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Control of Breathing in Health and Disease
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LUNG BIOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE Executive Editor C...
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Control of Breathing in Health and Disease
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LUNG BIOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE Executive Editor Claude Lenfant Director, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute National Institutes of Health Bethesda, Maryland 1. Immunologic and Infectious Reactions in the Lung, edited by C. H. Kirkpatrick and H. Y. Reynolds 2. The Biochemical Basis of Pulmonary Function, edited by R. G. Crystal 3. Bioengineering Aspects of the Lung, edited by J. B. West 4. Metabolic Functions of the Lung, edited by Y. S. Bakhle and J. R. Vane 5. Respiratory Defense Mechanisms (in two parts), edited by J. D. Brain, D. F. Proctor, and L. M. Reid 6. Development of the Lung, edited by W. A. Hodson 7. Lung Water and Solute Exchange, edited by N. C. Staub 8. Extrapulmonary Manifestations of Respiratory Disease, edited by E. D. Robin 9. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, edited by T. L. Petty 10. Pathogenesis and Therapy of Lung Cancer, edited by C. C. Harris 11. Genetic Determinants of Pulmonary Disease, edited by S. D. Litwin 12. The Lung in the Transition Between Health and Disease, edited by P. T. Macklem and S. Permutt 13. Evolution of Respiratory Processes: A Comparative Approach, edited by S. C. Wood and C. Lenfant 14. Pulmonary Vascular Diseases, edited by K. M. Moser 15. Physiology and Pharmacology of the Airways, edited by J. A. Nadel 16. Diagnostic Techniques in Pulmonary Disease (in two parts), edited by M. A. Sackner 17. Regulation of Breathing (in two parts), edited by T. F. Hornbein 18. Occupational Lung Diseases: Research Approaches and Methods, edited by H. Weill and M. TurnerWarwick 19. Immunopharmacology of the Lung, edited by H. H. Newball 20. Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Diseases of the Lung, edited by B. L. Fanburg 21. Sleep and Breathing, edited by N. A. Saunders and C. E. Sullivan 22. Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment, edited by L. S. Young 23. Pulmonary Nuclear Medicine: Techniques in Diagnosis of Lung Disease, edited by H. L. Atkins 24. Acute Respiratory Failure, edited by W. M. Zapol and K. J. Falke 25. Gas Mixing and Distribution in the Lung, edited by L. A. Engel and M. Paiva
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26. HighFrequency Ventilation in Intensive Care and During Surgery, edited by G. Carlon and W. S. Howland 27. Pulmonary Development: Transition from Intrauterine to Extrauterine Life, edited by G. H. Nelson 28. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Second Edition, edited by T. L. Petty 29. The Thorax (in two parts), edited by C. Roussos and P. T. Macklem 30. The Pleura in Health and Disease, edited by J. Chrétien, J. Bignon, and A. Hirsch 31. Drug Therapy for Asthma: Research and Clinical Practice, edited by J. W. Jenne and S. Murphy 32. Pulmonary Endothelium in Health and Disease, edited by U. S. Ryan 33. The Airways: Neural Control in Health and Disease, edited by M. A. Kaliner and P. J. Barnes 34. Pathophysiology and Treatment of Inhalation Injuries, edited by J. Loke 35. Respiratory Function of the Upper Airway, edited by O. P. Mathew and G. Sant'Ambrogio 36. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Behavioral Perspective, edited by A. J. McSweeny and I. Grant 37. Biology of Lung Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment, edited by S. T. Rosen, J. L. Mulshine, F. Cuttitta, and P. G. Abrams 38. Pulmonary Vascular Physiology and Pathophysiology, edited by E. K. Weir and J. T. Reeves 39. Comparative Pulmonary Physiology: Current Concepts, edited by S. C. Wood 40. Respiratory Physiology: An Analytical Approach, edited by H. K. Chang and M. Paiva 41. Lung Cell Biology, edited by D. Massaro 42. HeartLung Interactions in Health and Disease, edited by S. M. Scharf and S. S. Cassidy 43. Clinical Epidemiology of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, edited by M. J. Hensley and N. A. Saunders 44. Surgical Pathology of Lung Neoplasms, edited by A. M. Marchevsky 45. The Lung in Rheumatic Diseases, edited by G. W. Cannon and G. A. Zimmerman 46. Diagnostic Imaging of the Lung, edited by C. E. Putman 47. Models of Lung Disease: Microscopy and Structural Methods, edited by J. Gil 48. Electron Microscopy of the Lung, edited by D. E. Schraufnagel 49. Asthma: Its Pathology and Treatment, edited by M. A. Kaliner, P. J. Barnes, and C. G. A. Persson 50. Acute Respiratory Failure: Second Edition, edited by W. M. Zapol and F. Lemaire 51. Lung Disease in the Tropics, edited by O. P. Sharma 52. Exercise: Pulmonary Physiology and Pathophysiology, edited by B. J. Whipp and K. Wasserman 53. Developmental Neurobiology of Breathing, edited by G. G. Haddad and J. P. Farber 54. Mediators of Pulmonary Inflammation, edited by M. A. Bray and W. H. Anderson
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55. The Airway Epithelium, edited by S. G. Farmer and D. Hay 56. Physiological Adaptations in Vertebrates: Respiration, Circulation, and Metabolism, edited by S. C. Wood, R. E. Weber, A. R. Hargens, and R. W. Millard 57. The Bronchial Circulation, edited by J. Butler 58. Lung Cancer Differentiation: Implications for Diagnosis and Treatment, edited by S. D. Bernal and P. J. Hesketh 59. Pulmonary Complications of Systemic Disease, edited by J. F. Murray 60. Lung Vascular Injury: Molecular and Cellular Response, edited by A. Johnson and T. J. Ferro 61. Cytokines of the Lung, edited by J. Kelley 62. The Mast Cell in Health and Disease, edited by M. A. Kaliner and D. D. Metcalfe 63. Pulmonary Disease in the Elderly Patient, edited by D. A. Mahler 64. Cystic Fibrosis, edited by P. B. Davis 65. Signal Transduction in Lung Cells, edited by J. S. Brody, D. M. Center, and V. A. Tkachuk 66. Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach, edited by L. B. Reichman and E. S. Hershfield 67. Pharmacology of the Respiratory Tract: Experimental and Clinical Research, edited by K. F. Chung and P. J. Barnes 68. Prevention of Respiratory Diseases, edited by A. Hirsch, M. Goldberg, J.P. Martin, and R. Masse 69. Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia: Second Edition, edited by P. D. Walzer 70. Fluid and Solute Transport in the Airspaces of the Lungs, edited by R. M. Effros and H. K. Chang 71. Sleep and Breathing: Second Edition, edited by N. A. Saunders and C. E. Sullivan 72. Airway Secretion: Physiological Bases for the Control of Mucous Hypersecretion, edited by T. Takishima and S. Shimura 73. Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders, edited by D. G. James 74. Epidemiology of Lung Cancer, edited by J. M. Samet 75. Pulmonary Embolism, edited by M. Morpurgo 76. Sports and Exercise Medicine, edited by S. C. Wood and R. C. Roach 77. Endotoxin and the Lungs, edited by K. L. Brigham 78. The Mesothelial Cell and Mesothelioma, edited by M.C. Jaurand and J. Bignon 79. Regulation of Breathing: Second Edition, edited by J. A. Dempsey and A. I. Pack 80. Pulmonary Fibrosis, edited by S. Hin. Phan and R. S. Thrall 81. LongTerm Oxygen Therapy: Scientific Basis and Clinical Application, edited by W. J. O'Donohue, Jr. 82. Ventral Brainstem Mechanisms and Control of Respiration and Blood Pressure, edited by C. O. Trouth, R. M. Millis, H. F. KiwullSchöne, and M. E. Schläfke 83. A History of Breathing Physiology, edited by D. F. Proctor 84. Surfactant Therapy for Lung Disease, edited by B. Robertson and H. W. Taeusch
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85. The Thorax: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded (in three parts), edited by C. Roussos 86. Severe Asthma: Pathogenesis and Clinical Management, edited by S. J. Szefler and D. Y. M. Leung 87. Mycobacterium aviumComplex Infection: Progress in Research and Treatment, edited by J. A. Korvick and C. A. Benson 88. Alpha 1Antitrypsin Deficiency: Biology • Pathogenesis • Clinical Manifestations • Therapy, edited by R. G. Crystal 89. Adhesion Molecules and the Lung, edited by P. A. Ward and J. C. Fantone 90. Respiratory Sensation, edited by L. Adams and A. Guz 91. Pulmonary Rehabilitation, edited by A. P. Fishman 92. Acute Respiratory Failure in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, edited by J.P. Derenne, W. A. Whitelaw, and T. Similowski 93. Environmental Impact on the Airways: From Injury to Repair, edited by J. Chrétien and D. Dusser 94. Inhalation Aerosols: Physical and Biological Basis for Therapy, edited by A. J. Hickey 95. Tissue Oxygen Deprivation: From Molecular to Integrated Function, edited by G. G. Haddad and G. Lister 96. The Genetics of Asthma, edited by S. B. Liggett and D. A. Meyers 97. Inhaled Glucocorticoids in Asthma: Mechanisms and Clinical Actions, edited by R. P. Schleimer, W. W. Busse, and P. M. O'Byrne 98. Nitric Oxide and the Lung, edited by W. M. Zapol and K. D. Bloch 99. Primary Pulmonary Hypertension, edited by L. J. Rubin and S. Rich 100. Lung Growth and Development, edited by J. A. McDonald 101. Parasitic Lung Diseases, edited by A. A. F. Mahmoud 102. Lung Macrophages and Dendritic Cells in Health and Disease, edited by M. F. Lipscomb and S. W. Russell 103. Pulmonary and Cardiac Imaging, edited by C. Chiles and C. E. Putman 104. Gene Therapy for Diseases of the Lung, edited by K. L. Brigham 105. Oxygen, Gene Expression, and Cellular Function, edited by L. Biadasz Clerch and D. J. Massaro 106. Beta2Agonists in Asthma Treatment, edited by R. Pauwels and P. M. O'Byrne 107. Inhalation Delivery of Therapeutic Peptides and Proteins, edited by A. L. Adjei and P. K. Gupta 108. Asthma in the Elderly, edited by R. A. Barbee and J. W. Bloom 109. Treatment of the Hospitalized Cystic Fibrosis Patient, edited by D. M. Orenstein and R. C. Stern 110. Asthma and Immunological Diseases in Pregnancy and Early Infancy, edited by M. Schatz, R. S. Zeiger, and H. N. Claman 111. Dyspnea, edited by D. A. Mahler 112. Proinflammatory and Antiinflammatory Peptides, edited by S. I. Said 113. SelfManagement of Asthma, edited by H. Kotses and A. Harver 114. Eicosanoids, Aspirin, and Asthma, edited by A. Szczeklik, R. J. Gryglewski, and J. R. Vane 115. Fatal Asthma, edited by A. L. Sheffer 116. Pulmonary Edema, edited by M. A. Matthay and D. H. Ingbar
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117. Inflammatory Mechanisms in Asthma, edited by S. T. Holgate and W. W. Busse 118. Physiological Basis of Ventilatory Support, edited by J. J. Marini and A. S. Slutsky 119. Human Immunodeficiency Virus and the Lung, edited by M. J. Rosen and J. M. Beck 120. FiveLipoxygenase Products in Asthma, edited by J. M. Drazen, S.E. Dahlén, and T. H. Lee 121. Complexity in Structure and Function of the Lung, edited by M. P. Hlastala and H. T. Robertson 122. Biology of Lung Cancer, edited by M. A. Kane and P. A. Bunn, Jr. 123. Rhinitis: Mechanisms and Management, edited by R. M. Naclerio, S. R. Durham, and N. Mygind 124. Lung Tumors: Fundamental Biology and Clinical Management, edited by C. Brambilla and E. Brambilla 125. Interleukin5: From Molecule to Drug Target for Asthma, edited by C. J. Sanderson 126. Pediatric Asthma, edited by S. Murphy and H. W. Kelly 127. Viral Infections of the Respiratory Tract, edited by R. Dolin and P. F. Wright 128. Air Pollutants and the Respiratory Tract, edited by D. L. Swift and W. M. Foster 129. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease and Airway Disease, edited by M. R. Stein 130. ExerciseInduced Asthma, edited by E. R. McFadden, Jr. 131. LAM and Other Diseases Characterized by Smooth Muscle Proliferation, edited by J. Moss 132. The Lung at Depth, edited by C. E. G. Lundgren and J. N. Miller 133. Regulation of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms, edited by F. W. Turek and P. C. Zee 134. Anticholinergic Agents in the Upper and Lower Airways, edited by S. L. Spector 135. Control of Breathing in Health and Disease, edited by M. D. Altose and Y. Kawakami ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION Immunotherapy in Asthma, edited by J. Bousquet and H. Yssel Chronic Lung Disease of Early Infancy, edited by R. D. Bland and J. J. Coalson Diagnostic Pulmonary Pathology, edited by P. T. Cagle Multimodality Treatment of Lung Cancer, edited by A. T. Skarin Cytokines in Pulmonary Infectious Disease, edited by S. Nelson and T. Martin
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Asthma's Impact on Society: The Social and Economic Burden, edited by K. B. Weiss, A. S. Buist, and S. D. Sullivan Asthma and Respiratory Infections, edited by D. P. Skoner New and Exploratory Therapeutic Agents for Asthma, edited by M. Yeadon and Z. Diamant ParticleLung Interactions, edited by P. Gehr and J. Heyder Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach, Second Edition, edited by L. B. Reichman and E. S. Hershfield The opinions expressed in these volumes do not necessarily represent the views of the National Institutes of Health.
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Control of Breathing in Health and Disease Edited by Murray D. Altose Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine and Cleveland Veterans Affairs Medical Center Cleveland, Ohio Yoshikazu Kawakami Hokkaido University School of Medicine Sapporo, Japan
M ARCEL DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK • BASEL
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ISBN: 0824798546 This book is printed on acidfree paper. Headquarters Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 tel: 2126969000; fax: 2126854540 Eastern Hemisphere Distribution Marcel Dekker AG Hutgasse 4, Postfach 812, CH4001 Basel, Switzerland tel: 41612618482; fax: 41612618896 World Wide Web http://www.dekker.com The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above. Copyright © 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Current printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
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INTRODUCTION The evolution of our knowledge and understanding of the control of breathing has been long, complex, and somewhat tortuous. Galen (A.D. 130–199) is credited with the first observation that the brain controls breathing, but, surprisingly enough, interest in understanding just how this works did not arise until the 19th century when Julian Jean Caesar LeGallois located a vital respiratory center in the medulla, which he described in 1817 in his remarkable publication Experiments on the Principle of Life. It is said that one of the reasons for this long period of inattention was the absence of real understanding of respiration until the late 17th century when Malpighi first described the fine anatomical structure of the respiratory apparatus. LeGallois was a contemporary of the French revolution, and one may believe that it was the beheading that was then in fashion that led him to study why gasping continued after decapitation. Irrespective of the reason for his work, he observed that “hence an animal might be decapitated in such a manner that it should continue to live by its inherent power, without recourse being had to the artificial inflation of the lungs.” This was undoubtedly a major step, albeit from an extreme approach, that led to an extraordinary interest in understanding the mechanism and control of breathing. Eventually, it was the coupling of advances in the neural (central) control of breathing with those in the chemical control of this function that resulted in current knowledge of the control of breathing in health and disease. Of course, that is what this volume addreses. Much has been written on some aspects of respiration regulation, but never before as comprehensively as in this volume, which covers the fundamental mechanisms of breathing as well as their alterations in disease state and how these alterations can be compensated for. As the editors, Drs. Altose and Kawakami, point out in their preface, this volume goes a step further: indeed it underscores the important research questions that need to be addressed. The Lung Biology in Health and Disease series of monographs has presented many contributions to the field of control of breathing.
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This new volume is a very significant addition. Its contributors are recognized experts who have authored most of the recent advances. I am most appreciative of the opportunity to include this new volume in the series. CLAUDE LENFANT, M.D. BETHESDA, MARYLAND
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PREFACE Over the past several decades, physiologists and clinical scientists around the world have been occupied in intensive study of the regulation of respiration. Their basic and applied research has resulted in enormous advances in our knowledge and understanding of breathing. The products of their work have greatly sharpened our insights into the central neural pathways of breathing, respiratory rhythm generation, properties of respiratory motoneurons, chemoreceptor function, and nonchemical and higher brain center influences on breathing. We have also come to better appreciate that the homeostatic responsibilities of the respiratory system can be met only through a complex set of interrelated functions involving the brain and specialized sensory receptors, as well as the peripheral neuromuscular apparatus and the ventilatory pump. The Lung Biology in Health and Disease series has played an instrumental role in consolidating current knowledge of breathing and bringing the state of the art to view. The first edition of Regulation of Breathing, edited by Thomas Hornbein, was published in 1981. This volume provided an update on structure and function; it outlined new experimental approaches, techniques, and methodologies; and it undertook through several clinical reviews, as Hornbein put it, to bring about a “closer liaison between basic research and patient care.” The volume served as an important reference for students, clinicians, and scientists and undoubtedly also served to stimulate further inquiry. The second edition of Regulation of Breathing, edited by Jerome Dempsey and Allan Pack, published in 1995, included scholarly reviews of the great scientific advances in neurobiology and respiratory neurophysiology with an emphasis on central mechanisms, afferent systems, developmental and hormonal influences, and metabolicstate effects. Along with these advances in basic respiratory neurobiology, there has also been increasing interest in translational research and the application of knowledge of respiratory neurobiology to further our understanding of the pathophysiology of breathing disorders and to develop new approaches to diagnosis and disease
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management. These very pursuits have been integral to our professional careers as physicians and clinical investigators. It is our goal in this volume to bring about a “closer liaison between basic research and patient care.” We have attempted to do so by presenting a series of comprehensive reviews of the clinical aspects of the control of breathing, and of the diagnosis and management of breathing disorders, based on a solid foundation of basic science. Accordingly, we have organized the volume into two sections. The first part covers the physiological foundations of the control of breathing and reviews basic research on central respiratory control mechanisms and chemical, nonchemical, and behavioral influences on breathing. This part also reviews the integrative physiology of breathlessness, exercise, upper airway function, and periodic breathing. The chapter on clinical assessment of the control of breathing serves as a segue to the second part of the volume, which reviews the control of breathing at the extremes of age, during sleep, and in various respiratory, cardiac, neuromuscular, and endocrinemetabolic disorders. This volume, Control of Breathing in Health and Disease, is intended to serve clinicians, clinical investigators, and basic scientists. It is our hope that clinicians will take what is known about the etiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of disorders of the control of breathing to improve patient care; that clinical investigators will recognize what is still left to be learned and will be encouraged to continue to work to fill the gaps in our clinical knowledge; and that basic scientists will be stimulated by the relevance of their work to continue their effort to expand our fundamental understanding of the control of breathing. We thank all the contributors to this volume for their comprehensive and insightful scholarly reviews, and we are especially appreciative of the encouragement, assistance, and support of Dr. Claude Lenfant. MURRAY D. ALTOSE YOSHIKAZU KAWAKAMI
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CONTRIBUTORS Yasushi Akiyama, M.D., Ph.D. Head, Section of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Hokkaido Central Hospital, Sapporo, Japan Murray D.Altose, M.D., B.Sc. Professor, Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Chief of Staff, Associate Dean for Veterans Hospital Affairs, and Attending Physician, Respiratory Intensive Care Unit and Medical Service, Cleveland Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio M. Safwan Badr, M.D. Associate Professor, Division of Pulmonary/Critical Care, Department of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan Alia R. BazzyAsaad, M.D. Associate Professor, Section of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut Peter Martin Anthony Calverley, M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.C.P.E. Professor, Department of Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England E. J. Moran Campbell, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.Sc. Professor Emeritus, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Neil S. Cherniack, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine and Physiology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey Anthony F. DiMarco, M.D. Professor, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, and Director, Medical Intensive Care Unit, MetroHealth Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
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Hans Folgering, M.D., Ph.D. Professor, Department of Pulmonology Dekkerswald, University of Nijmegen, Groesbeek, The Netherlands Harly E. Greenberg, M.D. Associate Professor, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Long Island Jewish Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New Hyde Park, New York Gabriel G. Haddad, M.D. Professor, Department of Pediatrics and Cellular and Molecular Physiology, and Director, Section of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut Ikuo Homma, M.D., Ph.D. Professor, Department of Physiology, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan Yoshiyuki Honda, M.D. Professor Emeritus, Department of Physiology, Chiba University School of Medicine, ChuouKu, Chiba City, Japan David W. Hudgel, M.D. Professor, Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, and MetroHealth Center, Cleveland, Ohio Norman L. Jones, M.D., F.R.C.P. Professor Emeritus, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Yoshikazu Kawakami, M.D., Ph.D. Professor and Head, First Department of Medicine, Hokkaido University School of Medicine, and President, Hokkaido University Hospital, Sapporo, Japan Michael C.K. Khoo, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Kieran J. Killian, M.B., F.R.C.P.(I), F.R.C.P.(C) Professor, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Harold L. Manning, M.D. Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, New Hampshire Yuri Masaoka, M.A. Research Fellow, Department of Physiology, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan Barbara J. Morgan, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison, Wisconsin John E. Remmers, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine, Physiology and Biophysics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Carol Lynn Rosen, M.D. Associate Professor, Section of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut Mark Heims Sanders, M.D. Professor, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Chief, Pulmonary and Sleep Disorders Program, and Director, Sleep Research and Control of Breathing Laboratory, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Assistant Chief, Pulmonary Service, Pittsburgh Veterans Affairs Health Care Systems, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Catherine S. H. Sassoon, M.D. Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, and Pulmonary and Critical Care Section, Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Long Beach, California Steven M. Scharf, M.D., Ph.D. Professor, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Long Island Jewish Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New Hyde Park, New York Richard M. Schwartzstein, M.D. Clinical Director, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Harvard Medical School, and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts James B. Skatrud, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison, Wisconsin Hiroaki Tani, M.A. Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Therapy, International University of Health and Welfare, Ootawara, Japan Martin J. Tobin, M.D. Professor, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Loyola University of Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, and Hines Veterans Administration Hospital, Chicago and Hines, Illinois John V. Weil, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado David P. White, M.D. Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts Clifford W. Zwillich, M.D. Professor, Department of Medicine, and Vice Chair, Clinical Affairs, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, and Chief, Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Denver, Colorado
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CONTENTS Introduction Claude Lenfant
iii
Preface
v
Contributors
vii
Part One Physiological Foundations 1. Central Neural Control of Breathing John E. Remmers I. Introduction
1
II. Breathing and Central Pattern Generators
3
III. Rhythm Generators: Pacemaker or Network Mechanisms?
3
IV. Gasping and Eupnea: Two Types of Respiratory Rhythms in Adult Mammals
11
V. Ontological Considerations
15
VI. Lessons from Amphibia and Reptiles
18
VII. Central Neuronal Elements Generating and Controlling the Motor Output
25
VIII. Synaptic Connection
30
IX. Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators
33
X. Summary and Conclusions
34
References
35
2. Chemical Control of Breathing Yoshiyuki Honda and Hiroaki Tani
1
41
I. Introduction
41
II. Carbon Dioxide Chemosensitivity
42
III. Hypoxic Chemosensitivity
51
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IV. Summary
75
References
75
3. Nonchemical and Behavioral Effects on Breathing Ikuo Homma and Yuri Masaoka I. Introduction
89
II. Motor Pathways
90
III. Afferent Mechanisms
93
IV. Respiratory Sensation and Behavioral Control of Breathing
95
V. Posture and Breathing
97
VI. Emotions, Personality, and Breathing
99
References 4. Dyspnea and the Control of Breathing Harold L. Manning and Richard M. Schwartzstein
100 105
I. Introduction
105
II. Measurement of Dyspnea
106
III. Mechanisms of Dyspnea
109
IV. Relationship Between Respiratory Control and Respiratory Sensation
118
V. Interplay Between Breathing Pattern and Respiratory Sensation
120
VI. Dyspnea in Patients
122
VII. Conclusion
128
References
129
5. Control of Breathing During Exercise Kieran J. Killian, Norman L. Jones, and E.J. Moran Campbell
89
137
I. Introduction
137
II. Integrative Model
138
III. Exercise Task
139
IV. Metabolic Demand
139
V. The Respiratory Muscles in Exercise
143
VI. Control of Breathing During Exercise
149
VII. Sensory Aspects of Breathing During Exercise
154
VIII. Conclusion
155
References
157
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6. Respiration and the Human Upper Airway David P. White
163
I. Introduction
163
II. Biomechanical Properties of the Human Upper Airway
164
III. The Nose
169
IV. The Pharynx
176
V. The Larynx
188
VI. Conclusions
194
References
195
7. Periodic Breathing and Central Apnea Michael C. K. Khoo
203
I. Introduction
203
II. Periodic Breathing as an Instability in Control
205
III. SleepWake State and Respiratory Stability
217
IV. Respiratory Pattern Generation and Periodic Breathing
227
V. Peripheral and Central Mechanisms Affecting Respiratory Stability
232
VI. Conclusion
240
References
240
8. Clinical Assessment of the Respiratory Control System Yasushi Akiyama and Yoshikazu Kawakami
251
I. Introduction
251
II. Measurement of Respiratory Output
252
III. Methods of Evaluating Control of Breathing
257
IV. Behavioral Effects on Respiratory Test Results
279
References
280
Part Two Clinical Aspects 9. Respiratory Control in Children: Clinical Aspects Carol Lynn Rosen, Alia R. BazzyAsaad, and Gabriel G. Haddad
289
I. Overview of Respiratory Control: A Conceptual Framework
289
II. Control of Respiration: Developmental Physiological Aspects
291
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III. Clinical Disorders of Respiratory Control
294
IV. Assessment of Respiratory Control in Children
335
References
338
10. Ventilatory Control in the Elderly David W. Hudgel I. Introduction
367
II. Control of Breathing in the Elderly
367
III. Ventilatory Variability in Aging
369
IV. Breathing During Exercise in the Elderly
370
V. Sleep Quality in the Elderly
371
VI. SleepDisordered Breathing in the Elderly
372
References
374
11. Control of Breathing During Sleep and SleepDisordered Breathing James B. Skatrud, M. Safwan Badr, and Barbara J. Morgan
379
I. Introduction
379
II. Epidemiology of SleepDisordered Breathing
380
III. Determinants of Breathing Pattern Instability
381
IV. Determinants of Upper Airway Patency
389
V. High Upper Airway Resistance Syndromes
396
VI. Sleep Apnea Syndromes
400
VII. Treatment of SleepDisordered Breathing
405
References
412
12. Control of Breathing in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Neil S. Cherniack
367
423
I. Introduction
423
II. Effects of COPD on Respiratory System Function
425
III. Compensatory Actions of the Control System in COPD
426
IV. Effect of COPD on Ventilation
428
V. Factors Limiting Load Compensation and Producing Hypercapnia
429
VI. Breathing Patterns and Hypercapnia in COPD
431
VII. Factors Modifying Respiratory Control System Operation
432
References
433
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13. Control of Breathing in Interstitial Lung Disease Anthony F. DiMarco I. Introduction and Overview
439
II. Pulmonary Mechanics
442
III. Breathing Pattern
443
IV. Respiratory Muscle Function
444
V. Respiratory Control Mechanisms
446
References
459
14. Control of Breathing in Acute Ventilatory Failure and During Mechanical Ventilation Catherine S. H. Sassoon and Martin J. Tobin
469
I. Introduction
469
II. Control of Breathing in Acute Ventilatory Failure
471
III. Control of Breathing During Mechanical Ventilation
489
IV. Summary
507
References
507
15. Control of Breathing in Neuromuscular Disease Peter Martin Anthony Calverley
517
I. Introduction
517
II. Clinical Features
518
III. Ventilatory Control: Theory and Assessment
521
IV. Ventilatory Control in NMD During Wakefulness
525
V. Respiratory Control During Sleep
535
VI. Implications for Treatment
541
VII. Summary
543
References
543
16. Control of Ventilation in Congestive Heart Failure Steven M. Scharf and Harly E. Greenberg
439
551
I. Introduction
551
II. Changes in Respiratory Mechanics in CHF
552
III. Pulmonary Afferent Reflexes: Overview
552
IV. Ventilatory Reflexes Elicited from the Pulmonary Vasculature
554
V. Mechanisms Underlying the Ventilatory Response to Exercise in CHF
557
Page xvi
VI. Control of Respiration During Sleep in CHF
563
References
572
17. Control of Breathing in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders and in Obesity John V. Weil and Clifford W. Zwillich I. Introduction
581
II. Thyroid Diseases
581
III. Diabetes
588
IV. Acromegaly
589
V. Sex Hormones
589
VI. Obesity
593
VII. Summary
599
References
600
18. Control of Breathing Following Lung Transplantation in Humans Mark Heims Sanders
609
I. Introduction
609
II. Are the Lungs and Lower Airways Truly Denervated Following Lung Transplantation?
610
III. Effect of Lung Transplantation on the Defense of Ventilation with Changing Resting Lung Volume
612
IV. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Breathing During Wakefulness and Sleep
614
V. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Ventilatory Chemoresponsiveness
617
VI. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Perception of Breathing and BreathHolding
622
VII. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Exercise
624
VIII. Conclusions
627
References
627
19. The Hyperventilation Syndrome Hans Folgering
581
633
I. Introduction
633
II. Signs and Symptoms
636
III. Pathophysiology of the Control of Breathing
641
IV. Diagnosis
647
V. Therapy
652
Page xvii
VI. Conclusions
654
References
655
20. Management of Respiratory Insufficiency Murray D. Altose
661
I. Introduction
661
II. Respiratory Control System
662
III. Causes of Respiratory Insufficiency
662
IV. Management Approaches
667
V. Summary
677
References
678
Author Index
687
Subject Index
755
Page xix
PART ONE PHYSIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
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1 Central Neural Control of Breathing JOHN E. REMMERS University of Calgary Calgary, Alberta, Canada 1. Introduction Despite the convergence of morphological, neurophysiological, and neurobiological techniques being used to investigate mechanisms whereby the central nervous system (CNS) generates and controls the motor act of breathing, we currently possess fragmentary understanding of these phenomena. This disappointing state of affairs stands as a testimony to the complexity of the neural phenomena involved and the relative inadequacy of the techniques available. Nonetheless, our fragmented understanding includes an outline of the relevant neuronal phenomena as well as partial insights into specific mechanisms that underlie these phenomena. The purpose of this chapter is to review salient knowledge about central neural mechanisms controlling breathing and interpret them in the light of global processes and behavior of the control system. As executed by the skeletal, respiratory muscles (e.g., upper airway, thoracic, and abdominal), the motor act of breathing represents the final product of interplay of a variety of neural components at various levels of the CNS, some voluntary and some involuntary. The global neural respiratory control system involves the interplay of these voluntary and involuntary components, with chemical and proprioceptive feedback from the periphery, as well as central respiratory
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Figure 1 A depiction of the descending projections from the cerebral cortex to brain stem and spinal respiratory neuronal structures: Cortical neurons can directly influence the behavior of spinal and upper airway (UAW) respiratory motor neurons by corticospinal and corticocranial motor neuron projections. In addition, cortical activity can influence the bulbopontine respiratory network of interneurons through corticomedullary and corticopontine projections.
chemoreception. The automatic act, no doubt, depends heavily on chemical feedback acting on brain stem respiratory neural circuitry, as evidenced by the neuronal recordings in awake and sleeping cats provided by Orem and associates (1). As shown in Figure 1, voluntary control derived from “higher centers” can interrupt and modify this automatic bursting of inspiratory and expiratory neurons. These cortically based higher centers can directly influence the respiratory motor output through cortical projections to upper airway and spinal motoneurons. In addition, as demonstrated by the magnificent experiments of Orem et al. with conditions apnea (2), cortical influences can modify the bulbopontine respiratory network (see Fig. 1). Eupnea, normal resting breathing, is fundamentally generated and controlled by neuronal elements resident in the pons and medulla. That the bulbopontine respiratory network plays a central role in generating automatic, eupneic breathing can be seen from the breathing pattern of a decerebrate animal. This preparation, having only brain stem and spinal cord, generates a respiratory motor pattern in upper airway and thoracic pump muscles that closely resembles eupneic breathing
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of the intact animal. Although the respiratory pattern of the decerebrate animal is influenced by feedback from peripheral receptors, such as lung mechanoreceptors or peripheral chemoreceptors, such feedback is not a requirement for rhythmogenesis. This evidence, together with the observation that the completely isolated brain stem of the neonatal rat, turtle, and frog in vitro (see later discussion) generates a fictive respiratory rhythm, provides considerable credence for the notion that breathing is generated by a brain stem central pattern generator (CPG), which can be defined as a neuronal circuit that generates a periodic rhythm with defined spatiotemporal characteristics in the absence of phasic sensory feedback. Although the concept of a respiratory CPG has considerable merit in understanding aspects of neural control of breathing, a more useful analysis of the brain stem respiratory controller is rooted in the idea of a neuronal system, incorporating several interacting components, including central chemoreception, rhythm generation, burst development, as well as timing and shaping activities in various output stations. The overall neuronal system also integrates peripheral feedback from lung and chest wall mechanoreceptors, from peripheral chemoreceptors, and from the higher centers. Important aspects of the central neural control will be omitted from the following discussion or only touched on in passing. These unfortunate omissions result from the deficiencies in current understanding (mine and others) or from scope limitations. One of these relates to the influence of higher centers and the effect of shifts in the “state” of the nervous system (e.g., sleep versus wakefulness) on the automatic brain stem respiratory controller. Another concerns changes in intrinsic membrane properties of respiratory neurons during the respiratory cycle. II. Breathing and Central Pattern Generators One commonly held view is that the respiratory CPG consists of two separate components, a rhythm generator coupled to a separate pattern controller, the former providing a pacemaker function and the latter determining the shape and distribution of respiratory motor signal to various output stations (e.g., cranial and spinal motoneuron pools; 3; Fig. 2A). Whereas such separation of rhythmgenerating and patterncontrolling functions may be conceptually interesting, available evidence does not conclusively demonstrate that such an arrangement actually underlies generation of eupnea. The evidence required to show that a cell belongs to a rhythm generator, rather than pattern controller, involves showing that stimulation of the cell produces phase resetting. Alternatively, pacemaking and motorcontrolling functions may be intertwined, so that the respiratory rhythmogenic function emerges from synaptic interconnections of a variety of respiratory interneurons that also control the spatiotemporal aspects of the respiratory
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Figure 2 Various central pattern generator (CPG) models are depicted: In all three models, a respiratory CPG projects to upper airway motor neurons, spinal inspiratory, and spinal expiratory motor neurons (A) Pacemaker model: Rhythm generator (pacemaker) drives a functionally separate pattern controller that determines the precise timing and amplitude of respiratory bursts in various output stations. (B) Halfcenter model: Rhythm generation and pattern control are functionally inseparable and derived from inhibitory interconnections between inspiratory and expiratory neurons. Phaseswitching is provided by an additional neuronal circuit (not shown). (C) Conditional CPG model: The conditional CPG requires excitatory input from central or peripheral chemoreceptors to be phasically active.
pattern. The simplest such arrangement is the “halfcenter” model (see Fig. 2B), in which inspiratory and expiratory neurons reciprocally inhibit each other (4). Although such formulations serve heuristic purposes, a rigid and literal application of either CPG model will likely obscure reality and stifle progress by providing pat answers to questions about highly complex phenomena. Although the brain stem respiratory neurons and network can be assigned the status of CPG, it is not an endogenously active CPG, as it requires chemoreceptor input to oscillate. This requirement indicates that it is a conditional oscillator. The evidence for the conditional nature of the respiratory CPG is derived from a variety of species and preparations. Hyperoxic hypocapnia produces apnea
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in a variety of decerebrate and anesthetized mammals, as well as in sleeping humans and cats (5,6). Another example is that gill ventilation in early premetamorphic tadpoles, which is not responsive to CO2, ceases when the animal is exposed to high oxygen pressures (7). Accordingly, any satisfactory model of the brain stem respiratory controller is likely to include this conditional aspect of the oscillator as depicted in Figure 2C. The chemoreceptive conditionality of the CPG (i.e., the absolute dependence of rhythm on chemoreceptor input) is a feature that is compatible with either general type off respiratory CPG, pacemaker (see Fig. 2A), or emergent behavior (see Fig. 2B). III. Rhythm Generators: Pacemaker or Network Mechanisms? Whether the respiratory rhythmogenesis reflects pacemaker functionality or emergent behavior of a respiratory neuronal circuit is now a hotly contested and unresolved issue. Both types of rhythmogenic mechanisms may coexist to form a hybrid mechanism (3). As described in the following, both types of respiratory CPGs operate in certain species at particular times; however, what type of mechanism underlies eupneic breathing in vertebrates cannot yet be stated. A. Rhythm Generation as Emergent Network Behavior The most unequivocal demonstration of the role of network properties in generating a respiratory rhythm has been provided by Syed et al. (8) for the respiratory CPG of the mollusk Lymnaea stagnalis. In fact, the evidence provided by these workers establishes that reciprocally connected half centers are necessary and sufficient for respiratory rhythmogenesis. This convincing evidence is, in fact, the strongest evidence provided for any CPG that network oscillatory behavior is an emergent property, dependent entirely on the nature of synaptic interconnections. Lymnaea is an aquatic pulmonate mollusk that displays tidal ventilation of the lung with air in response to hypoxic stimulation. Lung ventilation entails rhythmic opening and closing of the lung orifice (the pneumostome) when the snail periodically visits the water surface. On breaking the surface, the pneumostome opens slowly and remains open for several seconds while active expiration occurs, followed by a passive, asperative inspiration, caused by passive recoil of the respiratory apparatus. The pneumostome closes transiently and then the cycle is repeated as the animal takes additional breaths before submerging again. The rhythmic, patterned muscular activity underlying Lymnaea's respiratory behavior is generated by the CNS without the requirement of feedback from mechanoreceptors. From a neuronal perspective, opening of the pneumostome is equivalent to the motor act of expiration, and closure of the pneumostome is the equivalent of inspiration (9). Fictive inspiration and expiration occurs sequentially in the isolated CNS of Lymnaea, establishing the existence of a respiratory CPG
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generating and controlling inspiration and expiration. Interneurons controlling the opening and closing motor neurons have been investigated, and two essential interneurons were identified; one for the opening movement of the pneumostome (expiratory command neuron), the other for closure (inspiratory command neuron; 10). A third neuron, a giant dopamine neuron, is essential for respiration in the isolated CNS of Lymnaea (8). This dopamine interneuron receives synaptic input from peripheral chemoreceptors sensitive to hypoxia, and stimulation of this neuron initiates the respiratory cycle. The neural respiratory cycle consists of oscillations of membrane potential and bursts of action potentials in these interneurons, or their surrogates, during a respiratory cycle (Fig. 3A). In the absence of the peripheral chemoreceptor, this rhythmic respiratory behavior of the isolated CNS does not occur spontaneously, but requires an initial depolarization of the giant dopamine cell (8). In the intact animal, excitation of this cell is produced by peripheral chemoreceptor input (11). That these three interneurons were sufficient to produce the oscillatory respiratory behavior was demonstrated in a remarkable set of experiments (8), involving reconstruction of the respiratory central pattern generator in vitro. Coculture of the dopaminergic cell, together with the inspiratory and expiratory interneurons revealed, that the three neurons reestablished the appropriate synaptic interconnections depicted in Figure 4. The expiratory neuron and inspiratory neuron are interconnected by inhibitory synapses. Similarly, the inspiratory and giant dopamine neurons are interconnected by inhibitory synapses. Finally, the expiratory neuron projects to the giant dopamine neuron with an excitatory synapse and, vice versa, the latter contacts the former with a mixed, excitatoryinhibitory synapse. In this reconstructed neuronal circuit, depolarization of the dopaminergic neuron initiates the phasic alternating bursts in the inspiratory and expiratory neurons, together with phasic bursting of the dopaminergic neuron (see Fig. 3B). Overall, a rhythm was produced that closely resembled that observed in the intact nervous system (see Fig. 3A). The results demonstrate that when the three nonpacemaker interneurons are appropriately synaptically interconnected, activation of the giant dopamine cell is sufficient to produce the respiratory CPG function. Thus, the threeneuron circuit is an adequate neuronal substrate for generation of the respiratory rhythm. Examination of the intrinsic neuronal properties of each of the three neurons in isolation failed to reveal spontaneous or induced rhythmic behavior. Other attributes of intrinsically oscillating neurons were not seen in these neurons, leading to the conclusion that none of the three cells individually served as a pacemaker. That the inspiratory neuron is essential was shown by the arrest of the lung ventilation following ablation of this neuron (12). Moreover, evidence for the necessity of the inspiratory interneuron was supplied by grafting an identical donor interneuron from another animal into the lesioned animal (12). The transplanted neuron extended neurites within the host nervous system, formed synapses with the appropriate target neurons, and restored normal respiratory behavior.
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Figure 3 Intracellular recordings from respiratory interneurons and the giant dopamine cell recorded (A) in situ and (B) in vitro. (A) Stimulated respiratory rhythm recorded from the isolated brain preparation. Because of the difficulties in recording intracellular activity simultaneously from both the respiratory interneurons and the giant dopamine cell, indirect evidence for the occurrence of I.P3.I was obtained from its follower, Visceral J cell (V.J cell). Direct recordings were made from R.Pe.D1 and V.D4. Depolarizing current injected into R.Pe.D1 (at bar) initiated the I.P3.I activity (as recorded from V.J cell) while inhibiting V.D4. The activation of I.P3.I in turn excited the giant dopamine cell and the previously hyperpolarized V.J cell while inhibiting V.D4. After recovery from inhibition by I.P3.I, V.D4 fired a burst of action potentials, and the cycle was spontaneously repeated. (B) Both the respiratory interneurons and the giant dopamine cell were isolated in culture and were allowed to extend neurites for 24 hr. These cells were then impaled with glass microelectrodes, and simultaneous intracellular recordings were made. Injection of depolarizing current (at bar) inhibited both of the respiratory interneurons. I.P3.I recovered from this inhibition and fired a burst of action potentials caused by the PIR excitation. This activation of I.P3.I in turn excited R.Pe.D1 and caused the further inhibition of V.D4. Similarly, V.D4 recovered from the inhibition by I.P3.I and fired a burst of action potentials inhibiting both R.Pe.D1 and I.P3.I. Thus, an alternating pattern of bursting activity was initiated by R.Pe.D1 that continued for several cycles before reaching a quiescent state. This in vitro pattern of activity mimics the respiratory cycle seen in both isolated and semiintact preparations. (From Ref. 8.)
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Figure 4 The three neurons that constitute Lymnaea's CPG are shown, together with their interconnections: Inspiratory and expiratory command neurons are interconnected with inhibitory synapses, as is the inspiratory and the giant dopamine neuron. Expiratory neurons excite the giant dopamine cell which, in turn, projects to the expiratory neuron with a mixed synapse. The giant dopamine cell is excited by peripheral chemoreceptors that are sensitive to hypoxia.
Overall, these results provide a remarkable body of evidence that the threeneuronal network provides the basis for the respiratory CPG in Lymnaea. The respiratory rhythm emanating from the CPG clearly derives from the reciprocal inhibitory interconnections between inspiratory and expiratory neurons, together with their interaction with the dopaminergic neuron. In other words, the rhythm is not attributable to a pacemaker neuron, but emerges from synaptic interconnections of the three neurons when tonic external stimulation is provided. In the intact animal, this is provided by peripheral chemoreceptor input to the dopamine cell. This network essentially corresponds to the halfcenter model shown in Figure 2B
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and would appear to have remarkable similarities to that proposed for vertebrates, wherein inspiratory and expiratory half centers, with mutually inhibitory interconnections and appropriate switching mechanisms (4). As in vertebrates, the emergent rhythm requires chemoreceptor excitatory input (i.e., the respiratory CPG of Lymnaea is a conditional oscillator). B. Rhythm Generation by Pacemaker Neurons Feldman and his coworkers have developed an important body of evidence demonstrating that the respiratory rhythm of the neonatal rat in vitro is driven by pacemaker neurons (see Ref. 13 for a review). The completely isolated brain stem and spinal cord of the neonatal rat (1–4 days) exhibits a bursting rhythm in vitro. These bursts have a squarewave profile and appear in the hypoglossal roots and all cranial and thoracic ventral roots (14). Feldman and coworkers have provided strong evidence that this bursting constitutes a respiratory rhythm generated by a CPG that uses pacemaker activity. Most notably, they showed that superfusion of the brain stem preparation with a chloridefree medium did not block the rhythm (15). Because postsynaptic inhibition requires activation of Cl conductance, this finding indicates that postsynaptic inhibition is not essential for the respiratory rhythm in the neonatal rat brain stem in vitro. This is a surprising finding, because Hiyashi and Lipski (16) showed in the in situ, artificially perfused brain stem preparation of the adult rat, that Clfree solution abolished the respiratory rhythm. Smith et al. used progressive serial transections to localize a region of the medulla that is essential for generating the respiratory rhythm by the medulla of the 1 to 4 dayold neonatal rat (17). Serial transection beginning at the pontomedullary junction and moving progressively caudally caused no perturbation of the frequency of inspiratory motor discharge recorded from the hypoglossal roots until the level of the retrofacial nucleus was reached. Further sectioning induced instabilities of the rhythm and, ultimately, eliminated the rhythmic motor output. More caudal medually regions were unnecessary for rhythm generation because sectioning rostrally from the spinomedullary junction did not disrupt the respiratory motor output until the retrofacial area was reached. Additional section experiments also localized areas essential for respiratory rhythmogenesis to the ventral portion of the medulla. Overall, such experiments imply that neurons essential for respiratory rhythmogenesis are localized in the ventral medulla just caudal to the level of the retrofacial nucleus. These investigators then studied the respiratory rhythm generated by a transverse slice of the neonatal rat medulla just caudal to cranial nerve VII (17). The 500 m slice at this level contains the hypoglossal motoneurons and their axons. The respiratory rhythm was recorded from the hypoglossal nerve root contained in this slice (Fig. 5A). This is the first thinslice preparation to exhibit a respiratory rhythm, a similar but thicker slice having been described by McLean et al. (18). Recordings of neurons lying in the
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Figure 5 The results obtained with a slice from the neonatal rat medulla at the level of the preBötzinger complex (PreBöt C): (A) Sectioned electrode recordings (lower trace) from the hypoglossal nerve roots (XIIN). Recording from PreBöt C neurons show depolarization and action potentials during each inspiratory burst (upper trace). (B) Injection of KCI (filled circles) or the nonNMDA blocker (CNQX; open circles) into the PreBöt C caused increase and decrease in respiratory frequency. (C) Recording from a nonphasic, PreBöt C neuron that becomes phasic when depolarized and shows increased burst frequency when further depolarized. (D) Recordings from the hypoglossal nerve (upper trace) and from a phasic PreBöt C neuron (lower trace) showing increased burst frequency independent of the hypoglossal nerve burst during depolarization. (From Ref. 17.)
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ventral areas of this slice, just caudal to the Bötzinger complex of respiratory neurons, revealed rhythmically active neurons in the socalled preBötzinger complex. Thin (350 mthick) slices enclosing the boundaries of the preBötzinger complex generated rhythmic motor output on hypoglossal nerves, demonstrating that the neurons at this level are adequate for rhythmogenesis (see Fig. 5A). To verify that preBötzinger neurons influence the rhythm, Smith et al. perturbed neuronal excitability of these neurons. As shown in Figure 5B, transient neuronal depolarization by microinjection of solutions containing a high potassium ion concentration, reversibly increased motor output. By contrast, injection of a nonNmethylDaspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist reduced the frequency and reversibly eliminated the respiratory output. Smith et al. performed wholecell recordings of neurons located in the preBötzinger complex and identified a population of neurons that exhibited periodic membrane potential depolarization, synchronous with the hypoglossal bursts (17). Some neurons that were not phasically active exhibited strong rhythmic depolarization associated with bursts of action potentials when they were depolarized by current injection (see Fig. 5C). When the phasic respiratory neurons were depolarized by intracellular injection of current, they exhibited oscillatory bursting at higher frequency than that of the motor output, suggesting that they may be pacemaker neurons (see Fig. 5D). Nonetheless, these neurons also received synaptic input in phase with the respiratory rhythm, indicating that they are a part of a respiratory network. The results of these remarkable investigations indicate that the respiratory rhythm of the in vitro neonatal rat medulla is generated by neurons of the preBötzinger complex. These neurons possess voltagedependent, pacemakerlike properties, and they interact synaptically with other respiratory neurons to produce a respiratory rhythm. This preBötzinger respiratory CPG, which could be the basis for the generation of respiratory rhythm in the intact mammalian brain stem, conforms to the CPG paradigm depicted in the pacemaker shown in Figure 2A. One caveat must be added: the fictive breathing exhibited by the neonatal rat brain stem in vitro is of uncertain significance; it may represent either eupnea or gasping. IV. Gasping and Eupnea: Two Types of Respiratory Rhythms in Adult Mammals Lumsden noted that severe hypoxia, cerebral ischemia, or transection of the brain stem at the pontomedullary junction eliminated eupneic respiration and induced the appearance of a different respiratory pattern, referred to as gasping (19–22). The respiratory pattern of gasping differs from the eupneic pattern in the following manner: the gasping inspiratory motor output begins synchronously at all motor output stations, the rate of rise of the phrenic burst in gasping is much greater than in eupnea, and the phrenic burst profile describes a decrescendo trajectory resem
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Figure 6 Patterns of automatic ventilatory activity after transections of brain stem: Schematic drawings are of integrated phrenic activity. Eupnea is recorded after a midcollicular transection (level E). After a rostral pontile transection (level A), apneusis is obtained. Gasping is recorded after a transection at pontomedullary junction (level G). Note that duration of apneustic inspiration can be many minutes. IC, inferior colliculus; BP, brachium pontis. (From Ref. 30.)
bling upper airway motor output (Fig. 6). The gasping respiratory pattern is uninfluenced by vagal feedback. Eupnea and gasping differ in the pattern of activity of bulbar respiratory neurons. During gasping, inspiratory neurons exhibit less variation in time of onset and duration than during eupneic breathing (23–25). In fact, one hallmark of gasping is the synchronous onset of all inspiratory neurons at the beginning of the gasp; as well, expiratory neuron activity is greatly reduced (23–25). The onset of gasping is associated with a shift in highfrequency oscillation, considered by some to be a “signature” of the respiratory CPG (26,27). Finally, St. John has identified a region near the nucleus ambiguus that is essential for gasping, but not for eupnea. A lesion of this area, which may correspond to the preBötzinger area, does not alter normal breathing, but does eliminate gasping (28). However, Feldman and coworkers dispute this interpretation, noting that gasping was eliminated by lesions dorsomedial to the preBötzinger area (3) (see note added in proof, p. 35).
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The pons plays a complex and poorly understood role in respiratory rhythmogenesis and pattern control. In the rostral pons, the nucleus parabrachialis medialis (NPBM) and the Kölliker fuse nucleus (KFN) contribute to phase switching. As depicted in Figure 6, rostral pontine lesions in decerebrate, vagotomized animals profoundly alter the respiratory pattern, producing prolonged inspiratory bursts known as apneusis. Figure 7 shows that the ascending inspiratory ramps in apneusis and eupnea are identical until graded inhibition begins during the eup
Figure 7 Integrated phrenic activity with vagal volume feedback (rhythmic breathing) with a superimposed apneustic breath in the absence of volume feedback (respirator switched off) from a cat with a unilateral lesion in the inspiratory inhibitory area of right parabrachial nucleus, paralyzed with gallamine, vagus intact, and ventilated by a phrenicdriven servorespirator. The sweep of the storage oscilloscope was triggered by the onset of inspiratory activity: (A) normocapnia; (B) hypercapnia (breathing 4.2% CO2 in O2). Note that the initial rate of rise of inspiratory activity is virtually identical in rhythmic and apneustic breaths during both normocapnia and hypercapnia. (From Ref. 29.)
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neic ramp. Thereafter, the two diverge, the eupneic output undergoes phase switching, whereas the apneustic continues to rise and ultimately plateaus without phase switching (29). The apneustic respiratory pattern probably does not reflect a fundamental shift in rhythmogenic mechanism. Rather, it appears to represent a failure in switching off inspiration generated by the eupneic CPG (29). Gasping, on the other hand, appears to constitute a fundamental alteration in the function of the eupneic CPG or the appearance of a different CPG. Gasping emanates from the medulla and is the one pattern of automatic ventilatory activity that is reproducibly exhibited by the isolated medulla (30). In fact, Lumsden and others have proposed the existence of a second, noneupneic respiratory CPG in adult mammals (i.e., a gasp CPG) to explain the striking differences in shape and distribution of the motor output between eupnea and gasping (20). Even though the rostral pons is required for a timely switching off of the inspiratory ramp, it does not participate in generating the ramp. By contrast, the caudal pons plays an essential role in generating the normal inspiratory ramp and suppressing the gasping respiratory pattern. Gasping may play an important survival role, particularly in neonates. Lawson and Thach have demonstrated that gasping can provide sufficient alveolar ventilation to promote recovery from apnea produced by profound CNS hypoxia (31). Eupneic breathing is characterized by a respiratory behavior that differs strikingly from gasping. Normally, the adult mammal exhibits a rich variety of spatiotemporal ventilatory patterns in executing a highly coordinated motor act modulated by a spectrum of environmental influences and postural constraints. This involves alternating activation of spinal inspiratory and expiratory neurons in an augmenting pattern and squarewave or decrementing activation of upper airway motoneurons. Depending on the species and the preparation, the rhythm and spatiotemporal pattern of the respiratory motor output is strongly modified by feedback from mechanoreceptors located in the lungs and chest wall. Unlike gasping, eupnea involves participation of the pons and vagal feedback to terminate respiratory phases, to promote alteration and reciprocation of inspiratory and expiratory neurons, and to define the timing and shape of burst activity at various output stations (4). This requires the participation of an extensive brain stem respiratory network, involving both inhibitory and excitatory synaptic interconnections. That such neurorespiratory circuitry is required for full expression of the eupneic breathing in no way forces the conclusion that eupneic rhythmogenesis emerges from the network behavior in the absence of independent pacemaker function. However, it implies that any pacemaker rhythmic generator must be coupled to a spatiotemporal pattern controller that uses rostral pontine mechanisms and vagal feedback to generate a coordinated, flexible spatiotemporal output. Location of a medullary pacemaker for an eupneic CPG has proved elusive; Speck and Feldman demonstrated that numerous lesions throughout the
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medulla failed to eliminate the respiratory rhythm, even though the amplitude of motor output was greatly reduced (32) (see note added in proof, p. 35). This is not true for gasping; rostral ventral medullary lesions eliminate gasping but not eupnea (28). The foregoing poses two fundamental questions on generation and control of the respiratory motor output by the brain stem of the adult mammal: (1) Do gasping and eupnea arise from separate CPGs, or is the gasp CPG the kernel for eupneic breathing? and (2) what is the role of network versus pacemaker properties in each CPG? Ontological and phylogenic comparisons of the motor act of breathing bear on these questions and appear to provide at least partial answers. V. Ontological Considerations Whereas fetal mammals may normally exhibit gaspingtype breathing in REM sleep, newborns exhibit a respiratory motor behavior that is the equivalent of the adult eupneic motor output. Wang et al. (23) have reported the following observations in neonatal rats to support this conclusions: (1) augmenting, reciprocating bursts appear in the phrenic nerve (Fig. 8); (2) the duration of inspiration and expiration are modulated by lung volume; and (3) rostral pontine areas function to produce inspiratoryexpiratory phaseswitching and prevent apneusis. All three observations are consistent with eupnea and not gasping. An important disagreement exists over the role of the vagus in changing the spatiotemporal pattern of inspiratory bursts in neonatal rats. Three reports have observed gaspingtype patterns in the neonatal rat after bilateral vagotomy (14,34,35). By contrast, Wang et al. found persistence of an augmenting phrenic motor output in the absence of vagal feedback (33). Despite this unresolved question, Wang et al. observed that the neonatal, decerebrate rat exhibits a eupneic respiratory motor act, comparable with eupneic breathing in the adult. Moreover, these investigators demonstrated in neonatal rats, age 0–7 days, that hypoxia transforms this eupneic pattern into a gasping pattern (see Fig. 8). In other words, the potential for both eupneic and gasping motor behaviors coexist in the neonatal mammal; the former is normally expressed and the latter emerges under hypoxic conditions. Suzue reported that a respiratory rhythm is exhibited by the isolated brain stem of the neonatal rat superfused by mock cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in vitro (36,37). These initial reports documented that the rhythm was slower than in the intact animal, and that the rate of rise of inspiratory activity far exceeded that of the intact animal. The frequency, but not amplitude, of bursts responds to changes in superfusate pH, and the rhythm is not altered by pontomedullary transection. From these findings, Suzue concluded that “the periodic rhythm correlated to gasping rather than normal respiratory rhythm” (36). The inspiratory burst re
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Figure 8 Eupnea and gasping in neonatal rat: Animals were decerebrate, vagotomized, paralyzed, and artificially ventilated. Records are of integrated phrenic (Phr) activity during eupnea in hyperoxia and in anoxiainduced gasping. Time constant of integrator = 60 msec on and 100 msec off. Records were obtained from an animal on the day of birth (0 days) and others at 2, 4, and 7 days after birth. (From Ref. 33.)
corded from the CIII root is decrementing (Fig. 9A), not augmenting as demonstrated for the phrenic burst in the decerebrate neonatal rat during eupneic breathing (see Fig. 8). Further support for the notion that the in vitro neonatal rat brain stem preparation may exhibit fictive gasping derives from investigation of the respira
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Figure 9 (A) Integrated record of a burst in the C3 nerve root of the 4dayold rat brain stemspinal cord preparation in vitro at 27°C: The burst shows an abrupt rise to a peak value, followed by decrescendo profile lasting 0.7 sec. (B) Recording of a raw (upper trace) and integrated (lower trace) burst in the C5 root recorded from the 9dayold opossum CNS in vitro at 30°C, with the same sweep speed as in A. The opossum CNS exhibits an augmenting bursting lasting 0.25 sec. (From A, Ref. 14; B, Ref. 38.)
tory gas exchange status of the brain. Measurements of tissue pH and PO2 reveal that the brain tissue is extremely acidic and hypoxic, with complete anoxia being present at 400 m below the surface (38). This observation is remarkable because the neonatal brain stem in vitro is maintained severely hypothermic (e.g., 27°C), which reduces tissue hypoxia by decreasing metabolic rate and increasing the solubility of O2 and CO2. Thus, the experimental conditions are those that would be expected to produce gasping in the intact or decerebrate animal. Overall, therefore, available evidence favors the view that fictive breathing of the in vitro neonatal rat brain stem preparation represents gasping, not eupnea. An important distinction should be drawn between the fictive respiratory pattern of the neonatal rat medulla in vitro and that of the neonatal opossum CNS in vitro (39). The opossum brain is likely less hypoxic than the neonatal rat medulla in vitro, owing to its small size and, hence, short diffusion distance. Unlike the neonatal rat, the in vitro opossum CNS exhibits features of eupnea; namely, a short and augmenting inspiratory ramp of efferent activity in the CV spinal nerve root (see Fig. 9B), and an amplitude, as well as a frequency, response to changes in superfusate pH. The results with this promising preparation for the study of respiratory rhythmogenesis and chemoreception demonstrate that the
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putative gasping of the in vitro neonatal rat brain stem is attributable neither to its isolation nor to its immaturity. Rather, it is likely the result of its hypoxia and acidity. That the slice preparation used in the studies of Smith et al. (17) was not hypoxic does not nullify the possibility that the slice preparation generates a gasping rhythm; as pointed out in the foregoing, eupnea requires the pontine mechanisms. The possibility that the fictive breathing of the in vitro rat brain stem preparation constitutes gasping is consistent with the results showing that pontomedullary transection does not influence the respiratory pattern (14,18) and that postsynaptic inhibition contributes little to the fictive respiratory pattern of this preparation (15). The latter finding seems to be more compatible with gasping than eupnea, because a role for precisely timed postsynaptic inhibition is well established in eupnea and because perfusion of the rat brain stem with a Clfree medium eliminated the respiratory rhythm (17). The spatiotemporal pattern of the gasping burst, an abrupt rise in activity followed by a decrescendo appearing synchronously in all respiratory nerves, might indicate little role for postsynaptic inhibition in gasping. If the hypoxic, hypothermic neonatal rat in vitro brain stem, in fact, exhibits fictive gasping and not eupnea, the cellular mechanisms of rhythm generation elucidated by Smith et al. (17) in this preparation must be interpreted accordingly. For instance, one might infer that the preBötzinger mechanism may be the pacemaker for gasping. One might also postulate that, under hypoxic conditions in the neonatal rat, the preBötzinger pacemaker drives a gasp CPG that does not use postsynaptic inhibitory networking (see note added in proof, p. 35). VI. Lessons from Amphibia and Reptiles Comparison of central neural processes controlling breathing among phyla provides a useful source of insights into basic neuronal process generating and regulating the respiratory motor output. Because of the relative simplicity of “lower” vertebrate respiration and because in vitro preparations of the brain stem of these species are less deranged than those from mammals, neurobiological investigation of such preparations holds considerable potential. For instance, as depicted in Figure 10, amphibia employ only two sets of motoneurons that mediate lung ventilation. By contrast, lung ventilation in reptiles and mammals involves five sets of motoneurons. Nonetheless, basic features of the respiratory control system are conserved: central and peripheral chemoreception, vagal volume feedback, and a threephase lung ventilatory cycle. Presumably, the basic features of the respiratory CPG are conserved among the three families. One important focus has been on amphibia, the modern descendants of the first tetrapods that migrated from water onto land. This momentous event in
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Figure 10 The respiratory control systems for amphibian, reptile, and mammal are depicted. Each group is postulated to have a homologous central pattern generator as well as volumerelated and chemical feedbacks. Each produces a threephase respiratory cycle. The motor control systems vary among the three, innervating different respiratory muscles as depicted. Neural components: CPG, central pattern generator; MCSA, motor control system of amphibian; MCSR, motor control system of reptile; MCSM, motor control system of mammal; PCR, peripheral chemoreceptor; CCR, central chemoreceptor; PSR, pulmonary stretch receptor. Muscles: OP, oropharyngeal; LX, laryngeal; Sh, shoulder; RC, rib cage; D, diaphragm; Ab, abdominal.
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evolution was made possible by two important innovations: aerial respiration and quadrupedal locomotion. As one wag quipped, “all that was required for life on land was lungs and legs.” The replacement of gill ventilation by lung ventilation provided enormous advantages, principally owing to the physical properties of the convective media. Air, less dense and less viscous than water, allowed connective distribution through small airways into microalveoli. In addition, air has much greater O2 capacity than water. Together, these set the stage for a dramatic increase in oxidative metabolism. These advantages were countered by problems posed by CO2 elimination, owing to decreased capacity and diffusibility of the gas in air when compared with water. This is reflected in the appearance of central respiratory chemoreception, a key component of CO2 homeostasis. Thus, the shift from water to air ventilation required two essential additions to the respiratory control system: a rhythmic neuromuscular controller for tidal movement of air into the lungs, and a central CO2 chemoreceptor. As recent information indicates, these two functions may be intimately associated at the neuronal level. CO2 chemosensitivity occurs in regions of the brain having dense populations of respiratory neurons (40), and respiratory neurons appear to possess intrinsic CO2 chemosensitivity (41). Tadpoles, the larval form of frogs, provide a remarkable opportunity to investigate the ontogeny and, by inference, phylogeny of CO2 chemosensitivity and lung ventilatory rhythmogenesis; to the extent that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, the gill and lung ventilation in the developing tadpole provides a “rerun” of that momentous episode in evolution when lung ventilation replaced gill ventilation. A. Lung and Gill Ventilation in the Tadpole Investigation of the neurobiology of amphibian respiration has been facilitated by the development of in vitro brain stem preparations derived from the frog (42) and the tadpole (43). Extensive correlative studies have demonstrated that the bursting rhythm recorded from the cranial nerve (CN) roots, V, VII, and X, and the spinal nerve (SN) root II, constitutes fictive breathing. To accomplish this, the bursting rhythm in the cranial and spinal nerve roots were compared with respiratory discharges recorded in respiratory nerves or muscles of decerebrate preparations (44,45). Another important feature is that, unlike the mammalian brain stem preparation, the in vitro tadpole brain stem is well oxygenated in all regions (46). Moreover, the amphibian brain stem is maintained at the animal's normal temperature, 20–22°C. The premetamorphic tadpole uses both lung and gill ventilation for gas exchange, and the in vitro tadpole brain stem exhibits both lung and gill neural ventilatory patterns. As shown in Figure 11B and C, fictive gill breathing in the tadpole is characterized by a highfrequency, lowamplitude burst in CN VII and X, whereas a fictive lung breath is characterized by a large burst in both nerve roots (see Fig. 11A). The characteristics of a fictive lung breath are illustrated in
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Figure 11 Records of fictive gill and lung ventilation recorded from cranial nerves (CN) VII and X in the premetamorphic tadpole (stage 14): Fictive gill ventilation is represented by the highfrequency, lowamplitude bursts in both cranial nerves partially out of phase. Increasing Pco2 from 4 torr (C), to 17 torr (B), to 45 torr (A) is associated with an increase in amplitude and frequency of fictive gill bursts. At the highest CO2 level (A) a fictive lung burst occurs in the middle of the tracing, characterized by highamplitude activity in both cranial nerve roots. (From CS Torgerson, MJ Gdovin, JE Remmers, unpublished data.)
Figure 12 in which lung bursts involve largeamplitude bursts in CN V and VII, in the laryngeal branch of the vagus (Xl) and in SN II. Axons in the hypoglossal nerve are derived from SN II. In the premetamorphic tadpole, gill ventilation is driven principally by hypoxic stimulation of the peripheral chemoreceptor (7). Nonetheless, central chemoreceptors sensitive to CO2 are well developed and cause a substantial increase in fictive gill motor output in the premetamorphic animal (see Fig. 11; 43). In addition, CO2 stimulation augments the frequency of fictive lung breath (see Fig. 12; 43). In the premetamorphic tadpole, the fictive lung burst consists of an abrupt and synchronous activation of all respiratory motor outputs, suggesting that this event may be a fictive gasp. Interestingly, the fictive lung breath of the premetamorphic tadpole brain stem, unlike fictive gill ventilation, is unaffected by chloridefree superfusate (47), indicating that, as was seen for the gasplike burst
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Figure 12 Records of fictive gill and lung ventilation in a premetamorphic tadpole (stage 14) brain stemspinal cord preparation. Integrated electroneurograms were recorded from cranial nerve VII (CN VII), the laryngeal branch of the vagus (CN Xl), and the second spinal nerve (SN II) roots at pH 7.65 (upper panel) and pH 7.41 (lower panel). Fictive gill ventilation is represented by the highfrequency lowamplitude burst in CN VII and, to some extent, in CN Xl. Note that SN II exhibits no phasic activity during these periods. Fictive lung bursts are characterized by large bursts in all three recordings. (From CS Torgerson, MJ Gdovin, JE Remmers, unpublished data.)
in the in vitro neonatal rat brain stem preparation, postsynaptic inhibition is not essential for fictive lung rhythmogenesis. The fictive lung breath of the postmetamorphic tadpole and adult frog contrasts with the gasplike lung burst of the premetamorphic tadpole; in the frog, the lung breath begins with an augmenting burst in the sternohyoid of the hypoglossus, followed by a burst in CN V, VII, and X and the main branch of the hypoglossus (Fig. 13A). As was shown by Kimura et al. (48), this coordinated, augmenting activation is dependent on postsynaptic inhibition; superfusion with
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Figure 13 Superimposed traces of integrated nerve discharges of laryngeal branch of the vagus (Xl), main branch of the hypoglossus (Hm), sternohyoid branch of the hypoglossus (Hsh), and contralateral hypoglossus (H) triggered at onset of HM burst (arrow): (A) Before strychnine; (B) synchronous bursting activity induced by 10 M strychnine. (From Ref. 48.)
mockCSF containing strychnine, a blocker of glycinergic receptors, produces sudden onset of a gasplike rhythm, having synchronous onset and decrementing trajectory (see Fig. 13B). In addition, as in mammalian gasping, the frequency of highfrequency oscillation shifts. A plausible conclusion from these studies of tadpole and frog brain stems in vitro is that fictive lung breathing in the premetamorphic tadpole derives from a primitive lung CPG, not requiring postsynaptic inhibition, whereas fictive lung bursts in the adult frog arise from a CPG having welldeveloped network properties, including postsynaptic inhibition. It is tempting to speculate that the output of primitive, premetamorphic lung CPG is homologous with the poststrychnine pattern of the in vitro frog brain stem and to gasping in the mammal, whereas the output of the adult frog CPG is probably related to neural mechanisms responsible for eupneic ventilation in the mammal. Such a view is consistent with Lumsden's sagacious insight that “gasping is a relic of
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some transitory primitive respiratory process, halfway between gill and lung respiration” (20). In other words, the acquisition of air through the mouth by fish, lung fish, and premetamorphic tadpoles, the earliest form of air breathing, may represent gasping. Why does this “relic” persist in higher vertebrates? In general, competitive evolutionary pressures tend to eliminate functional aspects of the CNS that do not contribute in some way to survival. Gasping, therefore, is probably not a “useless” relic. It may provide autoresuscitation in hypoxic conditions, thereby providing a survival advantage. Another, and nonexclusive, possibility is that a gasp CPG served as neuronal basis for lung ventilatory rhythmogenesis in early air breathers (i.e., garfish, lungfish, and premetamorphic tadpoles). In frogs and “higher” vertebrates, the lung CPG evolved by addition of more neuronal elements (e.g., pontine neurons) and network properties (e.g., postsynaptic inhibition). In this scenario, mammals have only one respiratory CPG, and it has evolved from the primitive pacemaker driven gasp CPG of the fish. The pontine synaptic interactions with the putative gasp CPG would have induced two major changes: (1) control of the rate of rise of the inspiratory output by the caudal pons; and (2) phaseswitching by rostral pontine structures. The former would allow more efficient inflation of lungs having high airway resistance, and the latter would modify the role of the primitive pacemaker. Also, reciprocal inhibitory interactions among bulbar respiratory neurons would provide spatiotemporally coordinated activation of a variety of respiratory muscles. The net result of these developments would be a CPG that produced an alternating output of smoothly augmenting inspiratory and expiratory ramps of precisely controlled denotations. This speculation implies that the mechanisms for gasping and eupnea do not differ fundamentally. Rather, they can be seen as evolutionarily and developmentally related and intimately connected in normal breathing of the adult vertebrate. As an extension of this notion, the putative pacemaker for eupnea, the preBötzinger complex, might participate in gasping (see note added in proof). Another implication of the unified CPG speculation is that the mammal develops gasping by hypoxiainduced suppression of nonpacemaker components of the eupneic CPG, particularly the pons. B. The ThreePhase Respiratory Cycle One of the more obvious lessons from comparative respiratory neurobiology is that the basic features of the respiratory pattern are conserved in airbreathing vertebrates. Relative to airflow, lung breathing is a twophase, tidal process: inhalation and exhalation. By contrast, from the point of view of respiratory mechanics, muscle activities and neuronal synaptic events, breathing is a motor act that occurs in three sequential phases: active expiration (deflation of the lungs), inspiration (inflation of the lungs), and postinspiration (breathhold at endinspiration or retardation of expiratory airflow). This is true for amphibia, reptiles, and mammals. As will be described in detail, the neurorespiratory circuit in mammals sequentially assumes one of three activity states: inspiration, postinspiration, and
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active expiration, corresponding to the three sequential mechanical phases. The latter two encompass the two mechanical phases of expiration and are often referred to as the first and second stages of expiration, denoted E1 and E2. As shown in Figure 14A, postinspiration (E1) is associated with retardation of expiratory flow by glottal adduction (activation of the thyroarytenoid) and antagonistic contraction of inspiratory pump muscles (postinspiratory activity of the phrenic), whereas active expiration (E2) is associated with contraction of abdominal expiratory muscles. Similarly to mammals, amphibia and reptiles possess a constellation of bulbar respiratory neuronal circuits, the activity of which shifts sequentially among three activity configurations wherein inspiratory, postinspiratory, and expiratory neurons are active (49,50). Corresponding to this threephase neurorespiratory cycle, amphibia and reptiles exhibit a parallel threephase mechanical respiratory cycle in which the postinspiratory (E1) phase is protracted and is associated with complete closure of the glottis, trapping the lung gas after the end of inspiration. The newborn opossum exhibits a respiratory pattern that entirely parallels that of the amphibian and reptile, exhibiting a breathhold after the end of inspiration (51). Newborn lambs exhibit a similar respiratory pattern, wherein intense and prolonged activation of the thyroarytenoid greatly reduces the expiratory airflow and produces a dynamic endexpiratory lung volume greater than the passive functional residual capacity (FRC; 52). Finally, the adult cat exhibits substantial laryngeal and inspiratory muscle braking of expiratory airflow, both being reflexly regulated by volume feedback (53–55). A unifying hypothesis is that the braking of expiratory airflow produces an increase in endexpiratory lung volume that promotes pulmonary gas exchange and limits water accumulation in the lungs. In support of the latter concept, pulmonary vascular congestion, by activating vagal C fibers, produces rapid, shallow breathing, and intensive expiratory braking, as indicated by activation of laryngeal adductors (56). In summary, amphibia and reptiles display a threephase, neurorespiratory cycle that parallels that observed in mammals. For all three groups, the respiratory neurons display sequential activation of inspiratory, postinspiratory, and expiratory neurons, and these neurons receive postsynaptic inhibition during their inactive phases, indicating that they are interconnected by inhibitory synaptic transmission. Overall, therefore, current evidence strongly indicates that, from a mechanical and a neural perspective, the respiratory cycle of amphibia, reptiles, and mammals occurs in three sequential phases that appear to be homologous among the groups. VII. Central Neuronal Elements Generating and Controlling the Motor Output Respiratory neurons of the pons and medulla and their synaptic connections are the source of the respiratory rhythm, and they also control the distribution of neu
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ral activity in time and space to various output stations (i.e., to spinal motoneurons and cranial motoneurons innervating respiratory muscles). Tidal breathing requires intermittent, repetitive contraction of respiratory muscles that results from a bursting, rhythmic activation of brain stem respiratory neurons. Although this respiratory rhythm is essential for tidal breathing, the reciprocal inhibition of antagonistic muscles and shaping of burst profiles is of equal importance in executing the motor act. The timing and shaping of respiratory bursts in various respiratory motoneuron pools reflect precise timing and rate of rise of bursting activity in specific premotor respiratory interneurons. Coordination of this symphony of activity is largely achieved by rhythmic waves of postsynaptic inhibition occurring during inactive phases, followed by the arrival of postsynaptic excitation. Investigation of neuronal activities responsible for the respiratory CPG function began with extracellular recordings of respiratory neurons in the pons and the medulla (57). Cohen and coworkers carried out pioneering investigations, demonstrating that a variety of respiratory neurons were phaselocked to inspiration or expiration and occurred at transitions between inspiration and expiration (58–60). The modern era of the investigation of central respiratory processes controlling breathing was ushered in by an enormous technological breakthrough, provided by Richter, which allowed, for the first time, intracellular recording of membrane potential of respiratory neurons in anesthetized cats (61,62). These techniques, applied extensively by Richter and coworkers in anesthetized cats (63–66), and by others in decerebrate cats (67–70), have allowed analysis of spontaneous synaptic events occurring during the neurorespiratory cycle, and they have contributed substantially to our current, albeit incomplete, understanding. These techniques have been combined with identification of central and peripheral projections of respiratory neurons, using antidromic activation techniques as well as spiketriggered averaging (71–75). These arduous but essential studies have provided the outlines of interconnection of respiratory neurons and their complementary interactions. Some of the most fundamental and instructive insights derive from observations of postsynaptic potentials recorded by Richter and coworkers. Several reviews of these findings have appeared (76–78). These patterns observed in inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons of the ventral medulla (63,65), together with similar observations in expiratory neurons (64), reveal the arrival of precisely timed inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) in three phases during the respiratory cycle. In essence, the results reveal the dynamic behavior of membrane potential of the three common types of respiratory neurons, as shown in Figure 14: postinspiratory (see Fig. 14B, middle trace), augmenting inspiratory, and augmenting expiratory (see Fig. 14C). The activity phase of each corresponds to one of three phases of the respiratory motor output described in the foregoing. Each of these three types of respiratory neurons depolarizes and fires a burst of action potentials during its active phase and is actively inhibited during the other two inactive phases (Fig. 15). These three types of respiratory neurons are commonly
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Figure 14 Recordings of (A) wholenerve efferent discharge (A) and (B–D) bulbar respiratory neurons: (A) The three phases of the neurorespiratory cycle. Inspiration (Insp) is characterized by the phrenic (Ph) burst. First phase of expiration (E1 or postinsp) is characterized by declining activity in Ph and a burst of activity in the thyroarytenoid (TA). The second phase of expiration (E2 or Exp) is characterized by silence in phrenic and thyroarytenoid discharge together with an augmenting burst in the abdominal nerve (AbdL1). (B) Intracellular recordings of membrane potential (MP) of early inspiratory (Early I) and postinspiratory (Post I) neurons showing decrescendo pattern during the active phase and hyperpolarization during the inactive phase for each neuron. (C) Membrane potential recording from augmenting inspiratory (Aug I) and augmenting expiratory (Aug E) showing action potentials during the active phase and hyperpolarization during the inactive phase. (D) Membrane potential recordings from augmenting inspiratory (Aug I) and late inspiratory (Late I) neurons that fire action potentials during their active periods and are hyperpolarized during their inactive periods. (From Ref. 78.)
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Figure 15 Depiction of membrane potential trajectories from six bulbar respiratory neurons, together with relevant respiratory motor outputs recorded in phrenic (Phr), abdominal (Abd), thyroarytenoid (TA), and hypoglossal (HG) nerves. The respiratory cycle is divided into three phases: inspiration (Insp), and two phases of expiration (Exp), phase 1 of expiration (E1) and phase 2 of expiration (E2). Hyperpolarization by inhibitory postsynaptic potentials is indicated by the hatched areas. (Adapted from Ref. 78.)
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impaled, with sharp micropipettes, when recording in the ventral respiratory group of pentobarbitalanesthetized (63.64) or decerebrate (70) cats. In addition, three other types of respiratory neurons have been identified: preinspiratory (not shown), early inspiratory (see Fig. 14B, top trace), and late inspiratory (see Fig. 14D, middle trace). These three are less frequently recorded, perhaps because they are less prevalent or because they are smaller. As shown in Figure 15, each of the six types of bulbar respiratory neurons displays precisely timed depolarization and action potentials during its single active phase, and each receives precisely timed barrages of IPSPs that cause hyperpolarization during one or both of its inactive phases. In addition, each type of respiratory neuron, except for Pre I neurons, exhibits depolarizing behavior that correlates with a specific respiratory motor output (i.e., augmenting inspiratory or late inspiratory with phrenic discharge; augmenting expiratory with abdominal motor activity; Early I with hypoglossal discharge; and Post I with thyroarytenoid activity; see Fig. 15). The principal collections of respiratory neurons lie in three regions of the brain stem in the vicinity of the nucleus tractus solitarius (dorsal respiratory group; DRG); in the vicinity of the nucleus ambiguus (ventral respiratory group; VRG); and in the rostral pons, in the NPBM and KFN (57). The dorsal respiratory group contains principally augmenting inspiratory neurons, whereas the ventral respiratory group contains inspiratory and expiratory neurons segregated topographically. The caudal ventral group contains augmenting expiratory neurons that are principally bulbospinal (79). At the level of the obex and 2 mm rostral to it, the ventral group contains inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons (63). The more rostral portion of the ventral group contains expiratory neurons (Bötzinger complex) (71,72) and a mixture of early inspiratory and Post I neurons in the preBötzinger complex (80), as well as a variety of inspiratory and expiratory neurons in the retrofacial area (70). Finally, the rostral pontine group contains both inspiratory, expiratory, and phasespanning neurons (81). The last may form an additional type of respiratory neuron not commonly encountered in the medulla. An important feature of the ventral respiratory group is the coexistence of abundant cranial motor neurons with respiratory modulation, together with bulbospinal and propriobulbar respiratory neurons (see Ref. 78 for a review). These neurons innervate the hypoglossus, nasolabial, tensor veli palatini, pharyngeal constrictor, and other muscles of the pharynx. About 50–80% of the inspiratory neurons in the DRG are bulbospinal neurons. The more heterogeneous VRG has bulbospinal expiratory neurons in the caudal VRG (nucleus retroambigualis). The intermediate VRG is located in the ventrolateral medulla at the same rostral caudal level as the DRG and includes the nucleus ambiguus and parambigual regions. This area contains an abundance of laryngeal motoneurons, bulbospinal inspiratory neurons, and postinspiratory neurons. The more rostral preBötzinger complex contains both augmenting inspiratory neurons, as well as early expiratory neurons that are associated with pharyngeal muscles. Finally, in the rostral VRG,
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the retrofacial nucleus contains pharyngeal motoneurons, with augmenting expiratory, postinspiratory, and augmenting inspiratory discharge patterns (70). The less wellstudied pontine respiratory areas, the NPBM and KFN, contain numerous respiratory neurons. These areas, previously referred to as the “pneumotaxic center,” play an important role in regulation of the duration of inspiration and expiration in the absence of vagal feedback. Most respiratory neurons in these areas fire tonically, with peak frequencies occurring during inspiration, during expiration or at the transitions between these two phases. Anatomical (82) and electrophysiological (83) studies have shown that KF neurons project to hypoglossal motoneurons. Accordingly, in addition to playing a role in phaseswitching, the KF neurons may be an important source of respiratory input to this group of respiratory motoneurons. VIII. Synaptic Connection The eupneic CPG undoubtedly depends heavily on synaptic interactions between respiratory neurons (16,76,77). By using techniques of crosscorrelation (84–88) and spiketriggered averaging (71–75), several synaptic connections have been identified among respiratory neurons. In addition to these laborintensive, lowyield techniques, the spontaneous fluctuations in membrane potential provide inferential evidence of functional synaptic connections. For instance, a hyperpolarizing wave in membrane potential of an identified respiratory neuron can be established to be caused by a barrage of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) arriving at a particular time during the respiratory cycle (see Fig. 15). One can infer, therefore, that this type of respiratory neuron receives inhibitory projections from another group of neurons that fire action potentials at that particular time in the respiratory cycle. Although this type of evidence does not indicate the location of the neurons that are the source of the inhibitory projections, it clearly establishes the existence of an inhibitory connection between the two types of neurons. Currently, 21 interconnections, 17 inhibitory and 4 excitatory, have been established or inferred among the six types of respiratory neurons using the three methods: crosscorrelation, spiketriggered averaging, and analysis of postsynaptic potentials. These are listed in the interconnection matrix (Fig. 16). Excitatory interconnections have been identified principally between neighboring neurons using crosscorrelational techniques (84–86). Each of the six types of bulbar respiratory neurons receives postsynaptic inhibition during its inactive phases. The combined expression of these 17 inhibitory and 4 excitatory neurotransmissions among the three augmenting and three decrementing respiratory neurons is depicted in Figure 15. IPSP waves, indicated by crosshatched regions, occur in all six neurons during their inactive or nonspiking phases. The plethora of these
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Figure 16 Correlation matrix showing excitatory and inhibitory connections among the six bulbar respiratory neurons: 21 interconnections have been identified or inferred, 4 excitatory and 17 inhibitory. (Adapted from Ref. 78.)
types of reciprocal inhibitions emphasizes their importance in creating a symphonic rhythm wherein each group of neurons begins and ends firing at precise times in the cycle. This is particularly prominent for the three augmenting type of neurons: inspiratory augmenting (Aug I), late inspiratory augmenting (Late I), and expiratory augmenting (Aug E). Specifically, as depicted in Figure 15 (top half), Aug I and Late I neurons receive IPSPs during both stages of expiration, whereas Aug E neurons receive IPSPs during inspiration and postinspiration. The three decrementing neurons present a somewhat different picture (see Fig. 15, lower half); early inspiratory neurons (Early I) and postinspiratory (Post I) neurons discharge abruptly at the onset of the inspiratory and postinspiratory phases, respectively. The precise timing and waveform of inhibitory postsynaptic input renders cells inexcitable during their inactive phase and releases them from inhibition at the beginning of their active phase. In other words, the overall shape and timing of activity of the participating neurons in the network is strongly influenced by the arrival of waveform barrages of IPSPs (see Fig. 15). Although
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Figure 17 Depiction of membrane potential trajectory of an augmenting expiratory neuron that receives IPSPs from four sources: preinspiratory (Pre I), early inspiratory (Early I), augmenting inspiratory (Aug I) and postinspiratory (Post I) neurons. The neuron receives excitatory postsynaptic potentials during the second half of the postinspiratory phase and throughout the active expiratory phase. (Adapted from Ref. 77.)
the activity of these neurons is sculpted by IPSPs, they, in turn, project inhibitory inputs widely to each other and to the augmenting neurons. An example of how these inhibitory interconnections produce a sculpting of the membrane potential trajectory of an Aug E neuron is depicted in detail Figure 17. This type of neuron, similar to the Aug I neuron, receives four different waves of IPSPs during the neurorespiratory cycle. At the end of expiration, Aug E neurons receive a brief barrage of IPSPs from Pre I neurons, which assist in terminating the expiratory burst (see Fig. 17/1). The neurons then receive a biphasic inspiratory wave of IPSPs during inspiration, which comprises IPSPs from two different sources, first from Early I neurons (see Fig. 17/2), then from Aug I neurons (see Fig. 17/3). Finally, they receive a barrage of IPSPs from Post I neurons during postinspiration. When these decay, the neuron depolarizes progressively under the influence of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs), some of which are recurrent (i.e., are derived from other Aug E neurons).
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IX. Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators. Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters play a key role in mediating neurotransmission among respiratory neurons. Specific neurons release specific neurotransmitters at synaptic clefts, which then act on specific postsynaptic receptors of the target or recipient neuron. In the neonatal rat brain stem preparation, generation of the respiratory rhythm appears to require excitatory amino acid transmission, in particular, the nonNMDA glutaminergic postsynaptic receptors (89). Blockade of nonNMDA receptors causes a slowing of the respiratory rhythm and, ultimately, its elimination. Similar results have been obtained in the in vitro brain stem of the frog (N Kimura, JE Remmers, unpublished observation). Inspiratory to expiratory phaseswitching also appears to be mediated by NMDA neurotransmission, probably at the level of the pons. Inhibitory amino acids, both glycine and aminobutyric acid (GABA), play an important role in mediating the widespread IPSPs that occur within the bulbar respiratory circuit. In elegant experiments in artificially perfused rat brain, Hiyashi and Lipski have shown that both strychnine and bicuculline, blockers of glycine and GABAA receptors, respectively, increase the amplitude of phrenic and hypoglossal motor outputs, the latter more than the former (16). In addition, evidence has been supplied to indicate that the profile of the phrenic motor output loses its augmenting shape in response to administration of strychnine. Experiments using intracellular recording of respiratory neurons and extracellular iontophoresis onto respiratory neurons of decerebrate cats by Haji et al. (69,90) document that application of glycine or GABA arrests spiking by hyperpolarizing the membrane and increasing its conductance and reveals the existence of tonic inhibition, blockable by strychnine and bicuculline, acting postsynaptically on inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons. The results also demonstrate an important role both for glycine and GABAA' postsynaptic receptors in mediation of the periodic barrages of IPSPs in inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons. In particular, as shown in Figure 18, bicuculline blocks outofphase inhibition of inspiratory and postinspiratory neurons, suggesting that GABAergic mechanisms are important in the postsynaptic inhibition that occurs during inspiration for postinspiratory neurons and during expiration for inspiratory neurons. In addition, strychnine alters the time course of membrane projections of inspiratory neurons during inspiration, indicating that endphase inhibition of inspiration occurs for augmenting bulbar inspiratory neurons. This suggests that glycinergicmediated inhibition serves to shape the depolarizing trajectory during inspiration. It probably plays an important role in delaying the activation of late inspiratory neurons. Recent results by Schmid et al. (91), using extracellular recordings of respiratory neurons of decerebrate cats, are largely consistent with those of Haji et al. and show that strychnine elicits spike activity in late inspiration or early expiration.
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Figure 18 Effects of bicuculline on average membrane potential trajectory of a postinspiratory neuron (nonantidromically activated) (A) before and (B) after iontophoresis of tetrodotoxin (50 nA, 1 min): Each tracing represents cycletriggered average of membrane potential for five consecutive respiratory cycles. (A) Tracings obtained before (control) and during (BIC) bicuculline iontophoresis. During iontophoresis of bicuculline (50 nA), membrane potential was adjusted by manual current clamping at the most depolarized point of respiratory cycle to preejection level. (B) Tracings obtained before and during iontophoresis of bicuculline are superimposed. (From Ref. 55.)
X. Summary and Conclusions Despite continuing progress toward understanding the mechanisms that give rise to the rhythmic efferent bursts that produce tidal breathing, substantial challenges remain. Examples of both types of basic mechanisms have been elucidated. In Lymnaea, the respiratory rhythm arises from a circuit of neurons that appears to
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lack pacemaker properties, whereas in the neonatal rat medulla, pacemaker neurons appear to contribute importantly to rhythmogenesis. Two types of respiratory behavior can be observed in mammals and amphibia: one involving augmenting, alternating, and coordinated activation of various motor outputs; and the other associated with decrementing, synchronous activation of inspiratory motor outputs. The former can be referred to as eupnea, as it occurs under normal circumstances, involves important synaptic interaction between respiratory structures in the pons and medulla, and requires postsynaptic inhibition in the neurorespiratory circuit. The latter has been labeled gasping, as it entails a slow repetitive appearance of large bursts of motor output and may not require synaptic interactions to generate the rhythm. To what extent the neurons generating gasping participate in the eupneic rhythm generation is still uncertain, however. A variety of investigational approaches, including ontogenic and comparative, will likely facilitate answering this and related questions. Note Added in Proof A recent article by Ramirez et al. (92) demonstrates that the cat preBötzinger complex in vivo is essential for eupneic but not for gasping breathing. This area lies ventrolateral to the region identified by Fung et al. (28) to be essential for gasping but not eupnea. Thus, current evidence supports the view that gasping and eupnea arise from CPGs that are, at some level, anatomically separate. These results present a conundrum, however; the preBötzinger complex, essential for eupnea but not gasping in the adult in vivo, constitutes the rhythm generator for what appears to be gasping in the neonatal brain stem in vitro. That the gasplike motor output pattern of the latter is not attributable to immaturity seems unequivocal from the results of Wang et al. (33). Why the hypoxic neonatal rat brain stem in vitro displays a gasp like motor output driven by the eupnea rhythm generator may be explained by the regional anoxia of this superfused preparation. The preBötziner complex lies in a superficial region that may not be severely hypoxic (38). Thus, this putative eupneic rhythm generator may function normally, whereas other components of the eupnea CPG may be severely hypoxic. Such hypoxia can be postulated to block postsynaptic inhibition and, thereby, convert the eupnea motor control system to a gasping configuration. Thus, current evidence leads to the speculation that fictive breathing in the neonatal rat brain stem is generated by a hybrid respiratory mechanism in which the eupnea rhythm generator (preBötzinger complex) drives the motor control system or gasping. References 1. Orem J. Central respiratory activity in rapid eye movement sleep: augmenting and late inspiratory cells. Sleep 1994; 17:665–673.
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2. Orem J. The activity of late inspiratory cells during the behavioral inhibition of inspiration. Brain Res 1988; 458:224–230. 3. Funk GD, Feldman JL. Generation of respiratory rhythm and pattern in mammals: insights from developmental studies. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1995; 5:778–785. 4. von Euler C. Brain stem mechanisms for generation and control of breathing pattern. In: Fishman AP, Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JG, eds. Handbook of Physiology. The Respiratory System. Control of Breathing. Sec 3, Vol 2. Washington, DC: American Physiological Society, 1986:1–67. 5. Henke KG, Arais A, Skatrud JB, Dempsey JA. Inhibition of inspiratory muscle activity during sleep. Chemical and nonchemical influences. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 138:8–15. 6. Orem J, Vidruk EH. Activity of medullary respiratory neurons during ventilatorinduced apnea in sleep and wakefulness. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84(3):922–932. 7. Burggren WW, Doyle M. Ontogeny of the regulation of gill and lung ventilation in the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. Respir Physiol 1986; 66:279–291. 8. Syed NI, Bulloch GM, Lukowiak K. In vitro reconstruction of the respiratory central pattern generator of the mollusk Lymnaea. Science 1990; 250:282–285. 9. Syed NI, Harrison D, Winlow W. Respiratory behavior in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. I. Behavior analysis and the identification of motor neurons. J Comp Physiol A 1991; 169:541–555. 10. Syed NI, Winlow W. Respiratory behavior in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. II. Neural elements of the central pattern generator (CPG). J Comp Physiol A 1991; 169: 557–568. 11. Inoue T, Haque Z, Takasaki M, Lukowiak K, Syed NI. Hypoxia induced respiratory patterned activity in Lymnaea originates at the periphery: role of the dopamine cell. Soc Neuroscience Abstr 1996; 22:1142. 12. Syed NI, Ridgway RL, Lukowiak K, Bulloch AGM. Transplantation and functional integration of an identified respiratory interneuron in Lymnaea stagnalis. Neuron 1992; 8:767–774. 13. Feldman JL, Smith JC, Respiratory control of respiratory pattern in mammals: an overview. In: Dempsey JA, Pack AI, eds. Regulation of Breathing. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1995:39–69. 14. Smith JC, Greer JJ, Liu G, Feldman JL. Neural mechanisms generating respiratory pattern in mammalian brain stemspinal cord in vitro. I. Spatiotemporal patterns of motor and medullary neuron activity. J Neurophysiol 1990; 64:1149–1169. 15. Feldman JL, Smith JC. Cellular mechanisms underlying modulation of breathing pattern in mammals. Ann NY Acad Sci 1989; 563:114–130. 16. Hiyashi F, Lipski J. The role of inhibitory amino acids in control of respiratory motor output in an arterially perfused rat. Respir Physiol 1992; 89:47–63. 17. Smith JC, Ellenberger HH, Ballanyi K, Richter DW, Feldman JL. PreBötzinger complex: a brain stem region that may generate respiratory rhythm in mammals. Science 1991; 254:726–729. 18. McLean HA, Remmers JE. Respiratory motor output of the sectioned medulla of the neonatal rat. Respir Physiol 1994; 96:49–60. 19. Lumsden T. Observations on the respiratory centres in the cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1923; 57:153–160.
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41. Kawai A, Ballantyne D, Muckenhoff K, Sheid P. Chemosensitive medullary neurones in the brainstemspinal cord preparation of the neonatal rat. J Physiol 1996; 492(Pt 1):277–292. 42. McLean HA, Kimura N, Perry SF, Kogo N, Remmers JE. Fictive respiratory rhythm in the isolated brainstem of frogs. J Comp Physiol A 1995; 176:703–713. 43. Torgerson CS, Gdovin MJ, Remmers JE. Ontogeny of central chemoreception during fictive gill and lung ventilation in an in vitro brainstem preparation of Rana catesbeiana. J Exp Biol 1997; 200:2063–2072. 44. Kogo N, Perry SF, Remmers JE. Neural organization of the ventilatory activity of the frog, Rana catesbeiana, Part 1. J Neurobiol 1994; 25:1067–1079. 45. Gdovin MJ, Torgerson CS, Remmers JE. Characterization of gill and lung ventilatory activities of cranial nerves in the spontaneously breathing tadpole Rana catesbeiana [abstr]. FASEB J 1996; 10:A642. 46. Torgerson CS, Gdovin MJ, Kogo N, Remmers JE. Depth profiles of pH and Po2 in the in vitro brainstem preparation of the tadpole, Rana catesbeiana. Respir Physiol 1997; 108:205–213. 47. Galante RJ, Kubin L, Fishman AP, Pack AI. Role of chloridemediated inhibition in respiratory rhythmogenesis in an in vitro brainstem of tadpole, Rana catesbeiana. J Physiol 1996; 492:545–558. 48. Kimura N, Perry SF, Remmers JE. Strychninesensitive mechanism responsible for augmenting and reciprocal patterns of respiratory motor activity in the in vitro frog brainstem. Neurosci Lett 1997; 224:1–4. 49. Takeda R, Remmers JE, Baker JP Jr, Madden KP, Farber JP. Postsynaptic potentials of bulbar respiratory neurons of the turtle. Respir Physiol 1986; 64:149– 160. 50. Kogo N, Remmers JE. Neural organization of the ventilatory activity of the frog, Rana catesbeiana, Part 2. J Neurobiol 1994; 25:1080–1094. 51. Farber JP. Laryngeal effects and respiration in the suckling opossum. Respir Physiol 1978; 35:189–201. 52. Harding R, Johnson P, McClelland ME. Respiratory function of the larynx in developing sheep and the influence of sleep state. Respir Physiol 1980; 40:165–179. 53. Bartlett D Jr, Remmers JE, Gautier H. Laryngeal regulation of respiratory airflow. Respir Physiol 1973; 18:194–204. 54. Gautier H, Remmers JE, Bartlett D Jr. Control of the duration of expiration. Respir Physiol 1973; 18:205–221. 55. Remmers JE, Bartlett D Jr. Reflex control of expiratory airflow and duration. J Appl Physiol 1977; 42:80–87. 56. Hatridge J, Haji A, PerezPadilla JE, Remmers JE. Rapid shallow breathing caused by pulmonary vascular congestion in cats. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67:2257– 2264. 57. Cohen MI, Wang SC. Respiratory neuronal activity in the pons of cat. J Neurophysiol 1959; 22:33–50. 58. Cohen MI. Neurogenesis of respiratory rhythm in the mammal. Physiol Rev 1979; 1105–1173. 59. Cohen MI, Feldman JL. Discharge properties of dorsal medullary inspiratory neurons: relation to pulmonary afferent and phrenic efferent discharge. J Neurophysiol 1984; 51:753–776. 60. Cohen MI, Feldman JL, Sommer D. Caudal medullary expiratory neurone and
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internal intercostal nerve discharges in the cat: effects of long inflation. J Physiol (Lond) 1985; 368:147–178. 61. Richter DW, Heyde F, Gabriel M. Intracellular recordings from different types of medullary respiratory neurons of the cat. J Neurophysiol 1975; 38:1162–1181. 62. Richter DW, Heyde F, Gabriel M. Accommodative reactions of medullary respiratory neurons of the cat. J Neurophysiol 1975; 38:1182–1190. 63. Ballantyne D, Richter DW. Postsynaptic inhibition of bulbar inspiratory neurones in the cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1984; 348:67–87. 64. Ballantyne D, Richter DW. The nonuniform character of expiratory synaptic activity in expiratory bulbospinal neurones of the cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1986; 370:433–456. 65. Remmers JE, Richter DW, Ballantyne D, Bainton C, Klein J. Reflex prolongation of stage I of expiration. Pfluegers Arch 1986; 407:190–198. 66. Richter DW, Ballantyne D, Remmers JE. The differential organization of medullary postinspiratory activities. Pfluegers Arch 1987; 410:420–427. 67. Haji A, Remmers JE, Connelly C, Takeda R. Effects of glycine and GABA on bulbar respiratory neurons of cat. J Neurophysiol 1990; 63:955–965. 68. Haji A, Takeda R. Variation in membrane potential trajectory of postinspiratory neurons in the ventrolateral medulla of the cat. Neurosci Lett 1993; 149:2333 236. 69. Haji A, Takeda R, Remmers JE. Evidence that glycine and GABA mediate postsynaptic inhibition of bulbar respiratory neurons in the cat. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73:2333–2342. 70. Bianchi A, Grelot LL, Iscoe S, Remmers JE. Electrophysiological properties of rostral medullary respiratory neurones in the cat: an intracellular study. J Physiol (Lond) 1988; 407:293–310. 71. Lipski J, Merrill EG. Electrophysiological demonstration of the projection from expiratory neurones in rostral medulla to contralateral dorsal respiratory group. Brain Res 1980; 197:521–524. 72. Fedorko L, Merrill EG. Axonal projections from the rostral expiratory neurones of the Bötzinger complex to medulla and spinal cord in the cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1984; 350:487–496. 73. Ezure K, Manabe M. Decrementing expiratory neurons of the Bötzinger complex II. Direct inhibitory synaptic linkage with ventral respiratory group neurons. Exp Brain Res 1988; 72:159–166. 74. Ezure K, Manabe M. Monosynaptic excitation of medullary inspiratory neurons by bulbospinal inspiratory neurons of the ventral respiratory group in the cat. Exp Brain Res 1989; 74:501–511. 75. Ezure K, Manabe M, Otake K. Excitation and inhibition of medullary inspiratory neurons by two types of burst inspiratory neurons in the cat. Neurosci Lett 1989; 104:303–308. 76. Richter DW. Generation and maintenance of the respiratory rhythm. J Exp Biol 1982; 100:93–107. 77. Richter DW, Ballanyi K, Schwarzacher SW. Mechanisms of respiratory rhythm generation. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992; 281:788–793. 78. Bianchi A, DenavitSaubié, Champagnat J. Central control of breathing in mammals: neuronal circuitry, membrane properties, and neurotransmitters. Physiol Rev 1995; 75:1–45.
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79. Merrill EG. The lateral respiratory neurons of the medulla: their association with nucleus ambiguus, nucleus retroambigualis, the spinal accessory nucleus and the spinal cord. Brain Res 1970; 24:11–28. 80. Schwarzacher SW, Smith JC, Richter DW. Respiratory neurones in the preBötzinger region of cats [abstr]. Pfluegers Arch 1991; 418(suppl):R17. 81. Dick TE, Bellingham MC, Richter DW. Pontine respiratory neurons in anesthetized cats. Brain Res 1994; 636:259–269. 82. Dobbins EG, Feldman JL. Brainstem network controlling descending drive to phrenic motoneurons in rat. J Comp Neurol 1994; 347:64–86. 83. Kuna ST, Remmers JE. Respiratoryrelated projection from the rostral pons to the hypoglossal nucleus in decerebrate cats [abstr]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:A689. 84. Feldman JL, Sommer D, Cohen MI. Short time scale correlations between discharges of medullary respiratory neurons. J Neurophysiol 1980; 3:1284–1295. 85. Madden KP, Remmers JE. Short time scale correlations between spike activity of neighboring respiratory neurons of nucleus tractus solitarius. J Neurophysiol 1982; 48:749–760. 86. Graham K, Duffin J. Shortlatency interactions among dorsomedial medullary inspiratory neurons in the cat. Exp Neurol 1985; 88:726–741. 87. Lindsey BG, Segers LS, Shannon R. Functional associations among simultaneously monitored lateral medullary respiratory neurons in the cat. II. Evidence for inhibitory actions of expiratory neurons. J Neurophysiol 1987; 57:1101–1117. 88. Lindsey BG, Segers LS, Shannon R. Discharge patterns of rostrolateral medullary expiratory neurons in the cat: regulation by concurrent network processes. J Neurophysiol 1989; 61:1185–1196. 89. Greer JJ, Smith JC, Feldman JL. Role of excitatory amino acids in the generation and transmission of respiratory drive in neonatal rat. J Physiol (Lond) 1991; 437:727–749. 90. Haji A, Remmers JE, Connelly CA, Takeda R. Effects of glycine and GABA on bulbar respiratory neurons of the cat. J Neurophysiol 1990; 63:955–965. 91. Schmid K, Foutz AS, DenavitSaubié M. Inhibitions mediated by glycine and GABAA receptors shape the discharge pattern of bulbar respiratory neurons. Brain Res 1996; 710:150–160. 92. Ramirez JM, Schwarzacher SW, Pierrefiche O, Olivera BM, Richter DW. Selective lesioning of the cat preBötziner complex in vivo eliminates breathing but not gasping. J Physiol 1998; 507(3):895–907.
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2 Chemical Control of Breathing YOSHIYUKI HONDA Chiba University School of Medicine ChuouKu, Chiba City, Japan HIROAKI TANI International University of Health and Welfare Ootawara, Japan I. Introduction Two new monographs for the Lung Biology in Health and Disease series entitled Regulation of Breathing: 2nd edition, revised and expanded (1) and Ventral Brainstem Mechanisms and Control of Respiration and Blood Pressure (2) have been published. In these two volumes, comprehensive data and detailed discussion of the chemical control of breathing were presented. They include knowledge from the molecular and cellular to the integrated tissue, organ, and wholebody levels. In the present chapter, we attempt to mainly focus on the control of breathing in humans. It is the author's view that ventilatory control in humans is often different from that in other animal species (3–6) and that anesthesia profoundly affects the control of respiration (7–12). Therefore, one must be cautious in extrapolating the observations obtained from animal experiments or in vitro data to the respiratory function in humans. To understand the chemical control in health and disease, it is important to distinguish between what is known and what is not yet confirmed in humans. However, owing to obvious limitations and difficulties in experimentally exploring human respiratory function, it has not always been feasible to construct the whole story on the basis of human data alone.
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II. Carbon Dioxide Chemosensitivity A. Quantitative Assessment of CO2 Chemosensitivity by the Peripheral Chemoreceptors in Humans From the discoveries of carotid body chemosensitivities, Heymans and his associates (13,14) initially claimed that all blood gas stimulations (i.e., PO2, PCO2, and pH), induce ventilatory excitation through the peripheral chemoreceptors. However, Comroe and Schmidt (15) and Schmidt et al. (16) observed in the anesthetized dog that the ventilatory response to CO2 was only slightly depressed after carotid sinus denervation. They further gave the animal CO2 gas mixture, measured the respiratory response of the whole animal, then collected arterial blood at the height of hyperpnea, and perfused it through the isolated carotid bodies of the same animal. The magnitude of chemoreceptorinduced hyperventilation was far less than that of the whole animal. Thus, from the position of Heymans and Neil in 1958, it was reported that: “Heymans strongly supported the view that peripheral chemoreceptors were more sensitive to carbon dioxide than was the center…. There are few nowadays who hold that this viewpoint is correct” (cited from Ref. 17). Because the CO2 ventilatory response is sensitive to anesthesia and exhibits species difference, the role of CO2 chemosensitivity played by the carotid bodies in awake humans deserves to be investigated. In 1966 Guz et al. (18) compared the CO2ventilation response curve before and after bilateral blockade of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves in one male volunteer. The response slope obtained by the rebreathing method of Read (19) decreased to about 13% of the control after nerve block. Ventilatory depression was caused mainly by a decreased respiratory frequency response. Thus, a considerable contribution to CO2 ventilatory chemosensitivity by the peripheral chemoreceptors was demonstrated in this conscious human subject. Subsequently, Edelman et al. (20) assessed peripheral CO2 chemosensitivity by transient hypercapnia in five healthy subjects, in whom a single breath of 6–20% CO2 was administered many times and peak PETCO2 was plotted against subsequent ventilation within 15 sec following this single breath. The average CO2 ventilation response slope thus obtained was 33% of the steadystate response. However, one subject exhibited almost the same magnitude in both response slopes, and data from this subject were excluded from the mean value. We studied steadystate CO2 ventilation response curves in patients with uni and bilateral carotid body resection and control patients matched for age and pulmonary function (21). The surgery had been conducted more than two decades before this study. These patients had been operated on for the treatment of intractable bronchial asthma, but they were in an asymptomatic state with slightly decreased pulmonary function when examined for CO2 chemosensitivity. Table 1 shows the results. The mean response slope obtained during hyperoxia (PETO2
Page 43 Table 1 Slope of CO2Ventilation Response Curve in Patients with Bi and Unilateral Carotid Body Resection and Control Patients
Value at PETO2 ~200 mmHg Hyperoxia value in % magnitude n Value at PETO2 ~60 mmHg Hypoxia value in % magnitude n
SBR (L/min/mmHg)
SUR (L/min/mmHg)
SC (L/min/mmHg)
0.71 ± 0.05
0.83 ± 0.12
1.10 ± 0.23
65 ± 5
75 ± 11
100 ± 21
6
7
5
0.83 ± 0.16
1.06 ± 0.18
1.33 ± 0.30
62 ± 12
80 ± 14
100 ± 22
5
7
5
SBR; PCO2ventilation response slope in patients with bilateral carotid body resection; SUR; PCO2 ventilation response slope in patients with unilateral carotid body resection; SC; PCO2ventilation response slope in patients with matched pulmonary function. Values are mean ± SE. To express % magnitude, values of the control patients are taken as 100%. n, number of patients in each group.
above 200 mmHg) was 65 and 75% of the control (SC) in bilaterally resected (SBR) and unilaterallyresected patients (SUR), respectively. When tested in moderate hypoxia (PETO2 60 mmHg), SBR and SUR were 62 and 80% of SC, respectively. Thus, roughly speaking, CO2 chemosensitivity was reduced by 20–40% after unilateral and bilateral carotid body resection, respectively. Unfortunately, we did not have the opportunity to measure the CO2 response before surgery, and differences among the three patient groups studies were not statistically significant. This might be at least partly due to the substantial individual differences in peripheral CO2 chemosensitivity, as reported in the foregoing investigations. However, despite arriving at the results by quite different methods, both those of Edelman et al. and ours indicate that about 30% of CO2 chemosensitivity is shared by the peripheral chemoreceptors, with each of the carotid bodies contributing approximately equally to the CO2 response. Studies similar to ours were conducted in patients with carotid endarterectomy by Wade et al. in 1970 (22). They compared the steadystate CO2 ventilation response before and 3–38 days after surgery. Unfortunately, quantitative values for the response curve slopes were not presented. However, judging from the CO2 response curves represented in their figures, the postoperative response slope was moderately diminished, practically unchanged, and slightly elevated in 3, 2, and 2 patients, respectively when tested under hyperoxic condition (PETO2 above 200 mmHg). On the other hand, these distributions were 5, 1, and 1 patients, respectively, under hypoxic condition (PETO2 40 mmHg). Interestingly, the CO2 chemosensitivity showed no definite change after unilateral endarterectomy. This was in contrast with our results with carotid bodyresected patients.
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B. Central CO2 Chemosensitivity It follows from the description in Section II.A that CO2 chemosensitivity arises primarily in the central nervous system (CNS). In 1950, experimental evidence supporting this view was first reported by Leusen (23–25), who observed ventilatory stimulation by perfusing CO2 containing mock cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the cerebral ventricles in the dog. The motivation for his study was that his friend, a Russian doctor, found that cisternal infusion of KCI solution was effective in the treatment of unconscious wounded soldiers, and wrote to him about this after World War II (personal communication). This discovery was taken up by Winterstein and Loeschcke's group (26–28) and further by Mitchell et al. (29–31). By cisternal and medullary surface perfusion, or by using a specially designed pipette to perfuse circumscribed areas of medullary surface, or by the application of a cold block or cotton pledget soaked with acid, base, and varying chemicals, these investigators ascertained the presence of three restricted chemosensitive areas on the superficial layers of the ventral medulla (defined as M, L, and S areas from the rostral to caudal direction). Of these, M and L areas were considered to be essentially sensitive to H+ ion; the S area was thought to be a converging locus for chemosensory signal transmission because cooling effectively depressed ventilation when a chemical stimulus was applied to other areas. Detailed anatomical location of these areas was described by Nattie (32). The findings of a unique area, responsive to H+ stimulus supported the longlasting classic hypothesis, the “reaction theory” proposed by Winterstein at the beginning of this century (34,34). The presence of the medullary chemosensitive areas has received much attention and widespread acceptance as the actual “central chemoreceptors.” The following description will deal with the further development of studies concerning the socalled central CO2 chemosensitive areas. Because of the nature of the location of these structures, discussion has to rely mainly on the results of invasive animal experiments. Possible Penetration of H+ Ion into the Deeper Medullary Layers The central chemosensitive areas were originally thought to be located within a few hundred micrometers from the medullary surface. However, Lipscomb and Boyarski proposed that H+ ions applied to the surface are actually transported within the medulla by numerous blood vessels that penetrate from the ventral surface and affect neurons at these deeper locations (35). In fact, penetration of radiolabeled molecules to as far as a 2mm depth was reported by subsequent studies (36– 39). Proposal for Widespread Distribution of Chemosensitive Regions Within the Brain Stem. The foregoing argument indicates that H+ chemosensitivity is not necessarily located only at the superficial layer of the ventral medulla. Arita and his col
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leagues (40–44), using the method of CO2laden saline infusion into the vertebral artery or micropressure injection of CO2 equilibrated saline in cats, detected pH sensitivity with hyperpneainducing regions in not only the superficial layer of the ventral medulla, but also in its deeper layer. In addition, they also found such responsiveness regions in the dorsal area ventral to the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS). With the method of 1nL microinjection of acetazolamide (AZ), which was claimed to be a powerful microprobe to detect central chemosensitivity, Nattie and his associates (45–48) also found pHreactive regions resulting in augmented phrenic nerve discharges in cats and rats. In addition to the regions reported by Arita's group, they also found reactive sites at the rostral aspect of the locus coeruleus and midline raphe and proposed the term “widespread sites of brain stem ventilatory chemoreceptors.” Two arguments against this “widespread” concept were raised by Severinghaus (49): (1) microinjection may cause cell damage that could result in distortion of the humoral environment and affect local neuronal activities; (2) if we admit the presence of new chemosensitive areas, how can the apnea induced by cooling or topical application of anesthesia to those M, L, and S areas be explained? This issue appears to need further clarification. Heterogeneity in Chemosensitivity within the Brain Stem The classic perfusion experiments suggested that the ventral medullary chemosensitive areas were uniform structures in terms of eliciting ventilatory excitation. However, Arita et al. (43), using a liquidmembrane pH microelectrode, measured the precise profile of extracellular fluid (ECF) pH changes within the medulla during CO2laden saline infusion into the vertebral artery in the cat. As shown in Figure 1, the location of the pHshifted site, which was chemosensitive, together with the confirmation made by pressure injection of CO2equilibrated saline, was distributed from the ventral surface to close to the NTS region. Surprisingly, there were several sites where no change in pH was found, even within the M, L, and S areas. Such heterogeneity in chemosensitivity was also found in the distribution of cfoslike immunoreactivity (50–51) and in the location of neurons that increase the uptake of the nonmetabolizable glucose analogue 2deoxyglucose during systemic hypercapnia (53). Neither approach, however, actually confirms that each of the detected sites correspond to ventilatory augmentation, as ascertained by Arita's and Nattie's groups. In addition, the concentration of inhaled CO2 was as high as 10–15%, and the inhalation was longlasting (45 min to 1 hr), which probably caused abnormal nonphysiological conditions for the animals. Significance of the Intermediate Area and the Retrotrapezoid Nucleus Schlaefke (54) was the first to demonstrate that cooling of the intermediate region between the M and L areas on the surface of the ventral medulla effectively
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Figure 1 Location of medullary sites at which tissue pH decreased in response to vertebral artery injection of CO2laden saline (closed circles). At many other sites, pH was unchanged by the hypercapnic injection. I and E, sites of unit recordings of inspiratory and expiratory neurons. Plane of the sagittal section is 3 mm lateral to the midline. 5SL, laminar spinal trigeminal nucleus; CUR, cuneate nucleus, rostral division; S, solitary nucleus; VIN, inferior vestibular nucleus. (From Ref. 43.)
induced apnea. Thereafter, this site was generally called the S area. She proposed that the afferent transmission of signals from the chemosensitive area may converge at this area and, therefore, cooling would block this signal (55). However, Nattie (32) recently made another interpretation. In the vicinity of the S area, various anatomical structures considered to be responsible for respiratory chemosensitivity and rhythmogenesis, such as Böetzinger and preBöetzinger complex, the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN), the retrofacial nucleus, and the nucleus paragigantocellularis are located. Therefore, the cooling of the S area may extend to these regions and induce apena. In particular, he found that the RTN is a powerful site for respiratory activity; even a unilateral lesion of this nucleus by kainic acid injection or electrolytic procedure can induce longlasting apnea or the virtual absence of CO2 chemosensitivity in cats and rats (38,57,58). Thus, he suggested that cooling the S area results in the suppression of the principal sites of respiratory activity, rather than the blockade of the chemical transmission pathway. Taking into consideration this dramatic influence of unilateral RTN lesions on respiratory activities in the foregoing animal experiment, Heywood et al. (59)
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studied ventilatory chemosensitivity in nine patients with a unilateral lesion of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM). The lesions were localized by symptoms, physical findings, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. Although the CO2 sensitivity of these patients was below the normal level, none of them suffered the apnea episodes that were seen in animal studies. This may signify that the effect of chronic lesions is different from that of acute destruction, or this may reflect species differences. Critique of Studies Using Reduced Preparations Neonatal brain stem spinal cord preparation (60,61), brain stem slices (62), or cultured cells (63) are convenient materials for exploring the basic sites and mechanisms responsible for respiratory chemosensitivity. However, it must be remembered that experimentally, these reduced preparations are greatly different from that of the whole animal. For instance, Nattie (32) stated that increasing unit discharges in response to acid loading may merely reflect the response of the control system (i.e., the unit is part of the respiratory control system responding to chemoreceptor stimulation); but it may not be a chemosensitive neuron. Thus, to identify a true chemosensitive region, one needs to confirm the presence of simultaneous pH or PCO2 shift and augmented ventilatory or phrenic nerve output. The significance of the data obtained using the reduced preparation must be assessed after its value is reexamined by in vivo study. CO2 Chemosensitivity in the Hypocapnic Range During Hypoxia In 1951, Nielsen and Smith (64) first observed the steadystate PACO2ventilation response curve while maintaining PACO2 constant at different levels of hypoxia. Owing to hypoxic ventilatory stimulation, the initial PACO2 decreased below the normocapnic level. Then, PACO2 was raised by increasing the CO2 concentration in the inspired air, and ventilation was measured after steady state was attained. As shown in the example obtained by the present author (Fig. 2; 65), the level of ventilation remained nearly unchanged until PACO2 reached normocapnic range. Then the response slope abruptly steepened, with further increases in PACO2. Because the PACO2ventilation curve in the hypocapnic range appeared nearly horizontal, this portion is defined as the “dogleg” or “hockeystick.” The dogleg response gave the impression that ventilatory output in this hypoxic hypocapnic range is not affected by PACO2 change. Using an anesthetized and artificially ventilated dog, we examined whether or not CO2 really stimulates ventilation during hypocapnic hypoxia (66). As shown in Figure 3, to maintain a given minimum phrenic nerve discharge (used an indicator of ventilatory output), the PACO2 level had to decrease with an increase in the degree of hypoxia. Therefore, PACO2 was demonstrated to be an effective ventilatory stimulus even in the hypoxichypocapnic region in anesthetized and paralyzed dogs. More recently,
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Figure 2 PACO2ventilation response curve of one subject. Solid lines represent the response in conscious awake condition and broken lines the response in sleep induced by monosodium trichlorethyl phosphate (Tricloryl). PAO2 at which the response curve was obtained is indicated at each response line. Although the slope of the hypoxic response lines decreased by sleep, their general feature (i.e., dogleg shape) was unchanged. (From Ref. 65.)
this issue has also been studied in conscious awake humans by Roberts et al. (67). The subject was “passively” hyperventilated (without respiratory muscle activity) to alter PACO2 at steadystate level. Then, the peripheral chemoreceptors were stimulated by transient “normocapnic hypoxia” that was delivered by inhaling three to seven breaths of N2 with CO2. They confirmed the presence of effective CO2 stimulation in the hypocapnichypoxic range similar to that seen in the foregoing animal experiments. Previously, we hypothesized that the conscious
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Figure 3 An illustration of threshold PCO2 at four different levels of hypoxia in one dog. Each figure from A to D refers to the just before disappearance of phrenic nerve discharges. As hypoxia developed, the degree of hypocapnia to maintain minimum phrenic activity increased. (From Ref. 66.)
state has something to do with inducing the dogleg response in awake humans. The PACO2ventilation response curves at different given PACO2 levels were compared between conscious and induced sleep state by oral administration of monosodium trichloroethyl phosphate (Tricloryl; 65). Sleep caused no essential change to the dogleg feature (see Fig. 2). We now speculate that a depressant neurochemical transmitter for the peripheral chemoreceptors, such as dopamine, could be involved in this dogleg phenomenon. Loss of CO2 Chemosensitivity During Sleep Patients whose CO2 and hypoxic ventilatory responses are severely depressed after surgery on the high cervical cord or brain stem and who require voluntary conscious effort to maintain normal breathing were first described by Severinghaus and Mitchell (68). Because lifethreatening apnea occurred when falling asleep, this disorder was termed “Ondine's curse.” Children who were born with similar clinical disorders were subsequently reported and defined as having congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS; 69–76). The differences between CCHS and Ondine's curse are that hypoxic chemosensitivity is maintained in some cases of CCHS, and ventilation does not necessarily seem to need
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Figure 4 Schematic representation of the anatomical organization of behavioral (or voluntary) and metabolic (or chemical) control systems in respiration. The pathway of the former descends down the pyramidal tract and then runs along the lateral column of the spinal cord, whereas the latter passes down in its more anterior area. The communication between the two control systems is morphologically unclear.
constant conscious input (75,76). In spite of severe depression of CO2 and hypoxic chemosensitivities, patients with CCHS demonstrated no significant difference from normal in the magnitude of the ventilatory response to aerobic exercise (75). However, they exhibited good evidence for depressed chemosensitivity, such as less exercise hyperpnea, during severe work exceeding the anaerobic threshold (i.e., lack of H+ stimulation), no ventilatory augmentation after the administration of almitrine bismeslate (a potent stimulator to the peripheral chemoreceptors), and substantially long breathholding time. Therefore, in addition to the automatic chemical control in the brain stem, there is also a distinct control system involving consciousness that regulates ventilation during exercise. The presence of the latter system was expressed in the cortical activity as shown by positron emission tomography (PET; 77) and was also demonstrated during volitional respiratory
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movement (78,79). These two control systems are termed the metabolic and behavioral control systems, respectively, and are illustrated in Figure 4. Whether or not both systems converge within the CNS is a matter of controversy (75), but at least they appear to descend by different pathways in the spinal cord. The behavioral signal is conveyed along the pyramidal tracts, located at the lateral regions, whereas the metabolic command descends at the more anterior areas of the spinal cord. Blockade of the behavioral pathways by ventral pontine infarction has also been reported. Haywood et al. described a patient who was quadriplegic, anarthric, and could not perform volitionalbreathing activity. The condition was termed the “lockedin” syndrome (LIS; 81). In contrast to CCHS, the LIS patient exhibited normal CO2 ventilatory responses and suffered dyspnea during hypercapnia. Another characteristic feature of behavioral control is its bilateral nature, as for example, one cannot volitionally contract only one side of the diaphragm (80). III. Hypoxic Chemosensitivity In Japan during the late 1940s and 1950s, a considerable number of patients with bronchial asthma had therapeutic carotid body resection. The operations were mainly conducted at the Department of Surgery of Chiba University Hospital where Dr. K. Nakayama, Professor of Surgery, developed a procedure for removing only the carotid chemoreceptor, while preserving baroreceptor function (82). More than 20 years after these operations, we had the opportunity to study these patients (21,83–87). All of the patients examined were nearly asymptomatic at the time of the study. As to their pulmonary functions, FEV1.0 was moderately depressed, but the vital capacity was generally not impaired, blood pH and PCO2 were about normal, but PaO2 was slightly reduced. Eleven patients with bilateral resection, 10 patients with unilateral resection, and 5 control patients matched in age and pulmonary function were examined. The presence of baroreceptor function was verified by the bradycardic response after the Valsalva maneuver in some of the patients. Also, none of the patients was hypertensive. Given the observations in these patients, the physiological roles of the carotid body (CB) were then assessed. We were particularly interested in finding differences in the response in humans and those reported from other animal species. A. Difference between Progressive and Transient Ventilatory Response to Hypoxia and Its Possible Implication Figure 5 illustrates the ventilatory response to progressive hypoxia in patients who had undergone bilateral carotid body resection (87). As reflected in the relatively constant endtidal PCO2, neither augmentation nor depression of ventilation occurred after induction of hypoxia. The hypoxia ventilatory response is quanti
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Figure 5 Ventilatory response to progressive hypoxia in subject with bilateral carotid body resection (BR). Endtidal PO2 (PETO2) was measured by a rapidresponse O2 electrode housed in an endtidal air sampler. PETO2 was progressively lowered at a rate of 10 mmHg/min, from 100 to 40 mmHg. Despite advancing hypoxia, no change in ventilation was seen, as clearly reflected by the unaltered profile of airway PCO2 measured by an infrared CO2 analyzer. (Right) hypoxic ventilatory response in terms of (mean ± SE; i.e., increment in ventilation as PETO2 decreased from 100 to 40 mmHg, whereas PETO2 was kept constant). UR, patient with unilateral carotid body resection; C, control. The magnitude of of the BR group is tatistically no different from zero, whereas that of the UR and C groups was significantly higher than zero. (From Ref. 87.)
tatively expressed in terms of (i.e., the increment in pulmonary ventilation from PETO2 100 mmHg to PETO2 40 mmHg while PETCO2 was maintained at the resting level). Three groups, controls and patients who had undergone unilateral or bilateral carotid body resection, were compared in the columns in the righthand section. The group with unilateral carotid body resection exhibited significantly less response than the control group, and the group with bilateral carotid body resection exhibited hardly any ventilatory response; in the latter
did not differ significantly from zero.
Although the bilaterally carotid bodyresected patients did not respond to progressive hypoxia, a significant transient increase in ventilation was seen before arrival of the hypoxemic blood at the respiratory center complex in the brain stem. This is demonstrated in Figure 6, which shows the vital capacity (VC) volume after a gas mixture consisting of 15% CO2 in N2 was inhaled in one breath after maximal expiration (i.e., a signal VC breath test; 88). With a similar technique, Bouverot et al. (89) also detected a significant response in two dogs. In five patients with bilateral carotid body resection, Swanson et al. (90) demonstrated that hypoxic gas inhalation on a hypercapnic background exhibited a weak, but still significant, ventilatory response. They assumed that the aortic body was re
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Figure 6 Ventilatory response to a single vital capacity (VC) breath test (singleVC breath test) in BR and UR patients. After maximal exhalation, the subject inhaled a VC volume of 15% CO2 in N2 in one breath. The average of the second and third breaths after this maneuver was calculated as the response of peripheral chemosensitivity. This response is not affected by possible hypoxic ventilatory depression, which is elicited when the CNS is exposed to continuous hypoxemia. The same singleVC breath test with 5% CO2 in O2 was also conducted as a control run. Difference in response between the former and latter runs with calculated as
of the three groups (mean ± SE). In contrast to
ventilatory response to progressive hypoxia of the BR group is now significantly greater than zero. (From Ref. 87.)
sponsible for this ventilatory response. Judging from the magnitude of ventilatory augmentation by the single VC breath test, as well as the drop in ventilation after two breaths of 100% O2 with spontaneous respiration (defined as withdrawal test and also conducted in our patients), we estimated the contribution of the aortic body to hypoxic chemosensitivity to be 5–10% of the full hypoxic response of the control subjects (87–91). Our data generally agree well with the results reported by others in humans who had undergone carotid body resection (92–94) or carotid endarterectomy (85). However, as presented in Table 2, not all animal species show complete blunting of the hypoxicventilatory response after bilateral carotid body resection or sinus nerve section. Dogs, cats, goats, and piglets were reported to maintain, at least partly, ventilatory response to sustained hypoxia (89,96–98,106,107).
Page 54 Table 2 Comparison of Carotid and Aortic Body Contributions in Hypoxic Ventilatory Chemosensitivity Species
n
Dog
4
Dog
94
Dog
2
Cat
26
Cat
Contribution (CB vs. AB)
Method of study
Ref.
Fully CB
CSN section, awake, sustained hypoxia
96
61%: CB > AB; 28%: CB = AB; 11%: CB < AB
CSN and AN section, anesthetized, N2O inhalation, lobeline and cyanide injection
97
Largely CB
CSN section, awake, singlebreath test
89
46%: CB > AB; 19%: CB = AB; 35% CB < AB
CSN and AN section, anesthetized, N2O inhalation, lobeline and cyanide injection
97
7
Fully CB
CSN section, anesthetized, sustained hypoxia (2 min)
98
Rabbit
14
Fully CB
CSN section, awake, singlebreath test
89
Rabbit
17
Fully CB
CSN and AN section, awake, sustained hypoxia
56
Pony
9
Fully CB
CSN section, awake, cyanide injection, sustained hypoxia
99
Pony
6
Fully CB
CSN section, awake, sustained hypoxia, cyanide injection
100
Calf
10
~80% CB
CB resection, awake, sustained hypoxia, lobeline and cyanide injection
101
Rat
Fully CB
Sinoaortic zone denervation, sustained hypoxia, cyanide injection
102
Rat
40
Fully CB
CB resection; anesthetized; lobeline, cyanide, and doxapram injection
103
Rat
31
28 rats: fully CB; 3 rats: largely CB
CB resection, anesthetized, sustained hypoxia and hyperoxia
104
Rat
28
Fully CB
CSN + AN section, awake, plethysmography, 2min hypoxia with fixed FIO2
105
Piglet
37
Largely CB
CSN section vs. CSN + AN section, awake, blood gas measurement
106
Goat
3
1 goat: fully CB; 2 goats: largely CB
CB resection, awake, sustained hypoxia
107
Human
2
Fully CB
Carotid chemo and baroreceptor denervation, 10% O2 inhalation (sustained hypoxia)
93
Human
7
Fully CB
Carotid endarterectomy, progressive hypoxia
95
Page 55 Table 2 Continued Species
n
Contribution (CB vs. AB)
Method of study
Ref.
Human
7
Fully CB
Carotid chemoreceptor denervation, 12% O2 inhalation (sustained hypoxia)
94
Human
5
Small AB response
Hypoxic air inhalation under background of hypercapnia, carotid chemoreceptor denervation
90
Human
11
Fully CB (progressive hypoxia), small AB response (single breath test)
Carotid chemoreceptor resection
21
Human
8
Fully CB
Progressive hypoxia
92
CB, carotid body; AB, aortic body; CSN, carotid sinus nerve; AN, aortic nerve; n, no. of animals studied. As a whole, hypoxic ventilatory chemosensitivity is dominantly maintained by the carotid body, except in studies conducted in a large number of dogs and cats by Comroe (15). His method of detecting chemosensitivity was somewhat different from the others: N2O inhalation, lobeline, and cyanide injection. On the other hand, various methods of hypoxic challenge were applied in the other studies. Source: Ref. 87.
B. Restoration of Peripheral Chemosensitivity after Carotid Body Resection or Denervation: Difference in Humans from Other Experimental Animals Restored chemosensitivity after carotid body resection or denervation has been reported in several animal studies. Table 3 (108) summarizes published results. Smith and Mills (98) demonstrated an 85% recovery of hypoxic chemosensitivity after 215–260 days in seven cats, and Bisgard et al. (100) showed a 30% recovery at 22 months in eight ponies. This restoration disappeared after aortic nerve section, suggesting an augmented gain of the aortic body chemoreflex some time after carotid body denervation. Breslav and Konza (102) and MartinBody et al. (105) also observed significant recovery of peripheral chemosensitivity in the rat. Because the rat, rabbit, and mouse are generally considered to have no functional aortic body (109), this recovery may be ascribed to an activated chemoreflex of the abdominal bodies, which are chemosensitive in the rat (110). However, MartinBody et al. (105) further observed that not only vagal, but also glossopharyngeal nerve section effectively eliminated the restored chemosensitivity. They assumed that some unidentified peripheral chemoreceptors must play some role in the recovery process. The distal end of the severed carotid sinus nerve, when implanted into neighboring tissue, muscle, or vascular adventitia, develops into a neuroma in cats
Page 56 Table 3. Restoration of Peripheral Chemosensitivity A. Suggested restoration 1. Activated aortic body function Cat: Smith and Mills (1980) Pony: Bisgard et al. (1980) 2. Other activated chemoreceptor function Rat: Breslav and Konza (1975) Rat: MartinBody et al. (1986) B. Restoration by regenerated tissue 1. Neuroma formation without glomus cell Cat: Mitchell et al. (1972) Rabbit: Bingman et al. (1972); Kinecker et al. (1978) 2. Appositional contact of the free nerve to type I cell Cat: Stensaas et al. (1980); MontiBloch et al. (1981) Source: Ref. 108, and further data were added.
and rabbits and generates chemosensitive discharges (111–113). This new structure does not include chemoreceptor cells, and this supports the hypothesis of chemoreception by the free nerve endings, which was at one time advocated by Biscoe (115). On the other hand, Eyzaguirre et al. (109) believed that appositional contact of the sprouting cut sinus nerve to the glomus cell was a prerequisite for the successful restoration of peripheral chemosensitivity. Activity of the regenerated tissue has so far been shown through chemosensitive discharges, so it is difficult to quantitatively assess its magnitude in terms of ventilatory output for a comparison with human studies. Figure 7 illustrates the chronologic profile of peripheral chemosensitivity, which we detected by the single vital capacity (VC) breath test following carotid body resection, in one patient (91). The peripheral chemosensitivity was evaluated by the response elicited from hypercapnic (15% CO2 in O2), hypoxic (5% CO2 in N2), and hypercapnichypoxic (15% CO2 in N2) gas inhalation (88). In this subject these responses were measured before and after unilateral and bilateral carotid body resection. After bilateral resection, the responses were evaluated at days 18 and 55. These magnitudes were compared with those of patients operated on more than two decades earlier, and no appreciable augmentation was found, even after more than 20 years postsurgery. We speculated that the species differences so far observed may be explained by the lower oxygen affinity for hemoglobin (Hb) in the smaller experimental animals as compared with humans (108). The P50 for the oxygen dissociation curve (ODC) is known to increase linearly with decreasing body weight (117). Because the magnitude of P50 is inversely related to the oxygen affinity of Hb, this indicates that oxygen saturation is less in the conventional experimental
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Figure 7 Chronological change in peripheral chemosensitivity detected by singleVC breath test before and after carotid body resection in one patient: The test gases were hypercapnia (15% CO2 in O2), hypoxia (5% CO2 in N2) and hypoxic hypercapnia (15% CO2 in N2). The subject was tested before surgery and after uni and bilateral carotid body resection. The ventilatory responses tended to slightly increase from day 18 to day 55 following bilateral resection. However, these magnitudes appear within the range of variation of the responses obtained in patients two decades postoperatively. (From Ref. 91.)
mammals than in humans at a given PaO2. In addition, higher body temperature in the smaller mammals further enhances blood deoxygenation. More severe oxygen desaturation in the smaller mammals after carotid body resection or denervation may induce a continued aortic body stimulation because SaO2 is a crucial factor for peripheral chemosensitivity (118). Thus, activation of aortic body chemoreceptors may have developed. On the other hand, excitation of the carotid bodies is predominantly determined by PaO2 (119). C. Difference in Delayed Hypoxic Hyperventilation between Humans and Dogs or Cats After Peripheral Chemoreceptor Denervation Although chemoreceptor denervation or resection results in the loss of an acute hypoxic ventilatory response, Moyer and Beecher (120) were the first to show in anesthetized dogs, after carotid sinus and aortic nerve section, that inhalation of hypoxic gas initially induced ventilatory depression. But this was followed by a gradual increase in ventilation that, after about 10 min, often became greater than the level of resting ventilation. The same finding was also reported in unanesthetized dogs and cats by Davenport et al. (121). The characteristic feature of this delayed hyperventilation was rapid and shallow breathing. Gallman and Milhorn (122), on the basis of an observation in cats, suggested that the presence of the diencephalon was necessary for these facilitatory influences on ventilation.
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In our patients without carotid bodies, mild hypoxia with an endtidal PO2 of 60 mmHg was maintained for 30–50 min for the hypoxic CO2 study (21). Although this degree of hypoxia was nearly equivalent to that in the animal studies mentioned earlier, we did not observe delayed hyperventilation. Hence, again a different feature in hypoxic ventilatory chemosensitivity seems to exist in humans. More severe oxygen desaturation may be induced in dogs or cats than in humans in response to a given low PaO2. Therefore, these animals may have easily suffered from more severe oxygen deficiency and metabolic acidemia, which could explain the delayed hyperpnea in these animals. D. Role of the Carotid Chemoreceptors in Cardiovascular Activities in Humans. Enhanced Hypoxic Tachycardia after Carotid Body Resection Gross et al. (123) were the first to find accelerated hypoxic tachycardia during breathholding in carotid bodyresected patients. However, from the same institution, Lugliani et al. (124) reported no significant difference in heart rate (HR) during spontaneous hypoxic ventilation between such patients and control subjects, although no quantitative data were reported. We have reexamined ventilatory and HR responses to progressive normocapnic hypoxia in six bilateral and eight unilateral carotid bodyresected patients (BR and UR, respectively) and three control patients (C), matched for age and pulmonary function (84). PETO2 was progressively lowered to 40 mmHg at a rate of about 10 mmHg/min starting
Figure 8 Analysis of ventilatory and HR responses to hypoxia: Both PO2 against and HR responses were calculated by exponential equation. Kv and KHR represent hypoxic ventilatory and HR response slopes, respectively. (From Ref. 125.)
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Figure 9 Hypoxic ventilatory and HR response slopes (KV and KHR) in three patient groups: BR, bilateral carotid body resection; UR, unilateral carotid body resection; C, control patients. The BR group represents significantly greater magnitude in KHR, whereas the opposite is true in KV. The two openstar symbol, p < 0.01; one openstar symbol, p < 0.05; single closed circles, p < 0.1. (From Ref. 125.)
from 100 mmHg. Figure 8 (125) illustrates the method of analysis by which the response curve was evaluated by the exponential relationship between PETO2 and ventilation or HR. In Figure 9 (125), the slopes of ventilatory (Kv) and HR response curves (KHR) are shown in the left and righthand sections, respectively. The opposite tendency can be seen between two slopes, (i.e., the BR group exhibited the lowest ventilatory response whereas they showed the highest HR response among the three groups. Figure 10 (84) demonstrates the time course of mean HR change during breathholding in the BR subjects. In agreement with the finding by Gross et al. (123), significantly enhanced tachycardia is seen in hypoxic compared with hyperoxic breathholding. Thus, we have confirmed the occurrence of greater HR acceleration in hypoxic breathing as well as in breathholding in subjects with bilateral carotid body resection than in unilateral resection and control subjects. Several factors may be important in these results. Heart rate is increased by an augmented lung inflation reflex (126,127), an increased sympathetic activity (128–130), and catecholamine release (131–133). It is slowed by stimulation of the peripheral chemoreceptors (134–142) and by other unknown CNS actions (141,143,144). The enhanced HR in our BR subjects may be attributable to the withdrawal of the bradycardic influence of the carotid bodies. In the studies by Lugliani et al. (124), their BR subjects demonstrated no
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Figure 10 HR change during hypoxic and hyperoxic breathholding (BH) in BR patients. BH began from endtidal PO2 of 70 mmHg (hypoxia) and 200 mmHg, respectively. The HR increment during hypoxic BH exceeded that during hyperoxia. Values are mean ± SE. One and two stars indicate that the difference between two runs is significant at less than 5 and 1% levels, respectively.
hyperpnea in response to hypoxia, whereas control subjects revealed marked hyperventilation. Because HR increases when lung inflation is augmented (126, 127), the potential for enhanced HR in their BR subjects may be assumed to have exceeded the control. It is generally accepted that carotid body stimulation induces bradycardia, whereas stimulation of the aortic body provokes tachycardia (127,137). Studies in anesthetized and awake animals suggest that both carotid and aortic body stimulation slows the heart rate, but that the effect of the carotid bodies is greater (138,141). Anesthesia may block chemoreflex bradycardia. Stimulation of carotid bodies in anesthetized animals has no bradycardic effect (143,145), in contrast with the results in awake animals and humans (123,140,142). The induction of anesthesia depresses basal efferent vagal activity (146). Because changes in HR caused by chemoreceptor stimulation are mediated through cardiac vagal activity (139,147–151), anesthesia may have an effect similar to that of carotid body removal. In summary, the normal human response to hypoxia includes both a tachycardic effect, probably involving ventilatory, sympathetic, and direct effects, and a bradycardic effect, arising from carotid body stimulation. Subjects who have had unilateral or bilateral resection of the carotid bodies lack the normal bradycardic effect, unmasking cardioacceleration.
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Estimated Cardiovascular Effects of the Carotid Body Chemoreceptors Daly (152) mentioned in his review that the primary effects of carotid body activity are bradycardia, negative left ventricular inotropic response, decreased cardiac output ( ) and increased systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance. These changes are most clearly demonstrated in diving mammals. However, considerable species differences exist (127,152,153). Moreover, the foregoing primary effects are substantially reversed by the pulmonary inflation reflex (138, 154), and are modified more or less by additional factors, such as catecholamines, autonomic nervous tone, PaO2 and PaCO2 levels, anesthesia, and local vascular and myocardial conditions. In humans, no comprehensive studies of the influence of the carotid body on cardiovascular parameters are available. Investigations of carotid bodyresected humans, however, should provide important clues for unraveling this problem, although such studies are as yet few and only fragmentary information is available from the literature (93–95,123,124). The uppermost and middle panels of Figure 11 (87) represent the quantitative responses of mean blood pressure (MPB), heart rate (HR), stroke volume (SV), cardiac output ( ), and systemic total peripheral resistance (TPR) to sustained moderate hypoxia (ca. 80% SaO2) lasting for 20 min in two patients with bilateral carotid body resection and eight normal control subjects, respectively. In carotid bodyresected patients, HR increases and stroke volume and systemic total peripheral resistance decrease, although no marked changes are seen in mean blood pressure and cardiac output. These changes are in contrast with those in normal subjects who exhibit a marked elevation in HR, significant augmentation of both mean blood pressure and total peripheral resistance, and substantial depression of stroke volume. The overall circulatory response (OR) to hypoxia in normal subjects may be determined by the sum of carotid body stimulation (CB), the reflex effect of pulmonary inflation (IR), and other modifying influences (OM) as follows: OR = CB + IR + OM. As described earlier, the bilaterally carotid bodyresected patients revealed no significant ventilatory response to sustained hypoxia. Accordingly, owing to lack of both carotid body and hypoxic hyperventilation, the overall response in these patients (O'R') is solely determined by other modifying influences on circulation (O'M'), such that O'R' = O'M'. If we postulate that OM equals O'M' in relative magnitude, then CB + IR can be calculated as OR O'R'. The upper panel of Figure 12 (91) shows the results of this calculation (i.e., the magnitude of CB + IR in percent). Daly (152) has asserted that the primary effects of carotid body stimulation are elevations in MBP, , and TPR, and are depression in HR and SV, as indicated by the filled arrows in Figure 12. Comparison of the upper and lower panels
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Figure 11 Estimated relative contribution of the combined effect of carotid body stimulation and pulmonary inflation reflex and other modifying influences in two BR patients. MBP, mean blood pressure; HR, heart rate; SV, stroke volume; , cardiac output; TPR, total peripheral resistance. OR is the overall contribution of cardiovascular response, in percent, to hypoxia in eight normal subjects (mean ± SE). It is the sum of carotid body stimulation (CB), pulmonary inflation reflex effect (IR), and other modifying influences (OM) (i.e., OR = CB + IR + OM). O'R' is the overall cardiovascular response of the BR group. Because both carotid body stimulation and pulmonary inflation reflex are lacking in the BR group, this response can be considered to represent only other modifying influences (O'M'; i.e., O'R' = O'M'). If we postulate that the relative magnitudes of OM and O'M' are the same, then OM and O'R' will also be the same. Therefore, CB + IR can be calculated by OR O'R'. (From Ref. 87.)
in this figure leads us to the conclusion that MBP, SV, and TPR are predominantly determined by carotid body stimulation, whereas HR is effectively reversed from the depressed state by carotid body stimulation to augmentation by the pulmonary inflation reflex. In contrast to Daly's view (see black arrows Fig. 12), Glick et al. (155) and
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Figure 12 Estimated combined effects of carotid body stimulation (CB) and pulmonary inflation reflex (IR) on the circulatory parameters were compared against the known primary influences of carotid body stimulation. For details, see explanation in text. (From Ref. 91.)
Vatner and Rutherford (156) (see open arrow, Fig. 12) claimed that left ventricular dp/dt was enhanced by carotid body stimulation in anesthetized as well as awake dogs. If this is indeed true, diminished SV by combined CB and IR is mainly determined by IR. Thus, the main cardiac changes (i.e., HR and SV) are predominantly controlled by IR, whereas vascular changes (i.e., MBP and TPR) are governed mainly by carotid body stimulation. Hilton an Marshall (157) found in cats that vasoconstrictor effects on renal mesenteric vessels by carotid body stimulation were not influenced by the pulmonary inflation reflex. The predominant role of CB on vascular changes in our analysis in humans appears to be in line with their findings. Although we postulated that the effects of CB, IR, and OM are simply additive, evidence for an interaction between CB and OM has been reported (157). Carotid body excitation elicited an augmented sympathetic activity and epinephrine (adrenaline) release. If this is true, the magnitude of the effect of CB may have been underestimated in our analysis. However, Cherniack et al. (158) recently demonstrated marked sympathetic excitation by hypoxic exposure in anesthetized and peripherally chemodenervated cats. Therefore, a substantial sympathetic contribution to circulatory activity in hypoxia seems to exist without carotid body involvement.
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E. Ventilatory Depression During Mild Hypoxia in Adult Humans Previous understanding of the ventilatory response to hypoxia consisted of a degree of hyperventilation which was elicited from enhanced peripheral chemoreceptor activity. However, there is now evidence of a secondary decline following the initial hyperventilation. The degree of hypoxic ventilatory depression (HVD) is severe in normal newborns and in some patients with respiratory failure (159), so the net ventilation even during mild hypoxia (SaO2, 80%) often depressed to less than the resting level during ambient airbreathing. In normal adults, depression is not great, so that ventilation is usually maintained at a hyperpneic level. However, several recent studies have demonstrated that some degree of HVD may still occur. Discovery of Hypoxic Ventilatory Depression in Conscious Humans In 1966, Seeringhaus et al. (160,161) first reported the case of a unique patient who was a permanent highaltitude resident and suffered from chronic mountain polycythemia (CMP). In contrast to normal sealevel as well as highaltitude dwellers, this patient decreased his ventilation as arterial PO2 was lowered and augmented his breathing with elevations in PaO2. Although his ventilation became progressively depressed with hypoxia, this patient was still alert and comfortable and did not show any general disorders of CNS activity. He was assumed to be suffering from only respiratory control system difficulties involving the brain stem, and was defined as suffering from “medullary hypoxic ventilatory depression.” This was the first discovery that ventilation can be reversibly depressed by hypoxia without apparent dysfunction of higher brain centers. In normal healthy humans, Weil and Zwillich (162) reported that during sustained hypoxia at PaO2 45 mmHg for 30 min, ventilation initially increased rapidly and then gradually decreased by about 25% at about 20 min. This ventilatory profile was later termed biphasic hypoxic ventilatory decline (Biph HVD) or ventilatory rolloff phenomenon (153,164). Figure 13 illustrates the average Biph HVD in 16 healthy subjects from our laboratory (165). In response to step hypoxia to PETO2 50 mmHg from hyperoxia (PETO2 200 mmHg), ventilation increased rapidly and reached a peak level between 4 and 6 min. Then it gradually declined to an apparent plateau level at about 10 min of hypoxia. The SaO2 level during the hypoxic period was about 80%. Throughout the whole experimental run, PETCO2 was maintained at an isocapnic level. This feature of ventilation and its time course during sustained mild hypoxia have also been confirmed by many other investigators. As mentioned before, the initial hyperventilation is well established as being due to peripheral chemoreceptor excitation. However, the nature of the secondary decline remains controversial, as presented in the following.
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Figure 13 Time course of changes in inspiratory minute volume and endtidal PO2 and PCO2 (PETO2 and PETCO2) during 20 min of sustained isocapnic hypoxia (PETO2 50 mmHg, PETCO2 at normocapnic level), which was maintained between two 10min hyperoxic periods (PETO2 200 mmHG). Minute ventilation initially increased rapidly and attained a peak level between 4 and 6 min, then gradually declined and reached an apparent plateau after about 10 min of hypoxia. Data are the mean ± SE of 16 normal healthy subjects. (Data from Ref. 165.)
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Figure 14 Sequential changes in phrenic nerve (PhN) activity, inspiratory minute ventilation and carotid sinus nerve (CSN) activity during sustained isocapnic hypoxia (PETO2 45 mmHg, PETCO2 33.3 mmHg) for 20 min in anesthetized cat. Initial augmentation and gradual decline were seen in both PhN activity and , whereas CSN activity remained constant after the initial rise. (From Ref. 164.)
Investigations on the Nature of Biphasic Hypoxic Ventilatory Depression Possible Adaptation of Peripheral Chemoreceptor Activity Many biological receptors exhibit adaptation to persistent stimulation. If this is also true of peripheral chemoreceptors, and they slowly adapt to hypoxic stimulus, Biph HVD can be explained. Figure 14 demonstrates the phrenic nerve (PhN), inspiratory minute volume and carotid sinus nerve (CSN) discharges during sustained hypoxia that were obtained by Tatsumi et al. (164) in the anesthetized cat. Both PhN activity and gradually declined with time, but CSN activity remained elevated at a constant level. This was considered to signify that the carotid body did not adapt to hypoxic stimulus, so that the Biph HVD must have occurred through CNS mechanisms. Georgopoulos et al. (170) stimulated human subjects with PETO2 50 mmHg, then measured breathbybreath ventilation while administering 100% O2. After the initial rise, ventilation gradually decreased with time during hypoxia at the end of 20–25 min of sustained hypoxia. The breathing of 100% O2 elicited a sharp undershoot in ventilation. Therefore, they argued that
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the state of the ventilatory control system must be very different during Biph HVD and the posthypoxic period. Ventilatory Depression Possibly Caused by Lowered Tissue PCO2 in the Central Chemosensitive Area Consequent to Hypoxia Induced by Augmented Brain Blood Flow Figure 15 depicts the time course of changes in average blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery (mcBv), measured noninvasively by a transcranial Doppler scanner, and inspiratory minute ventilation ( decline is an increased washout of tissue CO2 in the central chemosensitive area. However, two assumptions must be accepted to make this speculation valid: (1) The blood flow velocity measured here must faithfully reflect the blood flow (i.e., vessel diameter must have remained fairly constant); and (2) the rate of blood perfusion in the central chemosensitive area must be identical with that
Figure 15 Time course of changes in blood flow velocity of the middle cerebral artery (mvBv) and inspiratory minute ventilation ( ). In response to a step change of isocapnic hypoxia (PETO2 50 mmHg and PETCO2 at normocapnic level), both blood flow and ventilation initially increased, then gradually increased further in the former and decreased in the latter. The time scale was partially contracted in the initial period of hypoxia and the posthypoxic period. Data are mean ± SD from four healthy subjects. (Data from Ref. 171.)
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perfused by the middle cerebral artery. These two conditions are yet to be confirmed. Berkenbosch et al. (172) found a 3.5mmHg depression in CSF PCO2 in the cat exposed to sustained hypoxia at PaO2 45 mmHg. Assuming that CSF PCO2 represents PCO2 in the central chemosensitive area, they claimed that this PCO2 depression is sufficient to explain Biph HVD, and that augmented brain blood flow may be responsible for this depression. On the other hand, Nishimura et al. (173) and Suzuki et al. (174) measured jugular vein PCO2 during sustained isocapnic hypoxia with PETO2 45 mmHg in young healthy males. On the basis of the assumption that this PCO2 represents the hypercapnic drive from the central chemoreceptors, they concluded that Biph HVD cannot be explained by central chemoreceptor drive and, therefore, change in the brain blood flow may not be a responsible determinant. Increased Synthesis or Release in Inhibitory Neurotransmitters or Neuromodulators This possibility is most widely supported by many investigators, and various agents have been proposed. Adenosine. Adenosine inhibits ventilation and increases during hypoxia. Aminophylline or theophylline, a receptor blocker for adenosine, diminishs Biph HVD, to some extent (175–177). Moreover, according to Yamamoto et al. (178) dipyridamole, an intracellular uptake blocker for adenosine, augments Biph HVD. These results obtained in human subjects led us to consider that adenosine may be responsible for Biph HVD in humans. However, some Biph HVD remained, particularly the tidal volume component, after pretreatment with aminophylline (175). Moreover, Gerhan et al. (179) recently reported that theophylline had no effect on Biph HVD in unanesthetized goats. It is not likely that adenosine is the sole mechanism for Biph HVD. GABA. A number of animal experiments have indicated that aminobutyric acid (GABA) may be responsible for Biph HVD (180–185). In particular, Kazemi et al. (186) recently reported that the biphasic profile of hypoxic ventilatory response in rats was well correlated with initial increases in glutamate and subsequent rise in GABA concentration in microdialysates obtained from respiratoryrelated nuclei in the medulla. In human studies, however, direct proof has not yet been established because GABA cannot cross the bloodbrain barrier, and its receptor blocker, such as bicuculine, has never been used. On the other hand, the human application of midazolam, a potentiating agent for GABA transmission, induced greater VT depression (187), but no such effect was detected by others (188). In addition, administration of flumazenil, an antagonist for midazolam, showed no effect on Biph HVD in either humans (188) or anesthetized cats (189). As a result, it is not yet certain whether GABA plays a role in Biph HVD in humans. Opioids. Because of their powerful analgesic and depressant effect on
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ventilation, opioids were suspected of being a putative agent for Biph HVD. However, in healthy individuals, this was not true (190,191), probably because their concentration was not sufficiently elevated by mild hypoxic exposure. During more severe stress, such as hypoxic breathing with resistive loading (192,193) or in combination with hypercapnia (194), opioids may be involved in the manifestation of ventilatory depression. Lactic Acidosis. Progressive brain hypoxia produced by inspiring 1% CO40% O2balance N2 mixture caused cerebral lactic acidosis with concomitant ventilatory depression in cats, and following prevention of this lactic acid formation by the administration of dichloroacetate (DCA), ventilatory decline was abolished (195). To test whether lactic acidosis could be the mediator of Biph HVD in awake humans, DCA was given to subjects before hypoxic exposure (196). This treatment, however, failed to attenuate HVD, suggesting that lactic acidosis probably does not play a role in HVD in conscious humans (197). Dopamine. Dopamine is present in both peripheral chemoreceptors and CNS and is generally accepted as being a ventilatory depressant (198). Recently Tatsumi et al. (199) observed in awake cats that haloperidol, a peripheral and centrally acting dopaminergic receptor antagonist, abolished HVD, whereas domperidone, a selective peripheral dopamineblocking agent, merely enhanced hypoxic chemosensitivity and had no effect on HVD. Thus, they argued that a central dopaminergic mechanism may be involved in Biph HVD. Similar findings were also confirmed in severely hypoxic (PaO2 30–37 mmHg) cats (200) but this was not so with only mild hypoxia (PaO2 50–55 mmHg). In anesthetized neonatal rabbits (201), central D1 receptor blockade of dopamine prevented HVD, but D2 receptor blockade was ineffective. However, in six human volunteers administered dopamine or domperidone, no change in HVD occurred (202), although hypoxic ventilatory response decreased with the former and increased with the latter. Thus, these authors claimed that the dopaminergic mechanism is unlikely to be involved in Biph HVD. With a special technique that exclusively perfuses the brain stem through the vertebral artery, Van Beek et al. (203) also found no effect when adding dopamine to this perfusion system in anesthetized cats. In summary, involvement of the dopaminergic mechanism in Biph HVD is still a matter of controversy. However, because dopmaine is most abundant in the carotid body, and the specific feature of the ventilatory response to sustained hypoxia in patients with carotid body resection appears to be related to this chemical, we assume that dopamine might be an important mediator for HVD, as discussed in a later section. Somatostain. Depressed hypoxic ventilatory responses and enhanced Biph HVD have been reported following the administration of somatostatin to humans (204,206). However, because in these studies the plasma concentration was elevated as much as 100 times the normal level, the physiological significance of these observations is called into question.
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Depression of the Neuronal and Metabolic Activities of the Brain. After reviewing in vitro and in vivo studies on neuronal activities in the brain, Neubauer et al. (159) and Bisgard and Neubauer (197) stated that (1) because of the possible release of numbers of inhibitory neurotransmitters or neuromodulators during mild to moderate hypoxia, membrane hyperpolarization mainly induced by increased K+ conductance (gK+) will develop and neuronal activity will be reduced. (2) Hyperpolarization, however, is not an indication for cell damage because respiratory responses to both hypercapnia and carotid sinus nerve stimulation are completely preserved. This is considered to subserve a protective function for the neuron by reducing the utilization of energy substrates. (3) Reversible neuronal activity is well preserved until membrane depolarization, a sequela of metabolic failure, is induced by lowering PaO2 as low as to about 25 mmHg, and (4) Thus, hypoxic hyperpolarization can be considered to be a beneficial cell adaptation to energy expenditure in the respiratory system as well as CNS. From comprehensive studies of brain energy metabolism conducted on anesthetized rats, Siejo (206) concluded that until PaO2 was reduced to 50 mmHg, no increase in brain lactate, AMP, or ADP as well as no decrease in brain phosphocreatinine could be detected. Thus, total energy charge in the brain was considered to be well preserved. Thus, Biph HVD during mild hypoxia in conscious human subjects may not be directly related to any failure of brain metabolic or neuronal activities. Possible Role of Localized Acid Secretion Over CO2 Chemosensitive Regions of the Ventral Medullary Surface In 1991 Severinghaus and his group (207,208) found a special region over the medullary CO2 chemosensitive area in awake goats that became gradually acidified in response to sustained isocapnic hypoxia for 30 min. Because the time profile in developing this acidification was similar to that of Biph HVD, they presented the following hypothesis to explain both phenomena. The neurons localized in this area are high in metabolic activity and susceptible to hypoxic stress, so lactic acid may be produced even during mild hypoxia. Because of the state of outward flux in lactic acid, the intrato extracellular [H+] gradient will be increased. If the membrane potential of these cells is determined by this [H+] gradient, such as a glass pH electrode, hyperpolarization will result. Thus, the activity of the CO2 chemosensitive area will be inhibited, resulting in hypoventilation. They also proposed the possibility that CO2 inhalation invariably induces acidification of the ventral medullary surface and strong hyperventilation. In this case, stronger buffering capacity in the intracellular than extracellular fluid may diminish the intra to extracellular [H+] gradient because the intracellular [H+] increment will be less than that outside the cell by the same amount of PCO2 loading. Because the morphological structure of the central chemosensitive area
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at the ventral medullary surface is not yet well explored, this fascinating hypothesis remains to be confirmed by actual measurements of membrane potential as well as intracellular pH. Possible Presence of Ventilatory Depression During Ambient Air Breathing: Ambient Air HVD. We found in normal healthy subjects (209,210) that preliminary 100% O2 breathing for 10 min induced a consistently augmented hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR) in some subjects (termed positive responders), whereas such augmentation was inconsistent in others (negative responders). Figure 16 illustrates the results: +O2 and O2 signify the HVR obtained with and without prior O2 exposure (termed +O2 and O2 runs, respectively). In the O2 run, the HVR values in the positive responders were significantly lower than in the negative responders. The HVR individually varies greatly (160), and it is not rare for even normal healthy subjects to show severely depressed responses when tested from room airbreathing. This finding may, at least partly, explain the variation in HVR among
Figure 16 Comparison of hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR) slope between positive and negative responders. Prior 100% O2 exposure consistently resulted in HVR augmentation by repeated trials in the positive responders, whereas no such consistent elevation was seen in the negative responders. The HVR slope before O2 exposure was significantly lower in the positive responders than in the negative responders. However, after 100% O2 administration, such difference between the two groups disappeared. (From Ref. 209.)
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different individuals. Because the positive responders appeared to restore their HVR in +O2 run, we speculated that they had effectively depressed ventilation while breathing room air. Lack of Biph HVD in Carotid BodyResected Patients and Possible Dual Functions of the Carotid Body Figure 17 shows the ventilatory response to sustained mild hypoxia in a patient who underwent bilateral carotid body resection (BR) more than three decades previously. A number of patients received therapeutic surgery for bronchial asthma in those days in Japan, and we were able to examine some of them, as described in an earlier section. As expected, ventilation did not increase at all, but a striking phenomenon was that ventilatory decline with time also completely disappeared. Two other BR patients examined also exhibited the same finding (87,211). This is quite contrary to what was reported in anesthetized animals, in which severe hypoxic ventilatory depression developed (197). One patient with unilateral carotid body resection (UR) still exhibited a biphasic profile during sustained hypoxia, although the absolute magnitude of ventilation was substantially decreased. Thus, carotid body resection not only abolished hyperventilation, but also prevented hypoxic ventilatory decline. Recently, Long et al. (212) also
Figure 17 Ventilatory and HR responses to sustained hypoxia in one BR patients. Airway O2 and CO2 (FO2 and FCO2), tidal volume (VT ), inspiratory and expiratory time (TI and TE) and heart rate (HR) were continuously and noninvasively measured by a rapidresponse gas analyzer (Sanei 1H21H, Tokyo), impedance cardiograph (Minnesota) and fingercuff plethysmograph (Finapres, Ohmeda). Hypoxia was maintained at PETO2 55–60 mmHg for 18 min. In response to hypoxic challenge, no appreciable changes were seen in respiratory variables, whereas HR increased moderately.
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found the lack of Biph HVD in awake chemodenervated cats. Furthermore, they confirmed that an absence of Biph HVD persisted even when the basal ventilation level was augmented by concomitantly inspiring 2% CO2. Taken together, we now believe that in awake humans and cats the carotid body has dual functions: It elicits rapid hyperventilation to improve oxygenation, but it also plays a crucial role in gradually limiting hyperpnea. As explained in the previous section, ventilatory depression is a useful adaptation. It protects against excessive hyperventilation and inhibits neuronal excitability caused by hyperpolarization, thus economizing energy expenditure of the living organism. Yet, cellular energy charges as well as reversible neuronal excitability are well preserved. Figure 18 schematically depicts the anatomical organization possibly re
Figure 18 Anatomical organization of the ventilatory control systems possibly related with input from the carotid body. In the conscious condition, not only the metabolic control system, but also behavioral control systems must be taken into consideration for understanding ventilatory control.
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lated to these carotid body activities. Three possible mechanisms may be considered from this figure: (1) Assuming that hypoxic decline directly originates from a chemical signal in the carotid body itself, dopamine would be a strong candidate, for it is most abundant, and it is generally recognized to depress ventilation. There is convincing evidence that both CSN discharges and dopamine release increase in parallel with advancing hypoxia (213–215). To our knowledge, increased dopamine has hitherto been studied only in connection with carotid bodyrelated hyperventilation (214,215). Now, if dopamine is assumed to be responsible for hypoxic ventilatory decline, as indicated by our BR patients, it may provide a simpler and clearer explanation for the significance of carotid body activities. (2) The brain stem metabolic control system received afferent input from the carotid body, so that numerous putative neurochemicals and neuromodulators that affect HVD may possibly be produced in response to hypoxic stimulation. In fact, Georgopoulos et al. (216) found a good linear relationship between initial rapid augmentation in ventilation and HVD. Also, Goiny et al. (217) demonstrated in anesthetized rabbits that dopamine release from the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) significantly increased during severe hypoxic provocation (6% O2 in N2). (3) That prevention of HVD is seen only in conscious chemodenervated cats (212) suggests that the behavioral control system may play a significant role in this phenomenon. Sleep studies conducted in on BR patient, however, exhibited no sleep disorders in our experience. Therefore, loss of behavioral control could not be verified as the basis of the manifestation of HVD. Finally, it must be reiterated that the number of carotid bodyresected patients available for our sustained hypoxia studies was very small. Therefore, our proposal advocated here is yet weak in terms of statistical significance. Physiological and Pathophysiological Significance of Hypoxic Ventilatory Depression This section is concerned with the reversible ventilatory depression noted during mild hypoxia in adult humans. This phenomenon may be explained phylogenetically (218). Airbreathing humans, as descendants of waterbreathers, maintain their life phylogenetically in a relatively hyperoxic environment. Therefore, human ventilation does not appreciably increase with lowering of PaO2 until it is at about twothirds of the normoxemic value. This suggests that humans have a greater safety margin than waterbreathers in terms of oxygen deficiency. In fact, those among our subjects who demonstrated hypoxic hyperventilation often claimed symptoms of dyspnea. We speculated, therefore, that reversible hypoxic ventilatory depression may be a useful adaptation for conserving oxygen storage by diminishing energy consumption in the respiratory system. Neubauer et al. (159) suggested that severely depressed ventilation with hypoxia in newborns is a remnant adaptation to life in utero and that decreased
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neuronal activities by membrane hyperpolarization in the brain are an important component for survival. IV. Summary In this chapter, particular effort was devoted to describing what is known about chemical control of breathing in humans. 1. The contribution of peripheral chemoreceptors to human CO2 chemosensitivity is estimated to be about 30%. 2. Recent studies of central CO2 chemosensitivity in animals have demonstrated that (1) chemosensitive areas are not necessarily located only at the superficial layer of the ventral medulla; (2) heterogeneity in chemosensitivity even within the chemosensitive area has been recognized; and (3) knowledge on the function of the intermediate area and its nearby regions has particularly advanced. 3. The PCO2ventilation response curve in steadystate hypoxia is nearly flat in the hypocapnic region, but effective CO2 stimulation has been demonstrated in human studies. 4. Studies of patients with a lack of CO2 chemosensitivity, Ondine's curse, or congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS), reveal characteristic features of the behavioral control of breathing. 5. From studies conducted on carotid bodyresected patients, we found that (1) 90–95% of hypoxic chemosensitivity is shared by the carotid body, (2) unlike other experimental animals, no restoration of hypoxic chemosensitivity and delayed hypoxic ventilation were detected, (3) separate effects of carotid body activity and pulmonary inflation reflex on cardiovascular activities were found during sustained hypoxia. 6. Hypoxic ventilatory decline (HVD) in adult humans has been described, and the nature of biphasic profile in hypoxic ventilatory response (Biph HVD) has been investigated. 7. Lack of Biph HVD in the carotid bodyresected patients has been demonstrated, and the hypothesis has been proposed that the carotid body not only stimulates ventilation, but also may play a pivotal role in limiting excessive hyperventilation to effectively control hypoxic ventilatory decline. References 1. Dempsey JA, Pack AI. Regulation of Breathing, 2nd ed, revised and expanded. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1995.
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202. Van Beek JHGM, Berkenbosch A, De Goede J, Olievier CN. Effects of brainstem hypoxaemia on the regulation of breathing. Respir Physiol 1984; 57:171– 188. 203. Maxwell DL, Chahal F, Nolop KB, Hughes JMB. Somatostatin inhibits the ventilatory response to hypoxia in humans. J Appl Physiol 1986; 60:997–1002. 204. Filuk RB, Brezanski DJ, Anthonisen NR. Depression of hypoxic ventilatory response in humans by somatostatin. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65:1050–1054. 205. Siejö BK, Nilsson L. The influence of arterial hypoxemia upon labile phosphates and upon extracellular and intracellular lactate and pyruvate concentrations in the rat brain. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1971; 27:83–96. 206. Xu FD, Spellman MJ Jr, Sato M, Baumgartner JE, Ciricillo SF, Severinghaus JW. Anomalous hypoxic acidification of medullary ventral surface. J Appl Physiol 1991; 76:2211–2217. 207. Severinghaus JW. Hypoxic ventilatory depression and ventral medullary acidosis. In: Trouth CO, Millis RM, KiwullSchöne HF, Schläfke ME, eds. Ventral Brainstem Mechanisms and Control of Respiration and Blood Pressure. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1995:152–155. 208. Chowdhury MF, Masuda A, Nakamura W, Honda Y. Effect of 100% O2 exposure on hypoxic ventilatory response. Sleep 1992; 16:S128–S129. 209. Honda Y, Masuda A, Kobayashi T, Tanaka M, Masuyama S, Kimura H, Kuriyama T. Individual differences in ventilatory and HR responses to progressive hypoxia following 100% O2 exposure in humans. In: Semple SJG, Adams L, eds. Modeling and Control of Ventilation. New York: Plenum Press, 1995:283–286. 210. Honda Y, Tanaka M. Respiratory and circulatory activities in carotid body resected humans. In: Data PG, Acker H, Lahiri S, eds. Neuorobiology and Cell Physiology of Chemoreception. New York: Plenum Press, 1993:359–364. 211. Long WQ, Giesbrecht GG, Anthonisen NR. Ventilatory response to moderate hypoxia in awake chemodenervated cats. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74:805–810. 212. Fidone S, Gonzalez C, Yoshizaki K. Effects of low oxygen on the release of dopamine from the rabbit carotid body in vitro. J Physiol (Lond) 1992; 333:93– 110. 213. Gonzalez C, Dinger BG, Fidone S. Mechanism of carotid body chemoreception. In: Dempsy JA, Pack AI, eds. Regulation of Respiration, 2nd ed. revised and expanded. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1995:391–471. 214. González C, LópezLópez JR, Obeso A, PérezGarcía MT, Rocher A. Cellular mechanism of oxygen chemoreception in the carotid body. Respir Physiol 1995; 102:93–110. 215. Georgopoulos DS, Walker DS, Anthonisen NR. Increased chemoreceptor output and ventilatory response to sustained hypoxia. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67:1157–1163. 216. Goiny M, Lagercrantz H, Srinivasan M, Ungersteat U, Yamamoto Y. Hypoxiamediated in vivo release of dopamine in nucleus tractus solitarii of rabbits. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70:2395–2400. 217. Dejours P. Control of respiration. In: Principles of Comparative Respiratory Physiology. Amsterdam: Elsevier/NorthHolland Biomed Press, 1975:177–214.
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3 Nonchemical and Behavioral Effects on Breathing IKUO HOMMA and YURI MASAOKA Showa University School of Medicine Tokyo, Japan I. Introduction Ventilation is the result of the contraction of the thoracic respiratory muscles. This contraction is initiated by neuronal activity that originates in brain stem respiratory centers, but is considerably modified by a variety of afferent signals that arise during breathing. Central and peripheral chemoreceptors monitor the chemical status of the body and regulate central respiratory motor output to match metabolic demand. Additionally, other mechanoreceptors provide important afferent information about the deformation of the lungs and the chest wall and changes in the length and tension of the respiratory muscles during breathing. The synthesis of these inputs plays a key role in shaping the pattern of breathing. Breathing is not totally automatic, but can also be set volitionally. Other behavioral influences, arising from higher brain centers and related to emotional state and personality, also contribute to the regulation of the rate and depth of breathing.
