Continuum Guide to Geographical Education (Continuum guides to the curriculum)

The Continuum Guide to

Geography Education

Also available: Sue Cowley: Starting Teaching Anne Gold: Head of Department: Principles in Practice Don Flimmer et al: The Environment: A Primary Teacher's Guide Patrick Wiegand: Children and Primary Geography Michael Williams (ed.): Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education

The Continuum Guide to

Geography Education GRAHAM BUTT

CONTINUUM London and New York

Continuum Wellington House 125 Strand London WC2R OBB

370 Lexington Avenue New York NY 10017-6503

© 2000 Graham Butt All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. First published 2000 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN

0-8264-4793-7 (hardback) 0-8264-4816-X (paperback)

Designed and typeset by Ben Cracknell Studios Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd, Guildford and King's Lynn

Contents

Introduction

vu

Acknowledgements A-Z

1

List of Headwords B ibliography Index

x

211

203

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Introduction This guide to geography education, while presented alphabetically, is neither strictly a dictionary of defined terms nor an encyclopaedia. Its aim is to provide the reader with a varied collection of references and definitions relating to geography education; the width of the parameters both of geography as a discipline and of education as an activity has meant that its scope is necessarily broad but, unfortunately, not all-encompassing. The purpose of producing a guide of this sort is to enable geography educators, from the primary-school geography co-ordinator to the geography lecturer in higher education, to quickly access information on geography education. The information contained within this book should also help in the professional development of geography teachers as it enables the reader to understand further the process of teaching and learning geography, to access research-based information and to obtain a concise understanding of contemporary issues, terms and problems in geography education. Entries within the guide often proceed beyond the mere definition of words to provide the reader with a fuller contextual or analytical understanding of terms. Indeed, in many cases the 'terms' may themselves be references to the works of geography educators, to contemporary debates in geography education, concepts and philosophical underpinnings, educational legislation, or small biographies of individuals who have influenced the worlds of geography and/or education. Although some of the headwords included within this guide may initially appear to have only a rather indirect link to geography education they have each been selected as terms of which anyone with a broad interest in geography and education should have some appreciation. This book therefore makes reference to the following: • geography educators and their works; • geographical and educational societies and organizations; • geographical and educational journals and publications; THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Introduction

• government legislation, with particular reference to education legislation; • educational reports; • research in geography education; • research in education; • resources, materials and sources in geography education; • key ideas and concepts; • current debates within geography, geography education and education; • philosophy of geography and education; and • statistical terms and concepts often applied in geography and geography education. As to the rationale for those terms included and for those omitted, the geographical references that were chosen for the guide relate primarily to terms found within the 1995 version of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC), the 1999 Consultation Materials on the National Curriculum (which were current at the time of writing) and those regularly included in various geography General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary (A and AS) Level syllabuses. Mindful of the fact that the book was designed to be not a dictionary of geography, but a guide to geography education, restrictions were placed on the number of strictly geographical terms that could be included. While the selection of such terms from primarily English, Welsh and Northern Irish geography curricula and specifications may be felt to be restricting to international audiences, most of the terms are in fact regularly seen in other geography curricula in the Englishspeaking world. References to a number of contemporary geography educators have been included within the text, with a brief biographical note and a mention of some of their work. Making such inclusions in a guide of this size is always problematic (not least because one has to leave out people who may arguably be more influential in their field than some of those included). However, it was felt that it was important to give the reader an appreciation of who these key people are. The criterion for their selection has been reasonably objective, although somewhat arbitrary, in that only those educators who have twelve or more references in the recently published Bibliography of Geographical Education 1970-1997 (Nick Foskett and Bill Marsden (eds)) have been included. This has the advantage of representing a number of geography educators from countries beyond the UK who have written for Englishspeaking readerships. The guide also contains a series of short essays, or, more accurately, brief discussions, on a variety of themes or issues which it was felt would benefit VÍÜ

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Introduction

from a fuller coverage than that provided within a simple definition. The essays are somewhat eclectic, but attempt to provide a reasonable coverage of the major issues, ideas, concepts and debates in contemporary geographical thought, geography education and education generally. Their strict relevance to geography education per se may not at first be apparent. However, it is felt that anyone who has a broad interest in this field should have some cognizance of the issues discussed. It is hoped that the guide will prove useful to a wide range of readers who have an interest both in geography and in education. Students engaged in initial teacher training (ITT) in geography, for example on Postgraduate Certificate of Education (PGCE) courses, may find it valuable, while those who are on education degree courses containing geographical components, at Master's, BPhil, MPhil or PhD level may consider it useful for providing a quick overview of terms and concepts. A small number of references to geography education, associations, societies, legislation and journals in other Englishspeaking countries are also included. Throughout the text, words which are in bold are cross-referenced to headwords within the alphabetical listing. Some entries have a small number of academic references appended in an attempt to give the reader a 'first step' beyond the definition supplied, in order to extend his or her reading on the subject. Graham Butt Birmingham July 1999

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Acknowledgements

I should like to express my sincere thanks to my colleagues Carol Gray and Paul Weeden at the University of Birmingham, and to Patrick Wiegand at the University of Leeds, for their insightful comments on the first draft of this book. Thanks are also due to Brenda Cox for her help in completing the sections of contact details for many of the geographical societies and organizations listed here. While every attempt has been made to contact each of the contemporary geography educators who fall within the criterion for inclusion in this book, I am aware that some omissions may have occurred. Where the fault is on my part I sincerely apologize to those individuals who were not represented at the time of the book's completion.

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A AAAG. See Annals of the Association of American Geographers. AAG. See Association of American Geographers. ability. Describes the capacity to perform given tasks or skills. Children have traditionally been educated according to their age, aptitude and ability. An assessment of academic ability was used, following the 1944 Education Act, to select pupils for different forms of secondary education, a process now largely stopped by the advent of comprehensive schools. In geography the Schools Council curriculum development projects of the 1970s were originally specifically geared towards 'higher'- or 'lower'-ability children (see Bristol Project and Geography for the Young School Leaver). ACCAC. See Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru. access course. Offers an alternative route of entry into university for mature students who do not possess the 'standard' entry qualifications of two Advanced Levels (A Levels), or the vocational equivalent. By successfully completing an access course students may satisfy a university that they have met the standards of entry equivalent to those provided by A Levels. Access courses are usually offered by further education colleges. They typically contain more than one subject discipline, with geography being represented in three areas: humanities and social sciences, teaching, and environmental studies. Some access courses are specifically designed to meet the needs of particular groups within the community who are currently under-represented within higher education. Allchin, A. R. ( 1997) 'Geography teaching on access courses', in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post- / 6 Geography. Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. I 39-45.

accessibility. The ease with which particular features, or areas, within a given space can be reached. Accessibility is partly a factor of physical distance, but must also include considerations of travel time, cost and social factors (such as the extent to which different social groups can access goods, services, etc.). In the field of transport geography accessibility is sometimes assessed through the use of networks. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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action research

action research. Originally sought to improve the research methods adopted to study particular social situations and to either solve societal problems, or improve the quality of action adopted to effect change. The term was first used by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s for a form of research that was then becoming increasingly important within the social sciences. In the field of education, action research is concerned with everyday practical problems that teachers face, rather than the theoretical problems created within a discipline of knowledge. Validity of the research findings rests within their practical solutions to problems, while 'theory' is based on the usefulness of resultant actions, rather than on scientific veracity. In action research, theories are often generated through practice, rather than being created through philosophical reasoning. Importantly the methods employed support the professional development of the practitioners who employ them and (ideally) make the user more competent in understanding and applying research findings. Action research encourages practical problem-solving and can be used within all levels of education. In geography education, action research has mostly provided geography teachers with guidance on ways of teaching that link together theory and practice, with the goal of enhancing classroom practice. Hillcoat (1996) outlines how the approaches used within action research can have a number of outcomes different to those associated with traditional geography research, including: • advancing practical knowledge relevant to a particular situation; • raising consciousness and empowering those involved in the research; • taking into account the needs of all those involved in it; • respecting and utilizing the expertise and skills of those involved; • sharing control by both researcher and participants of the questions which the research is addressing. Carr, W. ( 1989) 'Action research: ten years on. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 21(1), 85-90. Carr, W. and Kemmis, S. ( 1986) Becoming Critical: Education, Knowledge, and Action Research, London: Palmer Elliot, j. (1978) 'What is action research in schools?' Journal of Curriculum Studies, 10(4), 355-7 Elliot,]. ( 1981 ) 'Action research: a framework for self evaluation in schools'. Schools Council Programme 2, Working Paper I. Elliot, J. ( 1991 ) Act/on Research for Educational Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hillcoat, J. ( 1996) 'Action research', in M. Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research, London: Cassell, pp. 150-61. Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (eds) ( 1989) The Action Research Planner. Belmont, Victoria: Deakin University Press. McNiff, j. ( 1988) Act/on Research: Principles and Practice. London: Macmillan. Naish, M. ( 1996) 'Action research for a new professionalism in geography education', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and R Slater (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 321-43.

active learning. Motivates pupils to take an active role in the learning process, rather than being passive recipients of information. It acknowledges that for learning to occur a child must be actively involved in, and partly responsible for, the learning process and recognizes that teachers can not learn 'for the child'. Active learning seeks to promote deeper, rather than superficial, learning, which 2

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Addresses encourages understanding. Geography teachers have been encouraged to engage in active learning techniques to improve the quality and enjoyment of the learning experience. Such approaches also break the traditional pattern of pupils receiving information from the teacher or text, merely to memorize or reproduce it. High levels of interaction between pupils and teachers are often seen as being a positive aspect of the active learning techniques used in geography education (see enquiry, cf. rote learning). Roberts, M. ( 1996) Teaching Styles and Strategies', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish, and R Slater (eds), Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 23 i-59.

addresses. The following is a list of addresses of official organizations and suppliers of educational materials which may be of relevance to those involved in geography education: OFFICIAL ORGANIZATIONS/GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC), Castle Buildings, Womanby Street, Cardiff, CF1 9SX. Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA), Clarendon Dock, 29 Clarendon Road, Belfast, BT1 3BG. Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), Sanctuary Buildings, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, SW1P 3BT. Department for Education, Northern Ireland (DENI), Rathgael House, Balloo Road, Bangor, County Down, BT19 7PR. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED), Alexandra House, 33 Kingsway, London, WC2B 6SE. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), 29 Bolton Street, London, W1Y 7PD. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority: Publications (QCA), PO Box 99, Sudbury, Suffolk, CO 10 6SN. Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum, Gardyne Road, Broughty Ferry, Dundee, DD5 1NY. Scottish Office Education and Industry Department, Victoria Quay, Leith, Edinburgh, EH6 6QQ. Welsh Office Education Department, Government Buildings, Cathays Park, Cardiff, CF1 3NQ. SOURCES OF GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION MATERIALS

ICT British Educational Communications and Technology agency (BECTa), Milburn Hill Road, Science Park, Coventry, CV4 7JJ. PHOTOGRAPHS AND AIR PHOTOGRAPHS Aerofilms Ltd, Gate Studios, Station Road, Borehamwood, Herts, WD6 1EJ. Air Photographs Unit, Ordnance Survey, Romsey Road, Maybush, Southampton, S09 4DH. Air Photographs Unit, Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland, Department of the Environment, 83 Ladas Drive, Belfast, BT6 9FJ. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Addresses

Air Photographs Unit, Scottish Development Department, New St Andrew's House, Edinburgh, EH1 3SZ. Air Photographs Unit, Welsh Office, Crown Offices, Cathays Park, Cardiff, CF1 3NQ. Pictorial Charts Educational Trust, 27 Kirchen Road, London, W13 OUD. SATELLITE IMAGERY The Remote Sensing Centre, Space Dept, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, Hants, GU14 6TD. VIDEOS BBC Educational Publishing, PO Box 234, Wetherby, West Yorks, LS23 7EU. BBC Education Information, White City, 201 Wood Lane, London, W12 7TS. Channel 4, 124 Horseferry Road, London, SW1P 2TX. Granada Television, Granada TV Centre, Quay Street, Manchester, M60 9EA. ITV Association, Knighton House, 56 Mortimer Street, London, WIN 2AN. CENSUS (ENGLAND AND WALES) Census Customer Services, OPCS, Titchfield, Fareham, Hants, PO15 5RR. CENSUS (SCOTLAND) Census Customer Services, GRO (Scotland), Ladywell House, Ladywell Road, Edinburgh, EH 12 7TF. MAPS Experian Goad Limited, 8-12 Salisbury Square, Old Hatfield, Herts, AL9 5BJ. Latitude, PO Box 10146, London, N14 4QR. National Map Centre, 22-4 Caxton Street, London, SW1H OQU. Ordnance Survey, Romsey Road, Maybush, Southampton, SO9 4DH. ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS Centre for Alternative Technology, Llwyngwern, Machynlleth, Powys, Wales, SY6 9AZ. Conservation Trust, National Centre for Environmental Education, George Palmer Site, Northumberland Avenue, Reading, RG2 7PW. Council for Environmental Education, University of Reading, London Road, Reading, RG1 5AQ. Council for the Protection of Rural England, Warwick House, 25-7 Buckingham Palace Road, London, SW1 OPP Countryside Commission, John Dower House, Crescent Place, Cheltenham, GL50 3RA. Forestry Commission, 231 Costorphine Road, Edinburgh, EH1 7AT. Friends of the Earth, 56-8 Alma Street, Luton, LUI 2PH. National Association for Environmental Education, University of Wolverhampton, Gonvay Road, Walsall, WS1 3BD. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Beds, SGI9 2DL. Town and Country Planning Association, 17 Carlton House Terrace, London, SW1Y5AS. 4

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Advanced Level FIELD-STUDY ORGANIZATIONS Field Studies Council, Preston Montford, Montford Bridge, Shrewsbury, SY4 1HW.

CHARITABLE ORGANIZATIONS/DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION ActionAid, Chataway House, Chard, Somerset, TA20 1FA. CAFOD, 2 Romero Close, Stockwell Road, London, SW9 9TY. Centre for Global Education, University of York, Heslington, York, YO1 5DD. Centre for World Development Education, Regent's College, Inner Circle, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4NS. Christian Aid, PO Box 100, 35 Lower Marsh, London, SEI 7RL. Commonwealth Institute, 230 Kensington High Street, London, W8 6NQ. Council for Education in World Citizenship, Seymour Mews House, Seymour Mews, London W1H 9PE. Development Education Centre, Gillett Centre, 998 Bristol Road, Selly Oak, Birmingham, B29 6LE. National Association of Development Education Centres, 6 Endsleigh Street, London, WC1HODX. Oxfam, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford, OX2 7GZ. UNICEF (UK), 55 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, WC2A 3NB. Worldaware, 31-5 Kirby Street, London, EC1N 8TE. Worldwide Fund for Nature (UK), Panda House, Weyside Park, Catteshall Lane, Godalming, Surrey, GU7 1XR.

Advanced Extension Award (AEA). These were announced by the UK government in March 1999 as a series of 'world class tests' at the age of 18. They are designed to challenge the most able 18 year olds, requiring from students a depth of understanding and an ability to think critically at a level higher than Advanced Level (A Level). The standard of the awards are to be benchmarked against similar awards in other countries and as such the International Baccalaureate Organization is involved in the trials. Trialling and piloting of the award is initially taking place in five subjects, including geography, in a sample of centres across England and Wales. Advanced Level (A Level). Examinations providing more able pupils in England, Wales and Northern Ireland with an academic General Certifícate of Education (GCE). They are usually studied as part of a two-year course, after the age of 16. During the 1990s geography remained at around the fifth most popular A Level choice for candidates from within a wide range of possible subjects to study. A Levels have been criticized for apparent over-specialization; however, they still maintain their status as the 'gold standard' qualification for university entrance. Any attempts at instigating fundamental reforms of the qualification have so far been unsuccessful (see Higginson Report 1988, Bearing Review 1996), although the option to teach modular A Level geography specifications proved popular in the 1990s. From September 2000 new A level and Advanced Subsidiary Level (AS Level) specifications in geography were introduced by all examination boards and groups (or awarding bodies). These have reduced the number of specifications for the study of geography at post-16 level, with AS Levels THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Advanced Subsidiary Level

making up the first half of an A Level course to be followed with an A2 course to complete the full A Level qualification. A Levels comprise six equal-sized modules. Opportunities for developing and assessing key skills are identified in the AS and A Level specifications for geography. Advanced Subsidiary Level (AS Level). Examinations which were originally designed to be of Advanced Level (A Level) standard but capable of being completed in just one year, as they contain only half the content of a traditional A Level. Like A Levels, the AS Levels are available in linear or modular form and are accepted as an entry qualification by most higher education institutions. The AS Level qualification was originally introduced in 1984 (as an Advanced Supplementary Level examination), but has subsequently been revised due to its lack of popularity. The original geography AS Level only attracted a few hundred candidates each year, compared to the annual entrance for geography A Level of around 44,500 in the UK in the late 1990s. From September 2000 a new AS Level qualification representing the first half of a full A Level has been introduced. This three-unit examination is aimed to provide greater breadth of choice for post-16 study, clear progression to A Levels and a worthwhile qualification for those choosing not to complete a full A Level. Opportunities for developing and assessing key skills are identified in the AS and A Level specifications for geography. advisory teacher. An experienced classroom teacher who is employed by a local education authority (LEA) to support teaching and curriculum development within a subject. Due to recent financial cutbacks many LE As either have dispensed with advisory teachers in geography, or have appointed geography or history teachers as general humanities advisers. AEA. See Advanced Extension Award. affective learning. Refers to the area of education that deals predominantly with emotions, feelings, beliefs, values and attitudes. It aims to foster the emotional growth and development of pupils and may involve aspects of education not normally linked to cognitive development, such as socialization skills, selfesteem, and acceptable behaviour. The differences between the affective, psychomotor and cognitive domains of children's learning were originally outlined by Bloom and others. During the 1970s geographers became increasingly concerned with the development of affective learning through their subject, particularly with reference to values and attitudes. Bloom, B. ( 1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. London: Longman. Huckle.J. (1985) Values education through geography: a radical critique', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. Brighton: Palmen pp. 187-97. Slater; R ( 1996) Values: towards mapping their locations in a geography education', in A. Kent et al. (eos), Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 200-30.

age. An under-emphasized, but important, aspect of geography which has yet to be fully recognized within specifications and curricula at all levels of geography education. Examples of social stereotypes (such as gender, race and ethnicity) in geography have achieved some prominence in educational writing, while ageism 6

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aims

has produced only a limited literature. Marsden (1995) notes that considerations of age have a significant geographical dimension, including lifestyles in old age; leisure in retirement; residence; access; and a range of social welfare issues. Gant, R. ( 1997) 'Geographical investigations with elderly people1, in M. Naish (éd.), Values in Geography Education. London: University of London Institute of Education, pp. 76-80. Harper, S. and Laws, G. ( 1995) 'Rethinking the geography of ageing'. Progress in Human Geography, 19(2), 199-221. Marsden, W. ( 1988) The age aspect in human rights geography in school'. Teaching Geography, 13(4), 146-8. Marsden, W. ( 1995) Geography I 1-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton.

agglomeration. The clustering of activities or phenomena at certain points, such as within cities, or in a specific area. The advantages of locating various types of activities within such an area are often economic, as people and/or businesses gain from sharing services and utilities with others, and from cutting their transport costs. AGS. See American Geographical Society. AGS. See Australian Geographic Society. AGTA. See Australian Geography Teachers Association. aims. Statements of educational intentions. They are usually of a more general nature than objectives and may be classified as being either intrinsic or instrumental. Intrinsic aims are those which involve children in worthwhile activities which are desirable to develop in their own right for the good of the individual child; while instrumental (extrinsic) aims are more concerned with external factors, such as educating children for the good of the state, society, or church. Marsden (1995, p. 2) refers to aims as indicators of the wider ends towards which schools are working. Aims • serve an orientation function providing, among other things, guidelines for the planning of curricula; • involve making value judgements and, as such, will be influenced by external factors, cultural, social, political and economic, which operate differentially from place to place and from time to time; • represent, therefore, relative and not absolute statements; • remain as statements of aspiration, at a stage removed from making detailed decisions. Marsden, W. ( 1995) Geography 11-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton.

HOW SHOULD WE DETERMINE OUR EDUCATIONAL AIMS? Definitions of education tend to stress that it should be an intrinsically worthwhile activity - but what should the aims of education be, and how should we decide upon these aims? Educational aims are determined to a greater or lesser extent by the society in which the process of education is taking place; they therefore reflect aspects of the values, beliefs, economic and social development, and culture of that society at a given point in time. Most countries have national education systems which are to some extent controlled and financed by the state. Educational aims, as determined by policy advisers working with national governments, affect how these THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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aims

systems are organized, how their curriculum content is selected and taught, and how schools are run. In the English and Welsh education systems there currently exists a National Curriculum which pupils follow from age 5 to 16, with General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) syllabuses dominating the final Key Stage for many pupils. There are also options of taking further academic and vocational courses beyond the age of compulsory schooling at 16. The very existence of a National Curriculum, and the nature of its contents and restrictions, offer a statement of the educational aims of the society in which it exists, or of the government that seeks to organize that society. Interestingly, the aims originally stated for the National Curriculum, which were to prepare pupils for adult life and to promote their spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development, are nowhere in evidence in the specific Subject Orders chosen to promote these aims. This reflected the government of the day's intention to base state education on objectives rather than aims, which it preferred to remain undebated. The revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) attempts to make more explicit the values, aims and purposes of both the school curriculum and National Curriculum. It highlights two broad aims which create the 'essential context within which schools develop their own curriculum' (DfEE 1999, p. 10). These are that the school curriculum should aim to provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve, and that it should aim to promote pupils' spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and prepare all pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of life. In addition four main 'purposes' of the National Curriculum are outlined as being: to establish an entitlement; to establish standards; to promote continuity and coherence, and to promote public understanding. The fact that the National Curriculum in England and Wales is subject-based rather than structured around broader areas of educational experience is in itself significant. Although the National Curriculum has changed considerably since the passing of the 1988 Education Reform Act (ERA), particularly with the removal of some of its compulsory elements following the Dearing Report (1994) and the recent provision for vocational education to start at the age of 14 for many children, its overarching aims for education are still the same. Recent demands by governments for a more 'back to basics' curriculum, numeracy and literacy hours in primary schools, increased information and communications technology (ICT) provision, the widespread application of testing, league tables and the growth of external inspections give us further indications that the aims for education are currently broadly politically determined. At present a largely instrumental and utilitarian curriculum exists - that is, one which specifically prepares children for a useful role in society based upon achieving gainful employment. Within any national educational system a tension is apparent between centrally controlled and legislated educational aims and those devised by individual schools on a local basis. Gaining comparisons of the results achieved by national educational systems in other developed industrialized countries is seen to be important as a measure of continued economic competitiveness - the very fact that these technologically advanced nations seek to compare the mathematical and scientific prowess of their children is also revealing about the aims of their education systems. The lack of comparison on humanistic, literary, creative, imaginative, moral and social indicators of educational development is notable; although it is acknowledged that such comparisons are rarely easy to generate. The dominance of businesses, industries and commerce within an increasingly globalized world is having an impact on what governments in developed countries currently see as the main aim of education. This influences whether these educational aims are predominantly driven by what is 'good for the state', or what is 'good for the individual'. If educationists are unsure about the wisdom of adopting broadly utilitarian and instrumental aims for education, what are the alternatives? What do we want our education system to do; and therefore what should its aims look like? Such a question is intriguingly simple to pose but difficult to answer given the diversity of 8

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aims of geography education what educationists expect education to achieve and the diversity of children involved in the process. Educational aims can be considered with reference to the knowledge, skills and attitudes we expect children to develop. In addition, these aims will also encompass academic, vocational and personal educational goals. A fundamental question is whether different curricula should exist for different pupils according to their perceived needs, previous performance and levels of educational attainment. In essence, should our educational aims foster the excellence of the elite, or the development of all under the auspices of equal opportunities? Of course educational aims should not be constructed merely by the resolution of a series of opposites, but such a process does give some pointers as to what teachers might like to see as the main aim and purpose of educating. At a time when many of our educational aims are determined politically, and are beyond the influence of the individual school, it is perhaps a saving grace that the implementation and interpretation of these aims is left to the professional skill of the teacher. Aldrich, R. and White, J. ( 1998) The National Curriculum Beyond 2000:The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority and the Aims of Education. London: Institute of Education. Peters, R. ( 1966) Ethics and Education. London: Alien and Unwin. Wringe, C. ( 1988) Understanding Educational Aims. London: Unwin Hyman.

aims of geography education. Provide a statement of educational intentions within geography education, more general than those outlined by objectives. A reasonable definition of the overall aims of geography education can be found in the Final Report for geography in the National Curriculum in England and Wales (1990): a. stimulate pupils' interest in their surroundings and in the variety of physical and human conditions on the Earth's surface; b. foster their sense of wonder at the beauty of the world around them; c. help them to develop an informed concern about the quality of the environment and the future of the human habitat; and d. thereby enhance their sense of responsibility for the care of the Earth and its people. More explicitly these aims are addressed through helping the pupils to: a. acquire a framework of knowledge about locations and places that will help them to set local, national and international events within a geographical context, and that will support their development of geographical understanding; b. understand some of the important characteristics of the Earth's major physical systems - its landforms, weather and climate, hydrological and ecological systems and the interaction among those systems; c. understand the significance of location and of distribution patterns in human activities and physical processes; how places are linked by movements of people, materials and information, and by physical, economic, social and political relationships; and the interdependence of people, places and environments throughout the world; d. understand some of the relationships between people and environments, including both (i) the influence of environmental conditions on human activities, and (ii) the varied ways in which societies with different technologies, economic systems and cultural values have perceived, used, altered and created particular environments. e. develop a sense of place: a feeling for the 'personality' of a place and what it might be like to live there; THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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aims of geography education f. acquire knowledge and understanding about the physical and human processes that bring about changes in place, space and environments, and a critical appreciation of the consequences of those changes; g. develop awareness and appreciation of the ethnic, cultural, economic and political diversity of human society, and its geographical expression; h. acquire the knowledge and develop the skills and understanding necessary to identify and investigate important cultural, social and political issues relating to place, space and environment, with sensitivity to the range of attitudes and values associated with such issues; i. acquire techniques and develop skills and competencies necessary for geographical enquiry, and of value for other purposes, especially the making and interpretation of maps, the use of information technology and the conduct of field work; and j. develop intellectual and social skills, including the ability to observe, analyse and communicate.

More-recent explorations of the aims of geography education, while not explicitly in the form of those in the Final Report (1990), give a similar overview of the distinctive contribution of geography to the school curriculum: Geography contributes to the school curriculum by stimulating curiosity about the natural and human world, and introducing pupils to people, places and environments at a range of scales. It provides a link between the sciences and the arts and humanities, and contributes to environmental education and education for sustainable development. Geography develops understanding of physical and human landscapes and introduces pupils to different societies and cultures, enhancing awareness of global interdependence. It also promotes exploration of issues about the environment, development and society, and provides opportunities for pupils to reflect critically on their place in the world and their rights and responsibilities in relation to other people and the environment. Pupils learn the significance of people's values and attitudes in influencing changes to places and environments and, through engaging with a range of geographical issues, have opportunities to develop their own values. Pupils undertake geographical enquiry, in which they address geographical questions, both inside and outside the classroom. They learn to analyse evidence, make decisions and critically evaluate information, ideas and viewpoints. They find out how to apply skills specific to geography, including those of fieldwork and mapwork. They also draw on many different sources and resources including photographs, written and visual materials, and ICT. (QCA (1999) The Review of the National Curriculum in England:The Consultation Materials. London: QCA, p. 144)

In the GNC (DfEE 1999) which was published as a result of the QCA review the aims of geography were broadly stated in an introductory section called The importance of geography' : Geography provokes and answers questions about the natural and human worlds, using different scales of enquiry to view them from different perspectives. It develops knowledge of places and environments throughout the world, an understanding of maps, and a range of investigative and problem-solving skills both inside and outside the classroom. As such it prepares pupils for adult life and employment. Geography is a focus within the curriculum for understanding and resolving issues about the environment and sustainable development. It is also an important link between the natural and social sciences. As pupils study geography, they encounter different societies and cultures. This helps them to realize how nations rely on each other. It can inspire them to think about their own place in the world, their values, and their rights and responsibilities to other people and the environment. (DEE (1999)The Geography National Curriculum. London: HMSO) 10

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anarchism

In addition, the Geographical Association (GA) has created a 'position statement' for geography in the curriculum, sections of which are reproduced below: The purpose of geography. The GA believes that the aims of geography education are: • to develop in young people a knowledge and understanding of the place they live in, of other peoples and places, and of how people and places inter-relate and inter-connect; of the significance of location; of human and physical environments; of people-environment relationships; and of the causes and consequences of change; • to develop the skills needed to carry out geographical study, e.g. geographical enquiry, mapwork and fieldwork; • to stimulate an interest in, and encourage an appreciation of, the world around us; and • to develop an informed concern for the world around us and an ability and willingness to take positive action, both locally and globally.

