content. The psychological reactions to the patches will also be quite different. These additional sources of variation in colour lead us to modify our descriptions of them. We speak of ‘deep’ reds and ‘light’ greens, or ‘dull’ browns and ‘bright’ yellows. Such modifications are important when considering the psychological impact of decorative schemes.

Physiological effects

Many of the psychological effects of colour derive, in part, from the neurophysiological changes which they produce. The central nervous system, which consists of the brain and spinal cord, controls all voluntary human behaviour. This system is kept in a state of varying levels of readiness, or arousal, by a part of the brain known as the ascending reticular activating system, or ARAS. External sources of stimulation give rise to increased activity in the ARAS (phasic arousal), and information coming from visual signals plays a significant role in this context. Repeated phasic arousal produces more gradual changes in the activity of higher brain centres in the cortex - the part of the brain responsible for interpretation of incoming information. This is known as tonic arousal and directly results in changes in emotional state. Since the 1940s it has been known that different colours produce different levels of both phasic and tonic arousal. Colours with long wave-lengths (red) create higher levels of arousal than those with short wave-lengths (blue / green). Such changes, however, are usually quite temporary. While exposure to red may, initially, lead to higher levels of arousal, as measured in terms of brain activity, heart rate, respiration etc., after prolonged exposure arousal levels may fall to below normal. This is often due to the lack of complexity in single-colour environments.

Visual complexity

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It is possible to describe built environments in terms of where they lie along a continuum of unity to complexity. At the unity end, we have settings which lack any variety, and are lacking in stimulation. At the complexity end are settings which are extremely ‘busy’ and contain many different elements. These tend to produce high levels of stimulation and create a sense of uncomfortable distraction.

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Colour and complexity

In terms of physiological reactions, the contrast between the complexity and unity poles is similar to that between red and blue/green colours. Highly complex environments increase respiration, blood pressure, heart rate and muscle tension. Environments which significantly lack complexity produce low levels of arousal. This under-stimulation, however, can have deleterious effects on mood and behaviour. While highly complex settings are often experienced as stressful and aggravating, the uniform settings can be equally irritating, make concentration difficult and, in some circumstances, can also generate aggressive responses. Bare, white rooms, for example, can be as unsettling as those which contain large amounts of saturated colours and energetic patterns.

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Summary 8

Colour and complexity

Colour can effect behaviour because it produces small changes in the nervous system. Generally, reds lead to increased activity in the nervous system and result in higher heart-rate and faster breathing. Colours at the opposite end of the spectrum, such as green and blue, have the opposite effect. Generally, green settings are relaxing while those which contain a lot of red are ‘arousing’. In some cases this arousal can lead to aggression. Although we have found higher levels of violence in ‘red’ pubs, the effect is quite small. In addition to colour in a pub it is also necessary to consider what is known as the ‘complexity’ of the interior. Where there is a lot of pattern and variation the effect on customers can be similar to that produced by red colours. When the interior is simple and contains little in the way of patterned walls or ornamentation, the effect is similar to that produced by greens and blues. There is a need in any design to achieve a balance between colour and complexity. Refer to the summary at the end of Section 10 for more detailed design implications.

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Psychological characteristics of colours

Section 9 Psychological characteristics of colours

The points made above should lead us away from the more simplistic assumptions about the relationships between colour and human behaviour which have recently been proposed. Nevertheless, it is possible to outline the major associations which are normally made with various colours and the differing responses to them which have been in identified in psychological research. Where responses or associations vary with the weight or greyness of a particular hue, these are noted. It is important to understand, however, that the findings almost always relate to the effect of isolated colours. Much less is known about the effects of interiors which contain significant amounts of, for example, both red and blue.

Red

Standard reds, with fairly high weights and little grey are usually perceived as stimulating. Further increases in weight produce a sense of excitement. Perhaps because of its association with blood, red has also been associated throughout history with medicine and healing. (eg. Red Cross, red flannels in Ireland etc.) In terms of psychological associations, red has both positive and negative connotations. On the one hand, it is associated with passion, warmth and sexuality. On the other, it conjures up images of aggression, violence and bloody death.