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II. Motor Pathways Motor innervation of the muscles of respiration arises from the cervical through the thoracic spinal cord segments. The scalene and sternocleidomastoid muscles— accessory muscles of respiration—are innervated by cranial nerve XI (spinal accessory nerve) and the upper second and third cervical spinal cord segments (C2 and C3). The diaphragm, the major muscle of inspiration, is innervated by the phrenic nerve that arises from C3 to C5. The external intercostal muscles function as inspiratory muscles whereas the internal intercostal muscles facilitate expiration. The parasternal intercostal muscles, an extension of the internal intercostals, have an inspiratory action. The intercostal muscles are innervated by the intercostal nerves from thoracic spinal cord segments. The abdominal muscles, including the rectus abdominis, the transverse abdominis, and the external and internal oblique muscles, are expiratory muscles and are also innervated from thoracic spinal cord segments. The final common pathway for respiratory motor activity lies within the ventral horn of the spinal cord, and there appears to be some separation of the descending pathways from the brain for the automatic and the voluntary control of the respiratory muscles. Voluntary pathways that originate in the cerebral cortex involve the corticospinal tracts in the dorsolateral columns of the cord (Fig. 1). Experiments with electrical stimulation of the trunk area of the cerebral cortex of the cat have shown that shortlatency responses are evoked in the contralateral expiratory intercostal motor neurons (1). Transection of the dorsolateral columns of the spinal cord abolishes the responses to electrical stimulation, but has no effect on spontaneous rhythmic breathing. In contrast, descending pathways from medullary respiratory neurons are located in the ventral and lateral columns of the spinal cord. These bulbospinal pathways carry the neural information for automatic breathing. Inspiratory axons lie within the ventrolateral quadrant, whereas expiratory axons are situated more ventrally. Transection of the bulbospinal tract abolishes automatic rhythmic breathing, but has no effect on the evoked responses in the external intercostals following cortical stimulation. There also seems to be a separation of the pathways for the voluntary and involuntary control of breathing in humans. In patients who have undergone high cervical anterolateral cordotomy, voluntary respiratory activity is unaffected, but automatic respiratory activity is greatly decreased (2,3). In chronic alveolar hypoventilation or sleepinduced apneas, automatic breathing is markedly disordered, but appropriate levels of ventilation can be achieved through volitional means during wakefulness (4,5). The pathways for voluntary and involuntary breathing are not totally independent of one another. There are cortical projections to brain stem respiratory neurons so that behavioral and volitional influences arising from higher brain
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Figure 1 Schematic diagram of descending pathways.
centers can modify automatic control mechanisms. Orem (6) recorded respiratory neural activity in the brain stem of cats trained to suspend inspiration at the application of a conditioned stimulus and demonstrated that the suspension of inspiration by conditioned response was associated with a cessation of brain stem neural activity. These findings suggest that behavioral influences are not carried exclusively along corticospinal pathways directly to spinal motor neurons and that the behavioral system can also directly affect the automatic control system through an action on brain stem respiratory neurons. This effect was probably not the result of the activation of inspiratory inhibitory neurons in the brain stem because Orem (6) also demonstrated a loss of activity in these inspiratory inhibitory neurons during the conditioned response. It appears that it is a special type of brain stem neuron that becomes active during the behavioral inhibition of breathing. According to Orem and Trotter (7), the respiratory character of these neurons is weak and variable, and they cannot be characterized as either inspiratory or expiratory neurons because there is an additional dimension to their activity. Although it is clear that respiratory patterns can be controlled by volitional and
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behavioral influences, the specific cortical processes and the precise interactions within brain stem respiratory neurons remain uncertain. The classic studies of Penfield and Boldrey (8) demonstrated precise functional localization throughout the motor cortex. This localization also extends to the cortical control of breathing. Gandevia and Rothwell (9) used highvoltage electrical stimulation to examine projections from the cortex to the respiratory muscles in humans. With electrical stimulation over the scalp, oligosynaptic and monosynaptic responses were observed in the intercostal muscles and diaphragm
Figure 2 Diagram summarizing the sites of significantly increased regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) occurring with active inspiration in pooled data from six subjects. Medial (lefthand) and lateral (righthand) views of the right (upperhalf) and left (lowerhalf) hemispheres are shown. The horizontal lines indicate the position of the intercommissural (ACPC) plane and the vertical line, the location of Vca, a line passing through the anterior commissure (9a). The shaded areas indicate the regions, projected onto these views, at which significant (p < 0.05) increases in rCBF occurred during the “active” task. The right medial view shows two regions (comprising four foci) and the left medial view two regions (three foci) of increased flow within the SMA, which, owing to their proximity to the midline, could not be allocated to either hemisphere with certainty. The medial view of the left hemisphere also shows, below the ACPC plane, the focus of increased rCBF occurring within the cerebellum, which overlays the cerebral cortex at this level. The lateral projections show, on the right, a focus within the motor cortex and, anteriorly, one within the premotor cortex. On the lateral view of the left hemisphere are two foci of increased flow within the motor cortex. The brain outlines were copied from a drawing by R. Passingham taken from the atlas of Talairach and Tournoux (1988). (From Ref. 13.)
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(9,10). The intercostal and trunk muscles are innervated from medial cortical sites that are extremely close to the vertex and somewhat distant from the areas that control the movements of muscles of the face and hands. During voluntary breathing, the responses to cortical stimulation are increased and potentiated. More recent studies have shown that magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex at a site 3 cm lateral to the vertex activates the contralateral diaphragm (11). Imaging techniques have also been used to identify areas of the brain that control voluntary respiratory activity. Specifically, positron emission tomography (PET) enables regional nervous activity to be assessed through measurements of regional blood flow (12). Colebatch et al. (13) compared regional blood flow in the brain in subjects during active breathing with a large tidal volume and during passive mechanical ventilation with an intermittent positivepressure respirator. During active breathing, blood flow increased to the premotor cortex, the supplementary motor areas, and the cerebellum. There were yet greater increases in blood flow to the primary motor areas of the motor cortex (Fig. 2). With passive mechanical ventilation, these increases in blood flow were not observed. These findings indicate that blood flow enhancement, particularly in the primary motor cortex and premotor areas, occurs as a consequence of heightened motor output and is not the result of afferent inputs from the lung or chest wall (14). III. Afferent Mechanisms A. Pulmonary Vagal Afferents Afferent impulses from vagal receptors in the airways and lungs exert important influences on the level and pattern of breathing. There are several types of vagal receptors within the respiratory tract (15). Pulmonary stretch receptors are situated in the smooth muscle of the airways and show a slowly adapting response to lung inflation. Stimulation of stretch receptors results in an early cutoff of inspiration and a prolongation of expiratory time. Irritant receptors are rapidly adapting and are located around the epithelial cells of the bronchial walls. Irritant receptors respond to both chemical and mechanical stimuli. Various irritants, including cigarette smoke, ammonia, and dust particles, stimulate irritant receptors. Irritant receptors are also stimulated by rapid lung inflation, particularly when lung compliance is decreased and during forced lung deflation. Activation of irritant receptors in the larger airways results in cough and bronchoconstriction. Activation of irritant receptors deeper in the lung may produce hyperpnea. Finally, Cfibers are nonmyelinated afferent endings. Pulmonary Cfibers are situated in the interstitium of the lung in proximity to the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries and are stimulated by increases in pulmonary interstitial pressure. There are also bronchial Cfibers in the airways. Many chemical agents stimulate
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Cfibers. These include phenyl diguanide, capsaicin, nicotine, prostaglandins, bradykinin, and serotonin. Activation of these receptors may produce reflex tachypnea and bronchoconstriction. B. Chest Wall Afferents. The respiratory muscles are innervated by a variety of sensory receptors. The diaphragm contains tendon organs that signal muscle tension and exert inhibitory influences on brain stem respiratory activity (16). Muscle spindles are abundant in the intercostal muscles, and their afferent activity is involved in both spinal and supraspinal respiratory reflexes (17). In both automatic and voluntary breathing, signals descending from the brain terminate on the spinal motor neurons to the respiratory muscles. Descending signals are modified by proprioceptive inputs from the respiratory muscles themselves and this afferent information is critical, particularly in the nonchemical or behavioral control of breathing, in shaping the appropriate level of respiratory activity. The muscle spindles provide an important source of respiratory proprioceptive information to the central nervous system. Muscle spindle afferent discharges are governed by the gamma motor activation of the intrafusal fibers of the muscle spindle. C. Muscle Spindle and Gamma Loop Muscle spindles are 6–8 mm in length and 50–100 m in diameter. There are two kinds of fibers in the muscle spindle: nuclear bag fibers and nuclear chain fibers. The center of the nuclear bag is enlarged and encircled by the sensory nerve ending. The primary endings of the sensory nerves (Ia) are located in both the nuclear bag fibers and the nuclear chain fibers. A second type of sensory ending (II) is located in the nuclear chain fibers and is shaped like the petals of a flower. Generally, Ia afferent nerves send excitatory inputs monosynaptically to the alpha motoneurons. The center of the nuclear bag fiber, where Ia sensory nerve endings are located, is elastic and sensitive to stretch or vibration. Vibration of muscle spindles initiates a tonic vibration reflex and this has been demonstrated in the intercostal muscles. The parasternal muscles in the second and third intercostal space (upper chest wall) are exclusively inspiratory, whereas the intercostal muscles in the seventh to tenth interspaces along the anterior axillary line (lower chest wall) are expiratory (18). Vibration of the upper chest wall during inspiration induces a tonic vibration reflex involving the inspiratory intercostal muscles and increases the inspiratory movement of the chest (19,20). Similarly, vibration of the lower chest wall during expiration induces a tonic vibration reflex in the expiratory intercostal muscles and increases the expiratory movement of the chest. Muscles spindle or intrafusal muscle fibers are located in both poles of
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nuclear bag and nuclear chain fibers. The intrafusal fibers, similar to the regular extrafusal muscle fibers, receive motor innervation. Whereas extrafusal muscle fibers are innervated by alpha motoneurons, the intrafusal muscle fibers are innervated by gamma motoneurons. This gamma motoneuron activation results in contraction of the intrafusal fibers, causing the muscle spindle to stretch and muscle spindle afferents to discharge. The muscle spindle afferents are transmitted to the spinal cord and through a spinal segmental reflex, alpha motor discharge to the extrafusal muscle increases. As the extrafusal muscle contracts, stretch on the muscle spindle is removed. Muscle spindles in the intercostal muscles are coactivated by alpha and gamma motoneurons and this alphagamma linkage is important in regulating intercostal muscle contraction and both automatic and voluntary breathing (21). Posterior root section to destroy the afferent intercostal nerves reduces respiratory movement (22). With blockade of gamma motoneuron discharge by a local anesthetic, Ia spindle afferent activity decreases during muscle contraction and increases when the muscles are stretched (23). When the airway is obstructed during inspiration, there is an increase in intercostal alpha motoneuron activity, but this response is not seen after intercostal deafferentation (24). The responses mediated by muscle spindle afferents are part of the socalled respiratory load compensation reflex that assures the maintenance of adequate levels of ventilation in the face of mechanical impediments to breathing (25). The gamma motor system includes both rhythmic and tonic components. Tonic gamma motor activity increases in response to stimulation of the contralateral cerebellum (26). This suggests a role in the maintenance of posture. Cerebellar stimulation does not affect rhythmic gamma motoneuron discharge, but the increase in tonic activity will change the alphagamma balance, and this is likely to influence intercostal muscle spindle activity during breathing. IV. Respiratory Sensation and Behavioral Control of Breathing Breathing normally takes place without conscious awareness. However it is now clear that persons can readily sense the rate and depth of their breathing and quantitate the sense of effort expended in breathing as well as the feelings of labored or difficult breathing (27,28). These sensations originate with the sensory systems involved with respiration and, in turn, play an important role in shaping the level and pattern of breathing. There is evidence for a corollary discharge of the outgoing respiratory motor command from brain stem respiratory neurons to the sensory cortex during automatic reflex breathing, or from cortical motor centers to the sensory cortex during voluntary breathing efforts (29,30). These corollary discharges are important in shaping the sense of respiratory effort. Whenever a greater respiratory
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motor command is necessary to achieve a given muscle tension, such as with decreasing muscle length, muscle weakness, or fatigue, the sense of respiratory effort is increased (31–33). The sense of respiratory effort intensifies with increases in central respiratory motor command and is proportional to the ratio of the pressures generated by the respiratory muscles to the maximum pressure generating capacity of those muscles (34). The increased sense of respiratory effort during hypoxia and hypercapnia is largely the result of the chemically induced increase in respiratory motor activity, but there is some evidence that the sensation of breathing discomfort may be directly influenced by inputs from chemoreceptors to higher brain centers. At a given level of ventilation produced by hypercapnia, the intensity of the sensation of breathlessness is greater than at the same level of ventilation achieved during exercise (35). Afferent information from pulmonary vagal receptors may also play a role in shaping some of the sensations associated with breathing. Vagal receptors may contribute to the unpleasant sensations that result when thoracic expansion is limited (36). The breathlessness associated with bronchoconstriction is also, at least partly, mediated by vagal afferents (37). There is no one exclusive source of respiratory sensations. It is most likely that the various respiratory sensations develop from higher brain center processes that compare motor command signals with incoming afferent information from the ventilatory apparatus (38). The most important of these afferent signals is the feedback from proprioceptors in the respiratory muscles. Afferents from the intercostal muscles project to the cerebral cortex and contribute to proprioception and kinesthesia (39,40). Kanamaru et al. (41) further demonstrated somatosensory corticalevoked potentials from biceps taps in patients with brachial plexus injuries who had previously undergone a nerve transfer of an upper intercostal nerve to the musculocutaneous nerve (Fig. 3). These observations of both shortlatency and longlatency corticalevoked responses provide additional evidence for the cortical transmission of intercostal mechanoreceptor afferents. Vibration of the chest wall to activate muscle spindles also produces an illusion of chest movement (42). Different sensations are induced, depending on whether the muscles being vibrated are inspiratory or expiratory and whether they are contracting or at rest. For example, vibration of the upper rib cage inspiratory muscles in phase with inspiration produces a sensation of chest expansion. In contrast, outofphase vibration of the lower rib cage expiratory muscles during inspiration and of the upper rib cage inspiratory muscles during expiration produces a sensation of breathing difficulty. Inphase vibration of the chest wall relieves breathlessness both in normal subjects (43) and in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) at rest and during exercise (44). Behavioral factors shaped by the sensations associated with breathing may be involved in adjusting the level and pattern of breathing, particularly in patients
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Figure 3 Effect of ICbiceps tendon tapping on EEG response and ICbiceps EMG: Upper panel, averaged EEG responses; lower panel, pulse crosscorrelogram between tap and ICbiceps EMG pulse; (A) ICbiceps SEP (+) patient; (B) ICbiceps SEP () patient. EEG was averaged for 256 sweeps in both patients. Two runs were superimposed. Crosscorrelogram was calculated from 353 taps for (A) and 473 for (B). Right crossbar represents average level and ± 2 SD (From Ref. 41.)
with lung disease. The breathlessness commonly experienced by patients with lung disease may induce habitual or learned changes in breathing that could serve to minimize the effort or discomfort of breathing. This is in keeping with the model proposed by Poon (45) that suggests that breathing patterns are determined by a balance between the prevailing chemical drive and the propensity of the respiratory controller to reduce respiratory effort. V. Posture and Breathing In addition to their primary role in breathing, the respiratory muscles also have an important postural function. Following the work of Tokizane et al. (46) and Campbell (47), several other investigators have employed electromyographic (EMG) approaches to examine the role of the respiratory muscles in posture. With changes in posture there are associated changes in the lengths of the respiratory muscles. Twisting of the thorax in anesthetized dogs causes reciprocal changes in the lengths of the external and internal intercostal muscles (48). When the trunk is twisted passively to the left, the external intercostal muscles on the right side and the internal intercostal muscles on the left side contract, whereas the external
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intercostal muscles on the left side and the internal intercostal muscles on the right side lengthen (49). Electromyographic studies in the cat have shown that passive incurving of the trunk causes activation of the ipsilateral internal intercostal muscles and inhibition of the ipsilateral external intercostal muscles. Correspondingly, the contralateral internal intercostal muscles are inhibited and the contralateral external intercostal muscles are activated (50). Similar reciprocal changes in the electrical activity of the intercostal muscles of humans have been noted with rotation of the trunk (51; Fig. 4). The inspiratory external intercostal muscles on the right side are activated when the trunk is rotated to the left, and the ipsilateral expiratory internal intercostal muscles are activated when the trunk is rotated to the right. Maintaining rotation induces a steady tonic activity in these muscles, but the level of tonic activity is somewhat dependent on the phase of respiration. The tonic activity in the internal intercostal muscles is completely suppressed during inspiration. In contrast, tonic postural activity in the external intercostal muscles persists during inspiration; the phasic inspiratory discharges in the external intercostal muscles are superimposed on the persistent tonic activity (52). The loss of tonic postural activity in the expiratory internal intercoastal muscles during inspiration is thought to be due to hyperpolarization and inactivation of motoneurons (53). However, tonic activity in the inspiratory external intercostal muscles induced by rotation of the trunk is not inhibited during expiration. The persistence of this tonic activity may be explained by a gamma loop
Figure 4 Recordings taken during rotation s of trunk in 1 subject. Top: spirogram. Middle: average EMG of right fifth space external intercostal muscle. Bottom: average EMG of right eighth space internal intercostal muscle. Lowgrade inspiratory activity can be seen in the external intercostal, and lowgrade expiratory activity in the internal intercostal. After two normal breaths with a tidal volume of 800 mL, subject stops breathing at functional residual capacity and rotates thorax to the left, activating mainly external intercostal. Later he turns to the right, activating mainly internal intercostal. Cross contamination of signals is probably responsible for lowamplitude EMG signal from external muscle while turning to the right and vice versa. (From Ref. 51.)
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reflex initiated by muscle spindle afferents that are activated by stretching of the muscle (54). VI. Emotions, Personality, and Breathing The relation between emotional state and respiration has been a subject of great interest to psychologists (55), but the behavioral control of breathing can also be considered from a neurophysiological perspective. The limbic system, which contributes importantly to emotional state, also significantly influences breathing patterns. Electrical stimulation of the amygdala in cats increases respiratory rate and modifies the respiratory responses to tracheal occlusion (56). Other studies have demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the amygdala complex can elicit a variety of different breathing patterns (57). A clear association between breathing pattern and emotional state has been observed in several psychological studies (58,59). A wide variety of different emotional states, including joy, anger, fear, and sadness, can produce changes in breathing. Severe mental depression reduces hypercapnic ventilatory responses (59). Negative emotional states, such as fear, anger, and anxiety, increase respiratory rate (60). Interestingly, these respiratory responses can be induced by the suggestion of anger or anxiety in hypnotized subjects. Similarly, patients with hyperventilation syndrome will hyperventilate under hypnosis when instructed to imagine a circumstance that had previously caused them to hyperventilate (61). The respiratory responses to emotional challenges are variable so that respiratory rate can increase, with or without an increase in tidal volume. Rapid shallow breathing has been observed in subjects performing stressful mental tasks (62). Mador and Tobin (63) also examined the effects of mental tasks, audiovisual stimulation, and noxious stimulation on breathing. They found an increase in respiratory rate during mental arithmetic and audiovisual stimulation. On the other hand, noxious stimulation increased both respiratory rate and tidal volume. We recently examined the respiratory responses to an unpleasant auditory stimulus (64). We found a significant correlation between the increase in minute ventilation and the trait anxiety score on the Spielberger Stait Trait Anxiety Inventory. There was also a positive correlation between respiratory rates and subjects' anxiety scores during physical load test and mental stress test. Unlike negative emotional states, positive emotional states such as happiness and contentment tend to have little effect on breathing. In subjects listening to music, the respiratory rate slows as the subjects become more and more calm (65). Strong emotional stimuli can also influence the patterns of thoracoabdominal displacement. Preferential use of rib cage muscles results in thoracic breathing, whereas predominant use of the diaphragm causes abdominal movements
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during breathing. Negative emotional states are thought to increase thoracic breathing over abdominal breathing. When subjects are threatened with electrical shocks, thoracic movements during breathing increase and abdominal displacement decreases (66). In addition to their effect on the rate and depth of breathing, negative emotional states, such as anxiety, boredom, and fatigue, also increase the frequency of sighs (67). Sighs, or augmented breaths, are initiated by vagal irritant receptor afferents, stimulated by lung deflation, by decreases in lung compliance, or by an increase in chemoreceptor afferents (68). Sighing can also be a voluntary act in response to emotional disturbance, feelings of chest wall tightness, or other unpleasant respiratory sensations (69). Another respiratory act that is related to emotional state is yawning. Yawning is characterized by a prolonged, deep inspiration associated with stretching of the trunk muscles followed by a short, rapid expiration. Yawning commonly occurs with sleepiness, fatigue, and boredom (70). In summary, the level and pattern of breathing, although set primarily by brain stem mechanisms, are also subject to considerable voluntary control and to other behavioral influences based on respiratory sensations, emotional state, and personality. There is recent evidence that respiratory responses can be conditioned (71). This suggests the possibility of a habituation of the behavioral respiratory responses to such things as persistent unpleasant respiratory sensations such as breathlessness in patients with lung disease or various emotional or psychological disturbances (72). Insofar as respiratory responses may be conditioned, deconditioning and desensitizing approaches may have a role in the management of respiratory dysfunction. References 1. Aminoff MJ, Sears TA. Spinal integration of segmental, cortical and breathing inputs to thoracic respiratory motoneurons. J Physiol 1971; 215:557–575. 2. Belmusto L, Brown E, Owens G. Clinical observation on respiratory and vasomotor disturbance as related to cervical cordotomies. J Neurosurg 1963; 20:225– 232. 3. Nathan PW. The descending respiratory pathway in man. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1963; 26:487–499. 4. Hitchcock E, Leece B. Somatotopic representation of the respiratory pathways in the cervical cord of man. J Neurosurg 1967; 27:320–329. 5. Krieger AJ, Rosomoff HL. Sleepinduced apnea. Part 1. A respiratory and autonomic dysfunction syndrome following bilateral percutaneous cervical cordotomy. J Neurosurg 1974; 40:168–180. 6. Orem J. Behavioral inspiratory inhibition: inactivated and activated respiratory cells. J Neurophysiol 1989; 62:1069–1078. 7. Orem J, Trotter RH. Behavioral control of breathing. NIPS 1994; 9:228–232. 8. Penfield W, Boldrey E. Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation. Brain 1937; 60:389–443.
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9. Gandevia SC, Rothwell JC. Activation of the human diaphragm from the motor cortex. J Physiol (Lond) 1987; 384:109–118. 9a. Talairach J, Tournoux P. Coplanar Stereotaxic Axis of the Human Brain. Stuttgart: Thieme, 1988. 10. Gandevia SC, Plassman BL. Responses in human intercostal and truncal muscles to motor cortical and spinal stimulation. Respir Physiol 1988; 73:325–337. 11. Maskill D, Murphy K, Mier A, Owen M, Guz A. Motor cortical representation of the diaphragm in man. J Physiol 1991; 443:105–121. 12. Raichle ME. Circulatory and metabolic correlates of brain function in normal humans. In: Mountcastle VB, ed. Handbook of Physiology. The Nervous System, Section 1, Vol V. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1987:643–674. 13. Colebatch JG, Adams L, Murphy K, Martin AJ, Lammertsma AA, TochonDanguy HJ, Clark JC, Friston KJ, Guz A. Regional cerebral blood flow during volitional breathing in man. J Physiol 1991; 443:91–103. 14. Adams L, Fink GR, Corfield DR, Murphy K, Kobayashi I, Dettmers C, Frackowiak RSJ, Guz A. Force dependency of motor control of volitional inspiration in man. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:A158. 15. Coleridge HM, Coleridge JCG. Reflexes evoked from tracheobronchial tree and lungs. In: Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JG, eds. Handbook of Physiology. Sec 3: The Respiratory System. Vol II, Control of Breathing, Part 1. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1986:395–423. 16. Speck DF. Supraspinal involvement in the phrenictophrenic inhibitory reflex. Brain Res 1987; 414:169–172. 17. Shannon R. Reflexes from respiratory muscles and costovertebral joints. In: Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JG, eds. Handbook of Physiology. Sec 3: The Respiratory System. Vol II, Control of Breathing, Part 1. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1986:431–447. 18. Taylor A. The contribution of the intercostal muscles to effect of respiration in man. J Physiol (Lond) 1960; 151:390–402. 19. Homma I, Eklund G, Hagbarth KE. Respiration in man affected by TVR contractions elicited in inspiratory and expiratory intercostal muscles. Respir Physiol 1978; 35:335–348. 20. Homma I, Nagai T, Sakai T, Ohashi M, Beppu M, Yonemoto K. Effect of chest wall vibration on ventilation in patients with spinal cord lesion. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1981; 50:107–111. 21. Granit R. Reflex selfregulation of the muscle contraction and autogenetic inhibition. J Neurophysiol 1950; 13:351–372. 22. Nathan PW, Sears TA. Effects of posterior root section on the activity of some muscles in man. J Neurol Psychiatry 1960; 23:10–22. 23. Critchlow V, Euler CV. Rhythmic control of intercostal muscle spindles. Experientia 1962; 18:426–427. 24. Corda M, Eklund G, Euler CV. External intercostal and phrenic alpha motoneurone responses to changes in respiratory load. Acta Physiol Scand 1965; 63:391– 400. 25. Euler CV. The role of proprioceptive afferents in the control of respiratory muscles. Acta Neurobiol Exp 1973; 33:329–341. 26. Corda M, Euler CV, Lennerstrand G. Reflex and cerebellar influences on alpha and on
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“rhythmic” and “tonic” gamma activity in the intercostal muscle. J Physiol 1966; 184:898–923. 27. Altose MD, Mulholland MB, Hudgel DW. Comparison of the intensity of breathlessness during exercise and voluntary hyperventilation. Fed Proc 1986; 45:15. 28. Killian KJ, Bucens DD, Campbell EJM. Effect of breathing patterns on the perceived magnitude of added loads to breathing. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1982; 52:578–584. 29. McCloskey DI, Ebeling P, Goodwin GM. Estimation of weights and tensions and apparent involvement of a “sense of effort.” Exp Neurol 1974; 42:220–232. 30. McCloskey DI. Kinesthetic sensibility. Physiol Rev 1978; 58:763–820. 31. Killian KJ, Gandevia SC, Summers E, Campbell EJM. Effect of increased lung volume on perception of breathlessness, effort, and tension. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1984; 57:686–691. 32. Campbell EJM, Gandevia SC, Killian KJ, Mahutte CK, Rigg JRA. Changes in the perception of inspiratory resistive loads during partial curarization. J Physiol 1990; 309:93–100. 33. Supinski GS, Clary SJ, Bark H, Kelsen SG. Effect of inspiratory muscle fatigue on perception of effort during loaded breathing. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62:300– 307. 34. ElManshawi A, Killian KJ, Summers E, Jones NL. Breathlessness during exercise with and without resistive loading. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61:896–905. 35. Chonan T, Mulholland MB, Leitner J, Altose MD, Cherniack NS. Sensation of dyspnea during hypercapnia, exercise and voluntary hyperventilation. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68:2100–2106. 36. Manning HL, Shea SA, Schwartzstein RM, Lansing RW, Brown R, Banzett RB. Reduced tidal volume increases “air hunger” at fixed PCO2 in ventilated quadriplegics. Respir Physiol 1992; 90:19–30. 37. Taguchi O, Kikuchi Y, Hida W, Iwase N, Sato M, Chonan T, Takishima T. Effects of bronchoconstriction and external resistive loading on the sensation of dyspnea. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71:2183–2190. 38. Adams L, Lane R, Shea SA, et al. Breathlessness during different forms of ventilatory stimulation: a study of mechanisms in normal subjects and respiratory patients. Clin Sci 1985; 69:663–672. 39. Homma I, Kanamaru A, Sibuya M. Proprioceptive chest wall afferents and the effect on respiratory sensation. In: Euler C, KatzSalamon M, eds. Respiratory Psychophysiology. New York: Stockton Press, 1998:161–166. 40. Gandevia SC, Macefield G. Projection of low threshold afferents from human intercostal muscles to the cerebral cortex. Respir Physiol 1989; 77:203–214. 41. Kanamaru A, Suzuki S, Sibuya M, Homma I, Sai K, Hara T. Sensory reinnervation of muscle receptor in human. Neurosci Lett 1993; 161:27–29. 42. Homma I, Obata T, Sibuya M, Uchida M. Gate mechanism in breathlessness caused by chest wall vibration in humans. J Appl Physiol 1984; 56:8–11. 43. Manning HL, Basner R, Ringler J, Rand C, Fencl V, Weinberger SE, Weiss JW, Schwartzstein RM. Effect of chest wall vibration on breathlessness in normal subjects. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71:175–181. 44. Sibuya M, Yamada M, Kanamaru A, Tanaka K, Suzuki H, Noguchi E, Altose MD, Homma I. Effect of chest wall vibration on dyspnea in patients with chronic respiratory disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149:1235–1240.
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45. Poon CS. Effects of inspiratory resistive load on respiratory control in hypercapnia and exercise. J Appl Physiol 1989; 66:2391–2399. 46. Tokizane T, Kawamata K, Okizane H. Electromyographic studies on the human respiratory muscles. Jpn J Physiol 1952; 2:232–247. 47. Campbell EJM. An electromyographic study of the role of the abdominal muscles in breathing. J Physiol (Lond) 1952; 117:222–233. 48. Decramer M, Kelly S, DeTroyer A. Respiratory and postural changes in intercostal muscle length in supine dogs. J Appl Physiol 1986; 60:1686–1691. 49. Bedingham W, Tatton WG. Dependence of EMG responses evoked by imposed wrist displacements on preexisting activity in the stretched muscles. Can J Neurol Sci 1984; 11:272–280. 50. Duron B. Intercostal and diaphragmatic muscle endings and afferents. In: Hornbein TF, ed. Regulation of Breathing. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1981:473–540. 51. Whitelaw WA, Ford GT, Rimmer KP, DeTroyer A. Intercostal muscles are used during rotation of the thorax in humans. J Appl Physiol 1992; 75:1940–1944. 52. Rimmer KP, Ford GT, Whitelaw WA. Interaction between postural and respiratory control of human intercostal muscles. J Appl Physiol 1995; 79:1556–1561. 53. Sears TA. Some properties and reflex connections of respiratory motoneurons of the cat's thoracic spinal cord. J Physiol (Lond) 1964; 175:386–403. 54. Euler CV. Fusimotor activity in spindle control of natural movements with special reference to respiration. In: Andersen P, Jansen JK, eds. Excitatory Synaptic Mechanisms. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1970:341–349. 55. Boiten FA, Frijda NH, Wientjes JE. Emotions and respiratory patterns: review and critical analysis. J Physiol 1994; 17:103–128. 56. Reis DJ, McHugh PR. Hypoxia as a cause of bradycardia during amygdala stimulation in monkey. Am J Physiol 1968; 214:601–610. 57. Bonvallet M, Gary BE. Changes in phrenic activity and heart rate elicited by localized stimulation of amygdala and adjacent structures. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1972; 32:1–16. 58. Skarbek A. A psychophysiological study of breathing behaviour. Br J Psychiatry 1970; 116:637–641. 59. DamasMora J, Souster L, Jenner FA. Diminished hypercapnic drive in endogenous or severe depression. J Psychosom Res 1982; 26:237–245. 60. Zuckerman M, Persky H, Curtis GC. Relationships among anxiety, depression, hostility and autonomic variables. J Nerv Ment Dis 1968; 140:481–487. 61. Freeman LJ, Conway A, Nixon PGF. Physiological responses to psychological challenge under hypnosis in patients considered to have the hyperventilation syndrome: implications for diagnosis and therapy. J R Soc Med 1986; 79:76–83. 62. Allen MT, Sherwood A, Obrist PA. Interactions of respiratory and cardiovascular adjustments to behavioral stressors. Psychophysiology 1986; 23:532–541. 63. Mador MJ, Tobin MJ. Effect of alterations in mental activity on the breathing pattern in healthy subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:481–487. 64. Masaoka Y, Homma I. Anxiety and respiratory patterns: their relationship during mental stress and physical load. Int J Psychophysiol 1997; 27:153–159. 65. Nakamura H. Effects of musical emotionality upon GSR and respiration rate: the relationship between verbal reports and physiological responses. Shinrigaku Kenkyu 1984; 55:47–50.
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66. Svebak S. The effects of difficulty and threat of aversive electric shock upon tonic physiological changes. Biol Psychol 1982; 113–128. 67. Bendixen HH, Smith GM, Mead M. Pattern of ventilation in young adults. J Appl Physiol 1964; 19:195–198. 68. Cherniack NS, Euler CV, Grogowska M, Homma I. Characteristics and rate of occurrence of spontaneous and provoked augmented breaths. Acta Physiol Scand 1981; 111:349–360. 69. Tobin MJ, Mador MJ, Guenther SM, Lodato RF, Sackner MA. Variability of resting respiratory drive and timing in healthy subjects. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65:309–317. 70. Provine RR, Hamernik HB. Yawning effects of stimulus interest. Bull Psychonom Soc 1986; 24:437–438. 71. Gallego J, Perruchet P. Classical conditioning of ventilatory responses in humans. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70:676–682. 72. Cherniack NS, Chonan T, Altose MD. Respiratory sensations and the voluntary control of breathing. In: Euler CV, KatzSalamon M. eds. Respiratory Psychophysiology. New York: Stockton Press, 1988:35–46.
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4 Dyspnea and the Control of Breathing HAROLD L. MANNING Dartmouth Medical School Lebanon, New Hampshire RICHARD M. SCHWARTZSTEIN Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Boston, Massachusetts I. Introduction The respiratory muscles constitute one of the body's vital pumps. Similar to the rhythmic pumping of the heart, contraction of the respiratory muscles must be under automatic control so that its essential, life sustaining activity proceeds without interruption. This automatic control is provided by brain stem centers that are involved in regulating the body's acidbase status and supply of oxygen. Thus, breathing takes place whether we attend to it or not, and it proceeds independent of our state of consciousness. Unlike the heart, however, which functions solely to pump blood through the vasculature, the respiratory muscles are also called on to assist in the performance of numerous nonvital tasks—activities, such as singing, laughing, and throwing a baseball, are just a few examples of setting in which the respiratory muscles are recruited. Under some circumstances, the activity of the respiratory muscles can be temporarily suspended, such as when we hold our breath while swimming underwater. These voluntary, nonessential tasks require the presence of a cortical motor center. Inputs from the chemoreceptor are a principal determinant of the body's reflex respiratory pattern, although afferent inputs from other sources, such as receptors in the upper airways, lungs, and chest wall, also play a role. In some
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complex fashion, the combined motor outputs of the brain stem and cortex give rise to the individual's breathing pattern. The resulting respiratory pattern, and likely the inputs that give rise to it, produce the various sensations associated with breathing. Most would accept the notion that “what we feel” is largely determined by “how we breathe.” However, because behavior is often directed toward the avoidance of unpleasant or uncomfortable sensations, it is also reasonable to view this issue from the opposite perspective: namely, is breathing a behavior that is at least partly based on the desire to avoid uncomfortable respiratory sensations? Many, if not most, dyspneic patients at times also demonstrate abnormalbreathing patterns (e.g., the rapid, shallow breathing of a patient with interstitial lung disease) or breathing “behaviors” (e.g., pursedlips breathing in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; COPD). Thus, abnormal respiratory sensations often go hand inhand with abnormalbreathing patterns. The second section of this volume is devoted to the control of breathing in a broad range of clinical disorders. There have been several recent reviews of dyspnea (1– 3), as well as recent volumes in this series devoted entirely to respiratory sensation (4) and dyspnea (5). Although in this chapter we will touch on several aspects of dyspnea, we will focus largely on the interplay between respiratory control and respiratory sensation (the reader interested in a more comprehensive overview of dyspnea is referred to any of the aforementioned sources). Several themes will appear throughout this chapter: To what extent does respiratory sensation affect an individual's pattern of breathing? To what extent does the pattern of breathing affect respiratory sensation? Is there a relation between the sensitivity of the brain stem to “reflex stimuli” (such as CO2) and respiratory sensation? And is there any relation between an individual's sensitivity to respiratory discomfort and a response to reflex stimuli? II. Measurement of Dyspnea To gain an understanding of a phenomenon, we must be able to measure it. In many areas of research related to the respiratory system, measurements are straightforward—instruments for measuring quantities, such as temperature, pressure, gas concentrations, and the like, have long been available. However, dyspnea, similar to other subjective sensations, cannot be measured with conventional instruments: to do so, we must enter the realm of psychophysics (i.e., the investigation of the relation between sensory stimuli and the sensory experiences they evoke). Psychophysical methods can be conveniently divided into threshold measures and magnitude scaling. We provide a brief overview of each in the following two sections. A. Threshold Discrimination The term sensory threshold refers to the smallest physical stimulus (or change in stimulus) that an individual can detect. In 1846, Weber reported that the
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threshold for the detection of a change in the intensity of a stimulus, or “just noticeable difference,” is a constant fraction of the intensity of the baseline stimulus. This is formulated as Weber's law, which states that the intensity of a stimulus must be increased by a constant fraction of its original value to produce a change in sensation. Mathematically, this means that the ratio of the minimum change in stimulus intensity needed to produce an increase in perceptual value ( ) to the background sensory stimulus ( ) is a constant (k); that is, / = k. The greater the background sensory stimulus, the greater the change in stimulus strength necessary for the subject to detect a change in stimulus intensity. Weber's law has important implications for the study of patients with abnormal respiratory mechanics in whom airway resistance or lung elastance may be increased. Failure to account for the increased background load in these patients will likely lead to erroneous conclusions about the respiratory sensations associated with added loads. Threshold measurements have been fairly widely used in studies attempting to sort out neural pathways of respiratory sensation. For example, investigators have administered chemical stimuli (e.g., see Ref. 6) or applied loads to the respiratory system of patients lacking a particular sensory pathway, such as patients with spinal cord injury (7,8). When subjects lacking a particular afferent pathway demonstrate intact ability to detect a respiratory stimulus, we can safely conclude that the disrupted pathway is not essential for the perception of that stimulus, although we cannot exclude a potential role for the pathway in perception in normal individuals. Conversely, inability (or decreased) ability to detect a stimulus indicates that the disrupted afferent pathway plays an essential role in the perception of that stimulus modality. Studies such as these have helped shed light on important aspects of respiratory sensation such as CO2induced breathlessness and mechanisms of load detection. B. Magnitude Scaling. Many settings demand that we know more than merely an individual's ability or inability to detect a stimulus. Often, we need to know whether a condition or intervention causes a change in the intensity of sensation. To address such issues, we must have at our disposal methods for measuring the magnitude of sensation. The principles for direct magnitude scaling have been derived primarily from the contributions of Stevens (9). In direct magnitude scaling, subjects make judgments of sensations that are then transformed into measurements of sensory magnitude. Stevens expressed the relation between stimulus intensity and sensation magnitude with his psychophysical or power law (10,11), which in mathematical form states that = kØn, where is the sensation magnitude, k is a scaling constant, Ø is the physical magnitude of the stimulus, and n is the exponent, a reflection of the sensitivity to that particular stimulus modality. An exponent of 1 indicates that a doubling of the stimulus intensity causes the intensity of the sensation to double as well (e.g., the exponent for the length of a line is 1; hence, if
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the length of the line is doubled, it appears twice as long); an exponent of 3 means that a doubling of the stimulus intensity causes a ninefold increase in sensation intensity (e.g., the exponent for an electric shock is 3; if the current is doubled, the shock feels nine times as intense). Stevens' law has been verified for a large range of perceptual continua using a variety of methodologies under many stimulus conditions. Bakers and Tenney (12) were the first to apply Stevens' power law to respiratory variables, and their work was subsequently expanded by Stubbing and colleagues (13). For common respiratory variables, such as tidal volume and pressure, the specific receptors mediating sensation may not be known with certainty, but the physical stimulus for sensation appears straightforward. Therefore, we can apply some meaning to the exponent for tidal volume perception, or the exponent for ventilation. Unfortunately, the same does not hold true for dyspnea. When a patient with exerciseinduced oxygen desaturation complaints of dyspnea, we are uncertain of the stimulus for breathlessness: is it the PO2 (or even SAO2) at the level of the peripheral chemoreceptor, the metabolic work of the task, the mechanical output of the ventilatory muscles, or some combination of these and other factors? We may be able to say that under a given set of conditions the intensity of breathlessness doubled, but we cannot assign a meaningful exponent to the sensation of breathlessness because we are unable to define the stimulus (or change in stimulus) that evoked the change in sensation. There are various scaling techniques by which a person can quantitate his or her respiratory sensations. The scales vary in their details, but all involve the assignment of a quantitative estimate of sensation intensity. We mention only two of the most commonly used scales in investigations of dyspnea: the Borg scale and the visual analog scale (VAS); a more comprehensive discussion of scaling and other psychophysical techniques may be found in any of several texts (9,14). The VAS consists of a line of arbitrary length (most often 100 mm) that represents the range of breathlessness intensity. The ends of the scale are generally anchored by phrases that describe the extremes: “no breathlessness” at the bottom of the scale, and “greatest breathlessness” at the top of the scale. The subject is instructed to mark the line at a point that corresponds to the intensity of his or her breathlessness during a specific task or over a specific time period; the distance along the line is taken as the measure of breathlessness. The VAS is easy for subjects and patients to use, and it produces valid and relatively reproducible measurements (15,16). The Modified Borg Scale is a category scale that consists of numerical ratings (ranging from 0 to 10) of sensation intensity that are anchored by verbal descriptors of sensation intensity (e.g., “slight,” “moderate,” “very severe”). The scale was originally developed by Borg to allow ratings of perceived exertion during exercise (17). When used to rate exertion, the scale appears to have ratio properties (i.e., a doubling of the Borg scale rating reflects a doubling of the
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sensation intensity), and it has often been assumed (though never proved) that the Borg scale retains its ratio properties when applied to dyspnea. Similar to the VAS, the Borg scale is relatively easy for patients to learn and to use, and it appears to produce valid and reproducible measurements. A recent study comparing the Borg scale with the VAS demonstrated slightly greater reproducibility in Borg scale than VAS ratings of breathlessness, although the authors concluded that there was no clear advantage to either scaling technique under most circumstances (18). III. Mechanisms of Dyspnea There are many parallels between respiratory control and respiratory sensation. Indeed, factors that increase “respiratory drive” generally cause breathlessness in experimental settings, and most, if not all, clinical disorders associated with dyspnea are accompanied by evidence of heightened respiratory drive. It is generally accepted that no single factor governs the respiratory pattern. Rather, the integration of multiple inputs, including those from peripheral and central chemoreceptors, as well as from receptors in the lungs and chest wall, shapes the respiratory pattern. Variations in receptor input can produce an almost infinite number of breathing patterns. Similarly, a growing body of evidence suggests that there is no single sensation of dyspnea. The term dyspnea includes several qualitatively distinct sensations that arise from different pathophysiological mechanisms (i.e., from stimulation of different receptors or different combinations of receptors). In the following section, we review the signals that contribute to the sensation of dyspnea under some experimental or clinical conditions and, when possible, we examine the relation between the effect of receptor stimulation on respiratory “drive” and its effect on respiratory sensation. A. Chemoreceptors The central and peripheral chemoreceptors are important modulators of respiratory drive. Carbon dioxide is probably the most potent stimulus to ventilation, its effects mediated through the central chemoreceptors and, to a lesser extent, the peripheral chemoreceptors (reviewed in greater detail in Chap. 2). An individual's ventilatory response to CO2 is a function not only of the magnitude of the stimulus (i.e., the level of hypercapnia), but also the duration of exposure to the stimulus. Over time, ventilation decreases, as does the ventilatory response to further increments in CO2. Hypoxia is a less potent stimulus to ventilation than CO2, although its importance increases as the PO2 reaches very low levels. Although much has been written about the role of the chemoreceptors in the regulation of breathing, it is only relatively recently that systematic investigation of the role played by the chemoreceptors to respiratory sensation has been undertaken.
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Hypercapnia Given the potent nature of CO2 as a stimulus for ventilation, one might also expect it to be a potent stimulus for breathlessness. Indeed, the administration of CO2 has long been known to cause dyspnea, although as discussed later, the relevance of such observations to breathlessness in patients is uncertain. For many years, debate existed over whether chemoreceptor stimulation itself was the mechanism by which hypercapnia caused dyspnea. Some evidence suggested that hypercapnia elicited breathlessness only as a consequence of the evoked changes in respiratory muscle activity (19,20). However, more recent work has refuted earlier conclusions and has established that hypercapnia causes dyspnea independently of any associated reflex respiratory muscle activity. Ventilatordependent, high level cervical quadriplegics who lack inspiratory muscle function had “air hunger” when endtidal CO2 was raised by 7–11 mmHg (6). In a similar study in four normal subjects who were mechanically ventilated after the induction of paralysis by a neuromuscularblocking drug, all had severe air hunger when endtidal CO2 was raised by 5–10 mmHg (21). The subjects likened the sensation to that experienced while hypercapnic before paralysis. Thus, in these studies, hypercapnia caused breathlessness in the absence of respiratory muscle activity. Although both normal subjects and patients with pulmonary disease experience breathlessness when CO2 is added to their inspired gas (22,23), it is unclear what role hypercapnia plays in the dyspnea experienced by patients. Patients with COPD, neuromuscular disease, and other disorders associated with chronic hypercapnia and metabolic compensation may have little dyspnea at rest, despite CO2 levels that produce marked breathlessness in experimental subjects. This may simply reflect the chronicity of hypercapnia seen in many of these patients. Just as the effects of hypercapnia on ventilation wane with time, it may be that its effect on breathlessness are also timedependent. It is tempting to postulate that, similar to its effects on ventilation, the effects of CO2 on dyspnea are mediated through changes in pH at the level of the central chemoreceptors. On that basis, one might predict that which appears to be borne out by clinical experience: acute and chronic (compensated) hypercapnia differ markedly in the respiratory sensations they elicit. Hypoxia Want of oxygen is believed by many to be the principal cause of breathlessness. Several scenarios are familiar to many of us: a breathless patient requests oxygen; or a football player takes several breaths from an oxygen mask after a long jaunt down the field. However, relatively few studies have formally examined the effects of hypoxia on breathlessness. Compared with air breathing, normal subjects are more breathless during exercise when breathing a hypoxic gas mixture,
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and less breathless when breathing 100% O2 (24). In patients with COPD, the administration of oxygen improves breathlessness (25), probably in part as a consequence of an oxygeninduced decrease in exercise ventilation (26). However, there also appears to be a direct effect that is independent of any change in ventilation (25). How do hypercapnia and hypoxia compare as causes of breathlessness? Because CO2 represents a much more potent stimulus to ventilation, one might predict that hypercapnia would also have a greater effect on breathlessness. Although it is our impression that with acute administration CO2 elicits a greater intensity of breathlessness than hypoxia, there is little experimental evidence to support that conclusion. Adams and colleagues found that the threshold for breathlessness (i.e., the level of ventilation at which subjects first reported breathlessness) was similar whether ventilation was stimulated by hypercapnia or by hypoxia (22). In a subsequent publication from the same group, Lane et al. examined the effect of hypercapnia and hypoxia on breathlessness during exercise, and found that at a comparable level of ventilation, there was no difference between the hypercapnic and hypoxic periods in the intensity of breathlessness reported by the subjects (27). In addition to uncertainty about the relative potency of hypercapnia and hypoxia as “dyspnogenic” stimuli, there is also uncertainty about the role hypoxia plays in the breathlessness experienced by patients with cardiopulmonary disease. Most clinicians have probably observed that some hypoxic patients are not dyspneic; many dyspneic patients are not hypoxic; and those who are often have only modest improvement in their symptoms after the hypoxia is corrected. B. Mechanoreceptors Upper Airway Receptors Several reflexes from the upper airway may affect breathing. These are reviewed only briefly here; they are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 6 of this volume, and in recent reviews (e.g., Handbook of Physiology; 28). Pressure, airflow, and temperature are the main physiological stimuli delivered to the upper airway. The effect of pressure on the upper airway cannot be easily summarized; it depends on the species studied, location of the stimulus within the upper airway (e.g., nose vs. larynx), and nature of the stimulus (negative versus positive pressure; 28). Airflow through the nose appears to inhibit inspiration, as does airflow through the larynx (28), although once again, there are conflicting reports. Cold air applied to the face inhibits breathing and prolongs breathholding time (29); cold air in the nose inhibits ventilation (30,31); and cold air passing through the larynx similarly inhibits ventilation (32). In addition to their effects on ventilatory output, upper airway and facial receptors may also affect the sensation of dyspnea. Patients with COPD some
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times experience relief of dyspnea when sitting by a fan or open window; conversely, they may complain of increased breathlessness when breathing through a mouthpiece during pulmonary function testing. These observations prompted Schwartzstein et al. (33) to study the relation between upper airway receptors and breathlessness. In this study, the investigators induced breathlessness in normal subjects by a combination of hypercapnia and an inspiratory resistive load. At a constant level of ventilation, breathlessness decreased when cold air was directed against the face; there was no effect on breathlessness when cold air was directed against the leg. The same phenomenon may also occur in patients. Spence and colleagues demonstrated that, in patients with COPD, exercise tolerance increases and dyspnea decreases while breathing cold air (34). Thus, upper airway stimuli (such as cold air) that have inhibitory effects on ventilation reduce the intensity of breathlessness, whereas stimuli that increase ventilation intensify the sensation of breathlessness. Lung Receptors The vagus nerve provides the main sensory innervation of the lungs. Currently, three general categories of pulmonary sensory receptors are recognized. Slowly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors are located primarily in the large, central airways, and respond to increases in lung volume (the term slowly adapting refers to the fact that during sustained inflation of the lungs, their rate of discharge decreases very slowly). Slowlyadapting stretch receptors inhibit inspiratory motor activity (they mediate the HeringBreuer inflation reflex) and prolong expiratory time. Rapidly adapting receptors (also known as irritant receptors) reside in the airway epithelium and respond to a variety of mechanical and chemical stimuli, including inhaled gaseous and particulate irritants, direct mechanical stimulation of the airways, large changes in lung volume, and histamine (they are termed rapidly adapting receptors because, although their rate of discharge increases during changes in lung volume, their activity rapidly decreases during sustained inflation). Irritant receptor stimulation is associated with reflex hyperpnea (i.e., an increase in respiratory drive). Finally, C fibers (also termed juxtapulmonary or J receptors) are unmyelinated afferent nerve fibers, located throughout the airways and lung parenchyma, that respond to mechanical stimuli such as pulmonary congestion or embolism, and to chemical stimuli such as bradykinin and serotonin. Stimulation of C fibers elicits a pattern of rapid, shallow breathing (35). The interested reader is referred to the Handbook of Physiology (36) for a comprehensive review of lung receptors. Our understanding of the role that vagal afferents play in breathlessness is based largely on information derived from studies in which vagal input is altered, either by interruption of vagal transmission, or by stimulation of vagal receptors. For example, Guz et al. (37) described two patients in whom vagal block lessened
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the sensation of dyspnea, although several other patients in the same report had no improvement in their symptoms with vagal block. More recently, Davies and colleagues treated a woman with profound exercise hyperventilation and severe exertional dyspnea secondary to unilateral pulmonary venous obstruction (38). Following ipsilateral vagal nerve section, the patient experienced a marked reduction in exercise ventilation, an increase in exercise capacity, and complete resolution of her exertional dyspnea. This case report provides compelling evidence for a vagal contribution to breathing pattern and respiratory sensation (at least in this patient), but it does not address the degree to which her breathing pattern caused or contributed to her breathlessness, or conversely, the degree to which her breathing pattern caused or shaped her breathing pattern. Some investigators have attempted to shed light on the role of vagal afferents by comparing the sensations associated with bronchoconstriction and breathing through an external resistance. Taguchi et al. (39) found that, at the same level of ventilation, histamineinduced bronchoconstriction caused greater breathlessness than breathing through an external resistance of comparable magnitude; inhaled lidocaine ameliorated the sensation associated with bronchoconstriction, but had no effect on the discomfort associated with the external resistive load. Schwartzstein and colleagues (40) focused on qualitative aspects of sensation. During external resistive loading, asthmatic subjects described a sensation of chest tightness or constriction in only 3% of the experimental trials; in contrast, subjects complained of chest tightness or chest constriction during 92% of the bronchoconstriction trials. Although neither of these studies provides direct information about specific receptor activity, irritant receptors are more likely than stretch receptors and C fibers to have been stimulated by histamine and to have had their activity suppressed by inhaled lidocaine. Thus, in these studies, the discomfort associated with bronchoconstriction was most likely caused by irritant receptor stimulation. The C fibers may also play a role in dyspnea. Because C fibers are stimulated by pulmonary congestion and elicit changes in breathing pattern similar to those seen in patients with pulmonary edema, Paintal hypothesized that these receptors might be important in the pathogenesis of dyspnea (41). However, Jain et al. (42) injected lobeline (a substance known to stimulate C fibers) into the pulmonary circulation of 18 human volunteers, all of whom had chronic lung disease; none of the subjects experienced breathlessness following the injection. Recently, Paintal and colleagues correlated respiratory sensation in humans with pulmonary receptor activity in the cat (43). Lobeline was injected into 26 normal subjects who were asked to describe their sensations. All reported discomfort in the throat (choking or pressure) and 12 of the 26 subjects reported discomfort in the upper chest, which was described with phrases such as “constriction in chest with choking or suffocation,” “sudden want of air,” “smoke rising in chest making breathing difficult,” and “heaviness in chest.” The sensations produced
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by lobeline were not affected by aerosolized lidocaine or by maneuvers designed (on the basis of the studies in cats) to enhance stretch or irritant receptor discharge, supporting the conclusion that the reported sensations arose from C fiber stimulation. Although the sensations experienced by the subjects were likely due to lobeline induced C fiber stimulation, few subjects described sensations similar to those reported by dyspneic patients. Thus, in our view, the relevance of this study (and C fiber stimulation) to dyspnea in patients remains uncertain. Even though the evidence reviewed thus far implicates vagal afferents as a cause of dyspnea, some types of vagal input may lessen the intensity of breathlessness. In one study of aerosol anesthesia in normal subjects, breathlessness during CO2 rebreathing was greater following airway anesthesia than during the unanesthetized control condition (44). In this study, the HeringBreuer inflation reflex was impaired by airway anesthesia, implying that stretch receptor activity was inhibited; undoubtedly, irritant receptor discharge was also affected. Manning and colleagues studied the effect of variations in tidal volume on air hunger in highlevel quadriplegics (45). At a given level of CO2, air hunger increased when tidal volume was reduced. Because these subjects lacked afferent information from the chest wall, the effect of tidal volume on air hunger must have been mediated by vagal afferents, most likely pulmonary stretch receptors. How can we tie all this information together? The vagus transmits information to the central nervous system (CNS) from at least three types of receptors, some of which (irritant receptors and C fibers) increase respiratory drive, whereas others (stretch receptors) have inhibitory effects on respiratory output. Just as the effects of a stimulus on respiratory control depend on which receptors are stimulated, it is likely that the effects on dyspnea are also critically dependent on which receptors are stimulated. Stimulation of irritant receptors appears to intensify the sensation of breathlessness and may impart of sense of chest tightness or constriction. Dyspnea may also be induced by C fiber stimulation. In contrast, pulmonary stretch receptors appear to decrease the sensation of breathlessness. We can see a familiar dichotomy here: stimulation of receptors that increase drive increases breathlessness, whereas stimulation of receptors that inhibit inspiration and decrease drive reduces the intensity of breathlessness. Chest Wall Receptors As in the lung, the thorax is endowed with a number of receptors that project to the CNS. Although it is difficult to sort out the individual effects of each type of receptor, there is substantial evidence that intercostal tendon organs and costovertebral joint receptors inhibit medullary inspiratory activity (decrease drive) (46,47); it is uncertain whether muscle spindles have a similar inhibitory effect, although some evidence suggests that they do not (48). Most of the evidence that relates stimulation of chest wall receptors to
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dyspnea is indirect. Previously cited work (6) indicates that breathlessness may be experienced in the absence of afferent information from the chest wall. Indeed, several studies suggest that stimulation of chest wall afferents reduces, rather than causes, breathlessness. Both Hill and Flack (49) and Fowler (50) demonstrated that at the breaking point of a breathhold, rebreathing from a bag containing a gas mixture which caused PCO2 to rise and PO2 to fall, prolonged breathholding time. Similarly, in normal subjects, hypercapnic tolerance increases when subjects are allowed to take larger breaths (51,52). In normal subjects in whom dyspnea was induced by a combination of hypercapnia and inspiratory resistive loading, application of a physiotherapy vibrator over the parasternal intercostal muscles reduced dyspnea, whereas vibration over the deltoid muscles had no effect (53). These findings have since been extended to patients with chronic lung disease in whom vibration of the inspiratory intercostal muscles during inspiration and the expiratory intercostals during expiration decreased dyspnea at rest (54). In contrast, vibration of the parasternal region during expiration increased dyspnea (54,55). Thus, afferent information from the chest wall appears to reduce drive and to decrease breathlessness. However, the timing of afferent information from the chest wall may be an important variable: in studies by Homma and colleagues, vibration of the parasternal region during expiration caused dyspnea to increase (54,55). There is one caveat in interpreting these studies: although all of these studies undoubtedly involved stimulation of chest wall receptors, none excluded the possibility that the observed effects on dyspnea were caused or contributed to by concomitant stimulation of lung receptors. C. The Sense of Respiratory Effort The neural pathways for most sensory modalities involve the central nervous system at multiple levels, but any stimulus (whether respiratory or nonrespiratory) that produces awareness or perception must ultimately be processed by the cortex. In the previous section we reviewed the many afferent inputs from chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors that eventually reach the cortex and contribute to the sensation of breathlessness. However, it also appears that an important stimulus for breathlessness, the sense of respiratory effort, arises within the cortex itself. The sense of muscular effort refers to one's awareness of voluntary activation of skeletal muscles. In theory the sense of effort could arise from within either the CNS or the muscles, but most evidence suggests that during voluntary activation of the muscles, a “corollary discharge” is sent from the motor cortex to the sensory cortex at the same time that the outgoing motor command is sent to the contracting muscles (56). It is this corollary discharge that is believed to produce the sense of effort. We all have experienced the sense of muscular effort: a very heavy object requires great effort to move, whereas little effort is expended on a
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light object. An example familiar to most of us is the substantial effort necessary to move a limb that has “fallen asleep.” The sense of effort is related to the ratio of the pressure generated by the respiratory muscles and the maximum pressure generating capacity of the muscles (57). Thus, the sense of respiratory effort increases whenever the respiratory muscles must generate greater pressure (tension) to overcome an added load, or when the maximum output of the respiratory muscles is reduced by weakness, fatigue (58), paralysis (59), or an increase in lung volume (60). There is a striking overlap between those settings in which the motor command to the respiratory muscles is increased and those in which normal subjects or patients become breathless. Although the sense of effort appears to arise from perception of the motor command to the muscles, the respiratory muscles are unique among skeletal muscles in having both reflex (brain stem) and voluntary (cortical) motor centers, both of which could potentially produce a corollary discharge and contribute to the sense of effort. A recent study by Demediuk et al. (61) provides potential insight into this issue. These investigators asked normal subjects to target their breathing to achieve a high level of ventilation under both eucapnic and moderately hypercapnic conditions. During hypercapnia, when reflex (brain stem) motor output would presumably make a greater contribution to total neuromotor output, the sense of effort was less than during eucapnia, a condition in which the drive to breathe should have been almost exclusively cortical in origin. This study suggests that there is less corollary discharge (and, hence, less sense of effort) associated with brain stem than cortical motor output. This interpretation is subject to the important caveat that there is no way to measure actual brain stem and cortical respiratory motor output in humans, and thus the relative contribution of either motor center to breathing under a given set of circumstances is speculative. There are some experimental and clinical observations that the sense of effort fails to explain. For a given level and pattern of ventilation, both patients and normal subjects are more breathless when hypercapnic than when eucapnic (22,23), even though respiratory effort should not differ between the two conditions because respiratory motor output and, presumably, motor command are similar. If ventilation is suppressed below the level dictated by chemical drive, a marked increase in breathlessness occurs, even though indexes of respiratory effort (such as ventilation) decrease (62,63). There are also some patients who present clinically with dyspnea that seems out of proportion to any mechanical abnormalities that would increase the sense of effort—we consider pulmonary embolism to be an example of this. In our view, the sense of effort is in an important, if not predominant, factor contributing to breathlessness when the respiratory muscles are fatigued, weakened, or faced with an increased load. There are other settings, however, in which the sense of effort likely plays a less important role.
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D. Afferent Mismatch. In 1963, Campbell and Howell proposed the concept of lengthtension inappropriateness as the cause of dyspnea (64). According to their theory, dyspnea arose from a disturbance in the relation between the force or tension generated by the respiratory muscles and the resulting change in muscle length and lung volume. This theory was subsequently modified to incorporate the general concept of mismatch between the outgoing motor command to the respiratory muscles and incoming afferent information (2,63). Unfortunately, the concept of afferent mismatch cannot be subjected to direct experimental verification—virtually all the evidence we have is circumstantial. For example, some patients with severe pulmonary disease become breathless while speaking and have difficulty completing a sentence without pausing; others become quite breathless while eating. Many of us have probably experienced a similar phenomenon during periods of heightened respiratory drive: during or immediately following strenuous exercise, most individuals find it difficult to interrupt their breathing long enough to speak more than a few words. In both patients and normal subjects, the temporary suppression of ventilation during speaking or eating may cause mismatch between the respiratory motor command and afferent feedback from lung, airway, and chest wall receptors, thereby causing dyspnea. An analogous phenomenon may occur in patients undergoing mechanical ventilation, in whom the ventilator settings (such as inspiratory flow rate and tidal volume) selected by the physician or respiratory therapist may not match those desired by a patient with heightened respiratory drive; under those conditions, the patient may become quite dyspneic. Experimental data are also consistent with the concept of afferent mismatch. When normal subjects are given CO2 to breathe, their ventilation increases, and most experience dyspnea. However, if both the inspired CO2 concentration and minute ventilation are reduced such that endtidal CO2 is maintained constant, subjects report a marked increase in the intensity of breathlessness, even though the chemical drive to breathe has not changed (62,63). The same phenomenon occurs in patients: We have previously cited a study in highlevel quadriplegics (45) in whom reductions in tidal volume caused air hunger to increase. Other aspects of afferent information more subtle than the global level of ventilation may also modify dyspnea. For example, in a recent study involving normal subjects, Manning et al. found that when inspiratory flow was reduced to a rate significantly below that which the subjects chose as most comfortable, the subjects experienced chest discomfort that they described as air hunger (65). These studies and the aforementioned clinical observations suggest that, under a given set of conditions, the brain “expects” a certain pattern of ventilation and associated afferent feedback and that deviations from that pattern cause or intensify the sensation of dyspnea.
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IV. Relationship between Respiratory Control and Respiratory Sensation To what extent does the sensitivity or “gain” of the brain stem respiratory controller affect respiratory sensation? In other words, do individuals with more sensitive controllers experience a greater intensity of sensation? In humans, the sensitivity of the respiratory controller is most often assessed by the hypercapnic ventilatory response (HCVR) and, less often, by the hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR). The sensitivity of the individual to respiratory sensation (i.e., the intensity of the individual's sensory experience) can be expressed in various ways: by psychophysical ratings of specific respiratory stimuli (e.g., tidal volume, ventilation, or other); by measurement of breathholding time; and by measurement of dyspnea per se. Several studies have examined the relationship between the HCVR and the sensitivity to various respiratory stimuli. Altose et al. (66) described a correlation between the exponent for tidal volume perception and the HCVR, although Manning et al. (67) were unable to demonstrate such a correlation. McNicholas et al. compared the ability of normal subjects and patients with obstructive sleep apnea to detect inspiratory resistive loads (68). The threshold for load detection was higher in the patients than in the normal subjects and, not surprisingly, the HCVR was reduced in the patients compared with the normal group. However, of particular interest for the present discussion was the finding of an inverse relation between the threshold for load detection and the HCVR in both the patient and control groups (Fig. 1). Finally, Chonan et al. reported that dyspnea intensity during constrained hypoventilation during CO2 rebreathing correlated with the HCVR (62); this relationship approached, but did not achieve, statistical significance in the ten subjects they studied. Another way of assessing the relationship between respiratory sensation and respiratory control is to examine the relationship between breathholding time and chemosensitivity. Although the discomfort experienced during a breath hold is not identical with the sensations(s) of dyspnea, breathholding time is largely determined by one's willingness (and ability?) to withstand discomfort; hence, breathholding time may serve as an estimate of one's sensitivity to respiratory discomfort. Chemosensitivity does appear to be a significant correlate, and possibly determinant, of breathholding time. For example, elite synchronized swimmers have both more prolonged breathholding times and reduced HVR than normal individuals (69). Japanese pearl divers have a diminished HVR (70) and, possibly, a blunted HCVR as well (71). Feiner et al. showed that, in a group of normal subjects, the HVR, but not HCVR, was a predictor of breathholding time (72). There are a few rare clinical disorders that present with markedly reduced or absent ventilatory responses to chemical stimuli. These conditions can be acquired, as in brain stem infarcts or tumors, or congenital, as in children with the
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Figure 1 There was an inverse correlation between the detection threshold for inspiratory resistive loads and the ventilatory response to CO2. This inverse correlation was present in both normal subjects (open symbols) and patients with obstructive sleep apnea (solid symbols). (From Ref. 69.)
congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS). There have been anecdotal reports of respiratory sensations (or lack thereof) in such patients, but unfortunately, there has been little systematic examination of these patients' respiratory sensations. One exception is the work by Shea and colleagues, who studied respiratory sensation in five patients with CCHS who had little or no ventilatory response to CO2 (73). The CCHS patients demonstrated extremely long breathholding times, and reported no discomfort during either breathholding or steadystate hypercapnia. What conclusions can we draw from all of this? First, there appears to be an inverse correlation between the sensitivity of the respiratory control system and breath holding time: individuals with low values for the HVR or HCVR have longer breathholding times, and in the extreme example of patients with CCHS, who lack any ventilatory response to CO2, there is a complete absence of discomfort associated with breathholding. A corollary to this is that patients with CCHS also lack the sense of air hunger ordinarily associated with breathing CO2. Second, although we may tentatively conclude that chemosensitivity plays a role in breathholding time and in the discomfort associated with an elevation of PCO2, it is unclear whether diminished sensitivity of the controller translates to a reduced sensation of breathlessness under other conditions. Indeed, some evidence sug
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gests that it does not; although the CCHS patients report no discomfort during CO2 breathing, they reported essentially the same sensation of breathlessness during exercise as did the normal subjects (73). We do not know whether CCHS patients also have reduced perception of dyspnea in the setting of lung disorders, such as pneumonia or asthma, although some evidence suggests that individuals with blunted hypoxic responses may have diminished perception of the airflow obstruction that accompanies asthma (see Sec. VI). V. Interplay between Breathing Pattern and Respiratory Sensation The interplay between breathing and sensation can be examined from two perspectives: (1) How does the pattern of breathing affect respiratory sensation? and (2) how does sensation affect the pattern of breathing? This division, however, is somewhat artificial, for although under some experimental circumstances it may be possible to separate the effect of sensation on breathing pattern from that of breathing pattern on sensation, it is rarely possible to do so outside the laboratory. To a great extent, this represents the respiratory equivalent of the proverbial “chicken and the egg” debate. A. Effect of Breathing Pattern on Sensation When confronted with a physical task, a large, if not infinite, range of strategies may be adopted. A baseball player may throw the ball overhand, underhand, or sidearm; a tennis player may hit a backhand stroke by holding the racket with one hand or two. Even within these broad categories, different individuals often accomplish the same task in different ways, and the same individual may accomplish the task in different ways at different times. Even if breathing is generally not viewed as an athletic feat (although one might argue that subjects in some studies have been asked to perform respiratory gymnastics), it is similar to other muscular activities in that a given breathing task can be accomplished by many different strategies. For example, any minute ventilation can be achieved through endless combinations of tidal volume and respiratory rate, and any pressure within the respiratory system can be generated by emphasizing the actions of different muscles or groups of muscles. Even when other important variables, such as the level of CO2 or ventilation, are kept constant, the specific breathing pattern adopted has an important effect on respiratory sensation. Most individuals experience dyspnea while breathing CO2. The intensity of the discomfort is proportional to the level of hypercapnia, but the pattern of breathing is also an important variable. Mithoefer et al. (51) and Remmers et al. (52) found that in normal subjects, tolerance for hypercapnia increased when breath size was increased. When both the inspired CO2 concentration and the
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minute ventilation are reduced to maintain endtidal CO2 constant, normal subjects report a marked increase in the intensity of breathlessness, even though the chemical drive to breathe has not changed (62,63). Other aspects of breathing pattern also alter respiratory sensation. Manning et al. (66) examined the effect of inspiratory flow rate on respiratory sensation in normal subjects during positivepressure ventilation that was delivered through a mouthpiece. Their results were similar to those of Chonan et al. (62) and Schwartzstein et al. (63): subjects reported a marked increase in breathlessness when the flow rate was reduced below that which they had previously selected as most comfortable, even though tidal volume, respiratory rate, and endtidal CO2 were comparable. Finally, as with other muscle groups, the overall motor output to the respiratory muscles can be distributed in several ways, and this distribution may have significant effects on respiratory sensation. Ward et al. (74) studied respiratory effort sensation in normal subjects during inspiratory resistiveloaded breathing. They instructed subjects to maintain a constant pattern of breathing and constant transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi), but to vary the contribution of esophageal pressure (Pes) to Pdi. They found that the sense of effort increased when Pes was large, and also noted a strong correlation between activation of the sternomastoid muscles and sensory score. In another study in which normal subjects were asked to rate breathlessness, rather than effort, Breslin and coworkers found that dyspnea ratings correlated with the electromyographic activity of the sternomastoid, but not of the diaphragm (75). B. Effect of Respiratory Sensation on Breathing Under some circumstances, it is fairly obvious that how we feel determines, in large part, how we breathe: a patient with a bruised or fractured rib takes small breaths to minimize the pain associated with expansion of the thorax; a visitor to a coffee shop takes slow, deep breaths to savor the aroma of the coffee. In other settings, the contribution of sensation to breathing pattern may be less obvious. The ventilatory response to chemical stimuli has often been viewed as a relatively pure expression of the sensitivity of the brain stem controller, but several observations suggest that the cortex may also play a role in the HCVR. Heyman and colleagues (76) measured the HCVR in several groups of subjects, including patients with bilateral cerebral infarcts and agematched patients without neurological disease. The patients with bilateral cerebral infarcts had a significantly greater HCVR (2.91 L min1 mmHg1) than agematched controls (1.19 L min1 mmHg1). This study suggests the existence of a cortical influence on the HCVR, but the mechanism by which bilateral cerebral infarction increased the ventilatory response is uncertain. One possibility is that cerebral infarction altered the sensory processing of afferent information related to breathlessness, and this
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resultant change in sensation mediated or contributed to the abnormal ventilatory response. However, the study provides no data for this, and such a conclusion is purely speculative. Sato and colleagues (77) examined the effect of hypnosis on the HCVR in 20 healthy subjects. When asked to do so, the subjects were able to voluntarily blunt their ventilatory response to CO2; however, hypnotic suggestion led to even greater depression of the HCVR. One interpretation of these findings is that by changing the respiratory sensations associated with constrained ventilation and hypercapnia, hypnosis altered the ventilatory response. Gallego and Perruchet (78) examined the role of classical conditioning on ventilation. The investigators delivered a series of hypoxic and auditory stimuli to normal subjects assigned to two groups. In one group (the conditioned group), the auditory and hypoxic stimuli were paired, but in the other (control) group, the two stimuli were unpaired. In the second phase of the study, the subjects received only the auditory stimuli. In the control group, the auditory stimuli had no effect on ventilation, whereas the conditioned group displayed a ventilatory response to the auditory stimuli that partially replicated the ventilatory response to the hypoxic stimulus. The authors concluded that the ventilatory effect of auditory, and presumably many other sensory stimuli, may be, at least partially, the result of prior conditioning. Wilson et al. (79) measured ventilation and breathlessness during exercise in eight normal subjects before, during, and after residence at high altitude (4000 m). All of the subjects noted increased breathlessness while residing at high altitude (no measurements of ventilation were made at the highaltitude location). On return to sea level, the subjects' exercise ventilation (expressed as was significantly greater and Borg scale ratings of breathlessness significantly less than the values obtained immediately before departure for high altitude. One explanation for these findings is that the subjects were conditioned to exercise in a hypoxic environment, and that this conditioning lead to an increased ventilatory response during exercise at sea level. Furthermore, the subjects experienced less breathlessness than expected on the basis of their recent highaltitude experience, leading the subjects to rate breathlessness as less severe. Thus, these two studies suggest that we may breathe not only on the basis of how we feel at the time, but also on the basis of how we expect to feel given our past experiences. In the following section, we discuss how respiratory sensations may also affect the pattern of breathing in patients with a variety of clinical disorders. VI. Dyspnea in Patients The pathophysiology of dyspnea in patients with various common clinical disorders has been reviewed in a recent volume in this series (80). Here we focus on aspects of dyspnea that are most relevant to the topic of respiratory control.
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A. Asthma Dyspnea is one of the cardinal symptoms of asthma. Yet, for any given decrement in lung function, individuals vary greatly in their symptoms (81). Rubinfield and Pain (82) administered methacholine to a group of asymptomatic asthmatics. Before the administration of methacholine, six persons had a forced 1sec expiratory volume (FEV1) less than 50% of predicted (recall that all patients were asymptomatic at baseline), and at the height of the induced asthma attack, another three persons remained asymptomatic despite FEV1 values less than 50% predicted. The authors concluded that a significant minority of patients were “poor perceivers of asthma.” These findings have since been extended by Kikuchi and colleagues (83), who studied chemosensitivity and the perception of dyspnea during inspiratory resistive loaded breathing in three groups of subjects: patients with a history of nearfatal asthma; patients with asthma, but no history of lifethreatening attacks; and a control group of normal subjects. Although the patients with nearfatal asthma had measurements of lung function that were equal to or better than the patients without near fatal attacks of asthma, the patients with nearfatal asthma had lower hypoxic ventilatory responses and lower dyspnea ratings during loaded breathing than the normal subjects, whereas the patients without nearfatal asthma did not differ significantly from the control group. There is convincing evidence that some patients have an impaired ability to detect resistive loads, and this may be an important risk factor for the development of severe, even lifethreatening, attacks of asthma. There is also a correlation between the ventilatory response to hypoxia and the perception of breathlessness during loaded breathing. Whether the diminished hypoxic response is causally related to the lower dyspnea ratings is uncertain. In other words, is the diminished HVR merely a marker for individuals who are relatively insensitive to the presence of airflow obstruction, or does it reflect reduced gain or sensitivity of the controller that, in turn, gives rise to a less intense sensation of breathlessness? The lack of correlation between the HCVR and the perception of dyspnea suggests that any abnormality in the respiratory control system involves the peripheral, rather than central chemoreceptors. B. Interstitial Lung Disease Breathlessness is one of the most debilitating features of interstitial lung disease (ILD). Several factors may contribute to breathlessness, including an increased sense of effort and, possibly, stimulation of vagal receptors such as C fibers (80). In most patients with ILD, breathlessness is accompanied by an abnormal pattern of breathing characterized by an increase in respiratory rate, a decrease in tidal volume, and an exaggerated ventilatory response to exercise. The cause of the abnormal breathing pattern is uncertain, although some have suggested that the interstitial inflammatory process leads to the stimulation of receptors (such as C
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fibers) that are known to elicit a pattern of rapid, shallow breathing. Harty et al. (84) assessed the effect of chest strapping on respiratory discomfort and ventilation during resting breathing and exercise in normal volunteers. At rest, chest strapping caused an increase in respiratory frequency, minute ventilation, and VAS ratings of breathing discomfort. A similar pattern was observed during exercise: VAS ratings were increased relative to the unstrapped control condition, and were accompanied by a significant increase in respiratory rate and minute ventilation, and a reduction in endtidal CO2. This bears a striking resemblance to what is observed in patients with ILD. Although there are obviously important differences between chest strapping and ILD, one interpretation of this study is that physical restriction of the ability of the respiratory system to inflate somehow stimulates ventilation and induces breathlessness. However, it is difficult to know what effect chest strapping had on lung receptors. Because there was a significant reduction in functional residual capacity (FRC) with chest strapping, it is possible that the reduction in lung volume stimulated pulmonary receptors, such as vagal irritant receptors, that are known to increase ventilation and evoke the sensation of breathlessness. Shea and coworkers compared the pattern of breathing in eight patients with advanced interstitial lung disease with a group of agematched normal controls (85). During quiet wakefulness, respiratory frequency was significantly greater in the patients with ILD, but during stage 4 sleep, there was no significant difference in breathing pattern between the patients with ILD and the normal control subjects. The authors speculated that the abnormal breathing pattern during wakefulness was a response to the conscious perception of respiratoryrelated afferent information, and in the absence of respiratory perception during sleep, the abnormal ventilatory pattern disappeared. In summary, the factors responsible for breathlessness in patients with ILD remain uncertain, but may be related to an increased sense of effort, stimulation of pulmonary receptors, such as C fibers, and possibly to some factor related to restricted inflation of the lungs or expansion of the thorax. Some evidence, specifically the work by Shea et al. (85), suggests that the discomfort experienced by patients may play a role in the development of an abnormal breathing pattern. C. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease O'Donnell has recently reviewed the mechanisms of dyspnea in chronic airflow obstruction (86); we touch upon them only briefly here. In COPD, several factors increase the burden on the inspiratory muscles. The inspiratory muscles must generate greater tension to overcome the increase in airflow resistance caused by narrowing of the small airways, mucous secretions, and loss of elastic recoil. With hyperinflation, the inspiratory muscles become shorter and, therefore, less effective in generating tension; hyperinflation also
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changes the radius of curvature of the diaphragm, thereby placing it at a mechanical disadvantage; and hyperinflation represents an additional threshold load for the inspiratory muscles to overcome. As a result, respiratory motor output increases, and the accompanying increased sense of respiratory muscle effort likely contributes to dyspnea in COPD. In patients with dynamic airway compression, mechanical compression of the airways may also be sensed as an additional stimulus for dyspnea. Dyspnea and Hypercapnia Much has been written about the control of breathing and mechanisms of hypercapnia in COPD (see also Chap. 12 in Part Two). Although patients with COPD and chronic hypercapnia have a diminished ventilatory and P0.1 response to hypercapnia (87,88), the diminished ventilatory output, including the P0.1 (89), is probably the result of the mechanical derangements that accompany severe COPD, rather than a true decrease in “drive.” Indeed, Aubier and colleagues (90) demonstrated that patients with chronic hypercapnia, or acutely worsening hypercapnia, had significantly greater P0.1 values than normal subjects, suggesting that respiratory drive was, if anything, increased. What, then, accounts for the hypercapnia that develops in a substantial number of patients with advanced COPD? We think that the work of Begin and Grassino (91) sheds important light on this issue. These investigators examined the relationship among hypercapnia, respiratory mechanics, and respiratory muscle performance in patients with COPD. They found significant correlations between PCO2 and “traditional” measures of lung function such as FEV1, lung resistance, and dead space, but the best predictor of hypercapnia was the ratio of lung resistance to maximal inspiratory pressure (RL/PImax; Fig. 2). As pointed out by the authors, RL reflects the mechanical impediment to breathing, and PImax represents the capacity of the muscles. When the respiratory muscles are called on to perform a task that overwhelms their capacity (either because the magnitude of the task is great, or the capacity of the muscles is reduced), hypercapnia develops. This notion is supported by the work of Jederlinic and colleagues (92), who enrolled patients with severe COPD and a control group of normal subjects in an inspiratorymuscletraining program. When breathing through a variable inspiratory resistance, the patients consistently displayed a reduction in ventilation and a significant rise in endtidal CO2; the normal individuals did not. Some have suggested that the development of hypercapnia serves as a mechanism to avoid fatigue, or to prevent overload or injury to the muscles. However, we know of no mechanism whereby the body monitors “impending fatigue” or incipient muscle injury, and believe that there is probably a simpler explanation. Because the sense of respiratory effort is a function of the motor command generated during a breathing task relative to the maximum output of the
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Figure 2 Relation between the prevalence of hypercapnia and the ratio of lung resistance to maximal inspiratory pressure in both obese and nonobese patients with COPD. (From Ref. 92.)
muscles, settings in which the output of the respiratory muscles represents a large fraction of their maximum output will be associated with an intense sense of effort. Thus, hypercapnia may be the compromise patients accept to avoid the unpleasant sensation of a marked sense of effort. This line of reasoning brings us full circle: although hypercapnia has frequently been invoked as a mechanism of dyspnea, in the setting of COPD, the converse may be true—dyspnea may be a cause, rather than result, of hypercapnia. Hypercapnia may develop partly as a response to, or means of avoiding, unpleasant respiratory sensations (93). PursedLips Breathing. Many patients with severe COPD purse their lips during exhalation, particularly during periods when increased demands are placed on the respiratory system (such as during exercise or intercurrent infection). Some patients are taught the technique of pursedlips breathing, but others adopt it without ever having been instructed to do so. Why do some patients manifest this unusual breathing pattern? The answer may once again be surprisingly simple: patients who purse their lips probably do so because they find it makes their breathing more comfortable. Pursedlips breathing may have a variety of effects on lung function (94,95), but its most important effect from the patient's perspective may be that it lessens the degree of dynamic airway compression and, therefore, lessens discomfort. This is consistent with experimental data demonstrating an increase in breathlessness
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when a pressure is applied at the mouth, such that airway compression increases (96), and a decrease in breathlessness with the application of a pressure that opposes the tendency for dynamic airway collapse (97). D. Treatment of Dyspnea Physicians are repeatedly urged to “treat the cause, not the symptoms.” Yet many dyspneic patients suffer from chronic disorders for which no effective therapy exists. Until more effective treatments become available, the only option for such patients is to treat their symptoms. Stark et al. (98) described two patterns of drug effect on breathlessness: a type I effect, in which there are concomitant decreases in both ventilation and breathlessness, and a type II effect, in which breathlessness decreases, but ventilation does not change (Fig. 3). When a drug exhibits a type I effect, we face what is probably by now a familiar issue: Did the drug reduce ventilation, and thereby, reduce dyspnea, or did the drug alleviate symptoms, thereby eliciting a secondary change in the pattern of breathing? The ability of many pharmacological agents, including opioids (99–103), benzodiazepines (104,105), and phenothiazines (15,102,106), to relieve dyspnea has been studied, but only the opioids have had any efficacy in randomized, controlled studies. In normal subjects, codeine produces a modest reduction in both breathlessness and ventilation during exercise (100). In patients with COPD, the shortterm administration of opioids appears to reduce breathlessness. Wood
Figure 3 Patterns of drug effects on breathlessness: In type I, breathlessness and ventilation both decrease. In type II, breathlessness decreases, but there is no change in ventilation. Some patients may demonstrate a “hybrid effect”: breathlessness and ventilation both decrease, but the decrease in breathlessness is proportionately greater than the reduction in ventilation. (From Ref. 99.)
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cock and coworkers (99) first reported that a single dose of dihydrocodeine decreased breathlessness. In a randomized, placebocontrolled, doubleblind trial of dihydrocodeine in patients with severe airflow obstruction, there was a reduction in breathlessness when dihydrocodeine was administered thrice daily for 1 week (101). In a recent study of the effect of opioids on breathlessness, Light et al. (103) reported that in patients with COPD, a single oral dose of morphine increased exercise capacity and decreased the breathlessness associated with any given level of exercise ventilation. However, the administration of morphine also caused a mild increase in PCO2 and decrease in PO2. Taken together, these studies suggests that at least over the shortterm, opioids decrease the sensation of breathlessness. Some of this improvement appears secondary to a direct effect on breathlessness (i.e., one that is independent of any associated changes in the pattern or level of ventilation), but there may also be a component that is due primarily to a reduction in ventilation, with a secondary reduction in breathlessness. Finally, desensitization is a technique that has been incorporated into many pulmonary rehabilitation programs (107,108). Desensitization is based on the theory that nonrespiratory factors, such as anxiety, modulate the perception of dyspnea, and that strategies aimed at eliminating, or at least reducing, the level of anxiety may lessen the perception of breathlessness. After completing a pulmonary rehabilitation program, many patients report a reduction in the intensity of their breathlessness (109), and it is our experience that many patients also demonstrate a change in their exercisebreathing pattern. Although the mechanism by which desensitization might confer benefit is uncertain, one possibility is that a reduction in anxiety facilitates the adoption of a morefavorablebreathing pattern that results in less dyspnea. On the other hand, it is also possible that a reduction in breathlessness causes, rather than results from, an altered breathing pattern. VII. Conclusion Healthy persons regularly engage in a variety of activities that demand little, if any, attention and evoke little awareness. For example, we routinely walk without thinking about it, often while performing other tasks at the same time. Who has not on some occasion, eaten, read, or daydreamed while walking? However, if we suffer even a minor injury, such as an ankle sprain, the situation changes dramatically: We become keenly aware of our walking (it hurts), and inevitably, we change the way we walk (we limp). After an injury, we face competing interests: the need to ambulate, and the desire to avoid pain. On the basis of some combination of trial and error and prior experience, we ultimately adopt a new walking style that minimizes discomfort. If we face a more demanding task, for example, if we need to get some place faster, we'll likely have to endure more pain, but our
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walking style will still reflect an attempt to minimize our discomfort. Although at first the pain from the injury gives rise to the limp, over time, limping may actually precede the experience of pain—it may become a conditioned response that prevents us from experiencing the painful sensations we have encountered in the past. The foregoing scenario probably applies to breathing as well. Under normal circumstances, breathing imparts little in the way of sensation; therefore, we have little awareness of our breathing. Our breathing pattern is likely shaped primarily by the demands placed on the respiratory system by a variety of homeostatic systems (e.g., the need to regulate pH) and by daily activities (e.g., talking). However, in the setting of disorders affecting the respiratory system, the act of breathing may be accompanied by unpleasant sensations. We share the view expressed by others (93,110,111) that respiratory sensations are an important determinant of how we breathe, particularly when there are conditions or disorders that increase the demands placed on the respiratory system or impair its function. We have previously cited evidence suggesting that the rapid, shallowbreathing pattern frequently seen in patients with interstitial lung disease is a response to uncomfortable respiratory sensations (85); we believe that many other respiratory phenomena may also be explained on that basis. The breathing pattern displayed by many patients with respiratory disease may well be the respiratory equivalent of a limp—it reflects the obvious need to breathe, but the desire to avoid discomfort while doing so. References 1. Tobin MJ. Dyspnea. pathophysiologic basis, clinical presentation, and management. Arch Intern Med 1990; 150:1604–1613. 2. Schwartzstein RM, Manning HL, Weiss JW, Weinberger SE. Dyspnea: a sensory experience. Lung 1990; 168:185–199. 3. Manning HL, Schwartzstein RM. Pathophysiology of dyspnea. N Engl J Med 1995; 333:1547–1553. 4. Adams L, Guz A, eds. Respiratory Sensation. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1996. 5. Mahler DA, ed. Dyspnea. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1998. 6. Banzett RB, Lansing RW, Reid MB, Adams L, Brown R. “Air hunger” arising from increased PCO2 in mechanically ventilated quadriplegics. Respir Physiol 1989; 76:53–68. 7. Noble MIM, Frankel HL, Else W, Guz A. The ability of man to detect added resistive loads to breathing. Clin Sci 1971; 41:285–287. 8. Zechman FW, O'Neill R, Shannon R. Effect of low cervical spinal cord lesions on detection of increased airflow resistance in man. Physiologist 1967; 10:356. 9. Stevens SS. Psychophysics. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975. 10. Stevens SS. On the psychophysical law. Psychol Rev 1957; 64:153–181. 11. Stevens SS. Issues in psychophysical measurement. Psychol Rev 1971; 78:426–450.
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83. Kikughi Y, Okabe S, Tamura G, Hida W, Homma M, Shirato K, Takishma T. Chemosensitivity and perception of dyspnea in patients with a history of nearfatal asthma. N Engl J Med 1994; 330:1329–1334. 84. Harty HR, Corfield DR, Schwartzstein RM, Adams L. Chest strapping as a model of restrictive lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:A117. 85. Shea SA, Winning AJ, Mckenzie E, Guz A. Does the abnormal pattern of breathing in patients with interstitial lung disease persist in deep nonrapid eye movement sleep? Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 139:653–658. 86. O'Donnell DE. Breathlessness in patients with chronic airflow limitation. Chest 1994; 106:904–912. 87. Altose MD, McCauley WC, Kelsen SG, Cherniak NS. Effects of hypercapnia and inspiratory flowresistive loading on respiratory activity in chronic airways obstruction. J Clin Invest 1977; 59:500–507. 88. Lourenco RV, Miranda JM. Drive and performance of the ventilatory apparatus in chronic obstructive lung disease. N Engl J Med 1968; 279:53–59. 89. Marazzini L, Cavestr R, Gori D, Gatti L, Longhini E. Difference between mouth and esophageal occlusion pressure during CO2, rebreathing in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978; 118:1027–1033. 90. Abuier M, Murciano D, Fournier M, MilicEmili J, Pariente R, Derenne JP. Central respiratory drive in acute respiratory failure of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980 122:191–199. 91. Begin P, Grassino A. Inspiratory muscle dysfunction and chronic hypercapnia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143:905–912. 92. Jederlinic P, Muspratt JA, Miller MJ. Inspiratory muscle training in clinical practice. Physiologic conditioning or habituation to suffocation? Chest 1984; 86:870– 873. 93. Rochester DF. Respiratory muscle weakness, pattern of breathing, and CO2 retention in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143:901–903. 94. Mueller RE, Petty TL, Filley GF. Ventilation and arterial blood gas changes induced by pursed lips breathing. J Appl Physiol 1970; 28:784–789. 95. Thomas RL, Stoker GL, Ross JC. The efficacy of pursedlips breathing in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1966; 93:100–106. 96. O'Donnell DE, Sanii R, Giesbrecht G, Younes M. Effect of continuous positive airway pressure on respiratory sensation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease during submaximal exercise. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 138:1185–1191. 97. O'Donnell DE, Sani R, Anthonisen NR, Younes M. Effect of dynamic airway compression on breathing pattern and respiratory sensation in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135:912–918. 98. Stark RD. Dyspnoea: assessment and pharmacologic manipulation. Eur Respir J 1988; 1:280–287. 99. Woodcock AA, Gross ER, Gellert A, Shah S, Johnson M, Geddes DM. Effects of dihydrocodeine, alcohol, and caffeine on breathlessness and exercise tolerance in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease and normal blood gases. N Engl J Med 1981; 305:1611–1616. 100. Stark RD, Morton PB, Sharman P, Percival PG, Lewis JA. Effects of codeine on the
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5 Control of Breathing During Exercise KIERAN J. KILLIAN, NORMAN L. JONES, and E. J. MORAN CAMPBELL McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada I. Introduction Exercise is a model of integrative physiology. The metabolic processes in muscle require adaptations in the central circulation, blood flow distribution, and ventilation. Over the past two centuries physiologists have elucidated various regulatory mechanisms in the control of breathing. There is uncertainty about the relative importance of these mechanisms. However, there is general agreement that (1) breathing increases in a close relation to metabolic demands, and (2) arterial blood gases and acid base status remain relatively constant. Some authors consider the constancy of PaCO2, PaO2, and pH during exercise as representing a properly operating homeostatic system, whereas others consider this as evidence against the importance of chemoreceptor activity. In the present chapter, we will provide a description of the factors underlying breathing during exercise. This requires us to consider; the exercise challenge, the metabolic factors influencing fuel selection, O2 consumption, CO2 production, and release of lactic acid; the efficiency of pulmonary gas exchange; the ways in which increases in breathing are achieved, in terms of flow and volume; and the loads facing the respiratory muscles, and the neurophysiological mechanisms that are brought into play to integrate all these processes.
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II. Integrative Model Exercise is initiated as a volitional act, with the goal of achieving a given motor task. The volitional act creates a metabolic demand and the respiratory control processes respond. In this system, the central motor output to the respiratory muscles must be sufficient to activate the alpha motor neurons, to achieve sufficient respiratory muscle shortening to expand the lungs and chest cage, to overcome the elastic and resistive forces imposed by expansion of the chest wall and lungs, and ultimately, to generate airflow. The ventilation and blood flow to each alveolar unit determine the efficiency of gas exchange and influence the state of the arterial blood. Hence, volition sets the metabolic demand, whereas the responsiveness of the alpha motor neurons, the strength and conditions under which the respiratory muscles operate, the forces opposing their contraction, and the efficiency of pulmonary gas exchange provide the sequence of unit processes that is collectively integrated in the ventilatory response. The control of normal arterial blood gas tensions and acidbase balance within physiological constraints em
Figure 1 Schematic diagram illustrating the sequence of key unit physiological processes that preserve respiratory homeostasis. The direct influence of these processes on muscular sensory receptors is illustrated on the right. On the left, some key factors that influence these processes are inserted. (O2, oxygen consumption per unit time; CO2, carbon dioxide consumption per unit time; FFA, free fatty acids; ADP, adenosine diphosphate; ATP, adenosine triphosphate).
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braces all these modulating factors. Parallel with this system, but integrally related, is the operation of sensory systems. The major symptoms generated during exercise are the effort or perceived exertion associated with the activation of the peripheral muscles, and the effort or perceived exertion associated with the activation of the respiratory muscles. When the exertional discomfort associated with either becomes intolerable the subject stops exercise. An understanding of breathing during exercise requires an awareness of the individual unit processes, awareness of the way in which they interact, and last, the sensory consequences. These processes are outlined in Figure 1. We will now attempt to discuss the various processes contributing to the ventilatory responses seen during exercise in a sequential manner. III. Exercise Task “Exercise” has been considered as a fairly uniform state that may be contrasted with “rest.” But exercise may involve different muscle groups, large or small, and the task being accomplished may be trivial or close to the capacity of the involved muscles. During stair climbing, the work achieved by a 70kg man climbing stairs to a height of 10 m amounts to 700 kg/m, or 6.8 kJ; performed at a usual pace this may take 10 sec, and the required power output is thus 4200 kgm mm1 (kpm; or 700 W). This is almost four times the power that a middleaged man can sustain for longer than 1 min, and probably explains why few will choose the stairs in preference to the elevator to ascend to this height. In contrast, in a subject of average body weight, walking at a usual pace of 3 mph is equivalent to 300 kpm/min (50 W) (1), and is achieved without much effort in a healthy subject, but may be beyond the scope of a patient with advanced cardiac or pulmonary disease. An automobile assembly line worker may have to life a 20kg weight 15 times a minute, and is thus doing the same work, but the cost, in terms of effort and breathing is much higher, and beyond the scope of someone unused to the activity. In each of these examples, there are large differences in metabolic and physiological responses, involving not only the nerves and muscles achieving the work, but also the circulation and breathing that must increase to support them. The challenge in trying to understand the control of breathing during exercise is immediately obvious. IV. Metabolic Demand The oxidation of carbohydrate (CHO) in a bomb calorimeter yields 4.1 kcal/g, with a respiratory quotient of 1.0 (see later discussion), free fatty acids (FFA) yield 9.45 kcal/g with an RQ of 0.71, and proteins yield 5.65 kcal/g with an RQ of 0.82. During physiological oxidation, protein is incompletely
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oxidized to urea yielding 4 kcal/g and the values for the oxidation of FFA and CHO may be slightly different from these calorimetric values. There is a substantial loss in energy, for the energy liberated is stored in highenergy phosphate bonds (ATP and creatine phosphate; CP) (2). There is a further loss following the utilization of these highenergy phosphate stores in the performance of mechanical work. Hence, the mechanical efficiency is 34% for the limb muscles with the remaining 66% of the liberated energy being eventually dissipated as heat (3). The average body efficiency in the performance of muscular work is less, about 25%. The relation between oxygen uptake and energy liberation is stoichiometric and is represented for glucose and palmitate:
With the oxidation of mixed substrate 200 mL of oxygen consumption is approximately equivalent to 1 kcal. Oxygen is consumed at a rate of 3.5 mL kg1 min1 in fasting resting human subjects of lean proportions (0.7 kcal/min) and increases to 4–4.5 mL/kg after eating. This increases by 160–180 mL/min for each 100 kpm/min (16 W) under conditions of progressive incremental exercise (1,4,5). The maximal sustainable power is about 1200 kpm/min (200 W, for at least 1 min) in an average man, and this requires an oxygen uptake ( 100 Hz). Submaximal power is also limited. The endurance time increases progressively as power output decreases; a power output of about 600 kpm/min (100 W) can be maintained for an hour or more. In neurophysiological terms this is known as a lowfrequency fatigue because the power output declines at lower frequencies of stimulation. Hence, an increasing motor drive is required to sustain the same activity over time and underpins the process and the sensory consequences of fatigue (6–8). The increase in motor drive arises because of a reduced responsiveness of the peripheral muscle (peripheral fatigue), or a reduced responsiveness of the alpha motor units (central fatigue). Central fatigue may also arise owing to failure in the central volitional activation of the alpha motor neurons. Because ventilation is proportional to the CO2 produced, the actual ventilation at any given power output depends on the substrate used. This can be appreciated from the stoichiometry of the reactions where 1 mol of CO2 is
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produced in regenerating 6 mol of ATP with the oxidation of CHO, and 1 mol of CO2 is produced for 8 mol of ATP with the oxidation of FFA (palmitate). Oxidation of FFA is substantially more efficient from an acidbase and ventilatory point of view. The use of FFA is associated with a ventilation of 70% of that seen with CHO oxidation. Hence, the factors that control fat and glycogen oxidation influence the amount of CO2 produced and the ventilation required. Shortterm activity is predominantly accomplished by the oxidation of glycogen. The oxidation of FFA appears when exercise is sustained for a longer time period. More extensive activation of FFA use is seen following endurance training and following dietary manipulation. Hence, the effects of training (9) and dietary changes (10,11) are two important examples during which reductions in ventilation at a given power output can be obtained. The generation of lactic acid increases the ventilatory demands substantially. Muscle lactate production is best considered in terms of the balance between the rate of pyruvate formation by glycolysis and the rate at which it is able to enter the citric acid cycle. Glycogenolysis is closely linked to the activity of the fluxgenerating enzyme phosphorylase kinase. This enzyme is activated by the release of Ca2+ and by epinephrine (12) and is inhibited by [H+] (13). Entry of pyruvate into the citric acid cycle is controlled by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHc). PDHc activity is regulated by interconversion between two forms, one active (PDHa) and the other a phosphorylated inactive form (PDHp). The overall reaction:
is regulated by endproduct inhibition by acety1CoA and NADH, but its activation is influenced mainly by Ca2+ (14). NADH is either oxidized aerobically in the cytochrome system or linked to lactate production from pyruvate. The lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) reaction allows NADH to be oxidized in the face of any insufficient O2 supply or when there is limitation in the PDHc reaction (15):
The LDH reaction is an equilibrium reaction—its rate is determined by the relative concentrations of substrates and products, with the equilibrium favoring the right hand side of the reaction by about 10:1. Muscles contracting under hypoxic conditions produce lactic acid (16). Hence, lactate (La) production has been considered synonymous with O2 lack and underpins the concept of the “anaerobic threshold.” However, an oxygen deficit is not obligatory for lactate production, and it occurs in heavy exercise without evidence of O2 lack (17,18). Abnormalities in mitochondrial function are being increasingly recognized and may be an important cause of exercise intolerance associated with excess lactate production. In summary, although the power output of the muscles is the primary
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determinant of ventilation during exercise, the actual ventilation required to meet the energy demands varies with the fuel oxidized and with the production of lactic acid. Customary activity, training, and diet have substantial effects on the ventilatory requirements of exercise, largely expressed through a greater ability to oxidize FFA and to reduce the production of lactic acid. A. Ventilation Increases in ventilation and blood flow are obviously required to meet the increases in oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide excretion during exercise. The relation between ventilation , cardiac output (Q), and oxygen uptake during incremental cycle ergometry are described by the following equations (19):
The cardiac output, ventilation, and oxygen uptake lag behind the consumption of oxygen in the muscle. The time lag is usually expressed in terms of the halftime (t½) of the responses to step changes in work load. At moderate power outputs the t½ for ventilation is about 30 sec and t½ for cardiac output is less. The mechanisms underlying cardiovascular control during exercise have been reviewed (20) and will not be considered further. Increases in ventilation are closely linked to increases in
, but an even closer relation to CO2 output is seen:
(unpublished data from 1440 normal subjects from which both equations were derived). Hence, it has become generally appreciated that ventilation increases proportional to the CO2 production during exercise. Normally, the PaCO2 remains close to 40 mmHg but the set point for the PaCO2 varies from 36 to 44 mmHg. B. Pulmonary Gas Exchange. Although, for many decades, gas exchange was known to depend on the matching between ventilation of alveoli
and the CO2 output:
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The dead space compartment (i.e.,
and expressed as the VD/VT ratio, in Bohr's equation:
The normal response of ventilation during exercise is seen as an increase in In the Riley approach, areas of low
increases in PaCO2, or both.
/QC = 0) and quantified by the “shunt” equation, analogous to Bohr's equation:
Capillary oxygen saturation (SCO2) is calculated from the “ideal” alveolar PAO2, derived from the “alveolar air equation,” where PAO2 = PIO2 PaCO2/RQ. This model is not rigorously physiological because
areas being better ventilated.
V. The Respiratory Muscles in Exercise The defining criterion of muscle fatigue is a reduction in force output for a given level of neural activation when activity is sustained over time. This is measured at different frequencies of stimulation, allowing the recognition of reductions in power at high and low frequencies of stimulation. Highfrequency fatigue recovers rapidly and is usually seen following highintensity activity sustained over short time periods. Lowfrequency fatigue recovers slowly and is usually seen following submaximal activity sustained over long time periods. A shortened and weakened muscle clearly limits the capacity of the system; it takes more effort to drive a weak muscle; and continued highintensity activity is associated with increasing effort as the muscle fatigues. Roussos and Macklem have shown that the diaphragm fatigues rapidly when generating a transdiaphragmatic pressure of over 40% of the maximum static value (25,26). Loke et al. (27) demonstrated a fall in the maximum transdiaphragmatic pressures at the end of a marathon run. Hesser and colleagues
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showed that maximal inspiratory work declines at exhaustion during maximal exercise. Considering the mechanical loads, high VT , high flow rates, and high breathing frequencies (fb) employed in heavy exercise, it is likely that respiratory muscles must fatigue during exercise. The demonstration and acceptance of fatigue has been slow because the electrophysiological techniques used in other muscles are difficult to apply to the act of breathing. Alternative approaches have been attempted. The tension time index for the diaphragm (TTdi) was introduced by Bellemare and Grassino (28) as a method to recognize potentially fatiguing from nonfatiguing contractions. A threshold TTdi (Ti/Ttot.Pdi/Pdimax) of 0.15 was established during loaded breathing. The rate at which the diaphragm fatigues increases as the TTdi increases. The Pdi is an easy and reliable measurement, but the Pdimax is a difficult measurement, for it depends on the conditions in both the chest and abdominal cavities at the time of measurement. If the abdomen is relaxed, Pdimax approximates maximal inspiratory pressure measured at the mouth or esophagus, but contraction of the abdominal muscles increases Pdi by generating a positive pressure in the abdomen. Maximal Pdi depends on the simultaneous activation of both inspiratory and expiratory muscles (abdominal muscles). During coactivation of the inspiratory and expiratory muscles, the diaphragm holds the transdiaphragmatic pressure, but does not generate it; it may even contract in an eccentric fashion after an initial concentric contraction. There are conceptual difficulties with applying the TTdi during exercise in that the Pdi is a dynamic measurement expressed relative to a static measurement of Pdimax. With respiratory loading, the static and dynamic measurements are close because the added loads are substantial, yielding high pressures and small displacement. Conditions during exercise are quite different, with the high displacements and low pressures. The pleural pressure measured during exercise can be referenced to the maximal pressure achievable under the same dynamic conditions during or immediately following exercise (Fig. 2). Inspiratory pressures during maximal exercise are approximately 60% of those during the maximal inspiratory maneuver; one would expect fatigue in this range. A. The Forces Opposing Respiratory Muscle Contraction The mechanical forces opposing contraction have static and dynamic components (29–31). The static component is determined by the pressurevolume relation of the total respiratory system (elastance = P/V). The lung becomes stiffer and the chest cage becomes more compliant as thoracic volume increases above functional reserve capacity (FRC). The chest cage becomes stiffer and the lung becomes more compliant as the thoracic volume decreases below FRC. Hence, the elastance of the total system is approximately linear over the range used during exercise, between 40 and 80% total lung capacity (TLC) at approximately 12 cmH2O/L (32).
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Figure 2 Betweensubject pressure and flowvolume loops recorded at rest, Wrmax and during maximal dynamic (Maxdyn) efforts. Maxdyn recordings were recorded immediately after cessation of Wrmax exercise while the subject breathed to and from the spirometer. The static pressurevolume relations for the chest wall (Pcw) and esophageal estimate of the static recoil pressurevolume relationship of the lung (Pesstat).
The dynamic component is determined by the pressureflow relationship (resistance = P/
after the classic approach introduced by Rohrer (32):
Pressures at low respiratory frequencies cannot be entirely partitioned in terms of elastance or resistance, and a proportion is attributed to viscoelastance (33). Its magnitude decreases as respiratory frequency increases, and it becomes negligible during exercise. B. Esophageal Pressures During exercise increasingly negative esophageal pressures are generated to achieve increases in tidal volume and inspiratory flow against the impedance imposed by the elastic recoil and resistive forces of the lung (34–36). During expiration, pressures become more positive in generating highexpiratory flow and in reducing end expiratory lung volume to below resting FRC (37–40). High flow rates in the range of 2–5 L/sec are achieved in heavy exercise by healthy subjects; VT in the range of 2–4 L are achieved. These are accompanied by esophageal pressure swings of 20 to +20 cmH2O. The pressure required to
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overcome elastance is dominant at lowpower outputs, but the pressure required to overcome resistance exceeds the elastic component as ventilation increases and is dominant toward maximal exercise. The expiratory pressures developed seldom exceed the maximum effective pressure needed to achieve maximal flow. C. Power The power output of the inspiratory muscles can be estimated using the magnitude of elastance, resistance, volume, flow, and timing patterns observed during exercise, using a graphic approach. The total power output of the respiratory muscles at maximal exercise is approximately 40–50 kpm/min with 75% of the power produced by the inspiratory muscles and 25% by the expiratory muscles. Power output can be approximated using a modified equation of the same form as originally introduced by Otis (33,41):
Measurements of power are difficult to consider in absolute terms and should be considered in relation to the powergenerating capacity of the respiratory muscles. The powergenerating capacity of the respiratory muscles is the area enclosed by the maximal dynamic pressure and maximal flow rates on the pressurevolume diagram. The maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP), as commonly measured, is a static measurement, and the maximal dynamic pressure declines as lung volume increases and as flow rate increases. The relation between the maximal static and dynamic pressure is expressed in the following equation (42): PDYN (%MIP) = 173 1.7 × %TLC 5 × flow (L/S) The capacity of the inspiratory muscles to perform work is dependent on both the contractile characteristics of the muscles (strength and velocity of contraction) and on the characteristics of the mechanical impedance. The maximal power output progressively decreases as inspiratory resistance increases because the maximal velocity of respiratory muscle contraction decreases to a greater extent than the increase in pressure. D. Coordination of Respiratory Muscle Activity Konno and Mead, studying changes in the diameters of the rib cage and abdomen, concluded that the diaphragm is largely responsible for ventilation at rest (43,44). During exercise there is an increase in the volume of the rib cage and a fall in abdominal volume, suggesting that the diaphragm moves upward, increasing its length at the start of inspiration (45). The activity of the abdominal and rib cage muscles is timed so that their contraction accounts for chest and abdominal wall movement, leaving the diaphragm free to expand the lungs. The rib cage and abdominal contributions to volume deviate from their relaxation characteristics during exercise, indicating additional work against what is referred to as distortion
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(46). The work done related to distortion cannot be precisely measured, but may be as high as 20% at maximal exercise. E. Measurements of the Oxygen Cost of Breathing The energy expenditure of the respiratory muscles can be measured by the oxygen cost of breathing. Estimates of oxygen cost per liter of ventilation have varied between 0.5 and 1 mL/min for levels of , for which values from 1 mL/min (47) to 8 mL/min (48) have been reported. From these estimates the O2 cost of breathing at maximal exercise can be estimated to vary between 3 (49) and 25% (50) of the total O2 consumption. These results yield estimates for mechanical efficiency, from 1 (51) to 25% (47). This work has been dogged by difficulties related to the measurement of work and by errors in measuring oxygen consumption of respiratory muscles. Liljestrand highlighted many errors in the measurement of the oxygen cost of breathing, and his estimates remain the most reliable; they indicate an accelerating oxygen cost of breathing from 0.5 mL of oxygen per liter per minute at a low ventilation up to values of 1.5 mL of oxygen per liter per minute at a high ventilation (52). The maximal oxygen consumption of the inspiratory muscles cannot realistically exceed 200–400 mL/min, given the mass of the diaphragm at 0.5–1 kg, the highest estimates of sustainable muscle oxygen consumption per unit mass of muscle, and considering that 75% of the work of breathing is performed by the inspiratory muscles. By using conventional steadystate measurements, with incremental addition of dead space to toleration, the sustainable oxygen consumption of the respiratory muscles was 156 mL in healthy young subjects (53). Higher levels may be accomplished, but cannot be sustained. With incremental resistive loading the oxygen consumption at maximal sustainable respiratory muscle activity was 60 mL; and the maximal power output achieved was also reduced (53); the inspiratory muscles become less efficient faced with an added resistance. In patients the oxygen cost of breathing is increased, but in general the oxygen consumption at limitation is less than that seen in normal subjects because maximum ventilation is lower. F. Flow, Volume, and Breathing Pattern During Exercise Ventilation is determined by the velocity, extent, and frequency of respiratory muscle contraction resulting in flow, volume, and breathing frequency, whereas shortening is opposed by the elastance and resistance of the respiratory system. Various relations must be appreciated. Flow The maximal flowvolume curve defines the limits of tidal volume and the rate at which volume can be moved. The linkage between volume and flow defines
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ventilatory capacity in that the maximal frequency of breathing is determined by the minimum time required to inspire and expire (TI and TE) a given tidal volume. Maximal expiratory flow may be transiently reached at a ventilation of 130–170 L/min, whereas maximal inspiratory flow seldom exceeds 75% of the flow capacity measured at rest (54). Volume The VT during incremental exercise shows an early linear increase followed by a plateau at a VT of about 50% of vital capacity (VC; 55). In most normal subjects, the relation can be equally well described by an asymptotic curve. The maximal tidal volume (VT max) during exercise in healthy subjects amounts to 50–60% of the VC (56). Increases in tidal volume in healthy subjects are achieved by gradual increases in endinspiratory volume to about 80% of TLC in combination with reductions in endexpiratory volume to about 40% TLC (54,57–59). Breathing during exercise has traditionally focused on ventilation relative to the ventilatory capacity. The ventilatory index is defined by ventilation divided by the maximal voluntary ventilation ( /MAV) in normal subjects (n = 503); 53% (SD 15.4) in those with mild ventilatory impairment (FEV1 60–80%; n = 513); 65% (SD 26.3) in those with moderate impairment (FEV1 40–60%; n = 105); and 71% (SD 18.4) in those with severe pulmonary impairment (FEV1 < 40%; n = 53); as with the relation to FEV1, variability is substantial with overlap across all groups. The operating lung volume depends on the level of ventilation and the flowvolume characteristics. The maximal achievable ventilation would obviously be greatest with small tidal volumes operating at a volume for which inspiratory and expiratory flow rates are maximal, but this would lead to breathing at a high lung volume, with a very high respiratory frequency, leading to fatigue in seconds. The usual operating lung volumes range from 40 to 90% of TLC in normal subjects because expiratory flows dramatically constrain the ventilation that can be
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achieved at loweroperating volumes. Hyperinflation is obligatory in the presence of expiratory flow limitation, and the normal reduction in endexpired volume, to below FRC, is lost. Because ventilation during exercise never reaches capacity, exercise limitation is generally attributed to an inability of the heart and circulation to support oxygen delivery to exercising muscle (cardiovascular limitation) in normal subjects. Ventilatory limitation is considered to emerge only as ventilatory capacity decreases, as a consequence of pulmonary disease, and as the ventilatory index increases. However, reference of exercise ventilation to resting ventilatory capacity is seriously flawed if the respiratory muscles fatigue. When directly measured at rest MVV is usually achieved over 10–15 sec; the ventilation that may be sustained for 4 min may be as little as 40% or as much as 90% of that measured over 15 sec in individual subjects, the mean MVV over 4 min being approximately 70% of that observed over 15 sec (62). The MVV maneuver requires maximal repetitive contraction of the inspiratory muscles and the decline in capacity is similar to that seen with maximal repetitive contraction of any peripheral skeletal muscle: highfrequency fatigue. Fatigue at lower levels of ventilation, lowfrequency fatigue, may also occur, but the time to fatigue is so long that its precise measurement is difficult. VI. Control of Breathing During Exercise. Controversy abounds about the importance of chemoreceptros, the relative effects of particular chemoreceptors, the role of central feedforward mechanisms, the role of chemical receptors in muscle (free nerve endings), the possible existence of chemical receptors in the pulmonary venous circulation, and the roles of various afferent sensory and reflex effects on the control of breathing during exercise (63–69). In this complex arena, it may be best to start with the historical background. The fundamentals of respiration are simple. Carbohydrate, fats, and protein combust in the presence of oxygen, with the generation of carbon dioxide and the liberation of energy. This was first elucidated by Lavoisier at the end of the 18th century (70). Early in the 19th century LeGallois identified that the upper part of the medulla oblongata controlled respiratory muscle activity and ventilation (71). Hypercapnia, hypoxia, and acidemia were quickly recognized to increase ventilation. The control of breathing during exercise was implicitly viewed in one of two ways: As oxygen is consumed by the exercising muscles, oxygen in the blood would fall, thereby stimulating ventilation; alternatively carbon dioxide produced by the muscles would increase in the blood, thereby stimulating ventilation. It was quickly recognized that small changes in PetO2 drive breathing substantially, whereas equal changes in PetCO2 have a much smaller effect. This led MiescherRüsch (72) and Haldane and his colleagues (73) to stress the importance of CO2.
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Observational data went on to show that ventilation was more closely coupled to . In experimental animals breathing ceases entirely when the CO2 produced is removed by an extracorporeal membrane gas exchanger (74,75). If one accepts that the control of breathing is homeostatic the PaCO2 is wellsuited as the cornerstone of the control of breathing during exercise. Although PaCO2 may be relatively more important, it is universally acknowledged that PaCO2, PaO2, and pH, all are controlled variables and all contribute to the ventilatory response during exercise. For example, toward maximal exercise, ventilation increases disproportionately to CO2 production, coincident with the appearance of a lactic acidosis. Indeed there has been a longstanding debate as to whether the ventilatory effects of PaCO2 are expressed through its effects on pH (76,77). However, the ventilatory effects of the [H+] change associated with hypercapnia are greater than the ventilatory effects associated with a narrowing of the strong ion difference in the cerebrospinal fluid proximate to the central respiratory chemoreceptors (78–80). The PaO2 also influences the ventilatory response, ventilation decreases by approximately 10% in the presence of high inspired oxygen concentrations and increases in relation to falls in arterial oxygen saturation. Eldridge (81) has suggested that the importance of chemoreceptive mechanisms during exercise has been seriously overemphasized. He points out that sustained increases in chemoreceptor stimuli have not been demonstrated during exercise in humans, and the chemoreceptor stimuli may change in the wrong direction in certain other mammals, birds, and lizards. The most cogent argument against his contention relates to homeostatic control. The importance of constancy in the internal environment was first forwarded by Claude Bernard (82,83), and the term homeostasis was introduced by Cannon (84); Fenn was the first to stress that physiological chemoreceptormediated control is homeostatic (85,86). Sustained increases in the chemical stimuli do cause dramatic increases in drive, but these have more to do with catastrophic responses than physiological control. Arterial samples are taken that bridge several breaths and also are not analyzed immediately, whereas the actual concentrations seen by the chemoreceptors are continually changing in phase with the breathing cycle and perhaps even with the cardiac cycle (87). The temporal changes in chemoreceptor stimuli required for homeostatic control occur over seconds, and measurement is not currently possible with available access, technologies, and time responses. The indirect demonstration of homeostatic control is evident in the relative constancy of the stimuli during exercise. Furthermore, with use of sinusoidal variation of the power output, ramps of increasing power output, and step changes (88), homeostatic control of PaCO2, PaO2, and pH has been shown in humans. Measurable increases in PaCO2 and [H+] or decreases in PaO2 are not observed during exercise because of homeostatic control. Despite the importance of homeostatic mechanisms, it would be incorrect to think that control is confined to chemoreceptive mechanisms acting alone. Pa
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tients with congenital absence of hypercapnic and hypoxic responses (“Ondines curse”) do increase ventilation during exercise (89), although sometimes by less than half that expected, with gross hypercapnia and hypoxia (90). In decerebrate cats, ambulatory movements arise from electrical or chemical stimulation of the hypothalamus (“fictive movement”). Eldridge has elegantly demonstrated increases in breathing in phase with this central neuronal activity, even if muscular movement is blocked by neuromuscular blockade (for review see Ref. 67). The range of possible mechanisms responsible for the control of breathing during exercise were initially presented by Zuntz and Geppert in 1886 (91) and reviewed by Dejour in 1964 (65). There is a rapid increase in ventilation at the onset of exercise, and it appears to be driven by irradiation of the medullary respiratory centers by cortical motor neural activation (68,69). Similar mechanisms operate in relationship to the cardiovascular response to exercise (20). Breathing can also be driven by voluntary mechanisms. If the consequences of underand overbreathing were to reach consciousness, behavioral learning could also play a role in the ventilatory response during exercise. Cessation of breathing results in a very distressing urge to breathe, which results from a rising PaCO2 (92–94). Overbreathing also results in discomfort proportional to the extent of deviation (95). There is a sense of satiety with the act of breathing that is similar in all essential features with the sense of satiety with eating, thermal comfort, and hydration. Hence, it is distinctly possible that breathing may be partly modulated by behavioral learning (conditioned reflex). During highintensity activity, afferents arising in the respiratory muscles from spindles and tendon organs are important in the proprioceptive control of breathing. The perceptual consequences of their activation may be used to minimize peak tension and, thereby, the accompanying effort (96,97). The HeringBreuer reflex results in the inhibition of inspiration with inflation and the stimulation of inspiration by deflation (98). The control of tidal volume during exercise has been attributed to this reflex mechanism (99), even though the reflex is weak in humans. Juxtacapillary receptors (“c receptors”) are free nerve endings that can be stimulated by intravascular chemical mediators that traverse the endothelium of the pulmonary capillaries (100,101). The injection of lobeline in humans results in transient cessation of breathing, followed by rapid, shallow breathing, and is associated with upper sternal discomfort. Juxtacapillary receptor stimulation has been suggested as a possible cause of the ventilatory response seen during exercise, but the mediator stimulating these receptors has not been identified. Free nerve endings in the larger airways can be stimulated by a variety of stimuli and give rise to cough, and they may account for the modest hyperventilation seen with asthma. However, heartlung transplantation does not cause any substantial deficit in the control of ventilation during exercise in the absence of feedback from the lungs. Feed forward and feedback mechanisms are generally acknowledged in motor movements. Metabolic activity in muscle results in the release of lactate, adenosine,
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phosphate, and potassium from muscle cells. These mediators enter the interstitial compartment of the muscle where they end up by reentering muscle cells or leave the muscles in the venous blood. The concentration of these mediators in the interstitial compartment of the muscle is a function of their release from muscle and their clearance by the blood. Chemical receptors in muscle have been postulated for over 100 years (91). Free nerve endings in the interstitial compartment of the muscle are stimulated by these mediators and are relayed to the spinal cord where they can inhibit the alpha motor neurons (102). Afferent feedback inhibiting the responsiveness of alpha motor neurons can prevent ATP depletion, which would result in rigor mortis and act as a backup mechanism to peripheral muscle fatigue. Free nerve ending stimulation is also relayed centrally by the paleospinothalamic tract, the neospinothalamic tract, and the spinoreticular pathways. These pathways have access to the respiratory and cardiovascular centers, centrally augmenting chemoreceptor and cardiovascular responses. The increase in ventilation during extreme exercise is commonly attributed to lactic acidosis, but may be partly mediated by increasing peripheral feedback, thereby augmenting medullary responses. Arterial potassium levels also rise substantially during extreme exercise, and potassium stimulated the peripheral chemoreceptors during very highintensity exercise (103). Thus, the disproportionate increase in ventilation during extreme exercise may arise in response to multiple mechanisms. Breathing is a behavioral act, and its control is modulated to meet different objectives from circumstance to circumstance. The control of breathing during vocalization, eating, and postural movement pose competing challenges on the system and must be accommodated. These issues are less relevant to exercise and beyond the scope of the present communication, and they are dealt with more thoroughly in other communications (104). Exercise testing in patients with pulmonary disease has also contributed to our understanding of breathing during exercise. Frank hypoventilation, with exercise being sustained with a much lower than expected, is uncommon. Even patients with respiratory failure at rest increase their ventilation during exercise. In the setting of advanced airflow limitation (FEV1 < 40% predicted normal values), respiratory failure is generally attributed to “can't breathe.” However, a “won't breathe” contribution is often questioned because there is a very wide range of ventilatory responses seen with progressive hypercapnia (1–7 L min1 mmHg1) and progressive hypoxemia (1–4 L min1% desaturation) across normal individuals (105). However, the ventilatory responses during exercise between individuals are much narrower. Most patients with severe CAL, with FEV1 less than 1.0L show an increase PaCO2 of at least 5 mmHg and, in some, the increases may be as large as 20 mmHg; however, there are many patients with comparable severity who maintain a normal PaCO2 (106). Nonetheless, therapeutic attempts to augment drive with respiratory stimulants (progesterone, almitrine—a peripheral chemoreceptor agonist—and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors) have been attempted
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and have not proved very helpful during exercise. Increase in drive result in greater dyspnea, whereas an increase in exercise capacity has not been convincingly demonstrated. Congenital abnormalities of respiratory control, such as primary alveolar hypoventilation, are uncommon, but hypercapnia can be seen at rest and during exercise in some of these patients, and presumably, other mechanisms ensure that ventilation increases during exercise in most, but not all of them. Psychotropic drugs are a common contributing factor to respiratory failure in hospitalized patients, but disability in the performance of exercise owing to the use of respiratory depressants is not commonly recognized. Also, it should be remembered that individuals consistently maintain their own “setpoint” PaCO2 somewhere in the range of 36–44 mmHg, which at a
of 2.0 L/min implies a ventilation that may be about 53 L/min (PaCO2; 36) or 43 (PaCO2; 44), a 20% difference.
Hyperventilation during exercise is much more common than hypoventilation. Behavioral hyperventilation is generally easy to recognize because of the bizarre patterns of breathing adopted by these subjects. Hyperventilation in normal subjects is associated with discomfort (95), and it is not surprising that hyperventilators often report that breathing is “not satisfying.” Some of these patients also report that they “can't get air in” or “get a proper breath.” This is less easy to explain because their inspiratory flow rates and vital capacity are normal, but some may breathe at a high lung volume. Hyperventilation with persistent and sustained hypocapnia that cannot be attributed to behavioral causes generally goes unexplained. Various sources of additional drive to breathe are invoked. Juxtacapillary receptor stimulation is often inferred as the cause of unexplained hyperventilation because blockade of the vagus has been anecdotally reported as beneficial in some cases (107). Pulmonary vascular obstruction is commonly associated with hyperventilation. Reductions in PaCO2 during exercise parallel the severity of pulmonary hypertension (24). Increased dead space and alveolar hyperventilation both contribute to the ventilation seen in these cases. In these conditions juxtacapillary receptor stimulation in the pulmonary circulation is commonly invoked as the cause of the hyperventilation. Whenever the perfusion of peripheral muscles is impaired, hypocapnia can augment the movement of CO2 at a reduced circulatory cost. This could be mediated by intramuscular free nerve ending stimulation driving the medullary centers. Increasing the arteriovenous difference in CO2 at the expense of increasing venous values is not advantageous in that it must result in a “respiratory acidosis” within the muscle, thereby compromising muscle function (108). A reduction in PaCO2 can increase the arteriovenous difference without incurring an intracellular acidosis. It is common to see modest hyperventilation when the perfusion of the peripheral muscles is impaired by cardiac disease, and in metabolic myopathies (commonly mitochondrial) associated with intramuscular acidosis.
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VII. Sensory Aspects of Breathing During Exercise Although the final factor that limits exercise in most humans is clearly sensory and perceptual, formal evaluation of the sensory systems activated during exercise has been conspicuously overlooked in favor of other physiological changes, probably because sensory phenomena are considered to be subjective, and thus not amenable to objective measurement. However, the use of psychophysical techniques has advanced to such a degree that we can formally measure symptoms during exercise (109,110). Both dyspnea and leg effort increase as exponential functions of power output and duration as expressed in the following equations: Perceived leg effort = K.%MPO2.13.time0.39 Perceived dyspnea = K.%MPO2.41.time0.47 Where %MPO is the power output expressed as a percentage of maximum power output, and time is expressed in minutes. These relations demonstrate that a doubling of work intensity results in an approximately fourfold increase in effort and dyspnea, whereas doubling the duration of work increases effort and dyspnea by approximately 30%. Reducing intensity and increasing the duration of activity is very effective in reducing discomfort during muscular exercise. The formal measurement of symptom intensity at maximal exercise has provided results that are surprising and unexpected. First, the average healthy subject stops exercise at a symptom intensity rated “very severe” (7 on the Borg psychophysicalrating scale). Only 20% of subjects exercise until symptom intensity is rated “maximal” (10 on the Borg scale). Tolerance clearly plays a role in limitation; the average tolerance appears to be “very severe,” but tolerance varies from “somewhat severe” (4) to “maximal” (10). When asked to answer a questionnaire about why they stopped exercise during incremental exercise to capacity, 8% of normal subjects claimed that dyspnea alone limited exercise; 61% claimed dyspnea and leg fatigue were equally limiting; whereas only 25% claimed limitation owing to leg fatigue alone (110). In a normal elderly population, 42% rated dyspnea and leg effort the same; 22% rated dyspnea greater than leg effort; 36% rated leg effort greater than dyspnea at maximal exercise. Dyspnea is a common factor limiting exercise alone or in combination with leg fatigue and raises questions about whether ventilation is limiting in normal subjects. Dyspnea may be approached as the appreciation of increased effort with the act of breathing. Increases in ventilation contribute to dyspnea through increases in pleural pressure swings (Ppl), inspiratory flow ( ), tidal volume (VT ), breathing frequency (fb), and the muscle duty cycle (TL/TTOT). These factors respectively are related to respiratory muscle force, velocity of contraction, extent of shortening, frequency of contraction, and duration of contraction. Reductions in
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muscle strength (MIP), and increases in lung volume also contribute to dyspnea through increases in perceived effort. When dyspnea is quantified by the Borg scale, the interaction of contributory factors may be expressed quantitatively (111):
From a simple clinical perspective, dyspnea is seen to intensify as ventilation approaches capacity, eventually reaching an intolerable magnitude that will limit the ability to continue exercise. Other sensations can, and undoubtedly do, arise. The appearance of hypoxia and hypercapnia drives breathing, leading to dyspnea. Hypercapnia and hypoxia can also contribute to an uncomfortable urge to breathe. A lack of perceptual satisfaction in the act of breathing (“satiety”) may also appear with deviation in blood gases from their normal setpoints. VIII. Conclusion Respiratory control mechanisms are part of a complex interactive process that allows an individual to meet increasing metabolic demands, without courting catastrophe. The process not only involves chemoreceptors and motor neuromuscular function, but it is also influenced by the sensory mechanisms that allow the accompanying effort to be perceived and the approaching catastrophe to be identified. Many years ago, Cournand and Richards (112) specified four pathophysiological processes within which pulmonary disorders could be approached. We will reiterate these concepts to allow us to see how our understanding has progressed. A. Ventilatory Insufficiency Ventilatory insufficiency implies an inability of the breathing mechanics to provide the required ventilation. When ventilation during exercise reached maximal breathing capacity (usually measured over 12–15 sec), a ventilatory limitation would be reached, and exercise would stop, or homeostasis would fail, reflected in a rising PaCO2 or falling PaO2. Hence, ventilatory insufficiency could be quantified by expressing the ventilation observed relative to the ventilatory capacity. B. Respiratory Insufficiency Respiratory insufficiency implies failure to maintain normal arterial blood gas concentrations. Hypoxemia was recognized as arising through the distribution of blood flow to poorly ventilated alveoli (low /Q), righttoleft shunting of venous blood, hypoventilation, and impaired diffusion. Hence, respiratory insufficiency was quantified by the extent to which arterial PaO2 fell. The presence of hypercap
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nia has come to indicate underventilation, relative to metabolism: (
) owing to impaired capacity (“can't breathe”), or to impaired control (“won't breathe”).
C. Combined Ventilorespiratory Insufficiency Respiratory insufficiency contributes to ventilatory insufficiency in two important ways. First, reductions in efficiency of gas exchange with increases in dead space encroach on a limited ventilatory capacity by requiring an increase in ventilation to achieve gas exchange. Second, reductions in PaO2 may lead to increases in . A common clinical example of the interaction between ventilatory and respiratory insufficiency is obstructive pulmonary hypertension. Alveolar hyperventilation arises owing to the stimulation of intravascular receptors that, taken in conjunction with the increased dead space ventilation, contributes to gross increases in ventilation, with very inefficient gas exchange resulting in extreme dyspnea. D. Combined Cardiopulmonary Insufficiency Congestive cardiac failure results in cardiomegaly, pulmonary edema, and pleural effusions, which cause both ventilatory insufficiency, respiratory insufficiency, and cardiocirculatory insufficiency. Obstruction of blood flow through the lungs by pulmonary hypertension also results in circulatory insufficiency. Reductions in limb muscle perfusion have major implications during exercise; the associated lactate production is commonly associated with alveolar hyperventilation, decreasing the ventilatory efficiency of gas exchange. In addition alveolar hyperventilation is required to enhance CO2 removal from the peripheral muscles faced with reductions in their perfusion (113). In reality, breathing during exercise is a complex behavioral act that is dependent on a wide range of independent factors. It might be argued that clinical medicine places too much emphasis on categorizing various disorders with too little emphasis on the factors common to these disorders. The integrative mechanisms responsible for breathing during exercise bridge cardiac, respiratory, and neuromuscular disorders of many different origins and mechanisms and bridge the continuum from health to disease. We would like to end by drawing attention to any subject performing the activities of daily living. The intensity and duration of the muscularly activity vary widely during ambulating, climbing stairs, and the muscularly activities of the limbs using both large and small muscle groups. The volitional goals of each of these daily activities place demands on the respirator system that vary with the independent factors described in this chapter. The basic factors reviewed have their expression through the activation of a variety of sensory mechanisms associated with the act of breathing. The factors contributing
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to respiratory effort are easily appreciated once attention is drawn to the nature of inspiratory muscle activity. The contribution of the sense of satiety to exercise relatedbreathing discomfort remains poorly appreciated. A variety of other sensory mechanisms are also activated in special circumstances. The key to understanding breathing during exercise is integration and appreciation of the act of breathing as a behavioral act using approaches commonly found with systems analysis. References 1. Astrand P, Rodahl K. Textbook of Work Physiology. Physiological Bases of Exercise. New York: McGrawHill, 1970. 2. Newsholme EA, Leech AR. Biochemistry for the Medical Sciences. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1983. 3. Jorfeldt L, Wahren J. Leg blood flow during exercise in man. Clin Sci 1971; 41:459–473. 4. Jones NL. Clinical Exercise Testing, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1988. 5. Wasserman K, Whipp BJ. Exercise physiology in health and disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1975; 112:219–249. 6. Edwards RHT. Human muscle function and fatigue. Ciba Found Symp 1981; 82:1–18. 7. Edwards RHT. Physiological analysis of skeletal muscle weakness and fatigue. Clin Sci Mol Med 1978; 54:463–470. 8. BiglandRitchie B, Jones DA, Hosking GP, Edwads RHT. Excitation frequency and muscle fatigue: electrical responses during human voluntary and stimulating contractions. Exp Neurol 1979; 64:414–427. 9. Coggan AR, Habash DL, Mendenhall LA, Swanson LA, Kien CL. Isotopic estimation of CO2 production during exercise before and after endurance training. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75:70–75. 10. Coggan AR, Mendenhall LA. Effect of diet on substrate metabolism during exercise. In: Lamb DR, Gisolfi CV, eds. Energy Metabolism in Exercise and Sport. Dubuque, IA: Brown and Benchmark, 1992:435–472. 11. Putman CT, Spriet, Hultman E. Pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and acetyl group accumulation during exercise after different diets. Am J Physiol 1993; 265:E752–E760. 12. Chasiotis D, Hultman E, Salin K. Acidotic depression of cyclic AMP accumulation and phosphorylase b to a transformation in skeletal muscle of man. J Physiol 1997; 335:197–204. 13. Newsholme EA, Start C. Regulation in Metabolism. John Wiley & Sons, 1973. 14. Denton RM, Randle PJ. Regulation of mammalian pyruvate dehydrogenase. Mol Cell Biochem 1975; 9:27–53. 15. Fletcher WM, Hopkins FG. Lactic acid in amphibian muscle. J Physiol (Lond) 1906; 35:247–250. 16. Hill AV, Lupton H. Muscular exercise, lactic acid and the supply and utilization of oxygen. Q J Med 1923; 16:135–171.
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6 Respiration and the Human Upper Airway DAVID P. WHITE Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital Boston, Massachusetts I. Introduction Over the last 10–15 years there has been an explosion of information and interest in the function of the human upper airway. Much of this interest has revolved around the recently recognized disorder, obstructive sleep apnea. However, despite this interest and considerable progress, the upper airway remains a difficult and often poorly understood portion of the human body. The anatomy is complicated, the role of muscles has often been inadequately studied, and the neural mechanisms influencing airway patency in this area are quite complex. Despite these hurdles, knowledge of the anatomy and function of the human upper airway is required if ventilatory control is to be fully understood. In this chapter, an attempt will be made to discuss the physiology of the entire upper airway. Because this is a topic for entire volumes, this discussion must, in many ways, remain superficial. However, from at least a clinical perspective, the major structural and mechanical mechanisms influencing upper airway patency will be addressed, as will the reflexes that have a major influence on ventilatory control. No attempt will be made to address pathology in this area in any systematic way, for that is the topic of subsequent chapters. However, it is
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hoped that the understanding of physiology obtained from this chapter will make pathological conditions more easily grasped. The upper airway, which runs from the nares or lips to the extrathoracic trachea, can most easily be approached by dividing it into three discrete segments: the nose, the pharyngeal airway (from choanae to epiglottis), and the larynx. Each of these segments will be individually addressed, with a focus on anatomy, mechanisms influencing the patency of that particular segment, and the reflexes arising from that segment that may influence ventilatory control. By doing so, a broad overview of the upper airway should be provided. However, before a discussion of these discrete airway segments, the biomechanical properties of the entire human upper airway will be addressed, for this can best be understood when discussed as a whole. II. Biomechanical Properties of the Human Upper Airway. As shown in Figure 1 (1), the human upper airway is a complex series of valves and variably collapsible segments, ranging from relatively rigid areas, such as the
Figure 1 From left to right, a sagittal section of the human upper airway, the relative crosssectional area of each segment (1–9), and the valvular and tubular portions of the upper airway. (From Ref. 1.)
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larynx, to quite compliant ones, such as the nasal valve or the velopharyngeal airway. Patency of each airway segment is dependent on several variables, including anatomy (crosssectional area), the compliance characteristics of the airway walls, and the pressureflow dynamics within the airway. Each of these variables substantially influences the resistance to airflow in a given segment of the airway, with some being more important in certain areas than others. A. Anatomy Crosssectional area is certainly an important determinant of airflow resistance in the upper airway. In certain airway segments, structural anatomy, such as a deviated nasal septum, can both subjectively and objectively affect airway patency. This would also apply to tonsillar hypertrophy or mandibular retrognathia. However, many determinants of anatomical airway size in the pharynx are still poorly understood. For instance, patients with obstructive sleep apnea, when imaged during wakefulness, virtually always have a smaller pharyngeal airway luminal size than normal controls (2,3). Whether this represents a true difference in anatomy, airway edema, poor dilator muscle function, fat deposition, or a combination of these variables, is unclear. It should be recognized, therefore, that the anatomy or crosssectional area in the upper airway represents much more than bony and cartilaginous structures. It relates to muscle bulk and position, mucosal perfusion and edema (4), and the presence or absence of mucus in addition to the rigid skeleton. The compliance or collapsibility of the airway walls (5,6) can also influence airway size, as will be discussed later. Therefore, airway dimensions or airflow resistance is a dynamic interaction between the basic anatomy and the motion (collapse or dilation) of the airway walls (7). With current methods it is often difficult to study these variables in isolation, making their relative contribution to airflow resistance impossible to delineate. B. Compliance Characteristics of the Airway Walls One of the principal determinants of upper airway patency is the compliance of the airway itself, with this compliance being strongly influenced by the rigidity or tension characteristics of the airway walls. Airway pressure is obviously negative on inspiration and positive on expiration, with these pressure changes having a greater or lesser influence on airway size, depending on these wall characteristics. A highly compliant airway could be quite large anatomically in the resting state, but diminish in size dramatically during inspiration when negative pressure develops. Similarly, a lowcompliance, rigid airway could be anatomically small, but demonstrate little change in size despite large intraluminal pressure swings. Although the determinants of airway compliance or wall tension in the upper airway are still poorly understood, progress is being made. It has been proposed that the level of activity in the dilator muscles of the upper airway can
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strongly influence the rigidity of the walls. Most current data would support this concept. In anesthetized animals, activation of upper airway muscles generally enlarges the size or lowers the resistance through the airway (8–10). The airway is also less collapsible when these upper airway muscles are activated (11) and more collapsible when such activity is abolished following the death of the animal. However, other variables besides muscle activity could come into play after death. In humans, the size of the pharyngeal airway is relatively constant during inspiration and enlarges during expiration (Fig. 2). This would suggest that the negative intraluminal pressure during inspiration is offset by the phasic activation of several pharyngeal muscles, yielding a static airway size (12) and resistance (13). During expiration, intraluminal positive pressure dilates the airway when muscle
Figure 2 Upper airway crosssectional area plotted as a function of tidal volume in a normal subject over four anatomical levels: In this normal subject, the upper airway at all four anatomical levels remains relatively constant in inspiration (enlarges slightly at the end of inspiration), enlarges further in early expiration, and then narrows toward the end of expiration. (A) Nasopharynx, (B) retropalatal high, (C) retropalatal low, and (D) retroglossal. (Solid line with open squares, inspiration; dashed line with closed triangles, expiration; dotted line, extrapolation between end of inspiration and the beginning of expiration, and between end of expiration and the beginning of inspiration). (From Ref. 12.)
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activity is reduced (see Fig. 2). These studies strongly support the concept that activity in the upper airway muscles can substantially influence airway size and collapsibility. Other variables influencing airway wall rigidity or collapsibility have been less well studied. However, it seems probable that the connective tissue content of the airway walls (14), the blood supply or vascularity of the tissue (4), and various mucosal factors (15) may critically influence collapsibility. Certainly when the airway is near closure or when it is attempting to reopen, mucosal surface forces become quite active, affecting the pressurevolume characteristics of the airway (15). In addition, highly perfused tissue or muscle is likely to be more taut or rigid than minimally perfused tissue (4). As a result, a complex set of variables, including dilator muscle activity, likely determine the propensity of the upper airway to dilate or collapse. C. Pressure and Flow Dynamics Figure 3 is a plot of pressure versus flow in the upper airway of a normal individual. As can easily be seen, there is not a linear relationship between these two variables. Therefore, the use of a single value of = flow) to describe resistance in the upper airway may be misleading, for it would likely
Figure 3 An example of pressureflow data during inspiration (INSP) and expiration (EXP). , bulk flow (calibration 5 L/sec). P, pressure difference across the nasal airway (calibration 10 cmH2O). (From Ref. 7.)
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apply to only one point or a short portion of the curve. Although several alternative methods have been developed to describe this pressureflow relationship [multiple singleresistance values, the Rohrer equation (16), orifice models (17)] none are completely satisfactory, and it is commonly best to simply demonstrate the relation as shown in Figure 3. The alinearity of the pressureflow plot of the human upper airway is probably a product of three events. First, as flow rate increases, laminar flow eventually transitions to nonlaminar or turbulent flow, with an increase in resistance (18). Where this occurs relates to the density and viscosity of the air and the size, shape, and roughness of the airway. Second, when intraluminal pressure becomes progressively negative on inspiration (an event that should, in a linear system, yield higher flow rates), the crosssectional area of the airway may decrease, depending on the compliance or collapsibility of the airway walls (10,19–21). Therefore, greater intraluminal negative pressure may not yield greater inspiratory flow rates. As a result, the resistance may be quite low at lowflow rates and quite high at highflow rates in a person with a collapsible airway. What is commonly observed during sleep in a person with a collapsible airway is “flow limitation” (Fig. 4). With flow limitation, as can be seen, increasingly negative intraluminal negative pressure yields a constant flow rate (20). One has to assume that the airway is becoming progressively smaller as negative pressure increases and that the two variables—increasing negative pressure (which should increase flow) and diminishing airway size (which should decrease flow)—are offsetting each other, and flow remains constant. Therefore, airway collapsibility may noticeably influence the shape of the pressureflow relation. Finally, the upper airway (see Fig. 1) must be thought of as a series of resistors or valves, each of which has its own pressureflow characteristics. If any one such resistor is substantially smaller (higher resistance) than all others, it may dominate the pressureflow behavior of the entire airway (17). This would be called orifice flow, with an orifice being defined as a short, constricted portion of the airway with a diameter less than half that of the remaining airway. Such an orifice could exist in the larynx, the pharynx, or possibly at the nasal valve. When an orifice exists, there is an abrupt transition at the orifice from laminar to nonlaminar flow, with a substantial inertial pressure loss. Accordingly, the orifice would dictate the pressureflow characteristics of the entire upper airway, yielding a curvilinear relationship. When the three foregoing concepts (laminar versus nonlaminar flow, airway collapsibility, and orifice behavior) are combined, it is not surprising that the pressureflow relationship in the upper airway is curvilinear and complex and that completely satisfactory models are not yet available. However, when this relationship is depicted as in Figure 3, the dynamics of pressure and flow can generally be grasped, even if not all of the variables dictating this relationship can.
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Figure 4 Relation of inspiratory flow contour to collapsible tube behavior of the upper airway: (A) No obstruction (normal airway or low transmural pressure). As negative intraluminal pressure is exerted during inspiration, the airway remains fully patent (without collapse); and flow increases proportionally to driving pressure (effort). This results in a rounded contour of the inspiratory flow tracing for each breath. (B) Partial obstruction and increased upper airway resistance (collapsible airway or high transmural pressure). As negative intraluminal pressure is exerted during inspiration, the airway collapses and flow increases with pressure only up to a critical value (Pcrit). The response to the normal sinusoidal effort of each breath is the appearance of a plateau in the inspiratory flow contour. (From Ref. 20.)
III. The Nose A. Anatomy The anatomy of the nose is complex (Fig. 5), with quite narrow segments as occur at the nasal valve and passageways, with large crosssectional areas as occur at the interior nose or cavum (22). The support structure of the nose is also quite variable, with some segments having rigid bony support, others being reliant on
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Figure 5 Anatomical structures that constitute the nasal cavity are demonstrated. (Courtesy of FH Netter, CibaGeigy Corporation, Summit, NJ.)
cartilage, with portions of the external nose being primarily dependent on dilator muscle activity (23). As can be seen in Figures 5 and 6, on inspiration, air passes through the external nostril, enters the vestibule, and then encounters the “nasal valve,” the smallest cross sectional area of the entire respiratory system (see B in Fig. 6) and, consequently, the point of highest resistance. This valve may behave, as described earlier, as an orifice with a rapid loss of inertial pressure and the development of nonlaminar turbulent flow. This sudden development of turbulent or even vortex flow on inspiration may be a necessary feature in the design of the nose, such that the inspired air will be broadly distributed through the turbinates, thereby permitting adequate conditioning or humidification of the air. Following the nasal valve, the crosssectional area of the nose rapidly increases as air enters the cavum, which has a convoluted wall structure (turbinates) and relatively rigid support (see Fig. 6, Sec. C–E). Finally, the air passes into the nasopharynx (at the choanae) at which a sharp change of direction is required as air enters the pharynx. The nose (and particularly the nasal valve) is the site of the highest airflow resistance of the entire respiratory system. As a result, relatively small anatomical changes in the size of nasal structures can lead to large changes in airflow resistance. For instance, a 30% reduction in crosssectional area at site B on Figure 6, would demand a substantial increase in negative intraluminal pressure to maintain airflow (22). Therefore, not only would this be a high resistance area, but also the increased negative pressure would contribute to collapse of the airway walls at the nasal valve, leading to flow limitation. Consequently, the anatomy of
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Figure 6 Variation in geometry is illustrated by cross sections A–G along passage: Width (W) and skeleton line (S) were used to characterize geometry of interior nose as shown in insert. (From Ref. 22.)
the nose is a major determinant of airflow resistance in the respiratory system, with only a limited ability of physiological mechanisms in the nose to compensate for deficient anatomy. B. Physiological Mechanisms Influencing Nasal Patency There are two primary physiological mechanisms that, on a momenttomoment basis, influence nasal patency, apart from the anatomical considerations described in the foregoing (24,25). One relates to mucosal volume, or the expansion and contraction of capacitance vessels in the nasal lining (24), whereas the other involves the activity of nasal dilator muscles, primarily the alae nasi. Each will be addressed separately. Nasal Mucosal Volume The cavum of the nose is rigidly supported by bony and cartilaginous structures that permit little expansion or contraction. Therefore, any increase in the volume of the nasal mucosa will negatively impinge on airway patency in this area of the nose. There are venous sinusoids in the nasal mucosa that likely represent erectile
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tissue that can substantially influence the size of the nasal airway; hence, the nasal resistance (24). These vessels contain smooth muscle that is innervated by the sympathetic nervous system, thereby providing a mechanism for regulation of mucosal volume (25). In the normal person, nasal airflow resistance is quite stable over fairly long time periods (26). This, however, does not indicate that the resistance through each nostril is stable. It has been known for many years that there is an active nasal cycle with alternating congestion and decongestion in the two nostrils, such that total nasal resistance remains relatively constant (27). This cycle is more robust in the supine posture, but it is detectable in all positions (Fig. 7), despite the fact that few of us are aware of this event (27). Against this background of alternating nasal airflow resistance, there are several stimuli that lead to increased or decreased nasal patency secondary to changes in mucosal volume. Although quite a few such stimuli have been described, the mechanism for most is not well understood. These would include exercise, which leads to rapid bilateral nasal decongestion (28), whereas voluntary hyperventilation generally leads to congestion (29). Cold air in the nose also produces congestion. Decreased nasal patency with vascular engorgement is also commonly observed with irritants (30), allergic stimuli, and when assuming a
Figure 7 The nasal cycle followed through a 24hr period of normal activity and recumbency:
, combined. Note stability of combined resistance. (From Ref. 27.)
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recumbent posture (27). Of interest, various studies suggest that pressure application on the lateral chest wall and hip regions can lead to ipsilateral nasal congestion and contralateral decongestion (31). Again, the mechanism of the vascular control is not well understood. However, the ability of vascular congestion to crucially influence nasal patency is quite clear. Control of the Nasal Dilator Muscle It has been suggested for some time that the alae nasi or nasal dilator muscle is important in the maintenance of patency of the external nose. Indeed, studies (23) indicate that activation of this muscle can substantially reduce nasal resistance. On the other hand, at least one report observed substantial decrements in the activity of this muscle at sleep onset, with no demonstrable change in resistance (32); therefore, its role could be argued. However, for the purpose of this discussion, it will be assumed that the activity of this muscle or group of muscles plays an important role in dilating or preventing collapse of the external nasal airway. The mechanisms controlling the activity of this muscle are the subject of considerable debate. Most data would suggest that the alae nasi has an inspiratory phasic pattern of activation that slightly precedes that of the diaphragm (23,32,33). However, this inspiratory activation is somewhat variable, both within a given subject and between subjects (32). Data also suggest that the modulation of the activity of this muscle comes from at least two sources. First, standard respiratory stimuli, such as hypoxia, hypercapnia, or exercise, can augment nasal dilator muscle activity (33–35). However, there is also likely to be local modulation of muscle activity in response to events that might threaten airway patency (33). As the nasal mucosa is exposed to variations in pressure, flow, humidity, and temperature, responsiveness to these stimuli could influence local muscle control. There seems to be little argument that the nasal dilator muscle can respond to standard respiratory stimuli. Hypercapnia leads to equally increased alae nasi activity, whether the subject is breathing nasally or orally, suggesting little role for local receptors in this response (33,35). It has also been observed that alae nasi activity increases with exercise (34–37). Although this exercise response was greater during nasal than oral breathing (37), there was clear augmentation of muscle activity under both conditions. Therefore, respiratory stimuli can modulate the activity of the muscle, even when the nasal cavity itself is not exposed to the stimulus or airflow. If and how local modulation of alae nasi activity occurs is the subject of considerably more debate. Several studies suggest that negative pressure can activate the alae nasi muscle. This has been demonstrated in animals with an isolated upper airway (38). In addition, Tsubone (39) showed, in an anesthetized rat, that the ethmoidal branch of the trigeminal nerve contains afferent fibers that respond to negative pressure applied to the isolated upper airway. Similarly, in the
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noses of cats, Wallois et al. (40) found a number of what he called “nondrive” nasal receptors of the trigeminal nerve that were likely responsive to transmural pressure changes. Therefore, the data in animals are convincing. In humans, the role of local mechanisms is controversial. However, there are several studies that suggest a role for pressure receptors. Mezzanotte et al. (33) observed a substantial increase in alae nasi activity in men when an inspiratory resistance load was applied during nasal breathing. During oral breathing or when the nose was splinted and anesthetized, the response was substantially attenuated, suggesting a nasal negative pressure or mechanoreceptor. Similarly, Connel and Fregosi (41) observed a decrease in the alae nasi response to exercise when HeO2 was inspired (Fig. 8). The mixture of HeO2 decreased nasal resistance, whereas flow remained constant or increased, suggesting that resistance or pressure was detected in the nose. On the other hand, Wheatley et al. (36) were unable to influence the alae nasi electromyogram (EMG) during exercise by adding an external resistive load, suggesting little role for a pressure receptor, although their technique for applying the resistance load may not have influenced transmural nasal pressure. As a result, on balance, the data tend to support the presence of
Figure 8 Influence of HeO2 on nasal tidal volume (VT) AND FLOW
(VI), integrated EMG of left and right AN muscle, and CO2 measured at breathing mask in one subject exercising at 180 W. Point of transition from air to HeO2 breathing is indicated by arrow and marker on time base. HeO2 results in a slight increase in VI, but marked, rapid, and sustained reductions in AN EMG. Time base, 1.0 sec/division. (From Ref. 41.)
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some form of pressure receptor in the nose that locally modulates alae nasi activity. Other studies have suggested a flow receptor may be present in the nose. Wheatley et al. (37) observed such a receptor. However, the work of Connel et al. (41), as described in the foregoing, indicates this may be a response to pressure or resistance, rather than flow. In addition, Wheatley et al. 's subsequent work (36) suggests that flow or temperature detection may not be possible in the nose, because the inspiration of hot, radiated air (> 40°C) during exercise did not influence alae nasi EMG. As a result, they proposed a central feedforward modulation of nasal dilator muscle activity. Finally, in a recent study, Sullivan et al. (35) observed little change in nasal dilator muscle EMG during exercise following either anesthesia or nasal splinting, suggesting little local modulation of muscle activity. In addition, they noted considerably greater alae nasi EMG during exercise than during hypercapnia at similar levels of nasal ventilation. Why this occurred is speculative, but it could relate to enhanced central motor command during exercise, or locomotioninduced changes in serotonincontaining dorsal rhaphe neurons, yielding increased upper airway motor activity. Therefore, despite considerable investigation, both the action and control of the nasal dilator muscle remains controversial. Whether alae nasi activity could be influenced by local mechanisms in the upper or lower airway, apart from the nose, has not been well studied. However, the report of Sullivan et al. (35) would suggest this might be so, for the decrease in alae nasi activity observed with HeO2 breathing during exercise was still observed following nasal anesthetic or splinting. In addition, capsaicin injection, which activates vagal C fiber afferents in the lung, can lead to apnea, followed by rapid shallow breathing, with alae nasi activity following a similar response pattern to the diaphragm. However, tonic alae nasi activity increased markedly before the resumption of breathing (42) in this study. As a result, nasal dilator muscle activity may be modulated by pulmonary afferents outside the nose. C. Nasal Reflexes in Ventilatory Control There are several reflexes that are mediated partially or completely through receptors located in the nose that can have profound effects on ventilation and ventilatory timing. The most important of these is the diving reflex. With the application of water (or probably cold) to the nose there is an abrupt apnea, with bradycardia, laryngeal closure, and a centralization of the circulation (43,44). This reflex is prominent in many animals and also in newborn humans, but is relatively weak in the adult human, with only a mild to moderate inhibition of ventilation (45). The sneeze is another prominent nasal reflex that is probably mediated through trigeminal afferents (46) in response to a variety of stimuli, including mechanical and chemical irritants of the nose and inhalation of mediators, such as
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histamine, acetylcholine, or capsaicin. The sneeze response is characterized by a deep inhalation followed by a forced exhalation against an initially closed glottis, which subsequently opens allowing a blast of forced air out, primarily through the nose. The sniff reflex (47) can also be induced by a variety of irritants and odors. The role of this reflex may be to clear the nose, but also potentially to direct air past the olfactory mucosa. There are a variety of additional nasal respiratory reflexes that have been studied primarily in animals, but may also apply to humans. These include negative pressure in the nose, which can prolong both inspiration (TI) and expiration (TE) and activate several upper airway muscles (48–51). In addition, there is some literature suggesting that airflow in the nose may influence respiration, with one study indicating that a stream of cool air in the nose substantially inhibits ventilation (52). There is also literature on a nasobronchial reflex that suggests that nasal receptors can influence bronchial airway size, primarily through vagal mechanisms (53). However, this literature is variable as to whether the reflex is bronchoconstrictive (54) or bronchodilatory (53). Finally, nasal irritation can also have a substantial effect on mucous secretion, both in the nose itself and in the lower airway (55). This reflex is likely parasympathetically mediated. Thus, the nasal mucosa is rich with afferents that influence a variety of respiratory functions. IV. The Pharynx. A. Anatomy For the purposes of this discussion the pharynx will be considered to extend from the choanae or nasopharynx to the epiglottis and, therefore, will encompass what has previously been called the velopharynx, the oropharynx, and the hypopharynx. As shown in Figure 9, a parasagittal section through the adult upper airway (56), the human pharynx is surrounded primarily by muscle tissue, with little bony or cartilaginous support. Although the cervical spine does provide some posterior support, patency of the pharynx is considered to be largely dependent on muscle activity, rather than rigid structures. The upper portion of the pharynx or velopharynx is bounded anteriorly by the posterior surface of the soft palate plus uvula, and posteriorly by the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle plus the cervical spine. Laterally, this portion of the pharynx is surrounded by the various muscular structures of the palate itself, the pharyngeal constrictor series of muscles, and muscles extending from the base of the skull (mastoid and styloid processes) to attach on the hyoid bone and other pharyngeal structures. Patency of the velopharynx is largely a product of the activity of the superior constrictor muscle and the position of the soft palate and and uvula, which are under direct muscular control. As one moves down the airway, the oropharynx is next encountered and is
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Figure 9 Parasagittal section of the pharynx, larynx, and mouth of a male adult. (From Ref. 56.)
bounded posteriorly by the superior and middle pharyngeal constrictors plus the cervical spine. The lateral wall structures are similar to those described for the velopharynx, whereas the anterior border is largely made up by the tongue or genioglossus muscle. Again, as for the velopharynx, airway patency is largely a product of the activity of the pharyngeal constrictor muscles plus the genioglossus muscle, although side wall thickness and shape may also be relevant. Finally, the lower portion of the pharyngeal airway or hypopharynx is bounded anteriorly by the epiglottis and posteriorly and laterally by the middle constrictor and thyropharyngeal muscles. Patency of this portion of the airway is largely determined by the activity of the middle constrictor and thyropharyngeal muscles, but also is substantially influenced by the location of the hyoid bone. Hyoid position is determined by the activity of several angulating muscles that, working both together and in opposition, localize this bone (57). Therefore, once again, muscle activity seems to play an important role.
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It is quite difficult to qualitatively assess the influence of purely anatomical structures on the size of the pharyngeal airway in humans. When the airway is imaged or visualized using any one of a number of approaches, the size of the airway lumen is likely a product of anatomy, dilator muscle activity, airway wall collapsibility, and intraairway pressure (2,10). Determining which is predominant is consistently difficult. However, it seems certain that anatomical structures can reduce pharyngeal airway size. These would include tonsillar and adenoidal hypertrophy, retrognathia, micrognathia, macroglossia, and other mandibular or maxillary structural abnormalities. Obesity also seems to influence airway size (58). However, whether this represents simple fat deposition in the airway or the influence of fat on muscle function or position is still unclear. Thus, anatomy is likely one of a number of variables that can strongly influence airway size. During wakefulness, however, it seems that dilator muscle activity can compensate appropriately for deficient anatomy, should it be present, thereby keeping pharyngeal resistance within a tolerable range (59). Little will be said, from a structural perspective, about the oral route of respiration, for most ventilation in normal subjects occurs through the nose. This is particularly true at rest. With exercise, as ventilation rises above about 35–45 L/min, oral ventilation begins in combination with nasal breathing (60). How ventilation is partitioned between the nose and mouth will be discussed in the following sections. B. Control of the Pharyngeal Musculature The muscles of the pharyngeal airway are quite variable in terms of their location, function, neural control, and relationship to respiration. As a result, no general statements would be useful. Accordingly, in approaching this discussion, it seems appropriate to divide these muscles into four anatomically and functionally related groups, thereby providing some structure to this presentation. These groups are (1) the palatal muscles, (2) the pharyngeal constrictors, (3) the genioglossus muscle, and (4) the muscles influencing hyoid position. This grouping should not imply that the activities of these muscles are unrelated, for in many functions they are. However, this method simply provides a systematic way of approaching this complex area. The Palatal Muscles There are five primary palatal muscles (Fig. 10). They are the tensor palatini, the levator palatini, the palatoglossus, the palatopharyngeus, and the muscular uvulae (61,62). These muscles, in a coordinated fashion, serve two primary respiratory functions. By positioning the soft palate, the route of ventilation (oral versus nasal) is largely determined, particularly when the mouth is open (62). In addition, during nasal respiration, the activity of palatal muscles may critically influence the
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Figure 10 Anatomical arrangement of some muscles that control the position of the soft palate in humans. (From Ref. 61.)
resistance to airflow across the velopharynx. As the velopharynx is the sight of the greatest pharyngeal narrowing during sleep in normal subjects (63) and of airway collapse in most patients with obstructive sleep apnea (64), palatal muscle activity may be quite important during sleep in the maintenance of airway patency. It should also be recognized that the palatal muscles are quite important during speech and swallowing, in addition to their respiratory roles. The levator palatini arise from the temporal bone of the skull and inserts into the palatine aponeurosis. As a result, its primary action is to elevate the palate, thereby leading to nasopharyngeal closure and oral respiration or speech (62), During nasal respiration, the activity of the levator palatini is substantially reduced (Fig. 11), allowing the palate to lower and abut the tongue, thereby closing the oral respiratory route (65). The activation pattern of the levator palatini has been variable. In one study half the subjects demonstrated inspiratory phasic activity and the other half expiratory phasic activation (65). On the other hand several early studies reported no respiratory activation of this muscle during nasal breathing (66,67). The explanation for these differences is unknown. However, it seems clear that this muscle can respond to respiratory stimuli, such as rising PCO2, negative pressure, and respiratory resistive loading, by augmenting its activity (65). Therefore, in many ways, it is a respiratory muscle. The palatoglossus has a near opposite role to that of the levator palatini, for it relaxes during oral respiration and becomes quite active with nasal breathing (see Fig. 11) because its primary action is to close the oral airway (65). This
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Figure 11 Raw data from one subject demonstrating moving time average (MTA) electromyogram (EMG) of palatoglossus and levator palatini muscles during basal nasal and oral respiration. (From Ref. 65.)
muscle makes up a portion of the palatoglossal arch and runs from the palatine aponeurosis to the lateral posterior aspect of the tongue (62). Therefore, with activation, the tongue is elevated and the palate lowered, thereby closing the oral respiratory route. As a result, the palatoglossus is primarily active during nasal respiration. It may also be important in keeping the palate off the posterior pharyngeal wall when the individual is in the supine posture and breathing nasally. With activation of this muscle, the palate is pulled onto the tongue, thereby opposing gravity and opening the velopharynx. Therefore, the palatoglossus may be important in the maintenance of velopharyngeal patency while supine. This muscle was recently observed to consistently have an inspiratory phasic activation pattern (primarily during nasal breathing) and to increase its activity during CO2 rebreathing and inspiratory resistive loading (65,68). Accordingly, it has a clear respiratory role and is likely a pharyngeal dilator muscle. The palatopharyngeus muscle runs somewhat parallel to the palatoglossus, making up the palatopharyngeal arch. It arises from the end of the hard palate and palatine aponeurosis, runs posterior to the tonsil, and inserts on the thyroid cartilage and lateral pharyngeal wall. With activation of the palatopharyngeus the pharynx is shortened and the palatopharyngeal arches approximated (62). The respiratory role of this muscle is still unclear, although its anatomy would suggest that it contributes to closing the oral airway, thereby promoting nasal ventilation. This action may also improve supine velopharyngeal patency. Preliminary data suggest the palatopharyngeus muscle has an inspiratory phasic activation pattern and can respond to pulses of airway negative pressure (69). Therefore, it may have a role as a pharyngeal dilator muscle.
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The role of the tensor palatini muscle is the subject of considerable debate. Some investigators believe it has little respiratory role at all, whereas others believe it may be quite important in tensing the palate and potentially pulling it off the posterior pharyngeal wall. The muscle originates from the lateral surface of the auditory tube and scaphoid fossa, forms a tendinous sheath that wraps around the tip of the pterygoid hamulus and inserts into the palatal aponeurosis (62). Therefore, one might suspect anatomically that the muscle can tense the palate and lift it off the pharyngeal wall, although its function is unclear. Equally argued it its activation pattern. Early studies (67,68) supported an inspiratory phasic activation pattern, and several recent studies have corroborated that observation (70,71). Others have consistently reported only tonic activity in this muscle (72,73). As a result, its respiratory role remains unclear. Finally, the last muscle of the palate is the musculus uvulae. This muscle originates from the posterior nasal spine and palatine aponeurosis and inserts on the mucous membrane of the uvulae. As a result, it tends to elevate or pull up the uvula and is believed to be most important in completing nasopharyngeal closure. Whether it has a respiratory role is unclear, for the muscle has been only nominally studied. However, hypertrophy and increased anaerobic enzymatic activity have been observed in this muscle in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (74), suggesting it may have some role in maintaining airway patency. In addition, a recent abstract suggests that phasic activity (either inspiratory or expiratory) is commonly observed in this muscle in humans, with considerably greater activity during oral than nasal ventilation (75). The foregoing discussion has focused on the respiratory role of the palatal muscles. This should not imply, however, that these muscles do not have additional activities. Speech is importantly influenced by the position of the palate, and there is a substantial literature on the activity of the palatal muscles during a variety of phonation maneuvers. The palate also serves a role in swallowing by closing the nasal route, thereby preventing nasal regurgitation. Therefore, these muscles have many functions, with respiration being a prominent one. The Pharyngeal Constrictors As shown in Figure 12, there are three pharyngeal constrictor muscles: the superior, middle, and inferior. As can be seen, there is considerable overlap in these muscles along the pharyngeal wall. Little is known about their respiratory function, for their primary role appears to be swallowing. However, some literature does suggest that these muscles have a respiratory pattern of activation. Hairston et al. (76) observed consistent expiratory activity in the superior constrictor in humans, and Rothstein et al. (77), in rabbits, reported expiratory augmentation in the inferior constrictor, but inspiratory phasic activity in the superior and middle constrictors. Finally, Sherry and Megirian (78) observed consistent expiratory
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Figure 12 Anatomical arrangement of the superior, middle, and inferior pharyngeal constrictors in humans. (From Ref. 61.)
phasic activity in all three constrictors in anesthetized cats. They also reported clear modulation of the activity of the middle constrictor in response to respiratory stimuli, such as hypo or hypercapnia. As a result, it seems likely that these constrictor muscles have a respiratory activation pattern, with activity being present primarily on expiration. However, their functional role in influencing pharyngeal airway size or expiratory airflow remains obscure. Of interest Collett et al. (79) observed a reduction in pharyngeal airway size in asthmatics in response to active bronchoconstriction with histamine. This decrement in upper airway caliber on expiration may serve to brake expiratory flow, thereby increasing lung volume with reduced cost to inspiratory muscles. Whether this reduction in airway size was secondary to increased activity of the pharyngeal constrictors, as opposed to decreased dilator activity, was not addressed, for no EMGs were recorded; however, augmented constrictor activity seems likely. The Genioglossus Muscle The genioglossus muscle makes up much of the anterior wall of the oropharynx and thus is structurally important in the patency of this region. This muscle has
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both intrinsic and extrinsic components, with the intrinsic ones being primarily involved with tongue shape. The extrinsic genioglossal musculature originates on the anterior portion of the mandible and then fans out as it extends toward the back of the tongue. The genioglossus, therefore, is involved in protruding the tongue and likely in advancing the posterior portion of the tongue away from the pharyngeal wall, thereby enlarging the oropharynx. As a result, the genioglossus is probably an important pharyngeal dilator muscle. Because of its location, accessibility, and likely importance in keeping the airway patent, there has evolved a large literature addressing the respiratory function of this muscle. As a result, the genioglossus, correctly or incorrectly, has served as the prototypic pharyngeal dilator muscle. Therefore, its function will be addressed here in somewhat more detail than that of the other dilator muscles. Virtually all studies that have addressed the activity of genioglossus muscle indicate that it has an inspiratory phasic activation pattern, assumedly dilating or stiffening the upper airway on inspiration when intrapharyngeal pressure is negative (54,73,80). The genioglossus muscle clearly responds to many standard respiratory stimuli, such as hypoxia and hypercapnia, with increased activity (81,82). Of greater importance, however, is the ability of this muscle to respond to intrapharyngeal negative pressure. It has been demonstrated for years, in anesthetized animals with an isolated upper airway, that intrapharyngeal negative pressure leads to increased genioglossal EMG response, particularly the inspiratory component (38). The afferent pathway for this reflex is almost certainly through the superior laryngeal nerve. However, neither the location nor the nature of the receptor responding to negative airway pressure has been delineated. Recently, similar observations have been made in humans. Two groups of investigators (51,83) have reported that rapidonset pulses of negative pressure applied to the human upper airway led to increased genioglossal EMG activity over a time course compatible with a neural reflex. This reflex in humans is demonstrated in Figure 13. Hence, the genioglossus muscle seems able to respond to both general respiratory stimuli (hypoxia or hypercapnia) and to events occurring in its immediate vicinity (negative airway pressure). Two other influences on genioglossal activity are worth mentioning. First, several studies indicate clear vagal effects on genioglossal or hypoglossal activity in animals (84,85). Lung inflation produces a sustained graded inhibition of genioglossal EMG activity or hypoglossal neural activity (84,85). When lung inflation is prevented by airway occlusion, or vagal transmission is blocked, genioglossal activity increases (85). Whether this is true in humans has not yet been tested. Also of interest, is the observation in rabbits that inhibition of vagal mechanisms increases the genioglossal EMG response to negative pressure (86). As a result, these two neural mechanisms are integrated at some level. Finally, these vagal influences are likely active in the alae nasi (85,86) and several laryngeal muscles (84,87) as well.
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Figure 13 Representative awake negativepressure generation: Representative computer recording of genioglossus (GG), moving time average (MTA), electromyogram (EMG), and pharyngeal pressure in one subject during a negativepressure generation. Vertical dashed lines indicate negative pressure onset in both panels. Second vertical line in top panel denotes onset of increasing GG EMG activity. Time between two dashed lines (arrow) in top panel represents the latency of the GG EMG response to negative pressure. Note the characteristics of the negativepressure generation: rapid onset and offset with total duration < 0.6 sec. (From Ref. 83.)
Second, it was demonstrated in anesthetized animals, by Salamone et al. (88), that increments in blood pressure lead to a preferential decrement in hypoglossal compared with phrenic neural activity. Therefore, increased baroreceptor output seems to inhibit genioglossal activity. Subsequent studies in humans suggest a similar phenomenon. Garpestad et al. (89) demonstrated that phenylephrineinduced increments in mean blood pressure lead to substantial decrements in genioglossal EMG activity (to 53% of baseline) in normal men. Similarly, Wasicko et al. (90) reported that rapid movement from a near upright posture to the supine or headdown position leads to falls in genioglossal activity, presumably secondary to changes in blood pressure and, therefore, baroreceptor output. As a result, baroreceptor output seems to have a strong inhibitory influence on genioglossal activity.
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The importance of the genioglossus muscle in the maintenance of upper airway patency has been demonstrated in various ways. First, a number of years ago, it was observed in anesthetized animals that activation of the genioglossus muscle with asphyxia rendered the upper airway considerably less collapsible, with progressively greater negative pressure being required to close the airway as genioglossal activity increased. On the other hand, if genioglossal activity was inhibited with deeper anesthesia or eliminated by euthanizing the animal, the airway became considerably more collapsible (11). These studies suggest that genioglossal activity substantially influences upper airway collapsibility. However, other pharyngeal dilator muscles may be responding to stimulation and inhibition in a manner similar to the genioglossus and influencing airway closure by their activity as well. More recent studies suggest that genioglossal activity may be quite important on a breathbybreath basis in the maintenance of pharyngeal patency. Leiter et al. (13) observed that the genioglossal EMG activity increased on each breath with rising respiratory flow and assumedly more negative intrapharyngeal pressure. However, over the course of the breath, pharyngeal resistance was quite constant (Fig. 14). Accordingly, the muscle activity must be offsetting the collapsing negative pressure to yield constant resistance. This could well explain the stable pharyngeal size observed across inspiration in normal subjects (see Fig. 2). Hence, a subtle interplay between pressure (± flow) in the airway versus genioglossal muscle activity must exist to accomplish this tight regulation of airway stability. However, these studies still fail to firmly document a pivotal role for the genioglossus in maintaining airway patency, for many other upper airway muscles may be behaving in a similar manner with similar activities. To definitely demonstrate such a role for the genioglossus, the muscle would have to be selectively stimulated or inhibited with the effect on airway size carefully monitored. In the dog, Schwartz et al. (91) have convincingly demonstrated that stimulation of the hypoglossal nerves and, thereby, the genioglossal muscle, can reduce airflow resistance and render the airway less collapsible. As a result, the genioglossus can stabilize the airway in this animal. Sublingual stimulation, presumably of the genioglossus muscle, in humans decreased airflow resistance when this resistance was increased by external pressure on the submental hyoid region (92). This certainly suggests a dilator role for this muscle. In addition, in humans, stimulation of the submental area with surface electrodes has been reported to terminate obstructive apnea by opening the airway (93). If one assumes that the genioglossus was the principal muscle stimulated, it may be important in opening an occluded airway in humans. Finally, stimulation of the hypoglossal nerve in a few apnea patients was observed to increase airway size by a computed tomographic (CT) scan during wakefulness in one study, but had little efficacy in the treatment of their apnea (94). However, Podszus et al. (95) observed, in a preliminary fashion, that hypoglossal stimulation can terminate apneas in patients with obstructive apnea.
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Figure 14 Mean values of integrated EMGge activity and nasal and pharyngeal resistances within 0.1L/secsequential ranges of airflow as functions of flow: Data are from first upright seated measurement from a single subject. Note increasing EMGge across the breath with a relatively constant pharyngeal resistance. (From Ref. 13.)