[This statement also includes later sections on geography's distinctive contribution to the curriculum; geography's wider contribution to the curriculum; and geography in the National Curriculum.] (Geographical Association ( 1999) 'Geography in the curriculum: a position statement from the GA'. Teaching Geography, 24(2), 57-9)

A Level. See Advanced Level. American Geographical Society (AGS). Founded in 1851, like its British equivalent the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) it at first represented widespread commercial and political interest in the exploration and discovery of new lands. In the latter half of the twentieth century the AGS became increasingly involved in sponsoring academic research. Despite periods of financial hardship the Society has continued its tradition of exploration, research and publication. Its membership is generally broader than that of the Association of American Geographers (AAG), and its quarterly Geographical Review (first published in 1910) is a well-respected academic periodical. mail: American Geographical Society (AGS), 120 Wall Street #100, New York, New York 10005-3904, USA tel: 00 I 2124225456 email: [email protected] website: www-personal.umich.edu/~sarhaus/isss/ags.html

anarchism. A doctrine which maintains that the freedom of the individual should be absolute and that governments should be abolished. However, the rejection of order, such as the replacement of law, government and administrative systems by self-sufficient co-operative groups, does not imply their replacement by violent disorder. Anarchist ideas were developed by geographers such as Kropotkin and Reclus at the beginning of the twentieth century and played a role in the formulation of labour movements in Europe and the USA. In contemporary geography education the theme of anarchism has been used to illustrate the nature of hierarchical power within societies and the possibilities of creating radically different forms of social organization. As such anarchism has links to economic, social, political and welfare geography. Cook, I. and Pepper, D. (eds) ( 1989) 'Anarchism and geography.' Contemporary Issues in Geography and Education, 3(2). Kropotkin, R ( 1885) 'What geography ought to be'. The Nineteenth Century, 18,940-56 THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

II

Annals of the Association of American Geographers Reclus ( 1868-9) La Terre. Description des phénomènes de la vie du globe. Paris: Hachette.

Annals of the Association of American Geographers (AAAG). A quarterly journal first published in 1911 by the Association of American Geographers (AAG). It includes scholarly articles on all aspects of geography. annual review. The statutory review period at which a local education authority (LEA) must review a statement of special educational needs (SEN) which has been provided for a child. Antipode. A quarterly journal of geography with a radical perspective, first published in 1969. It was founded to 'ask value questions within geography, question existing institutions concerning their rates and qualities of change and question the individual concerning his [sic] own commitments'. Area. A quarterly journal of geography, first published in 1969. It is one of the journals of the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) with the Institute of British Geographers (IBG) and carries short articles of a scholarly nature for geographers. AS Level. See Advanced Subsidiary Level. assessment. Involves the measurement of the extent of an individual's learning, or an evaluation of their performance or of a particular aspect of their attainment. Any assessment must take into account the validity, reliability and fitness for purpose of the assessment methods used. Assessment should seek to improve the learning of pupils. Its aims and methods should be clear to those undergoing the assessment process. Different types of assessment have sometimes been referred to as 'high stakes' or 'low stakes': the former relating to external, public examinations (such as the General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE), or Advanced Level (A Level)), where the outcome determines future employment or educational pathways and where scores can be collected into league tables; the latter being internal, private and used in determining individual performances of pupils and planning their next educational steps. WHAT IS ASSESSMENT IN GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION FOR? There are a number of equally valid answers to the above question. However, the following may provide a helpful overview: • to enhance pupils' learning; • to measure (or possibly raise) standards; • to check teaching objectives against learning outcomes; • to recognize and plan for pupils' learning needs; • to place pupils against different descriptors of achievement; • to discover what pupils know, understand and can do; • to help plan future learning objectives; • to help pupils to devise personal targets; • to evaluate teacher effectiveness/performance; • to motivate both pupils and teachers. 12

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assessment opportunities

Assessment should always be a factor considered at the start of a process of designing a curriculum. Problems invariably occur when assessment is considered as an afterthought - for example when it is a last-minute consideration about how the curriculum which has been devised (and maybe even already taught) will be assessed and evaluated. Assessment should therefore be integral to curriculum construction and delivery - it is too late to start thinking about how to assess pupils' performance at, say, Key Stage 3 of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) at the end of Year 9. Conversely there are also problems if assessment begins to dominate the curriculum, sometimes referred to as the assessment 'tail' wagging the curriculum 'dog'. This is a problem regularly experienced in General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced Level (A Level) courses where the 'high stakes' assessment at the end of the course dominates the pace and practice of teaching and learning throughout the year. A helpful structure for the way in which assessment should ideally fit into the Geography National Curriculum is given on p. 14. Black, R and Wiliam, D. ( 1998) Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment. London: King's College. Butt, G. ( 1997) 'Student assessment in geography Post-16', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 298-309. Butt, G., Lambert, D. andTelfer, S. ( 1995) Assessment Works: Approaches to Assessment in Geography at Key Stages I, 2 and 3. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Daugherty, R. ( 1995) 'Assessment in geographical education: a review of research', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 242-50. Grimwade, K. ( 1996) 'Practical approaches to assessment, record keeping and reporting', in P Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 203-9. Hopkin, J. ( 1995) 'Developing an assessment policy'. Teaching Geography, 20(4), 192-3. Lambert, D. ( 1996) 'Assessing pupils' attainment and supporting learning', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 260-87. Lambert, D. ( 1997) Teacher assessment in the National Curriculum', in D.Tilbury and M. Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 275-86. Marsden, W ( 1995) Assessment, testing and examinations', in W Marsden, Geography I 1-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton, pp. 99-1 18 Stimpson, R ( 1996) 'Reconceptualizing assessment in geography', in R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Developments and Directions in Geographical Education. Clevedon: Channel View Publications, pp. I 17-28. Tidmarsh, C. and Weeden, R ( 1997) 'Using optional tests and tasks'. Teaching Geography, 22(2), 71-6.

assessment criteria. Statements that describe candidates' educational performance accurately enough for valid and reliable assessment to take place against them. With reference to the Geography National Curriculum (GNC), widespread debate has occurred about how effectively the assessment criteria, known as level descriptions, actually match representative pupil performance at particular ages and stages of their educational development. assessment opportunities. Occasions when evidence of what pupils know, understand and can do can be gathered, either informally or formally, to be used by teachers for assessment purposes. In geography the opportunities for gathering such evidence should be considerable, given the many different ways in which pupils should learn within their geography education, the range of THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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assessment opportunities

PROGRAMMES OF STUDY FOR GEOGRAPHY PLANNING

Monitoring and evaluation

Learning objectives

Learning activities

Assessment opportunities • criteria referenced • formal and informal

TEACHING AND ASSESSING

What the children know, understand and can do

What happens next?

Shared understanding of levels

What do I want to record in terms of significant progress?

MANAGEABLE RECORDING

Ongoing marks and recorded comments

Recording • how often? • what format? • who for?

Portfolio of pupils' work

LEVEL DESCRIPTIONS

Summative Teacher Assessment 'best fit', end-of-KeyStage judgements

Source: Butt, G., Lambert, D. andTelfen S. ( 1995) Assessment Works: Approaches to Assessment in Geography at Key Stages I, 2 and 3. Sheffield: Geographical Association, p. 9.

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attainment

skills they should develop and the various settings (both indoors and outdoors) in which such education takes place. Association of American Geographers (AAG). The major academic society for geographers in the United States. It was founded in 1904 in Philadelphia. During the Second World War many geographers felt excluded from the AAG resulting in a separate group, the American Society for Professional Geographers (ASPG), being formed. This group flourished and was amalgamated with the AAG in 1948, which was then reconstituted into a less exclusive society. The foci of activity for the association are the production of publications and the organization of conferences which occur nationally on an annual basis and have numerous regional outlets. The association therefore serves a similar purpose to the Institute of British Geographers (IBG) in the UK. The major journals of the association are the quarterly Annals of the Association of American Geographers (first published 1911) ana Professional Geographer. A variety of activities are undertaken by the AAG including research projects and attempts to influence geography education and curriculum development at all levels. The best-known example for British geographers is perhaps the High School Geography Project of the 1960s and '70s which had a direct influence on the development of Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL). mail: Association of American Geographers (AAG), 1710 Sixteenth Street, N W, Washington DC, 20009-3198, USA tel: 001 202234 1450 email: [email protected] website: www.aag.org

AT. See attainment target. atlas. A collection of maps or charts bound into a single volume. The specific contents of atlases vary, but most will include topographic, political and thematic maps often at a range of scales from regional to continental. Some atlases also provide satellite images and contain sections which refer to contemporary processes or phenomena which have a spatial expression. Atlas maps are usually accompanied by an index which uses an alphanumeric referencing system to places. In recent years electronic and interactive atlases have grown in popularity. Atlases complement globes in their usefulness - however, even the most detailed globe can only carry a fraction of the information contained within an atlas. Atlases therefore provide more than just a collection of maps, rather a narrative about places. The Geography National Curriculum (GNC) stresses particular atlas reference and lexical skills, as well as the need for pupils to use globes, maps and plans at a range of scales. Wiegand, R ( 1996) 'Learning with atlases and globes', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 125-37.

attainment. An individual's grasp of different skills, information and understanding within a certain, specified area of learning. Attempts at defining attainment targets in geography during the creation of the Geography THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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attainment target

National Curriculum (GNC) encountered problems concerning the nature and extent of geographical content to include at each Key Stage. attainment target (AT). Introduced by the Education Reform Act (1988), attainment targets within a subject are the 'knowledge, skills and understanding which pupils of different abilities and maturities are expected to have by the end of each Key Stage' of the National Curriculum. Each attainment target was originally divided into ten levels, which were reduced to eight following the Dearing Report (1994) with one level for exceptional performance, as defined by the level descriptions. In the Final Report of the GNC (June 1990), seven attainment targets existed; these were reduced to five for the Statutory Orders (March 1991) and finally just one in the 1995 version of the GNC produced following the publication of the Dearing Report (1994). The original division of the attainment targets into numerous statements of attainment (SoAs) was thought overly cumbersome in terms of content and assessment, hence their later removal from all National Curriculum subjects. This enabled assessment to move away from an atomistic 'tickbox' approach to one which was concerned with 'best fit' against level descriptions. attitude. A disposition to behave in a certain way towards a particular person, object or event. Attitudes are often linked to emotional, social and cognitive development and their promotion is believed to be an important consideration in humanities subjects such as geography. Together with an exploration of values, the education of children within geography to achieve a greater appreciation of their own, and other people's, attitudes is considered central to contemporary geography education. Using the International Geographical Union's (IGU) International Charter on Geographical Education, a recent curriculum development project in geography arrived at the following model for incorporating attitudes and values into their materials: Attitudes and Values: Students should develop their • appreciation of the different living conditions of people • concern for the quality and planning of the environment and human habitat for future generations • understanding of the significance of attitudes and values in decision-making • readiness to use geographical knowledge and skills adequately and responsibly in private, professional and public life • respect for the rights of all people to equality • dedication to seeking solutions to local, regional, national and international problems on the basis of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (Butt, G. (ed.) ( 1998) Living and Working in Berlin. Sheffield: GA, p. 2.)

audience. The person, or persons, addressed by a particular piece of writing or speech. In geography education techniques of 'audience centred' teaching and learning have sought to encourage children to use more exploratory and expressive forms of language than those forms which are traditionally demanded in the geography classroom. The theory is that by getting pupils to write for realistic audiences (other than the teacher) the immediacy of the 16

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awarding

teacher's assessment role will be downplayed, encouraging pupils to be more motivated by their work and to use more exciting and exploratory forms of writing in geography. Butt, G. ( 1998) 'Increasing the effectiveness of "audience centred" teaching in geography'. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 7(3), 203-18.

Australian Geographer. A journal first published in 1929 and now appearing twice each year. It carries articles of a philosophical and theoretical nature predominantly on the geography of Australia and its region (including the Western Pacific, Indian Ocean, Asia and Antarctica) for geographers and geography educationists. Australian Geographic. The quarterly geographical journal, established in 1986, of the Australian Geographic Society (AGS). It aims to increase its readers' awareness of the positive aspects of Australian life. Australian Geographic Society (AGS). Originally established to raise funds for research, environmental projects, adventure and community work in Australia. mail: Australian Geographic Society (AGS), PO Box 321 .Terrey Hills, New South Wales 2084, Australia

tel: 00 612 9450 2344

email: aussubeausgeo.com.au website: vwvw.australiangeographic.com.au

Australian Geographical Studies. A journal of the Institute of Australian Geographers first published in 1963. It contains articles particularly about the geography of Australia and its Pacific and Asian neighbours, and on the nature, methods and study of geography. Australian Geography Teachers Association (AGTA). Originally established in 1967 to foster the teaching and learning of geography in Australian schools, to promote and disseminate research in geography education and to provide a professional network for geography teachers in Australia. It has a number of sister organizations affiliated to it throughout Australia and publishes an annual journal titled Geographical Education. mail: Australian Geography Teachers Association (AGTA), PO Box 663, Gawler SA, 5 I I 8 , Australia website: www.agta.asn.au/index.htm

authentification. A process by which a teacher verifies that the work submitted for assessment in an external examination is the candidate's own. This is usually through the candidate signing a pro forma to state that the work is theirs. The pro forma is then countersigned by the teacher. The extensive use of coursework in General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced Level (A Level) examinations in geography, much of it based on candidates' individual field-studies, means that authentification is an aspect of many geography teachers' professional duties. award. Any qualification issued by an examination or validation group (or awarding body). awarding. The process by which a grade is defined for candidates who have taken an examination, most typically a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced or Advanced Subsidiary Level (A or AS Level). THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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awarding bodies

awarding bodies. External examinations such as General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced/Advanced Subsidiary Level (A/AS Level) and General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs) are currently administered by awarding bodies (previously called examination boards and groups). Originally established by universities to provide entrance examinations for degree courses, the boards (which were initially responsible for the arrangements for Ordinary Level (O Level) and A Level exams) and groups (which were responsible for Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) exams) merged around 1986, when the GCSE was introduced. The Secretary of State for Education established four GCSE groups in England which controlled the new examination nationally through the Joint Council for GCSE. The creation of national criteria for GCSE in each subject, monitored by the Joint Council, meant not only greater central control over examination boards but also a clearer standardization of examination practice. Subsequently the Southern Examining Group (SEG) joined the Associated Examining Board (AEB), whilst the Midlands Examining Group (MEG) joined the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). Examination boards and groups have recently experienced another series of amalgamations with equivalent organizations in vocational education following the Bearing Review (1996). This paralleled the joining together of the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) and National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ) into one unified body called the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in 1997. As such the University of London Examinations and Assessment Council (ULEAC) has joined the Business and Technician Education Council (BTEC) to form EdExcel Foundation; and the Northern Examinations and Assessment Board (NEAB) has joined AEB to form the Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA). MEG, the Royal Society of Arts (RSA) and the Oxford and Cambridge Examination and Assessment Council (OCCEAC) have now formed the Oxford, Cambridge and RSA Examinations (OCR). A Welsh Joint Education Committee (WJEC) and a Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA, Northern Ireland) also exist. Each of these organizations offer both vocational and academic qualifications. Fewer, but more powerful, awarding bodies now exist who have changed their titles to reflect their amalgamation with vocational bodies. They are currently reducing the numbers of syllabuses they offer in an attempt to clarify standards and reduce duplication of awards. Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC). The Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales, the equivalent organization to the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in England, and the Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA), in Northern Ireland. mail: ACCAC, Castle Buildings, Womanby Street, Cardiff CFI 9SX tel: 029 20375400 email: [email protected] website: www.acac.org.uk

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B baccalauréat. The examination taken by French children at the end of their secondary schooling at 18 or 19. It is noted for its breadth compared to the Advanced Level (A Level) system of examinations used within the UK. The post-16 International Baccalaureate (IB) consists of six academic subjects - two languages, a science, human science and an option which may include geography. It is accepted as an entry level qualification to degree courses in twenty countries. Convey, A. ( 1997) 'Geography and the International Baccalaureate', in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 105-9. International Baccalaureate Office (1996) Geograph/. Geneva: IBO.

Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.). A degree level qualification introduced following the publication of the Robbins Report (1963), which recommended that teaching should become a graduate entry profession in the UK. Typically B.Eds are three or four years in duration and lead to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) following practical teaching experience in schools. These degrees are available through colleges of higher education and university departments of education (UDE) and contain subject-based and professional/educational studies, as well as practical teaching experience. They are the usual route for gaining QTS before entering into primary teaching. For those primary teachers who do not wish to specialize in the teaching of geography at primary level the input of sessions specifically on geography may be minimal, reflecting the current need to cover all aspects of the National Curriculum and in particular the core subjects. 'back to basics'. A phrase describing attempts to return education to a more basic diet of subjects, with a strong emphasis on reading, writing and arithmetic (the so called 'three Rs'). In recent years politically motivated campaigns have attacked progressive teaching methods and curriculum design, claiming that they are responsible for declining educational standards. Those who believe in taking the school curriculum back to a more basic form usually support the return to an educational system which prioritizes the teaching of literacy, numeracy and possibly ICT/technology. Many geography educators would argue that a 'back to basics' approach to the curriculum creates dangers of squeezing out subjects such as geography and history - a negative step given THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Bailey

that literacy, numeracy and ICT can all be taught very effectively through the medium of geography. Bailey, Patrick (1925-98). A Cambridge graduate who taught in schools and colleges of education before becoming a lecturer, then senior lecturer, in geography education at the University of Leicester from 1968 to 1990. He had a particular interest in fieldwork, at one point becoming the secretary of the Geographical Fieldstudy Group. He was instrumental in the publication of the journal Teaching Geography by the Geographical Association (GA) in 1975, serving as its editor up until 1985, when he became the association's president. During that year he organized and edited A Case for Geography (with Tony Binns), a response to a series of challenging questions for geography delivered to the GA by the then Secretary of State for Education, Sir Keith Joseph. He had previously written an influential text on the Orkney Islands in 1971, and in 1975 had published a methodological text titled Teaching Geography. In 1996 he co-edited the Geography Teacher's Handbook (with Peter Fox) and was awarded honorary membership of the GA in the following year. An honorary fellowship of the Royal Geographical Society was bestowed upon Patrick in 1998, along with similar recognition from geographical associations and societies in Poland, Spain and Portugal. Bale, John (b. 1940). Holds degrees from the University of London and started his teaching career working in secondary modern and grammar schools. He subsequently taught economic geography and geography education at Avery Hill College of Education (now the University of Greenwich), moving in 1979 to the Education Department at the University of Keele. As well as making numerous contributions to the teaching of geography in primary and secondary schools, he has pioneered the geographical study of sports and holds the Chair of Sports Geography at Keele. Professor Bale wrote The Location of Manufacturing Industry in 1976, a second edition of which appeared in 1981 and a Japanese edition in 1995. He has also authored Geography in the Primary School (1987), which has been published as a Spanish edition (1989). In the last decades his research interests have mainly (but not entirely) focused on the geographical study of sports. Among several books in this area are Sports Geography (1989), Sport, Space and the City (1993) and Landscapes of Modern Sport (1994). He has been a visiting professor at the University of Jyvaskyla in Finland and has lectured in North America, Australia and most of the countries of western Europe. banding. The division of a year of pupils into two or three groups of generally equivalent ability. Pupils are then taught within this band for the majority of their subjects (see setting; streaming). baseline assessment. A set of data gathered on children before a period of study, for example before the start of their primary school education. From September 1998 all children in English, Welsh and Northern Irish schools were assessed in language and literacy, maths and personal and social development before they entered compulsory schooling. The aim was for teachers to be able to match their educational programmes to the particular needs of the children they were to teach, to demonstrate measurable progress. 20

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bibliography

Baseline assessments are possible in any subject, although in geography there are currently no plans for wholesale national assessments of this type to take place. BECTa. See British Educational Communications and Technology agency. B.Ed. See Bachelor of Education. behavioural environment. The part of an environment which elicits a particular type of response in the form of behaviour, or towards which a particular type of behaviour occurs (cf. phenomenal environment). Gestalt psychologists believe that individual objects within our environment, when viewed together, create a different response from when they are viewed individually. Perception, and therefore behaviour, is often intuitive and ordered according to the environment one is in. In geography this has been conceptualized as the existence of behavioural environments - where people behave and make decisions as a response to the patterns of objects they perceive, and the values of these patterns within their culture. The process is 'two way' in that people's behaviour is partly determined by their environment, and the environment is changed as a result of the behaviour and action of people within it. The cultural influence on perception, and therefore action towards or within one's environment, is important. Also a person's rationality, purpose, reasoning and consciousness are significant in influencing their behaviour. Kirk, W. ( 1951 ) 'Historical geography and the concept of the behavioural environment'. Indian Geographical Journal, 25, 152-60.

behavioural geography. Emphasizes the human processes and behaviours which exist within an environment, particularly those relating to the development of perception, attitudes and environmental learning. It seeks to generalize from human experiences rather than looking at unique events, and has focused upon themes such as decisions to migrate, consumer choices in environment, and choice of transport mode. bias. A predisposition for, or against, something or someone. In essence it is a prejudicial distortion from reality. Within geography education a number of articles have been written about perceived bias in teaching materials, most notably within textbooks, and on the image that children have of peoples from other countries. Hicks, D. ( 1979) Bias in Geography Textbooks: Images of the Third World and Multiethnic Britain (Working Paper I). London: University of London Institute of Education. Kent, A. (ed.) ( 1982) Bias in Geographical Education. Sheffield: Geographical Association.

bibliography. A list of books referred to in a scholarly work, or by a specific author, or on a specific subject. Two major bibliographies of geography education in the UK currently exist. The first, produced in 1972 by Clare Lukehurst and Norman Graves, is titled Geography in Education: A Bibliography of British Sources 1870-1970. This was updated in 1998 by A Bibliography of Geographical Education 1970-1997 under the editorship of Nick Foskett and Bill Marsden. Both arose through a collaboration between the Geographical Association (GA) and the International Geographical Union (IGU) Commission on Geographical Education. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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biogeography

These bibliographies are geared to the needs of British researchers, teachers and students in geography education, although the later version does extend to materials produced in the English-speaking world, predominantly Australia and the United States. Foskett, N. and Marsden, B. (eds) ( 1998) A Bibliography of Geographical Education 1970-1997. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Lukehurst, C.I and Graves, N. (eds) ( 1972) Geography in Education: A Bibliography of British Sources 1870-1970. Sheffield: Geographical Association.

biogeography. The study of the geographical distribution of flora and fauna. biome. A large area inhabited by particular flora and fauna which have adapted to the natural environmental conditions in which they live. Black Papers. A series of publications in the UK which took their name from one of their key writers, Professor Paul Black. These papers, the first of which was published in March 1969, criticized modern teaching methods, the growth of comprehensive education and a perceived decline in educational standards in British schools. The papers were written by various right-wing academics, politicians and teachers. Although the Black Papers cannot be said to have had a direct influence on geography education, their opposition to progressive educational methods in the 1970s coincided with a period when geography curriculum development projects were taking the teaching of the subject in a new direction. Cox, C. and Boyson, R. (eds) ( 1975) Black Paper 1975: The Fight for Education. London: Dent. Cox, C. and Boyson, R. (eds) ( 1977) Black Paper 1977. London: Maurice Temple Smith. Cox, C. and Dyson, A. (eds) ( 1969) Fight for Education: A Black Paper. London: Critical Quarterly Society. Cox, C. and Dyson, A. (eds) ( 1969) Black Poper Two: The Crisis in Education. London: Critical Quarterly Society. Cox, C. and Dyson, A. (eds) ( 1970) Black Paper Three: Goodbye Mr Short. London: Critical Quarterly Society.

Bloom, Benjamin. The creator of a taxonomy of educational objectives, classified into a hierarchy, where the later categories subsume the ones that have gone before. Such taxonomies can be applied to see whether the teaching and learning process, and more particularly its assessment, will help to develop simple or more complex forms of learning. In 1956 Bloom edited and published arguably his most famous work, a Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Boardman, David (b. 1936). After graduating from the University of Manchester, David Boardman taught geography in secondary schools in London and Bristol. In 1970 he was appointed Lecturer in Geography Education at the University of Birmingham, where he later received his Ph.D. and became Senior Lecturer. Since 1990 he has been a tutor at Hatfield College, University of Durham, where he was awarded an M.Phil, in 1996. He was editor of Teaching Geography from 1990 to 1996. His books include Graphicacy and Geography Teaching (1983) and The Impact of a Curriculum Project (1988). He edited, and contributed to, New Directions in Geographical Education (1985) and the Handbook for Geography Teachers (1986). He has published numerous articles in geographical and 22

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Bruner

educational journals. His main interest is in children's understanding of maps, on which he has written extensively. Bowles, Rachel (b. 1938). A graduate of Bedford College, University of London, Rachel Bowles undertook postgraduate research at the University of Hull before embarking on a PGCE at the Institute of Education, University of London. She taught geology and geography at The Latymer School, Edmonton, before moving to Avery Hill College of Education (now School of Education, University of Greenwich), where she currently teaches. She has written mainly on environmental science and on themes in primary geography, with a particular focus on locality work. Rachel is the editor of the Geographical Association's Primary Guidance series and is co-ordinator and editor of the Register of Research in Primary Geography, a directory of teaching and learning observations in the classroom and beyond. brainstorming. An activity which geography teachers, and others, use to allow creative ideas and solutions to flow without being impeded by immediate criticism or comment. In effect it is the process of solving a problem or answering a question by promoting the generation of spontaneous ideas. Once a range of points have been made by a group, or class, these are then investigated and discussed in a more structured way. In humanities subjects such as geography, brainstorming is often used to initiate discussion on a theme or concept, or to help in solving decision-making exercises. Bristol Project. See Geography 14-18. British Educational Communications and Technology agency (BECTa). Formerly known as the National Council for Educational Technology (NCET), sponsored jointly by the government and other organizations to improve the use of information and communications technology (ICT) within education. Its aim is to ensure that the government's drive to raise educational standards is supported by the use of technology and that the National Grid for Learning (NGfL) is successfully implemented. BECTa works closely with the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), other government offices and local education authorities (LEAs) to ensure that ICT use and proficiency within schools and further education, and amongst teachers, lecturers and pupils, is enhanced. A variety of geography-related projects and materials have been produced by BECTa, or its previous incarnation as NCET, often in collaboration with the Geographical Association (see information and communications technology). mail: BECTa, Milburn Hill Road, Science Park, Coventry, CV4 7JJ tel: 024 7641 6994 email: [email protected] website: www.becta.org.uk

Bruner, Jerome (b. 1915). An American psychologist educated at Duke and Harvard Universities, Bruner's main research was in cognitive social psychology and the development of language and thought. His experiments in the 1950s researching into sequences of decision-making in problem-solving were some of the first steps taken in the field of cognitive psychology. The results were published as A Study of Thinking (1956) with Goodnow and Austin. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Bullock Report In the late 1950s Burner's work focused on education and cognitive development, the culmination of which was a series of ideas about the merits of pupil-centred teaching and the importance of pupil participation in the learning process. He also developed a theory of instruction which involved the use of structured sets of learning experiences for children. In 1960 Bruner established the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard (with George Miller), publishing some of his later work there as Studies in Cognitive Growth (1966). His major cognitive theory involved the development of a model for the growth of thought processes through enactive, iconic and then symbolic representations and communication. Bruner's later work was largely centred on the development of language and communication skills in problem-solving. He adopted a Vygotskyian line that language skills help children to solve problems, with communication from prespeech to linguistic forms being central to the development of thought. The social framework for language development was also seen to be important. Unlike Piaget, Bruner did not believe that children passed through stages of thinking development, rather that they used different types of thinking according to the problem they had to solve or the situation they found themselves in. Bruner's writings also include The Process of Education (1960); Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language (1983); and In Search of Mind: Essays in Autobiography (1983). Bullock Report. Commissioned in 1972 by the then Secretary of State for Education to investigate the teaching of English in schools, including the development of reading, writing and speech. It also made suggestions about monitoring the attainment of language skills in English. The Bullock Report was published in 1975 as A Language for Life, which spurred the development of a variety of 'language across the curriculum' groups. Various geography educators, such as Williams (1981) and Slater (1989), became involved in the development of language awareness within geography education. Slater; F. ( 1989) Language and Learning in the Teaching of Geography. London: Routledge. Williams, M. ( 1981 ) Language Teaching and the Learning of Geography. London: Ward Lock.