Our research has shown that there is a direct correlation between the dominance of red in pub colour schemes and levels of violence. This is shown in Figure 3. Here we can see that both fights between customers and assaults on managers are higher in pubs with red decor than in those where this colour is largely absent. The interpretation of this relationship, however, is not without problems. The majority of the ‘red’ houses were those catering for a predominantly young clientele - many of them being ‘venue’ or ‘sports’ type units. It is this population of customers who contribute most to problems of violence. It is difficult to tell, therefore, if the presence of red would have a pronounced effect in the absence of that due to customer profile. Other data suggest that the effect of red is most pronounced in pubs which experience ‘medium’ levels of conflict and violence. In pubs which have either very low or very high levels of violence, the effect of colour in the decor is totally insignificant. Where the levels of violence, as indicated by the frequency of fights, are in the ‘monthly’ or ‘weekly’ categories, the effect is much more marked. Pink

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Less saturated forms of red, with low grey content, tend towards pink and evoke very different responses. Here it evokes femininity and fleshiness and is associated with gentle, tender behaviour. Our own research suggests that pink is also seen as a ‘clean’ colour - even more so than pale blue - which is probably why it is most often used 21

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Psychological characteristics of colours

in bathrooms. Some researchers have suggested that pink can have a calming effect, and the reaction of prisoners in pink cells has been claimed to be one of reduced aggression. Such effects, however, may be rather temporary and the colour, on its own, is unlikely to create passivity over sustained periods of time. The use of pink can, however, signal certain expectations of behaviour and, indeed, of expected clientele. Some of this research is based on the work of Wohlfarth and others, which is often referred to as ‘Color-Psychodynamics’. Among their claims is the assertion that a specific type of pink (Baker-Miller pink) can significantly reduce aggressive feelings and behaviour. The research, however, is based almost entirely on small-sample studies in institutions for disturbed or handicapped children in the United States and on research in penal institutions, holding cells, admissions rooms etc. There is, as yet, no evidence that the application of color-psychodynamics to leisure and recreation settings, and to pubs in particular, is at all appropriate. It is also highly probable that the use of the particular shade of pink in question would be deemed questionable on aesthetic grounds. The nearest equivalent colour which is easily available is Dulux 0040-R20B. Orange

The addition of yellow to red produces various shades of orange. Such hues retain the invigorating quality of pure reds but, when less saturated, evoke a sense of cheerfulness. While the hue might often be rejected on aesthetic grounds, its psychological impact is generally more positive than red and has few negative associations. Figure 3. Frequency of conflicts in ‘red’ and ‘non-red’ pubs. N per year 14 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

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Dominantly red colours Dominantly non-red colours

Fights among male customers

Attacks on managers

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Yellow

Psychological characteristics of colours

The general effect of this hue, when in a fairly saturated and pure form, is to produce a cheerful setting. It has been associated with spiritual and religious commitment and communication with others (which is why, presumably, British Telecom have adopted this colour, along with most other communications companies). There is, however, a rather negative side to yellow. Some studies have suggested that it can be associated with suicidal tendencies. (We can note, anecdotally, that Van Gogh went through a very yellow period in his art before killing himself.)

Green

Psychologically, this colour produces low levels of stimulation, leading to peaceful moods. The reason for this is partly to do with the fact that green light focuses exactly on the retina, rather than just in front of it or behind it as with other hues. Many studies have shown that green, even in strongly saturated forms, produces a restful atmosphere. The fact that theatres and TV studios have ‘green rooms’ and surgeons wear green smocks is in keeping with these findings. Because of this, green can be used extensively in pub settings without fear of producing negative effects. However, since green is so restful, and is often used in environments where sustained concentration is required, it may not meet the expectations of customers seeking higher levels of arousal and invigoration. One small drawback of green is that it if used in any quantity, the reflected light makes skin tones appear rather unattractive.

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Blue

Blue shares some of the psychological qualities of green and, in light forms, produces relaxing settings. In dark shades, however, the effect can be rather intimidating and oppressive. For this reason such colours might be avoided in order to create a ‘lighter’ mood in a pub.

Purple

This is a very seldom used colour in domestic environments, except in intimate areas, and is equally rare in public and leisure settings. In large quantities it can disturb one’s ability to focus and may well contribute to feelings of frustration.

Grey

Recent fashion trends have coupled grey with pink to produce a ‘designer’ feel to the decor. While this might influence customer profile, grey has little to commend it in terms of psychological reactions. The general effect of the colour is one of boring neutrality and innervation.

Black

This produces a very odd effect in most environments. It is difficult to perceive the true physical boundaries of rooms which contain a lot of black. In general, the colour evokes a sense of dangerous insecurity and is quite unsuitable for use in pubs.