When all data are considered, it seems quite probable that the genioglossus is an important pharyngeal dilator muscle. It has a respiratory pattern of activation, can respond to both systemic respiratory stimuli (hypoxia) and local airway events (negative pressure), and seems to stabilize upper airway resistance, even across a single breath in normal subjects. In patients with apnea, stimulation of the muscle can likely terminate apneas. Therefore, it is a prototypic upper airway dilator muscle. Muscles Influencing Hyoid Bone Position Thy hyoid bone sits anterior to the epiglottis and under the genioglossus muscle (see Fig. 9). As a result, the position of this bone is probably important in influencing both oropharyngeal and hypopharyngeal patency. The position of the hyoid bone is controlled by multiple muscles that intersect into this small bone. These muscles have varying levels of activity during various nonrespiratory activities, such as swallowing, speech, and head motion. However, these muscles may also play an important respiratory role in keeping the airway open (96,97).
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The muscles that seem to have a primary respiratory role, or at least those that have been investigated for this function, fall into two groups. One group would include muscles such as the geniohyoid that originates on the anterior portion of the mandible and inserts on the hyoid bone. With contraction of the geniohyoid, the hyoid bone is pulled forward and upward or rostrally, thereby dilating the airway (96,97). The mylohyoid may function in a similar manner. The second group includes muscles that tend to pull the hyoid down or caudally and are best represented by the sternohyoid muscle. This muscle originates on the sternum and inserts on the hyoid bone. The thyrohyoid may function in a similar manner. These two muscles or muscle groups probably function both antagonistically and synergistically (Fig. 15). The geniohyoid pulls the hyoid up and forward, whereas the sternohyoid pulls it down or caudally. Thus, some antagonistic function seems clear. However, by jointly activating both muscles, the position of the hyoid bone is stabilized and, as shown in Figure 15, moved away from the posterior pharyngeal wall, thereby opening the airway. There is convincing evidence that these muscles actually function in this dilator fashion. First, inspiratory phasic activity is commonly observed in both the geniohyoid and sternohyoid muscles in a variety of animals (96–98) and in the geniohyoid in humans (99). Second, these muscles respond to standard respiratory stimuli (hypercapnia or negative pressure) by increasing their activity level (97). Finally, isolated stimulation of the sternohyoid or geniohyoid in rabbits (98) and dogs (100) leads to either decreased pharyngeal airflow resistance or reduced collapsibility, or both. When both are activated, the pharyngeal airway becomes
Figure 15 Schematic view of how a truly outward (ventral) motion of a freely suspended hyoid arch depends on the vector sum of cephalad and caudad forces. (From Ref. 97.)
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even more stable than is observed with stimulation of a single muscle (96). With this pattern of activation, it is not surprising that a forward motion of the hyoid bone was observed during full inspiration (101). Of interest, fairly recent studies of hyoid muscles have demonstrated the complexity of interpreting the activity (EMG) of upper airway muscles. van Lunteren et al. (96) demonstrated, using sonomicrometry, that both the geniohyoid and sternohyoid muscles can actually lengthen while their electrical activity increases. As such an increase in activity (EMG) likely represents muscle contraction and an attempt to shorten, opposing forces must be overcoming this tension. For the sterno and geniohyoid, this opposing force is likely produced by both other muscles (sterno versus geniohyoid) and intrapharyngeal negative pressure, both of which would tend to lengthen these muscles. This study makes the point that an increased EMG response does not always mean muscle shortening. Pharyngeal Reflexes in Ventilatory Control There are probably only two pharyngeal reflexes worth addressing. These are the aspiration reflex and swallowing (44). The aspiration reflex is manifested by a gasping inspiratory effort in response to pharyngeal and, particularly, nasopharyngeal stimulation (44,102). The stimulus is usually mechanical or irritant, although a recent article suggests that both positive and negative intrapharyngeal pressure can also actuate this reflex (103). Rapid, shortduration bursts of phrenic nerve activity characterize the reflex. Presumably, the function of this reflex is to move any obstructing material in the nasopharynx to the oropharynx for swallowing or expectoration. This reflex is prominent in many mammalian species, but may be somewhat weaker in humans (44). The swallowing reflex is generally activated when either food or liquid reaches the pharynx (104). From a respiratory perspective, during swallowing, the diaphragm is inhibited (105), and laryngeal adductors are activated such that respiration ceases and the larynx is closed, thereby preventing aspiration. Multiple afferent and efferent nerves are likely involved in this reflex, including the trigeminal, glossopharyngeal, superior laryngeal, and hypoglossal nerves, with the glossopharyngeal being most prominent. Recent data suggest that this reflex may be regulated through nonmyelinated, C fiber afferents with substance P facilitating the reflex (106). This is obviously an important reflex if feeding is to be accomplished without aspiration. V. The Larynx A. Anatomy The anatomy of the larynx is quite complicated, with multiple bony, cartilaginous, ligamentous, and muscular components (107). As a result, it will not be discussed in detail here, other than by addressing those elements that relate to airway size.
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Figure 16 Superior view of the laryngeal cartilages and vocal ligaments of an adult. (From Ref. 107.)
The principal bony or cartilaginous structures of the larynx are the thyroid, cricoid, and arytenoid cartilages (Fig. 16). These provide the skeleton of the larynx, which connects the airway at the hypopharynx to the upper trachea. These structures protect the airway column from collapse. Of note, these laryngeal cartilages are in close proximity to the hyoid bone and epiglottis and are connected to these structures by both ligaments and muscles. As a result, coordinated movements of all elements are required for effective swallowing, speech, and airflow. There are two motions of the larynx that tend to compromise the airway. One action is the approximation of the laryngeal cartilages and the epiglottis, thereby closing the supraglottic airway. This is generally accomplished during swallowing and protects the lower airway. The second action is the opening and closing of the vocal cords, which can directly affect airway size and airflow characteristics. These actions are accomplished by various intrinsic muscles of the larynx, which will be discussed in the following. The Laryngeal Musculature. The muscles of the larynx are generally divided into those that connect the larynx to surrounding tissues, the extrinsic muscles, and those that are confined entirely to the larynx, the intrinsic muscles. The extrinsic muscles act primarily to elevate and lower the larynx during swallowing or to stabilize laryngeal position during breathing. On the other hand, the intrinsic muscles are primarily involved with vocal cord position and controlling the laryngeal inlet. The extrinsic laryngeal muscles are generally divided into those that tend to elevate the larynx and those that tend to depress it. The elevators of the larynx are
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the digastric, stylohyoid, mylohyoid, thyrohyoid, and geniohyoid muscles. The stylothyroid, salpingopharyngeus, and palatopharyngeus muscles may also contribute to this action. The muscles that depress the larynx include the sternothyroid, sternohyoid, and omohyoid. As is likely obvious, these muscles may also perform actions other than simply elevating or depressing the laryngeal cartilage. This is particularly true of the muscles connected to the hyoid bone. The hyoid's position is influenced by several muscles and may importantly influence hypopharyngeal patency. Therefore, a number of these extrinsic laryngeal muscles may have an important role in controlling the size of the airway behind the epiglottis. Because these muscles were discussed previously, they will not be addressed further at this time. The intrinsic muscles of the larynx primarily influence vocal cord position and the laryngeal inlet (Fig. 17). The principal abductors of the cords are the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, which rotate the arytenoid cartilages outward, thereby opening the vocal cords. To accomplish adduction of the vocal cords, several muscles are required. These include the lateral cricoarytenoid, which rotate the arytenoid cartilage inward, and the transverse arytenoid or arytenoideus muscle, which approximates the arytenoid cartilages, thereby combining to close the cords. In addition, the thyroarytenoid muscles not only contribute to closing the cords, but also draw the arytenoid cartilages forward, thereby shortening and relaxing the cords. Finally, the oblique arytenoid muscles serve to approximate the
Figure 17 The intrinsic muscles of the larynx and their bony attachments are demonstrated. (From Ref. 108.)
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laryngeal cartilages and pull them toward the epiglottis to close the glottic inlet during swallowing. These muscles, therefore, work as both agonists and antagonists in controlling vocal cord position and tension, which allows not only speech, but also control of airflow. Although the actions of these muscles have been studied for years in animals, there is now a building literature in humans, which allows us to examine their respiratory activation patterns and function. The posterior cricoarytenoid muscle, a vocal cord abductor, shows a prominent inspiratory phasic pattern of activation, with continued tonic activity throughout the respiratory cycle (109–111). Therefore, the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle is likely important in opening the cords to allow inspiration, but also may influence cord position during expiration. The adductors of the vocal cords, the thyroarytenoid and arytenoidenous muscles, appear to have more prominent expiratory activity. The thyroarytenoid muscle demonstrated prominent expiratory phasic activity in virtually all normal subjects studied, although tonic activity during inspiration was also frequently observed (112). Although the arytenoideus muscle also commonly demonstrated expiratory phasic activity, its entire activation pattern was variable (113). In some subjects, phasic activity began in midinspiration and extended until midtolate expiration, whereas in other subjects, the muscle was biphasic. Some also demonstrated purely expiratory phasic activity. Regardless of the activation pattern, some tonic activity was present throughout the respiratory cycle (113). When the arytenoideus muscle was stimulated with hypoxia or hypercapnia, both the phasic and tonic activity steadily decreased (114), although short bursts of activity were observed in the transitions from inspiration to expiration (Fig. 18). These studies would suggest that vocal cord tension and position are under active control at all times during both inspiration and expiration. The antagonistic adductors and abductors all have continuous activity throughout the respiratory cycle, with the abductors opening the cords during inspiration and adductors closing them to some extent during both inspiration and expiration. This suggests active laryngeal breaking of expiratory airflow, which could help regulate lung volume and airway pressure. Consequently, the intrinsic laryngeal muscles have prominent ventilatory control functions. As stated earlier in the discussion of the genioglossus muscle, phasic volume feedback from vagal afferents can also strongly influence upper airway muscle activity. The principles described for the genioglossus muscle apply to the recurrent laryngeal nerve (the main source of efferent innervation of most intrinsic laryngeal muscles) as well (84,85,87). Volume feedback produced a graded inhibition of recurrent laryngeal neural activity throughout inspiration in decerebrate cats (84,87). This has also been shown for the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle in anesthetized dogs (85). It is likely that this vagal mechanism also influences the inspiratory phasic laryngeal muscles. How it would affect the primarily expiratory muscles, such as the thyroarytenoid or arytenoideus is still unknown.
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Figure 18 Arytenoideus muscle activity in one subject at 98, 90, and 70% SaO2: V, volume, trace, zero flow; horizontal line of MA trace, electrical zero. (From Ref. 114.)
As one considers the foregoing information about the respiratory function of the laryngeal muscles, it must be kept in mind that the larynx has a variety of additional roles that may substantially affect the activity of these muscles. These primarily include speech, but also the protection of the lower airway during swallowing. As one role becomes dominant during a particular event, the respiratory function of the muscle may become less apparent. Laryngeal Reflexes in Ventilatory Control Most evidence would suggest that the larynx is rich in both receptors and afferents (115) and, therefore, is the source of reflexes that (1) affect ventilatory control in general, (2) influence the activity of laryngeal muscles, and (3) affect the activity of other upper airway muscles. The internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve is the source of most, if not all, afferent traffic. Laryngeal receptors or endings have been observed in the mucosa, the joints of the larynx, and in the laryngeal muscles. However, recently, laryngeal endings have been classified functionally, rather than by location. Superior laryngeal nerve afferents seem to respond to three types of stimuli (116): airflow (or temperature; 117,118), pressure, and drive (Fig. 19). The drive receptors seem to be responding to laryngeal motion, whether active (by intrinsic laryngeal muscles) or passive (downward pull by chest wall muscles). There is also recent evidence that intralaryngeal CO2 can influence the reactivity of the pressure response (119,120). Because of this rich afferent traffic
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Figure 19 Behavior of respiratory modulated laryngeal receptors during upper airway breathing (UA Br.), tracheal breathing (Tr. Br.), upper airway occlusion (UA Occ.), and tracheal occlusion (Tr. Occ.): Laryngeal cold receptors are activated only when airflowrelated temperature change occurs, whereas pressure receptors respond to transmural pressure changes within the larynx. In contrast, drive receptors, in general, reflect respiratory drive to upper airway muscles, which is increased during airway occlusions. (From Ref. 115.)
from multiple types of endings, there is clear respiratory modulation of superior laryngeal nerve activity during wholenerve recordings. Several approaches have been taken to assess the role of these afferents. One is to simply stimulate the superior laryngeal nerve. This generally leads to decreased respiratory frequency and frank apnea if the stimulus is strong enough. This is accompanied by decreased diaphragmatic and intercostal inspiratory activity. On the other hand, most laryngeal adductors (thyroarytenoid or other) are activated by such stimulation, as is the hypoglossal nerve (121). Therefore, the upper airway muscles seem to respond quite differently from the pump muscles. However, such superior laryngeal nerve stimulation is likely to activate multiple afferents, making the function of individual endings or types of endings difficult to interpret using this method. As a result, specific stimuli have been applied to the upper airway and the effects assessed. One such approach is the application of negative pressure to the upper airway. Such negative pressure, in both humans and animals, generally activates upper airway muscles such as the genioglossus, tensor palatini, alae nasi, and
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posterior cricoarytenoid (49). This reflex is believed to be largely of laryngeal origin, for laryngeal anesthesia and superior laryngeal nerve sectioning abolish the response (122). The strength of this reflex can be modulated by several variables, such as stimulus strength, sleep (83), phasic volume feedback (86), and respiratory timing. Thus, considerable central integration of this reflex is required. The role of temperaturesensitive laryngeal ending in ventilatory control remains somewhat unclear. Cooling of the isolated larynx of the anesthetized cat produced a considerable increase in lower airway resistance and a reduction in laryngeal resistance (reduced expiratory muscle activity; 123). In dogs such cooling led to increased laryngeal resistance by decreasing posterior cricoarytenoid activity (124). A more recent study in decerebrate cats (125) revealed inconsistent hypoglossal neural response to laryngeal cooling. Therefore, the role of this temperaturesensitive reflex is unclear. This is true for drive receptors as well, because little influence on ventilatory control can be identified. The laryngeal receptors resistive to CO2 have also been studied in some detail (120). These receptors inhibit phrenic activity and stimulate the genioglossus muscle, but have no consistent effect on the laryngeal muscles or recurrent laryngeal nerve activity (126). However, the effects on upper airway muscle activity were greater following vagotomy (127), suggesting an interaction between intralaryngeal CO2 and volume feedback. The laryngeal muscles also play an important role in many of the defensive (protective) reflexes that may originate in or away from the larynx. Laryngeal closure (adductor muscles) is a prominent part of the diving reflex, which originates in the nose, as described previously (43–45). In addition, during both coughing and sneezing, laryngeal closure followed by rapid opening allows a buildup of pressure in the chest, leading to an explosive expiratory flow of air when the cords open. Also considerable laryngeal coordination is required in swallowing, as discussed previously, and during the aspiration reflex. Therefore, the larynx is the source of afferent neural input and participates in reflexes initiated elsewhere, all of which broadly affect ventilatory control. VI. Conclusions The human upper airway remains a complex area both anatomically and functionally. However, our understanding of this area has improved immensely over the last 10–15 years, with rapidly advancing information in both humans and animals. The application of this information to disease states such as obstructive sleep apnea has led to an improved understanding of the pathophysiology of this disorder. However, we must now push to understand the basic central neural processes controlling the function of the upper airway muscles and the molecular
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mechanisms controlling these neural processes. Only with such information can we satisfactorily address disorders of this important airway segment. References 1. Proctor DF. The nasooropharyngolaryngeal airway. Eur J Respir Dis 1983; 64: 89–96. 2. Haponik E, Smith P, Bolman M, Allan R, Goldman S, Bleecker E. Computerized tomography in obstructive sleep apnea: correlation of airway size with physiology during sleep and wakefulness. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983; 127:221–226. 3. Stauffer JL, Zwillich CW, Cadieux RJ, Bixler ED, Kales A, Varano LA, White DP. Pharyngeal size and resistance in obstructive sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 136:623–627. 4. Wasicko MJ, Hutt DA, Parisi RA, Neubauer JA, Mezrich R, Edelman NH. The role of vascular tone in the control of upper airway collapsibility. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:1569–1577. 5. Suratt PM, Wilhoit SC, Cooper K. Induction of airway collapse with subatmospheric pressure in awake patients with sleep apnea. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57:140– 146. 6. Gleadhill IC, Schwartz AR, Schubert N, Wise RA, Permutt S, Smith RL. Upper airway collapsibility in snorers and patients with obstructive hypopnea and apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143:1300–1303. 7. Olson LG, Fouke JM, Hoekje PL, Strohl KP. A biomechanical view of upper airway function. In: Mathew OP, Sant' Ambrogio G, Eds. Respiratory Function of the Upper Airway. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1988:359–389. 8. Strohl KP, Fouke JM. Dilating forces on the upper airway of anesthetized dogs. J Appl Physiol 1985; 58:452–458. 9. Strohl KP, Gottfried SB, van de Graaff W, Wood RE, Fouke JM. Effect of sodium cyanide and nicotine on upper airway resistance in anesthetized dogs. Respir Physiol 1986; 63:161–166. 10. Schwartz AR, Thut DC, Brower RG, Gauda EB, Roach D, Permutt S, Smith PL. Modulation of maximal inspiratory airflow by neuromuscular activity: effect of CO2. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74:1597–1605. 11. Brouillette RT, Thach BT. A neuromuscular mechanism maintaining extrathoracic airway patency. J Appl Physiol 1979; 46:772–779. 12. Schwab RJ, Gefter WB, Hoffman EA, Gupta KB, Pack AI. Dynamic upper airway imaging during awake respiration in normal subjects and patients with sleep disordered breathing. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148:1385–1400. 13. Leiter JC, Knuth SL, Bartlett D. Dependence of pharyngeal resistance on genioglossal EMG activity, nasal resistance, and airflow. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73:584– 590. 14. Borg TK, Ronson WF, Mosleny FA, Caverieco JB. Structural basis of ventricular stiffness. Lab Invest 1981; 44:49–54. 15. Olson LG, Strohl KP. Airway secretions influence upper airway patency in the rabbit. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137:1379–1381.
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7 Periodic Breathing and Central Apnea MICHAEL C. K. KHOO University of Southern California Los Angeles, California I. Introduction The control of breathing involves the integration of various interconnected neural, cardiopulmonary, and muscular structures. For this elaborate system to function as an efficient regulator of gas exchange, it is not sufficient that individual parts are fully operational and free of underlying pathology. The flows of sensory and control information among the different components also have to be temporally integrated. Because each component of this system has its own dynamic response characteristics and because it takes time for information to flow from one structure to another, control is never instantaneous. Thus, fluctuations in breathtobreath ventilation are the rule, not the exception. The superimposition of physiological state changes or certain pathological conditions on the system can lead to the amplification of these ventilatory fluctuations or the outright cessation of breathing. The term periodic breathing is generally used to describe the large range of respiratory patterns in which clusters of hyperventilatory breaths alternate cyclically with intervals of hypopnea or apnea. The most common clinical example of periodic breathing is the waxing and waning pattern of CheyneStokes respiration (CSR), named after its discoverers in the 19th century (1,2). Other types of
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periodic breathing do not show the prolonged crescendodecrescendo pattern of tidal volume characteristic of CSR. In the periodicbreathing patterns observed in sojourners to high altitude (3), in subjects with idiopathic central sleep apnea (4), or in newborn infants (5), breathing generally resurfaces more abruptly following the termination of apnea. Smalleramplitude periodic variations of ventilation are often buried in noiselike fluctuations and can be detected only when using appropriate filtering or spectral analyses (6,7). For our purposes, we will employ the broad definition of periodic breathing that encompasses the entire range of patterns we have just described. The purpose of this chapter is to review previous and current work directed at unraveling the major physiological mechanisms that underlie periodic breathing and central apnea. Our coverage of the material is not intended to be comprehensive or complete. Instead, this chapter offers an additional perspective that stresses the integrative and dynamic aspects of the mechanisms that affect respiratory stability. It is meant to complement the material discussed in several existing reviews (8–13). Although much attention was previously focused on instability in the chemoreflex regulation of ventilation, recent findings underscore the importance of nonchemical factors. Of these, changes in sleepwake state probably exert the most powerful influence on the stability of the breathing pattern. In many instances, it is not altogether clear whether the ventilatory fluctuations represent a primary instability in respiratory control or in state control. Also, the issue of respiratory pattern generation during periodic breathing will be addressed, because we believe that the dynamic interplay between fluctuations in tidal volume and breath duration can exert a significant effect on stability. In the past decade or so, there has been considerable advancement of our knowledge of the role played by the upper airways. Even though our focus is entirely on central apnea, we will also review the recent findings which suggest that periodic variations in upper airway resistance can help initiate or amplify ventilatory fluctuations. Several recent studies have confirmed the existence of shortterm potentiation in humans who are awake or asleep. This central mechanism is believed to exert a stabilizing influence on respiratory control, which inevitably raises the question of whether its absence is what distinguishes subjects who consistently exhibit periodic breathing from those who do not. Another set of recent studies have demonstrated the presence of a central “inhibitory memory.” This phenomenon exerts a destabilizing influence on respiratory control, for it effectively elevates the CO2 threshold at which breathing is reinitiated relative to the threshold at which apnea first appeared. In highlighting these factors, we do not wish to minimize the critical role that the chemoreflex control of ventilation plays in determining stability. Rather, our effort should be viewed as an attempt to extend the bounds of our current model to incorporate the dynamic interactions between the chemoreflex control and other closely coupled neural or mechanical processes.
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II. Periodic Breathing as an Instability in Control A. Factors Inducing Respiratory Control Instability The hierarchy of interconnected structures that we believe to be collectively involved in promoting or suppressing periodic breathing is highly complex. Even after considerable simplification, a realistic schematic layout of the main control structures and information flows remains rather complicated, as illustrated in Figure 1. To gain greater insight into the fundamental underpinnings of respiratory control instability, it is useful to begin the discussion by eliminating the details that are deemed to be of secondary or tertiary importance. This leads to a “barebones” model of ventilatory control that includes only regulation by chemical feedback. As shown in Figure 1, the various components may be lumped into three basic subsystems (depicted as dotted boxes): (1) the “controller,” (2) the “plant,” and (3) the system delay. The controller contains all neural, muscular, and mechanical processes involved in generating ventilatory airflow, based on the levels of the arterial blood gases. The plant represents the gasexchanging processes of the lungs and body tissues. The system delay refers to the sum of all latencies in the forward and feedback flows of information, consisting primarily of the time taken for blood to flow from the lungs to the chemoreceptors. Because the purpose of respiratory control is to regulate blood gases, feedback is derived from the chemosensors, based on changes of humoral CO2, pH, and O2 levels. As such, the controller receives only indirect information about the gas concentrations in the lungs, and this arrives after a certain delay interval. Therefore, any perturbation to the gasexchange process, produced by a spontaneous hypopnea or a change in inhaled gas concentration, for instance, will be sensed only some time later. This allows the disturbance to exert a greater effect on gas exchange than would occur if immediate corrective action by the controller were taken. Furthermore, the subsequent corrective action of the controller may occur at the end of the original perturbation, in which case it would help propagate, rather than attenuate, the effects of the disturbance. This physical and temporal isolation of the feedback sensors from the lungs plays a major role in mediating instability in respiratory control. The gain with which the controller converts the feedback information (blood gas levels) into corrective action (ventilation) is also a major player in determining system stability. A system with an unresponsive or weak controller will be easily perturbed by external factors (e.g.,nonchemical inputs, such as state changes or volitional commands; see Fig. 1), and the corrective action taken will be insufficient to offset these disturbances. On the other hand, a system with overly high controller gain will tend to overcorrect for perturbations. Moreover, because these overcorrections will always arrive late owing to the presence of time delays, they tend to propagate, rather than suppress, oscillatory behavior.
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Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the key factors determining respiratory control stability. Broken arrows represent hypothesized relationships. For other details, see accompanying text.
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A third major factor affecting stability is the amount of damping inherent in the system. In a system with large lung volume, transient fluctuations in ventilation result in smaller changes in alveolar gas tensions (PACO2 and PAO2) than would be true for small lung volume. One way of quantifying the lack of damping is to define the “plant gain,” which represents the responsiveness of PACO2 (or PAO2) to a unit change in ventilation. Greater damping implies smaller plant gain, and this implies greater stability. A smaller lung volume leads to greater plant gain, because a given transient change in ventilation will produce a larger change in PACO2. The CO2 and O2 stores of the body tissues also affect the amount of system damping. A smaller volume of the total CO2buffering capacity in the body also will lead to larger plant gain. Because of the nonlinear characteristics of the gasexchange process, plant gain is also dependent on the level of PACO2. Suppose alveolar ventilation is 7 L/min and PACO2 is 36 torr in an awake subject. A decrease in alveolar ventilation to 6 L/min would lead to an increase in PACO2 to 42 torr in the steady state, assuming the metabolic CO2 production rate remains constant. The plant gain here is (42 36)/(7 6)=6. Now, suppose CO2 is added to the inspired gas so that inhaled PCO2 is 18 torr. To maintain PACO2 at 36 torr, alveolar ventilation would have to rise to 14 L/min, again assuming CO2 production rate remains constant. How much would a reduction in alveolar ventilation by 1 L/min increase PACO2 during CO2 inhalation? The answer is 1.4 torr, the new PACO2 being 37.4 torr. The plant gain here is 1.4, compared with the original value of 6. Thus, CO2 inhalation reduces plant gain which, in turn, increases system stability. We turn to a different example. Now, we imagine a case where the subject is asleep. We assume alveolar ventilation to be 5 L/min, and the PACO2 to be 40 torr, somewhat higher than the waking level. The product of these two variables is 200, in contrast to 252 during wakefulness, reflecting a reduction in CO2 production rate with sleep. Now, if alveolar ventilation falls to 4 L/min, PACO2 must increase to 50 torr, assuming the same CO2 production rate for sleep. Therefore, sleep has increased the plant gain from 6 in wakefulness to 10. This is clearly a destabilizing influence. For simplicity, we have discussed controller and plant gains as though they were static quantities, which incorrectly conveys the impression that changes in blood gas levels will be instantly converted into changes in ventilation, or vice versa. Although this is acceptable when considering changes from one steady state to another, it is erroneous to ignore system dynamics in such a nonsteady phenomenon as periodic breathing. Consider the gasexchange process that occurs in the lungs. A hyperventilatory sigh, for instance, will affect PACO2 not only in the current breath, but also in the several breaths that follow. In effect, this is equivalent to a temporal “smearing” of abrupt changes. A decrease in plant gain will produce an increase in temporal smearing. For instance, in a larger lung, the peak effect of an abrupt ventilatory change on PACO2 will be smaller, but PACO2 will take a longer duration to return to its original equilibrium level.
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The minimal description of any dynamic response must include the steadystate gain and response time. Various definitions of response time have been employed, but usually, it is the time taken for the state of the system in question to change from 10 to 90% of its final level in response to a step input. Response times should not be confused with time delays, but both contribute to the overall temporal isolation of the controller output (i.e., the corrective action) from the changes occurring in the lungs. This is best demonstrated when one considers the alternative means of representing dynamic response that are less frequently employed by physiologists. Here, if the input pattern to the system in question is sinusoidal, the fundamental component of the response at the same frequency will also be sinusoidal, but attenuated (or amplified) and phaseshifted relative to the input signal. Thus, each sinusoidal frequency will be associated with a corresponding gain (output amplitude/input amplitude) and phase shift. By plotting these gains and phaseshifts versus frequency, one obtains the frequency response of the system. For sustained oscillatory activity to occur, basic control theory stipulates that the three factors must be combined in such a way that the overall “loop gain” magnitude and phase meet certain criteria (14). First, the magnitude of the corrective action must be at least equal to the magnitude of the original disturbance (i.e., loop gain magnitude must be greater than or equal to unity). This may be attained with a high controller gain or increased plant gain, or both. Second, the algebraic sum of all phase shifts (including the effect of pure delays) must be 180°, so that the corrective action is presented 180° out of phase with the disturbance. If the loop gain magnitude is less than unity at 180° phase, the system will exhibit either an overdamped response or an underdamped response with transient oscillations. The frequency with which the unstable or underdamped system oscillates may be likened to a resonant frequency, the value of which depends on the summed contributions of the response times of the individual components and all delays. The basic control principles outlined in the foregoing are embodied in the many mathematical models of periodic breathing that have appeared in the literature over the past few decades (14–22). Some of the models have been discussed in a previous review (23). In these models, however, simulation of the dynamics of respiratory control assumed knowledge of the values of a large number of physiological parameters. These values were generally obtained from population averages published in various sources. The disadvantage of this approach is that the predicted model behavior is limited to representing the dynamics of the “typical” normal or diseased subject. This ignores the large intersubject variability present in most of the parameters. To be able to account for the periodicbreathing patterns in individual subjects, it would be necessary to measure the many unknown parameters in each person, a task that is difficult at best and usually impossible to complete. The approach adopted by Carley and Shannon (24) was to develop a
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“minimal” model that contained only those parameters that were critical in determining respiratory control stability. By applying certain assumptions, they were able to arrive at a model that was characterized by only five physiological parameters: hypercapnic sensitivity, cardiac output, mixed venous PCO2, the circulatory delay, and mean lung volume. This approach makes it feasible, in principle, to predict the level of stability for each individual subject (25). However, the model is limited in scope by the exclusion of O2 control as well as the assumption of linearity. A final point about the model depicted in Figure 1 relates to the effect of influences external to the chemoreflex loops on the control of ventilation. Examples include spontaneous sighs or pauses, and staterelated changes in ventilatory drive. These influences, whether stochastic or deterministic, produce an effect on ventilation that may be longlasting, even when the inputs themselves are not. This is possible because any changes in ventilation are subsequently propagated around the chemoreflex loops. There may be important interactions between the current effects of the external inputs and the propagated effects of past influences. In this way, as both modeling and experimental studies have suggested, stochastic variations in respiratory drive or other cardiopulmonary parameters may lead to complex oscillatory behavior or breathtobreath fluctuations that are correlated (26–28). B. HypoxiaInduced Periodic Breathing in Humans Periodic breathing can be induced in normal subjects during ascent to high altitude or during the inhalation of hypoxic gas mixtures. These observations have been documented in the literature since the late 19th century (3,7,18–26). Although periodic breathing can occur in hypoxia during wakefulness, it is much more prevalent during sleep. Hypoxia induces hyperventilation, producing a background of respiratory alkalosis. A transient perturbation, in the form of a spontaneous sigh, for instance, would bring the arterial CO2 level down further, producing a brief period of hypopnea. If these events occur during sleep, apnea is likely to occur, owing to the increased apneic CO2 threshold. This, in turn, would lead to an increase in PCO2 and arterial hypoxemia, which subsequently brings about the ensuing period of hyperventilation. Thus, increased controller gain appears to be the most critical factor responsible for periodic breathing in hypoxia. This is supported by the empirical evidence that periodic breathers also tend to have higher hypercapnic and hypoxic ventilatory response slopes (36,37). Subjects who are highaltitude natives, such as the Himalayan Sherpas, show diminished ventilatory sensitivity to acute hypoxia as well as little or no periodic breathing during sleep (32). On the other hand, lowlanders who are exposed to high altitude show a progressive increase in hypoxic sensitivity, but a decline in the quantity of periodic breathing during acclimatization over several days (36). The same study
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also found that the hypercapnic ventilatory sensitivity does not change with acclimatization, but the CO2 response line shifts progressively to the left. This latter observation may explain the apparent discrepancy: even though hypoxic controller gain increases, the shift of the hypercapnic response line to the left results in an operating level that is lower in PACO2. This lowers plant gain, thereby offsetting the increase in controller gain (14). Another factor that could explain the reduction in periodic breathing is improved sleep quality with progressively fewer arousals in the course of acclimatization (see Sec. III). There are other observations that support the chemoreflexinstability model for hypoxiainduced periodic breathing. Inhalation of CO2 or O2rich mixtures decreases plant gain, as demonstrated in the example discussed in Section II.A. Furthermore, raising the arterial O2 level reduces not only hypoxic gain, but also the hypercapnic hypoxic interaction (38). These factors act to reduce loop gain, thereby making the system more stable. Consistent with these predictions, empirical studies have shown that administration of O2 or CO2 regularizes the breathing pattern (3,30,32,33). Following the removal of the CO2 or O2rich inhalate, periodic breathing returns after a transition period in which the regularbreathing pattern becomes progressively more oscillatory until periods of apnea alternate with periods of hyperpnea (3,32,33,39). This supports the notion implicit in the chemoreflex instability model that repetitive episodes of central apnea are produced when an oscillation has grown to sufficiently large amplitude that its hypoventilatory portions attain zero ventilation (14,40). However, the appearance of apnea in the redevelopment of the periodicbreathing pattern is frequently not gradual (32,39). Figure 2 shows the arterial O2 saturation (SaO2, broken tracing) and the breathto breath mean inspiratory flow (solid tracing) of a sleeping subject acclimatized to a simulated altitude of 6100 m. Following the removal of a hyperoxicbreathing mixture, small ventilatory oscillations develop as SaO2 falls toward ambient levels. However, these oscillations remain reasonably constrained in amplitude until a large hyperventilatory breath occurs (at ~215 sec), following which repetitive episodes of apnea and hyperpneic intervals abruptly appear. This feature is useful as a reminder that there are significant nonlinearities present in the respiratory control system, and that external perturbations (e.g., a spontaneous sigh, in this case) of sufficient strength can easily alter the limit cycle behavior displayed by the system (41,42). The cycle durations of periodicbreathing patterns are known to decrease with increasing altitude, up to approximately 4300 m (14,34). Beyond this altitude, however, cycle duration remains relatively constant at about 20 sec (32,35). The chemoreflex instability model predicts a linear decrease of cycle duration with altitude, from 32 sec at sea level to 20 sec at 4300 m. This prediction is remarkably consistent with Waggener's observations of the effect of altitude on cycle duration (34). The decrease in cycle duration is partly due to a reduction of the lungtocarotid bodies delay of approximately 1 sec. The larger component of the decrease can be attributed to a reduction of the lung washout time for O2. The
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Figure 2 Development of periodic breathing in an acclimatized subject at 6300 m, following the termination of oxygen inhalation. Solid tracing represents breathbybreath values of mean inspiratory flow, while the broken tracing shows arterial oxygen saturation. (Adapted from Ref. 39.)
latter is due to an eightfold steepening of the arterial blood O2 dissociation curve between normoxia and the hypoxic conditions consistent with 4300 m. Also, assumed in the calculation is a doubling in cardiac output. At the levels of hypoxia consistent with altitudes higher than 4300 m, the O2 dissociation curve becomes relatively linear. Furthermore, it is likely that there would be no further increase in cardiac output (35). If we assume these conditions, the model predicts that cycle duration would remain at 20 sec from 4300 m and higher. This value is in close agreement with the mean value of 20.5 sec reported by Lahiri et al. (32) at 5400 m and West et al. (35) at 6300 m. However, based on electrocardiographic (ECG) tracings, West et al. (35) reported an average cycle duration of 15.4 sec at 8050 m, suggesting that certain model assumptions may become invalid under such extreme conditions. C. Peripheral Versus Central Chemoresponsiveness The observations associating periodic breathing with hypoxia suggest that this kind of respiratory instability is due to the increased peripheral chemoresponsiveness. This notion is further supported by several experimental studies involving
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anesthetized animal preparations or pharmacological interventions in humans. In the elegant study of Cherniack et al. (43), anesthetized, paralyzed cats were ventilated with a servorespirator that was driven by the average phenic activity of each animal. Periodic breathing was induced in the animals by increasing the gain of the servorespirator to sufficiently high levels or by administering hypoxic gas mixtures. Changing the inspired gas to a hyperoxic mixture eliminated the periodic breathing. Periodic breathing also resulted from focal cooling at the ventral surface of the medulla in some animals. The latter selectively depressed the hypercapnic response while allowing hypoxic responsiveness to be maintained. Bilateral vagotomy did not abolish periodic breathing during these interventions. In another study on anesthetized cats (44), administration of a dopaminergic blocker, which augments carotid chemosensitivity, led to oscillations in ventilation; the periodic breathing could be eliminated by raising the inspired PO2. Periodic breathing was altogether abolished by severing both carotid sinus nerves. In sleeping humans, intravenous administration of adenosine stimulated the overall level of ventilation and produced periodic breathing (45). This result is probably due to the excitatory effect of adenosine on the carotid body chemoreceptors and its depressive effect on the central respiratory neurons, similar to the biphasic ventilatory response elicited by sustained hypoxia (46). Further evidence of the importance of peripheral chemosensitivity in mediating periodic breathing is provided by a recent study, in which measurements of singlebreath hypercapnic ventilatory responses in awake patients with idiopathic central sleep apnea showed peripheral chemoresponsiveness to be twice as high as the corresponding measurements in normal controls (47). The primary reason for the critical role played by the peripheral chemoreceptors may be the large differences in response time between the carotid body receptors and the medullary chemoreceptors. The response of the carotid body chemoreceptors to a step change in arterial PCO2 (PaCO2) in cats is a rapid overshoot, followed by a decline to the steady state, with a time constant of between 10 and 30 sec (48,49). Studies employing the dynamic endtidal forcing technique suggest a peripheral response time that is of similar magnitude in humans (50,51). In contrast, the dynamic ventilatory response mediated by the medullary receptors is highly sluggish, with estimated response time constants that range from 60 to 180 sec (38,52). Although the steadystate sensitivity of the central chemoreflex to CO2 may be two to four times as large as the peripheral gain, the slow dynamics has a strong attenuating effect on its response to dynamic bloodgas stimuli that fluctuate over a time scale of several breaths. We illustrate this basic principle by the example shown in Figure 3. Here, we have assumed the central and peripheral chemoreflex CO2 gains to be 1.8 and 0.6 L/min torr1, respectively. The corresponding time constants are assumed to be 100 and 10 sec. The plots in Figure 3 show the effective gains of the central chemoreflex (broken line), peripheral chemoreflex (solid line), and their sum (thick solid line) as a
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Figure 3 Effective dynamic gains of the central chemoreflex, peripheral chemoreflex and their sum at the frequencies pertinent to periodic breathing. Note the substantially larger contribution of the peripheral chemoreflex at these frequencies.
function of increasing frequency. Over the range of frequencies pertinent to periodic breathing (0.01–0.05 Hz, or in equivalent periodicities, 20–100 sec), the dynamic gain of the peripheral chemoreflex is between 75 and 200% larger than the corresponding dynamic central chemoreflex gain, even though the former is onethird the magnitude of the latter in the steady state. This discrepancy is enhanced when hypoxia is introduced. If we assume that steadystate peripheral chemosensitivity is increased to the same magnitude as central chemosensitivity, the dynamic gain of the peripheral component will be 436–800% larger than the central component. On the other hand, under euoxic and hyperoxic conditions, the relative contribution of the central chemoreflex to the overall dynamic ventilatory response is by no means negligible. Indeed, singlebreath and other dynamic stimuli have been reported to evoke a small, but significant, ventilatory response during hyperoxia, when the peripheral chemoreceptors presumably have been silenced (53–55). Abnormal elevation of CO2 sensitivity, as a consequence of neurological damage, can produce periodic breathing (56,57). However, under normal circum
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stances, the central chemoreflex acts as a lowpass filter and tends to exert a stabilizing influence on ventilatory control. The other mechanism by which stability is enhanced is through the reduction of plant gain: the central chemoreflex contribution to the overall level of ventilation is substantial and this produces a resting PaCO2 that is lower than would result otherwise, thereby leading to a smaller plant gain. Thus, adenosine infusion, for instance, promotes periodic breathing not only by enhancing peripheral chemosensitivity, but also by reducing central chemosensitivity and the central contribution to total ventilation (45). This is probably the mechanism by which focal cooling of the ventral medulla produces periodic breathing (43). Preterm infants who exhibit periodic breathing and apnea also have lower central chemoreflex sensitivities and hypercapnic response curves that are shifted to the right, indicating central respiratory depression (58). Modeling studies also reveal findings that are similar: respiratory control becomes less stable when the central chemoreflex gain is decreased and the central apneic threshold is increased (14,21). D. Role of Hypocapnia. Periodic breathing has been induced in anesthetized animals (43,59), as well as in awake (30), sleeping (60–62), and anesthetized (63) humans following apnea induced by voluntary or passive hyperventilation. Bilateral vagotomy in dogs does not prevent the posthyperventilation apnea or the ensuing periodic breathing, suggesting that intense stimulation of the pulmonary stretch receptors plays little or no role in mediating this phenomenon (59). The loss of vigilance or consciousness appears to be an essential ingredient underlying this phenomenon; the effect of state will be discussed later in Section III. The other critical factor is hypocapnia produced by the hyperventilation. This loss of chemoreflex stimulation leads to central apnea during which SaO2 falls and PaCO2 rises. Because of these changes in arterial blood gases, the augmentation of peripheral chemoreflex gain and plant gain is combined with the sufficiently strong chemical stimuli to reinitiate a vigorous bout of breathing. An important factor may be the silencing of or reduced ventilatory contribution from the medullary chemoreceptors by the delayed effect of CO2 washout from the cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue during forced hyperventilation, as has been demonstrated in a modeling study (64). This leaves the regulatory control of respiration in the temporary custody of the peripheral chemoreflex and, thus, subjects the system to considerably greater volatility. The hyperventilationinduced hypocapnia may also cause cerebral vasoconstriction, which leads to central hypoxic depression and, thereby, prolongation of the apnea. Although passive hyperventilation produces apnea in hyperoxia, normoxia or hypoxia, periodic breathing in the postapnea interval is generally observed only during hypoxia (61,62). Similar combinations of hypocapnia and hypoxia may be
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found in patients with renal failure, who frequently exhibit periodic breathing and central apnea during hemodialysis using acetatebuffered dialysate (65). Hypoxia increases the gain of the peripheral chemoreflex, increases plant gain by reducing the oxygen stores in the lungs and body tissues, and causes central ventilatory depression. All these factors promote greater instability. The increased peripheral chemoresponsiveness and central depression augment the effect of the “ventilatory overshoot” that follows the end of the hyperventilationinduced apnea. If the subject is in sleep, further augmentation may come from the occurrence of coincident arousals. These factors combine to produce the brief, but powerful, bursts of hyperventilatory breaths that are crucial in ensuring that subsequent periods of apnea will occur (4,39,62,66). Two observations have been cited as evidence to support the argument that hypocapnia is a necessary ingredient for the development of periodic breathing during hypoxia (67). The first is the finding that, when CO2 is added to the inspired gas during the induction of hypoxia so that the subject remains isocapnic, periodic breathing does not occur (33,67). The second is that episodes of hypoxiainduced periodic breathing are frequently initiated following a hyperventilatory sigh (33,39), which produces transient hypocapnia. However, it is our view that hypocapnia is important only insofar as it leads to apnea or the silencing of the medullary chemoreceptors. Whether a sustained oscillation will ensue depends on whether the conditions for enhanced loop gain are present. Relative to the first observation, inhalation of CO2 increases the damping inherent in the controlled system and, thus, stabilizes the dynamic behavior of the respiratory control system. Therefore, a decrease in plant gain can explain the absence of periodic breathing during normocapnic hypoxia. As for the second observation, the abrupt appearance of periodic breathing following a sigh may simply reflect the behavior of a marginally stable system being “pushed” by the external disturbance into an unstable mode. The disturbance need not be hypocapnia. In sleeping normal persons and in awake patients with familial dysautonomia, a brief pulse of CO2, which transiently increases PACO2 by 3–6 torr, can elicit periodic breathing (68). In awake normal subjects, this same procedure produces ventilatory oscillations (25). In the example shown in Figure 2, a smallscale ventilatory oscillation was already present when the sigh abruptly converted this into frank periodic breathing, with episodic apnea. In their experiments, Maayan et al. (68) noted the appearance of only two modes of response to briefly administered pulses of inhaled CO2: a very stable overdamped response or an unstable response. Attempts to locate a level of hypoxia that might promote an intermediate underdamped response proved unsuccessful. These abrupt conversions between stability and instability or from smallscale oscillation to periodic apnea appear to indicate the existence of subtle nonlinear dynamics that cannot be accounted for by current models of periodic breathing.
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E. Congestive Heart Failure and CheyneStokes Breathing The association between heart disease and periodic breathing dates back to the report of William Stokes in 1854 (2). This was followed by several other studies that sought to determine whether the CSR resulted directly from the cardiovascular disease or secondary to neurological dysfunction because of diminished blood flow to the central respiratory control center (69–72). Prior noted the prolongation of circulation times in patients with congestive heart failure who also exhibited CSR (73). To investigate whether increased circulatory delay might be the cause of CSR, Guyton et al. conducted experiments in anesthetized dogs in which the hearttobrain delay was prolonged by artificially lengthening the carotid arteries (74). This led to circulation delays that ranged from 40 sec to 5 min. Prolongation of circulatory time did produce CSR, but this was found in only a third of the animals studied. Thus, although Guyton's experiments showed that increasing circulation time can induce CSR, the unphysiological conditions employed raise the possibility of concomitant neurological damage or the alteration of other cardiorespiratory parameters. Severe hemorrhage and hypotension in animal preparations result in blood pressure oscillations, commonly known as “Mayer waves.” These oscillations also produce periodic fluctuations in breathing, which may persist despite the elimination of blood gas fluctuations through artificial ventilation (44,75). Thus, it is believed that these oscillations are mediated primarily through an instability in baroreflex control and are unlikely to be related to most observed cases of CSR in humans. A recent study during sleep of 11 patients with heart failure showed that circulation time was strongly correlated with CSR cycle duration, but not with the amount of periodic breathing (76). On the other hand, another study of 20 patients with chronic stable heart failure found a significant correlation between circulatory delay and the fraction of total sleep time over which CSR occurred (77). However, in both studies, the correlation coefficient was close to 0.5; thus, regardless of whether the relationship was statistically significant, the correlation was clearly not strong. Andreas et al. (77) also found a significant relationship between amount of periodic breathing in sleep and the hypercapnic ventilatory response slope, measured during wakefulness. Because not all patients with congestive heart failure exhibit CSR during sleep, Naughton et al. (78) compared lungtoear circulation times in patients with and without CSR. Although the average circulation time for the patients with CSR was longer than that for the patients without CSR, the difference was not statistically significant. On the other hand, consistent with previous reports, they found a strong correlation between circulatory delay and the CSR cycle duration. The ambiguity that surrounds the relation between circulatory delay and CSR may be better understood if one examines the predictions of previous mathematical models of periodic breathing. In Milhorn's model (16), CSR coulde
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be produced only at normal controller gain, with a prolongation of the circulatory delay to 3½ min. This was probably due to the exclusion of the peripheral chemoreflex from their controller. In the model of Longobardo et al. (17), the total ventilatory response was attributed to what was essentially the peripheral chemoreflex. But a considerable amount of damping was added to this potentially more volatile system by the inclusion of the entire volume of arterial blood (2.4 L) as a component of lung CO2 and O2 storage. Assuming a circulatory delay of 30 sec, CSR with cycle duration of about 2 min could be simulated following a brief bout of hyperventilation. The model of Khoo et al. (14), which probably overemphasized peripheral chemoresponsiveness, predicted that respiratory instability would occur with a cycle time of 55 sec if a lungtoear circulatory delay of 13 sec was assumed. These differences in model behavior demonstrate that circulatory delay is only one of the many factors that promote periodic breathing. Furthermore, based on a sensitivity analysis, the model of Khoo et al. (14) predicts that, whereas a doubling of chemoreflex gain would produce a doubling of loop gain, a doubling of the circulatory delay would lead to an increase in loop gain magnitude of only 86%. On the other hand, a doubling of the circulatory delay yields a doubling of CSR cycle duration, whereas a doubling of chemoreflex gain leads to a small decrease of less than 10% in cycle time. Other factors, such as the occurrence of arousals (76), the general level of hypocapnia (77), or the presence or absence of shortterm potentiation (78), are also likely to be important in precipitating episodes of CSR. III. SleepWake State and Respiratory Stability A. SleepInduced Changes in Breathing The first scientific reports that sleep depresses ventilation and alters the breathing pattern date back to the second half of the 19th century (79,80). The decrease in ventilation occurs in conjunction with a slight fall in metabolic rate and small reduction in cardiac output. As a consequence, the PaCO2 level rises by a few torr, whereas O2 saturation may fall by 1–2%. Most studies have found that the hypoventilation is due to a lower tidal volume and no change or a small increase in breathing frequency. Further details about the effect of sleep on respiratory control and gas exchange may be found in the several excellent reviews that have been published in the last two decades (81–86). Although the occurrence of periodic breathing during sleep was noted in early studies before the turn of the century (87), it was not until much later that researchers began to study systematically the possible connection between state of vigilance and the breathing pattern (88). Subsequently, in his classic study, Bulow showed that periodic breathing occurred mostly during drowsiness and the light stages of sleep; however, in slowwave sleep, he found that ventilation became
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highly regular (89). These findings have been confirmed by others (90). During rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, irregular breathing is the norm. Prolonged apneas and some periodicities may be present, but these are generally overwhelmed by the unpredictable patterns seen in REM (84,86,90). B. Loss of the “Wakefulness Stimulus” The hypoventilation associated with sleep suggested to Fink that some stimulus, unrelated to bloodgas homeostasis, might provide an additional drive to breathe during wakefulness (60). In awake, normal subjects, he found that it was not possible to induce apnea following voluntary or passive hyperventilation even when PACO2 was reduced to levels as low as 15 torr. In contrast, in anesthetized subjects, apnea was readily produced by passive hyperventilation. Subsequent work, based on a much larger population, found the occurrence of posthyperventilation apnea in only 18% of the awake subjects (91); in contrast, apnea was easily induced in sleeping subjects or in awake patients with cerebral abnormalities. More recent studies, involving passive hyperventilation in sleeping normal subjects have also produced similar results (61,92). In awake subjects under steady normocapnic, hypercapnic, and hypoxic conditions, Asmussen found that merely closing the eyes led to an average decrease in minute ventilation of 8–14%; he concluded that nonrespiratory influences, such as environmental inputs, may alter the sensitivity of the respiratory center toward chemical stimuli (93). Normal subjects placed on inspiratory mechanical pressure support of levels up to as high as 10 cmH2O remain normocapnic and maintain tidal volume and breathing frequency during sleep; in contrast, during wakefulness, the same support produced significant increases in tidal volume and decreases in PACO2 (94). The finding of continued spontaneous respiratory activity under hypocapnic conditions in the awake state again suggests the presence of the wakefulness stimulus. Data from tracheostomized cats, which show a sleepinduced decrease in activity of the medullary respiratory neurons, support this notion (95). Because sleep leads to a reduction in tonic and phasic activity of the upper airway muscles, it has been suggested that the associated increase in upper airway activity may be the more important factor in producing the increase in PaCO2 during sleep (96). However, subsequent studies have shown that the upper airways cannot be the sole factor and that there is clearly a reduction in central efferent activity to the ventilatory pump muscles. For instance, Henke et al. (97) removed all of the sleep induced increases in upper airway resistance in snorers through the application of continuous positiveairway pressure (CPAP). This reduced, but did not eliminate, the increase in PaCO2 associated with sleep. A recent study involving laryngectomized subjects arrived at the same conclusions (98). In another study of 26 healthy young subjects (99), there was significant variability in the sleepinduced increases in resistance relative to the corresponding decreases in
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ventilation. In seven of the subjects, resistance increased by 0.5 cmH2OL s or less, whereas ventilation decreased by more than 1 L min , suggesting that not all of the hypoventilation could be attributed to increased upper airway resistance. Measurements of the ventilatory response to hypercapnia during nonrapid eye movements (NREM) sleep reveal a shift of the CO2 response line to the right (89,100). This rightward shift of the hypercapnic response line promotes the “unmasking” of an apneic threshold that lies in the range of values consistent with awake eupneic levels of PACO2 (67). These observations are compatible with, and can be explained by, the notion that sleep leads to the inhibition of a wakefulness drive. This is illustrated by the example shown in Figure 4A. Here, the two lines with positive slopes represent the steadystate ventilatory responses to hypercapnia during wakefulness and sleep. The shallow curve that declines from left to right represents the locus of PACO2ventilation values, consistent with a given metabolic CO2 production rate which, here for simplicity, is assumed to be the same for wakefulness and sleep. At any given level of PACO2, loss of the wakefulness drive will result in a lower ventilatory output from the respiratory controller. This is manifested as a “downward” displacement of the CO2 response line, which is graphically equivalent to a rightward shift. The points at which the CO2 response lines intersect the metabolic hyperbola represent the operating points for wakefulness and sleep. In this example, sleep produces a rise in PACO2 of approximately 3 torr and slight reduction in ventilation. If one accepts this model then, as Figure 4B shows, the extent of the rise in PACO2 induced by sleep is dependent on the relative slopes of the ventilatory response lines and the metabolic hyperbola. Thus, a lower awake hypercapnic ventilatory sensitivity would lead to a larger increase in PACO2, whereas a subject with higher CO2 gain would become less hypercapnic with sleep. Computer simulations with a mathematical model (101) have demonstrated close quantitative agreement with the empirical results obtained by Gothe et al. (102). These results simply reflect that regulation of PaCO2 would be tighter in a ventilatory control system with higher controller gain. C. Factors Inducing Ventilatory Instability During Sleep In NREM sleep, with the removal of the behavioral and nonspecific environmental influences related to wakefulness, the chemical control system becomes the primary custodian of respiration (84,85). It has been suggested that the prevalence of periodic breathing during sleep together with wakefulness may simply reflect the unmasking of the underlying oscillations of a marginally stable system as the extraneous nonchemical influences are suppressed (103). However, this mechanism would predict more periodic breathing with the progressive deepening of sleep. The observed regularity of respiration during slowwave sleep contradicts this view. Another possibility is that control instability may be the cause of periodic
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Figure 4 Diagram showing how the loss of a given magnitude of wakefulness drive following sleep onset can lead to (A) smaller or (B) larger increases in steadystate PaCO2. The solid circles represent the setpoints in wakefulness and sleep.
breathing during NREM sleep. For this to occur, one should be able to demonstrate that sleep leads to the increase in overall loop gain through one or more of its component factors. However, it is well documented that the slopes of the ventilatory sensitivities to hypercapnia and hypoxia are decreased by 15–50% during NREM sleep (89,100,102,104–107). These changes would tend to stabil
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ize the respiratory control system. The reduced cardiac output and longer circulation time are factors that promote instability, but the changes associated with sleep are on the order of only 15% (84). We showed in Section III.B that loss of the wakefulness drive produces a shift of the hypercapnic ventilatory response line to the right, thereby increasing PaCO2 in sleep. This endogenous elevation of PaCO2 and other factors, such as a decrease in functional residual capacity and the reduction in metabolic rate plant gain, lead to an increase in plant gain. In ten normal subjects, the overall loop gain between wakefulness and stages 2 and 3 sleep was unchanged, in spite of a decrease in chemosensitivity (108). However, the analysis was based on the use of steadystate measurements. By using a dynamic model, we have demonstrated that loop gain can increase during light sleep if the elevation in plant gain more than offsets the accompanying reduction in controller gain (101). This can be achieved if the increase in apneic PCO2 threshold is sufficiently large, resulting in a significant elevation of the operating level of PaCO2. This theoretical result is supported by Bulow's observation that the individuals in his study who exhibited the largest rightward shifts in their CO2 response lines with sleep also tended to show the most periodic breathing (89). Further support is derived from another experimental study that showed that artificial enhancement of plant gain, by means of a gain augmentationbreathing circuit, can lead to periodic breathing in sleeping normal persons (37). Bulow also noted that much of the rightward shift of the hypercapnic response was achieved in the transition from wakefulness to stage 2 sleep. Beyond that, there was little displacement of the response line, but significant depression of its slope. These features have also been incorporated into our model by assuming that loss of the wakefulness drive is complete by the end of stage 2, whereas progression to the deeper stages of sleep results in further depression of controller gain. These assumptions lead to the prediction of a more stable system with reduced loop gain in stages 3 and 4 sleep, because the reduction in controller gain overwhelms any further increase in plant gain. This is consistent with the observation that respiration becomes highly regular in slowwave sleep. The commonly accepted notion that controller gain is depressed in sleep is based on the results of tests in which steadystate levels of inhaled gas were administered or quasisteady conditions were obtained through rebreathing procedures. In contrast, the fluctuations in blood gases that arise from spontaneous ventilatory variations are dynamic and partly stochastic. We have shown in Section II.C that the effective gain of the controller relative to these changing inputs may be substantially different from the steadystate chemosensitivities measured in traditional tests. Thus, although steadystate controller gain may decrease in light sleep, dynamic chemoresponsiveness may be relatively well preserved. In a recent study employing pseudorandom binary forcing of inhaled CO2, we found a small, but insignificant, reduction in dynamic ventilatory response to hypercapnia from wakefulness to stage 2 sleep in normal subjects (109).
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On the other hand, another study, using a similar technique, found a 43% average decrease in dynamic chemoresponsiveness with sleep (110). Because these tests were conducted against a background of hyperoxia, only changes in dynamic central chemoresponsiveness were measured. If we accept the results of both studies, the combined evidence would seem to point to a sleepinduced increase in peripheral chemosensitivity in some subjects. This possibility is intriguing, but is still speculative. D. Dynamic Fluctuations in State Over 50 years ago, Magnussen suggested a connection between periodic breathing and the alternating periods of wakefulness and sleep that he observed during the early part of the sleep cycle (88). This association was confirmed when Bulow (89) and, later, Lugaresi et al. (111) showed very clearly that changes in the breathing pattern occurred together with changes in the electroencephalogram (EEG) in the early stages of sleep. Colrain et al. (112) found that sleep onset can occur rapidly over the course of a few breaths and that the fall in ventilation is temporally correlated with the loss of EEG alpha activity. During sleep onset, fluctuations between alpha and theta activity occur concomitantly with fluctuations in ventilation (113). Synchronous oscillations in ventilation and the EEG have also been noted in the elderly subjects during sustained stage 2 sleep (114,115). These and other observations have led to the proposal that the periodicities in ventilation may be secondary to state instability (81,116). On the other hand, chemicaldriven changes in ventilation can also produce changes in state. Progressive hypercapnia or hypoxia, or both, provoke arousal from sleep (87,104,107). Recent studies have suggested that respiratory effort, quantified as increasing negative pleural pressures, may be the immediate stimulus for arousal, regardless of whether the increased ventilatory drive is derived from hypercapnia, hypoxia, or added resistive load (117,118). In those patients with congestive heart failure who exhibit CheyneStokes respiration during sleep, arousals are most frequently observed at the peaks of the hyperpneic phases of the ventilatory pattern (77,119). This is also true in altitudeinduced periodic breathing (39). Furthermore, in the periodic breathing observed during sleep at high altitude, the number of apneas detected over the total duration of sleep is significantly higher than the corresponding number of arousals (3,39). Intravenous infusion of adenosine into normal subjects produces periodic breathing and arousals (120). These observations suggest that, at least in certain types of periodic breathing, ventilatory instability is the primary cause of the fluctuations in state. In the development of hypoxiainduced periodic breathing shown in Figure 2, there were no detectable changes in EEG that one could point to as the primary source of the ventilatory oscillations. However, in Figure 5, there is a visible correlation between the breathbybreath ventilation and EEG centroid frequency
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Figure 5 The behavior of breathbybreath ventilation (top panel) and mean EEG frequency (bottom panel) in a normal subject during the transition from wakefulness to light sleep.
timeseries of a young normal subject undergoing a wakefulnesstosleep transition and subsequently developing a transient bout of periodic breathing. First, there is the general drop in EEG frequency as the subject drifts off to sleep. The general level of ventilation follows the same time course. Second, superimposed on this background of declining EEG frequency, there are transient fluctuations. Following the decline in the overall level of ventilation are small oscillations (from 50 to 200 sec) that rapidly become large and lead to periods of apnea and hyperpnea. Although there is a general correspondence between the EEG and ventilatory fluctuations, considerable variability in both time series tends to confound the association. Moreover, the decrease in ventilation associated with the initial decline in EEG frequency (from 0 to 50 sec) does not appear commensurate with the abrupt and relatively large increases in ventilation that occur, together with the transient increases in EEG frequency at times 245, 310, and 370 sec. This absence of a strong linear correlation is consistent with the findings of
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Pack et al. (115), for which the average correlation coefficient between coherent ventilatory and EEG oscillations in light sleep was only 0.32. This observation could reflect the inadequacy of the EEG as a quantitative descriptor of state input to the respiratory controller. It may also be that the linear correlation coefficient does not capture a possibly highly nonlinear correlation between the EEG fluctuations and ventilation. We believe that a more likely possibility is that staterelated ventilatory oscillations may be occurring alongside oscillations induced by chemoreflex instability that are not directly related to the fluctuations in state. In Section III.C, we showed how the loss of the wakefulness stimulus can lead to an increase in loop gain, thereby predisposing the respiratory chemostat to instability in control. The dynamics of the wakefulness stimulus withdrawal itself can exert a strong influence on the subsequent stability. We have estimated that to produce the 4–5 torr increases in PaCO2 that generally accompany sleep, the magnitude of the wakefulness drive that must be withdrawn is the equivalent of approximately 6–7 L/min of ventilation (101). This implies that at eucapnic levels of PaCO2, most subjects would probably be apneic following sleep onset. This conclusion is compatible with several studies that have demonstrated how easy it is to render normal subjects apneic during sleep using passive hyperventilation (61,92). Another implication is that, in the absence of any experimental interventions, a drowsy subject can develop apnea spontaneously if a fast waketosleep transition occurs and the wakefulness drive is withdrawn rapidly. This can occur because there is insufficient time for the chemoreflexes to defend against the loss of drive. The apnea that results represents a large ventilatory disturbance that, given the right conditions, could subsequently lead to the occurrence of periodic breathing. This prediction is supported by observations that show a greater tendency for periodic breathing to occur in subjects who fell asleep more rapidly (89). The results of computer simulations using the mathematical model of Khoo et al. (101) show (Fig. 6) that rapid sleep onset can play a critical role in producing periodic breathing in the lighter stages of sleep; however, it is not the only factor. Figure 6A reflects the situation found when loop gain is moderate or low, sleep onset is not sufficiently rapid, and the magnitude of the wakefulness drive is small. At sleep onset, there is a slight decrease in ventilation that might lead to a brief bout of very smallamplitude ventilatory oscillations, but essentially, there is stable transition to a regularbreathing pattern in sleep. In Figure 6B, there is a more rapid sleep onset and loop gain is elevated, but the magnitude of the wakefulness drive is the same as that in Figure 6A. The initial decline in ventilation concomitant with sleep onset produces an increase in PaCO2 that is fed back around the chemoreflex loops to subsequently increase ventilation. This sets up an oscillation that is sustained by the elevated loop gain. Note, however, that these subsequent oscillations in ventilation are chemoreflexmediated and occur during a stable period of sleep. Thus, here, the oscillations in ventilation and blood gas levels have no direct relationship with state, but were spawned by the initial
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Figure 6 Model simulations showing the effect of sleep onset on respiration and PaCO2 under conditions of (A) low to moderate loop gain and small wakefulness drive magnitude; (B) moderatetohigh loop gain, rapid sleep onset, and small wakefulness drive magnitude; (C) lowtomoderate loop gain, rapid sleep onset, and large wakefulness drive magnitude.
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waketosleep transition. In Figure 6C, with a lowtomoderate loop gain, rapid sleep onset, and large wakefulness drive magnitude, the initial response to the wake tosleep transition is an apnea that lasts about 25 sec. This leads to an oscillation that produces hyperpneic levels sufficiently high to provoke an arousal, which abruptly restores the wakefulness drive, producing even greater hyperpnea, and thus, the chain of events continues. In this instance, each periodicbreathing cycle occurs together with an arousal, which provides enough “energy” to the system to sustain the following cycle. One key feature allows us to distinguish between chemoreflexmediated oscillations and arousaldriven oscillations. The periodicity of the chemoreflexmediated oscillations is about 36 sec, whereas the arousaldrive oscillations are closer to 60 sec. It is also possible for the two kinds of oscillation to coexist. Periodicbreathing cycles with no arousal may alternate with cycles with arousal. The relation between the former and latter may range from onetoone to manytoone (101). Another theoretical study has shown a similar wealth of complex oscillatory patterns under conditions of hypoxic sleep (121). Recent evidence suggests a key role for transient arousals in initiating and propagating periodic breathing during sleep (4,39). The increased bout of ventilation accompanying a spontaneous arousal can produce central apnea as a result of hypocapnia and, in turn, this can lead to a subsequent arousal with associated ventilatory overshoot that propagates the cycle. Alternatively, periodic breathing may already be occurring. Here, arousal may be induced during one of the breaths of the hyperpneic phase. The accompanying ventilatory response to arousal would aggravate the hyperpnea, leading to a more potent level of hypocapnia that could prolong the apnea that follows. Such arousals would sustain or intensify episodes of periodic breathing. Indeed, ventilation is significantly increased during the hyperpneic phase in breaths associated with arousals visàvis breaths not accompanied by arousal (39). Recent studies from our laboratory also suggest that the time course of the ventilatory response to arousal may be as important as the magnitude in affecting subsequent system stability (66,122,123). The declining phase of the increase in ventilation following acoustically induced arousal measured in sleeping normal subjects was more abrupt than had been originally assumed in the model of Khoo et al. (101). Incorporation of this empirically derived time course into the model produced a behavior that was more unstable compared with previous simulations. The abruptness of the time course for the ventilatory response to arousal is further enhanced in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (122,123), implying significant potential for ventilatory instability, even when the upper airway obstruction is obviated through the administration of continuous positiveairway pressure. On the other hand, acoustic induction of arousal during apnea increases pharyngeal and diaphragmatic muscle phasic activity and decreases apnea duration (124,125). The applicability of this approach as a potential therapeutic modality for sleep apnea is currently being investigated.
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In summary, the question of whether periodic breathing during sleep is the manifestation of primary oscillations in the chemoreflex control system or primary fluctuations in state oversimplifies the issue at hand because both systems are so intimately coupled. Depending on relative importance of loop gain, sleepiness and wakefulness drive magnitude, either type of fluctuation can lead to oscillations of the other kind. However, in general, a system with high loop gain would be more likely to exhibit chemoreflexmediated oscillations, whereas one with low loop gain would be inherently more stable, but highly susceptible to fluctuations in state. IV. Respiratory Pattern Generation and Periodic Breathing A. Breathing Patterns During Periodic Ventilation The separation of minute ventilation into its volume and timing components has been the subject of extensive investigation (38,126). However, almost all of these studies dealt with the characterization of the breathing cycle under steadystate conditions, with much less attention paid to the dynamic patterning of the breath components under nonsteady conditions. Only two studies are of particular relevance to periodic breathing. Gardner exposed his subjects to stepwise changes of PACO2 in hyperoxia and also to isocapnic steps of hypoxia in isocapnia (127). Cunningham and Robbins tracked the temporal changes in breathing pattern during the administration of sinusoidal PACO2 in hyperoxia and sinusoidal PAO2 in mild hypercapnia in three young normal subjects (128). Both studies yielded similar conclusions. With dynamic increases in PACO2 superimposed on a hyperoxic background, tidal volume (VT ) increased, with an initial lengthening of inspiratory duration (TI) and a shortening of expiratory duration (TE). During the offtransient, TI shortened as VT decreased and TE increased. Thus, the changes in TI and TE tended to buffer one another, dampening the resulting variation in total breath duration (TT ). On the other hand, during dynamic hypoxic stimulation in steady hypercapnia, the ontransient was associated with rapid shortening of TE followed by rising VT and little change in TI; during the offtransient, lengthening of TE preceded the shortening of VT . In this case, there was a more substantial variation in TT . Gardner suggested that these differences in dynamic patterning may be due to the site of respiratory stimulation, with the central chemoreflex mediating a ventilatory response, with relatively small contribution from TT and the peripheral chemoreflex producing a response with relatively larger variation in TT . This view is consistent with the general observation that progressive hyperoxic hypercapnia elicits a rising ventilation comprised primarily of increasing VT , whereas the ventilatory response to progressive hypoxia is associated more with a decrease in TT than an increase in VT (129).
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Researchers interested in elucidating the mechanisms underlying periodic breathing have adopted a somewhat different approach to the problem of dynamic patterning. Here, a breathtobreath sequence of ventilation is broken down into component sequences of VT and TT (or TI and TE), and the latter are analyzed for their temporal contents, along with the original ventilation time series. Using power spectral and correlation techniques, Hathorn (130) found significant oscillatory activity in VT and TT in newborn infants, with the amplitudes of these oscillations being generally larger in REM than in NREM sleep. In the term infants who did not show any visible periodic breathing, VT and TT were roughly synchronized so that ventilation was relatively stable during NREM sleep. However, analysis of the components of periodic breathing in six premature infants showed that VT and TT oscillated out of phase, so that there was considerable periodicity in ventilation. Brusil et al. (7) have termed the first kind of activity “compensating oscillations” and the second kind “reinforcing oscillations,” with obvious reference to their effect on ventilation. They found reinforcing oscillations in a quarter of the altitudeacclimatized subjects that they studied. However, their measurements were conducted at 3050 m (equivalent to inspiring 14% O2) while the subjects were awake. Thus, none of their datasets showed any frank periodic breathing or even sustained oscillatory ventilation that were visible without the application of digital filtering. Although the Brusil classification consisted of only two categories, some of their data showed relative phase shifts that were neither 0 or 180°. Furthermore, they reported that many of their oscillations showed temporal shifts between reinforcing and compensating behavior. In their analysis of periodicbreathing records obtained from eight normal subjects during NREM sleep, with and without hypoxia, Carley et al. (131) found reinforcing oscillations in only 4 of the 18 epochs studied. In the other epochs, there were continual phase shifts between the breath parameters, a phenomenon they termed “relative coordination.” Studies by Waggener et al. in infants also point to the conclusion that periodicbreathing patterns are not exclusively of the reinforcing variety (40,132). B. Dynamic Interactions Between Respiratory Pattern Generation and Chemical Drive Animal studies involving the stimulation of the carotid body chemoreceptors or carotid sinus nerve stimulation have demonstrated that the pattern of breathing is dependent on the timing of the stimuli within the respiratory cycle (133,134). Artificial alteration of the intrabreath PACO2 and PAO2 profiles also affects breathing in humans (135,136). Thus, one would expect these timing effects to play some role in contributing to the unstable behavior of periodic breathing, because the carotid bodies would be stimulated by different levels of blood gases arriving at different points of the breathing cycle. In 1975, Cunningham proposed a simple
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model that illustrated the potential consequences of such effects (137). As partly derived from empirical evidence, the major model assumptions were that (1) the effective stimulus to the carotid chemoreceptors corresponded to a 1sec segment, starting at the middle of the rising phase of each intrabreath carotid PaCO2 oscillation; (2) this stimulus would augment inspiration only if it arrived during the inspiratory phase of a subsequent breath; and (3) increases in VT would be inversely related to decreases in TE. In response to a spontaneous singlebreath increase or decrease in ventilation, the model demonstrated oscillatory activity that eventually was either damped out or remained sustained. However, the model also predicted somewhat unrealistic situations in which it would abruptly switch to a different mean level of ventilation following the singlebreath disturbance. We have also examined the effect of incorporating breath pattern changes into our model of periodic breathing (138). The original model (101) assumed that breath duration would always remain constant, even in the presence of fluctuating chemical drive. This was modified to allow for two alternative possibilities. The first alternative was that increasing tonic respiratory drive would produce an increase in VT along with a decrease in TE and no change in TI, akin to Brusil's reinforcing behavior. The second alternative assumed that increasing drive would lead to increasing VT together with smaller increases in TI and TE, the equivalent of compensating behavior. However, we always assumed a onetoone correspondence between the level of total respiratory drive (i.e., the sum of all chemical and state inputs) at the start of inspiration and the mean inspiratory flow that would be generated for that breath. Comparisons were made of the relative stability of the original model and its two alternative versions by determining the minimum magnitude of the wakefulness drive that would be required to produce periodic breathing, with all other common parameters being held equal. We found, as expected, that compensating behavior led to greater model stability, whereas reinforcing behavior produced a greater propensity for instability. With the compensating pattern, increases in ventilatory drive increased VT , but TE also increased, thereby attenuating the resulting elevation in ventilation. This produced smaller changes in blood gases than would have resulted otherwise. With the reinforcing pattern, the negative synchronization of VT and TE worked to accentuate the effect of ventilatory drive on blood gas changes. Figures 7a and b provide examples of model simulations obtained assuming reinforcing and compensating patterns, respectively, showing the fluctuations in VT , PaCO2, arterial oxygen saturation (Sao2) and sleepwake state. In both cases, all other model parameters were kept equal, except that a substantially larger loss of wakefulness drive magnitude was required to elicit the compensating oscillations. Furthermore, very large values of wakefulness magnitude had to be “withdrawn” to produce apnea in the compensating case. Stateplane plots of breathbybreath VT /TI versus PaCO2 (see Figs. 7a and b, right) illustrate that differences in respiratory patterning can also give rise to very different dynamic modes of
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Figure 7 Model simulations showing (a) reinforcing oscillations, and (b) compensating oscillations. A substantial wakefulness drive magnitude loss was required to produce the periodic breathing shown in panel (b), compared with panel (a). Right panels show stateplane plots of breathbybreath mean inspiratory flow versus PaCO2.
oscillation. Reinforcing patterns can produce a mix of oscillations with longer arousals, shorter arousals and no arousal, as exemplified by the triplelooped topology of Figure 7a (right). On the other hand, compensating patterns give rise primarily to oscillations with longer arousals with occasional oscillations of short arousals; there are no nonarousal oscillations. The topologic structure of the stateplane plot here is quite different (see Fig. 7b, right). An unexpected outcome was that the compensating pattern also produced significant randomlike variability from one periodicbreathing cycle to the next, even though the simulations were entirely deterministic: the stateplane plot shows a relatively “noisy” limit cycle. Another potentially important outcome of these results is that most of the reinforcing oscillations appeared similar to the patterns observed in hypoxiainduced periodic breathing, whereas the compensating oscillations were more similar to the crescendo decrescendo patterns of classic CSR. Brusil et al. (7) noted that
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application of their combfiltering technique to CSR patterns in patients with severe cardiovascular dysfunction revealed primarily oscillations of a compensating nature. Further work is required to confirm these generalizations. C. Central Apnea and InspiratoryExpiratory Switching. Central apnea is most commonly believed to reflect the inability of the respiratory center to generate a new inspiration as a consequence of inadequate tonic respiratory drive. An alternative mechanism has been suggested by Younes (9). This hypothesis is based on the premise that, for an expiration to switch to the following inspiration, offswitch excitability, which increases progressively during the expiration, must attain a certain threshold level before the phase is terminated. The level of input to the offswitch determines the initial rise rate of offswitch excitability. Moreover, Younes assumes that the rise in excitability follows a logarithmic course. Thus, a very lowlevel input may be insufficient for offswitch excitability to attain its threshold, whereas a high level of input allows the threshold to be attained rapidly. The net result is a hyperbolic relation between offswitch input level and the phase of the expiratory duration, so that if the baseline level of offswitch input is relatively low, a small decrement in this input can lead to a very long expiration, which takes on the guise of central apnea. There are some pieces of experimental evidence that indirectly support this model. Sanders et al. (139) found central apneas that were preceded by high levels of expiratory upper airway resistance, suggesting that the delay in lung emptying worked to prolong the expiratory phase. A version of “prolonged expiratory apnea” in infants, believed to be the result of the lung stretch receptor response to alveolar atelectasis, has also been reported (140). Hypoxiainduced periodic breathing often displays patterns in which the breath emerging immediately at the end of central apnea reflects high inspiratory drive. Younes has suggested that this type of pattern may be explained by the “expiratory apnea” model. The inspiration to follow is prevented from emerging because the expiratory offswitch threshold has not been attained; but by the time the offswitch is triggered, blood gases would deteriorate to the point where the following inspiratory phase begins at a very high level of respiratory drive. Although such a mechanism is certainly possible, it is unclear why the increasing chemical drive during the prolonged expiration that produces the high ramp generator output in the following inspiration does not lead first to early termination of the phase. Simulations with our model of periodic breathing (101) have shown that these abrupt postapneic breaths can arise even without the delayed offswitch hypothesis. This is particularly so in cases with high controller gain and in cases where the oscillations are of the reinforcing variety. Furthermore, we have already cited evidence that shows that the concomitant occurrence of transient arousal from sleep can greatly accentuate the hyperpneic breaths following apnea.
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V. Peripheral and Central Mechanisms Affecting Respiratory Stability A. Role of the Upper Airways Upper airway resistance (RUA) can play a significant role in precipitating and amplifying periodic ventilation in the following way. If RUA were constant, changes in drive to the ventilatory pump muscles would translate directly into changes in airflow. However, if RUA were to change in the same direction as ventilatory motor output, the resulting changes in airflow would be attenuated. Conversely, negative synchronization between RUA and ventilatory motor output would lead to an amplification of fluctuations in airflow. Thus, variability in RUA can exert a stabilizing or destabilizing influence on respiratory control. At the unstable end of this spectrum, outofphase fluctuations in RUA and ventilatory motor output may build up to the point beyond which complete upper airway occlusion occurs in alternation with periods of ventilatory overshoot. This line of thinking has led to the suggestion that respiratory control instability may be the primary cause of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (141,142). Support for this view comes from the finding that patients with obstructive sleep apnea who undergo tracheostomy continue to exhibit periodic breathing with central apnea (141,143,144). Further support comes from various studies that have demonstrated that obstructive apnea can be produced in snorers during hypoxiainduced periodic breathing (145–147). Obstructive apneas have also been noted in patients with chronic hypothyroidism who show sleepinduced periodic breathing, presumably because of increased plant gain resulting from decreased metabolic CO2 production and alveolar hypoventilation (148). If control instability is the primary mechanism for obstructive sleep apnea, administration of CO2 or O2 should, in principle, eliminate the periodicity. Although there are studies that support this prediction (149–151), there are several that do not (152–154). By using a computer model, Longobardo et al. (155) have shown that respiratory control instability can indeed give rise to both central and obstructive apneas. Whether predominantly obstructive or central apneas occurred depended on controller chemosensitivity. With high controller gains, periodic breathing occurred with central apneas. With moderate controller gains, the model tended to produce mixed apneas, with central apneas preceding obstructive events. With low controller gains, the model predicted upper airway obstruction. With these general model features in mind, one would expect that O2 administration, in low controller gain, would lead to a greater incidence of upper airway obstruction and longer obstructive apneas, because the intervention lowers controller gain further by eliminating peripheral chemosensitivity. On the other hand, administering O2 to a subject with high controller gain would tend to attenuate the periodicity altogether. This duality in behavior may explain the controversial effect of O2 administration on sleep apnea.
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The large body of data that has accumulated from studies on both animal preparations and humans confirms that upper airway muscle activity (and thus, upper airway patency) decreases with decreasing chemical drive and loss of vigilance or increasing depth of sleep (85,156–158). The same changes in chemical drive and state also lead to changes in inspiratory pump muscle activity. During periodic breathing, upper airway patency could remain relatively constant if the changes in upper airway tone and pump muscle activity were appropriately synchronized in timing and magnitude. On the other hand, if the pressures generated by the inspiratory muscles were to overwhelm the dilating pressures of the upper airway muscles, obstructive events would occur (159). Both types of behavior have been reported. During hypoxia induced periodic breathing in nine sleeping normal subjects (146), in six of these RUA fluctuated between low values at the most hyperpneic breath and high values at the most hypopneic breath; however, in the other three subjects, there was no significant variation in RUA during the periodicbreathing cycle. It is noteworthy that, in the first group of subjects, RUA increased substantially during the periodicbreathing cycle only when the ratio of upper airway to chest wall inspiratory electromyographic activity decreased below 0.8; on the other hand, in the second group of subjects who did not show significant fluctuation in RUA, this ratio did not fall below 0.8. This finding suggests one of two possibilities for the development of obstructed breaths during periodic breathing. The first is that the electrical activities of the upper airways and chest may be related to the respective pressures in a highly nonlinear fashion, whereas the second is that the recruitment of the upper airway muscles may be slower than that of the inspiratory pump muscles (150). Warner et al. (147), who studied a group of snorers, showed that the tendency for resistance to fluctuate during hypoxiainduced periodic breathing was higher in those subjects who already had a highbaseline airway resistance during sleep, whereas the subjects with close to normal baseline resistance exhibited little change. An important common conclusion arrived at in the foregoing two studies and a third by Onal et al. (145), is that, in susceptible subjects, upper airway obstruction occurs, or RUA attains its peak, at the point of minimum ventilatory drive during the periodic breathing cycle. To further test the association between low ventilatory drive and increased RUA, Badr et al. (160) measured total pulmonary resistance in sleeping normal subjects and those who snored during hypocapnic hypopnea following a brief exposure to hypoxia. In contrast to previous findings, airway resistance of the breaths with minimum ventilatory drive did not differ significantly from that of control breaths measured during room air breathing. Badr (158) has suggested that the discrepancy may be due to the confounding effect of state fluctuations in the studies where periodic breathing was induced. Other recent data also point to state change as another primary source of the kind of RUA fluctuations. In Figure 2 of a recent review by Hudgel and Suratt (157), upper airway muscle activity and RUA showed little change as chest wall electro
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myographic activity increased linearly with PACO2 in the early stages of progressive hypercapnia. However, about 54 torr, this situation changed as upper airway muscle activity increased abruptly and RUA fell rapidly, at much higher rates than ventilatory motor activity, which continued to show the same linear increase. Because this transition level of PACO2 is close to the range of hypercapnic arousal thresholds reported in humans (84), it is quite possible that the abrupt changes may have contained a significant arousal contribution. A study of spontaneous periodic breathing in elderly subjects found that the ventilatory oscillations were correlated with fluctuations in RUA, but not with inspiratory muscle activity (161), an observation that can be explained by postulating that the ventilatory oscillations were produced by fluctuations in RUA that were statemediated. Transient arousals from sleep are known to produce substantial increases in ventilation (4,39,84). Indeed, recent studies indicate that upper airway muscle activity is probably more sensitive to fluctuations in state than those of chemical drive. Kay et al. (162) have reported that, during sleep onset in normal subjects, fluctuations in RUA occur synchronously with fluctuations between alpha and theta EEG activity. Furthermore, these temporal variations in RUA can be substantial, but vary significantly from individual to individual (99). Carlson et al. (163) showed that acoustically induced arousals were accompanied by significant increases in phasic electromyographic activity of the diaphragm, levator veli palatini, and genioglossus muscles. Their results showed peak activity in the upper airway muscles in the first breath following the start of arousal, whereas diaphragmatic activity peaked only on the second breath. We measured mean inspiratory flow, occlusion pressure 100 msec after the start of inspiration (P100), and RUA in normal sleeping subjects before and after transient arousals induced by 5sec tones (66). The average ventilatory response to arousal consisted of an increase in ventilation that lasted over seven breaths, with the peak increase of more than 70% of baseline occurring on the second postarousal breath (Fig. 8; top panel). In contrast, the time course of the increase in ventilatory motor output, quantified in terms of P100, showed a slower development, peaking only on the third breath following the start of arousal, and subsequently declining abruptly (see Fig. 8; middle panel). However, RUA decreased significantly on the first postarousal breath and remained 30% or more less than control throughout the time course of the increase in ventilation (see Fig. 8; bottom panel). Thus, the direct effect of the transient state change on RUA was responsible for producing the early part of the ventilatory response as well as for sustaining the response over several breaths. B. ShortTerm Potentiation The hypocapnia induced through passive hyperventilation easily leads to central apnea in anesthetized or unanesthetized animals (59,164,165), as well as in sleeping, anesthetized or awake humans (60,61,63,91,92). In contrast, apnea is
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Figure 8 The relative contributions of changes in upper airway resistance (bottom panel) and neural drive to breathe, represented by P100 (middle panel), to the transient increase in ventilation following acoustically induced arousal (top panel). (Adapted from Ref. 66.)
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rarely seen following active hyperventilation, whether this is achieved through voluntary means in humans (62,91,166–168) or by carotid sinus nerve stimulation in animals (164,165,169,170). It is now accepted that the difference in response to the two modes of hyperventilation is due to stimulation of the respiratory centers during active hyperventilation and the activation of what is commonly termed the “neural afterdischarge” (171). Stimulation of the respiratory centers leads to an immediate response, followed by a continual, but relatively more gradual, increase in respiratory drive throughout the duration of stimulation. When the stimulation is terminated, there is an initial abrupt drop in respiratory output, followed by a gradual decay to the original baseline level. The time constants of the rising and declining phases of the afterdischarge are on the order of 10 and 40 sec, respectively (172). This phenomenon is not unique to the respiratory system, but reflects a more general form of central nervous system “memory,” long known to neurophysiologists as “shortterm potentiation” (STP). The STP is of significant relevance to respiratory stability because it provides additional damping to the system by blunting overshoots and undershoots in ventilatory drive. Younes has suggested that functional suppression or diseaserelated elimination of this mechanism may be the cause for periodic breathing in the clinical setting (9). The studies of respiratory STP cited in the foregoing demonstrated the existence of the phenomenon under somewhat nonphysiological conditions. However, more recent studies have shown that STP can occur under conditions more pertinent to periodic breathing. In normal awake humans, Georgopoulos et al. (173) elicited active hyperventilation in response to hypoxic gas inhalation lasting less than a minute, following which the stimulus was abruptly withdrawn by changing the inspirate to 100% O2. Hyperventilation declined, but nevertheless, persisted for several breaths following the start of hyperoxia, even after allowing for the lungtocarotid chemoreceptor delay. A similar protocol in exercising humans produced the same results (174). However, in Georgopoulos's study, exposure to a longer duration (25 min) of hypoxiainduced hyperventilation led to a hypoventilatory response in the subsequent interval of hyperoxia. This result was consistent with the findings from an earlier study by Holtby et al. (175), which showed no evidence of respiratory STP, regardless of whether the subjects were exposed to 5 or 25 min of hypoxia. Furthermore, in Holtby's study, isocapnic conditions were maintained so that the apparent absence of STP was likely a consequence of the more sustained hypoxia, and not because of any hyperventilationrelated hypocapnia. More recently, the response to abrupt termination of hypoxiainduced hyperventilation was measured in a group of elderly humans (176). The hypoxic stimulation level was moderate, similar to Georgopoulos's study, but the exposure times ranged from 35 to 90 sec. All subjects except one showed clear evidence of STP, and the ventilatory decay profiles were uninfluenced by the duration of prior hypoxic exposure. Thus, it appears that the “cutoff” duration of hypoxic exposure beyond which the STP mechanism becomes suppressed (probably by central
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hypoxic depression) lies between 90 sec and 5 min. Badr et al. (177) conducted similar experiments in normal subjects in NREM sleep, taking the additional important step of referencing the results to control responses in which the same subjects underwent room airtohyperoxia transitions. Termination of hypoxic stimulation for 30 sec or 1 min revealed the presence of STP when isocapnic conditions were maintained throughout the trials. On the other hand, when PACO2 was not controlled and hypocapnia was allowed to occur, the responses following 30sec and 1min hypoxic stimulation were hypoventilatory, showing significant prolongation of TE. Exposure to 5 min of moderate hypoxia led to brief central apnea, when isocapnia was maintained, and to substantially longer apnea when hypocapnia was allowed to occur. These results clearly demonstrate that a sufficiently strong level of hypocapnia can inhibit or offset the STP. Comparison of the short exposure results in sleep with those in wakefulness from this study and that of Georgopoulos shows that, although the respiratory STP remains present during sleep, its influence is certainly reduced. A subsequent study comparing posthypoxic responses in wakefulness with NREM sleep confirms the powerful influence of state on STP (178). In summary, the accumulated pieces of evidence now unequivocally confirm the existence of respiratory STP in humans. At the same time, however, the current findings show that the ventilationsustaining effect of the STP can be easily offset by hypocapnia, hypoxia, or the loss of wakefulness. What influence do these conclusions have on the presumed stabilitypromoting role of STP? To answer this question, we first consider how the inclusion of STP will affect the magnitude of loop gain, assuming conditions of wakefulness and normocapnia. Eldridge has proposed that the STP can be modeled as a static gain placed in parallel with a low pass filter (172,179). The static gain will convert part of the stimulus instantly into a portion of the response; this accounts for the abrupt change that occurs immediately following any change in the stimulus. The published data indicate that this accounts for approximately half the overall response amplitude. The lowpass filter component accounts for the slowly varying decay or rise. For our calculations here, we will assume a reasonably realistic range of 20–40 sec for the time constant. The steadystate gain of the filter must be 0.5, so that the steadystate gain of the parallel structure will be unity. Using these values, we have calculated that STP will reduce loop gain magnitude at a periodicity of 60 sec by 28–38%, and loop gain magnitude at periodicity of 30 sec by 37–43%. Therefore, these results indicate that STP, if present, promotes respiratory control stability. One should note, however, that the numbers just given were based on the assumption that the on and offtime constants are the same; in reality the ontransient time constant is smaller. However, if we allow for the influence of other factors that modulate ventilatory drive, the predicted effect of STP on system stability can be quite different. This is illustrated in Figure 9A. Given the available evidence, we assume
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Figure 9 (A) Postulated scheme for the central neural processes converting total afferent feedback into phrenic drive. (B) Response of phrenic discharge to a step decrease in total afferent input, showing respiratory shortterm potentiation. (C) Response of phrenic discharge to a step decrease in total afferent input, starting with a lower total afferent input baseline; because the neural respiratory drive falls below threshold, there is no apparent afterdischarge.
that STP is an inherent property of central neural dynamics, so that changes in input will always lead to afterdischarge effects in neural respiratory drive. However, we also assume that subthreshold neural respiratory drive exists (180) and that only suprathreshold activity is reflected in the phrenic discharge. If the total afferent input (which includes all possible ventilatory stimulation sources) is high, neural respiratory drive will always be suprathreshold and phrenic drive will follow the same time course as neural respiratory drive (see Fig. 9B). However, if total afferent input is reduced sufficiently, the form of the response in neural respiratory drive to a change in stimulation will remain the same as before. However, the loss of certain components of total afferent input produces a level of neural respiratory drive that falls below threshold (see Fig. 9C). In this case, the response to abrupt termination of the stimulus will be apnea. In this way, a reduction in the other components of afferent input, such as PaCO2 or the wakefulness stimulus, can neutralize the stabilizing effects of respiratory STP. This
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proposed mechanism is still purely speculative. On the other hand, the existence of STP at subthreshold levels of respiratory neural activity has been demonstrated in cats by Eldridge (181). C. “Inhibitory Memory Effect” A series of recent studies has uncovered a potent inhibitory effect of inspiratory motor output resulting from mechanical feedback of the extent of lung or chest wall stretch (182–187). The net effect of this neuromechanical inhibition is to shift the CO2 apneic threshold to the right, so that recovery of respiratory drive from zero spontaneous activity occurs at a PaCO2 higher than the eupneic level (183). The precise afferent pathways through which this inhibitory effect is mediated remain unresolved. In the dog, vagal feedback plays an important role (188,189). However, this phenomenon is also found in vagally denervated lung transplant patients (183). Moreover, this neuromechanical inhibition has been found in quadruplegics with C5–C6 lesions (185), in normal subjects following upper or lower airway anesthesia (183), and in sleep or wakefulness (184). Thus, several parallel afferent pathways appear to be involved in the mediation of the inhibition. Perhaps more importantly from the viewpoint of respiratory stability, the inhibitory effect persists for some time following the termination of the stimulus. Leevers et al. (186,187) have demonstrated in both awake and asleep humans that, following the cessation of mechanical ventilation, ventilatory inhibition persisted in the form of central apnea, lasting approximately 15 sec. In these studies, any substantial inhibitory contribution from hypocapnia was eliminated through the maintenance of normocapnia throughout the protocol. This inhibitory memory effect has also been shown in piglets, where laryngeal nerve electrical stimulation produced a reduction in phrenic activity that continued even after stimulation was terminated (190). The presence of this phenomenon represents a destabilizing influence on respiratory control stability. In periodic breathing, “memory” of the neuromechanical inhibition produced by breaths in the hyperpneic phase of the cycle would exert a prolonging effect on the ensuing central apnea. The mechanism of the inhibitory memory effect is unknown, although it is believed to be centrally mediated (186,187). Dempsey et al. (191) speculate that the cause may be reciprocal inhibition of inspiration by persistent tonic expiratory activity in the respiratory centers during apnea. Alternatively, this inhibitory memory effect may be viewed as STP occurring in reverse. For instance, it would be helpful to refer to Figure 9 and to imagine parallel situations in which the changes are opposite in sign to those shown. Assume that mechanical stimulation produces a negative change in total afferent input. This would lead to a reduction in respiratory neural activity. However, following termination of the stimulus, neural respiratory activity would rise gradually back to its original level, following an initial abrupt increase. If the stimulation is strong enough to produce a reduc
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tion in respiratory neural activity to subthreshold levels, then immediately following termination of the stimulus, there will not be an immediate return of phrenic discharge. Thus, apnea will occur until respiratory neural activity has had time to rise above the threshold level. Although this mechanism now remains speculative, it is appealing in that it suggests that the same neuronal dynamics can account for both excitatory (STP) and inhibitory memory effects. VI. Conclusion The stability properties of the respiratory system depend not only on the individual behavior of each of its components, but also on the way in which the component properties interact or become temporally integrated. A system with depressed chemosensitivity may become unstable if damping is reduced or system delays are increased by sufficiently large amounts. One's understanding of how periodic breathing can arise in various situations is incomplete unless one bears in mind that this phenomenon is dynamic. Thus, a thorough investigation must involve a consideration of the inherent dynamic properties of the individual components and the system as a whole. The intimate coupling of one subsystem with another means that the dynamic behavior of one entity can easily interact with or influence the dynamics of other connected components. Thus, fluctuations in state can lead to fluctuations in ventilation or vice versa. Staterelated fluctuations in upper airway resistance can result in ventilatory and blood gas level oscillations which, in turn, can lead to subsequent changes in upper airway resistance. Finally, recent evidence suggests that, in addition to the critical influences of sleepwake state, upper airway mechanics, and chemoreflex control, the dynamics of the central neural processes that control the depth and timing of respiration may also play a significant role in determining ventilatory stability. Acknowledgments The author's original work described herein and the preparation of the chapter were supported by NIH grants HL02536 and RR01861, and the American Lung Association. References 1. Cheyne J. A case of apoplexy in which the fleshy part of the heart was converted into fat. Dublin, Ireland: Dublin Hospital Reports II, 1818:216–223. 2. Stokes W. The diseases of the heart and the aorta. Dublin, Ireland: Hodge and Smith, 1854:302–340.
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145. Onal E, Burrows DL, Hart RH, Lopata M. Induction of periodic breathing during sleep causes upper airway obstruction in humans. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61:1438–1443. 146. Hudgel DW, Chapman KR, Faulks C, Hendricks C. Changes in inspiratory muscle electrical activity and upper airway resistance during periodic breathing induced by hypoxia during sleep. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135:899–906. 147. Warner G, Skatrud JB, Dempsey JA. Effect of hypoxiainduced periodic breathing on upper airway obstruction during sleep. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62:2201– 2211. 148. Skatrud JB, Iber C, Wart R, Thomas G, Rasmussen H, Schultze B. Disordered breathing during sleep in hypothyroidism. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 124:325– 329. 149. Gothe B, Longobardo GS, Mantey P, Goldman MD, Cherniack NS. Effects of increased inspired oxygen and carbon dioxide on periodic breathing during sleep. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 1981; 94:134–143. 150. Hudgel DW, Hendricks WC, Dadley A. Alteration in obstructive apnea pattern induced by changes in oxygen and carbon dioxideinspired concentrations. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 138:16–19. 151. Martin RJ, Sanders MH, Gray BA, Pennock BE. Acute and longterm ventilatory effects of hyperoxia in the adult sleep apnea syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 125:175–180. 152. Motta J, Guilleminault C. Effects of oxygen administration in sleep induced apneas. In: Guilleminault C, Dement W, eds. Sleep Apnea Syndromes. New York: Alan R Liss, 1978:137–144. 153. Smith PL, Haponik EF, Bleecker ER. The effects of oxygen in patients with sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 130:958–963. 154. Gold AR, Bleecker ER, Smith P. A shift from central and mixed sleep apneas to obstructive sleep apnea resulting from low flow oxygen. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132:220–223. 155. Longobardo GS, Gothe B, Goldman MD, Cherniack NS. Sleep apnea considered as a control system instability. Respir Physiol 1982; 50:311–333. 156. Isono S, Remmers JE. Anatomy and physiology of upper airway obstruction. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. 2nd ed. London: WB Saunders, 1994:632–656. 157. Hudgel DW, Suratt PM. The human airway during sleep. In: Saunders NA, Sullivan CE, eds. Sleep and Breathing. 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1994:191–208. 158. Badr MS. Effect of ventilatory drive on upper airway patency in humans during NREM sleep. Respir Physiol 1996; 103:1–10. 159. Block AJ, Faulkner JA, Hughes RL, Remmers JE, Thach B. Factors influencing upper airway closure. Chest 1984; 86:114–122. 160. Badr MS, Skatrud JB, Dempsey JA. Effect of chemoreceptor stimulation and inhibition on total pulmonary resistance in humans during NREM sleep. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76:1682–1692. 161. Hudgel DW, Hamilton HB. Respiratory muscle activity during sleepinduced periodic breathing in the elderly. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77:2285–2290. 162. Kay A, Trinder J, Bowes G, Kim Y. Changes in airway resistance during sleep onset. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76:1600–1607. 163. Carlson DM, Carley DW, Onal E, Lopata M, Basner RC. Acoustically induced
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cortical arousal increases phasic pharyngeal muscle and diaphragmatic EMG in NREM sleep. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76:1553–1559. 164. Eldridge FL. Central neural stimulation of respiration in unanesthetized decerebrate cats. J Appl Physiol 1976; 40:23–28. 165. Eldridge FL. Posthyperventilation breathing: different effects of active and passive hyperventilation. J Appl Physiol 1973; 34:422–430. 166. Plum F, Brown HW, Sonep E. Neurological significance of hyperventilation apnea. JAMA 1962; 181:110–115. 167. Tawardrous FD, Eldridge FL. Posthyperventilation breathing patterns after active hyperventilation in man. J Appl Physiol 1974; 37:353–356. 168. Swanson GD, Ward DS, Bellville JW. Posthyperventilation isocapnic hyperpnea. J Appl Physiol 1976; 40:592–596. 169. Eldridge FL. Central neural respiratory stimulatory effect of active respiration. J Appl Physiol 1974; 37:723–735. 170. Vis A, Folgering H. Phrenic nerve afterdischarge after electrical stimulation of the carotid sinus nerve in cats. Respir Physiol 1981; 45:217–227. 171. Eldridge FL. Maintenance of respiration by central neural feedback mechanisms. Fed Proc 1977; 36:2400–2404. 172. Eldridge FL. The North Carolina respiratory model: a multipurpose model for studying the control of breathing. In: Khoo MCK, ed. Bioengineering Approaches to Pulmonary Physiology and Medicine. New York: Plenum. 1996:25–49. 173. Georgopoulos D, Bshouty Z, Younes M, Anthonisen NR. Hypoxic exposure and activation of the afterdischarge mechanism in conscious humans. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69:1159–1164. 174. Fregosi RF. Shortterm potentiation of breathing in humans. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71:892–899. 175. Holtby SG, Berezanski DJ, Anthonisen NR. Effect of 100% oxygen on hypoxic eucapnic ventilation. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65:1157–1162. 176. Ahmed M, Giesbrecht GG, Serrette C, Georgopoulos D, Anthonisen NR. Respiratory shortterm potentiation (afterdischarge) in elderly humans. Respir Physiol 1993; 93:165–173. 177. Badr MS, Skatrud JB, Dempsey JA. Determinants of poststimulus potentiation in humans during NREM sleep. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73:1958–1971. 178. Gleeson K, Sweer LW. Ventilatory pattern after hypoxic stimulation during wakefulness and NREM sleep. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75:397–404. 179. Eldridge FL. Neural control of breathing during exercise. In: Whipp BJ, Wasserman K, eds. Exercise—Pulmonary Physiology and Pathophysiology. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1991:309–370. 180. Lahiri S, Mokashi A, Delaney RG, Fishman AP. Arterial Po2 and PCO2 stimulus threshold for carotid chemoreceptors and breathing. Respir Physiol 1978; 34:359–375. 181. Eldridge FL. Subthreshold central neural respiratory activity and afterdischarge. Respir Physiol 1980; 39:327–343. 182. Altose MD, Castele RJ, Connors AF, DiMarco AF. Effects of volume and frequency of mechanical ventilation on respiratory muscle activity in humans. Respir Physiol 1986; 66:171–180.
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183. Simon PM, Skatrud JB, Badr MS, Griffin DM, Iber C, Dempsey JA. Role of airway mechanoreceptors in the inhibition of inspiration during mechanical ventilation in humans. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:1033–1041. 184. Simon PM, Dempsey JA, Landry DM, Skatrud JB. Effect of sleep on respiratory muscle activity during mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:32–37. 185. Simon PM, Griffin DM, Landry DM, Skatrud JB. Inhibition of respiratory activity during passive ventilation: a role for intercostal afferents? Respir Physiol 1993; 92:53–64. 186. Leevers A, Simon PM, Xi L, Dempsey JA. Apnoea following normocapnic mechanical ventilation in awake mammals: a demonstration of control system inertia. J Physiol (Lond) 1993; 472:749–768. 187. Leevers AM, Simon PM, Dempsey JA. Apnea after normocapnic mechanical ventilation during NREM sleep. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77:2079–2085. 188. Xi L, Smith CA, Saupe KW, Dempsey JA. Effects of memory from vagal feedback on shortterm potentiation of ventilation in conscious dogs. J Physiol (Lond) 1993; 462:547–561. 189. Chow CM, Xi L, Smith CA, Saupe KW, Dempsey JA. A volumedependent apneic threshold during NREM sleep in the dog. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76:2315– 2325. 190. Lawson EE, Prolonged central respiratory inhibition following reflexinduced apnea. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50:874–879. 191. Dempsey JA, Smith CA, Harms CA, Chow C, Saupe KW. Sleepinduced breathing instability. Sleep 1996; 19:236–247.
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8 Clinical Assessment of the Respiratory Control System YASUSHI AKIYAMA Hokkaido Central Hospital Sapporo, Japan YOSHIKAZU KAWAKAMI Hokkaido University School of Medicine and Hokkaido University Hospital Sapporo, Japan I. Introduction Breathing is controlled by an elaborate system, encompassing the higher brain and the brain stem respiratory center as well as the terminal effector organs, including the respiratory muscles and lungs, to maintain oxygenation and acidbase homeostasis of the body. There has been a huge accumulation of physiological knowledge since the discovery of the feedback loop in control of breathing by Haldane and Priestley (1). During this period, various evaluation methods have been developed and standardized in physiological experiments to better understand the integrated system of breathing. Those methods have also been adopted to solve clinical problems and clarify the complex disturbances of patients with breathing disorders. In this chapter, standardized methods used in human studies will be plainly presented for clinicians who are eager to obtain a deeper insight into the physiological conditions of their patients who have respiratory diseases. We will
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begin by explaining the measurement of outputs of the human system for control of breathing. II. Measurement of Respiratory Output. As shown in Figure 1, the respiratory output from the brain stem respiratory center comes down through the spinal cord and peripheral nerves to the neuromuscular junctions of the respiratory muscles (the diaphragm, intercostal, abdominal, and neck muscles). The contractions of those muscles cyclically change the pressure inside the thoracic cage, and this pressure swing generates the airflow between the lung periphery (i.e., alveoli) and the outside of the body. The volume of the air that moves in and out of the alveoli per unit of time (alveolar ventilation, ) determines the arterial blood gas tension through the gas exchange between the alveolar air and the pulmonary capillaries. Because disease states may affect any level of the respiratory system, the respiratory parameters measured downstream from the affected level may not reflect the true respiratory output. Although the electrical activity of the nerves to the respiratory muscles can be studied for the evaluation of the respiratory drive directly from the respiratory center in animals, this method is not readily available for humans. Clinicians always have to face the complexity of the results of the various studies done to assess patients' respiratory conditions. Careful consideration is needed to draw scientifically sound conclusions from an appropriate combination of the following respiratory indices. A. Arterial Blood Gas Values Arterial blood gas values (PaCO2, PaO2, and pH) are determined by the balance of metabolism and , which is considered to be the final product of respiratory motor output. These values are also the input stimuli for the feedback loop of chemical control that is a fundamental mechanism in the regulation of breathing. Indeed, these blood gas values provide us with information on how well the control system for breathing is working at any given time. Even if the alveolar ventilation is too small compared with the metabolic rate, it does not cause hypoxia unless the imbalance is extreme. The change in
readily leads to a change in PaCO2. An increase
in leads to hypocapnia, and its decrease leads to hypercapnia. However, with abnormal breathing patterns, such as seen in CheyneStokes respiration in heart failure (2–4) or in damage of the central nervous system (5), PaCO2 can vary considerably with the level of ventilation. The timing of the arterial blood gas sampling is critical in the presence of abnormal respiratory patterns. Similarly, with sleepinduced abnormal ventilation seen in patients with a muscular disease, there are diurnal rhythms of blood gas values; PaCO2 in the morning tends to be higher than that in the afternoon while the patient is awake (6).
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Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the control system of breathing: PaCO2, PaO2, and pH work as input stimuli for this negativefeedback system. Continuous lines with arrowheads are for facilitative effects on minute ventilation, and broken lines with arrowheads for suppressive effects. Respiratory output (or drive) indices are shown in the right rectangle.
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B. Ventilation Minute Ventilation Minute ventilation has little variability over time in steadystate conditions and is quite reproducible compared with other measures. It is considered to reflect the respiratory output from the brain stem respiratory center in normal subjects. However, it can be either normal or low, in spite of high output from the respiratory center, in subjects with airflow or volume limitations owing to abnormal resistance or compliance of the airways, lungs, or thoracic cage. In such patients, it is useful to examine other measures at sites more proximal to the respiratory center. Such parameters include airway occlusion pressure or diaphragmatic electromyogram. These will be reviewed later. Differential Evaluation of Thoracic and Abdominal Respiratory Movements Minute ventilation, which is measured at the mouth, is the sum of volume changes of the thoracic and abdominal respiratory movements (7). The paradoxical movements of the chest and abdomen, which are caused by respiratory muscle fatigue or hyperinflation (8), can be detected by differential measurement of these two components. The actual measurements can be done by wearing an expandable coil, a respiratory inductive plethysmograph, around the chest and abdominal walls. With this instrument, can be measured without using an annoying mouthpiece and a noseclip. It is also used in monitoring respiration during sleep. When using the respiratory inductive plethysmograph quantitatively, care should be taken to ensure accurate calibration (9,10). C. Respiratory Pattern Ventilation
is the product of tidal volume (VT ) and breathing frequency (f).
Tidal volume is determined by the inspiratory flow rate and inspiratory time, so (11):
can be also expressed as the following when total respiratory cycle time is TTOT
VT /TI measures the mean inspiratory flow rate. In normal subjects, mean inspiratory flow is said to reflect “inspiratory drive” because it has a curvilinear relation
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ship with the airway occlusion pressure P0.1', which is an index of respiratory neuromuscular output (12). However, in patients with thoracopulmonary mechanical limitations, VT /TI cannot be used as a respiratory drive index because the normal relationship with P0.1 is disturbed by the disordered ventilatory impedance. TI/TTOT is a parameter that reflects respiratory timing and is called the inspiratory duty cycle (Fig. 2). Respiratory rhythm is set in the brain stem respiratory centers, with modification from inputs from chemoreceptors and lung and chest wall mechanoreceptors (13). Resistive and elastic loading of the lungs and the thorax affect the respiratory rhythm through such mechanisms (14). Effects from the higher brain, such as mental activity or emotion, also affect the final breathing pattern and its stability (15). Heart failure is commonly associated with an abnormal cyclic respiratory pattern (3,4). D. Respiratory Pressures Airway Occlusion Pressure Mechanical abnormalities of the ventilatory system, such as increased airway resistance or reduced compliance, can reduce ventilation and the ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia, even when respiratory chemosensitivity and the output from the respiratory centers remain normal. Airway occlusion pressure is the pressure measured at the mouth during the early part of an inspiratory effort
Figure 2 Schematic spirograms illustrating ways in which ventilation can be increased: Control spirogram shown in (a) is repeated in broken lines in (bd). (From Ref. 11.)
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from functional residual capacity against a closed airway. It was first advocated by Whitelaw et al. (12) as a respiratory output index relatively insensitive to the effects of mechanical thoracopulmonary limitation. This noninvasive measure is suitable for use in humans. The pressure change during the initial 0.1 sec of the inspiratory effort is referred to as P0.1. In the actual measurement, a valve in the inspiratory side of a breathing circuit is occluded every several breaths during the expiratory phase without being noticed by the subject. After measuring the initial pressure change, the valve is opened manually or automatically. During the airway occlusion, there are only negligible changes in lung volume. Therefore, P0.1 is not considered to be directly affected by the elastance and resistance of the thoracopulmonary system. However, because respiratory muscle abnormalities do affect P0.1, this index could show low values, compared with the corresponding respiratory output from the respiratory center, when respiratory muscle length is shortened by pulmonary overinflation or in the presence of respiratory muscle weakness or fatigue (16). Nonetheless, airway occlusion pressure remains a versatile index of respiratory output in the study of human control of breathing, irrespective of its shortcomings. The airway occlusion pressure has been used to predict successful weaning from mechanical ventilation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) who are recovering from acute respiratory failure. When breathing patterns are variable and irregular, the airway occlusion pressure may not accurately reflect respiratory output because it measures only an initial short portion of inspiratory activity. Transdiaphragmatic Pressure Transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) is the pressure gradient across the contracting diaphragm. It is measured as the difference between intrathoracic and abdominal pressures using esophageal and gastric balloon catheters, respectively. The Pdi is an index of the force output of the diaphragm, the major muscle of inspiration. In addition to providing an index of respiratory motor output, it can also be used to assess diaphragmatic strength and endurance (18). E. Diaphragmatic Electromyography Diaphragmatic electromyographic activity can serve as a useful index of respiratory neuromotor output. It is not directly affected by mechanical abnormalities of the thoracopulmonary system. The raw electromyographic signal is rectified and electronically integrated to provide a quantitative measure of changes in respiratory activity during progressive hypercapnia or in response to ventilatory loading (19). Power spectral analysis of the raw electromyographic signal can identify diaphragmatic fatigue (20). In the presence of respiratory muscle fatigue, the lowfrequency component increases in contrast with the decrease in the highfrequency component, leading to lowering of the high/lowfrequency ratio (H/L
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ratio). Either surface electrodes on the chest wall or intraesophageal catheter electrodes positioned at the level of the diaphragm may be used. Both methods have some drawbacks. Diaphragm electromyographic activity measured with surface electrodes can be contaminated by electrical activity from rib cage, intercostal, and abdominal muscles. With an intraesophageal electrode, there may be unstable contact between the esophageal wall and the electrode. With both methods, the electromyographic signals from the diaphragm can be contaminated by electrocardiographic signals, interfering with accurate quantitation (21). III. Methods of Evaluating Control of Breathing. A. Evaluation of Chemical Control of Breathing The most important function of breathing is to supply oxygen to and remove carbon dioxide from the body. In response to changes in arterial blood gas values (PaCO2, PaO2, and pH), also changes to return the arterial gas values toward baseline levels. The negativefeedback, chemical control system is considered the fundamental mechanism of respiratory regulation. Chemical control of breathing is basically evaluated by the ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and to hypoxia. Before going into the details of the testing methods, the general scheme for breathing control should be recollected (see Fig. 1). Changes in PaO2 are sensed by peripheral chemoreceptors. Although the peripheral chemoreceptors include both the carotid and aortic bodies, the carotid body plays a predominant role in humans. In contrast, changes in Pco2 are sensed by central chemoreceptors, specialized cells in the superficial part of the rostral medulla. The carotid body also senses PaCO2 and arterial pH. The stimulus to medullary chemoreceptors is most closely approximated by the hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), rather than that in the arterial blood. The system inputs from these chemoreceptors are integrated at the respiratory centers in the brain stem, and the appropriate level of ventilation is finally determined. Hypercapnic Ventilatory Response Under steadystate conditions, the CO2 concentration of alveolar air (FACO2), CO2 production of the body
In a steadystate,
can be represented by a constant. Thus:
are related in the following manner (22):
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Because of the fixed relationship between FACO2 and PACO2, the equation can be rewritten as follows:
This equation indicates that there is a hyperbolic relationship between hyperbola and CO2 controller line.
values are shown by the open circle in Figure 3 at the intersection of the metabolic
The controller line is obtained from the hypercapnic ventilatory response test. There are basically two standardized tests: The first one involves a steadystate method in which subjects breathe several different concentrations of mixed CO2, each for 5–15 min until the ventilation becomes stable. Although this is the original way to obtain the hypercapnic ventilatory response, it is no longer commonly used because it is very timeconsuming. Instead, the rebreathing method originally reported by Read and Leigh (23) is more frequently employed.
Figure 3 The metabolic hyperbola and controller line for CO2. (Modified from Ref. 22.)
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Figure 4 Circuit for measuring the ventilatory response to hypercapnia by rebreathing: The short, thick arrows indicate the direction of gas flow to and from the CO2 analyzer. A is the orifice for obtaining sample gas from the bag. B is the tube to collect expiratory air for gas analysis. C is the valve to select the subject's inspiratory air, room air, or mixed gas in the rebreathing bag. D is the return path of the air analyzed by the CO2 analyzer to the bag. E is the valve to select whether or not the analyzed air is returned to the bag. (From Ref. 24.)
In the rebreathing method, the subject rebreathes from a bag with a volume of 5–6 L that initially contains a gas mixture consisting of 7% CO2 and 93% O2 (Fig. 4). Equilibration among mixedvenous PCO2 simultaneously with PETCO2. The test is completed in 4–5 min when the PETCO2 reaches about 70 torr. Any effect of hypoxia is eliminated because the endtidal PO2 (PETO2) is maintained over 150 torr throughout the rebreathing test. There is another way of obtaining a hypercapnic ventilatory response (25). In this method (dual control of arterial blood gases; Fig. 6), inspiratory fractions of O2 and CO2 are simultaneously and independently
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Figure 5 Expired CO2 and ventilation records obtained during measurement of the ventilatory response to hypercapnia: After the mixed venous plateau has been obtained, the PCO2 rises linearly with time and is uninfluenced by the pattern of breathing. (From Ref. 24.)
servocontrolled using PETO2 and PETCO2 as guides. By this dualcontrol system, the rate of the hypercapnic load and the PETO2 can be freely predetermined. The relation between PETCO2 and is linear, and the hypercapnic ventilatory response curve is a straight line in the physiological range (Fig. 7). The slope S of the regression line and its intercept B on the PETCO2 axis are obtained from the following equation:
In this equation, S (also expressed as ) is an index of respiratory chemosensitivity to hypercapnia, and B represents the position of the regression line for the hypercapnic ventilatory response. Reported average values for the hypercapnic ventilatory response in healthy subjects are shown in Table 1. There is considerable variation in hypercapnic ventilatory response values among normal subjects. The various physiological factors that account for this variability will be discussed in a later section.
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Figure 6 Measurement system of ventilatory response tests using dualcontrol system of arterial blood gases, DUOGRAPH KAY100, Chest MI: This system uses servocontrols for the O2 concentration in inspiratory air (FIO2, with PETO2 as an index, and for the CO2 concentration in inspiratory air (FICO2) at the same time independently from FIO2. With this system, the examiner can freely predetermine the gas composition of initial gases, the goal composition of inspired gases, and the rate of change in gas concentration. This system can be used in measuring various protocols of ventilatory responses, such as responses to hyperoxic progressive hypercapnia (changing PETCO2 from 45 torr to over 60 torr maintaining PETO2 at above 150 torr), to isocapnic progressive hypoxia (changing PETO2 from 120 torr to about 40 torr, maintaining PETCO2 at the resting ventilation level), and to sustained hypoxia. In addition, it is equipped with measurement systems for , P0.1, and breathing pattern as respiratory output indices and these can be analyzed with PETO2, Sao2, and PETCO2. Originally described in Ref. 25.)
If periodic airway occlusions are performed during hypercapnia, the P0.1 response to hypercapnia can also be determined from the following equation (28):
where
represents the change in airway occlusion pressure for a given change in endtidal PCO2 ( P0.1/ PETCO2).
Hypoxic Ventilatory Response Isocapnic Progressive Hypoxia Method The metabolic hyperbola and controller line for O2 under steadystate conditions are shown in Figure 8. In contrast with the controller line for CO2, the O2
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Figure 7 Evaluation of the hypercapnic ventilatory response. From the regression line, is 1.6 L/min/torr and the B value is 40 torr.
controller line (curve) is virtually flat until the PAO2 decreases to a level of 50–60 torr (see Fig. 8). Therefore, the metabolic hyperbola and the controller line for O2 cross with a narrow angle compared with the angle for CO2 (22). Differences in the shapes of the hypoxic and hypercapnic ventilatory response explain why the resting and arterial blood gas values are determined largely by hypercapnic chemosensitivity, rather than by hypoxic chemosensitivity. The hypoxic ventilatory response plays a major role when there is considerable hypoxia, for example, in patients with diseased lungs. The isocapnic progressive hypoxia method, originally described by Weil et al. (40), and its modifications are generally used for the clinical assessment of hypoxic chemosensitivity. In these methods PETO2 is gradually decreased to the level of 40 torr over 5–10 min, while PETCO2 is kept constant at the level of resting, room air breathing. Rebreathing into a rubber bag, with a CO2 absorber and with manual addition of CO2 when needed (24; Fig. 9), or the independent servocontrol of PETCO2 by the dualcontrol system for arterial blood gases (25; see Fig. 6) are used to actually obtain isocapnic progressive hypoxia. The PETCO2 is generally maintained at the level of resting, room airbreathing. It may be kept at 5 mmHg higher than the resting level. Because of the dangers of hypoxia, monitoring of both SaO2 by pulse oximetry and an electrocardiogram (ECG) must be done throughout the study. Two methods have been widely used for the measurement of the ventila
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tory response to isocapnic progressive hypoxia. The first one, which uses PETO2 as the stimulus parameter, is the method of Weil et al. (40). PETO2 and hyperbolically related, and the regression curve for this relationship is as follows (Fig. 10a):
are
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Figure 8 The metabolic hyperbola and controller line for O2. (Modified from Ref. 22.)
Figure 9 Circuit for measuring the ventilatory response to isocapnic progressive hypoxia: An oximeter is included for the assessment of Sao2 by the method of Rebuck and Campbell (41) in addition to an O2 analyzer for the PETO2 measurement. (From Ref. 24.)
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Figure 10 Evaluation of hypoxic ventilatory response: (a) The method of Weil et al. (40). Taking hyperbolic regression using 32 as C (see text), the A value is 160 L/min/torr and
is 1.9 L/min. (b) The method of Rebuck and
Campbell (41). From the linear regression equation, is 0.77 L/min/%. To express the position of the line, for example, the at 95% of Sao2 is used. In this case, it is 6.0 L/min.
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where A is the value that reflects the hypoxic chemosensitivity and is considered to be infinite (vertical asymtote). Weil et al. used 32 torr for the C value, derived from the mean value in normal subjects (40). However, some researchers recommend calculating individual C values for each subject, because C values among normal subjects vary considerably (42). Another way of measuring the ventilatory response to isocapnic progressive hypoxia by using oxygen saturation as the stimulus parameter, is that of Rebuck and Campbell (41). The following 1 (generally expressed as (Fig. 10b):
The rationale for the use of PO2 as the stimulus parameter is that the peripheral chemoreceptors do not actually sense SaO2 but rather, PaO2. However, the method of Rebuck and Campbell is clinically useful, especially in patients with lung disease in whom PETO2 does not well reflect PaO2 because of large alveolararterial O2 differences (AaDO2). Recently, the methods of Rebuck and Campbell had become more and more popular owing to the widespread use of pulse oximeters (see Fig. 9). The P0.1 response to hypoxia is evaluated as the change in occlusion pressure for a given change in oxygen saturation ( P0.1/ SaO2):
On measuring ventilatory responses to isocapnic progressive hypoxia, PETCO2 must be carefully kept constant at a predetermined level, and the intersubject and interstudy variation of PETCO2 should be minimized because hypoxia and hypercapnia have multiplicative effects on the increase in (24). It is desirable that during the isocapnic progressive hypoxia test PETCO2 and subjects' hypercapnic response be evaluated and recorded along with the hypoxic response value itself (43). Reported average values for the hypoxic ventilatory response in healthy subjects are shown in Table 2. Care should be taken when comparing the values from different laboratories, which frequently use slightly different protocols. The rate of change in PaO2 significantly affects the response to isocapnic progressive hypoxia (44). Intersubject variation in the hypoxic response is generally larger than that in the hypercapnic response. Transient O2 Test Hypoxia suppresses the central respiratory center while it increases through the stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors (45). When neonates are exposed to sustained hypoxia, shows a biphasic response (i.e., it decreases after an initial increase and finally settles at a level somewhere between the resting room air ven
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tilation and the peak ventilation; 46). Although such central suppression with hypoxia is typically observed in neonates, a similar phenomenon is also seen in normal adult subjects (47,48). Such depression may involve the adenosine receptor system, without a change in brain blood flow (48,49). The hypoxic ventilatory response value obtained by the isocapnic progressive hypoxia test thus consists of two components: ventilatory facilitation by the peripheral chemoreceptors, and ventilatory suppression in the brain stem. One of the approaches to separate these two components and to evaluate only the effect of hypoxia on the peripheral chemoreceptors is the transient O2 test (50). There are several variations of this method. In one of them, a subject breathes a hypoxic gas mixture and then, without warning, is given one or two breaths of 100% O2 (51). There is about a 20sec difference in the circulation time between the peripheral and the central chemoreceptors. Because the abrupt change in PaO2 does not affect the brain stem, but removes the hypoxic stimulus at the peripheral chemoreceptors in the initial 10–15 sec (transit time for blood flow from the lungs to the carotid body) from the beginning of the 100% O2 inhalation, the change in this period is measured as the ventilatory response originating solely from the peripheral chemoreceptors. However, because the hypoxic response values obtained by this method are more variable than with the isocapnic progressive hypoxia method, averaged values
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from repeated measures (more than four to five times) are generally recommended. General Precautions for Studying Ventilatory Response Because there are many factors that affect the values of the ventilatory response, the following precautions should be taken to minimize or eliminate any confounding influences (52,53): 1. Caffeinecontaining beverages, such as coffee or tea, alcohol, various drugs, and smoking should not be taken or should be discontinued for several hours before the examination. These substances may have either facilitatory or suppressive effects on ventilation (54,55). 2. Subjects should rest for at least 20 min before the examination. They should be calmed after walking to the laboratory and be familiarized with the study apparatus and procedures, to minimize anxiety. 3. Subjects should be in a fasting state and should have an empty bladder. A full stomach could result in drowsiness or sleep during the ventilatory response study. The urge to urinate could be very stressful and stimulate breathing, which will cause erroneous response values. 4. The examination room should be quiet because subjects may synchronize their respiration to music. 5. Arterial blood gas samples for analyses should be taken more than 30 min before the ventilatory response examination on the study day. If performed before the examination, the response values may be augmented because of pain reaction. 6. The body temperature should be measured. Fever may augment the response values. 7. Whispering conversation among the examiners during the study may make the subject more nervous than clear and loud conversation. 8. It is desirable that the same examination should be performed twice with at least a 10min interval between. Studies should be repeated if any of the respiratory traces are unstable. Physiological Factors That Affect Ventilatory Responses to Hypercapnia and Hypoxia Body Size, Age, and Gender For both hypercapnic and hypoxic ventilatory responses, the response values are greater in subjects with greater body size. The ventilatory response value is generally standardized by dividing by the body surface area (BSA). Aging does not have systematic effects on the hypercapnic ventilatory response, although it does diminish the hypoxic ventilatory response (27,28). Although ventilatory
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responses are lower in female subjects than in males, correction for lung volumes eliminates such differences (35). Ethnicity and Hereditary Factors Ethnic comparisons of ventilatory responses in normal subjects are shown in Table 3. It has been reported that whites have greater ventilatory responses to hypercapnia than the Enga people in New Guinea (56), Chinese (58), blacks, Indians, and people of mixed race (59), although standardization for differences in lung volume abolished this greater response in whites in one of the studies (59). There are large variations in ventilatory response values to hypercapnia and hypoxia among individuals. Such variations in chemosensitivity are at least partly explained by hereditary effects in adults, whereas there are no hereditary effects on either dyspnea sensation or mechanical load compensation (60–65). The individuality of the breathing pattern is maintained over a long period (66). The hypoxic ventilatory response is more affected by hereditary factors than is the hypercapnic ventilatory response (27,67), indicating a predominant effect on peripheral chemoreceptors function (51). M1cholinergic receptors may be involved in the variations of hypercapnic and hypoxic ventilatory responses among individuals (29), whereas endogenous opioids have no such role in this variation
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(68). Aggregation of abnormal ventilatory control and pulmonary function is seen in families of patients with COPD (69,70). In rats, strain, more than body mass or sex, has major and differential influences on metabolism, the pattern and level of ventilation during airbreathing, and ventilation during acute exposure to hypercapnia or hypoxia (71). Such animal models may be helpful in clarifying the molecular basis of heredity or ethnic differences in control of breathing. Consciousness and Mental Activity. Resting ventilation and ventilatory responses are affected by mental activity and other higher brain center influences. For example, both visual and auditory stimuli increase resting ventilation (72). Speaking lowers the ventilatory response to hypercapnia (73). The ventilatory response to hypercapnia is clearly suppressed in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, whereas ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia are well maintained in nonREM sleep (74). It is reported that either the hypercapnic or hypoxic ventilatory response is modulated through breathlessness (75). This finding may be explained by the secretion of endogenous opioids in response to severe breathlessness in subjects with increased chemosensitivity (68). Arterial Blood Gas Values and AcidBase Homeostasis The arterial blood gas values and pH interact in shaping ventilatory responses. Hypoxia exaggerates the hypercapnic response, whereas hypercapnia and acidosis increase the hypoxic response (22). However, sustained hypoxia has suppressive effects on ventilatory responses owing to hypoxic brain suppression (48,76). The level of bicarbonate ions in the blood and the hypercapnic response are inversely correlated (77). Differences in arterial [H+] explain the variability in respiratory chemosensitivity to hypoxia (78). Smoking Smoking just before examination increases the hypoxic ventilatory response (54). A chronic smoking habit also increases the hypoxic ventilatory response to hypoxia (79). Hormonal Effects Progesterone has facilitatory effects on both hypercapnic and hypoxic ventilatory responses and increases ventilation (80). Therefore, care should be taken to note the phase of the menstrual cycle when measuring ventilatory responses in female subjects in their reproductive years. Female asthmatics have increased hypercapnic chemosensitivity during the luteal phase without airway construction, although hyperventilation could be a trigger to worsen airflow limitation (81). Thyroid hormones shift the hypercapnic ventilatory response slope upward, without changing the slope value itself. In addition, these hormones increase the hypoxic ventilatory response (80). Naloxone, an opioid antagonist, augments the dyspneic sensation as well as the acute ventilatory response, showing that endogenous
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opioids are secreted and have modulatory roles during acute ventilatory response tests (68,82). Drugs Narcotics, sedativehypnotics, muscle relaxants, and general anesthetics have suppressive effects on ventilation (83–86; Table 4). Ethanol has little effect on resting ventilation, although the hypercapnic ventilatory response is depressed with the curve shifted to the right (87). Both theophylline and doxapram have stimulatory effects on ventilation (88–90). Assessment of Ventilatory Response Tests in Clinical Situations It is clinically important to ascertain whether the PaCO2 increase in a patient is from mechanical limitation of the ventilatory pump (the patient cannot breathe) or from abnormality in respiratory control (the patient will not breathe; 91). Primary alveolar hypoventilation syndrome, which is solely due to abnormalities of the respiratory center without defects in the ventilatory apparatus, is relatively rare. Clinical situations in which there are both “cannot breathe” and “will not breathe” factors are frequently encountered. However, ventilatory response tests are not pure reflections of hypercapnic or hypoxic chemosensitivity of the control system. Various pulmonary, thoracic, and respiratory muscle diseases diminish measured response values. Additionally, one must realize that many physiological factors affect the responses and that there are quite large interindividual variations in the results of these tests. Response values measured at different institutions should be compared very cautiously because the subjects' physiological back Table 4 Drugs with Suppressive Effects on Ventilation Opioids Buprenorphine, cocaine, codeine, meperiden, morphine, pentazocine, and others Barbiturates Amobarbital, phenobarbital, pentobarbital, and others Benzodiazepines Chlordiazepoxide, clonazepam, diazepam, flurazepam, nitrazepam, oxazepam, and others Neuromuscularblocking agents Pancuronium, succinylcholine, and others General anesthetics Enflurame, halothane, and others Local anesthetics (systemic overdose) Bupivacaine, lidocaine, procaine, and others Source: Ref. 86.
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grounds may be different. The details of examination methods may also differ. It must be remembered that, different from other respiratory tests, such as spirometry, the normal range of hypercapnic and hypoxic ventilatory responses has not been precisely determined. Clinicians must consider not only these ventilatory response values, but also arterial blood gas levels, P0.1 and other clinical and physiological findings in drawing a final conclusion on the integrity of the respiratory control system in a given patient. B. Response to Mechanical Loading The control system for breathing maintains fairly constant arterial blood gas levels by regulating respiratory movement, mainly through a strong and steady chemical control system. However, there may be various changes from time to time in either the internal or external mechanical load on the ventilatory apparatus. For example, such changes include shifting from mouth to nose breathing or from the supine to the standing position that are seen in normal subjects, and the mechanical abnormalities in airways, pulmonary parenchyma, and the thoracic cage in patients with respiratory diseases. Even if there are such changes, remains quite constant over a considerable range of mechanical conditions. This is because of rapid and persistent compensatory respiratory responses to mechanical loading. The compensatory response to mechanical loading consists of the following factors (92): 1. The change in respiratory muscle contraction by intrinsic response mechanisms in these muscles. 2. The change in respiratory muscle activity or timing of breathing through reflex mechanisms initiated by mechanoreceptors in the lungs and the thoracic cage. 3. The change in respiratory output consequent to changes in the chemical drive to breathing. In conscious individuals, there is also behavioral modulation from higher brain centers (Fig. 11). To examine the compensation response to mechanical loading, respiratory output indices during loading are compared with the preload values. External loading can consist of a certain level of resistive or elastic resistance added to the airway or thoracic cage. There are many different approaches to ventilatory loading and to assessing the resulting respiratory responses (93). Inspiratory resistive loading is widely used as a model of airflow limitation. The compensatory response to inspiratory flowresistive loading is lower in healthy, aged subjects than in younger subjects, whereas, without inspiratory flowresistive loading, there is no difference in the ventilatory response to hypercapnia between these two groups (28). This may be explained by respiratory muscle weakness related to aging (94,95).
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Figure 11 Time courses of changes in ventilation, intrinsic muscle, ventilatory and circulatory reflexes, and chemical and voluntary compensatory responses to ventilatory loads. (From Ref. 92.)
C. Respiratory Sensation and Breathlessness Although breathing is basically performed automatically and without awareness, the depth of breathing, the rate of breathing, the mechanical load on the respiratory system, or the level of ventilation can be consciously perceived and quantitated. The breathlessness experienced by patients with respiratory diseases is an unpleasant sensation of labored or difficult breathing. The study of respiratory sensation contributes to the understanding of higher brain center influences on the respiratory control system (behavioral control) and to the knowledge of the mechanisms of breathlessness. Evaluation of Respiratory Sensation Psychophysical techniques are used to evaluate respiratory sensations in a manner similar to other sensations, such as vision and hearing (96). Several different approaches have been used in the study of respiratory sensation: One is threshold discrimination, and the other is magnitude scaling. In the former, the least noticeable load (threshold) is measured when various small elastic or resistive loads are applied to breathing. One of the systems used for this method is shown in Figure 12. The subject is blinded to the examiner's movement with an eye mask. A cer
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Figure 12 The apparatus for threshold detection of inspiratory flowresistive loads. See text for details.
tain level of resistive load, for example a screen mesh, is applied to the inspiratory side of a breathing circuit once every three to four breaths. The subject is instructed to signal when the inspiratory load is detected. The test is started with the greatest load and the examiner gradually decreases the magnitude of loads. When the load becomes undetectable by the subject, the load intensity is gradually increased again. The smallest resistance that is detectable by the subject 50% of the time, or the mouth pressure at that point, is used as the threshold value ( ). There is a baseline intrinsic elastance or resistance of the airways, lung, and thorax as well as the breathing apparatus itself before any external load is applied ( ). The ratio of the detection threshold to the intrinsic value ( / ) is a constant, so that as the baseline resistance or elastance increases, so does the just noticeable difference. This ratio can be used to evaluate respiratory sensations. The magnitude estimation method measures the direct relationship between stimulus and sensation response. Various intensities of stimuli that are considered to elicit respiratory sensations are applied to the subjects, who are asked to rate the magnitude of the sensation using numbers. The magnitude of the sensation ( ) is a power function of the stimulus intensity ( ; Stevens' law) as in the following equation (97):
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= K b b where K is a constant, and is the power exponent that is specific to the sensation. The exponent is a measure of perceptual sensitivity. Magnitude scaling has been used to assess the perception of changes in elastic and resistive ventilatory loads, respiratory force, and tidal volume in normal subjects and in patients with lung disease and other disorders of the respiratory system. These methods are most suitable for the study of groups of subjects, but are not reliable in comparing respiratory sensations in different individuals. b
Evaluation of Breathlessness Exercise testing, using a treadmill, a cycle ergometer, or the 12min walking distance test (98), can be used to assess breathlessness. Breathlessness can also be evaluated by questionnaires that assess limitations in the activities of daily living (99–101; Table 5). During exercise, breathlessness can be scaled in a variety of ways. The Borg category scale is used to evaluate breathlessness during standardized exercise tests, and there are several modifications reported by Borg himself (102). Among these, a logarithmic scale from 0 to 10 was developed in an attempt to provide the scale with ratio properties. The associated verbal descriptors are placed such that a doubling of the numerical rating corresponds to a twofold increase in sensation intensity. Because it is possible, using the Borg scale, to compare the breathlessness magnitude among different persons, this technique is widely used to evaluate breathlessness in exercise tests and in various loading tests of the respiratory system in both normal persons and in patients with lung disease. The visual analog scale (VAS), originally published by Aitken (103), is a scale to quantitate sensations such as pain. One end of usually a 10cm scale is marked as “not at all,” and the other end as “the maximum.” The subjects are Table 5 Pneumoconiosis Research Unit Dyspnea Questionnaire Grade 1:
Is the patient's breath as good as that of other men of his own age and build at work, on walking, and on climbing hills or stairs?
Grade 2:
Is the patient able to walk with normal men of his own age and build on the level, but unable to keep up on hills or stairs?
Grade 3:
Is the patient unable to keep up with normal men on the level, but able to walk about a mile or more at his own speed?
Grade 4:
Is the patient unable to walk more than about 100 yards on the level without a rest?
Grade 5:
Is the patient breathless on talking or undressing, or unable to leave his house because of breathlessness?
Source: Ref. 99.
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asked to report the magnitude of the sensation by marking off the length of the scale that corresponds to the magnitude of the sensation. Although this is not an open magnitude scale, the magnitude of sensation and the scale values are proportional over a considerable range, and comparisons among persons are relatively straightforward. Therefore, it is used in the evaluation of breathlessness as often as the Borg category scale (28,82). Qualitative Assessment of Breathlessness. Dubuisson and Melzack (104) reported that there are different types of pain sensations. This may be explained by the involvement of different nerve fiber types and neural pathways (105). Analogous to this, breathlessness may also include different qualities of sensation. That there are different kinds of dyspnea sensations has been demonstrated in a study using a variety of respiratory stimuli and questionnaires with various descriptors of breathlessness (106,107). An appreciation of the range of dyspneic qualities is important in understanding the subjective experiences of patients with lung disease. The quality of the respiratory sensations differ with the type of disease in patients with cardiorespiratory disorders (108). Effects of Personality and Psychological Factors on Breathlessness Large interindividual variations in the intensity of breathlessness are frequently seen in patients with respiratory diseases. There are still such variations, even in patients with comparable levels of cardiopulmonary dysfunction. Dyspnea is a subjective sensation that is determined primarily by the respiratoryeffort sensation originating from the corollary discharge from the respiratory center to the higher brain centers and ascending inputs from various peripheral sensors (109,110). In addition, dyspnea intensity and quality can be modified by integrative processes in higher brain centers, by the present context and clinical situation, and by the past experience of the patient. There is a close relationship between anxiety and dyspnea in healthy persons as well as emphysematous patients (111). In emphysema, nervousness and a cyclic tendency are important determinants of dyspnea (111). Manifest anxiety correlates positively with breathlessness, whereas the hypercapnic ventilatory response is correlated with the social extraversion score and with emotional instability (112). Generally, the more psychological factors are involved, the more the breathlessness becomes magnified, and its intensity become disproportional compared with the actual risk to the patient's life. However, there have been only a limited number of studies of breathlessness that is disproportional to the patient's clinical status. Burns and Howell (113) compared two groups of patients, one group complaining of breathlessness seemingly matched to the clinical condition and the other with intense breathlessness in spite of slight respiratory dysfunction. There were a greater number of patients
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with psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and hysteria reactions, in the latter group than in the former group. Rosser and Guz (114) suggested that intense breathlessness itself is the primary cause of various psychiatric symptoms in patients with disproportional breathlessness because effective psychiatric treatment did not relieve their breathlessness. Howell (115) called such intense breathlessness, when disproportionate to the respiratory dysfunction, “behavioral breathlessness.” A recent review article suggested that nonpharmacological treatment of panic, including cognitivebehavioral approaches, can be useful in patients with concomitant respiratory diseases and that serotonergic antidepressants and anxiolytics may be effective without significant adverse respiratory effects (116). Breathing is affected by psychological factors or emotion very easily because respiratory muscles can be voluntarily controlled, in contrast to gastrointestinal tract muscles or cardiac muscles. Psychological effects of breathing should be more fully addressed and studied in close collaboration with psychologists and respiratory physiologists (117). D. Diagnosis of Respiratory Disorders During Sleep Respiratory disorders during sleep include apnea, alveolar hypoventilation, cyclic breathing, and irregular breathing induced by sleep. During sleep, patients with chronic airflow limitation may show extreme hypoxia that is unexpected based on daytime arterial blood gas values. In patients with sleep apnea syndrome without significant airflow limitation, polysomnographic examination with simultaneous evaluations of sleep stage, circulatory function, oxygen saturation, and respiratory movement is desirable. However, this is laborious and expensive to perform in all suspected cases. Therefore, several screening methods have been developed to limit the requirement for full polysomnography. Screening for Sleep Apnea In general, patients with sleep apnea syndrome first seek medical attention when snoring and apnea are suggested by other members of the family (118). Intellectual or personality changes may also be noticed by the patient's family. The patient often complains of lack of a feeling of deep sleep during the night, daytime sleepiness, and morning headache. Obesity is frequently seen in obstructive sleep apnea patients. Respiratory questionnaires to screen these patients have been developed and used (119). For initial screening for sleep apnea, monitoring with pulse oximetry is useful (120). The SaO2 level and ECG of the patient are measured together. The equipment should have low SaO2 alarms. If respiratory movement of the thorax can be monitored by impedance changes measured by the ECG electrodes, cyclic breathing or apnea may be roughly detected. In addition, online computerassisted analysis of SaO2 and various portable respiratorymonitoring systems for use during breathing have been developed (121).
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Polysomnography To fully assess patients with sleep apnea syndrome, it is necessary to evaluate the sleep structure as well as respiration during sleep. With a multichannel polygraph, simultaneous recordings are made of the electroencephalograph; electrooculograph; electromyograph; airflow, as measured by a thermister positioned at the mouth and nostrils; respiratory movements of the thoracic and abdominal walls, as
Figure 13 Polysomnographic trace of obstructive sleep apnea. There is a 10 to 15sec time lag between apnea and the lowering of SaO2, which is caused by the circulation time lag. The thoracic and abdominal movements are in opposite directions in the apnea phase and in the same direction after the apnea.
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measured, for example, by respiratory inductive plethysmograph; SaO2, as measured by the pulse oximeter; electrocardiograms; and tracheal respiratory sounds (122). In addition, if possible PETCO2 and the subjects' status, as observed by videorecording, are useful (123). Apnea is a condition of airflow cessation at the mouth and nose for at least 10 sec (124). Apnea is further classified into three types: obstructive, central, and mixed. In obstructive sleep apnea, respiratory airflow stops in spite of continuing thoracoabdominal movement. It is caused by oropharyngeal occlusion occurring only during sleep (125). The movements of the thorax and abdomen are in opposite directions during obstructive apnea (Fig. 13). Central apnea is due to cessation of thoracoabdominal respiratory movements. The mixed type is characterized by a short, central apnea, followed by obstructive apnea. In Guilleminault's criteria, which are commonly used, sleep apnea is diagnosed as a condition in which apnea of longer than 10sec duration appears over 30 times over 7 h of nocturnal sleep, and at least 30 apneic episodes are observed both in REM and non REM sleep, some of which must appear in a repetitive sequence in nonREM sleep (124). Familial aggregation and racial differences in obstructive apnea have been recently reported (126,127). IV. Behavioral Effects on Respiratory Test Results The behavioral control of breathing from higher brain centers is generally assessed only in humans and is a very interesting field in relation to respiratory sensation and breathlessness. Behavioral influences can also significantly affect the results of tests used to evaluate respiratory chemical control (128). Every effort must be made to standardize testing procedures and to minimize any potentially confounding behavioral effects. A. Response by Anticipation Before any examination, the purpose of the test and the details of the procedures should be well explained to subjects. However, such explanations should be well considered so that they do not elicit a “fear” reaction. For example, when “hypoxic testing” is explained to some subjects, they may hyperventilate from fear, even during room air breathing, or may show extremely exaggerated ventilatory responses (129). B. Effects of the Testing Apparatus Resting ventilation is quite variable, at least partly because of the modulation of ventilation from the higher brain centers (130). The testing apparatus itself can also affect the level and pattern of breathing. Gilbert et al. (131) reported that resting ventilation, when measured with a mouthpiece and noseclip, is 21% higher
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than that measured by magnetometers on the chest wall. In this study, tidal volume increased, whereas respiratory rate slightly decreased. In an experiment in which resting ventilation in healthy subjects as measured with a respiratory inductive plethysmograph, without using a mouthpiece, the variations of ventilation and respiratory patterns in a single subject were remarkably small (132). Thus, the use of a mouthpiece, which is often required in tests of respiratory control for measurements of airway pressures and endtidal gas tensions, may contribute to breathing variability. To obtain reproducible results, the examiners must always try to minimize anxiety and emotional responses to the examination and its apparatus (111,112). Too much stress, either psychological or physical, may affect the ventilatory response values and breathlessness through modulation by endogenous opioids (68,82). References 1. Haldane JS, Priestley JG. The regulation of the lung ventilation. J Physiol (Lond) 1905; 32:225–266. 2. Brown HW, Plum F. The neurological basis of CheyneStokes respiration. Am J Med 1961; 30:849–861. 3. Cherniack NS, Longobardo GS. CheyneStokes breathing. N Engl J Med 1973; 288:952–957. 4. Hall MJ, Xie A, Rutherford R, Ando S, Floras JS, Bradley TD. Cycle length of periodic breathing in patients with and without heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:376–381. 5. North JB, Jannett S. Abnormal breathing patterns associated with acute brain damage. Arch Neurol 1974; 31:338–344. 6. Akiyama Y, Aimoto Y, Nishimura M, Takai S, Kawakami Y. Rigid spine syndrome with selective respiratory muscle weakness. Respiration 1992; 59:48–51. 7. Konno K, Mead J. Measurement of the separate volume changes of rib cage and abdomen during breathing. J Appl Physiol 1967; 22:407–422. 8. Jubran A, Tobin MJ. The effect of hyperinflation on rib cageabdominal motion. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:1378–1382. 9. Stromberg NO, Dahlback GO, Gustafsson PM. Evaluation of various models for respiratory inductance plethysmography calibration. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74:1206–1211. 10. Banzett RB, Mahan ST, Garner DM, Brughera A, Loring SH. A simple and reliable method to calibrate respiratory magnetometers and Respitrace. J Appl Physiol 1995; 79:2169–2176. 11. MilicEmili J, Whitelaw WA, Grassino AE. Measurement and testing of respiratory drive. In: Hornbein TF, ed. Regulation of Breathing. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1981:675–743. 12. Whitelaw WA, Derenne JP, MilicEmili J. Occlusion pressure as a measure of respiratory center output in conscious man. Respir Physiol 1975; 23:181–199.
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PART TWO CLINICAL ASPECTS
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9 Respiratory Control in Children Clinical Aspects. CAROL LYNN ROSEN, ALIA R. BAZZYASAAD, and GABRIEL G. HADDAD Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, Connecticut I. Overview of Respiratory Control: A Conceptual Framework Physicians will need to be increasingly knowledgeable about respiratory control and regulation of breathing for several reasons. For the pediatrician and internist, there are now wellknown clinical conditions in which one or more elements of the overall control of respiration are defective or immature. This is especially significant at either end of the age spectrum or in the critically ill. Consider a few examples, such as apnea or prematurity, upper airway obstruction during sleep, severe asthma, heart failure with periodic breathing, and hypoxemia from a variety of causes. In addition, the transition from fetal to neonatal life is a complex process that involves alterations of respiratory control at many levels. The following six key concepts summarize the respiratory control system. They are the groundwork for understanding the clinical disorders in which components of the respiratory control system are malfunctioning. Concept 1: Respiration Is Controlled by a NegativeFeedback System with a Controller in the Central Nervous System. The overall aim of the respiratory feedback system is to keep blood gas homeostasis in a normal range in the most economical way, from energy consumption and mechanical standpoints. The
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feedback system uses both an afferent limb and an efferent limb. The afferent limb includes tissues with receptors that send information to the central controller about a functional parameter. Examples of these parameters include the magnitude of stretch in airways or in respiratory muscle fibers and the temperature of the environment or of the extracellular space. Another important part of the afferent system is the carotid bodies that inform the central controller about the O2 level. Both airway and carotid body sensors compare actual and baseline or programmed “set” signals online and on a breathbybreath basis to generate error signals. Concept 2: Central Neuronal Processing and Integration in the Brain Stem Is Hierarchical. Respiratory muscles are recruited to perform different tasks at different times. For example, the diaphragm and some abdominal muscles are activated not only during tidal breathing, but also during expulsive maneuvers, such as coughing and straining. In other conditions, respiratory muscles can be totally inhibited. For example, bottle or breastfeeding in the infant is sometimes associated with a reduction in ventilation and in arterial PO2 because of inhibition of respiratory muscles and breathing efforts. Depending on various needs and incoming neurophysiological signals, the central controller can enhance or reduce the response to one stimulus at the expense of another. The brain stem networks use a hierarchy to determine the response of the respiratory system at any one time. Concept 3: Respiratory Rhythm Generation in Central Neurons Is Most Likely a Result of an Integration Between Network, Synaptic, Cellular, and Molecular Characteristics and Properties of Brain Stem and Other Neurons Involved. Previous studies in vertebrates and invertebrates have shown that rhythmic movements (locomotion, gastrointestinal motility, or heart beat), are generally based on either the activity of burster neurons or on a network of oscillating neurons (1– 7). Unlike other neurons, endogenous burster or conditional burster neurons have specific membrane properties that allow them to initiate action potentials and bursting activity. In contrast, oscillating central neural networks have properties that will alter the characteristics of the input and can no longer be considered as just “followers” (8). In these networks, the inputoutput relation will depend on the characteristics of the neurons involved. Concept 4: Afferent Information Is Not Essential for Neuronal Rhythmicity, but Is Important for Modulation of Respiration. A multitude of afferent messages converge on the brain stem at any one time. Chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in the larynx and upper airways sense stretch, air temperature, and chemical changes over the mucosa and relay this information to the brain stem. It is now well known that afferent information is not a prerequisite for the generation and maintenance of respiration. When the brain stem and spinal cord are removed from the body and maintained in vitro, rhythmic phrenic activity can be detected for hours. Other in vivo experiments on chronically instrumented dogs in which several sensory systems are simultaneously blocked (vagal afferent block, 100% O2 to eliminate carotid discharges, sleep to eliminate wakeful stimuli, and diuretics to alkalinize the blood) indicate that afferent information is not necessary
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to stimulate the inherent respiratory rhythm in brain stem respiratory networks. However, both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate that, in the absence of afferent information, the inherent rhythm of the central generator (respiratory frequency) is slowed. Hence, chemoreceptor afferents can play an important role in modulating respiration and rhythmic behavior. Concept 5: The Efferent System Respiratory Control (i.e., Respiratory Musculature) Is a Potential Site of Neuromuscular Failure, Especially Under Stress in Early Life. Effective ventilation requires the coordinated interaction between the respiratory muscles of the chest and those of the upper airways and neck. For example, the activation of upper airway muscles occurs before and during the initial part of inspiration. Indeed, the genioglossus contracts to move the tongue forward and thus increases the patency of the airways; the vocal cords abduct to reduce laryngeal resistance; and laryngeal muscles modulate expiratory flow to influence lung volume and function. There are a multitude of neuromuscular changes that take place early in life. These include alterations in the muscle cells, the neuromuscular junction, the nerve terminals and synapses, and the chest wall properties. Therefore, because muscle and chest wall properties change with age, it is likely that neural responses can be influenced by pump properties, especially since these muscles execute neural commands. The chest wall in newborn infants is highly compliant (9,10). Because of this and because young infants spend a large proportion of time in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, during which the intercostal muscles are inhibited, there is little splinting of the chest wall for diaphragmatic action. Therefore, with every breath in supine infants (especially in REM sleep), the chest wall is paradoxically sucked in at a time when the abdomen expands. This creates an additional load on the respiratory system and results in a higher work of breathing per minute ventilation in the infant than that in the adult. Some investigators believe that this may be an important reason for the newborn's susceptibility to muscle fatigue and respiratory failure. Concept 6: Rostral and Cortical Regions in the CNS Can Modulate Respiration in Profound Ways. Although le noeud vital is in the hindbrain and respiratory rhythmicity is initiated in the brain stem, cortical regions, through descending pathways that synapse in the brain stem, can modulate ventilation in a major way. Emotions through the limbic system and various cortical sensory inputs (e.g., visual) can affect respiration. II. Control of Respiration: Developmental Physiological Aspects The developmental studies that have been performed span a whole range of questions and relate to various subsystems for ventilatory control. Primarily, questions on the development of brain stem neurons, respiratory muscles, afferent receptors
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and systems (including the carotid bodies), and the endorgans (lungs) have been addressed. It is now clear that these subsystems are not mature at birth, and profound changes occur postnatally. Several excellent review articles address this topic (11–18). Albeit not comprehensive, the following discussion is an account of some of the important agedependent alterations. A. Central Neurophysiological Aspects Although recent studies in the neonatal rat in vitro (whole brain stem preparation) were not targeted at understanding the neonate in particular, these studies have shed light on basic fundamental issues pertaining to the control of respiration in the newborn (19). In fact, we now know from several such studies that in vitro the young rat's brain stem (which is very immature in the first week of life) does not need any external or peripheral drive for the oscillator to discharge. However, the inherent respiratory rate (as judged by cranial nerve output) is markedly reduced, and it is clear from these studies that peripheral or central (rostral to the medulla and pons) input is needed to maintain the respiratory output at a much higher frequency. An interesting observation from extracellular recordings is that the discharge pattern of each neuronal unit in the neonate seems to be different from that in the adult in two major ways. First, the shape of the inspiratory discharge is not ramp, but increases very fast and decreases within the same breath. The second is that it is extremely brief, sometimes limited to even a few action potentials (20). The reasons for this inspiratory discharge are unclear, but could be related to the properties of the cells, their network, or their microenvironment. In addition to differences in inspiratory discharge, expiratory units discharge weakly, and often appear only after the imposition of an expiratory load (21,22). One question that has been raised is whether the lack of myelination in the neonatal nerve fibers that subserve feedback affects function. Indeed, this is so, not only because of lack of myelination and potential delays in signaling, but also because inspiratory and expiratory discharges are so fast that they preclude the effect of peripheral information on the central nervous system (CNS) within the same breath. Therefore, one important issue that can be raised is whether breathbybreath feedback is as potent in the young as in the adult. Differences between neonates and adults are also observed in response to endogenous stimuli, such as responses to neurotransmitters or modulators. The immature opossum responds differently to neurotransmitters (23). Glutamate injected in various locations in the brain stem, even in large doses, induces respiratory pauses, whereas it is clearly stimulatory in the older mature animal (23). Inhibitory neurotransmitters, such as aminobutyric acid (GABA) have also been used, and these have agedependent effects in the opossum. These differences in response are not quite understood at the fundamental level because there are many
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variables that are not controlled for in these experiments, such as the size of the extracellular space, receptor development, and ability for sensitization, just to name a few. B. Peripheral Sensory Aspects In this section, we shall review data on the primary O2 sensor in the body, the carotid body, and show that there are major differences between the newborn and the adult. These differences include the response of the carotids to low O2 concentrations and the relative importance of this organ to overall respiratory function and survival in early life. Recordings from both singlefiber afferent and sinus nerves have shown major differences between the fetus and newborn and between newborn and adult. Fetal chemoreceptor activity is present in the normal fetus, and a large increase in activity may be evoked by decreasing PO2 in the ewe (24–26). The estimated response curve was considerably leftshifted, compared with the adult, such that PaO2 values of less than 20 torr were required to initiate an increase in carotid discharge. The mechanisms for the maturation of these peripheral sensors are not all worked out. There are several factors, external or endogenous, that probably play a role in this process. For example, arterial chemoreceptors are subject to external and hormonal influences, which may affect the sensor or alter tissue PO2 within the organ. Neurochemicals may also play a major role as modulators of chemosensitivity. Endorphins decrease in the newborn period, and the effect of exogenous endorphin is inhibition of chemoreceptor sensitivity to hypoxia (27). However, even in the absence of external modulatory factors (hormonal or neural), chemosensitivity of the newborn chemoreceptor is less than that of the adult. Nerve activity of rat carotid bodies in vitro following transition from normoxia to hypoxia is about fourfold greater in carotid bodies harvested from 20dayold rats as compared with 1 to 2dayold rats (28). This corresponds to the maturational pattern of the respiratory response to hypoxia in the intact animal (29) and suggests that major maturational changes occur within the carotid body itself, including a change in the biophysical properties of glomus cells. In comparison with the adult, peripheral chemoreceptors assume a greater role in the newborn period. Although not essential for initiation of fetal respiratory movements (26), peripheral chemoreceptor denervation in the newborn period results in severe respiratory impairment and a high probability of sudden death. Lambs, following denervation, fail to develop a mature respiratory pattern (30–33) and, more importantly, suffer a 30% mortality rate, weeks or months after surgery. In other species, denervation also leads to lethal respiratory disturbances (34–38). Denervated rats suffer from severe desaturation during REM sleep (34), and piglets suffer periodic breathing with profound apneas during quiet sleep (38). Of particular interest is the observation that these lethal impairments occur only
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during a fairly narrow developmental windows and denervation before or after this window period results in only relatively minor alterations in respiratory function (37,38). This window of vulnerability, which is unmasked by denervation in the newborn period, gives support to the speculation that the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) may be due to an immaturity or malfunction of the interaction between the CNS and peripheral chemoreceptors (39–41). III. Clinical Disorders of Respiratory Control Respiratory control disorders in children have been the topic of several excellent reviews (42–48) and a dedicated textbook (49). This section provides an updated overview of this topic, organized by the primary level of dysfunction (Table 1): Table 1 Respiratory Control Disorders in Children Behavioral or awake dysfunction Psychogenic Hyperventilation Habit cough Vocal cord dysfunction Reflexive Breathholding spell Expiratory apnea Central nervous system dysfunction Associated neurometabolic or genetic disorders Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome Central hypoventilation syndrome associated with endocrine dysfunction Rett syndrome Leigh's encephalopathy PraderWilli syndrome Associated with brain stem malformation or compression Chiari malformation Joubert's syndrome DandyWalker malformation Mohr syndrome M¨bius' syndrome Associated with brain stem lesions Central neurogenic hyperventilation Tumors Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy Vascular, hemorrhage or infarction Infections (e.g., polio, meningoencephalitis) Trauma
(Table continued on next page)
Page 295 Table 1 Continued Peripheral nervous system dysfunction Spinal cord injury Polio Spinal muscular atrophy GuillainBarré syndrome Familial dysautonomia Infantile myasthenia gravis Muscular dystrophy and myopathies Associated with thoracic cage deformity, parenchymal, or airways disease Kyphoscoliosis Asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy Interstitial lung disease Asthma Miscellaneous conditions Achondroplasia Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) Obesityhypoventilation syndrome Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) Apnea of prematurity Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) Apparent lifethreatening events (ALTE) Cerebral palsy Depressant drugs, opiates, anesthesia Cyanotic congenital heart disease
behavioral system, central and peripheral nervous system, or mechanical system (thoracic cage, lung parenchyma, or airways). However, some disorders either involve more than one level or are not easily categorized. These miscellaneous conditions are discussed individually. A. BehavioralAwake Dysfunction General Considerations There are two main categories of the behavioral respiratory control disorders: psychogenic and reflexive (breathholding spells). Psychogenic respiratory disorders in children are seen regularly by pediatricians and pulmonary subspecialists, often masquerading as more common disorders, such as asthma. They present with dramatic symptoms of cough, wheeze, stridor, or respiratory distress. In fact, they are physical symptoms of a conversion or anxiety disorder (50). Physicians must be alert to these conditions because misdiagnosis often results in inappropriate medical management, including overuse of systemic steroids and unnecessary
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invasive diagnostic procedures. Although traditionally these disorders have not been considered under “respiratory control,” we have included these psycho physiological problems in this chapter because they Involve control of the upper airway or complex respiratory reflexes Arise from intense emotions, anxiety, or stress acting on the behavioral respiratory control system Disappear totally during sleep when respiration and respiratory pattern are controlled mostly by the brain stem These psychogenic and reflexive behavioral disorders represent clinical manifestations of dysfunction in the “nonmetabolic” respiratory control system. A major descending projection system mediates emotional influences to brain stem areas that regulate respiratory activity. This system includes prominent limbic and hypothalamic projections. These structures project caudally to the nucleus of the solitary tract, the parabrachial pontine region, and the lateral periaqueductal gray region. These regions contain neurons that (1) project to the ventral medullary surface and phrenic motor pool, (2) are involved in respiratory phase switching, and (3) project to motor nuclei that modulate upper airway activity, respectively. Furthermore, the paraventricular hypothalamus contains neurons that are sensitive to blood pressure changes and project directly to the ventral medulla. Finally, vocalization is most likely mediated by periaqueductal regions that influence the ventral medullary somatomotor respiratory regions. Thus, these descending limbic connections to the ventrolateral medulla may be the junction where affective drives to breathing may modulate somatic respiratory musculature. Harper has speculated that paroxysmal activation of the central amygdala nucleus or its projections, elicited by extreme behavioral action, is a possible mechanism underlying uncontrolled childhood breathholding spells (51). Psychogenic Disorders Hyperventilation Syndrome Hyperventilation syndrome (HVS) is the term applied to the clinical presentation of anxiety associated with hyperventilation. The pathophysiological relationships among dyspnea, hyperventilation, and panic anxiety in adults have been recently reviewed (52). Although HVS is common in childhood and adolescence, it has received little attention in the pediatric literature (53–56). Symptoms are quite similar to those in adults and include apprehension; blurred vision; chest pain; dyspnea, lightheadedness, a feeling of unreality; palpitations; paresthesias of the face, hands, and feet; trembling; and even tetany (57). The CNS manifestations are primarily due to diminished cerebral blood flow that is secondary to cerebral vasoconstriction elicited by hypocapnia and alkalosis. Many children are unaware of the hyperventilation and often present with symptoms not directly related to
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respiration, such as chest pain, palpitations, dizziness, syncope, tingling, numbness, or weakness (54). The respiratory symptoms of panic attack have been reported to play a role in intractable asthma in some children (58). Acute or chronic anxiety is usually considered the predominant causal factor of HVS. Diagnosis requires a high index of clinical suspicion. HVS is a “red flag” that the child is experiencing severe anxiety or other psychiatric difficulties that often persist into adulthood (54–56). Therefore, management of HVS in childhood must go beyond simple reassurance, the emergency room “quick fix” of rebreathing into a paper bag, or anxiolytic therapy alone. Treatment should include a formal investigation of the child's fears and anxieties. This usually involves an explanation of the mechanism of the symptom, relief of anxiety, prevention of its complications, pharmacotherapy, and cognitivebehavioral approaches. A variant of HVS with similar symptoms can occur immediately after maximal exercise efforts. However, sustained hyperpnea after an abrupt termination of exercise, rather than anxiety, is the source of the problem. The condition is often confused with exerciseinduced bronchospasm. It usually responds to conscious efforts toward slow breathing after exercise and a more gradual decrease in physical activity. However, syncope associated with exercise always warrants a comprehensive evaluation to exclude potential lifethreatening cardiac causes. Habit Cough. Psychogenic cough is well known to pediatricians (59–65), but more recently has been described in adults (66–68). The condition usually occurs between 6 and 14 years of age and goes by various names: barking cough, habit cough, cough tic, honking, stress cough, or bar mitzvah cough. The most striking feature is the noisy, explosive, nonproductive daytime cough that sounds like a honking goose or a barking seal. It has a repetitive, staccato quality and may be associated with stereotypic fisttomouth movements or an unusual chinonchest posture. Key features include the total absence of cough during sleep and the child's ability to reproduce the cough on request. The cough often starts in the fall or winter months with a respiratory tract infection, but persists long after the acute illness has resolved. There are no abnormal physical findings except diminished gag and corneal reflexes in some children, suggesting conversion hysteria (64). Laboratory, radiographic, and pulmonary function studies are negative. However, a case report of fractured ribs in psychogenic cough is a testament to its forcefulness (69). Cough suppressants, bronchial relaxers, antibiotics, and steroids are ineffective. The cough is associated with a tremendous either overt or covert parental anxiety. It is usually exaggerated when the child is under stress or the focus of attention. By the time of referral, the child has usually received multiple medications, may have undergone multiple procedures, including laryngoscopy and bronchoscopy, and has often been excluded from school because the cough disrupts the classroom. The diagnosis is often one of exclusion. Although rare, a
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similar barking or throatclearing cough can be seen with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, but in contrast with habit cough, verbal or motor tics usually accompany the cough. The neurophysiological basis for the repetitive cough is not understood. Nevertheless, the usual treatment in children consists of reassurance and identification of stress in the child's life, so that an effort can be made to ameliorate it. School phobia is frequently a contributory cause, but other psychological problems must also be considered. If readily identifiable stresses did not exist before the cough began, then they certainly develop from the missed school days, the delinquent homework, the doctor's bills, and the parental frustrations. Parents must be counseled that the child is not coughing on purpose to manipulate his or her environment or malingering. Treatment varies form simple reassurance, suggestion, and reinforcement (59–61, 69), to chest wraps (64), or behavioral management (70). These interventions usually result in a “miraculous” resolution of the cough within days. Most children recover completely without further psychological or behavioral problems. However, children with longstanding psychogenic cough or significant individual or family dysfunction may require more intensive treatment, including relaxation techniques, biofeedback, speech and behavioral therapy, psychotherapy, or even anxiolytics. Adult patients with psychogenic cough differ from children in several ways: long standing symptoms beginning in adolescence, the presence of psychiatric criteria for conversion or somatization disorder, and greater resistance to therapy (66–68). Vocal Cord Dysfunction Vocal cord dysfunction (VCD) is a confusing entity that can be misdiagnosed as, or may complicate, asthma. It is well described in adults (71–85) and increasingly recognized in children and adolescents (86–91). It is most common in females and is often seen in association with psychological stresses (83). Several different terms have been used to describe VCD: hysterical croup, emotional laryngeal wheezing (73), Munchausen's stridor (92), functional stridor (93), and psychogenic stridor (94). Vocal cord dysfunction presents as a stridorous sound that is easily mistaken for asthma or severe upper airway obstruction. It is a functional disorder of the vocal cords that mimics asthma, exerciseinduced bronchospasm (94,95), or anaphylaxis, but the paroxysms of wheezing and dyspnea are refractory to standard therapy for asthma. The condition is characterized by adduction of the vocal cords, usually on inspiration, leading to airflow obstruction, wheezing, and occasionally, stridor. Signs and symptoms include throat tightness, change in voice quality and airflow obstruction sufficient to cause wheezing or stridor, chest tightness, shortness of breath, and cough. Laryngoscopy confirms that wheezing is due to adduction of the true and false vocal cords throughout the respiratory cycle. During episodes of wheezing the maximal expiratory and inspiratory flowvolume relationship are consistent with a variable extrathoracic obstruction. As a primary syndrome, it
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must be distinguished from the closure of the cords on expiration, which is normal and frequent event during an asthma attack. This expiratory closure is not associated with any psychiatric cause and is thought to be a compensatory selfinduced glottic closure producing positive endexpiratory pressure that tends to slow down closure of the subglottic small airways. During asymptomatic periods, the maximal flowvolume relationship and the laryngoscopic examination are normal. Provocation tests for bronchial asthma are negative. Vocal cord dysfunction can masquerade as exerciseinduced bronchospasm or choking during athletic activities (95). Several findings differentiate these patients from asthmatics: (1) lack of consistency in the development of symptoms when exposed to identical stimuli, (2) the onset of breathing difficulties during exercise, and (3) poor therapeutic and prophylactic responses to antiasthma medications. A high index of suspicion is required to make the diagnosis. A carefully taken history, pulmonary function testing, and, most importantly, direct visualization with a flexible laryngoscope during an acute attack, allow physicians to differentiate vocal cord dysfunction from asthma. This examination will show paradoxical vocal cord motion, with inspiratory or early expiratory vocal cord adduction. In general, normal blood gas concentrations are observed during the attacks and normal pulmonary functions are present between attacks. However, the diagnosis becomes more difficult when the condition coexists with asthma. In one large series, over half the patients with proved VCD also had documented asthma (82). Because of their dramatic dyspnea, patients with VCD are usually overtreated with systemic steroids (96) or may even come to heroic interventions such as tracheostomy. A variety of personality profiles and psychiatric diagnoses are represented. Patients are not aware of the vocal cord dysfunction, which uniformly and dramatically responds to speech therapy and psychotherapy. An orientation toward high achievement seems to be a pervasive factor in younger VCD patients (90,97). In contrast, an increased incidence of psychiatric disorders is more prominent in adults with VCD (72). Speech therapy (66), alterations in breathing patterns (98), inhalation of helium and oxygen (99), and for some patients, psychiatric counseling, play a role in management (79). Behavioral speech therapy using imagery and suggestion is extremely helpful in treating patients with any type of abnormal or excessive glottic closure (89). Patients learn to assess themselves and to recognize when a sensation of breathlessness or chest tightness can be alleviated by relaxation techniques. They can distinguish it from serious airway obstruction that would be responsive to bronchodilator treatment. Reflexive Disorders BreathHolding Spells Breathholding spells (BHS) are common, but frightening, clinical phenomena that occur in approximately 5% of otherwise normal children (100). The reader is
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referred to two recent reviews for more detail (101,102). Breathholding spells usually begin between 6 and 18 months of age and cease by 6 years (100,103–105). The frequency varies from many spells a day to once a year, with peak frequencies in the second year of life. A family history of breathholding spells is found in 20– 38% of patients (100,104–107). The term, breathholding spell, is a misnomer in that it implies a voluntary action resulting in a prolonged inspiration. In fact, these episodes are involuntary, reflexive, and occur during active or full expiration. The spells are usually preceded by an emotional event, such as anger, frustration, reaction to pain, or fear. Although the provocation is often recognized, the child is frequently found during the clinical spell with no apparent inciting event. Severe breathholding spells consist of a distinctive stereotypical sequence of events as follows: provocation, emotional upset, noiseless expiration, color change, and loss of consciousness. Cerebral anoxia is the ultimate factor responsible for the loss of consciousness. Convulsive activity of variable intensity may appear before the child regains consciousness. Rarely, the seizure activity is prolonged (108). Even though BHSs are preceded by an emotional upset, there are no differences in the behavioral profiles of children with BHS and control children (109). Breathholding spells have been subdivided as cyanotic or pallid, based on the color change of the child during the episode. In a large prospective study, 62% of BHS were cyanotic, 19% were pallid, and the remainder were not readily classified (100) This recognition of cyanotic and pallid coloration serves not only to separate clinical features, but also implies different pathophysiological mechanisms for each type. In pallid BHS, vagally mediated cardiac inhibition is a major factor, and the breathholding itself is a minor component of the event. Cyanotic BHS have a more complex pathogenesis, involving an interplay among hyperventilation, Valsalva maneuver, expiratory apnea, intrinsic pulmonary mechanisms, and central sympathetic stimulation. The pathogenesis of cyanotic BHS does not appear to involve abnormalities of ventilatory response to hypercapnia or hypoxia (110,111). However, some children with BHS have subtle evidence of autonomic dysregulation. This is illustrated by the prolonged asystoles or the actual precipitation of a clinical spell seen during ocular compression, particularly in the pallid group (107,112). In addition, very young infants with breathholding spells have increased sleep fragmentation, sleeprelated brief obstructive pauses, and nocturnal diaphoresis, compared with control infants (113). However, older children between the ages of 2 and 6 years with breathholding spells do not have similar obstructive pauses (114). An accurate and detailed history of the episode is key to the diagnosis of BHS. The differential diagnosis includes epileptic seizure, orthostatic syncope, arrhythmia (especially prolonged QT syndrome), occult brain stem tumor or malformation, familial dysautonomia, and Rett syndrome. Videoelectroencephalographic (EEG) monitoring with ocular compression as a provocation may be
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helpful in unclear cases. Anemia may be a contributing factor to BHS, such that correction of concomitant anemia can produce amelioration or remission of the spells in some children (115–117). Spontaneous resolution of BHS without sequelae is the usual course (101,102,118). Some investigators have found an increased incidence of syncope later in life in patients with a history of BHS (100,104). Occasional patients experience protracted seizures or even status epilepticus following either a cyanotic or pallid BHS (119). Treatment with antiepileptic medication prevents the prolonged seizures, but does not curtail the BHS (108). Later development of seizures has been reported in 0.5–4.8% of children with BHS (100,103,105). A “fatal” case of breathholding was reported in an otherwise normal 2yearold girl who died 1 month after aspirating vomitus when she received mouth to mouth resuscitation during a typical BHS (120). A second death occurred in a 12yearold boy with a history of BHS in infancy. He suffered a subdural hematoma and occipital skull fracture when he fell backward to the ground after purposely hyperventilating and massaging his neck to induce a syncopal spell (121). In a few patients with severe BHS, pharmacological intervention with parasympatholytics (122,123), central sympathetic blockers (124), or even cardiac pacemaker implantation has been used (125,126). Expiratory Apnea In contrast with the benign course for typical BHS, Southhall and colleagues have described children with a severe and often fatal variant of recurrent cyanotic episodes that they have termed “prolonged expiratory apnea” (124,127). These cyanotic episodes were similar to BHS in that they occurred during wakefulness, were precipitated by pain, fear, or anger, and were characterized by rapid onset of cyanosis and loss of consciousness. However, the clinical history differed in several ways: early onset (median age 7 weeks); associated medical conditions, including brain stem lesions or other airway malformations; and extreme severity, leading to tracheostomy placement for resuscitation in several patients. A family history of cyanotic breathholding episodes in parents or siblings was present in almost half the children. The mortality rate in this subset of patients was 16%, with children dying either during the episodes or suddenly and unexpectedly (124,128,129). It is uncertain whether expiratory apnea and BHS are distinct entities. B. Central Nervous System Dysfunction General Considerations Respiratory control disorders are often associated with a variety of specific conditions: structural brain stem anomalies, brain stem compression, other brain stem lesions, neurometabolic disorders, genetic syndromes, or hypoxicischemic
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encephalopathy. These disorders have several clinical presentations: hypoventilation, prolonged apnea, hyperventilation, or other respiratory dysrhythmias. Central alveolar hypoventilation is defined as persistently elevated arterial carbon dioxide (CO2) values (> 45 mmHg), caused by a decrease in CNS ventilatory drive, that are usually associated with hypoxemia. Patients with central hypoventilation fail to maintain normal ventilation, despite normal lungs, upper airway, chest wall, and muscle strength. The hypoventilation can occur during sleep only, or during both wakefulness and sleep. True central neurogenic hyperventilation is associated with a normal PO2, low PCO2, and high pH that persists during sleep (130). Specific patterns of abnormal breathing along with other clinical findings can indicate the level of a neurological lesion (Table 2; 131). For example, bilateral cortical damage can result in CheyneStokes respiration that is characterized by alternating periods of breathing and apnea. A midbrain lesion or metabolic disturbances, such as acidosis, can cause central neurogenic hyperventilation (CNH) characterized by deep, regular, rapid respirations. Pontomedullary damage can be associated with an ataxic or irregular respiratory rhythm. These abnormalbreathing patterns indicate decreasing levels of arousal, with ataxic breathing signaling an impending respiratory arrest. Associated with Neurometabolic or Genetic Disorders Congenital Central Hypoventilation Syndrome Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is a rare, but welldescribed congenital disorder of respiratory control in which there is a failure of automatic control of ventilation. In 1970, Mellins et al. reported the first case (132), and 8 years later, the association between CCHS and Hirschsprung's disease (colonic aganglionosis) was made (133). Since then, over 100 children have been identified and followed worldwide. CCHS is also known as “Ondine's curse,” in reference to a nymph, Ondine, who placed a curse on her adulterous husband, removing all his automatic functions and requiring him to remember to breathe (134). However, this term should be avoided because it is physiologically imprecise and has negative implications for families. CCHS is characterized by the lack of automatic (metabolic) control of breathing with intact voluntary control. The hallmark of the disorder is absent ventilatory responsiveness to CO2. Although the ventilatory control defect is most severe during deep nonREM (NREM) sleep, ventilatory impairment also occurs in REM sleep and awake states. Classically children with CCHS have normal breathing during wakefulness, but severe hypoventilation during sleep (135,136). However, CCHS has a spectrum of severity in which the most severely affected children hypoventilate even during wakefulness. Some children maintain adequate ventilation during wakefulness from birth. In others, the sleepwake dis
Page 303 Table 2 Respiratory Patterns Associated with Neurological Lesions
Level
Breathing pattern
Pupils
Ocular movementsa
Motor response to pain
Thalamus
CheyneStokes respiration
Small, reactive
Intact brain stem reflexes
Decorticate
Midbrain
Central neurogenic hyperventilationb
Midposition or dilated, nonreactive
Depressed brain stem reflexes
Decerebrate
Pons
Central neurogenic hyperventilation, apneustic, or cluster breathing
Pinpoint, nonreactive
Absenta
Flaccid
Medulla
Ataxic
Dilated, nonreactive
Absent
Flaccid
a
Absent brain stem (oculocephalic and oculovestibular) reflexes may also be due to metabolic encephalopathy or drug ingestion. b
Can also be present with acidosis, hypoxia, or sepsis.
tinction develops as the child matures, usually by 6 months of age (135,137). However, even the mildly affected patients fail to normally increase ventilation during exercise (138–141) and develop respiratory insufficiency during intercurrent illnesses. Children with CCHS are unaware of cyanosis or respiratory failure, and have no respiratory distress or increased respiratory efforts in response to hypoxia or hypercapnia (142). This disorder requires lifelong ventilatory support during sleep. The reader is referred to several excellent reviews (46,136) and the proceedings of a recent international symposium for a comprehensive overview of this extraordinary syndrome (143). The diagnosis of CCHS is based on decreased or absent ventilatory response to progressive hypercapnia and hypoxia during wakefulness and sleep (133,137,144– 150). Minute ventilation decreases from wakefulness to sleep because of a marked decrease in tidal volume and a variable decrease in respiratory rate that remains unaltered by hypercapnia and hypoxemia. Minute ventilation is minimal and hypoventilation is maximal in deep NREM sleep. Rebreathing ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia are absent during wakefulness. However, peripheral chemoreceptor responses, when assessed by acute hypoxia, hyperoxia, or hypercapnia during wakefulness, appear to be present and intact in CCHS children who are able to sustain adequate ventilation during wakefulness (151). Data on arousal from sleep in response to hypoxemia and hypercapnia are conflicting (146,149,152). In one study, CCHS patients aroused in response to hypercapnia, but the PaCO2 level at which the arousal occurred was much higher in CCHS
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than in control children (152). Thus, the defect in CCHS lies in central integration of the central and peripheral chemoreceptor signals. In addition to dysfunction in the control of breathing, CCHS patients also exhibit a dysfunction in autonomic control of heart rate, manifesting as lack of heart rate variability (133,153–157). Episodes of severe bradycardia or hypotension can occur unrelated to respiratory insufficiency (135,136,158,159) and are thought to account for some sudden unexpected deaths. The combined dysfunction of central control in both respiratory and cardiovascular regulation is in favor of an extensive functional deficit in the brain stem. Although children with CCHS can increase ventilation in response to exercise, their response differs from that in control children (138,140). With exercise, children with CCHS increase ventilation almost entirely by increasing respiratory rate while keeping tidal volume constant (138). However, this increase in ventilation versus CO2 production is less in CCHS patients than in controls. Children with CCHS exhibit abnormally labile blood gas levels, which are most likely associated with changes in alertness and possible inadequate respiratory neural compensation for alterations in respiratory mechanics (160). Respiratory sensations during breathhold and hypercapnia are essentially absent (142). Patients with CCHS have a variety of associated abnormalities. More than 20% of reported cases of CCHS are accompanied by Hirschsprung's disease (133,149,161–170). Other associated conditions include neural tumors (133,146,165,168,170,171), and a high incidence of minor ocular abnormalities (136,172). However, these specific ocular findings, strabismus, pupillary abnormalities, and convergence insufficiency, suggest defects in the midbrain function (172). Swallowing dysfunction is common, but improves with age (133,135,173–175). Stridor has been described in some patients (135,149,176) and may be due to the absence of augmentation of upper airway tone in response to hypercapnia or hypoxia (177). The etiology of CCHS is unknown. No teratogens or perinatal risk factors have been identified, and most infants with CCHS are born at term following an uneventful pregnancy. Neuroimaging and pathological studies in CCHS have not shown specific abnormalities (164,178–180). Absence of the arcuate nucleus has been reported in one case of CCHS (181), although the clinical history was atypical. However, a recent report describes hypoplastic carotid bodies, with a decrease in the number of glomus cells (182). A defect in neural crest migration, which helps explain the association with Hirschsprung's disease, autonomic dysfunction, and neural tumors, was first proposed by Haddad in 1978 (133) and subsequently by others (149,165,166). CCHS has rarely occurred in siblings and twins (133,162,174), and the estimated recurrence risk is less than 5% (183). Recent epidemiological studies show a high prevalence of SIDS cases in the families of CCHS children (183). With its early clinical presentation and association with other genetic conditions such as Hirschsprung's disease, CCHS has recently
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become a target for genetic studies. Potential candidate genes are those that code for proteins important in the development of gut nerves, the mutations of which have been described in Hirshsprung's disease, such as the ret and endothelin genes (184). Alveolar hypoventilation in the presence of atypical neurological findings, such as hypotonia, ataxia, or abnormal eye movements or neuroimaging abnormalities, should prompt an aggressive search for unrecognized neurometabolic disorders. Central hypoventilation can occur in patients with metabolic disorders (185–187). It may be a presenting sign in patients with Leigh disease, before the development of other gross neurological abnormalities (188,189). Early reports described high morbidity and mortality for children with CCHS, with death resulting from cor pulmonale, aspiration, or sepsis (132,133,146,149). More recently, prolonged survival with a good quality of life has been reported (135–137,143). Cor pulmonale, previously the most common cause of death, can be prevented by ensuring adequate ventilatory support. Intelligence is usually in the normal or lownormal range (135,137,190). Recurrent hypoxemic episodes can result in seizures and permanent neurological damage (190). Therefore, early diagnosis of CCHS, vigilant detection, and correction of intermittent hypoxia, should help prevent neurological sequelae. A detailed discussion of treatment is beyond the scope of this report. Referral to a pediatric pulmonologist with expertise in chronic home ventilatory management is strongly recommended. Respiratory stimulants, such as almitrine, aminophylline, and doxapram, are ineffective in treating the sleep related ventilatory depression in children with CCHS. Central Hypoventilation Associated with Hypothalamic and Endocrine Dysfunction Several case reports describe central hypoventilation in conjunction with other endocrine abnormalities, such as diabetes insipidus and hypothyroidism (191–193). Presumably, these are due to hypothalamic defects, which are not well delineated, or to metabolic or hormonal derangements that are known to affect respiratory control and alveolar ventilation. Finally, hypothyroidism alone is associated with depression of ventilatory control (194). Rett Syndrome. Rett syndrome (RS) is an unusual neurodevelopmental disorder of unknown etiology that occurs almost exclusively in females and has a prevalence of 1:23,000 (195). Girls with Rett syndrome appear normal at birth and early infancy, but the first few years of life are characterized by psychomotor regression; with autistic features, acquired microcephaly, dementia, ataxia, loss of purposeful hand movements, and seizures (196–199). The hallmark of Rett syndrome is repetitive stereotypic hand wringing twisting, or clapping. Young girls with Rett syndrome develop a peculiar pattern of waking ventilation characterized by sighing respirations and periodic hyperventilation alternating with apnea (200–209).