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c Canadian Association of Geographers/1'Association Canadienne des Géographes. Founded in 1951, the Association aims to promote research in geography and improve geography education in schools and colleges. It publishes one journal, the Canadian Geographer. mail: Burnside Hall, McGill University, 805 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal (Quebec), Canada, H3A 2K6 tel: 001 5143984946 email: cagefelix.geog.mcgill.ca website: www.uwindsor.ca/cag/

Canadian Geographer. The quarterly geographical journal of the Canadian Association of Geographers. It was first published in 1950 and carries geographical articles in both French and English on any topic of geographical significance. capitalism. An economic system based on the creation of private economic wealth and ownership. Individuals invest capital in the production, distribution and selling of goods in order to maximize their income. The allocation of resources and wealth are dependent on market forces. Harvey, D. ( 1982) The Limits to Capital. Oxford: Blackwell. Harvey, D. ( 1985) The geopolitics of capitalism', in D. Gregory and J. Urry (eds), Space and Social Structures. London: Macmillan, pp. 128-63.

career. Advancement through a chosen field of employment. In the teaching profession the traditional lack of an apparent career structure has regularly been criticized, although attempts to introduce induction arrangements, appraisal systems, fast-tracking and financial rewards and incentives for particular aspects of performance and responsibility may constitute a form of career-structuring. A literature exists concerning the career opportunities provided by studying geography; the place of geography in vocational education; on becoming a geography teacher; and on in-service opportunities for geography teachers. Fox, R ( 1996) 'Where can you go with geography?' in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. 325-35. Lambert, D. ( 1996) 'Understanding and improving school geography: the training of beginning geography teachers', in M. Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 230-41. Leat, D. ( 1996) 'Geography student teachers and their images of teaching'. IRGEEL, 5( I ), 63-8. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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career entry profile Williams, M. (1988) The in service education and training of geography teachers in England and Wales', in M.Williams, O. Biilman and R. Gerber (eds), Towards Models of the Continuing Education of Geography Teachers. Brisbane: IGU/CGE, pp. 13 1-50.

career entry profile (CEP). From 1998 all newly qualified teachers (NQTs) entered the teaching profession with a career entry profile issued by their initial teacher training (ITT) institution (in England). Profiles contain a statement of the NQT's strengths and development needs at the point of exit, to be used in their induction year in school for target-setting and support. The induction coordinator at the NQT's school is responsible for establishing a programme of support for the induction year, which has to be satisfactorily passed for the NQT to remain eligible to teach. Performance is therefore monitored and assessed as part of each new teacher's professional development. Although the format of the CEP is common to teachers in all subjects, it is possible for geographers to highlight specific aspects of their strengths and needs with particular reference to geography education. cartography. The science and art of constructing and producing maps and charts. If broadly applied the term can be used to refer to the making of any plans or sections which represent aspects of the Earth. Considerations of graphicacy and spatial ability in geography education have links to cartography. Almost all cartography is now electronic, which has created tensions between the craft skills of professional cartographers and the power of computers to replicate or enhance such skills. For example, the positioning of type on maps still remains limited in many computer applications. Blakemore, M. (1992) 'Cartography'. Progress in Human Geography, 16(I), 75-87. Boardman, D. ( 1983) Graphicacy and Geography Teaching. London: Groom Helm. Boardman, D. ( 1985) 'Cartographic communication with topographical maps', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. London: Palmen pp. 135-52. Gerben R. (1985) 'Competence and performance in cartographic language', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. London: Palmen pp. 153-68.

cartoon. A drawing in a newspaper or magazine, which may be humorous in nature. In geography textbooks the use of 'talking head' cartoons to display generalized or stereotypical characteristics and views of particular peoples has been criticized for its tendency to bias. Marsden, W. ( 1992) 'Cartoon geography: the new stereotyping?' Teaching Geography, 17(3), 128-30.

case studies. An approach to teaching and learning whereby a particular case, or example, is presented for study. In geography, case studies often refer to reallife examples of particular geographical themes or ideas which may, at some stage, also be studied in theory - for example, the Kobe earthquake as a case study of seismic activity. In the 1960s the adoption of case study materials in the teaching of geography helped to replace the regional approach in geography with one which gave teachers more flexibility and choice. Catling, Simon (b. 1947). Graduated from London University and taught in primary schools in London for twelve years. Following a deputy headship, he moved into teacher education at Oxford Brookes University in 1984, where he has been responsible for primary geography and has served both as deputy head and acting head of the School of Education. An active member of the 26

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Charney Manor Conferences

Geographical Association (GA), he chaired its Education Standing Committee in the 1980s and was President in 1992-3. Simon has written widely for teachers and children. Among the teaching resources he has produced are the Outset Geography and Mapstart series, as well as other map books and atlases for children's use. He is well known for his work on teaching map understanding and skills, and locational knowledge through his book Placing Places, and, more recently, for his studies of primary geography textbooks. Author of many articles and book chapters, he is perhaps best known for his championing of the teaching of geography in primary schools. CCEA. See Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment. CD ROM. See Compact Disk Read Only Memory. census. A count of a population, often containing a variety of different types of data on the population surveyed. CEP. See career entry profile. Certificate of Achievement (CoA). Introduced in 1998 as a qualification for school leavers who would normally leave school without certification in geography (or other subjects), as their levels of performance were below that of the Foundation tier grades of the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). GCSE criteria do not apply to the CoAs, which are awarded at three levels comparable to levels 1, 2 and 3 of the National Curriculum. CoAs have no restrictions on the amount of teacher assessed coursework they can offer to candidates. Flinders, K. ( 1998) The new Certificate of Achievement for geography'. Teaching Geography, 22(1), 46-7.

Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE). Introduced in 1965 for those school leavers in England, Wales and Northern Ireland who did not sit Ordinary Levels (O Levels) and therefore would otherwise leave compulsory education without any form of certification. Many geography teachers welcomed the CSE as it provided opportunities for them to engage in curriculum development and syllabus design which related closely to the needs of their own pupils, as well as the prospects of introducing coursework elements into the geography curriculum. The CSE was abolished in 1988, together with O Levels, to be replaced by the multi-purpose General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). Charney Manor Conferences. Began in 1970 as an informal gathering of geography educators from both schools and universities. The focus for the first conference was the 'new geography' and the movement away from the descriptive and factually based study of geography towards a 'geography of ideas' incorporating problem-solving, games and simulations. A book, New Directions in Geography Teaching (Walford 1973), emerged from the first conference and served to diffuse teaching ideas to a wider audience. The 1980 conference at Charney Manor resulted in the publication of Signposts for Geography Teaching (Walford 1981), which collated the views of many of the original delegates from 1970, as well as those from a wider THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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chi-square

audience of teachers and educators. This second publication largely focused upon humanistic, welfare and behavioural approaches within geography and education. The 1990 conference saw the publication of Viewpoints on Geography Teaching (Walford 1991), which offered an eclectic range of views on the possible future of geography education within the emergent National Curriculum. Papers from the Charney Manor conference held in 1993 were published as Challenging Times: Implementing the National Curriculum in Geography (Walford and Machón 1994). The Charney Manor conferences for geographers and geography teachers in primary and secondary schools, as well as those from higher education institutions, are still held on an annual basis. There is an expectation that the majority of delegates will offer papers or a presentation, which may form the basis of a conference publication in certain years. Walford, R. (ed.) ( 1973) New Directions in Geography Teaching. London: Longman. Walford, R. (ed.) ( I 9 8 I ) Signposts for Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman. Walford, R. (ed.) ( 1991 ) Viewpoints on Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman. Walford, R. and Machon, R (eds) ( 1994) ChallengingTimes: Implementing the National Curriculum in Geography. Cambridge: Cambridge Publishing Services.

chi square. A non-parametric statistical test which can be used to compare a sample to a specified population, or to test for association between two or more samples. In the first test the 'observed' sample is tested against an 'expected' population distribution to see whether it fits within it. The second test, using two or more samples, is similar to the first and can be used to indicate fit and the degree of association both with a population and between samples. Chi square can be used with nominal or ordinal data. child-centred education. Places the child, rather than the teacher or the subject, at the heart of the educational process. Often supported by psychologists, and those who have been involved in the education of very young children, the childcentred tradition has played a strong role in the development of British primary school education. The works of Pestalozzi and Rousseau, as well as those of Dewey, form part of this tradition. This form of education is rooted within existentialist philosophy, and thus the interests, abilities and needs of the individual child are believed to be closely served by it. Contact with the outside world is highly valued as a positive, subjective, experience. In many ways the process of education is seen as more important than the product and therefore those geographers who have been influenced by this tradition see their role as educators of the 'whole child', rather than as creators of new 'geographers'. Geography is therefore seen as a vehicle to develop a child's self-understanding: a process of leading out rather than of imparting knowledge. The influence of child-centred approaches on geography education has encouraged children to explore their feelings and experiences of the world. Often this involves locally based projects and fíeldwork which the child may have a role in defining. In the classroom, pupil-centred work may be of an enquiry nature. In the most extreme examples child-centred education has allowed the child's interests to dominate the educational process, making curriculum planning, or the creation of schemes of work, virtually impossible. 28

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Circular 4/98 Dewey, J. ( 1902) The Child and the Curriculum. Chicago: Phoenix Books. Rousseau, J.-J. (1972) Emile. London: Dent.

Children Act (1989). Introduced to co-ordinate legislation with respect to the care and welfare of children. The act stresses that children with particular social, emotional or educational difficulties are often raised most successfully in their own family environs. It is an act jointly implemented by the departments of Social Services, Health and Education. Chorley, Richard (b. 1927). Educated at Oxford before moving to the United States under a Fulbright scholarship to work at the Universities of Columbia and Brown. He returned to the Department of Geography at the University of Cambridge in 1958, achieving a professorship in 1974. Frontiers in Geographical Teaching (1965) and Models in Geography (1967), both of which he wrote with Peter Haggett, strongly influenced geography education in the late 1960s and 1970s. Richard Chorley is perhaps best known for his role within the methodological revolution which occurred in British geography in the 1960s. He has also published widely in physical geography, methodology, hydrology, systems analysis, geomorphology and the study of landforms. choropleth map. Designed to show the spatial distribution of a given phenomenon within discrete areas (often administrative regions). The data are usually grouped or classed in some way, and each division of the data is assigned a particular colour, or density of shading, for mapping purposes. The convention is that dark colours should indicate 'high' values, whilst light colours indicate 'low' values. The weakness of choropleth mapping is that the use of bounded areas means that each area can often only show an average for the data collected, therefore creating the illusion of abrupt changes as the boundary of the area is crossed. In reality a gradual 'grading' of data often occurs across such a boundary. CIJE. See Curriculum Index to Journals in Education. circular. A statement issued by the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) and the Secretary of State for Education to provide those involved with education (such as local education authorities (LEAs) and educational institutions) with directives concerning government education policy. Circular 10/97 (Standards). Titled Teaching: High Status, High Standards, the circular originally set out the criteria which all courses of initial teacher training (ITT) must meet and specified the English and mathematics curricula which must be taught to trainees in primary teacher training. It established the standards of knowledge, understanding and skills which trainees must demonstrate to successfully complete a course of initial teacher training and be eligible for the award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) in the UK. It superseded previous teacher training circulars DFE Circular 9/92 and DFE Circular 14/93, and was itself replaced by Circular 4/98. DfEE ( 1997) Circular 10/97. Teaching: High Status, High Standards. London: DEE. Circular 4/98. Titled Teaching: High Status, High Standards, it sets out the criteria which all courses of initial teacher training (ITT) must meet and specifies the national curricula for ITT in English, mathematics, science and for the use of THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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citizenship

information and communications technology (ICT) in subject teaching. It establishes the standards of knowledge, understanding and skills which trainees must demonstrate to successfully complete a course of initial teacher training and be eligible for the award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) in the UK. It replaced previous teacher training Circulars DfEE Circular 10/97, DFE Circular 9/92 and DFE Circular 14/93. Although Circulars 10/97 and 4/98 do not state specific criteria for ITT in geography, some training institutions have reworked them to make explicit a geographical component. In addition the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) has subsequently published guidance to enhance the subject-based training related to Circular 4/98, for example Using Information and Communications Technology to Meet Teaching Objectives in Geography Initial Teacher Training, published in 1999. DEE ( 1998) Circular 4/98. Teaching: High Status, High Standards. London: DfEE. citizenship. The legal relationship between an individual and the country in which he or she resides; a condition which confers rights and responsibilities on the individual. In educational terms citizenship became a cross-curricular theme which first achieved prominence during the creation of the National Curriculum in the late 1980s, and again under the Labour government at the end of the 1990s. The National Curriculum Council (NCC) was originally instructed to develop a small series of curriculum guidance papers to support cross-curricular themes in the early 1990s, one of which was titled Education for Citizenship. Under the chairmanship of Professor Bernard Crick, further work was pursued with the publication of Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools in 1998. With the study of citizenship emphasizing, in part, local, regional, national and international community relationships, including the European dimension; democracy and human rights; and employment, citizenship is seen by many geography teachers as a significant component within the teaching of human geography. The revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) contains a section on citizenship which highlights some links to geography. The statement on the importance of citizenship within the curriculum has some clear connections with geography education: Citizenship gives pupils the knowledge, skills and understanding to play an effective role in society at local, national and international levels. It helps them to become informed, thoughtful and responsible citizens who are aware of their duties and rights. It promotes their spiritual, moral, social and cultural development, making them more self-confident and responsible both in and beyond the classroom. It encourages pupils to play a helpful part in the life of their schools, neighbourhoods, communities and the wider world. It also teaches them about our economy and democratic institutions and values; encourages respect for different national, religious and ethnic identities; and develops pupils' ability to reflect on issues and take part in discussions. (TTA 1999) Bailey, R ( 1993) 'Citizenship and core and foundation subjects: geography', in J. Edwards and K. Fogelman (eds), Developing Citizenship in the Curriculum. London: Fulton, pp. 58-61. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. Driven F. and Maddrell.A. (1996) 'Geographical education and citizenship: introduction'.Journal of Historical Geography, 22(4), 371 -2. 30

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Code of Practice (Special Educational Needs) Huckle, J. ( 1988) 'Geography and world citizenship', in J. Fien and R. Gerber (eds), Teaching Geography for a Better World. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, pp. 20-30. Martin, L ( 1995) 'Citizenship, cultural diversity and the geography curriculum'. British Journal of Curriculum and Assessment, 5(2), 30-1. QCA ( 1998) Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools: Final Report of the Advisory Group on Citizenship. London: QCA. QCA (1999) The Review of the National Curriculum in England: The Consultation Materials. London: QCA. TTA ( 1999) Using Information and Communications Technology to meet Teaching Objectives in Geography Initial TeacherTraining. London:TTA. Wiegand, R (1990) 'Geography, citizenship and international understanding', in S. Catling (ed.), Some Issues for Geography within the National Curriculum. Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. 81-5.

class. A division or order within society; alternatively, a group of pupils who are normally taught together. classical humanism. See ideologies. climate. The mean atmospheric and weather conditions across a given area measured over a considerable time period (hence the loose definition of climate as 'average weather'). Many areas show distinct climatic patterns throughout the year, with seasonal variations. cloze. A technique used in reading and writing whereby words are deleted from a text which pupils then have to fill in using appropriate terms. Such terms may be provided in a prescribed list, or may be devised by the pupils themselves. Cloze exercises can be used to support or assess comprehension and are applied within the geography classroom as one of a range of techniques used in language development through geography. Geographical Association (1996) Use of Language and the Geography National Curriculum. Sheffield: Geographical Association.

CoA. See Certifícate of Achievement. COBRIG. See Council of British Geographers. Code of Practice (GCSE and GCE A/AS Level). Designed to ensure that standards of awarding, grading, assessment and specification design remain comparable between different awarding bodies for each subject. The Codes apply to General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) examinations in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Established principles for the setting, examining, marking and grading of examinations, as well as the percentage of marks for course work, are also included in the Code. The most recent Code of Practice was developed by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC) and the Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA) in consultation with the awarding bodies. QCA, ACCAC, CCEA ( 1998) GCSE and GCE A/AS Code of Practice. London, Cardiff, Belfast. Code of Practice (Special Educational Needs). Gives practical guidance to local education authorities (LEAs), governors, health and social services, and teachers on the educational provision for children with special educational needs (SEN) as defined in the Education Act (1993). THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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coefficient of correlation

The Code establishes the principles, practices and procedures for working with SEN pupils and recommends the adoption of a five-staged model of SEN provision as well as the use of individual education plans (lEPs). DFE (1994) Code of Practice on the Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs. London: DFE.

coefficient of correlation. An index of the statistical relationship between two variables. This shows the degree of positive or negative correlation between two sets of data. cognition. The act of knowing or perceiving, which includes the processes of reasoning, problem-solving and understanding. Cognition is usually held to be distinct from emotion and volition, which are affective processes. cognitive development. The intellectual acquisition of information and concepts through sensory perception, memory and observation. It also refers to the growth in a child's ability to understand concepts, relationships and patterns of ideas. Sometimes cognitive development is interpreted as the development of mental skills which are qualitatively different at different stages of the child's educational development (see Piaget), as well as the development of ability in reasoning and problem-solving. A child's culture, environment and background have influences on what they learn and the ways in which they learn. Much of the recent work on cognitive development within geography education in the UK has been led by David Leat, and the Thinking Through Geography team (see learning theories). Bruñen B. ( 1960) Process of Education. New York: Random House. Downs, R., Liben, Land Daggs, D. (1988) 'On education and geographers: the role of cognitive development theory in geographical education'. AAAG, 78(4), 680-700. Flavell.J. (1982)'On cognitive development'. Child Development, 53(1), I-10. Leat, D. ( 1997) Thinking Through Geography. Cambridge: Chris Kington. Leat, D. (1997) 'Cognitive acceleration in geographical education', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 143-53. Piaget, J. ( 1958) Development of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. and Inhelder, B. ( 1969) The Psycholog/ of the Child. New York: Basic Books.

cognitive domain. The area of learning involved with the intellectual acquisition of information, concepts and principles. It is possible to create taxonomies of cognitive objectives linked to the cognitive domain, as Bloom (1956) successfully attempted, which relate to a hierarchy of thinking skills: • knowledge • comprehension • application • analysis • synthesis • evaluation Here each 'level' subsumes the next, with higher levels only being achievable once the lower ones are acquired. This implies that there are certain higher-order thinking skills that should be aimed for in both teaching and learning. 32

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communism Ausubel, D. and Robinson, F. ( 1969) School Learning:An Introduction to Educational Psychology. New York: Rinehart and Winston. Bloom, B. (ed.) ( 1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. London: Longman. Gagne, R. ( 1965) The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

cognitive theory. The belief that both thought and information-processing involve choices being made by individuals as determined by certain goals. This contrasts with behaviourist theory, which emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli in creating an individual's responses, which may render thought processes of secondary importance. Cognitivist theory. Proposes that language development is largely the result of intelligence and not a product of behaviour and environment. Regardless of environmental factors, logical thought develops through a series of identifiable stages in a given sequence. Thus cognition and cognitive development precede language and language development, so that the ability to think lies at the foundation of the process of language acquisition. Chomsky, N. ( 1968) Language and Mind. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Piaget, J. ( 1958) Development of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

communism. A theory based on communal, rather than private, ownership and wealth-generation. It advocates a society where all property is publicly owned and where people work, and are paid, according to their needs and abilities. Marx envisaged that eventually the state would lose its significance under a mature communist regime; however this did not occur in communist countries in the twentieth century, where by contrast the state eventually grew to control all aspects of society. Harvey, D. (1973) Social justice and the City. London: Arnold. Marx, K. (1967) Capital (3 vols). New York: International Publishers.

Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CD ROM). A computer disk which is capable of storing large amounts of data - it is similar in appearance to an audio disc. The data on a CD ROM may be in text form, as sounds, graphs and/or programs, thus making it extremely valuable for use in geography education, which often requires a variety of forms of data presentation to be used. When combined with a computer which has the capability to deliver sound and graphics this is known as a multimedia system (see information and communications technology). 'compass rose'. Apart from representing the points of a compass, a 'compass rose' has been adopted by educators working within the field of development education as a means of analysing data, photographs and sources of information. The cardinal points of the compass are replaced by 'dimensions' or processes that may need consideration when analysing the geography of places. The rose can be used at a variety of scales and can combine 'dimensions' as a means of exploring a range of factors - for example enquiring into both natural and economic factors together at the NE direction of the compass rose. Robinson, R. and Serf,J. (eds) ( 1997) Global Geography: LearningThrough Development Education at Key Stage 3. Sheffield: Geographical Association/DEC (Birmingham). THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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competence

Natural

Who decides?

Economic

Social competence. The ability to perform a specific task, or skill, to a given standard. computer. An electronic machine capable of performing computations, which may have additional functions relating to the storing and processing of texts, data and information. As such the potential use of computers within geography education is considerable, through the application of spreadsheets, databases and geographical information systems (GIS) (see information and communications technology). computer literate. A general term describing a person with an ability to use computers. concept. A way of categorizing thoughts into a form whereby the distinguishing features of such thoughts are commonly understood. In essence a concept is a notion, created by abstracting events, situations, objects or ideas, which has been formed into a named entity (see key idea, exemplar). Kaminske.V. ( 1997) 'Geographical concepts: their complexity and their grading'. IRGEE, 6( I ), 4-26.

concept mapping. The creation of a diagram which is used to understand the basis of a concept. A concept (or spider) diagram is used to display important ideas within a theme or unit of work and may be devised by pupils to reveal what they know and whether misunderstandings exist. Concept mapping can be created through brainstorming, and can be used at any point within a teaching programme. Leat, D. and Chandler, S. ( 1996) 'Using concept mapping in geography teaching'. Teaching Geography. 21 (3), 108-12. Novak, J. and Gowin, D. ( 1984) Learning how to Learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

confidence level. The degree of confidence with which a statement can be accepted. In statistical analysis, this would mean that, given a set of 100 statements with a confidence level of 95 per cent, the most likely outcome is that 95 out of the 100 statements would be true. 34

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continuity

consciousness. The awareness of one's environment, and of one's emotional and cognitive processes. conservation. Protection, maintenance and possible enhancement of the natural and/or human features and resources within a given environment. Conservation is often defined as the sensible use of resources, possibly involving a reduction in their current rate of consumption, with the aim of achieving sustainable development. The efficient use of resources, particularly those which are nonrenewable, and the rejection of wasteful means of extraction, processing and production techniques, are central to the concept. Recycling of waste materials is also important in conservation. The term may be specifically applied to certain phenomena, such as building conservation, soil conservation, wildlife conservation. constructivism. A theory, based on the work of Vygotsky, which states that learning is a process of building upon what is already known, or 'constructing' knowledge based on previously acquired information. The constructivist approach to learning therefore involves pupils engaging in experimentation and making mistakes, which in turn leads to a process of redefining and extending their knowledge and understanding. The active role of the learner is stressed in building up their understanding, resulting in an interactive style of teaching and learning, usually with the teacher adopting the role of facilitator. Such discovery methods of learning often involve a process known as scaffolding, where a teacher initially supports and structures a child's learning experiences until he or she is capable of working independently. Vygotsky used the concept of a zone of proximal development to refer to the gap between what a child could learn on their own and what they could achieve with the help and support of a more knowledgeable individual. Constructivist approaches tend to be 'hands on' rather than text-based, to involve thinking and reasoning rather than memorization, and link to broad themes and concepts rather than isolated facts. Recent use of constructivist ideas in geography education have been developed by David Leat and the Thinking Through Geography team (see learning theories). Leat, D. (1997) 'Cognitive acceleration in geographical education', in D.Tilbury and M. Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 143-53. Leat, D. ( 1998) Thinking Through Geography. Cambridge: Chris Kington. Vygotsky, L. ( 1962) Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wood, D., Bruner, J. and Ross, G. ( 1976) The role of tutoring in problem solving'.Journo/ of Child Psycholog/ and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89-100.

continuing professional development (CPD). The term 'continuing professional development' refers to any courses, award bearing or otherwise, that are provided to enhance the knowledge, understanding and skills of teachers (see in-service education and training). continuity. Along with progression, an essential quality of any subject in terms of its curriculum design. The National Curriculum was intended to strengthen both of these aspects for all subjects, although it could be argued that in geography the various revisions of the curriculum did not necessarily enhance or strengthen aspects of its continuity. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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continuous assessment

Continuity refers to the maintenance and development within the geography curriculum of certain aspects of geography education over a series of years, for example from 5 to 14 in the case of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC). These aspects could be the aims of geography education; sections of geographical content; types of teaching and learning activities; or assessment procedures. The overall aim is to ensure that sufficient continuity exists to allow children to build upon their previous experiences in geography education as they pass between Key Stages, to General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and to Advanced or Advanced Subsidiary Level (A or AS Level) in the subject (cf. progression). Bennetts.T ( 1981 ) 'Progression in the geography curriculum1, in R. Walford (ed.), Signposts for Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman, pp. 165-85. Bennetts.T ( 1995) 'Continuity and progression'. Teaching Geography, 20(2), 75-9. Rawling, E. ( 1997) Issues of continuity and progression in post-16 geography1, in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: Geographical Association, pp. I I -30.

continuous assessment. The assessment of work produced throughout a course of study which may provide ongoing formative information on educational performance, as well as contribute to a summative profile of marks or grades (cf. terminal assessment). core (of subject coverage). The School Examinations and Assessment Council (SEAC) introduced the idea of subject cores for Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Levels (A and AS Levels) in the early 1990s as a means of creating a more uniform standard of subject syllabus coverage between examination boards. Each board had to design its subject syllabus around a nationally agreed 'core' of subject knowledge, skills, techniques, abilities and understanding. The finalized geography core was published in December 1993 by the newly formed School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA), representing one-third of the content of geography A Level, and two-thirds of the AS Level. In essence the core requires students to develop a range of geographical skills and gain an understanding of a people-environment theme at a range of spatial scales. A mandatory study of physical and human environments and investigative work based on the collection of primary and secondary data were also included. The core was replaced by geography criteria in 1998, which provided a similar framework for the development of new A and AS Level specifications in geography. core and periphery. A concept used within economic geography to explain differences in economic development at various spatial scales, as well as the dependence of peripheral areas on a core region. The models of spatial patterns of economic development devised by Friedmann, Hirschman and Myrdal all contain aspects of concepts of core and peripheral regions. Friedmann,J. ( 1966) Regional Development Policy:A Case Study ofVenezuela. Cambridge, MA: MIT Keeble, D, ( 1989) 'Core-periphery disparities, recession and new regional dynamisms in the European Community1. Geography, 74( I ), I -1 I. Myrdal, G. ( 1957) Rich Lands and Poor. London: Harper and Row.

core subject. The Education Reform Act (1988), which introduced a subjectbased National Curriculum into England and Wales, defined curriculum subjects as either 'core' or 'foundation'. As the term suggests core subjects form 36

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correlation

the heart of the curriculum. Geography was deemed a foundation subject, together with history, a modern foreign language (in Key Stages 3 and 4 only), art, music, PE and technology. This signified that it would attract less curricular time, assessment status and funding than the more prestigious core of English, mathematics, sciences and, for Welsh-speaking schools, Welsh. Subsequent revisions of the National Curriculum following the Dearing Report (1994) further simplified these arrangements and made the study of geography essentially optional in Key Stages 1, 2 and 4. By contrast the status of the core subjects was enhanced (see National Curriculum). In effect, three classifications of subjects might now be considered to exist within the National Curriculum: core, foundation and optional. Corney, Graham (b. 1943). Graduated from Durham University and gained a Postgraduate Certifícate in Education from Exeter University before teaching in state schools in Sutton Coldfield and Oxfordshire. He became Lecturer in Educational Studies (Geography) at Oxford University in 1977 and was subsequently elected a fellow of St Anne's College. His main professional and research interests are in working with student and experienced geography teachers to develop interactive styles of teaching and learning. He directed the Geography, Schools and Industry Project (1984-92), a Geographical Association-supported initiative to promote more active teaching about economic understanding and environmental education; a major outcome of the project's work in over 25 local education authorities in England and Wales was the publication Teaching Economic Understanding Through Geography (1992). Currently he is working with geography teachers in the Oxford area on establishing a classroom research network based on teacher action research. Graham is also interested in research into the geography teacher's contribution to environmental education. His recently submitted Ph.D. focused on student teachers, and led to articles in geography education texts in 1996 and 1997. Currently, he is involved in curriculum development and research with primary and secondary school teachers into teaching and learning about sustainability, including links with Local Agenda 21 initiatives. correlation. The mutual relationship and association between two sets of data (variables). Often correlation is statistically calculated by use of a correlation coefficient (such as Spearman's Rank or Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Coefficient) which gauges how strongly one variable is related to another. A test of significance is then applied to see whether the relationship could have occurred by chance. A positive correlation occurs where an increase in the numerical value of one variable corresponds to an increase in the numerical value of the other, for example as altitude increases so does rainfall. A negative correlation shows the reverse, where an increase in one variable corresponds to a decrease in the other. However, a high positive correlation does not necessarily indicate a strong causal relationship between the two variables. Correlation is often expressed by a coefficient of between +1 (perfect positive relationship ) and -1 (perfect negative relationship). THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment

Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA), Northern Ireland. An equivalent organization to Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC) in Wales and the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in England. mail: CCEA, Clarendon Dock, 29 Clarendon Road, Belfast, BTI 3BG. tel: 01232 261200 email: [email protected] website: www.ccea.org.uk

Council of British Geographers (COBRIG). Established in 1988 as an organization to bring together representatives from the English, Scottish and Welsh institutions dedicated to the study and promotion of geography and geography education. Northern Irish geographical organizations are also affiliated to COBRIG. The council seeks to provide opportunities for teachers, lecturers and researchers to discuss contemporary issues of concern for geographers, with a general aim of promoting the advancement of British geography. The representation of the interests of geography and geographers at national and international levels, and the identification of issues requiring investigation and action, are both areas of activity. tel: 0145 I 860 265 (secretary) coursework. The work completed, often for assessment purposes, during a course of study. Coursework can take a variety of forms; in geography this has often included a fieldwork report, an essay or dissertation, a decision-making exercise, a statistical or cartographic exercise or some form of problem-solving. Disputes still exist concerning the amount of coursework which should be permitted in geography examinations at General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level), with a ceiling of 20 per cent now invoked. CPD. See continuing professional development. criterion. A principle or standard against which something is judged. criterion-referencing. An assessment in which attainment is measured in terms of specified criteria, levels, or standards of mastery. Criterion-referenced assessment systems 'fix' the standard of performance by stating criteria (or in the National Curriculum the level descriptions) against which pupils will be assessed. Thus, if a child can meet the given criteria he/she will be awarded with that level. Any number of pupils can therefore 'pass' at different levels achievement does not depend on the performance of others, as it does in normreferencing. Criterion-referencing is chiefly concerned with acknowledging positive achievement related to learning objectives. The concept of where a child's overall attainment 'best fits' within the given range of detailed criteria may be problematic and becomes a key professional judgement for the teacher. Geographers have debated this with respect to the level descriptions in their subject in the National Curriculum. critical theory. Originally conceived as a form of intellectual resistance to the political and social developments within Europe in the 1920s and '30s, being more recently developed through the work of Habermas, Bourdieu and Foucault. Critical theory has previously been widely supported by sociologists and political theorists both within and beyond the field of education. In essence it 38