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Summary 9

Psychological characteristics of colours

The psychological characteristics of various colours have been outlined in this section. Even though colours never act in isolation from other design features, these may be useful when evaluating existing colour schemes or when designing new ones. The section on ‘pink’ also deals with the claims of the so-called Color-Psychodynamic school. Our view is that the effects claimed for a particular shade of pink have been exaggerated and that the background research has been in settings too remote from that of the pub to have direct implications for pub design. Because this entire section has been presented in summary form no further summary is given here.

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Interactions

Section 10 Interactions

From the previous sections it is clear that both colour and visual complexity are instrumental in increasing or decreasing levels of arousal and that levels of arousal are related (at least indirectly) to the probability of aggression. If we now consider the interaction of these two factors we can derive a simple theoretical model which has direct implications for pub design.

Figure 5. shows visual complexity on the horizontal axis and colour wavelength on the vertical. Overlaid on these axes are two vectors which indicate predicted low and high levels of aggression. If we consider the ‘High aggression’ vector, this includes designs in the top right quadrant where both high levels of complexity and long wavelength colours (red) are present. It also includes designs in the bottom left quadrant where a lack of complexity is coupled with short wavelength colours (blue, green etc.). In these cases the low levels of stimulation, as noted before, can have an innervating effect which can produce irritated and aggressive responses. The ‘Low aggression’ vector cuts through the two vectors diametrically opposed to those of the ‘High aggression’ vector. In the top left quadrant we find designs where the arousing effect of red is offset by low complexity. Similarly, in the bottom right quadrant the energising effect of high complexity is tempered by shorter wavelength colours. The circle around the origin of the two axes represents a theoretically neutral region where the effects of colour (mainly browns of various levels of grey and intensity) and visual complexity will be insignificant. This model translates very easily into practical design considerations. There is, however, a further complication. This is to do with the surfaces to which colour is applied and the surfaces from which it is reflected. Designs which include hard finishes such as gloss paints, metallic and glass surfaces etc. will amplify the arousing nature of reds and add to visual complexity through reflections. The effects of complex, red environments, for example, can be mitigated by soft surfaces and a lack of reflection. Simple, blue interiors, in contrast, may be made more stimulating by the presence of hard and reflective surfaces.

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Summary 10

Interactions

As noted in Section 8, it is necessary to consider the issue of colour along with other factors which may increase or decrease levels of arousal among customers. Very high levels of arousal may lead to conflicts and aggression. Very low levels of arousal, however, can lead to a sense of irritation and lack of excitement among customers which may also contribute to aggression. To minimise the potential for violence it is necessary to achieve a balance between three factors: colour, complexity of the decor and Figure 5. Red

High aggression vector Unity

Complexity Neutral region

Low aggression vector Blue the reflectivity of the surfaces within the pub. Red colours in conjunction with high levels of pattern and a predominance of shiny surfaces will generate the highest levels of stimulation. A lack of strong colour accompanied by simple decor and non-reflective surfaces will generate the lowest levels of stimulation. Where the overall scheme lacks much pattern, or complexity, and where soft, non-reflective surfaces dominate, red may be used quite safely. However, where the decor is more complex, or where there are a number of reflective surfaces, red should be used with caution. MCM Research

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Interactions

In such cases it is generally better to opt for colours such as green or blue, which can safely be used in fairly saturated forms, or for more muted shades and colours such as beige.

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Lay-out

Section 11 Lay-out

Attention to pub lay-out is critical if conflict and aggression are to be minimised. Of major concern here is the ability of a manager to supervise all activity in his pub from one, or a limited number, of positions. This, in turn, allows him to employ early-intervention strategies to calm or defuse potentially difficult situations.