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Rett syndrome is the prototype for respiratory control disorders in which symptoms occur predominantly during wakefulness and disappear during sleep (202,209,210). The waking respiratory dysrhythmia can occur as early as 10 months of age (201). It consists of irregularly occurring episodes of intense hyperventilation and concomitant hypocapnia, often disrupted by apneic breathholding episodes lasting up to 30–60 sec with resultant hypoxemia (203,206,209,210). In contrast with the other disorders with tachypnea alternating with apnea, the onset of the breathing abnormalities in the Rett syndrome does not occur in the neonatal period (211). Profound hypoxemia with SaO2 values below 60% commonly occur during the periods of apnea (209,210). These may be severe enough to provoke syncope or seizures (201,202,205,210). The apnea is often accompanied by Valsalva maneuvers (210). During periods of hyperventilation, profound hypocapnia develops with arterial pH measurement ranging from 7.47 to 7.60 (210). These episodes of disordered breathing tend to occur when the child is excited or agitated and are frequently associated with other stereotypic movements. Although major sleeprelated respiratory disturbances are absent, sleeprelated behavioral disturbances are common and include night laughing (212) and inconsolable screaming (196,198). Biological markers for Rett syndrome are absent, and diagnosis is based on clinical presentation. Neuroimaging studies show only mildtomoderate cortical atrophy in the later stages. Neuropathological findings reveal few abnormalities other than reduced brain weight, hypopigmentation of the substantia nigra, a decrease in the number of synapses, dendritic length and branching, and absence of degenerative changes (213–215). Leigh Encephalomyelopathy Leigh disease, also called subacute necrotizing encephalomyelopathy, is a devastating disorder of infancy and childhood. It is associated with a variety of inborn errors of metabolism (usually autosomal recessive) and is manifested by lactic acidosis, pyruvate dysmetabolism, or mitochondrial dysfunction (186,216–223). The clinical symptoms can be diverse and progress at a variable rate. Most commonly, patients present during infancy with feeding and swallowing problems, vomiting, regression of psychomotor development, and seizures. Cerebellar and brain stem signs, including nystagmus, ataxia, and abnormal respiratory patterns, are prominent. These patterns include apnea—awake and asleep (189)—alveolar hypoventilation (186–189,224–227), or intermittent respiration with associated sighing or sobbing. Hyperpnea may be secondary to lactic acidòsis. Some children present with an apparent lifethreatening event, possibly related to seizure, aspiration, or disordered breathing. However, alveolar hypoventilation in Leigh disease may precede the onset and progression of the characteristic neurological deterioration. In that case, the clinical disorder may be incorrectly diagnosed as central alveolar hypoventilation (188,189). The primary pathological changes, gliosis,
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cavitation, and capillary proliferation in the brain stem (228), basal ganglia, and thalamus, may be visible on a computed tomography (CT) scan (229,230). There is no single biological marker for Leigh disease. Thus, diagnosis is based on clinical presentation, neuroimaging, and a neurometabolic assessment, including skin or muscle biopsy. Physicians must be aware that sudden respiratory or metabolic decompensation and even death have been reported after sedation or general anesthesia in Leigh disease patients (231,232). Leigh disease has been treated with thiamine, with temporary improvement in some cases. However, most children die within 6 months of the onset of symptoms. Because Leigh disease is a progressive and fatal neurological disorder, it is important to distinguish it from central alveolar hypoventilation and to avoid treatment with longterm ventilation. PraderWilli Syndrome PraderWilli syndrome (PWS) is a complex developmental and neurobehavioral genetic disorder affecting approximately 1:10,000 newborns (233). It is the most common genetic disorder that leads to obesity. It is usually associated with either a deletion in the long arm of the paternally derived chromosome 15 or maternal uniparental disomy (234). Its major manifestations can be traced to abnormalities of the brain and autonomic nervous system and include infantile hypotonia with feeding problems, developmental delay, behavioral abnormalities, obesity, hyperphagia, hypogonadism, dysmorphic features, and short stature (235). Sleep and breathing abnormalities, including REMassociated oxyhemoglobin desaturation, obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, obesity hypoventilation syndrome, abnormal sleep architecture, and daytime hypersomnolence, are commonly found in PWS (236–239). Obesity plays a major role in the development of sleeprelated breathing abnormalities and nocturnal oxygen desaturation in patients with PWS (240). Ventilatory responses to both transient and isocapnia hypoxia are absent or markedly reduced during wakefulness, implying that peripheral chemoreceptor function is commonly affected in both obese and nonobese patients (241–243). In contrast, ventilatory response to hypercapnia is normal in nonobese PWS patients, but blunted in obese PWS (242). Patients with PWS have abnormal arousal and cardiorespiratory responses to hypoxia (244) and absent or reduced arousal responses to hypercapnia (245). These findings suggest abnormal peripheral chemoreceptor function and may further contribute to sleepdisordered breathing in these patients. Finally, patients with PWS have decreased heart rate variability (246). Most children and adults with PWS also suffer from excessive daytime sleepiness. The hypersomnolence is most severe in the morbidly obese patients with sleep apnea and obesity hypoventilation syndrome. However, the frequent presence of sleep onset REM periods has led to the speculation of possible secondary narcolepsy, but the effects of sleep disruption and obesity hypoventilation (Pickwickian) syndrome are more likely explanations. When a young adult
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with PWS and sleeponset REM periods in addition to snoring and obstructive sleep apnea was given a trial of nasal continuous positiveairway pressure (CPAP), all abnormalities improved except the sleeponset REM periods (247). Yet another possible basis for abnormal sleepwake patterns is disturbed hypothalamic function. The REM abnormalities (shortened, fragmented, and multiple REM sleep periods) were seen even in patients without apnea or REMassociated hypoxemia. Adenotonsillectomy may provide some partial improvement in obstructive sleep apnea and hypersomnolence. However, many morbidly obese patients will need chronic airway management such as CPAP, tracheostomy, or some form of nocturnal ventilation to maintian adequate gas exchange during sleep. The authors suggested that the pattern of abnormalities supported the hypothesis of underlying hypothalamic dysfunction characteristic of PWS (239). Associated with Brain Stem Malformation or Compression Chiari Malformation Respiratory control disorders that accompany the Chiari malformations of the brain are well described and represent a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. The Chiari malformation comprises a group of congenital deformities of the brain stem and cerebellum characterized by caudal displacement of the hindbrain, with or without meningomyelocele. These patients can present with diverse symptoms that range in severity from interesting variations of the normal to fatal events (248,249). Chiari type I malformation consists of caudal displacement of the cerebellar tonsils below the foramen magnum. The brain stem and lower cranial nerves are usually not displaced and myelodysplasia is absent. Type I malformation can be accompanied by congenital hydrocephalus, but may be found in otherwise asymptomatic patients. Respiratory control problems associated with childhood Chiari type I malformation include sleep apnea (250–254), bilateral abductor vocal cord paralysis (254), dysphagia (255–257), and sudden death (258). Chiari type II malformation is more severe; includes caudal displacement of the cerebellar vermis, brain stem, and fourth ventricle; and is associated with brain stem compression or dysplasia. The type II malformation is present in 90% of children with myelodysplasia. Most of these infants have significant hydrocephalus at birth and require surgical intervention for shunt placement and closure of the myelomeningocele. Approximately 10% of children with myelodysplasia have either vocal cord paralysis or clinically apparent respiratory control problems as a result of brain stem or cranial nerve dysfunction (259,260). Abnormalities range from asymptomatic apnea (261) to stridor, or even dramatic central apnea, cyanotic spells, and respiratory failure. Previous studies have shown a high mortality rate in children with myelodysplasia and ventilatory control abnormalities (259). Sudden, unexpected death during sleep is well known (259,260,262).
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A variety of respiratory control disorders complicate the lives of children with Chiari malformation. The symptoms, mechanisms, diagnosis, and treatment strategies are described in the following and summarized in Table 3. However, the presence of ventilatory control abnormalities in patients with the Chiari malformation is not necessarily associated with cognitive impairment (259,260). Many patients with severe ventilatory control dysfunction have normal intellectual function and can lead fulfilling lives once appropriate treatment is provided. Central Apnea. Central apnea can be the presenting sign of acute hydrocephalus with increased intracranial pressure and dilated ventricles, even in patients without Chiari malformation (263). Additional symptoms of acute hydrocephalus include irritability, vomiting, bulging fontanel, increasing head circumference, and evolving cranial nerve deficits. Diagnosis is confirmed by neuroimaging, and treatment consists of placement or revision of ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Chronic compression of the lower brain stem also can result in central apnea. Relief of apnea can be observed in some patients following posterior fossa decompression (264–266). Apnea can also result from damage to descending spinal pathways subserving both voluntary and involuntary respiration. Although children with myelodysplasia may present with apnea soon after birth, they can develop additional respiratory control symptoms at a later age. Hypoventilation and Sleep Apnea. These are common respiratory control abnormalities in children with Chiari malformation. Hypoventilation results from disruption of the input to or the output from the central respiratory centers. This abnormality can involve either central chemoreceptor function (CO2), peripheral chemoreceptor afferents (O2), or central brain stem processing of the chemoreceptor signals. Decreased ventilatory and arousal responses to hypercapnia (262,267) have been demonstrated in children with Chiari malformation. Although usually intact (267), the decreased hypoxic ventilatory responses may be seen in patients with glossopharyngeal nerve dysfunction and resultant carotid chemoreceptor dysfunction (268). Absent ventilatory response to CO2 and absence of hypoxic ventilatory drive contribute to the development of hypoventilation. Central hypoventilation can also develop during acute cord compression under circumstances such as general anesthesia (249). Acute Bilateral Vocal Cord Paralysis. This defect is characterized by progressive stridor (255,266,269–271) and most commonly presents in the first year of life (272). Bilateral vocal cord paralysis can result in stridor, airway obstruction, and aspiration (273). The mechanism of the acute stridor is thought to be recurrent laryngeal nerve dysfunction (cranial nerve X), involving the major vocal cord adductor—the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle. Proposed mechanisms for the vocal cord paralysis include traction or compression on the tenth cranial nerve owing to the herniation of the cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum. Other explanations for the nerve dysfunction include vascular injury or dysgenesis of the cranial nerve nuclei. Evaluation requires urgent neuroimaging.
Page 310 Table 3 Clinical Respiratory Syndromes Associated with Chiari Malformation Symptom
Diagnosis
Management
Central apnea, irritability, vomiting
Acute hydrocephalus
Increasing head circumference; CNS imaging
Ventriculoperitoneal shunt
Stridor, obstructive apnea, feeding difficulties
Bilateral vocal cord paralysis from involvement of posterior cricoarytenoid muscles (cranial nerve X)
ABG, flow volume look polysomnography, flexible laryngoscopy
Ventriculoperitoneal shunt; posterior fossa decompression
Bulbar palsy, feeding and swallowing disorders, drooling, aspiration, upper airway obstruction
As above, with additional involvement of cranial nerves IX–XII
Cineesophagram and swallowing studies, CNS imaging
Tracheostomy, gastrostomy, fundoplication, with or without neurosurgery, as above
Central sleep apnea, hypoventilation
Traction, compression, or vascular impairment of the medullary control center
Polysomnography
Supportive care: monitoring, oxygen, airway, or ventilatory support
Breathholding spells
Abnormalities of respiratory control center
Clinical history, polysomnography, ventilatory response testing
Skilled caregivers, oxygen, bagmask ventilation; tracheostomy, with or without ventilatory support if lifethreatening
Cord compression syndrome, hypoventilation, paralysis
Cord compression
MRI, including head, neck, spine
Neurosurgery, ventilatory support
Hypoxemia and low lung volumes
Microatelectasis, low FRC
CXR, SaO2, ABG, spirometry and lung volumes
Supplemental oxygen, CPAP
Source: Modified from Ref. 249.
Mechanism
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The disorder may respond to neurosurgical intervention, but tracheostomy may be required. An increase in apnea or stridor frequently heralds an increase in intracranial pressure (266). If the child has a ventriculoperitoneal shunt in place, the functional status of the shunt should be assessed. “Croup” in children with myelomeningocele should always be considered as a sign of increased intracranial pressure until proved otherwise. Concomitant pharyngeal abnormalities can occur secondary to additional cranial nerve (IX–XII) involvement known as bulbar paralysis (257,274,275). Bulbar palsy is characterized by feeding difficulties, drooling, and swallowing incoordination and further contributes to upper airway obstruction, risk of aspiration pneumonia, and atelectasis. Diagnostic studies include swallowing studies, endoscopy, and polysomnography. Management may require placement of a feeding gastrostomy and sometimes requires tracheostomy. Severe BreathHolding Spells. A major problem for children with Chiari malformation is BHS (127,248,273). These episodes most commonly present between 6 months and 2 years of age. They are often quite severe, resulting in profound cyanosis, loss of consciousness, seizure activity, and sometimes, need for resuscitation. These episodes may persist despite wellfunctioning shunts, after posterior fossa decompression, and even after tracheostomy placement. Treatment with anticonvulsants and respiratory stimulants is ineffective. Mechanisms include vagal dysfunction and abnormal behavioral ventilatory control, exacerbated by blunted ventilatory responses. Children with myelodysplasia are predisposed to other pulmonary complications. Problems such as restrictive lung disease and hypoxemia are secondary to ventilatory muscle weakness, low lung volumes or scoliosis. Joubert's Syndrome Joubert's syndrome is a familial variant of agenesis of the cerebellar vermis, inherited as an autosomal recessive disorder. It presents in infancy with abnormalities of respiration, characterized by alternating periods of extreme tachypnea (110–200 breaths per minute) and apnea (276–278). Additional features include generalized hypotonia, ataxia, mental retardation, abnormal eye movements, and retinal dysplasia. The abnormal respiratory pattern is most pronounced during wakefulness and can improve with maturation. The lesion resembles the DandyWalker malformation or simple aplasia of the cerebellar vermis in some of its aspects. However, numerous other features set it apart as a distinct entity (279). Pathology findings include almost total aplasia of the cerebellar vermis, dysplasias, and numerous heterotopias of cerebellar nuclei; an almost total absence of pyramidal decussation; and anomalies in the structure of the inferior olivary nuclei, the descending trigeminal tract, solitary fascicle, and of the dorsal column nuclei (279). This condition can be differentiated from Rett syndrome by the presence of the cerebellar abnormalities on CT brain scans.
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Several other conditions involving structural abnormalities of the cerebellum are associated with alternating tachypnea and apnea (211). Shallow panting respirations with periodic apnea can also be seen in infants with DandyWalker malformation and may improve after shunting procedure (43,280,281). This malformation consists of a posterior fossa cyst, partial or complete absence of the cerebellar vermis, dysplasia of the inferior olivary nucleus, and occasionally displacement and dysplasia of several medullary nuclei (282). Orofacial digital syndrome II (Mohr syndrome) has been associated with cerebellar abnormalities and irregular respiratory patterns (211,283). Möbius' Syndrome Congenital facial diplegia (Möbius' syndrome) is another brain stem anomaly that has been associated with various respiratory control problems in children, including hypoventilation and obstructive sleep apnea, particularly when the brain stem anomalies are more extensive than hypoplasia of the seventh cranial nerve nuclei (284– 288). Associated with Other Brain Stem Lesions Central Neurogenic Hyperventilation Hyperventilation is seldom the primary manifestation of a respiratory control disorder. In children, hyperventilation usually occurs in response to a physiological disturbance, such as hypoxia, metabolic acidosis, sepsis, hypotension, hyperthermia, or intoxication. In the unconscious patient, the most common cause for hyperventilation is stimulation of afferent peripheral reflexes arising in the lung and chest wall by pulmonary congestion. Rarely, hyperventilation may be secondary to central neurological dysfunction. Most cases of central neurogenic hyperventilation (CNH) in adults have been associated with CNS lymphoma (289). In contrast, most cases in children are secondary to brain stem tumors (Table 4; 130,290–292), with one case reported in a child with Langerhan cell histocytosis (293). The hyperventilation may be extreme, with PCO2 values below 10 mmHg (130,290,292,293). Narcotics have been used as a palliative measure (292,294,295). Miscellaneous Lesions Central hypoventilation, with or without prolonged apnea, is an uncommon problem that can be congenital or acquired, and primary or secondary to a variety of Table 4 Causes of Central Hyperventilation
Pain, anxiety, fear
Histiocytosis X
Psychogenic hyperventilation
CNS lymphoma
Salicylate toxicity
CNS lesion
Brain stem tumor
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CNS disorders (43): tumor (29a,b,c,d,e); infection (296–298), vascular malformations (167,299), static encephalopathy (300), or posttrauma (301). C. Peripheral Nervous System Dysfunction. General Considerations Apnea, acute and chronic respiratory failure, and nocturnal hypoventilation are prominent features in children with diseases associated with peripheral nervous system dysfunction, especially neuromuscular diseases. However, the role of respiratory control mechanisms in these events is unclear. Usually, little is known in this area because the standard methods used to assess control of breathing depend on the presence of normally functioning respiratory muscles. In addition, most of the available information has been obtained from adult patients. Because the nervous system undergoes maturational changes, one cannot necessarily extrapolate from the adult data to the infant and child. In general, neuromuscular diseases often involve the respiratory muscles. With progressive weakness of these muscles, dyspnea ensues (302). Hypercapnia can develop when weakness becomes severe. The pattern of breathing is often abnormal, with small tidal volumes and high respiratory frequency (303,304). Patients respond to hypoxic and hypercapnic stimuli by further increasing their rate (304). Thus, the ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia may be impaired. However, the depressed response may be a reflection of the inability of the respiratory muscles to respond to an increase in central drive, rather than a primary problem with drive (302). On the other hand, mechanisms such as abnormal chest wall mechanics (305), decreased pulmonary compliance (306), or abnormal afferent input from affected muscles (307) can contribute to the impaired response. Diseases that destroy montoneurons (e.g., poliomyelitis), weaken muscle fibers (e.g., myopathies), or affect neuromuscular transmission (e.g., myasthenia gravis), all will result in the inability of the respiratory muscles to generate the tidal volume that is appropriate to the respiratory stimulus even when central drive is high. Consequently, assessment of ventilatory drive in patients with neuromuscular disease is hampered because their ventilation does not always accurately reflect drive. Thus, other measures, such as P0.1 are more appropriate for this assessment. For example, patients with Duchenne's muscular dystrophy have an increased P0.1 (303), whereas patients with Steinert's muscular dystrophy had a reduced ventilatory, but normal P0.1 response to hypoxia and hypercapnia (308). Sleeprelated alterations in ventilation may also contribute to the depressed daytime ventilatory response seen in some patients (302). Hypoventilation during sleep has been observed in patients with Duchenne's muscular dystrophy (309). Similarly, patients with myotonic dystrophy present with early sleep disturbances, including excessive daytime somnolence (310). One study demonstrates a significantly reduced hypoxic response, but an irregularly affected hypercapnic response (311). These patients have mainly central, but also obstructive, apneas during
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sleep. A contributing mechanism to the abnormal daytime response may be nocturnal hypercapnia that may lead to an elevation in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bicarbonate levels and an increase in pH. This, in turn, reduces central drive for a given CSF PCO2 (302). Spinal Cord Injury Spinal cord injury occurs at a rate of 28–50 injuries per million persons per year (312). In children, spinal cord injuries represent less than 10% of the total (313), with most of these injuries relating to motor vehicle accidents or athletic injuries. Highlevel injuries at C1–C3 may lead to quadriplegia and loss of ventilatory control because of the involvement of all the respiratory muscles, including the diaphragm and abdominal muscles. If the trauma involves the lower brain stem, then central control of breathing may be affected as well; resulting in apnea and early death. Lesions between C3 and C5 occur in about onethird of children with spinal trauma (313). Although accessory muscles of inspiration in the neck and shoulders are not affected in these cases, they are not adequate to maintain ventilation, thereby leading to hypoventilation. Trauma at the C6–C7 level may also interfere with ventilation, especially in the acute phase, if hemorrhage or edema extend into the higher cervical spine were phrenic motoneurons are located. However, even with an intact diaphragm, loss of intercostal muscle innervation results in chest wall instability. This problem is exaggerated in young children because their chest wall is more complaint than an older child or adult. The chest wall instability results in increased thoracoabdominal asynchrony and increased work by the diaphragm (314). In addition, absence of intercostal muscle function has been associated with decreased functional residual capacity and lung compliance (315), both of which may contribute to ventilationperfusion mismatching and hypoxemia. With time, flaccidity of the intercostal muscles changes to spasticity, and pulmonary function improves (312). Studies that have specifically examined respiratory control in children with spinal cord injury are sparse. Bohn and colleagues identified a group of children who presented with apnea and hypotension secondary to high cervical cord injury (316). Evidence of spinal cord laceration was found on postmortem examination, suggesting that these high cord injuries were associated with unrecognized respiratory problems that resulted in hypotension, hypoventilation, and cardiopulmonary arrest. One child had severe alveolar hypoventilation both awake and asleep secondary to penetrating lower brain stemupper spinal cord injury, although quadriplegia was absent (317). Poliomyelitis Since the advent of the polio vaccine in the mid 1950s, the incidence and prevalence of poliomyelitis has decreased dramatically. However, the disease still occurs in poorly immunized populations in developing countries (318). Polio
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myelitis is an example of an infection that targets motoneurons in the brain stem and spinal cord and leads to respiratory compromise. Respiratory centers and cranial nerves may be affected, with resulting irregular respiration and upper airway dysfunction because of the brain stem involvement. Patients may have problems with pooling of airway secretions, and laryngeal muscle or vocal cord paralysis. Respiratory center infection has been associated with the development of sleep apnea (319). Infection of anterior horn cells in the spinal cord may involve the respiratory muscles, the severity of the involvement depending on which spinal segments are affected. Recovery generally takes place within 3 months, with reinnervation of affected muscles by axonal sprouting from surviving motoneurons (320). Hence, respiratory function usually improves. However, late sequelae, such as sleepdisordered breathing (319,321) and respiratory muscle weakness with hypoventilation (322), can be seen 20 or more years following the infection. Spinal Muscular Atrophy Progressive spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a degenerative disease affecting the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord and the motor cells of cranial nerve nuclei. It is usually inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, but autosomal dominant and Xlinked recessive inheritance patterns have been reported. The genetic abnormality was localized to chromosome 5q11. The diseases are characterized by generalized weakness and hypotonia in the proximal and axial muscles, with evidence of denervation atrophy on muscle biopsy. Respiratory insufficiency usually occurs as the disease progresses (323,324). Several distinct clinical presentations exist. Patients with the most severe form of SMA (acute WerdnigHoffmann disease; spinal muscular atrophy type 1) present within the first 6 months of life with a decrease of fetal movements in onethird of cases. These children are hypotonic and weak in the neonatal period and have significant feeding difficulties and respiratory distress (325,326). Other children may appear normal for the first few weeks of life, then develop generalized weakness of the extremities, trunk, and bulbar muscles. The first year is characterized by progressive swallowing and respiratory problems. Respiratory insufficiency usually becomes a problem before 1 year of age, with survival less than 3 years. Intermediate SMA (chronic WerdnigHoffmann disease; spinal muscular atrophy type 2) presents in the middle of the first year with proximal weakness. Survival is variable from several years to the third decade. Juvenile SMA (KugelbergWeland disease; juvenile proximal hereditary muscular atrophy) begins between 5 and 15 years of age with weakness starting in the hip girdle. These children may remain ambulatory into the fourth decade. There have been no studies that have examined central control of breathing in these children. As muscle weakness progresses in the axial muscle, scoliosis develops and contributes to respiratory insufficiency. Although there is little information on the incidence of nocturnal hypoventilation in patients with
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SMA, it is conceivable that even with normal daytime ventilatory function, weak respiratory muscle and thoracic cage deformities will first affect ventilation during sleep. GuillainBarré Syndrome GuillainBarré syndrome is an acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy that occurs in both children and adults. The pathogenesis is unclear, but an immune process is believed to play a role. In about twothirds of the cases, an acute event, such as a viral illness, is reported 2–4 weeks before any neurological manifestations (327,328). Muscle weakness is usually symmetrical in the lower extremities, and progresses proximally over a 1 to 4week period. Deep tendon reflexes are depressed. The patients remain stable for an additional 1–4 weeks and then begin to improve slowly. Recovery occurs over days to months. GuillainBarré syndrome is the most common peripheral neuropathy causing respiratory failure (328). Respiratory failure may be seen in 10% of the patients in the initial phase of the illness, and in up to 30% in fully developed disease (327). Respiratory muscle weakness, including upper airway muscles, is the main contributor to respiratory failure. With progressive respiratory muscle weakness, tidal volume decreases, as does the ability to clear secretions and cough. This leads to microatelectasis in the lungs and ventilationperfusion mismatching, with resulting hypoxemia, and may progress to ventilatory failure (327,328). Central respiratory drive has been assessed in a group of adult patients using P0.1 and the response of P0.1 to CO2 rebreathing (329). Although the response was present in these patients, the slope was not as steep as in normal controls. These findings suggest either chronic neuromuscular fatigue, with central adaptation, or sensory deafferentation of respiratory muscles, with reflex modulation of central drive, may have occurred in these patients (328). There have been no similar studies performed in children to our knowledge. Familial Dysautonomia Familial dysautonomia (also known as RileyDay syndrome) is an autosomal recessive disorder that is common in the Eastern European (Ashkenazi) Jewish people, among whom the incidence is 1:10,000 to 1:20,000, and the carrier state is estimated to be 1%; it is rare in other ethnic groups. It is characterized by a sensory neuropathy notable for its involvement of the autonomic nervous system. The onset of infancy is characterized by poor feeding and swallowing, vomiting, irritability, recurrent pulmonary infections from aspiration, insensitivity to pain, absent reflexes, and absent fungiform papillae on the tongue. Signs of autonomic dysfunction include abnormal temperature regulation, decreased or absent tearing, excessive sweating and blotching of the skin, and hypotension. Patients with familial dysautonomia have abnormal control of ventilation
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(330,331). Central hypoventilation has also been reported in a child with acquired dysautonomia secondary to a ganglioneuroma (332). During sleep, breathing is irregular (333,334). In children with dysautonomia, hypercapnic ventilatory responses are moderately decreased, and hypoxic ventilatory responses are markedly decreased (330,331). In addition, the normal cardiovascular response to hypoxia is absent. It has been postulated that the decreased ventilatory response to hypoxia is due to central hypoxic ventilatory depression resulting from diminished cerebral blood flow, rather than to abnormal chemoreceptor function (330). Hypoxia results in hypotension and relative bradycardia, and may be accompanied by seizures or syncope (331). Patients with dysautonomia are usually asymptomatic, but decompensate in the face of stress, such as respiratory infection or a hypoxic environment. Deaths of hypoxia have been reported in patients who held their breaths while swimming underwater (331). Myasthenia Gravis Myasthenia gravis is a chronic disorder characterized by weakness and fatigability of skeletal muscle, including the respiratory muscles, exacerbated by exercise and improved by rest. The disorder is specific to the neuromuscular junction and is caused by autoantibodies directed at the acetylcholine receptor (AChR), which leads to degradation of the receptors (335,336). Impaired neuromuscular transmission is the basis of the muscle weakness and fatigability. In children, three forms of myasthenia gravis have been observed. Juvenile myasthenia is similar to the disorder seen in adults. Onset is usually in adolescence and progression is variable. Muscles innervated by lower cranial nerves are affected first, resulting in symptoms of facial muscle weakness. Extremities and respiratory muscles are involved later in the course. Clinical remission is seen in about 50% of patients in the first few years. The disease causes progressive weakening of the respiratory muscles, with a decrease in vital capacity, total lung capacity, and an increase in residual volume. Although control of breathing has not been assessed in children, a study in adults revealed rapid, shallow breathing, slightly increased P0.1 and inspiratory flow (VT /TI), and decreased ventilatory response to CO2 (337). These findings suggest that disordered neuromuscular transmission was the most likely explanation, but could not rule out other factors, such as a depressed respiratory centers. Infants with myasthenia gravis have either the neonatal form or the congenital form. The neonatal form is transient and occurs in about 12% of infants born to mothers with myasthenia gravis and is probably secondary to transfer of maternal antibodies to AChR across the placenta (338). Although the clinical manifestations may be severe, symptoms respond to anticholinesterase therapy, and the disorder usually subsides by 5 weeks of age. In the congenital form, the mothers are usually not afflicted with the disorder, but siblings may be affected.
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The predominant feature is extraocular muscle involvement and poor feeding. Respiratory muscle involvement is rare (338), and no information is available on respiratory control in these infants. Myopathies and Muscular Dystrophies Myopathies include a wide range of diseases that may be inherited or acquired. Because children are afflicted mainly with the inherited type, this section will review respiratory control in the most common myopathies (e.g., Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, myotonic dystrophy, and nonprogressive myopathies). Duchenne's muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive myopathy that is inherited as an Xlinked recessive trait. The incidence of DMD is approximately 1:3500 male births, and onethird of the cases result from new mutations. The gene for DMD has been localized to the short arm of the X chromosome. The normal gene product is a cytoskeletal protein named dystrophin; this protein is lacking in the disease (339). DMD almost invariably affects boys, with proximal muscle weakness beginning at 2–4 years of age. Typically, the progression is rapid, and the child is wheelchairbound by age 10–12 years. Death generally occurs by age 20–30 years as a result of respiratory failure. Pulmonary function in patients with DMD correlates with the degree of progression of muscle weakness (340). Respiratory muscle weakness is reflected in reduced maximal inspiratory pressure that worsens with time (341). By the time the child is wheelchairbound, vital capacity is reduced to about 50% of predicted (340). Progressive respiratory muscle weakness manifests as nocturnal hypoxemia associated with morning headache, daytime somnolence, hypopneas, and apneas (309). The ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia has been examined in a small group of patients with advanced DMD (304). In this group, the magnitude of the ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia, as well as P0.1, were similar to controls, but the patterns of the response differed. Whereas the controls increased ventilation by increasing tidal volume, the DMD patients increased their respiratory rate. When we consider these data, it appears that the respiratory drive is preserved in these patients, and that the difference in the pattern of the response may reflect inspiratory muscle weakness (304). Worsening muscle weakness in DMD is associated with the development of scoliosis. This, in turn, contributes to the respiratory compromise. Thus, a restrictive pattern of pulmonary dysfunction is observed secondary to a combination of respiratory muscle weakness and rib cage deformity. Surgical correction of scoliosis has not changed the decline rate of pulmonary function (341). Ultimately, respiratory insufficiency develops with CO2 retention, recurrent pneumonia and atelectasis, and cor pulmonale. At this stage, an acute respiratory infection may be fatal. However, more recently, the use of noninvasive ventilatory support has been used with some success in the earlier stages of respiratory compromise and may decrease the rate of deterioration of pulmonary function (340).
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Myotonic dystrophy is an inherited autosomal dominant progressive disease characterized by myotonia and progressive muscle weakness. The genetic abnormality for this disease is the unstable expansion of a CTG triplet repeat sequence the long arm of chromosome 19 (342). Two main forms of this condition have been recognized: the congenital form and Steinert's myotonic dystrophy. Congenital myotonic dystrophy is one of the most common muscular disorders in neonates; it occurs in about 1:3500 live births (343). Fifteen percent of mothers with myotonic dystrophy will have an affected newborn (341). Occurrence of the disease in the infant is not related to the severity of the disease in the mother. Infants with the mild form are hypotonic, with poor such and swallow, facial diplegia, and limb contractures. In the more severe form, infants may be asphyxiated at birth, probably because of respiratory muscle weakness (317). The respiratory complications of congenital myotonic dystrophy may start in utero, with diminished fetal breathing and resultant pulmonary hypoplasia (344). Diaphragmatic hypoplasia has also been described (345). Although no data are available, it is believed that, as in the adult form, reduced fetal breathing is secondary to reduced central drive weakness (317,341). Poor swallow predisposes these infants to recurrent aspiration. Progressive respiratory muscle weakness leads to alveolar hypoventilation, retention of secretions, atelectasis, and pneumonia. Mortality is usually secondary to respiratory failure and occurs within the first 2 years of life. The need for prolonged ventilatory support is associated with a poor prognosis. Steinert's myotonic dystrophy is the most common form of myotonic dystrophy; it occurs in adolescents and adults at a frequency of 1:7,500 to 1:18,500 individuals. It is characterized by myotonia, progressive muscular weakness, cardiac conduction defects, endocrine abnormalities, and early cataracts. A characteristic appearance (frontal baldness, ptosis, hollow cheeks, and temporal wasting) is often noted (341). In this disorder, respiratory insufficiency may be seen even when limb muscle weakness is mild. Multiple factors contribute to this insufficiency: weakness and myotonia of the respiratory muscles, pharyngoesophageal dysfunction, and central hypoventilation. Myotonia of chest wall and abdominal muscles cause a restrictive impairment to breathing. Pharyngoesophageal dysfunction from muscle weakness and impaired cough lead to recurrent aspiration and repeated infection. Altered ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia has been described in myotonic dystrophy (346). It has been attributed to respiratory muscle weakness and fatigability (308,311). However, the resting respiratory pattern is highly variable, suggesting a central drive defect (347,348). Sleepdisordered breathing is common in patients with myotonic dystrophy. Upper airway obstruction during sleep may be seen in children and cause excessive daytime somnolence (349). Another interesting feature of these patients is extreme susceptibility to anesthesia and respiratory depressants. Recommendations for patients with myotonic dystrophy include avoidance of general anesthe
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sia and depolarizing muscle relaxants, with intensive postoperative monitoring when surgery is required (341). Congenital myopathies can be either progressive or nonprogressive. Respiratory involvement in these disorders is often out of proportion to the limb muscle weakness and may lead to respiratory failure (187). The two most common congenital myopathies are nemaline myopathy and muscle core disease. Nemaline myopathy is an autosomal dominant disorder in which rodlike bodies are seen in muscle fibers. Clinically, nemaline myopathy includes a severe form that presents in infancy with hypotonia and respiratory failure, and a milder form in children and adults. Affected patients may present with temporary or permanent nocturnal hypoventilation and cor pulmonale that requires assisted ventilation (350). Involvement of the respiratory muscles may be more extensive than the limb muscles, as suggested by a few postmortem studies (351,352). Central respiratory drive may be blunted as a result of disturbed feedback from the muscles to the central nervous system (353). In muscle core disease, rows of central nuclei are found in muscle fibers simulating the myotubular stage of myofiber development. Type 1 (slowtwitch oxidative) fibers are primarily involved. An Xlinked recessive variant of the disease often presents with respiratory insufficiency at birth requiring assisted ventilation. In the more common autosomal recessive form, patients present in early childhood with marfanoid appearance, diffuse muscle weakness, and extraocular muscle impairment. The adult form is inherited as an autosomal dominant disease. Respiratory failure usually occurs years after the initial neurological manifestations (354). D. Associated with Thoracic Cage, Pulmonary Parenchyma, or Airway Disease Kyphoscoliosis. Kyphoscoliosis is the result of an underlying pathological process in the spine or supporting musculature that leads to anterior angulation and curvature of the spine. The curvature of the spine causes rotation of the vertebral bodies and distortion of the attached structures, including the ribs. This distortion results in functional pulmonary disability. Kyphoscoliosis complicating neuromuscular diseases and skeletal dysplasias accounts for about 10% of all cases. The idiopathic form of scoliosis that is seen in otherwise healthy children and adolescents accounts for about 80–85% of all cases (355). If left untreated, progression of the curvature is associated with cardiopulmonary insufficiency and death in the fourth to fifth decade (355). The death rate is estimated to be 2.2 times greater than normal. The degree of pulmonary dysfunction in children with scoliosis correlates with the severity of the deformity (356). Usually pulmonary function is normal at
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an angle of curvature less than 30–40°; pulmonary dysfunction is detectable at 50–60° angles; and angles greater than 90° are associated with increased risk for cardiorespiratory failure (355). The pulmonary dysfunction is of the restrictive type. Total lung capacity is reduced, as are vital capacity and expiratory reserve volume, whereas residual volume is minimally decreased. Gas exchange is normal with mild deformity. With progression of the curvature, the ratio of dead space to tidal volume (VD/VT ) increases, primarily because of a decrease in VT , rather than an increase in physiological dead space (356). Thus alveolar hypoventilation ensues and PaCO2 rises. Hypoventilation may be worse during sleep, particularly in REM sleep (356,357). The breathing pattern in patients with scoliosis changes as the angle of curvature increases. Inspiratory time (TI) and the inspiratory duty cycle correlate negatively with the angle (358). They respond to CO2 by increasing their respiratory rate and not their VT . A similar increase in rate is seen in response to exercise (355). P0.1 measurements are increased above normal, suggesting a compensatory increase in neural drive in the face of the stiffer respiratory system (358). In a recent study the response to inspiratory resistive loads was examined in anesthetized patients with kyphoscoliosis who were about to undergo corrective spinal surgery (359). In this group of 12 patients baseline VT , TI, and expiratory duration; total breathing cycle time, and inspiratory duty cycle time, all were lower than in controls. With resistive loading, the prolongation of TI and percentage decrease in VT were less in the patients than in the controls. Both patients and controls were able to defend tidal volume by increasing the peak and rate of rise of the driving pressure Pmus. However, the changes were greater in the controls. Respiratory Control in Chronic Lung Disease Chronic lung diseases in children manifest with a variety of symptoms, some of which may be attributed to the pathology in the lungs, and others that seem to relate to respiratory control. For example, children with cystic fibrosis have blunted hypoxic ventilatory drive thought to be secondary to abnormal lung mechanics (360). In this section, we will review what is now known about the control of breathing in the two main categories of lung diseases (e.g., obstructive diseases and restrictive diseases). In the first group, we will focus on the three most common chronic lung diseases in children: asthma, cystic fibrosis, and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. For the second group, conditions that relate to thoracic disorders other than neuromuscular diseases (see foregoing) will be included, as well as interstitial lung disease of various etiologies. Asthma Asthma is the most chronic respiratory disease of childhood, affecting from 5 to 15% of children. Asthma is a disorder of the airways characterized by mild to severe obstruction of airflow that manifests clinically as wheezing, cough, and
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shortness of breath. Airway inflammation is the prominent feature of asthma and is characterized by mucosal edema of the airways and hypersecretion of mucus from goblet cells. The hallmark of asthma is increased airway responsiveness, defined as the ease with which airways narrow in response to a stimulus or trigger (361). Common triggers for pediatric asthma are respiratory viruses, allergens, and exercise. In acute episodes of asthma, hyperventilation is a consistent finding (362). Although hypoxemia is an important contributor to the genesis of this hyperventilation, it is not the only factor, because O2 supplementation does not decrease the hyperventilation (363). Other mechanisms, such as stimulation of stretch receptors or irritant c fibers, are also thought to play a role (362). The ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia, as measured by P0.1, are normal in children with chronic asthma (360,364,365). Ventilatory parameters, such as minute ventilation, tidal volume, and inspiratory flow rate may not respond normally (360). This may be secondary to mechanical factors, such as airway obstruction, hyperinflation placing the diaphragm at a mechanical disadvantage, or some degree of respiratory muscle fatigue. However, a more recent study in adults suggests that in patients with nearfatal asthma, reduced chemosensitivity to hypoxia and blunted perception of dyspnea may predispose patients to fatal attacks (366,367). These abnormalities have not been seen in children. These differences may be a function of the duration of airway obstruction—a question that warrants further investigation. Nocturnal exacerbation of symptoms, including hypoxemia, is a wellrecognized feature of childhood asthma (368,369). This is more likely related to circadian variation in airflow, rather than to the effects of sleep per se (362). Changes in nighttime O2 saturation correlate with pulmonary function tests, rather than with measures of ventilatory drive (369). Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive disorder that is the most common lethal genetic disease affecting whites. The triad of chronic obstructive lung disease, pancreatic exocrine deficiency, and abnormally high sweat electrolyte concentration is present in most patients. The gene responsible for CF encodes a defective epithelial chloride channel. The clinical manifestations of this process include chronic cough and recurrent pulmonary infections. However, pulmonary function is usually normal early on. With progression of the disease, airway obstruction becomes more permanent and manifests as an obstructive pattern on pulmonary function tests. In more advanced disease, a restrictive pattern also emerges. The neural control of breathing in children with CF has been assessed in two studies (360,370). In both studies the P0.1 response to hypercapnia was normal. However, ventilatory response measures (e.g., minute ventilation, tidal
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volume, and inspiratory flow rate) were blunted and correlated with the degree of obstruction to airflow. The main response to hypercapnia was an increase in respiratory rate, rather than the normal increase in tidal volume (362). The response to hypoxia varied, depending on the degree of hypoxia. With mild hypoxia, patients with CF responded as did the normal control group; however, with more severe hypoxia (PAO2 < 50 torr), minute ventilation and tidal volume decreased paradoxically (360). This type of response was not seen in a group of children with asthma and a comparable degree of airway obstruction. The authors suggested that the basis for this response may be related to a lack of performance of the respiratory muscles, secondary to malnutrition associated with CF (360). Another difference between the children with CF and asthma was that, in response to hypoxia, P0.1 was greater in the CF children. This may be related to the pulmonary fibrosis that is seen in CF, but not in asthma, because fibrosis seems to result in an increase in drive, independently of the volume (362). Sleeprelated hypoxemia has been demonstrated in adolescents and young adults with CF (371–375). In contrast with adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), no evidence of obstructive sleep apnea was found in these patients. Instead, hypoventilation and disturbances in ventilationperfusion matching are believed to contribute to the hypoxemia. There is no evidence that changes in neural drive during sleep occur in these patients (362). Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a form of chronic lung disease that is seen in infants following acute neonatal lung injury. It is believed to result as a complication of the therapies (positivepressure and oxygen) used to support ventilation in infants with respiratory distress. BPD is diagnosed when at 1 month after birth, the infant has clinical and radiographic abnormalities and a need for supplemental oxygen (376). The pulmonary manifestations of BPD are primarily the result of airway obstruction and diminished expiratory flow reserve (377). Gasexchange abnormalities may persist for months and sometimes years. These abnormalities may be more severe during sleep. For example, sleeprelated decreases in O2 saturation, mainly in REM sleep, have been seen in infants, as well as in older children with BPD who have normal daytime saturation values (362,378,379). The significance of this finding may be enhanced by the observation that infants with BPD are at increased risk for sudden unexplained death (380). The mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are not well understood. However, Garg et al. challenged a group of infants with mild to moderately severe BPD with hypoxia during sleep and found an abnormal arousal response (378). All of the 12 infants studied required vigorous stimulation and supplemental oxygen after the initial arousal response. Twothirds had prolonged apnea with bradycardia and onethird required bagmask ventilation. Hence, this type of abnormality may contribute to
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the increased risk for sudden death in this population. It is unknown whether this is a primary defect in these infants, or whether it relates to chronic hypoxia. Recent information on peripheral chemosensitivity in infants with BPD may shed light on mechanisms that play a role in this process. In a study of 25 infants with BPD, peripheral chemoreceptor function was assessed using a hyperoxic challenge (381). This group was compared with a control group of agematched premature infants without BPD. Sixty percent of the BPD infants lacked a hyperoxic response, compared with 20% of the control group. The intensity of the response correlated negatively with time spent on a ventilator and positively with time without supplemental O2. Thus, these infants appear to have abnormal peripheral chemoreceptor function (381). The ventilatory response to hypercapnia in these infants has not been examined in detail. In a study of 59 fullterm and 69 preterm highrisk infants, 8 infants with BPD were included (382). The ventilatory slope in response to CO2 was similar in the BPD infants and the controls. However, this limited amount of data precludes one from generalizing to the BPD population. This is because of the heterogeneity in the levels of chronic hypoxia and hypercapnia in these infants, and the effects the different levels of blood gas derangement may have on central control. For instance, in normal children, hypoxia enhances the ventilatory response to CO2, whereas in premature infants, the response is depressed (362). Whether this interaction is seen in infants with BPD remains to be determined. Restrictive Lung Disease Restrictive lung disease is seen in children secondary to a wide range of disorders. These disorders may be grouped into three main categories, related to their underlying problem: thoracic cage deformity, neuromuscular weakness, and pulmonary parenchymal disease. The first category includes disorders of the bony rib cage: congenital skeletal dysplasias that are associated with early death; skeletal dysplasias that are associated with progressive kyphoscoliosis; disorders associated with a small, stiff rib cage, such as the mucopolysaccharidoses and mucolipidoses; disorders associated with pulmonary hypoplasia, such as osteogenesis imperfecta type II; and disorders of the sternum. Little is known about respiratory control in skeletal dysplasias, probably because of the severity of these disorders and the early death of the patients. However, respiratory control has been examined in children with kyphoscoliosis, a condition that is commonly associated with or is a consequence of some types of dysplasia. The second category includes abnormalities of the respiratory muscles that may be associated with pulmonary hypoplasia (e.g., congenital diaphragmatic hernia, abdominal wall defects, such as omphaloceles, and EagleBarrett syndrome; 383). The third category includes interstitial lung disease of various etiologies such as rheumatic and connective tissue diseases, hematological disorders, infectious agents, and those of unknown etiology.
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Restrictive disease on the basis of pulmonary pathology relates to two main processes: a reduction in the amount of pulmonary tissue or pulmonary hypoplasia, or decreased compliance of the lungs secondary to thickening of the alveolarcapillary space. Although there have been several studies that have examined respiratory mechanic and pulmonary function in cases of pulmonary hypoplasia (384–387), there have been no studies that have systematically examined the control of breathing in these children. In the study by Ewig et al., exercise performance was measured in nine children with prunebelly syndrome (385). In this group, baseline pulmonary function measurements showed mildly decreased expiratory flows, but significantly decreased maximal expiratory pressure. The work loads achieved during exercise were reduced and attributed to the negative contribution of the abdomen to tidal breathing, necessitating large rib cage displacements. There was no comment in this study on respiratory rate and tidal volume response to exercise. Pulmonary hypoplasia has been studied only in an experimental animal model in newborn guinea pigs (388). Exposure of these animals to 11 and 5% O2 led to an increase in weightspecific minute ventilation in twothirds of the animals, primarily by increasing respiratory frequency with some increase in tidal volume. In contrast, controls did not increase tidal volume as much. Whether similar response would be found in children remains to be determined. Interstitial Lung Disease Interstitial lung disease (ILD) is a manifestation of a large number of etiologies that occur at all ages. They include infectious, chemical, and physical agents; cardiovascular disease; metabolic disorders; hematological diseases; malignancies; connective tissue diseases; and conditions of unknown origin (389). Children usually present with a dry cough and tachypnea. Tachypnea at rest may, in fact, be the earliest manifestation and may reflect underlying hypoxemia (389). Dyspnea on exercise, exercise intolerance, orthopnea, chest pain, weight loss, and hemoptysis may also be seen depending on the underlying etiology. One of the major pulmonary dysfunctions in patients with ILD is a diffusion defect. The defect is secondary to the inflammatory process that occurs in the interstitium, with resultant fibrotic changes that distort and destroy the alveolarcapillary system (390). Thus, the widening of the alveolarcapillary interface, a diminished overall alveolar and capillary surface area, and decreased capillary blood volume, all contribute to respiratory insufficiency. In children with interstitial lung disease, pulmonary function testing reveals reduced total lung capacity, vital capacity, and inspiratory capacity. Functional residual capacity and residual volume are less affected, probably because the increased rigidity of the parenchyma prevents the lung from contracting below a certain level (390). The control of breathing in children with ILD has not been studied extensively. Gaultier et al. examined the breathing patterns and P0.1 at rest in a group of 14 children with ILD of varying etiologies (391). As compared with healthy control
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children, respiratory frequency and minute ventilation were significantly higher, and TI and TI/TTOT were shorter. The shortening of TI correlated with the increase in lung elastance (EL). P0.1 was also higher in the subjects and correlated positively with EL and negatively with PaO2. These results are similar to those observed in adults with ILD (392). E. Miscellaneous Respiratory Control Disorders Achondroplasia Achondroplasia, the most common form of disproportionate short stature, is an autosomal dominant disorder, with an incidence of 1:25,000 births. It is due to an abnormality in fibroblast growth factor receptor 3. Associated craniofacial features include short cranial base, small foramen magnum, low nasal bridge, midface hypoplasia, and small nasal passages. Thus, respiratory problems secondary to an upper airway obstruction and sleepdisordered breathing are common and sedation, intubation, anesthesia, or surgery take place at increased risk. Severe upper airway obstruction and restrictive pulmonary function occur in 5% of affected children (373). Even growth hormone deficiency secondary to severe sleep apnea, with absence of slowwave sleep that resolved after tracheostomy has been reported in a patient with achondroplasia (393). Children with achondroplasia are also at risk for hydrocephalus and spinal cord compression at the cervicomedullary junction because of the small foramen magnum (394). This complication presents as central apneahypoventilation, or as high cervical myelopathy (395–397). An apneusticbreathing pattern that improved after cervicomedullary decompression has been observed in patients with achondroplasia (398). Finally, sudden death, probably due to cervicomedullary compression, occurs in almost 3% of patients (399). Children with achondroplasia often sweat and snore in association with sleep. Health supervision should include regular monitoring for symptoms of sleepdisordered breathing and signs of cervical myelopathy (400). Evaluation includes polysomnography and neuroimaging, especially in developmental milestones are delayed (373). Abnormal polysomnographic findings are reported in 34–100% (394,396,401,402), and severe respiratory abnormalities that warrant intervention in 5–35% of patients with achondroplasia (373,401,402). Simple adenotonsillectomy for relief of upper airway obstruction may not be effective, and tracheostomy may be required (401,402). Craniocervical decompression may be of benefit in a subset of patients (394,397). Trisomy 21 Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) is the most common pattern of malformation in humans, with an incidence of 1:660 newborns. It is characterized by hypotonia, flat facies, slanted palpebral fissures, and small ears (403). Sleeprelated upper air
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way obstruction occurs in approximately onethird of cases (404). Children with trisomy 21 have many predisposing factors for upper airway obstruction: maxillary and mandibular hypoplasia (405); decreased palatal dimensions, relative macroglossia, small nasopharynx, and choanal narrowing (406,407); increased secretions (407); generalized hypotonia; and a tendency toward obesity and hypothyroidism. As a consequence of these anatomical features, even a “normal” amount of adenoid or tonsillar lymphoid tissue can produce severe obstruction. Although adenotonsillectomy usually results in an improvement, it is usually not curative (406,408–410). Nocturnal hypoxemia from unrecognized upper airway obstruction is probably a major contributor to the development or exacerbation of pulmonary hypertension in these children (406,411,412). In addition, some children with trisomy 21 have atlantoaxial instability and subluxation. They can develop significant apnea, cardiopulmonary compromise, and severe neurological impairment in association with medical and rehabilitative procedures involving head and neck maneuvers (413). These data imply that all children with trisomy 21 should be suspected of having obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). Many children with trisomy 21 and OSAS may not be effectively treated by simple adenotonsillectomy (407,409,414). For any surgical procedure in these children, tongue volume (macroglossia), muscular hypotonia, and midfacal abnormalities must be considered. In these children, various published surgical approaches stress that the anatomical structure of each child must be assessed individually, and surgery planned accordingly (407,414). Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome. Obesity is a common problem in the United States, estimated to occur in 5–25% of children and adolescents (415). Although most children with OSAS are not obese (416–418), obesity is a predisposing factor for OSAS in children (419–421). The prevalence of sleeprelated breathing abnormalities in obese children is not well studied. Only one study prospectively looked at OSAS in an unselected population of 22 obese, innercity children. They found that the prevalence of sleep disordered breathing was high (46%); it correlated with the severity of the obesity, but it was frequently mild (420). When studies examined obese children with symptoms suggestive of OSAS, up to onehalf of the children were ultimately diagnosed with OSAS (419,421). From a developmental perspective, Kahn et al. (422) have shown an increased incidence of short, obstructive apneas in obese, but asymptomatic infants. Obesity hypoventilation syndrome has been recognized in childhood for decades (423–432). Severe morbidity, including cor pulmonale, respiratory failure, and increased mortality, is common among reported cases. Children with PraderWilli syndrome are at especially high risk for respiratory compromise, possibly related to their underlying ventilatory control abnormalities, autonomic dysfunction, and hypotonia (see earlier discussion of this specific disorder).
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Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome Because children with OSAS sometimes have low or absent ventilatory responses to hypoxia or hypercapnia, the role of chemoreceptormediated ventilatory drive as a primary factor has been questioned. Ingram and Bishop reported on four patients, ages 5–12 years, who had blunted ventilatory responses to CO2 2 or more years after surgical intervention (433). In contrast, Marcus et al. demonstrated that children with moderatesevere OSAS have normal awake ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia. This suggests that blunting of the respiratory drive in these children is likely secondary to chronic respiratory failure (434). The difference between the two studies may be explained by dissimilar patient groups. The children studied by Marcus et al. (434) were younger, less severe, and diagnosed earlier. In contrast, the children reported by Ingram and Bishop had longstanding severe OSAS complicated by right heart failure, and developed irreversible blunting of ventilatory responses under these clinical circumstances. Gozal et al. found that children with OSAS had a very different pattern of ventilatory response to repeated, short CO2 challenges compared with children without OSAS. He speculated that these pattern differences may lead to blunted temporal trends in ventilatory response to CO2 in children with OSAS (435). Furthermore, children with OSAS have respiratory patterns different from obstruction than do adults. In contrast with adults whose predominant respiratory pattern is numerous and prolonged obstructive apneas, children are more likely to have protracted periods of partial airway obstruction and hypoventilation (436). Apnea events are less frequent and generally shorter than in adults (437). Because discrete obstructive apneas are less prominent in childhood OSAS, the arousals that terminate these obstructive events are also less frequent. Therefore, daytime hypersomnolence secondary to sleep disruption from the multiple arousals is also less common in children with OSAS. Finally, children with OSAS may be less vulnerable to complete obstruction because of increased upper airway stability compared with adults (438). Apnea of Prematurity Apnea is an extremely common finding in premature infants and is the subject of several excellent reviews (15,439–441). It is defined as a respiratory pause of 20 sec or longer or a shorter pause associated with cyanosis, abrupt pallor or hypotonia, or bradycardia (442). The incidence increases with decreasing gestational age (443). Because most cases of apnea are related to prematurity, the incidence of apnea decreases with increasing postconceptual age, and usually resolves by 35–36 weeks postconceptual age (443). Infants with extremely low birth weight (less than 1000 g) may have persistent apnea beyond 40 weeks postconceptual age (444). Apnea can be categorized into three types (445): Central apnea is characterized by absence of chest wall movement and upper airway flow; obstructive apnea is associated with chest wall movement, without upper airway flow; and
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mixed apnea includes elements of both patterns. Mixed apnea accounts for 50% of the apneic episodes in premature infants (446). The most obvious clinical cardiovascular sign in response to apnea is abrupt heart rate slowing. Most bradycardia events are associated with apnea, and the incidence increases significantly with the length in each type of apnea (447). Periodic breathing, three or more respiratory pauses of more than 3 sec, with less than 20 sec of breathing between the pauses, is a common and normal respiratory pattern in preterm and term infants (448). Apnea can be a symptom or sign of an underlying disorder; however, the most common cause of apnea in premature infants is related to immaturity of respiratory control. Anatomical correlates of impaired ventilatory control include decreased dendritic synapses and neural myelination. In addition, chemoreceptor function is impaired, resulting in a blunted ventilatory response to hypercapnia (449) and paradoxical hypoventilation in response to hypoxemia (450,451). Functional obstruction of the upper airway results from uncoordinated brain stem control of posterior pharyngeal patency and diaphragmatic contractility (14). Active inhibitory respiratory reflexes also may contribute to apnea in the premature infant (452,453). In the face of an immature and unstable ventilator control mechanism, a wide variety of conditions can induce apnea in premature infants. In contrast, a specific etiology is more likely to be found in term or nearterm infants who have spells of apnea. All infants at risk for apnea of prematurity (i.e., those less than 34 weeks gestation) require cardiorespiratory monitoring when they are admitted to the nursery. Mixed and obstructive events with continued respiratory effort can be associated with serious hypoxemia, without triggering simple cardiorespiratory monitoring devices unless significant bradycardia is present. Therefore, pulse oximetry may be a useful adjunct to infant monitoring in the nursery (454). Apnea of prematurity is a diagnosis of exclusion. Other causes of apnea must be considered (Table 5). A careful history and physical examination will direct further evaluation. An investigation for sepsis or meningitis should be performed in infants who have other signs and symptoms of sepsis: apnea beyond 34 weeks gestation, sudden onset of apnea after being asymptomatic, and severe apnea requiring bagmask ventilation. Management of apnea of prematurity is determined by the frequency and severity of the episodes. If these are mild and are not associated with cyanosis or bradycardia, they may be treated with gentle stimulation, clearance of secretions from the airway, and avoidance of neck flexion. If the infant continues to have significant apnea, the next step is treatment with methylxanthines. These agents are effective against central and obstructive apnea. Proposed mechanisms of action of methylxanthines for apnea include increased sensitivity of the medullary respiratory center to CO2, increased afferent nerve traffic to the brain stem, and improved skeletal and diaphragmatic muscle contraction. Persistent apnea despite methylxanthine therapy is an indication for nasal continuous positiveairway pressure (CPAP), which is effective against
Page 330 Table 5 Conditions Causing Apnea in the Neonate Apnea of prematurity
Thermal disturbance
CNS disorders
Hyperthermia
Hemorrhage Asphyxia
Hypothermia Metabolic disorder
Seizures
Hypoglycemia
Drug depression
Hypocalcemia
Malformation
Electrolyte imbalance
Systemic illness Sepsis
Inborn error Upper airway obstruction
Shock
Neck flexion
Heart failure
Secretions
Anemia Gastrointestinal
Congenital or acquired anomaly
Necrotizing enterocolitis
Gastroesophageal reflux
obstructive and mixed apnea spells. The proposed mechanism of action for CPAP involves stabilization of the upper airway and chest wall, as well as reduction of inhibitory respiratory reflexes. Intubation and mechanical ventilation are indicated if significant apnea persists despite the foregoing measures. Severe apnea may be associated with a decrease in cerebral blood flow, resulting in neurological injury. Uncomplicated apnea of prematurity is not associated with a poor neurological outcome (455,456). Although the incidence of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) increases with decreasing birth weight, parents should be reassured that apnea of prematurity is not an independent risk factor for SIDS. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), also called crib or cot death, is the leading cause of infant mortality between 1 month and 1 year of age in the United States. Almost 5000 deaths each year in the United States are attributed to SIDS, representing an incidence of 1.17:1000 live births (457). SIDS is defined as the sudden death of an infant younger than 1 year of age that remains unexplained after a thorough case investigation, including performance of a complete autopsy, examination of the death scene, and review of the clinical history (458). It is a diagnosis of exclusion that apparently occurs during sleep, but specific sleep state pathology leading to this disorder is unknown. SIDS peaks between 2 and 4 months of age, a period of remarkable developmental changes in cardiac, ventilatory, and sleepwake patterns (459). The coincidence of timing suggests that SIDS babies are vulnerable to sudden death during a critical period of autonomic
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maturation. Furthermore, the association of SIDS with maternal and intrauterine risk factors, such as maternal smoking or inadequate prenatal care, suggests that presumed brain insults may originate before birth (459,460). The disorder is characterized by several gross and microscopic autopsy features, even though none of the findings are sufficiently grave to explain the infant's death (461). External findings include a welldeveloped child with frothy, bloodtinged fluid at the nares. Internal findings include intrathoracic petechiae, pulmonary congestion and edema, upper respiratory tract inflammation, and hepatic hematopoiesis. The findings of petechiae on intrathoracic organs and not on others outside the chest have led to the conclusion that severe and acute airway obstruction has led to the death of these infants. Although this is a possibility, the etiology of the airway obstruction is unknown. More recently, several brain abnormalities, based on quantitative methods, have been reported in SIDS victims. These include delayed maturation of the CNS, periventricular and subcortical leukomalacia, brain stem gliosis, increased brain weight, and alteration in the density of dendritic spines (462). In addition, although there is a major overlap between SIDS infants and controls, muscarinic receptor binding seems to be decreased within the arcuate nucleus in SIDS victims when compared with infants dying suddenly of known causes (463). Muscarinic cholinergic activity in the human arcuate nucleus at the ventral medullary surface is presumed to be involved in cardiopulmonary control. The deficit in the arcuate nucleus of SIDS infants is postulated to play a role in the failure of responses to cardiopulmonary challenges during sleep. These findings support the concept of a brain stem abnormality or maturational delay related to neuroregulation or cardiorespiratory control as the most compelling hypothesis for SIDS (464). Indeed, this hypothesis has been put forward by Haddad and colleagues (18,37, 465), by Harper and colleagues (466–478), and subsequently, by Glotzbach and Hunt when they studied the regulation of cardiac, respiratory, and sleep arousal patterns in infants who subsequently died of SIDS (459,460). More recent epidemiological studies found that the prone sleeping position was associated with an increased risk of SIDS and that the rate of SIDS declined after public campaigns urging the avoidance of the prone sleeping position for sleeping infants (479). Since the “Back to Sleep” campaign of the American Academy of Pediatrics (480,481), there has been a further decline in the SIDS incidence in the United States from 1.17:1000 in 1993 to 0.84:1000 in preliminary statistics from 1995 (457,482). The mechanism for the apparent increase in risk with the prone position is unknown. Some studies have suggested a role for suffocation and rebreathing associated with several factors, such as hyperthermia and type of bedding (483,484). Because accidental suffocation, rebreathing, and prone position appear to be important factors in SIDS deaths, one can then speculate that differences in arousal responses that might cause a prone child to cry out or change facial position also may play a role in SIDS.
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Apparent LifeThreatening Event The term apparent life threatening event (ALTE) in an infant refers to an acute, unexpected, frightening change in behavior characterized by the observer as some combination of (1) apnea—no effort or effort with difficulty; (2) color change—pale, gray, blue, purple; (3) limpness—rarely rigidity; and (4) choking or gagging (442). Infants who experience such episodes represent a heterogeneous group of patients of varying ages with potentially diverse pathophysiologies. As a result, appropriate evaluation and management are difficult. After early anecdotal reports of infants with recurrent apnea who subsequently died of SIDS (485), an enormous amount of attention, research, and clinical resources was focused on the problem of ALTE in infants. Various cardiorespiratory, autonomic, and neurophysiological differences have been demonstrated in groups of ALTE infants (486–499). Although these studies showed average significant differences between ALTE infants and controls, the overlap between them was large enough to render discriminant analysis difficult. These findings have not distinguished individual ALTE infants from normal controls or provided premortem markers for risk for SIDS (500). The term ALTE was coined by the 1986 National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference on Infantile Apnea and Home Monitoring. ALTE replaced potentially misleading terms, such as “nearmiss SIDS” or “aborted crib deaths,” that implied a direct association between these symptoms and SIDS (442). It is not a specific diagnosis. Rather, it describes a “chief complaint” that brings an infant to medical attention. The potential for misdiagnosis is substantial because the case definition depends on the observations of frightened, medically untrained, and parental observations that may not be totally reliable under such stressful conditions (501–505). Relation Between ALTE and SIDS? Episodes of ALTE are estimated to occur in 3% of infants (506). An association between SIDS and ALTE was suggested because of prior ALTE events in 7% of SIDS victims (506) and early anecdotal reports of SIDS in infants with recurrent apnea (485). However, the vast majority of SIDS victims do not experience apnea that has been observed by parents or medical personnel. At this stage, the relation between infants with ALTE or SIDS is unclear. Furthermore, studies over the past two decades have failed to confirm the relation between SIDS and apnea. A specific cause for ALTE can be identified in over half of the patients after a careful history, physical examination, and appropriate laboratory evaluation (507–509). Neurological problems (such as seizures or breathholding spells), gastroesophageal reflux, and infection account for the greatest number of ALTEs. Less frequent causes are cardiac disease, upper airway obstruction, metabolic disorders, and other miscellaneous conditions. The remaining cases are considered idiopathic if no cause can be identified after a thorough assessment. The most important diagnostic tool is a detailed description of the event obtained from
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the caretaker who witnessed the episode and any other emergency personnel involved in the case. With this information, the physician can determine whether the episode was truly lifethreatening or merely “frightening” for the caretaker, a key factor in subsequent management decisions. After a careful physical examination, additional evaluation usually includes complete blood counts, urinalysis, plasma concentrations of glucose, electrolytes, blood urea nitrogen, calcium and magnesium, chest radiograph, EGG, and EEG. Further specific diagnostic studies may be clinically indicated in selected cases. At one time, “pneumograms,” a continuous recording of the cardiorespiratory pattern, were popular tests for infants with ALTE. However, these studies provide only limited cardiorespiratory data and cannot predict the risk of subsequent lifethreatening events or SIDS. Multiple studies have reported a high incidence of subsequent apnea in infants with idiopathic ALTE episodes The clinical significance of these subsequent “alarm conditions” is questionable owing to the high incidence (>90%) of false apnea alarms on home monitors and the lack of reliability of parental observations. Although 90% of parents will report repeated alarms, less than 10% of children with an ALTE history will have repeated severe events (509). The overall risk of death in these children is less than 1%, but there are different risks for different subgroups (500). For children whose symptoms began during wakefulness, the risk in one study was zero (510). On the other hand, the risk may be 3% in infants older than 37week gestational age at the onset of the ALTE in whom no specific cause for the ALTE is found (500). Certain patient groups within the ALTE population are believed to have a greater mortality risk. One study, for example, followed 76 infants who had an initial sleeponset apnea spell unresponsive to vigorous stimulation and terminated only after mouthtomouth resuscitation. The subsequent risk of death was approximately 13% (511). Three subgroups accounted for most of the deaths: infants with repeat episodes requiring cardiopulmonary resuscitation (31% risk of death); infants with a seizure disordered that developed during monitoring (36% risk of death); siblings of victims of SIDS (25% risk of death, and an additional 50% risk of adverse outcome such as need for resuscitation; 500). Nevertheless, the overall, longterm outcome for ALTE infants is excellent. Controlled followup studies have reported a slight increase in subtle neurological abnormalities at 1–3 years and an increased frequency of breathholding spells; but no differences at 10 years (500,509). Infants with a history of ALTE should be taken very seriously. The child often appears entirely well by the time he or she is seen. However, this apparent wellbeing should not be considered evidence that a potentially lifethreatening event with successful resuscitation did not occur if the clinical history indicates otherwise. A brief period of inhospital observation and monitoring immediately after an ALTE may have several advantages. First, additional episodes may be witnessed by medical personnel. Second, serious, underlying medical conditions (hypoventilation or hypoxemia) may be
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come apparent. Finally, additional studies may identify a specific cause for the ALTE. Medical or surgical treatment of an underlying disorder is possible in about 50% of ALTE cases (509). The management for the remaining 50% depends on the clinical history and the identification of infants at potentiality high risk for adverse events. In some cases, those in which the infant required vigorous stimulation or mouthtomouth resuscitation, or those with a family history of sudden death, home monitor observation with alarm eventrecording capabilities can provide further diagnostic information about the cardiorespiratory nature and severity of subsequent episode (505,512,513). This type of monitor allows the physician to review the actual waveforms associated with the alarm conditions so that false alarms and artifacts can be distinguished from true alarms. Respiratory efforts, as detected by chest movement and heart rate, are the standard signals recorded by these monitors. Additional signals, such as the ECG waveform and oxygen saturation by pulse oximetry, are available when more data are needed. The decision for home monitor observation should be made on a case bycase basis after consideration with the family of the potential benefits, uncertainties, and stresses involved. Technical and medical support must be constantly available if home monitoring is prescribed (442). Medical equipment in the home environment and false alarms are a major source of stress for caretakers. The uncertainties for parents are that a monitor is not a guarantee of clinical outcome. Infants have died or have been unresuscitatible despite home monitor observation and prompt attempts at resuscitation. Referral to a specialist with experience in infant apnea, developmental aspects of respiratory control, polysomnography, and home monitoring is recommended for complicated patients. Cerebral Palsy Infants and children who have cerebral palsy may experience sleep apnea and nocturnal hypoventilation. Muscles of the upper airway may have varying degrees of spasticity and dystonia while the child is awake. However, when the child falls asleep, he or she may then develop severe hypotonicity. Neuromuscular weakness and scoliosis may further contribute to sleepdisordered breathing. There are very few studies of respiratory control problems in children with cerebral palsy. Obstructive sleep apnea is a common problem and management must be individualized (514). Depressant Drugs, Opiates, and Anesthesia Children with underlying respiratory control disorders, immaturity, or upper airway obstruction are exquisitely sensitive to the effects of depressant drugs, opiates, and anesthesia. Episodes of acute respiratory decompensation precipitated by sedation or anesthesia are well documented in the literature (187,231,232,254,515–518). These children require anticipatory airway and ventilatory
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management with any form of sedation. Another type of transient ventilatory depression occurs in the response to CO2 in infants following chronic prenatal methadone exposure (519). Congenital Cyanotic Heart Disease Reversible depression of ventilatory response to hypoxia or central apnea can occur secondary to cyanotic heart disease (520–522). IV. Assessment of Respiratory Control in Children A detailed discussion of the methods for respiratory control assessment is beyond the scope of this section and is reviewed elsewhere in this book. Assessments of ventilatory and arousal responses, occlusion pressure, muscle activity, and arousal have made important contributions to understanding the maturation of respiratory control and to the characterization of respiratory control problems in pediatrics. However, these tests are primarily research tools, not readily available and difficult to perform in the pediatric age group (523). In this section, we present a practical approach to the assessment of respiratory control disorders in children. As outlined in the previous section, abnormalities of respiratory control are associated with a variety of pediatric problems (see Table 1). Children with abnormal respiratory control are at risk for respiratory failure with minor stresses: infection, anesthesia, and sedation. Problems with respiratory control should be suggested when hypercapnia or respiratory failure is out of proportion to lung disease or when an abnormal respiratory pattern, such as recurrent apnea, is present. Except for congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS), most of these conditions have clear clinical evidence of underlying neurological or other medical problems. Even CCHS has associated findings (Hirschsprung's disease, unusual ocular findings, and a lack of heart rate variability) that suggest broader neural dysfunction. A. Clinical Assessment A variety of clinical signs and symptoms can be associated with defects in respiratory control (Table 6). Most children with respiratory control abnormalities will have other neurological or other medical problems that are readily apparent on careful clinical assessment. When hypoventilation or apnea is discovered, a detailed history of respiratory behavior during sleep is needed. A history of stridor, loud snoring, struggling respiratory efforts, apnea, frequent arousals, or diaphoresis suggests serious impairment of gas exchange. Dyspnea associated with the supine position that is relieved in the upright position suggests diaphragm dysfunction. Craniofacial anomalies may be apparent on physical examination. A pectus excavatum deformity can develop in longstanding upper airway obstruc
Page 336 Table 6 Clinical Findings That May Be Associated with Abnormal Respiratory Control History
Laboratory
Stridor
Unexplained hypercapnia, with
Loud continuous snoring
or without metabolic
Struggling respiratory efforts during sleep
alkalosis
Observed apnea
Unexplained hypoxemia
Diaphoresis during sleep
Severe metabolic acidosis
Excessive daytime sleepiness
Polycythemia
Severe breathholding spells
Hypothyroidism
Feeding or swallowing difficulties
Radiographic
Dyspnea in the supine position
Cervical vertebral anomalies
Physical examination Abnormal neurological examination Cranial nerve dysfunction
Hindbrain abnormalities (Chiari malformation; syringobulbomyelia)
Weakness
Unexplained cardiomegaly,
Hypereflexia
with or without pulmonary
Cerebellar abnormalities
edema
Loss of position or vibration sense
Autonomic nervous system dysfunction
Diminished movement of the diaphragm Pulmonary function
Adenotonsillar hypertrophy
Restrictive lung disease
Macroglossia
Decreased MIP, MEP, MVV
Micrognathia
Inspiratory flow obstruction
Retrognathia
Normal PFT awake with hypoventilation asleep
Pectus excavatum
Cor pulmonale unexplained by lung disease
Morbid obesity
tion. Morbid obesity can mechanically load the chest wall and narrow the upper airway. Obesity hypoventilation syndrome may develop in obese children with preexisting low chemosensitivity to O2 or CO2, or in children with hypothalamic dysfunction, such as PraderWilli syndrome. A meticulous neurological evaluation is mandatory in all children with suspected respiratory control abnormalities. In particular, cranial nerve dysfunction, weakness and hypereflexia, loss of position and vibration sense, and cerebellar signs point to abnormalities in the cervicomedullary junction. Any specific neurological signs require prompt evaluation with polysomnography or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), with attention to the cervicomedullary junction and spinal cord. The major laboratory finding in respiratory control problems is an elevated PCO2 value out of proportion to lung diseases and suggests alveolar hypoventilation. It is important from a diagnostic and therapeutic perspective to know (1) if
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this abnormality is present both awake and asleep, or only during sleep, and (2) the severity of the abnormality. The PCO2 level can be determined from an arterial blood gas sample, but the needle puncture and pain can trigger hyperventilation or arousal and mask the presence of hypoventilation. Sampling from an indwelling arterial line avoids this problem, but is invasive and supplies only intermittent data. Endtidal CO2, sampled from a nasal cannula, or transcutaneous CO2 values allow continuous noninvasive measurement of this parameter in children. Children with chronic hypoventilation can develop an elevated serum bicarbonate level as metabolic compensation for chronic respiratory acidosis. Oxygen saturation (SaO2) by pulse oximetry from a digital sensor provides easy, noninvasive monitoring for the presence of hypoxemia. In children without chronic lung disease, changes in SaO2 can be subtle. Because of the shape of the oxyhemoglobindesaturation curve, a decrease in PaO2 from 100 to 60 mmHg changes the SaO2 from 99% to only 90%. The alveolararterial oxygen gradient is unaffected by hypoventilation. An increased gradient should suggest shunt or ventilationperfusion mismatch. Recurrent hypoxemia can stimulate erythropoietin and produce polycythemia. Hypothyroidism can be associated with both depressed chemosensitivity and obstructive sleep apnea. Profound metabolic acidosis and bizarre respiratory patterns can be seen in Leigh encephalopathy. Radiographic findings are important clues to abnormal respiratory control. Most brain stem conditions have identifiable abnormalities on CT or MRI scans. Notable exceptions are central hypoventilation syndrome (164). A cervical spine radiograph can detect an instability or congenital anomaly. Vertebral anomalies may be associated with major problems in neural tube development, including hindbrain malformation and syringobulbomyelia. Serious disturbance of respiratory control, including central alveolar hypoventilation, apnea, and vocal cord dysfunction, have been associated with cervicomedullary abnormalities. These abnormalities are best characterized by MRI. Altantoaxial instability or foramen magnum compression of the spinal cord can complicate skeletal abnormalities, such as achondroplasia. Unexplained cardiomegaly and pulmonary edema can be the presenting symptom of alveolar hypoventilation. Diaphragm paralysis can be detected by carefully performed fluoroscopy. If a child is old enough to cooperate for pulmonary function testing (> 6 years old), certain findings may suggest respiratory control problems. Spirometry can detect restrictive disease patterns in patients with neuromuscular weakness. Diminished maximum inspiratory and expiratory pressures can be further evidence of respiratory muscle weakness. Severe obstructive lung disease with chronic hypoxemia and hypercapnia can lead to secondary blunting of the chemoreceptors. A flattening inspiratory portion of the flowvolume loop suggests fixed extrathoracic obstruction, such as vocal cord dysfunction. Normal pulmonary function testing during wakefulness, with hypoventilation (elevated PCO2 and decreased PO2) during sleep suggests central alveolar hypoventilation, either congenital or acquired.
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B. Polysomnography. The respiratory patterns and severity of most pediatric respiratory control problems can be adequately assessed in a sleep laboratory that provides noninvasive, continuous monitoring of multiple cardiorespiratory and neurophysiological parameters. This testing uses changes in behavioral state as “input” stimuli to examine a variety of continuous outputs: respiratory frequency, SaO2 airflow (endtidal CO2), respiratory effort, and heart rate. Inductance plethysmography can provide a semiquantitative assessment of tidal volume changes (524). This information, with the clinical history, physical examination and other ancillary tests should allow physicians to make appropriate patient care decisions. For example, the diagnosis of congenital central hypoventilation syndrome is almost certain in the clinical context of an otherwise healthy infant who breathes normally during wakefulness, but who develops progressive hypercapnia and hypoxemia during NREM sleep, whereas REM sleep is less impaired. The additional diagnosis of Hirschsprung's disease would be pathognomonic for CCHS. In contrast, gas exchange is most impaired in REM sleep and better preserved in deep NREM sleep when in the respiratory dysfunction is associated with upper airway dysfunction. In other recognizable neurological conditions, such as ArnoldChiari malformation, polysomnography can characterize the respiratory dysfunction (obstructive vs. central hypoventilation) and its severity in terms of apnea, gasexchange impairment, associated arrhythmias, or sleep disruption. Decisions about the need for tracheostomy or mechanical ventilation can be made based on data from polysomnography. Finally, polysomnography can characterize the bizarre respiratory patterns seen in Leigh, Rett, or Joubert's syndromes. C. Newer Research Tools More recently, functional magnetic resonance techniques have been used to visualize the more rostral sites involved in respiratory loading in adult humans (525,526). The integration of afferent activity associated with load breathing depends on forebrain, midbrain, ventral medullary, and cerebellar structure. These areas may play important roles in blood pressure and arousal responses to airway obstruction. These newer techniques may provide further understanding of complex respiratory control questions. References 1. Selverston AI, Russell DF, Miller JP. The stomatogastric nervous system: structure and function of a small neural network. Prog Neurobiol 1976; 7:215–290. 2. Calabrese R. The roles of endogenous membrane properties and synaptic interaction in generating the heartbeat rhythm of the leech, Hirudo medicinalis. J Exp Biol 1979; 82:163–176.
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10 Ventilatory Control in the Elderly DAVID W. HUDGEL Case Western Reserve University and MetroHealth Center Cleveland, Ohio I. Introduction Abnormalities in the control of breathing can contribute to clinically significant medical problems in elderly individuals. Periodic breathing, impaired cardiopulmonary response to exercise, and sleep apnea may exacerbate the progression of cardiovascular or neurological diseases. Recognition and appropriate therapy of these abnormal ventilatory system adaptations to the biological environment of the host, or their underlying cause, may help prevent these disease states and, thereby, extend health and longevity in the elderly population. In this chapter we will explore the following topics: (1) control of breathing in the elderly, (2) ventilatory variability in aging, (3) breathing in exercise in the elderly, (4) sleep quality in the elderly, and (5) sleepdisordered breathing in the elderly. II. Control of Breathing in the Elderly One component of the body's response to increased metabolic demand, to biological stress, and to altered blood gas homeostasis is to increase ventilation. The appropriate response to such demand requires two components: (1) an intact
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sensory and motor neurological system and (2) a ventilatory mechanicalpumping apparatus that will be able to increase ventilation in response to neural stimulation. Several factors that are altered with aging might influence the ability to respond to environmental cues, such as chemical stimuli to breathing. First, there is some minor deterioration in pulmonary mechanical function with age. The thorax becomes less compliant, and the lungs lose elastic recoil with aging (1,2). These changes are minor enough that they would not be expected to alter resting ventilation, but might impair the host's ability to respond to a maximal stimulus. In addition, there are changes in respiratory muscle composition that occur in senescence. Studies in animals show changes in muscle fiber type with aging that may affect respiratory muscle endurance (3,4). These results have been supported by findings in human studies that show less pleural pressure generation with respiratory loads in older individuals (5,6). Studies in both animals and humans have shown a diminution in the ventilatory and respiratory muscle pressure generation in response to hypoxia and the hypercapnia (7–11), the effect on the hypoxic response being more obvious than the effect on the hypercapnic response. In fact, the hypoxic response may deteriorate over a relatively short time span in middleage (7,12). These two studies, one in animals and one in humans, are especially important because they are longitudinal studies, compared with the others, which are crosssectional. If the ventilatory system can appropriately respond to at least one stimulus, but not to others, the implication then is that the problem lies more in the sensation of various stimuli and not in the mechanical pump. Because there is a clearcut distinction between the sensing mechanisms for hypoxemia and hypercapnia, but common motoneuronal pathways, then a specific defect in the hypoxic response in aging may indicate that carotid body dysfunction could exist in aging, because the carotid body is the primary oxygen sensor in humans. This concept also applies to sleep. During nonrapid eyemovement (NREM) sleep, the ventilatory response to chemical stimuli is dependent primarily on the chemical control system (13). In the tracheotomized older dog in NREM sleep, the hypoxic, but not the hyperoxic, hypercapnic ventilatory response was depressed (7). This result suggests that carotid body function, and not a central CNS sensation of CO2 or respiratory mechanics are changed with aging during sleep. Interestingly, carotid body function can be affected by carotid artery atherosclerosis. Parallel studies investigating ventilatory control in humans has not been conducted. In addition, there is some evidence that the response to respiratory system loading is impaired with aging. Akiyama et al. (14) found that the respiratory system pressure generation response to an inspiratory resistive load was insufficient to maintain ventilation with application of the load in elderly individuals. Again, this may be a sensory, and not a motor response problem. In the face of parenchymal lung disease, these normal decrements in ven
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tilatory control that occur with aging might contribute to worsening of the clinical consequences of diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or pulmonary fibrosis (15). Therefore, treatment of these primary pulmonary disorders may be suboptimal if the effect of the control of breathing component to the pathophysiological process is not recognized and treated. For instance, mild chronic obstructive lung disease in an elderly person might be accompanied by unexpected hypoxemia because of a depressed hypoxic ventilatory response. Without recognition of this possibility, this particular patient might suffer the ravages of hypoxemia. However, with recognition of the hypoxemia, appropriate treatment can be administered that will prevent the hypoxemic complications. III. Ventilatory Variability in Aging Ventilation is more variable in elderly subjects during sleep, even in healthy elderly, than in younger individuals (16,17). To model this breathing pattern and to test for this variability, one can assume that the classic tests of ventilatory control, the static or progressive ramp tests, would not be applicable to the irregular or periodic breathing seen in the elderly. Therefore, to test dynamic ventilatory control systems, two tests were developed: shortterm potentiation—or after discharge (18,19)— and the pseudorandom binary stimulation test (20,21). It was proposed that either one of these two responses would define one's susceptibility to irregular or periodic breathing. With the shortterm potentiation test in elderly subjects, Ahmed et al. (22) found no difference in the response characteristics in young and in 13/14 elderly healthy subjects; there was a gradual return to baseline ventilation after abrupt removal of a hypoxic stimulus. However, in one elderly subject, there was absence of afterdischarge, with a rapid recovery from hypoxic ventilatory stimulation, to a level of ventilation less than prehypoxic ventilation. It was hypothesized that this undershoot of ventilatory recovery from the rapid transition of hyperoxia following hypoxia could contribute to ventilatory control instability. By using the pseudorandom binary stimulation test applying hyperoxic hypercapnia, Modarreszadeh et al. (23) demonstrated that the response to the random, repetitive application of a singlebreath CO2 stimulus was altered in most of a group of healthy elderly individuals. When there is a rapid recovery and an undershoot of ventilation, sometimes followed by oscillatory breathing in response to the removal of a shortterm ventilatory stimulus, it is predicted that such instability of ventilatory control might precipitate irregular or periodic breathing, as has been classically described (24). This type of abnormal breathing is often observed in elderly individuals, especially those with congestive heart failure or stroke. Interestingly, this same abnormalbreathing pattern exists in healthy elderly subjects during NREM sleep (16,17). Therefore, the pattern of breathing itself is not unusual in elderly subjects, but the situation or condition in which it
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exists may be abnormal. The findings are consistent with the presence of an unstable ventilatory control system. Currently, these tests of the dynamic nature of ventilatory control can be useful in identifying individuals who are especially prone to dysrhythmic breathing, perhaps in sleep if not during wakefulness. The clinical significance of the presence of periodic breathing during sleep may be considerable. It would make one susceptible to sleep hypoxemia and its effect on the cardiovascular and neurological systems. However, further testing needs to be done to reach more definitive conclusions about the value of testing the dynamic control of breathing in the clinical setting. IV. Breathing During Exercise in the Elderly Several factors limit exercise performance and exercise ventilation in the elderly (25,26). First of all, metabolic changes affect exercise performance in older individuals. Because there is a loss of vascularity and a change in fiber type in limb muscles (27), elderly individuals cannot consume as much oxygen during exercise; hence, they cannot perform as much muscular work as young persons. In addition to a change in peripheral vascularity, cardiac performance is altered with aging because relative left ventricular diastolic dysfunction occurs. Some enlargement of the left atrium and stiffening and hypertrophy of the left ventricle contribute to this dysfunction (28). In a large epidemiological study, Inbar et al. (29) found that the maximum oxygen consumption decreased by 0.33 mL/kg min1 yr1 as age increased. In addition, the capacity to ventilate maximally is somewhat impaired because as the elastic recoil properties of the lungs and thorax change with age, the ventilatory capacity decreases. This decrease in ventilatory capacity results in increased work of breathing during exercise. There is some change in respiratory muscle function with aging that may impair performance, depending on the type of activity. Although muscular work and ventilatory capacity decrease with exercise in the elderly, fortunately, these activities decrease proportionately so that maximum oxygen consumption and ventilation remain well matched with advancing age; consequently, healthy elderly persons remain capable of exercising and training physically, if they so desire (30). During sustained submaximal exercise older subjects do not develop as high a heart rate, oxygen consumption, or ventilation, and the rate of increase in these variables is not as rapid as it is in younger persons (25). Because of the changes in circulation and the decreased muscle mass, lactate accumulates less rapidly than expected. In addition, there may be less sympathetic nervous system output during exercise in the elderly (25). Thus, there would be less stimulation to the cardiorespiratory system. During maximal exercise ventilationperfusion mismatch increases, likely because of the accumulation of lung water during exercise. This phenomenon is
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probably due to a combination of high pulmonary capillary vascular pressure and negative intrathoracic pressure. Although worsening ventilationperfusion mismatch occurs in heavy exercise in both young and elderly individuals, it may result in significant hypoxemia in elderly subjects (31). Because of lower ventilatory capacity, recovery from exercise and reduction of lactate and CO2 stores may take longer in older persons. When obesity and physical inactivity come into the picture, levels of glucose intolerance, insulin activity, and body composition play more of a role than age in limiting exercise performance (33). In summary, it is apparent that age surely influences exercise capacity in the elderly based on changes in the cardiovascular, neural, and pulmonary systems. However, if elderly subjects remain active, they can continue to be fit. V. Sleep Quality in the Elderly Two excellent reviews of sleep in the elderly exist (33,34); therefore, the present review of this subject will be brief. The sleep requirement does not decrease with aging. However, elderly individuals have interrupted and less efficient sleep compared with younger persons. Many different organic and affective disorders, as well as medication effects may influence these changes. Consequently, older subjects are more sleepy when they are observed than younger subjects; therefore, they may have associated daytime functional impairment. They often nap or fall asleep inappropriately during the daytime. Other changes in sleep occur with aging. For instance, the time to REM sleep, termed the REM sleep latency, may be decreased in the elderly. Interestingly, this is the same change seen in mental depression. Thus, in the elderly, a population with an elevated incidence of depression, it is not known whether the shortened REM latency is due to aging or to depression. Changes in brain wave characteristics and distribution are seen in older persons, but it is possible that some of these changes occur because of recording artifact. Increased soft tissue electrical resistance present in aging may also affect signal amplitude and quality. Changes in diurnal variables, such as core body temperature, often seen in the elderly, may also affect sleep stage distribution. For instance, a phaseadvance in core body temperature would be expected to shorten REM latency (35). Thus, several variables likely contribute to “normal” alterations in sleep characteristics observed in healthy elderly persons. Unfortunately, these minor changes in sleep in the elderly can be misinterpreted by physicians, and they are at least partially responsible for the overprescription of sedativehypnotic agents to older persons. These agents often do not resolve changes in sleep pattern seen in the elderly and may lead to new abnormalities and further impair daytime function. In deciding whether treatment of a possible sleep disorder is advisable, one should consider
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daytime functioning as the focus, not the sleep time complaints per se. If one is functioning normally during wakefulness, he or she does not need sleep aids. VI. SleepDisordered Breathing in the Elderly Breathing during sleep in healthy elderly subjects may be irregular or periodic (16,17). This sleeprelated irregular breathing may be due to the underlying ventilatory control instability discussed earlier. Possibly, for this reason the prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing (SDB) is relatively high in the elderly. In one community based study, 62% of those older than 65 years of age had ten or more apneas or hypopneas per hour of sleep (36). In spite of this rather high prevalence of SDB in this population, 81% of subjects felt their health status was adequate. Therefore, although ventilation during sleep was irregular in these subjects, it did not appear to affect most of these persons subjectively. To some extent the prevalence of SDB in a given population is dependent on the definition of SDB used. If more strict criteria were used to define SDB, such as counting only those patients with 10 or more apneas per hour of sleep, the prevalence was reduced from 62 to 11% in this population. In this study predictive factors of SDB were body size, daytime sleepiness and napping, male gender, and interestingly, the lack of alcohol consumption before bedtime. Because of the apparent discrepancy between prevalence of SDB and symptomatology, one must question whether SDB is associated with the same degree of impairment in the elderly as in younger populations with significant SDB. For instance, in the data of He et al. (37), untreated patients with obstructive sleep apnea, who were younger than 50 years, had a higher mortality than those patients older than 50. In contrast, in randomly selected, independently living older individuals, AncoliIsrael et al. (36) and Bliwise (38) both found an association between mortality and SDB. On the other hand, in a nonrandomly selected cohort of elderly subjects, Phillips et al. did not find this relationship (39). Thus, although, it is not totally clear whether SDB is a health risk for elderly individuals, two of three communitybased, studies suggest SDB is an important health issue that may contribute to early death in older people. To begin to determine prospectively the longterm effects of sleepdisordered breathing on older subjects, AncoliIsrael et al. (40) performed a followup study on their community, independently living, elderly subjects 8½ years after the initial study. Of this elderly population, 60% had no change in SDB, 20% worsened, and 20% improved. Similarly, Bliwise (41) found minimal changes at a 5year followup. Phillips also found a minimal number of sequelae in the followup study of her elderly cohort (42). Therefore, in the elderly survivors, over relatively short periods of time the breathing disorder does not appear to worsen rapidly.
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However, subsequent evaluation of these longitudinally monitored populations does reveal that these elderly patients with SDB do die younger than those without SDB. Mortality is increased in elderly subjects with higher degrees of SDB (43–46). The community sample of elderly subjects studied over time by AncoliIsrael et al. (36,40,43) was assessed 9.5 years after entry into the study (46). At this time, 45% of the population had died. The mortality in the group with severe apnea who had an SDB index of 30 or more events per hour was significantly higher than in the moderate and mild apnea groups. Age and the presence of cardiovascular or pulmonary disease also predicted mortality in this population (Fig. 1). Another question that arises is whether the SDB identified in the early individual is a predisposing variable for other important disease states. Knight et al. (47) found that although elderly subjects with SDB were more sleepy during the day than those without SDB, they did not have a higher prevalence of hypertension, cardiac disease, or affective disorders. However, Prinz et al. (48,49) found an association between SDB and cardiovascular morbidity. These latter findings would be more consistent with the findings of increased mortality in SDB. Cognitive function appears to be impaired in the elderly with SDB (50–56). Over a 5year interval Bliwise et al. found further deterioration in cognitive function in elderly subjects with SDB (57). Interestingly, several studies have
Figure 1 Cumulative survival of elderly subjects with different degrees of sleepdisordered breathing. (From Ref. 46.)
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demonstrated a strong association between SDB and severe dementia (58–63). However, this relation does not appear to exist in more mild Alzheimer's disease (54,64,65). Accordingly, it appears that SDB does not commonly precede the development of dementia. Thus, the causeandeffect relationship in this association has not been established. The association between early phases of each of these diseases needs further study. In hemispheric stroke patients, the history of snoring was more prevalent than in nonstroke controls (66–73). Mohsenin and Valor (72) found a high prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in a group of ten stroke patients when compared with a group of wellmatched nonstroke control subjects. These authors speculated that the stroke may have precipitated the OSA because of an increased upper airway collapsibility caused by the stroke. One could just as easily propose that the sleep apnea contributed to stroke by producing hypoxemia and sympathetic nervous system stimulation. Further studies will be needed to clarify the relationship between SDB and stroke. The results of these studies indicate that SDB may be an independent, or at least, a contributing factor to mortality in the elderly, a conclusion that is no different from data available on younger people with OSA. Even if not directly responsible for mortality, SDB surely contributes to morbidity in elderly individuals. One hopes that early recognition and successful treatment of elderly individuals with SDB will lead to an improved quality of life, if not a longer life. References. 1. Frank NR, Mead J, Ferris BG Jr. The mechanical behavior of the lungs in healthy elderly persons. J Clin Invest 1957; 36:1680–1689. 2. Mittman C, Edelman NH, Norris AH, Shock NW. Relationship between chest wall and pulmonary compliance and age. J Appl Physiol 1965; 20:1211–1216. 3. Zhang Y, Kelsen SG. Effects of aging on diaphragm contractile function in golden hamsters. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 142:1396–1401. 4. van Lunteren E, Vafaie H, Salomone RJ. Comparative effects of aging on pharyngeal and diaphragm muscles. Respir Physiol 1995; 99:113–125. 5. Black LF, Hyatt RE. Maximal respiratory pressures: normal values and relationship to age and sex. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969; 99:696–702. 6. Chen H, Kuo C. Relationship between respiratory muscle function and age, sex and other factors. J Appl Physiol 1989; 66:943–948. 7. Phillipson EA, Kozar LF. Effect of aging on metabolic respiratory control in sleeping dogs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:1521–1525. 8. Kronenberg RS, Drage CW. Attenuation of the ventilatory and heart rate responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia with aging in normal men. J Clin Invest 1973; 52:1812–1819. 9. Peterson DD, Pack AI, Silage DA, Fishman AP. Effects of aging on ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 124:387–391.
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29. Inbar O, Oren A, Scheinowitz M, Rotstein A, Dlin R, Casaburi R. Normal cardiopulmonary responses during incremental exercise in 20 to 70yrold men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26:538–546. 30. Johnson BD, Badr MS, Dempsey JA. Impact of the aging pulmonary system on the response to exercise. Clin Chest Med 1994; 15:229–246. 31. Préfaut C, Anselme F, Caillaud C, MasséBiron J. Exerciseinduced hypoxemia in older athletes. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76:120–126. 32. Meyers DA, Goldberg AP, Bleecker ML, Coon PJ, Drinkwater DT, Bleecker ER. Relationship of obesity and physical fitness to cardiopulmonary and metabolic function in healthy older men. J Gerontol 1991; 46:M57–M65. 33. Bliwise DL. Sleep in normal aging and dementia. Sleep 1993; 16:40–81. 34. Feinsilver SH, Hertz G. Sleep in the elderly patient. Clin Chest Med 1993; 14:405–411. 35. Weitzman ED, Moline ML, Czeisler CA, Zimmerman JC. Chronobiology of aging: temperature, sleepwake rhythms and entrainment. Neurobiol Aging 1982; 3:299–309. 36. AncoliIsrael S, Kripke DF, Klauber MR, Mason WJ, Fell R, Kaplan O. Sleepdisordered breathing in communitydwelling elderly. Sleep 1991; 14:486–495. 37. He J, Kryger MH, Zorick FJ, Conway W, Roth T. Mortality and apnea index in obstructive sleep apnea: experience in 385 male patients. Chest 1988; 94:9–14. 38. Bliwise DL, Bliwise NG, Partinen M, Pursley AM, Dement WC. Sleep apnea and mortality in an aged cohort. Am J Public Health 1988; 78:544–547. 39. Phillips BA, Berry DTR, Schmitt FA, Magan LK, Gerhardstein DC, Cook YR. Sleepdisordered breathing in the healthy elderly. Chest 1992; 101:345–349. 40. AncoliIsrael S, Kripke DF, Klauber MR, Parker L, Stepnowsky C, Kullen A, Fell R. Natural history of sleep disordered breathing in community dwelling elderly. Sleep 1993; 16:S25–S29. 41. Bliwise D, Ingham RH, NinoMurcia G, Pursley AM, Dement WC. Five year followup of sleep related respiratory disturbance and neuropsychological variables in elderly subjects. Sleep Res 1989; 18:202. 42. Phillips BA, Berry DTR, Schmitt FA, Harbison L, LipkeMolby T. Sleepdisordered breathing in healthy aged persons: two and threeyear followup. Sleep 1994; 17: 411–415. 43. AncoliIsrael S, Klauber MR, Kripke DF, Parker L, Cobarrubias M. Sleep apnea in female patients in a nursing home: increased risk of mortality. Chest 1989; 96:1054–1058. 44. AncoliIsrael S, Klauber MR, Fell RL, Parker L, Kenney LA, Willens R. Sleep disordered breathing: preliminary natural history and mortality results. In: Seifer RA, Carlson J, eds. International Perspective on Applied Psychophysiology. 1993. In press. 45. AncoliIsrael S, Coy T. Are breathing disturbances in elderly equivalent to sleep apnea syndrome? Sleep 1994; 7:77–83. 46. AncoliIsrael S, Kripke DF, Klauber MR, Fell R, Stepnowsky C, Estline E, Khazeni N, Chinn A. Morbidity, mortality and sleepdisordered breathing in community dwelling elderly. Sleep 1996; 19:277–282. 47. Knight H, Millman R, Gur R, Saykin A, Doherty J, Pack A. Clinical significance of sleep apnea in the elderly. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 136:845–850.
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48. Prinz PN, Bliwise DL, Vitiello MV, et al. Relationship between impaired sleep, nocturnal oxygen desaturation and systemic diseases. In: Kuna ST, Suratt PM, Remmers JE, eds. Sleep and Respiration in Aging Adults. New York: Elsevier 1991: 179–188. 49. Prinz PN, Vitiello MV, Raqskind MA, Thorpy MJ. Geriatrics: sleep disorders and aging. N Engl J Med 1990; 323:520–526. 50. Findley LJ, Barth JT, Powers DC, Wilhoit SC, Boyd DG, Suratt PM. Cognitive impairment in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and associated hypoxemia. Chest 1986; 90:686–690. 51. Findley LJ, Presty SK, Barth JT, Suratt PM. Impaired cognition and vigilance in elderly subjects with sleep apnea. In: Kuna ST, Suratt PM, Remmers JE, eds. Sleep and Respiration in Aging Adults. New York: Elsevier, 1991:259–265. 52. Berry DT, Phillips BA, Cook YR, et al. Geriatric sleep apnea syndrome: a preliminary description. J Gerontol 1990; 45:M169–M174. 53. Berry DTR, Webb WB, Block AJ, Bauer RM, Switzer DA. Nocturnal hypoxia and neuropsychological variables. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1986; 8:229–238. 54. Bliwise DL, Yesavage JA. Tinkenberg JR, Dement WC. Sleep apnea in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 1989; 10:343–346. 55. Yesavage JA, Bliwise DL, Guilleminault C, Carskadon MA, Dement WC. Preliminary communication: intellectual deficit and sleeprelated respiratory disturbance in the elderly. Sleep 1985; 8:30–33. 56. Kullen AS, Stepnowsky C, Parker L, AncoliIsrael S. Cognitive impairment and sleep disordered breathing. Sleep Res 1993; 22:224. 57. Bliwise DL. Cognitive function and sleep disordered breathing in aging adults. In: Kuna ST, Remmers JE, Suratt PM, eds. Sleep and Respiration in Aging Adults. New York: Elsevier, 1991. 58. AncoliIsrael S, Kripke DF. Now I lay me down to sleep: the problem of sleep fragmentation in elderly and demented residents of nursing homes. Bull Clin Neurosci 1989; 54:127–132. 59. AncoliIsrael S, Klauber MR, Butters N, Parker L, Kripke DF. Dementia in institutionalized elderly: relation to sleep apnea. J Am Geriatr Soc 1991; 39:258– 263. 60. Hoch CC, Reynolds CF III, Nebes RD, Kupfer DJ, Berman SR, Campbell D. Clinical significance of sleepdisordered breathing in Alzheimer's disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 1989; 37:138–144. 61. Erkinjuntti T, Partinen M, Sulkava R, Telakivi T, Salmi T, Tilvis R. Sleep apnea in multiinfarct dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Sleep 1987; 10:419–425. 62. Frommlet M, Rpinz P, Vitiello MV, Ries R, Williams D. Sleep hypoxemia and apnea are elevated in males with mild Alzheimer's disease. Sleep Res 1986; 15:189. 63. Inoue H, Hamazoe K, Inoue Y, Miyazaki I, Sakamoto I, Hazama H. Sleepinduced respiratory impairment in elderly patients with some psychoneurological complaints. Sleep Res 1985; 14:167. 64. Prinz PN, Vitiello MV. Sleep in Alzheimer's dementia and in healthy, notcomplaining seniors. In: The Treatment of Sleep Disorders in Older People. NIH Consensus Development Conference, 1990:41–46. 65. Smallwood RG, Vitiello MV, Giblin EC, Prinz P. Sleep apnea: relationship to age, sex, and Alzheimer's dementia. Sleep 1983; 6:16–22.
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11 Control of Breathing During Sleep and SleepDisordered Breathing JAMES B. SKATRUD and BARBARA J. MORGAN University of Wisconsin Medical School Madison, Wisconsin M. SAFWAN BADR Wayne State University Detroit, Michigan I. Introduction Alteration in ventilatory control during sleep results in a spectrum of changes in upper airway dimension, breathing pattern, and oxygen saturation. Most subjects increase upper airway resistance and show occasional variability in breathing pattern, especially during transitions between the waking and sleeping states. Persons who develop more severe elevations of upper airway resistance are susceptible to transient arousals and a more fragmented pattern of sleep. Their breathing pattern may oscillate in association with the fluctuations in upper airway resistance, sleep state, and chemical stimuli. Finally, those patients who develop complete occlusion of the upper airway on a recurring basis experience a great deal of sleep fragmentation and fluctuation in gas exchange and cardiovascular regulation. Thus, the transition from the normal to abnormal cardiopulmonary responses to sleep defies definition based on precise cut points, but rather, it represents a continuum of adaptation to the changes associated with the sleeping state. In this chapter, we will explore the spectrum of sleepinduced respiratory changes, ranging from changes in upper airway resistance, asymptomatic breathing instability, symptomatic sleep apnea or hypopnea, and high upper airway
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resistance syndromes. The consequences of sleepdisordered breathing will be presented, including cardiovascular and behavioral problems. Finally, new developments in the treatment of sleepdisordered breathing will be described, with special emphasis on the approach to the patient with a less prominent number of respiratory events during sleep. II. Epidemiology of SleepDisordered Breathing Determination of the prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing in the population has been plagued with inconsistent definitions, variation in diagnostic technology, and sampling bias (1). Despite these limitations, the picture emerges of a relatively frequent occurrence of apnea and hypopnea in a middleaged working population (2,3). The Wisconsin Sleep Cohort performed nocturnal polysomnography in 602 randomly selected men and women, aged 30–60 years (2). Twentyfour percent of the men and 9% of the women had more than five apneas or hypopneas per hour of sleep (Fig. 1). Sleep apnea or hypopnea was more common in selfreported snorers, compared with nonsnorers. An age effect was evident in men between the ages of 40 and 49 and in women between the ages of 50 and 59 years when compared with subjects in the younger decades. However, the lack of a continuous increase with age suggests that age is not a strong risk factor. Obesity, on the other
Figure 1 Prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing in a middleaged working population: Habitual snorers reported snoring every night or almost every night. Prevalence is expressed as the percentage of subjects showing more than five abnormal respiratory events per hour of sleep (AHI).
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hand, was consistently associated with increased apnea/hypopnea index (AHI), regardless of the specific measure of body habitus used. The proportion of middle aged adults who have both sleep apnea (AHI greater than 5) and selfreported hypersomnolence is 4% in men and 2% in women. Thus, undiagnosed sleep disordered breathing is prevalent in middleaged adults and may contribute to the selfreported hypersomnolence in this group. Excessive daytime sleepiness has also been noted in those selfreported snorers who have an AHI less than 5, which raises the possibility that snoring alone may cause hypersomnolence (2,4). High intrathoracic pressures cause arousals from sleep, even in the absence of perceptible respiratory disturbances and, occasionally, even in the absence of snoring (5,6). Because previous epidemiological studies have not measured intrathoracic pressure, the actual prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing and its consequences is likely to be higher than described in studies that looked only at apneas and hypopneas. Recent studies of middleaged adults have also identified cardiovascular consequences of sleepdisordered breathing. For example, apneas and hypopneas have been associated with transient elevations of arterial pressure in middleaged subjects with undiagnosed sleep apnea. Daytime and nighttime arterial pressures were higher in subjects with modest sleepdisordered breathing (AHI 5–15) than in subjects with an AHI of less than 5. These effects were independent of age, weight, and gender (7). The high prevalence of sleepdisordered breathing and the associated frequent occurrence of cardiovascular and neurophysiological consequences, even in nonclinical populations, point to a high public health burden from this entity. III. Determinants of Breathing Pattern Instability Disordered breathing during sleep is part of a spectrum of the physiological changes that occur in normal subjects during sleep. The abnormalities that will be discussed include disorders of breathing pattern, such as hypopneas and apneas, and disorders of upper airway regulation that lead to manifestations of high upper airway resistance, such as snoring and arousal. The pathophysiology of breathing pattern instability can best be understood in terms of the relative contribution of factors that destabilize versus the factors that stabilize the breathing pattern (Fig.2). It is also important to recognize that the periodicbreathing patterns that are seen in patients with sleepdisordered breathing are due to multiple oscillating influences, rather than to single stimuli or inhibitors of ventilation. Interaction between these influences serve to amplify the strength of any other oscillation. Individual differences in susceptibility to various oscillating influences determine whether clinically significant sleepdisordered breathing will develop. In the following section, we will discuss the various desta
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Figure 2. Determinants of sleepdisordered breathing: The sleeping state induces decreased upper airway dimension and a reduced ventilatory drive that results in apnea or hypopnea. The resultant chemical stimulation, combined with arousal on termination of the respiratory event, produces a ventilatory hyperpnea. The rise of arterial pressure at the end of the respiratory event could be a stabilizing influence that attenuates the hyperpnea by baroreceptor mechanisms (alternatively, it could be a destabilizing influence that accentuates the subsequent hypopnea). Subsequent hypocapnia causes a low or absent ventilatory drive that serves to perpetuate the periodic breathing. Poststimulus potentiation minimizes the posthyperventilation hypopnea and, thereby, stabilizes the breathing pattern. Hypoxic depression can accentuate the posthyperventilation hypopnea, either directly by reducing ventilatory drive, or indirectly by impairing the stabilizing effect of poststimulus potentiation. Solid lines indicate primary effects. Broken lines indicate influences that decrease the primary effect.
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bilizing and stabilizing influences that impinge on the ventilatory control system, and how these influences can lead to sleepdisordered breathing syndromes. A. Destabilizing Influences Hypocapnia Previous studies have demonstrated a critical role for PaCO2 in maintaining rhythmic breathing in sleeping humans (8,9). These studies were performed by lowering PaCO2 for several minutes with either passive mechanical ventilation or active hyperventilation induced by hypoxia and terminated with hyperoxia. As little as a 4 mmHg—sustained reduction in PaCO2 induced by either active or passive hyperventilation was associated with apnea. The duration of apnea was related to the magnitude of the hypocapnia. This contrasts with wakefulness, which showed only an inconsistent effect of sustained hypocapnia on posthyperventilation breathing pattern. These studies indicated that posthyperventilation hypocapnia during sleep could be an important determinant of breathing instability and apnea. Some caution is needed in interpretation of the absolute contribution of hypocapnia to breathing disorders during sleep because of both the limitations of the experimental methods and the usual occurrence of hypocapnia in conjunction with other potential inhibitory influences, such as hypoxic depression of respiration, lung stretch, and changing sleep state. First, most of the experimental methods used passive mechanical ventilation to produce hypocapnia. Recent studies have demonstrated that neuromechanical inhibition associated with passive hyperventilation can cause apneas, during wakefulness and sleep, that are independent of PaCO2 (Fig. 3). Second, recent studies in humans and animals showed that hypocapnia of shorter duration, and more consistent with that seen following brief clusters of hyperpneic breaths, is less likely to produce apnea (10). Third, the lack of experimental methods to produce active hyperventilation in
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Figure 3 Neuromechanical inhibition and delay in stimulus—response during apnea: During NREM sleep, inspiratory muscle activity is eliminated by passive mechanical ventilation in the absence of hypocapnia. Apnea following cessation of mechanical ventilation persists, despite hypercapnia and hypoxemia, consistent with either a memory effect of an inhibitory influence or an inertia phenomenon in the neural control of inspiratory activity.
sleeping humans has required the use of hypoxic ventilatory stimulation, which adds confounding influences (see later discussion; 11,12). Finally, in patients with sleep disordered breathing, hypocapnia occurs in conjunction with other influences, such as changing sleep state and upper airway resistance, which could have a profound effect on breathing pattern. The relative contribution of hypocapnia in the presence of these other confounding variables is difficult to determine with certainty. Despite these limitations, hypocapnia is still likely to be a critical determinant of breathing instability during sleep. A substantial inhibitory effect of hypocapnia, if not apnea, is still demonstrated in sleeping humans even after extremely short periods of hypocapnia (12). Entrainment of the central respiratory rhythm to oscillations in arterial PaCO2 has been reported (13). Profound inhibitory effects of hypocapnia at the level of the carotid body have been reported in awake goats (14). Chemical feedback loops are important in models of periodic breathing in animals and humans (15,16). These findings support the idea that hypocapnia is an important inhibitory influence, the role of which may be most important in its interaction with other destabilizers of ventilation.
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Hypoxia Hypoxia has a complicated effect on the ventilatory control system that causes destabilization as a result of both ventilatory stimulation and ventilatory inhibition (see Fig. 2). The highly alinear ventilatory response to hypoxia and its synergistic interaction with hypercapnia can easily produce an overshoot in ventilation. The resultant hypocapnia, altered sleep state, change in lung stretch, and cardiovascular changes associated with this chemoreflex stimulation can have a profound effect on the subsequent breathing pattern. Less welldocumented during sleepdisordered breathing is the potential of an inhibitory effect of hypoxia directly on ventilation or indirectly, whereby the effect of other inhibitory influences becomes more prominent in the presence of hypoxia. In sleeping humans, the abrupt termination of 5 min of hypoxia with hyperoxia was associated with apnea, even though the PaCO2 had been held at normoxic levels (see Fig. 5B; 12). Similar results were noted in awake humans who showed a greater degree of ventilatory inhibition after 3–5 min, compared with 30 sec of normocapnic hypoxia (17,18). These findings raise the possibility that hypoxic exposure makes ventilation more prone to other inhibitory influences. The more common occurrence of this hypoxic inhibition during anesthesia and sleep also suggests that the neurophysiological state of alertness may influence the propensity toward hypoxic ventilatory depression. Metabolic Rate The fundamental effect of CO2 production in sustaining rhythmic breathing has been demonstrated in dogs in which apnea was induced when CO2 was removed by cardiopulmonary bypass (19,20). A low metabolic rate predisposes to the development of periodic breathing and apnea because the level of ventilation is closer to the apneic threshold, and a given change in drive will produce a relatively greater change in alveolar ventilation. However, when a role of reduced metabolic rate was investigated in sleeping humans, the sleeping state was associated with only a 10% fall in metabolic rate, and periodic breathing was not correlated with the metabolic rate's level (21). These findings suggest that change in metabolic rate is not a major determinant of periodic breathing in sleeping humans. However, as with the other influences described, the change in metabolic rate occurring cyclically with the onset of sleep and arousal from sleep would serve to amplify any ventilatory or cardiovascular oscillations that might occur. Change in FRC The functional residual capacity (FRC) shows a substantial increase during the hyperpneic phase of the periodicbreathing cycle compared with the hypopneic periods (22). This is primarily related to the large, tachypneic breaths following the apnea or hypopnea that do not allow enough time for complete exhalation. In
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addition, the change in sleep state may also cause a minor increase in FRC, especially during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (23). The increase in FRC during the hyperpnea causes rapid improvement in arterial blood gases and, consequently, a decrease in respiratory output. During the subsequent apnea or hypopnea, the reduction in FRC would serve to accentuate the developing abnormality in gas exchange, and this has been proposed as an important determinant of breathing instability (24). In addition, an increase in FRC is associated with improved upper airway patency (22,25,26), which is likely due to traction of the mediastinal structures transmitted to the upper airway (27). Thus, the fluctuating level of FRC would greatly amplify the associated changes in ventilatory drive and breathing pattern and, thereby, serve to perpetuate the disorderedbreathing pattern. Sleep State and Upper Airway Resistance Instability. It is difficult to distinguish the independent effects of sleep state and upper airway resistance changes in contributing to ventilatory instability. In normal subjects, the upper airway resistance increases coincidentally with sleep onset owing to hypotonia of the upper airway muscles (28–30). The increase in upper airway resistance accounts for some of the reduction in ventilation in going from wakefulness to nonREM (NREM) sleep. Normal sleeping subjects show an increase in ventilation and a reduction in PaCO2 when upper airway resistance is reduced with helium inhalation (31) or with nasal constant positiveairway pressure (CPAP; 32). However, part of the reduction in ventilation in going from awake to sleep is a true sleep state effect because a reduction in ventilation and an increase in CO2 retention is noted in tracheostomized humans (8). Thus, the coincidental changes in sleep state and upper airway resistance have an important effect on the ventilatory output. The importance of changes in sleep state as a cause of periodic breathing has been documented in both theoretical and experimental studies. The dynamic interaction between changes in chemical influences, sleep state, and upper airway resistance has been investigated with a mathematical model (16). Periodic breathing resulted from repetitive alterations between sleep onset and arousal and was further accentuated with the addition of fluctuating upper airway resistance. The importance of sleep state fluctuation in periodic breathing was reported in elderly subjects (33) and in the breathing instability during sleep onset (34). These studies confirm the importance of sleep state fluctuation in the initiation and perpetuation of periodic breathing mediated by both changes in ventilatory drive and upper airway resistance. Rapid eye movement sleep represents a unique physiological state that can have a profound effect on ventilatory pattern, as described earlier. REM sleep affects the breathing pattern through the loss of tone of the respiratory muscles and
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the effect of the phasic events on ventilatory output (35). Tremendous variability has been noted in both tidal volume and frequency that is related to changes in the inspiratory flow and expiratory duration (36). Phasic events during REM sleep are associated with brief pauses in activity of the inspiratory muscles that results in a suboptimal recruitment of the muscle activity (35). Accessory and upper airway muscles of respiration appear especially susceptible to this dysfunction. This ineffective upper airway and chest wall muscle activity has been associated with upper airway obstruction and hypoventilation in a variety of lung and neuromuscular diseases. Thus, REM sleep can be a particularly destabilizing influence in patients with already marginal function of the upper airway or the diaphragm. Cardiovascular Instability A transient increase in blood pressure occurs in the hyperpneic period following most episodes of sleep apnea (Fig. 4). Nonrespiratory arousals from sleep also elicit an abrupt pressor response (37). The baroreceptor stimulation that accompanies these blood pressure elevations, in addition to having the wellknown cardiovascular inhibitory effects, can also influence respiration. In experimental
Figure 4 Mixed, central, and obstructive sleep apnea: Note that blood pressure remains relatively stable during apnea and rises abruptly postapnea. Muscle sympathetic nerve activity, which rises progressively throughout apnea, is inhibited after resumption of breathing.
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animal, baroreceptor stimulation causes ventilatory depression and reduced tonic activity in upper airway abductor muscles (38) and arousal from sleep (39). All of these effects could serve to destabilize breathing patterns during sleep and, perhaps, perpetuate sleepdisordered breathing events. Delays in Stimulus—Response Classic control system theory emphasizes the importance of stimulus—response delays in the perpetuation of periodic breathing (24). For example, a central apnea is observed following the abrupt cessation of normocapnic mechanical ventilation (see Fig. 2). What is the mechanism of continued inspiratory muscle inhibition despite that chemical stimuli are at, or more likely even higher than, eupneic levels? One possibility is that the inhibitory influence that caused the apnea in the first place has a time constant for its effect to be dissipated. Only after this effect decays to a sufficiently low level will inspiratory activity be initiated. Examples of phenomena with such an inhibitory memory characteristic are the persistent inhibition following stimulation of the superior laryngeal nerve and the afferent vagus (40,41). However, these inhibitory influences are shortlived, and neither of these afferents were likely to be strongly stimulated during the mechanical ventilation in humans. An alternative hypothesis for the delayed return of inspiratory activity during a central apnea is the presence of an intrinsic inactivity or inertia following the elimination of inspiratory activity during the mechanical ventilation. This mechanism likely resides in the central rhythm generator and is not dependent on the method of elimination of inspiratory motor output. Such a mechanism would require a higher level of chemical stimuli to reinitiate inspiratory muscle activity once apnea has occurred, compared with the level observed during eupneic breathing. This delay in reinitiating breathing would occur as a part of any central apnea. The additional accumulation of chemical stimuli as a result of this delay would accentuate the ventilatory hyperpnea following termination of the apnea, and thus, would tend to perpetuate the periodic breathing. B. Stabilizing Influences Wakefulness Drive The importance of wakefulness in maintaining rhythmic breathing is discussed in the foregoing. The loss of this influence, especially if occurring intermittently, is an important determinant of periodic breathing during sleep (see Fig. 2). Cardiovascular Modulation The magnitude of the hyperpnea following termination of an apnea or hypopnea is a major determinant of whether or not a subsequent hypopnea or apnea will
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develop and thus perpetuate the periodic breathing (see Fig. 2). The abrupt rise in blood pressure, which also occurs in the postapneic period, may limit the magnitude of this ventilatory overshoot by baroreflex mechanisms (see foregoing). Thus, the postapneic pressor response may act to stabilize breathing. Given the relatively low sensitivity of ventilation to increased carotid sinus pressure in the sleeping dog (42), it is likely that increased blood pressure plays at most a modest role in ventilatory stabilization following sleep apneas in humans. Poststimulus Potentiation Following the abrupt cessation of active respiratory motor stimulation, a timedependent, continued hyperventilation persists, which has been referred to as poststimulus potentiation or “afterdischarge.” This phenomenon originates in the brain stem controller, requires active, rather than passive, hyperventilation, and manifests itself independently of the nature of the ventilatory stimulus or the level of consciousness (43–45). Poststimulus potentiation has been proposed as an important stabilizing influence that would prevent ventilatory undershoot following an episode of hyperpnea (46). The occurrence of poststimulus potentiation in awake (11,18) and sleeping (12) humans has been reported using brief periods of hypoxicinduced hyperventilation, followed by abrupt termination with hyperoxia (Fig. 5A). During sleep, associated hypocapnia was sufficient to override the afterdischarge, and poststimulus hypopnea was observed (12). During both wakefulness and sleep, sustained hypoxia of at least 5 min eliminated or greatly reduced the poststimulus potentiation (see Fig. 5B), These observations raise the possibility that periodic breathing during sleep, especially during hypoxia, could be due to insufficient manifestation of poststimulus potentiation. IV. Determinants of Upper Airway Patency A. Upper Airway Anatomy The skeletal and softtissue anatomy of the upper airway plays a critical role in determining whether the upper airway will remain open during sleep. Patients with sleep apnea show a general tendency toward a smaller airway dimension during wakefulness, but there is overlap with normal persons (47). In these patients, the shape of the upper airway, rather than its overall dimension, appears to be a more important determinant of pharyngeal collapse during sleep. The pharyngeal aperture is elongated in the anteroposterior dimension owing to a thickening of the lateral pharyngeal wall. This more elliptically shaped airway may alter the orientation of upper airway musculature and, thereby, compromise the ability to maintain upper airway patency (48). The role of fat deposition in narrowing the upper airway is uncertain. Fat
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Figure 5 Poststimulus potentiation during NREM sleep: (a) Abrupt termination of 1 min of isocapnic hypoxia with hyperoxia. The gradual decay of tidal volume after termination of hyperventilation with hyperoxia is consistent with poststimulus potentiation. (b) Abrupt termination of 5 min of isocapnic hypoxia with hyperoxia. The apnea following termination of hyperpnea indicates that poststimulus potentiation is insufficient to prevent ventilatory inhibition in the presence of sustained hypoxia.
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deposits were described, after magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), at the level of the soft palate and also in the lateral pharyngeal walls (49). Expansion of the soft tissue space in the region of the lateral pharyngeal fat pad is associated with increased upper airway resistance in anesthetized pigs (50). However, in humans with sleep apnea, muscular thickening, rather than enlargement of the pharyngeal fat pads, was the predominant anatomical determinant of upper airway narrowing (47). A unifying hypothesis of the relationship between obesity and craniofacial structure has been proposed (51). Patients with obstructive sleep apnea demonstrate a spectrum of softtissue fat, and structural abnormalities. At one extreme are obese patients with primarily increased upper airway softtissue narrowing. The other extreme consists of predominantly nonobese patients with abnormal craniofacial structure. An intermediate group consists of patients with abnormalities of both craniofacial structure and upper airway soft tissue related to obesity. All of these studies indicate the importance of an anatomical substrate that is a necessary prerequisite for the development of upper airway occlusion during sleep. B. Airway Closure During Central Apnea The investigation of airway dimension during central apnea provides insight into the determinants of airway closure during sleep. In patients with central sleep apnea, a progressive narrowing and occlusion of the upper airway was commonly observed at the velopharyngeal level and before the development of inspiratory effort (Fig. 6). The crosssectional area of the upper airway was not correlated with the length of the apnea. Even in normal subjects in whom posthyperventila
Figure 6 Progressive narrowing and complete occlusion of the upper airway in a patient with central sleep apnea: Note that the complete occlusion occurs before the development of inspiratory effort.
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tion apnea was induced during sleep, a progressive narrowing of the upper airway was observed before any development of inspiratory effort. Velopharyngeal narrowing was the most common site of narrowing in these normal subjects. These findings demonstrate that upper airway narrowing and occlusion can occur, even in the absence of negative intrathoracic pressure. Unless an arousal occurred, the initial recovery breaths, which terminated the central apnea, showed residual consequences of the airway narrowing or occlusion that had developed during the apnea. If arousal occurred, the airway became totally patent, and resistance levels were at awake levels. In the absence of arousal, persistent narrowing of the upper airway was evident in the normal subjects, as evidenced by the high total pulmonary resistance shown on the first postapneic breaths. Both inspiratory and expiratory resistance were high, consistent with residual airway narrowing that persisted after the apnea. In several normal subjects, complete occlusive apnea was noted with the reinitiation of inspiratory effort, as shown by large negative esophageal pressure in the absence of flow (Fig. 7). Thus, airway narrowing or occlusion during central apnea can cause typical obstructive efforts, even in normal subjects. Immediate restoration of normal upper airway mechanics requires electroencephalographic (EEG) evidence of arousal. C. Implications for Obstructive Apnea and Hypopnea. The occurrence of upper airway narrowing during central apnea raises the possibility that the closing of the upper airway during sleep may actually occur at end expiration, rather than with the onset of inspiratory effort, as is currently accepted.
Figure 7 Development of occlusive apnea with reinitiation of inspiratory effort following a central apnea in a normal subject: Central apnea occurred following mechanical hyperventilation during NREM sleep. Obstructive apnea is indicated by the presence of inspiratory effort (esophageal pressure) without flow.
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A progressive increase in expiratory resistance with waning inspiratory drive has been reported on the breaths immediately preceding an obstructive apnea (52). Visualization studies with fiberoptic bronchoscopy in patients with sleep apnea have shown the occlusion to be present before the onset of inspiratory effort (53). These findings suggest that endexpiratory, rather than early inspiratory, closure of the upper airway is the primary event in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. The endexpiratory closure of the upper airway would be consistent with the previous studies that evaluated criticalclosing pressures in the upper airway (54–56). Closing pressures were generally at atmospheric pressure or slightly positive in patients with sleep apnea, compared with negativeclosing pressures in normal subjects. Snorers occupied an intermediate position. Even if the airway did not completely close at end expiration, higher levels of criticalclosing pressure were associated with lower levels of maximal flow during tidal breathing during sleep. All of these studies suggest that the initial narrowing of the upper airway is more a function of a positive extraluminal collapsing pressure, rather than a negative intraluminal pressure, in early inspiration. The practical consequences of this proposed mechanism is that the return to atmospheric pressure of the upper airway at end expiration would be expected to result in complete airway closure in patients with sleep apnea and a narrow, flowlimited airway in patients with snoring or obstructive hypopnea. Data from the central sleep apnea studies provide insight into the determinants for opening a closed or narrowed airway during early inspiration. Arousal and the state of wakefulness clearly provide the ability for even a patient with severe sleepinduced narrowing to restore airway patency. Preliminary evidence does suggest that, during wakefulness, some patients with sleep apnea actually do occlude their airway at end expiration during spontaneous tidal breathing. Despite these occlusions, the subsequent inspiration is associated with airway opening. This maintenance of airway patency appears to require an increase in airway dilator activity associated with wakefulness (57). A component of this enhanced activity is related to protective upper airway reflexes that are present during wakefulness (58,59). As a result of these compensatory responses, awake patients with sleep apnea are able to compensate and maintain a patent airway at closing pressures as low as —11 to —31 cmH2O (60). Thus, wakefulness is a protective state that assures upper airway patency during early inspiration. The effect of ventilatory drive on upper airway patency can also be discussed in terms of endexpiratory airway closure and the ability to open the closed airway during sleep. This question has been difficult to study in sleeping humans because of the presence of confounding influences; therefore, apparently contradicting conclusions have been reached. Subjects also show a wide spectrum of susceptibility to upper airway collapse during periods of altered drive, primarily based on anatomical considerations. The effect of steadystate increases in chemical stimuli on upper airway patency during sleep is either a decrease or no change
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in upper airway resistance (61–64). No studies have reported an increase in upper airway resistance or the initiation of obstructive breaths as a result of a steadystate augmentation of chemical drive. To the contrary, several studies have shown a decrease in the number of apneic and hypopneic events with administration of exogenous CO2 in selected patients with sleep apnea—hypopnea syndrome (65,66). Similarly, steadystate reduction in chemical drive did not cause an increase in upper airway resistance, even in heavy snorers with, presumably, a high degree of susceptibility to upper airway collapse (64). Chemical drive was reduced by lowering PCO2 in sleeping humans by either mechanical ventilation or by hypoxicinduced hyperventilation, and then abruptly terminating the stimulation and observing the level of airway resistance in the recovery period (Fig. 8). Two major conclusions can be drawn from these studies: First, at least in the subjects studied, an increased level of steadystate drive, even when applied in subjects with a susceptibility to upper airway narrowing, does not cause upper airway collapse, despite the increased suction pressure on the compliant upper airway. Second, a reduction of chemical drive alone is not sufficient to narrow or collapse the airway during steady state, normoxic sleep. These findings suggest a very precise regulation of upper airway function and the ability to open the upper airway at early inspiration, even in heavy snorers. The foregoing findings must be reconciled with an extensive literature that has documented the occurrence of high upper airway resistance and even the development of complete occlusion during the nadir of periodicbreathing cycles (67–69). Periodic breathing activates all of the confounding factors described in the foregoing related to destabilizing and stabilizing influences that could accentu
Figure 8 Effect of chemical drive on airway resistance during NREM sleep: Brief hypoxicinduced hyperventilation was abruptly terminated with hyperoxia. The pressure—flow relation of the nadir breath was not compromised as a result of the posthyperventilation hypocapnic inhibition.
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ate the amplitude of the hyperpnea and hypopnea and, thereby, lower the respiratory drive to an even greater degree than with hypocapnia alone (see Fig. 2). Central apnea, changing sleep state, and sustained hypoxia, all are likely mechanisms to cause such changes. First, central apnea allows sufficient time for complete airway closure in subjects who otherwise might have a patent airway at end expiration (70). Opening the closed airway at the onset of inspiration would present a greater challenge to airway stabilizing forces compared with an inspiratory effort in the presence of an open airway. Surface forces related to mucous and tissue changes during the central apnea may also make it more difficult to open the closed airway. Second, the development of the sleeping state as the nadir of the periodic breathing is approached has a profound effect on the ability of the subject to open the airway at inspiration. Sleep state fluctuation has been reported during hypoxic periodic breathing (71), and it is a prominent feature during the reported experimental protocols (68). Finally, the effect of sustained hypoxia on the ability to open a closed upper airway is the least well documented. However, a profound effect of hypoxia on the stabilizing effect of poststimulus potentiation has been demonstrated for the chest wall inspiratory muscles (12). It would not be surprising if this impairment of stabilization were also observed in the upper airway muscles, with consequent impairment of upper airway opening. Many of the studies showing impaired upper airway regulation during periodic breathing used hypoxia in excess of 2min duration, which is sufficient to impair stabilizing mechanisms. Therefore, periodic breathing is likely to contribute to upper airway compromise during sleep by accentuating the magnitude of change in the stabilizing and destabilizing influences that control the ability of the subject to open the airway at inspiration. In patients with severe sleepdisordered breathing, much of the periodic breathing is derived as an epiphenomenon as a result of the episodic upper airway obstruction. The role of periodic breathing in the development of deficits in upper airway opening and in the pathogenesis of milder forms of sleepdisordered breathing is unknown. V. High Upper Airway Resistance Syndromes A. Snoring Snoring is an acoustical phenomenon attributed to vibration of the soft palate, pharyngeal walls, epiglottis, and tongue (72). Most of the power of the snoring sound is lower than 2000 Hz, and the peak power is usually lower than 500 Hz (13). Subtle differences in snoring frequencies have been reported between nasal and oral snoring and between snoring with and without sleep apnea (73). Snoring is difficult to measure objectively, and the subjective assessment of snoring is imperfect (74,75). The loudness of snoring has been measured objectively, with the finding that most sounds classified as a snore, rather than a breath sound,
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exceeded 50 decibels when measured objectively (75). Nighttonight variability in snoring in the sleep laboratory was as much as 65%, and differences between laboratory and home were also greater than expected (76). Even the subjective assessment by a sleep technologist did not compare well with objective measurements of snoring (75). Questionnaires of either selfreported or bed partnerreported snoring can show substantial variance from objectively measured data (75), although questionnaire studies have shown a relatively good degree of sensitivity—specificity in terms of predicting the presence or absence of sleep apnea (77,78). Thus, measurement of the quantity and magnitude of snoring remains difficult, whether using an objective, direct observation, or questionnaire approach. Careful collection of data and validation of methods are essential, considering the high prevalence of snoring in a healthy working population (2) and that snoring may be used as a marker for sleep apnea. The pathogenesis of snoring has been investigated in terms of anatomical and functional changes in the upper airway, as described earlier. Cephalometric studies have shown a longer soft palate and uvula, compared with those of nonsnorers (79). Further differences in the mandibular plane and hyoid bone position separated snorers without apnea from patients with sleep apnea. Subsequent studies emphasized the importance of pharyngeal softtissue volume and obesity as a determinant of sleep apnea versus snoring alone (80,81). Pathological studies of the palate have shown both snorers and apneics to have mucous gland hypertrophy, disruption of muscle bundles by infiltrating glands, focal muscle atrophy, and extensive edema (82). Muscle fiber types of the pharyngeal constrictor muscles showed a relative reduction in the slow alphamotor neurons (type I) and a hypertrophy of type IIa fibers (83). These studies support a role for both anatomical narrowing and functional changes of the upper airway as important determinants for the presence of snoring. In addition, abnormalities of the soft palate, soft tissue, and pharyngeal constrictor muscles could also be a consequence of habitual snoring and could, thereby, further contribute to progression of the upper airway narrowing. The functional differences between snorers with and without sleep apnea have been investigated during both wakefulness and sleep. During wakefulness, snorers with sleep apnea showed a greater increase in pharyngeal area with lung inflation compared with snorers without sleep apnea (84). During sleep, studies of upper airway collapsibility have shown a spectrum of progressively increasing collapsing pressures between nonsnorers, snorers, and patients with sleep apnea (54). Snorers had a collapsing pressure that was only 1.6 cmH2O lower than atmospheric pressure. Such collapse occurring at end expiration would result in a narrowed airway, with substantial flow limitation at the onset of the subsequent inspiration. Thus, snoring does appear to represent an intermediate degree of difficulty in upper airway regulation between nonsnorers and patients with sleep apnea.
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B. High Upper Airway Resistance Syndrome The presence of high upper airway resistance during sleep is associated with clinical symptoms of fatigue and daytime sleepiness, even in the absence of apnea, hypopnea, or major degrees of oxygen desaturation (5,6,85). Snoring is not an essential feature or marker of the syndrome. The diagnosis is difficult to establish by conventional polysomnography and often requires invasive measurement of esophageal pressure. Recognition of the syndrome is important because effective therapy can be offered that will eliminate or greatly improve the symptoms. How can we reconcile the absence or minimum number of hypopneas in patients with the high upper airway resistance syndrome, despite the presence of an extremely high total pulmonary resistance during sleep? In patients with the high upper airway resistance syndrome, two patterns of more sustained elevations in upper airway resistance have been reported (86). The first pattern consists of sustained periods of large, negative esophageal pressure at a relatively constant level (Fig. 9A).
Figure 9 Patterns of high upper airway resistance syndrome: (a) A sustained elevation of upper airway resistance is terminated with an arousal. (b) Periodic, progressive increases in upper airway resistance are interrupted with arousal. Note the stability of oxygen saturation despite the changing resistance.
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The second pattern demonstrated a progressively increasing negative esophageal pressure over time (Fig. 9B). Compared to low resistance periods in both groups, the inspiratory time increased and the peak inspiratory flow, tidal volume, and minute ventilation decreased slightly. However, in the sustained pattern (see Fig. 9A), the gradual reduction in tidal volume over a mean of 13 min would not be detected as a hypopnea during conventional polysomnography. Likewise, in the progressively increasing intrathoracic pressure pattern (see Fig. 9B), the reduction in tidal volume observed just before arousal may not be of sufficient duration or magnitude to result in a major oxygen desaturation, which is used to define hypopnea in most laboratories (6). Previous studies of sustained, externally applied, resistive loads during sleep have also shown small or no reduction in minute ventilation (30,87). These findings demonstrate that increases in upper airway resistance may be associated with only small changes in ventilation and oxygen desaturation that are not likely to be detected during routine polysomnography. The development of high upper airway resistance during sleep is associated with arousals that are thought to be a major determinant of the clinical manifestation of the high upper airway resistance syndrome (5,6,88,89). The mechanism of arousal during upper airway obstruction has been attributed to the magnitude of negative pressure generated during inspiration (90). The stimulus producing the increased ventilatory drive is less important than the negative intrathoracic pressure or level of ventilation produced by the stimulus (91). The occurrence of sleep fragmentation as a result of frequent arousals has been well correlated with decreased daytime alertness (92,93). Demonstration of frequent arousals in the high upper airway resistance syndrome, suggests that symptoms of excessive daytime sleepiness and fatigue may occur, even in the absence of apnea, hypopnea, or measurable oxygen desaturation. VI. Sleep Apnea Syndromes A. Obstructive Sleep Apnea Diagnosis and Evaluation Efforts have been made to identify clinical features that predict the presence of obstructive sleep apnea. The use of stepwise, multilinear regression analysis, showed that age, body mass index, bed partner observation of apnea, and pharyngeal examination were significant predictors of apnea (94). Other studies have found a link between neck circumference, selfreported habitual snoring, alcohol consumption, daytime hypersomnolence, and falling asleep while driving (95–98). A family history is also a risk factor for the development of sleep apnea (99). The subjective assessment of the examining physician had a sensitivity of 60% and a specificity of 63% in identifying an AHI higher than 10 (94). A posttest probability of 81% likelihood that the patient had sleep apnea has been reported
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(98). Some ability to reduce the number of unnecessary sleep studies has been proposed in patients with a low clinical probability of sleep apnea (100). Thus, even though the clinical features provided by the history and physical examination may explain a significant component of the variability in the AHI in a population study, additional objective testing is required to establish the diagnosis in the individual patient. Definitive diagnosis of sleepdisordered breathing requires objective testing, usually with a complete nocturnal polysomnography study. However, cost constraints have led to the investigation of alternative strategies for diagnosing sleep apnea. A singlenight study is sufficient in most patients (101). Several studies have shown the occasional occurrence of falsenegative study results, with the number of respiratory events increasing on the second study night (102). Even a partialnightly study, consisting of at least 2 h of sleep, had an 87% sensitivity and an 86% specificity in detecting more than five events per hour, compared with allnight polysomnography (103). The use of a singlenight study for the titration of nasal CPAP has found widespread application. However, an effective level of CPAP was established in only 71% of patients (104), and longterm outcome evaluation of this approach has not been established (105). An excellent correlation between the number of respiratory events observed during nocturnal and daytime polysomnography (r = 0.9) was reported (106). Less total sleep time, stage III–IV, and REM were noted. However, another study showed that the daytime study, which was preceded by sleep deprivation, recorded almost three times as many apneas as the nocturnal study (107). Reliable information appears to require a sufficient total sleep time and a representative sample of all sleep stages. Even though nocturnal polysomnography remains the definitive diagnostic approach to sleepdisordered breathing, it remains an expensive and highly laborintensive modality. Neuropsychiatric Consequences The adverse consequences of excessive daytime sleepiness are borne out by the increased rates of automobile accidents reported in patients with sleep apnea syndrome (93,108). Patients with documented sleep apnea have an automobile accident rate that is 2–2.5 times the rate of control subjects (109). A random sample of elderly men not referred to a sleep clinic also had over twice the rate of automobile accidents if a polysomnogram showed more than ten apnea—hypopnea events per hour. However, most patients with sleep apnea do not have automobile accidents (109). Thus, rather than proscribing driving privileges in all patients with sleep apnea, additional information is required to identify patients who present an excessive risk to themselves and others. Attempts to identify and quantitate factors related to alertness while driving has led to a distinction between vigilance and sleepiness. For example, some
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patients with sleep apnea who are sleepy can still maintain wakefulness and function well when focused on a specific task (110,111). This distinction may explain why an objective test for sleepiness (MSLT) showed no relationship to the reported incidence of automobile accidents (112). An alternative computersimulated test of driving vigilance demonstrated that patients with sleep apnea had a higher incidence of hitting obstacles than did controls without sleep apnea. Poor performance on the computer simulation was associated with a higher incidence of reallife automobile accidents (113). Such performancebased tests may provide the physician with information needed to evaluate a patient in terms of functional impairment, risk of automobile accidents, and effect of treatment. Cardiovascular Consequences Systemic Hypertension Although a strong association between obstructive sleep apnea and systemic hypertension has been demonstrated in many epidemiological studies, inferences about a causal relationship are limited by confounding factors, such as advancing age, male gender, and obesity (114). Support for an independent effect of sleep apnea on arterial pressure was found in a population of middleaged adults. At all times during the day and night, subjects with sleepdisordered breathing had higher blood pressures than their nonapneic counterparts (7). Compelling evidence for a casual relationship between sleep apnea and hypertension is provided by studies that show a reduction in blood pressure following successful treatment of sleep apnea (114). Thus, sleep apnea and hypertension are strongly associated, but the unequivocal demonstration of causality and the pathophysiological mechanisms responsible for the association have not been identified. Episodes of sleep apnea produce acute blood pressure fluctuations that are caused by the interaction of neural and mechanical influences. Most obstructive sleep apneas are accompanied by stable or gradually decreasing blood pressure during the event and an abrupt increase in blood pressure following the event (see Fig. 4). A marked, progressive increase in sympathetic outflow to skeletal muscle occurs during the apnea. The current concept is that this sympathetic activation, which terminates abruptly after the resumption of breathing, is primarily responsible for the postapnea blood pressure rise. The carotid chemoreceptors are thought to play a major role in the increase in muscle sympathetic nerve activity that occurs during obstructive sleep apnea, because the increase is attenuated, along with the blood pressure response, by administration of supplemental oxygen (115,116). Arousal from sleep observed at the termination of most sleep apneas also contributes to increases in muscle sympathetic nerve activity, blood pressure, and heart rate (37,89,117–120). On the other hand, lung inflation and negative intrathoracic pressures have not been implicated in the augmented sympathetic nerve traffic or blood pressure elevation. Clearly, sleepdisordered breathing can cause
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acute augmentation of sympathetic nerve activity, blood pressure, and heart rate, but the mechanisms whereby these acute episodes cause sustained hypertension are still unknown. One mechanism by which sleepdisordered breathing could affect sympathetic neural outflow is through repetitive, intermittent chemoreflex stimulation (121,122). Hypertension was induced by exposure to intermittent hypoxia in rats with intact chemoreflexes, but not in those with carotid body denervation (123). Systemic blood pressure elevation was observed in young and healthy men during a 3week sojourn at high altitude (124). This hypertensive effect, apparent on the second day of exposure to hypobaric hypoxia, was accompanied by an increase in urinary norepinephrine excretion. In healthy humans, relatively brief (20min) periods of chemoreflex stimulation with combined hypoxia and hypercapnia caused an increase in muscle sympathetic nerve activity that outlasted the chemical stimuli (125). This persistent sympathetic activation was not due to continued carotid sinus nerve activity because ventilation returned to baseline levels soon after return to room air breathing. In patients with sleep apnea, high daytime levels of sympathetic nerve traffic were reduced following a reduction in nocturnal apneic activity with nasal CPAP (126). These findings raise the possibility that intermittent chemoreflex stimulation during sleep may contribute to the elevated sympathetic nerve activity and blood pressure elevation observed in these patients. However, heightened sympathetic activity acting alone is not likely to be sufficient to cause hypertension. Altered vascular responsiveness may also be a means whereby nocturnal events cause blood pressure elevations that persist throughout the day (127). Patients with sleep apnea syndrome demonstrate a pressor response to isocapnic hypoxia that is not seen in normal subjects (128). It is not known whether this altered responsiveness is specific for chemoreflex stimulation or whether patients with sleep apnea also have exaggerated responses to other presser stimuli encountered during activities of daily living, such as exercise. A role for impaired endotheliumdependent vasodilation in sleep apnea hypertension has recently been suggested (127). Patients with sleep apnea demonstrated attenuated forearm vasodilation in response to intraarterial infusion of acetylcholine, a substance that causes vasodilation by nitric oxide release. In addition, plasma levels of endogenous nitric oxide synthase inhibitors were higher in hypertensive patients with obstructive sleep apnea than in normotensive patients or in control subjects with and without hypertension (127). Thus, any link between hypertension and sleepdisordered breathing is likely to be complex and multifactorial. Pulmonary Hypertension. Transient increases in pulmonary artery pressure occur during episodes of obstructive sleep apnea. The current concept is that these increases are caused by the
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local effects of hypoxia, hypercapnia, and acidosis, and by transmission of elevated left ventricularfilling pressures to the pulmonary vasculature (129,130). Studies in experimental animals raised the possibility that episodic, apneainduced elevations in pulmonary artery pressure could cause persistent pulmonary hypertension (131). In humans, however, it appears that sustained, daytime abnormalities in blood gas levels are more important determinants of pulmonary artery pressure than are the intermittent, nocturnal ones caused by sleep apnea (132,133). Therefore, obstructive sleep apnea per se, in the absence of coexisting obesity or lung disease, does not produce sustained pulmonary hypertension. Myocardial Infarction and Stroke A strong association between myocardial infarction and sleep apnea was demonstrated in a casecontrolled series (134). A multiple logistic regression analysis that adjusted for age, body mass index, hypertension, diabetes, and smoking revealed that patients with more than five apneas or hypopneas per hour of sleep had a relative risk for myocardial infarction many times greater than that of their counterparts without sleepdisordered breathing (135). Although the reasons for this excess risk are unknown, several pathophysiological mechanisms can be postulated. Longstanding obstructive sleep apnea may contribute to the development of atherosclerotic lesions by a primary effect on atherogenesis (136), or by a secondary effect mediated by hypertension. The repetitive blood pressure fluctuations that accompany acute episodes of apnea may facilitate plaque rupture by imposing increased sheer stress on the coronary arteries (137). In addition, highly negative intrathoracic pressures and dramatic changes in heart dimensions may increase arterial wall stress, thereby promoting plaque disruption. Apneainduced sympathetic activation may also enhance platelet aggregability. The pathogenetic link between sleep apnea and stroke has been the subject of several recent investigations. Apneas produce cyclic increases in intracranial pressure that coincide with increases in systemic blood pressure (138,139). These pressure fluctuations may affect the stability of existing atherosclerotic plaques. Cyclic decreases in cerebral perfusion have also been observed (139,140). The interesting possibility has been raised that vibrations produced by snoring and obstructive sleep apnea may play a role in stroke by virtue of the close proximity of the pharynx to the carotid arteries (137). Such vibrations may cause intimal injury, leading to the development of atherosclerotic lesions, and may also facilitate plaque rupture or displacement of an existing thrombus. B. Central Sleep Apnea Central sleep apnea is a heterogeneous entity with multiple causes and variable clinical manifestations. The most common pattern is the crescendo—decrescendo pattern of Cheyne—Stokes respiration. It is common in normal subjects at sleep onset and at high altitude (see Chap. 8). It has been observed in diseases of the
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central nervous system, congestive heart failure, renal failure, hepatic failure, respiratory failure, and conditions associated with depressed sensorium. The symptoms are variable, but most often include excessive daytime sleepiness, sleep disruption, insomnia, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, and depression. Chronic hypoventilation may also be associated with central sleep apnea (141). Thus, for practical purposes, it is not possible to distinguish patients with central versus obstructive sleep apnea by historical criteria alone. Central sleep apnea has been reported in 40–50% of patients with stable and optimally treated congestive heart failure (142,143). These episodes are associated with arousals and oxygen desaturation that could contribute to morbidity and mortality. Patients with central sleep apnea tended to have more severe left ventricular systolic dysfunction, an increased prevalence of cardiac arrhythmias, and a higher level of sympathetic activity, compared with patients without sleep apnea (142,144). These abnormalities improve with treatment with nasal CPAP (144,145) and thus may have an influence on treatment and longterm outcome in the management of patients with congestive heart failure. VII. Treatment of SleepDisordered Breathing The indications for treatment of sleepdisordered breathing are not firmly established. The decision to treat sleep apnea—hypopnea is currently based on the clinician's judgment that abnormal respiratory events are associated with adverse health consequences. Such decisionmaking incorporates several factors, including the number of apneas and hypopneas, the degree of oxyhemoglobin desaturation, the degree of daytime sleepiness, and whether systemic hypertension or corpulmonale is present. The aim is to improve oxygenation during sleep, to consolidate sleep architecture, and to alleviate daytime sleepiness. A. Modification of Risk Factors Several studies have demonstrated reduced apnea frequency with weight loss (146,147). The extent of improvement and the magnitude of required weight loss vary among studies. There is little correlation between the magnitude of weight loss and the improvement in sleep apnea. Some studies have documented significant reduction in apnea frequency with modest weight loss (3–5 kg). Nevertheless, complete resolution of sleep apnea with the elimination of the need for nasal CPAP is infrequently reported. Alcohol does have adverse effects on upper airway function, especially in men, perhaps owing to its selective inhibitory effect on upper airway muscle activity (148). Similarly, benzodiazepines inhibit upper airway muscle activity and delay arousal in response to upper airway obstruction. Finally, a recent populationbased epidemiological study has shown a strong association between
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current smoking and the presence of sleep apnea—hypopnea (149). This is likely due to congestion and inflammation of the pharyngeal mucosa by the irritating tobacco smoke. Therefore, all patients with sleep apnea—hypopnea should be counseled to discontinue smoking, reduce alcohol intake, especially in the hours preceding bedtime, and to avoid hypnotics and sedatives. Apnea frequency increases in some patients when they sleep in the supine position relative to the lateral decubitus position. Avoiding the supine position can be accomplished by sleeping with a pillowfilled backpack or placing a tennis ball in an added pocket in the back of a Tshirt. Although these methods appear intuitively attractive, little data are available to support their effectiveness. One potential limitation is that the head and neck retain a full range of motion, even as the torso is prevented from assuming the supine position. In addition, the persistence of snoring, sleep fragmentation, and excessive daytime sleepiness have been observed despite the elimination of apnea. Thus, avoiding the supine position may convert sleep apnea—hypopnea to upper airway resistance syndrome, instead of normalizing respiration. The recognition of metabolic causes of sleep apnea, such as hypothyroidism and acromegaly, is essential for correction of abnormal breathing and its consequences. Treatment of hypothyroidism may not obviate the need for nasal therapy, especially in the early stages of hormonal replacement (150). B. Pharmacological Therapy The development of successful pharmacological therapy for sleep apnea would represent a major advance in the management of this disorder. Various medications have been studied, with variable results. The reader is referred to a recent comprehensive review detailing most of the recent drug trials in obstructive sleep apnea (151). Augmentation of ventilatory drive has been disappointing in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea. Neither medroxyprogesterone acetate (152) nor acetazolamide (153) caused consistent enough improvement to justify their use in obstructive sleep apnea. Supplemental CO2 was used in patients with sleep apnea, resulting in reduced apnea frequency in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (65). Acetazolamide was effective in ameliorating central sleep apnea, but side effects often limit its use (154). Supplemental CO2 caused complete resolution of central apnea in patients with Cheyne—Stokes respiration (155) and in idiopathic central sleep apnea (156). However, maintaining a constant CO2 concentration requires the use of a closedbreathing circuit, which may not be well tolerated by patients. This may explain the limited usefulness of supplemental CO2 therapy in patients with sleep apnea. Thus, augmentation of ventilatory drive has not produced convincing therapeutic benefit except in patients with predominantly central apnea.
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Several studies investigated the use of tricyclic antidepressants for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea (157,158). These agents decrease the time spent in REM sleep and preferentially active upper airway muscles. However, the results in human studies have been variable, for apneic episodes continued during NREM sleep, although desaturation during REM was less pronounced. The lack of consistent response, combined with substantial anticholinergic side effects, limit widespread use of tricyclic antidepressants for the treatment of sleep apnea—hypopnea syndrome. Serotonin may enhance central ventilatory drive to pharyngeal muscles and, thereby, promote upper airway patency. LTryptophan, a serotonin precursor, resulted in improvement in sleep apnea in one study (159). Fluoxetine, a serotonin reuptake inhibitor, caused improvement similar to protriptyline in a subgroup of 6 of 12 patients in terms of reduction in apnea—hypopnea index and oxyhemoglobin desaturation (160). However, as a whole, the group showed no improvement in the number of respiratory events or arousals. Thus, neither drug was uniformly beneficial and cannot yet be recommended for use in sleep apnea. In summary, the inconsistent efficacy of pharmacological therapy for sleep apnea is not surprising when the heterogeneity of the disease is considered. Pharmacological therapy would not be expected to be effective in patients with a severe anatomical abnormality of the upper airway associated with morbid obesity or craniofacial deformity. In contrast, patients with less severe anatomical abnormalities may benefit from attempts to augment ventilatory drive in an effort to stabilize periodic breathing, prevent tissue trauma, and thereby eliminate the predisposition or progression to obstructive apnea. C. Supplemental Oxygen The use of supplemental oxygen in the therapy of sleep apnea has shown inconsistent results. Hyperoxia prolongs apneic episodes in some patients and the total time spent apneic (65), and it has also resulted in a shift from central to obstructive apnea (161). In contrast, prolonged administration of supplemental oxygen was associated with reduction in the number and length of obstructive apneas in patients with sleep apnea and daytime hypoxemia (162,163). In children, supplemental oxygen may be considered before definitive therapy, but a polysomnogram with PCO2 measurement is recommended to rule out worsening hypoventilation (164,165). In a recent comprehensive review, Fletcher and Munafo concluded that the weight of the data does not indicate a primary role for supplemental oxygen in the treatment of sleep apnea (166). D. Electrical Stimulation of Pharyngeal Dilators Early studies demonstrated that electrical stimulation of pharyngeal dilators reduced upper airway resistance in anesthetized dogs (167), decreased upper airway
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collapsibility in the cat (168), and reduced the number of apneas in sleeping humans (169). However, a recent report showed that each apnea termination was associated with a simultaneous EEG arousal (169). This latter report raises questions about the future use of electrical stimulation of individual upper airwaydilating muscles as a therapy for sleep apnea. E. Surgery The presence of anatomical susceptibility in the development of obstructive sleep apnea suggests that surgical correction of underlying pathology might be the treatment of choice in subsets of patients (170). For example, tonsilar hypertrophy may cause obstructive sleep apnea in children that can be corrected by tonsillectomy. The results in adults have been less encouraging because other predisposing factors usually contribute to upper airway obstruction. Surgical correction of nasal obstruction has also been proposed, but one study found no significant improvement in the AHI, despite a reduction in awake nasal resistance (171). In some patients, nasal surgery can be a beneficial adjunctive therapy aimed at reducing nasal CPAP pressure and, hence, improving patient tolerance. The effectiveness of tracheostomy as a curative procedure in obstructive sleep apnea has been proved with reasonable certainty (172). However, associated abnormalities may cause nonapneic hypoxemia in patients with a gas exchange defect such as COPD or morbid obesity. The correction of upper airway obstruction may also unmask periodic breathing and central apnea in some patients (156,173). Therefore, these patients require close clinical and laboratory followup to document improvement. The indications for tracheostomy have declined substantially with the introduction of nasal CPAP as the treatment of choice for most patients with sleep apnea. Tracheostomy is now limited to patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea who fail or cannot tolerate nasal CPAP therapy. The widespread use of uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) occurred in an uncontrolled manner and before confirmation of efficacy in scientifically rigorous studies. Many patients continued to have an AHI higher than 20, even if they met the 50% reduction criterion and had subjective improvement in symptoms (105). Relapse was more common in patients who gained weight (174). Predictors of successful response have been inconsistent (170,175,176), and longterm followup data are scarce. Thus, the role of UPPP in the management of sleep apnea—hypopnea remains indeterminate in terms of patient selection and longterm outcome. A twophased surgical protocol of upper airway reconstruction has been proposed (177). Phase 1 involves correction of the most narrowed segment of the upper airway, as identified by cephalometry or nasopharyngoscopy during wakefulness. The patient may undergo any combination of nasal reconstruction, UPPP
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or inferior mandibular sagittal osteotomy, with or without hyoid myotomy and suspension. If obstructive sleep apnea is still present by polysomnography at 4–6 months, the patient is considered for bimaxillary advancement. The authors report success in excess of 60% in phase I and 90% in phase II. This approach is perhaps the most extensive surgical protocol with cure as the stated objective. Although upper airway reconstruction is intuitively appealing, it has not been evaluated in a prospective comparison with less invasive therapy such as nasal CPAP. However, if skeletal abnormalities are the primary risk factor, such surgery may be of potential value, and further investigation is warranted to ascertain which group of patients is likely to benefit. F. Oral Appliances Most appliances are designed to improve upper airway baseline dimensions, either by pulling the tongue forward or by moving the mandible forward. The Standards of Practice Committee of the American Sleep Disorders Association appointed a task force to evaluate the role of oral appliances in the treatment of sleepdisordered breathing (178). The report reviewed 21 studies with a total of 320 patients. Overall, snoring was reduced considerably and often eliminated. The frequency of apnea—hypopnea was reduced, but as many as 40% of patients continued to have an AHI higher than 20. Subjective improvement in daytime function was reported in most studies, although objective documentation of improvement in sleepiness was lacking. Side effects were generally mild, with mouth discomfort being the most reported side effect. On the basis of this report, the committee recommended oral appliances for the treatment of primary snoring and mild obstructive sleep apnea if behavioral measures are insufficient (179). Patients with moderate to severe obstructive sleep apnea may also be candidates for oral appliances if they are intolerant of nasal CPAP and are not candidates for surgery (180). G. Nasal Continuous Positive Airway Pressure. The effectiveness of nasal CPAP in eliminating obstructive apnea and hypopnea has been clearly established (181). Nasal CPAP has also been effective in patients with supinedependent idiopathic central sleep apnea (182). However, the effectiveness of nasal CPAP in Cheyne—Stokes respiration or in the central apnea associated with congestive heart failure is less consistent (183,184). Finally, nasal CPAP has also been effective in patients with upper airway resistance syndrome by eliminating snoring, flow limitation, and repetitive arousals (6). The effects of nasal CPAP on the natural history of sleep apnea syndrome has not yet been determined in controlled prospective studies. However, the available data, when taken together, strongly suggest that the beneficial effects of nasal CPAP on breathing during sleep are translated into improved outcome. For
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example, treatment of sleep apnea with nasal CPAP is associated with improved alertness (185,186), decreased hematocrit (187), and improved left ventricular ejection fraction (188). One retrospective study suggested that nasal CPAP was associated with reduced mortality, when comparable with tracheostomy (189). These data and the accumulated clinical experience are compelling, and they explain the widespread use of nasal CPAP in the treatment of sleepdisordered breathing. The optimal level of CPAP is determined by upward titration until apneas, hypopnea, and snoring are eliminated (5–15 cmH2O in most patients). Several studies have evaluated the usefulness of obtaining the diagnosis and titrating nasal CPAP during a singlenight polysomnography (104,190,191). This approach has been effective in most patients, especially those with an apnea—hypopnea index higher than 20 events per hour of sleep. However, one out of four patients may require subsequent modification of CPAP pressure. Splitnight studies appear to be costeffective and to allow initiation of therapy without undue delay. Complications associated with nasal CPAP are generally mild, including local skin irritation, drying of the mucosal membranes, nasal congestion or rhinorrhea, and eye irritation (181). Some patients complain of excessive expiratory pressure and may benefit from bilevel positive pressure which permits inspiratory and expiratory pressures to be varied independently. Many patients require modifications of the type of interface (mask versus “pillows”), inline humidification, or pharmacological treatment of rhinitis. If nasal obstruction is a possibility, an ear, nose, and throat evaluation for possible surgical correction may be needed. Despite its effectiveness, compliance with nasal CPAP remains less than optimal. By covert monitoring of mask pressure, a mean nightly use of only 4.8 hr was documented, and a significant discrepancy was noted between reported compliance and objective compliance (192,193). Inconvenience was the most reported cause of discontinuation of therapy. The severity of apnea or daytime sleepiness did not predict compliance. There was no difference in compliance between regular nasal CPAP and bilevel positiveairway pressure, which is reported to be a more comfortable mode of delivery (194). These studies, combined with the observation that sleep apnea and impaired vigilance return promptly once nasal CPAP is discontinued, suggest that adverse consequences of sleep apnea may not be adequately reversed in most patients. On the other hand, the observation that symptomatic improvement does occur in many patients, even after as little as 4 hr/night of usage, indicates that the optimal duration of nasal CPAP required to eliminate symptoms and prevent morbidity is not precisely known. Progress continues to be made in the development of CPAP machines capable of continuously monitoring pressure and flow and then automatically adjusting the level of CPAP pressure. In a recently published study, Meurice et al. demonstrated that such device is as effective as nasal regular CPAP in normalizing
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respiration and correcting daytime sleepiness and cognitive impairment (195). The next question is whether automated CPAP devices can provide a costeffective approach by obviating the need for polysomnography in patients with high clinical probability of sleep apnea. H. Approach to Management of SleepDisordered Breathing Patients with excessive daytime sleepiness and habitual snoring are referred for nocturnal polysomnography, which allows the distinction between the sleep apnea— hypopnea and high upper airway resistance syndromes. If apneas or hypopneas are present, titration of nasal CPAP is performed, usually during the diagnostic study, to eliminate the abnormal respiratory events. Titrations are generally not performed if the polysomnogram suggests the high upper airway resistance syndrome without apneas or hypopneas although new algorithms are being investigated (see foregoing). The subsequent prescription for therapy is dependent on the severity of the patient's symptoms (196). The more severe the symptoms, the more compelling is the indication for therapy. In patients with mild symptoms, modification of risk factors alone may be sufficient to reduce daytime symptoms. Patients with more severe symptoms are prescribed nasal CPAP based on the titration study. Patients with presumed high upper airway resistance syndrome are usually given a therapeutic trial of nasal CPAP at 5–7 cmH2O, with reevaluation of symptomatic response after 4–6 weeks. Nonobese patients with central sleep apnea may be given a trial of acetazolamide. Alternatively, nasal CPAP, often in the bilevel, ventilatorassisted mode, is recommended. A significant minority of patients will not tolerate the nasal CPAP. Oral appliances are considered in patients with high upper airway resistant syndrome and in patients with mild to moderate sleep apnea—hypopnea. In patients with more severe sleep apnea, with associated morbid obesity, cor pulmonale, or daytime hypercarbia, bilevel mechanical ventilation or tracheostomy can be considered. Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty is infrequently recommended in isolation, but rather, it is used in conjunction with the phased surgical protocol described earlier. Practice parameters for surgical interventions have been proposed (197). 1. Recommendations for Driving Patients with sleep apnea have higher rates of automobile accidents than the general population (109). The American Thoracic Society recently formulated recommendations for identification and the approach to the highrisk driver with sleep apnea (108). A highrisk driver is defined as a person with excessive daytime sleepiness, accompanied by a history of a motor vehicle accident. The committee did not recommend using objective tests of sleepiness to quantitate risk because a test, such as the multiple sleep latency test, has uncertain predictability for driving
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risk. Highrisk drivers should be evaluated promptly, warned about the dangers of sleepiness, and reevaluated within 2 months of initiating therapy. In states with applicable reporting statutes, the committee recommended reporting several groups of patients: (1) patients with sleepiness not amenable to therapy within 2 months, (2) patients who are unwilling to accept treatment, and (3) patients who are unwilling to restrict their driving until effective therapy has been instituted. The committee went on to state, “There is insufficient evidence to suggest this level of caution for drivers with lesser forms of sleepiness, for any given level of apneic activity per se or for persons without a history of motor vehicle accidents.” Acknowledgments We wish to thank the coinvestigators of the UW Sleep and Respiration Group (Jerome Dempsey, Terry Young, Mari Palta, and Khin Mae Hla) and Christine Wilson and Shalu Manchanda for providing original data. Carol Smith assisted with preparation of the manuscript. Original work was supported by NHLBI SCOR, VA Research Service, NHLBI General Clinical Research Center, NHLBI Clinical Investigator Award, American Heart Association of Wisconsin, American Lung Association of Wisconsin, and the Parker B. Francis Foundation. References 1. Stradling JR. Sleeprelated breathing disorders 1. Obstructive sleep apnoea: definitions, epidemiology, and natural history. Thorax 1995; 50:683–689. 2. Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J, Weber W, Badr S. The occurrence of sleepdisordered breathing among middleaged adults. N Engl J Med 1993; 328:1230–1235. 3. Olson LG, King MT, Hensley MJ, Saunders NA. A community study of snoring and sleepdisordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:711–716. 4. Stradling JR, Crosby JH, Payne CD. Self reported snoring and daytime sleepiness in men aged 35–65 years. Thorax 1991; 46:807–810. 5. Guilleminault C, Stoohs R, Duncan S. Snoring (I). Chest 1991; 99:40–48. 6. Guilleminault C, Stoohs R, Clerk A, Cetel M, Maistros P. A cause of excessive daytime sleepiness. Chest 1993; 104:781–787. 7. Hla KM, Young TB, Bidwell T, Palta M, Skatrud JB, Dempsey J. Sleep apnea and hypertension: a populationbased study. Ann Intern Med 1994; 120:382–388. 8. Skatrud JB, Dempsey JA. Interaction of sleep state and chemical stimuli in sustaining rhythmic ventilation. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55:813–822. 9. Datta AK, Shea SA, Horner RL, Guz A. The influence of induced hypocapnia and sleep on the endogenous respiratory rhythm in humans. J Physiol 1991; 440:17– 33. 10. Badr MS, Kawak A. Posthyperventilation hypopnea in humans during NREM sleep. Respir Physiol 1996; 103:137–145.