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cross-curricular

provides a form of analysis of social, political and economic life where one gains a fuller appreciation of the largely oppressive forces that govern one's existence. It targets the unthinking acceptance of common practices, beliefs, values and institutions, and seeks to expose their unfairness, or lack of social justice. The belief is that there are no inherent truths and that all knowledge is socially created - hence academic disciplines and subjects in the school curriculum are human constructions and are not value-neutral. Geography, like any other discipline, is therefore seen as containing particular interests which distort it towards facts rather than values, and laws rather than interpretations. The underlying influences on the contemporary academic world of control, manipulation, management and efficiency are pointed out by critical theorists, rather than the need for reflection, participation, democracy, reform and emancipation. Education is viewed as a further control mechanism of the state which ensures social regulation. The school curriculum plays a significant part in this, particularly when it is state generated, as is the case with a National Curriculum. It serves particular sectional interests for different classes and groups, with knowledge serving as 'cultural capital'. However, critical theorists often indulge in high levels of abstraction and ascribe uniformity to highly diverse systems, using theory and ideology. Critical theorists have often utilized the ideas of Marx in their pursuit of the creation of a world free of domination, where the active participation of citizens would serve to control society. They call for emancipation through self-reflection and the raising of individuals' consciousness regarding their position in society. In essence, critical theory seeks to show people the processes which operate within a society; as a result they will understand how they are manipulated, and should therefore develop the desire to change their society. Ball, S. (ed.) ( 1990) Foucault and Education: Disciplines and Knowledge. London: Routledge. Bourdieu, R and Coleman, J. (eds) ( 1991 ) Social Theory for a Changing Society. London: Westview Press. Grenfell, M. and Jones, D. ( 1998) Bourdieu and Education: Acts of Practical Theory. London: Palmer Habermas, J. ( 1974) Theory and Practice. London: Heinemann. Habermas, j. ( 1978) Know/edge and Human Interests. London: Heinemann.

cross-curricular. Describing any area of a subject-based curriculum which is taught as an aspect of a number of different subjects, rather than as a discrete subject in its own right. The National Curriculum Council (NCC) established five cross-curricular themes when the National Curriculum was created in the early 1990s, each of which was considered to be important in helping to prepare pupils to take an active and informed part in adult life: • economic and industrial understanding (EIU): financial decisionmaking, economic roles (e.g. producers, consumers and citizens), government economic policy, and the impact of economic activity on the environment; • careers education and guidance: self, roles, career, transition, work; • health education: use and misuse of various substances, sex education, family life education, safety, nutrition, personal hygiene, health-related exercise, environmental and psychological aspects; THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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cross-curricular

• education for citizenship: participative citizenship, information on which to base the development of skills, values and attitudes towards citizenship, local, regional, national and international community relationships including the European dimension, democracy, human rights, law, employment, public services and leisure; • environmental education: responsible attitudes towards the environment, knowledge and understanding of the processes by which environments are shaped, the vulnerability of different environments, and opportunities for protecting and managing the environment. The cross-curricular elements of the original National Curriculum also involved skills and so-called 'dimensions' as well as the themes listed above. Geographers saw many aspects of the cross-curricular themes as lying within the prescribed content of their subject in the National Curriculum. Citizenship achieved prominence in the revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) when it became a part of the statutory curriculum at Key Stages 3 and 4 (from September 2002) for the first time. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. Tilbury, D. ( 1997) 'Cross-curricular concerns in geography: citizenship and economic and industrial understanding', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 93-104.

cross-section. The surface created by cutting through a solid, to give a representative sample of the whole thing. For example a cross-section of the geology of an area shows the distribution and alignment of different rock types within it. CSE. See Certificate of Secondary Education. 'cube'. The 'cube' diagram originated in the Interim Report of the Geography Working Group (1989) which devised the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) as a way of representing the attainment targets within geography as a three-dimensional shape or matrix. This was later simplified into the diagram below which illustrates that all geography teaching should involve the use of geographical skills, and understanding of places and themes:

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culture cultural geography. A branch of geography which studies the ways in which human activities are determined by culture, and the impact of different cultural groups on their landscape and environment. cultural literacy. Possession of a core of knowledge about people, places, events, language, traditions and concepts which exists within a particular culture. Hirsch believes that contemporary education fails to provide American pupils with a sense of their cultural heritage because of its lack of cultural reference points within the curriculum. In an effort to address this failing he suggests the inclusion of a series of names, places, events and dates that have some cultural significance. Such thinking is believed to have influenced the original conception of the Geography National Curriculum with its overemphasis on specific geographical content and locations. Dowgill, D. and Lambert, D. ( 1992) 'Cultural literacy and school geography'. Geography, 77(1), 107-10. Hirsch, E. D. ( 1987) Culturo! Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

culture. The collective beliefs, traditions, symbols, ideas and values which influence the behaviour and social structures of a particular group. Culture may characterize a society and may be transferred from one generation to the next, undergoing some changes in the process. In geography the influence of culture may be seen in one's perception of environment and patterns of behaviour. HOW DO CULTURE AND CURRICULUM COMBINE? The culture of a particular society is partly transferred from generation to generation by the educational system which that society has established. Within any society and some would argue particularly within modern industrial societies - the concepts of culture are increasingly complex and difficult to determine. However, there should be definite links between the type of education children experience, the curricular means by which this education is delivered, and the culture(s) prevalent within a society. Thus culture partly defines the curriculum, although it is necessary to examine which aspects of our culture we should select as being important for the next generation to learn about. The debates about the form of the National Curriculum, following the passing of the Education Reform Act (1988), identified some major questions about how culture and curriculum combine. For example, is it only the dominant (or core) culture that should be represented? Do ethnic and religious minority groups agree with the definitions and parameters of the curriculum? Is the curriculum divisive, limiting, anti-democratic or lacking in equal opportunities? The question of how curriculum planners should take account of cultural diversity is a difficult one. At present we have a curriculum which largely reflects an enterprise culture and elevates utilitarian and instrumental aims. To some extent the selection of core subjects within the current National Curriculum suggests a culture based on science, technology and educational 'basics' rather than one based on the humanities; a curriculum which meets rather narrow objectives compared to the complex needs of children growing up in a multicultural, multiethnic, economically developed and technologically advanced country. Hall, D. (1990) The National Curriculum and the two cultures: towards a humanistic perspective'. Geography, 75(4), 3 I 3-24. Lawton, D. ( 1989) Education, Culture ana the National Curriculum. London: Hodder and Stoughton. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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curriculum

curriculum. Aspects of the content of a subject to be taught, or the total programme of teaching within an educational establishment (the 'official curriculum'). A curriculum should not be confused with a syllabus, which is a body of knowledge, understanding and skills to be examined. The school curriculum is not merely a collection of subjects, but the wider education actually offered within the school. Aspects of education that pupils experience but which either are not recorded within the official curriculum, or are not overtly planned, or do not fall within the consciousness of the curriculum designers, are known as the 'hidden curriculum'. In essence the curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes, with statements provided on aims, objectives, learning activities and methods of evaluation and assessment. Bailey, Rand Fox, R (eds) ( 1996) Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Goodson, I. (1987) 'Understanding curriculum: the alienation of curriculum theory'. Curriculum Perspectives, 7(2), 4 1 -7. Goodson, I. and Ball, S. (eds) ( 1984) Defining the Curriculum: Histories and Ethnographies. London: Palmer Hacking, E. ( 1992) Geography into Practice. Harlow: Longman. Kelly, A.V. ( 1989) The Curhculum:Theory and Practice. London: Paul Chapman. Lawton, D. ( 1983) Curhudum Studies and Educational Planning. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Powell, A. (ed.) ( 1997) Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Stenhouse, L ( 1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development. London: Heinemann.

curriculum development. Focuses on a particular area of the curriculum, often subject-based, with the aim of improving the teaching and learning undertaken. Usually this involves the creation of new teaching materials and schemes of work, but may equally involve teachers reappraising the aims and objectives of their pedagogy. Curriculum development may be carried out by individual teachers, by groups of teachers or by a team of educationists appointed to the task. Curriculum development projects, such as the American High School Geography Project (HSGP) or Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL), have been specifically financed to promote curriculum development in geography. CURRICULUM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY

(NB no publications from official organizations are recorded here. Please see relevant sections.) PRIMARY Bale, J. ( 1987) Geography in the Primary School. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Blyth, A. and Krause, J. ( 1996) Primary Geography. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Bowles, R. (1995) Practical Guides: Geography. Leamington Spa: Scholastic Publications. Foley, M. and Janikoun, J. ( 1996) The Really Practical Guide to Primary Geography. London: Stanley Thornes. Marsden.W. and Hughes, J. (eds), Primary School Geography. London: Fulton. Morgan, W. ( 1995) Plans for Primary Geography. Sheffield: GA. Wiegand, R ( 1993) Children and Primary Geography. London: Cassell. 42

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curriculum, spiral SECONDARY Bailey, P. and Fox, R (eds) ( 1996) Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA. Battersby, J. (1996) Teaching Geography at Key Stage 3. Cambridge: Chris Kington Publishing. Graves, N. ( 1979) Curriculum Planning in Geography. London: Heinemann. Graves, N. ( 1996) 'Curriculum development in geography: an ongoing process', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 72-99. Marsden.W. ( 1995) Geography 11-16: Rekindling Good Practice. London: Fulton. Pawling, E. (1996) The impact of the National Curriculum on school-based curriculum development in secondary geography', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds), Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 100-32. Roberts, M. (1997) 'Curriculum planning and course development: a matter of professional judgement', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 35—48.

Curriculum Index to Journals in Education (CUE). A periodical which serves to update those involved in education with contemporary issues, debates and topics within educational journals. CUE is currently published through the Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) network on a monthly basis. curriculum projects. Usually funded by the state, publishers or organizations interested in education to promote curriculum development. In geography education in the UK the most notable curriculum projects have arguably been the Geography 14-18 Project, Geography 16-19 and Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL). curriculum, spiral. A concept originated by Bruner which advocates the regular recycling of important ideas within a subject during a child's education. Bruner believed that significant concepts should be studied in a variety of different ways on different occasions during the stages through which children progress when learning. He also advocated that concrete ideas should be taught before abstract ones and that teaching should begin with the known and progress to the unknown (see continuity, progression). Bruner, J. ( 1960) The Process of Education, New York: Random House.

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D DARTs. See directed activities related to text. data. Observations collected as the basis for statistical analysis, inference or reference. In their original form such data are often referred to as 'raw data' signifying that they have not yet been ordered, sorted, summarized or grouped in any way (singular: datum). Daugherty, Richard (b.1942). An Oxford graduate, who taught geography at Manchester Grammar School until his appointment to a lectureship at the University of Wales, Swansea, in 1971. From 1976 to 1981 he served as Honorary Secretary of the Geographical Association. Since 1993 he has been Professor of Education and Head of the Department of Education at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth. He has published widely on the subject of educational assessment, including articles and chapters on the role of assessment in geography education. His presidential address to the Geographical Association (1990) was on 'Assessment in the geography curriculum'. He edited Geography in the National Curriculum (1989) and, with Eleanor Rawling, Geography into the Twenty-First Century (1996). Bearing Report/Review. Commissioned by the Secretary of State for Education in the early 1990s, two separate committees under Sir Ron (later Lord) Dealing were charged with the tasks of: (1) making the National Curriculum slimmer, more manageable and more easily assessed, and (2) reviewing the nature of qualifications for 16-19-year-olds. Both of the resulting reports were accepted in full by the Secretary of State for Education and significantly influenced the direction of education in England and Wales in subsequent years. Bearing Report (National Curriculum and its Assessment). Focusing on the National Curriculum and its assessment (Interim Report, 1993; Final Report, 1994), it resulted from an investigation into the scope for slimming down the National Curriculum following the expression of widespread concern about its complexity, over-prescription and domination by subject content. Dearing 44

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decision-making

decided that a review of all Statutory Orders should take place to reduce the volume of material to be taught; to simplify and clarify programmes of study; to reduce prescription and to increase support for teachers. In geography an advisory group (the Geography Advisory Group) was established to fulfil this task, working in concert with the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA). The review succeeded in defining for all subjects the matter, skills and processes that should exist at each Key Stage, although subject content could not be added or radically changed in the process. Within geography a single attainment target was created from the five which previously existed, the burden of assessment was reduced, and 183 statements of attainment were replaced by eight level descriptions. The Dearing Report successfully reappraised the role and function of the National Curriculum, heralded a reduction of 20 per cent of time spent delivering National Curriculum subjects at Key Stages 1 to 3, and significantly raised the profile of vocational education at secondary level. Dearing, R. ( 1993) The National Curriculum and its Assessment. Interim Report. London: HMSO. Dearing, R. ( 1994) The National Curriculum and its Assessment. Final Report. London: HMSO.

Bearing Review (16-19 qualifications). Following his well-received report on the future of the National Curriculum Dearing was again commissioned by the Secretary of State for Education to review the framework of 16-19 qualifications in England and Wales. His review was published as an Interim Report (1995), and then a Final Report (1996). Some of the broad recommendations within the review have had an impact on geography education and assessment at post-16 level. The emphasis on the parity of esteem between academic and vocational education has promoted the General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ), which some geography educators believe is having a direct effect on recruitment to geography courses within the 14-19 curriculum. In addition the reduction in the number of syllabuses, options and ultimately examination awarding bodies has meant that the range of geography (and other) courses that candidates can take has been restricted. Dearing's recommendations for the restructuring of Advanced Subsidiary Level (AS Level) examinations and for the introduction of modular courses have also come to fruition. Dearing, R. ( 1995) Review of 16-19 Qualifications: Interim Report. London: SCAA. Dearing, R. ( 1996) Review of 16-19 Qualifications: Final Report. London: SCAA.

DEC. See Development Education Centre. decision-making. The use of various strategies or techniques to achieve a goal, or to evaluate the potential benefits and drawbacks of different solutions to a given problem. The decision-making process is usually influenced by a variety of factors, not least the perceptions of the decision-maker(s) involved; the available access to information; the ability to interpret, evaluate and analyse information; and the range of alternative solutions to the problem. Reasoning, planning and judgement are all important aspects of decision-making. Political and cost implications often strongly influence decision-making in the real world. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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déficit model

The inclusion of aspects of decision-making in geography education was strengthened through the Geography 16-19 Project, which introduced a formally assessed decision-making exercise as one of its terminal examinations for Advanced Level (A Level) geography students. deficit model. Originally devised as a means of explaining the underachievement of certain children; however, deficit modelling has more recently been widely applied to a variety of educational situations. With respect to underachievement, the models implied blame on teachers, curriculum planners and society for children's poor attainment. During the creation of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) it was assumed that the Geography Working Group (GWG) had applied a deficit model to contemporary geography education to justify the inclusion of a substantial amount of 'traditional' geographical content in the curriculum. degrees of freedom. A measure used within inferential statistics which helps to interpret the relevance of a statistical test. demography. The study of population changes, often conducted at a variety of spatial scales. Data may include measures of birth and death rates, fertility, etc. DENI. See Department for Education, Northern Ireland. Department for Education (DFE). Created in 1994 to replace the Department of Education and Science (DES), which had been established in 1964 as the government department responsible for educational matters in England and Wales. The DFE was short-lived, being amalgamated with the Department for Employment in 1995 to form the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). The government department currently responsible for all educational matters. Previously this role was executed by the Department of Education and Science (DES) established in 1964, then the Department for Education (DFE) established in 1994, before its amalgamation with the Department for Employment to form the DfEE in 1995. The major responsibilities of the DfEE cover all aspects of education, particularly the creation of educational policy and allocation of resources, with joint responsibility for teacher supply, training and qualifications (shared with the Teacher Training Agency (TTA)) and standards in schools (shared with HMI/OFSTED). The appointments to the DfEE are a Secretary of State for Education and two junior education ministers. mail: Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), Sanctuary Buildings, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, SWIP 3BT tel: 020 79255000 email: infodfee.gov.uk website: www.dfee.gov.uk

Department for Education, Northern Ireland (DENI). Responsible for developing primary, secondary, tertiary and higher education, as well as community and adult education, within Northern Ireland. DENI therefore performs a similar role to that of the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) in England and Wales. 46

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developed country mail: DENI, Rathgael House, Balloo Road, Bangon County Down, BTI9 7PR tel: 028 91279279 email: [email protected] website: www.deni.gov.uk

Department of Education (ED) (USA). The governmental department in the USA responsible for education, which establishes federal education policy, supervises financial arrangements and devises programmes of education. Department of Education and Science (DES). Established in 1964 as the government department responsible for educational matters in England and Wales. It was replaced in 1994 by the Department for Education (DEE), which was itself amalgamated with the Department for Employment in 1995 to form the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). During the thirty years of its existence it produced a variety of publications linked to geography education: DES (1972) NewThinking in School Geography: Educational Pamphlet No 59. London: HMSO. DES ( 1974) School Geography in the Changing Curriculum: Education Survey No 19. London: HMSO. DES (1978) Geography in the 11-16 Curriculum. London: HMSO. DES ( 1978) The Teaching of Ideas in Geography: Some Suggestions for the Middle and Secondary Years of Education. London: HMSO. DES ( 1985) National Criteria: Geography. London: HMSO. DES ( 1986) Geography from 5 to 16: Curriculum Matters 7. London: HMSO.

DES. See Department of Education and Science. descriptive statistics. Those which seek to describe the characteristics of a population sample through the use of various statistical measurements and techniques. The numerical description of data can be carried out in a number of ways, including: the classification of data; the creation of frequency distributions; the drawing of histograms; the representation of data using graphs (e.g. line graphs, bar graphs, pictograms); the calculation of means, medians or modes; and the computation of variances. Descriptive statistics can be used to describe the data that have been gathered, but cannot be used to imply or infer characteristics of other data sets or populations (see inferential statistics). determinism. The belief that human behaviour is guided by observable and measurable causes. In geography this has been related strongly to views that the environment plays a major role in shaping human actions and behaviour, hence environmental determinism. Determinism as a concept is sometimes related to ideas that a previously existing state of affairs has an influence on current actions. Many psychologists have a deterministic view of human behaviour. developed country. Usually, a country in an advanced state of economic development often with associated high standards of living for the majority of its population; political stability; high levels of health care and educational provision; low primary employment, declining secondary and increasing tertiary and quaternary sectors; etc. A more favoured term for such a country is now economically more developed country (EMDC), which signifies that they may experience advanced economic development, but may arguably be less THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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developing country

developed in cultural, religious and social terms. The gross national product (GNP) of a country is often used as a crude measure of its development. developing country. Usually refers to a country in a less advanced state of economic development, often with associated low standards of living for the majority of its population; political instability; low levels of health care and educational provision; high primary employment, rising secondary, tertiary and quaternary sectors. However, some of the population within developing countries will almost certainly enjoy standards of living similar to, or better than, those within developed countries. A more favoured term for developing countries is now economically less developed country (ELDC), which signifies that they may not yet have experienced advanced economic development, but may be more developed in cultural, religious and social terms. Terms used to describe developing countries have changed recently, although many are still used interchangeably. The gross national product (GNP) of a country is often used to give a crude measure of its development. development education. A form of education designed to explore aspects of economic and social development, enable pupils to gain awareness of development issues from the local to global scales, and to understand concepts of social justice. Development education stresses the importance of participation in one's society, and emphasizes the development of skills and attitudes as well as knowledge and understanding. The themes covered within development education are diverse and often holistic; these can sometimes be overlooked within a subject-based curriculum, although geography generally has a close association with much of the content covered within development education. Active, pupil-centred learning, decision-making activities and enquiries are often associated with development education - all of which imply the existence of a 'democratic' classroom. Development education commonly outlines six broad areas of overlap and support for geography in schools: global viewpoints and interrelationships; unity of the human race; role of the learner in the study of school geography; justice; providing a skills base; and attention to the real world (see Robinson and Serf 1997). Importantly, development is considered to be a factor concerning not only 'the South', but all parts of the world. Drake, M. ( 1992) Development Education and National Curriculum Geography: Introduction and Resources Guide for Use at Key Stage I and 2. Sheffield: Geographical Association. Hicks, D. ( 1983) 'Development Education', in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 89-98. Hopkin, J. ( 1994) 'Geography and development education', in A. Osier (ed.), Development Education: Global Studies in the Curriculum. London: Cassell, pp. 65-90. Robinson, R. ( 1986) 'Geography teachers' reflections on their teaching about development'. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 18(4), 409-27. Robinson, R. and Serf, J. (eds) ( 1997) Global Geography: Learning through Development Education at Key Stage 3. Birmingham: GA/DEC. Serf, J. and Sinclair, S. (eds) ( 1992) Developing Geography: A Development Education Approach to Key Stage 3. Birmingham: DEC. Tilbury, D. ( 1997) 'Environmental education and development education: teaching geography for a sustainable world', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 105-16. 48

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directed activities related to text

development education centres (DECs). Small independent organizations working in partnership with teachers to bring a global dimension and a development perspective to the school curriculum. Each DEC has a policy of teacher involvement in all aspects of its work and management (see development education). DFE. See Department for Education. DfEE. See Department for Education and Employment. dictionaries. A number of dictionaries and reference books of geography exist, a small selection of which are listed below: Bayliss.T ( 1995) A Concise Advanced Geography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Clark, A. ( 1985) Longman Dictionary of Geography. Harlow: Longman. Goodall, B. ( 1987) Facts on File: Dictionary of Human Geography. Oxford: Facts on File. Goudie,A. (ed.) (1994) The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Physical Geography. London: Blackwell. Johnston, R., Gregory, D. and Smith, D. (eds) ( 1986) The Dictionary of Human Geography. Oxford: Blackwell. Mayhew, S. ( 1994) Oxford Mini Reference Geography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Skinner, M., Redfern, D. and Farmen G. ( 1996) The Complete A-Z Geography Handbook. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Small,], and Witherick, M. ( 1995) A Modern Dictionary of Geography. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

didactic teaching. A teacher-centred form of educational instruction where the teacher often engages in whole-class teaching. Recent emphasis has been given by the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) to the perceived benefits of didactic teaching, for example with respect to numeracy and literacy hours. In common with many forms of education, didactic teaching can been carried out well or badly, leading to either enhanced learning or stagnation (cf. active learning). differentiation. The targeting of teaching and learning materials and pedagogy for different abilities of children. In the broadest sense it can involve applying different educational goals, curriculum structures, subject content, assessment and teaching and learning approaches to different individuals and groups of children. In assessment terms differentiation refers to the presentation of opportunities for pupils of all abilities to perform appropriately to show what they know, understand and can do. Here differentiation may occur either by outcome (determined by how pupils perform on a common task), or by task (determined by how pupils perform on different tasks, but a similar theme). BattersbyJ. (1997) 'Differentiation in teaching and learning geography', in D.Tilbury and M. Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 69-79. Piggott, B. ( 1995) 'Differentiation in geography'. Primary Geographer, 21, 30-2.

directed activities related to text (DARTs). Designed to help pupils develop their reading skills and understanding of texts by enabling them to focus on the text's structure and meaning. This may involve the teacher underlining key words, deleting parts of the text for the pupils to replace with their own words or words supplied by the teacher, reforming text under given headings, hypothesizing about the ending of an incomplete piece of text, or comparing texts to find similarities and differences. Some DARTs require pupils to THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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disapplication

sequence text which has been disarranged by the teacher, thus helping the pupil to concentrate on the meaning and flow of ideas within it. Butt, G. ( 1997) 'Language and learning in geography', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 154-67. GA ( 1996) Use of Language and the Geography National Curriculum. Sheffield: GA.

disapplication. The removal of some aspect of the National Curriculum from a child's programme of state education to take account of their special educational need (SEN) (cf. modification). discourse analysis. The investigation of different forms of literary text, speech, conversation, dissertations and lectures. In geography education a developing area of research exists within the analysis of language as a medium for ideology, and into the deconstruction of text within geography textbooks. Bennett, S. ( 1997) 'Discourse analysis: a method for deconstruction', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education:The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 162-71.

discovery learning. Where students work out the basic principles of thinking and learning for themselves. Discovery learning is a form of learning originally encouraged by Bruner which has clear links to pupil-centred and active learning approaches adopted in geography education. discrimination. Unfavourable treatment of groups or individuals based on prejudice. In the context of education this may mean that the rights of a particular group or individual are infringed, or that someone is favoured to the detriment of others. dispersion diagrams. Graphs or charts which show the spread of data or observations. They may be used to show significant clustering of data, or linear forms, which reveal that some form of relationship exists between the data gathered. distance. The interval between two points, usually measured by length but also capable of being measured chronologically (time distance). distribution. (1) The pattern made by the occurrence of a phenomenon in space; (2) the process by which a product is transported from a producer to a consumer; (3) in statistics, the way in which data are arranged or classified. Draft Orders. The penultimate stage in the creation of the subject orders for a National Curriculum subject, the final stage being the Statutory Orders. DES ( 1991 ) Draft Orders for Geography National Curriculum. London: HMSO.

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E EAB. See Examinations Appeals Board. early years. Usually refers to children in the age group 5 to 7 years (see infant). Earth. (1) A planet in the solar system, fifth in size and third from the sun, on which people, flora and fauna live; (2) solid material ofthat planet's surface, as distinct from air and water (cf. soil, the upper layer of earth, in which plants grow, and usually consisting of disintegrated rock and organic materials). Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. A specialist journal of geomorphology. EBD. See emotional and behavioural difficulties. ecology. The study of the interrelationship between living organisms, and their relationship with the environment in which they live. Often concerned with the functioning of ecosystems, ecology includes the nature of population dynamics, the effects of the physical and human environment on living things, interaction between species, and energy flows that occur within ecosystems. economic and industrial understanding (EIU). EIU is a cross-curricular theme within the National Curriculum. In its original conception it involved the study of financial decision-making, economic roles (e.g. producers, consumers and citizens), government economic policy, and the impact of economic activity on the environment. Geographers have been involved in the promotion and teaching of EIU for some time, as its themes have direct relevance to certain aspects of human geography. The Geography Schools and Industry Project (GSIP) developed curriculum ideas and materials relating to EIU before the establishment of the National Curriculum. Carter; R. (1993) 'Recent developments in geography and economic and industrial understanding'. Teaching Geography, 18(1), 34. Corney, G. ( 1985) Geography, Schools and Industry. Sheffield: GA. Corney G. ( 1992) Teaching Economic Understanding through Geography. Sheffield: GA. Curriculum Council for Wales (1994) Developing Economic and Industrial Understanding through Geography and History. Cardiff: CCW. National Curriculum Council ( 1992) Geography and Economic Understanding at Key Stages 3 and 4.York: NCC. Rawling, E. ( 1991 ) 'Education for economic understanding through geography'. Geographical Education, 6(3), 29-34. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

5I

economic geography Williams, M. and Khalid, K. ( 1994) 'Geography as a vehicle for economic and industrial understanding: a comparative study of England, Wales and Malaysia'. IRGEE, 3(1), 19-30.

economic geography. The branch of geography which deals with the interaction between economic and geographical conditions; often focusing on the creation, distribution and consumption of wealth. Economic Geography. A quarterly journal of economic geography which was first published at Clark University in 1925. economically less developed country (ELDC). See developing country, economically more developed country (EMDC). See developed country. ecosystem. An organizing concept in ecology which states that within any area the living organisms (biotic) interact with each other, as well as the non-living physical environment (abiotic). This creates an integrated community of plants and animals interacting with the environment in which they exist. The system functions by a constant transfer of materials, recycling of nutrients and a flow of energy. A series of trophic (or feeding) levels exist within ecosystems with each higher level involving fewer organisms and a reduction of available energy to the system. This is why ecosystems 'carry' relatively few large, fierce animals. A weakness of the ecosystem concept is that like any spatial unit determined by people, the area that each ecosystem covers is a human construction. The boundaries of ecosystems are not fixed and are difficult to define, although it is usually assumed that the transfer of energy and materials across their defined boundary is low (see Gaia). ED. See Department of Education. education. A complex term often applied genetically to the diverse processes and activities associated with learning. Education is sometimes defined in terms of its intentions rather than its results and is applied as a concept relating to its purposes, rather than outcomes. As such, teachers can claim to be educating children if they follow accepted methods and procedures of teaching and assessment, even if the outcome of the process is not necessarily an educated group of children. Education implies improvement, nurture and development and should be defensible as a worthwhile activity; it therefore differs from instruction and training which may not involve making the learner a 'better person'. Some definitions of education also highlight its role in the acquisition, conservation and renewal of worthwhile culture. THE CONTEXT FOR EDUCATION The context for the education of children is not simply expressed by a statement of the formal curriculum devised by the state or the school. Education, as a process, is only partly the result of the curriculum which has been planned and the action of the teachers who attempt to deliver it; numerous 'outside' influences and unintentional aspects of education are invariably created by what is sometimes called the hidden curriculum. Peters (1966) believed that an educated person, in addition to having an in-depth knowledge of a particular discipline, should also possess a breadth of knowledge across a range of disciplines. This would provide both breadth and depth of understanding - the hallmarks of the condition he perceived as being 'educated'. 52

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Education Reform Act ( 1988) The process of education therefore aims to contribute to the production of this worthwhile state - although education is often rather narrowly assessed with reference to cognitive and intellectual outcomes, rather than aesthetics and values (affective learning). The dominance of knowledge and understanding within the curricula of many developed, industrialized countries is increasingly being questioned. Education as both a term and a process is value-laden. There are continuing debates, which will never finally be resolved, about what constitutes 'useful knowledge' and whether education should seek to fulfil instrumental and utilitarian aims. These arguments also inform further debate about what are the most suitable forms of pedagogy. For some this creates a strong case for the formulation and development of educational theory, despite the generally adverse reaction which this term receives from politicians and certain sections of the public and academic worlds. Peters, R. (1966) Ethics and Education. London: Allen and Unwin.