Monitoring and open-plan designs

The traditional two- or three-bar designs of English pubs make such surveillance difficult. In order to remedy this problem and, perhaps more directly, to increase trading area, many pubs have been rebuilt in an open-plan design. Most of these have the bar serving are at one end or along one wall, but others feature island serving areas. In many cases, while the problems of surveillance may be at least partly resolved, other negative consequences are evident. These derive principally from the lack of separation between groups of customers. Failure to provide adequate separation within the pub can easily result in behavioural contagion. A small incident or heated argument in one part of the pub can easily be witnessed by those in other areas. In this way both the mood and the behaviours present in the incident can spread to other customers who are not directly involved. The aim, therefore, should be to subdivide the open-plan design in such a way as to achieve psychological separation, even if there is only token physical division. One very effective way of doing this is to divide small groups of tables and/or fixed seating using mesh screens. A typical example would be a wooden diamond lattice with, say, a 2" mesh or slightly smaller and up to 7’ in height. These screens provide customers with a feeling of enclosure. Although it is clearly possible to see through them, they act as psychological barriers and function as if they were opaque. The manager can still monitor behaviour through them but risks of contagion are reduced. More solid partitions may be erected where the manager is able to see directly into the enclosures from behind the bar or from his usual position. Open space can also be psychologically divided using changes of decor, lighting etc. which communicate different expectations regarding the use of such space. One part of the pub, for example, might have brighter colours and lighting, sound system loudspeakers, AWPs etc., indicating its use for younger customers. Another part of the same space might have more subdued colours, lower lighting levels, a lack of loudspeakers and a different style of tables which indicate its use for quieter social interaction and conversation. In this way there is likely to be less friction due to the competing interests of groups and individuals within the pub. Where subdivision of the open space results in ‘blind’ areas, certain remedial steps are possible. Decorative mirrors, as opposed to security devices, are favoured by many managers who learn to make

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Lay-out

use of them very effectively. When built into coherent schemes, these mirrors do not stand out and are generally ignored by customers. Flow patterns

It goes without saying that efforts should be made to minimise jostling and physical contact between customers in the pub. In many popular pubs, however, this is unavoidable. Appropriate siting of toilets, cigarette machines and other amenities can reduce this to a minimum, but there will always be a crush on Friday and Saturday evenings if trading is high. Effective managers compensate for this by removing stools from the bar counter, keeping chairs out of flow areas and generally being alert to potential problems. From a design point of view, separation of the open space can also, again, help to reduce conflict by limiting areas in which jostling can occur. The partitions help to define, for example, the seating areas and deter passage through them. In this way, groups of customers can be isolated from movement in the rest of the pub.

Pool tables

An area which requires special attention in this context is that containing the pool table. In poor designs the table is situated so that players are regularly interrupted by customers passing by. Since 20% of all pub violence arises from pool playing, this is clearly highly undesirable. In the best designs the table is positioned in such a way that there is no need for customers to pass near the table unless they are actually playing. Simply re-siting a cigarette machine can improve matters greatly. When refurbishing and remodelling there is greater scope to establish an area which is easily supervised and which has no flow route passing through it. The area can be further defined using a change in flooring surface, decor and lighting to reinforce its isolation from the rest of activity in the pub. Provision should also be made in the design for the fixing of a chalk board and a notice board. The former can be used to ensure orderly turn-taking on the table, thus preventing one source of disputes. The latter should be used to display the rules of the game - an equally frequent source of arguments.

Relative heights

Many modern designs in pubs feature raised or lowered areas which, in turn, separate and identify the function of the various spaces. While this might have a number of beneficial consequences, there are also some potential drawbacks which should be considered. We have to remember that the majority of pub violence occurs when the offender has an audience. In many cases, a fight will occur because one individual wishes to announce to his peers that he is a ‘tough, macho male’ and can ‘stand up for himself’. Effective managers understand this and try to reduce the ‘audience effect’ when dealing with offenders. Raised platforms, however, can sometimes provide a very useful ‘stage’ for this kind of aggression. One way of avoiding this is to define the raised spaces as being for that section of the clientele which is least likely to cause problems.

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This, in turn, means deterring young males aged 18-25 from using them. One might place ‘attractive’ features such as sound systems, videos, AWPs etc in the lower areas, accompanied by a more energetic decor. Upper areas might be more softly furnished, admit only small groups due to fixed seating and table size and have a more ‘restful’ tone. Whatever solutions are attempted it is imperative that pool tables are not positioned in these raised areas. Other manipulations of relative heights within the pub can involve raising the floor behind the bar counter. We have noted recommendations from elsewhere that the floor should be raised by four inches in order to facilitate supervision. It is claimed that bar staff are more able to see waiting customers and deal with them in their proper turn. While these may be real advantages in some pubs, there are also some serious drawbacks to such designs. Principally, the effect can be to make staff look more intimidating and (metaphorically as well as literally) aloof. This, in turn, is likely to increase the amount of conflict and negative perceptions on the part of customers. Our opinion is that raised floors behind bar counters are rarely advisable except in certain types of wine bar schemes where the ‘staff on a pedestal’ feature is part of the whole ‘up-market’ image of the establishment. The small benefits of raised floors in ‘normal’ pubs, such as raising the visibility of products on in the rear fittings, are easily outweighed by the negative impact on staff-customer interactions.