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165. Aljadeff G, Gozal D, BaileyWahl SL, Burrell B, Keens TG, Ward SLD. Effects of overnight supplemental oxygen in obstructive sleep apnea in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:51–55. 166. Fletcher EC, Munafo DA. Role of nocturnal oxygen therapy in obstructive sleep apnea: when should it be used? Chest 1990; 98:1497–1504. 167. Miki H, Hida W, Shindoh C, et al. Effects of electrical stimulation of the genioglossus on upper airway resistance in anesthetized dogs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:1279–1284. 168. Schwartz AR, Thut DC, Russ B, et al. Effect of electrical stimulation of the hypoglossal nerve on airflow mechanics in the isolated upper airway. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:1144–1150. 169. Guilleminault C, Powell N, Bowman B, Stoohs R. The effect of electrical stimulation on obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 1995; 107:67–73. 170. Sher AE, Schechtman KB, Piccirillo JF. The efficacy of surgical modifications of the upper airway in adults with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep 1996; 19:156–177. 171. Series F, St Pierre S, Carrier G. Effects of surgical correction of nasal obstruction in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:1261–1265. 172. Gulleminault C, Simmons FB, Motta J. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and tracheostomy: longterm followup experience. Arch Intern Med 1981; 141:985– 988. 173. Onal E, Lopata M. Periodic breathing and pathogenesis of occlusive sleep apneas. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126:676–680. 174. Larsson LH, CarlssonNordlander B, Svanborg E. Fouryear followup after uvulopalatopharyngoplasty in 50 unselected patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Laryngoscope 1994; 104:1362–1368. 175. Aboussouan LS, Golish JA, Wood BG, Mehta AC, Wood DE, Dinner DS. Dynamic pharynogoscopy in predicting outcome of uvulopalatopharyngoplasty for moderate and severe obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1995; 107:946–951. 176. Doghramji K, Jabourian ZH, Pilla M, Farole A, Lindholm RN. Predictors of outcome for uvulopalatopharyngoplasty. Laryngoscope 1995; 105:311–314. 177. Riley RW, Powell NB, Guilleminault C. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: a review of 306 consecutively treated surgical patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1993; 108:117–125. 178. SchmidtNowara W, Lowe A, Wiegand L, Cartwright R, PerezGuerra F, Menn S. Oral appliances for the treatment of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea: a review. Sleep 1995; 18:501–510. 179. American Sleep Disorders Association. Practice parameters for the treatment of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea with oral appliances. Sleep 1995; 18:511– 513. 180. Ferguson KA, Ono T, Lowe AA, Keenan SP, Fleetham JA. A randomized crossover study of an oral appliance vs nasal continuous positive airway pressure in the treatment of mild—moderate obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1996; 109:1269–1275. 181. American Thoracic Society. Indications and standards for use of nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) in sleep apnea syndromes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150:1738–1745. 182. Issa FG, Sullivan CE. Reversal of central sleep apnea using nasal CPAP. Chest 1986; 90:165–171.
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183. Takasaki Y, Orr D, Popkin J, Rutherford R, Liu P, Bradley TD. Effect of nasal continuous positive airway pressure on sleep apnea in congestive heart failure. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:1578–1584. 184. Granton JT, Naughton MT, Benard DC, Liu PP, Goldstein RS, Bradley TD. CPAP improves inspiratory muscle strength in patients with heart failure and central sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:277–282. 185. Lamphere J, Roehrs T, Wittig R, Zorick F, Conway WA, Roth R. Recovery of alertness after CPAP in apnea. Chest 1989; 96:1364–1367. 186. Rajagopal KR, Bennett LL, Dillard TA, Tellis CJ, Tenholder MF. Overnight nasal CPAP improves hypersomnolence in sleep apnea. Chest 1990; 90:172–176. 187. Krieger J, Sforza E, Barthelmebs M, Imbs JS, Kurtz D. Overnight decrease in hematocrit after nasal CPAP treatment in patients with OSA. Chest 1990; 97:729–730. 188. Krieger J, Grucker D, Sforza E, Chambron J, Kutz D. Left ventricular ejection fraction in obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1991; 100:917–921. 189. He J, Kryger M, Zorick F, Conway W, Roth T. Mortality and apnea index in obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1988; 94:9–14. 190. Sanders MH, Kern NB, Costantino JP. Adequacy of prescribing positive airway pressure therapy by mask for sleep apnea on the basis of a partialnight trial. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:1169–1174. 191. Yamashiro Y, Kryger MH. CPAP titration for sleep apnea using a splitnight protocol. Chest 1995; 107:62–66. 192. Kribbs NB, Kline LR, Smith PL, et al. Objective measurement of patterns of nasal CPAP use by patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:791–887. 193. ReevesHoche MK, Meck R, Zwillich CW. Nasal CPAP: an objective evaluation of patient compliance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149:149–154. 194. ReevesHoche MK, Hudgel DW, Meck R, Witteman R, Ross A, Zwillich CW. Continuous versus bilevel positive airway pressure for obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151:443–449. 195. Meurice JC, Marc I, Series F. Efficacy of autoCPAP in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:794–798. 196. Hudgel DW. Treatment of obstructive sleep apnea: a review. Chest 1996; 109:1346–1358. 197. American Sleep Disorders Association. Practice parameters for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in adults: the efficacy of surgical modifications of the upper airway. Sleep 1996; 19:152–155.
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12 Control of Breathing in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease NEIL S. CHERNIACK University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey New Jersey Medical School Newark, New Jersey I. Introduction Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) comprises a group of related disorders of the lungs and the bronchi that have in common increased airway resistance (Table 1; 1,2). The greater airway resistance leads to an increase in lung volume which shortens the respiratory muscles and impedes their contraction. The pathological processes in COPD that heighten resistance by clogging the airways with secretions, or by destroying the parenchymal tethers that prevent airway collapse, lead to additional function changes that interfere with the production of force by the respiratory muscles and the efficiency of gas exchange (2,3). These mechanical and chemical stresses to the respiratory system, which threaten homeostasis, bring into play the defense mechanisms of the respiratory control system (2,3). The two most common illnesses that constitute COPD are chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Both diseases usually occur together. Chronic bronchitis, which can have an infectious or an allergic base, is characterized by hypersecretion and is diagnosed by the symptoms it produces, persistent cough and phlegm on most days for at least 3 months a year for 2 successive years (2,3). Emphysema is a disease, defined histologically as one that causes dilation of the airspaces because of destruction of alveolar walls and interstitial tissue by inflammation (3).
Page 424 Table 1 Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease Major types Emphysema
Related types Bronchiectasis
Panacinar
Cystic fibrosis
Centrolobular
Bronchiolitis obliterans
Bullous
Chronic bronchitis
Allergic
Infectious
Mixed
When the entire acinus is affected, the emphysema is called panacinar; but if only the central portion of the acinus is affected, then the emphysema is termed centrolobular. Easily visible airdistended sacs occur in bullous emphysema. Several other related diseases shown in Table 1 can cause persistently increased airflow resistance (2,3). Various different factors listed in Table 2 cause COPD (3,4). They are of two types: (1) agents that when inhaled cause inflammation, such as noxious particles and gases, air pollutants, infectious agents, and allergens; and (2) familial or acquired deficiency or abnormality of factors that protect against lung injury, such as the cilia lining the airways, immunoglobulins A and G, and antiproteases, such as 1protease inhibitor, 2macroglobin, and antioxidant enzymes (5). By far the leading cause of COPD is cigarette smoking which produces injurious particles, gases, and oxidants that lead to tissue inflammation (6). This, in turn, gives rise to an influx into the lungs of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages that secret proteases, particularly elastases, leading to amplification of tissue injury (4,6). The liver normally synthesizes the antielastase, 1inhibitor, which neutralizes elastases in the lung. Cigarette smoke contains oxygen radicals that are believed to inactivate crucial methionine sites on the 1inhibitor (7–10). Table 2 Causes of Emphysema Smoking Air pollution Severe repeated infections Immotile cilia syndrome IgA deficiency Protease inhibitor deficiency Familial Genetic
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II. Effects of COPD on Respiratory System Function A list of the major stresses placed on the control system by COPD is shown in Table 3. They are of two types: (1) interference with the ability of the respiratory muscles to inflate the lung; and (2) pathological changes that prevent efficient gas exchange (4–10). Destruction of the lung interstitium increases pulmonary compliance; hence, the lung is more easily inflated and functional residual capacity (FRC) is enlarged. The loss of the lung elasticity also allows the airways to be more compressible. This slow airflow during expiration and air may be trapped when increases in respiratory drive shorten the time available for expiration. Inspiration may begin while there is still an alveolar positive endexpiratory pressure (autoPEEP), such that at the start of inspiration, contraction of the inspiratory muscles is necessary to reduce that positive pressure before air can enter the lungs. This increases the work of breathing (11– 15). The hyperinflation of the lungs also shortens the inspiratory muscles so that the maximal force that they generate is diminished (14). In addition, the diaphragm is flattened so that its contraction is wasted in retracting the lateral rib cage instead of expanding the lungs (11,12,16). Increases in respiratory drive require that the intercostal muscles and the accessory muscles of the neck assist the diaphragm. These respiratory muscles use energy less efficiently than the diaphragm and the oxygen they consume in the process of ventilation is increased (12). Even in the absence of parenchymal changes, bronchitis increases airway fluids and alters their viscoelastic properties; consequently, airway resistance rises during both inspiration and expiration. The altered rheological properties of airway fluid compromise ciliary removal of inhaled particles and further diminish airflow rates (17– 19). In both bronchitis and emphysema, airway resistance is greater and flow rates less despite the fact that FRC and total lung capacity (TLC) are both enlarged. Because the increase in FRC and residual volume (RV) are usually Table 3 Disturbances to Control System Operations Produced by COPD Decreased maximal breathing capacity caused by Increased airway resistance Hyperinflation, with shortening of the resting length of inspiratory muscles Air trapping with autoPEEP Increased work and oxygen cost of breathing Inefficient gas exchange caused by Increased dead space Ventilation and perfusion mismatch Reduced diffusing capacity
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greater than the increase of TLC, vital capacity falls in severe COPD, but not as much as flow rates (2,3). Because cigarette smoking, the usual cause of COPD, is injurious both to the airways and to the lung parenchyma, it is common to find both parenchymal destruction and airway injury with hypersecretion in the same patient (20,21). In fact, COPD is a spectrum of diseases, ranging from pure bronchitis to pure emphysema, with most patients occupying the middle of that spectrum (2,3). COPD rarely affects all parts of lungs and airways equally. Some regions of the lungs and airways are more severely affected than others (16,22). Because sites of injury are patchy and differ in severity, ventilation and perfusion in the lung become increasing nonuniform and the normally slight ventilation—perfusion inequalities become magnified (2,16,22) so that the alveolar—arterial gradient for PO2 widens and hypoxemia results. As the disease progresses, ventilation itself becomes increasingly nonuniform, such that regions of the lung fill and empty at different rates. Interstitial tissue destruction also eradicates capillaries, enlarging the dead space, and diminishing the area available for gas transfer (2,3,23). Although ventilation tends to be maintained or is even increased in most patients with COPD, during an acute respiratory inflammatory episode and in disease of sufficient severity, hypercapnia as well as hypoxemia occur (2,3,23). Destruction of the capillary bed, aggravated by increases in cardiac output and pulmonary vasoconstriction caused by hypoxia, may produce right ventricular failure in some patients with COPD (1–3,12). Tissue oxygenation is compromised. The shortness of breath experienced by patients with COPD and air swallowing can interfere with proper nutrition (4). Dyspnea also limits the activity of patients, and muscles of the extremities may weaken and atrophy in part because of disuse (14,24). The weakened poorly oxygenated muscles further limit activity. Killian has found the leg pain limits exercise in patients about as often as shortness of breath (25). Hypoxia and hypercapnia increase cerebral blood flow, but hypoxia may reduce mental performance (2,3,24). Hypercapnia may also impede renal excretion of fluid and contribute to the edema seen in some patients (2,3). COPD severely reduces the quality of life of patients, and many patients are depressed and unable to meet usually encountered daily stresses (26,28,29). III. Compensatory Actions of the Control System in COPD Four different lines of defense allow patients to compensate for the adverse effects of lung disease on respiratory muscle function and gas exchange, as shown in Table 4. These are the intrinsic properties of the muscles; muscle and pulmonary mechanoreceptors; chemical control by chemoreceptors; and in humans, behavioral responses (30–32).
Page 427 Table 4 Bases for Compensatory Control System Responses in Lung Disease Intrinsic properties of skeletal muscles
Chemoreceptors
Length—tension relationship
Peripheral (carotid, aortic bodies)
Force—velocity relationship
Central (medullary) respiratory
Mechanoreceptors Muscles, joints, airways, lungs
Central vasomotor Behavioral
Load detection
Load compensating
Respiratory muscles, similar to skeletal muscle, generally generate more force when stretched by loads (11,14,23). Hyperinflation in COPD tends to elongate the expiratory muscles so that they can contract more forcibly to expel air. However, the resting length of inspiratory muscles, such as the diaphragm, are reduced. Increases in airway resistance slow respiratory muscle shortening and increase contractile forces because, as with other skeletal muscles, forcegenerating ability is inversely and hyperbolically related to contraction velocity (11,14). Spindles present in the intercostal muscles help ensure that the muscles shorten adequately. Intrafusal fibers containing the spindle are embedded within the main force generating (extrafusal) fibers (31). The gamma motor fibers, which signal central respiratory demands to the intrafusal fiber, stretch the spindle, which then reflexly produces greater activity in alpha motor fibers supplying the extrafusal fibers. Spindle stretch is relieved when extrafusal fibers, which are arranged parallel to the intrafusal fibers, shorten sufficiently (31,33). The diaphragm itself has no spindles, but reflexes originating in the intercostal muscles can augment phrenic motor discharge to the diaphragm. Tendon receptors in muscles, particularly in the diaphragm, prevent muscles from contracting too forcibly (31,33). In animals, the pulmonary stretch (HeringBreuer) reflex, which is mediated through stretch receptor afferents passing through the vagi from the airways to the medulla, help offset the effects of loads. Stretch receptors limit lung expansion and thus tidal volume (33). When airway resistance is increased, the expansion of the lungs is slowed. The stretch receptor stimulation is less, leading to a greater tidal volume. This compensatory mechanism does not occur after vagotomy, and the reflex appears to be substantially weaker in humans than in other animals (31,33). Irritant receptors in the larger airway can be stimulated by noxious agents and by inflammation to enhance respiratory motor nerve activity, but this may shorten inspiratory time (31,33). The PO2 and PCO2 in the arterial blood and brain are monitored by peripheral and central chemoreceptors that act on medullary respiratory centers in a multiplicative way to increase drive to the respiratory muscles and are an important source of compensation in COPD (31,34–40).
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Responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia vary greatly among individuals (34). There is considerable indirect evidence that both are influenced by familial and by inherited factors, and that both can be altered by prolonged exposure to elevated CO2 levels or by low levels of O2. Ventilatory responses to chemical stimuli are frequently subnormal in patients with COPD (31,34,35,41,42). However, more direct measures of respiratory drive that are not affected as much as altered respiratory mechanics and muscle function produced by COPD, such as the electrical activity of the diaphragm or airway occlusion pressures, suggest that responses are often within normal limits (36–38). However, in some patients, particularly those with chronic hypercapnia, even these more direct measures show a reduced respiratory drive (39). Studies of highaltitude residents show that sustained hypoxia produces rather complex changes in ventilator responses. The magnitude and direction of these ventilator changes vary with the time of life at which altitude exposure begins and with its duration (40). However, evidence that hypoxic response changes with the duration of COPD is meager and unconvincing. Unlike anesthetized subjects, conscious humans and animals can maintain normal arterial blood gas tension despite substantial elevation in airway resistance produced by bronchoconstriction or experimentally with external loads (36–38). The response seems to depend on the conscious recognition of the impediment to breathing and is mediated by an increase in central respiratory motor output and in the force generated by the respiratory muscles, as measured by the occlusive pressure (43,44). This heightened occlusive pressure response to ventilatory loading is observed during experimentally induced hypercapnia as well as during resting breathing. In fact, in normal persons, the occlusive pressure response to CO2 is generally greater when measured with the subjects breathing through an external load than when breathing is unimpeded. Some of the increase seems to be due to a consciously produced decrease in FRC that enhances the contractile ability of the inspiratory muscles. Humans can detect and grade external loads with substantial accuracy and can also quantitatively evaluate their muscles' force of contraction as well as the level of ventilation and tidal volume (45,46). Nonetheless, there is only scanty evidence that the response to external loads is quantitatively related to the ability to assess load size (46). Some studies suggest that load detection may be influenced by psychological factors, such as the degrees of neuroticism. IV. Effect of COPD on Ventilation As a result of the compensatory mechanisms described, the diaphragm's electrical activity in COPD patients is often increased, as are rates of inspiratory airflow (38,39,44,46). Tidal volume is well maintained, and there is often an acceleration
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of breathing rates. Hence, most patients with COPD are able to maintain normal levels of arterial PCO2 even though dead space is substantially increased by the disease, and maximal inspiratory pressure is reduced. Although hypoxia is quite common at rest and likely contributes to the increased breathing in most patients, normal levels of arterial PCO2 are maintained, even when hypoxia is eliminated by breathing oxygenenriched gases. There is no evidence in most patients of reduced chemosensitivity, although the work required of the respiratory muscles and their O2 consumption may be substantially increased. Dyspnea often occurs in patients with COPD when respiratory drive is increased and can be incapacitating (36). The onset of dyspnea in COPD patients is related to the use of the accessory muscles of respiration, and it also increases as the pressure generated by the respiratory muscles grows higher (36). Patients with COPD are less able to detect added ventilatory loads, which may be related to their higher baseline airway resistance or to their advanced age. The sensory effects produced by respiratory loads is less in an older person, as assessed by psychophysical techniques, such as magnitude estimation and production, and many COPD patients are in the older age ranges (49). The heightened occlusion pressure response to externalresistive loads seen in normal persons is diminished or absent in many patients with COPD, although a heightening of this pressure has been observed in COPD patients who were required to breathe from elastic loads (50). The reason for this difference is obscure. Blunted responses to resistive loading may be a result of prolonged increases in baseline resistance. Asthmatic patients, in contrast, respond as normal subjects to resistive loads with increases in occlusion pressure (51). Exercise capacity becomes reduced in COPD and maximum capacity is best predicted from levels of 1sec forced expiratory volume (FEV1) and maximal voluntary ventilation (52). Many patients with COPD have sufficient respiratory reserve to reach the aerobic threshold, but lactic acid formation may occur at relatively low exercise values (53). Deconditioning and inadequate circulation play an important role in limiting exercise in COPD, and leg pain is as frequent as dyspnea as a symptom that terminates exercise (25). Because of the use of accessory muscles to breathe in COPD, unsupported arm exercise is particularly difficult and often requires higher than normal oxygen consumption (54). V. Factors Limiting Load Compensation and Producing Hypercapnia. With progressively deteriorating respiratory performance or with acute exacerbations of the disease, the ability to keep arterial PCO2 levels within normal limits is lost and hypercapnia results. There is a clear relationship between the level of FEV1 and arterial PCO2. Very little change occurs in arterial PCO2 until the FEV1
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value falls below 1.5 or even 1.0 L, at which point further reductions in FEV1 cause a nearly exponential rise in arterial PCO2 (2,3). Although this relationship indicates that there are limits, this is not obvious. Some possibilities are shown in Table 5. In patients with very severe lung damage, the work of breathing may be so great that the additional CO2 produced by respiratory muscle contraction to raise ventilation may exceed the amount of additional CO2 produced by respiratory muscle contraction to raise ventilation, which may exceed the amount of additional CO2 expired as the result of the ventilation increase. Another possibility is that there is a tight relationship between the respiratory drive, as measured by PCO2 and PO2, and output, as measured by work of breathing. So, the PCO2 level will rise until it is of a sufficiently high level to stimulate enough respiratory work to maintain CO2 homeostasis. However, work is not constant at a given chemical drive. Even when PCO2 is kept constant, reflex drives and behavioral factors can increase neural activity, occlusion pressure, and presumably the work of breathing as well. Feedback through chemoreceptors is an important mechanism that preserves PCO2 at normal levels. The same PCO2 may be maintained by individuals with widely different levels of airway resistance and degrees of respiratory work, suggesting variability in chemosensitivity. Respiratory responses to CO2 are less in close relatives of COPD patients who are hypercapnic than in relatives of normocapnic patients (34). Also, longdistance runners and their relatives have subnormal responses to hypoxia (55). From this it has been inferred that blunted chemosensitivity present in some patients gives rise to CO2 retention. Metabolic alkalosis, sedatives, and anesthetics, all depress respiratory responses to CO2. Diuretic treatment with potassium loss can lead to alkalosis and PCO2 elevation in patients with COPD (56). Sleepdisordered breathing can lead to bicarbonate retention and hypercapnia. In patients in whom the response to CO2 is already Table 5 Potential Causes of Hypercapnia in COPD Excessive work of breathing Excessive metabolic cost of breathing Reduced respiratory muscle, strength, and endurance Decreased chemosensitivity Genetic, familial: acquired because of Medications used Alkalosis Hypoxic depression Sleepdisturbed breathing Reflex shortening of tidal volume or inspiratory time Conscious attempts to avoid dyspnea
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reduced, treatment with O2 to relieve hypoxia may diminish respiratory drive so much that the PCO2 increases substantially. On the other hand, after an initial increase in ventilation arising from stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors, acute hypoxia can produce ventilatory depression, presumably by increasing inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain (47,58). It is possible that longterm hypoxia has a similar effect in COPD, but there is no clear evidence for this. Some patients with COPD seem to lack the behaviorally mediated increase in respiratory activity observed in healthy individuals. The absence of this behavioral response may predispose to hypercapnia. Oliven et al. demonstrated that patients who perceived changes in respiratory pressure more intensely compensated less well to loads than those with more blunted perceptual responses (46). This suggests that subnormal respiratory sensation need not lead to diminished load compensation, but rather, that patients may adjust their breathing such that they minimize sensation of respiratory or discomfort effort. Postures used by COPD patients, such as leaning forward may be adopted to relieve dyspnea. Sharp et al. suggested that this posture lengthens the neck muscles and increases their effectiveness in inspiration (47). VI. Breathing Patterns and Hypercapnia in COPD In the past, hypercapnic patients with COPD have been divided into two categories based on the responses to chemical drives: patients who try to breathe but cannot; and those who because of poor chemosensitivity have insufficient drive to breathe (2). Bronchitis was believed to lead to hypercapnia, hypoxia, right ventricular failure, and fluid retention—to produce “blue bloaters” who had poor chemosensitivity (2,59,60). Emphysema, on the other hand, was believed to produce pink puffers with wellmaintained levels of arterial PCO2 and PO2 (2,59). This classification has not withstood the scrutiny afforded by technologies, such as computed tomographic (CT) scanning and chemical measurements of elastin metabolites, which now can be used to estimate the severity of emphysema premortem (20,59). Sorli and MilicEmili compared ventilatory patterns between normocapnic and hypercapnic COPD patients (60). Although both groups had minute ventilation levels above normal, tidal volume was smaller in the hypercapnia group. The decrease in tidal volume was caused by a shortening of inspiratory time. The authors suggested that because the hypercapnic patients tended to have bronchitis symptoms, irritant receptor stimulation might abbreviate inspiratory time, producing lower tidal volumes and decreased alveolar ventilation so that hypercapnia occurred despite the increase in overall ventilation. However, irritant receptor stimulation also occurs during asthmatic attacks in which hypocapnia is common (39).
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The increased work performed by the respiratory muscles may result in fatigue. Grassino et al. found that fatigue of the respiratory muscles occurs when the product of the pressure generated by the diaphragm and inspiratory time reach some limit (11,14,61). Some studies indicate that, when this limit is approached, the activity of motor nerves supplying the respiratory muscles diminishes to avoid the fatigue that might result in serious muscle damage. It may be that hypercapnia in some COPD occurs in an attempt by the control system to limit inspiratory time and thereby escape fatigue. Finally, dyspnea is related more to the pressure exerted during each breath than to other factors, such as breathing rates (36,62,63). It may be that tidal volume is decreased in the hypercapnic patients to relieve dyspnea (64). Those patients with COPD who have more intense perceptions of pressure maintain smaller tidal volumes when breathing on external loads than those with less intense sensation (46). It has been proposed many times that breathing patterns are regulated such that the work of breathing is minimized or the respiratory pressure generated during a breath is less for a given level of alveolar ventilation. Poon has hypothesized that both alveolar ventilation and breathing patterns are adjusted to optimize a figure of merit that becomes closer to ideal as deviations from desired arterial PCO2 and the work of breathing are reduced (65). Although Poon's hypothesis could explain hypercapnia in COPD patients, work sensors in the respiratory muscles have not been found. However, because humans can consciously sense both respiratory pressure and respiratory volume changes, and work is the product of pressure and volume, there may be cortical mechanisms for integrating sensations so that something akin to work can be sensed (66). Longobardo et al. have suggested that it is possible that breathing is optimized such that work to expel a given volume of CO2 is minimized, and they have shown that, if this is true, resting arterial PCO2 levels would rise as respiratory work increases (67). VII. Factors Modifying Respiratory Control System Operation Although the respiratory controller largely consists of medullary and spinal reflex circuits, its operation can be modified by higher brain centers (36,38). Equally important, the properties of the control system are not static, but can be altered by continued stress. Hypoxia can have intracellular effects that can turn off or on the expression of genes and so alter the intrinsic characteristics of control system elements (69–73). Both higher brain centers and regulation of gene expressions are especially important in chronic disease such as COPD that have widespread systemic effects (70,72). Both increase the capacity of the respiratory control system to adapt and to increase the number of available strategies.
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Orem has shown through studies of conditioned reflexes involving respiratory neurons, that behavioral control of breathing is expressed over neural pathways to medullary respiratory neurons as well as over pathways from higher brain centers that bypass these neurons and act on the spinal motor neurons of the respiratory muscles (63). This cortical control of respiration is clearly evident in breathholding and in speech, but it is possible that more subtle mood changes also affect the level of patterns of breathing in COPD. There are adaptive responses to the prolonged stresses engendered by COPD. For example, the number of sarcomers is reduced in the diaphragm fibers in animals with experimental emphysema (69). Because of these reductions, sarcomers remain at their normal resting length even when the resting length of the diaphragm is subnormal because of expansion of the FRC. In cell cultures, hypoxia retards or accelerates the transcription of genes for enzymes involved in neurotransmission, red cell formation, angiogenesis, and aerobic and anaerobic metabolism (72). Moreover, it is clear that these changes in gene function can be initiated quite early following hypoxic exposure (73). A greater understanding of the complexity of the control system and its potential to adapt will increase opportunities for improving the wellbeing of patients with COPD. References 1. Bergin C, Muller N, Nichols DM, et al. The diagnosis of emphysema. A computed tomographic pathologic correlation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986; 123:541–546. 2. Snider GL. Emphysema: the first two centuries—and beyond. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:1334–1344. 3. American Thoracic Society Statement Standards for the diagnosis and care of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:S77–S120. 4. Ludwig PW, Schwartz BA, Hoidal JR, Niewoehner DE. Cigarette smoking causes accumulation of polymorphonuclear leukocytosis in an alveolar septum. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 131:828–830. 5. Burrows B, Bloom JW, Traver GA, Cline MG. The course and prognosis of different forms of chronic airways obstruction in a sample from the general population. N Engl J Med 1987; 317:1309–1314. 6. Janoff A. Elastases and emphysema. Current assessment of the protease—antiprotease hypothesis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132:417–433. 7. Riley DJ, Kramer MJ, Kerr JS, et al. Damage and repair of lung connective tissue in rats exposed to toxic levels of oxygen. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135:44. 8. Saito K, Cagle P, Berend N, Thurlbeck WM. The “destructive index” in nonemphysematous and emphysematous lungs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 139:308–312. 9. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Oxygen free radicals and iron in relation to biology and medicine: some problems and concepts. Arch Biochem Biophys 1986; 246:501–514. 10. McCusker K, Hoidal J. Selective increase of antioxidant enzyme activity in alveolar
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macrophages from cigarette smokers and smokeexposed hamsters. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:628–682. 11. Grassimo A, Bellemare F, LaPorta D. Diaphragm fatigue and the strategy of breathing in COPD. Chest 1989; 85:515–545. 12. Arora NS, Rochester DF. COPD and human diaphragm muscle dimensions. Chest 1987; 91:719–724. 13. Polkey MI, Kyroussis D, Hamnegard CH, Mills GH, Green M, Moxham J. Diaphragm strength in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:1310–1317. 14. Wagner PD, Dantzker DR, Dueck R, et al. Ventilation—perfusion inequality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Clin Invest 1977; 59:203–216. 15. Petrot BJ, Legare M, Goldberg P, MilicEmili J, Gottfried SB. Continuous positive airway pressure reduces work of breathing and dyspnea during weaning from mechanical ventilation in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:281–289. 16. Bellemare F, Grassimo A. Force reserve of the diaphragm in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55:8–15. 17. Wanner A. Clinical aspects of mucociliary transport. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977;116 (1):73–125. 18. Mussatto DJ, Garrard CS, Lourenco RV. The effect of inhaled histamine on human tracheal mucus velocity and bronchia (mucociliary clearance). Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 138:775–777. 19. Sleigh MA, Blake JR, Liron N. State of art. The propulsion of mucus by cilia. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137:726–741. 20. Frette C, Jacob MP, Defouilloy C, Atassi C, Kaufman F. Pham QT, Bignon J. Lack of relationship of elastin peptide level to emphysema assessed by CT scans. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; ;153:1544–1547. 21. Lamers RJ, Thelissen CR, Kessels AG, Wooters EF, von Engelshoven JM. Chronic obstructure pulmonary disease: evaluation with spirometrically controlled CT lung densitometry. Radiology 1994; 193:109–113. 22. Jones N. Pulmonary gas exchange during exercise in patients with chronic airways obstruction. Clin Sci 1966; 31:34–50. 23. Booshy JF, North LB. Hemodynamic changes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 1977; 72:565–570. 24. Killian KJ, Campbell EJM. Dyspnea and exercise. Annu Rev Physiol 1983; 45:465–479. 25. Killian KJ, Leblanc P, Martin DH, Summers ES, Jones NL, Campbell EJM. Exercise capacity and ventilatory, circulatory and symptom limitation in patients with chronic airflow limitation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:935–940. 26. Mahler DA, Rosiello RA, Harver A, et al. Comparison of clinical sensations in obstructive airway disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135:1229–1233. 27. Gottfried SB, Altose MD, Kelsen SG, Cherniack NS. Perception of changes in airflow resistance in obstructive pulmonary disorders. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 124:566–570. 28. Kaplan RM, Reis A, Atkins CJ. Behavioral issues in the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Behav Med 1985; 7:5–10.
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29. Sandhu HS. Psychological issues in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin Chest Med 1986; 7:629–642. 30. Bruce EN, Cherniack NS. Central chemoreceptors. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62:389–402. 31. Cherniack NS, Altose MD. Respiratory responses to ventilatory loading. In: Hornbein TF, ed. Regulation of Breathing II. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1981:900– 964. 32. Rochester DF, Arora NS, Braun NMT, Goldberg SK. The respiratory muscles in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1979; 18: 951–975. 33. Sant' Ambroggio G, Remmers JE. Reflex influences on respiratory muscles of the chest wall. In: Roussos C, MacKlem PT, eds. Thorax. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1985:531–580. 34. Kawakami Y, Irie T, Shida A, Yoshikawa T. Familial factors affecting arterial blood gas values and respiratory chemosensitivity in chronic obstructure pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 125:420–425. 35. Flenly DC, Franklin DH, Millar JS. The hypoxic arises to breathing in chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Clin Sci 1970; 38:503–518. 36. Altose MD. Assessment and management of breathlessness. Chest 1985; 88:775–785. 37. Altose MD, McCauley WC, Kelsen SG, Cherniack NS. Effects of hypercapnia and inspiratory flowresistive loading respiratory activity in chronic airways obstruction. J Clin Invest 1977; 59:500–507. 38. Lourenco RV, Miranda JM. Drive and performance of the ventilatory apparatus in chronic obstructive lung disease. N Engl J Med 1968; 279:53–59. 39. Rebuck AS, Slutsky AS. Control of breathing in diseases of the respiratory tract and lungs. In: Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JG, eds. Handbook of Physiology, Vol. 2, Part II, Sec 3, Control of Breathing. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society 1986:771–792. 40. Dempsey JA, Furster HV. Mediation of ventilatory adaptations. Physiol Rev 1982; 62: 262–346. 41. Sahn SA, Zwillich CW, Dick N, McCullough RE, Lakshminarayan S, Weil JV. Variability and ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exercise Physiol 1977, 43:1019–1025. 42. Vizek M, Pickett CK, Weil JV. Interindividual variation in hypoxic ventilatory responses: potential role of carotid body. J Appl Physiol 1987; 63: 1884–1889. 43. Altose MD, Kelsen SG, Cherniack NS. Respiratory responses to change in airflow resistance in conscious man. Respir Physiol 1979; 37:185–200. 44. Oliven A, Cherniack NS, Deal ED, Kelsen SG. The effects of acute bronchoconstriction on respiratory activity in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 131:236–241. 45. Bakers JHCM, Tenney SM. The perception of some sensations associated with breathing. Respir Physiol 1970; 10:85–92. 46. Oliven A, Kelsen SG, Deal EC Jr, Cherniack NS. Respiratory pressure sensation. Relationship to changes in breathing pattern in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132:1214–1218. 47. Sharp JT, Druz WS, Moisan T, et al. Postural relief of dyspnea in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 122:201–211.
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48. Nochomovitz ML, Cherniack NS. Agerelated changes in respiratory function. Ger Med Today 1984; 3:49–54. 49. Nochomovitz M, Gothe B, Kelsen SG, Altose MD, Cherniack NS. Elastic and resistive loading in chronic obstructive lung disease. Chest 1980; 77(suppl):296– 297. 50. Kelsen SG, Fleefler B, Altose MD. The respiratory neuromuscular response to hypoxia, hypercapnia, and obstruction to airflow in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1979; 120:517–527. 51. Cherniack RM. The oxygen consumption and efficiency of the respiratory muscles in health and emphysema. J Clin Invest 1959; 38:494–499. 52. Montes MDEO, Rassulo J, Celli B. Respiratory muscle and cardiopulmonary function during exercise in very severe COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:1284–1289. 53. Petessio A, Casaburi R, Carone M, Appendi L, Donner CF, Wasserman K. Comparison of gas exchange, lactate, and lactic acidosis thresholds in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148:622–662. 54. Martinez FT, Couser JI, Celli BR. Respiratory response to arm elevation in patients with chronic airflow obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143:476–480. 55. Collins DD, Scoggin CH, Zwillich CW, Weil JV. Hereditary aspects of decreased hypoxic response. J Clin Invest 1978; 62:105–110. 56. Cherniack NS, Altose MD. Automatic and behavioral control of breathing. In: Kana ST, Suratt PM, Remmers JE, eds. Sleep and Respiration in Aging Adults. New York: Elsevier Science, 1991:101–107. 57. Newbaver JA, Melton JE, Edelman NH. Modulation of respiration during hypoxia. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68:441–451. 58. Sun MK, Reis DJ. Central neural mechanisms mediating excitation of sympathetic neurons by hypoxia. Prog Neurobiol 1994; 44:197–219. 59. Meziane MA, Hroban RH, Zerhooni EA, et al. Highresolution CT of the lung parenchyma with pathologic correlation. Radiographics 1988; 8:27–54. 60. Sorli J, Grassimo A, Lorange G, MilicEmily J. Control of breathing in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Clin Sci Mol Med 1978; 54:295–305. 61. Roussos C. Ventilatory muscle fatigue governs breathing frequency. Bul Eur Physiopathol Respir 1984; 20:445–451. 62. Killian KJ, Bucens DD, Campbell EJM. Effect of breathing patterns on the perceived magnitude of added loads to breathing. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52:578–584. 63. Killian KJ, Gandevia SC, Summers E, Campbell EJM. Effect of increased lung volume on perception of breathlessness effort and tension. J Appl Physiol 1984;57:681–691. 64. Oku Y, Saidel CM, Chonan T, Altose MD, Cherniack NS. Sensation and control of breathing: a dynamic model. Ann Biomed Eng 1991; 19:251–272. 65. Poon CS. Optimal control of ventilation in hypoxia, hypercapnia, and exercise. In: Whipp BJ, Wilberg DM, eds. Modeling and Control of Breathing. New York: Elsevier Science 1983:189–196. 66. Tack M, Altose MD, Cherniack NS. Effects of aging on sensation of respiratory force and displacement. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55:1433–1440. 67. Longobardo GS, Cherniack NS, DamokoshGiordano A. Possible optimization of respirators controller sensitivity. Ann Biomed Eng 1980; 8:143–158.
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68. Orem J. Neural bases of behavioral and statedependent control of breathing. In: Lydic R, Brebuyck JF, eds. Clinical Physiology of Sleep. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society 1988; 79–96. 69. Supinski GS, Kelsen SG. Effect of elastase induced emphysema on the forcegenerating ability of the diaphragm. J Clin Invest 1982; 70:978–988. 70. Semenza GL, Roth PH, Fang HM, Wang GL. Transcriptional regulation of genes encoding glycolytic enzymes by hypoxiainducible factor 1. J Biol Chem 1994; 269:23757–23763. 71. Erickson JT, Milhorn DE. Foslike protein is induced in the neurons of the medulla oblongata after stimulation of the carotid sinus nerves in awake and anesthetized cats. Brain Res 1991; 567:11–24. 72. Bunn HF, Poyton RO. Oxygen sensing and molecular adaptation to hypoxia. Physiol Rev 1996; 76:839–885. 73. Prabhakar NR, Shenoy BC, Simonson MS, Cherniack NS. Cell selective induction and transcriptional activation of immediate early genes by hypoxia. Brain Res 1995; 697:266–270.
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13 Control of Breathing in Interstitial Lung Disease ANTHONY F. DiMARCO Case Western Reserve University and MetroHealth Medical Center Cleveland, Ohio I. Introduction and Overview The interstitial lung diseases encompass a large and heterogeneous group of disorders that result in inflammation and ultimately fibrosis of the lung parenchyma. As pointed out by Crystal et al. (1), the term interstitial is somewhat of a misnomer because these disease processes involve not only the alveolar interstitium, but also alveolar epithelial and endothelial cells; airways, arteries, and veins may also be affected. This group of diseases, which encompasses more than 100 different entities, are generally classified into two major groups based on whether or not the causative agent is known (1). The major categories of disease are provided in Table 1. This list is not allinclusive, but provides a framework from which these diseases can be categorized in terms of pathogenesis. In terms of the relative number of patients with these various disorders, most have diseases in which the cause is unknown (2). Within this group sarcoidosis and idiopathic interstitial pulmonary fibrosis are by far the most common. Although the general perception is that the incidence of these diseases is uncommon, recent studies estimate a prevalence of pulmonary fibrosis as high as 29:150,000 persons (3). Moreover, a respiratory diseases task force report from the National Institutes of Health (NIH)
Page 440 Table 1 Etiology of Interstitial Lung Disease Known inciting agent Environmental diseases Inorganic materials
Unknown inciting agent Sarcoidosis Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
Silicosis
Vasculitis
Asbestosis
Idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis
Berylliosis
Collagen—vascular disorders
Aluminum
Scleroderma
Talc
Lupus erythematosus
Hard metals
Polymyositis
Organic materials
Dermatomyositis
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Gases
Sulfur dioxide
Oxygen
Chlorine
Druginduced disease
Secondary to bleomycin, busulfan, paraquat, methotrexate, or nitrofurantoin
Radiationinduced disease
Infection
Mycobacteria
Fungi
Viruses
Cardiogenic and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema
estimated that approximately 15% of a pulmonary physician's practice involved the care of patients with interstitial lung disease (4). On clinical presentation, patients with interstitial lung disease typically complain of dyspnea, often associated with a nonproductive cough and fatigue (1,2). Physical findings usually include basilar endinspiratory crackles and clubbing of the digits. Most patients are hypoxemic and demonstrate chronic hyperventilation when breathing room air (5–7). These diseases are generally progressive. The number of alveolar—capillary units involved and the degree of fibrosis increases over time (8). However, there is considerable variability in the clinical course of these various diseases. Sarcoidosis is usually characterized by a relatively benign clinical course; 20–25% of patients, however, may suffer some permanent loss of lung function (2). Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, in contrast, commonly leads to severe progressive fibrosis and early death, having a mean survival of less than 5 years (10–12). This latter disease represents the prototype of the interstitial disorders; consequently, most
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clinical studies evaluating the physiological aspects of restrictive lung disorders include patients with this disease. Initially, a chest xray film of patients with interstitial lung disease is characterized by a predominantly interstitial, interstitial—nodular, or granular appearance. Ultimately, these changes may progress to a predominantly cystic or honeycomb appearance (1). Pathologically, these diseases typically manifest a high
Figure 1 Lung biopsy specimens taken from two patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: (a) Alveolar architecture is preserved with only mild fibrous thickening of alveolar wall. There is a moderate chronic inflammatory infiltrate around blood vessels and within alveolar walls. Macrophages are present within alveolar spaces (Magnification ×295). (b) Severe advanced fibrosis. Alveolar walls thickened by dense fibrous tissue with a mild chronic inflammatory infiltrate. Hyperplastic type II pneumocytes line the alveolar surface (Magnification ×295). (Courtesy of Dr. J. Tomashefsky.)
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degree of cellularity and minimal fibrosis in the early stages and predominant fibrosis and minimal cellularity in advanced disease (2,8,9). A lung biopsy taken from a patient in the early stages of usual interstitial pneumonitis (UIP) and manifested predominantly by an inflammatory reaction is shown in Figure 1A. Another biopsy taken from another patient with the same diagnosis, but in the late stages of the disease and manifested predominantly by a fibrotic reaction is shown in Figure 1B. Both the inflammatory and fibrotic reactions lead to alterations in lung mechanics, characterized by increases in lung elastance. These diseases, therefore, are often categorized as restrictive lung disorders. The control mechanisms that govern breathing are clearly altered in patients with interstitial lung disease. This is most clearly evidenced by the chronic maintenance of elevated levels of ventilation and altered ventilatory pattern during resting breathing (6,7,13). In this chapter, the specific alterations in respiratory control that occur in patients with interstitial lung disease and our current understanding of their mechanisms will be reviewed. Abnormalities in lung function and status of respiratory muscle function will also be reviewed briefly because these parameters impinge on respiratory control mechanisms themselves as well as our capacity to evaluate them. II. Pulmonary Mechanics The physiological derangements that characterize the interstitial lung disorders are well known. Lung volumes, including total lung capacity, functional residual capacity, residual volume, and vital capacity are reduced (14,15). Static lung compliance is reduced, resulting in an increase in the elastic work of breathing (16). Gas exchange is also impaired, as evidenced by reductions in diffusion capacity, and resting hypoxemia, which typically worsens with exercise (1). Specific airway resistance may be normal (17) or reduced (18). A low specific airway resistance may occur secondary to the fibrotic process, which places tension on the airways resulting in airway dilation (19). Specific monitors of small airways function, however, such as maximal expiratory flowvolume curves and dynamic compliance often indicate small airways disease (17). In fact, some disease processes, such as sarcoidosis (20) and silicosis (21) may manifest a significant component of obstructive physiology evident on standard spirometry. Physiological dead space is also increased in patients with interstitial lung disease. This is secondary to poor perfusion of ventilated areas, resulting in dead space/tidal volume ratios that often exceed 50% (22,23). In the evaluation of control mechanisms that govern breathing, simple physiological parameters to differentiate the inflammatory and fibrotic components of these disease processes would be useful. Inflammatory cells, for example, may inhibit or excite specific intrapulmonary receptors, whereas fibrosis, which
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results in permanent structural damage to lung tissue, may stimulate other receptors sensitive to alterations in lung mechanics. Clinical studies (20) have demonstrated that the results of physiological testing correlate roughly with the actual pathological changes (usually obtained by openlung biopsy). Patients with normal pulmonary function test results have only mild pathological abnormalities, whereas patients with abnormal test results have significant pathology. A more precise relation between pulmonary function and physiological change has not been demonstrated. Investigations attempting to differentiate the cellular and fibrotic components of these diseases based on physiological parameters have yielded no consensus on this issue. The results of some studies (20,24) have shown that changes in the relation between static volume and pressure in patients with pulmonary fibrosis appear to be a good reflection of the degree of fibrosis, and changes in lung compliance and coefficient of retraction correlate with the degree of fibrosis (24). Other more recent studies (25), however, have been unable to corroborate these findings. Some studies have also found correlations between lung volumes and degree of inflammation (25), but others have not (24,26). Studies of gas exchange during exercise provide the most accurate assessment of the overall histological involvement (12,20,24,25). A recent study by Cherniack et al. (25), for example, suggests that this parameter is the best predictor of the severity of fibrosis in patients with interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. This study (25) also demonstrated that smoking status is an important factor in assessing structure—function relations in these patients and may have been an uncontrolled confounding variable in prior investigations. III. Breathing Pattern The resting breathing pattern in patients with interstitial lung disease is generally characterized by higher breathing frequencies and smaller tidal volumes compared with normal individuals. Moreover, the magnitude of changes in breathing pattern mirror the changes in lung elastance (22); breathing frequency is positively correlated with lung elastance, whereas tidal volume decreases with increasing elastance (22). The reduction in breathing frequency is accomplished by reductions in both inspiratory (Ti) and expiratory time (Te; Fig. 2) (22,27). Smaller tidal volumes and the consequent smaller lungdistending pressure, coupled with the shorter time period over which inspiration is maintained, may allow ventilation to be achieved with less work and lower total oxygen cost of breathing. Despite these alterations in breathing pattern, levels of ventilation at rest (5–7) and during exercise (5,28) are higher than normal, even when breathing 100% oxygen. An increased ventilation is necessary to overcome the increased respiratory dead space and abnormal distribution of ventilation. In many patients, however, the level of ventilation exceeds metabolic requirements, resulting in alveolar hyperventilation and reduced arterial PCO2 values (5–7).
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Figure 2 Schematic representation of breathing cycle in a patient with interstitial lung disease compared with a normal subject. Total breath time is reduced owing to reductions in both inspiratory and expiratory time. Tidal volume is also reduced. The ratio of tidal volume to inspiratory time (Vi/Ti) however, is increased.
Ventilation can also be expressed as the product of average inspiratory airflow (VT /Ti) and duty cycle (Ti/TTOT (29):
By this relation, the respiratory controller consists of an intensity or drive component (VT /Ti) and a separate timing component (Ti/TTOT). Although changes in the shape of the tidal volume waveform can alter this relation, it is a simple model that can be used to assess the factors that determine ventilation. In patients with interstitial lung disease, the comparable reduction in Ti and Te result in the duty cycle (Ti/TTOT) being the same as in normal subjects (22,27,30). However, average inspiratory airflow (VT /Ti) is greater in patients with interstitial lung disease despite a greater elastic work of breathing, indicating a higher level of respiratory drive (see Fig. 2). Moreover, the increase in ventilation is achieved because of the increase in airflow, for the timing component is the same as that observed in normal subjects. The reductions in Ti account for the decrease in tidal volume in these patients (22,27,30). IV. Respiratory Muscle Function In one investigation (31), inspiratory muscle strength was normal in this patient population. In all other studies (30,32,33), however, respiratory muscle strength
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has been reduced in patients with interstitial lung disease when compared with normal subjects. Both maximal static inspiratory pressure (MIP) measured at the mouth as well as maximal transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi,MAX) were reduced in a group that comprised largely patients with sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (30). DiMarco et al. (30), reported that MIP and Pdi,MAX were reduced by about 18 and 16%, respectively, suggesting that the pressuregenerating capacity of the inspiratory muscles in general and the diaphragm specifically are impaired. In patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), previous investigators have also described marked reductions in inspiratory muscle strength (32). Studies by Martens et al. (33), have described significant reductions in both MIP and Pdi,MAX. The reductions in inspiratory muscle strength are a somewhat surprising finding because the reduction in lung volumes associated with these disease processes would be expected to optimize the resting length of the inspiratory muscles, resulting in improved pressuregenerating capacity compared with normal subjects. The cause of these alterations in muscle function are not well understood, but there are several potential etiologies. First, many of these patients are treated with corticosteroids, drugs known to result in a muscle dysfunction in some patients. Previous animal studies have clearly documented that each of the commonly used steroid preparations, particularly fluorinated steroids, result in a myopathy affecting both limb and respiratory muscles (34–38). Steroid myopathy has also been demonstrated in human studies. Although it was previously thought that steroid myopathy resulted only from high doses of steroids (39,40), more recent studies have shown (41) that even the administration of relatively low doses (methylprednisolone, 4 mg/day) to patients with chronic airflow obstruction can have adverse effects on both inspiratory and expiratory muscle strength. The degree of respiratory muscle weakness was directly related to the dose of steroids taken. Histological analysis suggests that the observed reductions in muscle strength are secondary to severe steroidinduced myopathy (42). Given the results of these studies in patients with obstructive lung disease, it appears likely that steroids may also affect respiratory muscle function in patients with various forms of interstitial lung disease. In addition, inanition from chronic systemic disease may impair respiratory muscle function. Malnutrition (43) has been associated with reduced respiratory muscle strength secondary to reduced respiratory muscle mass. Finally, specific interstitial diseases may affect respiratory muscle function directly. For example, patients with SLE may develop reductions in respiratory muscle strength secondary to a lupus myopathy. The development of abnormalities in respiratory muscle function could not be explained by corticosteroids or generalized debilitation in these patients (32,33). It would appear that the inspiratory muscles may be involved in a more generalized myositis in patients with SLE. Consistent with this hypothesis, previous work has described reductions in expiratory (33) as well as inspiratory muscle strength and coincident quadriceps muscle involvement (44). In patients with interstitial lung disease, therefore, impairment in respiratory
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muscle function may represent a significant further insult to the respiratory system, particularly in view of the high elastic workload. Concerning studies evaluating respiratory control, neural output parameters that depend on muscle force development may underestimate the magnitude of neural drive in patients with significant respiratory muscle weakness. V. Respiratory Control Mechanisms Our current understanding of respiratory control mechanisms in patients with interstitial lung disease is derived from (1) clinical studies of patients with these disorders, (2) animal models of interstitial lung disease, (3) chest wall restriction, and (4) external elastic loading, that attempt to reproduce the mechanical derangements observed in patients. A. Clinical Studies. Several clinical studies have been performed in an attempt to evaluate ventilatory control mechanisms in patients with interstitial lung disorders. When assessing the results of these studies, it is necessary to be aware of several potential problems inherent in the evaluation of this patient population. First, although these diseases are chronic, they are not necessarily stable conditions. Some of these disorders may run a fairly rapid clinical course, progressing from a predominantly inflammatory disease to one of severe fibrosis and respiratory failure within a few years (1,20). Moreover, the degree of mechanical derangements in lung function may vary widely over this time period (1,20). Because there is no consensus or easily measured parameters to distinguish the inflammatory versus fibrotic components of these diseases (20,24,25) nor have many of these studies controlled for the degree of mechanical derangements (27,30,45), the participants in these studies necessarily include a heterogeneous group. Variations in study population could, therefore, potentially cause widely varying results. A second problem is that some of these disorders do not impose a purely elastic load. As mentioned, sarcoidosis is often associated with endobronchial granulomas, with the consequence of variable degrees of obstructive physiology, in addition to the parenchymal involvement (1,2,20). Because the adaptive mechanisms in respiratory control are quite different in obstructive disorders (46), the degree to which airway obstruction is present in patients with interstitial disease may also complicate the assessment of control mechanisms. Mechanical models of interstitial lung disease, despite their limitations, may provide the only means to assess the mechanical effects of increased elastance alone on respiratory control. That patients with interstitial lung disease maintain higher than normal levels of ventilation, resulting in abnormally reduced levels of PCO2 has been known for many years and confirmed in multiple studies (6,7,30). This is an apparent mal
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adaptive response because (1) ventilation exceeds metabolic requirements; (2) the increased ventilation occurs despite the markedly elevated elastic work of breathing, increasing the oxygen cost of breathing; and (3) most likely contributes to the sensation of dyspnea, a common and often disabling symptom in these patients. That minute ventilation is significantly greater than normal controls and results in chronic hypocapnia in some patients is convincing evidence that central drive to the respiratory muscles is significantly increased in patients with interstitial lung disease (6,7). However, not all patients with these disorders manifest increases in ventilation sufficient to produce hypocapnia. Some of them may have severe derangements in lung mechanics, such that a heightened level of neural drive is not translated in to increased levels of ventilation. Consequently, ventilation may be a poor reflection of neural drive in many of these patients. Shekleton et al. (47) evaluated the reliability of ventilation as an index of neural drive in normal individuals subjected to added elastic loads. In response to CO2 rebreathing, ventilation reflected neural drive in the unloaded condition. However, following the addition of elastic loads, the ventilatory responses were more variable. Mouth pressure during airway occlusion developed shortly after the onset of inspiration (150 msec); however, it increased consistently in all subjects and proved to be a more reliable indicator of neural drive (47). Moreover, under conditions of increased elastance, occlusion pressure measurements correlate well with the rate in rise of the diaphragm's electromyogram (EMG) and, thereby, provide a reasonable estimate of changes in neural drive to the respiratory muscles (26). Subsequent studies performed in patients with interstitial lung disease have documented significantly elevated occlusion pressures both during resting breathing (22,30) and during progressive hypercapnia (27), when compared with normal subjects (Fig. 3). It should be noted that changes in intrinsic muscle properties or alterations in muscle length induced by disease could potentially result in alterations in occlusion pressure, independently of changes in neural drive (48). In patients with interstitial lung disease, the increased occlusion pressure occurs in the face of decreases in inspiratory muscle strength (12). Consequently, these responses represented a greater percentage of maximal pressuregenerating capacity than those found in normal subjects. Taken together, the data strongly suggest that neural drive to the inspiratory muscles is significantly elevated in this patient population. A wide range of factors could be involved in the maintenance of a heightened level of ventilation and altered breathing pattern in patients with interstitial lung disease. These include chemoreceptor stimulation secondary to abnormal gas tensions, particularly because many of these patients are hypoxemic (1,2,20), or possibly to enhanced chemoreceptor sensitivity. Stimulation of intrapulmonary vagal or chest wall receptors could also account for these alterations. The ventilatory response to hypercapnia in patients with interstitial lung disease has been addressed in several studies (6,7,30). In response to steadystate
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Figure 3 Ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to progressive hyperoxic hypercapnia in a normal subject and in a patient with interstitial lung disease (×). The ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses are shown in the left and righthand panels, respectively. At any given level of chemical drive, both ventilation and occlusion pressure in the patient with interstitial lung disease was greater than the normal subject. (From Ref. 30.)
hypercapnia (inhalation of 5% CO2), minute ventilation in normal persons increases to a degree similar to that of patients with interstitial fibrosis and sarcoidosis (6,7). The slope of the ventilatory response to progressive hypercapnia is also normal in a similar patient population (30; see Fig. 3). At any given level of hypercapnia, however, the absolute level of minute ventilation was significantly higher in patients with interstitial disease than in normal controls (30; see Fig. 3). This indicates that the heightened level of ventilation present under resting conditions is maintained during hypercapnia. Moreover, these studies were performed under hyperoxic conditions; therefore, the heightened level of ventilation could not be explained by hypoxemia. The breathing pattern was also significantly different during progressive hypercapnia in patients with interstitial lung disease. At any given level of ventilation, tidal volume was significantly smaller in those patients with interstitial disease than in normal subjects (30; Fig. 4). Other investigators have evaluated the effects of supplemental oxygen on ventilatory patterns in patients with interstitial lung disease. The studies of Stockley and Lee (49) indicate that hypoxic drive may have some effect on resting ventilation. They found that brief administration (30 sec) of 100% oxygen resulted in significant reductions in ventilation in patients with various interstitial lung disorders. These effects are most likely transient, however, because the administration of 40% oxygen for a more prolonged time (25 min) did not result in any significant change in minute ventilation (6,7). In another group of patients with interstitial lung disease and known severe hypoxemia (mean oxygen saturation of
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Figure 4 The relation between tidal volume and ventilation is shown in a representative normal subject and a patient with interstitial lung disease . Values were obtained during progressive hypercapnia. At any given level of ventilation in the patient with interstitial lung disease, tidal volume is achieved with a smaller tidal volume than that in the normal subject. (From Ref. 30.)
85.5%), supplemental oxygen did not significantly affect the resting level of ventilation or breathing pattern (51). However, supplemental oxygen was effective in reducing the level of breathlessness in these patients (50). Exercise testing, by stressing the reserve capacity of the respiratory system, provides additional information concerning the control of breathing in patients with interstitial lung disease (52). Given the derangements in lung mechanics and gasexchange abnormalities, it is not surprising that maximum exercise tolerance is reduced in these patients (57). However, the specific mechanisms responsible for exercise limitation in these disorders are poorly understood. Several studies have addressed the respiratory control mechanism during exercise in patients with interstitial disease and do provide some important insights. Qualitatively, some of the physiological abnormalities present under resting conditions are also present during exercise in patients with interstitial lung disease. These patients maintain a heightened level of ventilation (52) when compared with matched controls at a given level of exercise, and this is achieved with tidal volumes that are smaller and breathing frequencies that are greater than normal (45,53,54). The increased breathing frequency is secondary to reduction in both Ti and Te. Burdon et al. (45) showed that maximum tidal volume during exercise was related to the vital capacity. The PaCO2 has been generally thought to fall further during exercise (28,55). However, Marciniuk and Gallagher (51), who systematically reviewed these
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studies in which PaCO2 was actually measured, found that this parameter has been more commonly found to remain unchanged (i.e., maintained at abnormally low levels) and, in some studies, it actually increased during exercise. That most patients with interstitial disease maintain an abnormally low PaCO2, despite the added metabolic stress of exercise and increased dead space (56), is surprising and emphasizes the significant abnormalities in ventilatory control. The mechanisms responsible for this heightened drive may be similar to those occurring during resting breathing. Both in human studies (26,57,58) and animal models of interstitial lung disease (56,60), PO2 falls with exercise. The development of worsening hypoxemia has been attributed to ventilation—perfusion mismatch, shunt, and diffusion abnormalities (56). During exercise, therefore, chemoreceptor stimulation may make a larger contribution to the heightened level of ventilation. Burdon et al. (45) monitored arterial oxygen saturation in a group of patients with pulmonary fibrosis. They found that oxygen saturation fell by more than 5% in 13 of 31 patients. Surprisingly, they found no relation between changes in oxygen saturation and maximum power output. Other studies (61) have confirmed these findings. Several patients were able to achieve relatively high power outputs despite marked decrements in oxygen saturation. Endurance times, however, do improve with administration of supplemental oxygen in patients with interstitial disease. Bye et al. (61) found that mean oxygen saturation fell by 8% in a heterogeneous group of patients with interstitial lung disease. They observed significant improvement in exercise time when patients exercised with oxygen. Moreover, the increase in endurance was significantly correlated with the fall in oxygen saturation during airbreathing. These investigators also found that ventilation was abnormally high throughout exercise and, at maximum workload, it was above predicted values for all patients. Values of maximal ventilation and breathing fell while breathing oxygen, in comparison with the airbreathing trial, but not significantly. This suggests that chemoreceptor stimulation by hypoxia may make some contribution to the heightened level of ventilation during exercise, but that nonchemical factors may play a more important role. From these studies, it is evident that the chemical control system is well preserved in patients with interstitial lung disease. Although chemoreceptor stimulation may have a transient effect during resting breathing (49) and contribute to hyperventilation during exercise (61), this factor alone does not account for the hyperventilation and alteredbreathing pattern so frequently observed in these patients. Consequently, there has been an intensive search for neural inputs from the lung and chest wall that could reflexively alter respiratory drive and breathing pattern. There are a plethora of receptors throughout the lung, including pulmonary stretch receptors, irritant receptors, bronchial Cfibers and juxtapulmonary capillary or type J receptors (also referred to as pulmonary Cfibers) (62–67). It is
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likely that many of these receptors are stimulated in patients with interstitial lung disease and have important influences on breathing pattern and level of respiratory drive. Owing to the difficulties inherent in evaluating vagal function in humans, there is only very limited information based on clinical studies. Respiratory vagal reflexes, in general, are thought to be relatively weak in normal humans compared with animals (66). Conscious humans, for example, do not have a HeringBreuer inflation reflex, and blockade of the vagus nerve does not alter the pattern of breathing (68). This does not exclude the possibility, however, that vagal influences could affect respiration under conditions associated with lung disease. Guz et al. (69), evaluated the effects of cervical vagal blockade in three patients with interstitial lung disease. Bilateral vagal blockade reduced breathing frequency and increased tidal volume during resting breathing in two patients, and the sensation of dyspnea was eliminated. They speculated that blockade of afferent information from lung irritant receptors accounted for these observations. In other studies, the potential role of superficial airway receptors has been investigated by evaluating ventilatory responses and level of dyspnea following inhalation of morphine (70,71) and local anesthetics (27,72). In animal studies, opioids inhibit the activation of lung irritant receptors and Cfiber receptors as well as cough reflexes (73–75). In human studies (70), there is evidence that inhalation of aerosolized, lowdose morphine results in an increased endurance time in patients with chronic lung disease (including a few with pulmonary fibrosis). Chemoreceptor stimulation was eliminated because patients breathed 100% oxygen during exercise. These results raised the possibility that stimulation of superficial opioidsensitive neural receptors in the lung impairs exercise tolerance. Because the drug had no effect on exercise ventilation, the investigators postulated that morphine may have reduced the sensation of dyspnea. In a more thorough analysis performed by Harriseze et al. (71), lowdose nebulized morphine had no effect on either maximal exercise performance or level of dyspnea with exercise in six patients with various forms of interstitial lung disease. As pointed out by these investigators (71), their findings may be related to dosage, higher doses of morphine may be needed to affect airway receptor activity. Winning et al. (72), evaluated the effects of inhalation of a local anesthetic on ventilation and the degree of breathlessness at maximal exercise in patients with interstitial lung disease. Adequate anesthesia was confirmed by the fact that the cough response following critic acid inhalation was abolished. Airway anesthesia, however, had no effect on the level of dyspnea or heightened level of ventilation. Taken together, these studies suggest that superficial airway receptors play no role in modulating ventilatory responses to exercise. To reconcile the results of Guz et al. (69) that vagal receptors do have an important function in these diseases, it is necessary to postulate that vagal receptors within the lung paren
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chyma, such as the J receptors (pulmonary Cfibers) mediate these responses. Innovative animal models of interstitial disease have provided additional insight concerning vagal reflex effects. B. Animal Models of Interstitial Lung Disease Interstitial lung disease, with associated physiological abnormalities that resemble human disease, can be induced in animals. Instillation of carrageenin through a catheter into the lungs of animals results in a localized acute inflammatory lesion involving both alveoli and lung interstitium (76). Intravenous administration of Freund's adjuvant results in an initial pulmonary reaction that resembles desquamative interstitial pneumonitis seen in human disease, followed by a granulomatous reaction resembling sarcoidosis (77–79). Endotracheal installation of bleomycin results in acute interstitial inflammation, followed by chronic interstitial pulmonary fibrosis (60). Results from animal models of both acute (76) and chronic (77) interstitial pneumonitis provide convincing evidence of an important role for vagal receptors in mediating ventilatory responses. Trenchard et al. (76), using the carrageenin model of acute lung injury, evaluated the effects of inflammation confined to one lobe of the lung by catheter administration of carrageenin in both cats and rabbits. Conscious cats developed alveolar hyperventilation caused by a significant increase in breathing frequency, whereas the anesthetized rabbits developed hyperventilation with rapid, shallow breathing. These responses were dependent on an ipsilateral intact vagal nerve and based on experiments with differential vagal blockade were attributable to stimulation of nonmyelinated vagal afferents (i.e., type J receptors). These receptors lie in the interstitial space and, therefore, are well positioned to respond to inflammation in these lung regions (66). Inflammatory mediators may depolarize nonmyelinated nerve endings directly, thereby resulting in the observed responses (76). Interstitial pneumonitis was induced by intravenous administration of complete Freund's adjuvant in conscious dogs (77). The induced physiological alterations mirrored those seen clinically in patients with interstitial lung disease. These included reductions in functional residual capacity (FRC) and total lung capacity (TLC), increased lung elastic recoil, and reduction in carbon monoxide diffusion capacity. With exercise, these animals developed rapid, shallow breathing and abnormally high levels of ventilation. Complete cervical vagal blockade resulted in a more normalbreathing pattern and abolished the excessive minute ventilation. Because atropine administration had no significant effects on ventilation or breathing pattern, the observed phenomenon were attributable to afferent vagal traffic. Breathing frequency remained higher and tidal volumes smaller than during vagal blockade in the normal animals, suggesting that vagal influences alone did not totally account for the alteredbreathing pattern. From differential
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vagal cooling experiments, these investigators suggested that stretch receptors, responsive to the increased elastic recoil of the lungs, were at least partly responsible for the increased respiratory drive during the granulomatous phase of the disease. The different responses to differential vagal cooling in the aforementioned studies (76,77) may relate to differences between the models employed (i.e., acute versus chronic reactions). However, these methods are far from definitive and provide only indirect evidence of the specific receptors involved. Other clues to potential receptor stimulation can be derived from studies evaluating the direct effects of inflammation and inflammatory mediators on receptor activity. For example, acute inflammation and hypoxia (66,80)— conditions commonly present in interstitial lung disease—result in the release of prostaglandins (PGs), which stimulate type J receptors (pulmonary Cfibers). Coleridge et al. (65), demonstrated that pulmonary Cfibers display a wide range of sensitivity, being stimulated not only by the accumulation of interstitial fluid or pulmonary congestion (64), but also by the prostaglandins PGF2a and PG of the E series. These investigators showed that injection of prostaglandin E2 into the right atrium of openchested dogs resulted in a tenfold increase in the activity of Cfiber endings (81). The increased activity was not related to directional changes in airway pressure nor to the phase of ventilation; therefore they would appear to be the result of direct stimulation. That stimulation of pulmonary Cfibers results in a rapid shallowbreathing pattern (66) suggests that these receptors may mediate the alteredbreathing pattern in animal models of acute inflammation and in patients with interstitial lung disease. Other potential mediators including histamine and, to a lesser extent serotonin, stimulate irritant or rapidly adapting receptors in the lung (66). In animal models of lung inflammation produced by inhalation of histamine aerosol, irritant receptor stimulation results in rapid, shallow breathing, a response that is preventable by vagal blockade (82). Activation of these receptors, which are located predominantly in large airways, evokes a heightened level of ventilation. Inhalation of chemical irritants, such as ammonia and cigarette smoke, also results in marked stimulation of these receptors (80). The most important function of these receptors, however, may be to detect the development of pathophysiological changes in the airways, such as that resulting from acute pulmonary congestion, pneumothorax, chemicals resulting in bronchoconstriction, and reductions in lung compliance (see later discussion) that stimulate these receptors (66). Activated alveolar macrophages and neutrophils, the major immune effector cells in interstitial lung disease, release many other inflammatory mediators that may also be responsible for stimulating intrapulmonary vagal receptors in patients with interstitial lung disease. These include proteolytic enzymes, oxygen radicals, and arachidonic acid metabolites (83). Further investigation is necessary, however, to elucidate the potential role of these substances.
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The alterations in lung mechanics present in patients with interstitial lung disease can also affect the control of breathing, independent of the inflammatory component. Because of the coincident inflammatory component, however, it is difficult to assess the effects of altered elastance alone in these patients. Mechanical loading of the respiratory system in normal subjects and animal studies has provided useful models to assess the consequences of increased elastance on respiratory control. C. Internal Elastic Loading Reductions in lung compliance can be induced in experimental animals by briefly withdrawing positive endexpiratory pressure (84,86). By this method, compliance can be reduced by 50–60% of maximum and, to a certain extent, simulate the mechanical abnormalities observed in patients with interstitial lung disease. As shown in Figure 5 (84), impulse activity of irritant (rapidly adapting) receptors increases progressively as dynamic lung compliance falls and increases quickly to normal values following restoration of lung compliance to normal values. These findings have been confirmed in several other investigations (87). Moreover, the effects of reductions in lung compliance appear to be specific to rapidly adapting receptors (i.e., reductions in lung compliance do not significantly influence other pulmonary afferents; 87,88). The heightened discharge of these receptors has been attributed predominantly to the increased pull of a stiffened lung parenchyma on airway walls (89) and may provide a mechanism to maintain tidal volume as the lungs become more stiff (80,86). In patients with interstitial lung disease, it is conceivable that lung stiffness stimulates pulmonary irritant receptors, resulting in a heightened level of ventilation and rapid shallow breathing. Moreover, as the disease progresses, the degree of irritant receptor stimulation may also increase progressively. Because these receptors reduce their firing frequency rapidly following an applied stimulus (80), they may play a more important role in exercise or during exacerbations of interstitial lung disease (90) rather than during eupneic breathing. Irritant receptor stimulation may also be responsible for the frequent nonproductive cough so often present in patients with these disorders. It would be interesting to evaluate the effects of nebulized morphine or lignocaine on cough suppression in a group of patients with interstitial lung disease in whom chronic cough is a prominent symptom. D. Chest Wall Restriction Several previous investigators (91–95) have evaluated the effects of chest wall restriction in humans, either by chest strapping or restricting movement by inflexible barriers. Similar to patients with interstitial lung disease, rib cage strapping results in significant reductions in TLC and FRC, increases in both lung and total
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Figure 5 Impulse activity of a rapidly adapting receptor in response to a stepwise reduction in dynamic lung compliance. Positive endexpiratory pressure was removed for 2(A), 5(B), 10(C), and 20(D) cycles and then restored (E). Impulse frequency (impulses/cycle, IF); AP, action potentials; PT , tracheal pressure. IF increased progressively as dynamic compliance progressively fell. Restoration of lung compliance with PEEP reduced IF to control values. (From Ref. 84.)
respiratory system elastance, reductions in tidal volume, increased breathing frequency, and either preserved (91,96) or heightened levels of ventilation (95). Because of the increase in lung recoil, maximal expiratory flow is increased (94, 97). Moreover, rib cage strapping also results in a heightened occlusion pressure (P0.1) at any given level of chemical drive, suggesting that neural drive to the inspiratory muscles is increased (91). Owing to the marked reductions in lung
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elastance, rib cage strapping may also result in irritant receptor stimulation, which could mediate the changes in ventilatory output and breathing pattern. However, abdominal strapping alone, although causing significant reductions in FRC and increases in lung elastance, does not significantly alter breathing patterns (91,92) nor ventilatory and occlusion pressures responses to hypercapnia (92). The differences between rib cage and abdominal strapping cannot be attributed to differences in chemoreceptor stimulation, for these studies were performed under hyperoxic conditions (91). Changes in FRC also do not explain the differing responses because the increase in neural drive (as determined by occlusion pressure responses) were greater with rib cage than with abdominal strapping even with comparable reductions in FRC (91). Although these results suggest that receptors specific to the rib cage may be responsible for mediating the observed responses, it has been suggested that they may be secondary, in large measure, to discomfort associated with strapping. Evidence against this hypothesis lies in the fact that other studies (91,98) have shown that an increase in neural drive occurs in response to restriction of rib cage movement alone, without constriction of the rib cage and associated reductions in lung volumes. Green et al. (98), for example, found that selectively restricting movement of the rib cage at the endexpiratory position with an inflexible barrier resulted in an increase in inspiratory drive, as monitored by diaphragm electrical activity. Comparable loading of the abdomen had no effect. Endtidal PCO2 was maintained constant during these studies, thereby eliminating chemical influences on the observed responses. In addition, DiMarco et al. (91) have demonstrated that prevention of movement of the rib cage, but not the abdomen, beyond the endinspiratory position with a rigid barrier also resulted in heightened respiratory drive, as determined by occlusion pressure responses. From the results of these studies, it would appear that receptors sensitive to rib cage movement are responsible, at least in part, for the heightened neural drive. Concerning specific receptors, muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs, located predominantly in the intercostal muscles, but also in the diaphragm, are probably most important (99). These receptors are generally classified as proprioceptors. Muscle spindles are primarily length receptors, whereas tendon organs are primarily force receptors (99). Coactivation of fusimotor discharge to intrafusal fibers regulating spindle length, and alpha motor discharge to extrafusal fibers that cause muscle contraction, allow muscle spindles to detect differences in the actual and desired degree of muscle shortening (100–102). When intercostal muscle shortening is impeded, as might occur with restriction of the rib cage, spindle afferent activity increases and reflexively causes an increase in intercostal alphamotoneuron output in an attempt to achieve the “desired” degree of muscle shortening (103,104). Muscle spindle activity increases the rate of intercostal motor activity throughout the breath. This response is graded (i.e., the greater the difference between the actual and desired degree of shortening, the greater the
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response; 103). In anesthetized animals, spindle afferents mediate monosynaptic reflex increases in motor activity (100) and help stabilize the rib cage during severe loading (105). Studies of patients with spinal cord injuries (106) indicate that stimulation of intercostal muscle spindles also stimulates increased respiratory drive. Tendon organs are stimulated when muscle tension is high and cause reflex inhibition of inspiration, probably at a medullary level (99). In addition, distortion or compression of the rib cage may activate muscle—spindlemediated reflexes that project multisegmentally and also supraspinally; resulting in alterations in phrenic nerve activity and respiratory timing (107). Stimulation of muscle spindles in the lowermost intercostal muscles has a facilitatory effect on phrenic nerve output (108). This reflex is thought to compensate for the paucity of muscle spindles in the diaphragm and to provide a mechanism by which loading increases neural drive to the diaphragm (108). Stimulation of midthoracic intercostal afferents results in inhibition of phrenic activity (109, 110). The degree of inhibition is dependent on lung volume, being greatest at very low and very high lung volumes (110). At low lung volumes, stimulation of midthoracic muscle spindles or tendon organs may mediate phrenic inhibition (112). The inhibition of phrenic activation at high lung volumes is less clear and may be mediated by joint receptors (110,111). The effects of rib cage constriction have also been evaluated in anesthetized animals. In these studies, when the rib cage is strapped or compressed (89,112–116), phrenic nerve activity increases and respiratory timing is altered. Shannon (114) showed that the increased respiratory frequency was not secondary to chemical drive, was present in vagotomized animals, and was eliminated by sectioning the dorsal roots. In some studies, however, chest compression does not result in changes in respiratory timing following vagotomy. This discrepancy may be related to different levels of anesthesia (99). In contrast to anesthetized animals, strapping the rib cage has only minor effects in anesthetized human subjects (92). Because the effects of rib cage loading are so prominent in awake, but not in anesthetized humans, it is possible that the response to chest strapping may be more reflective of factors related to consciousness, rather than to the mechanical load itself (23,46). Given these findings, it has been suggested that chest strapping may not be an accurate model of restrictive lung disease (23,46). However, the responses described in awake humans should not be discounted, because the differing responses between anesthetized and conscious humans does not exclude a potentially important role for chest wall reflex effects (see following section). E. External Elastic Loading Breathing from a rigid metal container imposes an elastic load on the respiratory system, because inspiration requires work to be performed on the gas within the
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container. Similar to chest restriction, this model also results in a pattern of rapid, shallow breathing and hyperventilation (102). Moreover, the magnitude of the elastic load can be easily adjusted. As a model of interstitial lung disease, this method has some advantages, compared with chest compression or strapping, in that the effects of the first loaded breath (i.e., before chemoreceptor stimulation) can be more easily assessed. Moreover, the potential effects of stimulation of nocioceptors related to chest constriction or sensory afferents related to pressure applied to the skin surface are eliminated. Several mechanical properties of the respiratory system tend to stabilize tidal volume while breathing against loads (102,117). First, the intrinsic total respiratory system impedance tends to blunt the effects of added mechanical loads. The greater the internal impedance of the respiratory system, the smaller will be the effect of applied loads (118). The active force—length and force—velocity properties of respiratory muscles contracting agonistically adds to the internal impedance, resulting in further load compensation (102). In addition, the application of elastic loads to the extent that resting lung volume is reduced, places the inspiratory muscles on a more favorable position on their length—tension curve, resulting in improved force generation (117,119). In addition, owing to their force—velocity characteristics, the force production by the inspiratory muscles increases when their velocity of shortening is impeded by loaded breathing (117,120). In anesthetized animals, elastic loading results in a reduced tidal volume with the first breath. However, this reduction is less than that expected based on the mechanical properties of the respiratory system (102). This stabilizing effect on tidal volume is attributable to vagal receptors (118,121), with little or no contribution from chest wall proprioceptors (122). Inspiratory duration is prolonged owing to the reduction in stretch receptor activity consequent to the smaller tidal volumes (121,123). With sustained loading, tidal volume progressively increases, an effect that is attributable entirely to chemoreceptor stimulation (124–127). In human studies, Campbell et al. (128) first demonstrated that inspiratory effort increases within the first breath following the application of an elastic load. This was determined by the demonstration that the reduction in tidal volume was less than that predicted by the effects of the increase in elastance alone (i.e., mechanisms were engaged to defend tidal volume). The significance of this finding is that this response occurs too soon for chemical factors to have altered the breathing pattern and, therefore, must be attributable to neural factors. In awake normal individuals, Pengelly et al. (129) and Margaria et al. (130) found that the immediate adjustments to elastic loading depended primarily on the mechanical characteristics of the lung, chest wall, and respiratory muscles. However, with large tidal volumes, stretch receptor activation was thought to promote load compensation (129). With maintenance of elastic loading beyond a single breath, tidal volume progressively increases, which as in animal studies (130,131), is attributable to chemoreceptor stimulation. Margaria et al. (130), for
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example, demonstrated that tidal volume compensation was reduced significantly by administration of supplemental oxygen. The magnitude of the progressive tidal volume compensation was less in anesthetized than in conscious humans. This difference was most likely secondary to barbiturateinduced decrease in sensitivity of the respiratory centers to alterations in blood gas tensions. These same investigators also evaluated the potential role of chest wall receptors by assessing the response to complete sensory epidural anesthesia up to the T4 spinal level in conscious subjects. Spinal anesthesia had no systematic effect on progressive load compensation. Even though elastic loading typically results in tachypnea in conscious humans, the respiratory rate is unchanged with elastic loading during general anesthesia (130) and also during sleep (132). It appears, therefore, that factors related to consciousness play the most significant role in the observed changes in respiratory frequency. Concerning factors related to consciousness, it has been postulated that individuals may adopt breathing patterns that reduce both the discomfort associated with the load and also the work of breathing (102). This would explain the smaller tidal volumes and greater breathing frequencies when subjects breathe against elastic loads. Alternatively, consciousness may facilitate the performance of loadcompensatory reflexes, as suggested by Puddy and Younes (133). These investigators tested this hypothesis by adding external elastic loads in small steps that were below the threshold for perception. This method prevented conscious adjustments in breathing pattern to the applied load. Elastic loads applied in this manner also resulted in progressive reductions in tidal volume and increases in breathing frequency. These results indicate that the tachypnea associated with elastic loads does not require load perception, suggesting that the responses are reflexive. Chest wall proprioceptors shorten Ti and increase breathing frequency and represent the most likely receptors mediating these responses. The lack of breathing frequency changes in the anesthetized state may be secondary to the fact that (1) anesthetic agents in general suppress the response to external loads, independent of the type of load (134), and (2) these drugs may depress spinal reflex arcs from chest wall receptors or interfere with transmission of information from chest wall reflexes to medullary and higher brain centers. References 1. Crystal RG, Gadek JE, Ferrans VJ, Fulmer JD, Line BR, Hunninghake GW. Interstitial lung disease: current concepts of pathogenesis, staging and therapy. Am J Med 1981; 70:542–568. 2. Crystal RG, Bitterman PB, Rennard SI, Hance AJ, Keough BA. Interstitial lung disease of unknown cause. N Engl J Med 1984; 310:154–166; 235–244. 3. Coultas DB, Zumwalt RE, Black WC, Sobonya RE. The epidemiology of interstitial lung diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150:967–972.
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4. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Respiratory Diseases Task Force. Report on problems, research approaches, and needs. Washington, DC: Oct. 1972; DHEW publication NIH 76–432. 5. West JR, Alexander JK. Studies on respiratory mechanics and the work of breathing in pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Med 1959; 27:529–544. 6. Lourenco RV, Turino GM, Davidson LAG, Fishman AP. The regulation of ventilation in diffuse pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Med 1965; 38:199–216. 7. Turino GM, Lourenco RV, Davidson AG, Fishman AP. The control of ventilation in patients with reduced pulmonary distensibility. Ann NY Acad Sci 1963; 109:932–941. 8. Kuhn C, Boldt J, King TE, Crouch E, Vartio T, McDonald JA. An immunohistochemical study of architectural remodeling and connective tissue synthesis in pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:1693–1703. 9. Burkhardt A. Alveolitis and collapse in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:513–524. 10. Mannino DM, Etzel RA, Parrish RG. Pulmonary fibrosis deaths in the United States, 1979–1991. An analysis of multiplecause mortality data. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1548–1552. 11. Schwartz DA, Helmers RA, Galvin JR, Van Fossen DS, Frees KL, Dayton CS, Burmeister LF, Hunninghake GW. Determinants of survival in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149:450–454. 12. Carrington CB, Gaensler EA, Couter RE, Fitzgerald MY, Gupta RG. Natural history and treated course of usual and desquamative interstitial pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1978; 298:801–809. 13. Austrian R, MeClement JH, Renzetti AD, Donald KW, Riley RL, Cournand A. Clinical and physiologic features of some types of pulmonary disease with impairment of alveolocapillary diffusion. The syndrome of “alveolar—capillary block.” Am J Med 1951; 11:667–685. 14. Fulmer JD, Crystal RG. Interstitial lung disease. In: Simmons DH, ed. Current Pulmonary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1979; 1:65. 15. Scadding JG. Diffuse pulmonary alveolar fibrosis. Thorax 1974; 29:271–281. 16. Yernault YC, DeJonghe M, DeCoster A, Englert M. Pulmonary mechanics in diffuse fibrosing alveolitis. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1975; 11:231–244. 17. Fulmer JD, Roberts WC, Von Gal ER, Crystal RG. Small airways in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Comparison of morphologic and physiologic observations. J Clin Invest 1977; 60:595–610. 18. Gibson GJ, Pride MB. Pulmonary mechanics in fibrosing alveolitis: the effects of lung shrinkage. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977; 116:637–647. 19. Dubois AB. Resistance to breathing. In: Fenn W, Rahn H, eds. Handbook of Physiology, Sec 3: Respiration Vol 1. Washington, DC: American Physiological Society 1964:451–462. 20. Keough BA, Crystal RG. Clinical significance of pulmonary function tests. Pulmonary function testing in interstitial pulmonary disease. What does it tell us? Chest 1980; 856–865. 21. Ziskind M, Jones RN, Weill H. State of the art. Silicosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976; 113:643–665.
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22. Renzi G, MilicEmili J, Grassino AE. The pattern of breathing in diffuse lung fibrosis. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1982; 18:461–472. 23. Kornbluth RS, Turino GM. Respiratory control in diffuse interstitial lung disease and diseases of the pulmonary vasculature. Clin Chest Med 1980; 1:91–102. 24. Fulmer JD, Roberts WC, Von Gal ER, Crystal RG. Morphologicphysiologic correlates of the severity of fibrosis and degree of cellularity in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. J Clin Invest 1979; 63:665–676. 25. Cherniack RM, Colby TV, Flint A, Thurlbeck W, Waldron JA, Ackerson L, Schwartz MI, King TE. Correlation of structure and function in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151:1180–1188. 26. Gaensler EA, Carrington CB, Couter RE. Radiographic—physiologic—pathologic correlations in interstitial pneumonias. Prog Respir Res 1975; 8:223–241. 27. Savoy J, Dhingra S, Anthonisen NR. Role of vagal airway reflexes in control of ventilation in pulmonary fibrosis. Clin Sci 1981; 61:781–784. 28. Kaltreider NL, McCann WS. Respiratory response during exercise in pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema. J Clin Invest 1937; 16:23–40. 29. MilicEmili J, Grunstein MM. Drive and timing components of ventilation. Chest 1976; 70(suppl):131–133. 30. DiMarco AF, Kelsen SG, Cherniack NS, Gothe B. Occlusion pressure and breathing pattern in patients with interstitial lung disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983; 127:425–430. 31. Detroyer A, Yernault JC. Inspiratory muscle force in normal subjects and patients with interstitial lung disease. Thorax 1980; 35:92–100. 32. Gibson CJ, Edwards JP, Hughes GR. Diaphragm function and lung involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 1977; 63:926–932. 33. Martens J, Demedts MD, Vanmeenan MS, Dequeku J. Respiratory muscle dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus. Chest 1983; 84:170–175. 34. Nava S, GayanRamirez G, Rollier H, Bisschop A, Dom R, de Bock V, DeCramer M. Effects of acute steroid administration on ventilatory and peripheral muscle in rats. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1888–1896. 35. Wilcox PG, Hards JM, Bockhold K, Bressler B, Pardy RL. Pathologic changes and contractile properties of the diaphragm in corticosteroid myopathy in hamsters:comparison to peripheral muscle. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1989; 1:191–199. 36. Lewis MI, Monn SA, Sieck GC. Effect of corticosteroids on diaphragm fatigue, SDH activity and muscle fiber size. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72:293–301. 37. Moore BJ, Biller MJ, Feldman HA, Reid MB. Diaphragm atrophy and weakness in cortisonetreated rats. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67:2420–2426. 38. Dekhuijzen PNR, GayanRamirez G, de Bock V, Dom R, Decramer M. Triamcinolone and prednisolone affect contractile properties and histopathology of rat diaphragm differently. J Clin Invest 1993; 92:1534–1542. 39. Bowyer SL, LaMothe MP, Hollister JR. Steroid myopathy: incidence and detection in a population with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1985; 76:234–242. 40. Wang YM, Zintel T, Vasquez A, Gallagher CG. Corticosteroid therapy and respiratory muscle function in humans. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:108–112. 41. Decramer M, Lacquet LM, Fagard R, Rogiers P. Corticosteroids contribute to
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75. Adcock JJ. Peripheral opioid receptors and the cough reflex. Respir Med 1991; 85:43–46. 76. Trenchard D, Gardner D, Guz A. Role of pulmonary afferent nerve fibers in the development of rapid shallow breathing in lung inflammation. Clin Sci 1972; 42:251–263. 77. Phillipson EA, Murphy E, Koyar LF, Schultze RK. Role of vagal stimuli in exercise ventilation in dogs with experimental pneumonitis. J Appl Physiol 1975; 39:76–85. 78. Strauss B; Caldwell PRB, Fritts HW. Observations on a model of proliferative lung disease. I. Transpulmonary arteriovenous difference of lactate, pyruvate, and glucose. J Clin Invest 1970; 49:1305–1310. 79. Moore RD, Schoenberg MD. The response of the histiocytes and macrophages in the lung of rabbits injected with Freund's adjuvant. Br J Exp Pathol 1964; 45:488–497. 80. Coleridge HM, Coleridge JCG. Reflexes evoked from the tracheobronchial tree and lungs. In: Fishman AP, Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JG, Geiger SR, eds. Handbook of Physiology, Sec. 3: The Respiratory System. Baltimore: American Physiological Society 1986; 395–430. 81. Frankstein SI, Sergeeva ZN. Tonic activity of lung receptors in normal and pathologic states. Nature 1966; 210:1054–1055. 82. Bleecker ER, Cotton DJ, Fischer SP, Gaaf PD, Gold WM, Nadel JA. The mechanism of rapid shallow breathing after inhaling histamine aerosol in exercising dogs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976; 114:909–916. 83. Lynch JP, Standiford TJ, Rolfe MW, Kunkel SL, Strieter RM. Neutrophilic alveolitis in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. The role of interleukin 8. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1992; 145:1433–1439. 84. Jonzon A, Pisarri TE, Coleridge JCG, Coleridge HM. Rapidly adapting receptor activity in dogs is inversely related to lung compliance. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61:1980–1987. 85. Pisarri TE, Jonzon A, Coleridge JCG, Coleridge HM. Rapidly adapting receptors monitor lung compliance in spontaneously breathing dogs. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68:1997–2005. 86. Yu J, Coleridge JCG, Coleridge HM. Influence of lung stiffness on rapidly adapting receptors in rabbits and cats. Respir Physiol 1987; 68:161–176. 87. Yu J, Schultz HD, Goodman J, Coleridge JCG, Coleridge HM, Davis B. Pulmonary rapidly adapting receptors to reduced lung compliance. J Appl Physiol 1989; 67:682–687. 88. Yu J, Pisarri TE, Coleridge JCG, Coleridge HM. Response of slowly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors to reduced lung compliance. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71:425–431. 89. Widdicombe JG, Sellick H. Vagal deflation and inflation reflexes mediated by lung irritant receptors. Q J Exp Physiol Cogn Med Sci 1970; 55:153–163. 90. Kondoh Y, Taniguchi H, Kawabata Y, Yokoi T, Suzuki K, Takagi K. Acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Analysis of clinical and pathological findings in three cases. Chest 1993; 103:1808–1812. 91. DiMarco AF, Kelsen SG, Cherniack NS, Hough WH, Gothe B. Effects on breathing
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of selective restriction of movement of the rib cage and abdomen. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50:412–420. 92. Agostoni E, D' Angelo E, Torri G, Ravenna L. Effects of uneven elastic loads on breathing pattern of anesthetized and conscious man. Respir Physiol 1977; 30:153–168. 93. Caro CF, Butler J, Dubois AB. Some effects of restriction of rib cage expansion on pulmonary function in man: an experimental study. J Clin Invest 1960; 39:573–583. 94. Bradley CA, Anthonisen NR. Rib cage and abdominal restrictions have different effects on lung mechanics. J Appl Physiol 1980; 49:946–952. 95. McIlroy MB, Butler J, Finley TN. Effects of chest compression on reflex ventilatory drive and pulmonary function. J Appl Physiol 1962; 17:701–705. 96. Klineberg PL, Rehder K, Hyatt RE. Pulmonary mechanics and gas exchange in seated normal men with chest restriction. J Appl Physiol 1981; 51:26–32. 97. Sybrecht GW, Garrett L, Anthonisen NR. Effect of chest strapping on regional lung function. J Appl Physiol 1975; 39:707–713. 98. Green M, Mead J, Sears TA. Effects of loading on respiratory muscle control in man. In: Pengelly LD, Rebuck AS, Campbell EJM, eds. Loaded Breathing. Longman Ontario: Don Mills, 1974:73–80. 99. Shannon R. Reflexes from respiratory muscles and costovertebral joints. In: Fishman AP, Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JB, eds. Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Vol II, part 2. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins 1986:431–447. 100. Corda M, Eklund G, Euler CV. External intercostal and phrenic motor responses to changes in respiratory load. Acta Physiol Scand 1965; 63:391–400. 101. Euler CV. The role of proprioceptive afferents in the control of respiratory muscles. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Warsaw) 1973; 33:329–342. 102. Cherniack NS, Altose MD. Respiratory responses to ventilatory loading. In: Hornbein TF, ed. Regulation of Breathing. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1981: pt II 17:905–964. 103. Romaniuk JR, Supinski G, DiMarco AF. Relationship between parasternal and external intercostal muscle length and load compensatory responses in dogs. J Appl Physiol 1992; 449:441–455. 104. Hammond PH, Merton PA, Sulton GG. Nervous gradation of muscular contraction. Br Med Bull 1956; 12:214–218. 105. Shannon R, Zechman FW. The reflex and mechanical response of the inspiratory muscles to increased airflow resistance. Respir Physiol 1972; 16:51–69. 106. Axen K, Bergofsky EH. Thoracic reflexes stabilizing loaded ventilation in normal and cord injured man. J Appl Physiol 1977; 43:339–346. 107. Remmers JE, Brooks JG, Tenney SM. Extrasegmental reflexes derived from intercostal afferents: phrenic and laryngeal responses. J Physiol (Lond) 1973; 233:45–62. 108. Decima EE, Euler CV. Excitability of phrenic motoneurons to afferent input from lower intercostal nerves in the spinal cat. Acta Physiol Scand 1969; 75:580– 591. 109. Remmers JE. Inhibition of inspiratory activity by intercostal afferents. Respir Physiol 1970; 10:358–383. 110. Romaniuk JR, Supinski GS, DiMarco AF. Reflex control of diaphragm activation by thoracic afferents. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75:63–69.
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Electromyographic response of the respiratory muscles during elastic loading. Am J Physiol 1976; 230:675–683. 132. Wilson PA, Skatrud JB, Dempsey JA. Effects of slow wave sleep on ventilatory compensation to inspiratory elastic loading. Respir Physiol 1984; 55:103–120. 133. Puddy A, Younes A. Effect of slowly increasing elastic load on breathing in conscious humans. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70:1277–1283. 134. Pavlin EG, Hornbein TF. Anesthesia and the control of ventilation. In: Fishman AP, Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JB, eds. Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, vol II, part 2. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1986:793–813.
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14 Control of Breathing in Acute Ventilatory Failure and During Mechanical Ventilation CATHERINE S. H. SASSOON University of California, Irvine, and Veterans Affairs Medical Center Long Beach, California MARTIN J. TOBIN Loyola University of Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Chicago, and Hines Veterans Administration Hospital Hines, Illinois I. Introduction The respiratory system is a closedloop system consisting of the gas exchange organ, the lungs, the upper airways, and the controller (1; Fig. 1). The controller comprises the respiratory centers, located in the brain stem (2), the respiratory muscles, and the connecting nerves. The rhythmic act of breathing requires the integration of all of these components and represents the output of the respiratory centers (3,4). The respiratory centers receive and process information from a variety of sources; namely, the “higher” centers (behavioral input); chemical (central and peripheral chemoreceptors); and nonchemical (mechanoreceptors). This information is then transmitted to the upper airways and by the spinal motoneuron to the respiratory muscles, which contract and generate pressure. The pressure generated by the respiratory muscles (Pmus) is dissipated to overcome the resistance, elastance, and inertia of the lungs (including the airways) and chest wall, and translated into tidal volume. Tidal volume, which reflects neural intensity per breath, together with respiratory timing, determine total ventilation. Because of the closedloop system, tidal volume and respiratory timing, through the forcelength and forcevelocity relations of the respiratory muscles, affect Pmus which, in turn, through mechanoreceptors in the lungs and chest wall, modifies the
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Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the control of breathing. The respiratory system consists of the gasexchange organ (lungs), the upper airways, and the controller, which in turn consists of the respiratory centers in the brain stem that integrate information from the higher centers, chemoreceptors, and mechanoreceptors, and send the information through the cranial nerves (V, VII, X, and XII) to the upper airway muscles and by the spinal and phrenic motoneurons to the respiratory muscles. The output of the respiratory centers can be evaluated at various levels as phrenic electroneurogram (ENG), diaphragmatic electromyogram (EMG), occlusion pressure (P0.1) or muscle pressure (Pmus), and total ventilation ( ) and its components: tidal volume (VT ), inspiratory time (TI), and expiratory time (TE). Solid lines with arrows indicate output signals, dotted lines with arrows indicate feedback signals.
activity of the respiratory centers. Likewise, ventilation and the gasexchange properties of the lungs determine the arterial blood gas levels which, through central and peripheral chemoreceptors, modulate the activity of the respiratory centers. The output of the respiratory centers can be assessed at various levels of the respiratory system by measuring total minute ventilation ( ) (5,6) and its components (i.e., tidal volume and respiratory timing; 7), pressure during occlusion of the airway for 0.1 sec (P0.1) (6,8), Pmus (9), the rate of rise of the integrated diaphragmatic electrical activity (10,11), and the rate of rise of the phrenic nerve activity (12,13; see Fig. 1). The last method has not been performed in humans (5–11). Each method has its own limitations (6,8,14), which are discussed elsewhere in this volume. The closedloop organization of the respiratory system also enables the system to adjust to the changing environment and to metabolic condi
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tions, to maintain ventilation at appropriate levels to preserve oxygen and carbon dioxide homeostasis. However, these adjustments are limited by the structural characteristics and geometry of the lungs and chest wall (15). Such mechanical limitations not only limit ventilatory performance, but also influence the efficiency of the lungs as a gasexchanging organ, resulting in hypercapnia and hypoxemia, respectively, that characterize respiratory failure. In acute respiratory failure or when faced with an increased load to the respiratory system, the respiratory centers modify their output by bringing about an array of compensatory adjustments (16). Nonetheless, these compensatory adjustments can be inadequate, and mechanical ventilator support becomes necessary. During mechanical ventilation, depending on the degree of support, tidal volume and respiratory timing may be determined entirely by (1) the ventilator (i.e., when the patient is completely passive); (2) by the interaction between the patient and the ventilator (17,18), that is, when the patient triggers the ventilator; or (3) entirely by the patient. With total ventilator support, the feedback control is disrupted. With partial ventilator support, the ventilator, through its interaction with the patient, becomes an essential component in modifying the output of the respiratory centers. This review will focus on the control of breathing in acute ventilatory failure and during mechanical ventilation. II. Control of Breathing in Acute Ventilatory Failure Little information exists on the control of breathing in patients experiencing acute ventilatory failure (AVF). We will focus on studies of the respiratory center's responses to chemical stimuli and load compensation during the AVF, and studies of the pattern of breathing. When specific information is unavailable, pertinent data obtained in patients with chronic but stable diseases will be discussed. AVF, a failure of primarily the controller, may result from depression of respiratory central drive, disruption of the connecting nerves, respiratory muscle weakness or fatigue, and an increased ventilatory demand or load on the respiratory muscles. In general, the output of the respiratory centers consists of a small tidal volume VT , with varying frequency (f), which will be discussed under each of the foregoing conditions. A. Control of Breathing in Patients with Depressed Respiratory Central Drive Depression of respiratory central drive may be due to structural damage to the respiratory centers, metabolic causes (e.g., severe metabolic alkalosis), effects of various drugs or unknown etiology (e.g., congenital central hypoventilation syndrome [CCHS] or primary alveolar hypoventilation; 19). In six patients with coma owing to an overdose with barbiturates and six patients with carbamates, the ventilatory response to CO2 was diminished, with values ranging between 0.03
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1
1
1
and 0.98 L min torr , compared with that in controls (1.41–3.54 L min torr ; 20). In contrast, the P0.1 response to CO2 was similar to the control subjects. The investigators attributed the depressed ventilatory response to increased effective respiratory system elastance (Ers), which was 57.0 ± 7.1 (± SE) cmH2O/L in the barbiturate group and 54.0 ± 8.5 cmH2O/L in the carbamate group. Those patients were studied 30–120 min following last recording of apnea and after achieving a stable pattern of breathing, but who had not regained consciousness (20,21). Mean PaCO2 and PaO2 breathing air were 37.2 and 70.0 torr, respectively. All patients displayed a rapid, shallowbreathing pattern. The administration of O2 was associated with small changes in breathing pattern. VT and mean inspiratory flow rate increased by 8 and 6% (p < 0.05) from values breathing air, respectively, whereas during recovery is primarily due to an increase in inspiratory flow rate. Patients with CCHS are born with failure of automatic control of respiration in the absence of lung, chest wall, and neuromuscular disease. These patients preserve their voluntary control of respiration. During wakefulness and sleep the ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia are blunted, but while awake, during which breathing is influenced by behavioral control, the resting alveolar ventilation remains adequate (22–24). During sleep, in which breathing is under metabolic control, these patients develop lifethreatening alveolar hypoventilation and require mechanical ventilation or phrenic nerve pacing. Little information is available on load compensation when patients with CCHS are challenged with increased load to the respiratory system. In the absence of ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia, these patients have little defense against gross derangements in gas exchange. During relatively minor respiratory infections, they experienced rapid cardiorespiratory decompensation, marked by lethargy, somnolence, headache, and acute cor pulmonale (24); however, they have normal ventilatory responses to aerobic exercise (25,26). Likewise, the awakebreathing pattern at rest or during intense mental concentration are no different from those of agematched control subjects (27). The defect in respiratory control in patients with CCHS is believed to reside in the putative site of integration of the central and peripheral chemoreceptor afferents before entering the respiratory center pattern generator in the medulla (28,29).
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B. Control of Breathing in Patients with Disrupted Connecting Nerves. Early studies on the control of breathing in patients with quadriplegia showed either normal (30) or blunted ventilatory (31,32) and P0.1 (33) responses to hypercapnia. In 17 patients with permanent quadriplegia (C4–C7), with a mean duration of injury of 39 months, Pokorski and coworkers (30) noted that the slope of the ventilatory and P0.1 responses to hypercapnia were similar to those of the control subjects. This finding may have been due to the incomplete nature of the spinal injury and the relatively low ventilatory response (1.49 ± 0.13 L min1 torr1) in the control subjects. The observed depression of the ventilatory and P0.1 responses to hypercapnia in other studies has been attributed to respiratory muscle weakness (31), decreased compliance (31), or altered geometry of the chest wall (34). Recently, Manning and coworkers (35) demonstrated that quadriplegic patients (C5–C8) with complete cord injury for at least 1 year had blunting of the ventilatory and P0.1 responses to hypercapnia. The slope of the ventilatory response to hypercapnia, 0.73 ± 0.37 (± SD) L min1 torr1, was significantly less than in control subjects, 2.95 ± 0.40 L min1 torr1; likewise, the P0.1 response to CO2 was lower in the patients than in the control group, 0.17 ± 0.09 and 0.37 ± 0.16 cmH2O/torr, respectively. Even after normalizing the foregoing values with indices of respiratory muscle function; that is, maximal voluntary ventilation and vital capacity (VC), the responses remained low (Fig. 2). The blunting of the hypercapnic response does not seem to be mediated by endogenous opioids, because the administration of naloxone did not improve the response (35). The authors also studied two subjects with acute spinal cord injury in whom sequential measurements were obtained over 7–8 months. The blunted hypercapnic response persisted despite a 50% increase in VC, a 67% increase in maximum inspiratory pressure (PImax), and marked increase in expiratory reserve volume (ERV; Fig. 3). This suggests that in patients with quadriplegia, respiratory muscle weakness alone does not explain the blunted hypercapnic response and that these patients may have an impairment in chemoreceptor function. To our knowledge, the study of Pokorski et al. (30) is the only report of the ventilatory and P0.1 responses to hypoxia in patients with prolonged quadriplegia. The responses were similar to those of healthy control subjects (30). However, these investigators also found intact ventilatory and P0.1 responses to hypercapnia (see foregoing). Additional studies are needed to clarify the response of the respiratory center to hypoxia. Despite the blunted response to hypercapnia, quadriplegic patients free of hypoxemia have, to some extent, an interact ability to compensate for an increased mechanical load (30). An added inspiratory resistive load resulted in an increase in the P0.1 response to hypercapnia, compared with that of the unloaded condition (30). The rate of rise of the moving average of the diaphragmatic electromyogram
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Figure 2 (a) Ventilatory response to hypercapnia ( ) in nine patients with quadriplegia (Q) and eight normal (N) subjects. (b) The ventilatory response to hypercapnia normalized for maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV). (c) The ventilatory response to hypercapnia normalized for vital capacity (VC). The ventilatory response to hypercapnia in patients with Q is significantly less than in N subjects (p < 0.001), even when normalized for indices of respiratory muscle performance. Closed circles are mean values, bars are standard deviation. (From Ref. 35.)
(EMG) also increased with an added load (32). These responses were similar to those seen in normal subjects. Likewise, with change in posture from the supine to a 60°tilted position (33) or seated position (36), which foreshortens the diaphragm and places it at a mechanical disadvantage, the ventilatory and P0.1 responses to hypercapnia remain unchanged. In a preliminary study in patients with quadriplegia (C4–C7) of at least 1 year, Sassoon et al. (36) noted that the rate of diaphragmatic EMG response to hypercapnia was significantly higher in the seated than in the supine position, a change that was not observed in a control group. Hence, the compensatory increase in diaphragmatic activation with ventilatory loading or change in posture remains intact, despite disrupted afferent feedback from rib cage mechanoreceptors. The resting breathing pattern in patients with quadriplegia is characterized by a small VT , increased f, and similar to agematched healthy controls (37). The inspiratory time (TI is the same as in the controls, whereas expiratory time (TE) is significantly shortened, accounting for the increase in f. Mean inspiratory flow rate (VT /TI) is smaller than in the controls. When these patients are challenged with an inspiratory resistive load, VT is preserved through the use of defenses similar to those employed by healthy controls; namely, by increasing the amplitude and duration of the rising phase of motor output, and by changing the
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Figure 3 Upper panel: Sequential measurements of the ventilatory ( ) and occlusion pressure ( P0.1/ PCO2) responses to hypercapnia, and respiratory muscle function in two patients with acute quadriplegia. Lower panel: Improvement in respiratory muscle function, vital capacity (VC), and maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP), was not associated with an increase in the ventilatory or occlusion pressure response to hypercapnia. (From Ref. 35.)
shape of the driving pressure waveform to one with upward convexity (39). However, the duration and the shape response of the inspiratory driving pressure waveform are significantly less than in controls (38). Driving pressure is the occlusion pressure for the entire breath at functional residual capacity (FRC) and reflects respiratory center output (39). In control subjects, both the prolonged duration of the driving pressure and the adoption of an upwardly convex waveform serve to minimize peak pressure, a variable directly proportional to the sensation of dyspnea (39,40). However, this is achieved at the expense of increased energy requirements of the inspiratory muscles, that are closely related to mean inspiratory pressure (39). To summarize, the intensity of central neural output in patients with spinal cord injury is maintained under loaded condition, but the respiratory timing component is altered, partly as a result of changes in chest wall receptor activity, perhaps in an attempt to minimize energy requirements (41).
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C. Control of Breathing in Patients with Respiratory Muscle Weakness and Fatigue Respiratory Muscle Weakness Hypercapnic respiratory failure may develop as a result of profound respiratory muscle weakness (42) or respiratory muscle fatigue (43). Respiratory muscle weakness is common in critically ill patients (44). Specific causes include electrolytes and metabolic disorders (45–49), sepsis (44,50,51), malnutrition (52), drug induced myopathy (corticosteroid, paralyzing agent; 53–55), neuro or myopathic disorders [e.g., spinal muscular atrophy (56), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (57), poliomyelitis (57), GuillainBarré syndrome (58), myasthenia gravis (57), myotonic and muscular dystrophies (59), limb girdle myopathy (59), acid maltase deficiency (59,60), dermatopolymyositis (61), or scleroderma (62)]. In the presence of respiratory muscle weakness, the respiratory center response to hypercapnia remains intact or decreases as a result of adaptation to the weak respiratory muscles, which is partially reversible with treatment (63). In healthy subjects, Holle and coworkers (64) studied the ventilatory and P0.1 responses to hypercapnia during respiratory muscle weakness induced by infusion of d tubocurarine. With severe respiratory muscle weakness (23% of baseline PImax), the ventilatory response to hypercapnia was decreased significantly from baseline, whereas the P0.1 response to hypercapnia tended to increase. In patients with stable, chronic respiratory muscle weakness, as expected, the ventilatory response to hypercapnia is diminished (57,65–67). On the other hand, the slope of the P0.1 response to hypercapnia is similar to that of healthy control (57,66,67). In seven patients with acute ventilatory failure owing to myasthenia gravis or GuillainBarré syndrome, Borel and coworkers (68) studied the control of breathing during weaning from mechanical ventilation. The weaning trials consisted of breathing through a Tpiece. Of the 73 trials, 55 were classified as failed trials, defined as the resumption of mechanical ventilation at patient's urgent request or when hemodynamic instability occurred. With both the failed and successful trials, the ventilatory responses to hypercapnia were markedly diminished (Table 1). With the failed trials, the P0.1 response to hypercapnia was significantly less than after the successful trials, but the response was still within the reported range for normal subjects (69). In addition, in patients with failed trials, maximum transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdimax) was significantly lower than in those with successful trials. Therefore, the degree of respiratory muscle weakness contributes to the lower respiratory motor output, as reflected by the P0.1 and does not necessarily indicate a diminished respiratory center drive (57). With recovery from acute ventilatory failure, the ventilatory response to CO2 improved. In four out of five patients with sufficient data, the CO2stimulated minute ventilation correlated with the days before recovery from ventilatory failure (68).
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Under loaded condition, the breathing pattern of patients with stable, chronic respiratory muscle weakness is similar to that of patients with quadriplegia (70). The response to a severe added inspiratory resistive load in healthy subjects consists of a reduced VT , slightly reduced f, related to TI prolongation and unchanged expiratory time (TE), and a reduced mean inspiratory flow rate (VT /TI). The response to a severe added elastic load in healthy subjects consists of a reduced VT and increased f, related primarily to shortened TE, with only minimally shortened TI (41). In patients with chronic spinal muscle atrophy and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, an added inspiratory resistive load results in a significantly decreased VT , with f remaining unchanged compared with controls (70). These patients are unable to prolong TI, but are able to augment VT /TI to a degree similar to that of controls; with an added elastic load, VT exceeds that of controls. In contrast, f was significantly lower owing primarily to the inability to shorten TE. As with VT , VT /TI was higher than in the controls. Hence, in patients with respiratory muscle weakness the lack of optimal compensation to loading is primarily related to respiratory timing (70). The resting breathing pattern of these patients in the chronic, stable state is characterized by a small VT , high f, short TI, and a high P0.1 compared with controls (57,71). P0.1 is even further increased over controls when normalized for the decrease in PImax (57). Figure 4 shows that during AVF, rapid shallow breathing is more pronounced and is associated with a higher P0.1 than during the chronic, stable state (68). Thus, ventilatory failure in patients with respiratory muscle weakness does not appear to be related to a decrease in central neural
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Figure 4 Breathing pattern and airway occlusion pressure (P0.1) in patients with respiratory muscle weakness. Compared with ten healthy control subjects, ten patients with stable chronic respiratory muscle weakness caused by myotonic dystrophy had a smaller tidal volume (VT ), higher frequency (f), shorter inspiratory time (TI), and higher airway occlusion pressure (P0.1). This alteration in breathing pattern was more pronounced in seven patients experiencing acute ventilatory failure owing to either GuillainBarré syndrome or myasthenia gravis. Bars indicate mean values (From Refs. 68 and 71.)
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output, but is primarily due to the weak respiratory muscles associated with abnormal respiratory system mechanics. The reason that these patients exhibit rapid, shallowbreathing pattern is unclear, but neural afferents from respiratory muscle and rib cage mechanoreceptors may play a role. Respiratory Muscle Fatigue Respiratory muscle fatigue has been implicated in the pathogenesis of acute ventilatory failure. Respiratory muscle fatigue is separated into two major categories: (1) central fatigue; that is, failure to generate force because of reduced central neural output; and (2) peripheral fatigue; that is, failure to generate force because of reduced neuromuscular transmission or impaired contractile properties of the respiratory muscles. During acute ventilatory failure, the failure to maintain adequate alveolar ventilation may be due to a decrease in central neural output (central fatigue), or a failure of the respiratory muscles to generate force in the presence of intact central neural output (peripheral fatigue), or both. Direct assessment of central or peripheral fatigue of the respiratory muscles in patients with acute ventilatory failure is not only technically difficult, but is further hampered by the need for baseline measurements before the onset of fatigue (72). Therefore, information on the control of breathing and breathing pattern following inspiratory muscle fatigue have been mostly inferred from studies in healthy subjects or experimental animals breathing against an inspiratory resistive load. In healthy subjects, following the induction of diaphragmatic or global inspiratory muscle fatigue, the slope of the ventilatory response to CO2 was unchanged (73,74), or was decreased (75), compared with the response before the induction of fatigue. Different response patterns among these studies are due to differences in methods, particularly in the timing of the CO2 rebreathing. In a study in which the ventilatory response to CO2 was performed within the first 5 min following the induction of inspiratory muscle fatigue, the slope of the ventilatory response to CO2 was unchanged (73,74). Mador and Tobin (75) determined the time course of the ventilatory and P0.1 responses to hypercapnia. The slope of the ventilatory response to hypercapnia did not change at 5 min, but decreased significantly from a baseline of 18.8 ± 3.3 (± SE) L/min per percentage endtidal CO2 to 13.8 ± 2.1 L/min per percentage at 20 min after the induction of inspiratory muscle fatigue. The slope of the P0.1 response to CO2 was not significantly different from baseline at any time following induced inspiratory muscle fatigue. The depressed ventilatory response to CO2 indicates impaired contractile performance of the inspiratory muscles. However, the inability to augment inspiratory motor outflow to fully compensate for the diminished contractile performance of the inspiratory muscles raises the possibility of a form of central fatigue. Whether respiratory muscle fatigue develops in patients with acute ventilatory failure remains unknown. In one study (43), patients who failed spontaneous
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breathing trials during discontinuation from mechanical ventilation exhibited a significant fall in the hightolow ratio of the power spectrum of the diaphragmatic electromyogram (EMGd) compared with baseline. In another study (76), patients who failed a weaning trial demonstrated a decline in the maximum relation rate (MRR) on both esophageal pressure (Pes) and transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) tracings. Both spectral shift on the EMG signal and the decline in MRR have been used to detect inspiratory muscle fatigue (77–79), although neither are specific indicators of such. The EMG spectral shift occurs before the decline in muscle force (80), which is a prerequisite for the definition of muscle fatigue (72). Furthermore, the EMG spectral shift does not reflect lowfrequency fatigue (81). The decline in MRR recovers rapidly to baseline value, a phenomenon unlikely to occur in contractile muscle fatigue (82). Despite the lack of specific evidence of respiratory muscle fatigue in patients with AVF, there is increasing evidence that during experimentally induced diaphragmatic fatigue in healthy subjects (83) and animals (84), part of the force decline of the diaphragm is attributed to reduced central respiratory drive, rather than solely reflecting impaired contractile properties. The twitch interpolation technique can be used to detect and quantify the magnitude of central fatigue. This consists of measuring the amplitude of the response to twitch stimulation superimposed on a voluntary contraction and relating it to the twitch response of a relaxed muscle (83). The difference between predicted Pdimax, based on superimposed twitches, and voluntary Pdimax quantitates the degree to which the central nervous system is unable to fully activate the diaphragm (central fatigue). Bellemare and BiglandRitchie (83) showed that the amplitude of the superimposed twitch exhibits a linear decrease as Pdi during voluntary contractions increases up to 70% of maximum (Pdimax; Fig. 5). A slightly nonlinearity is observed for voluntary Pdi values higher than 70% of Pdimax, such that extrapolation of the relation underestimates true Pdimax by about 10%. Two different reasons have been proposed for the underestimation of Pdimax obtained by the twitch interpolation technique: One, Loring and Hershenson (85) proposed that the underestimation of maximal force was related to inseries compliance. In their model, the muscle can be considered as having a contractile machinery connected in series with a compliant compartment anchored to bone. The twitch pressure obtained during muscle relaxation is large and only a small portion is dissipated in the inseries compliant compartment. Conversely, the twitch pressure obtained during forceful contraction is small, and the fraction wasted in the compliant compartment is relatively greater. Hence, the magnitude of superimposed twitch pressure can be markedly underestimated by the twitch interpolation technique (85). Two, Similowski et al. (86) postulated that the alinearity of the relation between superimposed twitch pressure and voluntary Pdi may be due to alterations in upper rib cage distortability. During highintensity voluntary contractions, the neck muscles are recruited and the upper rib cage becomes stiffer, whereas with less intense contractions, the neck muscles are
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Figure 5 Determination of central fatigue component: (a) Transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) induced by phrenic twitch stimulations delivered while the diaphragm was relaxed between contraction (Tr) or superimposed (Ts) on voluntary diaphragmatic contraction of varying magnitude. (b) Relation between the amplitude of transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) induced by phrenic twitch stimulation and voluntary Pdi as a percentage of maximum. The intercept on the xaxis is the predicted maximum Pdi when all motor units respond with maximum tetanic force. A slight alinearity was observed during voluntary contractions above 70% of Pdimax. See text for discussion of the alinearity. (From Ref. 83.)
relaxed and the upper rib cage is highly distortable. In contrast to the alinearity observed with electrical stimulation of the phrenic nerves, Similowski et al. (86) showed a linear decline of the superimposed twitch pressures as a function of voluntary Pdi with magnetic stimulation. The extrapolated values of Pdimax closely matched the actual values obtained during attempted maximal efforts. The difference in the pattern of response between the two methods of stimulation is due to the stability of the upper rib cage with magnetic stimulation. Figure 6 shows the determination of the central fatigue component following a fatigue run of breathing against an inspiratory resistive load. About onehalf of the decline in Pdimax resulted from a reduced central drive, and the remainder resulted from contractile muscle failure (83). However, it remains unclear whether the decrease in central respiratory drive is due to primary central failure or to an adaptation of the respiratory controller to changes in the fatigued contracting muscles to prevent catastrophic damage to the muscle fibers.
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Figure 6 Central and peripheral fatigue (diaphragmatic contractile failure) before and after inspiratory resistive breathing in healthy subjects: (a) The amplitude of transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) induced by phrenic twitch stimulation is plotted against voluntary Pdi before (closed circle) and after (open circle) a fatigue run in a single subject. Pdimax1 and Pdimax2 are the voluntary Pdimax values before and after the fatigue run, respectively. After the fatigue run, the intercept on the xaxis is the predicted Pdimax. The difference between the predicted Pdimax and Pdimax2 is the component of central fatigue. (b) Mean (± SE) response in five subjects expressed as percentage of control before the fatigue run (closed circles). After the fatigue run, the intercept on the xaxis, predicted Pdimax, is less than that before this run. The difference between the predicted Pdimax before and after the fatigue run is the component of peripheral fatigue. The difference between predicted Pdimax after the fatigue run and voluntary Pdimax at the end of this run is a measure of central fatigue. (From Ref. 83.)
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When respiratory muscle fatigue is induced in healthy subjects breathing against an inspiratory resistive load, the breathing pattern response is characterized by three stages (87). The first is a stage in which the breathing pattern is constant and the subject appears to be capable of maintaining the load. The second is a stage in which the subject adopts a strategy of varying the recruitment of the diaphragm and the rib cageaccessory muscles (respiratory alternans) in an attempt to sustain the breathing task. The last is a stage of exhaustion, lasting for only a few breaths, in which the subject can no longer maintain the load. Alterations in the breathing pattern in the form of paradoxical movement of the rib cage and abdomen have also been observed in patients who failed a spontaneousbreathing trial following discontinuation from mechanical ventilation (43). The appearance of rib cageabdominal paradox follows the decline in the high/low ratio of the EMGd power spectrum. Therefore, this pattern of breathing was initially thought to reflect respiratory muscle fatigue. However, rib cageabdominal paradox is neither sensitive nor specific for respiratory muscle fatigue. In healthy subjects breathing against inspiratory resistive load, Tobin and coworkers (88) demonstrated that rib cage abdominal paradox is significantly related to the level of the respiratory load and is not necessarily an indicator of respiratory muscle fatigue. Yet, the foregoing altered breathing pattern may be considered a harbinger of muscle fatigue, for it reflects an increased load on the respiratory muscles. The question remains, does a rapid, shallowbreathing pattern signify (1) respiratory muscle fatigue, or (2) does it reflect the plasticity of the respiratory center to minimize work to the fatiguing inspiratory muscles and, accordingly avoid overt muscle fatigue, or (3) does it minimize the sensation of effort? Against the first premise is that patients who fail a weaning trial adopt a rapid, shallowbreathing pattern almost instantaneously on assuming spontaneous breathing (89). In support of the second premise is that following the induction of diaphragmatic fatigue in healthy subjects, rapid, shallow breathing is associated with a greater contribution of the rib cage to breathing (73). Likewise, following the induction of global inspiratory muscle fatigue, CO2 rebreathing is associated with expiratory muscle recruitment with consequent decrease in the contribution of the inspiratory muscles to breathing (74,90). However, in patients with acute ventilatory failure, a low VT is frequently accompanied by an increased f, and accordingly, respiratory muscle work per unit time increases. In addition, if a rapid, shallowbreathing pattern is a useful strategy for preventing overt respiratory muscle fatigue, patients with these breathing patterns would be expected to display a tensiontime index (TTI) that falls within the critical threshold zone associated with respiratory muscle fatigue; namely, 0.15–0.20 (91,92), or a negative correlation between the degree of rapid, shallow breathing and TTI would be expected (93). The TTI of the inspiratory muscle is an estimate of inspiratory muscle effort over the duration of inspiration, calculated as the product of the ratio of mean esophageal pressure to
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its maximum pressure and the duty cycle (ratio of inspiratory time to total breath cycle duration). Recently, Jubran and Tobin (93) found a poor correlation between f/VT , an index of rapid, shallow breathing, and TTI in patients who failed weaning. However, it should be emphasized that maximum inspiratory pressure is very difficult to measure in critically ill patients, and the value used in calculation of TTI may not reflect maximum inspiratory muscle activation. The sense of effort and the sensation of dyspnea are both related directly to the peak inspiratory muscle pressure, expressed as a percentage of maximum inspiratory pressure (94,95). The peak pressure is less for a small VT than for a large VT so that these sensations should be lessened by shallow breathing. Those studies have been performed in healthy subjects breathing against an inspiratory resistive load in which a small VT is associated with a decrease in f (94). In patients with acute ventilatory failure, a small VT is invariably associated with high f; accordingly, the premise that rapid, shallowbreathing pattern is directed toward minimizing inspiratory effort sensation may not apply. Furthermore, during induced diaphragmatic fatigue in healthy subjects, fatiguing contractions of the diaphragm do not contribute independently to the sensation of inspiratory effort (95). D. Control of Breathing in Increased Ventilatory Demand or Load An excessive demand or load on the respiratory muscles, with or without a decrease in their capacity, is common in patients with AVF (96). In the study of Zakynthinos and coworkers (96), 25 or 31 patients (81%) with acute respiratory failure (of various causes) generated inspiratory pressures that were higher than the hypothetical critical value above which fatigue is likely to occur. Unfortunately, very little information is available on the response of patients in AVF to chemoreceptor stimulation. To our knowledge, only two studies (one during AVF and the other during recovery) are available on the ventilatory response to CO2 in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in AVF (97,98). Tardif and coworkers (97) studied the ventilatory and P0.1 responses to hypercapnia in 25 patients with COPD requiring mechanical ventilation. The study was performed 5 days after admission, at which time the patients were normocapnic, with near normal blood bicarbonate levels. The patients were disconnected from the ventilator, and they rebreathed CO2 from a 8 to 10L bag, containing 100% oxygen, for 6–8 min. In an unpublished study, these investigators claimed that data obtained with this rebreathing technique are similar to those obtained with the original technique of Read (99). Control data were obtained in 26 normal subjects. The slopes of the (Fig. 7) and VT responses to CO2 were markedly diminished, 10 and 5% of the control values, respectively, whereas the frequency response to CO2 was 146% of the control value. The slope of P0.1
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Figure 7 Ventilatory and occlusion pressure (P0.1) responses to hypercapnia in 25 patients with COPD in acute ventilatory failure (closed squares) and 24 healthy control subjects (open squares): The of the patients and of healthy controls: 0.17 ± 0.03 (± SE) L min1 torr2 was less than in the control group, 1.67 ± 0.15 L min1 torr1, respectively (p < 0.001). Likewise, P0.1/ PCO2 was less in the patients than in the healthy controls: 0.05 ± 0.01 vs. 0.08 ± 0.01 cmH2O/torr (p < 0.05). However, at a PETCO2 of 55 torr, the absolute P0.1 value was not significantly different from that of controls, although ventilatory response was significantly depressed because of the abnormal respiratory system mechanics. (For Ref. 97.)
response to CO2 was relatively better preserved (60% of control), and at endtidal PCO2 (PETCO2) of 55 torr, it crossed that of the controls. Indeed, at a given PETCO2 the absolute value of P0.1 was not significantly different from the controls, although the ventilatory response to CO2 was markedly depressed because of the increased impedance of the respiratory system (see Fig. 7). The diminished P0.1 response to progressively increasing CO2 may reflect impairment in respiratory muscle function, rather than inadequate respiratory neural drive. In another study of stable hypercapnic patients with COPD, the application of a correction to allow for the decreased inspiratory muscle efficiency, namely calculation of P0.1/PImax ratio, the response to CO2 was similar to controls (100). Furthermore, in patients with COPD in AVF (16) or who had failed a trial of weaning (101), a human model of AVF, the resting P0.1 is markedly elevated. This suggests that patients with COPD in AVF exhibit an intact chemoreceptor responsiveness (102). However, the scatter of responses among patients was very large: 0.06–0.50 L min1 torr1 for and 0.04–1.40 cmH2O/torr for P0.1 (102), suggesting chemoreceptor blunting could still be an important factor in some patients. Blunted P0.1 response to progressive hypercapnia (100) is also
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demonstrated in patients with stable chronic hypercapnic COPD. However, the acidbase disturbance in the patients of Tardif et al. (97) had been corrected, whereas in studies of patients with stable, chronic hypercapnic COPD, the persistently elevated bicarbonate might partly account for the observed blunting of central neural drive (100,102). Amaha and Sha (98) measured the ventilatory response to CO2 in six patients with severe COPD following the completion of weaning after an average of 31 days of mechanical ventilation. One month after discontinuation from mechanical ventilation, the slope of the ventilatory response to CO2 was shifted to the left in three patients, and, in all but one patient, the initial PCO2 was also shifted to the left, 48.5 ± 5.9 (± SD) torr versus 55.8 ± 7.7 torr (p < 0.04) in the early period after discontinuation of mechanical ventilation. Of the three patients who did not display an increase in the slope of the ventilatory response to CO2, two developed an exacerbation of their COPD within 6 months after discontinuation from mechanical ventilation. Although a reduced CO2 responsiveness could conceivably contribute to difficulty in weaning from mechanical ventilation, these data suggest that the ventilatory sensitivity to CO2 did not play an important role in these patients. On the contrary, Montgomery and coworkers (103) found that the P0.1 response to a hypercapnic challenge was useful in discriminating between patients who could and those who could not be weaned. After 20 min of breathing through a Tpiece, their patients breathed a gas mixture of 3% of CO2 and 40% O2 for approximately 5 min until the endtidal PCO2 increased by 10 torr. The ratio of P0.1 during CO2 stimulation to the resting baseline P0.1 was 1.17 ± 0.03 (± SE) in the patients who failed and 2.04 ± 0.25 (p < 0.005) in the patients who were successfully weaned. This study, however, consisted of a nonhomogeneous group of patients, with only a single patient having COPD. In stable patients with COPD, load compensation is determined by the degree of lung hyperinflation. When patients with COPD were challenged with an added inspiratory resistive load during CO2 rebreathing, those without hyperinflation were able to augment their inspiratory muscle output. The slopes of the Pdi and that of Pdi/ EMGd responses to CO2 increased in the patients without hyperinflation, whereas those with severe hyperinflation (FRC/TLC of 92%) exhibited blunting of load compensation (104). The resting PaCO2 in the two groups of patients was not significantly different, although this could be due to the small study population (four in each group; 104). In stable patients with COPD and hyperinflation, Sorli and coworkers (105) interpreted their high PaCO2 as reflecting a loadadaptive response whereby the patients breathed with a low VT and short inspiratory time (TI) to minimize the sensation of effort (106). Load compensation is obviously impaired in patients with AVF. However, during recovery of AVF or weaning, does a rise in PaCO2 represent a sign of impending ventilatory failure or a compensatory response to load? Evidence suggests that even a slight acute increase in PaCO2 signals impending ventilatory failure (107), particularly in the presence of severe hyperinflation (93,108). In difficulttowean
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patients, Dunn et al. (107) measured the CO2 responsiveness of the unloaded respiratory pump using the recruitment threshold technique. The ventilator frequency was gradually increased while VT and flow were held constant until phasic inspiratory muscle activity was completely suppressed. Then, inspired CO2 was gradually increased, and the CO2 recruitment threshold (PaCO2R T) was defined as the lowest PaCO2 at which the supplementation of CO2 caused the reappearance of phasic inspiratory muscle activity. PaCO2R T has been considered to represent the CO2 setpoint of the unloaded ventilatory pump, although the validity of this interpretation has been questioned (see later discussion). Dunn et al. (107) compared PaCO2R T with the PaCO2 during spontaneous breathing in patients being weaned from mechanical ventilation. Five patients who were successfully weaned maintained their spontaneous PaCO2 within 2 torr of PaCO2R T. Conversely, in seven of nine patients who developed respiratory distress and failed a weaning trial, spontaneous PaCO2 exceeded PaCO2R T by 3 torr or more (Fig. 8). The patients in the two groups displayed considerable overlap in PImax and variables of me
Figure 8 The difference between arterial CO2 tension (torr) of the recruitment threshold (PaCO2R T) and that during spontaneous breathing (PaCO2SB) at the end of a weaning trial. Of five patients
who were successfully weaned, three maintained their PaCO2 below the recruitment threshold; mean difference 1.2 torr (p > 0.1). Of nine patients who failed a weaning trial, seven developed an increase in PaCO2 of greater than 3 torr above the recruitment threshold, mean difference of 5 torr (p > 0.01). (From Ref. 107.)
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chanical load at the onset of the weaning trial, although intrinsic positive endexpiratory pressure (PEEPi), an estimate of dynamic hyperinflation, was not measured. This study suggests that respiratory muscle power output is insufficient to meet the target ventilation in patients who fail a weaning trial; however, the study did not elucidate whether the lack of power output was related to decreased central neural output or to increased mechanical load. Recently, Jubran and Tobin (93) studied in detail the mechanisms of respiratory distress in patients with COPD who failed a weaning trial. Variables of mechanical load, including PEEPi, and respiratory muscle effort, estimated as the pressuretime product per unit time (PTP/min; 109), were measured. The PaCO2 at the end of the trial in 17 weaningfailure patients was significantly higher than that during mechanical ventilation, 58 ± 4 (± SE) versus 45 ± 2 torr, whereas PaCO2 in 14 weaningsuccess patients did not change, 41 ± 2 versus 41 ± 2 torr. As in the study of Dunn et al. (107), PImax at the onset of the trial was not different in the two groups. However, over the course of the trial, inspiratory resistance of the lung, dynamic lung elastance, and PEEPi were higher in the failure than in the success group. At the end of the trial, PTP increased significantly in the failure group, and most of the increase was used to overcome the markedly elevated PEEPi, whereas the PTP required to overcome PEEPi did not change in the success group (Fig. 9). This study demonstrated that weaninginduced distress was related to increased mechanical load, notably dynamic hyperinflation and that the increase in respiratory muscle effort was insufficient to maintain alveolar ventilation. The breathing pattern of patients with COPD in AVF, is characterized by a small VT and high f (rapid, shallowbreathing pattern). In 20 patients with severe COPD in AVF, with a PaCO2 of 38 torr and PaCO2 of 61 torr, Aubier and coworkers (16) measured . Likewise, administration of O2 did not alter the pattern of breathing during recovery. During AVF, P0.1 was elevated, and it decreased significantly with recovery. O2 administration resulted in decreases in P0.1 during both ARF and recovery. A rapid, shallowbreathing pattern is also observed in patients who fail weaning trials (89,93,110). Moreover, it is not confined to patients with COPD, but is also seen in patients with other underlying pathologies (111). The mechanisms of the rapid, shallow breathing are unclear, but are probably multifactorial, including increased
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Figure 9 Partitioning of inspiratory muscle effort (PTP/min) into resistive, nonintrinsic positive endexpiratory pressure (PEEPi) elastic, and PEEPi components at the start and end of a weaning trial in 17 patients with COPD who failed the trial and 11 patients with COPD who were successfully weaned. In the failure group, the increase in PTP/min at the end of the trial was due to increases in PEEPi component by 111% (p < 0.0001), nonPEEPi elastic component by 33% (p < 0.0001), and resistive component by 42% (p < 0.0001). In the success group, the increase in PTP per minute at the end of the trial was related to increases in nonPEEPi elastic component by 23% (p < 0.02), in resistive component by 26% (p < 0.01), whereas the PEEPi component did not change. (From Ref. 93.)
mechanical load, chemoreceptor and mechanoreceptor stimulation, altered respiratory motoneuron discharge pattern, and cortical influences. The widely held notion that rapid, shallowbreathing pattern represents a strategy to prevent overt respiratory muscle fatigue or to reduce sense of effort was discussed earlier. III. Control of Breathing During Mechanical Ventilation During patienttriggered mechanical ventilation, two pumps, the respiratory muscles of the patient and the mechanical pump of the ventilator, are joined in series, although each is under the command of a separate controller. The respiratory
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Figure 10 The spirogram of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) during acute respiratory failure (circle) and recovery (triangle) and of normal control subjects (square) breathing air (left panel) and oxygen (O2; right panel). The patients displayed rapid, shallow breathing, which persisted after administration of O2. The slope of the ascending limb is the ratio of tidal volume to inspiratory time (i.e., mean inspiratory flow rate [VT /TI], a crude index of respiratory drive. The slopes were not significantly different between that of the patients and controls breathing air or O2. The zero point is the endexpiratory lung volume. (From Ref. 16.)
muscles are controlled by the respiratory centers, whereas the ventilator is controlled by the operator. The ventilatory output, measured as VT and frequency, is determined by the interaction between the patient and the ventilator. VT is a function of the neural discharge per breath. Neural discharge has to be first converted to Pmus, which depends on the integrity of neuromuscular transmission and on the strength of the inspiratory muscles. During mechanical ventilation, VT depends on both Pmus and the pressure applied by the ventilator (Pappl), and the mechanical properties of the respiratory system according to the equation of motion (112; Fig. 11):
in which is flow, Rrs is the resistance of the respiratory system, V is volume and Ers is the elastance of the respiratory system. The relative contribution of Pmus and Pappl in overcoming the mechanical load depends on the mode of mechanical ventilation (17,113). With assisted volumecycled ventilation (ACV), there is a negative correlation between Pmus and Pappl: the higher Pmus, the less is Pappl, and VT is independent of Pmus because VT is the set variable. With pressure support ventilation (PSV), Pappl is independent of Pmus because it is the set
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Figure 11 Ventilatory output during mechanical ventilation is determined by the interaction between the patient and the ventilator. The patient's neural inspiratory drive consists of neural intensity per breath and neural frequency. The translation of neural intensity per breath into pressure generated by the respiratory muscles (Pmus) is a function of neuromuscular transmission and respiratory muscle strength. Pmus, together with the pressure applied by the ventilator (Pappl), overcome respiratory system mechanics and determine tidal volume (V). The relation between Pmus and Pappl depends on the mode of mechanical ventilation. During assistcontrol volumecycled ventilation (ACV), as Pmus increases, Pappl decreases, or Pmus is inversely related to Pappl (—); during pressuresupport ventilation (PSV), no relation exists between Pmus and Pappl (0); and during proportionalassist ventilation (PAV), Pmus is proportional to Pappl; as Pmus increases, Pappl increases proportionately (+). Neural frequency may be greater, equal to, or less than mechanical frequency. See text and Table 2 for determinants of the interaction between neural and mechanical frequency. , flow rate; Rrs and Ers, respiratory system resistance and elastance, respectively. (From Ref. 117.)
variable (17). In general, the higher Pappl, the greater the respiratory muscle unloading (114). VT is a function of Pappl; that is, the set inspiratory pressure, and the patient's respiratory system mechanics. With proportionalassist ventilation (PAV), Pappl is proportional to Pmus. The greater the patient's inspiratory effort, the higher is Pappl; conversely, the less a patient's inspiratory effort, the less the
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assistance provided by the ventilator. With PAV, VT is a function of the proportionality of the assist setting (Pappl/Pmus) (115). Frequency [1/(TI + expiratory time (TE))] is determined by both neural (patient) and mechanical (ventilator) frequency. During constantflow ACV, mechanical TI is constant, and “mechanical” TE is a function of the set VT and the emptying time to passive FRC. Alternatively, mechanical TE can be viewed as a function of the expiratory time constant which, in turn, is the product of the compliance of the respiratory system and the resistance of the airway and ventilator circuit. Although “mechanical” expiratory time is thus determined by both patient and machine factors, for simplicity, it will be called mechanical TE, to differentiate it from neural TE; that is, TE of a spontaneous breath. During PSV, mechanical TI is a function of VT , the set rate of rise of inspiratory flow (attack rate), inspiratory time constant, and the set flow termination threshold. The determinants of mechanical TE with PSV are similar to those with ACV. During PAV, neural frequency is proportional to mechanical frequency. As a result of changes in ventilator settings, the alterations in arterial blood gas levels and activities of various receptors within the respiratory system generate feedback to the respiratory center in the form of chemical and mechanical feedback, respectively, and in the awake patient, behavioral factors also play a role. Thus, ventilatory output is the final product of the interaction between the patient and the ventilator. The control of breathing during mechanical ventilation encompasses the ventilatory output in response to the patient's respiratory centers and inspiratory effort, and the settings on the ventilator. A. Ventilatory Output in Response to Patient Respiratory Centers and Inspiratory Effort Respiratory Centers Output The P0.1 has been used as an index of central neural drive, assuming that neuromuscular transmission and inspiratory muscle contractile properties are intact (see foregoing). To evaluate the overall output throughout the respiratory cycle, it is necessary that the occlusion is not influenced by cortical input (8). This is possible only when the subject is asleep, under anesthesia, or comatose. When this requirement is met, the respiratory centers output can be analyzed from the occlusion pressure waveform, which consists of four components: (1) the rate of rise (dP/dt), (2) the shape of the rising phase, (3) the peak amplitude of the occlusion pressure, and (4) the duration of the occlusion pressure (116; Fig. 12). Each of these components influences the ventilatory output during mechanical ventilation (117). 1. A decrease in the rate of rise, by itself, or combined with a low Pmus, can delay ventilator triggering. During mechanical ventilation, a delay in triggering may result in ineffective triggering, particularly in the presence of dynamic hyperinflation.
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Figure 12 Three possible occlusion pressure waveforms: The waveform has an upward convexity in both (a) and (c), and an upward concavity in (b). The rate of pressure increased is greatest in c, and this trace also has the highest peak amplitude and shortest inspiratory time. In a patient receiving mechanical ventilation, a decrease in the rise rate of the occlusion pressure waveform can cause a delay in ventilator triggering, whereas an upward convexity of the waveform can potentially offset the triggering delay. The peak amplitude of the occlusion pressure reflects the intensity of neural discharge per breath. The duration of the occlusion pressure is in general more prolonged than the unoccluded neural inspiratory time.
2. The shape of the rising phase also influences ventilator triggering. With a decreased rate in the rise of pressure, an upward convexity in the pressure waveform will partially offset triggering delay. In the spontaneously breathing subjects, the shape of the rising phase is important for load compensation, and it determines the inspiratory flow (118). With an upward convexity, the reduction in VT is less with a given added resistive load. The more upwardly convex the rising phase, the earlier the occurrence of peak flow (116). During mechanical ventilation, subjects with an upwardly convex rising phase will be expected to require a highflow delivery early in inspiration, compared with subjects who exhibit an upward concavity. The fixedflow delivery during volumecycled ventilation may result in a flow delivery that is insufficient for the subject with an upwardly convex rising phase and cause discomfort (117). This reasoning is theoretical, however, and remains to be confirmed. 3. The peak amplitude of the occlusion pressure reflects the intensity of neural discharge per breath. Through complex translations (118,119), VT is a function of the peak amplitude of occlusion pressure and is highly variable among subjects (116). In spontaneously breathing healthy subjects, the withinsubject variability of VT on a breathtobreath basis is also quite high (120). Recently, Marantz and colleagues (121) showed that during PAV, with varying degrees of assist from nearmaximal to the lowest tolerable level, the intra or intersubject variability of VT persists in the manner seen in spontaneously breathing subjects. Because no pressure or volume targets exist with PAV, the patients freely adopted
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their own breathing pattern. Navalesi and coworkers (122) observed similar findings with PAV. In the study of Marantz and coworkers (121), at the highest and lowest levels of assist, VT was 517 ± 217 mL (± SD) and 459 ± 175 mL, respectively. The average VT among patients ranged from 3.4 to 14.1 mL/kg. are mathematically coupled. During ACV, VT is set at a constant level and 10–15 mL/kg will be adequate for most patients. However, such high volumes increase the risk of barotrauma or hyperventilation. Conversely, a VT of 6–8 mL/kg may be unsatisfying to patients in whom their own central controller has targeted a high VT or when ventilatory demand increases. This may manifest as the patient “fighting the ventilator,” and precipitate the need for sedation or paralysis. Here, the use of PAV or, to a lesser extent, PSV may theoretically be more accommodating (17). 4. In general, the duration of occlusion pressure is more prolonged than for spontaneously breathing neural TI owing to the HeringBreuer reflex (116). The spontaneous neural TI has an important influence on ventilatory output during mechanical ventilation. As with VT , the intra and intersubject variability of neural TI is high in spontaneously breathing subjects (116,120), particularly in the elderly, with a mean coefficient of variation of 49 and 21%, respectively (120). This variability is also maintained during mechanical ventilation (121). During PAV, in which mechanical TI is proportional to neural TI, frequency is independent of the assist level, and ranges from 18 to 33 breaths per minute among patients (121). Because of this high interpatient variability, frequency alone cannot be used as an indicator of respiratory distress. During ACV, TI is fixed. When neural TI is short, a low, set inspiratory flow rate (that is, a relatively long mechanical TI) will cause mechanical inflation to continue into neural TE, reducing the time available for emptying. In an alert patient, this may result in recruitment of the expiratory muscles in an attempt to terminate inspiration; this activity is associated with an increase in peak airway pressure (Paw) and discomfort. Because of the reduced emptying time, dynamic hyperinflation my also develop with consequent failure of inspiratory efforts to trigger the ventilator. On the other hand, when neural TI is prolonged, mechanical inflation may terminate while the patient is still pulling. In this situation, after a brief period of expiratory flow, the ventilator may be again triggered causing double machine inflations within the same neural TI (117). The situation with PSV is nearly similar to ACV, particularly at high levels of support and high airflow resistance. Under these conditions, mechanical TI during PSV). Mechanical TI may outlast neural TI, with consequent decrease in the time available for emptying, promoting dynamic hyperinflation and ineffective triggering. The cessation of neural TI before me
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chanical TI may precipitate recruitment of the expiratory muscles in an attempt to terminate inspiration—again, manifesting as the patient fighting the ventilator (109). In addition to factors already discussed, the respiratory centers have the capability of maintaining respiratory activity after removal of a stimulus, socalled after discharge, and this activity is partially determined by the nature of the stimulus (123). This sustained activity is central in origin, and unrelated to chemoreceptor or mechanoreceptor feedback or the state of sleepwakefulness (123,124); it may play a role during mechanical ventilation. During synchronous intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV), at a given level of machine assist, the inspiratory muscle effort during the mandatory breaths is similar to that during the intervening spontaneous breaths (125–128). In a study during which 10 cmH2O of pressure support was applied during the intervening breaths, inspiratory muscle effort decreased not only during the intervening spontaneous breaths, but also during the mandatory breaths (125; Fig. 13). Conceivably, during SIMV, the heightened respiratory activity during spontaneous breath is carried over to the subsequent mandatory or assisted breath in the manner of “after discharge” or “memory” phenomenon. Patient Inspiratory Effort During the triggering phase, decreased patient inspiratory effort delays ventilator triggering with its consequent events, as described earlier. In a patient with a decreased Pmus, the ventilator will provide most of the assistance during the posttriggering phase of ACV. The relative durations of neural and mechanical frequency determine the neuroventilatory coupling. With PSV, a low Pmus, combined with high airflow resistance and a high level of pressure, result in mechanical TI exceeding neural TI (17). This outcome results primarily from the prolonged inspiratory time constant to reach the peak Paw and also the prolonged time constant to reach the flow termination threshold. Conversely, when a low Pmus is combined with low airflow resistance, neural TI exceeds mechanical TI (17). In this case, the additional flow provided by Pmus is minimal, and thus, the flow termination threshold is readily attained before the termination of neural TI. Recently, Leung et al. (125) studied the effect of ACV, varying levels of IMV, and varying levels of PSV on ineffective triggering or neuroventilatory uncoupling. With PSV, the higher the level of pressure, the higher the VT was. Respiratory center drive, dP/dt, decreased as machine assistance was increased. The number of ineffectivetriggering attempts was inversely related to dP/dt and directly related to VT . Furthermore, wasted inspiratory effort, estimated as the pressuretime product of the ineffective triggering efforts per minute, showed a positive correlation with airflow resistance and static PEEPi, and a negative correlation with elastance. Table 2 summarizes the factors contributing to the
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Figure 13 Pressuretime product (PTP) per breath during synchronous intermittent mandatory ventilation (IMV) in the presence and absence of pressure support (PS). The addition of 10 cmH2O PS decreased the overall PTP per breath. However, PTP per breath did not differ between the mandatory and intervening spontaneous breaths of IMV at each level of machine assistance, irrespective of whether PS was present or absent. (From Ref. 125.)
interaction between patient and ventilator that are responsible for ineffective triggering. B. Ventilatory Output in Response to the Ventilator A delay in ventilator triggering may also result from a very negative set trigger sensitivity and a high set base flow (129; see Table 2), particularly when the high base flow is combined with pressure triggering (129). However, during PSV in the presence of increased airway resistance, a high base flow, with either pressure or flow triggering, would be expected to result in triggering delay.
Page 497 Table 2 Determinants of Ineffective Triggering During Mechanical Ventilation Patient
Ventilator
Decreased neural drive
Low set sensitivity
Decreased Pmus
High base flow
Dynamic hyperinflation
Lowpeak inspiratory flow rate a
High inspiratory time constant
High set volume
High expiratory time constanta
High set inspiratory pressure
Slow rate of rise of flow delivery (attack rate)
Low set flow termination threshold
a
Time constant is the product of compliance and inspiratory or expiratory airway resistance, respectively.
Mechanical TI will be greater than neural TI, and the encroachment of machine TI into neural TE predisposes to dynamic hyperinflation. Likewise, a high set VT (with ACV) or inspiratory pressure (PCV, PSV), a low peak flow rate (ACV), a slow rate of rise of flow delivery (PSV), or a low set flow termination threshold (PSV) will also result in ineffective triggering (see Table 2). During mechanical ventilation, changes in arterial blood gas tensions, and ventilator volume or flow settings can elicit feedback responses by chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors, respectively. These feedback responses will alter the intensity and duration of a patient's inspiratory effort and, therefore, alter the overall ventilatory output. Chemoreceptors Feedback. Chemical feedback refers to the response of the respiratory center to changes in arterial PO2, PCO2, and pH. Response to Changes in PaO2 In healthy subjects, the ventilatory response to PaO2 is hyperbolic, and the response increases progressively when PaO2 falls to lower than 60 torr, whereas the response is nearly flat as PaO2 increases higher than 60 torr (130). When oxygen saturation (SaO2) is substituted for PaO2, the relation between ventilation and SaO2 becomes linear (130). The ventilatory response to PaO2 is also a function of the level of PaCO2. Hypercapnia causes a leftward shift of the curvilinear relation between ventilation and PaO2. At a constant PaCO2, an increase in SaO2 above 90% is expected to provide little change in ventilation or respiratory center output. However, in patients with acute lung injury who were receiving PSV, Pesenti et al. (131) observed that a shortterm increase in FIO2 that increased mean SaO2 from 93% (range 90–95%) to 97% (range 95–100%) resulted in a significant decrease in ventilation (mean 2 L/min). In healthy subjects, such a change in SaO2 is not
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considered to elicit much of a ventilatory response. Frequency also decreased significantly from 31 to 25 breaths per minute at the higher SaO2, and PaCO2 increased from 42.9 to 45.1 torr (p < 0.01). If PaCO2 had been maintained constant, the change in ventilation would probably have been even greater, because the decrease in . Conversely, P0.1 did not change significantly (from 2.73 to 2.15 cmH2O) with increasing SaO2. However, in those patients with a high baseline P0.1' it decreased from 5.1 to 3.7 cmH2O at high SaO2 (131). Whether or not the alterations in ventilatory and P0.1 response to variation in FIO2 were associated with changes in dyspnea was not addressed by these investigators. Response to Changes in PaCO2 In healthy subjects, the ventilatory response to acute hypercapnia is linear at values higher than the PaCO2 during spontaneous breathing (99). The response is enhanced by hypoxia and metabolic acidosis (132). During mechanical ventilation, the response to changes in PaCO2 is influenced by the sleepawake state (133), the mode of mechanical ventilation (9,134,135), and independent of the degree of mechanical unloading (136). In healthy subjects, the wakefulness stimulus is an important source of respiratory drive. With the elimination of wakefulness, during sleep or anesthesia, maintenance of respiratory rhythm becomes critically dependent on chemical feedback (133,137,138). When hypocapnia (~PETCO2 of 31 torr) was induced by controlled (passive) mechanical ventilation, disconnection of the ventilator resulted in consistent apneas during sleep (137,139), but not during wakefulness, despite a decrease in PETCO2 to 27 torr (range 25–30 torr; 140). Studies on neuromechanical inhibition during wakefulness is conflicting. Simon et al. (139) demonstrated that inspiratory inhibition persisted after discontinuation of mechanical ventilation, not only in sleeping, but also in awake subjects. The strength of ventilatorrelated neuromechanical inhibition has been estimated using the CO2 recruitment threshold (141; see foregoing). The CO2 recruitment threshold can be 4–5 torr higher than the PETCO2 during spontaneous breathing, and the difference between spontaneous PETCO2 and the recruitment threshold is a measure of the strength of ventilatorrelated neuromuscular inhibition. Such inhibition does not require the induction of hypocapnia (142,160) and is thought to represent a memory or inertia (143; see later discussion for the mechanism of neuromuscular inhibition). Morrell et al. (133) observed that the application of 10 cmH2O PSV in healthy subjects induced hypocapnia while awake and maintained close to eucapnic level while asleep (PETCO2 of 32.7 vs. 39.8 torr, respectively). During sleep, the respiratory system appears to acquire compensatory changes in breathing pattern to regulate PaCO2 at close to the awake eucapnic level (133). However, if ventilator settings were set at values that cause hypocapnia, as during wakeful
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ness, periodic breathing develops. This suggests that ventilator settings appropriate for wakefulness may be inappropriate during sleep, and vice versa (144). During wakefulness, when subjects were ventilated with ACV (9) or PSV (134), a CO2 response was observed over a wide hypocapnic range. The relation between Pmus or dP/dt and PETCO2 was nonlinear in the hypocapnic range and became linear in the hypercapnic range, with no distinct CO2 threshold (9,134; Figs. 14 and 15). This observation appeared to defeat the usefulness of the PaCO2R T as a method for assessing chemoreceptor CO2 sensitivity (107,145; see foregoing). Puddy et al. (140) contend that the PaCO2R T simply indicates the PaCO2 at which VT or frequency demand is not met by the ventilator settings and reflects neither CO2 sensitivity nor the strength of neuromuscular inhibition by ventilator volume. However, it is still very difficult to reconcile the conflicting data concerning of PaCO2R T as a measure of CO2 sensitivity or the strength of neuromuscular inhibition. During mechanical ventilation, only inspiratory effort and VT are sensitive to CO2 and the response is independent of the mode of mechanical ventilation (9,134). Conversely, f is insensitive to CO2 over a wid range of PCO2 (see Figs. 14 and 15). The implication of these observations are as follows: One, in awake subjects, with both ACV and PSV, the ability of chemical feedback to closely regulate PaCO2 is compromised. Because f is insensitive to CO2, very high settings of VT or PS will result in severe respiratory alkalosis. Two, in the presence of hypercapnia, PSV would theoretically be a better choice than ACV to control PaCO2 because inspiratory effort is sensitive to CO2. This suggestion is supported by the known ability of PSV to modulate VT in response to inspiratory effort. Indeed, in healthy subjects, VT is sensitive to CO2 during PSV (146). However, in the presence of abnormal respiratory system mechanics, the ability of PSV to increase VT is severely limited because of patientventilator asynchrony with uncoupling of neural from mechanical TI (135) or with activation of the expiratory muscles during TI (117). PAV may be better able to compensate for changes in PaCO2, because VT is tightly linked to Pmus (17,112). In fact, Ranieri and coworkers (135) demonstrated that patients with ARF who were ventilated with PAV responded to added dead space by increasing VT with little change in f, a similar response to increasing FICO2 in healthy subjects (147,148). This is in contrast to the response with PSV in which added dead space resulted in an increase in f, with little change in VT (135). The sense of breathlessness was also greater with PSV than with PAV. This study suggests that when the ability to increase VT is limited by a ventilatory mode, f increases. Whether the increase in f reflects respiratory distress or a physiological response to the curtailed VT remains unclear. During mechanical ventilation, neuromuscular output is generally reduced and the decrease is believed to be related to the degree of mechanical unloading (149). However, the decrease in neuromuscular output may also be due to decreased chemical feedback as a result of increased ventilation. To resolve this
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Figure 14 Average responses of respiratory muscle output variables and frequency to CO2 over a wide range in 16 subjects receiving assistcontrol ventilation. The changes induced by CO2 in each variable are referenced to the value at PETCO2 of 26 torr P0.2, P0.4, and P0.7 are change in respiratory muscle pressure (Pmus) obtained at 20, 40, and 70% of inflation time, respectively. Both Pmus and dP/dt (the rate of change in airway pressure before triggering) are sensitive to progressive increase in CO2. Conversely, frequency (f) is insensitive to CO2. (From Ref. 9.)
issue, Georgopoulos and coworkers (136) recently studied the response of neuromuscular output to CO2, using the Read rebreathing method (99) in healthy subjects, with and without unloading of the respiratory system. PAV was used to unload the respiratory system resistance and elastance by approximately 50%. Neuromuscular output was expressed as Pmus and transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi). At a given PETCO2, unloading with PAV caused a significant increase in ventilation, but the slope of the ventilatory response to CO2 was similar to that of spontaneous breathing. Similarly, the rate of rise of Pmus or Pdi was not significantly different (Fig. 16). This study suggests that the degree of downregulation of neuromuscular output during mechanical ventilation depends on the sensitivity to CO2 and the magnitude of PaCO2 reduction. Whether or not patients with disease exhibit a similar response is unknown, because the response to unloading may, to some extent, depend on the baseline mechanical load or the mode of mechanical ventilation (126,128,150). In summary, the determinants of PaCO2 during mechanical ventilation con
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Figure 15 Respiratory muscle output (Pmus) in a representative healthy subject and mean (± SE) frequency response over a wide range of CO2 during pressuresupport ventilation. Respiratory muscle pressure (Pmus) response was obtained at 20% (P0.2) and 50% (P0.5) of inflation time. As during assistcontrol ventilation (see Fig. 14), Pmus is sensitive, whereas frequency is insensitive to progressive increase in CO2. Bars are SE, *p<0.05 compared with PETCO2 of 23.5 torr. (From Ref. 134.)
sists of the chemoreceptor sensitivity to CO2 and the interaction between respiratory muscle output and ventilator output in response to changes in PaCO2 that is partially determined by the mode of mechanical ventilation. Another factor that cannot be left out, the efficiency of gas exchange that leads to the relation between ventilation, CO2 production, and the dead space/tidal volume ratio (151,152,170) is beyond the scope of this chapter. (The reader is referred to Ref. 117 for the interactions among the foregoing factors.) Mechanoreceptor Feedback Mechanical feedback refers to the response of the respiratory center to changes in static lung volume, rate of change in lung volume or flow rate, changes in respiratory muscle length or tension, or mechanical load. Reflex mechanisms
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Figure 16 Average time course of respiratory muscle pressure (Pmus) and transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) at three levels (50,55, and 59 torr) of PETCO2 obtained during CO2 rebreathing in the presence (dashed line) and absence of unloading (solid line) using proportionalassist ventilation. For a given level of PETCO2, unloading failed to decrease Pmus or Pdi. This observation suggests that the decrease in neuromuscular output during mechanical ventilation depends on the sensitivity to CO2 and the magnitude of PaCO2 reduction. The traces were aligned at onset of neural inspiration (zero time). (From Ref. 136.)
cause changes in neural intensity per breath and frequency. Vagal, chest wall or respiratory muscle receptors are involved in these reflexes (153,154). Mechanical feedback also transmits information to higher brain centers that leads to sensory perception (155,156). The conscious perception of lung volume, flow rate, and mechanical load can result in behavioral responses. ReflexMediated Feedback During mechanical ventilation, reflexmediated feedback plays an important role in the control of breathing in both experimental animals (157) and humans (144,158). The response to reflexmediated feedback is influenced by the sleep
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awake state (142,144,159,160), with the chemical feedback being dominant during sleep (133,138,144). Relevant to mechanical ventilation are alterations in reflex mediated feedback due to changes in VT and flow rate. VolumeRelated Feedback. One of the earliest studies addressing the response of the respiratory center during assisted ventilation was performed in anesthetized dogs receiving intermittent positivepressure breathing (161). Increases in peak pressure caused a decrease in f, but the decrease in f was insufficient to prevent a significant reduction in PaCO2 (Fig. 17). Neuromuscular output (the rate of rise of EMGd moving average and P0.1) decreased in proportion to the applied pressures and was independent of PaCO2. When PaCO2 was maintained at the level during eucapnic spontaneous breathing, progressive vagal blockade attenuated and vagotomy abolished response of the decrease in neuromuscular output (157). The f response following vagotomy was not addressed. In anesthetized cats (162), varying the level of pressure support also decreased f and EMGd in proportion to the increase in VT . During isocapnia, the decrease in f and EMGd was completely prevented after vagotomy. Hence, in anesthetized animals,
Figure 17 Changes in tidal volume, frequency, and PaCO2 during intermittent positivepressure breathing (5–25 cmH2O) compared with values during baseline spontaneous breathing in anesthetized healthy dogs. Tidal volume increased in proportion to the peak pressure setting, whereas both frequency and PaCO2 decreased. However, the decrease in frequency was insufficient to prevent a significant reduction in PaCO2. Baseline spontaneous breathing tidal volume was 0.44 ± 0.01 (± SE) L, frequency 11.3 ± 0.4 breaths per minute, and PaCO2 38.0 ± 0.6 torr. Numbers in parentheses are number of observations. Horizontal and vertical bars represent ± SE. *p<0.005 (From Ref. 161.)
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volumerelated inhibition of neuromuscular output and f are primarily mediated by both the CO2 chemoreceptor and vagal feedback. Two studies conducted in awake healthy subjects to evaluate the effect of VT on f (140,144) reveal conflicting results. In seated subjects receiving constantflow ACV through a mouthpiece, Puddy and coworkers (140) increased VT in steps of 200 mL every 2–3 min until reaching 80% of the subject's inspiratory capacity, or the limit of the ventilator VT , while maintaining PETCO2 between 25 and 30 torr. With increasing VT , flow was increased to achieve a constant TI of 1.3 sec. Despite a twofold increase in VT , f remained fairly stable (Fig. 18). Tobert and coworkers (144) studied supine subjects who received ACV by nasal mask, while VT was increased in steps of 200 mL every 3 min until 1.8 L; flow of 40 L/min or TI of 2 sec were kept constant. These investigators found that increasing VT was accompanied by a proportionate decrease in f, although the decrease in f was
Figure 18 Relation between respiratory frequency and increasing levels of tidal volume at a constant inspiratory flow rate of 40 L/min (isoflow; open circles) and at a constant inspiratory time of 2 sec (isotime; filled circles). Numbers in parenthesis are inspiratory flow rates at constant inspiratory time. Filled squares are from Ref. 9, in which inspiratory flow rates were increased from a mean of 45 to 78 L/min with initial and maximum VT , respectively, while inspiratory time was maintained constant at 1.3 sec. Frequency does not decrease significantly as VT is increased. It appears that frequency decreases with increasing VT when flow is maintained constant, and it remains unchanged when flow is increased proportionate to the increase in VT . (From Ref. 144.)
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partially offset by the increases in flow (see Fig. 18). In addition, the decrease in f was not sufficient to prevent the development of hypocapnia. Discrepancies between the studies are attributable to methodological differences, particularly the lack of constant flow in the study of Puddy et al. (140; see Fig. 18). During sleep the volumerelated decrease in f is qualitatively similar to that during wakefulness, but for a given volume, f is higher during sleep (144). Unlike anesthetized animals, the mechanism of volumerelated decreases in f is not vagally mediated in humans, because a similar response was observed in vagally denervated patients following double lung transplantation (163). Similarly, upper airway mechanoreceptors do not seem to play a role (164). Attempts to detect volumerelated inhibitory input to the inspiratory muscles during controlled mechanical ventilation (CMV) using the recruitment CO2 technique failed to identify sensory feedback by the vagus, intercostal, or phrenic afferents (141,165,166), although feedback from some part of the chest wall could be identified (165). However, the use of the CO2 recruitment threshold technique for assessing the strength of neuromechanical inhibition has been criticized by others (140; see foregoing). Accordingly, the precise pathway for volumerelated feedback during mechanical ventilation in humans remains unclear. The clinical implication of the foregoing observations is that when flow is set at a level that is sufficient to match a high VT setting, f may not decrease. When flow is set low and is insufficient to match a high VT setting, mechanical TI exceeds neural TI, resulting in ineffective triggering efforts (discussed earlier). A high ventilator VT setting may result in a decrease in ventilator f, but does not necessarily decrease neural f. Irrespective of the inspiratory flow rate, a high VT setting may result in hypocapnic respiratory alkalosis, with detrimental effects. FlowRelated Feedback. In both healthy subjects (144,167) and patients with disease (168), high flow rates exert an excitatory reflex effect, which to some extent is influenced by the awakesleep state (144,159). The effect is complete in one breath after a change in flow rate. The flowinduced increase in f is associated with increased neuromuscular output (dP/dt) and decreased TE. During sleep, the flowrelated f response is qualitatively similar to that during wakefulness, but for a given flow rate, f is higher than that during wakefulness (144,159). This reflex is not affected by the breathing route (nasal or mouth), temperature and volume of inspired gas, and anesthesia of upper and lower airways (169), nor does it require pulmonary vagal afferent feedback (163). The mechanoreceptors responsible for flow related feedback remains to be determined. From the clinical perspective, these observations have important implications. One, the intention to decrease the work per breath by increasing flow rates (149) may be offset by an increase in work rate owing to flowinduced increase in f. Two, flowinduced tachypnea may cause hyperventilation and respiratory alkolosis. Three, the desired effect of increasing flow rates on TE prolongation, with
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the aim of decreasing dynamic hyperinflation, may not be achieved (168). On the other hand, Connors and coworkers demonstrated that high flow rates in patients with COPD improved gas exchange and distribution of ventilation (170). In that study, 20 min after adjusting flow rates to 40, 70, and 100 L/min, f values were 11.1, 10.1, and 9.6 breaths per minute, respectively, with associated significant TE prolongation of 4.2, 5.4, and 6.1 sec, respectively. In patients with respiratory failure, but without COPD, the increases in flow rates produced f values of 13.0, 14.0, and 14.4 breaths per minute, respectively, with no improvement in gas exchange. The flowinduced decrease or increase in f in both groups of patients did not achieve statistical significance; however, high flow rates appear to confer beneficial effects, provided TE is significantly prolonged. In the study of Connors et al. (170) a relative steady state was achieved; therefore, chemical feedback might have contributed to the decrease in f. Behavioral Factors Behavioral factors affect the control of breathing in an unpredictable manner, and they involve several factors including the individual patient, the environment (171), or ventilator settings (172,173). In the awake subject, a comfortable spontaneous pattern of breathing cannot be duplicated when the subject is attached to a ventilator (172). In a study in which the ventilator VT was set equal to that of the spontaneous breathing, the ventilator settings associated with comfort resulted in a lower TI and TE, and a lower PETCO2 than the values of these breath components during spontaneous breathing (TI: 1.46 VS. 2.0 sec; TE 3.7 VS. 4.3 sec; PETCO2 33.5 VS. 37.1 torr, respectively; 172). Ventilator settings can either induce or alleviate the sensation of respiratory discomfort. Flow settings that are either lower or higher than the baseline spontaneous flow can increase dyspnea (172). Patients with a high level of spinal cord injury display an inverse relation between VT and the sensation of air hunger for a constant PETCO2 (173). In a study of patients with COPD, increasing the level of pressure support resulted in the initiation of expiratory muscle activity while the ventilator was still inflating the thorax (109). The patients exhibiting this phenomenon had a prolonged inspiratory time constant. As such, more time needs to elapse before inspiratory flow falls to the threshold value required for the termination of inspiratory assistance by the ventilator. Consequently, mechanical inflation can persist into neural expiration, which is very uncomfortable. In general, when the relative duration of TI and TE are altered from that of spontaneous breathing, and the I/E ratio is inverted, respiratory discomfort occurs. This discomfort may manifest itself as rapid breathing (172), or the patient may fight the ventilator. Behavioral factors are mediated by the various mechanoreceptors mentioned earlier, but involvement of the chest wall is not obligatory. This has been demonstrated by the persistence of air hunger with decreasing VT in patients with cervical spinal cord injury (173). Because behavioral factors are absent during sleep or sedation, ventilator settings that
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appear satisfactory under those conditions may no longer be adequate during wakefulness or when sedation is discontinued. IV. Summary Remarkably few studies focusing on the control of breathing during AVF are available. With the exception of patients with high levels of spinal cord injury, patients with AVF of another etiology seem to have intact central controller response to CO2. In general, patients in AVF commonly have a small VT and an increased f (i.e., rapid, shallow breathing). The cause of this rapid, shallowbreathing pattern is unknown, and it is likely to be multifactorial, involving chemoreceptor stimulation, increased mechanical load, altered operating lung volume, reflexes originating in the lungs and respiratory muscles, altered respiratory motoneuron discharge patterns, and cortical influences. During mechanical ventilation, the components of the respiratory cycle are determined by the interaction between the patient and the ventilator. The degree of matching between the patient and the ventilator (neuroventilatory coupling) is influenced by the sleepwake state, the mode and settings of the ventilator that trigger chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors feedback mechanisms, and behavioral factors. Each of the currently available modes of mechanical ventilation has its own limitation, and perfect neuroventilatory coupling has not yet been achieved. An understanding of the factors that influence and modulate the control of breathing in patients with AVF and in ventilatorsupported patients is vitally important when attempting to minimize patientventilator asynchrony and related complications, and to maximize patient comfort. References 1. Roussos C, Macklem PT. The respiratory muscles. N Engl J Med 1982; 307:786–797. 2. Bruce EN, Cherniack NS. Central chemoreceptors. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62:389–402. 3. Younes M, Remmers JE. Control of tidal volume and respiratory frequency. In: Hornbein TF, ed. Regulation of Breathing. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1981:621– 671. 4. Berger AJ, Mitchell RA, Severinghaus JW. Regulation of respiration. N Engl J Med 1977; 297:92–97, 138–143, 194–201. 5. Hensley MJ, Read DJ. A test of the ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia for clinical use. Aust NZ J Med 1977; 7:362–367. 6. Altose MD, McCauley WC, Kelsen SG, Cherniack NS. Effects of hypercapnia and inspiratory flowresistive loading on respiratory activity in chronic airways obstruction. J Clin Invest 1977; 59:500–507. 7. Tobin MJ. Breathing pattern analysis. Intensive Care Med 1992; 18:193–201. 8. Whitelaw WA, Derenne J–P. Airway occlusion pressure. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74:1475–1483.
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139. Simon PM, Dempsey JA, Landry DM, Skatrud JB. Effect of sleep on respiratory muscle activity during mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:32–37. 140. Puddy A, Patrick W, Webster K, Younes M. Respiratory control during volume cycled ventilation in normal humans. J Appl Physiol 1996; 80:1749–1758. 141. Simon PM, Griffin DM, Landry DM, Skatrud JB. Inhibition of respiratory activity during passive ventilation: a role for intercostal afferents? Respir Physiol 1993; 92:53–64. 142. Leevers AM, Simon PM, Dempsey JA. Apnea after normocapnic mechanical ventilation during NREM sleep. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77:2079–2085. 143. Leevers AM, Simon PM, Xi L, Dempsey JA. Apnoea after normocapnic mechanical ventilation in awake mammals: a demonstration of control system inertia. J Physiol (Lond) 1993; 472:749–768. 144. Tobert DG, Simon PM, Stroetz RW, Hubmayr RD. The determinants of respiratory rate during mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155:485–492. 145. Prechter GC, Nelson SB, Hubmayr RD. The ventilatory recruitment threshold for carbon dioxide. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:758–764. 146. Scheid P, Lofaso F, Isabey D, Harf A. Respiratory response to inhaled CO2 during positive inspiratory pressure in humans. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77:876–882. 147. Hey EN, Lloyd BB, Cunningham DJC, Jukes MGM, Bolton DPG. Effects of various respiratory stimuli on the depth and frequency of breathing in man. Respir Physiol 1996; 1:193–205. 148. Clark FJ, von Euler C. On the regulation of rate and depth of breathing. J Physiol (Lond) 1972; 222:267–295. 149. Marini JJ, Rodriguez RM, Lamb V. The inspiratory workload of patientinitiated mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986; 134:902–909. 150. Giuliani R, Mascia L, Recchia F, Caracciolo A, Fiore T, Ranieri VM. Patientventilator interaction during synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151:1–9. 151. Sassoon CSH, Hassell K, Mahutte CK. Hypoxicinduced hypercapnia in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135:907– 911. 152. Dick CR, Liu Z, Sassoon CSH, Berry RB, Mahutte CK. O2induced change in ventilation and ventilatory drive in COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155:609–614. 153. Coleridge HM, Coleridge JCG. Reflexes evoked from tracheobronchial tree and lungs. In: Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JC, eds. Handbook of Physiology. The Respiratory System, vol 2. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1986:395–430. 154. Shannon R. Reflexes evoked from respiratory muscles and costovertebral joints. In: Cherniack NS, Widdicombe JC, eds. Handbook of Physiology. The Respiratory System, vol 2. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1986:431–438. 155. Altose MD, DiMarco AF, Gottfried SB, Strohl KP. The sensations of respiratory muscle force. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126:807–811. 156. DiMarco AF, Wolfson DA, Gottfried SB, Altose MD. Sensation of inspired volume in normal subjects and quadriplegic patients. J Appl Physiol 1982; 53:1481–1486. 157. Tan CSH, Simmons DH. Effect of assisted ventilation on respiratory drive of normal anesthetized dogs. Respir Physiol 1981; 43:287–297.