Education Acts. Since 1870 a series of Education Acts for England and Wales have been passed of varying importance and significance. The early acts (1870, 1876 and 1880) were mainly concerned with the establishment of compulsory education and schooling; later acts (1902) combined many aspects of the developing national educational system together with the formulation of a Board of Education and the establishment of local education authorities (LEAs). The school leaving age has been successively raised by four acts (1918, 1936, 1944 and 1973). The 1944 Education Act is significant in that it provided the foundation for the modern system of school education, namely that of a national system locally administered through local education authorities. It also heralded the development of a tripartite system of secondary education of grammar, technical and secondary modern schools. Education Reform Act (1988) (ERA). The single most influential piece of educational legislation in England and Wales since the Butler Act of 1944, removing the previous conception of the school education system as being centrally governed but locally administered. Kenneth Baker, as Secretary of State for Education, introduced in 1987 a 'Great Education Reform Bill' (GERBIL) which later became the 1988 Act. This sought to centralize control of education, introduce market forces into the operation of schools and give parents greater choice of the schools their children might attend. In turn it weakened the influence of local education authorities (LEAs) and gave the Secretary of State over 300 new powers with which to shape the national education system. The introduction of legislation for the creation of the first National Curriculum for all children aged 5 to 16 in English and Welsh maintained schools was the major reform established by the Act. To implement such wholesale changes it also established a National Curriculum Council (NCC), a Curriculum Council for Wales (CCW) and a School Examinations and Assessment Council (SEAC). Subject working groups were to be created to devise reports which would then be submitted via the Secretary of State to the NCC for widespread consultation before becoming Statutory Orders for the teaching of each subject. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Education (Schools) Act (1992)

Although often remembered for its introduction of the National Curriculum in England and Wales, the Act also heralded other influential changes. The Secretary of State could now demand by right information on individual schools and LE As' performance which could be published and compared in league tables; inspections of educational institutions were also increased; and open enrolment was introduced whereby parents had greater choice of schools. Schools were now expected to recruit up to their physical capacity of pupils rather than to some agreed target figure negotiated with the LEA. The aim was to force unpopular schools to close through lack of pupil numbers created by parents using their rights to choose schools - in effect the closure of schools by market forces. Formula funding was introduced to schools to clarify the processes by which LEAs released educational funds and to relate funds received to pupil numbers; in addition LEAs were instructed to use only 15 per cent of their money for administration and services and to pass 85 per cent directly to schools to administer under local management of schools (LMS). Grant maintained schools (GMSs), which were subsequently abolished by the Labour government in 1999, took some schools away from local authority control by funding them directly from central government; while city technology colleges (CTCs), introduced under the auspices of the act, were jointly funded by the government and local businesses to become institutions of educational excellence in inner city, or socially deprived, areas. The act also made it possible for polytechnics to become universities and abolished the Inner London Education Authority (ILEA), which was replaced by smaller authorities in the 13 London boroughs previously covered. This was a further statement of the government's intention to restrict the powers of LEAs. Education (Schools) Act (1992). Required schools and local education authorities to publish league tables of their examination performance and introduced the principle of school inspections every four years. Education Act (1993). Provided further encouragement for the establishment of grant maintained schools, abolished the National Curriculum Council (NCC) and School Examinations and Assessment Council (SEAC), replacing them with the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) and Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru (ACCAC). Education Act (1997). Established the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) by merging the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ) with the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA). Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC). A US federal information network which provides information about educational resources. It works through a system of 16 'clearinghouses', which provide information on specific educational topics (see Curriculum Index to Journals in Education). EE. See environmental education. EIA. See environmental impact assessment. EIU. See economic and industrial understanding. 54

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enquiry

ELDC (economically less developed country). See developing country. electoral geography. The branch of human geography concerned with the study of election results and voting patterns and their geographical significance. EMDC (economically more developed country). See developed country. emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD). Children who are said to have emotional and behavioural difficulties, as recognized by the Code of Practice (1994) for children with special educational needs (SEN), may be educated in mainstream or special schools according to the severity of their particular case. empiricism. The belief that experience rather than reason is the basis of true knowledge and understanding, hence experience and observation are seen as superior to theoretical knowledge. Empiricism emphasizes the study of 'reality' through observation and scientific method in the belief that true knowledge is achieved through the senses, rather than through reason. While not entirely rejecting rationalism, empiricists question such approaches as a source of truth and do not accept that knowledge is achievable independent of the senses. Knowledge is therefore viewed as uncertain and subject to change in the light of new evidence; while 'knowing how' is valued above factual knowledge ('knowing that'). In geography education the influence of empiricism can be witnessed in the first Geography National Curriculum (GNC). Educationists who rejected the overriding importance of geographical knowledge in the curriculum, but stressed the significant of the process of knowledge acquisition, child-centred education, affective learning and the development of the individual, could be seen as adopting an empiricist stance. Naish, M. ( 1996) The geography curriculum: a martyr to epistemology?' in R. Gerber and j. Lidstone (eds), Developments and Directions in Geographical Education. Clevedon: Channel View, pp. 63-76.

enactive representation. A Brunerian theory of how memory of actions is stored enabling humans to carry out familiar tasks, such as walking, running and eating, without conscious thought. By extension the process of 'learning by doing' is seen to be important, although this approach is only successful if repeated regularly. Communication within the enactive mode would typically involve a person acting out, or using gestures to re-enact, something - for example, gesturing and pointing when giving a person directions to a place. Bruñen J. ( 1960) The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

encoding. The process of creating and sending messages in some form of language. In the written text this will be encoded into sentences or phrases by putting words together, while in the context of cartography encoding involves the use of symbols to convey meaning about, and representations of, space. energy. The capacity for activity. In geography this is usually linked to the use of chemical or physical resources to supply power. enquiry. An act of asking a question or seeking information. The Geography 16-19 Project promoted the use of a 'route for enquiry' within the curriculum development of geography at Advanced Level (A Level); this has subsequently THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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environment

had an influence on the form of enquiry approaches adopted throughout geography education for all age groups. The creation of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) by the Geography Working Group (GWG) involved much debate about the role of enquiry within geography education. A typical format for a route for enquiry is shown below: Use a route for enquiry . . . Observation/perception Definition/description Analysis/explanation Evaluation/prediction Decision-making Personal response

to pose key questions What do I observe/perceive? How do others view it? What is the key question which emerges? What is the issue to be studied? What processes are involved? What might have happened? What are alternative viewpoints/solutions? What decisions might be/should be made? What is my personal response? How might I justify my views? What action, if any, should I take?

In the Geography National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) the 'Geographical enquiry and skills' section explains that: 1. In undertaking geography enquiry, pupils should be taught to: a. ask geographical questions and to identify issues b. suggest appropriate sequences of investigation c. collect, record and present evidence d. analyse and evaluate evidence and draw and justify conclusions e. appreciate how people's values and attitudes, including their own, affect contemporary social, environmental, economic and political issues, and to clarify and develop their own values and attitudes about such issues f. communicate in ways appropriate to the task and audience. Butt, G. (ed.) ( 1998) Living and Working in Berlin. Sheffield: GA. DfEE ( 1999) Geography in the National Curriculum. London: HMSQ

environment. The totality of the physical and human surroundings and conditions within an area of the Earth. The term is often used broadly in geography to refer to the ways in which such conditions affect human activity, and vice versa. The environment contains a complex set of interacting factors which determine its growth and evolution. environmental determinism. A concept which represents one of the first attempts by geographers at generalization, rather than mere description, of phenomena by area or theme. In explaining people's patterns of use of the environment geographers looked to the physical environment itself as the source of their behaviour. Many scientists, most famously Darwin, saw the influence of environment on evolution, natural selection, adaptation and behaviour. Davis (1906) believed that the core of geography lay in the notion of the relationship between the physical environment (the control) and human behaviour (the response). Geographers such as Ratzel, Semple and Huntington developed these 56

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environmental education

ideas, although some authors were foolhardy enough to ascribe all human behavioural characteristics to the environment. Reactions to these views led to the development of the counter thesis of possibilism, where people are seen as active agents who can choose from a range of possible uses for their environment. Davis, W. M. (1906) 'An inductive study of the content of geography'. Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, 38,67-84.

environmental education (EE). Any educational studies that relate to the environment. Often EE involves themes such as natural resource management, control of pollution, sustainability, population growth, use of energy, and global warming. Although these themes also have a geographical expression, EE tends not to pursue their spatial aspects and therefore does not fall within currently accepted parameters of the discipline of geography. As a cross-curricular theme of the National Curriculum Environmental Education was defined as developing responsible attitudes towards the environment, knowledge and understanding of the processes by which environments are shaped, the vulnerability of different environments, and opportunities for protecting and managing the environment. Aldrich-Moodie, B. and Kwong, J. ( 1997) Environmental Education. London: Institute of Economic Affairs. Ballantyne, R. and Parken J. (1996) Teaching and learning in environmental education: developing environmental conceptions', journal of Environmental Education, 27(2), 25-32. Convey A. ( 1994) 'Environmental education: international approaches and policies'. IRGEE, 2(1), 92-6

Corney, G. ( 1997) 'Conceptions of environmental education', in F. Slater; D. Lambert and D. Lines (eds), Education, Environment and Economy: Reporting Research in a new Academic Grouping. (Bedford Way Papers) London: University of London Institute of Education, pp. 37-56. Corney, G. and Middleton, N. ( 1996) Teaching environmental issues in schools and higher education', in E. Rawling and R. Daugherty (eds), Geography into the Twenty-First Century. Chichester: John Wiley, pp. 323-38. DFE/Department of the Environment ( 1995) Education and the Environment The Way Forward. London. DFE. DES ( 1989) Environmental Education from 5-16: Gurriculum Matters 13. London: HMSO. Elliot,]. (1995) The politics of environmental education'. Gurriculum Journal, 6(3), 377-93. Fien, J. ( 1993) Education for the Environment: Gritical Gurriculum Thinking and Environmental Education. Geelong: Deakin University Press. Greig, S., Pike, G. and Selby, D. ( 1987) Earthrights: Education as if the Planet Really Mattered. London: Kogan Page: WWF(UK). Hicks, D. ( 1996) 'Envisioning the future: the challenge for environmental education'. Environmental Education Research, 2( I ), 101 -8. Huckle.J. (1994) 'Environmental education and the National Curriculum in England and Wales'. IRGEE,2(\), 101-4. Job, D. ( 1996) 'Geography and environmental education: an exploration of perspectives and strategies', in A. Kent et al. (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 22-49. Marsden.W (1997) 'Environmental education: historical roots, comparative perspectives and current issues in Britain and the United States'. Journal of Gurriculum and Supervision, 13(1), 6-29. NCC (1992) Environmental Education: Gurriculum Guidance /.York: NCC. Palmer; J. and Neal, P ( 1994) The Handbook of Environmental Education. London: Routledge. SCAA ( 1996) Teaching Environmental Matters through the National Gurriculum. London: SCAA. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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environmental geography Tilbury, D. ( 1995) 'Environmental education for sustainability: defining the new focus of environmental education in the 1990s'. Environmental Education Research, I (2), 195-212. Walken K. (1997) 'Environmental education and the school curriculum:the need fora coherent curriculum theory. ¡RGEE, 6(3), 252-5.

environmental geography. The branch of geography concerned with the study of the ways in which the environment affects people and vice versa, with particular reference to spatial aspects of these relationships. Concepts and issues often associated with environmental geography include conservation, sustainable development, resource depletion, pollution and wilderness protection. environmental impact assessment (ElA). Conducted where some form of development is currently having, or might in future have, a significant effect on the environment in which it is located. Such assessments may therefore involve the identification and evaluation of current impacts, and/or a prediction of their potential effects. Various methods can be used to collect such data, including the gathering of public opinion. Data are then used in the decision-making process relating to the planning, design and authorization of future developments. ElAs are routinely undertaken in the European Union (EU) for new developments such as motorways and power stations as a means of indicating potential problems and highlighting priorities. epistemology. The branch of philosophy which considers knowledge and the ways in which we obtain it. It is concerned with the basis of knowledge and the grounds for claiming that something is 'knowable'; in effect it is the investigation of what differentiates justifiable beliefs from mere opinion. Epistemology is often described in terms of how we know what we know (cf. ontology). equal opportunities. Recognition of the right to be treated according to one's needs so that the same opportunities can be offered without discrimination on any grounds (usually sex, race, gender, age, class, wealth, physical or mental conditions and social status). Gonzalez, B. and Gonzalez, E. ( 1997) 'Equal opportunity and the teaching of geography', in D. Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. I 17-32.

ERA. See Education Reform Act (1988). ERIC. See Educational Resources Information Centre. ethnicity. The shared cultural heritage of a group, although it is often taken to have a racial or national expression. Ethnicity therefore describes a common group identity based on a shared set of values, beliefs, and lifestyles. Although the terms 'race' and 'ethnicity' are often used interchangeably, they do not describe the same thing. Members of a particular ethnic grouping may not necessarily be of the same race, but share a common set of cultural characteristics such as language and religion. Race refers to a condition which is biologically determined, whereas ethnicity relates to culture - hence one can change one's ethnicity, but not one's race. Winter; C. ( 1997) 'Ethnocentric bias in geography textbooks: a framework for reconstruction', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 180-8. 58

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evaluation

ethnography. In research terms, ethnography usually refers to small-scale research within a classroom, school or other complex grouping which focuses on how given participants act. The researcher often spends considerable time integrating with those he/she wishes to observe when undertaking ethnographic research. This has the advantages of increasing the likelihood of acceptance and enabling the researcher to collect considerable amounts of data, but may have disadvantages in that the researcher may influence the group joined and therefore bias the data obtained. EU. See European Union. Euclidean space. In spatial concept development, where the relationships of objects in space are structured in terms of lines, squares, rectangles, triangles and circles. In this way an individual begins to understand the relationship between objects in space, with particular reference to their scale, distance apart and distribution. An appreciation of perspective and the ways in which different objects will look from different viewpoints is important within this stage of spatial concept development. Understandings of Euclidean space tend to occur towards the end of the concrete operational and the beginning of the formal operational thinking stages. Boardman (1983) considers that The understanding of Euclidean space requires an accurate conception of the spatial relationship between places. Most children are now able to draw true maps which are detailed and co-ordinated. Direction, orientation, distance and scale are all shown with reasonable accuracy. Maps are drawn properly in plan form and buildings are no longer shown in side elevation. Symbols are used to indicate important features so that a legend to the map becomes necessary' (p. 13) (see Projective, Topological). Boardman, D. ( 1983) Graphicacy and Geography Teaching. London: Croom Helm. PiagetJ. and Inhelder, B. (1956) The Child's Conception of Space. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

European Union (EU). Established in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome as the European Economic Community (EEC), later becoming the European Community (EC), and finally the European Union (EU). The EU has adopted the responsibility to remove trade barriers between member states; enhance standards of living in those states; promote economic activity; and encourage closer relations through a common market. It has a permanent commission in Brussels, representation through a Council of Ministers from member states and a European Parliament. evaluation. An assessment of the value and quality of education, or of an individual's educational experience and attainment. The effectiveness of the teaching and learning process is often central to educational evaluation, although if too closely linked to assessment it may be considered too narrow to give a realistic judgement. Evidence for evaluation can come from a variety of sources and may involve complex qualitative research of educational experience, such as interviews of teachers and pupils. Evaluation can occur with respect to the curriculum, a lesson taught or student attainment. Evaluation of a geography lesson taught may focus on a wide variety of aspects of the teaching and learning process, or may be more narrowly defined THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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examination by either the student teacher, teacher or mentor. Such evaluations may encompass classroom management, which could draw the focus away from the geographical content of the lesson, or may be more explicitly concerned with the teaching and learning of the geography itself, or a combination of both. Typical areas for lesson evaluation in geography are shown below: 1. Aims

2. Methods

3. Management

4. Control/discipline

5. Resources

6. Follow up

Were the aims of your lesson wholly or partly achieved? Did you manage to cover the geographical content of the lesson? Could pupils understand and use the geographical knowledge and skills you introduced? What do you think the pupils learnt? What did any assessment show? Did you have success with the various methods used? -question-and-answer technique -visuals, OHP, video, ICT -pair work, group work -games, role plays, simulations -differentiation -teacher-led sessions -pupil-centred sessions Was the start and finish of the lesson orderly? Was the change of activities orderly? Were pupils organized into effective learning (groups)? Were your instructions clear? Did you cope with interruptions? Did you create a positive learning atmosphere? Was prior preparation of resources sufficient? Type and use of reward/praise (smile, look, encouragement) Type and use of censure (look, talk, action) Tone and approach adopted towards class and individuals Use of board, textbooks, worksheets, maps, atlases, OHP, video, ICT, etc. Were these resources used effectively? What should be planned next? Should the geographical content be covered in a different way, or should you teach something new? Marking of books and feedback? Specific targets for next lesson?

Kent, A. ( 1996) 'Evaluating the geography curriculum', in A. Kent, D. Lambert, M. Naish and F. Slater (eds), Geography in Education:Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. I 33-95.

examination. A test of the proficiency of candidates' attainment (often their knowledge, understanding and skills), usually by the means of written and/or

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Examinations Appeals Board

oral questions. An external examination (or public examination) is conducted by a body established to assess student attainment, and award certification, but which has not been involved in their teaching (cf. internal examination). WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXAMINATION AND ASSESSMENT? Occasionally the terms examination and assessment are used synonymously, although inaccurately, to refer to the gathering of evidence about pupils' educational progress and attainment. In essence 'assessment' is a broad generic term for the collecting of such information, while the term 'examination' refers specifically to some form of testing. Examinations tend to be formal, with fixed time conditions for their completion, and have established rules for the ways in which they are conducted. These often include restrictions on the equipment and reference sources that can be used, with questions being set which the candidates have not seen before, and strict conditions on candidate behaviour applied during the examination. While the majority of examinations which children take are internally set and marked, that is by teachers in their school, at significant points these examinations will be externally organized. Such external examinations are designed to sample a given syllabus (or specification) which the teacher and pupils have been following for a set period of time. The examinations may include questions that do not closely reflect what the candidates have learnt, or the ways in which they have learnt - a problem addressed to some extent by the assessment of coursework, such as individual fíeldwork reports. External examinations, such as General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Levels (A and AS Levels), are usually considered to be 'high stakes' examinations, in that they are believed to have a common 'currency' and standard which are known and understood by candidates, parents, employers, politicians and academia. They are summative assessments of a candidate's knowledge, ability and skills within a subject on a particular day at the end of a course of study, and serve largely 'bureaucratic' purposes of selection, grading and certification. Often these examinations test memory and recall more than other intellectual abilities. Assessment can be 'formal', such as examinations, or 'informal'. Whenever a teacher is teaching, he or she is, in some way, also informally assessing the individuals being taught. Oral question and answer in class involves informal assessment; both of the knowledge and understanding of particular pupils and of the teacher's ability to convey learning. When pupils take part in a role play, or make a presentation in front of the teacher and class, this also involves assessment. Many of these forms of assessment are called teacher assessment, a term which has changed its meaning to some extent in recent years. Not only does it refer to the informal assessment methods of day-to-day teaching, but it also has a more rigorous edge, given the recent emphasis placed upon teachers' use of such assessments to eventually arrive at levels decisions within the National Curriculum. In general terms, formal assessments such as examinations are usually summative, while informal assessments are often formative. Formative assessment is loosely defined as 'educational' rather than 'bureaucratic' - it uses information gained through assessment to help the child develop, can be diagnostic and is collected with the intention of using the findings to help children to learn. This 'everyday' assessment is continuous and helps the teacher and learner to take the next educational steps - it is only infrequently used to help make final summative judgements about what children know, understand and can do.

Examinations Appeals Board (EAB). Deals with enquiries from private candidates and centres regarding the outcome of an appeal to an awarding body regarding the result or conduct of an examination. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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exemplar mail: Examinations Appeals Board, 29 Bolton Street, London, WIY 7PD tel: 020 7509 5995 website: www.theeab.org.uk

exemplar. An example of something, possibly within an overall structure of key ideas and concepts represented in a scheme of work, specification or curriculum. experiential learning. The process of learning through direct, concrete experiences rather than through more traditional, formal means of transmission of knowledge by teacher and text. explanation. The interpretation of, for example, a concept given in an attempt to achieve mutual understanding. expository teaching. A range of teaching methods, more specifically where teachers present broadly based ideas to a class and then redefine these into specific points for learning. expressive language. A form of language used in writing and speech which is personal and exploratory. Sometimes referred to as 'thinking aloud', expressive language tends to reveal what the writer (or speaker) feels or believes, uninhibited by the more structured and formal patterns of language often seen in the transactional mode. The expressive form often represents the first stages of exploring a new idea or concept (cf. transactional language, poetic language) and may therefore signify the first stages of learning. external assessment. An assessment usually conducted by a body external to the school in which the candidates have been taught (see course work).

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F Family Involvement Initiative (USA). One of the United States national education policies within Goals 2000 designed to increase parental involvement in the educational development of their children, particularly within the home. features. Aspects of a landscape; landforms within a given environment. feminism. A broad term which covers both the equality of the sexes and the upholding of the rights of women from various perspectives (social, political, intellectual, employment, pay, etc). Within geography, feminism has not limited itself to any one particular political, philosophical or theoretical stance and has thus developed a number of variants in terms of liberal, radical and socialist strands. A unifying theme is that men and women have unequal power and differing lived experiences both of these factors have a geographical expression. Aspects of feminism as it relates to geography have, until recently, remained either largely unexplored or marginalized within academic geography and geography education. Bowlby, S. ( 1992) 'Feminist geography and the changing curriculum'. Geography, 77, 349-60. Massey, D. ( 1991 ) Space, Place and Gender. Cambridge: Polity. Rose, G. (1993) Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge. Cambridge: Polity. Women and Geography Study Group ( 1997) Feminist Geographies: Explorations in Diversity and Difference. Harlow: Longman.

Field Studies Council (FSC). Established in 1943 to foster a better understanding of the environment through practical fieldwork conducted around a variety of field study centres. The FSC currently has eleven field centres across England and Wales which offer access to a variety of sites previously evaluated for safety and teaching suitability. Courses are offered with a wide range of options so that the specific needs of schools and/or geography specification/syllabus requirements are met. The majority of centres offer residential facilities as well as experienced teaching staff with specialist knowledge and fieldwork expertise. mail: Field Studies Council (FSC), Preston Montford, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 IHW

tel: 01743 850674

email: [email protected] website: www.field-studies-council.org

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field study centres

field study centres. Educational centres expressly established for the conducting of fieldwork. fieldwork. Educational experiences gained outside the classroom. Fieldwork often involves first-hand data collection by pupils and may be conducted within school grounds, or the area local to the school; or may involve day visits, or residential stays, within a different region or country. The main aim of fieldwork is to explore and understand geographical concepts and processes within different environments. This may involve the exploration of theories within the real world, first-hand data collection, enquiry methods and the development of geographical skills. Analysis and evaluation, as well as decision-making, may be facets of fieldwork. Many educationists also stress the social education aspects of fieldwork in that pupils often engage in group work, leadership tasks, communication, cooperation, etc. Bland, K., Chambers, B., Donert, K. andThomas.I ( 1996) 'Fieldwork', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 165-75. Foskett, N. ( 1997) Teaching and learning through fieldwork', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 189-201. GA ( 1983) The enduring purpose of fieldwork'. Teaching Geography, 9(5), 209-1 I. GA ( 1990) Geography Outside the Classroom. Sheffield: GA. Lidstone, J. ( 1988) Teaching and learning geography through fieldwork', in R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Developing Skills in Geographical Education. Brisbane: IGUCGE/Jacaranda, pp. 53-9. May, S. and Cook, J. ( 1993) An Enquiry Approach (Fieldwork in Action 2). Sheffield: GA. May, S., Richardson, R and Banks, V ( 1993) Planning Fieldwork (Fieldwork in Action). Sheffield: GA. Thomas,T and May, S. ( 1994) Managing Out-of-Classroom Activities (Fieldwork in Action 3). Sheffield: GA.

Fien, John (b.1951). A graduate of the University of London (MA) and the University of Queensland (BA, Ph.D.), John Fien is Director of the Centre for Innovation and Research in Environmental Education at Griffith University, Australia. His research includes studies of nature conservation in Australia, environmental education within conservation non-governmental organizations, environmental attitudes of young people in the Asia-Pacific region, environmental learning and public participation, and innovative approaches to professional development. He was Editor of Geographical Education (198595), President of the Australian Association for Environmental Education (1990-2), and founder of the Australian Federation of Societies for Studies of Society and the Environment, the main professional development group in social and environmental education in Australia. Two of the earlier texts which he co-edited had a major impact in setting directions for socially critical geography: Teaching Geography for a Better World (1988) and, formalizing the study of pedagogy in geography education, The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom (1982, 1986). His research and professional development activities in environmental education have helped shape the development of theory and practice of education for sustainability (e.g. Environmental Education: A Pathway to Sustainability (1993); Education for the Environment: Critical Curriculum Theorizing and Environmental Education (1993); Teaching for a Sustainable World (1995); and Learning for 64

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Friends of the Earth

a Sustainable Environment (1997). He is a Global Education Partner of the World Resources Institute, USA, and a member of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Commission on Education and Communication. Final Report (DES 1990). The Final Report of the Geography Working Group (GWG) (DES 1990) defined the attainment targets, programmes of study and means of assessment for the emergent Geography National Curriculum (GNC). The report was more favourably received than the GWG's previous Interim Report in 1989 as it had succeeded in reducing the previous amount of geographical content by condensing three 'place' attainment targets into one, enhancing the status of environmental geography, and encouraging enquiry learning of social, economic and political aspects of geography. Direct intervention by the Secretary of State for Education in the drafting of the subsequent Statutory Orders for geography meant that many of the improvements to the geography curriculum witnessed in the Final Report were removed before the publication of the GNC. DES ( 1990) Geography for Ages 5-16. Final Report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO.

fitness for purpose. The choice of the form of assessment strategy adopted to collect evidence of attainment must fit the purpose for which it is used. formative assessment. Providing feedback from assessment that can be used for educational purposes, rather than for narrowly bureaucratic purposes such as grading and rank ordering (cf. summative assessment). Formative assessment is part of daily teaching and learning and aims to further the educational progress of children by providing helpful information about what they know, understand and can do. It is therefore diagnostic, using formal and informal assessment methods to identify the next educational steps that children should take. SCAA ( 1996) Consistency in Teacher Assessment: Key Stage 3 Exemplification of Standards: Geography. London: SCAA.

foundation subject. The National Curriculum prescribed in 1988 was composed of core subjects (English, Maths and Sciences) and foundation subjects (technology, PE, a modern foreign language (MEL), history, geography, art and music). Initially the core subjects had to be taught from Key Stages 1 to 4, as did technology, PE, history, geography, art and music, with MEL being compulsory in Key Stages 3 and 4. Subsequent revisions to the National Curriculum following the Bearing Report (1994) and the curriculum reappraisal exercise conducted by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in 1999, have tended to reduce the significance of geography within the curriculum, particularly at Key Stages 1 and 2. free market. A market in which prices are a result of unrestricted competition. Friends of the Earth. A pressure group which was established in 1971 to promote the cause of environmental awareness and protection. mail: 26/28 Underwood Street, London N l 7JQ tel: 020 7490 1555 email: [email protected] website: vwvw.foe.co.uk THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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FSC

FSC. See Field Studies Council. further education. A stage of education beyond the statutory age of schooling, but usually considered to refer to education below degree level (higher education).

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G GA. See Geographical Association. Gaia. The Gaia theory was formulated by Lovelock in 1969 and applies the ecosystem concept to the entire biosphere covering the Earth. The Earth is seen as a self-regulating organism that controls the maintenance of life on the planet. It supports the idea that in all ecosystems there are both positive and negative feedbacks between the abiotic and biotic components and that some of the negative feedbacks act to restrict change within the system. This selfregulation of ecosystems occurs between the organisms and environment. The key idea is that humans endanger the natural balance that occurs within most ecosystems because they increase the positive feedbacks and therefore threaten to ruin the equilibrium which exists in the biosphere. Lovelock,]. E. (1988) Galo: A New Look at Life on Earth, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

games. Used in the teaching of geography to present pupils with an active learning experience. Often linked with role plays and simulations, which serve similar purposes of promoting active learning, games were first developed within geography education in the 1960s. Cole, J. R ( 1966) Geographical Games. Nottingham: University of Nottingham (Geography Department). Dalton.T, Minshull, R., Robinson, A. and Garlic,]. (1972) Simulation Games in Geography. London: Macmillan. Walford, R. ( 1969) Gomes in Geography. Harlow: Longman. Walford, R. ( 1986) 'Games and simulations', in D. Boardman (ed.), Handbook for Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA, pp. 79-84. Walford, R. ( 1988) 'Games and simulations', in D. Mills (ed.), Geographical Work in Primary and Middle Schools. Sheffield: GA, pp. 142-6.