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Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues

Summary 11

Lay-out

There is an essential conflict in many pub designs between the need of the manager to be able to monitor the behaviour of customers on the one hand and on the other hand the tendency of customers to prefer a sense of isolation from others in the pub and enclosure of their social group. Open-plan designs often meet the needs of the manager in this context but fail to satisfy customers. Such designs also permit the ‘contagion’ of aggressive behaviour. A small incident becomes highly visible in these settings and can significantly influence the mood and subsequent behaviour of other customers elsewhere in the pub. Traditional two- or three-bar designs often meet customers wishes more adequately and also limit the contagion of aggression. They present, however, problems for the manager who is less able to detect aggression developing and, therefore, to take early, preventative action. Optimal designs include the best features of both the traditional designs and open-plan arrangements but minimise the potential drawbacks. Such designs include an open-plan space which is divided in such a way that groups of customers are visually, or psychologically, separated but the manager and staff can monitor the activities of everyone in the pub. The devices used to achieve such separation can include solid partitions where they do not obstruct the manager’s view, or trellis or mesh partitions where ‘blind spots’ would otherwise be created. Changes in levels of illumination or pools of light can also provide illusions of separation and enclosure. The flow of customers within the pub must be anticipated at the design stage. Customers must be able to approach the bar and return to their seats with the minimum physical contact with others, especially those who are seated. Flows to and from lavatories, vending and amusement machines should similarly be unobstructed. By reducing the potential for jostling, spillage of drinks etc. many sources of conflict can be avoided from the outset. Pool tables, if their inclusion in scheme is thought desirable, should be situated in a position away from customer flows. One fifth of all pub violence arises from the use of pool tables and extreme care must be taken to ensure that the manager is able to monitor the behaviour of players effectively. A chalk board, for orderly turn-taking, and a notice board to display the rules of the game should be provided. Strong red colours, striking patterns and hard reflective surfaces should be avoided in the pool area. The game is stimulating enough in itself! Raised areas or platforms in pubs should be designed very carefully because they can provide ‘stages’ for macho behaviour. Pool tables should never be placed on raised areas for this reason. Other features

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which might attract young males, such as AWPs etc, should similarly not be placed in such areas. Raising the level of the floor behind the bar counter, which is often seen as desirable because it increases the ability of staff to see customers who are waiting to be served, may have some drawbacks. The raised height of staff can make them seem more dominating and potentially hostile. We believe that the benefits of raised floors are usually outweighed by the increased potential for staff/customer conflict and recommend that they should not be used except in specialised designs such as wine bars.

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Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues

Concluding summary

Section 12 Concluding summary

It is difficult to translate all the points made regarding the impact of design features on levels of conflict and violence into simple formulae which apply in all cases. The summaries given at the end of the previous sections should be given careful attention. Below, however, we provide an overall summary of the main areas for consideration in the light of customer profile, trading styles, location and physical limitations of pubs. Monitoring and surveillance – Aim to provide unobstructed views of all areas of the pub while retaining visual separation between groups of customers. Frustration – Consider all potential sources of customer frustration which might arise from design changes or refurbishment. Avoid elements which may act as triggers of frustration or adversely affect the atmosphere of the pub. Discomfort – Avoid designs which are in the moderately uncomfortable category. Where a pub has a high degree of discomfort, modest face-lifts are likely to increase problems of aggression and violence. Consistency – Ensure that the exterior and interior of the pub communicate consistent messages to customers. Inconsistencies between exterior and interior, and within the interior itself, can result there being no clear rules regarding acceptable behaviour. Colour – use colours in the interior to create a balance between over-stimulation and soporific blandness, bearing in mind customer profile. Potential dangers associated with the use of red can be reduced by appropriate attention to surface textures and levels of visual complexity. Lighting – Ensure that lighting provides a normal or flattering effect on human appearance. Provide flexible control over lighting levels. Use lighting to create psychological separation in open-plan pubs. Lay-out – Minimise the potential for jostling, and subsequent aggression, by paying attention to projected flow patterns, obstacles and bottle-necks within the pub. Pool tables – Ensure that self-contained but easily supervised areas are provided for these. Keep away from customer flow routes. Relative heights – Be wary of increasing the floor height behind the bar counter. Ensure that raised seating areas are not likely to become ‘stages’ for aggressive behaviour.

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