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158. Altose MD, Castele RJ, Connors AF, DiMarco AF. Effects of volume and frequency of mechanical ventilation on respiratory activity in humans. Respir Physiol 1986; 66:171–180. 159. Georgopoulos D, Mitrouska I, Bshouty Z, Anthonisen NR, Younes M. Effects of nonREM sleep on the response of respiratory output to varying inspiratory flow. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1624–1630. 160. Leevers AM, Simon PM, Dempsey JA. Apnea after normocapnic mechanical ventilation during NREM sleep. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77:2079–2085. 161. Tan CSH, Simmons DH. Effect of assisted mechanical ventilation on arterial carbon dioxide tension of normal anesthetized dogs. Lung 1979; 156:255–264. 162. Shams H, Scheid P. Respiratory response to positive inspiratory pressure in the cat: effects of CO2 and vagal integrity. J Appl Physiol 1995; 79:1704–1710. 163. Simon PM, Zurob AS, Jensen ML, Stroetz RW. Pulmonary vagal denervation effect on the respiratory rate response to varying tidal volume and inspiratory flow (abstr.). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155:A685. 164. Lofaso F, Isabey D, Harf A, Scheid P. Airway anesthesia during positive and negative inspiratory pressure breathing in man. Respir Physiol 1992; 89:89–96. 165. Simon PM, Leevers AM, Murty JL, Skatrud JB, Dempsey JA. Neuromechanical regulation of respiratory motor output in ventilatordependent C1–C3 quadriplegics. J Appl Physiol 1995; 79:312–323. 166. Simon PM, Skatrud JB, Badr MS, Griffin DM, Iber C, Dempsey JA. Role of airway mechanoreceptors in the inhibition of inspiration during mechanical ventilation in humans. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:1033–1041. 167. Puddy A, Younes M. Effect of inspiratory flow rate on respiratory output in normal subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:787–789. 168. Corne S, Gillespie D, Roberts D, Younes M. Effect of inspiratory flow rates on respiratory rate in intubated ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156:304–308. 169. Georgopoulos D, Mitrouska I, Bshouty Z, Webster K, Anthonisen NR, Younes M. Effects of breathing route, temperature and volume of inspired gas and airway anesthesia on the response of respiratory output to varying inspiratory flow. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:168–175. 170. Connors AF, McCaffree DR, Gray BA. Effect of inspiratory flow rate on gas exchange during mechanical ventilation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 124:537–543. 171. Mador MJ, Tobin MJ. Effect of alterations in mental activity on the breathing pattern in healthy subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:481–487. 172. Manning HL, Molinary EJ, Leiter JC. Effect of inspiratory flow rate on respiratory sensation and pattern of breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151:751–757. 173. Manning HL, Shea SA, Schwartzstein RM, Lansing RW, Brown R, Banzett RB. Reduced tidal volume increases “air hunger” at fixed PCO2 in ventilated quadriplegics. Respir Physiol 1992; 90:19–30. 174. O'Donnell D, Anthonisen NR, Sanii R, Younes M. Effect of dynamic airway compression on breathing pattern and respiratory sensation in severe COPD. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135:912–919.
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15 Control of Breathing in Neuromuscular Disease PETER MARTIN ANTHONY CALVERLEY University of Liverpool Liverpool, England I. Introduction There is, to date, no universal consensus about which illnesses constitute the respiratory neuromuscular diseases (NMD), but in this chapter the approach of De Troyer and Estenne will be broadly followed. They define respiratory neuromuscular diseases as those conditions in which there is a dysfunction of the pathways connecting the respiratory centers and the respiratory muscles, which result in respiratory muscle weakness (1). They include within this group patients with parkinsonism in which the disability results from disordered central control of muscle coordination, but exclude patients with paralytic kyphoscoliosis in which damage to the intercostal muscles during growth leads to deformity in the adult. In studying the control of ventilation the inclusion of parkinsonism poses problems, for the effect of dopamine deficiencies centrally might compromise the central regulation of breathing. The convention that kyphoscoliosis represents a primary chest wall disorder will be followed, although the changes in breathing pattern during daytime and especially when asleep (2) can be considered identical with those in other more “typical NMD” seen after polio or in various forms of muscular dystrophy.
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The problems of the NMD patient provide an instructive natural model for the physiologist interested in respiratory control. As with all natural experiments the conclusions drawn must be interpreted with caution, for in almost every case changes in lung and chest wall mechanics can complicate the effects of “pure” peripheral respiratory muscle weakness. Clinically, these patients experience a variable, but important, degree of respiratory morbidity, with ventilatory failure and CO2 retention being the most common mode of death in most disease groups. Moreover, the advent of noninvasive ventilatory support makes a review of our knowledge of ventilatory control timely. This chapter will briefly review the essential clinical features of this heterogeneous group of disorders. Because there is considerable overlap in the problems presented in assessing the control of breathing in these patients, the methods used will be considered together before examining data derived from daytime studies of the individual disorders. The complex changes in respiratory physiology that occur during sleep pose specific problems for the patient whose compensatory strategies are already limited, and these will be reviewed together. Finally, there will be some consideration of the implications of these findings for treatment and, particularly, use of nasal intermittent positivepressure ventilation (NIPPV). Throughout it will be evident that physiological, rather than clinical curiosity, together with an opportunist approach to studying available clinical populations, has driven our knowledge of these disorders. The resulting patchwork of information is generally cohesive, but substantial gaps still persist. II. Clinical Features. A. Spinal Cord Injury Damage to the spinal cord results most commonly from traumatic injuries, although instability or damage to the cervical spine by rheumatoid disease or cervical spondylosis can be important causes in older patients. The level of damage is crucial with injuries above the phrenic nerve nucleus (i.e., C3–C5) requiring immediate artificial ventilation. Injuries from C3 to C5 result in intercostal paralysis and tetraplegia, with variable diaphragmatic involvement, whereas damage below C5 is normally associated with no diaphragmatic impairment, but with loss of intercostal and abdominal muscle function. Even here the problem of poor cough and oropharyngeal aspiration predisposes to recurrent pneumonia and mucus retention. Despite using spinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), it can be difficult to be sure which nerve nuclei and, hence, which muscle groups are affected and how complete is the recovery from spinal shock. For those patients past the acute phase of illness, secondary mechanical changes within the lung or even preexisting lung disease can make assessment of muscle weakness alone
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difficult. Not surprisingly respiratory morbidity is high in these patients (3) and associated autonomic damage encourages bronchial hypersecretion in about 10% of cases (4). B. Motor Neuron Disease This progressive disease affects the motor neurons within the spinal cord and may be inherited or acquired. In general the childhood variants (spinal muscle atrophy, WerdigHoffmann disease) are inherited and the adult forms are sporadic. The most common adult presentation is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which can affect both the upper and lower motor neurons, the former producing the characteristic pseudobulbar symptoms, whereas the latter affect peripheral muscle groups. The muscles affected vary, and respiratory insufficiency is normally a late development, although recurrent aspiration pneumonia caused by bulbar involvement is common. However, respiratory insufficiency, often with severe postural breathlessness, is being recognized more frequently as a presenting symptom (5). These patients usually have localized involvement of the C4–C6 motor roots, with bilateral diaphragmatic weakness and limited hand and triceps muscular wasting. Being sporadic such cases have not been systematically investigated, but show abnormalities of ventilatory control similar to those seen with other patients with bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis (see Sec. IV.C). C. Poliomyelitis Poliomyelitis has now been eradicated, but patients infected in childhood in whom failure to recover from respiratory muscle involvement has led to chronic hypoventilation, still experience problems related to the original illness. A more frequently recognized problem is that of the patient developing postpolio muscle atrophy, which affects 25% of those previously affected, irrespective of the initial disability (6–8). Slowly progressive weakness of previously involved muscle groups can lead to increasing breathlessness and the gradual onset of hypercapnia in some patients. Whether this represents premature ageing of reinervated motor units (9) or fiber damage from chronic compensatory overuse (10) is unknown. D. Bilateral Diaphragm Paralysis The debilitating problem of bilateral diaphragm paralysis arises from a wide range of causes, including neck trauma, postcardiac surgery, myelopathies, neuropathies, or certain myopathies (see Secs. IV.E and IV.F). Often the etiology is not known, but the patient characteristically complains of severe orthopnea, has a reduced ventilatory capacity, and will show paradoxical diaphragm movement on sniffing (11). However, this can be difficult to detect clinically, especially when
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the patient is erect when the descent of the diaphragm with gravity can be deceptive (12). In addition to daytime dyspnea, specific respiratory abnormalities occur during sleep (see Sec. V). E. Myasthenia Gravis In this disorder neuromuscular transmission is impaired by a reduction in the number of postsynaptic cholinergic receptors by circulating autoantibodies. As a result, resting and especially exerciseinduced muscle weakness develops that can be partially or completely reversed in the presence of a cholinesteraseinhibiting drug. Respiratory morbidity is significant, but not always anticipated (13,14). The LambertEaton syndrome is a rare clinically similar but pathologically discrete paraneoplastic syndrome in which presynaptic acetylcholine release is reduced. Extremity and limbgirdle muscles are often involved, but respiratory muscle weakness is rare (15). F. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy An Xlinked disorder, Duchenne muscular dystrophy occurs owing to a spontaneous mutation of the gene coding for the large protein dystrophin and a variety of genetic errors have been identified. Typically, walking disorders and motor problems are noted by the age of 3–4 years, with a variable age to becoming chairbound, usually between 10 and 14 years. Progressive deterioration in respiratory function occurs that becomes more obvious once the growth phase of puberty is entered when vital capacity normally increases rapidly (16). The role of spinal surgery in the prevention of kyphoscoliosis remains controversial. Although a specific cardiomyopathy is thought to be the cause of episodes of cardiac rhythm disturbance, these may be associated with periods of nocturnal hypoxemia (17,18). Respiratory failure remains the principal cause of death (19). Duchenne muscular dystrophy is often considered a relatively “pure” cause of respiratory muscle weakness because aspiration events and intercurrent pulmonary infections are relatively rare, but even here, chronic failure to take adequate deep sighing respirations and restriction of the thoracic cage expansion because of muscular weakness can lead to significant secondary changes in pulmonary and chest wall compliance (16). Other muscular dystrophies, including the limbgirdle type and the fascioscapulohumeral type, may involve the respiratory muscles, leading to respiratory failure. G. Myotonic Dystrophy Myotonic dystrophy is the most prevalent form of muscular dystrophy and is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait; with an abnormal locus on the long arm
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of chromosome 19 (20). The characteristic myotonic facies are best recognized in adults, with sternomastoid wasting, ptosis, and frontal balding, together with wasting of the small muscles of the hand, which often exhibit myotonia. Infertility and cardiomyopathy are relatively frequent. The severity of the disease varies considerably from infants with marked hypotonia requiring ventilation, to elderly adults with only minor degrees of muscle wasting. This variation in disease severity may explain the conflicting results reported from among studies of ventilatory control in such patients. H. Other Myopathies A wide range of other muscle diseases affect the respiratory muscles, and data about ventilatory control and muscle weakness have been reported in several of them. Acid maltase deficiency is a type 1 glycogen storage disease, relatively easily identified in children, but often overlooked in adults, in whom diaphragmatic involvement has been described (21,22). This can result in significant hypoventilation at night and even during the day. Congenital myopathies can be associated with reduced respiratory drive, but the complicating mechanical changes in the chest wall again make it difficult to partition the relative importance of muscle weakness and increased respiratory system impedance. A similar problem affects other myopathic processes, such as those accompanying critical illness polyneuropathy, and chronic corticosteroid administration, in which peripheral muscle wasting is now well described, at least in patients with chronic lung disease (23). III. Ventilatory Control: Theory and Assessment A. Theoretical Framework. As discussed elsewhere in this volume, ventilatory control depends on the interaction between the intrinsic respiratory pattern generator and a wide variety of feedback mechanisms that modify the chemical balance (e.g., glutamine and aminobutyric acid; GABA) and the neural activity (especially cholinergic) within a diffuse area of the posterolateral medulla (24). Critical inputs are those from the peripheral and central chemoreceptors, which monitor changes in arterial blood gas tensions; chest wall mechanoreceptors, which monitor respiratory muscle activity and their ability to develop tension; vagal receptors in airways and lungs; as well as state and mooddependent inputs from the higher centers involving the cerebral cortex. There is increasing recognition that during wakefulness the breathing pattern and even the response to chemical stimuli can be modified behaviorally (25,26). This has been linked to the perception of respiratory sensations, especially those occurring during normal inspiratory effort, which may reflect an
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awareness of the respiratory motor command to breathe (27,28). There is a sense of breathing effort when respiratory activity is controlled cortically, and this seems to occur even when ventilation is being stimulated chemically (29,30). Abnormal respiratory muscle shortening that occurs when breathing away from the elastic equilibrium volume of the respiratory system and mechanical loading of the ventilatory apparatus provoke significant respiratory distress (31). Awareness of inspiratory effort provides a behavioral level of respiratory control that warns of the development of nonsustainable levels of respiratory muscle activity (32). Others have proposed a respiratory “comparator” that gauges central respiratory motor command against the mechanical ventilatory output to optimize the level and pattern of respiratory activity (33). B. Implications for Assessment Disturbances of this complex network of feedback functions produces unpredictable effects. The principal ways of testing the integrity of this system all involve measuring the response to either a change in chemical or mechanical stimulus and comparing this with a “normal range” established within the laboratory or, where practical, with the subjects own response after their disorders have been corrected (e.g., when residents of high altitude return to sea level or after treatment, for example, with anticholinesterases in myasthenia gravis). The stimulus may be applied for a variable period or for only one breath, but the appropriateness of the challenge, brief or prolonged, is limited both by the development of secondary compensatory responses in the longer challenges or complications secondary to the technique of measurement itself. Thus the total stimulus delivered after taking a breath of 100% oxygen is very different if a maximum inspiration or a tidal breath is used. Studying patients with disease and especially those with NMD, makes interpretation of both stimulus and response difficult. These specific problems should be considered before interpreting the data available. C. The Influence of Muscle Weakness Taken at its simplest level there is clear evidence that the control of breathing is abnormal in many patients with established NMD. Although the arterial oxygen tension is usually within or close to the normal value, the PaCO2 is frequently elevated (34). As has been shown in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD) (35), arterial CO2 tension depends on the balance of the load on the respiratory muscles and their capacity to generate an appropriate tension. Unlike COPD, pulmonary resistance is usually normal or close to normal in NMD, but chest wall compliance is often increased. Thus Estenne found that rib cage compliance fell to 55% of normal in tetraplegic patients, but abdominal compliance increased by 170%. How much of the apparent increase in lung recoil pressure is real or is the result of loss of intercostal muscle tone is debated (36–38).
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Typically there is a reduction in maximum inspiratory and expiratory pressures reflecting a global reduction in the strength of the respiratory muscles. This may vary depending on the stage of the illness and usually affects inspiration more than expiration. However, respiratory muscle weakness is not reliably reflected by changes in the vital capacity and muscle strength needs to be measured directly (39). In some conditions, notably myotonic dystrophy, it has been argued that there are nervous system abnormalities that modify the central respiratory control, but such findings are not present in other conditions, and usually, the principal problem is perceived as general peripheral muscle weakness leading to modifications in breathing pattern and chemical responses with a basically intact central control system. It is plausible that individuals with an inherently low CO2 response will develop CO2 retention sooner than other patients given an equivalent mechanical load to breathing (40), but studies suggesting this have not been fully controlled for the subtler forms of mechanical loading. D. Problems in Interpreting the Results Potential difficulties in interpreting the results of ventilatory control testing are summarized in Table 1. In general it is easy to administer stimuli such as step changes in CO2 or oxygen over a single breath, or as a ramp chemical stimulus Table 1 Assessment of Ventilatory Control in NMD Stimulus Chemical (low O2,
Response (absolute/change in)
Comment
Ventilation
Weakness/altered mechanics limits usefulness.
P0.1/EMG
Any load poorly tolerated; P0.1 well preserved despite
high CO2) Mechanical
weakness; EMG confirms P0.1 data—consider expressing as % capacity to normalize and assess central drive.
Breathing pattern
Sensitive measure of early weakness/load; rapid shallow pattern in most cases.
Exercise
Blood gas tensions
Exercise usually impractical: blood gas change secondary to hypoventilation; PaCO2 is the most sensitive marker of altered ventilatory control.
Sleep
Sensation
Apnea/hypoventilation in REM sleep is common; sensation is normal where assessed.
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using rebreathing maneuvers, because the tests are simple and changes in endtidal gas tensions are representative of those in arterial blood, given the relatively short time constants for gas exchange in patients with intrinsically normal lung function. The response to added resistive or elastic loads depends on the background level of loading, at least when sensory scoring is assessed (41), but usually the load applied can be modified sufficiently to make it acceptable to the patient. In these cases it is relatively simple to monitor changes in breathing pattern or perceived inspiratory effort which provide relatively robust end points for stimulusresponse relations. However, the free breathing or loaded response to changing gas tensions, which is usually expressed as the slopes of the ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and to hypoxia is harder to analyze. Because inspiratory muscle weakness limits the ability to generate large tidal volumes, the data for ventilation are better expressed as a percentage of maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) when assessing central controller function. Likewise muscle weakness can affect the ability to translate neural respiratory drive into pressure. One important study found that inspiratory muscle strength could be reduced to 70% of baseline in a normal subject by curarization, but the mouth occlusion pressure (P0.1) response was still maintained (42). However, when a fatiguing load is sustained in a normal volunteer until task failure, P0.1 will steadily decline (43) which approximates to the change in electromyographic (EMG) high/lowfrequency ratio (Fig. 1). Thus the interpretation of P0.1 values in advanced disease must be made cautiously and related to the nature and duration of the stimulus (44). An alternative approach is to measure the activation of the diaphragm electrically and relate the integrated EMG signal to the stimulus. Even here, there are practical problems relating to the acceptability to the patient of using the most direct method (i.e., an esophageal electrode), the difficulties of sampling from the crural rather than the costal diaphragm, and problems with surface electrodes related to changes in diaphragm position during stimulated ventilation (45). In our experience patients with weaker, wasted muscles frequently have lowvoltage EMG signals with a poor signal/noise ratio, although others, particularly the group of Scano et al., appear to have made satisfactory recordings, even in these circumstances. In patients with myasthenia gravis, a failure of neuromuscular junction function limits the usefulness of EMG recordings, even though the muscles are less wasted than in muscular dystrophy patients. E. Conclusions Despite these difficulties in interpretation, a consistent pattern of results emerges from the tests of stimulated ventilation and of breathing at rest applied in most neuromuscular disorders. This is one of relatively rapid, shallow breathing at rest with a wellpreserved or normal P0.1, but a limited ability to sustain high levels of
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Figure 1 Effect of sustained inspiratory resistive loading on effort sensation (IES), tensiontime index of the rib cage (TT rc) and diaphragm (TT di) and P0.1, each expressed as percentage of initial value, in normal subjects. The TT di was maintained at 0.2 or greater. Effort sensation increased throughout the study and from the midpoint onward, P0.1 fell to 50% initial. This parallels changes in the diaphragmatic high/low ratio seen in other studies (Calverley et al., unpublished data; From Ref. 43.)
ventilation or tolerate even small addition ventilatory loads. This may be the reason why CO2 retention develops as the intrinsic load on the inspiratory muscles increases. Thus, the likelihood of CO2 retention will vary depending on the disease itself and its rate of progression as well the extent to which individual muscle groups, particularly the accessory respiratory muscles, are involved. IV. Ventilatory Control in NMD During Wakefulness In this section specific data about the different forms of the NMD will be considered.
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A. Spinal Cord Disease The effects of high cordotomy on the arterial CO2 have been recognized for many years (46). Severinghaus and Mitchell reported two patients undergoing high bilateral spinal cordotomy who developed marked impairment of their ventilatory responses to CO2 during wakefulness and needed consciousness to sustain their breathing pattern (47). This loss of automatic respiration, or “Ondines curse,” has now been described predominantly in children who have gross CO2 insensitivity, profound nocturnal hypoventilation but a preserved ventilatory response to exercise (48). Patients undergoing bilateral cordotomy can develop major autonomic dysfunction affecting the bowel, bladder, and circulation, and report an inability to breath deeply enough. However, their breathholding time is unchanged, possibly because perception of respiratory drive is unaltered and there are still intact pathways between the medulla and cortex. Studies in healthy paralyzed volunteers have now disproved the earlier suggestion that CO2 is not a strong stimulant to respiratory sensation in the absence of voluntary activation of chest wall movement (49,50). In patients with lower cervical spinal cord lesions it is difficult to interpret conventional tests of chemical ventilatory control because the loss of the intercostal and abdominal muscles causes a fall in expiratory reserve volume (1), which means that ventilation is largely dependent on the activity of the diaphragm. Thus the percentage of tidal volume/vital capacity (VT /VC) ratio rises to more than 50% in these subjects (37). Studies relating the change in PaCO2, or VT or as a percentage of MVV have not been reported. Despite the increase in mechanical load, most patients maintain a normal to low PaCO2 (51), possibly reflecting stimulation of intrapulmonary vagal receptors or chest wall muscle spindles operating at a reduced FRC and, hence, a greater fiber length. Given the paucity of diaphragmatic muscle spindles (52) and the responses to added loads (see following discussion), the latter explanation is not entirely satisfactory. Respiratory responses to added ventilatory loads in tetraplegia have been concisely summarized recently (53). In tetraplegia only vagal, phrenic, and upper airway reflexes are intact, and most studies have examined patients in whom the upper airway is bypassed. The ability to detect loads after tetraplegia is intact (54). These patients are better at preserving their endexpiratory lung volumes probably because they cannot activate their abdominal muscles (55). Studies of more sustained loading show less prolongation of inspiratory time than normal when breathing against an inspiratory resistance and of expiratory time during elastic loading (56,57). Axen et al. (58) studied the behavioral component in patients with pure motor disorders during the first breath after ventilatory loading and found that similar changes in timing occurred. This challenges the idea that the chest wall mechanoreceptor feedback modifies the timing response, but this may have been affected by alterations in background chest wall mechanics.
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Evidence for an influence of phrenic nerve activity in controlling lung volume has come from the studies of Banzett, who used negativepressure ventilation to change the FRC of quadriplegic subjects while monitoring their diaphragmatic EMG (59). However, behavioral responses cannot be completely excluded in these studies. Clearly, the important observation is the preservation of the ability to detect loads whether intrinsic, extrinsic, or pressure biased and to maintain ventilation in the face of this additional impedance. B. Motor Neuron Disease and Poliomyelitis Only limited data are available here. An early study (5) suggested that patients with spinal muscular atrophy developed hypercapnia, had rapid shallow breathing, and a reduced CO2 response. A more comprehensive investigation by Serisier et al. confirmed these findings in an additional 12 patients who had documented motor neuron disease with clinical and EMG evidence of ALS (60). Care was taken to exclude 6 other patients in whom coexisting respiratory disease was found. FEV1 and FVC were some 70% predicted, whereas MVV was only 47% predicted. In contrast FRC was 120% and RV 170% predicted. The 4 patients with hypercapnia had the most abnormal spirometry and weakest inspiratory muscles. Maximum static inspiratory pressures had a mean of only 40 cmH2O, half of that of agematched controls studied in the same laboratory. The restingbreathing pattern was rapid and shallow, and the ventilatory response to CO2 was significantly reduced (Fig. 2) especially in terms of the tidal response. Data about the acute ventilatory response to progressive hypercapnia in postpoliomyelitis patients are rather scarce, and measurements of P0.1 to evaluate respiratory motor activity have not been made. In general, ventilatory responses to chemical stimulation are globally blunted in these patients (61). C. Bilateral Diaphragm Paralysis Although unilateral weakness of the diaphragm is normally compensated by the other inspiratory muscles (62), loss of both hemidiaphragms is associated with marked falls in the vital capacity, total lung capacity, and functional residual capacity (FRC; 63,64). The inability of the diaphragm to oppose the gravitational effect of the abdominal contents when lying supine, together with the passive transmission of the pleural pressure change through a flaccid diaphragm, mean that the abdomen moves inward as the diaphragm moves cephalad on inspiration, abdominal pressure falls, and the inspiratory capacity is reduced. However, the extent to which this occurs varies with the degree of diaphragmatic weakness (65). Initial reports emphasized the occurrence of daytime hypercapnia in these patients (66–68) and this has also been noted during sleep (69). This has been challenged in a comprehensive study by Laroche et al. who reported six individuals with a variety of causes of bilateral diaphragm paralysis (BDP) who were breathless on
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Figure 2 Mean ventilatory response to hyperoxic CO2 rebreathing in 12 patients with motor neuron disease. Note the general reduction in minute ventilation ( ), tidal volume (VT ), and mean inspiratory flow (VT /TI) responses to CO2 in patients (solid lines) compared with
controls (dashed lines). Respiratory frequency responses were similar during CO2 stimulated breathing but the frequency at any level of ventilation was higher, whereas TI/ TTOT was unchanged. When normalized by plotting logarithmically, log VE/PCO2 I responses were related to both the vital capacity and the P max (r = 0.69) for all subjects combined. (From Ref. 60.)
exercise. They had orthopnea, and virtually absent sniff transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) responses (13 cmH2O) but maintained their blood gas tensions normally at rest, and in the four cases tested during exercise (12). The restingbreathing pattern was relatively normal (mean VT , 0.7/L, mean breath frequency 15/min), with a minute ventilation of 10.4 L/min (70). These patients had only minor oxygen desaturation at night. A possible explanation of the difference between them and other weak patients with daytime hypercapnia is that sleeprelated resetting of the central chemoreceptors may be important in the pathogenesis of
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hypercapnia in certain cases. However, bilateral diaphragm paralysis can coexist with sleep apnea without diurnal hypercapnia (71). Reduced sensory perception of inspiratory loading might explain the increased CO2 in some patients, but the marked orthopnea associated with postural fall in FRC suggests that respiratory sensation remains intact. This is also suggested by the indirect evidence in the patients of Laroche that the value of increased during exercise in the BDP patients.
an establish index related to breathlessness (72),
D. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Conventional analysis of respiratory control in Duchenne muscular dystrophy was carried out by Begin et al. in a carefully designed study of nine severely impaired patients (mean age 13.4 years, mean PImax 25% of predicted) and nine control subjects. They found significant reductions in both hypercapnic and isocapnic hypoxic ventilatory responses, but a well preserved occlusion pressure response as compared with controls (73; Fig. 3). These data confirm the robustness of the P0.1 measurement as an index of respiratory center output, even in the face of substantial respiratory muscle weakness. This is in contrast to respiratory muscle fatigue, which is associated with reductions in occlusion pressure. Muscular dystrophy is characterized by a reduction in the maximum force that can be achieved, whereas in respiratory muscle fatigue there is a change in the pattern of individual fiber activation that is particularly marked in relaxation (74) and occurs before force failure is established. Preservation of the P0.1 response in NMD suggests that chronic respiratory muscles fatigue does not play in important part in this illness. Additional data supporting the appropriateness of the occlusion pressure measurement comes from another study of ventilatory control in Duchenne dystrophy by Scano et al. (75). These workers confirmed the findings of Begin et al. and additionally obtained satisfactory EMG signals from the dystrophic diaphragm, which showed that diaphragmatic activation was fivefold greater in these patients than in normal subjects (Fig. 4). Clearly, occlusion pressure and a diaphragm EMG are not strictly comparable owing to the passive lengthening of the diaphragm in muscular dystrophy patients with reduced lung volumes but these results are sufficiently similar to the data obtained when P0.1 is expressed as a percentage MIP to suggest that central respiratory output is high in the face of chronic respiratory muscle weakness. Sensation and Breathing Pattern. Patients with Duchenne dystrophy do not complain of breathlessness when breathing quietly at rest, although respiratory sensation is intact, as judged by the development of respiratory distress and breathlessness during intercurrent infections. Even if daytime hypercapnia does occur in this illness (16,19), it is not an early feature, nor is it associated with increased respiratory symptoms. The
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Figure 3 Mean values of minute ventilation ( ), tidal volume (VT ), mean inspiratory flow (VT /TI), and mouth occlusion pressure (P0.1) in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy and agematched controls . Note that minute ventilation increases in both groups but the tidal volume response is significantly less in the dystrophic patients. In contrast P0.1 is well maintained. (From Ref. 73.)
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Figure 4 Slopes of the relation between VT , P0.1, and diaphragmatic EMG against PCO2 during rebreathing tests in ten Duchenne dystrophy patients and control subjects. The tidal volume responses are reduced (see Fig. 3), but there is no difference in the P0.1 responses as a percent of PImax or in the EMG response expressed as a percentage of the maximum signal at TLC. These data suggest that central respiratory output is normal in the patients as is their ability to initiate respiratory muscle contraction. (Data from Ref. 75.)
restingbreathing pattern in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) shows the typical rapid, shallowbreathing pattern, and the resting P0.1 is relatively high for the tidal volume of the breath. There appears to be no significant difference in the breathing pattern of patients with DMD when compared with those with other neuromuscular disease (Fig. 5; 76). Other data obtained from a calibrated inductance plethysmograph at rest, without the effects of added dead space and oral stimulation associated with a mouthpiece or face mask study (77), confirm these findings (78). Administration of oxygen by nasal prongs at 2 L/min reduced resting ventilation by 7% owing to a fall in breathing frequency (79), but without any change in the duty cycle or in the contribution of the abdominal excursion to the total minute ventilation. E. Myotonic Dystrophy (Steinert's Dystrophy) Myotonic dystrophy differs in several important aspects from other forms of NMD. Early reports emphasized that hypercapnia was common (80–82) and
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Figure 5 Schematic of resting breathing pattern in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. (Data from Ref. 76.)
Kilburn et al. suggested that this occurred when respiratory muscle function was only moderately impaired (40). The hypercapnic ventilatory response was low as was the hypoxemic response (60,83,84). However, these results almost certainly reflect patient selection, for a raised PaCO2 was noted in only 5 of 57 patients reported in other series (85–87). Gibson suggested that the resting PCO2 (88) is inversely related to the slope of the hypercapnic ventilatory response and that this relation is similar in both myotonic dystrophy and motor neuron disease (60) and may reflect differences in respiratory muscle strength. In studies with few if any hypercapnic patients the CO2 response slopes are similar to agematched controls (85–87), as are the P0.1/PCO2 relations. On the other hand, Begin argued that the occlusion pressure response to CO2 is abnormally low, given the reduced lung volume secondary to inspiratory muscle weakness and increased chest wall compliance (86). However, studying appropriate control subjects with reduced volumes without mechanical limitation is difficult. The differences in the occurrence of hypercapnia in the studies of Serisier et al. (60) and Clague et al. (67) may reflect the younger age and shorter stature of the former patients and that five of the subjects in the first study had either bilateral or unilateral diaphragm weakness. The mean mixed venous PCO2 in the patients with diaphragm involvement was
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53.3 mmHg compared with 47 mmHg in all others, this value being similar to the endtidal PCO2 of 42 mmHg seen in Clague's patients. These data suggest that the worse the underlying lung mechanics and associated respiratory muscle weakness, the greater is the likelihood of developing daytime hypercapnia. Breathing patterns are strikingly abnormal in myotonic dystrophy, both during wakefulness and sleep (89). There are irregularities in both rate and depth of respiration that are clearly seen in noninvasive recordings (Fig. 6). Abnormalities are less evident when the patients are breathing with a nose clip and mouthpiece (see Fig. 1 in Clague et al.; 87). This suggests that the small added deadspace of the respiratory equipment or stimulation of the oropharynx modifies the breathing pattern, at least in the less severely affected patients. Changes similar to those recorded by the Newcastle group (89) were seen in our patients when monitored noninvasively and in the supine position (91). The mechanisms of the abnormalbreathing patterns are unclear because the waking arterial CO2 in these patients is normal or high and well above the waking apneic threshold. A
Figure 6 Noninvasive monitoring of ventilation in a patient with established myotonic dystrophy who was not chairbound. EEG, C4 electroencephalogram; EMG, submental electromyogram; EOG, electrooculogram; chest and abdomen refer to noninvasive respiratory plethsmographic signals and to the combined chest wall movement. Note the variation in tidal volume and the irregularity of respiratory rhythm during this 2min period of EEGconfirmed wakefulness.
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possible explanation is abnormal afferent feedback arising from disrupted intercostal muscle spindles in myotonic dystrophy (91,92). Myotonia of the respiratory muscles has been demonstrated in waking patients (93), and this may further modify the functioning of the intercostal muscle mechanoreceptor system. Only one study has systematically examined inspiratory effort perception in myotonic dystrophy (87). The authors found that, although the effort perception during unrestrained CO2 rebreathing was normal, patients would not sustain ventilation in the face of a small added inspiratory resistance because they developed intolerable breathlessness. Pooled analysis of the rebreathing data showed that effort perception was related to the stimulus intensity and that the perception of inspiratory effort at any level of ventilation was influenced by the impedance of the respiratory system as represented by the mouth occlusion pressure/minute ventilation ratio and, to a lesser degree, the maximum inspiratory pressures the patients could develop. Thus, in these relatively normocapnic myotonic patients, perceptual responses to increased impedence and weakness are appropriate. This suggests that the disordered breathing seen at rest is more likely to reflect abnormal respiratory timing, rather than a failure of global respiratory center output related to impaired effort sensation (28). F. Other Muscular Disorders Respiratory control in other forms of muscular dystrophy has not been systematically studied. Several case reports (94–96) have emphasized the relatively early occurrence of hypercapnia in limbgirdle muscular dystrophy, possibly related to the development of diaphragmatic weakness (96). However, other groups have not confirmed a high prevalence of hyperpcania (97). Recently, a more comprehensive investigation has been reported in 15 patients with limbgirdle dystrophy diagnosed on the basis of their autosomal recessive inheritance, typical phenotype, together with biopsy and EMG evidence of myopathy (97). When compared with 20 healthy subjects of similar age the vital capacity of the patients showed variable reduction (37–87% predicted) with similar falls being noted in PImax. As expected, patients showed a rapid, shallowbreathing pattern compared with controls and a reduced CO2 response slope. However, both mouth occlusion pressure and respiratory muscle EMG responses to CO2 were normal. The arterial PCO2 correlated best with the vital capacity, rather than respiratory muscle strength, but the rate of increase of mean inspiratory flow with increasing CO2 was related to global respiratory muscle strength (r = 0.68). These data suggest that respiratory muscle weakness and secondary changes in chest wallairway mechanics are the major determinents of waking hypercapnia in these patients. Acid maltase deficiency (21,22,98,100), and mitochondrial myopathy (98,101) can both involve the diaphragm and can be associated with hypercapnia, although the true frequency of ventilatory problems in these patients is unknown.
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Likewise, patients with oculocutaneous syndrome and nemaline myopathy can develop respiratory failure (100,101). Chronic myositis can involve the respiratory muscles in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and may explain the socalled shrinking lungs seen in these patients. Italian workers (75) have found an inverse relation between the respiratory EMG response to CO2 and maximum respiratory pressures in seven SLE patients, suggesting that peripheral respiratory muscle mechanisms, rather than central abnormalities in respiratory control, explain the blunted responses to hypercapnia seen in this disease. Traditionally, myasthenia gravis has not been thought of as causing much abnormality of ventilatory control except during periods of myasthenic crisis (14,102). Occult diaphragm weakness is present in many patients, as judged either by a reduced sniff Pdi at rest or improvements in Pdi after anticholinergic therapy (103). Detailed studies in 12 patients with generalized myasthenia showed that the patients were significantly weaker than normal, had a rapid, shallowbreathing pattern and had significantly greater respiratory muscle EMG activity than did the healthy controls (104). Ventilatory responses to CO2 were reduced, but the P0.1 and EMG response were normal. After pyridostigmine (Mestinon) administration, both respiratory muscle strength and the ventilatory response to CO2 improved, although the changes were not proportionate to one another. However, the breathing pattern remained unchanged, suggesting that this is the earliest sign of an imbalance between the ventilatory load and the muscular capacity of the respiratory system. V. Respiratory Control During Sleep The physiological changes occurring during normal sleep are now well characterized, and a wide range of disorders have been recognized that are either specifically sleep induced (e.g., obstructive sleep apnea, and primary alveolar hypoventilation) or occur because of the interaction of normal sleep physiology with other underlying diseases (105). In normal subjects there is a sleep stagerelated loss of muscle tone, a modest rise in upper airway resistance (106), and a modest fall in overall ventilation and VT/TI (107). Central respiratory drive decreases, and the fall in resting ventilation still occurs, even in persons with an open tracheostomy (108). The ventilatory response to both hypercapnia and hypoxia are reduced (109–111), whereas the response to loaded breathing, usually assessed during external respiratory resistive loading falls with the depth of sleep (111). The time to EEG arousal, the mechanism responsible for terminating occlusive airway events, varies with the sleep stage and may be shorter in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep than is generally appreciated (112). This emphasizes the important role that cortical and higher centers play, even when consciousness is modified during sleep.
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Figure 7 Interrelation between sleep and respiratory function in patients with neuromuscular disease. (From Ref. 13.)
The implication for these changes for patients with NMD are considerable and are summarized in Figure 7. These have been reviewed elsewhere (113). The key points are as follows: 1. Physiological reductions in muscle tone. There is a staterelated fall in postural muscle tone that reaches its nadir in REM sleep. This has been attributed to supraspinal suppression of gamma motor neuron drive and presynaptic inhibition of skeletal muscle spindle afferents (114). Similar changes are seen in both healthy adults and patients with muscular dystrophy. Under these circumstances, the role of the diaphragm, a muscle with scant muscle spindles (52) and,
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hence, less subject to this central inhibition, is crucial to the maintenance of ventilation. 2. Muscle weakness. Only minor degrees of oxygen desaturation occur in patients whose respiratory muscle weakness is isolated to the diaphragm (12), with almost all desaturations occurring during REM sleep. This is similar to the changes seen in patients with global muscle weakness (e.g., Duchenne muscular dystrophy; 115), in which only those patients with the most advanced disease showed desaturations in nonREM sleep. This relation between oxygen desaturation during sleep and disease severity has been stressed previously (116) and is supported by careful studies of intercostal muscle activation in a range of patients with generalized muscle weakness (117). White et al. (117) found an inverse relationship between nocturnal oxygenation and the postural fall in vital capacity, an indirect measure of diaphragmatic strength during wakefulness. Similar data in Duchene muscular dystrophy patients were reported by Smith et al. (78), who suggested that the likelihood of oxygen desaturation during REM sleep depended on the relative contributions of the abdominal compartment (and, hence, diaphragm activation) to ventilation during nonREM sleep (Fig. 8). 3. Restrictive ventilatory defect. This can arise by a combination of scoliosis, loss of intermittent deep breaths, and fibrosis in dystrophic or wasted muscle (113). The fall in FRC during sleep (118) and the reduced oxygen stores consequent to both the disease and to sleeprelated reduction in lung volume,
Figure 8 Breathing pattern during wakefulness and sleep in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (solid lines) and control subjects (dashed lines). Triangles indicate statistically significant differences between states; open symbols refer to normal subjects, closed to DMD; single symbols indicate P < 0.05; double symbols indicate P < 0.01. Other abbreviations as before; AC, percentage of total ventilation contributed by the abdominal compartment. (From Ref. 78.)
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predispose these patients to desaturations, especially during the normal periods of hypoventilation seen during REM sleep. 4. Upper airway resistance. Obesity is a significant problem for some adults with NMD and predisposes to sleep disturbance by its effect in reducing upper airway size (119). Likewise a fall in FRC further reduces upper airway crosssectional area, as do a number of other factors (113). These mechanisms can operate in any NMD patient, but even boys with DMD who are not significantly obese and who do not complain of snoring or nasal stuffiness can still show evidence of obstructive sleep apneas (120). This is not always reflected in the chest wall respiratory movement signals, the absence of which may suggest a “central” pattern of apnea. This point is illustrated in Figure 9, which shows absent chest wall movement and airflow, but continued phasic bursts of submental EMG activity throughout the apnea, confirming continued respiratory center output. Because upper airway resistance rises moderately with sleep onset (106) it appears that patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy and particularly weak diaphragms may be unable to develop sufficient force to overcome the physiological changes in upper airway caliber and generate inspiratory flow. 5. Central respiratory drive. Central respiratory drive normally declines during sleep, and this may contribute to sleep apnea in patients with neuromuscular disease (115,117). In patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy there is an arousal response at the termination of an episode of sleep apnea (78). Oxygen desaturation during REM appears to be a poor stimulus to arousal (121), and oxygen administration produces only a small, albeit statistically significant, increases in apnea duration (79), without affecting the magnitude of the arousal response. Arousals from sleep during obstructive sleep apnea appear to result from increasing ventilatory effort (122). Prolonged apneas in patients with neuromuscular disease may be the consequence of a blunted central respiratory response to chemoreceptor inputs, or to an inability of weakened respiratory muscles to develop a sufficiently high intrathoracic pressure. Several studies have confirmed the occurrence of predominately REMrelated oxygen desaturations in patients with advanced Duchenne muscular dystrophy (115,120,126). Virtually identical changes are seen in postpoliomyelitis patients, those with isolated diaphragm weakness including those caused by motor neuron disease, and patients with myopathies affecting daytime diaphragmatic function. Even patients with kyphoscoliosis without obvious neuromuscular dis
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Figure 9 Polysomnography in a patient with Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Apparent central apneas are seen in stage REM, but there is continued phasic EMG activity in respiratory bursts throughout the apnea. In other subjects the addition of nasal CPAP can convert such apneas into periods of hypoventilation confirming their obstructive nature.
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ease elsewhere show an identical pattern of sleeprelated breathing disorder (2). The significance of these changes for the patient is difficult to assess. One disease, myotonic dystrophy, is strikingly different. Although early reports emphasize the occurrence of daytime hypercapnia and sleepiness (124), later studies, including those of our own group, have found very variable degrees of sleeprelatedbreathing disorder (Fig. 10; 90,125–127). The lowest oxygen saturation during sleep correlated with body mass index (127) and did not relate simply to the degree of respiratory muscle weakness (126). In myotonic dystrophy, apneas are frequently seen in lighter sleep and even during wakefulness, and these are predominantly of central origin, as confirmed either by esophageal pressure measurements or the persistence of cardiac oscillations seen in the airflow trace when the glottis is open (Fig. 11). Veale et al. (89) showed that breathbybreath breathing cycle variability was greater in the myotonic dystrophy patients than in the healthy controls and patients with nonmyotonic muscle disease (31 vs. 13% in light sleep), but differences in variability were much less in slowwave sleep (12 vs. 9%). These results suggest that “behavioral” factors, possibly caused by forebrain influences, are important in the
Figure 10 The lowest oxygen saturation reached during polysomnography in patients with myotonic dystrophy studied in four centers (N, Newcastle; B, Bologna; L, Liverpool; Q, Queensland). Note the variability of the desaturation among patients. There is little relation between the nadir Sao2 and the overall severity of the breathing abnormality during sleep. Likewise, the number of patients with more than five apneas per hour sleep is varied—only 5 of 12 Australian patients showed this.
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Figure 11 Polysomnography in a patient with myotonic dystrophy: Note the central apnea following a brief arousal response. Oscillations in the airflow signal are due to the cardiac impulse and are linked to the ECG signal (bottom trace) confirming the central apnea with an open glottis.
genesis of this sleep dysrhythmia. Coexistence of impaired diaphragmatic function appears to be an important determinant of nocturnal desaturations. Daytime sleepiness is also a significant complaint and is related to disease severity (128). VI. Implications for Treatment A. General Considerations Ventilatory control abnormalities can have important clinical consequences in patients with neuromuscular disease. They may experience excessive respiratory depression from sedatives, narcotics, and anesthetics, and impaired respiratory compensation for ventilatory loads. Sedative drugs, and particularly anaesthetics, are likely to cause alveolar hypoventilation with hypercapnia and hypoxemia. It is possible that those individuals who have marked sleeprelated oxygen desaturations are at greatest risk from these drugs, for they are usually the patients with the lowest lung volumes and, hence, oxygen stores, as well as the worse diaphragmatic function. These changes are not easily predicted from routine clinical examination. Unexpected respiratory
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arrest is a welldocumented problem in myotonic dystrophy and has been reported even with the minor sedation required to perform a muscle biopsy (129). This tendency to respiratory disturbances during sedation may reflect the effects of a combination of peripheral and central ventilatory control disorders in these patients. B. Responses to Ventilatory Loading In singlebreath studies, the respiratory responses to ventilatory loading are similar in patients with tetraplegia and those with muscle weakness (58). The only systematic study of changes in respiratory sensation has been conducted in the least typical NMD, myotonic dystrophy. Nonetheless clinical observation suggests that although most NMD patients are not breathless at rest, this is likely to be due their low metabolic demands, rather than abnormal perceptions and increased respiratory load. The development of even minor nasal congestion or a lower respiratory tract infection can provoke severe breathlessness, hospitalization, and even respiratory insufficiency. C. Noninvasive Mechanical Ventilation Nasal positivepressure ventilation is now widely used in the management of NMD patients, especially when there is evidence of either nocturnal oxygen desaturation or daytime hypercapnia (130). The subsequent survival depends on the progression of the underlying disease and is better in NMD than in patients with severe cystic fibrosis awaiting transplant (131,132). However, most studies are retrospective and uncontrolled (130–135). A wellcontrolled, prospective doubleblind, randomized trial of ventilation or supportive care in 70 patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy showed that survival was improved by nasal ventilation (136). This is important because these patients were selected on the basis of an arbitrary reduction of their vital capacity and not on the basis of these symptoms. Our practice has been to commence noninvasive positivepressure ventilation (NIPPV) in patients with Duchenne dystrophy electively when symptoms and especially morning headaches develop. In a prospective study of 20 patients with neuromuscular disease, who had undergone overnight oximetry or polysomnography, we noted that significant oxygen desaturation during REM sleep was a strong predictor of subsequent mortality. This raises the possibility that respiratory sleep studies in patients with NMD may provide a useful marker for future survival and a more rational basis on which to consider the institution of ventilatory support. Larger multicenter trials will be needed to verify this impression. The ability to tolerate NIPPV depends partly on the degree to which the patient's own breathing pattern is synchronized with the ventilator (137). Many NMD patients are now treated by pressure support bilevel ventilation for which
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the patient's inspiratory effort triggers a square wave change in inspiratory pressure and, thereby, flow from the mechanical ventilator. However, patients with weak inspiratory muscles are relatively easy to ventilate noninvasively, even with volumecycled machines. This likely reflects the inability of these patients to develop significant inspiratory pressures opposing ventilatorinduced flow. Also, relatively low tidal volumes—hence, inspiratory pressure changes—are needed to ensure adequate gas exchange in this patient group. Care is needed to avoid overventilation and respiratory alkalosis that may provoke troublesome paresthesias in the morning. VII. Summary Neuromuscular disease of different causes and types produce similar changes in breathing. Chemical stimulation results in lowerthanexpected ventilatory responses, but when available, data point to intact central control mechanisms. Characteristic rapid, shallowbreathing pattern is present in patients before the development of chronic hypercapnia. Changes in oxygenation are most marked overnight when the patient enters stage REM sleep. During REM sleep, patients with marked diaphragmatic dysfunction may be unable to overcome the physiological increases in upper airway resistance. Patients with myotonic dystrophy often experience daytime sleepiness without any apparent association with the severity of the nocturnal respiratory disturbance. These abnormalities of respiratory control, together with the specific problems of facial muscle weakness, make it harder to institute noninvasive positivepressure ventilation in these patients. However, respiratory failure remains the most common cause of death in all of these patient groups. Our knowledge of the control of breathing in neuromuscular disease is incomplete, and there is considerable uncertainty particularly about respiratory sensation and the mechanisms underlying the respiratory responses to ventilatory loading. These areas merit further investigation to provide a rationale for the application of new treatment modalities in this group of disabled patients. References 1. De Troyer AD, Estenne M. The respiratory system in neuromuscular disorders. In: Roussos, C., ed. The Thorax, Part C. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1995:2177– 2212. 2. Sawicka EH, Branthwaite MA. Respiration during sleep in kyphoscoliosis. Thorax 1987; 42:801–808. 3. Reines HD, Harris RC. Pulmonary complication of acute spinal cord injuries. Neurosurgery 1987; 21:193–196. 4. Bhaskar KR, Brown R, O'Sullivan DD, Melia S, Duggan M, Reid L. Bronchial mucus hypersecretion in acute quadriplegia. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143:640– 648.
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26. Rigg JRA, Inman EM, Saunders NA, Leeder SR, Jones NL. Interaction of mental factors with hypercapnic ventilatory drive in man. Clin Sci Mol Med 1977; 52:269–275. 27. Killian KJ, Mahutte CK, Campbell EJM. Magnitude scaling of externally added loads to breathing. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 123:12–15. 28. Killian KJ, Campbell EJM. Dyspnea. In: Roussos C, ed. The Thorax, Part B. New York: Marcel Dekker 1995:1709–1747. 29. Chronos N, Adam L, Guz A. Effect of hyperoxia and hypoxia in exerciseinduced breathlessness in normal subjects. Clin Sci 1989; 74:531–537. 30. Lane R, Cockcroft A, Guz A. Voluntary eucapnic hyperventilation and breathlessness during exercise in normal subjects. Clin Sci 1987; 73:519–523. 31. Chonan T, Mulholland MB, Cherniack NS, Altose MD. Effects of voluntary constraining of thoracic displacement during hypercapnia. J Appl Physiol 1987; 63:1822–1828. 32. Clague JE, Carter J, Pearson MG, Calverley PMA. Physiological determinants of inspiratory effort sensation during CO2 rebreathing in normal subjects. Clin Sci 1993; 85:637–642. 33. Poon CS. Ventilatory control in hypercapnia and exercise: optimization hypothesis. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62:2447–2459. 34. Braun NMT, Rochester DF. Muscular weakness and respiratory failure. Am Rev Respir Dis 1979; 119:123–125. 35. Begin P, Grassino AE. Inspiratory muscle dysfunction and chronic hypercapnia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143:905– 912. 36. Estenne M, De Troyer A. The effect of tetraplegia on chest wall statics. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986; 134:121–124. 37. De Troyer A, Heilporn A. Respiratory mechanics in quadraplegia. The respiratory function of the intercostal muscles. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 122:591–600. 38. Estenne M, Gevenois PA, Kinnear W, Soudon P, Heliporn A, De Troyer A. Lung volume restriction in patients with chronic respiratory muscle weakness: the role of microatelectasis. Thorax 1993; 48:698–701. 39. Gibson GJ, Pride NB, NewsomDavis J, Loh LC. Pulmonary mechanics in patients with respiratory muscle weakness. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977; 115:389–395. 40. Kilburn KH, Eagan JT, Sicker HO, Heyman A. Cardiopulmonary insufficiency in myotonic and progressive muscular dystrophy. N Engl J Med 1959; 261:1089– 1096. 41. Weber EH. Weber Fraction. De Pulsu Resorptione, Auditu et Tactu. Annotationes Anatomicae et Physiologicae. Leipzig: Koehler, 1860. 42. Holle RHO, Schoene RB, Pavlin EJ. Effect of respiratory muscle weakness on P0.1 induced by partial curarization. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57:1150–1157. 43. Clague JE, Carter J, Pearson MG, Calverley PMA. Effect of sustained inspiratory loading on respiratory sensation and CO2 responsiveness in normal humans. Clin Sci 1996; 91:513–518. 44. Whitelaw WA, Derenne JP. Airway occlusion pressure. J Appl Physiol 1993; 50:1475–1483. 45. McKenzie DK, Gandevia SC. Electrical assessment of respiratory muscles. In: Roussos C, ed. The Thorax, Part B. New York: Marcel Dekker 1995:1029– 1048.
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105. Calverley PMA. Sleep and breathing problems in general medicine. Thorax 1995; 50:1311–1316. 106. Hudgel DW, Martin RJ, Johnson B, Hill P. Mechanics of the respiratory system and breathing pattern during sleep in normal humans. J Appl Physiol 1984; 56:133–137. 107. Douglas NJ, White DP, Pickett CK, Weil JV, Zwillich CW. Respiration during sleep in normal man. Thorax 1982; 37:465–472. 108. Morrell M, Harty HR, Adams L, Guz A. Breathing during wakefulness and NREM sleep in humans without an airway. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81:274–281. 109. Douglas NJ, White DP, Weil JV, Pickett CK, Zwillich CW. Hypercapnic ventilatory response in sleeping adults. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126:758–762. 110. Douglas NJ, White DP, Weil JV, Pickett CP, Zwillich CW. Hypoxic ventilatory response decreases during sleep in normal men. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 125:286–289. 111. BerthonJones M, Sullivan CE. Ventilation and arousal responses to hypercapnia in normal sleep adults. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57:59–67. 112. Gugger M, Bögershausen S, Schäffler L. Arousal responses to added inspiratory resistance during REM and nonREM sleep in normal subjects. Thorax 1993; 48:125–129. 113. Smith PEM, Edwards RHT, Calverley PMA. Mechanisms of sleepdisordered breathing in chronic neuromuscular disease: implications for management. Q J Med 1991; 81:961–973. 114. Chase MH, Morales FR. The control of motorneurones during sleep. In: Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994:163–175. 115. Smith PEM, Calverley PMA, Edwards RHT. Sleep hypoxaemia in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137:884–888. 116. Piper AJ, Sullivan CE. Sleepdisordered breathing in neuromuscular disease. In: Saunders NA, Sullivan CE, eds. Sleep and Breathing, 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker 1994:761–786. 117. White JES, Drinnan MJ, Smithson AJ, Griffiths CJ, Gibson GJ. Respiratory muscle activity and oxygenation during sleep in patients with muscle weakness. Eur Respir J 1995; 8:807–814. 118. Hudgel DW, Devadata P. Decrease in functional residual capacity during sleep in normal humans. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57:1319–1322. 119. Schwartz AR, Gold AR, Schubert N, Stryzak A, Wise RA, Permutt S, Smith PL. Effect of weight loss on upper airway collapsibility in obstructive sleep apnoea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:494–498. 120. Chan Y, Heckmatt JZ. Obstructive apneas in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Thorax 1994; 49:157–161. 121. Fletcher EC, Munafo DA. Role of nocturnal oxygen therapy in obstructive sleep apnoea. When should it be used? Chest 1990; 98:1497–1504. 122. Gleeson K, Zwillich CW, White DP. The influence of increasing ventilatory effort on arousal form sleep. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 142:295–300. 123. Barbé F, QueraSalva MA, McCann C, Gajdos PH, Raphael JC, de Lattre J, Agusti AG. Sleep related respiratory disturbances in patients with Duchenne respiratory dystrophy. Eur Respir J 1994; 7:1403–1408.
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124. Bye PTP, Ellis ER, Issa FG, Donnelly PM, Sullivan CE. Respiratory failure and sleep in neuromuscular disease. Thorax 1990; 45:241–247. 125. Cirignotta F, Modini S, Zucconi M, BarrotCortes E, Sturani C, Schiavina M, Coccagna G, Lugaresi E. Sleeprelated breathing impairment in myotonic dystrophy. J Neurol 1981; 235:80–85. 126. Gilmartin JJ, Cooper BG, Griffiths CJ, Walls TJ, Veale D, Stone TN, Osselton JW, Hudgson P, Gibson GJ. Breathing during sleep in patients with myotonic dystrophy and nonmyotonic respiratory muscle weakness. West J Med 1991; 78:21–31. 127. Finnimore AJ, Jackson RV, Morton A, Lynch E. Sleep hypoxia in myotonic dystrophy and its correlation with awake respiratory function. Thorax 1994; 49:66– 70. 128. Van der Meche FG, Bogaard JM, Van der Sluys JC, Schimsheimar RJ, Varvers CC, Vusak HF. Daytime sleep in myotonic dystrophy is not caused by sleep apnoea. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57:626–628. 129. Coakley JH, Calverley PMA. Anaesthesia and myotonic dystrophy. Lancet 1990; 1:409. 130. Howard RS, Wiles CM, Hirsh NP, Spencer GT. Respiratory involvement in primary muscle disorders: assessment and management. Q J Med 1993; 86:175– 189. 131. Sawicka EH, Loh L, Braithwaite MA. Domiciliary ventilatory support: an analysis of outcome. Thorax 1988; 43:31–35. 132. Simmonds AJ, Elliott MW. Outcome of domiciliary nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation in restrictive and obstructive disorders. Thorax 1995; 50:604– 609. 133. Heckmatt JZ, Loh L, Dubowitz V. Night time nasal ventilation in neuromuscular disease. Lancet 1990; 335:579–582. 134. Baydar A, Gilgoff I, Prentice W, Carlson M, Fischer DA. Decline in respiratory function and experience with long term assisted ventilation in advanced Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Chest 1990; 97:884–889. 135. Bach JR, Alba AS, Bohatink G, Saporita L, Lee M. Mouth intermittent positive pressure ventilation in the management of postpolio respiratory insufficiency. Chest 1987; 91:859–864. 136. Raphael JC, Chevret S, Chastange C, Bouvet F. Randomised trial of preventive nasal ventilation in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Lancet 1994; 343:1600– 1604. 137. Younes M. Interactions between patients and ventilators In: Roussos C, ed. The Thorax, Part C. New York: Marcel Dekker 1995:2367–2470.
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16 Control of Ventilation in Congestive Heart Failure. STEVEN M. SCHARF and HARLY E. GREENBERG Long Island Jewish Medical Center Albert Einstein College of Medicine New Hyde Park, New York I. Introduction Heart failure is caused by abnormal cardiac function and leads to hemodynamic, respiratory, renal, sympathoadrenal, and hormonal responses (1). In acute heart failure, left ventricularfilling pressure increases because of movement of fluid from the peripheral to the central circulation. In chronic heart failure, this may or may not be true, centralfilling pressure may or may not be elevated, and the clinical condition is usually stable. Patients with chronic congestive heart failure (CHF) exhibit a variety of disturbances of respiratory function. These include abnormalities of respiratory mechanics and ventilatory control, manifesting themselves primarily as dyspnea on exertion—which is frequently the most distressing symptom—and CheyneStokes respiration (CSR) at night. CSR is a grave prognostic indicator and constitutes a form of sleepdisordered breathing, leading to sleep fragmentation and diminished daytime function. In this chapter, we will consider some of the factors that interact to lead to produce the ventilatory alterations associated with CHF. Because an exhaustive review of the field is
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beyond the scope of this chapter, we have attempted to outline those aspects that are important to understanding the origin of a number of symptoms in the CHF syndrome. We will briefly consider the changes in respiratory mechanics that could influence work of breathing in CHF. Following a review of pulmonary afferent reflexes that could be affected by abnormalities in pulmonary hemodynamics and pulmonary congestion, we will consider the mechanism for dyspnea and exercise limitation in patients with chronic CHF. Finally, we will consider the physiological mechanisms leading to CSR and the manner in which treatment of CHF using respiratory manipulations leads to alleviation of symptoms. II. Changes in Respiratory Mechanics in CHF Numerous studies have documented a restrictive ventilatory defect, associated with a decrease in lung volumes and pulmonary compliance in patients with CHF (2–8). The degree of loss of lung volume is correlated with the pulmonary arterial occlusion pressure (9). In addition, there is a reduction in flow rates, consistent with an increase in airway resistance (3,6,7,10–12). Airway resistance increases both because of direct mechanical effects of interstitial edema and vascular distension on the airways in the bronchovascular bundle, and the reflex effects of congestion of the vessels, left heart, and interstitial space. In addition, acute increases in pulmonary vascular pressure increase airway responsiveness to histamine challenge (13), consistent with increased bronchial reactivity. These effects of pulmonary congestion on airway resistance and bronchial reactivity could explain the syndrome known as “cardiac asthma.” Acute increases in left atrial pressure may lead to an increase in carbon monoxide diffusion capacity (DCO) by increasing capillary blood volume. However, impaired DCO is frequently observed in chronic CHF (3,4). Possible mechanisms include concomitant smoking history, recurrent pulmonary emboli (14), and pulmonary fibrosis associated with chronically elevated left atrial pressure (5). The latter contributes to the elevation in pulmonary mechanical impedance observed in CHF (8). The result of these mechanical derangements is to increase work of breathing, both the elastic and the resistive components. As will be discussed later, increased work of breathing is sensed by the respiratory muscles and contributes to the sense of dyspnea on exertion and exercise limitation. III. Pulmonary Afferent Reflexes: Overview Afferent fibers provide sensory feedback from the lung. They travel in both vagus and thoracic sympathetic nerves (15). The vagal afferents are by far the better studied of these two classes. The vagal afferents synapse in the solitary nuclear
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tract of the medulla, whereas the sympathetic afferents synapse in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. A. Pulmonary Sympathetic Afferent Fibers First described by Holmes and Torrance (16), these fibers are stimulated by punctate mechanical probing of their receptive fields in the parenchyma (17). Unlike vagal afferents, a single parent sympathetic fiber can give rise to multiple nerve endings in both thoracic and abdominal viscera (18). Although based on conduction velocity studies, sympathetic afferents are most likely myelinated, it is not improbable that there are unmyelinated sympathetic afferents as well. B. Pulmonary Vagal Afferent Fibers There is a great deal of literature on the many aspects of the pulmonary vagal afferents and the many reflexes they engender (15,19). The vagal afferents of the lungs consist of both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers. From the response to static lung inflation, the myelinated afferents have been divided into slowly adapting and rapidly adapting or irritant receptors (20,21). The conduction velocities of these two fiber types are very similar (~28–31 m/sec; 22). The unmyelinated vagal afferents from the lung can also be subdivided into two major classes: pulmonary Cfibers and bronchial Cfibers. Conduction velocity in unmyelinated fibers is slower than that of the myelinated fibers (~2.5 m/sec). The two classes of Cfibers are distinguished on the basis of the reaction to capsaicin injected into different parts of the vasculature supplying the lung. Injection of capsaicin into the pulmonary artery stimulates pulmonary, but not bronchial Cfibers (23), whereas injection of capsaicin into the bronchial circulation stimulates bronchial, but not pulmonary, Cfibers (24). Injection of capsaicin into the left atrium stimulates both Cfiber types, but the onset of stimulation is, as expected, shorter for the bronchial than for the pulmonary Cfibers. There are several stimulusresponse relations that have been described for these afferents (see Ref. 15). These include ventilatory and cardiodepressor responses to lung expansion, the response to injection of certain chemical stimuli into the pulmonary circulation (pulmonary chemoreflex), the response to pulmonary emboli, and reflexes elicited from the pulmonary vasculature in ventilatory control. The latter can be grouped into three subtypes: These are (1) the effects of CO2 delivered through the pulmonary circulation, (2) the effects of increases in pulmonary transmural vascular pressure (i.e., pulmonary congestion), and (3) the effects of increases in pulmonary blood flow. Because CO2, pulmonary vascular transmural pressure, and pulmonary blood flow all increase shortly after the onset of exercise, these pulmonary vascular reflexes are extremely important for the regulation of ventilation during exercise.
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IV. Ventilatory Reflexes Elicited from the Pulmonary Vasculature A. Carbon Dioxide Delivered Through the Pulmonary Circulation Although the later discovery of carotid and aortic chemoreceptors pushed the issue somewhat into the background, the existence of a mixed venous CO2 receptor has been the subject of much debate since it was first postulated by PiSuner and Bellido in 1919 (25). Whereas the response to CO2 inhalation is hypercapnic, at least some workers have shown that the response to intravenous CO2 infusion is isocapnic; that is, ventilation is matched sufficiently to the CO2 load to maintain isocapnia (26–29). Furthermore, during CO2 removal, as occurs during hemodialysis, arterial PCO2 remains constant, owing to a fall in alveolar ventilation (29). Even if the rate of CO2 removal equals that of CO2 production, arterial PCO2 remains constant as alveolar ventilation falls to zero (30). Phillipson et al. (31) demonstrated a linear correlation between alveolar ventilation and CO2 excretion at the lungs in exercising sheep, even when CO2 was being loaded and unloaded by an extracorporeal circuit. Using a double cardiac bypass, Sheldon and Green (32) separated the pulmonary from the systemic circulation. They demonstrated that with systemic isocapnia, ventilation was positively correlated with CO2 added to the venous circuit. Moreover, increasing mixed venous PCO2 increased the sensitivity of the arterial CO2 ventilatory response. The response to changes in mixed venous PCO2 was vagally mediated. In addition, the preponderance of the data indicate that CO2 stimulated the slowly adapting stretch receptors (33,34). In addition to the action of pulmonary arterial CO2 on stretch receptors, it is likely that there is also a role played by unmyelinated pulmonary Cfibers in this response (35). Although intrapulmonary CO2 receptors are probably not the primary afferents responsible for the hyperpnea of exercise, they certainly could act as a modulator to stimuli from other sources and serve to finetune the ventilatory response to maintain isocapnia (19). B. Increased Pulmonary Blood Flow Numerous studies have documented hyperpnea associated with increases in cardiac output, called cardiodynamic hyperpnea (36–38). Increasing blood flow through the lungs has the effect of increasing ventilation, independently of changes in endtidal PCO2 (39). WeilerRavell et al. (40) studied breathtobreath ventilatory and gas exchange changes during the initiation of exercise hyperpnea. They used breathbybreath O2 consumption as an index of changes in pulmonary blood flow, which presumably reflects venous return, during the initial phase of hyperpnea (before changes occur in mixed venous O2 content). They found a close correlation between the early exerciseassociated increase in ventilation and increased
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pulmonary blood flow. Whipp (41) and later Wasserman et al. (42) suggested that because of the rapidity of the response, it was unlikely that cardiodynamic hyperpnea at the onset of exercise could be related to peripheral chemoreceptors. Changes in inspired O2 concentration do not affect the magnitude of cardiodynamic hyperpnea, further evidence that this is not a response related to stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors. Other mechanisms for cardiodynamic hyperpnea have been postulated. These include reflex changes owing to mechanical distension of the right ventricle. However, Lloyd (43) found that this was probably not true. Recent studies suggest that cardiodynamic hyperpnea may be partly related to vagally mediated Cfiber stimulation. Anand and Paintal (44) demonstrated that when blood flow through the right lung of cats was increased by 133%, the activity of Cfibers increased to an average rate of 0.75 impulses per second. Although this is far less than seen with pulmonary congestion, it is of a magnitude to be of reflex significance. Because tachypnea is an important primary reflex effect of Cfiber stimulation, this could partly account for flowinduced hyperpnea (34,38). The question remains of whether or not a change in pulmonary blood flow per se can constitute a stimulus sufficient to account for the reflex respiratory response. In a doublepumpperfused preparation, a 60% increase in ventilation was produced when pulmonary blood flow was increased threefold, whereas systemic blood flow and both pulmonary and systemic blood gas levels remained constant (37). This effect was abolished by vagotomy. When inspired CO2 concentration was raised to eliminate intrapulmonary CO2 gradients, flowinduced hyperpnea was abolished (38). This suggests that blood flowinduced hyperpnea was mediated by CO2 receptors, possibly the slowly adapting stretch receptor. Thus, the mechanism of flowinduced hyperpnea and mixed venous CO2induced hyperpnea may be one and the same; that is, stimulation of the slowly adapting stretch receptor by increased CO2 flux to the lung. This mechanism allows for the early hyperventilation of exercise without stimulation of classic peripheral or brain stem chemoreceptors. C. Increased Pulmonary Vascular Transmural Pressure (Pulmonary Vascular Congestion) Since the studies of Churchill and Cope (45), many studies have described changes in ventilation, usually tachypnea, secondary to changes in pulmonary vascular pressure. It is important to realize that in many older studies the techniques used to cause increased pulmonary vascular pressure may have confounded the results. Possible confounding factors include concomitant distension of cardiac chambers and the occurrence of pulmonary edema. In many studies, tachypnea in response to pulmonary congestion is accompanied by bradycardia and hypotension (19). The similarity between this response and the pulmonary
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chemoreflex response suggests that common neural pathways, probably vagally mediated Cfibers, are involved. Paintal (46) produced pulmonary congestion by three different techniques: occlusion of left heart blood flow in cats, intratracheal administration of chlorine, and intravenous administration of alloxan. He observed increases in Cfiber activity in all studies. Because this did not correspond to a rise in pulmonary arterial pressure, he postulated that the receptors involved acted as interstitial stretch receptors, either in response to capillary stretch or interstitial edema. Since the putative receptors were supposed to be juxtacapillary, the were dubbed J receptors. He speculated that J receptor stimulation could act to inhibit exercise. Coleridge and Coleridge (23) produced pulmonary congestion by inflation of a balloon in the mitral valve. The found that lung Cfibers were responsive to increased left atrial pressure. In a more recent study, Teo et al. (47) demonstrated that increased left atrial pressure produced the greatest response in rapidly adapting receptors, followed by bronchial C fibers and slowly adapting receptors. The response of pulmonary Cfibers was variable. This suggests that fibers other than Cfibers may be involved in the reflex response to pulmonary congestion. Lloyd (48) produced pulmonary congestion by placing a resistor in the pulmonary venous circuit and demonstrated a dosedependent prolongation of expiration in response to increased pulmonary vascular pressure between 20 and 70 torr. Thus, the primary response to increased pulmonary congestion was bradypnea, not tachypnea. In further studies (43), he reported that right ventricular and pulmonary arterial hypertension produced ventilatory stimulation. In the vascularly isolated lung, Wead et al. (49) found evidence for Cfiber stimulation when vascular congestion was limited to the portion of the pulmonary circuit between arteries and veins. This suggested that congestion of the intraparenchymal vessels, primarily capillaries, was a stimulus for Cfiber afferents. Finally, Lloyd (50) compared the effect of lung congestion with and without left heart distension. He concluded that lung congestion may stimulate breathing through Cfiber afferents, but that this may be overcome by a depressor reflex mediated by myelinated afferents. Left heart distension may stimulate breathing by overcoming this depressor reflex. Hence, these studies indicate that whereas stimulation of pulmonary Cfibers can lead to tachypnea, pulmonary capillary congestion probably does not stimulate Cfibers as long as the vagus nerve is intact. These studies indicate that there are vagally mediated pulmonary depressor afferents that counteract the ventilatory effects of Cfiber stimulation. However, cardiac, and possibly pulmonary arterial distension, has a separate reflex effect leading to ventilatory stimulation. Thus, vascular congestion stimulates numerous pulmonary afferents that interact to produce the final results. It is not unreasonable to suspect that factors such as anesthesia, sedatives, changes in the autonomic tone, or chronic pulmonary congestion may affect these interactions. The implication of these findings for patients with CHF have not been
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adequately explored. The tachypnea and hyperventilation associated with acute increases in pulmonary venous pressures are related to pulmonary capillary, cardiac, or pulmonary arterial distension (5,10,51,52) as well as increased lung elastance (8). However, as will be discussed shortly, the relation of tachypnea and dyspnea to pulmonary vascular pressures in chronic CHF is less clear (53,54). Cardiac output is decreased in CHF, especially during exercise (53,55). Thus, venous return per se, is not likely to be a determinant of excessive ventilation in these patients. However, changes in the gain of pulmonary receptors responsible for flow sensing could contribute. According to the Fick principle, if cardiac output is decreased relative to O2 consumption and CO2 production, mixed PO2 will decrease and mixed venous PCO2 will increase. Although the relation between mixed venous CO2 content and exercise hyperpnea in CHF has not been thoroughly explored, it may be that changes in CO2 content could account for hyperpnea in CHF. Thus, it is possible that some of the reflex arcs related to changes in pulmonary blood flow, vascular congestion, or mixed venous CO2 are modified in patients with heart failure, such that they contribute to excess ventilation and dyspnea. These changes could contribute to functional limitation in these patients. In fact, it is this aspect of ventilatory control in CHF to which we now turn our attention. V. Mechanisms Underlying the Ventilatory Response to Exercise in CHF. Chronic CHF is a common clinical problem with high mortality. Patients' functional activity is frequently limited by dyspnea and fatigue. These symptoms may, in fact, be related to different pathophysiological mechanisms (56). However, it is often difficult for patients to express the precise sensations that limit their exercise, and it is often difficult to extrapolate from laboratory conditions to daily living. Hence, following the approach of Clark et al. (57), we will consider the symptoms limiting exercise performance in these patients as stemming from one or more common sources. Exercise limitation is usually studied in the laboratory. It is important to remember that different test conditions yield different results. For example, maximum total body O2 consumption (VO2) is often used as a measure of maximum exercise tolerance. However, repeat exercise testing may be associated with a training, most likely placebo, effect that yields progressive increases in estimates of maximum VO2 (58). Cycle exercise is usually associated with lower maximum VO2 than treadmill exercise (59) and different protocols for changes in speed, grade, and load may yield different results (60). Finally, few patients actually stop exercise at a level sufficient to evoke maximum VO2. Thus, abnormal sensations signaling cardiorespiratory distress must be limiting exercise at submaximal levels. A number of systems are probably involved in limiting exercise
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tolerance in patients with chronic CHF. These include (1) changes in central hemodynamics; (2) respiratory gas exchange, including alterations in dead space ventilation; (3) abnormal O2 delivery to the periphery; (4) abnormal peripheral circulatory function; and (5) abnormal skeletal muscle and especially respiratory muscle function. A. Changes in Central Circulatory Hemodynamics Whereas hyperpnea is correlated with changes in centralfilling pressures in acute heart failure, many studies have failed to document such a relation for chronic stable CHF. Thus, the correlation between exercise performance and central hemodynamics, including filling pressures, has been poor (55,61–63). This holds true even when pulmonary artery pressure was measured along with activities of daily living in an ambulatory setting (64). Furthermore, acute improvement in left ventricular hemodynamics by pharmacological intervention (63,65,66), or even cardiac transplantation (67) fails to bring about acute improvement in exercise capacity or normalization of the abnormal ventilatory response to exercise. It may take up to 1 year for these abnormalities to revert (68,69). In one study, the best correlate of improved exercise tolerance following vasodilator therapy was improved peripheral leg blood flow, not improved central hemodynamics (69). Finally, Baker et al. (70) found that right ventricular ejection fraction was strongly correlated with maximum VO2 in chronic CHF patients, whereas left ventricular ejection fraction showed no correlation. When the same group administered inotropic agents to CHF patients, they found a modest correlation between improved right ventricular ejection fraction and maximum VO2 (71). The finding of a correlation between right ventricular function and exercise capacity could be consistent with the reflex effects of right ventricular distension or with changes in CO2 delivered by the mixed venous blood, discussed earlier. Alternatively, changes in pulmonary arterial blood flow may alter respiratory gas exchange by changing ventilationperfusion relations. It is this aspect of exercise limitation and ventilatory control that we now consider. B. Respiratory Gas Exchange During Exercise in Chronic CHF During exercise, patients with chronic CHF maintain relatively normal arterial blood gas values (55,72). Thus, any changes in ventilation attributable to changes in blood gases must be related to effects on mixed venous blood, discussed in the foregoing. However, increasing inspired O2 concentration improves exercise tolerance and decreases the ventilatory response to exercise (73), a finding that suggests that peripheral chemoreceptors may play a role in modulating the ventilatory response to exercise. Numerous studies have demonstrated increased ventilatory response to exercise in patients with chronic CHF (53,63,72,74–76). This is illustrated in Figure 1. As in normal persons, there is a tight correlation between the rate of CO2
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Figure 1 Changes in VE/VCO2 ratio expressed as a percentage of maximal oxygen consumption for patients with CHF and normal subjects. Note that at any level of exercise, expressed as a percentage of maximum VO2, the ratio VE/VCO2 is increased in CHF patients. (From Ref. 76).
production and minute ventilation during exercise in CHF patients (53,63). This suggests that ventilatory control mechanisms are intact in these patients (53). However, since minute ventilation is increased in CHF patients at any given work load, the ventilatory cost of CO2 production and, for that matter, O2 consumption is increased. This means that for any given CO2 production or O2 consumption during exercise, patients with CHF have greater minute ventilation than normal individuals. In fact, the reduction in exercise capacity, as measured by maximum VO2, correlates with the increase in ventilatory cost of CO2 production (77,78). Thus, exercise capacity in chronic CHF is correlated with ventilatory, not central, hemodynamic measurements. As detailed by Whipp (79), the relation between minute ventilation and CO2 production is described as:
(1) where
depends on dead space ventilation and
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arterial PCO2. As the proportion of total ventilation that is dead space ventilation rises and falls, so will the ventilatory cost of metabolic activity. Buller and Poole Wilson (77) analyzed the dead space ventilation ratio during exercise in chronic CHF. They confirmed a close correlation between the slope of the line describing the relation between line by close to onethird, but the correlation between the slope and the severity of exercise limitation remained high. These results demonstrated that increased ventilatory response to exercise in patients with CHF is not due to ventilation of anatomical dead space, but rather, to increased physiological dead space. The mechanisms by which physiological dead space are increased in chronic CHF are unclear. However, chronic CHF may lead to fibrotic changes in the lungs (5), changes in interstitial fluid content, or the changes in pulmonary mechanics described earlier. These could modify the matching of ventilation and perfusion. Furthermore, reduced cardiac output in patients with CHF could also lead to ventilationperfusion mismatch, possibly by producing underperfused areas of the lungs. This hypothesis receives support from data showing that improved exercise tolerance and decreased VD/VT both result when cardiac output is increased (53,80). Although it is clear that excessive ventilation contributes to breathlessness during exercise, the mechanisms driving increased ventilation are unclear. Although, as discussed earlier, matching of ventilation to CO2 production is well preserved in patients with CHF, as in normals, toward the limits of exercise tolerance there is an increase in ventilation relative to CO2 production. This produces a fall in arterial PCO2 at exercise limit (53,81). Thus, as in normal subjects, in CHF there is a degree of uncoupling of minute ventilation during exercise (54). This means that whatever role CO2 delivery to the lungs plays in stimulating exercise ventilation, there are other mechanisms that stimulate ventilation beyond metabolic needs. Several investigators have looked to peripheral delivery of O2 or peripheral muscle function as nonCO2 stimuli to ventilation. We consider these factors next. C. Abnormal Peripheral O2 Utilization and Lactate Production as a Ventilatory Stimulus in CHF The anaerobic threshold is the point at which the O2 needs of peripheral tissues are no longer met by O supply. At this point anaerobic metabolism generates excess lactate. Because of buffering by bicarbonate in the blood, excess CO2 is generated, which produces an increment in the rate of increase in ventilation with accumulating load. This is known as the ventilatory threshold, and corresponds reasonably well with the onset of lactate production, at least in normal persons. Although
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ventilation remains constant relative to CO2 production, there is an increase in the ratio of ventilation to O2 consumption. Patients with CHF have decreased O2 supply to the periphery because of decreased cardiac output. Hence, it is expected that lactate production should begin earlier in patients during an incremental exercise test than it does in normal subjects. Is it possible that early anaerobic metabolism in these patients is responsible for excess ventilation? Indeed, early lactate production with light exercise associated with increased ventilation has been shown by Reddy et al. (82). As in normal persons, lactate and ventilatory thresholds can be identified in many, but not all, patients with CHF, and are correlated with maximum VO2 (55). However, this does not mean that increased lactate production is responsible for the excess ventilation in CHF. First, the very concept of a lactate threshold has come under scrutiny (83). Second, administration of dichloroacetate, which prevents the production of lactate, produces no change in exercise tolerance (84). Finally, patients with McArdle's syndrome, who are unable to produce lactate and do not become acidotic during exercise, also show a ventilatory threshold during exercise (85). Therefore, neither lactate production nor systemic acidosis appears necessary for excess ventilation during exercise in normal subjects or in CHF patients, although it is possible that early lactate production modifies the extent of this change. There may be changes in O2 delivery in CHF that are not due to decreased cardiac output per se. Patients with CHF demonstrate poorer blood flow to peripheral muscles compared with normals. Cowley et al. (86) found decreased calf blood flow in CHF compared with normal subjects at rest and during exercise. These authors confirmed increased ventilation during exercise in CHF patients and demonstrated an inverse correlation between endurance and maximum calf blood flow. This was consistent with earlier nuclear magnetic resonance findings that muscle VO2 was decreased in CHF patients (87). Cowley et al. (86) suggested that a persistent defect in peripheral blood flow explains the lack of immediate effect of vasodilator therapy on exercise tolerance in spite of improved central hemodynamics. The reasons for poor peripheral blood flow in CHF have not been thoroughly explored. It is known that in humans as well as in animal models of CHF, there is upregulation of the sympathetic nervous system. This leads to elevated circulating levels of norepinephrine—the principal neurotransmitter of sympathetic nerves and a vasoconstrictor—and increased systemic vascular resistance (88–90). Possibly, the reason for the delay in recovery of exercise tolerance following successful therapy of CHF is due a delay in the reversion of the sympathoadrenal system to its baseline state. On the other hand, vasodilatory reserve does not appear intrinsically impaired, as might be true with increased basal vasoconstrictor tone. Indeed, Wiener et al. (87) found that the ratio of inorganic phosphate to phosphocreatine increased with increasing forearm power output in CHF patients to a greater extent than in controls, despite that blood flow was similar. This suggests that metabolic alterations in CHF are not just a function
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of changes in blood flow, but rather, are due to changes in muscle metabolic function itself. Thus, CHF is associated with distinct changes in peripheral muscle function. D. Abnormal Muscle Function in CHF There are several studies indicating that abnormalities of peripheral, rather than central, tissues are responsible for exercise limitation in heart failure. In addition to reductions in skeletal muscle blood flow, in CHF the histology of skeletal muscle itself is abnormal (91,92). There is a reduction in slowtwitch (type 1) fibers and an increase in fasttwitch fibers (type 2) of smaller than normal size. In addition, there are alterations in the skeletal muscles' metabolism in CHF. During exercise, pH measured by magnetic resonance spectroscopy decreases earlier in CHF patients than in normal subjects (93). Skeletal muscle phosphate/phosphocreatine levels are increased in CHF (87) compared with normals. Glycogen levels may be reduced along with decreased enzymes of the Krebs cycle (92,94), and there is a decrease in oxidative capacity (95). Phosphocreatine, the major energy donor in contracting muscle, exhibits delayed recovery from exercise in CHF (6). This correlates with the findings of Minotti et al. (96) demonstrating decreased skeletal muscle endurance in CHF. E. Abnormalities of Respiratory Muscle Function in CHF The muscles of respiration are the only skeletal muscles necessary for sustaining life. These muscles appear to be at least partly responsible for the sensation of dyspnea. According to current thinking, dyspnea results when respiratory motoneuron output is not matched to ventilatory requirement (97). The sensation of breathlessness results from the interaction of three factors: (1) the magnitude of inspiratory pressure swings relative to the maximum: P/Pmax; (2) the ratio of inspiratory to total cycle time (duty cycle), TI/TTOT, and (3) respiratory rate (RR). As expressed by Killian et al. (97,97a) dyspnea is proportional to:
(2) Dyspnea may be a sign of impending respiratory muscle fatigue. Fatigue of the inspiratory muscles is an important cause of respiratory failure, resulting in increased morbidity and mortality. The balance between respiratory muscle O2 demand and O2 supply determines the onset of fatigue. During contraction, blood flow to the diaphragm decreases (98) and may even cease entirely (99). Thus, the greater the duty cycle, the greater the tendency for blood flow to be restricted. The tendency for respiratory muscles to fatigue is related to the tensiontime index (TTI) (100).
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(3) That the same factors influence the sensation of dyspnea that influence fatigue shows the relation between these symptoms. For the human diaphragm, when TTI exceeds 15–20% of maximum, fatigue ensues (100). The general muscle dysfunction that affects skeletal muscles in general most likely affects respiratory muscles in particular in CHF. A number of studies have demonstrated decreased maximum inspiratory and expiratory respiratory muscle pressures in CHF compared to normals (3,6,7,101–103). Furthermore, the decrease in respiratory muscle strength in CHF is out of proportion to the decrease in general skeletal muscle strength (102). According to Eq. (2), decreasing maximum generated pressures increases the sense of dyspnea and predisposes to fatigue [see Eq. (3)]. As expected, in patients with CHF, the magnitude of dyspnea is correlated with the magnitude of the reduction in respiratory muscle strength (7,103). Decreasing cardiac output in shock leads to decreases in diaphragm blood flow and decreased force generation (104,105). Even in the absence of shock, it is reasonable to postulate that when cardiac output is limited, muscle O2 delivery is limited as well during exercise. This may explain the findings of Mancini et al. (7,106) who used near infrared spectroscopy to demonstrate a greater progressive deoxygenation of an accessory muscle of respiration, the serratus anterior, during exercise in CHF than in healthy subjects. In the later study (7), this group found that TTI of the diaphragm was greater at rest and during exercise in CHF patients than in normal controls. In the CHF patients, at maximum exercise, TTI approached 10%. Although this level is not in the fatiguing range, and the investigators could not demonstrate diaphragmatic fatigue by phrenic nerve stimulation, the increase in generated force relative to maximum certainly would be associated with increased dyspnea. The aforecited studies strongly indicate an association between respiratory muscle function and the sense of dyspnea. As in other diseases (107), the sense of dyspnea is associated with increased respiratory drive in CHF (3,108). Perhaps, malfunction of the muscles of respiration in CHF is responsible for the increase in dyspnea owing to the attendant increase in respiratory drive, leading to increased ventilation, which contributes to exercise limitation. In remains to be seen whether specific treatment of the muscles of inspiration whether by resting, training, nutrition, or pharmacological therapy will improve exercise tolerance in these patients. VI. Control of Respiration During Sleep in CHF Many investigations over the past decade have demonstrated that sleep state has an important influence on ventilatory control. This is particularly true in the
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setting of CHF where several pathophysiological mechanisms may contribute to ventilatory instability during sleep. Such instability is commonly manifested by periodic breathing, or CSR that appears during sleep. This respiratory pattern was first observed by Cheyne in 1818 (109) and was subsequently reported in a systematic study by Harrison (110). More recent studies have shown that the prevalence of periodic breathing during sleep is much greater than was recognized previously. In a group of hospitalized patients recovering from acute cardiogenic pulmonary edema, CSR, defined as cyclic fluctuations in tidal volume and respiratory frequency in a repetitive crescendodecrescendo pattern interrupted by periods of central apnea, was observed during sleep in 42 of 95 patients (44%) (111). Using a similar definition of periodic breathing, 45% of a group of more stable, younger patients on a heart transplant waiting list, who had left ventricular ejection fractions below 25%, exhibited CSR during sleep (112). A similar prevalence was observed in a group of ambulatory patients with clinically stable, optimally treated CHF. In this investigation, 45% of these patients exhibited more than 26 episodes of periodic breathing per hour of sleep (mean 44/hr; 113). The presence of periodic breathing during sleep is associated with several major adverse consequences. A prospective evaluation of mortality in CHF patients, who had similar degrees of left ventricular dysfunction and comparable clinical and demographic features (Fig. 2), demonstrated a significantly greater mortality over the ensuing 4.5 years in those patients who had CSR during sleep
Figure 2 Cumulative survival in the CheyneStokes and CHF patients, which was substantially lower in the CSR group (p = 0.0419). (From Ref. 114).
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(114). The greater mortality may be due to more severe cardiac dysfunction in patients with CSR, although left ventricular ejection fraction, circulation time, and clinical status were similar in both groups. Alternatively, CSR may itself increase mortality by accelerating the progression of cardiac dysfunction. Furthermore, as described later, sleep fragmentation resulting from nocturnal periodic breathing leads to excessive daytime somnolence, which has an adverse effect on quality of life. A. The Nature of Periodic Breathing During Sleep Sleep state and intermittent arousals play a major role in the pathogenesis of CSR. As such, periodic breathing occurs predominantly in stages 1 and 2 nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, with a decreased incidence during slowwave and REM sleep (115,116). In contrast to obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), arousal occurs at the peak of the hyperpneic phase, rather than at the termination of the apneic phase (Fig. 3). The difference in timing of arousal between these two diseases can be understood in the context of recent data that indicate that increasing degrees of inspiratory effort appear to be the most important determinant of arousal (117). Thus, inspiratory effort is greatest at the termination of the obstructive apneic period in OSA, whereas it is at a maximum level during the hyperpneic phase of CSR which follows a central apnea or hypopnea. Arousals
Figure 3 CheyneStokes respiration in a patient with CHF. Note EEG arousal coinciding with the onset of the hyperpneic phase of periodic breathing.
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during hyperpneic periods may contribute to the sensation of the nocturnal dyspnea that is commonly reported in patients with CHF and CSR (118). These frequent arousals also cause sleep fragmentation with increased amounts of stage 1 and 2 sleep, increased number of sleep stage shifts and awakenings, decreased total sleep time; and reduced sleep efficiency. Despite normal awake arterial oxygenation, significant oxygen desaturation usually occurs in association with these sleep disorderedbreathing events. Sleep fragmentation, which primarily results from multiple arousals associated with periodic breathing, has a profound effect on daytime somnolence. Patients with CHF and CSR have pathological multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) scores indicative of excessive daytime somnolence. This contrasts with normal MSLT results in a matched group of CHF patients without CSR. Linear regression analysis demonstrated that arousal index, the duration of light (stage 1 and 2) NREM sleep, and the respiratory disturbance index, but not mean nocturnal oxygen saturation, correlated with the MSLT score (119). These findings support the contention that sleep fragmentation resulting from periodic breathing during sleep leads to pathological degrees of hypersomnolence. Thus, periodic breathing during sleep in CHF is a common disorder that disrupts sleep continuity, causes excessive daytime somnolence, and is associated with increased mortality. B. Potential Mechanisms Leading to Ventilatory Instability During Sleep in CHF CheyneStokes respiration occurs predominantly during stage 1 and 2 NREM sleep in patients with CHF. Its link to sleep state may reflect the influence of physiological changes that occur during sleep and contribute to ventilatory instability. Many of these factors are present to some degree in both normal individuals and in patients with CHF, whereas some are amplified in, or are specific to, this disease state. The absence of wakefulness itself results in several changes that may destabilize ventilation. First, NREM sleep is associated with decreased spontaneous activity of medullary respiratory neurons. Studies by Orem (120) demonstrated that this sleepinduced decrease in medullary respiratory neuronal activity is not uniform, but rather, is greatest in those neurons for which activity is not tightly linked with phasic inspiratory activity. These neurons may be those that activate tonic ventilatory or upper airway muscles, or may be related to the behavioral control of ventilation (120). Thus, overall spontaneous activity of ventral medullary respiratory neurons decreases during sleep at any given level of arterial PCO2 (121). This may be partly responsible for the decline in minute ventilation and the approximately 2 torr rise in arterial PCO2 that occurs during sleep in normal subjects.
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Next, ventilatory compensation for increased ventilatory loads is reduced or absent during NREM sleep (122). Thus, transient episodes of increased airway resistance are not immediately countered by increased respiratory motor output or prolongation of TI as occurs during wakefulness. As a result, tidal volume and minute ventilation decline transiently with application of a ventilatory load during sleep. However, because chemoreceptor activity remains intact, although possibly at a different setpoint, ventilatory effort ultimately increases when PCO2 rises or PO2 declines. Thus, depressed load compensation reflexes contribute to a delay in the compensatory increase in ventilatory effort in response to ventilatory loads, leading to transient reductions in tidal volume and minute ventilation that destabilize breathing. In addition to these effects, control of the upper airway musculature is also affected by sleep. Augmentation of upper airway muscle activity in response to increases in upper airway resistance, or to application of a negativepressure stimulus to the upper airway, is compromised during NREM sleep (123). As a result, transient increases in upper airway resistance are not fully countered by increased upper airway dilator muscle activity during sleep. This may lead to upper airway narrowing or collapse that imposes a resistive load on the ventilatory system. Because of impaired ventilatory load compensation, these transient increases in upper airway resistance cause intermittent decrements in tidal volume and minute ventilation. Rapid changes in state, such as that induced by brief arousals from sleep, also contribute to ventilatory instability by imposing and then rapidly removing the effects of wakefulness on ventilatory control. Brief arousals are responsible for rapid fluctuations in respiratory drive owing to changing output of the medullary respiratory oscillator, along with changes in ventilatory load compensation and upper airway muscle reflex activity. Thus, rapid imposition and removal of wakefulness influences on ventilation may cause “ventilatory overshoots” and “undershoots,” leading to unstable breathing. Each of these effects may lead to ventilatory instability during sleep in normal subjects and may be of particular importance in patients with CHF. Increased sensitivity or gain of the ventilatory control system, manifested by increased ventilatory sensitivity to CO2, is probably one of the more important mechanisms leading to periodic breathing or CSR during sleep in CHF. When controller gain is high, small increases in PCO2 may lead to ventilatory overshoots, or periods of hyperventilation. The resulting hypocapnia may perpetuate periodic breathing by decreasing arterial PCO2 below the apneic threshold, which is the arterial PCO2 level below which central apnea or hypopnea occurs. These effects arterial PCO2 level below which central apnea or hypopnea occurs. These effects are most pronounced during sleep for two reasons. First, the importance of the apneic threshold is enhanced by sleep, since wakefulness or behavioral influences on ventilation that may prevent the occurrence of central apneas are eliminated. Second, the apneic threshold occurs at a greater arterial PCO2 during sleep than
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during wakefulness. Ventilatory instability in the setting of increased controller gain is particularly likely to occur during NREM sleep because ventilation is particularly dependent on chemical and metabolic control during this state (124). Results of several investigations support the contention that increased controller gain contributes to ventilatory instability in CHF. In a comparison of congestive cardiomyopathy patients, several studies have demonstrated that patients with nocturnal CSR have significantly lower awake and sleep PCO2 levels than those patients with a similar degree of left ventricular dysfunction without nocturnal CSR (115,116,125,126). Chronic hyperventilation and hypocapnia may contribute to ventilatory instability by decreasing the baseline arterial PCO2 to levels closer to the apneic threshold. In support of this, Naughton et al. observed that hypopneic or apneic periods during sleep typically followed periods of hyperventilation with subsequent declines in PTCCO2, whereas hyperpneic episodes closely followed rises in PTCCO2 (126). This mechanism is further supported by the demonstration of increased central ventilatory sensitivity to CO2 in patients with medically stable CHF and repetitive central apneic episodes during sleep. In this study, the mean awake ventilatory response to CO2 was 5.6 ± 2.9 L/min/ mmHg PCO2 (127). Although a concomitant normal control group was not reported in this study, the normal ventilatory response to CO2 is typically in the range of 3 L/min/mmHg PCO2 or less. Therefore, these patients demonstrated a considerably greater ventilatory sensitivity to CO2 or controller gain than the normal population. Although increased controller gain is likely to be present in CHF and CSR, and may be an important factor destabilizing ventilation during NREM sleep, the etiology of increased central ventilatory sensitivity remains unclear. Hypoxia, which may be present in CHF owing to ventilationperfusion mismatch and decreased FRC, may theoretically destabilize ventilatory control by augmenting the ventilatory response to CO2. In addition, hypoxia itself may lead to ventilatory instability because of the hyperbolic nature of the hypoxic ventilatory response curve, with large increases in ventilatory output occurring in association with relatively small changes in arterial PO2 once the PO2 declines below 60 torr. Both of these mechanisms increase the propensity toward ventilatory overshoots and periodic respiration. However, several studies have failed to demonstrate differences in awake arterial PO2 between CHF patients with and without CSR or have shown an essentially normal awake arterial PO2 in these patients (115,116,126,127). Nevertheless, despite normal awake arterial PO2 levels, severe nocturnal hypoxemia may occur during sleep in association with periodic breathing. In one study, seven of ten patients demonstrated nocturnal hypoxemia with 9–59% of sleep time spent below 90% O2 saturation. Furthermore, the percentage of total sleep time spent in CSR was directly correlated with sleep time spent at less than 90% O2 saturation (115,116). However, later studies have failed to demonstrate a difference in nocturnal oxygen saturation between CHF patients with and without
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CSR (125). Thus, nocturnal hypoxia is not likely to be a critical factor in the development of CSR and may simply be a consequence of the apneic periods. Another potential mechanism leading to increased central ventilatory sensitivity is the activation of pulmonary irritant and mechanoreceptors responding to the pulmonary congestion of CHF. Although data directly supporting this mechanism in CSR are not available, minute ventilation increased in an animal model in association with abrupt elevations of pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (128). Alternatively, increased central ventilatory drive may not be acquired, but rather, may be due to preexisting increased ventilatory chemosensitivity that may be genetically determined. Such preexisting ventilatory hypersensitivity may be necessary for CSR to develop in a subgroup of CHF patients. Delayed transfer of changes in arterial blood gases to the peripheral and central chemoreceptors, such as that which may occur because of prolonged circulation time in the setting of cardiac dysfunction, may also lead to ventilatory instability by causing both ventilatory under and overshoots. This mechanism was first elucidated by Guyton (129), who prolonged circulation time in dogs by insertion of long tubes in the carotid arteries, which induced a circulatory delay of up to 5 min that resulted in the appearance of periodic breathing (129). However, most patients with CHF demonstrate a circulatory delay in the range of 25 sec or less (130). Furthermore, two studies have shown that circulatory delay is not significantly greater in CHF patients with CSR than in those without periodic breathing (125,126). For example, lung ear circulation time (LECT), measured as the time from the first breath after a central apnea to the subsequent nadir of SaO2 as determined by ear oximetry, was 20.7 ± 2.2 sec in CHF patients without CSR and 25.0 ± 1.3 sec in CHF patients with CSR, p = ns. However, CSR cycle length was correlated with LECT in this study (126). Data from these investigations, therefore, do not support the contention that circulatory delay is crucial for the development of CSR, although it may influence the degree of ventilatory instability by determining periodicbreathing cycle length. One of the mechanisms that counters some of these destabilizing influences on ventilation is the damping effect of lung and total body gas stores. Because the major site of body oxygen stores is the lung, the functional residual capacity (FRC) is a major determinant of this damping capacity. A decline in FRC, which may occur in association with pulmonary congestion and cardiac enlargement in CHF, may decrease gas stores (131) and diminish damping effects. Thus, the effect of transient changes in ventilation, such as that occurring during brief arousals or with transient imposition of ventilatory loads, is magnified. However, evidence for decreased lung volumes in the pathogenesis of CSR is lacking. FRC, measured while awake in the seated position, was within normal limits in a group of CHF patients with CSR (80 ± 17% of predicted; 115). FVC, also measured while awake and in the seated position in another study, was no different between CHF patients with and without CSR (126). It is conceivable, though, that FRC
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may decrease with assumption of the supine position or with sleep onset. Such measurements are not currently available. Another mechanism preventing apnea or hypopnea after a period of hyperventilation is the phenomenon of shortterm potentiation, or afterdischarge. This stabilizing influence ensures continued excitation of the ventilatory pump immediately after withdrawal of a hyperventilatory stimulus, thereby preventing subsequent central apneas or hypopneas. Even though mechanisms responsible for shortterm potentiation are incompletely understood, chronic hypocapnia, which may occur in CHF, may limit the efficacy this stabilizing system (124). Recent data have provided evidence suggesting that shortterm potentiation is impaired in CHF patients with CSR. In a study of 13 patients with CHF (LVEF < 50%) and a history of CSR, brief episodes of hypoxic stimulation (PETO2 of 55 torr) were administered while awake, which resulted in an increase in minute ventilation. The inspiratory gas was then abruptly changed to 100% O2. During the subsequent minute of hyperoxic gas exposure, ventilation decreased gradually to levels at or below the room air baseline. However, the rate of decline of minute ventilation during the posthypoxic hyperoxic period was significantly greater in CHFCSR patients than in agematched control subjects, suggesting decreased shortterm potentiation in these patients (132). Interestingly, the degree of hypoventilation during the hyperoxic phase was correlated with the amount of nocturnal CSR. However, because a subgroup of CHF patients without CSR was not studied, impairment of shortterm potentiation could not be directly ascribed to CHF itself. Rather, the correlation of the degree of posthypoxic hyperoxic hypoventilation with the amount of nocturnal CSR suggests that ventilatory instability observed during this awake test contributes to periodic breathing while asleep. Each of these factors may be present during sleep in the setting of congestive heart failure and may contribute to the development or perpetuation of unstable or periodic breathing. C. Potential Therapeutic Modalities Because of the potential role of hypocapnia in the development or perpetuation of periodic breathing during sleep in CHF, administration of inhaled CO2 to patients with CHF and CSR was evaluated as a therapeutic modality (133). Six patients with congestive cardiomyopathy and CSR with normal waking arterial blood gas levels (mean PCO2 36.2 ± 4.4 torr) were fitted with a mask to provide an FiCO2 of 3% during sleep. A dramatic reduction in the percentage of sleep time spent in CSR was observed, along with significant improvements in the sleep time spent at less than 90% oxygen saturation. This finding supports the importance of hyperventilation to a PCO2 level below the apneic threshold as an important cause of CSR, for the inhaled CO2 likely increased baseline arterial PCO2 further above the apneic threshold. Alternatively, ventilatory stimulation induced by 3% CO2 improved
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oxygen saturation and eliminated hypoxia, which may reduce controller gain as previously described. It is also conceivable that increased oxygen stores resulting from increased minute ventilation increased the damping capacity of the ventilatory system, which also may lead to increased stability. Unfortunately, sleep continuity worsened during the CO2 inhalation at night. This may have been related to discomfort induced by the mask delivery system. Nevertheless, these results suggest a potential role for CO2 inhalation in treatment of CSR. Because hypoxia may destabilize ventilation and promote periodic breathing, it is also reasonable to hypothesize that oxygen administration would improve CSR. In support of this, several studies have shown improvement in nocturnal CSR and sleep continuity with nocturnal oxygen administration (115,134). Although these studies either examined only portions of the night or evaluated only one night of therapy, it is reasonable to conclude that oxygen administration may be useful in CHF with CSR despite absence of daytime hypoxemia. Because arousals that interrupt sleep are a potentially destabilizing influence on ventilation, elimination of these transient changes in state might improve periodic breathing during sleep. In addition, because increased controller gain may play a role in the development of periodic breathing, blunting of ventilatory drive might also be useful in decreasing periodic breathing and CSR. Benzodiazepine hypnotics might be potentially useful here, for they generally decrease arousals and improve sleep continuity. Furthermore, benzodiazepines have depressant effects on ventilatory sensitivity to CO2. Two studies of patients with CHF and CSR who were given benzodiazepine hypnotics before bedtime demonstrated improvement in sleep continuity, arousal index, and nocturnal wake time compared with control nights (135,136). However, no significant change in the amount of sleep time spent in CSR, central apnea index, or nocturnal oxygen saturation was evident. Multiple sleep latency test scores were improved with therapy, which likely reflected effects of decreased sleep fragmentation on daytime somnolence. Nocturnal nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) therapy has reduced the respiratory disturbance index in patients with CHF and CSR (137). One mechanism by which nCPAP may have improved CSR is by the significant increase in PTCCO2 that occurred during sleep with nCPAP, which may have raised baseline CO2 levels above the apneic threshold. In conjunction with this, overall minute ventilation was reduced with nCPAP. In addition, nocturnal oxygen saturation was improved with nCPAP. Last, the arousal index during sleep was reduced with nCPAP. All of these factors could theoretically improve ventilatory stability during sleep by mechanisms outlined earlier. Interestingly, 1 month of nCPAP also resulted in an improvement in left ventricular ejection fraction. This improvement in cardiac function may have also contributed the observed improvement in CSR by improvement in hemodynamics. Thus, nCPAP appears to be a potentially useful therapeutic modality in patients with CHF with CSR.
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125. Hanly P, Zuberi N, Gray R. Pathogenesis of CheyneStokes respiration in patients with congestive heart failure. Chest 1993; 104:1079–1084. 126. Naughton M, Benard D, Tam A, Rutherford R, Bradley TD. Role of hyperventilation in the pathogenesis of sleep apneas in patients with congestive heart failure. Am Rev Resp Dis 1993; 148:330–338. 127. Wilcox I, Grunstein RR, Collins FL, BerthonJones M, Kelly T, Sullivan CE. The role of central chemosensitivity in central apnea of heart failure. Sleep 1993; 16:S37–S38. 128. Sackner MA, Krieger BP. Noninvasive respiratory monitoring. In: Scharf SM, Cassidy SS, eds. HeartLung Interactions in Health and Disease. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1991:663–805. 129. Guyton AC, Croll JW, Moore JW. Basic oscillating mechanisms of CheyneStokes breathing. Am J Physiol 1956; 187:395–398. 130. Millar TW, Hanly PJ, Hunt B, Frais M, Kryger MH. The entrainment of low frequency breathing periodicity. Chest 1990; 98:1143–1148. 131. Hudgel DW, Devadatta P. Decrease in functional residual capacity during sleep in normal humans. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57:1319–1322. 132. Ahmed M, Serrette C, Kryger MH, Anthonisen NR. Ventilatory instability in patients with congestive heart failure and nocturnal CheyneStokes breathing. Sleep 1994; 17:527–534. 133. Steens RD, Millar T, Xiaoling S, Biberdorf D, Buckle P, Ahmed M, Kryger M. Effect of inhaled 3% CO2 on CheyneStokes respiration in congestive heart failure. Sleep 1994; 17:61–68. 134. Berssenbrugge A, Dempsey J, Iber C, Skatrud J, Wilson P. Mechanisms of hypoxia induced periodic breathing during sleep. J Physiol (Lond) 1983; 343:507– 524. 135. Biberdorf DJ, Steens R, Millar TW, Kryger M. Benzodiazepines in congestive heart failure: Effects of temazepam on arousability and CheyneStokes respiration. Sleep 1993; 16:529–538. 136. Guilleminault C, Clerk A, Labanowski M, Simmons J, Stoohs R. Cardiac failure and benzodiazepines. Sleep 1993; 16:524–528. 137. Naughton M, Bernard D, Rutherford R, Bradley TD. Effect of continuous positive airway pressure on central sleep apnea and nocturnal PCO2 in heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150:1598–1604. 138. Trelease R, Marks J, Harper R. Respiratory inhibition induced by transient hypertension during anesthesia and sleep states. Exp Neurol 1985; 90:173–186. 139. Braver H, Brandes WC, Kubiet MN, Limacher MC, Mills RM, Block AJ. Effect of cardiac transplantation on CheyneStokes respiration occurring during sleep. Am J Cardiol 1995; 76:632–634.
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17 Control of Breathing in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders and in Obesity JOHN V. WEIL University of Colorado Health Sciences Center Denver, Colorado CLIFFORD W. ZWILLICH University of Colorado Health Sciences Center and Veterans Affairs Medical Center Denver, Colorado I. Introduction In this chapter, we review the extent to which altered ventilatory control contributes to abnormal ventilation in endocrine and metabolic disorders, and in obesity. In only a few endocrinemetabolic conditions have extensive studies been reported; thus, our discussion will focus mainly on thyroid disorders, diabetes, and acromegaly. We also explore the actions of sex hormones on ventilatory control in the context of gender differences, the menstrual cycle, and pregnancy. Finally, we summarize abundant work concerning ventilatory control in obesity—with and without hypoventilation. II. Thyroid Diseases Thyroid dysfunction is commonly associated with prominent altered ventilation related largely to changes in ventilatory control. As will be indicated, both hypoand hyperthyroidism represent extremes of the tight relationship of ventilatory chemosensitivity to metabolic rate.
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A. Hyperthyroidism and Thyrotoxicosis In these disorders, the common clinical manifestation is limitation of exercise by pronounced exertional dyspnea, which commonly resolves with restoration of the euthyroid state. Several abnormalities in conventional measures of lung function are found in such patients, and there is a tachypneicbreathing pattern and evidence of mild respiratory muscle weakness, possibly related to proximal thyrotoxic myopathy. However, these features are generally considered mild, are poorly correlated with dyspnea, and are thought unlikely to be major contributors to respiratory limitation (1–5). The most striking objective correlate with exertional dyspnea in such patients is exaggerated ventilation during exercise (summarized in Ref. 6). The steepened rise in ventilation with increasing exercise exceeds the increase in metabolic rate (oxygen consumption or carbon dioxide production) and is thus true hyperventilation with hypocapnia, and it is correlated with serum triiodothyronine (T3) levels (5). This excessive ventilatory response to exercise suggests a possible role for enhanced ventilatory drive. Resting chemosensitivity, measured as ventilatory responses to hypoxia and to hyperoxic hypercapnia, are increased in hyperthyroid patients (6,7; Fig. 1) and fall with restoration of the euthyroid state. Collectively, the findings point to an augmentation of both peripheral (hypoxic) and central
Figure 1 (A) Increased ventilatory responses to isocapnic hypoxia and (B) hyperoxic hypercapnia in patients with thyrotoxicosis when compared with normal subjects. (From Ref. 7.)
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Figure 2 Brief hyperoxia produces greater depression of ventilation during thyrotoxicosis than euthyroid state (upper panel). Beta blockade with propranolol decreased heart rate during thyrotoxicosis (lower panel), but failed to affect the suppression of ventilation by hyperoxia (From Ref. 60).
(hypercapnic) sensitivity at rest, which probably contributes to the hyperventilation in exercise, because both exertional dyspnea and excessive ventilation are reversed by oxygen administration in hyperthyroid patients (8,9; Fig. 2). Several lines of evidence suggest that the augmented chemosensitivity of hyperthyroidism is tightly linked to increased metabolic rate. First, in a broad array of conditions, alterations in metabolic rate are positively correlated with marked augmentation of hypoxic ventilatory response. Thus enhanced hypoxic responses are seen with increased metabolic rate in circumstances as diverse as exercise (10), hyperthermia (11), the postprandial state (12), pregnancy (13,14), salicylate administration (15), and Luft's syndrome (16). These increases in hypoxic response are variably accompanied by augmentation of hypercapnic response, but generally of lesser relative magnitude than the increases in hypoxic response. Linkage of increased ventilatory drive to metabolic rate in hyperthyroid patients is further suggested by the observation that, although several features of
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thyrotoxicosis are ameliorated by adrenergic blockade, both metabolic rate and enhanced chemosensitivity are typically unaffected (5–7). However, one study found that blockade relieved dyspnea in about onehalf of patients (1). Mechanisms by which increased metabolic rate augments chemosensitivity are unknown. However, the selective linkage to the hypoxic response suggests that metabolic rate affects peripheral chemoreception—either directly or by an effect on central processing of chemosensory traffic. When hypermetabolism is global, as in thyrotoxicosis, it could be that enhanced local chemoreceptor oxygen consumption with chemoreceptor tissue hypoxia contributes to increased chemoreceptor sensitivity. However, a similar augmentation of chemosensitivity with distant local metabolic increase in muscle, as occurs in exercise, argues against this as a general mechanism. A study in cats with increased metabolic rate produced by pregnancy showed an increased hypoxic ventilatory response that was largely attributable to increased carotid body sensitivity (17). However, pregnancy is also associated with hormonal changes, which as indicated later, influence ventilatory response and so the relevance of these findings to hyperthyroidism is uncertain. Thus, exertional dyspnea in thyrotoxicosis seems largely attributable to excessive exercise ventilation produced by increased ventilatory (mainly hypoxic) chemosensitivity linked in some fashion to increased metabolic rate. As in other instances this symptom likely reflects an adverse balance of increased ventilatory demand and reduced capacity related to mild abnormalities of lung function (5), some weakness of respiratory muscles, and an inefficient, tachpneicbreathing pattern. B. Hypothyroidism and Myxedema That abnormal ventilatory control is a feature of hypothyroidism is evident in the few patients who present with profound hypoventilation, sometimes associated with coma and hypothermia, but with no history of lung disease. In many respects hypothyroidism represents the mirror image of hyperthyroidism relative to ventilatory control and its linkage to metabolic rate. As in hyperthyroid disorders, abnormal chemosensitivity seems to be an important contributor to ventilatory features of hypothyroidism. Ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hyperoxic hypercapnia are commonly, but not invariably, depressed (18–20); an effect that is typically greater for the hypoxic response (18; Figs. 3 and 4). There may also be profound depression of the mouth occlusion pressure response to an inspiratory load (21) and exaggerated reduction of chemoresponses with inspiratory resistive loading (21). The magnitude of depression of these responses may also be greater in women. These decrements in ventilatory control are correlated with the extent of depressed thyroid function, as indicated by elevation of serum thyrotropin, but not with depression of thyroxine (T4) levels (19).
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Figure 3 Depression of ventilatory responses to hypoxia (left) and hypercapnia (right) in hypothyroid and myxedematous patients. The effect is greater in patients with fullblown myxedema, and the relative depression of hypoxic response tends to exceed that for the response to hypercapnia. (From Ref. 18.)
There appears to be a tight temporal linkage of decreased thyroid function and depressed chemosensitivity. In a study of patients rendered acutely hypothyroid by abrupt withdrawal of triiodothyronine before radionuclide scanning for followup of thyroid carcinoma, substantial reversible decrements in hypercapnic ventilatory response were evident by 15 days (22). In other reports, the hypoxic response had increased toward, or to normal levels with as little as 7 days of thyroid replacement therapy. Depression of ventilatory responses in hypothyroidism could reflect a defect in either chemosensitivity or peripheral dysfunction of the lung, respiratory muscles, or inspiratory motor pathways. Indeed lung, skeletal muscle, and neural dysfunction, all have been described in hypothyroidism (20,23,24). However, Duranti et al. (20) found that depressed ventilatory response to hypercapnia in hypothyroid women was accompanied by decreased diaphragmatic and intercostal electromyographic (EMG) responses, suggesting that the defect was upstream from the respiratory muscles—either a chemosensory deficit or respiratory motor neuropathic mechanism. The latter seems unlikely in view of the relative preservation of voluntary respiratory muscle function in such patients and the overall lack of correlation of ventilatory responses with deficits in hypercapnic diaphragmatic electromyographic (EMG) response (20). Furthermore, the rapid recovery of ventilatory chemosensory responses with thyroid replacement contrasts with the slow recovery of muscle function in hypothyroidism (20,24). Thus, the collective findings of the lack of clear correlation of decreased ventilatory responses with lung dysfunction or with myo and neuropathic aspects of these disorders, together with the rapidity of onset and resolution, points to blunted chemosensitivity as the main contributor to decreased ventilatory responsiveness and to hypoventilation in hypothyroid patients. The mechanisms of hypothyroid depression of ventilatory control remains
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Figure 4 Distribution of hypercapnic (above) and hypoxic (below) responses in hypothyroid patients and normal subjects. Hypoxic responses are more commonly and profoundly depressed than hypercapnic responses. (From Ref. 19.)
uncertain, but, as with hyperthyroid states, a linkage of chemosensitivity to metabolic rate may be a key determinant. Hypometabolic states have not been studied as often as hypermetabolic conditions, but in circumstances such as caloric restriction, decreases in metabolic rate are associated with profound depression of hypoxic ventilatory response, and both promptly reverse on refeeding (25; Fig. 5). In these studies and others the influence of metabolic rate on the hypoxic response is typically much greater than on the hypercapnic response. This differential effect resembles that seen in hyper and hypothyroidism, in which abnormalities in hypoxic response often exceed those of the response to hypercapnia. Hypothyroid
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Figure 5 Depression of ventilatory responses to hypoxia (middle) and hypercapnia (lower) in normal subjects with decreased metabolic rate induced by caloric restriction simulating that of patients with intake restricted to conventional intravenous fluids. The decrement of hypoxic response is greater than that of the response to hypercapnia. (From Ref. 25.)
patients often have sleep apnea which, as discussed later, can itself depress chemosensitivity. The potential role of these secondary effects in hypothyroid patients is unexplored. The most important clinical consequence of depression of chemosensitivity in hypothyroidism is hypoventilation, which is a variable, but occasionally a
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profound presenting feature. However, despite the finding in most patients of substantial decreases in chemosensory ventilatory responses, hypothyroid patients usually maintain normal resting ventilation with eucapnia unless another feature, such as obesity, apnea, or profound muscle weakness, is present. During sleep, the chemosensory deficit might increase the likelihood and severity of sleep apnea in such patients, and several case reports point to such an association (26–28). A study of 11 consecutive hypothyroid patients showed that obstructive apnea occurred in 9 (21), and another study found apneas in all of 10 consecutive patients (29). Apneas were more frequent and prolonged in obese patients, suggesting that these obstructive events were the result of combined decreased chemosensitivity and upper airway encroachment by obesity and myxedematous changes. The role of hypothyroidism in these apneas is indicated by their uniformly dramatic resolution with thyroid replacement. The status of neural control of upper airway musculature in hypothyroidism remains apparently unexplored. However, the association of apnea and hypothyroidism makes little contribution to the incidence of sleep apnea in the general population: hypothyroidism is found in only a small minority (2.9%) of patients with obstructive sleep apnea (30). III. Diabetes In most diabetic patients ventilatory control seems to be normal. Although profound hyperventilation, with marked hypocapnia, is common during episodes of ketoacidosis, this is presumed to be a physiological response to acidosis. In stable diabetics without neuropathy, ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia are generally comparable with those in normal subjects (31). Findings are different in rats with acute diabetes, induced by streptozocin, that exhibit depressed ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia (32), which are prevented by insulin treatment. However, these diabetic rats lost considerable body weight and had profound reductions in metabolic rate (~60% decrease in CO2 production), which may have contributed to the decreased ventilatory responses. In contrast to the preservation of ventilatory drives in patients with uncomplicated diabetes, diabetics with neuropathy have either diminished ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to hypoxia, but normal responses to hypercapnia (31), or depression of both hypoxic and hypercapnic responses (33), or no decrements in either response (34). Such patients may also develop excessive tachypnea and hyperventilation during exercise (35). Decreased subjective detection of inspiratory resistive loads has also been noted in diabetics, with the greatest decrements in those with longstanding diabetes and neuropathy (36). However, these patients also generally seem to maintain normal ventilation. Thus, on balance the evidence suggests that uncomplicated diabetes produces little or no abnormality in ventilatory control, whereas complicating neuropathy
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may impair ventilatory load detection and chemosensitivity. This latter effect might also reflect the influence of attenuated autonomic function on chemosensitivity, similar to that found in other dysautonomic disorders (37). Whether this reflects an influence on chemoreceptors or on brain stem respiratory centers is unknown. But these altered responses seem to have little clinically relevant effect on ventilation. IV. Acromegaly For some time, an association of acromegaly with sleep apnea and daytime sleepiness has been evident (summarized in Ref. 38). This was initially thought to reflect obstruction by acromegalic changes in upper airway structures, but subsequent reports indicated that much of this apnea was nonobstructive, suggesting the possibility of altered respiratory control. An early exploration of this issue indicated that four of ten patients with active acromegaly (elevated growth hormone levels) had sleep apnea that was obstructive in three of them (38). None of 11 patients with inactive acromegaly (normal growth hormone levels) had sleep apnea. Ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to hypercapnia were normal in both groups and did not correlate with growth hormone levels, suggesting the absence of an effect of hypersecretion of growth hormone on ventilatory control. However, in a more recent and larger survey, 43 of 53 consecutive patients with acromegaly had sleep apnea that was predominantly central in onethird (39). Patients with central apnea had higher levels of growth hormone and insulinlike growth factor (IGF1) than those with obstructive apnea. Subsequent work by this group found increased hypercapnic ventilatory responses in acromegalic patients with central apnea compared with patients with obstructive or no apnea (40). No differences among groups were evident for the hypoxic ventilatory response. However, for the entire group of patients, both responses were correlated with growth hormone levels and the hypercapnic response with levels of IGF1. The mechanism linking acromegaly with increased hypercapnic response is unclear. These patients do have an increased metabolic rate, which might explain the findings, but the observed selective increase in hypercapnic, but not hypoxic, response differs from the typical pattern of greater augmentation of the hypoxic response common to other hypermetabolic states. V. Sex Hormones Numerous studies of the influence of gender, menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause suggest important genderrelated hormonal modulation of ventilation and chemosensitivity.
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A. Gender Gender effects in premenopausal women include a higher ventilation (relative to metabolic rate) and lower PCO2, with lower hypoxic and hypercapnic ventilatory responses (after correction for differences in body surface area), irrespective of menstrual cycle phase (41). In men, the hypoxic response is directly correlated with resting metabolic rate (oxygen consumption), whereas in women, no such correlation is found. During sleep, women have a smaller decrement in hypoxic response (compared with wakefulness) than men, and values become similar for the genders (42). B. Menstrual Cycle. Variation in ventilation during the menstrual cycle has long been known (43,44). There is relative hyperventilation during the luteal phase, associated with elevated progesterone and estrogen levels, and augmentation of ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia (41,45; Fig. 6). This has been associated with decreased lactate generation and variable changes in exercise performance in the luteal phase (46,47). There is little information concerning the status of ventilation and ventilatory control after menopause. A single study found normal resting ventilation and PCO2 in women following surgical menopause and before hormone replacement therapy (13). Ventilatory responses to hypoxia in these 12 women were slightly lower than those found in a separate study from the same laboratory using similar methods in 10 premenopausal women, with the response parameter A averaging 77 ± 12 in the former and 127 ± 21 (luteal), 89 ± 7 (follicular) in the latter (48). Hypercapnic responses were virtually identical in pre and postmenopausal groups. C. Pregnancy Increased ventilation and dyspnea during normal pregnancy was noted by the turn of the century, with subsequent demonstration of true resting hyperventilation, disproportionate to the increase in metabolic rate associated with pregnancy, largely caused by an increase in tidal volume (summarized in Ref. 49). Exertional dyspnea is usual in pregnant women and commonly precedes development of uterine enlargement and impediment to breathing, suggesting a functional, rather than mechanical, mechanism. Ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia increase during pregnancy (14,50), despite persistent hypocapnic alkalosis, which in other settings typically depresses the hypoxic response. This increased chemosensitivity is evident by the 20th week of gestation when levels of progesterone and estradiol are elevated, but precedes a detectable increase in metabolic rate (14). Later, as metabolic rate increases, there is a further rise in the hypoxic response. Parallel increases are found for the hypercapnic
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Figure 6 Variation in ventilatory responses to hypoxia (above) and hypercapnia (below) during the menstrual cycle in normal women. Responses are increased during the luteal versus follicular phase. Both were lower than responses in men, but this difference was largely abrogated by correction for differences in body size. (From Ref. 41.)
response. Although both hypoxic and hypercapnic responses increase, exertional dyspnea is correlated with the hypoxic response and with progesterone levels, but not with hypercapnic response (14,50). The augmentation of hypoxic response in pregnancy can be replicated in nonpregnant women by administration of a combination of progesterone and estrogen, together with modest increases in metabolic rate (33%), similar to those found in pregnancy, that are induced by passive leg movement (13). There is little work to indicate the functional locus of this effect of pregnancy, but one study in pregnant cats (17) found that the augmentation of the hypoxic ventilatory response was attributable to increased sensitivity of the carotid body to hypoxia.
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D. Progesterone Progesterone is the sex hormone most extensively and closely linked to ventilatory control. This association was initially suggested by the aforementioned correlations of progesterone levels with ventilation and chemosensitivity in women during the menstrual cycle and in the course of pregnancy. Elevated progesterone levels are also implicated in the hyperventilation noted in patients with cirrhosis of the liver (51). Indeed, exogenous progestin administration mimics these increases in ventilation, chemosensitivity, and load responsiveness (13,52–55), perhaps in part by potentiating carotid body responses to hypoxia (56). Coadministration of estrogens exaggerates these ventilatory effects (13,54,57), which may be attributable to their induction of progesterone receptor expression (57). The pronounced increase in resting ventilation and chemosensitivity in pregnancy can be reproduced by combining the administration of estrogen and progestin together with a small exercise induced increase in metabolic rate (13). Studies in cats show that progestins also reduce the alcoholinduced depression of hypoglossal activity (58), which may explain the resistance to alcohol depression of genioglossus activity during the luteal phase in women (59). This effect might contribute to the resistance of premenopausal women to induction of sleepdisordered breathing by alcohol (60) and, conversely, decreased endogenous progesterone activity might contribute to the wellknown increase in sleep apnea after the menopause. These effects have led to the therapeutic use of progestins to increase ventilation in the obesity hypoventilation syndrome (61–63), and to augment ventilation and ventilatory load responses in some patients with chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD, 64,65). These agents have also been used to treat obstructive sleep apnea in obesity, but with variable success (66–68). A remarkable and wholly unexplained feature of these agents is that they raise resting ventilation and augment chemosensitivity to a strikingly greater extent in patients with the obesity hypoventilation syndrome than in normal subjects or in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Progestins, often a component of hormone replacement therapy following menopause, may improve sleep with reduced sleep disruption (68,69). The effect of hormone replacement therapy on sleepdisordered breathing is variable and improvements in sleep could be due to reduced hot flashes, rather than enhanced respiratory control. E. Testosterone The familiar observation of increased sleepdisordered breathing, especially obstructive apnea, in men raises the question of the role of androgens in ventilatory control. Indeed, testosterone replacement increases sleep apnea in hypogonadal men (70,71), and administration of an anabolic steroid has induced obstructive
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apnea in a woman (72). Conversely, testosterone deficiency is associated with reduced apnea in obese subjects (73). In part, this linkage may be mediated by anabolic effects on upper airway structure with reduced patency (72) and to a testosteroneassociated depression of neuromuscular control of upper airway patency and increased airway collapsibility (74). Whether testosterone alters ventilatory control is unclear. In one study, testosterone replacement in hypogonadal men increased the hypoxic ventilatory response, with no change in hypercapnic response, in association with increased oxygen consumption accompanied by isocapnic hyperpnea (75). In contrast, another study showed that testosterone replacement decreased the hypoxic response, with no change in the hypercapnic response (76). Reasons for this disparity are unclear. Administration of the androgenblocking agent flutamide to men with sleep apnea had no effect on hypoxic or hypercapnic responses or on sleepdisordered breathing (77). However, as discussed later, basal testosterone levels may be depressed in such subjects and thus the response to blockade might be lessened. In gonadectomized cats, administration of testosterone increased resting CO2 production and isocapnic hyperpnea with heightened hypoxic and hypercapnic ventilatory responses and parallel increase in the carotid body response to hypoxia (78). Any potential contribution of testosterone to obstructive apnea during sleep through effects on the upper airway and ventilatory control may be offset by secondary reduction of testosterone levels by disturbed sleep and sleepdisordered breathing. Several studies indicate that androgen levels are decreased by experimental sleep deprivation in humans (79–82), and sleep deprivation has been suggested as a cause of similar reductions in testosterone levels in medical housestaff (83). Testosterone levels are also reduced in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (compared with snorers) and increased following uvulopalatal resection (84). Whether these changes were due to reduction of arousal, prolongation of sleep time, or improved oxygenation is unclear. That hypoxia is a likely factor is suggested by observations that depression of testosterone levels in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or with sleep apnea is correlated with the severity of hypoxemia (85–87), and levels rise with oxygen therapy in COPD (88) and with weight reduction in obesity hypoventilation (89). VI. Obesity The clinical association of profound hypoventilation with massive obesity—most strikingly illustrated by the pickwickian syndrome (90)—has stimulated considerable investigation into the nature and mechanisms of the relation of body weight to ventilation and to ventilatory and upper airway control during both wakefulness and sleep.
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A. Simple Obesity Although hypoventilation in the absence of lung or muscle disease is often associated with obesity, the reverse is not true. In obese patients, only a small minority, perhaps as few as 10%, of those with “extreme obesity,” develop hypoventilation (91). Numerous studies of the majority of people with eucapnic obesity find that resting ventilation and inspiratory occlusion pressure are either normal or increased when compared with nonobese subjects. Similarly, ventilatory responses to hypoxic and hypercapnic stimulation (92–97) are also normal or increased (Fig. 7), and there is an augmented response to abdominal mass loading (98). In several studies, increased chemosensitivity with obesity is correlated with body mass or surface area, most evident for the hypoxic ventilatory response (92,94,96). Proportionate decreases in these responses accompany weight loss (92). This association suggests a possible role of increased total metabolic rate in the enhanced chemosensitivity of eucapnic obesity.
Figure 7 Ventilatory responses to hypoxia increase in obesity. Hypoxic responses, measured as parameter “A,” increased with increasing body weight in judo wrestlers without hypoventilation. This effect was attenuated, but persisted, after correction for body mass index. (From Ref. 96.)
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One study found that the enhancement of hypoxic hypercapnic ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses with increased body mass was substantially greater among women, with men showing a substantially weaker trend (94). Whether this difference reflects hormonal factors is unclear. A study of chemosensitivity in relation to body weight in men treated with progestional agents would be useful. B. Obesity Hypoventilation In contrast to most obese subjects who maintain normal ventilation, an intriguing minority hypoventilate—occasionally profoundly (90). An extensive series of early studies found substantial depression of the ventilatory response to hypercapnia (summarized in Ref. 99; Fig. 8) with parallel decrements in respiratory effort response (inspiratory occlusion pressure and diaphragmatic EMG; 100; Fig. 9) in obese patients with hypoventilation. Subsequent work showed that responses to hypoxia were also decreased (99,101–103), commonly to a greater extent than the hypercapnic response. These patients also exhibit decrements in compensatory responses to inspiratory loads (104) and to abdominal mass loading (98) that contrast with the preserved or heightened responses of the majority of obese patients who remain eucapnic. That obesity per se is an important contributor to hypoventilation is evident from the very existence of the obesity hypoventilation syndrome and the mechanistic linkage is further strengthened by the improved ventilation that attends
Figure 8 Depression of ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia in patients with obesity hypoventilation (broken lines) compared with normal subjects (solid lines). Depression of hypoxic responses is relatively greater than that of the hypercapnic response. (From Ref. 99.)
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Figure 9 Depression of hypercapnic response in patients with obesity hypoventilation syndrome (broken line) compared with those in patients with simple obesity (solid line). Responses measured as inspiratory occlusion pressure (above) and diaphragmatic EMG (below) are comparably reduced. (From Ref. 100.)
substantial weight loss in such patients (93,105). This is underscored by the description of a family in which six of seven members had low hypoxic ventilatory responses, but only one, who was obese, had hypoventilation and sleepdisordered breathing (106). Moreover, it has been suggested that the variable occurrence of hypoventilation in obesity might reflect the varied distribution of adiposity (thoracic and cervical vs. abdominal), rather than total body mass (107,108). However, abundant evidence indicates that impairment of ventilatory drives plays a critical role in the development of hypoventilation in obese subjects and that obesity, although necessary, is probably insufficient to account for the observed ventilatory deficiency. As mentioned, hypoventilation occurs in only a few obese subjects and is largely not correlated with the extent of obesity (summarized in Refs. 99,109), but is associated with uniformly depressed chemosensitivity. It
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also seems unlikely that obesity critically limits ventilation; given that hypoventilation is readily reversed by voluntary effort in hypoventilating obese patients without lung dysfunction (110) and improves with administration of progestins, which increase chemosensitivity (61–63). Additionally, chemosensitivity, measured as the hypercapnic response, is a strong predictor of postoperative hypoventilation in obese patients undergoing abdominal surgery, but this is not well correlated with body weight or pulmonary function (111). Obesity is also unlikely to cause the depression of ventilatory drives in hypoventilating patients because the ventilatory response to hypoxia, which is commonly depressed in such individuals, is typically resistant to experimentalloading conditions designed to simulate the mechanical impediment of obesity (summarized in Ref. 92). Also decreased ventilatory responses in these patients seem to reflect decreased effort, rather than mechanical impediment, as indicated by the concomitant reduction of diaphragmatic EMG and inspiratory occlusion pressure responses (97,98,112) and failure of these responses to improve with weight loss (101,102; Fig. 10). Furthermore, these responses are increased by progestins (61–63), nocturnal continuous airway pressure (97,113,114), and nocturnal oxygen (115,116) when body weight remains unchanged. Just as obesity alone fails to induce hypoventilation, very low levels of chemosensitivity in otherwise normal subjects are also typically unassociated with hypoventilation (105,117–119) and seem insufficient by themselves to account for obesityassociated hypoventilation. Thus, it is likely that it is the combination
Figure 10 Ventilatory responses to hypoxia in a patient with obesity hypoventilation: before (filled circles) and after (open circles) substantial weight reduction (55 kg). Responses were depressed compared with those of subjects with simple obesity (solid line) and were only slightly increased with weight reduction. (From Ref. 102.)
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of low chemosensitivity and respiratory impediment that is responsible for decreased ventilation, as has been implicated in the hypoventilation in patients with neuromuscular disease or airways obstruction. The origin of decreased ventilatory drives in patients with obesity hypoventilation remains uncertain, but several possibilities have been suggested, including both intrinsic genetic and acquired mechanisms. A central nervous system (CNS) lesion or defect could be responsible for the development of both obesity and diminished chemosensitivity in obese hypoventilating patients, but none has been described. A more likely explanation is that antecedent, independent occurrence of low chemosensitivity, perhaps genetically directed, combined with subsequent obesity, leads to hypoventilation. Analogous mechanisms have been proposed to explain hypoventilation in patients with neuromuscular disease, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (see Chaps. 12 and 15). Indeed, the small minority of obese patients who develop hypoventilation is comparable with the proportion of the normal population with very low hypoxic responses (120). This idea is also consistent with the finding, mentioned earlier, that chemoresponses remain low after weight reduction in obese hypoventilating patients. As reviewed elsewhere (see Chap. 17) there is evidence that chemosensitivity is under strong genetic control in the general population, and the relevance of this to hypoventilation in obesity is underscored by the familial aggregation of obesity hypoventilation (121) and of obstructive sleep apnea (122–124). Although much of this clustering might reflect familial or genetic influences on upper airway morphology, a role for genetically directed attenuated chemosensitivity is suggested by the observation that in families with two or more individuals with sleepdisordered breathing, unaffected members have substantially lower (~60%) hypoxic ventilatory responses than controls from unaffected families (125). Thus, it may be that hypoventilation in obesity reflects random coincidence of two entirely separate contributors: obesity and low chemosensitivity. However, mutant mice, rendered obese by the homozygous ob/ob genotype, have depressed hypercapnic ventilatory responses compared with heterozygotes or wildtype animals (126). This difference preceded the development of obesity, suggesting potential genetic linkage of obesity and altered ventilatory control. There is also evidence in support of an acquired, reversible contribution to depressed ventilatory control in patients with obesity hypoventilation, especially in those with sleep apnea and hypoxemia. Early studies showed impressive augmentation of the hypercapnic ventilatory response after tracheotomy in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (127). Later work showed that in patients with daytime hypercapnia application of nocturnal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) during two nights of sleep increased daytime ventilation with an upward and leftward shift of the hypercapnic ventilatory response, but without change in slope (113). A more recent study showed that in hypoventilating obese patients with sleep apnea, 2 weeks of CPAP normalized daytime ventilation and produced
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marked augmentation, with virtual normalization of depressed ventilatory and occlusion pressure responses to both hypercapnia and hypoxia (97). Another report found normalization of depressed responses to inspiratory loads with 4 weeks of CPAP (104). Collectively, the evidence suggests that some aspect of abnormal sleep or disordered breathing can induce a reversible impairment of ventilatory control, thereby contributing to daytime hypoventilation. The precise factors and mechanisms of this effect are unknown, but some possibilities include sleep deprivation or disruption and hypoxemia. Clinical impressions that sleep deprivation often precedes hypoventilation in patients with severe COPD and that daytime ventilation is improved following better sleep with ventilatory support led to studies that demonstrated in normal subjects that a single night of sleep deprivation produced substantial decrements in ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia (128–130), although load compensation is preserved (130). Whether sleep fragmentation has a similar effect is unclear; a study in dogs found no changes in ventilatory responses (131). Hypoxemia might also contribute to the blunted chemosensitivity of obesity hypoventilation. Longterm hypoxia of high altitude leads to loss of hypoxic and, to lesser extent, of hypercapnic ventilatory responses (summarized in Refs. 132,133). Acute hypoxia, when sustained beyond a few minutes, produces a decline in ventilation to a lower plateau from early peak values attained in the first few minutes—variously termed hypoxic depression or rolloff (134). That these or other effects of hypoxemia might contribute to reduced chemosensitivity in obese, hypoventilating patients is suggested by observations that supplemental nocturnal oxygen administration in patients with primary alveolar hypoventilation improves sleep architecture, reduces sleep apnea and desaturation, and increases ventilation (114– 116). However, sleep duration and architecture, and hypoxemia are so tightly intertwined that none of these studies provide a clear insight into their separate contributions to the disordered ventilatory drive of obesity hypoventilation. VII. Summary Thus, in these disorders, the clinical influence of altered ventilatory control is greatest in thyroid disorders, for which a direct, reversible linkage of altered endocrine function, chemosensitivity, and ventilation is clearly evident. The collective evidence suggests that this may reflect a linkage of chemosensitivity to the metabolic rate. Patients with diabetes have generally no alteration in ventilatory control, and that which has been found may be linked to neuropathy. In acromegaly, growth hormone and insulinlike growth factor1, may augment the ventilatory response to hypercapnia.
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Sex hormones have clear effects on ventilation and chemosensitivity—most prominent with progestinestrogen combinations. This may explain much of the alteration in ventilatory control seen among genders, during the menstrual cycle, and in pregnancy. Androgenic agents have a smaller, variable effect on ventilatory control. In obesity, ventilatory control (chemosensitivity and load response) is generally enhanced, perhaps by increased total metabolic rate. Important exceptions are patients with obesity hypoventilation in whom ventilatory drives are attenuated, likely by combined antecedent and acquired factors, which together with the respiratory impediment of obesity may largely account for hypoventilation. Two dominant basic themes are collectively suggested. The major, but poorly understood, linkage of ventilatory drives to metabolic rate is broadly apparent in these diverse disorders. It is also evident that depressed ventilatory drives are in themselves generally insufficient to produce the hypoventilation that most commonly develops when deficient drives are combined with mechanical impediment. References 1. Tan WC, Cheah JS. The role of sympathomimetic amines in the dyspnoea of thyrotoxicosis. Ann Acad Med Singapore 1983; 12:462–465. 2. Guleria R, Goswami R, Shah P, Pande JN, Kochupillai N. Dyspnoea, lung function and respiratory muscle pressures in patients with Graves' disease. Indian J Med Res 1996; 104:299–303. 3. Mier A, Brophy C, Wass JA, Besser GM, Green M. Reversible respiratory muscle weakness in hyperthyroidism. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 139:529–533. 4. Kendrick AH, O'Reilly JF, Laszlo G. Lung function and exercise performance in hyperthyroidism before and after treatment. Q J Med 1988; 68:615–627. 5. Small D, Gibbons W, Levy RD, de Lucas P, Gregory W, Cosio MG. Exertional dyspnea and ventilation in hyperthyroidism. Chest 1992; 101:1268–1273. 6. Stockley RA, Bishop JM. Effect of thyrotoxicosis on the reflex hypoxic respiratory drive. Clin Sci Mol Med 1977; 53:93–100. 7. Zwillich CW, Matthay M, Potts DE, Adler R, Hofeldt F, Weil JV. Thyrotoxicosis: comparison of effects of thyroid ablation and betaadrenergic blockade on metabolic rate and ventilatory control. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1978; 46:491–500. 8. Stein M, Kimbel P, Johnson RLJ. Pulmonary function in hyperthyroidism. J Clin Invest 1961; 40:348–363. 9. Massey DG, Becklake MR, McKenzie JM, Bates DV. Circulatory and ventilatory response to exercise in thyrotoxicosis. N Eng J Med 1967; 276:1104–1112. 10. Weil JV, ByrneQuinn E, Sodal IE, Kline JS, McCullough RE, Filley GF. Augmentation of chemosensitivity during mild exercise in normal man. J Appl Physiol 1972; 33:813–819. 11. Natalino MR, Zwillich CW, Weil JV. Effects of hyperthermia on hypoxic ventilatory response in normal man. J Lab Clin Med 1977; 89:564–572.
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18 Control of Breathing Following Lung Transplantation in Humans MARK HEIMS SANDERS University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Pittsburgh Veterans Affairs Health Care System Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania I. Introduction. The upper airways, lower airways, and lung parenchyma are richly supplied with neural receptors and pathways to the central nervous system (CNS; 1,2). Although the nature and the density of these receptors are known to vary with anatomical location, the degree to which they contribute to maintaining homeostasis in humans is uncertain. Lung transplantation initially, and presumably over the long term, interrupts afferent traffic from receptors located distal to the surgical anastomosis. Although it is clear that this perturbation does not preclude survival with a good quality of life (3,4), the complete spectrum of physiological consequences resulting from human lung transplantation has not been defined with confidence. By evaluating the physiological changes associated with lung transplantation in humans, the contribution of lung and lower airway receptors to the regulation of breathing may be clarified. This issue is of clinical as well as scientific interest in view of the increasing frequency with which lung transplantation procedures, including heartlung, bilateral, and singlelung, as well as isolated lobar transplantation, are being applied in patient care. Unfortunately, there is no available information on the effect of single and isolated lobar transplantation on the control of breathing.
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The following discussion will be directed toward the consequences of human bilateral lung transplantation (BLT) and heartlung transplantation (HLT) on those physiological characteristics that have been most completely evaluated in this context: lung volumerelated reflexes, the regulation of breathing pattern, ventilatory chemosensitivity, respiratory sensations, as well as the effect on breathholding and the physiological response to exercise. II. Are the Lungs and Lower Airways Truly Denervated Following Lung Transplantation? It is intuitively obvious that the pathways between the CNS and the lungs and lower airways (below the surgical anastomosis) are severed during the transplantation procedure. Whether or not there is afferent reinnervation of the transplanted lungs, as may at least partially occur in the transplanted heart (5,6), is less clear. The duration that the lungs and lower airways remain denervated is an important consideration in interpreting the results of studies addressing the effect of lung transplantation (LT). Studies of transplant recipients with undetected lunglower airway reinnervation could lead to underestimation of the physiological contribution of pulmonary afferent input to the regulation of breathing. In addition, if reinnervation does occur, alternative explanations must be sought for physiological changes observed in LT recipients. The results of several investigations performed in animals suggest that afferent reinnervation of the lungslower airways does occur. In a canine model that used sequential singlelung autotransplantations, Mattila and coworkers detected an inflation reflex (HeringBreuer reflex), which although less pronounced than in the normal control group, was nonetheless observed as early as 5 months following autotransplantation of the second lung (7). Also in a canine model, Clifford et al. (8) reported stretch receptor reinnervation 2 years following vagal nerve transection. A. Assessment of Cough as a Reflection of Lower Airway Innervation Following Lung Transplantation There are as yet no investigations that specifically identify lung afferent reinnervation in human LT recipients. Insight may be obtained from reports that describe absence of cough in response to stimulation of the airway below the surgical anastomosis during fiberoptic bronchoscopy up to 47 months following transplantation. This provides supporting evidence for persistent deafferentation (9–14), although the degree to which topical anesthesia reached the airway below the anastomosis and influenced the observations is uncertain (15). In an investigation designed specifically to test the integrity of the cough reflex, most likely mediated by rapidly adapting receptors (16) following LT, Higenbottam and coworkers (15) observed a significantly diminished cough response to ultrasonically nebulized
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Figure 1 Frequency of cough following inhalation of ultrasonic nebulized distilled water in heartlung transplant recipients and normal control subjects. (From Ref. 78.)
lized distilled water for up to 3 years after HLT (Fig. 1). This suggests that reinnervation of the airway below the surgical anastomosis had not occurred. B. Assessing the Presence of a Lung Inflation Reflex as a Reflection of LungLower Airway Innervation Following Lung Transplantation Perhaps more compelling evidence for persistent lung denervation following human LT has been provided by Iber and coworkers (9). In light of knowledge that a lung inflation reflex is demonstrable in sleeping human subjects (17–19), Iber et al. recently reported persistently absent expiratory prolongation following passive lung inflation during sleep in BLT recipients for a period of 49 months after surgery (9). Similarly, another study documented absence of the HeringBreuer inflation reflex for up to 34 months following LT (10). In summary, the existing data suggest that the lungs and lower airways remain denervated for a measurably extended time following HLT and BLT in humans. Admittedly, however, the methods that have been used to test for reinnervation may not be optimally sensitive to detect partial reinnervation. The critical reader should always consider the possibility that, to one degree or another, reinnervation may be present and mitigate the apparent physiological effect of human LT.
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III. Effect of Lung Transplantation on the Defense of Ventilation with Changing Resting Lung Volume Although in comparison with most animal species, the HeringBreuer inflation reflex is weak in humans (20), nonetheless it is measurable during wakefulness and sleep (9,17–19). Activation of this reflex is thought to be due to stimulation of vagally mediated intrapulmonary stretch receptors, although until recently, a contribution from chest wall or upper airway receptors could not be excluded. Iber et al. (9) recently reported that the threshold for HeringBreuer inflation reflex activation (defined by expiratory prolongation) was 40–60% of inspiratory capacity in normal subjects during benzodiazepineinduced sleep, but the reflex was absent in similarly sleeping BLT recipients for up to 49 months following surgery (Fig. 2). This observation excludes chest wall and upper airway afferent input from a primary operational role in mediating this reflex because these pathways are expected to remain intact following transplantation. Small but measurable alterations in lung volume occur when shifting from the supine to upright body position (21). Despite increases in lung volume and the consequent mechanical disadvantage imposed on the diaphragm on assuming the upright position, tidal volume (VT ) is maintained, as is mean inspiratory flow (tidal volume/inspiratory time: VT /TI). This suggests augmentation of central neural ventilatory activity. The contribution of lunglower airway afferent information and subserved reflexes to the homeostatic mechanism(s) preserving ventilatory integrity during postural changes has been assessed (22). The responses of HLT recipients were compared with those of normal control subjects relative to changes in VT and VT /TI associated with shifting from the supine to seated or standing postures. Under these experimental conditions, the investigators observed stability of VT and VT /TI in both HLT and control groups during changes from the supine to a seated position. If anything, shifting to the upright posture tended to be associated with an increased VT /TI in the HLT recipients. Postural shifts had no significant influence on breathing frequency (FB), minute ventilation or “duty cycle” (TI/total cycle time: TI/TTOT) in either group. Similar observations were made on a limited number of HLT recipients following inhalation of a topical anesthetic. These data suggest that afferent information from the lungs and lower airways is not required to generate the compensatory adjustments for mechanical alterations accompanying changing body position. The HeringBreuer inflation reflex would not necessarily be expected to contribute to these compensatory adjustments in neurally intact humans inasmuch as the threshold for activating this reflex ranges from 1 to 2 L more than functional residual capacity (FRC; 9,17,18,20). However, the relative stability (or at least no decrement) of VT /TI, despite changing mechanical advantages of the inspiratory muscles, suggests that pulmonary afferent input other than that associated with the
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Figure 2 Presence and absence of expiratory prolongation with lung inflation during benzodiazepineinduced sleep in (a) normal subjects and (b) heartlung transplant recipients. (From Ref. 9.)
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HeringBreuer inflation reflex does not contribute to the defense of ventilation during postural changes. IV. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Breathing During Wakefulness and Sleep After a vagal nerve transection or bilateral lung transplantation in animals, FB is reduced and VT is increased (23). In addition, vagal blockade results in greater irregularity in the timing of breathing in awake dogs (24) and in prolonged apnea with oxyhemoglobin desaturation in sleeping dogs (25). The effect of HLT and BLT on resting breathing in humans, however, is subtle at best. A. Effect of Lung Transplantation on Breathing During Wakefulness and Sleep in Patients with Normal Pulmonary Function and in Patients with a Restrictive Pulmonary Pattern Shea and coworkers examined the breathing pattern of eight HLT recipients and compared the results with those observed in heart transplant recipients as well as in normal control subjects (26). Of the seven HLT recipients for whom pulmonary function data were available, all but one had normal total lung capacity, and all but another two patients had a normal forced expiratory volume after 1 sec (FEV1). These investigators observed no difference in ventilation, VT , FB, TI, and expiratory time (TE) among HLT recipients, heart transplant recipients, and normal control subjects across wakefulness, sleep stages II and IV, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. In addition, there were no differences across the study populations in the variability of these parameters over time. Furthermore, no difference in breathing pattern or timing was observed within each study group across wakefulness and the stages of sleep, as has been previously reported in some studies of normal subjects (27,28). Several studies have reported increased FB during wakefulness in LT recipients. Sanders et al. (13) compared the restingbreathing pattern of awake HLT recipients, many of whom had a restrictive spirometric pattern, with a normal control population. Inspiratory time was significantly shorter and FB tended to be higher in the HLT recipients compared with control subjects (Fig. 3). Similarly, Simon et al. (10) noted a higher FB and “slightly lower” VT during resting, awake breathing in a mixed population consisting of lungdenervated patients with normal and restricted pulmonary function, compared with normal control subjects. A reduction of TI during resting breathing was also observed in a mixed population of HLT recipients consisting of individuals with a normal and those with reduced vital capacity (22). The changes in ventilation and breathing pattern during wakefulness and
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Figure 3 Restingbreathing pattern in heartlung transplant recipients and normal control subjects. (From Ref. 13.)
sleep was studied in a population of seven HLT recipients (29), but in contrast with an earlier study (26), four of the recipients had a restrictive spirometric pattern (forced vital capacity, FVC < 75% of predicted values), and the FVC was less than 50% of predicted values in three individuals. The data from the HLT recipients were compared with that obtained from normal control subjects. Although there was the increased variability TI and TE during stage I and REM sleep relative to stages II, III, and IV, there was no difference between the transplant recipients and control subjects. Unlike other observations (26), however, there were differences in ventilatory timing between the two study groups. Across wakefulness and all stages of sleep, the HLT recipients tended to have a higher FB (lower TTOT) than the normal control subjects (p = 0.052). The reduced TTOT was due to a shortened TI that, in conjunction with a normal TE, resulted in a significantly lower TI/TTOT in the HLT population (p < 0.005). In view of the foregoing studies, it is attractive to postulate that the reduced TI and perhaps greater FB observed in the some populations of transplant recipients (10,13,22) is primarily related to the presence of underlying pulmonary restriction in some of the study subjects, and is not the result of lunglower airway deafferentation, per se. In support of this posit, Sanders et al. (29) observed that those HLT recipients with a restricted spirometric pattern had a higher FB during wakefulness and sleep, compared with those recipients without a restrictive pattern. Some caution should be exercised in interpreting these data because of the small sample size and because there was no specific comparison of oxyhemoglobin saturation during wakefulness and sleep across the restricted and
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nonrestricted HLT recipients (see later discussion). If the degree of sleepassociated desaturation was greater in the HLT recipients, it may have directly influenced the breathing patterns. Although not specifically examined, however, this is not likely to have been true. The entire HLT group did not differ from normal control subjects in awake oxyhemoglobin saturation, the frequency of desaturation events, or the nadir of desaturation during sleep; yet, the transplant recipients had a higher FB. In another study, a group of awake HLT recipients with pulmonary restriction had a significantly greater FB compared with both HLT recipients and normal control subjects who had normal pulmonary function tests (12). These data imply that afferent input from lunglower airway receptors are not essential elements in the pathogenesis of the tachypnea associated with pulmonary restriction. Studies of breathing patterns during wakefulness and sleep following LT have provided intriguing insights, particularly into the mechanism of tachypnea in the presence of restrictive pulmonary parenchymal disease. Information obtained from these studies suggests that vagal afferent information alone, if at all, may not mediate the alteredbreathing pattern that characterizes restrictive pulmonary parenchymal diseases. The question of whether or not the tachypnea associated with interstitial lung disease in humans is dependent on cortical perception or another, yet to be defined, mechanism, remains unresolved. B. Effect of Lung Transplantation on Resting Breathing in the Presence of Lower Airway Obstruction The effect of pulmonary vagal afferent input on breathing pattern in patients with obstructive lung disease is also of interest, particularly in view of the prevalence of this problem in the LT population (30). While evaluating the influence of HLT on the exercise response of patients with obstructive lung disease, Sciurba et al. (31) compared the restingbreathing pattern in HLT recipients with and without obstructive lung disease associated with obliterative bronchiolitis (FEV1/FVC: 0.56 ± 0.09, mean ± SD). There were no significant differences between the obstructed and nonobstructed HLT recipients for TI, TE, TTOT, TI/TTOT, or VT . Unfortunately, the investigators did not obtain a suitably matched control group of neurally intact patients with obstructive lung disease. The similarity of restingbreathing pattern parameters in obstructed and nonobstructed LT recipients is consistent with the possibility that alterations in restingbreathing patterns that are associated with obstructive lung disease in neurally intact patients are at least partly attributable to vagally mediated receptors in the lungs and lower airways (32,33). Fennerty and coworkers examined the effect of an inhaled topical anesthetic on breathing pattern in hypercapnic patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary
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disease (COPD; 34). These investigators observed prolongation of TE and no alteration of TI, with consequent reduction in resting FB and an increased VT , following inhaled topical anesthesia, compared with a placebo control. These investigators concluded that although airway receptors may influence the breathing pattern in patients with COPD, they are not responsible for the decreased TI that is usually observed in these patients. The potential influence of inhaled anesthesia on upper airway receptors and alteration of higher cortical influences resulting from the effects of pharyngeal anesthesia on deglutition in the patients, must be considered when interpreting these data. C. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on SleepDisordered Breathing Unlike the canine model of lung denervation (25), loss of lunglower airway afferent input in humans does not appear to precipitate notable sleepdisordered breathing in the form of apneas, hypopneas, or oxyhemoglobin desaturation (26,29). Several studies have also observed no difference in the variability of breathing pattern in the HLT recipients compared with heart transplant recipients or normal control subjects (26,29). In summary, human LT, with attendant loss of afferent information from the lungs and lower airways, probably does not alter the restingbreathing pattern, in the presence of normal pulmonary function or pulmonary parenchymal restriction. Therefore, it may be inferred that afferent information from these locations is probably not a primary determinant of restingbreathing pattern in humans. Additionally, information from studies of human LT recipients strongly suggests that the tachypnea associated with restrictive pulmonary parenchymal disease is not dependent on afferent input from receptors in the lungs and lower airways. V. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Ventilatory Chemoresponsiveness Three decades ago, Guz and coworkers described the effect of local bilateral vagal and glossopharyngeal blockade on the breathing response to hypercapnia in otherwise normal persons (35,36). Although this intervention did not alter the restingbreathing pattern, there was blunting of the ventilatory response to carbon dioxide compared with the control condition (35,37). The attenuated ventilatory response to hypercapnia was due to reduced augmentation of FB. Guz and co workers suggested that the altered hypercapnic ventilatory response was related to blockade of vagally mediated pulmonary afferent information. Potentially confounding methodological factors to be considered in interpreting the results include loss of ability to swallow and speak, as well as acute systemic arterial
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hypertension (38) associated with local anesthesia of cranial nerves IX and X. To circumvent these complicating elements, clinically stable LT recipients have been studied to gain insight into the contribution of lung and lower airway afferent information to human ventilatory chemosensitivity. A. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Hypercapnic Ventilatory Responsiveness. Sanders et al. (13) examined the overall ventilatory responses and the changes in breathing pattern during progressive hyperoxic hypercapnia in nine HLT recipients and compared the results with those obtained from normal subjects. Although neither age nor gender differed between the transplant recipients and the normal control subjects, twothirds of the transplant recipients had a restrictive spirometric pattern. The overall ventilatory response to progressive hyperoxic hypercapnia was significantly lower in the transplant recipients than in the control subjects. This reduction was explained by a blunted augmentation of FB in the transplant recipients compared with the control subjects (0.2 ± 0.09 vs. 0.65 ± 0.13 breaths per minute per mmHg CO2, mean ± SE, p < 0.01). No differences were noted between the two study groups in VT or VT /TI during progressive hypercapnia (Fig. 4). It is unlikely that the diminished ventilatory response was related to ventilatory muscle weakness, or to limitations associated with the decreased vital capacity recorded in some HLT recipients, because the maximal level of ventilation achieved during progressive hypercapnia was significantly lower than the maximal voluntary ventilation (p < 0.01). Similarly, it is difficult to explain the blunted FB by the presence of pulmonary restriction, for neurally intact patients with interstitial fibrosis have an increased FB with a preservation of the overall ventilatory response to hypercapnia (39,40). It is plausible that loss of lunglower airway afferent input interferes with normal or compensatory augmentation of FB during hypercapnia, which in the context of the mechanical limitations of pulmonary restriction, limits overall ventilatory responsiveness. Duncan et al. (41) examined hypercapnic ventilatory responsiveness in HLT recipients and compared the results with those obtained from heart transplant recipients as well as intact control subjects. Although all study participants had normal pulmonary function, the HLT recipients had a lower FVC than the normal control subjects. The FVC of the heart transplant recipients was intermediate between the other two groups. In contrast to the results of Sanders et al. (13), these investigators observed no difference in the overall ventilatory response to progressive hypercapnia across the three study groups. However, in accord with the observations of Sanders et al., Duncan and coworkers observed a “consistent trend” for a blunted FB response to progressive hypercapnia. They also observed an increased VT /FVC ratio in the male HLT recipients, in comparison with the male heart transplant recipients and normal control subjects; hence, the overall
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Figure 4 Responses of normal subjects and heartlung transplant recipients to progressive hyperoxic hypercapnia (mean ± SE). (From Ref. 13.)
ventilatory response to carbon dioxide was preserved (Fig. 5). Subsequently, Duncan et al. (12) confirmed that, in the presence of restrictive pulmonary mechanics, overall ventilatory responsiveness to carbon dioxide is blunted relative to the responses of HLT recipients and intact control subjects with normal pulmonary function owing to truncation of VT augmentation without an expected concomitant increase in FB. The work of other investigators has also demonstrated an altered breathing pattern response to carbon dioxide following lung transplantation: Although Mattila et al. (42) observed that LT recipients had no augmentation of FB during hypercapnic breathing, compared with normal control subjects, there were, however, comparable changes in minute ventilation owing to a significantly greater increase in VT in the LT recipients. Data on pulmonary mechanics as a function of predicted values were not reported. The lack of change in FB during hypercapnic breathing in LT recipients, relative to the observations in normal control subjects, is perhaps more noteworthy because there was a greater experimentally induced arterial carbon dioxide tension in the former than in the latter study group. To explore the possible contribution of lung volumemediated reflexes, and the loss of the pathways responsible for these reflexes on breathing pattern in
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Figure 5 Pattern of breathing during progressive hypercapnia in normal subjects (open circles), heartlung transplant recipients (closed circles), and heart transplant recipients (open squares). (From Ref. 41.)
humans, Kagawa and coworkers (43) compared the relation between tidal volume and inspiratory time during carbon dioxidestimulated breathing in HLT recipients and normal control subjects. Despite presumed lunglower airways deafferentation, the HLT recipients exhibited shortening of inspiratory time (region II), which was initiated at similar tidal volumes in HLT recipients with normal pulmonary function, recipients with pulmonary restriction, and control subjects. Additionally, the slope of the relation describing the shortening of TI, relative to increasing VT , was similar in the HLT recipients with normal pulmonary function to that in the control group. These data were interpreted to reflect the lack of contribution of vagally mediated pulmonary afferent information to shortening of TI during hypercapnic breathing in humans. In addition, these investigators observed that the transition from region I (constant TI despite increasing VT ) to region II (where TI shortens with increasing VT ) occurred at the same VT in HLT recipients with normal pulmonary function, HLT recipients with pulmonary restriction, and control subjects. This similarity suggested the presence of an extrapulmonary mechanism responsible for shortening of TI during hypercapnic ventilatory stimulation in humans. Unfortunately, the presence or absence of the HeringBreuer inflation reflex was not specifically addressed in the study population, and it is not possible to exclude reinnervation or, more intriguing, a dissociation between this reflex and the TI/VT relation during hypercapnic breathing. B. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Hypoxic Ventilatory Responsiveness In contrast to the data on hypercapnic ventilatory responsiveness, there is considerably less available information addressing hypoxic ventilatory responsiveness
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following LT. In the same study population in which progressive hyperoxic hypercapnia elicited a relatively blunted FB and ventilatory response in HLT recipients compared with normal control subjects, Sanders et al. (13) observed no differences in the response to progressive isocapnic hypoxia between the two study groups. Specifically, there was no difference in the ventilatory, VT , FB, or VT /TI responses during progressive isocapnic hypoxia. Subsequently, Simon et al. (10) reported a qualitatively similar response to progressive, stepwise decrements in oxyhemoglobin saturation (under normocapnic conditions) in normal control and lungdenervated subjects (with minimal or no pulmonary restriction). Although no statistical comparison was presented, both groups in the latter investigation exhibited an approximate twofold augmentation of minute ventilation when oxyhemoglobin saturation was decreased to 80%, and both groups were noted to have similar increases in VT and FB . It is perhaps not surprising that human LT has not been uniformly associated with alterations of the VT response to chemostimulation. In general, the inflation reflex is weak in humans (17,18,20), and the phasic changes in lung volume during chemostimulation may not have been sufficient to reach the necessary threshold required to elicit reflex activity. It does appear, however, that the FB response to hypercapnia is blunted following LT, and this may impair overall ventilatory responsiveness, at least in the presence of pulmonary restriction (12,13,35,37,41,42). It is of interest to consider the possible implications associated with such an influence of LT on the breathing responses to hypercapnia but not hypoxia. Conceivably, disruption of afferent pathways from pulmonary receptors that are modified by, or sensitive to, carbon dioxide explains this difference. The presence of such receptors has been suggested in mammals (2,44–53). From their observations in dogs, Schertel and co workers (47) suggested that the FB response during hypercapnia is due to carbon dioxide inhibition of slowly adapting receptors, which shortens TE. Perhaps following lung deafferentation, there is blunting of the inhibitory influence of these receptors. On the other hand, reports by Trenchard et al. (51,54), and Delpierre et al. (55) suggest that in mammalian models nonmyelinated, or C fiber activity is enhanced during exposure to carbon dioxide, with consequent augmentation of FB. Thus, loss of pulmonary receptor input following LT in humans could explain the tendency for attenuation of FB augmentation during hypercapnic exposure. In summary, there is evidence that LT is associated with a blunted FB response to hypercapnia, but in the absence of pulmonary restriction, this does not have a limiting effect on the overall ventilatory response. Even if pulmonary receptors contribute to breathing pattern response to hypercapnia in normal individuals, the absence of more uniformly substantial changes following LT, particularly in individuals with normal lung function, suggests the presence of other more dominant physiological determinants.
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VI. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Perception of Breathing and BreathHolding Mechanically ventilated, paralyzed individuals retain the ability to perceive changes in lung volume (56). Furthermore, paralyzed patients as well as experimentally paralyzed subjects perceive discomfort during hypercapnia and breathholding (57–59). These observations suggest that chest wall receptors alone (if at all) do not mediate the perception of breathing. Along these lines, Guz et al. reported (35) that vagal and glossopharyngeal nerve blockade, using locally injected anesthetic in a normal subject, failed to influence the sensation of resting breathing, although it did alter the sensation associated with hypercapnic breathing. Bilateral vagal and glossopharyngeal blockade has also been reported to prolong breathholding time and to reduce the associated sensation of “distress” in normal subjects, but does not have an influence on the sensation of resting breathing (36). It is possible, however, that these results were influenced by the fact that the subjects were informed physiologists. Similar blockade has been reported to have a variable effect on the sensation of dyspnea and breathholding time in patients with various types of pulmonary disorders (60). Until the advent of successful LT, it has not been possible to evaluate the role of lung and lower airway receptors in mediating the perception of lung volume changes, breathlessness, and breathholding in humans without the potentially confounding influences associated with local blockade of cranial nerves IX and X, as described in the foregoing. A. Effect of Lung Transplantation on the Ability to Reproduce and Double Lung Volume Pfeiffer et al. compared the ability of normal subjects and LT recipients to reproduce as well as double inspired lung volumes (61). By employing a method modified from Wolkove et al. (62), study participants attempted to reproduce resting VT and as well as reproduce an inspired volume equivalent to more than 50% inspiratory capacity (>50% IC). The ability to double VT on command (DVT ) was also compared. There were no differences between the normal control and LT groups in their ability to reproduce either VT , or more than 50% IC (p = 0.88 and 0.1, respectively). However, there was a difference between the two groups in their ability to spontaneously double VT . The average percentage difference between actual and target volume was +8.9% for normal control subjects and 6.4% for the LT recipients (p = 0.02). Although the ability to double lung volumes was statistically different in the two groups, the physiological significance of this observation is unclear because Wolkove et al. observed that the results of lungvolumedoubling efforts among normal subjects varied by approximately 20% (62). This confounds interpretation of the betweengroup
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difference observed by Pfeiffer et al. because the ability of LT recipients to double inspired volumes falls within the range of variation reported by Wolkove and colleagues in normal subjects. That the normal control population described by Pfeiffer et al. overestimated the doubled volume and the LT group underestimated the doubled volume may be more a factor of the restrictive pattern of pulmonary function in the latter population, in whom the normal VT reflected a higher proportion of total inspiratory capacity than the VT of the control subjects. B. Effect of Lung Transplantation on the Sensation of BreathHolding and Breathlessness The physiological mechanisms responsible for what is variously termed “dyspnea,” “air hunger,” “breathlessness,” and the “urge to breathe” is not well defined. Studies demonstrating air hunger in quadriplegic patients with high cervical lesions and pharmacologically paralyzed subjects during hypercapnic breathing, suggest that chest wall afferent input is not an essential contributor to this sensation, at least in the context of this particular chemostimulation (57–59,63). Several recent studies have examined the effect of LT on breathholding time and the perception of air hunger during hypercapnia. Ninane and Estenne (64) observed that HLT recipients and normal control subjects had comparable breathholding times at 20 and 80% of vital capacity. In both study groups, the breathholding time at the lower lung volume was shorter than at the higher lung volume, and both groups reported that breathholding was easier at the higher than the lower lung volume. Anesthesia of the upper airway did not alter these results. Subsequently, Harty et al. (65) reported that, at comparable levels of ventilation and hypercapnia, there were similar degrees of the urge to breathe in HLT recipients and normal control subjects. Furthermore, despite the presumed absence of lunglower airway afferent input, the urge to breathe in the HLT recipients during hypercapnic breathing was relieved by increased VT , although to a somewhat lesser degree than in normal control subjects. Relief of discomfort during breathholding was reported within comparable intervals after resumption of breathing in both study groups. These observations suggest that amelioration of the hypercapniainduced urge to breathe by changing lung volume is not mediated by lunglower airway afferent input. In addition, relief from the urge to breathe that accompanies taking a breath following a breathhold is not mediated by these receptors. Conceivably, however, receptors in the retained native trachea may have contributed to the negative results. In contrast to the results of Harty et al., Flume and coworkers (66) recently reported that LT recipients obtained less rapid and quantitatively less relief of breath holdingassociated air hunger with rebreathing a variety of combinations of carbon dioxide and oxygen than did heart transplant recipients and normal persons. These observations suggest that relief of air hunger by lungchest wall
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inflation is mediated by pulmonary receptors that are sensitive to changes in lung volume. C. Effect of Lung Transplantation on Load Detection Detection or perception of loads applied to the respiratory system does not appear to be impaired in quadriplegic patients in whom afferent pathways from the chest wall are disrupted (exclusive of the diaphragm, which probably retains intact neural pathways). This suggests the possibility that intrapulmonary receptors may contribute to load detection (67–69). There is virtually no published data characterizing the compensatory response to resistive and elastic loads by LT recipients, and there is a single investigation of the integrity of resistive load detection in this population (70). This study revealed no significant difference in the ability to detect a resistive load between HLT recipients and normal control subjects. The Weber fraction associated with a 50% probability of load detection was 0.32 ± 0.05 and 0.34 ± 0.05, mean ± SEM, in the transplant recipients and normal control subjects, respectively. These results extend the earlier report by Guz et al. who observed that blockade of vagally mediated pulmonary afferent information does not alter elastic load detection in humans (36). Previous investigators have observed blunted sensation of dyspnea following cranial nerve IX and X blockade in some patients with infiltrative pulmonary disease. If the sensation of breathlessness is mitigated by interruption of lunglower airway afferent input, without an altered ability to detect loads, it will dissociate the physiological mechanisms responsible for load detection from those leading to dyspnea. Future studies of this issue are necessary and may provide important insights into the mechanism(s) responsible for this disabling symptom. In summary, the available data suggest that there is a limited effect of LT (and presumably chronic lunglower airway denervation) on the sensation of breathing and perception of lung volume. There is still no uniform support for an exclusive role of pulmonary afferent receptor input in the development of air hunger or the perception of changes in lung volume. Difficulty in defining a specific contribution of individual potential sources of contributory afferent input, such as intrapulmonary receptors, upper airway receptors, chest wall receptors, and intramuscular receptors, should not be unexpected, given the probable redundancy of pathways associated with the generation of “respiratory sensations” (59,67). VII. The Effect of Lung Transplantation on Exercise Assessing the effect of LT on exercise physiology may provide insight into the mechanisms that normally contribute to cardiopulmonary regulation. In addition, because a primary treatment goal of transplantation is to improve functional status
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and quality of life, determining the influence of this intervention on exercise has clinical relevance. During the last decade, several studies have documented substantial improvement in the exercise capacity of patients following LT (71–73). Although maximal oxygen consumption and work capacity following HLT remains below the normal predicted values, this may be primarily related to cardiovascular limitation and anemia (71,73,74). The maximal oxygen consumption in HLT recipients is comparable with that in heart transplant recipients (74). No studies have found ventilatory limitation of exercise in LT recipients who have normal pulmonary function, and several investigations have demonstrated that, in the presence of normal pulmonary function, the ventilatory response to exercise is not impaired (73,74). The ventilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide in HLT recipients is similar to that of heart transplant recipients at the anaerobic threshold (74), and it is either similar to, or greater than the ventilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide in normal individuals at submaximal (72) or maximal exercise (75). Along similar lines, HLT recipients maintain normal regulation of arterial carbon dioxide tension during maximal exercise (74). Thus, the data obtained from LT recipients suggests that afferent inputs from intrapulmonary parenchymal or vascular chemoreceptors are not essential for a normal overall ventilatory response to exercise. The existence and contribution of right atrial chemoreceptors, or of chemoreceptors located in the inferior or superior vena cavae, to the ventilatory response during exercise cannot be excluded because pathways from these areas may remain intact after transplantation (76). Although the overall ventilatory response may be normal, there is evidence of an alteredbreathing pattern during exercise in LT recipients with normal lung function. Sciurba and co workers observed that the slope of the relation between respiratory rate (RR) and minute ventilation (VI; normalized to FVC) is significantly lower in HLT recipients than in a population of heart transplant recipients (slope of VI/FVC vs. RR: 1.05 ± 0.17 vs. 1.58 ± 0.26, mean ± SD, respectively; p < 0.01) (74; Fig. 6). As expected, given the normal overall ventilatory response to exercise, the HLT recipients exhibited a greater contribution of VT at a given level of ventilation (both VT and VI/FVC) than the heart transplant recipients (slope of VI/FVC vs. VT /FVC: 0.032 ± 0.003 vs. 0.024 ± 0.005, respectively; p < 0.02; see Fig. 6). Patients with obstructive lower airways disease adopt a more shallow and rapidbreathing pattern during exercise than normal persons. To determine if this response is altered following LT and to gain insight into the possibility that it is related to afferent input from the lungs and lower airways, Sciurba et al. compared the breathing pattern responses to exercise in a population of HLT recipients with obliterative bronchiolitis, with those of transplant recipients with normal pulmonary function (31). During incremental bicycle ergometry, obstructed HLT recipients had a reduced slope of the VT versus minute ventilation (VI) relation and a greater rate of rise of FB, compared with the nonobstructed patients. In addition,
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Figure 6 (a) Relation between minute ventilation, normalized to forced vital capacity, and respiratory rate during exercise in heartlung transplant recipients (HLTR) and heart transplant recipients (HTR). (b) Relation between minute ventilation and tidal volume (both normalized to forced vital capacity) during exercise in heartlung transplant recipients (HLTR) and heart transplant recipients (HTR). (From Ref. 74.)
the obstructed patients demonstrated a shorter TI and lower TI/TTOT at the “VT break point.” Regulation of arterial carbon dioxide tension and pH at maximal exercise was appropriate in both study groups. Thus, even in the presence of presumed lung and lower airway denervation, patients with lower airway obstruction exhibit an alteredbreathing pattern response to exercise similar to that observed in neurally intact patients with COPD. Thus, it is likely that this adaptation to exercise is dependent on mechanisms other than input from lung and lower airway receptors. Assessment of the cardiopulmonary response to exercise in LT recipients has also been conducted to provide insight into the mechanism responsible for augmentation of ventilation at the onset of exercise. Banner and coworkers observed similar ventilatory responses and oxygen consumption at the onset of voluntary exercise in normal control subjects, heart transplant recipients, and HLT recipients (77). The cardiac output and heart rate responses were markedly attenuated
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in the transplant recipients compared with results obtained from normal subjects. Thus, the data revealed that ventilatory augmentation at the onset of exercise is neither linked to augmentation of cardiac output nor to the presence of pulmonary afferent input. These data also reinforce the work of other investigators (71–74,77) indicating that LT, which is presumably associated with denervation of the lungs and lower airways, does not alter the overall physiological ventilatory response to submaximal and maximal exercise. VIII. Conclusions The experience of physicians who care for lung transplant recipients indicates that intact afferent pathways from the lunglower airways are not prerequisites for a clinically successful outcome with an improved quality of life. The data that have accumulated over the last decade, however, support the presence of subtle physiological changes following lung transplantation. Most of the information has been collected in reasonably stable, healthy patient populations, and more must be learned about the role of afferent pulmonary traffic in the setting of clinically relevant physiological stresses, such as acute and chronic rejection and infection, with various degrees of pulmonary restriction and obstruction that, unfortunately, are all too frequent in this patient population. In addition, greater knowledge is needed on the influence of pulmonary and lower airway receptors on cardiovascular and pulmonary interactions, because this, too, may have bearing on the longterm outcome of our patients. Acknowledgments The author appreciates the thoughtful and constructive review of this manuscript provided by William Calhoun, M.D., Michael Donahoe, M.D., and Frank Sciurba, M.D. This effort was supported by the Department of Veterans Affairs, VA Merit Review Funding and NHLBI2T32HL0756311A2. References 1. Widdicombe J. Reflexes from the upper respiratory tract. In: Fishman A, ed. Handbook of Physiology. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society. Williams & Wilkins Company, 1986:363–394. (Cherniack N, Widdicombe J, eds., Sec 3: The Respiratory System; vol 2; part 1). 2. Sant' Ambrogio G. Nervous receptors of the tracheobronchial tree. Annu Rev Physiol 1987; 49:611–627. 3. Jamieson SE, Ogunnaike HO. Cardiopulmonary transplantation. Surg Clin North Am 1986; 66:491–501.