GCE. See General Certificate of Education. GCSE. See General Certificate of Secondary Education. GDN. See Geography Discipline Network. gender. The socially and culturally defined difference between men and women; sex being the biologically determined difference. Gender can be used to provide an expression of the various roles and responsibilities of the sexes and the THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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General Certifícate of Education

relationships which exist between these roles. The focus on gender within geography is often related to issues concerning unequal access to employment, transport, ownership of property, education and power. The trend has been for gender studies in geography to challenge assumptions about the roles of the sexes; for example equating female worlds with the home and domesticity and male worlds with the public domain and paid employment. Atkinson,]. ( 1992) 'How are women in the Third World portrayed in geography textbooks?' Teaching Geography, 17(4), 179-80. Bale,]. ( 1982) 'Sexism in geographical education', in A. Kent (ed.) Bias in Geographical Education. Sheffield: GA, pp. 3-10. Bramwell, J. ( 1987) 'Pupils' attitudes towards geography in the lower school: an investigation into gender issues'. Geography, 72( I ), 46-8. Connolly, J. ( 1992) 'Geography: equal opportunities and the National Curriculum', in K. Myers (ed.), Genderwatch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 143-6. Larsen, B. ( 1983) 'Geography', in j. Whyld (ed.), Sexism in the Secondary Curriculum. London: Harper and Row, pp. 165-78. Monk,J. ( 1996) 'Partial truths: feminist perspectives on ends and means', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education:The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 274-86. Monk, J. and Williamson-Fien, J. ( 1986) 'Stereoscopic visions: perspectives on gender - challenges for the geography classroom', in J. Fien and R. Gerber (eds), Teaching Geography for a Better World. Brisbane: AGTA/Jacaranda, pp. 186-220.

General Certifícate of Education (GCE). Introduced following the Norwood Report (Board of Education 1943) and the 1944 Education Act - the GCE replaced the School Certificate with a series of single-subject examinations in 1951. The GCE Ordinary Level (O Level) was originally designed to assess the top 20-30 per cent in academic subjects and was aimed at pupils in grammar and public schools. The Crowther Report (1959) questioned the viability of the GCE to serve the needs of all abilities and the enhanced status it afforded those subjects assessed. In 1965, the introduction of a dual examination system at 16, with the launch of the Certifícate of Secondary Education (CSE), extended the means of examining and assessing. The CSE measured a wider range of skills and abilities, and included a Mode 3 examination, whereby the geography department/teacher devised the syllabus and scheme of the examination, subject to moderation by the board. The CSE subsequently influenced the form of the geography O Level, with many boards introducing course work assessment, projects and teacher assessments. In the early 1970s a drive by the Schools Council to combine the examinations at 16+ was eventually achieved nationally in 1986 with the introduction of the General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE). Board of Education ( 1943) Curriculum and Examinations in Secondary Schools. (Norwood Report). London: HMSO. Crowther Report ( 1959) Report to the Minister of Education's Central Advisory Council:'15 to 18'. London: HMSO.

General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). Replaced the GCE Ordinary Level (O Level) and Certifícate of Secondary Education (CSE) in 1986 by creating one examination designed to suit virtually all abilities. It is normally taken at the age of 16 after completing a two-year course of full-time 68

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GeoAct/Ve

study. The examination arose from the concern amongst politicians, educationists, employers and parents that the previous examination system was divisive because of the small proportion of children who aspired to the 'academic' qualification of O Level. All pupils now receive one certificate and follow a similar syllabus, although recent changes have brought into question the viability of the GCSE - namely the introduction of vocational qualifications such as the General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ) and the 'tiering' of existing GCSEs by ability, similar to the previous division of examinations. The inclusion of compulsory coursework in the GCSE was considered an important step forward, although dispute about the percentage of such coursework has continued since the inception of the examination. General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ). Introduced in 1992 through the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ), aiming to provide vocational skills and knowledge for students who wished to progress into employment or university. GNVQs cover three levels (Foundation, Intermediate and Advanced) and can be awarded as pass, merit or distinction. Based in schools, rather than the workplace, GNVQs focus upon attainment rather than vocational competence (cf. National Vocational Qualification (NVQ)). The Part One GNVQ offers a vocational option for pupils at Key Stage 4 and is available at Foundation and Intermediate levels. After an initial pilot this qualification was offered to schools nationally in September 1999, causing an immediate impact on the number of candidates choosing to opt for the geography General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) in a number of schools (see vocational education). General Teaching Councils for England (GTCs) and the General Teaching Council for Wales (GTCW), were established in September 2000 to maintain a register of qualified teachers in England and Wales. All teachers in maintained schools are required to register. The Councils seek to maintain and improve standards of professional practice and conduct within schools and advise the government on a variety of educational issues. mail: General Teaching Council, MWB Exchange, Greycoat Place, London, SWIP I SB tel: 0207 960 6264 email: [email protected]

GENIP. See Geographic Education National Implementation Project. genre. A type, classification, or category. In English language teaching the term genre often refers to a writing style, but can be applied more widely to include aspects of speech and forms of text. In geography education, broader definitions of genre are often applied (see audience). GeoActive. A quarterly magazine published for General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE)-level geography students by Stanley Thornes Publishers. mail: Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, Ellenborough House, Wellington Street, Cheltenham, Gloucester, GL50 I YD tel: 01242 267278 THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Ceofile

Geofile. A quarterly magazine published for General Certifícate of Education (GCE) Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level geography students by Stanley Thornes Publishers. mail: Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, Ellenborough House, Wellington Street, Cheltenham, Gloucester; GL50 I YD tel: 01242 267278

Geographic Education National Implementation Project (GENIP) (USA). A consortium of major geographical associations in the USA who are committed to the improvement of the quality and status of geography education. Organized as a project in 1985, its origins arise from a booklet called Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools, which was produced jointly by the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) and Association of American Geographers (AAG) in the preceding year. The booklet outlined five themes for geography education, which influenced the geography national standards published a decade later (see Geography for Life: The Geography National Standards). GENIP develops policies relating to geography education, creates curriculum materials, promotes the use of information and communications technology (ICT) in geography, provides support for teachers and develops the use of the standards for geographical studies throughout American schools. A series of publications on themes, key ideas and learning opportunities in geography have been produced by GENIP since its inception. mail: c/o Association of American Geographers, 1710 Sixteenth Street, NW, Washington DC 20009-3198, USA tel: 001 202234 1450 website: www.genip.tamu.edu

Geographical Abstracts. Geographical Abstracts provide a collection of abstracts of articles, authors and a key word index of geography. Geographical Analysis. A journal, first published in 1969 at Ohio State University, which was initially designed to focus on the conceptual and theoretical changes occurring in geography at the time. It maintains a theoretical focus and is produced quarterly. Geographical Association (GA). Founded in 1893, the national subject teaching organization for geography in the UK. It has around 11,000 members and local branches throughout England, Wales and Northern Ireland. A variety of working parties, working groups and section committees operate through the voluntary efforts of teachers, advisers, lecturers and educationists. Its major services to members include the production of journals (Primary Geographer, Teaching Geography and Geography), publications, the maintenance of local branches, and the provision of regional and national conferences annually. The GA strives to provide curriculum support for geography teachers at all levels to extend and safeguard geography's contribution to education. It provides specialist help and information on all aspects of geography and geography teaching. Balchin.W (1993) The Geographical AssoaationThe First Hundred Years 1893-1993. Sheffield: Geographical Association. mail: Geographical Association, 160 Solly Street, Sheffield, S l 4BF tel: 01 142960088 70

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Geographical Journal email: [email protected] website: www.geography.org.uk

Geographical Association of Zimbabwe. Founded in 1966, it publishes the Geographical Journal of Zimbabwe. mail: c/o Department of Geography, University of Zimbabwe, Box MPI 67, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe tel: 00 263 4 30321 I email: [email protected]

Geographical Education. Established in 1969, the journal of the Australian Geography Teachers Association (AGTA). Its purpose is to promote the effective teaching and study of geography in Australian schools and provide a forum for the expression of opinions on matters relating to geography education. geographical information systems (GIS). A computer-based system used to acquire, store, retrieve and analyse data within a previously defined area. The sort of data gathered can vary tremendously but they should be capable of being mapped using a computer and usually involve a series of information overlays, the relationship between the data then becoming apparent by the map produced. GIS are often constructed using satellite data, which have particular advantages in informing resource and environmental management. The commercial applications of GIS are numerous and the demand for GIS skills within the workforce has somewhat outstripped the capacity of educational systems to cope with their provision. The focus of GIS is spatial analysis and mapping, and as such its relevance to geography education is clear. As Newcombe (1999) states, 'Linking data to maps, interrogating the data, determining appropriate methods of display and most importantly analysing this spatial output has the potential to transform the teaching and learning of geography at all levels.' Debate exists as to the most appropriate ways to introduce GIS into geography education, although there is some agreement about the need for exemplary curriculum materials, in-service training for teachers, and equity of access to GIS among students. The balance between content-based GIS education and skills-oriented technical training still has to be resolved. Some commentators favour using GIS to solve real geographical problems based on local data - this, they believe, enhances the development of geographical skills but also uses previously acquired geographical knowledge and understanding within a constructivist pedagogy. Audet, R. and Paris, J. ( 1997) 'GIS implementation model for schools: assessing the critical concerns'. Journal of Geography, 96(6), 293-300. Heywood, I., Cornelius, S. and Carver, S. ( 1998) An introduction to GIS. London: Longman. Keiper.T. ( 1999) 'CIS for elementary students: an inquiry into a new approach to learning geography'. Journal of Geography, 98(2), 47-59. Newcombe, L ( 1999) 'Developing novice teacher ICT competence1. Teaching Geography, 24(3), 128-32. Pickles,], (ed.) Ground Truth: The Social Implications of GIS. New York: Guilford Press. Sui, D. ( 1995) 'A pedagogic framework to link GIS to the intellectual core of geography'. Journal of Geography, 94(6), 578-89.

Geographical Journal. Published three times per year by the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), it contains articles on human, physical and environmental geography. The Geographical Journal was first published in 1893. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Geographical Magazine

Geographical Magazine. First published in 1935 by the Royal Geographical Society (RGS). It is produced monthly and contains a variety of articles of interest both to geographers and to the general public. Geographical Review (USA). A geographical journal of the American Geographical Society (AGS). First published in 1916 as the American Geographical Review and now produced quarterly. Geographical Society of Ireland. Founded in 1934, promotes the teaching, learning and research of geography within education. It publishes the journal Irish Geography. mail: Geographical Society of Ireland, c/o Dr Gerald Mills, University College, Belfield, Dublin, Eire

tel: 00 353 I 7068229

email: [email protected] website: www.ucd.ie/-geograph/gsi.html

geographical vocabulary. The phrase used in the 1995 Geography National Curriculum (GNC) which refers to the specialist terms in geography that pupils should know, understand and be able to use at different Key Stages. Although not exhaustive or definitive, the terms supplied give some guidance as to the nature of the expected vocabulary of the child and how he or she should use it. For example at Key Stage 3 (11-13) as well as stating some exemplar terms, the curriculum indicates that pupils should be able to use their geographical vocabulary to explain geographical patterns and change, and to investigate relationships. geography. Seeks to explore the relationship between the Earth and its peoples through the study of place, space and environment. In particular it is the study of human and physical phenomena, especially their distribution and pattern in space at a variety of scales. The discipline is generally regarded as involving a breadth of description, analysis, synthesis and evaluation, often drawing upon other disciplines. As such the subject is often seen as forming a bridge between the humanities and physical sciences. The study of the location of physical and human features on the Earth, as well as the processes and systems which have created them, is fundamental to geography. In addition an appreciation of the patterns and relationships created between people and places in a spatial context is essential. Environmental aspects of the interrelationship of human and physical activities have become increasingly important, with particular reference to resource use and depletion, as well as social, economic, political, welfare and cultural aspects of their use. Geography is studied at a variety of spatial scales: local, regional, national, international and global. It places great importance on the study of change and employs a variety of skills to pursue questions and issues that concern people and their environments. The nature of geography as a discipline', in Final Report (DES 1990), p. 6. PERSONAL VIEWS ON GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE In recent years a number of geographers have published their personal views on the nature of geography as a discipline. In some cases these are virtually 72

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Geography 14-18 autobiographical accounts of the lives of the academic geographers who have written them: Bird, J. ( 1989) The Changing Worlds of Geography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Buttinnen A. ( 1983) The Practice of Geography. London: Longman. Gould, R ( 1985) The Geographer at Work. London: Routledge. Haggett, R ( 1990) The Geographer s Art. Oxford: Blackwell. Johnston, R. ( 1986) On Human Geography. Oxford: Blackwell. Stoddart, D. ( 1986) On Geograph/. Oxford: Blackwell. Unwin.T. ( 1992) The Place of Geography. Harlow: Longman.

VIEWS ON GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION Walford, R. and Haggett, R ( 1995) 'Geography and geographical education: some perspectives for the 21 st century'. Geography, 80(3), 3-13. Walford, R. (1996) 'Geography 5-19: retrospect and prospect', in E. Rawling and R. Daughterly (eds), Geography into the Twenty First Century. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 131-43. DES ( 1990) Geography for ages 5-/ 6. Final report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO

Geography. One of the three journals of the Geographical Association. It publishes predominantly scholarly and research-based articles for teachers of geography at all levels of education, but is perhaps primarily of interest to those teaching at post-16 and degree level. The journal was first published in 1901 as The Geographical Teacher and appears quarterly. Geography 14-18 Project (or Bristol Project). Established in 1970 at the University of Bristol as a programme of curriculum development to make geography a more intellectually demanding and enjoyable subject for more able pupils. It was initially given funding by the Schools Council for two years of research before the actual project started. Rejecting previous approaches to curriculum development it sought to fully involve teachers in each stage of the initiation, planning, development, trialling and assessment of materials produced. A major aim was that the geography curriculum should be in an almost constant state of renewal and reassessment to become almost selfsustaining. An Ordinary Level (O Level) examination was devised and taught from 1972, when the project was expanded from its original ten pilot schools to regional, and eventually national, dissemination. Funding from the Schools Council ended in 1975, significantly affecting the further curriculum development associated with the project. A joint O Level and Certifícate of Secondary Education (CSE) (16 +), as well as a Mode 3 CSE, were devised by the project in the early 1980s. A national conference is held annually for centres entering candidates for the existing syllabus. (Cf. Geography for the Young School Leaver.) Orrell, K. ( 1985) 'Geography 14-18', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. London: Palmen pp. 85-98. Reynolds,]. (1972) 'Curriculum change and the Schools Council Geography 14-18 Project'. Area, 4(2), 128-31. Toi ley, H. and Reynolds, J. ( 1977) Geography 14-18: A Handbook for School Based Curriculum Development. London: Macmillan. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Geography 16—19

Geography 16-19 Project. A curriculum development project established in 1976 with funding from the Schools Council at the University of London, Institute of Education. Its aim was to involve teachers and students in curriculum development in geography with particular emphases on establishing a route for enquiry learning and values enquiry, as well as an Advanced Level (A Level) (16-19) examination in geography and clear links to vocational courses. A variety of books, pamphlets, occasional papers and software packages have been published in relation to the project. Funding from the Schools Council stopped in 1983, but the project was taken up by the Secondary Examinations Council (SEC) and School Curriculum Development Committee (SCDC). The Geography 16-19 Project developed as a response to a changing sixthform student body, where more students were staying on within full-time education, and the changing nature of academic geography as a discipline. Like the Geography 14-18 Project, it sought to fully involve teachers and education lecturers as curriculum developers to reconsider the objectives, content and teaching methods used in geography education post-16. Piloting, support and consultative arrangements were established nationally by the project in 1977. In addition, a clear curriculum framework was devised for the development of a syllabus, which was adopted by the London GCE Board, and related geography education materials. Due to its innovative approach to geography teaching and assessment the Geography 16-19 Project achieved rapid uptake of A Level candidates in the 1980s and early 1990s, becoming the UK's most popular A Level geography syllabus in 1992. The project also had a substantial influence on the form of development of many A Level geography syllabuses and specifications during the 1990s. Hones, G. ( 1991 ) 'Geography 16-19', in R. Walford (ed.), Viewpoints on Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman, pp. 46-7. Naish, M. ( 1985) 'Geography 16-19', in D. Boardman (ed.), New Directions in Geographical Education. London: Palmen pp. 99-1 15. Naish, M., Rawling, E. and Hart, C. ( 1987) Geography 16-19: The Contribution of a Curriculum Development Project to 16-19 Education. Harlow: Longman.

Geography Advisory Group. The Dearing Report (1994) on the National Curriculum necessitated the creation of a small Geography Advisory Group, under the auspices of the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA). This group was established to advise on the reduction of the content, complexity and prescription of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) and suggest arrangements for its assessment at each Key Stage (see Geography National Curriculum). geography co-ordinator. A teacher within a primary school charged with the responsibility of co-ordinating the programme of teaching and learning in the Geography National Curriculum (GNC). Teaching experience and subject expertise within geography vary considerably amongst those teachers who have been appointed as co-ordinators; however, the main responsibilities of the role are usually understood to involve clarifying and planning the geography programme, managing resources, measuring pupil progress, making cross phase and cross Key Stage links, and providing support to other colleagues. A geography policy statement to inform parents, governors and inspectors about 74

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Geography for Life:The Geography National Standards

how geography is taught in the school is a statutory requirement for all primary schools; this is usually devised by the geography co-ordinator, having gained the views of other staff and senior management. Catling, S. ( 1993) 'Co-ordinating geography'. Primary Geographer, 14, 10-1 I. Krause, J. ( 1998) The geography co-ordinator1, in R. Carter (ed.), Handbook of Primary Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 99-109. Krause, J. and Garnen W ( 1997) Geography Go-ordinator's Pack. London: BBC Education.

geography criteria (A and AS Level). For the creation of Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) specifications by awarding bodies (QCA 1999). These establish the geography content to be included in geography A/AS Levels, which was similar to the core devised in 1993, and require coverage of physical geography, human geography and people-environment interactions in all geography specifications. Work at a range of scales and in different contexts (including the UK and countries in various states of development), as well as investigative work using both primary and secondary sources, is expected in both the A and AS Level geography specifications. The maximum weighting for internal assessment in geography A level was increased to 30 per cent, with specifications at both A and AS Level highlighting opportunities for developing and assessing key skills (although only the key skill of communication contributes to the assessment of geography at A and AS Level). The criteria also include grade descriptions for A Level grades A, C and E. QCA ( 1999) Revised Subject Gritería for AS and A level: Geography. London: QCA. Geography Discipline Network (GDN). A UK-based organization which seeks to improve the quality of teaching and learning of geography in higher education nationally and internationally. It aims to promote research, exchange materials and ideas, stimulate dialogue and generally raise the profile and status of geography in higher education. mail: Cheltenham and Gloucester College of HE, Francis Close Hall, Swindon Road, Cheltenham, GL50 4AZ

tel: 01242 543364

email: [email protected] website: www.chelt.ac.uk/gdn

Geography Education Outreach (USA). Aims to instil and improve geography education in US schools on behalf of the National Geographic Society. The organization publishes a newsletter called Update, which includes geographical teaching material, policy statements, and general and professional development information. The main work of the Geography Education Outreach programme is conducted by numerous geographic alliances across the USA, the District of Columbia in Canada and Puerto Rico. A Geography Awareness Week has been organized since 1987. mail: National Geographic Society, I 145 17th Street NW,Washington DC 20036-4688, USA tel: 00 I 202 81 3 979 6845 email: [email protected]

Geography for Life: The Geography National Standards (USA). These standards, published in 1994, establish what every American child should know, understand and be able to do in geography by years 4, 8 and 12. There are six 'essential elements', which encompass a total of eighteen geography Standards: THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Geography for the Young School Leaver

• • • • • •

The world in spatial terms Places and regions Physical systems Human systems Environment and society Uses of geography

The aim of the Geography National Standards is to help to produce geographically informed individuals who see meaning in the arrangement of phenomena on the Earth's surface; who appreciate the relationship between people, place and environment; who can use geographical skills; and who can apply geographical understanding to their lives. The Standards were developed as a response to the Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994. Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL). A curriculum development project, initially funded in 1970 by the Schools Council for a period of three years, which was later extended until 1985. With the demise of the Schools Council in 1982 the Secondary Examinations Council (SEC) continued to fund and support the project until 1988. Initially GYSL was a geography curriculum project for average and below-average pupils, instigated at a time of change for geography and in preparation for the raising of the school leaving age (RoSLA) in 1973-4. GYSL development was based at Avery Hill College of Education, which eventually gave its name to the subsequent syllabus, curriculum materials and examination produced. One remit was to produce schemes of work and supporting resources that could be used in subject or interdisciplinary ways. Importantly, GYSL looked at changes both in geography and in the curricular needs of children. First examined through a regional Mode 3 Certifícate of Secondary Education (CSE) and eventually nationally as an Ordinary Level (O Level), the GYSL examination differed from other O Levels at the time by including a substantial amount of coursework. A variety of published materials, a current examination at General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) level that still bears the name of the Avery Hill project, and the fact that the Schools Council research indicated that in the 1970s at least one person was making some use of GYSL materials in half of the secondary schools in England and Wales, testify to its importance. A national conference for those centres entering candidates for the GCSE examination is currently held annually. (Cf. Geography 14-18 Project.) Boardman, D. ( 1988) The Impact of o Curriculum Project: Geography for the Young School Leaver. Educational Review Occasional Publications 14. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Gill, D. ( 1984) 'GYSL: education or indoctrination?' Contemporary Issues in Geography and Education, I (2), 34-8. Higginbottom.T ( 1980) 'Geography for the Young School Leaver', in E. Rawling (ed.), Geography into the 1980s. Sheffield: GA, pp. I 1-20. Parsons, C. (1988) The Curriculum Change Game: A Longitudinal Study of the Schools Council GYSL Project. London: Palmer

Geography Inset Primary Project (GIPP). Established in 1990, based at the Department of Education, University of Liverpool under the directorship of Bill Marsden. 76

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Geography National Curriculum

Its aim was to support primary schools in coming to terms with the then new Geography National Curriculum (GNC). GIPP provided school-based in-service education and training (INSET), courses and conferences for primary teachers as well as a national mailing of Guidesheets and articles for Primary Geographer. In association with its local education authorities (LEAs) in the North-west of England, it produced publications for teachers, the Geographical Association (GA) and the National Curriculum Council (NCC). Marsden.W and Hughes, J. (eds) ( 1994) Primary School Geography. London: Fulton. Geography National Curriculum (GNC). Devised following the confirmation of the subject's place within the National Curriculum for England and Wales after the publication of the Education Reform Act 1988. A Geography Working Group (GWG) was convened in May 1989 to produce an Interim Report (DES 1989) by the end of October, following guidelines about the structure of the curriculum already devised by the Task Group on Assessment and Testing (TGAT) in 1987. The Interim Report outlined the programmes of study and attainment targets for geography across the four Key Stages from 5 to 16. It received widespread criticism from teachers and educationists in that it strongly emphasized the study of prescribed locations and heavily defined the geographical content that had to be taught. A Eurocentric and developed-world bias was detected, with little reference to interdependence. Of concern to many was the apparent lack of emphasis on enquiry learning and values and attitudes, an implicit rejection of the advances many felt had been made through the Geography 14-18, Geography 16-19 and Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL) projects. Seven attainment targets revealed an overlap of content, potential assessment difficulties and a lack of clear progression. After public consultation a Final Report (1990) was produced which was more favourably received. Three 'place' attainment targets had been condensed into one, environmental geography was enhanced, and enquiry learning of social, economic and political aspects of geography was encouraged. Further advances were made following the public consultation which resulted from the production of a Consultation Report by the National Curriculum Council (NCC) in November 1990. The final stages in the development of the Geography National Curriculum were the production of Draft Geography Statutory Orders, and finally Statutory Orders, in 1991. A change of Secretary of State for Education at the time saw a late revision of the geography curriculum to re-emphasize the learning of factual content, reduce the emphasis on affective and enquiry learning, and narrow the range of geographical skills. Key Stages 1, 2 and 3 of the Geography National Curriculum were introduced to schools in England and Wales in the autumn of 1991. The phased introduction of Key Stage 4 geography, for those pupils who would opt for it, was planned for the autumn of 1994; however, the subsequent Bearing Report (1994) removed this final stage of the GNC, which was already causing timetabling difficulties and forcing schools to consider implementing short courses in geography and history. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Geography Review

The Dealing Report saw the creation of a small Geography Advisory Group, under the auspices of the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA), which was charged with the task of reducing the content, complexity and prescription of the GNC and making arrangements for its assessment at each Key Stage. The Advisory Group suggested: • a reduction in the number of attainment targets to one (now simply called 'Geography'); • a reduction in the range of skills, places and themes to be taught, although these were to stay in the programmes of study as separate sections; • provision of choice within the geography content; • that knowledge, understanding and skills should be clearly stated and show progression; • that the programmes of study should not overlap. The revisions to Key Stage 3, being the last compulsory geography education that many children would now receive, were perhaps the most difficult. The revised Geography National Curriculum was subsequently published in 1995 (DFE 1995) and implemented in schools in the same year. A review of the National Curriculum for England and Wales was conducted in 1999, which resulted in further changes. The new GNC (DffiE 1999) followed the common structure and design devised for all twelve National Curriculum subjects, incorporating a section on 'breadth of study' - namely the contexts, activities, areas of study and range of experiences through which the knowledge, skills and understanding should be taught - and an overview of what pupils should learn during each Key Stage. Information in the margins of each page of the geography programmes of study detailed non-statutory information such as definitions of words and phrases, suggested opportunities for the use of information and communications technology (ICT) and key links with other subjects. A concluding section on locational knowledge, giving examples of 'significant places and environments', is provided and contains reference to the British Isles, Europe and the world at Key Stages 2 and 3. DES ( 1989) Geography for Ages 5-16. Interim Report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO. DES ( 1991 ) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DFE ( 1995) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DfEE ( 1999) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. Walford, R. and Machon, R (eds) ChallengingTimes: Implementing the National Curriculum in Geography. Cambridge: Cambridge Publishing Services. website: www.nc.uk.net

Geography Review. A magazine written specifically for Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) students, although it may sometimes be read by geography undergraduates. It features articles of general interest to geographers and contains contemporary case studies on various themes in geography. Geography Review is published five times per year. mail: Philip Allan Publishers Ltd, Market Place, Deddington, Oxfordshire, OX 15 OSE tel: 01869 338652 78

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Geography Schools and Industry Project (GSIP). Established by the Geographical Association (GA) in 1984 to identify how geography teachers could help students in the 11-16 age range increase their economic understanding. The project sought to involve geography teachers and other adults in the development and dissemination of activities that promoted economic and industrial understanding (EIU) through geography. It originally operated as a partnership between local education authorities (LEAs), teachers, industry, commerce and services, and was co-ordinated by a small team based at the University of Oxford Department of Educational Studies. GSIP helped geography teachers to contribute to students' economic understanding through geography and cross-curricular lessons; LEA advisers to organize in-service education and training (INSET); and initial teacher training (ITT) lecturers to include the theme in their courses. Geography Working Group (GWG). Established in May 1989 to advise the Secretary of State for Education on the attainment targets, programmes of study and associated assessment arrangements for geography in the National Curriculum following the passing of the Education Reform Act (1988). The group, whose twelve members were drawn from a variety of fields both within and outside the educational world, was chaired by Sir Leslie Fielding and was charged with the task of submitting an Interim Report (DES 1989) to the Secretary of State by 31 October 1989, outlining the contribution which geography should make to the whole curriculum, as well as provisional thoughts on attainment targets, programmes of study and profile components for geography. The work of the group was pressurized by time constraints and by differing views on the importance of various aspects of contemporary geography education, for example the role of enquiry learning. In its initial stages the group concentrated on defining the nature and aims of geography and on drafting attainment targets, though these led to later problems in assessment. The GWG was widely believed to have quickly arrived at a set agenda of concerns about the nature of geography education in schools, which some argued amounted to a 'deficit model' of the subject. The key concerns of the group, which emerged in the Final Report (DES 1990, p. 5), were: • the lack of geography teaching in primary schools • the lack of exposure of some children to geography by 16 • the uneven geographical knowledge about locations, places and environments of some children • broad thematic studies reducing a full understanding of place • the lack of understanding of geographical concepts, patterns and processes • • • •

the lack of physical geography the lack of environmental geography the role of enquiry methods of learning the lack of coherent planning of case studies, areal coverage, and skills in the geography curriculum

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geology

• poor integration of content, skills and themes • overemphasis on affective rather than cognitive learning The work of the GWG ended with the publication of its Final Report in June 1990. This subsequently formed the basis of the Geography Statutory Orders and the Geography National Curriculum published in 1991. DES ( 1989) Geography for Ages 5-16. Interim Report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSQ DES ( 1990) Geography for Ages 5-16.Final Report of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO. DES ( 1991 ) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. DFE ( 1995) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO.

geology. The scientific study of the Earth's crust, the rocks of which it is composed, their structure and the development of these over time. Geology is often subdivided into its two major categories of physical and historical geology. geomorphological processes. Listed in the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) at Key Stage 3, they include rivers or coasts; rock types and weathering in landform development, and hazard management; and physical features of the Earth as related to processes of formation and geology. Geomorphology. A journal devoted to publishing research articles about geomorphology. GeoVisions Project. Established in 1998 at the Development Education Centre (DEC) (Birmingham) to bring together educators and people outside formal education to (1) reflect and raise debate about the future needs of 5- to 19-yearolds, and (2) consider how school geography could contribute to the development of capabilities in young people and in the education system to satisfy these needs. Its aim is to look to longer-term curriculum developments, rather than modifications to the current curriculum, and initially focused on the question of what form of geographical education is needed for the twenty-first century. The group has disseminated its thoughts through the Birmingham DEC website, contributions to conferences, workshops, and articles in geography education magazines. Garten R., Robinson, R. and Sinclair S. ( 1998) The GeoVisions Project'. Teaching Geography, 23(4), 201-2. GeoVisions Project Team ( 1999) 'Co-operative research'. Teaching Geography, 24(2), 70-1. Robinson, R, Garten R. and Sinclair; S. ( 1999) 'Wiser people - better world?' Teaching Geography, 24(1), 10-13. email: [email protected] website: www.tidec.org

Gerber, Rod (b.1945). An Australian educator who has had a career of more than thirty years in geography education as a secondary teacher, lecturer, teacher educator, head of department and school, and dean of faculty. He has been a full member and chair of the International Geographical Union's Commission on Geographical Education (1988-2000). He has been president of the Queensland Geography Teachers' Association, the Royal Geographical Society of Queensland Inc. and the Australian National Committee for Geography. Among his awards have been the Thomson Medal for outstanding contribution to 80

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global warming

geography education, the Cox-Gerber award from the Geography Teachers Association of Queensland (GTAQ) and the Fellowship of the Australian Mapping Services Institute. He has an extensive research record in geography education. A wide range of publications have emanated from this research including the Jacaranda Atlas Programme and geography textbooks for school students; teacher textbooks, including The Geography Teachers' Guide to the Classroom', geography education reference books, including Developments and Directions in Geographical Education', Fieldwork: Reflections, Perspectives and Action', and Using Maps and Graphics in Geography Teaching', and an extensive range of book chapters and journal articles. He co-edits the journal International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. Rod Gerber is best known for his research on learning in geography education, especially involving graphics, and professional lifelong learning. gifted. A term used for individuals who have mental characteristics which allow them to acquire knowledge, understanding and skills considered to be advanced either implicitly, or because of the developmental stage at which they are acquired. Usually giftedness is used to refer to advanced cognitive abilities displayed through some aspect of performance, creativity or achievement. Lists of qualities of gifted pupils vary, but often refer to one or more of the following: overall intellectual ability, academic aptitude, creativity, leadership, ability in visual or performing arts, and psychomotor ability. Giftedness is sometimes considered to be a special educational need (SEN), although it is explicitly excluded from the Code of Practice. Grenyer, N. ( 1983) Geography for Gifted Pupils. Harlow: Schools Council/Longman. Grenyer; N. ( 1986) 'Bright pupils', in D. Boardman (ed.), Handbook for Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA, pp. 171-5.