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4. Griffith BP, Hardesty RL, Trento A, et al. Heartlung transplantation: lessons learned and future hopes.Ann Thorac Surg 1987; 43:6–16. 5. Norvell JE. Lower RR. Degeneration and regeneration of the nerves of the heart after transplantation. Transplantation 1973; 15:337–344. 6. Kaye DM, Esler M, Kingwell B, McPherson G, Esmore D, Jennings G. Functional and neurochemical evidence for partial cardiac sympathetic reinnervation after cardiac transplantation in humans. Circulation 1993; 88:1110–1118. 7. Mattila S, Mattila I, Viljaanen B, Viljanen A. Reappearance of HeringBreuer reflex after bilateral autotransplantation of the lungs. Scand J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1987; 21:15–20. 8. Clifford PS, Bell LB, Hopp FA, Coon RL. Reinnervation of canine tracheal stretch receptors. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62:1912–1916. 9. Iber C, Simon P, Skatrud JB, Mahowald MW, Dempsey JA. The BreuerHering reflex in humans. Effects of pulmonary denervation and hypocapnia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:217–224. 10. Simon PM, Taha BH, Dempsey JA, Skatrud JB, Iber C. Role of vagal feedback from the lung in hypoxicinduced tachycardia in humans. J Appl Physiol 1995; 78:1522–1530. 11. Baldwin JC, Jamieson SW, Oyer PE, et al. Bronchoscopy after cardiopulmonary transplantation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1985; 89:1–7. 12. Duncan SR, Kagawa FT, Kramer MR, Starnes VA, Theodore J. Effects of pulmonary restriction on hypercapnic responses of heartlung transplant recipients. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71:322–327. 13. Sanders MH, Owens GR, Sciurba FC, Rogers RM, Paradis IL, Griffith BP, Hardesty RL. Ventilation and breathing pattern during progressive hypercapnia and hypoxia after human heartlung transplantation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:38–44. 14. Taha BH, Simon PM, Dempsey JA, Skatrud JB, Iber C. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia in humans: an obligatory role for vagal feedback from the lungs. J Appl Physiol 1995; 78:638–645. 15. Higenbottam T, Jackson M, Woolman P, Lowry R, Wallwork J. The cough response to ultrasonically nebulized distilled water in heartlung transplantation patients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:58–61. 16. Boushey HA, Richardson PS, Widdicomb JG, Wise JCM. The response of laryngeal afferent fibres to mechanical and chemical stimuli. J Physiol (Lond) 1974; 240:153–175. 17. Winning AJ, Hamilton RD, Horner RL, Guz A. Demonstration of the HeringBreuer inflation reflex in man during sleep. Clin Sci 1988; 74(suppl 18):1p. 18. Hamilton RD, Horner RL, Winning AJ, Guz A. The effect of lung inflation on breathing in man during wakefulness and sleep. Respir Physiol 1988; 73:145–154. 19. Hamilton RD, Horner RL, Winning AJ, Guz A. Effect on breathing of raising endexpiratory lung volume in sleeping laryngectomized man. Respir Physiol 1990; 81:87–98. 20. Widdicombe JG. Respiratory reflexes in man and other mammalian species. Clin Sci 1961; 21:163–167. 21. Burki NK. The effects of changes in functional residual capacity with posture on mouth occlusion pressure and ventilatory pattern. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977; 116:895–900.
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22. Kinnear W, Higgenbottom T, Shaw D, Wallwork J, Estenne M. Ventilatory compensation for changes in posture after human heartlung transplantation. Respir Physiol 1989; 77:75–88. 23. Comroe JH Jr. Reflexes from the lungs. In: Physiology of Respiration. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, 1970:73–85. 24. Kelson SG, Shustack A, Hough W. The effect of vagal blockade on the variability of ventilation in the awake dog. Respir Physiol 1982; 49:339–394. 25. Sullivan CE, Kozar LF, Murphy E, Phillipson EA. Primary role of respiratory afferents in sustaining breathing rhythm. J Appl Physiol 1978; 45:11–17. 26. Shea SA, Horner RL, Banner NR, McKenzie E, Heaton R, Yacoub MH, Guz A. The effect of human heartlung transplantation upon breathing at rest and during sleep. Respir Physiol 1988; 72:131–150. 27. Hudgel DW, Martin RJ, Johnson B, Hill P. Mechanics of the respiratory system and breathing pattern during sleep in normal humans. J Appl Physiol 1984; 56:133–137. 28. Stradling JR, Chadwick GA, Frew AJ. Changes in ventilation and its components in normal subjects during sleep. Thorax 1985; 40:364–370. 29. Sanders MH, Costantino JP, Owens GR, Sciurba FC, Rogers RM, Reynolds CF, Paradis IL, Griffith BP, Hardesty RL. Breathing during wakefulness and sleep after human heartlung transplantation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:45–51. 30. Burke CM, Theodore J, Dawkins KD, et al. Posttransplant obliterative bronchiolitis and other late lung sequelae in human heartlung transplantation. Chest 1984; 86:824–829. 31. Sciurba FC, Owens GR, Sanders MH, Costantino JP, Paradis IL, Griffith BP. The effect of obliterative bronchiolitis on breathing pattern in recipients of heart lung transplants. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:131–135. 32. Loveridge B, West P, Anthonisen NB, Kryger M. Breathing pattern in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 130:730– 733. 33. Bates DV. Severe chronic airflow limitation. In: Respiratory Function in Disease, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1989:188–213. 34. Fennerty AG, Banks J, Bevan C, Smith AP. Role of airway receptors in the breathing pattern of patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Thorax 1985; 40:268–271. 35. Guz A, Noble IM, Widdicombe JG, Trenchard D, Mushin WW. The effect of bilateral block of vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves on the ventilatory response to CO2 of conscious man. Respir Physiol 1966; 1:206–210. 36. Guz A, Noble MIM, Widdicombe JG, Trenchard D, Mushin WW, Makey AR. The role of vagal and glossopharyngeal afferent nerves in respiratory sensation, control of breathing and arterial pressure regulation in conscious man. Clin Sci 1966; 30:161–170. 37. Guz A, Widdicombe JG. Pattern of breathing during hypercapnia before and after vagal blockade in man. Breathing: HeringBreuer Centenary Symposium. London: Churchill, 1969:41–44. 38. Saupe KW, Smith CA, Henderson KS, Dempsey JA. Respiratory and cardiovascular responses to increased and decreased carotid sinus pressure in sleeping dogs. J Appl Physiol 1995; 78:1688–1698. 39. Lourenco RV, Turino GM, Davidson LAG, Fishman AP. The regulation of ventilation in diffuse pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Med 1965; 38:199–216.
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40. Thompson JG, Read DJC. Respiratory regulation during pulmonary restriction. Australas Ann Med 1968; 17:193. 41. Duncan SR, Kagawa FT, Starnes VA, Theodore J. Hypercarbic ventilatory responses of human heartlung transplant recipients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:126–130. 42. Mattila IP, Sovijari A, Malmberg P, Heikkila L, Sipponen J, Laitinen LA, Mattila SP. Altered regulation of breathing after bilateral lung transplantation. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1995; 9:237–241. 43. Kagawa FT, Duncan SR, Theodore J. Inspiratory timing of heartlung transplant recipients during progressive hypercapnia. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71:945–950. 44. Wasserman K, Whipp BJ, Casaburi R, Huntsman DJ, Costagna J, Lugliani R. Regulation of arterial PCO2 during intravenous CO2 loading. J Appl Physiol 1975; 38:651–656. 45. Nilsestuen JO, Coon RL, Woods M, Kampine JP. Location of lung receptors mediating the breathing frequency response to pulmonary CO2. Respir Physiol 1981; 45:343–355. 46. Sheldon MI, Green JF. Evidence for pulmonary CO2 sensitivity: effects on ventilation. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52:1192–1197. 47. Schertel ER, Schneider DA, Adams L, Green JF. Effect of pulmonary arterial PCO2 on breathing pattern. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64:1844–1850. 48. Bartoli A, Cross BA, Guz A, Jain SK, Noble MIM, Trenchard DW. The effect of carbon dioxide in the airways and alveoli on ventilation: a vagal reflex studied in the dog. J Physiol (Lond) 1974; 240:91–109. 49. Matsumoto S, Okamura H, Suzuki K, Sugai N, Shimizu T. Inhibitory mechanism of CO2 inhalation on slowly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors in the anesthetized rabbit. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1996; 279:402–409. 50. Midorikawa J, Kikuchi Y, Taguchi O, Hida W, Okabe S, Takishima T, Shirato K. Effects of prostaglandin E2 inhalation on hypercapnic response in normal subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150:1592–1597. 51. Trenchard D. CO2/H+ receptors in the lungs of anesthetized rabbits. Respir Physiol 1986; 63:227–240. 52. Ravi K. Effect of carbon dioxide on the activity of slowly and rapidly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors in cats. J Auton Nerv Syst 1985; 12:267–277. 53. Green JF, Schertel ER, Coleridge HM, Coleridge JC. Effect of pulmonary arterial PCO2 on slowly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors. J Appl Physiol 1986; 60:2048–2055. 54. Trenchard D, Russell NJW, Raybould HE. Nonmyelinated vagal lung receptors and their reflex effects on respiration in rabbits. Respir Physiol 1984; 55:63–79. 55. Delpierre S, Grimaud C, Jammes Y, Mei N. Changes in activity of vagal bronchopulmonary C fibres by chemical and physical stimuli in the cat. J Physiol 1981; 316:61–74. 56. Banzett R, Lansing RW, Brown R. Highlevel quadriplegics perceive lung volume change. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62:567–573. 57. Gandevia SC, Killian K, McKenzie DK, Crawford M, Allen GM, Gorman RB, Hales JP. Respiratory sensations, cardiovascular control and kinaesthesia during complete paralysis in human subjects. J Physiol (Lond) 1993; 470:85–108. 58. Banzett RB, Lansing RW, Reid MB, Adams L, Brown R. “Air hunger” arising from
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increased PCO2 in mechanically ventilated quadriplegics. Respir Physiol 1989; 76:53–67. 59. Shea SA, Banzett RB, Lansing RW. Respiratory sensations and their role in the control of breathing. In: Dempsey JA, Pack AP, eds. Regulation of Breathing, 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1995:923–957. 60. Guz A, Noble MIM, Eisele JH, Trenchard D. Experimental results of vagal block in cardiopulmonary disease. Breathing: HeringBreuer Centenary Symposium. London: Churchill, 1969:315–353. 61. Pfeiffer MA, Sanders MH, Costantino JP. Perception of lung volumes in normals and lung transplant recipients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143:A466. 62. Wolkove N, Altose M, Kelson S, Kondapalli PG, Cherniack NS. Perception of changes in breathing in normal human subjects. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50:78–83. 63. Manning HL, Shea SA, Schwartzstein RM, Lansing RW, Brown R, Banzett RM. Reduced tidal volume increases “air hunger” at fixed PCO2 in ventilated quadriplegics. Respir Physiol 1992; 90:19030. 64. Ninane V, Estenne M. Regulation of breathholding time and sensation after heartlung transplantation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:1010–1015. 65. Harty HR, Mummery CJ, Adams L, Banzett RB, Wright IG, Banner NR, Yacoub MH, Guz A. Ventilatory relief of the sensation of the urge to breathe in humans: are pulmonary receptors important? J Physiol (Lond) 1996; 490:805–815. 66. Flume PA, Eldridge FL, Edwards LJ, Mattison LE. Relief of “air hunger” of breathholding. A role for pulmonary stretch receptors. Respir Physiol 1996; 103:221–232. 67. Zechman FW, O'Neill R, Shannon R. Effect of low cervical spinal cord lesions on detection of increased airflow resistance in man. Physiologist 1967; 10:356. 68. Noble MIM, Frankel HL, Else W, Guz A. The ability of man to detect added resistive loads to breathing. Clin Sci 1971; 41:285–287. 69. Younes M. Mechanisms of respiratory load compensation. In: Dempsey JA, Pack AP, eds. Regulation of Breathing, 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1995:867–922. 70. Tapper DP, Duncan SR, Kraft S, Kagawa FT, Marshall A, Theodore J. Detection of inspiratory resistive loads by heartlung transplant recipients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145:458–460. 71. Miyoshi S, Trulock EP, Schaefers HJ, Hsieh CM, Patterson GA, Cooper JD. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing after single and double lung transplantation. Chest 1990; 97:1130–1136. 72. Theodore J, Robin ED, Morris AJ, Burke CM, Jamieson SW, VanKessel A, Stinson EB, Shumway NE. Augmented ventilatory response to exercise in pulmonary hypertension. Chest 1986; 89:39–44. 73. Theodore J, Morris AJ, Burke CM, Glanville AR, VanKessel A, Baldwin JC, Stinson EB, Shumway NE, Robin ED. Cardiopulmonary function at maximum tolerable constant work rate exercise following human heartlung transplantation. Chest 1987; 92:433–439. 74. Sciurba FC, Owens GR, Sanders MH, Griffith BP, Hardesty RL, Paradis IL, Costantino JP. Evidence of an altered pattern of breathing during exercise in recipients of heartlung transplants. N Engl J Med 1988; 319:1186–1192. 75. Estenne M, Primo G, Yernault JC. Cardiorespiratory responses to dynamic exercise after human heartlung transplantation. Thorax 1987; 42:629–630.
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76. Otulana BA, Higenbottam TW, Scott JP, Wallwork J. A possible role for mixed venous blood changes in the hyperventilation of exercise in heartlung transplant recipients. Chest 1990; 97:88(S)–89(S). 77. Banner N, Guz A, Heaton R, Innes JA, Murphy K, Yacoub M. Ventilatory and circulatory responses at the onset of exercise in man following heart or heartlung transplantation. J Physiol 1988; 399:437–449. 78. Hathaway T, Higenbottam T, Lowery R, Wallwork J. Pulmonary reflexes after human heartlung transplantation. Respir Med 1991; 85:17–21.
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19 The Hyperventilation Syndrome. HANS FOLGERING University of Nijmegen Groesbeek, The Netherlands I. Introduction A. Definitions Hyperventilation Hyperventilation is physiologically defined as breathing in excess of the metabolic needs of the body, thus eliminating more CO2 than is being produced and, consequently, resulting in hypocapnia. This conditions is seen in many situations, and it is an accompanying phenomenon of many somatic diseases, of environmental conditions, or of intake or withdrawal of stimulants or drugs. Hypocapnia also has its consequences for the acidbase status of the blood: It means a respiratory alkalosis, and an elevated pH value of the blood. Compensation by renal mechanisms takes many hours or even 1 or 2 days. Therefore, “chronic hyperventilation” can be diagnosed only from signs of this renal compensation of a respiratory alkalosis: a lowered standard bicarbonate value, a low bufferbase level, and a negative base excess value in the blood.
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Hyperventilation Syndrome The traditional definition of the hyperventilation syndrome describes “a syndrome, characterized by a variety of somatic symptoms induced by physiologically inappropriate hyperventilation and usually reproduced by voluntary hyperventilation” (1). The association between symptoms and hypocapnia, as indicated in this definition, has been challenged in many later studies. B. History The first description of a complex of symptoms, as given by Da Costa on soldiers in the American Civil War in 1871 (2), was mainly focused on cardiac symptoms and, therefore, was titled: “On irritable heart.” This affliction could be cured by rest, digitoxin (Digitaline), aconite, gelsemine (gelsemium), arsenic, or acetate of lead, and finally by taking these soldiers out of the stressful war situation. The names “Da Costa syndrome” or “irritable heart syndrome” are a relic from this publication. Lewis (3) studied soldiers in World War I, and introduced the name “effort syndrome.” Later in this period, also the name of “neurocirculatory asthenia” was used by American investigators. The name “hyperventilation syndrome” was introduced by Kerr et al. (4), who submitted patients with anxiety neurosis to a period of voluntary hyperventilation and observed that a number of complaints could be reproduced during the ensuing hypocapnia. A renewed interest in the problems of hyperventilation occurred in World War II, when many soldiers suffered from functional disorders of the autonomic nervous system (5). The association with anxiety problems was already prevalent in description from the early authors. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) never has mentioned the hyperventilation syndrome as a separate entity. However, its description of the anxiety disorders very well fits the symptoms of the hyperventilation syndrome (6,7). In later studies, it became unclear whether hyperventilation was a cause or a consequence of anxiety and/or panic disorders. Hibbert (8), while making ambulatory measurements of transcutaneous PCO2 values in patients with panic attacks, found a good correlation between panic situations and hyperventilation in patients with agoraphobia. Later authors could not confirm any strong relation between hypocapnia and anxiety (9,10). In the 1980s, the possible existence and mechanisms of the “chronic fatigue syndrome” puzzled many investigators. Was it another expression of the hyperventilation syndrome? Symptoms showed a great similarity, with emphasis on fatigue. Saisch et al. (11) found only a very weak association between chronic fatigue and hyperventilation: only 4 of 31 patients with chronic fatigue syndrome showed unequivocal signs of hyperventilation. Dent et al. (12) challenged the existence of the hyperventilation syndrome and suggested that there might be a substantial number of patients with mild asthma or hyperthyroidism among such individuals. Gardner (13) also questioned whether there is a separate clinical entity, and proposed that there is a group of
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“hyperventilation disorders” that stem from a complex interaction among respiratory, psychiatric, and physiological disturbances of the control of breathing. In his concept, hyperventilation that is due to somatic diseases, such as asthma, pneumonia, pain, or central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities, is also part of this complex of hyperventilation disorders. This wider concept of hyperventilation problems has the advantage of taking into account the possible multifactorial etiology of the disorder. On the other hand, it also implies a potential danger that hyperventilation caused by somatic disease (e.g., asthma) is considered psychogenic, and treated as such. This would be absolutely detrimental to the asthmatic patient. C. Epidemiology The incidence or prevalence of the hyperventilation syndrome has never been studied in an open population. We have information on only the relative occurrence in selected groups of patients, seen by various specialists. McKell and Sullivan (14) described a prevalence of 5.8% hyperventilators from a group of 500 patients seen by a gastroenterologist. Rice (15) found 107 hyperventilators among 1000 patients from a practice of internal medicine (10.7%). Singer (16) describes an incidence of 6.3% among 800 military personnel. Dölle (17) investigated 2550 patients from an emergency department, and found 114 cases of hyperventilation syndrome (4.5%). Pincus (18) described an incidence of 5.4% in 550 patients from a neurological clinic. Data from van Dixhoorn and Duivenvoorden (19), using the Nijmegen questionnaire in 80 healthy physiotherapists and yoga teachers, suggested that 4 might be hyperventilating (5%). All these various data on prevalence have been gathered, using widely different criteria and diagnostic procedures. In spite of that, it is rather surprising that there is such an agreement on the incidence of approximately 5% in widely different populations. Hyperventilation also occurs in children. They learn this trick from each other, and thus are able to manipulate their parents and teachers. Fainting caused by hyperventilation will allow them to withdraw from any situation with which they do not wish to comply. This type of behavior is very rewarding, and will thus be reinforced. Joorabchi (20) observed 57 hyperventilating children, aged 4–17 years, within a period of 12 months, in a cardiology clinic. We once observed an epidemic of fainting in a group of healthy children in an elementary school. The result of many tests showed a positive hyperventilation in all of them. This type of hyperventilation behavior can be very persistent. Herman et al. (21), in a longitudinal followup, found that 40% of hyperventilating children, were still hyperventilating in adulthood. The male/female ratios in the hyperventilation syndrome, described by various authors, range from 1:1.1 to 1:6.5. There seems to be a general agreement that females report more hyperventilation problems than males. The prevalent age seems to be young adulthood: 15–55 years (22).
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II. Signs and Symptoms The spectra of symptoms ascribed to the hyperventilation syndrome is extremely wide, aspecific, and varying. They stem from virtually every system. They can be due to physiological mechanisms, such as the low PaCO2, or to the increased sympathetic adrenergic tone. Alternatively, psychological mechanisms also contribute to the symptomatology, or even generate some of the symptoms. Table 1 shows a list of symptoms, arranged according to the system they stem from. The relative occurrences were taken from various studies quoted in this chapter. For many of these symptoms there is a sound physiological basis for their evolution. Table 1 Symptoms Associated with the Hyperventilation Syndrome System
Symptom
Relative occurrence (%)
Respiratory
Tachypnea Dyspnea Tightness of the chest Suffocation Cannot sigh
43–88 28–93 51–90 32–55 28–81
Neuromuscular
Paresthesias Hypertonia in hand muscles Muscle cramps Tremor
24–95 19–74 3–45 39–72
Cerebral
Dizziness Fainting Headaches Derealization, losing contact with environment
58–81 1–37 37–86 35–71
Cardiocirculatory
Palpitations Precordial pains Irregular heartbeat Cold hands and/or feet
39–81 18–85 6–46 21–69
Gastrointestinal
Nausea Upper abdominal pain Ructus
35–83 12–50 12–26
General
Fatigue Insomnia Hyperhidrosis
54–88 19–86 45–80
Psychological
Restlessness, nervousness Anxiety
52–100 30–98
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A. Respiratory Symptoms Feelings of dyspnea, tightness of the chest, and suffocation may have a physiological basis in that hypocapnia increases the excitability of all muscles and nerves (23– 26). This will lead to hypertonic (respiratory) muscles. In addition, many of these patients are alarmed and stressed. This is mediated by an increased activity in the brain stem reticular formation which, subsequently, will also increase gammamotoneuron activity, innervating intrafusal muscles in muscle spindles. The muscles themselves will be more excitable and hypertonic through monosynaptic reflex mechanisms from the muscle spindles. Intercostal muscles do have muscle spindles, whereas the diaphragm has hardly any, the tone and the activity of the intercostals increases, and patients show a “high thoracictype of breathing.” The increased intercostal muscle activity may be perceived as dyspnea. Some patients even report sore intercostal muscles. The increase in muscular excitability also applies for smooth muscles in the airways. Hypocapnia gives rise to bronchoconstriction (27–29). This also may be sensed, and it may contribute to the sensation of dyspnea. B. Neuromuscular Symptoms Hyptertonia occurs in several somatic muscles, with preferential locations in carpal muscles and periorbicular muscles. The patients complain about “writing cramps” and tight feelings around the mouth. Generalized muscle cramps, even with tetany, are seldomly seen. There are several explanations for this muscular hypertony. First, there is the hyperexcitability of muscular tissue, caused by hypocapnia. Second, some French authors explained the hyperexcitability by the low concentration of free Ca2+ ions in respiratory alkalosis. This has never been proven; therefore, therapy with injecting calcium preparations has never found widespread use. Third, stress and anxiety have their effect on muscle tone by increased gammamotor input on muscle spindles. Yoga and relaxation therapy by a physiotherapist acts on this mechanism. A therapy with benzodiazepines may have part of its positive effect from this mechanism, as well as by its central ventilatory depressant effect. Paresthesias are one of the more prominent symptoms of the classic hyperventilation syndrome. According to various authors, they occur in 24–95 of all hyperventilation patients. They might be a consequence of the hyperexcitability of peripheral nerves. Macefield and Burke (26) had six normal subjects hyperventilate and then measured electromyographic spontaneous (EMG) activity in the thenar muscles. Paresthesias were objectively measured from EMG recordings in the median nerve at the level of the wrist, in two subjects. Paresthesias may be elicited by voluntary hyperventilation, thus lowering the PaCO2. This does not seem to hold for all persons: Hornsveld (30) found that
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paresthesias could be produced during voluntary overbreathing in 16 of 26 (62%) healthy subjects. C. Cerebral Symptoms. The main effect of hyperventilation on the central nervous system is mediated by cerebral vasoconstriction and the concomitant decrease of cerebral blood flow. This was first described by Kety and Schmidt in their classic paper of 1946 (31). The consequence of this diminished blood flow is a lowering of the cortical PO2. Kennealy and McLennan (32) hyperventilated anesthetized dogs and found that cortical PO2 decreased from 10.4 to 5.1 mmHg when the arterial PCO2 was lowered from 43 to 13 mmHg. Similar cortical PO2 values, as low as 6 mmHg, were found when newborn piglets were overventilated to PaCO2 values of 10 mmHg (33). Apart from the effect of cerebral vasoconstriction, the leftward shift of the oxygen dissociation curve of hemoglobin in respiratory alkalosis, will increase the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. This will also contribute to the reduced oxygen delivery to tissues and to cortical hypoxia. Thus, it is not surprising that strong hyperventilation can lead to cerebral hypoxia and, subsequently, to a loss of consciousness. Hyperventilation also leads to increased cerebral excitability (24,25,34,35). This is used in clinical electroencephalography (EEG) for eliciting seizures in patient suspected of having epilepsy (36). The EEG changes shown in 12 hyperventilation patients, as compared with 8 healthy controls (37), were manifest as increased frontal and occipital theta and betaactivity. It is not clear whether complaints such as generalized irritability and derealization can be explained in this context. The complaint of dizzyness may be a result of cerebral hypoxia. However, the vestibular system is also hyperexcitable during hypocapnia (38). The postrotatory nystagmus was higher in amplitude and persisted longer in hypocapnia. Dizzyness is one of the key complaints of the hyperventilation syndrome, and occurs in 58– 81% of hyperventilating patients. Psychomotor performances on recall of numbers, rotary pursuit, and pegboard, are impaired in normal subjects when hyperventilating voluntarily (39). D. Cardiocircular Symptoms Palpitations may be associated with the increase in heart rate or cardiac output during hyperventilation (40). The increased production of epinephrine may contribute to this cardiac symptom. Use of adrenergic antagonists may help diminish this type of complaint (41). Chest pain is one of the frequently occurring symptoms in hyperventilating patients. In dogs the coronary bloodflow decreases in hypocapnia (42). In humans, ECG signs of myocardial ischemia have been associated with hypocapnia (43,44).
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Patients with angina pectoris, had a lower threshold to chest pain and STdepressions during exercise, when hyperventilating (45). Also the Prinzmetal type angina has been associated with hyperventilation (46). Hyperventilation is also accompanied by cardiac arrhythmias, including ventricular fibrillation in animals (47) and multiple ventricular extrasystoles in humans (personal observation). Peripheral vasoconstriction, as a consequence of increased sympatheticadrenergic tone, makes patients complain of cold hands and feet (48). Hyperhydrosis of the hands is often the first diagnostic sign when shaking hands with a patient entering the office. E. Gastrointestinal Symptoms Upper abdominal pains, nausea, and gastric bloating have been associated with the hyperventilation syndrome. Some of these symptoms were ascribed to aerophagia. We investigated this by comparing the gastric air bubbles on chest xrays films, in 62 hyperventilation patients and in 62 controls matched for age and sex. There were no differences between the groups in the amount of gastric air (49). F. General Complaints Fatigue is one of the main symptoms of the hyperventilation syndrome, occurring in 54–88% of all patients (50). The mechanism is difficult to understand. The hyperventilation syndrome has been associated with the “chronic fatigue syndrome” or myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME). Saisch et al. (11) studied 31 patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome; 22 had no signs of hyperventilation, 4 had unequivocal hyperventilation, and 5 were borderline hyperventilators. We studied 27 patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, and 32 healthy controls, and found hyperventilation in 59 and 22% of these respective groups (unpublished data). Fatigue can be distinguished in a central and a peripheral type. The latter is situated in the muscle or in the neuromuscular junction; the former is thought to originate in the central nervous system. We studied 30 hyperventilation patients and 20 controls, and performed a handgrip test at 60% of the maximal force. Fatigue was measured from a shift of the power spectrum of the EMG of the hand flexors, and from the endurance time. We found no differences in periferal fatigability between the groups. In a small subgroup, we studied intraindividual variations in fatigability in normal subjects, under normocapnic, hypercapnic, and hypocapnic conditions. Again, there was no effect of the PaCO2 levels on peripheral fatigue parameters (51). G. Psychological Complaints This part of the hyperventilation problem has had a chickenandegg aspect for as long as the syndrome has existed. Psychological problems that have been associ
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Figure 1 A diagram of the psychological mechanisms, leading to hyperventilation and maintaining hyperventilation. The symptoms and signs of the patients, in the traditional concept of the hyperventilation syndrome these are highly related to hypocapnia, can be initiated and modulated by many other factors in this diagram.
ated with hyperventilation include anxiety, panic, hyperchondria, phobia, anxiety neurosis, derealization, and depersonalization. Figure 1 shows a classic model of hyperventilation, hypocapnia, and psychological complaints (52). It assumes that at some unknown instant hyperventilation is triggered. The concomitant hypocapnia gives rise to symptoms and complaints, as described in the foregoing. These are perceived and interpreted. Quite often, an attribution is given to the perceived complaints: “the chest pain is a consequence of a myocardial infarction”; or, “the dizziness in my head is a sign of a brain tumor.” The complaints frequently occur in phobic situations: small spaces (crowded elevators), crowded shops, tunnels, heights, or hot environments (hot cars in a traffic jam, hot bath). The complaints then become associated with that situation. The next time the patient has to encounter such a situation, he or she will anticipate the unpleasant symptoms that occurred the previous time. This will lead to stress and anxiety and, subsequently, to hyperventilation. The complaints by themselves may be so frightening (catastrophic misinterpretation; 53) that they sustain or aggravate the problem. Some investigators thought that this might be an explanation for panic attacks or for the panic disorder (7,8). Here the chickenandegg problem is most prominent: does hyperventilation follow as a consequence of panic, or is panic a consequence of hyperventilation? The complaints of panic disorder and hyperventilation syndrome show a very substantial overlap, but panic certainly exists without hyperventilation,
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and vice versa. Zandbergen et al. (54) studied 30 patients with panic disorder and 18 healthy controls, and concluded that the hyperventilation was a consequence of panic. Gorman (55) performed hyperventilation provocation tests in patients with panic disorder, and found that this failed to provoke a panic attack. Cowley and RoyByrne (56) showed a 50% overlap in patients with hyperventilation and patients with a panic disorder, and also concluded that both reinforce each other by a positive feedback phenomenon. Their conclusion, that hyperventilation is primarily caused by panic, has consequences for the therapeutic approach to these patients. Ley (57) proposed a theory in which the hyperventilation plays a central role in the generation of panic attacks, with the following assumptions: (1) dyspnea and tachycardia, as the foremost symptoms during panic attacks, are the consequence of hyperventilatory hypocapnia; (2) panic fear is a consequence of dyspnea; (3) catastrophic thoughts during panic are the result of cerebral hypoxia caused by hyperventilation. Hornsveld (30) studied 115 patients suspected of having the hyperventilation syndrome, solely on the basis of a pattern of complaints. She performed ambulatory transcutaneous PCO2 measurements, and found low PtcCO2 values during only 7 of 22 attacks. During a provocation test 74% of this patient group did recognize their complaints; they had no different profile of symptoms or psychological characteristics. This made her question whether the hyperventilation syndrome exists at all. III. Pathophysiology of the Control of Breathing The stimuli to ventilation by CO2 and O2 are called the chemical drive, and are mediated by central and peripheral chemoreceptors providing inputs to the brain stem respiratory centers. In normal healthy subjects, the main ventilatory drive is the level of PCO2 at the site of the central chemoreceptors at the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata (approximately 80% of the chemical drive) and the PCO2 at the peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies (approximately 20% of the chemical drive). Hypoxia is a ventilatory stimulus that is hardly relevant in normal subjects; it only becomes relevant at rather low levels of PO2: 40–50 mmHg (5.3– 6.6 kPa). Hypoxia is sensed only by the peripheral chemoreceptors. The inputs of peripheral and central chemoreceptors to the respiratory centers in the brain stem, are thought to be additive. The respiratory centers are part of the brain stem reticular formation, which also mediates cardiac and vasomotor activity, gammamotoneuron activity (and thus muscular tone), sympathetic tone, and alertness and reactivity of the total nervous system (stress and fight or flight activity) [for further reading, we suggest Naifeh (58) and Jennett (59)]. Figure 2 shows a diagram of the control of breathing. The brain stem respiratory centers also receive inputs from other neuronal structures, such as
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Figure 2 Neurophysiological model of the control of breathing: The top three blocks show the three categories of input or stimuli for ventilation: cortex, hypothalamus, and chemoreceptors. The cortex has its own connections with the respiratory muscles, through the pyramidal tract and alphamotoneurons. This mediates volitional acts of breathing. The “respiratory centers” are part of the brain stem reticular formation. The latter modulates the tone of the intercostal muscles by gammamotoneurons. The respiratory centers also use the alphamotoneuronal pathway for impulse transmission to the respiratory muscles.
hypothalamus (thermoregulatory centers, locomotor centers, emotional centers, and from the cortex. The output of the brain stem respiratory centers descends to the spinal motoneurons of the respiratory muscles by the descending bulbospinal pathway for autonomic breathing. There is another pathway to the spinal motoneurons of the respiratory muscles, coming from the motor cortex through the pyramidal tract. This pathway is used during voluntary respiratory maneuvers. It can partially overrule the bulbospinal projection (e.g., during breathholding, or during voluntarybreathing exercises as prescribed by physiotherapists). Breathing in humans is not only a function of metabolic needs for O2 uptake and CO2 elimination, it also has a behavioral function (e.g., as in generating speech). If such a behavioral function is active, the normal chemical control of ventilation is completely disrupted. Phillipson and coworkers (60) increased the arterial PCO2 in normal subjects who were reading aloud. The ventilatory response to CO2 was virtually abolished in this situation. It may be conceived that such behavioral aspects play a role in the dysregulation of ventilation in hyperventilating patients.
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In humans, inspiration usually is an active process; expiration is passive. The main inspiratory muscles are the diaphragm and the parasternal intercostals. The latter have ample muscle spindles; the diaphragm has hardly any. Because of the high activity of the brain stem reticular formation in these highly alert and stressed patients, there is also high activity in the gammamotoneuron activation of the intercostal muscle spindles. This leads to the high thoracictype breathing in patients with hyperventilation. The movements of respiratory muscles eventually lead to gas exchange in the lungs, which determines the levels of PCO2 and PO2 in the arterial blood. The blood gas levels are detected by the chemoreceptors, thus closing the control loop in the chemical control of breathing. This is a feedback loop: the blood gas levels are fed back to the controller to keep these levels constant. Influences from emotional centers, cortex, autonomic nervous system, thermoregulatory system, and hormones are not fed back and, therefore, may disrupt the normal control of breathing, which should keep the PCO2 in the arterial blood at a constant level. When beginning exercise, the ventilation increases substantially within only a few seconds. This happens before the increased production of CO2 can be sensed by the chemoreceptors (61). Its mechanism is not yet clear, but some neurogenic input (proprioceptors in working muscles, cortical irradiation, or hypothalamic locomotor input) to the bulbar respiratory centers must be involved. Also, anticipatory or conditioned reflexes may play a role in this fast ventilatory response to exercise. This is called a feedforward regulation: the ventilation “anticipates” the increased CO2 production. It might be conceived that such feedforward phenomena also occur in hyperventilation patients who are anticipating (phobic) situations that gave rise to very unpleasant symptoms on previous occasions. Another characteristic of the respiratory centers is the socalled flywheel phenomenon: once an increased activity is generated in the respiratory centers, it cannot be abruptly brought back to a resting level, but there is a decay, with a time constant of approximately 48 sec. This effect has been ascribed to an afterdischarge phenomenon in the respiratory centers, impulses keep on circulating in “reverberating circuits” (62). Swanson et al. (63) had seven normal subjects hyperventilate and added CO2 in the inspiratory air to keep endtidal PCO2 at a normal level. They found a time constant ( ) of 22 sec for the decay of ventilation after the hyperventilation period. The hyperventilation persisted for at least 80 sec in all their subjects. We have investigated this phenomenon in normal human subjects, at different levels of arterial PCO2, and found that the time constant is inversely related to the PaCO2 (64). This means that the lower the PaCO2, the longer the respiratory centers remain hyperactive, once they have been stimulated. This is in keeping with a higher excitability of all neuronal structures and with the phenomenon found in hyperventilating patients: after voluntary hyperventilation, they need a prolonged time to restore their normal PaCO2 (65).
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Hormones, such as progesterone, (nor)epinephrine, and thyroxines also stimulate ventilation. The renal excretion of epinephrine in hyperventilation patients was 15.8 ± 17.5 g/24 hr, whereas in normal subjects this was 5.4 ± 5.6 g/24 hr. This might explain part of the hyperventilation problems, and it gives a rationale for a treatment with adrenergic antagonists, especially because these drugs also suppress the activity of the peripheral chemoreceptors (66). Drugs, such as acetylsalicylic acid and caffeine, stimulate ventilation. It has been claimed that abuse of caffeine may induce anxiety and even panic attacks (22). These aspects may also play a role in hyperventilation and yield possibilities for therapy. Hyperventilation is also an accompanying symptom of alcohol withdrawal (67). There are three basic ways to study the characteristics of the ventilatory control system for its stability in keeping the homeostasis for CO2 constant: (1) observing the system in a freerunning state; (2) opening the feedback loop by adding CO2 in the inspiratory air and measuring ventilation (CO2response curve); and (3) applying a disturbance to the control system, such as voluntary hyperventilation and, subsequently, measure the ability of the system to regain normal control and normal PCO2 levels. When observing ventilation in a freerunning state in 90 patients suspected of a hyperventilation syndrome, Vansteenkiste et al. (68) found that, when recording end tidal PCO2 during quiet breathing, this declined within 5 min by 0.25 kPa in 21 of 37 hyperventilating patients. Hormbrey et al. (69) observed an irregulartype breathing with fluctuations in inspiratory time, expiratory time, and endtidal PCO2, in six patients with hyperventilation syndrome (HVS). Han (70) studied respiratory patterns in 201 healthy subjects, and in 580 hyperventilating patients. She found a significantly reduced irregularbreathing pattern in the patient group. Those irregularities that did occur were sighs, and endinspiratory and endexpiratory pauses. The method of measurement of the breathing pattern appeared to be very important: a mouthpiece and noseclip caused many irregularities to disappear, as compared with measurements with Respitrace chest bands. This masking of breathing irregularities seemed to be more prominent in HVS patients. Carbon dioxide response curves measure the gain of the ventilatory controller. We have obtained steadystate ventilatory response curves to CO2 in 46 patients with hyperventilation syndrome (71). Their resting PetCO2 was 3.9 kPa (29.1 mmHg). In 18 of these 46 patients, we found a Ushaped CO2 response. This means that in the lower ranges of CO2, there is an inverted ventilatory response: adding CO2 makes ventilation decrease instead of increase. This phenomenon might be analogous with the effects one sees when hyperventilating patients rebreathe in a plastic bag. Furthermore, we observed that with increasing chemical ventilatory drive, the pattern of breathing becomes more regular (unpublished). The finding of an inverted CO2 response in some patients was later confirmed (72).
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However, Hormbrey et al. (69) could find no differences between normals and hyperventilating patients, in their study on ventilatory responses to transient CO2 stimuli. Because panic disorders are often associated with the hyperventilation syndrome, it seems worthwhile to review the different findings on CO2 responsiveness that have been described. Woods et al. (73) found normal rebreathing CO2 responses in 14 patients with agoraphobia, as compared with 23 normal subjects: 1.58 ± 0.16 and 1.58 ± 0.14 L min1/mmHg1, respectively. Zandbergen et al. (74), also using the rebreathing method, found the same slopes of CO2 response curves in 15 patients with panic disorder (2.27 ± 1.14 L min1/mmHg1), as in the control group of 15 normal subjects (2.72 ± 1.44 L min1/mmHg1). However, the response line of the panic patients was shifted to the left by 5 mmHg, compared with the control group. A remarkable finding was described by Dudley and PittPoarch (75) in a patient with “mania,” in whom ventilation decreased from 20 L min1 to 8.5 L min1, when given 4% CO2 in the inspiratory air. This phenomenon disappeared after the mania was treated. Thus, the ventilatory responses to CO2 in patients with a hyperventilation syndrome and in those with panic disorder can show similar patterns. Several authors have studied restoration of normal homeostasis for CO2 after voluntary hyperventilation. The first description of a hyperventilation provocation test in patients, was from Weiman and Korschinsky (76). They had their patients hyperventilate for four episodes of 20 min. They found a correlation between alveolar PCO2 and subjective symptoms, and signs of tetany by Chvostek's reflex. Recognition of symptoms was used as a diagnostic criterion for hyperventilation syndrome. Beumer and Hardonk (65) developed a more practical 3min voluntary hyperventilation test. During this test, they recorded endtidal PCO2 and found that, in normal subjects, 3–5 min after ending the voluntary hyperventilation, the baseline value was again restored. Thus, normal subjects seemed to be able to regain normal control of ventilation in a fairly short period. Hyperventilating patients were unable to restore normal control of ventilation in such a short time and seem to have a prolonged afterdischarge in their respiratory centers. Figure 3 shows a recording of these test procedures in a hyperventilating patient. It shows a gradual decline in endtidal PCO2 in the baseline situation, as well as an irregularbreathing pattern. When 2.5% CO2 was given in the inspiratory air, the breathing pattern became more regular, and breathing frequency decreased. In this particular patient, minute ventilation did not decrease. In the lower trace of Figure 3, one sees the capnogram of the hyperventilation provocation test in this patient. After 1 min of voluntary overbreathing, this patient is not able to abruptly reduce his respiratory frequency, nor is there a step change in PetCO2 at the end of this 1min period; 3 min after the instruction to “breathe normally,” the endtidal PCO2 was still substantially lower than before the provocation.
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Figure 3 A recording of ventilatory parameters of a hyperventilation patient: The upper two tracings show the recording of the subject, connected to a spirometer, and simultaneously recording a capnogram. Halfway in this recording, approximately 3% CO2 is added in the inspiratory air. Note the irregular breathing, and the decreasing endtidal PCO2 in the first half of this recording. When CO2 is given in the inspiratory air, the breathing becomes more regular, and the respiratory frequency decreases in this patient. The lower trace shows a capnogram of this patient, breathing ambient air. Then he is asked to voluntarily over breathe during 1 min ( ), when the subject is requested to breathe normally, he cannot restore his endtidal PCO2 within 3 min, his respiratory frequency remains high, and there is no step change in endtidal PCO2.
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IV. Diagnosis There is considerable confusion over which diagnostic criteria should be set for the hyperventilation syndrome. This is due to the lack of any gold standard for an investigator's approach to a patient's complaints, or to make objective measurements, or of the variability and situational dependency of the affliction. If we take the traditional definition of the hyperventilation syndrome (1) as a starting point, then the diagnostic criterion should comprise three elements: (1) the patient should hyperventilate and have low PaCO2 values, (2) somatic reasons of diseases causing hyperventilation should be excluded, (3) the patient should have several complaints that are related to hypocapnia. Especially the latter criterion is strongly criticized, and doubts have been generated whether there is any relation between PCO2 and complaints. This may require that we redefine the hyperventilation syndrome, as we shall indicate later in the conclusion of this chapter. The criterion that a patient should hyperventilate and have low PCO2 levels can be measured objectively, either in the laboratory or under ambulatory conditions. The problem is, that patients who hyperventilate in a situation that may be phobic to them, will most probably not hyperventilate in the office of the doctor or in the hospital laboratory. Ambulatory measurement of transcutaneous PCO2 is not commonly available, and may not be adequate in situations of short episodes of hyperventilation. The time delay of this transcutaneous measurement is approximately 2 min, and the time constant to reach full deflection of the meter is of the same order. Thus, other tests of control of ventilation should be performed to evaluate whether a patient has one or more abnormalities in the control of ventilation that may lead to dysregulation and hypocapnia in other situations, e.g., a set of tests on control of breathing, as shown in Fig. 3. Somatic reasons for hyperventilation should be excluded. Table 2 shows the somatic conditions that may lead to symptomatic hyperventilation. The multitude of conditions makes it virtually impossible to make all these exclusions with certainty. Many of these conditions can be made unlikely by good history taking alone; however, more elaborate testing is sometimes indicated. The relation between hypocapnia and complaints is the most difficult of all criteria, based on the 1984 definition of the hyperventilation syndrome. Making the hyperventilation patient overbreathe for 1 min or more also aims at obtaining information from the patient about recognition of symptoms during this hypocapnic period. However, there can be considerable doubt whether all symptoms can be related to the hypocapnia per se, in spite of the adequate physiological basis that may explain such a relation. Roll and Zetterquist (77) were the first to question the value that a provocation test is the perspective for recognition of complaints. Hornsveld and associates (79) confirmed this dissociation between complaints and PetCO2 in many patients. However, Vansteenkiste (68) did find a good concordance between recognition of complaints during voluntary overbreathing and
Page 648 Table 2 Organic Reasons and Conditions for Hyperventilation Asthma
Caffeine abuse
Interstitial pulmonary disease
Acetylsalicylic acid abuse
Pulmonary congestion/edema
Cerebral tumor
Pulmonary embolism
Cerebrovascular accident
Pneumothorax
Uremia
Hyperthermia
Diabetic acidosis
Excessive talking
Progesterone/pregnancy
Pain
Vestibular stimulation
Hepatic cirrhosis
Alcohol withdrawal
Angina pectoris
Diaphragmatic hernia
Whiplash injury
Anemia
spontaneous complaints in daily life, in 77 of 90 patients suspected of hyperventilating. Bass et al. (79) studied a group of patients with agoraphobia. Voluntary hyperventilation could reproduce their symptoms in twothirds of the patients. The conclusion of this problematic relation between hypocapnia and complaints should be either that the hyperventilation syndrome should be redefined in terms of the relevance of hypocapniaassociated complaints, or that the presentation of complaints should not be required in the diagnosis of the syndrome. Table 3 gives a suggestion for the diagnostic procedures for establishing a diagnosis of hyperventilation. The first step is the medical history: character, intensity, and duration of complaints; precipitating factors (phobic situations); and start of problems (major life events). Let the patient describe an episode of hyperventilation. If possible ask an observer to describe the episode. Table 3 Diagnostic Procedure for the Hyperventilation Syndrome 1.
Make an inventory of presenting complaints, intensity, precipitating factors, duration, start; if possible, quantify with a questionnaire.
2.
Eliminate possible organic reasons for hyperventilation.
3.
Determine signs and symptoms on examination: high respiratory frequency, irregular breathing, sighing, thoracictype breathing, tachycardia, cold clammy hands, tremors.
4.
Evaluate laboratory examination: spirometric or respitrace evaluation of respiratory pattern; arterial or endtidal PCO2; ventilatory response to CO2; voluntary overbreathing test with recovery of PetCO2 (see Fig. 3).
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The medical history can be formalized and quantified by using a questionnaire. To this end, we have developed the Nijmegen questionnaire (80). The questionnaire was developed and validated, using data on 163 patients and 100 controls. Respiratory measurements were used, as described later. The questionnaire contains 16 items; each can be scored from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). A cumulative score of more than 23 gave an 80% correct prediction of finding disturbances in the control of ventilation in that subject. This questionnaire was also validated by van Dixhoorn and Duivenvoorden (19) and by Vansteenkiste et al. (68) and found to be adequate, with respectively, 93 and 70% of correct classifications of hyperventilators versus nonhyperventilators. Table 4 outlines this Nijmegen questionnaire. It can be used as an aid in the diagnosis and historytaking of the patient with suspected hyperventilation. It cannot, and was never intended to be able to make a diagnosis of hyperventilation syndrome. It can also be used as a quantifyable instrument for evaluating the effects of therapeutic interventions on complaints (81). Then inquire about the possible somatic causes of hyperventilation (see Table 2). If necessary, first do other appropriate tests to exclude suspected somatic reasons for hyperventilation: chest Xray films, ECG, histamine challenge test, Table 4 Nijmegen Questionnairea for Hyperventilation Symptom or complaint
Score
Chest pain
Feeling tense
Blurred vision
Dizziness
Losing contact with surroundings, confusion
Fast or deep breathing
Shortness of breath
Tight feeling in the chest
Bloated abdominal feelings
Tingling fingers
Cannot breathe deeply, or cannot sigh
Stiffness of fingers or arms
Stiffness around the mouth
Cold hands or feet
Throbbing of the heart
Feeling anxious
Total score:
a
The patient is asked to score his or her perception of the frequency of occurrence of the following symptoms: 0, never; 1, seldomly; 2, sometimes; 3, often; 4, very often.
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hepatic and renal function tests,
scan, computed tomography (CT) scan, blood glucose measurement, vestibular tests, or others.
Physical examination usually will not give many clues to a possible hyperventilation problem. Tachypnea, high thoracic breathing, irregular breathing, frequent sighs, sore intercostal muscles (spontaneously or when pressed on), tachycardia, ventricular extrasystoles, rigidity of muscles, cold extremities, hyperhydrosis, and tremors may give clues to possible hyperventilation, but are not really conclusive. Further laboratory examinations will mostly take place in the lung function department and will show whether hyperventilation exists at the moment of the investigation, or whether it is likely to occur in other situations (see Fig. 3). First, the endtidal or arterial PCO2 should be determined. This can be done together with the resting breathing pattern. The latter can be measured with a spirometer or pneumotachograph. Both require a mouthpiece or facemask, which affects respiratory pattern. An alternative may be to use respiratory inductive plethysmography (Respitrace), which uses one band around the chest and one around the abdomen. This interferes less with the respiratory pattern. However, its amplitude is difficult to calibrate to tidal volume (mL), and it is almost impossible to keep the calibration constant. Thus, the Respitrace will show a breathing pattern that can be interpreted in terms of respiratory frequency and irregularities; it is very difficult to obtain reliable tidal volumes or minute ventilations. Breathing patterns are evaluated in terms of restingbreathing frequency, minute ventilation, number of sighs, regularity or irregularity of breathing pattern, and time course of the endtidal PCO2 (decrease?). Next a CO2 response may be measured, and an increase or decrease of ventilation should be monitored (in some instances only a decrease in respiratory frequency is seen). Furthermore, the possible change in the regularity of breathing should be observed when some CO2 is given in the inspiratory air. Subsequently, some kind of provocation test may be made. Many investigators use a period of 1 or 3 min of voluntary overbreathing. The subject is stimulated to hyperventilate in such a way that endtidal PCO2 falls below 20 mmHg (2.6 kPa). At the end of the hyperventilation period, three aspects of the capnogram are to be considered: (1) is there a step change in endtidal PCO2, (2) is there an step change in respiratory frequency, (3) does the endtidal PCO2 come back to its baseline level within 3 min? Furthermore, the patient may be asked whether he or she recognizes the symptoms during this provocation; the value of this symptom recognition is highly questionable. Gardner (82) describes another type of provocation test, using treadmill exercise (5–10 min of brisk walking) as stimulus for making the ventilation increase. After stopping exercise, he requires the endtidal PCO2 to be higher than 4 kPa (30 mmHg) at 5 min after the exercise, in normal subjects. A word of caution should be expressed about the provocation test: there is at least one report
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in the literature of a fatal hyperventilation provocation test, lasting 25 min, in a patient with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and total respiratory insufficiency in the baseline condition (83). Furthermore it should be remembered that epileptic seizures can be elicited during hyperventilation (36). Thus, a considerable number of tests and observations can be made to diagnose the hyperventilation syndrome. The next question now is: How many of these tests should be positive to make the diagnosis? In the perspective of the absence of a gold standard, there is no absolute answer to that question. One thing is rather clear though: the diagnosis should not be made or rejected only on the basis of subjective complaints, neither in daily life, nor after a provocation test. Furthermore, the likelihood of hyperventilation leading to hypocapnia, as a consequence of a dysregulation of ventilation, should be established as firmly as possible. In our laboratory, we arbitrarily require at least three objectively recorded signs of respiratory dysregulation, listed in Table 5, to be positive. Most of these criteria have been described earlier by us (84). Recognition of symptoms is not used in the diagnosis of hyperventilation in our laboratory. The diagnosis of hyperventilation syndrome implies that the patient has episodes of respiratory alkalosis. Renal compensation occurs only when the respiratory alkalosis exists chronically (i.e., for many hours or even days). The diagnosis “chronic hyperventilation,” therefore, should be made only if signs of renal compensation for the respiratory alkalosis can be found in the blood gas analysis: low standard bicarbonate (<22 mmol/L), or negative base excess (more negative than 2). If this is not present in the patient with hyperventilation syndrome, then the hyperventilation is paroxysmal. Table 5 Signsa of Ventilatory Dysregulation Indicating Possible Hyperventilation 1.
Low arterial/endtidal PCO2
2.
Irregular breathing or frequent sighing
3.
High respiratory frequency (> 12/min)
4.
Declining PetCO2 levels in a baseline condition
5.
Decrease in minute ventilation/respiratory frequency when PetCO2 is raised by 0.7–1.0 kPa (5–8 torr)
6.
Provocation test: the capnogram after 1 min of voluntary overbreathing shows one of the following items. a. No step change in PetCO2 b. No step change in respiratory frequency. c. No recovery of PetCO2, 3 min after stopping hyperventilation, to 90% of baseline value.
a
Arbitrarily we require at least three positive signs to make the diagnosis “hyperventilation syndrome.” Organic causes for hyperventilation should have been excluded beforehand.
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V. Therapy The therapeutic approach to the hyperventilation syndrome has several stages or degrees of intervention: psychological counseling, physiotherapy, and drug therapy. Depending on the severity of the problem, one or more therapeutic strategies can be chosen. The aim of the therapy can be total elimination of the problem. However, this goal cannot always be reached, and a secondary goal of coping with the remaining problems might be considered. Especially in cases of longer duration, and those with treatment failures in the past, a complete elimination of the hyperventilation problem is difficult to attain. The first step in treating the hyperventilation problem is always a thorough explanation to the patient about the underlying mechanisms. Given the concept of a circular process, where the interpretation and attributions to complaints are a new stimulus for further hyperventilation, this explanation will open the vicious circle. If the symptoms of the patient can be reproduced by a provocation test, this will help in the process of reduction of stress and anxiety. Patients who perceive their usual symptoms during a period of voluntary overbreathing, respond better to therapy than those who do not recognize symptoms (85). Coping strategies, such as breathing retraining, using a plastic bag, or some aid to increase ventilatory dead space (40cm garden hose), can be usefull in acute situations. Patients do not like to use them, but the awareness that they have something at their disposal that may help them can sufficiently reduce their anxiety. Exposure to the avoided situations, performed in a graded way, initially supported by the presence of a therapist, and supported by previously acquired coping strategies, will help the patients return to a normal life. Avoidance behavior is a widespread phenomenon in patients with hyperventilation. Breathing retraining is one of the therapeutic modalities that is being used widely. The aims set by this type of therapy can be the following: (1) to reduce hyperventilation in acute situations and (2) to attain relaxation by breathing exercises, as for example, in yoga. Many therapists are obsessed by the high thoracicbreathing pattern. This is not a normal pattern. In the normal resting subject, twothirds of the inspiration is generated by the diaphragm and onethird by the intercostals and scaleni. This type of breathing is a consequence of stress and of the high gammamotoneuron activity. Changing this pattern, by instructing an abdominaltype breathing will not reduce ventilation per se. If anything, the hyperventilator should breathe less, not necessarily differently. Furthermore, the movement of the anterior abdominal wall, frequently used as an indicator of diaphragmatic movement, is determined by more factors than diaphragm alone. De Troyer and Sampson (86) have shown that “diaphragmatic breathing” is a fallacy. They recorded pleural pressure, gastric pressure, EMG activity of the parasternal intercostals and diaphragm, and movements of thoracic and abdominal walls in normal subjects who were instructed
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to use an abdominalbreathing pattern. They showed that the amplitude of movements of the anterior abdominal wall did indeed increase. However, at the same time, the EMG activity of the parasternal intercostals also increased during diaphragmatic breathing. They stated clearly that “The EMGactivity (of the parasternal intercostals) could not be voluntarily suppressed during breathing, unless the tidal volume was trivial.” Thus, breathing retraining, and instructing patients to use a diaphragmatic or abdominaltype breathing, cannot be anything else but a placebo treatment, unless this type of instruction is used as a type of relaxation exercise. The first aim of breathing retraining is reduction of minute ventilation. This can be helpfull in acute situations. The simplest way of achieving this is by lowering respiratory frequency (e.g., by counting). It can be achieved by voluntary breathing, using corticospinal pathways. This means that such breathing patterns can be sustained for as long as the subject focuses his or her attention on breathing. As soon as the attention is not focused on this voluntary slow breathing, the autonomic pathways take over again. Stanescu et al. (87) trained normal subjects, by means of hatha yoga, to extremely low breathing frequencies of two to three breaths per minute. The control group did relaxation exercises. After training, the yoga subjects had lower minute ventilations, higher PCO2 values, and lower ventilatory responses to CO2, than the control group. The authors speculated that this might become an autonomic pattern if these exercises are performed on a daily basis. Slowpaced respiration has been used (85,88) as a part of a multifaceted treatment program, and it has proved to be highly effective in panic disorder. Biofeedback on frequency of breathing (89) and on endtidal PCO2 levels (90) has been used. The frequency biofeedback group showed significantly better results for PCO2 and complaints than the placebo group; the PCO2 biofeedback gave an improvement that was not significantly better than breathing retraining without feedback in the control group. The second aim of breathing retraining can be relaxation. Unfortunately, this accepted clinical observation has hardly been studied adequately. Several yoga techniques use breathing exercises for relaxation, as a hatha yoga technique (87). On the other hand, it has been shown quite convincingly that the breathing pattern, in a relaxed state, reverts to an abdominaltype breathing. Timmons et al. (91) showed that when subjects were in a presleep state, characterized by EEG alphaactivity, there was an abdominaltype breathing. This was interpreted as a sign that abdominal breathing might influence the state of consciousness. However, the causeeffect relationship might have been the other way around. Pharmacotherapy of the hyperventilation syndrome has been investigated by some authors, and concern the effects of adrenergic blockers, benzodiazepines, and tricyclic antidepressants. The therapy with blockers aims at suppressing manifestations of high sympathetic activity. In our placebocontrolled study
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with metoprolol in 16 patients with the hyperventilation syndrome, we found a highly significant increase in PaCO2, that did not occur in the placebo group. In 12 of 16 patients, the amount of subjective complaints decreased (41). In a noncontrolled followup study on 120 patients, we also found an improvement in PaCO2 and minute ventilation that lasted for 26 months. The effect of the blocker on complaints was no longer significant after that time period (92). Van de Ven et al. (93) studied the effect of bisoprolol in 60 patients with hyperventilation and found a significant decrease in complaints, number of attacks, and severity of attacks. In another study, we investigated the effect of the tricyclic antidepressant clomipramine on six patients in an uncontrolled design during 18 months. The intensity of complaints was reduced during therapy (94). Benzodiazepines also reduced complaints in another study (95). This type of drug also mediates muscle relaxation and ventilatory depression, and thus may affect more than one aspect of the hyperventilation problem. VI. Conclusions Traditionally, the hyperventilation syndrome is defined as a complex of symptoms, induced by overbreathing, that can be reproduced by voluntary hyperventilation. The symptoms are manyfold, and stem from almost every anatomical system. There is a good physiological basis on how hypocapnia and increased sympathetic adrenergic tone may bring about these symptoms. However, several investigators have indicated that this reproduction of symptoms by voluntary hyperventilation is not a consistent phenomenon. Also the association between hypocapnia and complaints, either in the laboratory situation, or during ambulatory monitoring, is not absolute, and it does not occur in every patient. Thus, the symptoms may have other sources or modulators than the PCO2 value of the arterial blood. Psychological aspects of perception of symptoms and interpretation or attributions of each individual patient may play an important role. Furthermore, the selection criteria for the various groups of patients that have been investigated were diverse, often based only on complaints or symptoms, and not on any physiological measurements. This may also be why the syndrome has so many names and has been associated with so many other clinical entities, such as irritable heart, Prinzmetal angina, mitral valve prolaps, chronic fatigue syndrome, whiplash syndrome, panic disorder, and others (96). Another option is that the symptoms are not elicited by the absolute value of the PCO2, but may be a consequence of abrupt changes in its value. Cell, organs, and the whole human organism have compensatory mechanisms at their disposal for eventually restoring the acidbase homeostasis. Thus, disruptions of this homeostasis occur mainly in the period before these compensatory mechanisms have their full effect (i.e., during transient phases of developing a respiratory
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alkalosis). This hypothesis has already been put forward by other investigators, but has never been investigated thoroughly. However, this does not seem to fully explain the occasional complete dissociation between complaints and hypocapnia. It might be adequate, in the perspective of this dilemma, to rethink the definition of the hyperventilation syndrome. That a substantial number of patients breathe more than their metabolism requires, without any apparent organic reason, has never been challenged by any investigator. Thus, there certainly is a category of subjects with primary idiopathic hyperventilation. The complex of symptoms and complaints that may, or may not, accompany this idiopathic hyperventilation in certain persons is very difficult to grasp, especially its relation with the hypocapnia. The traditional definition of the hyperventilation syndrome heavily depends on these complaints and their causal relation with hypocapnia. Therefore, it might be worthwhile to redefine the hyperventilation syndrome, in a more physiological way: A dysregulation of ventilation, causing hypocapnia, in the absence of organic causes for hyperventilation, with symptoms and complaints not exclusively associated with the hypocapnia. References 1. Lewis RA, Howell JBL. Definition of the hyperventilation syndrome. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1986; 22:201–205. 2. Da Costa JM. On irritable heart. Am J Med Sci 1871; 61:17–52. 3. Lewis T, Cotton C, Barcroft J. Breathlessness in soldiers suffering from the irritable heart. Br Med J 1916; 2:517–519. 4. Kerr WJ, Gliebe PA, Dalton JW. Physical phenomena associated with anxiety states: the hyperventilation syndrome. Calif J Med 1938; 48:12–16. 5. Fraser F. Effort syndrome in the present war. Edinb Med J 1940; 37:451–465. 6. Bass C, Gardner WN. Emotional influences on breathing and breathlessness. J Psychosom Res 1985; 29:592–609. 7. Hoes MJAJM, Colla P, van Doorn P, Folgering H, de Swart J. Hyperventilation and panic attacks. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48:435–437. 8. Hibbert GA. Hyperventilation as a cause of panic attacks. Br Med J 1984; 288:263–264. 9. Wientjes CJE, Grossman P. Overreactivity of the psyche or the soma? Interindividual associations between psychosomatic symptomsanxiety, heart rate, and end tidal partial carbon dioxide pressure. Psychosom Med 1994; 56:533–540. 10. van den Hout M, Hoekstra R, Arntz A, Christiaanse M, Ranschaert W, Schouten E. Hyperventilation is not diagnostically specific to panic patients. Psychosom Med 1992; 54:182–191. 11. Saisch SGN, Deale A, Gardner WN, Weseley S. Hyperventilation and chronic fatigue syndrome. Q J Med 1994; 87:63–67. 12. Dent R, Yates D, Higginbottam T. Does the hyperventilation syndrome exist? Thorax 1983; 38:223.
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13. Gardner WN. The pathophysiology of hyperventilation disorders. Chest 1996; 109:516–534. 14. McKell TE, Sullivan AJ. The hyperventilation syndrome in gastroenterology. Gastroenterology 1947; 9:6–16. 15. Rice RL. Symptom patterns of the hyperventilation syndrome. Am J Med 1950; 8:691–700. 16. Singer EP. The hyperventilation syndrome in clinical medicine. N Y State J Med 1958; 58:1494–1500. 17. Dölle W. Hyperventilation und Hyperventilationssyndrom. Med Klin 1964; 59:695–699. 18. Pincus JH. Disorders of conscious awareness—hyperventilation syndrome. J Hosp Med 1978; 19:312–313. 19. van Dixhoorn J, Duivenvoorden HJ. Efficacy of Nijmegen questionnaire in recognition of the hyperventilation syndrome. J Psychosom Res 1985; 29:199–206. 20. Joorabchi B. Expressions of the hyperventilation syndrome in childhood. Clin Pediatr 1977; 12:1110–1115. 21. Herman SP, Stickler GB, Lucas AR. Hyperventilation syndrome in children and adolescents: a long term followup. Pediatrics 1981; 67:183–187. 22. Brashear R. Hyperventilation syndrome. Lung 1983; 161:257–273. 23. Brown AM. Effects of CO2 and pH on neuronal membranes. Fed Proc 1972; 31:1399–1403. 24. Krnjevic K, Puil E, Werman R. Evidence for Ca2+ activated K+ conductance in cat neurons from intracellular EDTA injections. Can J Neurophysiol 1975; 53:1214–1218. 25. Carpenter DO, Hubbard JH, Humphrey DR, Thompson HK, Marshall WH. Carbon dioxide effects on nerve cell function. In: Nahas G, Schaefer KE, eds. Carbon Dioxide and Metabolic Regulators. New York: Springer Verlag, 1974:49–62. 26. Macefield G, Burke D. Paresthesia and tetany induced by voluntary hyperventilation. Brain 1991; 114:527–540. 27. O'Cain CF, Hensley MJ, McFadden ER, Ingram RH. Pattern and mechanism of airway response to hypocapnia in normal subjects. J Appl Physiol 1979; 47:8– 12. 28. Duckles SP, Rayner MD, Nadel JA. Effects of CO2 and pH on druginduced contractions of airway smooth muscle. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1974; 190:472–481. 29. van den Elshout F, van Herwaarden CLA, Folgering H. Effects of hypercapnia and hypocapnia on pulmonary resistance in normals and asthmatics. Thorax 1991; 46: 28–32. 30. Hornsveld H, Garssen B, van Spiegel P. Voluntary hyperventilation: the influence of duration and depth on the development of symptoms. Biol Psychol 1995; 40:299–312. 31. Kety SS, Schmidt CF. The effects of active and passive hyperventilation on cerebral blood flow, cerebral oxygen consumption, cardiac output, and blood pressure of normal young men. J Clin Invest 1946; 25:107–119. 32. Kennealy JA, McLennan JE, Loudon RG, McLaurin L. Hyperventilation induced cerebral hypoxia. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 122:407–412. 33. Wilson DF, Pastuszko A, DiGiacomo JE, Pawlovski M, Schneiderman R, Papadopoulos MD. Effect of hyperventilation on oxygenation of the brain cortex of newborn piglets. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70:2691–2696.
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34. Krnjevic K, Randic M, Siesjö BK. Cortical CO2tension and neuronal excitability. J Physiol (Lond) 1965; 176:105–122. 35. Speckmann EJ, Caspers H. Responses of spinal and cortical neurons to changes of PO2 and PCO2 in blood and tissue. In: Purves MJ, ed. The Peripheral Arterial Chemoreceptors. London: Cambridge University Press 1975:163–174. 36. Miley CE, Forster FM. Activation of partial complex seizures by hyperventilation. Arch Neurol 1977; 34:371–373. 37. Keskimäki I, Sainio K, Sovijärvi AR, Stenberg D, Viljanen A. EEG and endtidal carbon dioxide concentration in the hyperventilation syndrome. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1980; 50:496–501. 38. Theunissen E, Huygen P, Folgering H. Vestibular hyperreactivity and hyperventilation. Clin Otolayngol 1986; 11:161–169. 39. Gibson TM. The effects of hypocapnia on psychomotor and intellectual performance. Aviat Space Environ Med 1978; 49:943–946. 40. Richardson DW, Kontos HA, Raper AJ. Systemic circulatory responses to hypocapnia in man. Am J Physiol 1972; 223:1308–1312. 41. Folgering H, Cox A. betaBlocker therapy with metoprolol in the hyperventilation syndrome. Respiration 1981; 41:33–38. 42. Foex P, Ryder WA, Bennett MJ. Carbon dioxide and coronary bloodflow; direct effects or consequences of altered dynamics of the systemic circulation. Bull Eur Pathophysiol Respir 1980; 16:185–194. 43. Chambers JB, Bass C. Chest pain with normal coronary anatomy: a review of natural history and possible etiologic factors. Prog Cardiovasc Res 1990; 33:161– 183. 44. Lary D, Goldschlager N. Electrocardiographic changes during hyperventilation, resembling myocardial ischemia in patients with normal coronary angiograms. Am Heart J 1974; 87:383–390. 45. Neill WA, Pantley GA, Nakornchai V. Respiratory alkalemia during exercise reduces angina threshold. Chest 1981; 80:149–153. 46. Yasue H, Nagao M, Omote S, Takizawa A, Miwa K, Tanaka S. Coronary arterial spasm and Prinzmetal's variant form of angina induced by hyperventilation and Trisbuffer infusion. Circulation 1978; 58:56–62. 47. Brown EB. Ventricular fibrillation following a rapid fall in alveolar carbon dioxide concentration. Am J Physiol 1952; 169:56–60. 48. Coffman JD, Kelly P. Hyperventilation and human calf muscle blood flow. Am J Physiol 1966; 211:1255–1260. 49. Folgering H, Sistermans H. Hyperventilation and aerophagia. Eur J Respir Dis 1986; 68:173–176. 50. Grossman P, de Swart JCG. Diagnosis of hyperventilation syndrome on the basis of reported complaints. J Psychosom Res 1984; 28:97–104. 51. Folgering H. Snik A. Hyperventilation syndrome and muscle fatigue. J Psychosom Res 1988; 32:165–171. 52. Lum C. The syndrome of habitual chronic hyperventilation. In: Hill OW, ed. Modern Trends in Psychosomatic Medicine. London: Butterworth 1976:Chap 11; 196–230. 53. Salkovskis PM, Hyperventilation and anxiety. Neurosciences 1988; 1:76–82. 54. Zandbergen J, van Aalst V, de Loof C, Pols H, Griez E. No hyperventilation in panic disorder patients. Psychiatry Res 1993; 47:1–6.
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55. Gorman JM, Askanazi J, Liebowitz MR, Feyer A, Stein J, Kinney JM, Klein DF. Response to hyperventilation in a group of patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1984; 41:857–861. 56. Cowley DS, RoyByrne P. Hyperventilation and panic disorder. Am J Med 1987; 83:929–937. 57. Ley R. The effect of breathing retraining and the centrality of hyperventilation in panic disorder: a reinterpretation of experimental findings. Behav Res Ther 1991; 29:301–304. 58. Naifeh KH. Anatomy, physiology, physiopathology, and psychology of the respiratory system. In: Timmons BH, Ley R, eds. Behavioural and Psychological Approaches to Breathing Disorders. New York: Plenum, 1994:17–47. 59. Jennett S. Control of breathing and its disorders. In: Timmons BH, Ley R, eds. Behavioural and Psychological Approaches to Breathing Disorders. New York: Plenum 1994:Chap 4; 67–80. 60. Phillipson EA, McClean PA, Sullivan CE, Zamel N. Interaction of metabolic and behavioural respiratory control during hypercapnia and speech. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978; 117:903–909. 61. Wassermann K, Hansen JE, Sue DY, Whipp BJ, Casabury R. Principles in Exercise Testing and Interpretation. Malvern, PA: Lea & Febiger, 1994. 62. Eldridge FL. Post hyperventilation breathing and apnea evidence for a central neural mechanism which sustains respiration in the absence of continuing external stimuli. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1974; 10:261–266. 63. Swanson GD, Ward DS, Bellville JW. Posthyperventilation isocapnic hyperpnea. J Appl Physiol 1976; 40:592–596. 64. Folgering H, Durlinger M. The timecourse of posthyperventilation breathing in man depends on PACO2. J Appl Physiol 1983; 54:809–813. 65. Beumer HM, Hardonk HJ. Symptomatic und behandlung des Hyperventilationssyndroms. Munch Med Wochenschr 1971; 113:1255–1258. 66. Folgering H, Ponte J, Sadig T. Adrenergic mechanisms and chemoreception in the carotid body of the cat and rabbit. J Physiol (Lond) 1982; 325:1–21. 67. Roelofs SM, Dikkenberg GM. Hyperventilation and anxiety: alcohol withdrawal symptoms decreasing with prolonged abstinence. Alcohol 1987; 4:215–220. 68. Vansteenkiste J, Rochette F, Demedts M. Diagnostic tests of hyperventilation syndrome. Eur Respir J 1991; 4:393–399. 69. Hormbrey J, Jacobi MS, Patil CP, Saunders KB. CO2 response and pattern of breathing in patients with symptomatic hyperventilation, compared to asthmatic and normal subjects. Eur Respir J 1988; 1:846–852. 70. Han JN. Breathing patterns in anxiety disorders; is there a hyperventilation syndrome? Dissertation, University of Leuven, Belgium, 1995. 71. Folgering H, Colla P. Some anomalies in the control of PACO2 in patients with a hyperventilation syndrome. Bull Eur Physiopathol Resp 1978; 14:505–512. 72. Gardner WN, Meah MS. Controlled study of respiratory responses during prolonged measurement in patients with chronic hyperventilation. Lancet 1986; 1:826– 830. 73. Woods SW, Charney DS, Loke J, Goodman WK, Redmond DE, Heniger GR. Carbon dioxide sensitivity in panic anxiety. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986; 43:900– 909.
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74. Zandbergen J, Pols H, de Loof C, Griez EJL. Ventilatory response to CO2 in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 1991; 39:13–19. 75. Dudley DL, PittsPoarch AR. Psychophysiological aspects of respiratory control. Clin Chest Med 1980; 1:131–143. 76. Weimann G, Korschinsky H. Durchführung und Bewertung des Hyperventilationsversuchs. Med Klin 1970; 65:56–62. 77. Roll MI, Zetterquist S. Acute chest pain without obvious organic cause before the age of 40: response to forced hyperventilation. J Int Med 1990; 228:223–228. 78. Hornsveld H, Garssen B, Fiedeldij Dop M, van Spiegel P, de Haes H. Double blind placebo controlled study on the hyperventilation provocation test: questioning the concept validity of the hyperventilation syndrome. Dissertation, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1996:Chap 8; 113–121. 79. Bass C, Lelliott P, Marks I. Fear talk versus voluntary hyperventilation in agrophobics and normals. Psychiatr Med 1989; 19:669–676. 80. van Doorn P, Colla P, Folgering H. Een vragenlijst voor hyperventilatieklachten. Psycholoog 1983; 18:573–577. 81. Folgering H, Jongmans M, Cox N, Dekhuijzen P. Treatment of hyperventilation during pulmonary rehabilitation. Eur Respir J 1991; 4(suppl 14):222S. 82. Gardner WN. Diagnosis and organic causes of symptomatic hyperventilation. In: Timmons BH, Ley R, eds. Behavioural and Psychological Approaches to Breathing Disorders. New York: Plenum, 1994:Chap. 6; 99–112. 83. Bates JH, Adamson JS, Pierce JA. Death after voluntary hyperventilation. N Engl J Med 1966; 274:1371–1373. 84. Folgering H. Diagnostic criteria for the hyperventilation syndrome. In: von Euler C, KatzSalomon M, eds. Respiratory Psychophysiology. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988:133–139. 85. Salkovskis PM, Jones DR, Clark DM. Respiratory control in treatment of panic attacks: replication and extension with concurrent measurement of PCO2. Br J Psychiatry 1986; 148:526–532. 86. De Troyer A, Sampson MG. Activation of the parasternal intercostals during breathing efforts in human subjects. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52:524–529. 87. Stanescu DC, Nemery B, Veriter C, Marechal C. Pattern of breathing and ventilatory response to CO2 in subjects practising hathayoga. J Appl Physiol 1981; 51:1625–1629. 88. Clark DM, Salkovskis PM, Chalkley AJ. Respiratory control as a treatment for panic attacks. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 1985; 16:23–30. 89. Grossman P, de Swart JCG, Defares PB. A controlled study of a breathing therapy for treatment of hyperventilation syndrome. J Psychosom Res 1985; 29:49– 58. 90. van Doorn P, Folgering H, Colla P. Control of the endtidal PCO2 in the hyperventilation syndrome: effects of biofeedback and of breathing instructions compared. Clin Respir Physiol 1982; 18:829–836. 91. Timmons B, Salamy J, Kamya J, Girton D. Abdominalthoracic respiratory movements and levels of arousal. Psychon Sci 1972; 27:173–175. 92. Folgering H, Rutten H, Roumen Y. betaBlockade in the hyperventilation syndrome; a retrospective assessment of symptoms and complaints. Respiration 1983; 44:19–25.
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93. van de Ven LLM, Mouthaan BJ, Hoes MJAJM. Treatment of the hyperventilation syndrome with bisoproplol: a placebocontrolled clinical trial. J Psychosom Res 1995; 39:1007–1013. 94. Hoes MJAJM, Colla P, Folgering H. Clomipramine treatment of hyperventilation. Pharmakopsychiatry 1980; 13:25–28. 95. Aronson PR. Evaluation of psychotropic drug therapy in chronic hyperventilation syndrome. J New Drugs 1966; 6:305–307. 96. Tavel ME. Hyperventilation syndromehiding behind pseudonyms? Chest 1990; 97:1285–1288.
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20 Management of Respiratory Insufficiency. MURRAY D. ALTOSE Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine and Cleveland Veterans Affairs Medical Center Cleveland, Ohio 1. Introduction The primary function of the respiratory system is to satisfy the metabolic requirements of the body by providing sufficient oxygen to tissues and cells and by removing excess carbon dioxide. This is accomplished through a complex set of interrelated functions involving the brain and specialized sensory receptors; the neuromuscular apparatus; and the chest wall, lungs, and airways. Respiratory insufficiency can result from inadequate central respiratory drive; from the failure of transmission of neural signals from the brain to the ventilatory apparatus; from impairments in the contractility and forcegenerating capacity of the respiratory muscles; or from abnormalities in the mechanical performance of the chest wall, lungs, or airways. The manifestations of disorders of the respiratory system vary depending on the type and severity of the abnormality. Exercise capacity may be diminished. Symptoms of dyspnea are common and may be disabling. Frank ventilatory failure is an important consequence of severe and faradvanced disease and is characterized by alveolar hypoventilation and abnormally high levels of arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) and arterial hypoxemia. Approaches to the management of respiratory insufficiency also vary with type and severity of the abnormality. These include improving the mechanical
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function of the airways and lungs, enhancing respiratory muscle performance, improving the overall condition of the body, increasing central respiratory drive, and using artificial means to maintain adequate levels of ventilation and oxygenation. II. Respiratory Control System Respiratory motor activity emanates from clusters of specialized neurons in the medulla (1). Discharges from the central respiratory pattern generator in the brain stem are transmitted along the spinal cord to nerves that innervate chest wall muscles. Contractions of the respiratory muscles expand the chest wall and generate the forces necessary to move air along the tracheobronchial tree and to inflate the lungs. The resulting ventilation regulates the oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions and hydrogen ion concentration in the blood and body tissues. Changes in Pco2 and Po2 are sensed by central chemoreceptors in the medulla and peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies, and signals from these chemoreceptors are transmitted back to brain stem respiratory centers (2). Breathing is adjusted in response to chemoreceptor inputs to maintain blood gas and acid—base homeostasis. Mechanoreceptors in the airways, lungs, and chest wall are also involved in regulating the level and pattern of breathing. Afferent signals from pulmonary and respiratory muscle mechanoreceptors provide respiratory premotor and motor neurons in the brain with important information about airflow along the tracheobronchial tree, lung expansion, and the length and force of contraction of the respiratory muscles (3,4). This allows adjustments in the level and pattern of brain stem respiratory motor activity to compensate for changes in ventilatory system impedance or respiratory muscle function. III. Causes of Respiratory Insufficiency Diseases and disorders of any one of the components of the respiratory control system will impair respiratory performance and, when severe or faradvanced, will eventually lead to frank respiratory failure (Table 1). A. Central Respiratory Control Abnormalities Respiratory failure can result from diseases and disorders of the brain, such as bulbar poliomyelitis, encephalitis, brain stem vascular abnormalities, and tumor involving the respiratory centers (5). Functional abnormalities of the brain caused by sedatives and narcotic drugs, metabolic alkalosis, myxedema, as well as disorders such as primary alveolar hypoventilation when there is no recognizable anatomical abnormality in the brain, can also lead to respiratory failure. In these
Page 663 Table 1 Causes of Respiratory Insufficiency Central respiratory control abnormalities Diseases involving respiratory centers in the brain Poliomyelitis Encephalitis Brain vascular abnormalities Brain tumors Functional abnormalities of the brain Primary alveolar hypoventilation Overdose of sedatives or narcotics Metabolic acidosis Myxedema Neuromuscular disorders Diseases of the spinal cord and anterior horn cells Diseases of the peripheral nerves Myasthenia gravis Myopathies and muscular dystrophies Chest wall disorders Kyphoscoliosis Ankylosing spondylitis Morbid obesity Diseases of the airways and lungs Obstructive upper airway and lung diseases Restrictive, interstitial lung diseases
conditions the respiratory centers in the brain provide insufficient neural activation of lower motor neurons. Hypercapnia and hypoxemia, characteristic of alveolar hypoventilation, develop in the absence of any abnormality in mechanical pulmonary function, and the vital capacity and the forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (FEV1) remain within normal limits. Abnormal chemoreceptor function found after carotid endarterectomy, in patients with cyanotic congenital heart disease and in natives of high altitude is usually associated with normal arterial blood gas tensions at rest, but causes a blunting of the ventilatory responses to hypoxia (6). B. Neuromuscular Disorders Neuromuscular disorders involving the ventilatory apparatus block the conversion of central respiratory neural output to respiratory force. The neuromuscular disorders include those of the spinal cord and anterior horn cells, the peripheral nerves, the neuromuscular junction, and the respiratory muscles themselves. In the presence of respiratory neuromuscular disorders, greater central respiratory neural
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output is required to achieve a given respiratory force and level of ventilation. The severity of the respiratory neuromuscular disorder is readily gauged from the maximum inspiratory and expiratory airway pressures, but even in the face of moderately severe impairments, symptoms of dyspnea are not prominent (7). When respiratory muscle strength decreases to approximately 30% of normal, ventilatory failure with hypercapnia and hypoxia commonly occurs (8). Patients with respiratory neuromuscular disorders also display a rapid and shallow pattern of breathing (9). Rapid breathing with a small tidal volume increases dead space ventilation, and this may worsen the hypercapnia in patients whose ability to increase their level of ventilation is impaired. The reduction in vital capacity in neuromuscular disorders is greater than can be explained by muscle weakness alone (10). This is due to an increase in the stiffness of both the lungs and the chest wall (11,12). The basis for these changes in the lungs and in chest wall distensibility is unclear. Reduced lung distensibility may be due to diffuse microatelectasis, or to increases in the surface tension of the alveolar lining layer, consequent to prolonged shallow breathing. Limited thoracic excursions may, over time, also lead to ankylosis of the costovertebral and costosternal joints and to stiffness of the tendons and ligaments of the rib cage (13). C. Chest Wall Disorders Disorders of the chest wall include kyphoscoliosis, ankylosing spondylitis, marked obesity, and various congenital deformities. Of these, kyphoscoliosis is most likely to cause respiratory failure. These disorders increase the stiffness of the chest wall so that greater pressures must be generated by the respiratory muscles to displace the thorax and produce a given level of ventilation. Lung compliance is also commonly reduced, thus heightening the restrictive ventilatory impairment. The deformity of the thorax in kyphoscoliosis causes changes in respiratory muscle length, configuration, and insertional arrangements, and this additionally impairs the ability of the muscles to generate pressure (14). D. Diseases of the Lung Diseases of the lungs (Table 2), when severe or far advanced, are the most common cause of respiratory failure. Obstructive lung diseases, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), are characterized by airway narrowing and increased airway resistance. Interstitial lung diseases increase lung elasticity. With increases in either lung resistance or elastance, the level of central respiratory motor output required to achieve a given level of ventilation must rise. Respiratory compensation for increases in ventilatory system impedance normally occurs through several different mechanisms (15). These include changes in the intrinsic mechanical properties of the respiratory muscles, reflexes initiated by feedback from airway, lung or chest wall mechanoreceptor afferents, chemo
Page 665 Table 2 Factors Contributing to Respiratory Insufficiency in Diseases of the Lung Increased ventilatory impedance Impaired gas exchange Blunted chemosensitivity and load compensation Respiratory muscle weakness and fatigue Abnormal breathing patterns Malnutrition
reflexes in response to changes in blood gas tensions, and behavioral influences from higher brain centers shaped by the sensations associated with the act of breathing. Failure of load compensation will lead to a breakdown in respiratory homeostasis when ventilatory mechanics become disordered by disease. Both obstructive and restrictive lung diseases cause ventilationperfusion mismatching. Venous admixture results in arterial hypoxemia and further arterial oxygen desaturation may accompany exercise. Hypoxemia in patients with respiratory disease stimulates arterial chemoreceptors and increases respiratory motor output. An enlarged physiological dead space also requires an increase in minute ventilation to maintain a constant PaCO2. These increases in the respiratory effort expended in breathing contribute to symptoms of dyspnea (16). Chronic respiratory failure with CO2 retention is more likely to be found in patients with obstructive than in those with restrictive lung diseases, and it is more common in COPD than in asthma. Even in COPD patients with apparently similar degrees of airways obstruction, the Paco2 may differ widely (17). Although CO2 retention is clearly dependent on the severity of the derangement in mechanical lung function, the susceptibility to respiratory failure depends on several other factors, including impaired ventilatory control mechanisms (18), respiratory muscle weakness (19,20), abnormalbreathing patterns (21), and dynamic hyperinflation of the lungs (22). Asthmatics may be spared from respiratory failure because of heightened central respiratory drive in response to afferent feedback from airway irritant receptors (23), but asthmatics with blunted ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia are more likely to experience nearfatal attacks (24). On the other hand, the greater strength and endurance of the respiratory muscles may permit more complete load compensation and protect against the development of respiratory failure (25). One of the important hallmarks of COPD is expiratory airflow limitation. When flow limitation becomes sufficiently severe, expiration is so retarded that the subsequent breath begins before the relaxation volume of the respiratory system is reached. This causes dynamic hyperinflation of the lungs and a positive
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alveolar pressure at end expiration (intrinsic PEEP; 22). Several consequences of dynamic hyperinflation serve to worsen dyspnea and predispose to respiratory failure. With overinflation of the lungs and overexpansion of the thorax, the muscles of inspiration are foreshortened. Based on the lengthtension properties of muscle, foreshortening of the muscles reduces their forcegenerating capacity. The increase in lung volume also causes breathing to take place on a stiffer portion of the pressurevolume curve of the lung, thereby producing an added elastic load. Additionally, the inward elastic recoil of the respiratory system at end expiration imposes an added threshold load that must be overcome by the inspiratory muscles before inspiratory flow can begin. All of these factors significantly increase the energy cost of breathing (26), and there is a close relation between expiratory flow limitation and dyspnea severity (27). There is also a significant association between Pco2 and intrinsic PEEP (22). Although a high resistance in only one phase of the respiratory cycle may not lead to CO2 retention, loading of both the inspiratory and expiratory muscles is more likely to result in chronic hypercapnia (28). Rapid, shallow breathing is more commonly observed in hypercapnic than in normocapnic COPD patients (21,29). However, the pathophysiological mechanisms of altered patterns of breathing have not been clearly determined. As breathing becomes more rapid and shallow in patients with COPD, inspiratory duration shortens but the ratio of tidal volume to inspiratory duration (VT /TI), a measure of the neural drive to breathing, increases. This suggests that the alterations in breathing pattern are not the result of blunted central respiratory neural output (30). On the other hand, vagal afferents from airway or pulmonary receptors (3), chest wall mechanoreceptor afferents (4), or hypoxemia (31) may contribute to the rapid, shallow breathing. It is most likely that the pattern of breathing in COPD is set by the severity of the mechanical abnormalities. With both static and dynamic hyperinflation, inspiration starts from a markedly elevated lung volume and the ability to increase tidal volume is limited because of the reduced inspiratory capacity and encroachment on total lung capacity. At the same time, there are excessive demands on the muscles of inspiration that are foreshortened but expected to operate not only against a flow resistance, but also along the stiffer portion of the pressurevolume curve. Shortening inspiration and reducing tidal volume is an obvious strategy for minimizing breathing effort and energy expenditure. It has been suggested that these changes in the pattern of breathing may be based on behavioral responses that are shaped by the sensation of dyspnea and serve to minimize unpleasant or distressing breathing sensations (32). Although rapid, shallow breathing has some beneficial effects, it also has the deleterious consequence of increasing dead space ventilation and the predisposition to alveolar hypoventilation. Aside from the impairment in the mechanical advantage of the inspiratory muscles, intrinsic muscle strength is generally well preserved or even increased
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because of work hypertrophy (33). Weakness of the respiratory muscles does, however, commonly develop in severe disease and is associated with CO2 retention (29). Several factors contribute to generalized respiratory muscle weakness in patients with COPD. These include weight loss and malnutrition, hypoxia and hypercapnia, and various electrolyte and metabolic derangements (34). When weakened and mechanically disadvantaged muscles are made to work against an excessive load, fatigue may result. The susceptibility of the respiratory muscles to fatigue depends on the intensity and duration of muscle contraction. Contraction intensity can be quantified as the ratio of the peak inspiratory pressure with each breath to the maximum static inspiratory pressure (Ppeak/PImax). The duration of contraction is determined from the inspiratory duty cycle, the ratio of inspiratory duration to total breath duration (TI/TTOT). The product of these two measures, the pressuretime index (PTI) is predictive of muscle endurance and the time to the on set of fatigue. When the PTI exceeds 0.15–0.20, fatigue is likely to occur (35). Respiratory muscle fatigue appears to contribute to the development of acute respiratory failure, and COPD patients who are dependent on mechanical ventilation show shifts in respiratory muscle electromyographic (EMG) power spectrum consistent with fatigue when they are made to breathe on their own (36). Patients with severe COPD also show a fall in the high/low EMG ratio of the diaphragm during sustained exercise (37). On the other hand, after exhaustive walking, twitch transdiaphragmatic pressure is not reduced in COPD patients (38). This indicates that even with marked exertion and extreme dyspnea, COPD patients do not develop lowfrequency fatigue of the diaphragm. Polkey et al. (38) have suggested that when the strain on the respiratory muscles is sufficiently high there is “central fatigue,” with a fall in central motoneuronfiring frequency. This serves to decrease the force output of the respiratory muscles and protect against the development of contractile failure. Finally, the possibility has been raised that patients with severe COPD and chronic CO2 retention may be in a state of chronic respiratory muscle fatigue and that resting the respiratory muscles by means of mechanical ventilation during the night will relieve the fatigue, increase maximum respiratory muscle pressures, and reduce the degree of daytime hypercapnia (39). IV. Management Approaches From a functional standpoint, the main goals of the management of respiratory insufficiency are (1) to optimize the ability of patients to cope with the physical demands of daily living; (2) to reduce any unpleasant and distressing sensations associated with the act of breathing or, in other words, to minimize dyspnea intensity; and (3) to reverse alveolar hypoventilation. There are different approaches to achieving these goals, based on the nature of the specific disease or disorder.
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These approaches are generally directed at (1) correcting mechanical abnormalities of the airways, lungs, and chest wall; (2) improving respiratory muscle performance; (3) improving general body conditioning and increasing exercise capacity; (4) relieving hypoxemia and hypercapnia; and (5) modifying central respiratory drive (Table 3). A. Improving Ventilatory Impedance The goal in improving ventilatory impedance is to minimize the level of central respiratory neuromotor activity and respiratory muscle force required to achieve a given ventilation. Bronchodilators. In patients with obstructive pulmonary diseases, a regimen of bronchodilator therapy can decrease airway resistance and relieve airway obstruction. Both inhaled adrenergic agonists and anticholinergics are firstline medications in patients with stable COPD. The anticholinergic agent, ipratropium bromide is thought to be more effective than adrenergic agonist medication in improving airflow obstruction in patients with COPD (40), but combining standard dosages of both anticholinergics and adrenergic agonists is likely to produce the greatest degree of bronchodilation (41). The forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (FEV1) is the conventional measure of bronchodilator response in COPD. However bronchodilator therapy can also produce an exclusive volume effect, characterized by an increase in vital capacity consequent to a reduction in residual volume, without any change in FEV1 (42). Additionally, inhaled bronchodilators have the important effect of reducing dynamic hyperinflation during exercise in patients with COPD (43). These differing bronchodilator effects account for the poor correlation between changes in FEV1 and symptomatic benefit after bronchodilator administration (44). An important goal of bronchodilator therapy in patients with COPD is to decrease dyspnea and increase the ability to perform daily activities. Bronchodilator therapy with anticholinergics and with adrenergic agonists has generally Table 3 Approaches to the Management of Respiratory Insufficiency
Improve ventilatory impedance
Mechanical ventilatory support
Respiratory reconditioning
Oxygen therapy
General exercise training
Respiratory stimulants
Nutritional support
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improved exercise capacity and ameliorate dyspnea (43,45–48), and this appears to be the result of relieving airway obstruction and reducing static and dynamic hyperinflation. Theophylline Theophylline has been used extensively in the management of COPD patients. In addition to its action as a bronchodilator, theophylline also exerts a positive inotropic effect on the diaphragm and improves diaphragmatic function in COPD patients (49). Whether theophylline is effective in improving exercise capacity and relieving dyspnea is unclear. Some studies report that theophylline administration to patients with COPD fails to improve dyspnea, despite increases in FEV1 of 1–15% (50,51). Other reports indicate improvements in clinical dyspnea ratings and exercise performance with theophylline, even in the absence of any significant change in FEV1 (52,53). Murciano et al. (54) found that treatment with theophylline increased maximum pleural pressures and lowered the ratio of inspiratory pleural pressure during quiet breathing to maximum pleural pressure. They proposed that this enhancement in respiratory muscle performance was responsible for improvement in the degree of dyspnea during the completion of daily tasks such as walking, carrying a light load, or climbing a flight of stairs. The findings of Chrystyn et al. (55) of a reduction in the volume of trapped gas in the lungs after theophylline administration suggest that improvements in inspiratory muscle mechanical advantage may also contribute to the beneficial effects on pulmonary performance. The fall in trapped gas volume could also lead to closer ventilationperfusion matching, thus accounting for improvements in gas exchange (56). B. Respiratory Muscle Conditioning Leith and Bradley (57) first demonstrated that respiratory strength and endurance could be increased with specific exercise training, and they proposed a potential role for muscle training for patients in whom respiratory muscle function is impaired as a result of disease. The responses of the respiratory muscles to training depend greatly on the intensity and nature of the training stimulus. Hightension, lowrepetition activity, such as breathing against very large resistive or threshold ventilatory loads, is expected to increase strength and produce hypertrophy of muscle fibers. On the other hand, low tension, highrepetition training increases muscle endurance. Several studies in patients with COPD have established that maximum inspiratory pressure increases significantly following a program of repetitive, highforce inspiratory muscle contractions (58,59). There is less certainty for whether inspiratory muscle strength training also improves exercise tolerance, relieves dyspnea, and protects against the development of respiratory failure. Pardy et al. (60)
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compared the effects of exercise reconditioning and inspiratory muscle training in patients with severe COPD and reported that inspiratory muscle training alone increased exercise endurance time and 12minwalking distance. They suggested that specific training of inspiratory muscles is effective in improving exercise performance only in those patients who demonstrate EEG changes of inspiratory muscle fatigue during exercise (61). On the other hand, studies of endurance training in COPD patients have demonstrated no improvement in exercise tolerance despite increases in levels of maximum voluntary sustained ventilation (62). Early studies of respiratory muscle conditioning generally failed to control breathing patterns during training. Consequently, patients could alter their breathing patterns such that the work imposed on the muscles of inspiration could be reduced to a level that would not induce a training response. More recently, Larson et al. (63) evaluated the effects of inspiratory muscle training, with a pressure threshold device, in patients with COPD. Those patients who trained at a threshold load of approximately 30% of their maximum inspiratory pressure also demonstrated an improvement in general exercise tolerance. On the average, the 12minwalking distance increased by approximately 200 ft after 2 months of training. There were, however, no changes in symptoms, as determined from a variety of questionnaires. Similar findings were also reported by Dekhuijzen et al. (64), who added targetedflow inspiratory muscle training to a program of general pulmonary rehabilitation for patients with severe COPD and an FEV1 of about 50% of predicted. In contrast, Flynn et al. (65) found that threshold pressure training improved inspiratory muscle function, but had no effect on exercise performance. Harver et al. (66) also reported increases in respiratory muscle strength and endurance following targeted inspiratory muscle training. They also reported that targeted inspiratory muscle training resulted in improvements in clinical dyspnea ratings. The degree of improvement in dyspnea correlated with increases in maximum inspiratory airway pressures. These findings are consistent with those reported by Redline et al. (67), who showed that inspiratory muscle strength training in normal subjects significantly reduced the absolute intensity of the sensation of respiratory muscle force during resistive and elastic loading and that changes in sensation intensity corresponded to improvements in maximum inspiratory pressures. Many of these reports are based on inadequately controlled studies involving small numbers of patients, and it has been difficult to reconcile conflicting reports on the effects of respiratory muscle training. In 1992, Smith et al. (68) reported the results of a metanalysis involving a systematic quantitative overview of the randomized trials of the effects of respiratory muscle training in chronic airflow limitation. Their overview found that the effects of respiratory muscle training on strength and endurance, when present, are small and may be specific to the training regimen. They found little evidence of important effects on functional
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exercise capacity and quality of life, and they concluded that “training the respiratory muscles is not, in general, of benefit to patients with chronic airflow limitation.” Since that time there have been several published reports comparing inspiratory muscle training with general exercise reconditioning in COPD. Several studies have found that the combination of inspiratory muscle training and exercise reconditioning improves exercise capacity more than does exercise reconditioning alone (69– 71). In contrast, Berry et al. (72) reported that the combination of general exercise reconditioning and inspiratory muscle training and general exercise reconditioning alone are equally effective in improving and perception of dyspnea in patients with COPD. Thus, the controversy over the role of inspiratory muscle training continues. C. General Exercise Training Exercise training has long been considered a cornerstone of pulmonary rehabilitation, and it is well established that a program of exercise training increases exercise performance, relieves dyspnea and improves the quality of life of COPD patients. The mechanisms by which general exercise reconditioning improves exercise performance in patients with severe COPD continues to be debated. Because of the marked impairments in lung function, it has been generally felt that there is a pulmonary limitation to exercise in COPD (73). Patients with COPD will reach a maximum work rate and will be unable to continue exercise when minute ventilation approaches the maximum voluntary ventilation. In actuality, COPD patients are about as likely to stop exercising because of discomfort in exercising peripheral muscles as they are because of dyspnea (74), and peripheral muscle weakness is an important factor in exercise limitation in COPD (75). Although it has been argued that COPD patients are unable to exercise to a critical intensity that stresses peripheral muscles (76), it is clear that most of them generate a substantial lactic acidosis during exercise (77). The resulting excess of CO2 and hydrogen ion stimulates breathing and serves to limit exercise capacity because maximum ventilation is reached at a lower work rate. Casaburi et al. (78) and, more recently, Maltais et al. (79) have shown that an intensive program of exercise training reduces the rate of lactate production and the ventilatory requirements to perform exercise. This is thought to occur because exercise training stimulates changes in exercising muscle that increase capillary density, the number of mitochondria, and the concentration of aerobic enzymes. These changes increase the capacity for aerobic work and forestall the onset of lactic acidosis. In many instances exercise training simply increases the mechanical skill and efficiency in the performance of exercise. This reduces the oxygen cost of work so that at a given workload, the level of ventilation and oxygen uptake is less
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(80). Furthermore, there is a certain specificity of exercise training. Lower limb training increases timed walking distance, whereas upper limb training improves arm endurance (81). Symptoms of dyspnea are regularly improved after pulmonary rehabilitation with exercise training. After exercise reconditioning, the intensity of dyspnea at a given level of ventilation or oxygen uptake is significantly reduced (81–83). This could be explained by an improvement in the performance of the respiratory muscles. However, measures of specific respiratory muscle strength and endurance are usually unchanged after general exercise reconditioning. A recent study showed that wholebody exercise training, targeted at the highest possible intensity, did lead to consistent improvements in ventilatory and peripheral muscle strength and endurance in patients with severe COPD, but these changes did not contribute to the relief of exertional dyspnea or the improvement in exercise endurance following exercise reconditioning (84). It is also unlikely that exercise training has any effect on the mechanical function of the lung. It has been proposed that the decrease in dyspnea after exercise training may be the result of a process of desensitization (85). It is possible that, in otherwise sedentary patients, repeated experiences with progressively increasing levels of exercise and exercise ventilation causes a sensory adaptation and a blunting of perceptual responses. This symptomatic improvement could also be the result of a decrease in fear, anxiety, or depression, consequent to participation in a structured rehabilitation program (85,86). Regardless of the specific mechanisms of action, exercise training may be the most effective method of improving functional capacity and symptoms of dyspnea in patients with COPD. D. Nutritional Support Patients with severe lung disease commonly lose weight and show signs of malnutrition, and there are many serious adverse consequences of malnutrition (87). Patients with chronic lung disease who lose weight have a higher morbidity and mortality than those whose weight remains within a normal range. Malnourished patients compared with normalweight patients have reduced exercise performance and experience more shortness of breath (88). Impairments in exercise performance in malnourished patients are thought to be a consequence of altered skeletal and respiratory muscle function. Arora and Rochester (89) found that diaphragmatic muscle mass decreased proportionally to body weight in poorly nourished patients compared with normalweight patients, and this is associated with a loss of respiratory muscle strength and endurance (90). Randomized control trials have demonstrated that intensive nutritional support can reverse many of these functional impairments with improvements in limb and respiratory muscle strength, exercise capacity, and dyspnea scores (91,92).
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E. Mechanical Ventilatory Support In the presence of acute respiratory failure, mechanical ventilation can immediately augement alveolar ventilation. A discussion of the ventilator management of acute respiratory failure is beyond the scope of this chapter, and, herein, we will deal only with the use of intermittent and noninvasive ventilatory support in chronic ventilatory insufficiency. There are several different approaches to providing ventilatory support. These include negativepressure ventilation with a tank respirator (iron lung) or cuirass or ponchotype device. These devices are large and bulky. With the cuirass and poncho device it is difficult to achieve a tight seal so that in patients with substantially increased ventilatory system impendance the augmentation of ventilation may be insufficient. The most critical adverse effect of negativepressure ventilation is upper airway obstruction. This generally occurs only during sleep, with a loss of synchrony between the action of the respirator and the intrinsic respiratory activity of the patient and can result in considerable oxygen desaturation (93). The problem of upper airway obstruction is obviated by the use of positivepressure mechanical ventilation that can be administered noninvasively through a face or nose mask. Over 50 years ago, tank respirators were widely used for ventilatory support in patients with acute paralytic poliomyelitis. Subsequently, nocturnal negativepressure ventilation has been shown to produce sustained improvements in daytime gas exchange and symptoms of hypoventilation in patients with chronic respiratory insufficiency caused by central alveolar hypoventilation, neuromuscular diseases, and chest wall disorders (94–96). In more recent studies, noninvasive positive pressure support, during the night, or for short intervals during the day, has been employed in patients with restrictive or neuromuscular diseases and chest wall deformities. Nocturnal non invasive positivepressure ventilation has produced a reduction in daytime Pco2 in hypercapnic patients and alleviation of symptoms of hypoventilation; such as morning headache, hypersomnolence, and impaired cognitive function (97–102). The improvements in sleep quality and diurnal blood gas values are not associated with any changes in ventilatory mechanical function or respiratory muscle strength (98,103). Hill (104), based on his review of the literature on noninvasive ventilation, suggests that noninvasive ventilation is indicated when symptoms of hypoventilation and daytime hypercapnia develop in a wide variety of slowly progressive neuromuscular disorders, including muscular dystrophies, postpolio syndrome, and multiple sclerosis, as well as in hypoventilation associated with severe chest wall deformity or central disorders. It has been suggested that patients with marked impairments in lung function associated with reductions in maximum airway pressures and chronic stable hypercapnia may be suffering from chronic respiratory muscle fatigue. This is the
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basis of the idea that resting the respiratory muscles periodically by means of mechanical ventilation could improve ventilatory function and relieve dyspnea. Braun and Marino (105) first reported the benefits of intermittent noninvasive ventilatory support in COPD patients. They showed that 5 hr daily of negativepressure ventilation over a 5month period improved gas exchange and respiratory muscle strength in their patients. Cropp and DiMarco (106) and Scano et al. (107) subsequently reported that negativepressure ventilatory support in a tank or cuirass respirator of intervals of 3–6 hr a day for periods of a week or less improved respiratory muscle strength and endurance in patients with severe COPD and lowered Pco2 in hypercapnic patients. Gutierrez et al. (108) also reported that dyspnea was ameliorated and physical activity, including the 12minwalking distance, increased following weekly cuirass ventilation in five hypercapnic patients with severe COPD. In contrast, in other studies during which intermittent negativepressure ventilatory support was provided for up to several months, no significant clinical improvement was found (109–112). Patients with COPD have also been managed with intermittent noninvasive positivepressure ventilatory assistance. Renston et al. (113) treated patients with stable, severe COPD with ventilatory support for 2 hr/day for 5 consecutive days. Although they found no improvement in respiratory muscle strength or resting arterial blood gas values, they reported that the intensity of dyspnea at rest decreased, and exercise capacity, as measured by the 6minwalking distance improved. Mezzanotte et al. (114) reported that nocturnal nasal continuous positiveairway pressure (CPAP) in patients with severe COPD not only increased exercise capacity, but also improved respiratory muscle strength and endurance. Meecham Jones et al. (115) found that the addition of nocturnal nasal positivepressure ventilation to longterm oxygen therapy in patients with stable, severe COPD and CO2 retention produced significant improvements in daytime blood gas values and in quality of life. In contrast, Strumpf et al. (116) reported that nocturnal positivepressure ventilation by face mask failed to change daytime blood gas values. There may be technical reasons for the conflicting results in these various studies. For example, there may have been differences in patient compliance or differences in the level of mechanical ventilatory support. Alternatively, it has been suggested that patients with the most severe underlying lung disease and the greatest abnormalities in blood gas values are most likely to benefit from intermittent mechanical ventilatory support (115, 117). It remains unclear why nocturnal ventilatory support improves daytime gas exchange. One possibility is that alveolar ventilation increases and Paco2 falls consequent to the reversal of respiratory muscle fatigue. However, ventilatory support does not invariably increase respiratory muscle strength and endurance, even when there is an improvement in daytime blood gas values. A more likely explanation is that during ventilatory support, alveolar hypoventilation is corrected,
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and this allows a resetting of respiratory chemosensitivity and a restoration of CO2 responsiveness. This is supported by the observation that patients who show the greatest reduction in PCO2 during intermittent ventilatory support, also experience the greatest improvement in blood gas values while breathing on their own (115). F. Oxygen Therapy Oxygen therapy is an important component in the management of patients with lung disease who are hypoxemic at rest. The use of continuous supplemental oxygen in these patients relieves dyspnea at rest, reduces pulmonary artery pressure, and results in improvement in functional status and prolongation of life (118, 119). Oxygen also improves exercise performance, prevents exercise induced oxygen desaturation, and ameliorates dyspnea during exercise (120–122). The effects of oxygen administration on exercise performance are mediated in part through the reductions in ventilation that accompany the relief of hypoxemia. Consequently, a higher workload can be achieved for the same level of ventilation. Supplemental oxygen administration during exercise also increases oxygen delivery to peripheral muscles and lowers blood lactate concentrations, indicating an improvement in aerobic metabolism (123). Thus, another important stimulus to breathing is lowered. It has also been proposed that oxygen therapy may act to improve exercise tolerance in patients with severe COPD by preventing or delaying the onset of respiratory muscle fatigue (37). Decreasing respiratory drive does not totally explain the beneficial effects of oxygen therapy. Even though the greatest benefit with supplemental oxygen is often seen in patients with the most severe lung disease, improvements in exercise performance are not highly correlated with blood oxygen levels during exercise (120, 124). Dean et al. (125) demonstrated an improvement in exercise tolerance with supplemental oxygen in patients with severe COPD who were not hypoxemic. In these patients, the increase in exercise time correlated with improvements in dyspnea scores, but not with reductions in minute ventilation. Chronos et al. (126) also reported a temporal dissociation between changes in dyspnea and ventilation during transient episodes of hypoxia in normal individuals. They suggested that hypoxia itself can shape the intensity of dyspnea, independently of the ventilatory consequences of hypoxic stimulation. It is not clear how supplemental oxygen can ameliorate dyspnea independently of changes in ventilation. It is possible that chemoreceptors stimulated by hypoxia can directly elicit dyspnea, and oxygen may change the perception of breathing discomfort through signals from the carotid body or by a direct effect on higher brain centers (121). Studies (127, 128) have suggested that the relief of dyspnea is not a consequence of improvements in oxygenation, but rather, the result of the flow of gas on
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the face or nasal mucosa. Swinburn et al. (118) also directly compared the effects of air and oxygen administration to patients with hypoxemic lung disease. They found that oxygen was not beneficial in all patients and some individuals reported relief of dyspnea with supplemental air. However, the benefit from oxygen was more consistent and more frequent than that from supplemental air. Thus, it appears that the effect of oxygen therapy on exercise performance and dyspnea is not simply a placebo response or the result of the flow of gas on the face and nose. G. Respiratory Stimulants A variety of pharmaceutical agents have respiratory stimulatory effects. Analeptics, such as doxapram, increase arousal and enhance the responses to sensory stimulation, but they have only a small and unpredictable margin of safety. Doxapram Of the analeptics, doxapram alone has a limited role in hastening arousal and reversing ventilatory depression following general anesthesia. In low doses, respiratory stimulation by doxapram is mediated through an effect on carotid body chemoreceptors. At higher doses it appears to have a direct stimulatory effect on medullary respiratory centers (129). Doxapram can be administered only intravenously and has a short duration of action. Thus, it is not suitable for use in central hypoventilation syndromes. It is not likely to be effective in the management of respiratory insufficiency secondary to neuromuscular, chest wall, or lung diseases in which central respiratory drive is usually high, but the ventilatory pump has failed, and it may actually worsen lung and respiratory muscle function (130). The side effects can be serious and include tachycardia, systemic and pulmonary hypertension, hyperirritability, and frank convulsions. Progesterone Raised levels of endogenous progesterone increase alveolar ventilation in pregnancy and during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. The effects of progesterone on breathing occur through receptor binding at hypothalamic sites (131). Progesterones stimulate breathing when administered to normal subjects and patients with lung diseases, largely through increases in tidal volume, rather than breathing frequency (132, 133). Progesterone also increases respiratory chemosensitivity and the respiratory responses to added ventilatory loads (134). It has been used in the management of sleep apnea syndromes and in obesityhypoventilation, but the effect of progesterone in increasing alveolar ventilation in patients with CO2 retention is small (i.e., Pco2 is lowered by only about 5 mmHg), and only some patients show improvements in sleepdisordered breathing (135).
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Acetazolamide. Acetazolamide is a reversible inhibitor of carbonic anhydrase. It inhibits hydrogen ion secretion by the renal tubules and results in an increased volume of alkaline urine. As a consequence, the concentration of bicarbonate in the extracellular fluid decreases and metabolic acidosis is produced. The effects on breathing are the result of the respiratory compensation for the metabolic disturbance. Acetazolamide is effective in the treatment of acute mountain sickness and may be useful in the management of periodic breathing at high altitude and central sleep apneas (136). Almitrine Bimesylate Almitrine is a piperazine derivative that stimulates respiration through a predominant effect on peripheral arterial chemoreceptors (137). In addition to its action on carotid and aortic chemoreceptors, almitrine also acts on the pulmonary circulation, producing transitory pulmonary vasoconstriction (138). In patients with COPD, almitrine improves ventilationperfusion matching in the lungs (139). This could be due to changes in the distribution of blood flow in the lungs, or it could be the result of improvements in the distribution of ventilation secondary to increases in tidal volume (140). V. Summary Robust respiratory compensatory mechanisms serve to maintain adequate alveolar ventilation and blood gas homeostasis even in the face of significant dysfunction of the respiratory controller or the ventilatory pump. However, when disorders of any component of the respiratory control system become sufficiently severe, the system will ultimately fail. Frank ventilatory failure with CO2 retention is often preceded by limitations in exercise capacity and by symptoms of dyspnea. Approaches to the management of respiratory insufficiency should be framed based on the type of disease and the nature of the pathophysiological derangement. These include the treatment of reversible abnormalities of airway, lung, or chest wall mechanical function, and efforts to improve respiratory muscle strength and endurance. General exercise reconditioning is often effective in increasing the capacity to deal with the physical demands of daily living, and oxygen therapy not only improves the quality of life but also increases survival. Respiratory stimulants have very limited usefulness and, in the face of chronic CO2 retention, adequate alveolar ventilation may be achieved only through mechanical ventilatory support.
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AUTHOR INDEX Italic numbers give the page on which the complete reference is listed. A Aakvaag, A., 593, 605 Aaron, E. A., 41, 76, 148, 160 Aasebo, U., 593, 605 Abboud, F. M., 403, 418 Abbrecht, P. H., 406, 420, 584, 588, 601 Abe, H., 403, 418 Abe, M., 263, 282, 588, 602 Abelson, H. T., 301, 344 Ablett, M., 557, 574 Aboussouan, L. S., 408, 421 Abrams, M., 306, 349 AbuOsba, Y. K., 194, 201 Abuier, M., 125, 134 Acker, H., 17, 37, 47, 79 Ackerson, L., 443, 446, 461 Adair, N. E., 671, 682 Adam, E., 304, 347 Adams, L., 48, 50, 51, 79, 80, 93, 96, 101, 102, 106, 107, 108, 111, 115, 124, 129, 130, 134, 151, 161, 218, 245, 473, 498, 503, 509, 514, 522, 526, 535, 545, 546, 549, 553, 554, 555, 573, 574, 621, 622, 623, 630, 631, 675, 685 Adams, T. D., 561, 576, 669, 681 Adamson, J. S., 651, 659 Adcock, J. J., 451, 463, 464 Adickes, E. D., 305, 348 Adkins, J. C., 304, 347 Adler, R., 582, 584, 600 Adlercreutz, H., 593, 604 Afonja, A. O., 269, 283 Agarawal, J. B., 552, 557, 572 Agle, D. P., 672, 683 Agostoni, A., 564, 578 Agostoni, E., 454, 456, 457, 458, 465, 466 Agusti, A. G., 450, 462, 538, 549 Agusti, A. G. N., 673, 684 Ahmed, M., 236, 249, 369, 375, 570, 579 Ahmend, J., 112, 131 Ahn, B., 64, 66, 84, 85, 473, 509 Aicardi, J., 305, 306, 348 Aikyama, Y., 260, 261, 263, 267, 268, 269, 272, 276, 281 Aimoto, Y., 252, 280 Ainsorth, D. M., 149, 160 Aitken, R. C. B., 275, 285 Akertsedt, T., 593, 604 Akigoma, Y., 368, 375 Akiyama, Y., 68, 85, 252, 266, 267, 269, 270, 271, 276, 280, 280, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 368, 375 Akselrod, S., 304, 346 Aksnes, G., 210, 211, 242 Alba, A. S., 542, 550 Albertini, B., 554, 573 Aldersar, A. M., 458, 466 Aldrich, M., 402, 418
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Aldrich, T. K., 666, 679 Alex, C. G., 232, 247 Alexander, J. K., 440, 443, 460, 594, 605 Alexander, M. A., 315, 355 Alexander, M. R., 669, 680 Alhamad, A., 298, 299, 342 Ali, N. J., 400, 402, 417, 418 Alison, J. A., 450, 452, 463 Aljadeff, G., 328, 361, 407, 421 Allan, R., 165, 178, 195 Allen, G. M., 151, 161, 622, 630 Allen, M. T., 99, 103 Allen, R. P., 407, 420 Allen, S. J., 483, 512 Almes, M. J., 305, 348 Alonso, R., 593, 604 Alrecht, P., 315, 355 Altose, M., 622, 631 Altose, M. D., 95, 96, 100, 102, 104, 115, 116, 118, 121, 125, 128, 132, 133, 134, 135, 151, 162, 219, 220, 239, 245, 249, 272, 273, 276, 285, 286, 369, 375, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 432, 434, 435, 436, 456, 458, 465, 466, 470, 473, 474, 502, 507, 509, 515, 516, 522, 526, 545, 546, 598, 607, 664, 666, 670, 673, 678, 679, 681, 683 AlvarezSala, R., 590, 591, 603 Alzeer, A., 298, 299, 342 Amad, K. H., 594, 605 Amaha, K., 484, 512 Ambrosino, N., 552, 563, 572, 585, 601 Aminoff, M. J., 90, 100 Amis, T. C., 173, 175, 181, 196, 197, 199 Amishyia, A., 303, 304, 346 Amos, P., 306, 349 Anand, A., 113, 131, 555, 574 Anas, N. G., 300, 301, 344 Anastassiades, E., 150, 161 Anch, A. M., 279, 287, 592, 593, 604 AncoliIsrael, S., 372, 373, 374, 376, 377 Andermann, F., 311, 353 Andersen, J. B., 669, 681 Anderson, B. J., 319, 357 Anderson, J. W., 192, 201 Anderson, S. D., 450, 452, 463 Anderson, D., 396, 397, 416 Ando, S., 252, 255, 280 Andreas, S., 216, 217, 222, 244 Andres, L. P., 49, 50, 51, 79, 80, 119, 133, 150, 161, 303, 304, 344, 346, 472, 508, 509, 526, 546 Andrew, D., 51, 80 Andrews, D. C., 292, 339 Angell James, J. E., 60, 61, 83 Angrist, M., 305, 348 Angulo, M., 307, 308, 351 Anholm, J. D., 204, 209, 210, 211, 215, 222, 226, 234, 241, 242 Anselme, F., 371, 376 Anthonisen, N. R., 64, 68, 69, 72, 74, 84, 85, 86, 87, 127, 134, 236, 249, 369, 375, 384, 385, 389, 413, 443, 444, 446, 447, 454, 455, 461, 465, 503, 505, 506, 516, 570, 579, 597, 599, 606, 616, 629, 665, 672, 679, 683 Antonini, L., 476, 510 Anwar, M., 324, 359 Appendi, L., 429, 436 Applegarth, D. A., 306, 349 Aqleh, K. A., 52, 53, 80, 210, 243 Aquilina, R. J., 527, 547 Araigno, R., 329, 362 Arais, A., 5, 35 Archer, S., 114, 131 Arens, R., 307, 328, 351, 361 Ariagno, R., 330, 331, 332, 363, 364, 365 Ariagno, R. L., 303, 304, 305, 346, 472, 508 Arita, H., 45, 78 Arkinstall, W., 458, 466 Armengaud, M. H., 672, 683 Armon, Y., 320, 357 Armour, J. A., 307, 350
Page 689
Armstrong, D., 304, 306, 314, 347, 349, 355 Armstrong, D. D., 306, 349 Arnold, J., 598, 607 Arnold, J. L., 185, 200 Arntz, A., 634, 655 Arnup, M. E., 665, 679 Aronson, P. R., 654, 660 Aronson, R., 597, 606 Aronson, R. M., 385, 413 Arora, N., 315, 355 Arora, N. S., 425, 426, 427, 434, 435, 445, 462, 672, 683 Asano, K., 396, 416 Asanuma, Y., 259, 262, 263, 269, 270, 281, 283, 284 Askanazi, J., 531, 547, 641, 658 Asmussen, E., 149, 160, 218, 245 Assunta, P., 317, 356 Astrand, P., 137, 157 Astrand, P. O., 148, 159 Asyali, M. H., 226, 246 Atassi, C., 426, 431, 434 Atkins, C. J., 426, 434 Atkinson, E., 566, 578 Atkinson, J., 304, 347 Attali, V., 480, 481, 512 Atton, L., 397, 416 Atwood, J. E., 560, 576 Atzberger, D., 185, 200 Aubier, M., 471, 472, 476, 480, 485, 508, 509, 511, 563, 577, 669, 672, 680, 681, 683 Auchincloss, J. H., 279, 287 Auclair, M. H., 669, 681 Aurent, J. P., 308, 351 Austrian, R., 442, 460 Avendano, M. A., 128, 135, 519, 544, 673, 683 Avery, M., 327, 361 Awad, E., 672, 682 Axelrod, F. B., 215, 244 Axen, K., 128, 135, 457, 465, 475, 477, 509, 511, 526, 542, 546 Aysun, S., 312, 354 Ayuse, T., 402, 418 Azgad, Y., 476, 510, 671, 682 B Bach, J. R., 542, 550, 673, 683 Bachmann, C., 306, 350 Baconnier, P., 269, 283 Badr, M. S., 232, 233, 237, 239, 247, 248, 249, 250, 370, 376, 383, 384, 387, 389, 395, 396, 400, 402, 406, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 420, 505, 516, 567, 578 Badr, S., 218, 245, 380, 381, 386, 397, 412, 414 Badura, R. J., 304, 347 Baele, P. L., 312, 354 Baent, R., 222, 246, 565, 568, 571, 578 Bailey, D. L., 51, 80 Bailey, K. R., 370, 375 Bailey, P. L., 312, 354 Bailey, S. L., 307, 328, 351, 361 BaileyWahl, S. L., 407, 421 Bain, D. J., 675, 685 Bain, R. J. I., 520, 544 Bainton, C., 26, 38 Bainton, C. R., 64, 71, 84 Baird, J. C., 108, 130 Baker, B. J., 558, 575, 576 Baker, D. G., 450, 451, 452, 453, 463, 553, 573 Baker, J. P., 21, 38 Baker, M., 315, 355 Bakers, J. H. C. M., 108, 130, 428, 435 Baldwin, J. C., 610, 625, 627, 627, 628, 631 Baldwin, R., 332, 364, 365 Balfors, E. M., 404, 419 Balfour, H. H., 302, 305, 344 Ballantyne, D., 20, 26, 29, 37, 38 Ballanyi, K., 11, 18, 30, 36, 292, 340 Ballard, R. D., 596, 606, 674, 684 Balsara, R. K., 301, 344 Bamford, O., 407, 420 Bancalari, E., 68, 85, 329, 362
Page 690
Banhardt, U., 558, 575 Banks, J., 617, 629 Banner, C., 192, 201 Banner, N., 626, 632 Banner, N. R., 558, 575, 614, 615, 617, 623, 629, 631 Banzett, R., 622, 630 Banzett, R. B., 49, 50, 51, 79, 80, 96, 102, 107, 110, 114, 115, 117, 119, 129, 130, 131, 133, 150, 151, 161, 254, 280, 303, 304, 344, 346, 450, 452, 463, 472, 506, 508, 509, 516, 526, 527, 546, 553, 573, 622, 623, 624, 630, 631 BarIlan, Y., 401, 417 BarYishay, E., 320, 357 Barbe, F., 538, 549, 673, 684 Barcroft, J., 634, 655 Bark, H., 96, 102, 562, 563, 577 Barker, L., 315, 355 Barnes, D. J., 592, 603 Barnes, G., 519, 544 Barnes, J. S., 271, 285 Barohn, R. J., 305, 306, 320, 334, 348 Baron, C., 297, 341 BarrotCortes, E., 538, 540, 550 Bart, A., 208, 209, 241 Barter, C. E., 670, 681 Barth, J. T., 373, 377 Barthelemy, P., 194, 201 Barthelmebs, M., 410, 422 Bartlett, D., 25, 38, 111, 131, 167, 183, 185, 191, 194, 195, 199, 201, 303, 305, 344, 405, 420, 592, 603 Bartoli, A., 621, 630 Bartolo, A., 257, 281 Bartsch, K., 297, 298, 299, 342 Basalygo, M., 562, 577 Bascom, D. A., 64, 69, 85, 86, 561, 576 Bashour, F., 531, 547 Basinski, D. J., 328, 361 Basner, R., 96, 102, 113, 115, 120, 131, 132, 181, 198 Basner, R. C., 184, 199, 226, 234, 246, 247, 248, 402, 418 Bass, C., 634, 638, 647, 648, 655, 657, 659 Bass, M. T., 327, 361 Bassili, H. R., 476, 510 Bates, D., 374, 378 Bates, D. V., 583, 600, 616, 629 Bates, J. H., 651, 659 Battaglia, J. D., 597, 606 Baud, M., 676, 685 Bauer, K. A., 563, 577 Bauer, R. E., 315, 355 Bauer, R. M., 373, 377 Baum, G. L., 672, 683 Baumann, R., 312, 353 Baumgartner, E. R., 306, 350 Baumgartner, J. E., 69, 87 Bautista, D., 323, 358 Bautista, D. B., 303, 304, 307, 327, 346, 351, 360 Baydur, A., 313, 321, 354, 357, 531, 542, 547, 550, 664, 678 Baylis, D. A., 676, 685 Bayliss, D. A., 292, 338, 339 Bazzy, A. R., 332, 365 BazzyAsaad, A., 292, 331, 339 Beagle, J., 68, 86 Beahm, E., 404, 419 Beastall, G. H., 593, 605 Beaty, T., 306, 349 Beaudry, P. H., 322, 358 Beaupre, A., 674, 684 Beck, K., 276, 286 Becker, E. J., 59, 83 Becker, L., 304, 314, 347, 355 Becker, L. E., 294, 304, 341, 347, 348 Beckerman, R. C., 294, 314, 319, 341, 355 Beckers, J., 664, 678 Becklake, M. R., 583, 600, 666, 679 Becquart, L. A., 476, 510 Bedingham, W., 98, 103 Beebe, D. S., 113, 131 Beecher, H. K., 57, 82 Beek, M. M. L., 671, 682 Begin, P., 125, 134, 522, 545, 665, 679 Begin, R., 293, 313, 318, 319, 321, 322, 323, 340, 355, 357, 476, 477, 511, 529, 532, 547, 548, 563, 578
Page 691
Begle, R. L., 218, 245, 386, 400, 414, 417 Behnke, J., 313, 354 Bell, C., 334, 366 Bell, J. E., 306, 350 Bell, L. B., 610, 628 Bellamy, D., 313, 355 Belleau, R., 671, 682 Bellemare, F., 121, 133, 144, 158, 425, 426, 427, 432, 434, 480, 483, 487, 511, 512, 529, 547, 562, 563, 577 Bellido, J. M., 554, 573 Bellingham, M. C., 29, 39 Bellman, S., 330, 362 Bellville, J. W., 52, 53, 80, 210, 236, 243, 249 Belman, M. J., 668, 669, 671, 672, 680, 682 Belmusto, L., 90, 100 Belsito, A. S., 338, 366 Belt, P. J., 402, 418 BenAri, J. H., 328, 361 Benard, D., 216, 244, 569, 579 Benard, D. C., 405, 409, 419, 420, 422 Benatar, S. R., 269, 283, 313, 355 Benchetrit, G., 269, 283 Bender, T. M., 519, 544 Bendixen, H. H., 100, 104 Bennard, S. I., 439, 440, 442, 446, 447, 459 Bennett, L. L., 410, 422 Bennett, M. J., 638, 657 Benzaray, S., 666, 679 Beppu, M., 94, 101 Beral, V., 269, 283 Berdon, W. E., 304, 315, 346, 356 Berezanski, D., 68, 69, 85, 86 Berezanski, D. J., 236, 249, 385, 413 Berg, B. O., 307, 350 Berger, A. C., 304, 346 Berger, A. J., 255, 281, 469, 507 Bergin, C., 423, 426, 430, 433 Bergmann, M., 320, 357 Bergofsky, E. H., 320, 321, 357, 457, 465, 473, 509 Berioza, T., 674, 684 Berkenbosch, A., 45, 68, 69, 78, 85, 87, 210, 243, 385, 389, 413 Berman, B. A., 297, 298, 342 Berman, P. H., 300, 301, 344 Berman, S. R., 374, 377 Bermudez, M., 674, 684 Bernard, C., 150, 161 Bernard, D., 571, 579 Bernard, D. G., 45, 78 Bernier, J., 477, 511 Bernior, J. P., 532, 548 Berry, D. T., 373, 377 Berry, D. T. R., 372, 373, 376 Berry, M. J., 671, 682 Berry, R. B., 215, 226, 234, 235, 244, 246, 501, 515 Berssenbrugge, A., 571, 579 Berssenbrugge, A. D., 384, 413 Berstein, L., 297, 298, 341 BerthonJones, M., 220, 245, 246, 535, 549, 569, 579, 589, 593, 597, 598, 602, 604, 606 Bertini, E., 315, 355 Bertorini, T. E., 476, 510 Berube, C., 671, 682 Besser, G. M., 582, 600 Bessos, M., 596, 606 Beumer, H. M., 643, 658 Bhansali, P., 592, 603 Bhaskar, K. R., 519, 543 Bianchi, A., 26, 29, 30, 38, 39 Biban, P., 334, 366 Biberdorf, D., 570, 579 Biberdorf, D. J., 571, 579 Bickelman, A. G., 593, 605 Bickler, P. H., 118, 133 Bidouki, S. K., 306, 350 Bidwell, T., 381, 412 Bidwell, T. R., 406, 420 Bierbaum, R., 185, 200 BiglandRitchie, B., 140, 157, 480, 487, 511 BiglandRitchie, B. R., 152, 162 Bignon, J., 426, 431, 434 Biller, M. J., 445, 461 Billiard, M., 397, 416