GIPP. See Geography Inset Primary Project. GIS. See geographical information system. glaciation. The effects on an area of being covered by an ice sheet or glaciers. global. Anything that occurs worldwide is termed global, for example geographical processes (physical, human and/or environmental) which have a measurable impact at the world scale. global warming. The gradual increase of average atmospheric temperatures worldwide through a variety of processes, often loosely referred to as 'the greenhouse effect'. Agreement on the causes and effects of global warming is not yet unanimous, although evidence of increase in temperature is now accepted as being the result of human activity such as the burning of fossil fuels. Natural processes also have a significant influence on climate change. The effects will be a rise in sea levels due to the melting of the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and unpredictable climatic events. Increases in surface temperature and the prediction of associated effects is problematic. Solutions include the reduction of 'greenhouse gases' (such as carbon dioxide) and restricting global deforestation. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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globalization

globalization. A process of increasing liberalization of world trade and investment, although the term is also used loosely to refer to the effects of this process and to enhanced communications worldwide. These effects may be wide-ranging such as increasing the gap between rich and poor, reducing job security in the developed world, and exacerbating the economic problems of less-developed countries. In essence globalization may be seen as having economic, cultural, technological, social and political dimensions. The reduction of trade barriers, and the existence of virtual free trade conditions for goods and services, have meant that transnational companies are now often more powerful and wealthy than certain countries. globe. A spherical model of the Earth which shows either its physical or its human phenomena - for example, environmental and political versions of globes are currently produced. Recently, inflatable globes have become popular, as well as globes with surfaces that can be written on for illustrative purposes. Globes and atlases are used as complementary resources in geography education, the former being especially helpful in the development of children's understanding of the relationship between the round Earth and a flat world map. GNC. See Geography National Curriculum. GNVQ. See General National Vocational Qualification. Goad Plans. Land-use maps of town centres within the UK at a scale of 1:1056. They are detailed enough to provide a useful base plan for various fieldwork activities and include the names of major retailers, banks, hotels, etc. present when the map was drawn. mail: Experian Goad Ltd, 8-12 Salisbury Square, Old Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 5BJ.

Goals 2000: Educate America Act (USA). A series of educational targets set by US President Bush and agreed by 50 State governors in February 1990. These placed a high priority on achieving educational basics delivered through a curriculum based upon the study of English, maths, science, history and geography. Six national education goals were initially defined (two more being added in 1994) to be achieved by the year 2000. These included a commitment to raising the percentage of high school graduates, improving basic standards of literacy and numeracy, excellence in science and maths and that American adults should be literate in the workings of a global economy and exercise their rights and responsibilities as US citizens. The additional goals related to teachers becoming reflective practitioners and parents playing a greater role in educational partnerships. (Goals 2000 is also referred to as 'America 2000', 'National Educational Goals' and 'The Educate America Act'.) grade. A number or letter which indicates a level of student performance. graph. A diagram usually representing the relationship between two (or more) variables, as shown by plotting their values as distances from a pair of axes (x and y) usually drawn at right angles to each other. By convention the dependent variable is plotted on the y axis (vertical), while the independent is plotted on the x axis (horizontal).The resultant graph is a collection of points, often joined by a line or represented by bars, whose co-ordinates represent this relationship. 82

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graphicacy. The ability to conceptualize and represent spatial phenomena by the use of maps, charts, plans, photographs, images, diagrams and/or graphs. Together with literacy, numeracy and oracy, the spatial and visual skills of graphicacy are sometimes recognized as creating the four basic foundations of education. Balchin, W. and Coleman, A. ( 1965) 'Graphicacy should be the Fourth Ace in the Pack1. TES. 5 November. Balchin, W. ( 1996) 'Graphicacy and the primary geographer'. Primary Geographer, 24,4-6. Blades, M. and Spenser; C. ( 1987) 'Map use by young children'. Geography, 71(1), 47-52. Boardman, D. ( 1983) Graphicacy and Geography Teaching. London: Groom Helm. Matthews, M. H. ( 1986) 'Gender; graphicacy and geography'. Educational Review, 38(3), 259-71.

graphical techniques. Introduced at Key Stage 3 of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) within the section on geographical skills. Pupils must select and use appropriate techniques to present evidence on maps and diagrams, such as pie charts and choropleth maps. Graves, Norman (b.1925). Graduated at the London School of Economics and Political Science after an eight-year period in the Post Office Engineering Department (now British Telecom). He taught in grammar, technical and comprehensive schools for ten years, then became a lecturer in education at the University of Liverpool. In 1963 he was appointed head of the Geography Department at the Institute of Education, University of London. Norman became a Reader in 1974 and Professor of Education in 1978, a title that was changed to Robert Ogilvie Professor of Geography Education in 1980. He was appointed Pro-Director (Professional Studies) of the Institute of Education from 1984 to 1990. He became a member of the International Geographical Union's Commission of Geographical Education from 1968, and its chairperson from 1972 to 1980. From 1970 to 1975 he chaired the Schools Council's Geography subject committee. He is bilingual (French/English) and has served as a visiting professor at l'Université Laval in Quebec and the University of British Columbia and has lectured widely in France and at international conferences. He was geography adviser to the Curriculum Development Institute in Singapore from 1981 to 1986. He has written such books as Geography in Education (1975) and Curriculum Planning in Geography (1979), as well as books on education in general such as The Education Crisis: Which Way Now? (1988). He has edited a number of books, including New Movements in the Teaching of Geography (1972); New UNESCO Sourcebook for Geography Teaching (1982); Initial Teacher Education: Policies and Progress (1990); Learner Managed Learning (1993); Working for a Doctorate (1997); and Education and the Environment (1998). He is particularly interested in the influence of the disciplines of education on geographical education and is currently researching the history of geography textbooks. Great Debate. Following a speech at Ruskin College, Oxford, on 18 October 1976, the then Prime Minister James Callaghan launched the so-called Great Debate on education. This was followed by a series of regional conferences and a Green Paper called 'Education in Schools' in 1977. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Great Debate

The Great Debate is connected to the eventual establishment of a National Curriculum; however, the period of time between the speech and the implementation of the new curriculum rules out a direct causal link. The importance of the Great Debate is that it symbolized the right of a government to take a direct lead in determining the existence of a national curriculum for schools; a fact underlined by the creation of the first Geography National Curriculum (GNC) in 1991 (see Yellow Book). DES ( 1976) School Education in England: Problems and Initiatives. London: HMSO. Greenpeace. Formed in 1971 to campaign internationally for the conservation of the environment and the protection of endangered species. Recent campaigns have focused on the prevention of whaling; the trade in endangered species; nuclear power and processing; and acid rain. grid reference. A point on a map determined by using an arbitrary grid which has been drawn on the surface of the map for that purpose. Most maps use a Cartesian system, where the point is found by stating the intersection reference of two lines drawn at right angles to each other in a grid system. The lines are numbered eastwards (Eastings) and northwards (Northings) from a point in the south-west corner of the grid and are referred to in that order. Grid references are either 'four-figure', which locates an entire grid square by reference to the intersection of grid lines in its south-west corner, or 'six-figure', which gives an exact point of reference on the map. Alphanumeric grid codes are also used, particularly within atlases and A-Z maps, to provide a simple alternative to 'four-figure' referencing of grid squares. grounded theory. Based on data, rather than on logical deduction, it is generated through the act of carrying out research, and is not developed before data are collected and analysed. The theory, or theories, are therefore 'grounded' in the data gathered. Glazer, B. and Strauss, A. ( 1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago: Aldine. Tilbury, D. and Watford, R. ( 1996) 'Grounded theory: defying the dominant paradigm in environmental education research', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education:The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 5 1-64.

group work. Usually established to try to foster collaborative learning. Group work often involves children working together on a task or question to gain the benefits from co-operation, discussion, clarification, negotiation, sharing and constructing knowledge. GSIP. See Geography Schools Industry Project. GTC. See General Teaching Council. GWG. See Geography Working Group. GYSL. See Geography for the Young School Leaver.

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H Haggett, Peter (b. 1933). A Cambridge graduate, he started his academic career at University College London, followed by a period at Cambridge University. From 1966 he held the chair of urban and regional geography at the University of Bristol, a position he achieved in his early thirties. He has served as a visiting professor at a number of North American and Australasian universities and is a gold medallist of both the Royal Geographical Society and the American Geographical Society. His books include Geography: A Modern Synthesis (1972); Locational Analysis in Human Geography (1965); and The Geographer's Art (1990). Two of his texts which strongly influenced geography education in the late 1960s and 1970s, Frontiers in Geographical Teaching (1965) and Models in Geography (1967), were written with Richard Chorley. Peter Haggett is perhaps best known for his influence on the methodological revolution which occurred in British geography in the 1960s. Hall, David (b. 1931). Graduated from Oxford, began his career in the oil industry and then taught in France. Returning to the United Kingdom he taught in secondary schools for over a decade before taking a higher degree (including research into the curriculum in social sciences in North America in the postSputnik era) at the University of Southampton. In 1970 he moved to a lectureship in the School of Education at the University of Bristol, where he led the PGCE geography course and taught about curriculum theory for higher degrees. David contributed to research and development work for the Schools Council and its successors, in particular the Geography 14-18 Project, Geography 16-19, and Computers in the Curriculum, and as evaluator for the World Studies 5-13 Project. He was also chief examiner for geography at A Level with two examination boards, and latterly worked as the comparative scrutineer of syllabuses and procedures of examination boards in geography at A Level. Since retirement he continues consultancy and examining work, currently as chief moderator at A Level, as external examiner for PGCE, and extensively for the International Baccalaureate. David wrote Geography and the Geography Teacher (1975), numerous research reports on curriculum and assessment, articles in the Times Educational THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Haubrich

Supplement, and in geography journals of education. His major interests and modes of thought are perhaps best exemplified in his chapters in Charney Manor Conference Papers (Walford 1991 Viewpoints in Geography Teaching) and in Rawling and Daugherty's (1996) Geography into the Twenty-first Century. The former reviews the changing philosophy of the subject curriculum, the latter the culture and politics of assessment at A Level. Rawling, E. and Daugherty, R. (eds) Geography into the Twenty-first Century. Ch¡ehester: Wiley. Walford, R. ( 1991 ) Viewpoints on Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman. Haubrich, Hartwig (b. 1932). Gained his Ph.D. at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, before becoming Professor of Geography and Didactics at the Pedagogical University at Freiburg, in Germany, in 1972. He has initiated a wide variety of national and international projects relating to geography education and as the chair of the Commission for Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union (IGU) he developed the first International Charter on Geographical Education in 1992. In addition, as chair of the Association of Educational Geographers in Germany, he established the Basislehrplan Geographie (Basic Geography Curriculum) in 1980. In 1996 he chaired the Leipziger Erklärung, a commission of German Geography Associations for the promotion of geoscience education. Hartwig Haubrich has written some 300 articles on geography education which have been translated into twelve languages. His books include International Focus on Geographical Education (1982), a survey of the developments in geography education in 30 countries from five continents; Didaktik der Geographie (1998), which is currently the most widely read book on geography education in Germany; and Geographie hat Zukunft (1999) (Geography Has a Future). hazard. A natural or human event which is perceived as a possible threat to people, property and nature. Hazards may lead to sudden changes in environmental conditions (such as an earthquake) or their effects may only be revealed over time (such as the long-term effects of dumping chemical waste). They are often hard to predict in terms of their scale, frequency, duration, spatial coverage and human impacts. head of geography. A title usually given to the teacher who organizes a geography department in a secondary school (cf. geography co-ordinator). Many geography departments are classed as being part of a larger humanities faculty which may include subjects such as history and religious education. Geography departments vary in size according to the size of the school and the popularity of the subject; therefore a head of geography may run a department of only one or two teachers, or up to possibly twelve or thirteen in a very large comprehensive school. The responsibilities of a head of geography, which may be subject to some delegation, usually include resourcing, planning of the geography timetable, organization of the department's field courses, examination entries, financial organization and general management and administration. Bailey R and Fox, R (eds) ( 1996) Geography Teachers'Handbook. Sheffield: GA. Powell, A. (ed.) ( 1997) Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: GA. Wiegand, R (ed.) ( 1989) Managing the Geography Department. Sheffield: GA. 86

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Head Start (USA). A programme in operation in the United States since 1965 which aims to give children from disadvantaged backgrounds support at the pre-school stage (age 3-5). Over 90 per cent of children within these programmes are from families who live below the poverty line; programmes include early education schemes but also health and social care provision, and parenting advice. Hicks, David (b.1942). Professor in the Faculty of Education at Bath Spa University College, where he is responsible for courses on educating for the future, education for sustainability and radical education. He taught geography in schools before directing the World Studies 8-13 Project in the 1980s, and then moving into initial teacher education. He is internationally recognized for his work on the need for a global and futures perspective in the curriculum, concerns which have been welcomed by many geography educators over the last twenty-five years. His doctoral thesis in 1980 was on racism in geography textbooks, and he contributed to Fien and Gerber's Teaching Geography for a Better World (1986) and the Geographical Association's Handbook of Primary Geography (1998). His most recent books are Visions of the Future: Why We Need to Teach for Tomorrow, with Cathie Holden (1995), and Futures Education: The World Yearbook of Education 1998 (1998). hidden curriculum. The learning to which children are subjected that is not laid down in the formal school curriculum. Sometimes the term is used to highlight aspects of behaviour or attitudes and values imbued that are not intended by the school, but result from a child's attendance at school. Higginson Report (1988). The Higginson Committee recommended changes to the post-16 curriculum and examinations in English and Welsh schools and colleges. It advocated that the majority of students should study five 'leaner and tougher' Advanced Level (A Level) syllabuses, thus broadening their educational experience. Although the committee had been established by the government of the day, the Secretary of State for Education refused to implement its recommendations, introducing instead a number of new Advanced Supplementary (now Advanced Subsidiary) or AS Level examinations. DES (1988) Advancing A Levels (Higginson Report). London: HMSO. 'high order' questions. Posed to ensure that students use thinking and reasoning abilities that involve high order skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Often such questions are open in structure and extend beyond the need for simple recall and comprehension. Carter, R, (ed.) ( 1991 ) Talking about Geography: The Work of Geography Teachers in the National Oracy Project. Sheffield: GA.

High School Geography Project (HSGP). A curriculum development project which began in the United States in 1962. It developed as a result of academic geographers, educators and teachers meeting at various conferences to create a curriculum proposal for geography education within secondary schools. The model for curriculum development was superficially similar to that used later within the Schools Council Geography 14-18 and 16-19 Projects, where THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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'high stakes' assessment

seconded teachers developed materials supported by academic geographers and educators. A variety of geography units were developed for the project, each of which considered the ways in which children would learn most effectively and the geographical content that it was important to teach. Although the High School Geography Project provided a direct stimulus to the creation of the Geography for the Young School Leaver (GYSL) materials, its adoption in the United States was somewhat disappointing, partly as a result of conservatism towards curriculum development within secondary schools. Hellburn, N. ( 1983) 'Reflections on the High School Geography Project', in J. Huckle (ed.), Geographical Education: Reflection and Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 20-8. Rolfe, J. ( 1971 ) The completion of the American High School Geography Project'. Geography, 56(3), 216-20. StoltmanJ. (1976) 'Student perception of teacher style: the effects of the High School Geography Project', in J. Stoltman (ed.), International Research in Geographical Education. Kalamazoo, Ml: IGUCGE/Western Michigan University, pp. 89-1 14.

'high stakes' assessment. Involves a significant outcome associated with candidate performance. For example, Advanced Level (A Level) and General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) may be considered to be 'high stakes' assessments as the results of such examinations are regularly used to determine university places, further education opportunities and employment prospects. Daugherty, R. ( 1990) 'Assessment in the geography curriculum'. Geography, 75(4), pp. 289-301. higher education. The courses, usually offered by universities, for which degrees, or other advanced qualifications, are awarded (cf. further education). Hill, A. David (b.1933). Until recently, Professor Emeritus of Geography and former Chair of the Department of Geography, University of Colorado (UC) at Boulder. His Ph.D. (1964) is from the University of Chicago. He initiated the Colorado Geographic Alliance and has served as its co-ordinator since 1986. In 1988, he began the Center for Geography Education in the Department of Geography, UC Boulder, and served as its director. David Hill directed nine science education projects, eight of which were funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), and ten summer geography institutes for pre-collegiate teachers. With a grant from the National Science Foundation (1990-4) he developed Geography Inquiry into Global Issues, twenty instructional modules for secondary level geography, published by Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corporation in 1995. Beginning in 1998, he was co-director of the NSF-funded Activities and Resources for the Geography of the World (ARGWorld) project and high school team leader for NASA's Mission Geography project. He served on the steering committee of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Geography Assessment Project, and on the oversight committee of the National Geography Standards Project and chaired that project's International Committee. David was a member of the Task Force for Colorado's Model Content Standards in Geography. He was also the US regional correspondent for the International Geographical Union's Commission on Geographical Education. David Hill's honours include the National Geographic Society's Distinguished Geography Educator Award (1990), the George J. Miller Award 88

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for Distinguished Service from the National Council for Geographic Education (1990), the Honors Award of the Association of American Geographers (1992), Distinguished Faculty Mentor Award of the National Council for Geographic Education (1994), and Honorary Fellowship of the IGU Commission on Geographical Education. He retired from the University of Colorado in 1999. histogram. A graph of the frequency of distribution of scores as represented by their varying heights as rectangular bars, the widths of which are constant. historical geography. The branch of geography concerned with the study of the real, perceived or theoretical past as it impacts on geographical phenomena. homework. Work which pupils undertake outside normal school hours. Debate continues as to the educational merits of setting children homework: some believe that it is important in establishing working regimes and enabling teachers to deliver curricula within the limitations of a crowded school timetable; others question its educational value and its influence on children's time. In geography, good practice with regard to homework-setting usually means extending the work of the pupil beyond the mere continuation of routine tasks from the classroom. Homework should ideally integrate with the geographical work that has gone before, but also exploit materials and resources in the environment and community outside the school, and encourage independence, research, creativity and initiative. The promotion of co-operation and involvement of parents and other adults in the learning process is also to be encouraged (DES 1987). Balderstone, D. and Lambert, D. ( 1999) 'Sunday evening at the kitchen table'. Teaching Geography, 24(2), 89-91. DES (1987) Homework A Repon by Her Majesty's Inspectorate. Education Observed 4. London: HMSO. Grimwade, K. and Martin, F. ( 1997) Homework in Geography. Geography Guidance Series. Sheffield: GA.

Huckle, John (b. 1943). Trained as a teacher at the College of St Mark and St John in Chelsea. After a period of teaching in Yorkshire he became a lecturer at Bedford College of Education (subsequently Bedford College of Higher Education and De Montford University, Bedford). On retiring from De Montford University in 1997 he became a part-time tutor on South Bank University's M.Sc. in Environmental and Development Education. For much of this time John was an associate of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), writing curriculum and teacher education materials and carrying out consultancies in other parts of the world, particularly China. John is best known for challenging the legacy of positivism in school geography and helping to introduce more critical approaches to geographical and environmental education. After writing a Masters dissertation and several articles on values education, he became interested in the politics of school geography and the potential of humanistic and radical geographies to provide a more relevant and empowering education for young people. In the book he edited in 1983, Geographical Education: Reflection and Action, he advocated a socialist school geography and his commitment to an ecological socialism shaped all his subsequent work. It can be seen in What We Consume (1988-92), THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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the curriculum he developed for WWF, and in Reaching Out (1995), WWF's programme of professional development for teachers. In seeking appropriate critical theory and pedagogy, John became increasingly interested in critical realism and its potential to shape an Education for Sustainability (Huckle and Sterling (eds), 1996) between modernism and postmodernism. human geography. A major division of the discipline of geography (the others being physical geography and, more recently, environmental geography). Human geography studies the impact of people on space, place and environment, in both the past and the present. The interrelationship of people with both the natural and social environments, at a variety of spatial scales from local to global, is central to human geography. Gregory, D. and Walford, R. (eds) ( 1989) Horizons in Human Geography. London: Macmillan. Massey, D. and AllenJ. (eds) ( 1984) Geography Matters! Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Peet, R. and Thrift, N. (eds) ( 1989) New Models in Geography. London: Unwin Hyman.

human rights. On 10 December 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Set out in 30 articles, the declaration outlines the equal and inalienable rights of people to live in conditions of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The declaration was designed to be 'disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally in schools and other educational institutions, without distinction based on the political status of countries or territories'. Article 26 refers specifically to education, stating: (1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups and shall further activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. Barrs, D. ( 1993) The National Curriculum, geography teaching and the United Nations', in C. Speak and P Wiegand (eds), International Understanding Through Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 45-9. Burnley, j. ( 1988) Teaching for human rights in geography', in J. Fien and R. Gerber (eds), Teaching Geography for a Better World Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, pp. 61-79. Starkey, H. ( 1991 ) The Ghallenge of Human Rights Education. London: Cassell/Council of Europe.

humanistic geography. Includes a wide range of philosophical approaches to geography. The term broadly describes their focus on people as sentient beings, rather than simple responders to environmental stimuli. As such, many humanistic approaches aim to develop original philosophies for the understanding of geographical and social-scientific phenomena, rather than adopting philosophies which have previously been developed in other areas. Concepts of hermenuetics, which are concerned with the creation of understanding rather than explanation, are often associated with humanistic geography. 90

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The subjectivity of the actors within their social settings is commonly agreed within humanistic geography. This contrasts with positivistic approaches and their belief in objective evidence. Thus perception, creativity, experience, values and beliefs are seen as centrally important in the relationships that people form with each other and with their environment. Within humanistic geography, the three most commonly accepted variations are idealism, existentialism and phenomenology. humanities. A varied group of subject disciplines, often including geography, history and certain social studies. In addition, art, languages, literature, music, philosophy and theology are also included within the humanities. In some secondary schools the study of humanities, including elements of geography, is still practised. However, the advent of a subject-based National Curriculum in the early 1990s often saw the removal of humanities as a timetabled 'subject' in many schools. hydrology. The study of the occurrence, movement and use of water on or beneath the Earth's surface. The concept of the hydrological cycle is central to the study of hydrology. Here water is seen to be in continuous circulation from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface and back again via a number of routes. Precipitation from the atmosphere therefore supplies water to the oceans, lakes, rivers and groundwater; from here water transfers to the atmosphere by the processes of evaporation and evapotranspiration; water vapour in the atmosphere then condenses into clouds, returning again to the Earth's surface as precipitation.

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I lASA. See Improving America's Schools Act. IB (International Baccalaureate). See baccalauréat. IBG. See Institute of British Geographers. iconic representation. A Brunerian concept relating to our visual sensory memory. It refers to an individual's representation of the world through the use of images and concrete examples in order to understand or remember aspects of it. Communication within the iconic mode would typically involve a person using pictures, images and diagrams - for example drawing a person a sketch map of streets and landmarks to offer directions to a place. Bruñen J. ( 1960) The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruñen J. (1966) Studies in Cognitive Growth. Oliver and Greenfield.

ICT. See information and communications technology. ideologies (educational). Sets of ideas, or abstract speculations, which encapsulate beliefs and traditions about education. Such ideologies can offer somewhat distorted views which often seek to promote the beliefs of a particular interest group within education. In geography education it is rare to find geography teachers, or departments, which function from just one ideological stance. Nonetheless much of what is taught and planned within geography owes some implicit allegiance to some educational ideology or another. Skilbeck's (1976) four educational ideologies are outlined below. It must be remembered that these ideologies overlap and may not apply to education in any literal sense which might be implied by their simplification here: 1. Classical humanism: education visualized as a process of handing on cultural heritage, traditional values and subject knowledge. This ideology is sometimes viewed as being narrowly elitist and overly academic. 2. Progressivism: child-centred, with childhood seen as an important stage in itself as opposed to being merely a stage before adult life. Discovery learning and providing children with educational choices and options are seen as being important within this approach. 3. Utilitarianism: the purpose of education is primarily seen as the preparation of children for a useful life in society. This often narrows into an expectation that schools should instruct and train children for employment and advancing the state's economy. 92

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inclusion By doing so, it is argued, this will bring personal wealth and happiness to the individual through consumerism. 4. Reconstructionism: education seen as a vehicle for reconstructing society along more fair and just lines. The aim is for the individual to achieve the means to live harmoniously within society. This ideology focuses on moral and social values as well as highlighting the means to change society. Other educational ideologies exist which mirror to some extent those outlined by Skilbeck, for example Miller's (1983) traditional knowledge-based teaching, teaching for enquiry and decision-making skills, and teaching for social transformation; and Kemmis et al.'s (1983) vocational/neo-classical orientation, liberal/progressive orientation, and socially critical orientation.

(See classical humanism, progressive education, utilitarian education, reconstructionist education.) Fien, J. ( 1999) Towards a map of commitment: a socially critical approach to geographical education'. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(2), pp. 140-58. Kemmis, S., Cole, Rand Suggett, D. ( 1983) Orientations to Curriculum and Trans/'t/ons: Towards the Socially Critical School. Melbourne:Victorian Institute for Secondary Education. Miller; J. ( 1983) The Educational Spectrum: Orientations to Curriculum. New York: Longman. Skilbeck, M. (1976) 'Ideologies and values', in S. Dale (ed.), Curriculum Design and Development. Milton Keynes: Open University. Skilbeck, M. (1982) Three educational ideologies', in T Morton and R Raggatt (eds), Challenge and Change in the Curriculum. London: Hodder and Stoughton, pp. 7-18. Walford, R. ( 1981 ) 'Language, ideologies and geography teaching', in R. Walford.(ed.), Signposts for Geography Teaching. Harlow: Longman, pp. 215-22.

idiographic. The description and elucidation of individual cases, situations or phenomena because they are unique (cf. nomothetic). Idiographic approaches involve the study of particular events and phenomena such as through the use of case studies, which may lead to a descriptive, factual and inductive style of geography education. Explanation may be closely linked to description within such approaches. IEP. See individual education plan. IGU. See International Geographical Union. impairment. The physical or mental aspect of a person which may inhibit their functioning (for example visual impairment, or hearing impairment). Improving America's Schools Act (IASA) (USA). Formerly the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, it aims to improve the educational experience of poor and disadvantaged children in the United States. It also provides finances for the professional development of teachers concerning their approaches to teaching and supporting children from such backgrounds. inclusion. The education of special educational needs (SEN) children within mainstream schools, whereby they are integrated into the curriculum of the school regardless of their disability. In many cases partial inclusion occurs, where a pupil is integrated for the majority of lessons but may be exempt from some or be withdrawn at certain times for special tuition. Often the use of support teachers enables pupils to stay with mainstream classes but receive specialist tuition. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Indian Geographical Society

Within a section on 'General teaching requirements', The National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) supplies information on inclusion and the provision of effective learning opportunities for all pupils. Three principles for inclusion are outlined as: setting suitable learning challenges; responding to pupils' diverse learning needs; and overcoming potential barriers to learning and assessment for individuals and groups of pupils. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers. London: HMSO. Indian Geographical Society. Founded in 1926, the society publishes the Indian Geographical Journal. mail: c/o Dr S. Subbiah, Department of Geography, University of Madras, 600 005, India tel: 00 9 1 445368778

individual education plan (IEP). An outline of both a specific and a general programme of education for a child with special educational needs (SEN). induction. A period when support is offered to a pupil or teacher. Newly qualified teachers (NQTs) have an induction year in maintained schools which is statutory and combines support, monitoring and assessment of performance as a new teacher. Arrangements involve the use of a career entry profile (CEP) compiled during initial teacher training (ITT), a lighter timetable for the year and opportunities to watch experienced teachers at work. National standards exist for assessment of performance. DfEE (1999) Induction Arrangements for New Teachers in England: A Brief Guide. London: HMSO. Ellis, B. (ed.) (1997) Working Together: Partnership in the Education of Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA.

industrial geography. A branch of economic geography which particularly focuses upon the study of the functioning, location and distribution of manufacturing industries. industry. Work conducted for economic profit; a collective term for manufacturing. infant. For the purposes of primary education, a child aged between 5 and 7 years is referred to as an infant, although the term 'early years' is often favoured for this age group. inferential statistics. The use of statistical methods and techniques to determine whether one is justified in making generalizations from sample data about a larger population. Inferential statistics indicate the probability that relationships between data occur by chance, making use of measurements of statistical significance to indicate the extent of this probability. Norcliffe, G. ( 1977) Inferential Statistics for Geographers. London: Hutchinson.

information and communications technology (ICT). A wide range of technology currently used in schools, businesses and the home. Generally the term refers to microcomputers (portable and desktop); software packages (word processors, databases, spreadsheets); input devices (keyboards); output devices (monitors, printers) and storage devices (see Compact Disc Read Only Memory). The communications aspect of ICT refers to the facility of computers to be networked through the world wide web, the internet and email. However, in its broadest sense ICT may also refer to tape recorders, fax machines, telephones, video machines, televisions, satellite television and overhead projectors. 94

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The Geography National Curriculum (GNC) (DffiE 1999) makes explicit reference to the use of ICT within geography education across the Key Stages. For example at Key Stage 3, in the section on developing geographical skills, it states that pupils should be taught: d. to select and use secondary sources of evidence, including photographs (including vertical and oblique aerial photographs), satellite images and evidence from ICT-based sources [for example from the internet] e. to draw maps and plans at a range of scales, using symbols, keys and scales and to select and use appropriate graphical techniques to present evidence on maps and diagrams, including using ICT [for example using mapping software to plot the distribution of shops and services in a town centre] f. to communicate in different ways, including using ICT [for example, by writing a report about an environmental issue, exchanging fieldwork data using email] g. decision-making skills, including using ICT [for example, by using a spreadsheet to help find the best location for a superstore]. Other ICT opportunities are also provided in the margins of the GNC as nonstatutory guidance. Geography educators have been interested in the developments of IT and ICT within their subject from the very inception of the technology. ICT has the potential to make a significant contribution to pupils' learning in geography as well as enabling geography teachers to keep up to date with subject knowledge and pedagogy, access varied resources and data, and provide flexible teaching approaches. A number of projects linking ICT and geography have successfully run over the past twenty-five years, one of the most recent of which was the Geography ICT Support Project (see below). MATERIALS PRODUCED BY THE GEOGRAPHY ICT SUPPORT PROJECT Hassell, D. and Warner; H. (eds) ( 1995) Using IT to Enhance Geography: Case Studies at Key Stages 3 and 4. Coventry/Sheffield: NCET/GA. NCET ( 1994) Geography and IT: Investigating Weather Data: A Resource Book for Teachers Using Weather Data. Coventry: NCET NCET (1995) Geography and IT: Investigating Aspects of Human Geography. Coventry: NCET NCET/GA ( 1994) Geography and IT: Shopping and Traffic Fieldwork. Coventry/Sheffield: NCET/GA. NCET/GA (1996) Geography: A Pupil's Entitlement for IT (Primary and Secondary). Coventry/Sheffield: NCET/GA. NCET/GA ( 1996) Investigating Aspects of Human Geography. Coventry/Sheffield: NCET/GA. All the above titles are available from BECTa, who can also supply a list of CD ROMs for geography (1998). Barnett, M., Kent, A., Milton, M. ( 1995) /mages of Earth: A Guide to Remote Sensing in Geography at Key Stage 3 and GCSE. Sheffield: GA. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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information processing BBC/OS ( 1997) Teaching Today: Geography and IT. London: BBC/OS. Davidson,], and Krause, J. (eds) ( 1992) Geography, IT and the National Gurhculum. Sheffield: GA. Durbin, C. and Sanders, R, ( 1996) 'Geographers on the internet'. Teaching Geography, 21(1), 15-18. Freeman, D ( 1997) 'Using information technology and new technologies in geography', in D. Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 202-17. Freeman, D, Green, D. and Hassell, D. ( 1994) 'A guide to geographical information systems'. Teaching Geography, 19( I ), 36-7. Kent, A. ( 1992) The new technology and geographical education', in M. Naish (ed.), Geography in Education: National and International Perspectives. London: University of London Institute of Education, pp. 163-76. Martin, F. and Smith, C. ( 1996) What can CD ROMs do for us?' Teaching Geography, 21 ( I ), 21 -3. Phillips, A. ( 1997) 'Managing IT in post-16 geography', in A. Powell (ed.), Handbook of Post-16 Geography. Sheffield: GA, pp. 73-8. QCA ( 1995) Key Stage 3: IT and the National Curriculum: Geography and IT. London: SCAA/QCA. Taylor, L ( 1997) 'Using the World Wide Web as a geography resource'. Teaching Geography, 22(1), I 1-15. Warner, H. ( 1997) 'Planning for progression in IT activities'. Teaching Geography, 22(1), 38-9.

information processing. A theory of learning, based on perception and memory, which is influenced by concepts in computer technology. Computer functions represent and replicate those of the brain in terms of short-term memory (STM) analysing information and storing it; and long-term memory (LTM) - storing abstracted rather than verbatim information (see learning theories). initial teacher training (ITT). Or, perhaps more correctly, initial teacher education, a generic term for the first stage of training of prospective teachers towards an award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). In recent years ITT has undergone a series of reforms intended to make it more accountable and to change the location for much of the training, taking it away from higher education and moving it into schools. In England and Wales ITT occurs through a variety of courses - undergraduate courses such as B.Ed., B A or B.Sc. with QTS, which combines subject and professional studies with practical teaching in schools; or at graduate level a one-year Postgraduate Certifícate of Education (PGCE). The former is the most common route to becoming a primary teacher, the latter for secondary teaching. A small number of schoolcentred initial teacher training (SCITT) courses also exist, as well as routes into teaching on part-time, distance- and employment-based schemes. All teachers have to pass an induction year in schools once they have become newly qualified teachers (NQTs) to ensure they maintain their QTS. All ITT courses are of standard length, have national curricula which currently apply to the core subjects and ICT, and involve close partnerships with training schools. ITT is currently overseen by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA), a government body charged with the responsibility of improving teacher training, teaching and school leadership, raising the status of the teaching profession, teacher supply and recruitment. Bale,], and McPartland, M. (1986) 'Johnstonian anarchy, inspectorial interest and the undergraduate education of PGCE geography students'.Journo/ of Geography in Higher Education, 10(1), 61-70. Ellis, B (ed.) Working Together: Partnership in the Education of Geography Teachers. Sheffield: GA. 96

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Institute of Australian Geographers Inc. Foskett, N. ( 1994) 'What are we going to do with our student teacher?' Teaching Geography, 19(1), 26-9. Hacking, E. ( 1996) 'Novice teachers and their geographical persuasions'. IRGEE, 5( I ), 77-86. Lambert, D. (1996) 'Understanding and improving school geography: the training of beginning teachers', in M.Williams (ed.), Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education:The Role of Research. London: Cassell, pp. 230-41. Leat, D. ( 1996) 'Geography student teachers and their images of teaching', IRGEE, 5( I ), 63-8. Marsden.W. ( 1994) 'Geography in primary initial teacher education: the developing agenda1, in B. Ellis (ed.), /ssues and challenges for ITE in Geography: Geographical Association Teacher Education Working Group. Sheffield: GA, pp. 6-8. Roberts, M. ( 1996) Teacher education and training', in R Bailey and R Fox (eds), Geography Teachers' Handbook. Sheffield: GA, pp. 315-23. Rynne, E. and Lambert, D. ( 1997) The continuing mismatch between students' undergraduate experiences and the teaching demands of the geography classroom: experience of pre-service geography teachers'.Journo/ of Geography in Higher Education, 21(1), 65-77.

in locoparentis. Literally, 'in place of the parent', it describes the responsibility of teachers and schools in the UK to act responsibly, and with reasonable care, towards the children they educate. In geography education the notion of the geography teacher being in loco parentis may have particular significance with regard to residential or day field activities. In accordance with health and safety legislation, teachers will make decisions about the suitability of fieldwork practices, but will also have responsibilities for the well-being of children in their care when they are engaged in educational experiences beyond the boundaries of the school. in-service education and training (INSET). Short courses or day conferences run to enhance the professional development of teachers. INSET arose due to criticisms of much of the teaching profession for its inability to update and enhance professional knowledge, understanding and skills after a period of initial teacher training (ITT). Courses are usually offered by local education authorities (LEAs) and increasingly by university departments of education (UDEs), or individual educational consultants. The secondment and funding of teachers on longer continuing professional development courses, previously undertaken by the LEAs, has now largely stopped. Williams, M. ( 1988) 'Continuing education of geography teachers', in R. Gerber and J. Lidstone (eds), Developing Skills in Geographical Education. Brisbane: IGUCGE/Jacaranda Press, pp. 231-44. Williams, M. ( 1988) The in-service education and training of geography teachers in England and Wales', in M.Williams, O. Biilmann and R. Gerber (eds), Towards Models of the Continuing Education of Geography Teachers. Brisbane: IGUCGE/Brisbane College of Advanced Education., pp. 131-50. Williams, M. ( 1991 ) 'Staff development and INSET', in R Wiegand (ed.), Managing the Geography Department. Sheffield: GA, pp. 91 -102.

INSET. See in-service education and training. Institute of Australian Geographers Inc. Established in 1958 to promote the study and discussion of geography in Australia through conferences and a journal, Australian Geographical Studies. mail: Institute of Australian Geographers Inc, c/o School of Geography, Population and Environmental Management, Flinders University of South Australia, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001,Australia website: www.ssn.flinders.edu.au/geog/iag/welcome/htm THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Institute of British Geographers

Institute of British Geographers (IBG). Founded in 1933, and located in the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) buildings in Kensington, following its merger with the RGS in January 1995, IBG is an organization for academic geographers within Britain. As well as publishing two journals (Area and Transactions), the IBG seeks to hold conferences, create study groups and encourage membership from postgraduates working in the field of geography. mail: Royal Geographical Society (with Institute of British Geographers), I Kensington Gore, London, SW7 2AR tel: 020 7591 3000 email: [email protected] website: www.rgs.org

integration. The teaching of children with special educational needs (SEN) alongside those without such needs in mainstream schools. Integration is somewhat different to inclusion, which refers to selected involvement in mainstream education. intelligence. The capacity to think and reason rationally, to function within and to understand one's surrounding environment. Definitions of intelligence are wide-ranging, involving considerations of intelligence as a single concept, or of 'multiple intelligences'. Most believe that functioning effectively, communicating and interacting purposefully with others in the same environment are important considerations. The ability to solve problems is included in most definitions. Gardner (1994) originally outlined eight varieties of intelligence: interpersonal; intra-personal; bodily-kinesthetic; musical; spatial; logico-mathematical, verbal and naturalistic. Two other varieties were later added (spiritual and existential). Debate still continues as to the balance of the influence of the key factors in the determination of intelligence, namely genetics and environment (see nature-nurture debate). Gardner H. ( 1994) The theory of multiple intelligences', in B. Moon and A. Shelton Mayes (eds), Teaching and Learning in the Secondary School. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, pp. 38-46.

interdependence. The interrelationship between elements within a system, where a change in one of the elements may create a change in one or more of the other elements. For example, the removal of a trophic layer within an ecosystem will have an impact on its food web, due to the interdependence of these elements. The term is commonly used for the relationship between economically less developed countries (ELDCs) and economically more developed countries (EMDCs). Interim Report (DES 1989). Under its terms of reference the Geography Working Group (GWG) was required to submit an Interim Report on geography in the National Curriculum to the Secretary of State for Education by 31 October 1989. This report defined both the nature and aims of geography as well as the attainment targets and programmes of study for the subject. Following consultation, the group sought to address some of the commonly perceived weaknesses within the report, namely its overloaded content, over specification of areas to be studied, difficulties with progression and lack of attention to assessment. The Interim Report contained eight Attainment Targets, which were reduced to seven in the Final Report (1990), five in the Statutory Orders (1991) and, eventually, one (simply called 98

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Geography) in the 1995 revision of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) (DFE 1995). DES ( 1989) Geography for Ages 5-16. Interim Repon of the Geography National Curriculum Working Group. London: HMSO. DFE ( 1995) Geography in the National Curriculum: England. London: HMSO. Roberts, M. ( 1990) 'Redrawing the map'. Times Educational Supplement, I 3 April.

international. Involving, or relating to, two or more nations. International Charter on Geographical Education. Endorsed by the General Assembly of the International Geographical Union (IGU) in 1992, and published in 21 languages in 1994, the charter represents the basis on which sound geography education in all countries should be maintained. The Preface of the Charter (reproduced below) outlines the main views of the IGU, while sections of the Charter refer to 'Challenges and responses'; 'Questions and concepts in geography'; 'The contribution of geography to education'; 'Content and concepts of geographical education'; 'Principles and strategies for implementation'; and 'Proclamation'. Preface The Commission on Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union, Convinced that geographical education is indispensable to the development of responsible and active citizens in the present and future world, Conscious that geography can be an informing, enabling and stimulating subject at all levels in education, and contributes to a lifelong enjoyment and understanding of our world, Aware that students require increasing international competence in order to ensure effective co-operation on a broad range of economic, political, cultural and environmental issues in a shrinking world, Concerned that geographical education is neglected in some parts of the world, and lacks structure and coherence in others, Ready to assist colleagues in counteracting geographical illiteracy in all countries of the world, Supporting the principles set out in: • the Charter of the United Nations; • the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; • the Constitution of UNESCO; • the UNESCO Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace; • the Declaration on the Rights of the Child; and • many national curricula and statements on geographical education, commends this International Charter on Geographical Education to all people of the world.

International Geographical Union (IGU). A member of the International Council for Scientific Unions and promoter of geography and geography education worldwide. It holds a major congress every four years and regional meetings in between. The IGU publishes the journal International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education (IRGEE). tel: 00 49 228 7392 87 email: [email protected] website: wNAAW.igu.net.org/igu-ugi THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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International Journal of Geographical Information Systems

International Journal of Geographical Information Systems. Established in 1986 as a focus for research on geographical information systems (GIS). It appears monthly (except in February, August and November), and in addition to publishing research articles on GIS also carries papers on spatial analysis, remote sensing, cartography and spatial databases. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education (IRGEE). First produced in 1992 on behalf of the International Geographical Union (IGU) Commission on Geographical Education, ajournai to publish research studies in geographical and environmental education. It seeks to provide a forum for the dissemination of such research, for its critique and for the demonstration of its relevance to good professional practice. internet. An international computer network that links together computers used in the home, in businesses, in educational institutions and in governments. It is an information and communications system which is accessible to computer owners with a modem giving them access to a wide range of information. The ease with which 'pages' can be placed on the internet means that although the information it contains is often lively and topical it also suffers from being chaotic, 'organic' and uncontrollable. In geography education use of the internet may lead to more collaborative forms of learning and a democratization of the information provided for children. However, fears about the suitability and veracity of much of the content of internet sites has already led many schools to create restrictions on its use. interval data. Reveals the actual magnitude of the variable being collected (for example population figures, rainfall data, etc.). ipsative assessment. A form of assessment which measures progress against a pupil's previous performance and achievement, rather than against that of a group of peers (norm-referencing). IRGEE. See International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. Irish Geography. The journal of the Geographical Society of Ireland. It was first published in 1944 and carries scholarly articles predominantly on the geography of Ireland. It appears twice yearly. issues. Something which is contestable, where facts are disputed or their significance a matter for debate (see issues-based approach). issues-based approach. Popular in geography education, particularly in certain secondary schools in the 1980s and 1990s. The approach stresses the contestable nature of much that is regarded as 'fact', and often uses pupilcentred techniques to engage children in aspects of geography education. The promotion of positive attitudes towards different peoples and environments is often considered central to the issues-based approach in geography. During the creation of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC) issues-based approaches were sometimes criticized for their perceived fragmentation of the geography curriculum and their multidisciplinary appeal. ITT. See initial teacher training.

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J journal. A collection of research-based, or scholarly, articles bound together in a single periodical. Often journals have a particular area of specialism and are usually reserved in libraries for the purposes of research and scholarship. WHAT TYPES OF JOURNALS DO GEOGRAPHERS WRITE FOR? Geographical writing occurs in a variety of journals, the type of journal chosen for publication varying according to the nature and content of what has been written. The pressure on academic geographers to research and publish is now greater than ever before, causing a corresponding impact on the workloads of editorial boards of journals, who now consider a far larger number of potential articles for publication than ever before. Journals are sometimes classified as either popular, professional or academic. As such, Geographical Magazine and National Geographic would be considered 'popular', with an aim to promote geography to a broad readership; Teaching Geography would be called a 'professional' journal, featuring mostly articles of interest to secondary school geography teachers; while Geography, Journal of Geography in Higher Education or the American publication Annals of the Association of American Geographers, would be classed as 'academic', containing mostly research-based articles mainly for other academic geographers. Some academic journals are more specialist in that they focus on a particular theme or area of the discipline, for example Progress in Human Geography or Journal of Historical Geography. Most academic journals have a similar format, carrying articles that either are research-based and contain the results of original research, or are pieces of scholarship which pull together aspects of work from other academics in a scholarly way. Virtually all journals include an editorial comment, reviews of books or other articles and possibly running debates on a particular theme. Articles submitted to academic and some professional journals are 'refereed', in that the editor sends them to two or three referees for their comments. Articles are eventually returned to the author carrying the anonymous referees' comments, and possibly an overview comment, for revisions to be made by the author before the article is finally accepted for publication. However, a substantial number of articles may be rejected at this stage and never achieve publication. A number of geography magazines have been published in the last twenty years specifically for schoolchildren. Among these magazines are publications such as Geography Review, for Advanced Level (A Level) students, and Wideworld, for General Certifícate of Secondary Education (GCSE) students. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Journal of Geography

Journal of Geography (USA). The major journal of the National Council for Geographic Education. It is in some ways similar to the Geographical Association's journal Geography and serves to promote and improve the effectiveness of geography education through its bi-monthly editions. Journal of Geography in Higher Education. Established in 1977, seeking to raise the status of the teaching of geography in higher education and to provide a forum for geography lecturers to raise issues and concerns. It is published three times each year. Journal of Historical Geography. Established in 1975 to publish articles of research and scholarship on aspects of historical geography.

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K Kent, Ashley (b. 1945). A Cambridge graduate who taught at Haberdashers' Aske's School, Elstree, before becoming head of geography at John Mason School, Abingdon. Since then his career has been based at the Institute of Education, University of London, which he joined as associate director of the Geography 16-19 Project. He is now the head of the institute's Education, Environment and Economy Group, which includes the geography department. He has directed a number of research and development projects including the EC funded Eurogame Project 1998-2000. He is a longstanding member of the Geographical Association and was president in 1996/7. He is an active member of the International Geographical Union (IGU) Commission of Geography Education. He is a full member of the commission and chairs its British SubCommittee. Ashley has co-authored a number of textbooks, including the Oxford Geography Project (1974 and 1980); Human Geography: Theories and Their Applications (1977); and Understanding Human Geography: People and Their Changing Environments (1993). He has written a number of Geographical Association publications, including Perspectives on a Changing Geography (1985) and most recently Promoting Geography in Schools (1999). His main interests in geography education have centred upon curriculum research and development; IT and geography; 16-19 geography; geography's marketing and image; and teacher training. key. A set of the symbols used on a map with an explanatory text beside them. The term legend is also used by cartographers to refer to such symbols and is more commonly applied to maps produced in the United States. key idea. A major principle, or a linking of concepts, which has broad scope within the discipline of geography. Key ideas form 'higher level assumptions' (Peters 1967) which give structure to a subject. Each key idea is built up of concepts, which in turn may be further explained through exemplars. The geographical content within a geography curriculum can therefore be organized using the hierarchy of key ideas, concepts and exemplars. Peters, R. (ed.) ( 1967) The Concept of Education. London: Routiedge and Kegan Paul. THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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Key Stage

key skills. Currently defined as the generic skills required for lifelong learning and effective membership of an adaptable workforce. Originally developed by the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ), key skills are recognized at five levels from General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) (grades D-G) to degree level. They cover: 1. communication 2. application of number 3. information technology 4. working with others 5. improving own learning and performance 6. problem-solving. Key skills are mandatory in all General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs), but are only just being introduced into all NVQ, GCSE, Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) subjects. All A and AS Level geography specifications developed for introduction in September 2000 now include the necessity to assess the key skill of communication. In the revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999), the six skill areas are described as being 'embedded' within the curriculum and promoted as helping learners to improve their learning and performance in education, work and life. A section on thinking skills, financial capability, enterprise and entrepreneurial skills, work-related learning, and education for sustainable development is also provided. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers. London: HMSO. Nowicki, M. ( 1999) 'Key skills through geography at GCSE'. Teaching Geography, 24( I ), 17-23. Nowicki, M. ( 1999) 'Developing key skills through geography fieldwork'. Teaching Geography, 24(3), I 16-21.

Key Stage. The time division into which the National Curriculum requirements for children's education is split. The National Curriculum is divided into four Key Stages which cover the age ranges from the start of compulsory education to age 7 (Key Stage 1), from 7 to 11 (Key Stage 2), from 11 to 14 (Key Stage 3) and from 14 to the end of compulsory schooling (Key Stage 4). In geography the requirement for pupils to study Key Stage 4 no longer exists, and those who opt for the subject would normally follow a geography General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), or Certificate of Achievement (CoA), during this period. knowledge. Broadly defined as the information, facts, intelligence or experience of something held by an individual. Debate continues about the division of educational attainment into its major components of knowledge, understanding and skills. Many educationists have major concerns about the generation, or provision, of knowledge through a curriculum, and the form of the curriculum necessary to 'deliver' different types of knowledge most effectively. A fundamental division, for example, occurs between a curriculum that stresses the importance of 'knowing that' - linked to attainment of content; and one which promotes 'knowing how' - linked to the development of skills. 104

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Defining the essential knowledge that a pupil should possess is therefore almost impossible, as this is to a large extent culturally and socially determined. In geography education, debates about the geographical knowledge and content that should be contained within the curriculum were prevalent during the creation of the Geography National Curriculum (GNC). Such concerns tend to resurface periodically when the nature of the subject discipline is changing, when examination syllabuses/specifications are being reviewed and when curriculum revisions are being discussed. kurtosis. The degree of peakedness of a frequency distribution such as a normal curve. It refers to the shape of the curve: a normal distribution which is a 'standard' bell shape is referred to as mesokurtic, one which is 'flat' is platykurtic, and one which is 'peaked' is leptokurtic (see skewness).

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L Lambert, David (b. 1952). Graduated with a degree in geography from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, following this with a PGCE at Cambridge University and a twelve-year career teaching in comprehensive schools. In 1986 he began a new career at the University of London Institute of Education, where he has had a continuous involvement with the geography PGCE, including teaching and course leadership, and is currently course leader for the Masters in geography education. He is also Honorary Publications Officer of the Geographical Association. David has published widely on geography, teacher education and educational assessment. His Key Stage 3 series, The Cambridge Geography Project, won the Times Educational Supplement school book of the year award in 1992. He has also either jointly edited, or jointly authored, a number of books including Geography in Education: Viewpoints on Teaching and Learning (with Ashley Kent, Michael Naish and Frances Slater); Exploring Futures in Initial Teacher Education (with Alan Hudson); ana Learning to Teach Geography (with David Balderstone). His doctorate (1995) concerned prejudice in geography education and has supported a long-standing research interest in the values component of geography and its capacity to promote the moral education of young people. landform. A physical feature on the Earth's surface which has been produced by geomorphological processes. Shape and form categorize these features into different landforms. Landsat. First launched by the USA in 1972, a series of satellites used to monitor the Earth's resources from a height of 12 kilometres. Images of the whole of the Earth's surface are produced on a regular basis by remote sensing, so as to provide information on changes to the environment, land use and natural resources. landscape. An area of the Earth's surface which contains a particular configuration or type of scenery. The term is often used by geographers with descriptors such as 'natural' or 'cultural' according to the type of landscape viewed. language in education. The spoken or written words used in an educational context to communicate and express ideas. The term 'language' encompasses a 106

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variety of forms of talk, reading and writing which occur in the classroom; the key concern of many educationists with an interest in language is the relationship between these forms and the learning process. As language provides the medium for education, its form should be a major consideration in the planning and preparation of lessons. The action of learning is closely associated with the comprehension and use of different forms of language. The different forms that language takes in the learning process have been termed transactional, expressive and poetic. Recent research in geography education has also concentrated on language genre and the audience-centred aspects of pupil writing and talk. Geographers also need to be familiar with a variety of language forms beyond those related to the spoken and written word for example the use of symbols within maps to denote features, which create a specific and unique 'language of maps'. The revised National Curriculum (DfEE 1999) contains a section on the 'use of language across the curriculum', outlining the need for pupils to be taught in all subjects to express themselves appropriately and to read accurately. Butt, G. ( 1997) 'Language and learning in geography', in D.Tilbury and M.Williams (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography. London: Routledge, pp. 154-67. Garten R. ( 1991 ) Talking about Geography. Sheffield: GA. DfEE ( 1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. London: HMSO. Hull, R. ( 1985) The Language Gap. London: Methuen. SCAA ( 1997) Geography and the Use of Language. London: SCAA. Slater, F. (ed.) ( 1989) Language and Learning in the Teaching of Geography. London: Routledge.

LEA. See local education authority. league tables. Graphical representations of different types of educational performance data applied to schools, often used as a means of crudely assessing their standards. Following the creation of the Parent's Charter in 1991, schools were legally required to issue parents with a statement of their child's educational progress as well as a level of attainment within National Curriculum subjects, sometimes defined by a standard assessment task (SAT). This information has been amassed by academics, the government and a variety of official educational bodies into league tables of schools locally, regionally and nationally. Local education authorities (LEAs), awarding bodies and educational magazines and other publications have also begun to imitate this process by creating league tables of General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Advanced and Advanced Subsidiary Level (A and AS Level) results. A variety of different league tables have now been devised using education-related data. These represent diverse phenomena, from truancy rates in schools, to inspection performances of initial teacher training (ITT) courses. The assumptions about schools' performance often made on the basis of such league tables may be considered to be fallacious, particularly where factors such as the socio-economic profile of the school's catchment are not considered. The 'value added' to the educational development of the child by the teachers is also not considered within most tables. There is widespread concern that the creation of league tables may have had an immediate and damaging effect on THE CONTINUUM GUIDE TO GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

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learn

some schools where educational policies (particularly on exclusion and examination preparation), as well as the curriculum, have been altered with a view to massaging league table results. In geography education, league tables have also been used to provide comparative information on National Curriculum levels obtained at the end of Key Stage 3, and on GCSE and A/AS Level performance in the subject compared to other subjects. Butt, G. and Smith, R ( 1998) 'Educational standards and assessment in geography - some cause for concern?' Teaching Geography, 23(3), 147-9. Smith, R ( 1997) 'Standards achieved: a review of geography in secondary schools in England, 1995-6'. Teaching Geography, 22(3), 125-6.

learn. Gain knowledge, understanding or skills through one's experiences, often involving formal teaching. If something is said to have been learnt it implies a permanent, or semi-permanent, change in one's cognition resulting from an environmental stimulus or experience, such as being taught. learning style. The preferences in the way in which an individual learns, reflecting his or her previous educational experiences, personality and environment. Learning styles are very personal; they may change with time or subject matter, and are defined by a complex mix of factors including cognitive, social, psychological and affective dimensions. The study of geography is often assumed to accommodate a variety of learning styles due to the diverse nature of its content, the range of skills to be gathered and in particular its use of outdoor education. Such styles include deep and surface learning; serial and holistic; and activist, theorist, reflective and pragmatist styles. The most effective learners seem to be able to apply a wide range of different learning styles, or more correctly learning strategies, as suits the occasion. Gerben R. ( 1984) The diagnosis of student learning in geography', in J. Fien, R. Gerber and R Wilson (eds), The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom. Melbourne: Macmillan, pp. 185-96. Kolb, D. (1985) The Learning Style Inventory: Techniques Manual. Boston: McBer and Co. Lidstone, J. ( 1984) Teaching geography in the mixed ability classroom', in J. Fien, R. Gerber and R Wilson (eds), The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom. Melbourne: Macmillan, pp. 197-207. Riding, R. ( 1998) Cognitive Styles and Learning Strategies. London: Fulton.

learning theories. A variety of different learning theories exist, developed mainly through the work of educational psychologists. Three of the main theories of learning are detailed opposite (and see research: Educational research into teaching and learning):

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Cognitive Developmental Theory (CD) All children pass through a series of stages before they construct the ability to perceive, reason and understand in mature, rational terms

Social Constructivist Theory (SC) Shares some important areas of agreement with Piagetian theory, particularly activity as the basis for learning and for the development of thinking.

Information-Processing Theory (IP) Develops elements of CD (sequences, activity) and SC theory (experience) but emphasizes cognitive strategies rather than structures.

Central Aspects 1 Children's thinking is different in kind from that of more mature individuals.

1 Relationships between talking and thinking.

1 Fundamental processes and strategies underlie all cognitive activity.

2 All children develop through the same sequence of stages before achieving mature rational thought.

2 Role of communication, social interaction and instruction in scaffolding thinking and cognitive development is crucial.

2 Brain's systematic processes of perception, memory and problem-solving process information in the shortterm memory and store it as abstr