Page 692
Billiu, D., 675, 685 Bindoff, L. A., 306, 350 Bingmann, D., 56, 81, 82 Biraldi, E., 334, 366 Birch, S. J., 255, 281 Birchfield, R. I., 121, 133, 213, 243 Bischoff, A. M., 313, 354 Bischop, A., 445, 461 Biscoe, T. J., 56, 82 Bisgard, G. E., 53, 55, 69, 70, 72, 81, 86, 210, 243, 384, 413 Bishop, J., 328, 361 Bishop, J. M., 582, 584, 600 Bishop, M., 477, 511, 526, 542, 546 Bitterman, P. B., 439, 440, 442, 446, 447, 459 Bixler, E. D., 165, 195 Bizousky, F., 338, 366 Bjurstrom, R. L., 118, 133 Black, A. M. S., 210, 228, 243, 247 Black, F. O., 308, 309, 352 Black, J., 401, 417 Black, L. F., 272, 285, 367, 368, 374 Blackard, W. G., 589, 602 Blackshear, J., 566, 578 Blager, F., 297, 298, 299, 342, 343 Blager, F. B., 297, 298, 299, 342, 343 Blake, J. R., 425, 434 Blanc, W. A., 302, 304, 305, 344 Blanceht, F., 476, 509 Blanchard, P. W., 293, 340 Blanco, C. E., 293, 340 Bland,S., 457, 466 Blanks, R. H. Z., 181, 199 Blauenstein, U., 306, 350 Bleecker, E., 165, 178, 195 Bleecker, E. R., 232, 248, 371, 376, 407, 420, 453, 464 Bleecker, M. L., 371, 376 Blennow, G., 301, 344 Blesa, M. I., 335, 366 Bliwise, D. L., 371, 372, 373, 374, 376, 377, 397, 416 Bliwise, N. G., 372, 373, 376 Block, A. J., 233, 248, 373, 377, 519, 527, 544, 572, 579, 592, 593, 603, 604 Bloom, J. W., 424, 425, 426, 433 Blum, D., 332, 333, 334, 365 Boat, T. F., 307, 327, 351, 361 Bochner, A., 300, 301, 344 Bockhold, K., 445, 461 Boden, W., 279, 287 Bodensteiner, J., 308, 351 Bodocco, S., 269, 283 Bodurtha, J. N., 304, 346 Boesch, C., 307, 350 Boettrich, C., 300, 301, 344 Bogaard, J. M., 319, 357, 540, 550 Bogaert, E., 53, 80 Bogershausen, S., 535, 549 Bohatink, G., 542, 550 Boisteanu, D., 480, 481, 512 Boiten, F. A., 99, 103 Bokinsky, G. E., 309, 352 Boldrey, E., 92, 93, 101 Boldt, J., 440, 442, 443, 460 Bolk, S., 305, 348 Bolman, M., 165, 178, 195 Bolser, D. C., 114, 132 Bolton, C. F., 476, 509 Bolton, D. P. G., 148, 159, 499, 515 Boltshauser, E., 306, 307, 312, 349, 350 Bonekat, H. W., 592, 603 Boner, A. L., 298, 343 Bonmarchand, G., 484, 486, 512 Bonnet, M. H., 204, 209, 210, 222, 241 Bono, D., 144, 145, 158 Bonora, M., 41, 76, 405, 420 Bonvallet, M., 99, 103 Boon, A. W., 329, 362 Booshy, J. F., 426, 434 Bordy, M., 327, 361 Borel, C. O., 316, 356, 476, 477, 510, 511 Borg, G., 108, 130 Borg, G. V., 275, 285 Borg, T. K., 167, 195 Borish, L., 299, 343 Borison, H. L., 44, 77 Borison, R., 44, 77 Borowiecki, B., 394, 415 Bosch, J., 554, 573
Page 693
Bosma, J. F., 176, 188, 197, 200 Botnick, W. C., 668, 669, 680 Bottini, P., 588, 602 Bouckaert, J. J., 42, 76 Bouldin, T., 308, 352 Boule, M., 325, 359 Bourne, R. A., 327, 361 Bouse, D. M., 529, 547 Boushey, H. A., 610, 628 Boutaleb, A. F., 552, 557, 572 Bouverot, P., 52, 53, 80 Bouvet, F., 542, 550 Bowdler, J. D., 315, 356 Bowen, A., 519, 544 Bower, R. J., 304, 347 Bowes, E., 558, 576 Bowes, G., 118, 133, 217, 218, 219, 234, 245, 248, 368, 375, 599, 607 Bowie, D. M., 155, 162, 665, 679 Bowman, B., 408, 421 Bowmer, I., 458, 466 Bowyer, S. L., 445, 461 Boyarski, L. L., 44, 77 Boyd, C. M., 558, 575, 576 Boyd, D. G., 373, 377 Boysen, P. G., 592, 604 Bradford, A., 192, 194, 201 Bradley, B. L., 675, 685 Bradley, C. A., 454, 455, 465, 666, 679 Bradley, G. W., 458, 466 Bradley, M., 669, 681 Bradley, T. D., 204, 210, 215, 216, 222, 226, 234, 241, 243, 244, 246, 252, 255, 280, 397, 404, 405, 409, 416, 419, 420, 422, 484, 488, 512, 569, 571, 579 Brady, J. P., 214, 243, 267, 282, 329, 362 Braems, G., 304, 346 Brambilla, C., 277, 286 Brandes, W. C., 572, 579 Brant, R., 400, 417 Branthwaite, M. A., 320, 321, 357, 517, 542, 543, 550 Brashear, R., 635, 644, 656 Brashear, R. E., 296, 341 Brasmussen, B., 53, 81 Braudo, L., 335, 366 Braun, N. M. T., 426, 427, 435, 522, 545, 664, 665, 667, 674, 678, 679, 680, 684 Braun, S. R., 667, 680 Braver, H., 572, 579 Brazy, J. E., 294, 312, 313, 341 Bremnes, R. M., 593, 605 Breningstall, G. N., 300, 301, 343 Brenner, A. M., 298, 299, 343 Breslav, I. S., 53, 55, 81 Breslin, E. H., 121, 133 Bressenbruge, A., 210, 215, 242 Bressler, B., 445, 461 Breton, M. J., 671, 682 Breuer, J., 151, 162 Brewer, G., 57, 82 Brezanski, D. J., 69, 87 Bridge, E., 300, 301, 343 Bridgers, S., 388, 414 Brienza, A., 498, 514 Briffa, T., 672, 682 Brimby, G., 370, 375 Briskin, J. G., 317, 356 Brochard, L., 491, 513 Brodersen, P., 313, 354 Brodeur, P., 592, 603 Brodsky, J., 279, 287 Broe, M. E., 215, 244 Brolin, R. E., 597, 606 Bromage, P. R., 458, 466 Broncatisano, A. P., 182, 199 Brook, J. D., 320, 356 Brooks, E., 566, 578 Brooks, H. L., 271, 285 Brooks, J., 332, 333, 365 Brooks, J. G., 53, 81, 115, 120, 132, 300, 301, 344, 457, 465 Brooks, L. R., 672, 682 Brophy, C., 535, 548, 582, 600 Brouillette, R. T., 166, 185, 195, 294, 303, 304, 305, 313, 327, 332, 337, 341, 347, 348, 354, 360, 365 Brower, R. G., 166, 178, 185, 195, 199 Brown, A. M., 637, 656 Brown, D. L., 323, 326, 358
Page 694
Brown, E., 90, 100 Brown, E. B., 638, 657 Brown, E. R., 323, 358 Brown, G. K., 306, 350 Brown, H. V., 156, 162, 558, 576 Brown, H. W., 213, 236, 243, 249, 252, 280, 369, 375 Brown, I. G., 405, 420 Brown, J. K., 675, 685 Brown, L. W., 313, 355 Brown, R., 96, 102, 107, 110, 114, 115, 117, 129, 130, 131, 151, 161, 473, 506, 509, 516, 519, 526, 527, 543, 546, 592, 603, 622, 623, 630, 631 Brown, R. H., 318, 356 Brown, S. E., 128, 135 Brown, T. C. K., 319, 357 Brownell, L. G., 407, 420 Browner, I., 277, 279, 286, 287 Brubaker, J., 306, 349 Bruce, E. N., 183, 191, 199, 204, 208, 209, 213, 221, 222, 241, 242, 243, 246, 369, 375, 426, 435, 469, 507 Bruce, R. A., 370, 375 Bruderer, J. W., 673, 683 Brughera, A., 254, 280 Brugman, S., 299, 343 Brugman, S. M., 322, 357 Bruneau, J., 671, 682 Brusil, P. J., 204, 209, 210, 228, 230, 241, 242 Bryan, A. C., 208, 209, 241, 291, 294, 303, 314, 323, 338, 339, 341, 346, 355, 358 Bryan, C., 304, 347 Bryan, R. N., 306, 349 Bshouty, Z., 236, 249, 384, 389, 413, 498, 499, 500, 503, 505, 506, 514, 516, 646, 685 Bubis, M. J., 597, 599, 606 Bucens, D. D., 95, 102, 151, 162, 432, 436, 486, 513 Bucens, I. K., 312, 353 Buchanan, N., 558, 576 Buchfuhrer, M. J., 557, 575 Buckle, P., 570, 579 Buckler, A. J., 320, 356 Buckner, J., 402, 418 Buda, A. J., 404, 419 Buehler, B. A., 305, 348 Buell, J., 208, 209, 241 Bulcke, J., 664, 678 Buller, N. P., 559, 560, 576 Bulloch, A. G. M., 6, 36 Bulloch, G. M., 5, 35 Bulow, K., 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 245 Buncher, C. R., 315, 355 Bunn, H. F., 432, 437 Bunn, J., 146, 159 Bunn, J. C., 270, 284 Bunnell, I. L., 552, 572 Burdon, J. G., 446, 449, 462 Burdon, J. G. W., 123, 133, 475, 509 Bureau, M., 313, 354, 532, 548 Bureau, M. A., 293, 313, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 340, 355, 357, 476, 477, 511, 529, 547, 563, 578 Burger, R., 307, 350 Burgert, E. O., 312, 354 Burgess, K. R., 111, 131 Burhans, K., 315, 355 Burke, B., 303, 304, 305, 346 Burke, C. M., 616, 625, 627, 629, 631 Burke, D., 637, 656 Burkhardt, A., 440, 442, 443, 460 Burki, N. K., 612, 628, 676, 685 Burleson, J. A., 300, 301, 307, 344, 351 Burmeister, L. F., 440, 460 Burnet, H., 480, 511 Burniat, W., 327, 361 Burns, B. H., 276, 286 Burns, Y. R., 330, 362 Burnstine, R. C., 297, 298, 342 Burrell, B., 407, 421 Burrell, B. C., 307, 351 Burrgren, W. W., 5, 21, 35 Burrows, B., 424, 425, 426, 433 Burrows, D. I., 395, 396, 416 Burrows, D. L., 232, 233, 248 Burstow, D. J., 370, 375 Burwell, C. S., 593, 605
Page 695
Buss, D. D., 53, 81 ButcherPuech, M. C., 328, 329, 362 Bulter, I. J., 326, 359 Bulter, J., 454, 465 Bulter, M. G., 307, 350 Butters, N., 373, 374, 377 Buz, A., 46, 79, 383, 412 Bye, P. T. P., 450, 452, 463, 667, 680 Bye, P. T. P., 480, 511, 538, 540, 550, 673, 683 Byrd, R. B., 666, 679 ByrneQuinn, E., 262, 263, 266, 282, 583, 597, 600, 606 C Cable, T., 128, 135 Cade, D., 303, 346 Cadieux, R. J., 165, 195 Caduff, R., 307, 350 Cagle, P., 424, 425, 426, 433 Cagle, T. G., 370, 375 Caillaud, C., 371, 376 Cain, C. C., 147, 159 Cairns, T., 476, 510, 585, 601 Calabrese, R., 290, 338 Calder, N. A., 48, 79 Calderini, E., 144, 145, 158 Calhoun, J. A., 564, 578 Callahan, B., 49, 79, 303, 346 Calon, A., 497, 498, 514 Calverley, P. M. A., 112, 131, 313, 318, 355, 520, 522, 524, 529, 531, 532, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 542, 544, 545, 547, 548, 549, 550 Cameron, I. R., 279, 287 Campbell, A. H., 116, 132 Campbell, D., 374, 377 Campbell, E. J. M., 95, 96, 97, 102, 103, 108, 110, 116, 117, 123, 130, 132, 133, 145, 146, 147, 151, 154, 159, 162, 264, 265, 266, 271, 276, 282, 285, 286, 426, 432, 434, 436, 458, 466, 475, 486, 497, 509, 513, 514, 520, 522, 526, 529, 534, 544, 545, 546, 562, 577, 671, 682 CamposCastello, J., 307, 351 Candiani, A., 476, 510 Canet, E., 320, 321, 357 Cannon, P. J., 531, 547 Canon, W., 150, 161 Cantani, A., 311, 353 Cantor, B., 592, 604 Caracciolo, A., 500, 515 Carcelen, A., 64, 71, 84 Carley, D., 181, 198 Carley, D. W., 208, 209, 215, 226, 228, 234, 242, 244, 246, 247, 248, 385, 413 Carlisle, C. C., 674, 684 Carlone, S., 672, 683 Carlson, D., 181, 198 Carlson, D. M., 226, 234, 246, 248 Carlson, M., 321, 357, 542, 550 CarlssonNordlander, B., 408, 421 Caro, C. F., 454, 465 Carone, M., 429, 436 Carpenter, D. O., 637, 656 Carr, D. B., 69, 86 CarrienKohlman, V., 128, 135 Carrier, G., 408, 421 Carrier, L., 671, 682 CarrierKohlman, V., 672, 682 Carrington, C. B., 440, 443, 447, 450, 460, 461 Carrol, N., 520, 544 Carroll, J., 294, 341 Carroll, J. E., 313, 319, 355, 532, 547 Carroll, J. L., 305, 306, 326, 328, 349, 360, 362, 407, 420 Carroll, N., 520, 528, 537, 544 Caskadon, M. A., 598, 606 Carter, J., 522, 524, 532, 534, 545, 548 Carter, J. L., 597, 599, 606 Cartwright, R., 409, 421 Casaburi, R., 370, 376, 429, 436, 554, 555, 573, 574, 621, 630, 643, 658, 671, 682 Casan, P., 147, 159 Caspers, H., 638, 657 Cassidy, S., 307, 351 Cassidy, S. B., 307, 350, 351
Page 696
Cassidy, S. S., 552, 555, 573, 574 Casta, A., 301, 344 Castagna, J., 554, 573, 574 Castaneda, G., 593, 604 Castele, R. J., 239, 249, 502, 516 Cataletto, M., 307, 308, 351 Catz, C., 330, 331, 362 Caudill, M. A., 304, 346 Cavagna, G., 145, 158 Caverieco, J. B., 167, 195 Cavestri, R., 125, 134, 471, 508 Cayler, G. G., 327, 361 Celli, B., 429, 436, 674, 684 Celli, B. R., 121, 133, 429, 436, 450, 463, 527, 546 Ceruti, E., 267, 282 Cetel, M., 381, 398, 400, 409, 412 Chadha, T. S., 255, 281 Chadwick, E., 458, 466 Chadwick, G. A., 528, 547, 615, 629 Chahal, F., 69, 87 Chakravarti, A., 305, 348 Chalkley, A. J., 653, 659 Challamel, M. J., 303, 304, 305, 346, 472, 508 Chalmers, R. M., 476, 510 Chambers, A. H., 57, 82 Chambers, J. B., 638, 657 Chambron, J., 410, 422 Champagnat, J., 26, 30, 39 Chan, S., 673, 683 Chan, Y., 538, 549 Chance, B., 563, 578 Chang, H. K., 169, 196 Chang, S. L., 332, 365 Chaouat, A., 404, 419 Chapman, K. R., 209, 221, 232, 233, 242, 248, 263, 267, 282, 368, 375, 395, 416, 594, 605 Chapman, R., 276, 286 Charney, D. S., 645, 658 Charney, E. B., 308, 309, 352 Chartrand, D. A., 484, 488, 512, 665, 666, 679 Chase, M. H., 536, 538, 549 Chase, T. N., 44, 77 Chassiotis, D., 141, 157 Chastange, C., 542, 550 Cheah, J. S., 582, 584, 600 Chee, C. M., 300, 301, 344 Cheek, W. R., 308, 351 Chen, C. H., 306, 350 Chen, H., 272, 285, 368, 374 Chen, J. C., 176, 183, 197 Chen, L., 561, 577 Chermers, J. P., 46, 78 Cherniack, N. S., 42, 45, 63, 77, 78, 84, 96, 100, 102, 104, 116, 121, 125, 128, 132, 134, 135, 151, 162, 175, 177, 183, 184, 186, 187, 191, 197, 198, 199, 200, 204, 208, 210, 214, 217, 219, 220, 232, 241, 243, 245, 248, 252, 255, 263, 267, 268, 272, 273, 276, 280, 282, 283, 285, 286, 304, 317, 335, 347, 356, 366, 368, 369, 375, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 444, 445, 446, 447, 454, 455, 456, 458, 461, 464, 465, 466, 469, 470, 507, 508, 521, 522, 544, 545, 588, 589, 602, 622, 631, 664, 678 Cherniack, R. M., 443, 446, 457, 461, 466 Chester, E. H., 672, 683 Chetty, K., 488, 513 Chevret, S., 542, 550 Cheyne, J., 203, 240 Cheyne, J. A., 564, 578 Chi, C. S., 306, 350 Chibber, A. K., 592, 603 Chick, T. W., 370, 375 Chierchia, S., 374, 378 Chiga, M., 327, 361 Chin, K., 214, 215, 236, 244 Chinn, A., 373, 376 Chiochio, S. R., 53, 81 Chipps, B. E., 322, 358 Chizeck, H. J., 369, 375 Chonan, T., 96, 100, 102, 104, 113, 116, 121, 128, 131, 132, 135, 151, 162, 185, 200, 276, 286, 432, 436, 522, 545
Page 697
Chou, W., 47, 79 Chow, C., 239, 250, 568, 578 Chowdhury, M. F., 70, 87 Christen, H. J., 313, 354 Christiaanse, M., 634, 655 Christoph, I., 562, 577 Christopher, K., 298, 299, 342 Chronos, N., 108, 111, 130, 522, 545, 675, 685 Chruscieleski, L., 59, 82 Chrystyn, H., 669, 681 Chui, H., 519, 544 Chun, R. W., 317, 356 Chung, D. C., 222, 246 Church, T. R., 669, 680 Churchill, E. D., 555, 574 Cieriello, J., 45, 78 Cillessen, J. P., 305, 306, 348 Cindos, R., 168, 196 Circillo, S. F., 69, 70, 87 Cirignotta, F., 305, 306, 349, 538, 540, 550 Cistulli, P. A., 277, 286, 592, 593, 603, 604 Clague, H. W., 527, 546 Clague, J. E., 522, 532, 534, 545, 548 Claman, D. M., 674, 684 Clanton, T., 305, 306, 320, 334, 348 Clark, A., 557, 575 Clark, A. L., 557, 575 Clark, B., 672, 682 Clark, D. M., 652, 653, 659 Clark, F. J., 151, 162, 499, 505, 515 Clark, J. C., 51, 80, 93, 101 Clark, T. J., 449, 462 Clark, T. J. H., 110, 130, 313, 355, 526, 546 Clary, S. J., 96, 102 Clauge, J. E., 524, 545 Clausen, J. L., 552, 572 Cleave, J. P., 210, 242 Cleland, J. G. F., 558, 576 Clemens, R. E., 451, 463, 675, 685 Clement, I. D., 64, 69, 85, 86, 561, 576 Clement, J. L., 41, 76 Clerk, A., 381, 398, 400, 409, 412, 571, 579 Clifford, P. S., 610, 628 Cline, M. G., 424, 425, 426, 433 Coakley, J., 532, 534, 548 Coakley, J. H., 533, 542, 548, 550 Coast, J. R., 555, 574 Coates, A. L., 322, 358 Coates, E. L., 20, 37, 45, 78 Coates, J., 401, 417 Coats, A., 557, 575 Coats, A. J. S., 557, 575 Cobarrubias, M., 373, 376 Cobb, F. R., 557, 558, 560, 562, 574, 576, 577 Cobelli, F., 552, 563, 572 Coccagna, G., 222, 246, 531, 538, 540, 547, 550 Cochrane, H. L., 451, 463 Cochrane, J. A., 331, 364 Cockroft, A., 110, 130, 522, 545, 675, 685 Coffman, J. D., 638, 657 Coggan, A. R., 141, 157 Cohen, C., 473, 476, 483, 509 Cohen, C. A., 667, 680 Cohen, M. I., 26, 29, 38 Cohen, R. J., 304, 346 Cohen, W. R., 590, 603 Cohlan, B. A., 228, 247 Cohlan, S. Q., 297, 298, 342 Cohn, J. N., 561, 577 Cola, M. F., 222, 224, 246, 386, 414 Colamaria, V., 313, 354 Colangelo, G., 263, 267, 282 Colapinto, N., 405, 420 Colby, T. V., 443, 446, 461 Cole, P., 170, 172, 173, 178, 196, 198 Cole, S., 294, 341 Cole, V. W., 594, 605 Colebatch, J. G., 51, 80, 93, 101 Coleman, M., 306, 349 Coleman, R. E., 558, 576 Coleridge, H. M., 59, 60, 61, 82, 93, 101, 112, 131, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 463, 464, 502, 515, 553, 554, 556, 573, 621, 630, 662, 678
Page 698
Coleridge, J. C., 621, 630 Coleridge, J. C. G., 59, 60, 61, 82, 93, 101, 112, 131, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 463, 464, 502, 515, 553, 554, 556, 573, 662, 678 Colina, K. F., 301, 344 Colla, P., 634, 640, 644, 649, 653, 654, 655, 658, 659, 660 Collett, P., 480, 511 Collett, P. W., 182, 199 Collins, D. D., 269, 283, 430, 436 Collins, F. L., 569, 579 Collins, K. J., 307, 334, 350 Colombo, E., 397, 416 Colrain, I. M., 222, 246 Comola, M., 397, 416 Comroe, J. H., 42, 53, 76, 81, 614, 615, 629 Conn, E. H., 558, 576 Conn, H. L., 583, 601 Connel, D. C., 174, 175, 197 Connelly, C., 26, 38 Connelly, C. A., 33, 40 Connett, R. J., 141, 158 Connors, A. F., 239, 249, 501, 502, 506, 516, 673, 683 Contamin, F., 534, 548 Conteras, G., 674, 684 Conteras, M., 673, 683 Conway, A., 99, 103 Conway, M., 562, 577 Conway, W., 372, 373, 376, 410, 422 Conway, W. A., 401, 410, 417, 422 Cook, D., 670, 681 Cook, Y. R., 373, 377 Cooke, R. E., 327, 360 Coon, P. J., 371, 376 Coon, R. L., 553, 573, 610, 621, 628, 630 Coons, S., 332, 364, 365 Cooper, B. G., 279, 287, 533, 538, 540, 548, 550 Cooper, D. M., 554, 574 Cooper, J. D., 150, 161, 385, 389, 413, 554, 573, 625, 627, 631 Cooper, K., 165, 195, 394, 415 Cooper, K. R., 589, 599, 602, 607 Cooper, P. W., 170, 172, 196 Cope, O., 555, 574 Corda, M., 95, 101, 456, 457, 465 Corfield, D., 51, 80 Corfield, D. A., 48, 79 Corfield, D. R., 50, 51, 80, 93, 101, 124, 134 Corgiat, M., 519, 544 Cormier, Y., 386, 395, 397, 401, 413, 415, 416, 417 Cornblath, D. R., 476, 510 Corne, S., 506, 516 Cornwell, A. C., 304, 347 Corrado, A., 666, 679 Corral, R., 527, 546 Corren, J., 298, 299, 342 Corris, P. A., 449, 462, 675, 676, 684 Corser, B., 263, 267, 282 CortesGallegos, V., 593, 604 Cosgrove, J. F., 322, 358 Cosgrove, J. L., 315, 355 Cosio, M. G., 582, 584, 600 Costagna, J., 621, 630 Costantino, J., 672, 683 Costantino, J. P., 401, 410, 417, 422, 615, 616, 617, 622, 625, 627, 629, 631 Coste, A., 402, 418 Cota, K., 323, 358 Cote, A., 293, 340 Cote, C., 181, 198 Cotes, J. E., 557, 574 Cotton, C., 634, 655 Cotton, D. J., 453, 464 Cotton, E. D., 597, 606 Cottrell, A. J., 304, 346 Coultas, D. B., 439, 459 Cournand, A., 141, 147, 155, 158, 159, 162, 442, 460 Courtenay, L., 315, 355 Couser, J. I., 429, 436 Couter, R. E., 440, 443, 447, 450, 460, 461 Couture, L. D., 458, 466 Couture, J., 386, 413, 458, 466 Cover, D., 677, 686
Page 699
Cowen, J., 476, 510 Cowie, R. J., 404, 419 Cowley, A. J., 557, 561, 575, 576 Cowley, D. S., 641, 658 Cox, A., 638, 654, 657 Cox, N., 649, 659 Coy, T., 373, 376 Crabtree, D. C., 387, 402, 403, 414, 418 Crapo, R. O., 561, 576 Crawford, M., 151, 161, 622, 630 Creagh, C. E., 592, 597, 603 Criner, G., 674, 684 Critchlow, V., 95, 101 Croft, C. B., 327, 360 Croll, J. W., 569, 579 Crompton, C. H., 325, 359 Cromydas, G., 486, 513 Cropp, A., 674, 684 Cros, D., 534, 548 Crosby, J. H., 381, 400, 412, 417 Cross, B. A., 114, 131, 150, 161, 621, 630 Crotti, P., 552, 563, 572 Crouch, E., 440, 442, 443, 460 Crow, S., 320, 356 Crowell, J. W., 216, 244 Cruz, E., 664, 674, 678, 684 Crystal, R. G., 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 446, 447, 450, 459, 460, 461, 462 Culman, J., 403, 418 Cummin, A. R. C., 214, 244 Cummins, T. R., 332, 365 Cummiskey, J., 306, 350, 598, 607 Cunningham, D. A., 64, 85, 561, 576 Cunningham, D. J. C., 148, 159, 210, 212, 227, 228, 229, 242, 247, 257, 258, 262, 266, 281, 282, 498, 499, 514, 515, 662, 678 Cunningham, S., 588, 602 Cupa, M., 676, 685 Cupta, S. P., 275, 285 Curless, R. H., 374, 378 Curran, F. J., 673, 683 Currie, S., 306, 350 Curtis, G. C., 99, 103 Curtis, S., 327, 361 Curtis, S. A. U., 305, 306, 349 Cutz, E., 294, 304, 341, 348 Cymerman, A., 209, 242 Czeisler, C. A., 371, 376 Czerny, A., 217, 244 CzyzykKrzeska, M. F., 292, 338, 339 D D' Alfonso, N., 480, 511 D' Andrea, L., 328, 361 D' Andrea, L. A., 308, 352 D' Angelo, E., 144, 145, 158, 454, 456, 457, 465 D' Souza, V., 406, 420 Da Costa, J. M., 634, 655 Dadley, A., 232, 233, 248, 395, 415 Dahan, A., 68, 86, 385, 389, 413 Dahlback, G. O., 254, 280 Dailey, R. H., 298, 342 Dalakas, M. C., 315, 355 Dalle, D., 293, 340 Dallimore, N. S., 172, 196 Dalton, J. W., 634, 655 Daly, M. DeB., 59, 60, 61, 82, 83, 84 Daly, P. A., 561, 577 DamasMora, J., 99, 103 DamokoshGiordano, A., 432, 436 Damus, K., 332, 365 Dancis, J., 317, 356 Dandas, V., 52, 53, 80 Daniels, V., 475, 509 Dantzker, D. R., 247, 425, 426, 434, 483, 512 Daren, J. E., 271, 285 Daristotle, L., 384, 413 Darnall, R. A., 15, 37 Datta, A. K., 218, 224, 234, 245, 383, 412, 498, 514 Daubenspeck, J. A., 204, 241, 394, 415, 592, 603, 670, 681 Dautrebande, L., 42, 76 Davenport, H. W., 57, 82 Davidson, D., 59, 83 Davidson, L. A. G., 440, 442, 443, 446, 447, 448, 460, 618, 629 Davies, D. G., 60, 83
Page 700
Davies, H., 557, 574 Davies, R. J., 400, 417 Davies, R. J. O., 402, 418 Davies, R. O., 57, 82, 387, 414 Davies, S., 401, 417 Davies, S. F., 113, 131 Davis, A. T., 298, 342 Davis, B., 454, 464 Davis, J. A., 669, 681 Davis, J. M., 294, 341 Davis, K., 476, 510 Davis, R., 306, 350 Daviskas, E., 451, 463 Dawes, G. S., 293, 340 Dawkins, K. D., 616, 629 Dawson, N. J., 152, 162 Day, R. A., 191, 200 Dayton, C. S., 440, 460 De Backer, W., 53, 80 de Bock, V., 445, 461, 462 De Goede, J., 68, 69, 85, 87 de Groot, W. J., 279, 287 de Haes, H., 647, 659 de la Torre, B., 593, 604 de Lattre, J., 673, 684 de Loof, C., 641, 645, 657, 659 De Maria, G., 476, 510 De Paola, E., 666, 679 De Rosei, J., 673, 683 De Rosei, J. A., 673, 683 de Swart, J., 634, 640, 655 de Swart, J. C. G., 638, 653, 657, 659 de Villiers, T., 592, 597, 603 De Vivo, D. C., 306, 350 Deal, E. C., 175, 197, 428, 431, 435 Deale, A., 634, 639, 655 Dean, E., 315, 355 Dean, J. B., 292, 338, 339 Dean, N. C., 675, 685 Dean, R. T., 404, 419 Deary, I. J., 400, 417 DeBacker, W. A., 215, 244 DeBerryBorowiecki, B., 181, 199 Decima, E. E., 457, 465 Decker, M. J., 185, 200 DeCoster, A., 442, 460 Decramer, M., 97, 103, 445, 461, 462, 521, 544, 671, 682 Defares, P. B., 653, 659 Defendini, R., 302, 304, 305, 344 Defouilloy, C., 426, 431, 434 DeGeorgia, M., 476, 510 DeGoede, J., 210, 243, 385, 389, 413 DeGraff, A. C., 294, 341 DeGroot, W. J., 279, 287 Dehn, M. M., 370, 375 Dei Cas, L., 557, 558, 559, 575 Deitel, M., 476, 510 Dejean, Y., 397, 416 Dejonckere, P., 298, 343 DeJonghe, M., 442, 460 Dejours, P., 56, 74, 82, 87, 149, 160 Dekhuijzen, P., 649, 659 Dekhuijzen, P. N. R., 445, 461, 670, 671, 681, 682 Dekin, M. S., 290, 338, 339 Del Rosario, N., 488, 495, 513, 514 Delaney, R. G., 238, 249 deLatre, J., 538, 549 Delaurois, L., 676, 685 Delhez, L., 313, 355 Delpierre, S., 194, 201, 621, 630 deLucas, P., 582, 584, 600 Delwiche, J. P., 676, 685 Demarquez, J. L., 304, 347 Demediuk, B. H., 116, 132 Demedts, M., 644, 647, 658, 664, 678 Demedts, M. D., 444, 445, 461 Dement, W. C., 279, 287, 372, 373, 376, 400, 417 Dempsey, J., 210, 215, 242, 268, 283, 380, 381, 397, 412, 571, 579 Dempsey, J. A., 5, 35, 41, 75, 148, 149, 160, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 224, 232, 233, 234, 237, 239, 244, 245, 248, 249, 250, 270, 284, 323, 358, 370, 376, 383, 384, 386, 389, 395, 396, 400, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 427, 428, 435, 459, 467, 498, 503, 505, 514, 515, 516, 567, 568, 578, 592, 599, 603, 607, 610, 611, 612, 614, 615, 618, 628, 629, 676, 685
Page 701
Demuth, S., 303, 304, 305, 346 Denahan, T., 402, 418 DenavitSaubie, M., 33, 40 Dennick, O. P., 458, 466 Dennis, J., 49, 79, 303, 327, 346, 360 Dent, R., 634, 655 Denton, R. M., 141, 157 Depeursinger, F. B., 552, 557, 572 Dequeku, J., 444, 445, 461 Derderian, S. S., 584, 588, 601 Derenne, J. P., 125, 134, 255, 256, 280, 470, 471, 472, 476, 480, 481, 484, 485, 486, 507, 508, 511, 512, 524, 545 Derment, W. C., 397, 416 Dermksian, G., 59, 60, 83 Deroanne, R., 147, 159 DeschauxBlanc, C., 277, 286 Desmeules, M., 386, 395, 413, 415 Desmind, K. J., 322, 358 Despas, P. J., 670, 681 DeTroyer, A., 97, 103, 313, 355, 444, 461, 480, 511, 522, 545, 563, 577, 652, 659, 664, 667, 678, 680 DeTroyer, A. D., 517, 543 Dettmers, C., 93, 101 Detwiler, J., 312, 353 Deuchar, D., 557, 574 Devadatta, P., 369, 372, 375, 386, 413, 537, 549, 569, 579 DeVivo, D. C., 306, 349 Dexter, L., 271, 285 Dhar, N. K., 301, 344 Dhingra, S., 443, 444, 446, 447, 461, 476, 510 Di Capua, M., 315, 355 Di Marco, A. F., 526, 546 Diamond, E., 406, 420 Dias, K., 305, 306, 348 Diaz, O., 674, 684 Dick, C. R., 471, 501, 508, 515 Dick, N., 428, 435 Dick, T., 566, 578 Dick, T. E., 29, 39 Diehl, A., 327, 361 Dietz, W. H., 327, 360 Difrancesco, L. M., 396, 416 DiGaudio, K., 327, 360 DiGiacomo, J. E., 638, 656 DiGiulio, G. A., 298, 299, 343 Digre, K. B., 312, 354 Dikkenberg, G. M., 644, 658 Dillard, T. A., 410, 422 DiMarco, A., 673, 683 DiMarco, A. F., 239, 249, 444, 445, 446, 447, 454, 455, 457, 461, 464, 465, 473, 474, 502, 509, 515, 516, 674, 684 DiMario, F. J., 300, 301, 307, 313, 343, 344, 351, 354 DiMauro, S., 534, 548 Dinger, B., 56, 82 Dinger, B. G., 74, 87 Dinh, H. A., 558, 575 Dinh, L., 395, 415 Dinh, T. P., 269, 283 Dinner, D. S., 408, 421 Dlin, R., 370, 376 Dobbins, E. G., 30, 39 DobladezBlanco, B., 307, 351 Doble, E. A., 592, 603 Doekel, R. C., 586, 597, 601, 606 Doershuk, C. F., 307, 327, 351, 361 Doesburg, W. H., 305, 306, 348 Doghramji, K., 408, 421 Dohen, M. I., 30, 39 Doherty, J., 373, 376 Doherty, J. J., 675, 685 Dolle, W., 635, 656 Dolmage, T. E., 519, 544, 673, 683 Dom, R., 445, 461, 462 Dombovy, M. L., 592, 603 Don, H., 458, 466 Donahoe, M., 672, 683 Donald, K. W., 141, 158, 442, 460 Donaldson, J. D., 327, 360, 361 Donic, V., 12, 36, 188, 200 Donicova, V., 12, 36, 188, 200 Donnelly, D., 292, 331, 339 Donnelly, D. F., 53, 81, 293, 294, 331, 340 Donnelly, P. M., 538, 540, 550 Donner, C. F., 429, 436, 671, 682
Page 702
Donner, M. W., 176, 197 Dooling, E. C., 306, 350 Dorrington, K. L., 68, 69, 86 Dorsey, C. M., 588, 602 Dorst, J. P., 323, 326, 358 Dottorini, M. L., 588, 602 Douglas, C. G., 209, 210, 214, 242 Douglas, M. K., 128, 135, 672, 682 Douglas, N. J., 179, 180, 198, 217, 219, 220, 245, 246, 269, 283, 400, 417, 535, 549, 590, 599, 602, 607 Dowderwell, I. R., 449, 462 Downey, R., 204, 209, 210, 211, 215, 222, 226, 234, 241, 242 Downing, S. E., 60, 84 Doyle, M., 5, 21, 35 Drage, C. W., 368, 374, 595, 605 Dragsted, L., 669, 681 Dramaix, M., 332, 365 Drexler, H., 558, 562, 575, 577 Drinkwater, D. T., 371, 376 Drinnan, M. J., 537, 538, 549 Dripps, R. D., 42, 76 Driscoll, J. M., 302, 304, 305, 344 Druon, B., 174, 197 Druz, W. S., 406, 420, 428, 431, 435 Duane, D. D., 317, 356 Dubo, H., 475, 509, 526, 546 Dubo, H. I., 474, 509 Dubois, A. B., 442, 454, 460, 465 Dubose, R., 334, 366 Dubowitz, V., 319, 320, 550 Dubuisson, D., 276, 285 Dubwitz, V., 542, 550 Duckles, S. P., 637, 656 Dudgeon, J., 311, 353 Dudley, D. L., 645, 659 Dueck, R., 247, 425, 426, 434 Duffin, J., 30, 39, 150, 161, 385, 389, 413, 554, 573 Duggan, M., 519, 543 Duguet, A., 480, 481, 512 Duivenvoorden, H. J., 635, 649, 656 Duke, J. C., 323, 358 Dull, W. L., 669, 680 Dumermuth, G., 306, 312, 349 Duncan, B. R., 308, 309, 352 Duncan, K., 306, 350 Duncan, S., 381, 398, 400, 412 Duncan, S. R., 610, 616, 618, 620, 621, 625, 628, 630, 631 Duncan, W. J., 327, 360 Dunham, B., 300, 301, 307, 344, 351 Dunn, H. G., 306, 349 Dunn, W. F., 486, 487, 488, 499, 513 Duranti, R., 326, 359, 476, 477, 485, 486, 510, 512, 529, 534, 535, 547, 548, 584, 585, 601, 666, 674, 679, 684 Dure, L. S., 308, 351 duRivage, S. K., 305, 348 Durlinger, M., 643, 658 Duron, B., 98, 103 Dushay, K. M., 535, 548 Duwinmana, M., 332, 333, 334, 365 Dwyer, T., 331, 364 Dyck, G., 457, 466 Dykes, F., 304, 347 Dzwonczyk, R. R., 257, 281 E Eagan, J. T., 532, 545 Eagleton, L. E., 588, 602 Easton, P. A., 64, 68, 84, 85 Eaton, M. L., 669, 680 Ebeling, P., 95, 102 Ebert, T. J., 402, 418 Eccles, R., 172, 175, 188, 196, 197 Eckert, R. C., 298, 299, 342 Edelman, N. H., 42, 47, 64, 69, 70, 74, 77, 79, 84, 86, 165, 195, 266, 282, 317, 327, 335, 356, 361, 366, 367, 368, 374, 431, 436, 583, 588, 589, 590, 591, 599, 601, 602, 607 Eden, G. J., 293, 340 Edwards, D. A., 328, 329, 362 Edwards, J. P., 444, 445, 461 Edwards, L. J., 623, 631 Edwards, R. H., 480, 511 Edwards, R. H. T., 140, 157, 313, 318, 355, 520, 529, 531, 532, 534, 536, 537, 538, 544, 547, 548, 549, 671, 682
Page 703
Eekhoff, E. M., 305, 306, 348 Efthimiou, J., 672, 683 Egge, R. K., 271, 284 Egler, J., 561, 576 Ehrenfeld, W. K., 43, 53, 61, 77, 81 Eidelman, D. G., 121, 133 Eimer, M., 128, 135 Einhorn, S., 563, 577 Eisele, D., 185, 200 Eisele, J. H., 41, 76, 110, 112, 130, 131, 451, 463, 622, 631 Eklund, G., 94, 95, 101, 456, 457, 465 ElManshaw, A., 96, 102 Elborn, J. S., 557, 575 Elder, G., 315, 355 Eldridge, F. L., 149, 160, 228, 234, 236, 237, 239, 247, 249, 256, 281, 369, 375, 389, 414, 472, 495, 509, 514, 623, 631, 643, 658 Elegbeleye, O. O., 269, 283 ElHefnawy, A., 208, 209, 241 Ellenberger, H. H., 11, 18, 30, 36, 292, 340 Elliott, C. H., 669, 681 Elliott, M. W., 527, 542, 547, 550 Ellis, E. R., 538, 540, 550, 673, 683 Elmer, C., 304, 347 Elridge, F. L., 150, 161 Else, W., 107, 129, 624, 631 Elsner, R., 175, 188, 197 Eltayara, L., 666, 679 Emergy, C. F., 297, 298, 299, 342 Emery, E. S., 301, 344 Emirgil, C., 595, 597, 606 Emmi, L., 326, 359 Endo, S., 312, 353 Engel, A. G., 521, 534, 544, 548 Engel, L. A., 173, 175, 182, 196, 197, 199 England, S. J., 15, 37, 208, 209, 241, 314, 355, 590, 602 Engleman, H. M., 400, 417 Englert, M., 442, 460 Engwall, M. J., 384, 413 Enzer, N. B., 296, 297, 341 Epstein, H., 595, 605 Epstein, M. A., 302, 304, 305, 332, 344, 364 Epstein, P. E., 42, 77 Epstein, R. A., 302, 304, 305, 332, 344, 364 Epstein, S. E., 62, 84 Epstein, S. W., 151, 161 Erba, G., 323, 358 Erickson, A. D., 674, 684 Erickson, D., 185, 200 Erickson, J. T., 432, 437 Eriksson, P., 404, 419 Erkinjujntti, T., 374, 378 Erkinjuntti, T., 374, 377 Erman, M. K., 402, 418 Ernsberger, P., 63, 84 Ernst, P., 674, 684 Erokwu, B., 45, 78 Esau, S. A., 480, 511, 526, 529, 546, 547, 667, 680 Escourrou, P., 59, 83 Esler, M., 610, 628 Esmore, D., 610, 628 EspinoHurtado, P., 307, 351 Espinoza, A. A., 404, 419 Espinoza, R., 301, 344 Estenne, M., 313, 355, 517, 522, 543, 545, 563, 577, 614, 615, 623, 625, 629, 631, 664, 678 Estline, E., 373, 376 Etzel, R. A., 440, 460 Eugenin, J., 17, 37 Euler, C. V., 95, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 456, 457, 465 Evanich, M. J., 256, 281, 447, 462, 470, 508 Evans, G. A., 520, 529, 544 Evans, G. L., 271, 285 Evans, S. A., 445, 462 Eveloff, S. E., 401, 417 Everett, F., 326, 360 Ewart, R., 588, 601 Ewig, J. M., 325, 359 Eyster, J. A. E., 216, 244 Eyzaguirre, C., 55, 56, 81, 82 Ezure, K., 26, 30, 39
Page 704
F. Fabrizio, M., 402, 418 Fadell, E. J., 596, 606 Faerber, E. N., 307, 334, 350 Fagan, E. R., 326, 360 Fagard, R., 445, 461 Fagraeus, L., 145, 159 Falace, P., 312, 353 Falardeau, G., 671, 682 Falgering, H., 175, 188, 197 Falsetti, H. I., 598, 606 Fanelli, A., 476, 477, 510, 529, 535, 547 Fang, H. M., 432, 437 Farber, J. P., 21, 25, 38, 176, 197, 292, 340 Farfel, Z., 312, 353 Farhi, L. E., 590, 602 Farkas, G., 480, 511 Farole, A., 408, 421 Farrell, M. A., 306, 350 Faruque, F., 306, 349 Fauber, R., 298, 342 Faulkner, J. A., 233, 248 Faulks, C., 232, 233, 248, 395, 416 Fava, M., 664, 678 Federman, E. D., 674, 684 Fedorko, L., 15, 26, 30, 37, 39 Fei, R., 495, 514 Feige, R. R., 396, 416 Feihl, F., 495, 500, 514, 552, 557, 572 Feinberg, I., 595, 605 Feiner, J. R., 118, 133 Feinerman, D., 338, 366 Feinsilver, S. A. M., 307, 308, 351 Feinsilver, S. H., 371, 376 Feldman, H. A., 445, 461 Feldman, J. L., 3, 9, 11, 12, 15, 18, 26, 29, 30, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 292, 340 Feldman, N. T., 527, 532, 547, 598, 606 Fell, R., 372, 373, 376 Fell, R. L., 373, 376 Felli, A., 672, 683 FemiPearse, D., 269, 283 Fencl, V., 69, 86, 96, 102, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121, 132, 268, 276, 283, 286 Fenn, W. O., 150, 161, 458, 466 Fennerty, A. G., 617, 629 Fenzi, F., 476, 510 Fergosi, R. F., 173, 196 Ferguson, I. T., 520, 544 Ferguson, K. A., 392, 409, 415, 421 FeriniStrambi, L., 374, 378, 397, 416 Ferland, R., 181, 198 Fernbach, S., 327, 360 Feroah, T. R., 168, 196, 394, 415 Ferrans, V. J., 439, 440, 441, 446, 447, 459 Ferraro, N., 558, 559, 561, 563, 575, 576, 578 Ferrer, P., 457, 466 Ferrette, V., 277, 279, 286, 287 Ferretti, R., 664, 678 Ferriere, G., 315, 355 Ferris, B. G., 367, 368, 374 Feuer, J., 560, 576 Feyer, A., 641, 658 Fidone, S., 72, 74, 87 Fidone, S. J., 56, 82 Fiedeldij Dop, M., 647, 659 Fields, C. L., 298, 342 Figulla, H. R., 216, 217, 222, 244 Filiano, J. J., 331, 363 Filipone, M., 334, 366 Filler, J., 147, 159, 317, 356 Filley, G. F., 126, 134, 262, 263, 266, 282, 583, 597, 600, 606 Filuk, R. B., 69, 87 Findley, L., 401, 402, 418 Findley, L. J., 373, 377 Fink, B. R., 214, 218, 234, 243, 244, 279, 287, 368, 375 Fink, G. B., 327, 360 Fink, G. R., 50, 80, 93, 101 Fink, L. I., 558, 559, 561, 562, 575, 576 Finkelstein, J., 327, 361 Finkelstein, Y., 401, 417 Finley, J. P., 208, 209, 241 Finley, T. N., 454, 465
Page 705
Finnimore, A. J., 540, 550 Finucane, K. E., 527, 547 Fiona, R., 405, 419 Fiore, T., 498, 500, 514, 515 Firton, D., 653, 659 Fischer, C. E., 128, 135 Fischer, D. A., 542, 550 Fischer, S. P., 453, 464 Fiser, D. H., 327, 361 Fisher, J., 69, 86, 305, 348 Fisher, J. T., 192, 201 Fisher, L. D., 308, 309, 352 Fisher, R., 294, 341 Fisher, S. R., 308, 334, 352 Fishman, A. P., 21, 37, 147, 159, 208, 214, 217, 238, 241, 243, 249, 263, 267, 282, 317, 335, 356, 366, 368, 374, 440, 442, 443, 446, 447, 448, 458, 460, 466, 559, 576, 588, 589, 602, 618, 629 Fishman, L., 305, 348 Fiting, J. W., 484, 488, 495, 500, 512, 514 Fitzgerald, M. Y., 440, 447, 460 Fitzgerald, R. S., 55, 56, 61, 81, 84, 153, 162, 268, 283 Fitzsimmons, J. S., 309, 352 Fixley, M., 483, 512 Flack, M., 114, 132 Flanagan, E. A., 303, 344 Flavin, M. A., 304, 347 Fleegler, B., 429, 436, 665, 679 Fleetham, J. A., 392, 409, 415, 421, 593, 604, 665, 679 Fleming, J., 672, 683 Fleming, P. J., 210, 242, 303, 346 Flemons, W. W., 400, 417 Flenly, D. C., 427, 428, 435 Fletcher, C., 275, 285 Fletcher, E. C., 232, 247, 402, 403, 407, 418, 421, 538, 549, 675, 684 Fletcher, W. M., 141, 157 Fleury, B., 471, 472, 508 Flint, A., 443, 446, 461 Floras, J. S., 252, 255, 280 Flume, P. A., 623, 631 Flynn, M. G., 670, 681 Foerster, O., 526, 546 Foex, P., 638, 657 Fogel, W., 476, 510 Folgering, H., 236, 249, 304, 347, 634, 637, 638, 640, 643, 644, 649, 651, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660 Folgering, H. T. M., 670, 671, 681, 682 Forbes, S., 560, 576 Ford, G. T., 98, 103 Forge, J. L., 395, 415 Forman, R., 558, 575 Formanek, D., 671, 682 Forster, F. M., 638, 651, 657 Forster, H. V., 41, 53, 55, 68, 76, 81, 85, 149, 160, 599, 607 Forsyth, R. D., 172, 196 Fort, M. D., 324, 359 Forte, S., 672, 683 Fosse, J. P., 676, 685 Foster, R. J., 531, 547 Foti, G., 497, 498, 514 Fouke, J. M., 165, 166, 195 Foulon, P., 293, 340 Fournier, M., 125, 134, 471, 485, 508 Foutz, A. S., 33, 40 Fowler, W. S., 115, 132, 151, 161 Fox, A. M., 674, 684 Fox, K. M., 558, 575 Fox, K. P., 533, 534, 541, 548 Frackowiak, R. S. J., 50, 51, 80, 93, 101 Fraga, J., 397, 416 Frais, M., 565, 568, 569, 571, 578, 579 Frais, M. A., 216, 217, 222, 244, 246 Franciosa, J. A., 558, 575, 576 Francis, C., 298, 342 Francis, G. S., 561, 577 Francis, P. W., 323, 358 Franco, M. J., 470, 508 Franco, P. N., 332, 333, 334, 365 Frank, N. R., 367, 368, 374 Frank, R., 172, 196 Frank, Y., 317, 327, 356, 360 Frankel, H., 473, 509 Frankel, H. L., 107, 129, 624, 631 Franklin, D. H., 427, 428, 435
Page 706
Franklin, K. A., 404, 419 Frankstein, S. I., 453, 464 Frantz, I. D., 210, 228, 242, 247 Fraser, F., 634, 655 Fraser, G., 222, 246 Fredrickson, P. A., 307, 351 Freedman, S., 110, 130, 149, 160, 526, 546 Freeman, L. J., 99, 103 Frees, K. L., 440, 460 Freezer, N. J., 312, 353 Fregosi, R., 173, 196 Fregosi, R. F., 174, 175, 197, 236, 249 Freidman, P. J., 552, 572 Freilich, R. A., 597, 606 Fremion, A. S., 326, 359 French, J. M., 374, 378 Frenckner, B., 325, 359 French, D., 319, 357 Frenzel, H., 307, 350 Frette, C., 426, 434 Frew, A. J., 528, 547, 615, 629 Freyschuss, U., 325, 359 Friede, R., 306, 350 Friede, R. B. E., 311, 353 Friede, R. L., 312, 353 Friedland, J. S., 561, 576 Friedman, L. S., 588, 602 Friessen, W. O., 262, 263, 266, 282 Frijda, N. H., 99, 103 Frishman, W. H., 558, 575 Friston, K. J., 51, 80, 93, 101 Fritts, H. W., 147, 159 Froelicher, V. F., 558, 560, 576 Fromm, G. B., 519, 527, 544 Frommlet, M., 374, 377 Frost, J. D., 305, 306, 349 Frostick, S., 562, 577 Frostig, Z., 331, 363 Frysinger, R. C., 331, 363 Fujii, Y., 304, 347 Fujita, I., 312, 353 Fukuda, K., 312, 353 Fukuda, Y., 47, 79, 592, 603 Fukui, M., 214, 215, 236, 244 Fukushima, N., 49, 79, 304, 346 Fukushima, T., 188, 200 Fuller, D., 173, 196 Fullwood, L., 557, 575 Fulmer, J. D., 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 446, 447, 459, 460, 461 Fung, M. L., 12, 15, 36, 37, 188, 200 Funk, G. D., 3, 12, 35 Funke, E., 562, 577 Furster, H. V., 427, 428, 435 G Gaaf, P. D., 453, 464 Gabel, R. A., 52, 53, 80, 210, 242, 594, 605 Gabreels, F. J., 305, 306, 348 Gabriel, M., 26, 38 Gadek, J. E., 439, 440, 441, 446, 447, 459 Gadisseux, J. L., 315, 355 Gaensler, E. A., 440, 443, 447, 450, 460, 461 Gagel, O., 526, 546 Gajdos, P., 673, 684 Gajdos, P. H., 538, 549 Gal, P., 128, 135 Galante, R. J., 21, 37 Galassetti, P., 672, 683 Galioto, F. M., 294, 341 Gallagher, C. G., 445, 449, 451, 461, 462, 463, 483, 512, 563, 577, 675, 685 Galland, M. C., 313, 354 Gallego, J., 100, 104, 122, 133 Gallemore, G. E., 313, 354 Gallman, E. A., 57, 82 Galvin, J. R., 440, 460 Galvis, A., 315, 356 Gambles, S. A., 108, 130 Gammeltoft, S. A., 590, 602 Gampper, T., 392, 415 Ganam, R., 671, 682 Gandevia, B., 148, 160 Gandevia, S. C., 92, 93, 96, 101, 102, 116, 132, 151, 161, 276, 286, 432, 436, 470, 508, 524, 545, 622, 630, 665, 679
Page 707
Garancis, J. C., 397, 416 Garay, S. M., 595, 605, 673, 683 Garber, A. K., 68, 85 Garberg, V., 561, 577 Garcia Ramos, J., 457, 466 GarciaRio, F., 590, 591, 603 Gardiner, A. J. S., 552, 557, 572 Gardiner, M. R., 561, 576 Gardner, D., 452, 453, 464 Gardner, E., 312, 353 Gardner, P., 330, 331, 362 Gardner, W. N., 227, 247, 634, 639, 644, 650, 655, 656, 658, 659 Garfinkerl, A., 331, 364 Garg, B. P., 326, 359 Garg, M., 323, 358 Garlick, J., 473, 509 Garner, A. E., 675, 685 Garner, D. M., 254, 280 Garoutte, B. C., 121, 133 Garpestad, E., 184, 199 Garrard, C. S., 425, 434 Garreett, L., 455, 465 Garssen, B., 637, 647, 656, 659 Gary, B. E., 99, 103 Gates, E. P., 308, 352 Gatti, L., 125, 134, 471, 508 Gattinoni, L., 150, 161, 554, 573 Gauda, E. B., 166, 178, 195 Gaultier, C., 291, 292, 303, 305, 314, 325, 338, 339, 344, 355, 359 Gauthier, A. P., 477, 511 Gautier, H., 25, 38, 41, 76 Gavnely, N., 187, 200 Gay, M., 297, 298, 299, 342 Gay, M. L., 297, 298, 299, 342 Gay, S., 178, 198 Gay, S. B., 392, 415 GayanRamirez, G., 445, 461 Gayeski, T. E. J., 141, 158 Gazeroglu, H. B., 255, 281 Gazetopoulos, N., 557, 574 Gea, J., 450, 462 Geary, D. F., 325, 359 Geddes, D. M., 127, 128, 134, 135, 675, 685 Gefter, W. B., 166, 195 Geisert, J., 308, 351 Gelinas, Y., 181, 198 Geller, H. M., 47, 79 Gellert, A., 127, 134 Gemille, G. L., 53, 81 Genton, P., 313, 354 Georgopoulos, D., 68, 69, 85, 86, 236, 249, 384, 389, 413, 492, 494, 498, 499, 500, 503, 505, 506, 513, 514, 516, 646, 685 Georgopoulos, D. S., 74, 87 Geppert, J., 151, 152, 161 Gerend, D., 424, 425, 426, 433 Gerger, R., 669, 680 Gerhardt, T., 329, 362 Gerhart, P. M., 168, 196 Germann, K., 307, 351 Gershan, W. M., 68, 85 Gertz, K. H., 44, 77 Getting, P. A., 290, 339 Gevenois, P. A., 522, 545 Ghebleh, F., 597, 606 Gherardi, R., 476, 509 Gheri, R. G., 584, 585, 601 Ghosh, T. K., 192, 201 Gibbons, L. E., 331, 364 Gibbons, W., 582, 584, 600 Gibbs, J. S. R., 558, 575 Giblin, B., 665, 679 Giblin, E. C., 374, 377 Gibon, J. F., 484, 486, 512 Gibson, C. J., 444, 445, 461 Gibson, E., 334, 366 Gibson, G. J., 279, 287, 313, 322, 355, 358, 442, 449, 460, 462, 523, 527, 532, 533, 537, 538, 540, 545, 546, 548, 549, 550, 664, 675, 676, 678, 684 Gibson, J., 476, 510 Gibson, T. M., 638, 657 Giesbrecht, G., 127, 134, 369, 375 Giesbrecht, G. G., 72, 87, 236, 249 Gigliotti, F., 476, 477, 485, 486, 510, 512, 529, 534, 535, 547, 548, 674, 684
Page 708
Gilbert, R., 279, 287 Gilgoff, I., 542, 550 Gilian, L., 402, 418 GillKumar, P., 495, 514 Gillam, P. M. S., 532, 548 Gillberg, C., 305, 306, 349 Gillberg, M., 593, 604 Gillen, J., 670, 681 Gillen, M., 256, 281 Gillespie, D., 506, 516 Gillis, R. A., 68, 85 Gillispie, J., 296, 341 Gilmartin, J. J., 533, 538, 540, 548, 550 Gilmartin, M., 674, 684 Gilmore, R. L., 312, 353 Gilsanz, V., 304, 347 Ginzel, K. H., 450, 451, 452, 453, 463 Gioia, F. R., 314, 355 Girard, F., 325, 359 Glabman, S., 554, 573 Glanville, A. R., 625, 627, 631, 631625 Glaze, D. G., 305, 306, 348, 349 Gleadhill, I. C., 165, 195, 394, 415 Gleeson, K., 209, 210, 214, 222, 237, 242, 243, 246, 249, 400, 417, 538, 549, 565, 578 Glick, G., 62, 84 Gliebe, P. A., 634, 655 Glinski, L. P., 326, 359 Glotzbach, S., 329, 330, 331, 362, 363 Godfrey, S., 110, 130, 320, 357, 526, 546 Godovin, M. J., 20, 37 GodwinAusten, R. B., 457, 466 Goiny, M., 74, 87 Gokhan, N., 44, 77 Golar, S. D., 534, 548 Gold, A. R., 168, 196, 232, 248, 315, 356, 407, 420, 538, 549 Gold, W. M., 153, 162, 453, 464, 675, 685 Goldberg, A. P., 371, 376 Goldberg, D. S., 304, 347 Goldberg, P., 425, 434, 494, 514 Goldberg, S. K., 426, 427, 435 Goldblatt, J., 304, 347 Golden, J., 306, 350 Goldenberg, F., 402, 418, 564, 578 Goldenheim, P. D., 584, 601 Goldie, W. D., 312, 326, 353, 359 Goldman, E., 257, 281 Goldman, H., 588, 602 Goldman, M., 147, 159, 527, 546 Goldman, M. D., 219, 220, 232, 245, 248 Goldman, S., 165, 178, 195 Goldring, R. M., 168, 196, 270, 284, 595, 605, 673, 683 Goldschlager, N., 638, 657 Goldstein, M., 554, 573 Goldstein, R. H., 450, 463 Goldstein, R. S., 128, 135, 405, 409, 420, 422, 519, 544, 673, 683 Goldstein, S. J., 326, 359 Goldstone, J. C., 480, 511 Goldszmidt, A., 222, 224, 246, 386, 414 Golish, J., 521, 534, 544 Golish, J. A., 408, 421 Gomberg, R. M., 297, 298, 342 Gomes, C., 672, 683 Gomez, L., 590, 591, 603 Gomez, M. R., 300, 301, 343, 521, 534, 544 Gonsalves, S. F., 47, 79 Gonzalez, C., 72, 74, 87 Gonzalez, G., 338, 366 Gooden, B., 175, 188, 197 Goodman, D. L., 298, 343 Goodman, J., 454, 464 Goodman, L., 204, 241 Goodman, W. K., 645, 658 GoodnightWhite, S., 675, 684 Goodwin, G. M., 95, 102, 149, 160 Goodwin, J. F., 143, 153, 158 Gordon, D., 304, 346 Gorini, D., 125, 134 Gorini, M., 317, 356, 476, 477, 485, 486, 510, 512, 529, 534, 535, 547, 548, 584, 585, 601, 666, 674, 679, 684 Gorman, J. M., 641, 658 Gorman, R. B., 151, 161, 622, 630 Gormley, J. M., 128, 135, 672, 682
Page 709
Gort, E. H., 128, 135 Gosselink, R., 671, 682 Goswami, R., 582, 600 Got, P., 326, 359, 485, 486, 512 Gota, K., 49, 79 Gothe, B., 209, 219, 220, 221, 232, 242, 245, 248, 429, 436, 444, 445, 446, 447, 454, 455, 456, 461, 464 Gothe, N., 220, 245 Goto, K., 304, 346 Gottfried, S. B., 166, 177, 186, 187, 195, 198, 200, 425, 426, 434, 473, 474, 494, 502, 509, 514, 515, 526, 546, 670, 681 Gottlieb, W., 307, 350 Gottschalk, A., 210, 219, 221, 222, 224, 226, 228, 229, 231, 243, 245, 246, 384, 386, 413, 414 Gould, J. B., 49, 79, 303, 346 Gowda, K., 449, 462 Gozal, D., 303, 304, 305, 307, 328, 338, 344, 346, 351, 361, 366, 407, 421 Graham, A., 593, 605 Graham, D. R., 112, 131 Graham, G., 150, 161 Graham, K., 30, 39 Graham, M. D., 309, 352 Graham, T., 141, 158 Granger, C. V., 327, 360 Granit, R., 95, 101 Grant, B. J. B., 675, 685 Granton, J. T., 409, 422 Grassino, A., 125, 134, 143, 144, 158, 256, 281, 425, 426, 427, 431, 432, 434, 436, 480, 483, 484, 486, 488, 511, 512, 513, 529, 547, 562, 563, 577, 665, 679 Grassino, A. E., 254, 255, 280, 442, 443, 444, 447, 461, 522, 545, 665, 666, 679 Grassino, K., 595, 605 Grasso, S., 498, 514 Grattan, L. M., 674, 684 GrattanSmith, P. J., 307, 334, 350 Gray, B. A., 232, 248, 407, 420, 501, 506, 516 Gray, H., 190, 200 Gray, R., 569, 579 GrayDonald, K., 674, 684 Greagh, E. M., 595, 605 Green, H. J., 562, 577 Green, J. F., 112, 131, 553, 554, 555, 573, 574, 621, 630 Green, M., 425, 434, 456, 465, 480, 511, 520, 527, 528, 535, 537, 544, 547, 548, 582, 585, 600, 601, 667, 680 Greenberg, H. E., 595, 599, 606 Greenberg, S. B., 307, 334, 350 Greene, D. G., 552, 572 Greener, J., 458, 466 Greenfield, M. S., 317, 356 Greenspun, J. C., 334, 366 Greenwood, N., 309, 353 Greer, J. J., 9, 18, 30, 36, 40 Grefter, W. B., 389, 392, 414 Gregoratos, G., 552, 572 Gregory, W., 582, 584, 600 Grellet, J., 318, 356 Grelot, L. L., 29, 30, 38 Gren, M., 476, 510 Greiez, E., 641, 657 Griez, E. J. L., 645, 659 Griffin, D. M., 239, 250, 498, 505, 515, 516 Griffith, B. P., 609, 610, 614, 615, 616, 618, 619, 621, 625, 627, 628, 629, 631 Griffith, G. T., 552, 572 Griffiths, C. J., 279, 287, 533, 537, 538, 540, 548, 549, 550 Grillner, S., 290, 338, 339 Grimaud, C., 319, 357, 621, 630 Grimby, G., 145, 146, 147, 158, 159 Grimes, J., 215, 228, 244, 247 Griscom, N. T., 325, 359 Griswold, K., 327, 360 Grodin, W. K., 332, 364 Grodins, F. S., 208, 209, 241 Grogowska, M., 100, 104 Gronley, J. K., 519, 544 Grootoonk, S., 51, 80
Page 710
Groover, R. V., 312, 354 Gross, D., 143, 158, 256, 281, 473, 476, 480, 483, 509, 511, 512, 667, 680 Gross, E. M., 294, 341 Gross, E. R., 127, 128, 134, 135, 675, 685 Gross, P. M., 58, 59, 60, 61, 82 Gross, R. J., 168, 196 Grossman, J. E., 232, 247, 395, 406, 416, 420 Grossman, P., 634, 638, 653, 655, 657, 659 Grossman, R., 317, 356 Grosswasser, J., 300, 301, 344 Grover, R. F., 262, 263, 266, 282, 595, 597, 605, 606 Grucker, D., 410, 422 Gruer, S., 474, 509 Gruer, S. E., 480, 488, 495, 511, 513, 514 Grunstein, M. M., 444, 461 Grunstein, R. R., 403, 406, 419, 420, 569, 579, 588, 589, 592, 593, 601, 602, 603, 604, 673, 683 Guarneri, B., 476, 510 Guchu, R., 402, 418 Guenther, S. M., 100, 104, 483, 493, 494, 512, 513 Gugger, M., 535, 549 Guiliani, R., 498, 500, 514, 515 Guilleminault, C., 232, 248, 279, 287, 303, 304, 305, 306, 313, 317, 319, 327, 332, 346, 350, 354, 355, 356, 357, 361, 364, 365, 381, 398, 400, 402, 404, 408, 409, 412, 416, 417, 418, 419, 421, 472, 508, 571, 579, 598, 607 Guiterrez, M., 674, 684 Gulena, R., 582, 600 Gupta, K. B., 166, 195, 389, 392, 414 Gupta, R. G., 440, 447, 460 Gur, R., 373, 376 Gurwitz, D., 323, 358 Gustafsson, P. M., 254, 280 Gustavson, K., 312, 353 Gutteridge, J. M. C., 424, 425, 426, 433 Guyatt, G. H., 128, 135, 668, 669, 670, 680, 681 Guyton, A. C., 208, 216, 241, 244, 569, 579 Guz, A., 41, 42, 48, 50, 51, 76, 79, 80, 93, 101, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 119, 124, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 150, 161, 176, 197, 218, 224, 234, 245, 269, 270, 277, 280, 283, 284, 286, 287, 303, 304, 344, 451, 452, 453, 463, 464, 472, 498, 503, 509, 514, 522, 535, 545, 549, 558, 575, 611, 612, 614, 615, 617, 621, 622, 624, 626, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 675, 685 Guzzetta, A. J., 332, 365 Gyltnes, A., 593, 605 H Haaga, J., 185, 200 Haas, F., 128, 135, 477, 511, 526, 542, 546 Haas, S. S., 475, 509 Habash, D. L., 141, 157 Hachamovitch, R., 156, 162 Hacke, W., 476, 510 Haddad, G., 292, 331, 339 Haddad, G. G., 53, 81, 290, 293, 294, 302, 304, 305, 328, 331, 332, 338, 339, 340, 344, 361, 363, 364, 365 Hagbarth, K. E., 94, 101 Hagberg, B., 305, 306, 348, 349 Hagerman, D. D., 583, 591, 592, 601 Hagler, H. K., 555, 574 Hagler, S., 297, 298, 342 Hahm, S. Y., 326, 359 Haight, J. S. J., 170, 172, 173, 196 Hairston, L. E., 180, 181, 198, 199 Haji, A., 25, 26, 33, 38, 40 Haldane, J. S., 149, 160, 209, 210, 214, 227, 242, 247, 251, 280 Hale, B., 301, 344 Hales, J. P., 622, 630 Hall, D. R., 527, 546 Hall, M. J., 252, 255, 280
Page 711
Hall, P., 560, 576 Haller, J. O., 297, 304, 342, 346 Hallett, M., 315, 355, 598, 606 Halliwell, B., 424, 425, 426, 433 Halstead, L. S., 519, 544 Haluszka, J., 665, 666, 679 Hamaguchi, H., 312, 353 Hamernik, H. B., 100, 104 Hamida, M. B., 311, 353 Hamilton, A. L., 154, 162 Hamilton, H., 222, 246, 369, 372, 375 Hamilton, H. B., 234, 248 Hamilton, J., 304, 346 Hamilton, R., 338, 366 Hamilton, R. D., 451, 463, 558, 575, 611, 612, 621, 628 Hammond, M. D., 563, 577 Hammond, P. H., 456, 465 Hamnegard, C. H., 425, 434, 667, 680 Hamosh, P., 68, 85 Hampton, J. R., 557, 561, 575, 576 Han, J. N., 644, 658 Hance, A. J., 439, 440, 442, 446, 447, 459 Handelsman, D. J., 593, 604 Hanefeld, F., 313, 354 Hanks, E. C., 214, 234, 244 Hanley, D. F., 316, 356, 476, 477, 510, 511 Hanly, P., 405, 419, 566, 569, 578, 579 Hanly, P. J., 216, 217, 222, 244, 246, 565, 568, 569, 571, 578, 579 Hannhart, B., 584, 591, 592, 593, 601, 603, 604 Hans, M. G., 279, 287 Hansen, A. R., 308, 352 Hansen, J. E., 557, 575, 643, 658 HansenFlaschen, J., 476, 510 Hanson, J. S., 598, 606 Hanson, M. A., 48, 79, 293, 340 Hansotia, P., 319, 357 Hanzel, D. A., 407, 420 Haponik, E., 165, 178, 195 Haponik, E. F., 232, 248, 407, 420 Haque, Z., 6, 35 Hara, T., 96, 102 Harbison, L., 372, 373, 376 Hardesty, R. L., 609, 610, 614, 615, 618, 619, 621, 625, 627, 628, 631 Harding, A. E., 306, 350 Harding, B. N., 306, 350 Harding, R., 25, 38, 188, 200 Hardonk, H. J., 643, 658 Hards, J. M., 445, 461 Harf, A., 402, 418, 491, 499, 505, 513, 515, 516 Hargreave, F. E., 123, 133 Harley, H. G., 320, 356 Harman, E., 593, 604 Harmazoe, K., 374, 377 Harms, C. A., 239, 250, 568, 578 Harper, P. S., 320, 356, 521, 544 Harper, R., 304, 330, 331, 346, 363, 388, 414, 572, 579 Harper, R. M., 183, 199, 296, 304, 328, 331, 338, 341, 346, 361, 363, 364, 366 Harriman, D. G., 306, 350 Harris, R. C., 519, 543 HarrisEze, A. O., 451, 463, 675, 685 Harrison, D., 5, 35 Harrison, T. R., 564, 578 Harrison, W. G., 564, 578 Hart, A., 564, 578 Hart, L. D., 308, 352 Hart, M. V., 592, 603 Hart, R. H., 232, 233, 248, 395, 396, 416 Hart, T. B., 589, 602 Hartford, R. B., 331, 364 Hartley, L. H., 595, 605 Hartridge, J., 25, 38 Harty, H. R., 124, 134, 218, 245, 535, 549, 623, 631 Harver, A., 275, 276, 285, 286, 426, 434, 670, 681 Harvey, D. R., 330, 362 Harvey, R., 298, 342 Hasegawa, H., 270, 284 Hasegawa, S., 42, 51, 58, 77 Hashimoto, T., 312, 313, 353, 354 Hashizume, I., 42, 51, 58, 59, 77, 80, 82, 592, 603
Page 712
Hasselbalch, K. A., 590, 602 Hassell, K., 501, 515 Hasumura, N., 47, 79 Hata, N., 42, 51, 58, 77, 267, 283 Hathaway, T., 627, 632 Hathorn, M. K. S., 204, 228, 241, 247 Hathout, G. M., 338, 366 Haughtom, F., 558, 575 Hauptman, S. A., 302, 303, 304, 305, 327, 344, 361 Hawksworth, A., 303, 304, 344, 472, 508 Haworth, J. C., 306, 349 Haxhiu, M. A., 45, 63, 78, 84, 175, 186, 187, 197, 200 Hayashi, F., 118, 133, 221, 246, 592, 594, 603, 605, 676, 685 Hayes, D., 301, 344 Hayes, J. A., 450, 452, 463 Haymond, M. W., 306, 349 Hays, A. P., 315, 356 Hays, R. M., 308, 309, 352 Hazama, H., 374, 377 Hazelman, B., 527, 546 Hazzledine, J. I., 59, 83 He, J., 372, 373, 376, 410, 422 Heaf, P. J. D., 532, 548 Heaton, R., 614, 615, 617, 626, 629, 632 Hecht, J. T., 326, 359 Heckmatt, J. Z., 319, 320, 357, 538, 542, 549, 550 Hedemark, L. L., 128, 135 Hedner, J., 403, 419 Hedner, J. A., 404, 419 Hegyi, T., 324, 328, 359, 362 Hehre, D., 68, 85 Heideman, R. L., 312, 354 Heikkila, L., 619, 621, 630 Heilporn, A., 313, 355, 522, 545, 664, 678 Hein, M. S., 588, 602 Heinemann, H. O., 270, 284 Heinrichs, C., 304, 347 Heldt, G. P., 304, 305, 306, 347, 348, 350 Helke, C. J., 44, 77 Hellot, M. F., 484, 486, 512 Helmers, R. A., 440, 460 Helms, P., 325, 359 Helms, P. J., 301, 311, 344 Helseth, H. K., 113, 131 Hender, J., 68, 85 Hender, T., 68, 85 Henderson, K., 672, 682 Henderson, K. S., 389, 414, 618, 629 HendersonSmart, D. J., 328, 329, 362 Hendler, J. M., 666, 679 Hendon, J. R., 596, 606 Hendrick, E. B., 309, 352 Hendricks, C., 179, 198, 232, 233, 248, 395, 415, 416 Hendricks, J. C., 387, 414 Hendricks, W. C., 232, 233, 248 Hendricks, I., 319, 357 Heniger, G. R., 645, 658 Henke, K. G., 5, 35, 148, 160, 218, 245, 386, 414, 567, 578 Hensley, J. J., 470, 507 Hensley, M. J., 380, 412, 592, 603, 637, 656 Henson, D., 552, 563, 572 Henson, D. J., 674, 684 Hering, E., 151, 162 Herman, S. P., 296, 297, 341, 635, 656 Hernandez, P., 494, 514 Hershenson, M., 292, 339 Hershenson, M. B., 480, 512 Hertz, G., 307, 308, 351, 371, 376 Hess, G. L., 553, 573 Hesser, C. M., 145, 148, 159, 160 Hesz, N., 309, 311, 353 Heurich, A. E., 450, 462 Hey, E. M., 148, 159 Hey, E. N., 499, 515 Heyde, F., 26, 38 Heyman, A., 121, 133, 213, 243, 532, 545 Heymans, C., 42, 76 Heymans, J. F., 42, 76 Heyrman, R. M., 215, 244 Heywood, P., 46, 51, 79, 80
Page 713
Hiatt, M., 324, 328, 359, 362 Hibbert, G. A., 634, 640, 655 Hickey, B. P., 313, 355 Hickey, R. F., 43, 53, 61, 77, 81 Hida, W., 96, 102, 113, 123, 131, 134, 185, 200, 322, 358, 407, 421, 621, 630, 665, 679 Hienelman, R. B., 675, 685 Higgenbottom, M. B., 557, 558, 560, 574, 576 Higgenbottom, T., 610, 614, 615, 627, 628, 629, 632, 634, 655 Higgenbottom, T. W., 625, 632 Hildebrandt, J., 552, 572 Hilder, R. G., 59, 83 Hill, A. V., 141, 157 Hill, L., 114, 132 Hill, N. S., 673, 674, 684 Hill, P., 386, 413, 535, 538, 549, 615, 629 Hill, P. L., 596, 606 Hill, R., 315, 355 Hillman, D. R., 404, 419, 527, 547 Hillman, L., 332, 365 Hilton, S. M., 53, 63, 81, 84 Himal, H. S., 594, 605 Hiraga, K., 41, 76 Hirai, M., 214, 215, 236, 244 Hirano, A., 317, 356 Hirose, N., 588, 601 Hirose, Y., 552, 572 Hirsch, N. P., 320, 357, 476, 510, 542, 550 Hirshman, C. A., 263, 268, 282, 597, 606 Hitchcock, E., 90, 100 Hiura, K., 312, 353 Hiyashi, F., 9, 30, 36 Hla, K. M., 381, 412 Ho, C. M., 169, 196 Ho, K. Y., 589, 602 Ho, S. L., 402, 418 Hobbs, S., 293, 340 Hobbs, S. F., 149, 160 Hoch, C. C., 373, 374, 377 Hochban, W., 185, 200 Hodgman, C. H., 295, 341 Hodgman, J., 331, 363 Hoekje, P. L., 165, 195 Hoekstra, R., 634, 655 Hoes, M. J. A. J. M., 634, 640, 654, 655, 660 Hofeldt, F., 582, 584, 600 Hofeldt, F. D., 305, 348, 584, 601 Hofer, M. A., 293, 340 Hoffman, E. A., 166, 195, 389, 392, 414 Hoffman, E. P., 318, 356 Hoffman, H., 331, 363 Hoffman, H. J., 309, 331, 332, 352, 363, 364, 365 Hoffman, R., 564, 578 Hoffstein, V., 396, 397, 400, 401, 405, 416, 417, 420 Hogg, J. C., 552, 557, 572 Hohimer, A. R., 592, 603 Hoidal, J., 424, 425, 426, 433 Hoidal, J. R., 424, 425, 426, 433 Holden, H. B., 176, 197 Holinger, L. D., 309, 311, 352 Holinger, P. C., 309, 311, 352 Holinger, P. H., 309, 311, 352 Holle, R. H. O., 476, 510, 524, 545 Holle, R. O., 486, 513 Holley, D., 328, 362 Hollister, J. R., 445, 461 Holm, B., 307, 351 Holmes, R., 553, 573 Holowach, J., 301, 344 Holtby, S. G., 236, 249, 385, 413 Holtermann, G., 17, 37, 47, 79 Holthy, S. G., 68, 85 Holton, P., 53, 61, 81 Homma, I., 94, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 115, 132, 210, 214, 243, 263, 282, 588, 602 Homma, M., 123, 134, 665, 679 Homma, W., 322, 358 Honda, Y., 41, 42, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 64, 66, 70, 72, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 87, 118, 133, 221, 246, 263, 267, 281, 282, 283, 473, 509, 592, 594, 603, 605 Honer, W. G., 150, 161
Page 714
Honig, C. R., 141, 158 Hoo, J. J., 304, 348 Hool, G. J., 312, 354 Hoop, B., 68, 85, 86 Hopkin, I. E., 329, 362 Hopkins, F. G., 141, 157 Hopkins, I. J., 307, 334, 350 Hopkinson, N. D., 445, 462 Hopp, F. A., 610, 628 Hoppenbrouwers, T., 331, 363 Horgan, J. D., 208, 241 Hori, M., 563, 578 Hormbrey, J., 644, 645, 658 Hornbein, T. F., 459, 467 Horner, R. L., 176, 197, 218, 224, 234, 245, 383, 392, 394, 412, 415, 498, 514, 611, 612, 614, 615, 617, 621, 628, 629 Hornsveld, H., 637, 647, 656, 659 Horowitz, J. G., 307, 351 Horton, M., 298, 343 Horton, V. K., 326, 359 Horton, W. A., 326, 359 Hosenpud, J. D., 592, 603 Hosking, G. P., 140, 157 Hotta, T., 496, 514 Houben, J. J., 405, 420 Hough, W., 614, 629 Hough, W. H., 454, 455, 456, 464 Houghton, L. A., 277, 286 Housman, D. E., 320, 356 Housset, B., 471, 472, 508 Houston, C. S., 204, 209, 210, 211, 215, 222, 226, 234, 241, 242 Howard, R. S., 51, 80, 320, 357, 476, 510, 519, 542, 544, 550 Howe, P. E., 294, 341 Howell, J. B. L., 117, 133, 276, 277, 286, 458, 466, 634, 655, 665, 679 Howell, L. L., 268, 283 Howell, S., 153, 162 Howie, M. M., 385, 413 Howson, M. G., 228, 247 Hroban, R. H., 431, 436 Hsiao, C., 210, 216, 243 Hsieh, C. M., 625, 627, 631 Hsu, K., 128, 135 Hu, J. M., 12, 36 Huang, C. T., 450, 462, 592, 597, 603 Huang, J., 68, 85 Huang, Q., 183, 191, 199 Huang, S. Y., 269, 283 Hubbard, J. H., 637, 656 Hubmayr, R. D., 486, 487, 488, 499, 502, 503, 504, 513, 515 Hudgel, D. W., 95, 102, 179, 198, 220, 222, 232, 233, 234, 246, 248, 322, 358, 369, 372, 375, 386, 395, 406, 407, 410, 413, 415, 416, 420, 422, 535, 537, 538, 549, 569, 579, 596, 606, 615, 629 Hudgson, P., 538, 540, 550 Hudson, B., 330, 331, 362 Hudson, L. D., 309, 352 Hughes, C. W., 334, 366 Hughes, G. R., 444, 445, 461 Hughes, J. A., 669, 680 Hughes, J. M. B., 69, 87, 527, 547, 558, 576 Hughes, R. L., 233, 248 Hultcrantz, E., 327, 360 Hultman, E., 141, 157 Hume, R., 593, 605 Humphrey, D. R., 637, 656 Humphreys, R., 314, 355 Humphreys, R. P., 309, 352 Hund, E. F., 476, 510 Hung, J., 404, 419 Hunninghake, G. W., 439, 440, 441, 446, 447, 459, 460 Hunt, B., 216, 217, 244, 569, 579 Hunt, C. E., 294, 302, 303, 304, 305, 313, 314, 319, 327, 331, 332, 335, 337, 341, 344, 346, 347, 348, 354, 355, 360, 363, 365, 366 Hunter, K., 306, 349 Huntsman, D. J., 554, 573, 621, 630 Hurko, O., 326, 359 Hussain, S. N., 480, 511 Huszcauk, A., 552, 554, 572, 574 Hutchison, D. C. G., 669, 680 Hutt, D. A., 165, 195
Page 715
Huygen, P., 638, 657 Hyatt, R. E., 148, 160, 272, 285, 367, 368, 374, 455, 465, 666, 679 Hyde, R. W., 473, 509 Hyland, R. H., 151, 161 Hyman, A. I., 531, 547 I Iandelli, I., 666, 679 Iannaccone, S., 397, 416 Iannaccone, S. T., 315, 355 Iber, C., 113, 131, 210, 215, 232, 239, 242, 248, 250, 401, 417, 505, 516, 534, 548, 571, 579, 588, 601, 610, 611, 612, 614, 615, 628 Ichikawa, K., 45, 78 Ierson, D. J., 305, 348 Igarashi, T., 266, 282 Iida, Y., 263, 282 Ikeda, A., 668, 669, 680 Ikeda, K., 320, 357 Im Hof, B., 475, 509 Im Hof, V., 483, 512 Imbs, J. S., 410, 422 Imes, N. K., 588, 592, 601, 603 Imsand, C., 495, 500, 514 Inabs, S., 266, 268, 270, 282, 283, 284 Inbar, G. F., 210, 242, 527, 546 Inbar, O., 370, 376 Ine, T., 427, 428, 430, 435 Ingram, R., 328, 361 Ingram, R. H., 527, 532, 547, 552, 557, 572, 592, 603, 637, 656 Inkley, S. R., 529, 544 Inman, E. M., 521, 545 Inman, M. D., 145, 146, 159 Innes, J. A., 50, 80, 176, 197, 558, 575, 626, 632 Inoue, H., 374, 377 Inoue, K., 317, 356 Inoue, T., 6, 35 Inoue, Y., 374, 377 Insalaco, G., 191, 200, 201 Ioli, F., 671, 682 Irie, T., 270, 284 Irsigler, G. B., 592, 597, 603 Irvin, C., 592, 603 Isabey, D., 499, 505, 515, 516 Iscoe, S., 29, 30, 38, 216, 244, 458, 466 Ishiguiro, M., 49, 79 Ishiguro, M., 304, 346 Ishiwa, S., 304, 346 Isono, S., 168, 196, 233, 248, 394, 415 Israel, E., 113, 131 Israels, S., 306, 349 Issa, F. G., 47, 79, 409, 421, 538, 540, 550 Itho, H., 320, 357 Itoi, A., 400, 417 Iwase, N., 96, 102, 113, 131 Iwase, S., 403, 418 Izumi, T., 668, 669, 680 J Jabbari, B., 406, 420 Jabourian, Z. H., 408, 421 Jackson, M., 610, 628 Jackson, R., 327, 361 Jackson, R. V., 540, 550 Jacob, E., 402, 418 Jacob, M. P., 426, 431, 434 Jacobi, M. S., 644, 645, 658 Jacobs, R. A., 308, 309, 352 Jacquens, Y., 476, 509 Jadeja, N., 328, 362 Jaeckle, K. A., 312, 354 Jain, S. K., 113, 114, 131, 621, 630 James, L. S., 330, 331, 362 James, O. F., 374, 378 James, T., 181, 198 Jamieson, G., 595, 605 Jamieson, S. W., 609, 610, 625, 627, 627, 628, 631 Jammes, Y., 194, 201, 319, 357, 621, 630 Janicki, J., 558, 575 Janicki, J. S., 559, 560, 576 Jannett, S., 252, 280 Janoff, A., 424, 425, 426, 433 Jansen, M. T., 302, 303, 304, 305, 344, 346
Page 716
Janssens, E., 53, 80 Janzer, R. C., 312, 353 Javaheri, S., 263, 267, 282, 405, 419, 564, 578 Jawakawski, L. W., 318, 356 Jederlinic, P., 125, 134 Jeffreys, A. J., 307, 350 Jellinger, K., 306, 349 Jenab, M., 327, 361 Jenner, F. A., 99, 103 Jennett, S., 641, 658 Jennings, D. B., 150, 161 Jenouri, G., 255, 281 Jensen, M. L., 505, 516 Jensen, T. H., 313, 354 Jensen, W. A., 535, 548 Jeong, D. U., 402, 418 Jin, Y., 188, 200 Jinecker, E. W., 56, 82 Jobin, J., 671, 682 Joffe, A., 327, 361 Johansen, H., 149, 160 Johansen, S. H., 669, 681 Johansson, R. S., 152, 162 Johnson, B., 386, 413, 535, 538, 549, 615, 629 Johnson, B. D., 370, 376 Johnson, D. C., 59, 83, 313, 314, 354, 521, 544 Johnson, M., 127, 134 Johnson, M. A., 128, 135 Johnson, M. W., 592, 593, 604 Johnson, P., 25, 38, 292, 293, 301, 311, 339, 340, 344 Johnson, R. L. J., 583, 600 Johnson, T. S., 590, 603 Johnsonte, R. E., 271, 285 Johnston, I. D., 445, 462 Johnston, K., 305, 306, 348, 350 Jonason, J., 68, 85 Jones, C. R., 312, 354 Jones, D. A., 140, 157, 562, 577 Jones, D. R., 652, 659 Jones, G., 671, 682 Jones, G. L., 484, 488, 512 Jones, N., 426, 427, 434 Jones, N. L., 96, 102, 137, 143, 146, 147, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 161, 162, 326, 360, 426, 434, 446, 449, 462, 484, 488, 512, 521, 526, 529, 545, 546, 547, 590, 602, 665, 671, 679, 682 Jones, P. H., 148, 160 Jones, P. W., 109, 111, 122, 130, 133, 552, 554, 572, 574, 674, 684 Jones, R. A., 561, 562, 576 Jones, R. N., 442, 443, 446, 447, 460 Jones, T., 50, 80 Jongmans, M., 649, 659 Jonsson, B., 324, 358 Jonzon, A., 454, 464 Joorabchi, B., 296, 297, 341, 635, 656 Jordan, R. A., 308, 309, 352 Jorfeldt, L., 137, 157 Jorgensen, M., 149, 160 Joubert, M., 311, 353 Jounieaux, V., 174, 197 Jubran, A., 254, 280, 484, 488, 495, 512, 513, 514 Jukes, M. G. M., 148, 159, 499, 515 Julka, D. B., 113, 131 Juniper, E. F., 123, 133 Jurkowski, J. E., 590, 602 Just, H., 558, 575 Juvela, S., 374, 378 K Kagawa, F. T., 610, 616, 618, 620, 621, 625, 628, 630, 631 Kagawa, S., 69, 86, 270, 284 Kageyama, S., 263, 282, 588, 602 Kahn, A., 300, 301, 327, 332, 333, 334, 344, 361, 365 Kaiser, D. G., 676, 685 Kales, A., 165, 195, 307, 351 Kalsbeck, J., 326, 359 Kaltreider, N. L., 443, 449, 461 Kamada, A., 266, 270, 282, 284 Kamarampaka, M., 320, 357 Kamishima, K., 270, 284 Kampine, J. P., 553, 573, 621, 630
Page 717
Kamya, J., 653, 659 Kanamaru, A., 96, 102, 115, 132 Kanga, J., 312, 353 Kann, T., 669, 681 Kanter, R. K., 292, 338 Kantor, J., 327, 361 Kao, F. F., 210, 214, 243 Kaplan, J., 307, 351, 566, 578 Kaplan, O., 372, 373, 376 Kaplan, R. M., 426, 434 Kappagoda, C. T., 555, 574 Karelitz, S., 327, 361 Karlsson, J., 370, 375 Kasalicky, J., 449, 462 Kasian, G. F., 327, 360 Kaski, J. E., 669, 680 Kassel, E. E., 170, 172, 196 Kaste, M., 374, 378 Kattwinkel, J., 303, 346 Katz, I., 666, 679 KatzSalamon, M., 324, 358 Katzen, D. B., 60, 83 Kaufman, F., 426, 431, 434 Kaufman, J., 176, 183, 197 Kaufman, L., 532, 548 Kaufman, M. R., 552, 553, 573 Kaufman, R. D., 52, 53, 80, 210, 243 Kawabata, Y., 454, 464 Kawahara, H., 304, 347 Kawai, A., 20, 37 Kawak, A., 383, 412 Kawakami, Y., 68, 85, 252, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 276, 280, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 368, 375, 427, 428, 430, 435 Kawakamr, Y., 276, 280, 286 Kawakatsu, T., 312, 354 Kawamata, K., 97, 103 Kay, A., 218, 222, 234, 245, 246, 248, 386, 414 Kay, J. M., 404, 419 Kaye, D. M., 610, 628 Kayukawa, Y., 404, 419 Kazemi, H., 68, 85, 86, 313, 314, 354, 521, 544 Keamy, M., 476, 510 Kearns, D., 334, 366 Kee, W. G., 297, 298, 299, 342 Keefover, R., 308, 351 Keegan, J., 558, 575 Keeler, J. R., 44, 77 Keena, V. A., 451, 463 Keenan, S. P., 409, 421 Keens, S. E., 302, 303, 304, 305, 344 Keens, T. G., 49, 79, 302, 303, 304, 305, 307, 308, 309, 323, 327, 328, 344, 346, 347, 351, 352, 358, 360, 361, 407, 421, 472, 508 Kefkhofs, M., 405, 420 Keilty, S. E. J., 667, 680 Keitges, P., 327, 361 Kellaway, P., 300, 301, 344 Keller, J. L., 668, 680 Kellerman, B., 560, 576 Kelling, J. S., 473, 474, 509, 526, 546 Kelly, D., 333, 334, 365, 366 Kelly, D. H., 49, 79, 303, 308, 311, 313, 333, 344, 351, 354, 365, 472, 508 Kelly, E. N., 15, 37 Kelly, P., 638, 657 Kelly, S., 97, 103 Kelly, T., 569, 579 Kelsen, S., 622, 631 Kelsen, S. G., 96, 102, 125, 134, 185, 199, 367, 368, 374, 426, 427, 428, 429, 431, 432, 434, 435, 436, 437, 444, 445, 446, 447, 454, 455, 456, 458, 461, 464, 466, 470, 507, 614, 629, 663, 665, 678, 679 Kelsey, W., 327, 361 Kempenaers, C., 405, 420 Kemps, J. S., 331, 364 Kendregan, B. A., 671, 682 Kendrick, A. H., 582, 600 Kennealy, J. A., 638, 656 Kenney, L. A., 373, 376 Kenny, A. S., 327, 361 Keogh, B. A., 439, 440, 442, 443, 446, 447, 450, 459, 460, 462 Kerby, G. R., 673, 683
Page 718
Kern, N., 401, 417 Kern, N. B., 410, 422 Kerr, A. M., 305, 306, 349 Kerr, J. S., 424, 425, 426, 433 Kerr, W. J., 634, 655 Keskimaki, I., 638, 657 Kessels, A. G., 426, 434 Kessler, R., 404, 419 Kety, S. S., 637, 656 Khalifa, M. M., 304, 347 Khamnei, S., 64, 85 Khatib, M., 209, 242 Khatib, M. I., 384, 413 Khazeni, N., 373, 376 Kholwadwala, D., 293, 340 Khoo, M. C., 384, 386, 413 Khoo, M. C. K., 204, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213, 214, 215, 217, 219, 221, 222, 224, 226, 228, 229, 231, 234, 235, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 386, 388, 413 Kidd, C., 553, 573 Kien, C. L., 141, 157 Kikuchi, R., 552, 572 Kikuchi, Y., 96, 102, 113, 123, 131, 134, 185, 200, 322, 358, 621, 630, 665, 679 Kilburn, K. H., 532, 545 Killai, M., 59, 83 Kille, J. F., 304, 347 Killian, K., 562, 577, 622, 630 Killian, K. J., 95, 96, 102, 108, 116, 123, 130, 132, 133, 145, 146, 151, 154, 159, 161, 162, 276, 286, 426, 429, 432, 434, 436, 446, 449, 462, 475, 484, 486, 488, 509, 512, 513, 522, 529, 534, 545, 547, 665, 671, 679, 682 Kim, M. J., 670, 681 Kim, Y., 218, 234, 245, 248 Kimbel, P., 583, 600 Kimoff, R. T., 222, 246 Kimura, H., 51, 58, 59, 70, 80, 87, 221, 246, 263, 267, 282, 592, 593, 594, 603, 604, 605, 676, 685 Kimura, N., 20, 21, 37 Kinasewitz, G. T., 559, 576 Kinecker, E. W., 56, 81 King, C. E., 564, 578 King, E. D., 402, 418 King, M. D., 311, 353 King, M. T., 380, 412 King, T. E., 440, 442, 443, 446, 460, 461 Kingwell, B., 610, 628 Kinitomo, F., 263, 267, 282 Kinnear, W., 522, 545, 614, 615, 629 Kinnear, W. J. M., 445, 462 Kinney, H. C., 294, 312, 313, 331, 341, 363 Kinney, J. M., 531, 547, 641, 658 Kirchheim, H. R., 59, 60, 83 Kirlew, K. A., 338, 366 Kirpalani, A., 554, 573 Kirsch, W. M., 308, 309, 352 Kishi, F., 68, 85, 260, 263, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 368, 375 Kissach, A. W., 306, 350 Kitts, E. I., 315, 355 Kiumura, H., 59, 82 KiwullSchone, H. F., 41, 76 Klauber, M. R., 372, 373, 374, 376, 377 Kleeberger, S., 598, 607 Klein, A. L., 370, 375 Klein, D. F., 641, 658 Klein, H., 320, 357 Klein, J., 26, 38 Klein, M. J., 315, 355 Klein, O., 216, 244 Kleinman, L. I., 554, 573 Kline, J. S., 583, 600 Kline, L. R., 387, 401, 410, 414, 417, 422 Klineberg, P. L., 455, 465 Klingman, J., 519, 544 Kluge, K. A., 331, 363 Kluitmann, G., 307, 350 Kneger, J., 308, 351 Kneussl, M. P., 68, 85 Knight, H., 222, 246, 373, 376 Knill, R. L., 41, 76
Page 719
Knoche, H., 56, 81, 82 Knowlton, G. C., 553, 554, 555, 573 Knuch, S. L., 592, 603 Knuth, K. V., 592, 603 Knuth, S. L., 111, 131, 167, 184, 185, 194, 195, 199, 201, 405, 420, 592, 603 Ko, S. W., 210, 211, 215, 222, 226, 234, 242 Kobayashi, I., 50, 80, 93, 101 Kobayashi, S., 68, 85, 261, 263, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 276, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 368, 375 Kobayashi, T., 64, 70, 85, 87 Koch, H., 320, 357 Koch, T. K., 307, 350 Kochupillai, N., 582, 600 Kocoshis, S., 308, 352 Kocoshis, S. A., 308, 311, 352 Koehler, R. C., 60, 83 Koenig, M. P., 585, 601 Koepchen, H. P., 44, 77 Koepke, J. W., 298, 342 Koerner, C., 327, 361 Koga, K., 403, 418 Kogo, N., 20, 21, 37, 38, 45, 78 Koh, S. S. W., 215, 226, 234, 235, 244 KohlmanCarrieri, V., 121, 133 Koizumi, K., 59, 83 Kojo, M., 49, 79, 304, 346 Kolano, J. W., 592, 603 Koletsky, R. J., 270, 284 Koller, E. A., 457, 466 Kollmeyer, K. R., 554, 573 Kolobow, T., 150, 161, 554, 573 Komoshita, S., 312, 354 Kondapalli, P. G., 118, 133, 622, 631 Kondoh, Y., 454, 464 Konno, K., 146, 159, 254, 280 Kontos, H. A., 41, 60, 76, 83, 638, 657 Konyukov, Y., 496, 514 Konza, E. A., 53, 55, 81 Koons, A. H., 328, 362 Kopits, S. E., 323, 326, 358, 359 Kopp, E., 216, 217, 222, 244 Korach, A., 297, 298, 342 Korducki, M. J., 41, 76 Kornbluth, R. S., 442, 457, 461 Korner, P. I., 46, 59, 60, 78, 83 Kornguth, S. E., 317, 356 Korobkin, R., 303, 304, 305, 327, 332, 346, 361, 364, 365, 472, 508 Korpas, J., 176, 197 Korschinsky, H., 645, 659 Korthy, A. L., 450, 452, 463 Kostreva, D. R., 553, 573 Kotogal, P., 300, 301, 344 Kouchiyama, S., 593, 604 Kowtiz, J. M., 386, 414 Koyama, H., 668, 669, 680 Koyanagi, T., 312, 353 Kozar, L. F., 222, 246, 270, 284, 368, 374, 388, 414, 452, 453, 464, 614, 617, 629 Kozinetz, C. A., 305, 348 Kradin, R. L., 277, 286, 296, 341 Kraft, S., 625, 631 Kramer, B., 558, 575 Kramer, M. J., 424, 425, 426, 433 Kramer, M. R., 610, 616, 621, 628 Krasney, J. A., 60, 83 Kravath, R. E., 304, 317, 327, 347, 356, 360 Kravitz, H., 297, 298, 342 Kreiger, A. J., 312, 353 Kreiger, B., 564, 578 Kreiger, J., 410, 422 Kreitzer, S. M., 527, 532, 547 Krejci, P., 279, 287 Kreuger, A., 312, 353 Kreuzer, F., 59, 83 Kreuzer, H., 216, 217, 222, 244 Kribbs, N. B., 410, 422 Krieger, A. J., 53, 81, 90, 100, 309, 352 Krieger, B., 338, 366 Krieger, B. P., 569, 579 Krieger, D., 476, 510 Krieger, J., 218, 234, 236, 245, 404, 410, 419, 422 Kripke, D. F., 372, 373, 374, 376, 377 Krishnamoorthy, K. S., 313, 354 Krishnan, B., 563, 577 Krishnasamy, I., 168, 196
Page 720
Krnjevic, K., 637, 638, 656, 657 Kronauer, R. E., 204, 209, 210, 228, 230, 241, 242, 386, 388, 413 Kronenberg, R. S., 52, 53, 80, 128, 135, 368, 374, 594, 595, 605 Krongrad, E., 332, 364, 365 Kryger, M., 410, 422, 565, 568, 570, 571, 578, 579, 586, 601, 616, 629 Kryger, M. H., 209, 216, 217, 222, 242, 244, 246, 372, 373, 376, 410, 422, 569, 570, 579, 597, 606, 676, 685 Kubiet, M. N., 572, 579 Kubin, L., 21, 37 Kuchelmeister, K., 320, 357 Kugo, M., 320, 357 Kuhn, C., 440, 442, 443, 460 Kukita, J., 312, 353 Kump, K., 277, 279, 286, 287, 400, 401, 417 Kump, K. S., 369, 375 Kuna, S. T., 30, 39, 183, 191, 199, 200, 201, 313, 354 Kunitomo, F., 263, 267, 282, 594, 605 Kunkel, L. M., 318, 356 Kunkel, S. L., 453, 464 Kuno, K., 214, 215, 236, 244 Kunzel, W., 304, 346 Kuo, C., 272, 285, 368, 374 Kuoppasalmi, K., 593, 604 Kupfer, D. J., 373, 374, 377 Kuppersmith, R., 298, 343 Kuriyama, T., 70, 87, 214, 215, 236, 244, 263, 267, 282, 592, 593, 594, 603, 604, 605 Kuroda, Y., 313, 354 Kurpas, M., 188, 200 Kurtz, D., 218, 234, 236, 245, 308, 351, 410, 422 Kurzner, S. I., 323, 358 Kushida, C., 400, 402, 417 Kutz, D., 410, 422 Kuwayama, N., 496, 514 Kuyper, F., 304, 347 Kwa, S. L., 674, 684 Kryger, M. H., 665, 679 Kyroussis, D., 425, 434, 667, 680 L La Forge, J., 401, 417 Lablve, K., 675, 685 Lacey, J. L., 328, 362 Lacombe, D., 304, 347 Lacquet, L. M., 445, 461 Ladda, R. L., 307, 350 Lade, R., 327, 361 Ladenson, P. W., 584, 601 Lagercrantz, H., 69, 74, 86, 87, 324, 358 Laghi, F., 480, 511 Lahin, S., 293, 340 Lahiri, S., 42, 55, 56, 57, 61, 69, 77, 81, 82, 84, 86, 209, 210, 211, 216, 238, 242, 243, 249, 317, 335, 356, 366, 588, 589, 602 Lahive, K., 112, 131, 276, 286 Lahrmann, H., 671, 682 Lai, T. L., 332, 364 Laitinen, L. A., 619, 621, 630 Lakatos, E., 450, 462 Lake, B. D., 306, 350 Lake, F. R., 672, 682 Laks, L., 403, 419 Lakshminarayan, S., 428, 435 Lalley, P., 313, 354 LaManca, J., 552, 563, 572 Lamarche, J., 293, 340 Lamb, L. E., 59, 60, 83 Lamb, V., 499, 515 Lamb, V. J., 495, 500, 514 Lambert, E. H., 521, 534, 544 Lamers, R. J., 426, 434 Lammertsma, A. A., 51, 80, 93, 101 LaMothe, M. P., 445, 461 Lamphere, J., 410, 422 Lananowski, M., 571, 579 Landellie, I., 534, 548 Landry, D. M., 239, 250, 498, 505, 515, 566, 578 Landwehr, L. P., 298, 299, 343 Lane, D. J., 527, 546, 665, 679 Lane, R., 96, 102, 108, 110, 130, 522, 545, 675, 685
Page 721
Lang, M. H., 306, 327, 349, 360 Lang, U., 304, 346 Lange, B., 306, 312, 349 Lange, R. L., 208, 241 Langes, K., 307, 350 Lannergren, K., 325, 359 Lansing, R. W., 96, 102, 107, 110, 114, 115, 117, 129, 130, 131, 151, 161, 173, 196, 506, 516, 526, 546, 622, 623, 624, 630, 631 Laporta, D., 425, 427, 432, 434, 494, 514 LarayaCuasay, L. R., 325, 359 Larnberro, C., 676, 685 laroche, C., 520, 544 Laroche, C. M., 476, 510, 520, 528, 537, 544, 585, 601 Larrabee, M. G., 553, 554, 555, 573 Larsen, G. L., 322, 357 Larson, C. P., 43, 53, 61, 77, 81 Larson, D. A., 670, 681 Larson, J. L., 670, 681 Larson, L., 370, 375 Larsson, L. H., 408, 421 Lary, D., 638, 657 Lascelles, R. G., 520, 544 Laszlo, G., 582, 600 Latronico, N., 476, 510 Latz, B., 187, 200, 386, 400, 413 Launois, S., 471, 472, 508 Launois, S. H., 168, 196, 394, 415 LaurenteTjoa, F., 474, 509 Lavie, P., 300, 301, 344 Lavigne, C. M., 562, 577 Lavigne, J. V., 298, 342 Lavoisier, A. L., 149, 160 Lawson, E. E., 14, 37, 239, 250, 292, 338, 339, 388, 414 Laxdal, T., 300, 301, 343 Lazerou, L., 457, 466 Leake, B., 331, 363 Leatherman, J., 401, 417 Leaver, K. D., 150, 161 Leblanc, D. M., 529, 547 Leblanc, P., 146, 155, 159, 162, 426, 429, 434, 665, 671, 679, 682 Lebrin, R., 222, 246 Lebrun, C. M., 590, 602 Lechner, A. J., 325, 359 Leclerc, R., 181, 198 Lecocquic, Y., 476, 509, 669, 680 Ledbetter, D. H., 307, 350 Leddy, C. I., 558, 576 Ledingham, J., 562, 577 Lee, H., 674, 684 Lee, K. D., 448, 462 Lee, M., 542, 550 Lee, M. A., 534, 548 Lee, M. Y., 331, 364 Leece, B., 90, 100 Leech, A. R., 137, 157 Leech, J., 597, 606 Leeder, S. R., 521, 545 Lees, M. H., 335, 366 Leevers, A., 239, 250 leevers, A. M., 239, 250, 498, 503, 505, 515, 516 LeGallois, C. J. J., 149, 160 Legare, M., 425, 434 Legawiec, B. A., 583, 590, 591, 601 Lehman, M., 558, 575 Leigh, R. J., 662, 678 Leinter, J., 96, 102 Leistner, H. L., 332, 364 Leiter, J. C., 117, 118, 133, 167, 168, 184, 185, 194, 195, 196, 199, 201, 389, 394, 414, 415, 506, 516, 592, 603 Leith, D. E., 69, 86, 473, 509, 669, 681 Leitner, J., 276, 286, 598, 607 LeJemtel, T. H., 558, 575 Lelliott, P., 647, 648, 659 Lelsen, S. G., 369, 375 Lemaire, F., 491, 513 Lemieux, B., 313, 318, 319, 355, 476, 477, 511, 529, 532, 547, 548, 563, 578 Lemmens, W. A., 305, 306, 348 Lenkie, S. C. M., 151, 161 Lenkinski, R., 552, 563, 572 Lennerstrand, G., 95, 101 Lennon, V. A., 317, 356
Page 722
Lentine, T., 276, 286 Leonard, C. O., 323, 326, 358 Leonard, J. V., 306, 350 Lerman, J., 334, 366 Lerman, M., 297, 342 Lerman, P., 299, 300, 301, 343 Leroy, J., 484, 486, 512 Lesske, J., 403, 418 Leuenberger, U., 402, 418 Leuenberger, U. A., 403, 419 Leung, P., 495, 514 Leusen, I., 44, 77 Levasseru, J. E., 41, 76 Lever, H. M., 671, 682 Levine, M. R., 210, 242 Levine, O. R., 214, 243, 327, 360 Levine, S., 256, 281, 552, 563, 572, 670, 674, 681, 684 Levine, T. B., 558, 561, 575, 577 Levinson, R. S., 458, 466 Levison, H., 322, 323, 358 Levitt, G. A., 330, 362 Levitzky, M. G., 60, 83 Levy, M. N., 150, 161 Levy, P., 277, 286 Levy, R. D., 534, 548, 582, 584, 600, 667, 680 Levy, S. F., 674, 684 Lewis, J. A., 108, 127, 130, 134 Lewis, M. I., 445, 461 Lewis, R. A., 634, 655 Lewis, R. M., 62, 84 Lewis, T., 634, 655 Ley, R., 641, 658 Li, A., 20, 37, 45, 46, 78, 79 Lichros, I., 477, 483, 511 Liebhaber, M., 305, 348 Liebowitz, M. R., 641, 658 Light, M. S., 327, 361 Light, R. W., 128, 135, 256, 281, 485, 512 Liistro, G., 298, 343 Liljestrand, G., 147, 159 Lilly, J., 113, 116, 131, 132, 184, 199 Limacher, M. C., 572, 579 Lin, C. C., 594, 605 Lin, J., 68, 85 Lind, F., 148, 160 Lindenberg, L. B., 294, 341 Lindholm, R. N., 408, 421 Lindsey, B. G., 30, 39, 40, 114, 132 Lindsey, S., 592, 604 Lindstrom, J. M., 317, 356 Line, B. R., 439, 440, 441, 446, 447, 459 Linkowski, P., 405, 420 Linnarson, D., 145, 159 LipkeMolby, T., 372, 373, 376 Lipkin, D. P., 562, 577 Lippold, O. C. J., 152, 162 Lipscomb, W. T., 44, 77 Lipsker, L. E., 302, 303, 304, 305, 344 Lipski, J., 9, 26, 30, 36, 39, 59, 82 Liron, N., 425, 434 Lisboa, C., 664, 674, 678, 684 Liss, H. P., 588, 602, 675, 685 Lissac, J., 534, 548 Littlewood, J. M., 306, 350 Littner, M., 404, 419 Litwin, J., 59, 60, 83 Liu, G., 9, 18, 36 Liu, H. M., 303, 304, 305, 346, 347 Liu, J., 307, 351 Liu, P., 409, 422 Liu, P. P., 405, 409, 419, 420, 422 Liu, Z., 501, 515 Liverti, J. P., 52, 53, 80 Livingston, F. R., 49, 79, 307, 351 Livingston, S., 300, 301, 343, 344 Llena, J., 304, 347 Lloyd, B. B., 148, 159, 266, 282, 499, 515 Lloyd, M. H., 558, 575 Lloyd, T. C., 552, 555, 556, 572, 574 Lo, W. D., 307, 350 Lockhart, A., 677, 686 Lodato, R. F., 100, 104, 483, 493, 494, 512, 513 Loeschcke, H. H., 44, 45, 77, 78 Loew, J. M., 303, 304, 305, 346, 347 Loewy, A. D., 44, 78 Lofaso, F., 402, 418, 499, 505, 515, 516, 564, 578
Page 723
Loh, L., 320, 357, 527, 542, 547, 550 Loh, L. C., 313, 355, 523, 545, 664, 678 Loke, J., 143, 158, 645, 658, 669, 681 Lombres, A., 306, 350 Lombrosco, C., T., 299, 300, 301, 343 Londono, B., 110, 130, 151, 161, 526, 546 Long, A. M., 210, 242 Long, S., 673, 683 Long, W., 69, 86 Long, W. Q., 72, 87 Longohini, E., 125, 134, 471, 508 Longobardo, G. S., 204, 208, 214, 217, 232, 241, 243, 248, 252, 255, 280, 432, 436 Lonsdale, D., 305, 348 Lopata, M., 181, 183, 198, 199, 226, 232, 233, 234, 247, 248, 256, 281, 385, 395, 396, 408, 413, 416, 421, 447, 462, 470, 486, 508, 513, 595, 597, 605, 606 LopezLopez, J. R., 74, 87 Lorange, G., 431, 436, 486, 513, 666, 679 Lorin, M. I., 297, 342 Loring, S. H., 110, 130, 151, 161, 254, 280, 480, 512, 526, 546 Lorino, H., 491, 513 Loudon, R. G., 638, 656 Loughlin, G., 294, 327, 341, 361 Loughlin, G. M., 305, 306, 322, 323, 324, 326, 327, 328, 349, 357, 360, 362, 407, 420 Lourenco, R. V., 125, 134, 256, 268, 281, 283, 425, 427, 428, 434, 435, 440, 442, 443, 446, 447, 448, 460, 462, 470, 508, 597, 606, 618, 629 Loveridge, B., 526, 546, 616, 629, 665, 679 Loveridge, B. M., 474, 509 Lowe, A., 409, 421 Lowe, A. A., 392, 409, 415, 421 Lowellk, D. G., 392, 415 Lowery, R., 610, 627, 628, 632 Lowery, R. R., 610, 628 Lowry, T. F., 41, 68, 76, 85 Lua, D., 561, 577 Lubka, R., 294, 341 Lucas, A. R., 296, 297, 341, 635, 656 Lucas, B. G. B., 532, 548 Luce, J. M., 314, 355 Lucenti, P., 311, 353 Lucey, E. C., 450, 463 Luckett, R. A., 675, 684 Ludwig, I. H., 304, 347 Ludwig, P. W., 424, 425, 426, 433 Lufkin, E. G., 305, 348, 584, 601 Lufkin, R. B., 338, 366 Lugaresi, E., 222, 246, 305, 306, 313, 349, 354, 531, 538, 540, 547, 550 Lugliani, R., 53, 58, 61, 81, 82, 554, 573, 621, 630 Lukas, S. E., 588, 602 Lukowiak, K., 6, 35, 36 Lulling, J., 676, 685 Lum, C., 640, 657 Lumsden, T., 11, 14, 23, 36 Lupien, L., 313, 318, 319, 321, 322, 323, 355, 357, 476, 477, 511, 532, 548, 563, 578 Lupton, H., 141, 157 Lustik, S. J., 592, 603 Luterman, A., 458, 466 Luwkowiak, K., 5, 35 Lyernault, J. C., 664, 678 Lynch, E., 540, 550 Lynch, J. P., 453, 464 Lynn, D. J., 320, 356 LynneDavies, P., 305, 348, 458, 466 LynneDavies, P. J., 458, 466 Lyon, G., 315, 355 Lyons, H. A., 450, 462, 592, 597, 603 M Ma, T. K., 304, 348 Maayan, C., 215, 228, 244, 247, 320, 357 Macaulay, R. J., 304, 346 Macefield, G., 96, 102, 637, 656 Macklem, P. T., 121, 133, 143, 158, 256, 281, 469, 473, 476, 477, 483, 507, 509, 511, 512, 552, 557, 572, 667, 670, 674, 680, 681, 684
Page 724
MacLusky, I. B., 325, 359 MacNaughton, N., 305, 348 Macron, J. M., 174, 197 Madapallimatum, A., 294, 341 Madaus, W. K., 327, 360 Madden, K. P., 21, 30, 38, 39 Madhavan, J., 670, 681 Madill, K. J., 315, 355 Mador, M. J., 99, 100, 103, 104, 255, 281, 326, 359, 477, 483, 493, 494, 506, 511, 512, 513, 516 Magaudda, A., 313, 354 Magno, M. G., 60, 83 Magnussen, G., 217, 222, 245 Magrez, P., 332, 365 Mahan, S. T., 254, 280 Maher, T., 68, 86 Mahler, D. A., 107, 115, 129, 143, 158, 275, 276, 285, 286, 426, 434, 669, 670, 681 Mahowald, M., 401, 417 Mahowald, M. W., 610, 611, 612, 628 Mahutte, C. K., 96, 102, 116, 132, 256, 281, 474, 485, 488, 495, 501, 509, 512, 513, 514, 515, 522, 545 Maistros, P., 313, 355, 381, 398, 400, 409, 412 Majcherczyk, S., 59, 82 Mak, H., 322, 358 Mak, S. C., 306, 350 Makle, B., 674, 684 Makey, A. R., 451, 463, 617, 622, 629 Malcolm, Y., 593, 605 Males, J. L., 588, 601 Malik, S. C., 301, 344 Mallory, G. B., 327, 361 MalloyFisher, L., 593, 604 Malm, J. R., 470, 508 Malmberg, P., 619, 621, 630 Maloney, A., 476, 510 Maltais, F., 395, 397, 415, 416, 671, 682 Maltby, C. C., 327, 361 Malviya, S., 334, 366 Man, G. C., 555, 574 Man, G. C. W., 128, 135 Manabe, M., 26, 30, 39 Mancini, D. M., 552, 558, 561, 563, 572, 575, 576, 578 Mandell, F., 331, 363 Mandell, J., 590, 602 Mangin, P., 218, 234, 236, 245 Manley, P., 220, 245 Manning, H., 116, 132 Manning, H. L., 96, 102, 106, 114, 115, 117, 118, 120, 122, 129, 131, 132, 133, 473, 506, 509, 516, 623, 631 Mannino, D. M., 440, 460 Mano, T., 403, 418 Mansel, J. K., 314, 355 Mansell, A. L., 323, 358 Mantey, P., 232, 248 Mantovadi, M., 531, 547 Marana, R., 593, 604 Marantz, S., 493, 494, 513 Marazita, M. L., 304, 348 Marazzini, L., 125, 134, 471, 508 Marc, I., 181, 198, 397, 411, 416, 422 Marciniuk, D. D., 449, 451, 462, 463, 675, 685 Marconi, G., 317, 356, 476, 477, 510, 529, 535, 547, 548 Marcotte, J. E., 297, 341, 480, 511 Marcus, C., 294, 327, 341, 361 Marcus, C. L., 49, 79, 294, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 327, 328, 341, 344, 346, 349, 360, 361, 362, 407, 420 Marechal, C., 653, 659 Maret, K., 209, 210, 211, 242 Maret, K. H., 210, 211, 242 Margaria, C. E., 458, 466 Margaria, R., 145, 158 Maria, B. L., 326, 359 Marini, J. J., 495, 499, 500, 514, 515 Marino, W., 667, 680 Marino, W. D., 674, 684 Marion, R., 326, 359 Maris, J., 561, 562, 576 Mark, A. L., 403, 418 Marks, I., 647, 648, 659 Marks, J., 388, 414, 572, 579 Marks, J. D., 331, 363
Page 725
Marmarelis, V. Z., 213, 243 Marotta, F., 324, 359 Marsh, H. M., 312, 354 Marshall, A., 625, 631 Marshall, J. M., 63, 84 Marshall, W. H., 637, 656 Marsland, D. W., 49, 79, 303, 346 Martens, J., 444, 445, 461 Martin, A. J., 51, 80, 93, 101 Martin, B., 334, 366 Martin, C., 592, 604 Martin, D. H., 426, 434 Martin, E., 307, 350 Martin, J. G., 667, 674, 680, 684 Martin, R. J., 220, 232, 246, 248, 328, 362, 386, 407, 413, 420, 535, 538, 549, 592, 596, 603, 606, 615, 629 Martin, S. E., 400, 417 Martin, T. J., 471, 508 MartinBody, R. L., 53, 55, 81 Martinez, F. T., 429, 436 Marttila, I., 14, 36 Marty, C., 476, 509 Maruyama, R., 594, 605 Marzo, K. P., 558, 575 Masaoka, Y., 99, 103 Mascari, M. J., 307, 350 Mascia, L., 498, 500, 514, 515 Maskill, D., 93, 101 Maskin, C. S., 558, 575 Mason, U. G. R., 298, 299, 342 Mason, W. J., 372, 373, 376 MasseBiron, J., 371, 376 Massey, D. G., 583, 600 Massie, B. M., 558, 562, 575, 577 Massion, W. H., 44, 77 Mastaglia, F. L., 476, 510, 527, 532, 546 Mastri, A., 303, 304, 305, 346 Masuda, A., 64, 66, 70, 84, 85, 87, 473, 509 Masuda, Y., 118, 133 Masuyama, H., 594, 605 Masuyama, S., 70, 87, 263, 267, 282, 593, 604 Matalon, S. V., 303, 304, 305, 346 Mateika, J. H., 400, 417 Mateika, S., 396, 397, 400, 416, 417 Mathew, O. P., 173, 175, 176, 183, 192, 194, 197, 199, 201 Mathur, R., 179, 180, 198 Matsuda, H., 304, 347 Matsumoto, A. M., 592, 593, 604 Matsumoto, N., 552, 572 Matsumoto, S., 621, 630 Matsuo, M., 320, 357 Matthay, M., 582, 584, 600 Matthay, R. A., 669, 681 Mattila, I., 610, 628 Mattila, I. P., 619, 621, 630 Mattila, S., 610, 628 Mattila, S. P., 619, 621, 630 Mattison, L. E., 623, 631 Maulsby, R., 300, 301, 344 Maurer, J., 331, 364 Maxton, D. G., 277, 286 Maxwell, D. L., 69, 87 Mayer, L. S., 673, 683 Mayewski, R. J., 473, 509 Mayock, D. E., 291, 338, 339 Mays, J., 327, 361 Mazar, M. F., 599, 607 Mazza, N. M., 302, 304, 305, 332, 344, 364 Mazzeo, R. S., 403, 418 McAllen, R. M., 44, 78 McArthur, C. D., 113, 131 McBride, B., 111, 131, 176, 197 McBride, J. T., 300, 301, 323, 344, 358 McCaffree, D. R., 501, 506, 516 McCann, C., 538, 549 McCann, W. S., 443, 449, 461 McCarthy, D. S., 476, 510 McCarthy, L. E., 44, 77 McCauley, W. C., 125, 134, 369, 375, 427, 428, 435, 470, 507 McClead, R. E., 303, 304, 305, 346 McClean, P. A., 642, 658 McClelland, M. E., 25, 38 McClement, J. H., 442, 460 McCloskey, D. I., 95, 102, 115, 132, 149, 160, 210, 243
Page 726
McColley, S. A., 305, 306, 322, 323, 324, 328, 349, 357, 362 McConnochie, K., 300, 301, 344 McCooke, H. B., 293, 340 McCool, F. D., 473, 509 McCue, J. D., 128, 135 McCulloch, K., 332, 365 McCullough, R., 592, 603 McCullough, R. E., 263, 268, 269, 282, 283, 428, 435, 583, 590, 591, 597, 600, 601, 606 McCully, K. K., 552, 563, 572 McCusker, K., 424, 425, 426, 433 McDonald, B. W., 60, 83 McDonald, D. M., 56, 81 McDonald, F. M., 669, 680 McDonald, J. A., 440, 442, 443, 460 McDonald, J. S., 385, 413 McElroy, P. A., 560, 576 McEvoy, R. D., 404, 419 McFadden, E. R., 298, 299, 342, 343, 552, 557, 572, 637, 656 McGavin, C. R., 275, 285 McGee, T., 181, 198 McGill, R. D., 62, 84 McGinty, D., 404, 419 McGoon, M., 301, 344 McGuire, J., 115, 120, 132 McGuire, M., 671, 672, 682 McHardy, G. J. R., 275, 285 McHugh, P. R., 99, 103 McHugh, W., 534, 548 Mcllory, M. B., 454, 465 McKell, T. E., 635, 656 McKenzie, D. K., 151, 161, 470, 508, 524, 545, 590, 602, 622, 630, 665, 679 McKenzie, E., 124, 134, 614, 615, 617, 629 McKenzie, J. M., 583, 600 McKeough, D., 192, 194, 201 McKhann, G. M., 476, 510 McKillop, J., 307, 351 McLaughlin, J. F., 308, 309, 352 McLaurin, L., 638, 656 McLead, R. E., 472, 508 McLean, H. A., 11, 18, 20, 36, 37 McLennan, J. E., 638, 656 McLone, D. G., 304, 309, 337, 347, 352 McMahill, P. C., 312, 354 McManus, B. M., 552, 572 McNamara, S. G., 277, 286 McNicholas, W. T., 118, 133, 317, 356, 405, 419, 597, 599, 606, 669, 681 McParland, C., 449, 462, 563, 577 McPherson, G., 610, 628 McPherson, R. W., 326, 359 McQuaid, K. R., 113, 131 McQuitty, J., 303, 304, 305, 346, 472, 508 McWilliam, R. C., 301, 344 Mead, J., 146, 147, 159, 254, 270, 280, 284, 367, 368, 374, 456, 465, 527, 546 Mead, M., 100, 104 Meah, M. S., 644, 658 Meakins, J. C., 227, 247 Meanock, C. I., 60, 84 Means, J. H., 148, 160 Meck, R., 410, 422 Meecham Jones, D. J., 674, 684 Megirian, D., 181, 199 Mehta, A. C., 408, 421 Mei, N., 621, 630 Meinertz, T., 558, 575 Meir, A., 520, 535, 544 Meirjedrzejowicz, A. K., 535, 548 Melchior, J. C., 672, 683 Melia, S., 519, 543 Mellins, R., 214, 243 Mellins, R. B., 59, 83, 302, 304, 305, 315, 323, 331, 332, 344, 356, 358, 363, 364, 365 Melot, C., 677, 686 Melton, D. M., 297, 298, 299, 342 Melton, J. E., 64, 70, 74, 84, 266, 282, 431, 436 Melzack, R., 276, 285 Menanich, J. W., 560, 576 Mendell, J. R., 305, 306, 320, 334, 348, 356 Mendenhall, L. A., 141, 157
Page 727
Mendoza, E. L., 457, 466 Menkes, H. A., 322, 358 Menn, S., 409, 421 Menzies, L. J., 302, 303, 304, 305, 344 Mercer, R. D., 305, 348 Merrill, E. G., 26, 30, 39 Merton, P. A., 456, 465 Meryer, A. E., 306, 349 Messing, R., 315, 355 Metra, M., 557, 558, 559, 575 Metzger, L. J., 389, 392, 414 Metzl, L., 327, 361 Meurice, J. C., 374, 378, 411, 422 Meyer, T. J., 401, 417 Meyers, D. A., 371, 376 Meziane, M. A., 431, 436 Mezrich, R., 165, 195 Mezzanotte, W. S., 173, 174, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 196, 198, 199, 394, 415, 567, 578, 674, 684 Michaels, S., 564, 578 Middaugh, S. J., 297, 298, 299, 342 Midorikawa, J., 621, 630 Mier, A., 93, 101, 582, 600 MiescherRusch, F., 149, 160 Mikami, M., 592, 603 Miki, H., 185, 200, 407, 421 Miley, C. E., 638, 651, 657 Milgrom, H., 298, 299, 343 Milhorn, D. E., 57, 82, 292, 339, 432, 437, 472, 509, 676, 685 Milhorn, H. T., 208, 216, 241 MilicEmili, J., 125, 134, 144, 145, 147, 158, 159, 254, 255, 256, 272, 280, 285, 321, 322, 357, 358, 425, 431, 434, 436, 442, 443, 444, 447, 458, 461, 466, 471, 476, 484, 485, 486, 508, 511, 512, 513, 531, 547, 665, 666, 679 Millar, J. S., 427, 428, 435 Millar, T., 565, 568, 570, 571, 578, 579 Millar, T. W., 216, 217, 222, 244, 246, 406, 420, 569, 571, 579 Milledge, J. S., 210, 211, 242 Miller, A., 188, 200 Miller, C. C., 403, 418, 675, 684 Miller, D. H., 476, 510 Miller, G., 674, 684 Miller, J., 301, 311, 344 Miller, J. P., 290, 338 Miller, M. J., 125, 134, 328, 362 Millhorn, D. E., 292, 338 Milligan, D. W. A., 323, 358 Millis, R. M., 41, 76 Millman, R., 373, 376 Millman, R. P., 222, 246, 401, 417, 598, 606, 674, 684 Mills, E., 53, 81 Mills, G. H., 425, 434, 667, 680 Mills, J. W., 44, 46, 77 Mills, R. M., 572, 579 Milner, A. D., 329, 362 Milstein, J. M., 304, 347 Mimouni, M., 297, 342 Minami, T., 312, 353 Miner, M., 326, 359 Minotti, J. R., 562, 577 Mintz, S., 178, 198 Minutillo, C., 304, 347 Mirakhur, M., 306, 350 Miranda, J. M., 125, 134, 427, 428, 435 Mironi, F., 531, 547 Mirza, R., 327, 360 Misuri, G., 326, 359, 666, 679 Mitchell, J. H., 149, 160 Mitchell, R. A., 44, 49, 56, 77, 79, 81, 255, 281, 469, 507, 526, 546 Mitchinson, A. G., 188, 200 Mithoefer, J. C., 115, 120, 132 Mitler, M. M., 402, 418 Mitra, J., 63, 84, 177, 184, 186, 187, 198, 199, 200, 304, 347 Mitrouska, I., 498, 499, 500, 503, 505, 506, 514, 516 Mitsumoto, H., 521, 534, 544 Mittman, C., 367, 368, 374 Miwa, K., 638, 657 Miyamoto, K., 68, 85, 261, 263, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 276, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 368, 375 Miyamura, M., 263, 281
Page 728
Miyazaki, I., 374, 377 Miyazaki, M., 313, 354 Miyoshi, K., 588, 601 Miyoshi, S., 625, 627, 631 Mizuguchi, T., 41, 76 Mizuno, K., 396, 416 Mobeireek, A., 298, 299, 342 Mocella, S., 298, 343 Mockus, M., 592, 603 Modarreszadeh, M., 209, 213, 222, 242, 243, 246, 369, 375 Modini, S., 538, 540, 550 Mohay, H., 330, 362 Mohiaddin, R. H., 392, 415 Mohsenifar, Z., 672, 682 Mohsenin, V., 374, 378 Moisan, T., 428, 431, 435 Mojica, C., 324, 359 Mojica, N., 328, 362 Mokashi, A., 57, 82, 210, 216, 238, 243, 249 Moldofsky, H., 317, 356 Molho, M., 666, 679 Molinary, E., 117, 133 Molinary, E. J., 506, 516 Moline, M. L., 371, 376 Molotiu, N., 673, 683 Moncla, A., 304, 347 Mondestin, H., 324, 359 Monkawa, T., 473, 509 Monn, S. A., 445, 461 Monnens, L. A., 306, 349 Montagna, P., 305, 306, 349 Montauk, L., 332, 365 Montes, M. D. E. O., 429, 436 Montgomery, A. B., 486, 513 MontiBloch, L., 56, 82 Montovani, M., 222, 246 Mooe, T., 404, 419 Moon, S., 450, 462 Mooney, S., 334, 366 Moore, A. M., 304, 348 Moore, B. J., 445, 461 Moore, D. P., 558, 576 Moore, G. C., 597, 606 Moore, J. W., 216, 244, 569, 579 Moore, L. G., 269, 283, 583, 584, 590, 591, 592, 593, 601, 603, 604 Moore, R. D., 453, 464 Moore, S. E., 394, 415 Moorjani, B., 300, 301, 344 Moosavi, S., 46, 79 Morales, F. R., 536, 538, 549 Moran, M. G., 298, 343 Morena, R., 674, 684 Moreno, R., 664, 678 Morgan, B. J., 387, 402, 403, 414, 418 Morgan, N., 279, 287 Morgan, W., 307, 351 Morgan, W. J., 323, 358 Mori, K., 312, 353 Moricca, R. B., 671, 682 Morikawa, M., 188, 200 Morley, C. J., 301, 311, 344 Morrell, M., 51, 80, 535, 549 Morrell, M. J., 46, 79, 218, 245, 498, 503, 514 Morris, A. A., 306, 350 Morris, A. J., 625, 627, 631 Morris, K. G., 558, 576 Morrison, D. L., 168, 196, 394, 415 Morrison, M. A., 450, 451, 452, 453, 463 Morrow, J. D., 303, 346 MorrowKenny, A. S., 302, 303, 304, 305, 344 Mortimore, I. L., 179, 180, 198 Morton, A., 540, 550 Morton, M. J., 592, 603 Morton, P. B., 127, 134 Moser, H., 305, 306, 348, 349 Moskovitz, J., 307, 351 Moskowitz, M., 305, 348 Mosleny, F. A., 167, 195 Mosso, A., 209, 217, 242, 245 Motta, J., 232, 248, 408, 421 Mouallem, M., 312, 353 Moufarrej, N. A., 476, 510 Mould, H., 449, 462, 675, 676, 684 Mouthaan, B. J., 654, 660 Moxham, J., 425, 434, 476, 480, 510, 511, 520, 527, 528, 537, 544, 547, 585, 601, 667, 680
Page 729
Moyer, C. A., 57, 82 Mozin, M. J., 327, 361 Mrazek, D. A., 298, 343 Msall, M. E., 327, 360 Muckenhoff, G., 17, 37 Muckenhoff, K., 20, 37, 47, 79 Mueller, R. E., 126, 134 Muir, A. L., 476, 510 Mukamel, M., 297, 342 Mukhopadhyay, S., 304, 313, 347 Mulholland, M. B., 95, 96, 102, 116, 121, 132, 151, 162, 276, 286, 522, 545 Mullen, J. L., 552, 563, 572 Muller, M. F., 300, 301, 327, 344, 361 Muller, N., 423, 426, 430, 433 Muller, N. L., 323, 358 Mulley, B. A., 669, 681 Mullick, D. N., 301, 344 Mulligan, E., 57, 82, 210, 243 Mulloy, E., 669, 681 Multz, A. S., 666, 679 Mulvey, D. A., 527, 547 Mummery, C. J., 623, 631 Munafo, D. A., 407, 421, 538, 549 Munakata, M., 270, 284 Murakami, R., 320, 357 Murakoshi, T., 15, 37 Murao, M., 259, 262, 263, 269, 270, 281, 283, 284 Murata, G. H., 370, 375 Murchison, L. C., 313, 354 Murciano, D., 125, 134, 471, 472, 476, 485, 508, 509, 669, 672, 680, 681, 683 Murdy, J. M., 374, 378 Muro, J. R., 128, 135 Murphy, E., 270, 284, 388, 414, 452, 453, 458, 464, 466, 614, 617, 629 Murphy, E. C., 535, 548 Murphy, J. V., 301, 344 Murphy, K., 48, 50, 51, 79, 80, 93, 101, 150, 161, 176, 197, 270, 280, 284, 287, 473, 509, 626, 632 Murphy, M., 305, 348 Murphy, R. P., 520, 544 Murty, J. L., 505, 516 Mushin, A., 330, 362 Mushin, W. W., 42, 76, 617, 622, 629 Musk, A. W., 672, 682 Muspratt, J. A., 125, 134 Mussatto, D. J., 425, 434 Myers, J., 558, 560, 576 N Nadel, J. A., 153, 162, 176, 197, 453, 464, 637, 656 Naeije, R., 677, 686 Naeye, R. L., 294, 341 Nagai, A., 298, 342 Nagai, T., 94, 101, 263, 282, 588, 602 Nagao, M., 638, 657 Nagel, L., 332, 364 Nagib, M. G., 308, 351 Nagyova, B., 68, 86 Naidich, T. P., 304, 337, 347 Naidu, S., 305, 306, 348, 349 Naifeh, K. H., 641, 658 Nakahara, K., 304, 347 Nakahara, S., 304, 347 Nakamura, H., 99, 103, 320, 357 Nakamura, K., 47, 79 Nakamura, W., 64, 66, 70, 84, 87 Nakano, H., 312, 353 Nakayama, K., 51, 80 Nakornchai, V., 638, 657 Nakuzawa, H., 188, 200 Nance, S. L., 181, 199 Nashibayashi, Y., 594, 605 Natalino, M. R., 583, 600 Nathan, P. W., 90, 95, 100, 101 Nathanson, I., 332, 365 Nathenson, G., 304, 347 Nations, C. S., 110, 130, 151, 161, 526, 546 Natsui, T., 47, 49, 79 Nattie, E. E., 20, 37, 44, 45, 46, 47, 77, 78, 79, 303, 305, 344 Nauck, H. P., 41, 76 Naughton, M., 216, 244, 569, 571, 579 Naughton, M. T., 405, 409, 419, 420, 422
Page 730
Naum, C. C., 552, 572 Nava, S., 445, 461 Navalesi, P., 494, 514 Nazzaro, D., 563, 578 Neagly, S. R., 486, 513 Neau, J. P. H., 374, 378 Nebes, R. D., 373, 374, 377 Neff, R. K., 323, 358 Neil, E., 59, 60, 83 Neill, W. A., 639, 657 Nekich, J. C., 397, 416 Nelson, F. W., 326, 359 Nelson, J. S., 306, 349 Nelson, M. N., 305, 348 Nelson, S. B., 486, 487, 488, 499, 513, 515 Nemery, B., 653, 659 Nemni, R., 397, 416 Neubauer, J. A., 47, 64, 69, 70, 72, 74, 79, 84, 86, 165, 195, 210, 243, 266, 282 Neuburger, N., 322, 358 Neustadt, J. E., 534, 548 Newbaver, J. A., 431, 436 Newhouse, M. T., 668, 680 Newman, K., 298, 299, 342 Newman, K. B., 298, 299, 342 Newman, N. B., 519, 544 Newsholme, E. A., 137, 141, 157 NewsomDavis, J., 313, 355, 520, 523, 527, 544, 545, 547, 664, 678 Newth, C. J., 305, 306, 348, 350 Ngai, E. H., 214, 234, 244 Ngai, S. H., 271, 284 Nicholl, C. G., 677, 686 Nicholls, D. P., 557, 575 Nicholls, J. G., 17, 37 Nicholls, R. D., 307, 350 Nichols, D., 534, 548 Nichols, D. M., 423, 426, 430, 433 Nichols, P. J. R., 527, 546 Nicholson, A., 308, 351 Nicholson, L. C., 297, 298, 299, 342 Nick, J., 534, 548 Nickel, R. E., 308, 309, 352 Nickerson, B., 308, 309, 310, 351 Nickerson, B. G., 308, 309, 352 Nield, T. A., 302, 303, 304, 305, 344 Nielsen, M., 47, 79, 149, 160 Nielsen, T. M., 59, 83 Nietrzeba, R. M., 669, 681 Niewoehner, D. E., 128, 135, 424, 425, 426, 433, 669, 680 Nigam, V. R., 301, 344 Nilsestuen, J. O., 621, 630 Nilsson, L., 69, 87 Ninane, V., 623, 631 Nishibayashi, Y., 221, 246 Nishimura, K., 668, 669, 680 Nishimura, M., 68, 85, 252, 260, 261, 263, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 276, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 368, 375 Nishino, T., 41, 57, 76, 82, 210, 216, 243, 267, 283 Nishio, H., 320, 357 Nishiura, H., 267, 282 Nishiura, Y., 68, 85, 268, 283 Nishyama, H., 564, 578 Nixon, P. G. F., 99, 103 Noah, Z., 305, 348 Noble, I. M., 42, 76, 617, 622, 629 Noble, M., 451, 463 Noble, M. I. M., 41, 76, 107, 110, 112, 129, 130, 131, 621, 622, 624, 630, 631 Nochomovitz, M. L., 429, 436 Nogradi, S., 668, 680 Noguchi, E., 96, 102, 115, 132 Nolan, P., 192, 194, 201 Nolop, K. B., 69, 87 Noma, E., 108, 130 Nomura, Y., 305, 349 Norman, J., 110, 130 Norman, J. R., 314, 355 Norman, R. G., 168, 196 Norman, W. P., 68, 85 Normandin, E., 672, 682 Norris, A. H., 367, 368, 374 North, J. B., 252, 280 North, L. B., 426, 434 Norvell, J. E., 610, 628 Noseda, A., 405, 420
Page 731
Nosworthy, J. C., 670, 681 Novotny, E. J., 308, 352 Nuetel, J., 558, 576 Nugent, S. T., 208, 209, 214, 241 Nunimaa, V., 178, 198 O O'Beirne, H., 208, 209, 241 O'Brien, C., 401, 417 O'Brien, J. J., 450, 463 O'Brodovich, H. M., 323, 358 O'Cain, C. F., 170, 173, 196, 637, 656 O'Callaghan, M. J., 330, 362 O'Connell, J. M., 116, 132 O'Connell, K., 333, 365 O'Connell, M. A., 298, 299, 343 O'Connor, T. D., 183, 199 O'Connor, T. Z., 334, 366 O'Donnell, C. E., 674, 684 O'Donnell, C. P., 402, 418 O'Donnell, C. R., 588, 602 O'Donnell, D., 506, 516 O'Donnell, D. E., 124, 127, 134, 526, 546, 671, 675, 682, 685 O'Donnell, J., 332, 365 O'Hollaren, M. T., 298, 342 O'Neill, L., 332, 365 O'Neill, N. A., 181, 199 O'Neill, R., 107, 129, 624, 631 O'Rahilly, R., 312, 353 O'Regan, R. G., 192, 194, 201 O'Reilly, J. F., 582, 600 O'Riordan, A. C., 301, 344 O'Sullivan, D. D., 519, 543 O'Sullivan, J., 304, 346 Oakely, C. M., 558, 576 Oakes, W. J., 294, 308, 312, 313, 334, 341, 352 Obata, T., 96, 102 Obert, K. A., 306, 349 Obeso, A., 74, 87 Odeh, M., 187, 200 Ogawa, T., 49, 79, 304, 346 Ogilvie, M. D., 222, 224, 246, 386, 414 Ogundipe, O., 269, 283 Ogunnaike, H. O., 609, 627 Oh, K. S., 519, 544 Oh, T. H., 334, 366 Ohashi, M., 94, 101 Ohdaira, T., 64, 85 Ohi, M., 214, 215, 236, 244 Ohta, T., 404, 419 Ohtake, P. J., 41, 76 Ohyabu, Y., 594, 605 Ohyahi, Y., 221, 246 Oka, R., 562, 577 Okabe, K., 665, 679 Okabe, S., 123, 134, 322, 358, 621, 630 Okada, T., 404, 419 Okada, Y., 17, 37, 47, 79 Okamura, H., 621, 630 Okazaki, H., 312, 354 Okita, S., 263, 267, 282 Okizane, H., 97, 103 Oku, K., 304, 347 Oku, Y., 128, 135, 209, 242, 432, 436 Okudaira, N., 396, 416 Olafsson, S., 148, 160 Oldenburg, S. C., 529, 544 Oldfield, W. L., 122, 133 Olievier, C. N., 68, 69, 85, 87 Olievier, I., 385, 389, 413 OlivanPalacios, J., 307, 351 Oliven, A., 185, 187, 199, 200, 428, 431, 435 Oliver, C., 557, 574 Oliver, J. R., 59, 83 Oliveri, M. T., 561, 577 Olivier, O., 175, 188, 197 Olsen, G. D., 335, 366 Olson, B. E., 270, 284 Olson, L. G., 165, 167, 195, 380, 412 Olson, T. S., 304, 347 OmanGanes, L. A., 327, 360 Omidvar, O., 338, 366 Omlin, K. J., 307, 328, 351, 361 Omote, S., 638, 657 Onal, E., 181, 183, 198, 199, 226, 231, 232, 233, 234, 246, 247, 248, 385, 395, 396, 408, 413, 416, 421, 486, 513, 595, 597, 605, 606
Page 732
Ono, T., 392, 409, 415, 421 Opasich, C., 552, 563, 572 Openshaw, J., 672, 682 Oppenheimer, L., 493, 494, 513 Orani, G. D., 192, 201 Orbist, P. A., 99, 103 Orchard, R., 449, 462 Orem, A., 370, 376 Orem, J., 2, 5, 35, 91, 100, 218, 245, 303, 308, 311, 333, 344, 351, 365, 432, 437, 472, 508 Orem, J. M., 566, 578 Orena, C., 397, 416 Orenstein, D. M., 307, 327, 351, 361 Orenstein, S. R., 308, 311, 352 Orkin, L. R., 271, 284 Orr, D., 409, 422 Orr, J. A., 53, 55, 81 Orr, W. C., 179, 180, 198, 588, 592, 601, 603 Orren, J., 49, 79 Osborn, M., 301, 344 Osorio, I., 566, 578 Osselton, J. W., 538, 540, 550 Ossorio, M. A., 298, 342 Ostfeld, B., 328, 362 Oswald, M., 404, 419 Otake, K., 26, 30, 39 Otis, A. B., 145, 147, 159, 458, 466 Otto, M. W., 277, 286, 296, 341 Otulana, B. A., 625, 632 Ou, L. C., 44, 46, 77 Owen, M., 93, 101 OwenBoeddiker, M., 332, 365 Owens, G., 90, 100 Owens, G. R., 610, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 621, 625, 627, 628, 629, 631 Owens, R. P., 307, 351 Own, M., 332, 364 Oxman, A. D., 670, 681 Oyer, P. E., 610, 628 P. Pacht, E. R., 299, 343 Pacini, F., 585, 601 Pack, A., 373, 376 Pack, A. I., 41, 75, 166, 195, 210, 219, 221, 222, 224, 226, 228, 229, 231, 243, 245, 246, 263, 267, 282, 368, 374, 384, 386, 387, 389, 392, 413, 414 Packman, S., 305, 306, 348, 350 Paggiaro, P. L., 585, 601 Pagliara, A. S., 306, 349 Pain, M. C. F., 123, 133 Paintal, A. S., 113, 131, 151, 162, 450, 452, 463, 555, 556, 574 Painter, R., 64, 85, 561, 576 PajnoFerrara, F., 298, 343 Palange, P., 672, 683 Palazzi, S., 374, 378, 397, 416 Palenikova, R., 188, 200 Palliyath, S., 534, 548 Palm, L., 301, 344 Palmblad, J., 593, 604 Palmer, W. H., 552, 557, 572 Palmieri, G., 315, 355 Palomaki, H., 374, 378 Palta, M., 380, 381, 397, 403, 406, 412, 418, 420 Pan, L. G., 41, 76, 149, 160 Pancioli, A. M., 298, 299, 343 Pande, J. N., 582, 600 Pang, D., 308, 311, 352 Pantley, G. A., 638, 657 Papadopoulos, M. D., 638, 656 Papadopoulus, N., 315, 355 Pappagianopoulos, P., 68, 85 Pappr, E. M., 214, 234, 244 Paquereau, J., 374, 378 Paradis, I. L., 610, 614, 615, 616, 618, 619, 621, 625, 627, 628, 629, 631 Parakas, J. H., 271, 285 Paramelle, B., 277, 286 Parchi, C., 531, 547 Pardy, R. L., 445, 461, 480, 511, 529, 547, 667, 670, 680, 681 Pariente, R., 125, 134, 471, 472, 476, 485, 508, 509, 669, 677, 680, 681, 686 Parikh, D. K., 297, 298, 299, 342 Parisi, R. A., 69, 86, 165, 195
Page 733
Park, M., 558, 575, 666, 679 Parker, D. M., 183, 191, 199 Parker, L., 373, 374, 376, 377 Parker, T., 564, 578 Parker, T. J., 405, 419 Parrish, R. G., 440, 460 Parsons, R. W., 404, 419 Partinen, M., 372, 373, 374, 376, 377, 378 Pasquis, P., 484, 486, 512 Pastuszko, A., 638, 656 Patakas, D., 498, 499, 514 Patel, K. P., 588, 602 Patel, M. S., 305, 306, 348, 350 Paterson, D. J., 561, 576 Patessio, A., 671, 682 Path, M. J., 113, 131 Patil, C. P., 644, 645, 658 Paton, J. Y., 49, 79, 303, 304, 309, 344, 346, 352, 472, 508 Patrick, J. M., 266, 279, 282, 287 Patrick, W., 470, 493, 494, 498, 499, 504, 505, 508, 513, 515 Patterson, D. J., 152, 162 Patterson, D. L., 41, 76 Patterson, G. A., 625, 627, 631 Patterson, R., 298, 343 Paul, E. A., 674, 684 Paul, S. M., 672, 682 Paulev, P. E., 68, 86 Pauli, R. M., 326, 359, 360 Paulson, G. W., 301, 344 Pauzner, R., 312, 353 Pavlin, E. J., 459, 467, 476, 510, 524, 545 Pawlovski, M., 638, 656 Paydarfar, D., 49, 50, 80, 304, 346, 472, 509 Payne, C. D., 381, 412 Payne, R. B., 306, 350 Peake, M. D., 669, 681 Pearle, J., 597, 606 Pearle, J. L., 447, 462 Pearsall, S. M., 327, 361 Pearson, K. G., 290, 338, 339 Pearson, M. G., 112, 131, 522, 524, 545 Pearson, S. B., 228, 247 Peduzzi, M., 168, 196 Pegelow, D. F., 148, 160 Pelley, C., 270, 284 Pemberton, P. J., 304, 347 Pembrey, M. S., 216, 244 Penek, J., 673, 683 Penfeld, W., 92, 93, 101 Pengelly, L. D., 458, 466 Pennock, B. E., 231, 232, 247, 248 Penzel, T., 185, 200, 277, 286 Pepin, J. L., 277, 286 Perchiazzi, G., 498, 514 Percival, P. G., 127, 134 Percy, A., 305, 306, 349 Percy, A. K., 305, 306, 308, 348, 349, 351 Perez, T., 476, 510 Perez, W., 483, 512 PerezGarcia, M. T., 74, 87 PerezGuerra, F., 409, 421 PerezPadilla, J. E., 25, 38 PerezPadilla, J. R., 396, 416 Perkins, B., 315, 356 Permutt, S., 165, 166, 168, 178, 185, 195, 196, 199, 394, 415, 480, 511, 529, 538, 547, 549 Perret, C., 495, 500, 514 Perret, C. H., 552, 557, 572 Perret, L., 325, 359 Perrin, D. G., 294, 304, 341, 348 Perruchet, P., 100, 104, 122, 133 Perry, J., 519, 544 Perry, S. F., 20, 21, 37 Persky, H., 99, 103 Persson, H. E., 401, 418 Pesenti, A., 497, 498, 514 Peter, J. H., 185, 200, 277, 286 Peters, R. M., 210, 211, 242 Petersen, E. S., 59, 83 Peterson, A. P., 590, 602 Peterson, D. D., 263, 267, 282, 368, 374 Petersson, P., 312, 353 Petessio, A., 429, 436 Petit, J. M., 145, 147, 158, 159 Petrot, B. J., 425, 434
Page 734
Petruzzelli, V., 498, 514 Pettennazzo, A., 334, 366 Petty, E. M., 308, 352 Petty, T. L., 126, 134 Pfeiffer, M. A., 622, 631 Phair, D. K., 69, 86 Pham, Q. T., 426, 431, 434 Phillips, B. A., 372, 373, 376, 377, 599, 607 Phillips, J. A., 323, 326, 358 Phillips, J. A. D., 326, 359 Phillips, M., 150, 161 Phillipson, E., 150, 161 Phillipson, E. A., 118, 133, 204, 215, 217, 218, 219, 222, 226, 234, 241, 244, 245, 246, 270, 284, 317, 356, 368, 374, 375, 385, 388, 389, 405, 413, 414, 419, 452, 453, 464, 554, 573, 597, 599, 606, 607, 614, 617, 629, 642, 658, 673, 683 PiSuner, A., 554, 573 Piccirillo, J. F., 408, 421 Pickens, D. L., 329, 362 Pickett, C., 209, 242 Pickett, C. K., 64, 66, 84, 219, 220, 245, 246, 428, 435, 535, 549, 584, 590, 591, 592, 593, 599, 601, 602, 603, 604, 607, 677, 685 Pickett, C. R., 406, 420 Pierce, J. A., 651, 659 Pierce, J. E., 150, 161, 554, 573 Pierce, R. J., 670, 681 Pierson, D. J., 486, 513, 584, 590, 592, 595, 597, 601, 602, 603, 605 Pikorski, M., 473, 509 Pilla, M., 408, 421 Pillar, G., 185, 199 Pincus, J. H., 635, 656 Pincus, S. M., 332, 365 Pingleton, S., 672, 683 Pingleton, S. K., 673, 683 Pino, J. M., 590, 591, 603 Piper, A., 674, 684 Piper, A. J., 476, 510, 537, 538, 549, 597, 599, 606 Piquet, J., 476, 509 Pisarri, T. E., 454, 464 Piscatelli, N., 588, 602 Pitchenik, A. E., 299, 343 PittsPoarch, A. R., 645, 659 Pizzi, A., 534, 535, 548 Plassman, B. L., 93, 101 Plum, F., 213, 236, 243, 249, 302, 312, 313, 344, 354, 369, 375, 662, 678 Poceta, J. S., 304, 347, 402, 418 Podszus, T., 185, 200 Poets, C. S. M. P., 329, 362 Poirier, M. P., 298, 299, 343 Pokorski, M., 68, 69, 86, 293, 340 Polacheck, J., 492, 494, 513 Polgar, G., 325, 359 Poliner, J. K., 370, 375 Polkey, M. I., 425, 434, 667, 680 Pollack, C. P., 317, 356 Pollack, I. F., 308, 311, 352 Pollack, M. A., 304, 347 Pollack, M. H., 277, 286, 296, 341 Pollack, N. H., 301, 344 Pollak, C. P., 327, 360 Polo, O. J., 397, 416 Polosa, C., 45, 78, 216, 244 Pols, H., 641, 645, 657, 659 Pomeranz, B., 304, 346 Ponte, J., 644, 658 PooleWilson, P. A., 551, 558, 559, 560, 562, 572, 575, 576, 577 Poon, C. S., 97, 103, 432, 436, 522, 545 Pope, A., 112, 131, 675, 685 Popkin, J., 405, 409, 419, 422, 673, 683 Porkka, K. V. K., 397, 416 Porter, C., 301, 344 Portuese, A., 298, 343 Posner, J. B., 302, 312, 344 Posner, M. A., 69, 86 Posonby, A. L., 331, 364 Potirriat, J. L., 676, 685 Pouget, J., 319, 357 Poulsen, M. K., 302, 303, 304, 305, 344 Powell, N., 408, 421 Powell, N. B., 408, 421 Powell, R. J., 445, 462 Powers, D. C., 373, 377
Page 735
Powles, A. C. P., 151, 161, 204, 209, 210, 211, 215, 222, 226, 234, 241, 242 Poyton, R. O., 432, 437 Prabhakar, N. R., 433, 437 Pransky, S., 334, 366 Pravhakar, N. R., 45, 78 Prechter, G. C., 499, 515 Prefaut, C., 321, 357, 371, 376 Preiss, G., 216, 244 Prentice, W., 542, 550 Presty, S. K., 373, 377 Pretto, J. J., 670, 681 Price, D., 450, 462 Price, H. L., 59, 82 Pride, N. B., 313, 355, 442, 460, 523, 545, 664, 667, 678, 680 Priestley, J. G., 227, 247, 251, 280 Primiano, F. P., 307, 351 Primo, G., 625, 631 Prinz, P., 374, 377 Prinz, P. N., 373, 374, 377 Prior, J. C., 590, 593, 602, 604 Probst, A., 306, 350 Proctor, D. F., 164, 195 Proia, N. G., 407, 420 Prolo, D., 312, 353 Proujansky, R., 308, 311, 352 Provine, R. R., 100, 104 Pryor, W. W., 216, 244 Puddy, A., 459, 467, 470, 498, 499, 504, 505, 508, 515, 516 Pugsley, S. O., 668, 669, 680 Puil, E., 637, 656 Puleo, D. S., 387, 402, 414 Puntillo, N., 498, 514 Pursley, A. M., 372, 373, 376 Putnam, C. T., 141, 157 Putnam, P., 308, 352 Putnam, P. E., 308, 311, 352 Pyertiz, R. E., 326, 359 Pyzik, P., 407, 420 Q Qian, W., 675, 684 Quadri, M., 369, 372, 375 QueraSalva, M. A., 313, 319, 354, 357, 538, 549, 673, 684 Quinby, A., 671, 682 R Rabben, T., 404, 419 Rachal, A. B., 328, 361 Radda, G., 562, 577 Raddino, R., 557, 558, 559, 575 Radow, S. K., 589, 602 Raetz, S. L., 331, 364 Rahn, H., 458, 466 Raichle, M. E., 93, 101 Raj, H., 113, 131 Rajagopal, K. R., 406, 410, 420, 422, 584, 588, 601 Rajagopalan, B., 562, 577 Rajfer, S. A., 560, 576 Rakeda, R., 26, 38 Ramonatxo, M., 321, 357 Ramos, O., 305, 306, 348 Rampulla, C., 552, 563, 572 Ramsay, S. C., 51, 80 Ramsdale, E. H., 151, 162 Ramsdell, J. W., 668, 680 Rand, C., 96, 102, 115, 120, 132 Rande, J. L. D., 564, 578 Randic, M., 638, 657 Randle, P. J., 141, 157 Raney, R. A., 298, 299, 342 Ranieri, V. M., 498, 500, 514, 515 Rankin, F., 210, 243 Rannels, A. M., 209, 242 Ranschaert, W., 634, 655 Rao, P. S., 561, 577 Rapaport, D. M., 168, 196 Rapaport, E., 60, 83 Raper, A. J., 638, 657 Raphael, J. C., 538, 542, 549, 550 Rapoport, D., 595, 605 Raps, E. C., 476, 510 Raqskind, M. A., 373, 377 Rashkind, W. J., 335, 366 Rasmussen, H., 232, 248, 534, 548, 588, 601
Page 736
Rassulo, J., 429, 436, 527, 546, 674, 684 Rauirez, C., 534, 548 Ravenna, L., 454, 456, 457, 465 Ravi, K., 621, 630 Ravits, J., 315, 355 Rawlings, C. A., 53, 81 Raybould, H. E., 621, 630 Rayner, M. D., 637, 656 Read, D. J., 470, 484, 500, 507, 512 Read, D. J. C., 42, 76, 258, 269, 281, 283, 618, 630 Reardon, J., 672, 682 Reardon, W., 320, 356 Rebuck, A. S., 152, 162, 259, 260, 262, 264, 265, 266, 268, 270, 281, 282, 283, 284, 427, 428, 431, 435, 447, 449, 457, 462, 497, 514, 594, 605 Rebuffat, E., 300, 301, 304, 327, 332, 333, 334, 344, 347, 361, 365 Recchia, F., 500, 515 Rector, T., 561, 577 Recupero, D., 476, 510 Reddington, J., 531, 547 Reddy, H. K., 560, 576 Redline, S., 279, 287, 400, 401, 417, 598, 606, 607, 670, 681 Redmond, D. E., 645, 658 Redmond, W. M., 327, 360 Reed, B., 526, 546 Reed, J. W., 557, 574 Reed, W. R., 187, 200 Rees, K., 112, 131 Reese, D. F., 312, 354 Reese, M. E., 327, 360 Reeves, D. L., 53, 81 Reeves, J. T., 269, 283, 403, 418 ReevesHoche, M. K., 410, 422 Regensteiner, J. G., 583, 591, 592, 601 Rehder, K., 455, 465 Reichert, T. J., 309, 311, 352 Reichnek, N., 552, 563, 572 Reid, C. S., 326, 359 Reid, L., 519, 543 Reid, M. B., 107, 110, 115, 129, 130, 151, 161, 445, 461, 622, 630 Reier, C. E., 271, 285 Reige, W., 404, 419 Reiher J. T. I., 300, 301, 343 Reines, H. D., 519, 543 Reis, A., 426, 434 Reis, D. J., 99, 103, 431, 436 Reiser, C. A., 326, 359 Reisner, C., 299, 343 Reiss, A. L., 306, 349 Remes, K., 593, 604 Remmers, J. E., 11, 14, 18, 20, 21, 26, 29, 30, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 47, 79, 115, 120, 132, 168, 196, 217, 233, 245, 248, 279, 287, 394, 396, 400, 415, 416, 417, 427, 435, 457, 465, 469, 507, 592, 593, 604 Renier, W. O., 305, 306, 348 Renston, J. P., 674, 684 Renzetti, A. D., 442, 460 Renzi, G., 442, 443, 444, 447, 461 Resko, J. A., 592, 603 Rett, A., 305, 348 Revow, M., 208, 209, 241 Reybould, H., 554, 574 Reynolds, C. F., 373, 374, 377, 615, 617, 629 Reynolds, F., 114, 131 Reynolds, R. C., 555, 574 Rhatia, M. S., 301, 344 Rheeman, C., 474, 495, 509, 514 Ricci, E., 315, 355 Rice, K. L., 128, 135 Rice, R. L., 635, 656 Richards, D. W., 155, 162 Richards, E., 317, 356, 588, 589, 602 Richardson, B. W., 44, 77 Richardson, C. A., 12, 36 Richardson, D. W., 41, 60, 76, 83, 638, 657 Richardson, E. P., 306, 350 Richardson, J. W., 307, 351 Richardson, P. J., 451, 463 Richardson, P. S., 610, 628 Richman, A. D., 596, 606 Richter, D. W., 11, 18, 26, 29, 30, 36, 38, 39, 292, 313, 340, 354
Page 737
Riddle, W., 492, 493, 494, 513 Rideau, Y., 318, 356 Ridgway, E. C., 584, 601 Ridway, R. L., 6, 36 Riede, U., 562, 577 Riegel, B., 297, 298, 299, 342 Ries, A. L., 552, 572 Ries, R., 374, 377 Rigatto, H., 214, 243, 292, 293, 328, 339, 340, 362 Rigaud, D., 672, 683 Rigg, J., 268, 283 Rigg, J. R. A., 96, 102, 116, 132, 521, 545 Riggs, T., 520, 544 Riley, D. J., 327, 361, 424, 425, 426, 433, 583, 590, 591, 601 Riley, H. D., 327, 361 Riley, R. L., 141, 158, 442, 460 Riley, R. W., 408, 421 Rimmer, K. P., 98, 103, 534, 535, 548 Ringler, J., 96, 102, 115, 120, 132, 184, 199, 402, 418 Rishman, A. P., 470, 508 Rivington, R. N., 670, 681 Rizzuto, N., 476, 510 Roach, D., 166, 178, 195 Road, J. D., 315, 355 Robatto, F., 144, 145, 158 Robb, J. P., 311, 353 Robbins, A. W., 315, 355 Robbins, P. A., 41, 64, 68, 69, 76, 85, 86, 210, 212, 227, 242, 247, 257, 258, 262, 281, 498, 514, 561, 576, 662, 678 Roberts, A. M., 112, 131, 553, 573 Roberts, C., 257, 281 Roberts, C. A., 48, 79 Roberts, D., 493, 494, 506, 513, 516 Roberts, J. L., 187, 200 Roberts, S. J., 402, 418 Roberts, W. C., 442, 443, 446, 460, 461, 552, 572 Robertson, C. F., 312, 353 Robertson, D., 176, 197 Robertson, H. T., 590, 602 Robertson, R. M., 290, 338, 339 Robertson, W. C., 317, 356 Robin, E., 305, 348 Robin, E. D., 593, 605, 625, 627, 631 Robinson, T. D., 181, 199 Robinson, T. E., 557, 575 Robinson, T. N., 327, 360 Robotham, J. L., 402, 418 Robson, G. J., 53, 55, 81 Roca, J., 450, 462 Rocenmacher, S., 327, 361 Rocha, R. D., 563, 577 Rocher, A., 74, 87 Rochester, D. F., 126, 134, 425, 426, 427, 434, 435, 445, 462, 476, 509, 522, 526, 545, 546, 664, 665, 667, 672, 678, 679, 680, 683 Rochette, F., 644, 647, 658, 664, 678 Rochford, P. D., 670, 681 Rodahl, K., 137, 157 Rodenstein, D., 298, 343 Rodenstein, D. O., 178, 180, 181, 198, 298, 342 Rodriguez, A. M., 308, 309, 352 Rodriguez, M., 312, 354 Rodriguez, R. M., 499, 515 RodriguezRoisin, R., 450, 462 Roehrs, T., 410, 417 Roehrs, T. A., 401, 417 Roelofs, S. M., 644, 658 Rogan, P. K., 307, 350 Roger, J., 313, 354 Roger, K. A., 309, 352 Rogers, P., 445, 461 Rogers, R. M., 231, 247, 552, 572, 610, 614, 615, 617, 618, 619, 621, 628, 629, 672, 683 Rogers, Y. M., 330, 362 Rohlicek, C. V., 45, 78 Rohrer, F., 144, 158, 168, 196 Rolfe, M. W., 453, 464 Roll, M. I., 647, 659 Rollier, H., 445, 461 Romaker, A., 401, 417 Romaniuk, J. R., 456, 457, 465 Ronson, W. F., 167, 195
Page 738
Ropper, A. H., 316, 356 Rorke, L. B., 308, 309, 352 Rose, R. M., 588, 602 Roselle, G., 564, 578 Rosen, C., 334, 335, 366 Rosen, C. L., 308, 328, 352, 361 Rosen, D. S., 298, 343 Rosen, R. C., 596, 606 Rosen, Y., 450, 462 Rosenbaum, A. E., 326, 359 Rosenbaum, J. F., 277, 286, 296, 341 Rosenberg, C., 277, 286 Rosenberg, H., 331, 364 Rosenberg, J. C., 297, 298, 299, 342 Rosenberg, R. N., 317, 356 Rosenow, E. C., 534, 548 Rosenthal, A., 327, 361 RosentielGross, A. K., 297, 298, 299, 342 Roshkow, J. E., 304, 346 Rosi, E., 326, 359 Rosiello, R. A., 426, 434 Rosomoff, H. L., 90, 100 Ross, A., 410, 422 Ross, D. J., 672, 682 Ross, J., 315, 355 Ross, J. C., 126, 134 Ross, W. R. D., 480, 511 Rossen, J. D., 560, 576 Rosser, R., 277, 286 Rossi, G. P., 497, 498, 514 Rossi, N., 497, 498, 514 Rossier, A., 527, 546 Roth, P. H., 432, 437 Roth, R., 410, 422 Roth, T., 372, 373, 376, 401, 410, 417, 422 Rothenberger, L. A., 128, 135 Rothner, D., 300, 301, 344 Rothschild, T., 677, 686 Rothstein, R. J., 181, 199 Rothwell, J. C., 92, 93, 101 Rotstein, A., 370, 376 Rotstein, L. E., 405, 420 Roumen, Y., 654, 659 Round, J. M., 562, 577 Roussos, C., 143, 158, 432, 436, 469, 473, 476, 483, 484, 486, 507, 509, 512, 529, 547, 563, 577, 667, 680 Rovenstine, E. A., 271, 284 Rowell, L. B., 59, 83, 141, 158 Rowley, J. M., 561, 576 Roy, T. M., 298, 342 RoyByrne, P., 641, 658 Rozani, G. A., 311, 353 Rozycki, A. A., 303, 305, 344 Rubin, S., 263, 282 Rubin, S. A., 156, 162, 558, 576 Rubinfield, A. R., 123, 133 Rubinstein, E. H., 60, 83 Rubinstein, I., 405, 420 Ruff, M. E., 308, 334, 352 Ruitenbeek, W., 305, 334, 348 Rundle, S. A., 320, 356 Russ, B., 185, 199, 408, 421, 598, 607 Russel, D., 476, 510 Russell, D. F., 290, 338 Russell, N. J. W., 554, 574, 621, 630 Russman, B. S., 315, 355 Russomanno, J. H., 588, 602 Rutherford, J. D., 63, 84 Rutherford, M. A., 319, 357 Rutherford, R., 210, 216, 243, 244, 252, 255, 280, 317, 356, 405, 409, 419, 422, 569, 571, 579, 597, 599, 606, 673, 683 Rutten, H., 654, 659 Ryan, F., 392, 415 Ryan, S. M., 674, 684 Ryder, H. W., 115, 120, 132 Ryder, W. A., 638, 657 Ryser, M., 294, 341 S Sachis, P., 304, 347 Sackner, M. A., 100, 104, 255, 281, 338, 366, 493, 494, 513, 569, 579 Sadeh, M., 312, 353 Sadig, T., 644, 658 Sadowsky, P., 226, 246 Saenger, P., 326, 359
Page 739
Safford, R., 566, 578 Safley, W., 301, 344 Sagawa, Y., 214, 215, 236, 244 Sahenk, Z., 305, 306, 320, 334, 348 Sahn, S. A., 428, 435, 583, 601 Sai, K., 96, 102 Saidel, G. M., 128, 135, 208, 209, 241, 432, 436 Sainio, K., 638, 657 Saisch, S. G. N., 634, 639, 655 Saito, M., 403, 418 Sajkov, D., 404, 419 Sakai, A., 263, 282 Sakai, T., 94, 101, 263, 282, 588, 602 Sakakibara, Y., 42, 51, 58, 64, 66, 67, 77, 84, 85, 267, 283 Sakamoto, I., 374, 377 Sakamoto, K., 298, 342 Sakamoto, T., 476, 510 Sakurama, N., 313, 354 Salamone, J., 304, 347 Salamone, J. A., 184, 199 Salamy, J., 653, 659 Salanga, V. D., 521, 534, 544 SalazarSchicchi, J., 128, 135 Salin, K., 141, 157 Salkovskis, P. M., 640, 652, 653, 657, 659 Sallen, A., 558, 576 Salmi, T., 374, 377 Salmons, S., 301, 311, 344 Salomone, R. J., 367, 368, 374 Saltin, B., 141, 145, 158 Saltissi, S., 520, 544 Sam, M., 308, 351 Samaha, F. J., 315, 355 Samis, L., 671, 672, 682 Sampson, M. G., 595, 605, 652, 659 Sampson, S. R., 553, 554, 555, 573 Samson, J., 305, 348 Samuels, M. P., 301, 327, 344, 360 Sandberg, E. J., 181, 183, 198 Sandblom, R. E., 592, 593, 604 Sanders, M. H., 231, 232, 247, 248, 394, 401, 407, 410, 415, 417, 420, 422, 471, 508, 610, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 621, 622, 625, 627, 628, 629, 631, 674, 684 Sandhu, H. S., 426, 435 Sane, S. M., 304, 346 Sangal, R. B., 402, 418 Sanger, W. G., 305, 348 Sanii, R., 127, 134, 470, 498, 499, 506, 508, 516, 526, 546 Sano, M., 476, 510 Sant'Ambrogio, F. B., 192, 194, 201 Sant'Ambrogio, G., 192, 194, 201, 427, 435, 609, 621, 627 Santamaria, J. D., 593, 604 Santen, R. J., 593, 604 Santiago, T. V., 69, 86, 327, 361, 583, 590, 591, 597, 601, 606 Santoro, C., 311, 353 Santos, V., 332, 365 Sapire, D. W., 301, 344 Saporita, L., 542, 550 Saprue, N. H., 53, 81 Sargent, C. W., 49, 79, 303, 304, 309, 344, 346, 352, 472, 508 Sargur, M., 122, 133 Sarnoff, C. A., 59, 83 Sasaki, C., 388, 414 Sasaki, C. T., 193, 201 Sasaki, H., 188, 200, 552, 572 Sasaki, K., 118, 133 Sassoon, C. S., 256, 281 Sassoon, C. S. H., 471, 474, 480, 485, 488, 495, 501, 508, 509, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515 Sato, H., 563, 578 Sato, M., 69, 87, 96, 102, 476, 510 Sato, N., 594, 605 Sato, P., 122, 133 Sato, R. I., 128, 135 Satoh, M., 113, 131 Satomura, Y., 42, 51, 58, 77, 267, 283 Sauerland, E. K., 179, 180, 181, 183, 198, 199, 279, 287 Saunders, K. B., 214, 226, 244, 246, 644, 645, 658 Saunders, N. A., 380, 412, 521, 527, 532, 545, 547, 592, 598, 603, 606
Page 740
Saunders, R. A., 329, 362 Saupe, K. W., 239, 250, 389, 414, 568, 578, 618, 629 Savoy, J., 443, 444, 446, 447, 461 Sawicka, E. H., 320, 321, 357, 517, 542, 543, 550 Saykin, A., 373, 376 Scadding, J. G., 442, 460 Scano, G., 317, 326, 356, 359, 476, 477, 485, 486, 510, 512, 529, 534, 535, 547, 548, 666, 674, 679, 684 Scardella, A. T., 69, 86, 597, 606 Schaefers, H. J., 625, 627, 631 Schaffler, L., 535, 549 Scharf, S. M., 473, 509, 561, 562, 563, 577, 592, 595, 599, 603, 606 Schatz, M., 298, 343 Schechtman, K. B., 408, 421 Schechtman, V., 304, 346 Schectman, V. L., 331, 363, 364 Schedi, P., 47, 79 Schefft, G., 329, 362 Scheid, P., 17, 37, 499, 503, 505, 515, 516 Scheinowitz, M., 370, 376 Scherr, M. S., 322, 358 Scherrer, M., 585, 601 Schertel, E. R., 553, 554, 555, 573, 574, 621, 630 Schiavi, R. C., 590, 602 Schiavina, M., 538, 540, 550 Schiffman, P L., 599, 607 Schimsheimar, R. J., 540, 550 Schlaefke, M. E., 41, 45, 46, 76, 78 Schlavina, M., 674, 684 Schlenker, E. H., 270, 284, 588, 602 Schluter, J., 401, 417 Schmaling, K. B., 298, 299, 342 Schmid, K., 33, 40 Schmidt, C. F., 42, 76, 637, 656 Schmidt, H. S., 407, 420 Schmidt, K. A., 305, 306, 348, 350 Schmidt, N. D., 112, 131, 554, 555, 574 SchmidtNowara, W., 409, 421 Schmitt, F. A., 372, 373, 376 Schnall, R., 187, 200 Schnall, R. P., 185, 199 Schneider, B. K., 592, 593, 604 Schneider, C., 451, 463 Schneider, D. A., 554, 555, 574, 621, 630 Schneiderman, R., 638, 656 Schnittger, I., 400, 402, 417 Schoenberg, M. D., 453, 464 Schoene, R. B., 118, 122, 133, 210, 211, 242, 476, 486, 510, 513, 524, 545, 590, 592, 593, 602, 604 Schork, N. J., 270, 284 Schouten, E., 634, 655 Schreck, S., 169, 196 SchreinerEngel, P., 590, 602 Schroeder, J. S., 404, 419 Schubert, N., 165, 185, 195, 200, 394, 415, 538, 549 Schuberth, K. C., 322, 358 Schultz, H. D., 112, 131, 454, 464 Schultz, R. J., 305, 348 Schultze, B., 232, 248, 588, 601 Schultze, R. K., 452, 453, 464 Schut, L., 308, 309, 352 Schwab, R. J., 166, 195, 389, 392, 414 Schwartz, A., 185, 200, 598, 607 Schwartz, A. R., 165, 166, 168, 178, 185, 195, 196, 199, 328, 362, 394, 402, 408, 415, 418, 421, 538, 549 Schwartz, B. A., 424, 425, 426, 433 Schwartz, D. A., 440, 460 Schwartz, D. E., 558, 576 Schwartz, M. I., 443, 446, 461 Schwartzstein, R., 113, 131, 184, 199 Schwartzstein, R. M., 96, 102, 106, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121, 122, 124, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 276, 286, 473, 506, 509, 516, 623, 631, 675, 685 Schwarzacher, S. W., 26, 30, 39 Sciurba, F. C., 552, 572, 610, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 621, 625, 627, 628, 629, 631 Scoggin, C. H., 209, 242, 269, 283, 430, 436, 586, 597, 601, 606 Scott, C. I., 326, 360
Page 741
Scott, J. A., 276, 286 Scott, J. P., 625, 632 Scott, M. J., 59, 61, 83, 84 Seard, C., 53, 61, 81 Sears, T. A., 90, 95, 98, 100, 101, 103, 456, 465 Seashore, J., 334, 366 Seelagy, M., 185, 199 Segal, S., 300, 301, 344 Segawa, M., 305, 349 Segers, L. S., 30, 39, 40 Seid, A., 334, 366 Seitz, R. J., 307, 350 Sekar, K. C., 323, 358 Sekizawa, K., 188, 200, 552, 572 Selland, M. A., 403, 418 Sellick, H., 454, 464 Selner, J. C., 298, 342 Selverston, A. I., 290, 338 Semenza, G. L., 432, 437 Semmes, B. J., 483, 512 Semple, P. A., 593, 605 Semple, P. D., 593, 605 Semple, S. J. G., 150, 161, 473, 509 Sergeeva, Z. N., 453, 464 Series, F., 181, 198, 386, 395, 397, 401, 408, 411, 413, 415, 416, 417, 421, 422 Serisier, D. E., 476, 510, 527, 532, 533, 546, 548 Serra, P., 672, 683 Serratrice, G., 319, 357 Serrette, C., 236, 249, 369, 375, 570, 579 Serwint, J., 327, 361 Sette, L., 298, 343 Sevensky, K. S., 671, 682 Sever, J., 315, 355 Severinghaus, J. W., 42, 43, 44, 45, 49, 51, 52, 53, 58, 59, 61, 64, 69, 71, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 87, 118, 133, 268, 270, 283, 284, 469, 507, 526, 546 Seward, J. B., 370, 375 Seybold, M. E., 317, 356, 521, 534, 544 Sforza, E., 308, 313, 351, 354, 410, 422 Sha, M., 484, 512 Shaffner, D. H., 314, 355 Shah, P., 582, 600 Shah, S., 127, 134 Shaheed, W. S., 319, 357 Shams, H., 503, 516 Shannon, D. C., 49, 50, 51, 79, 80, 119, 133, 150, 161, 208, 209, 215, 228, 242, 244, 247, 303, 304, 308, 311, 313, 333, 344, 346, 351, 354, 365, 472, 508, 526, 546 Shannon, R., 30, 39, 40, 94, 101, 107, 114, 129, 132, 402, 418, 456, 457, 465, 466, 502, 515, 526, 536, 546, 624, 631, 662, 678 Shapira, Y., 320, 357 Shapiro, S. H., 674, 684 Shapiro, S. M., 666, 679 Sharman, P., 127, 134 Sharp, J. T., 406, 420, 428, 431, 435, 552, 563, 572, 577, 670, 681 Sharratt, M. T., 148, 160 Shavar, E., 535, 548 Shaw, D., 614, 615, 629 Shaw, D. J., 320, 356 Shaw, J., 59, 83 Shawsina, M. Z., 534, 548 Shea, S. A., 49, 50, 51, 79, 80, 96, 102, 110, 114, 117, 119, 124, 130, 131, 133, 134, 150, 161, 218, 224, 234, 245, 269, 270, 280, 283, 284, 287, 303, 304, 344, 346, 383, 412, 472, 498, 503, 506, 508, 509, 514, 516, 526, 546, 614, 615, 617, 622, 623, 624, 629, 631 Sheid, P., 20, 37 Shekleton, M., 447, 462 Sheldon, M. I., 554, 573, 621, 630 Shelton, K. E., 178, 198 Shenoy, B. C., 433, 437 Shephard, R. J., 147, 159, 172, 178, 196, 198 Shepherd, S., 327, 361 Sher, A. E., 326, 359, 408, 421 Sherniack, N. S., 428, 435 Sherpa, M. G., 209, 210, 211, 242
Page 742
Sherrington, C. S., 369, 375 Sherry, J. H., 181, 199 Sherwood, A., 99, 103 Sheu, K. F., 305, 306, 348, 350 Shida, A., 259, 262, 263, 269, 270, 281, 283, 284, 427, 428, 430, 435 Shield, L. K., 307, 334, 350 Shields, G. I., 405, 420 Shimada, Y., 496, 514 Shimizu, T., 621, 630 Shin, J. J. W., 215, 221, 226, 234, 235, 244, 246 Shin, J. W., 226, 246, 668, 669, 680 Shindoh, C., 407, 421 Shinebourne, E. A., 301, 327, 344, 360 Shiner, R. J., 667, 680 Shinozaki, T., 593, 604 Shiomi, T., 400, 402, 417 Shirato, K., 123, 134, 322, 358, 621, 630, 665, 679 Shock, N. W., 367, 368, 374 Shore, E. T., 222, 246 Shprintzen, R. J., 326, 359 Shulimzon, T., 666, 679 Shulman, K., 311, 353 Shults, C. W., 44, 77 Shumway, N. E., 625, 627, 631 Shuper, A., 297, 342 Shurman, A. J., 560, 576 Shustack, A., 614, 629 Sibuya, M., 96, 102, 115, 132 Sicker, H. O., 532, 545 Sieben, R. L., 311, 353 Sieck, G. C., 445, 461, 480, 511 Siegel, R. J., 552, 572 Siejo, B. K., 69, 87 Sieker, H. O., 121, 133, 213, 243 Siesjo, B. K., 638, 657 Silage, D. A., 222, 246, 263, 267, 282, 368, 374 Sillence, D. O., 326, 360 Silver, M. D., 319, 357 Silver, M. M., 319, 357 Silverberg, P. A., 531, 547 Silverstri, J. M., 302, 303, 304, 305, 327, 332, 334, 344, 348, 361, 365 Silvestri, R., 317, 356 Similowski, T., 471, 472, 480, 481, 508, 512 Simmers, E., 529, 547 Simmonds, A. J., 542, 550 Simmons, D. H., 502, 503, 515, 516 Simmons, F. B., 408, 421 Simmons, J., 571, 579 Simmons, P. S., 312, 354 Simon, A. G., 561, 577 Simon, P., 610, 611, 612, 628 Simon, P. M., 116, 117, 121, 132, 239, 250, 276, 286, 395, 415, 498, 499, 502, 503, 504, 505, 515, 516, 566, 578, 610, 611, 612, 614, 615, 628 Simoneau, J. A., 181, 198 Simonson, M. S., 433, 437 Simpser, M., 327, 360 Sinclair, M. D., 327, 361 Sinclarir, J. D., 53, 55, 81 Singer, E. P., 635, 656 Singer, F., 593, 604 Singh, V. K., 113, 131 Singhal, P. K., 301, 344 Sinha, A. K., 56, 81 Sinoway, L., 402, 418 Sinoway, L. I., 403, 419 Sioson, E. R., 369, 372, 375 Sipponen, J., 619, 621, 630 Sistermans, H., 638, 657 Sivak, E. D., 521, 534, 544 Sivan, Y., 315, 356 Skarbek, A., 99, 103 Skatrud, J., 210, 215, 242, 380, 381, 397, 412, 534, 548, 571, 579, 588, 601 Skatrud, J. B., 5, 35, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 224, 232, 233, 234, 237, 239, 244, 245, 248, 249, 250, 270, 284, 323, 358, 381, 383, 384, 386, 387, 389, 395, 396, 400, 402, 403, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 459, 467, 498, 503, 505, 514, 515, 516, 566, 567, 578, 592, 603, 610, 611, 612, 614, 615, 628, 676, 685 Skender, M. L., 305, 348 Sklarew, P. R., 298, 343
Page 743
Skolasinska, K., 59, 60, 83 Skrastins, R., 673, 683 Slamowitz, D., 561, 577 Slawinski, E., 396, 416 Sleeper, L. A., 331, 363 Sleigh, M. A., 425, 434 Sleight, P., 562, 577 Sliwinski, P., 477, 511 Slogic, S., 118, 133 Sloof, J. L., 305, 306, 348 Slordal, L., 593, 605 Slovis, T. L., 297, 342 Slutsky, A. S., 152, 162, 170, 173, 196, 204, 215, 226, 234, 241, 259, 260, 262, 281, 386, 388, 413, 427, 428, 431, 435, 447, 457, 462 Slykerman, L. J., 64, 84 Small, D., 582, 584, 600 Smallwood, R. G., 374, 377 Smatresk, N. J., 69, 86 Smickley, J. S., 191, 200, 201, 313, 354 Smirne, S., 374, 378, 397, 416 Smith, A., 317, 356 Smith, A. P., 617, 629 Smith, C., 315, 356 Smith, C. A., 239, 250, 389, 414, 568, 578, 618, 629 Smith, D., 558, 576, 669, 680 Smith, E., 217, 244 Smith, G., 306, 349 Smith, G. M., 100, 104 Smith, H., 47, 79 Smith, J. C., 9, 11, 18, 26, 30, 36, 39, 40, 292, 340 Smith, J. L., 149, 160 Smith, K., 670, 681 Smith, M. S., 298, 343 Smith, P., 165, 178, 185, 195, 200, 232, 248, 407, 420, 598, 607 Smith, P. E. M., 313, 318, 355, 520, 529, 531, 536, 537, 538, 544, 547, 549 Smith, P. G., 53, 81 Smith, P. L., 165, 166, 168, 178, 185, 195, 196, 199, 232, 248, 328, 362, 394, 402, 407, 410, 415, 418, 420, 422, 538, 549 Smith, T. C., 495, 500, 514 Smith, T. F., 322, 358 Smith, T. W., 451, 463 Smithson, A. J., 537, 538, 549 Smoller, J. W., 277, 286, 296, 341 Snider, G. L., 423, 424, 426, 430, 431, 433, 450, 452, 463 Snik, A., 638, 657 Snoring, I., 381, 398, 400, 412 Snow, J. B., 309, 352 Snyder, P. E., 669, 681 Sobol, B. J., 595, 597, 606 Sobotka, P. A., 588, 602 Sodal, I. D., 262, 263, 266, 282 Sodal, I. E., 583, 597, 600, 606 SojoAranda, I., 593, 604 Sokol, W., 298, 299, 342 Soldatos, C. R., 307, 351 Sole, M. J., 294, 341, 561, 577 Soler, N. G., 588, 602 Soli, J., 666, 679 Solven, F., 476, 510 Somers, V. K., 403, 418 Sommer, D., 26, 30, 38, 39 Sonep, E., 236, 249, 369, 375 Sonne, L. J., 669, 681 Sonnenblick, E. H., 558, 575 Sonoda, H., 49, 79, 304, 346 Sorkin, B., 595, 605 Sorli, J., 431, 436, 486, 513 Sottiaux, M., 332, 365 Soudon, P., 522, 545 Souhrada, J. F., 298, 299, 342 Souster, L., 99, 103 Southall, D. P., 231, 247, 301, 306, 311, 327, 329, 331, 344, 349, 360, 362, 363, 364 Souttiaux, M., 300, 301, 327, 344, 361 Sovijari, A. R., 619, 621, 630 Sowers, J., 404, 419 Sparrow, D., 113, 131 Sparrow, J. L., 557, 575 Spears, J., 297, 298, 299, 342 Speck, D. F., 15, 37, 94, 101 Speckmann, E. J., 638, 657 Speigel, I. J., 534, 548
Page 744
Spellman, J. M., 69, 87 Spence, D. P. S., 112, 131 Spencer, D., 388, 414 Spencer, G. T., 320, 357, 476, 510, 519, 542, 544, 550 Spencer, S., 388, 414 Sperling, D., 305, 348 Spier, N., 327, 361 Spinelli, A., 317, 356, 485, 486, 512, 535, 548, 674, 684 Spiro, S. G., 449, 462, 520, 544, 672, 683 Spitzer, A. R., 334, 366 Spitzer, W. O., 674, 684 Spock, A., 308, 334, 352 Spriggs, D. A., 374, 378 Springer, C., 320, 357 Sproule, B., 128, 135 Spry, K., 279, 287 Squara, P., 476, 509 Sridhar, G., 451, 463, 675, 685 Srinivasan, M., 69, 74, 86, 87 St. Jean, I. P., 270, 284 St. John, R. C., 299, 343 St. John, W. H., 188, 200 St. John, W. M., 12, 14, 15, 36, 37, 44, 46, 77, 79, 183, 191, 199, 405, 420, 592, 603 St. Pierre, S., 181, 198, 408, 421 Staats, B. A., 592, 603 Staberry, E., 564, 578 Stach, B., 476, 510 Stafford, M. J., 69, 86, 270, 284 Stafford, T., 385, 413 Stainer, K., 557, 561, 575, 576 Stalcup, S. A., 59, 83 Standaert, T. A., 291, 338, 339 Standiford, T. J., 453, 464 Stanek, V., 449, 462 Stanescu, D., 298, 343 Stanescu, D. C., 178, 180, 181, 198, 298, 342, 653, 659 Stanford, C. F., 557, 575 Stanley, N. N., 458, 466 Stansbury, D. W., 128, 135 Stark, A. R., 210, 228, 242, 324, 359 Stark, R. D., 108, 127, 130, 134 Starnes, V. A., 610, 616, 618, 621, 628, 630 Start, C., 141, 157 Stas, K. J., 521, 544 Staudenmayer, H., 298, 342 Stauffer, J. L., 165, 195 Stears, J. C., 308, 309, 352 Stebbens, V., 301, 344 Stebbens, V. A., 327, 360 Steele, S. M., 110, 130, 151, 161, 526, 546 Steens, R., 571, 579 Steens, R. D., 406, 420, 570, 579 Steider, D. J., 323, 358 Stein, J., 641, 658 Stein, M., 583, 600 Steinbrook, R. A., 69, 86 Steinschneider, A., 332, 364, 365 Steljes, D., 565, 568, 571, 578 Steljes, D. G., 222, 246 Stempel, D. A., 298, 299, 343 Stenberg, D., 638, 657 Stensaas, L. J., 56, 82 Stepanski, E. J., 226, 247 Stephenson, J., 301, 344 Stephenson, J. B., 301, 306, 311, 344, 349, 353 Stepnowsky, C., 373, 376 Sterman, M. B., 331, 363 Stern, N., 404, 419 Stern, R. C., 327, 361 Stern, S., 60, 83 Stevens, C. D., 115, 120, 132 Stevens, J., 114, 131 Stevens, S. S., 107, 129, 148, 159, 274, 285 Stevenson, J. E., 595, 605 Stewart, D., 589, 602 Stewart, D. A., 593, 604 Stickler, G. B., 296, 297, 341, 635, 656 Stidwill, R. P., 150, 161 Stiller, R. A., 674, 684 Stinson, E. B., 625, 627, 631 Stockley, R. A., 448, 462, 582, 584, 600 Stocks, J., 325, 359
Page 745
Stoker, G. L., 126, 134 Stokes, D. C., 323, 324, 326, 358, 359 Stokes, W., 203, 216, 240 Stone, S., 317, 356 Stone, S. M., 297, 298, 342 Stone, T. N., 449, 462, 538, 540, 550, 675, 676, 684 Stoohs, R., 319, 357, 381, 398, 400, 402, 408, 409, 412, 416, 417, 421, 571, 579 Stoohs, R. A., 400, 417 Stovroff, M., 304, 347 Stradling, J., 226, 246 Stradling, J. R., 217, 218, 245, 380, 381, 400, 402, 412, 417, 418, 528, 529, 547, 615, 629, 677, 686 Strak, A. R., 228, 247 Strandjord, T. P., 304, 347 Straus, C., 480, 481, 512 Strauss, B., 452, 453, 464 Stremel, R. W., 554, 573 Strieder, D., 305, 348 Strieder, D. J., 327, 361 Strieter, R. M., 453, 464 Strobel, R. J., 596, 606 Stroetz, R. W., 499, 502, 503, 504, 505, 515, 516 Strohl, K. P., 45, 78, 165, 166, 167, 170, 173, 177, 178, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 191, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200, 270, 277, 279, 284, 286, 287, 386, 388, 413, 502, 515, 592, 598, 603, 606 Stromberg, N. O., 254, 280 Strome, M., 327, 360 Strumpf, D. A., 674, 684 Stryzak, A., 538, 549 Stubbing, D., 128, 135 Stubbing, D. G., 108, 121, 130, 133, 151, 162, 475, 509 Studnicki, K., 401, 417 Stulbarg, M. S., 128, 135, 672, 675, 682, 685 Sturani, C., 538, 540, 550 Su, X., 406, 420 Suarez, M., 338, 366 Subaei, A., 298, 299, 342 SuberiKhokhar, N., 566, 578 Subramanian, S., 113, 131 Sudarshan, A., 312, 353 Sue, D. Y., 557, 575, 643, 658, 671, 682 Sugai, N., 621, 630 Sugar, O., 302, 344 Sugerman, H., 596, 606 Sugita, T., 263, 267, 282 Sugiura, N., 669, 680 Suguihara, C., 68, 85 Sulkava, R., 374, 377 Sullivan, A. J., 635, 656 Sullivan, C. E., 220, 245, 246, 277, 286, 326, 360, 388, 403, 404, 406, 409, 414, 419, 420, 421, 476, 510, 535, 537, 538, 540, 549, 550, 569, 579, 588, 589, 592, 593, 597, 598, 599, 601, 602, 603, 604, 606, 607, 614, 617, 629, 642, 658, 673, 683 Sullivan, J., 173, 196 Sullivan, K. J., 169, 196 Sullivan, M. J., 557, 560, 562, 574, 576, 577 Sulton, G. G., 456, 465 Summers, E., 96, 102, 116, 132, 146, 147, 154, 155, 159, 162, 276, 286, 432, 436, 484, 488, 512, 562, 577, 665, 671, 679, 682 Summers, E. S., 426, 434 Sun, M. K., 431, 436 Suormala, T. M., 306, 350 Supinski, G., 456, 465 Supinski, G. S., 96, 102, 432, 437, 457, 465, 674, 684 Suratt, P., 401, 418 Suratt, P. M., 165, 178, 195, 198, 233, 248, 373, 377, 392, 394, 415 Sutton, F. D., 592, 595, 597, 603, 605 Sutton, J. R., 204, 209, 210, 211, 215, 222, 226, 234, 241, 242, 590, 602 Sutton, L. N., 308, 309, 352 Suzue, T., 15, 37 Suzuki, A., 68, 85, 266, 267, 269, 270, 271, 280, 282, 283, 284, 285 Suzuki, H., 96, 102, 115, 132
Page 746
Suzuki, K., 454, 464, 621, 630 Suzuki, M., 193, 201, 312, 354, 476, 510 Suzuki, S., 96, 102 Svanborg, E., 401, 408, 418, 421 Svanholm, H., 327, 360 Svebak, S., 100, 104 Swaminathan, S., 49, 79, 303, 304, 309, 344, 346, 347, 352, 472, 508 Swan, B. E., 315, 355 Swanson, A., 313, 354 Swanson, G. D., 52, 53, 80, 210, 236, 243, 249, 643, 658 Swanson, L. A., 141, 157 Swartz, J., 334, 366 Swash, M., 533, 534, 541, 548 Sweatman, P., 407, 420 Sweer, L., 402, 418 Sweer, L. W., 237, 249 Swinburn, C. R., 111, 130, 449, 462, 675, 676, 684 Switzer, D. A., 373, 377 Sybrecht, G. W., 455, 465 Syed, N. I., 5, 6, 35, 36 Szalai, J. P., 400, 401, 417 SzeredaPzestaszewska, M., 68, 86 Szulezyk, P., 59, 82 Szymeczek, C. L., 292, 338, 339 T Tabakin, B. S., 598, 606 Tack, M., 263, 282, 432, 436 Tadmor, R., 312, 353 Tafti, M., 397, 416 Taguchi, O., 96, 102, 113, 131, 621, 630 Taha, B. H., 610, 611, 612, 614, 615, 628 Tajik, A. J., 370, 375 Takada, S., 320, 357 Takahashi, E., 298, 342, 384, 413 Takahashi, T., 496, 514 Takai, S., 252, 280 Takano, N., 263, 282 Takarishi, S., 473, 509 Takasaki, M., 6, 35 Takasaki, Y., 409, 422 Takashima, S., 304, 347 Takashima, T., 185, 200 Takeda, H., 563, 578 Takeda, R., 21, 26, 33, 38, 40 Takeda, S., 304, 347 Takenobu, K., 563, 578 Takezawa, J., 496, 514 Takishima, T., 96, 102, 113, 123, 131, 134, 322, 358, 552, 572, 621, 630, 665, 679 Takizawa, A., 638, 657 Talbert, D. G., 301, 311, 344 Tallman, R. D., 385, 413 Talmi, Y. P., 401, 417 Talor, E. E., 277, 286 Tam, A., 216, 244, 569, 579 Tamai, S., 15, 37 Tamura, G., 123, 134, 322, 358, 665, 679 Tamura, K., 304, 347 Tan, C. S. H., 502, 503, 515, 516 Tan, G. A., 208, 209, 241 Tan, W. C., 582, 584, 600 Tanaka, K., 96, 102, 115, 132 Tanaka, M., 64, 70, 85, 87 Tanaka, S., 638, 657 Tangel, D. J., 173, 174, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 196, 198, 199, 394, 415, 567, 578, 674, 684 Taniguchi, H., 454, 464 Taniguchi, I., 263, 282, 588, 602 Tankersely, C., 598, 607 Tantucci, C., 588, 602 Tanuka, E., 176, 197 Tapper, D. P., 625, 631 Tarasiuk, A., 563, 577 Tardif, C., 484, 486, 512 Tatsumi, K., 64, 66, 84, 263, 267, 282, 592, 593, 594, 603, 604, 605 Tatton, W. G., 98, 103 Taube, D., 331, 363 Tauesch, H. W., 323, 358 Taunton, J. E., 590, 602 Taussig, L. M., 323, 358
Page 747
Tavazzi, L., 552, 563, 572 Tavel, M. E., 654, 660 Tawardrous, F. D., 236, 249 Tayama, M., 312, 313, 353, 354 Taylor, A., 94, 101 Te, T. T., 256, 281, 485, 512 Teague, W. G., 304, 347 Teghtsoonian, M., 276, 286 Teitelbaum, J. S., 316, 356, 476, 477, 511 Tejima, K., 384, 413 Telakivi, T., 374, 377 Telford, R. J., 214, 244 Tellis, C. J., 410, 422 Tenholder, M. F., 410, 422 Tenney, S. M., 53, 81, 108, 115, 120, 130, 132, 428, 435, 457, 465 Teo, K. K., 555, 574 Teppema, L. J., 45, 78 Tepper, R. S., 323, 358 Terashima, M., 404, 419 Tervo, R. C., 535, 548 Testerman, R., 185, 200 Thach, B., 233, 248, 292, 339 Thach, B. T., 14, 37, 166, 185, 187, 194, 195, 200, 201, 294, 329, 331, 341, 362, 364 Thelissen, C. R., 426, 434 Theodore, J., 616, 618, 620, 621, 625, 627, 629, 630, 631 Theunissen, E., 638, 657 Thomas, A. J., 270, 284 Thomas, G., 232, 248, 588, 601 Thomas, L., 402, 418 Thomas, R. L., 126, 134 Thompson, H. K., 637, 656 Thompson, J. G., 618, 630 Thompson, R., 566, 578 Thompson, T. R., 303, 304, 305, 346 Thorlbeck, W. M., 424, 425, 426, 433 Thornton, A. T., 404, 419 Thorpy, M. J., 326, 359, 373, 377 Thurlbeck, W., 443, 446, 461 Thurston, D., 301, 344 Thut, D. C., 166, 178, 185, 195, 199, 408, 421 Tietze, C., 300, 301, 343 Tilkian, A., 279, 287 Tilvis, R., 374, 377 Timmons, B., 653, 659 Timms, R. M., 402, 418 Tinaztepe, B., 312, 354 Tinaztepe, K., 312, 354 Tirosh, E., 306, 349 Tishler, P. V., 277, 279, 286, 287, 400, 401, 417, 598, 606, 607 Tisi, G. M., 668, 680 Titchen, D. A., 188, 200 Tobert, D. G., 499, 502, 503, 504, 515 Tobias, J. D., 312, 354 Tobin, M. J., 99, 100, 103, 104, 106, 129, 254, 255, 280, 281, 322, 326, 358, 359, 470, 477, 483, 484, 488, 493, 494, 495, 506, 507, 511, 512, 513, 514, 516, 669, 680 TochonDanguy, H. J., 51, 80, 93, 101 Todres, D., 49, 79 Todres, I. D., 303, 308, 311, 346, 351 Toiber, F., 387, 396, 402, 414, 416 Tojima, H., 263, 267, 282 Tokizane, T., 97, 103 Tomaszek, D. E., 308, 352 Tomelleri, G., 476, 510 Tomita, T., 309, 352 Tomlinson, T. A., 150, 161, 554, 573 Tomori, Z., 12, 36, 176, 188, 197, 200 Tonin, P., 476, 510 Tonnel, A. B., 476, 510 Toohill, R. J., 397, 416 Topoules, G. P., 526, 546 Topulos, G. P., 110, 130, 151, 161 Torgerson, C. S., 20, 37 Torn, G., 144, 145, 158 Torrance, R., 553, 573 Torrance, R. W., 210, 228, 243, 247 Torri, G., 454, 456, 457, 465 Toshihiko, O., 115, 132 Tosteson, T., 598, 606 Tosteson, T. D., 279, 287, 400, 401, 417, 598, 607 Touloukian, R., 334, 366 Tournier, G., 325, 359
Page 748
Towes, C. J., 590, 602 Townsend, M., 668, 669, 680 Tramezzani, J. H., 53, 81 Traube, L., 216, 244 Traver, G. A., 424, 425, 426, 433 Trealease, R., 572, 579 Trelease, R. B., 331, 363 Trenchard, D., 41, 42, 76, 110, 112, 130, 131, 451, 452, 453, 463, 464, 554, 574, 617, 621, 622, 629, 630, 631 Trenchard, D. W., 621, 630 Trento, A., 609, 628 Trijbels, J. M., 306, 349 Trinader, J., 386, 414 Trinder, J., 218, 222, 234, 245, 246, 248 Trippenbach, R., 563, 577 Trippenbach, T., 14, 36 Trojak, J. E., 323, 326, 358 Trontell, M. C., 599, 607 Trooskin, S. T., 312, 353 Troosters, T., 671, 682 Trotter, R. H., 91, 100 Trouth, C. O., 41, 76 Trulock, E. P., 625, 627, 631 Trzebski, A., 59, 82 Tsubone, H., 173, 175, 197 Tsuchida, Y., 304, 347 Tucker, H. S., 589, 602 Tudehope, D. I., 330, 362 Tulesian, P., 204, 209, 228, 230, 241 Tull, D. S., 325, 359 Turino, G. M., 302, 305, 344, 440, 442, 443, 446, 447, 448, 457, 460, 461, 618, 629, 673, 683 Turnbull, D. M., 306, 350 Turner, K. L., 319, 357 Tyler, H. R., 527, 547 Tyrrell, M. J., 327, 360 Tyson, G. W., 308, 352 U Ubel, F. A., 304, 346 Uchida, M., 96, 102, 115, 132 Uchigata, M., 476, 510 Ueda, K., 312, 353 Ukabam, C. U., 111, 131, 194, 201 Underhill, B., 262, 263, 266, 282 Unger, T., 403, 418 Ungersteat, U., 74, 87 Unverzagt, M., 401, 418 Upson, D., 322, 358 Uther, J. B., 59, 60, 83 V Vafaie, H., 367, 368, 374 ValdesDapena, M., 331, 363 Vale, F., 672, 682 Valor, R., 374, 378 van Aalst, V., 641, 657 Van Beek, J. H. G. M., 68, 69, 85, 87 Van Coster, R., 306, 350 van Dam, K., 306, 349 van de Graaff, W., 166, 195 Van de Graaff, W. B., 177, 183, 186, 187, 191, 198, 199, 200, 386, 413 Van de Merckt, C., 332, 365 van de Ven, L. L. M., 654, 660 van den Elsen, M., 385, 389, 413 van den Elshout, F., 637, 656 van den Hout, M., 634, 655 van der Hal, A., 308, 309, 352 Van der Meche, F. G., 319, 357, 540, 550 Van der Sluys, J. C., 540, 550 van der Veen, G., 592, 597, 603 van Dixhoorn, J., 635, 649, 656 van Doorn, P., 634, 640, 649, 653, 655, 659 van Erven, P. M., 305, 306, 348 Van Fossen, D. S., 440, 460 van Gelder, A., 592, 597, 603 van Haelst, U., 306, 349 van Herwaarden, C. L. A., 637, 656, 670, 671, 681, 682 Van Kessel, A., 625, 627, 631 van Kleef, J., 385, 389, 413 van Lunteren, E., 175, 177, 178, 183, 186, 187, 191, 197, 198, 199, 200, 367, 368, 374
Page 749
Van Maele, R., 53, 80 van Spiegel, P., 637, 647, 656, 659 van Waeleghem, J., 215, 244 Vanmeenan, M. S., 444, 445, 461 Vanoye, C. R., 191, 201 Vansteenkiste, J., 644, 647, 658 Varano, L. A., 165, 195 Varsano, I., 297, 342 Vartio, T., 440, 442, 443, 460 Varvers, C. C., 540, 550 Vasquez, A., 445, 461 Vassilakopoulos, T., 484, 486, 512 Vatner, S. F., 63, 84 Vaughn, K. Z., 256, 281 Veale, D., 533, 538, 540, 548, 550 Veening, J. G., 45, 78 Veerkamp, J. H., 306, 349 Vegas, F. A., 370, 375 VejbyChristensen, H., 59, 83 VelaBueno, A., 307, 351 Velleville, J. W., 643, 658 Venderlinden, R. G., 151, 161 Venes, J. L., 311, 353 Ventura, H., 331, 364 Veriter, C., 298, 343, 653, 659 Verloes, A., 304, 347 Vermeire, P., 53, 80 Vermeire, P. A., 215, 244 Vershuern, P., 564, 578 Ververs, C., 319, 357 Vest, M., 306, 350 Veterovec, G. W., 60, 83 Vevan, C., 617, 629 Victoria, B. E., 327, 360 Vidruk, E. 476, 509 Viljaanen, B., 610, 628 Viljanen, A., 610, 628, 638, 657 Villafranca, C. C., 147, 159 Villamor, J., 590, 591, 603 Villeponteeaux, R. D., 191, 201 Vilos, G. A., 319, 357 Vincent, A., 317, 356 Viner, S., 401, 417 Vinik, A. I., 588, 602 Virgulto, J. A., 143, 158 Vis, A., 236, 249 Visioli, O., 557, 558, 559, 575 Vitiello, M. V., 373, 374, 377 Vizek, M., 64, 66, 84, 428, 435 Vizioli, L. D., 666, 679 Vogel, J. H. K., 595, 605 Volta, C. A., 666, 679 von Breska, B., 216, 217, 222, 244 von Engelshoven, J. M., 426, 434 Von Euler, C., 4, 14, 35, 36, 151, 152, 162, 210, 214, 227, 243, 247, 499, 505, 515, 662, 678 Von Gal, E. R., 442, 443, 446, 460, 461 Von Gale, E., 69, 86 Von Pechmann, W. S., 327, 328, 360, 361 Votteri, B. A., 674, 684 Vusak, H. F., 540, 550 W Wada, H., 320, 357 Wade, J. G., 43, 53, 61, 77, 81 Waggener, T. B., 69, 86, 204, 209, 210, 228, 230, 241, 242, 247, 270, 284 Wagner, P. D., 247, 425, 426, 434, 450, 462 Wahren, J., 137, 157 Wakefield, J. M., 111, 130 Waku, S., 320, 357 Waldhorn, R. E., 673, 683 Waldron, J. A., 443, 446, 461 Waldrop, T. G., 149, 160 Walker, B. E., 306, 350 Walker, D. O., 331, 363 Walker, D. S., 74, 87 Walker, G. F., 327, 360 Walker, P. A., 296, 297, 341 Wall, M. A., 323, 358 Wallaert, B., 476, 510 Waller, D. A., 307, 350 Wallois, F., 174, 197 Walls, T. J., 533, 538, 540, 548, 550 Wallwork, J., 610, 614, 615, 627, 628, 629, 632 Wallwork, J. A., 625, 632
Page 750
Walsh, E. M., 332, 364 Walsh, S., 324, 359 Walter, G., 552, 563, 572 Walter, J., 270, 280, 284, 287 Wang, G. L., 432, 437 Wang, H., 326, 359 Wang, S. C., 26, 29, 38 Wang, W., 12, 15, 36, 37 Wang, Y., 563, 577 Wang, Y. G., 331, 364 Wang, Y. M., 445, 461 Wanke, T., 671, 682 Waravdekar, N., 402, 418 Waravdekar, N. V., 403, 419 Ward, D. S., 68, 86, 236, 249, 643, 658 Ward, M. E., 121, 133 Ward, S. A., 228, 247 Ward, S. L., 303, 304, 307, 308, 309, 327, 328, 344, 346, 351, 352, 360, 361 Ward, S. L. D., 407, 421 Ward, W. W., 596, 606 Warel, W., 327, 361 Warley, A. R. H., 529, 547 Warmoth, J. E., 297, 298, 299, 342 Warner, G., 232, 233, 248, 395, 416 Wart, R., 232, 248 Wasicko, M. J., 165, 184, 195, 199 Wasicko, M. S., 12, 36 Wass, J. A., 582, 600 Wasserman, E. R., 326, 360 Wasserman, K., 53, 58, 59, 60, 61, 81, 82, 429, 436, 552, 554, 555, 557, 572, 573, 574, 575, 621, 630, 643, 658, 671, 682 Watanabe, S., 42, 51, 58, 77, 263, 267, 282, 592, 594, 603, 605 Watchko, J. F., 291, 338, 339 Waters, K. A., 326, 360 Watson, H., 338, 366 Watson, J. D. G., 50, 80 Watson, L., 445, 462 Watson, W. S., 593, 605 Wead, W. B., 555, 574 Weathall, S. R., 309, 353 Webb, K. A., 671, 672, 675, 682, 682, 685 Webb, P., 218, 245 Webb, W. B., 373, 377 Weber, E. H., 524, 545 Weber, K. T., 558, 559, 560, 575, 576 Weber, S. A., 232, 247, 395, 406, 416, 420 Weber, W., 380, 381, 397, 412 Webster, K., 470, 493, 494, 498, 499, 500, 504, 505, 506, 508, 513, 514, 515, 516 Wechsler, A. S., 62, 84 Wechsler, W., 307, 350 Wedzicha, J. A., 674, 684 WeeseMayer, D. E., 294, 302, 303, 304, 305, 327, 332, 334, 337, 341, 344, 347, 348, 361, 365 Weicher, D. O., 519, 544 Weil, J. V., 64, 66, 84, 209, 219, 220, 242, 245, 246, 262, 263, 266, 268, 269, 282, 283, 305, 309, 313, 319, 348, 352, 355, 385, 413, 428, 430, 435, 436, 532, 535, 547, 549, 582, 583, 584, 586, 590, 591, 592, 593, 595, 597, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607 Weil, J. W., 268, 283 WeilerRavell, F., 554, 574 Weill, H., 442, 443, 446, 447, 460 Weimann, G., 645, 659 Weinberg, E. G., 297, 342 Weinberger, S., 113, 131, 184, 199 Weinberger, S. E., 69, 86, 96, 102, 106, 112, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121, 129, 131, 132, 276, 286, 473, 509, 590, 603, 675, 685 Weiner, D., 304, 347 Weiner, D. M., 184, 199 Weiner, M., 476, 510 Weiner, M. W., 562, 577 Weiner, P., 476, 510, 671, 682 Weiser, P., 670, 681 Weiss, E. M., 41, 76 Weiss, J. W., 96, 102, 106, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121, 129, 131, 132, 184, 199, 276, 286, 590, 603, 675, 685
Page 751
Weiss, S. T., 590, 603 Weitzenblum, E., 404, 419 Weitzman, E. D., 304, 317, 327, 347, 356, 360, 371, 376 Welborn, L. G., 334, 366 Weller, T. H., 314, 355 Wells, C. K., 669, 681 Wells, H. H., 303, 346 Wells, L., 562, 577 Wells, U. M., 176, 197 Wendt, M., 672, 683 Werman, R., 637, 656 Werthammer, J., 323, 358 Weseley, S., 634, 639, 655 Wessberg, P., 68, 85 West, D., 458, 466 West, J. B., 210, 211, 242 West, J. R., 440, 443, 460 West, M. J., 59, 83 West, P., 407, 420, 475, 509, 616, 629, 665, 679 Westbrook, P. R., 215, 221, 226, 234, 235, 244, 246 Weston, A. R., 558, 576 Wetter, D. W., 406, 420 Wexler, L., 405, 419, 564, 578 Whalen, C., 277, 286, 400, 401, 417 Whalen, P., 294, 341 Whaley, R. D., 593, 605 Wheatley, J. R., 173, 175, 181, 183, 196, 197, 199, 567, 578 Wherret, B. A., 304, 347 Whielaw, W. A., 268, 283 Whipp, B. J., 52, 53, 58, 59, 60, 61, 80, 81, 82, 210, 243, 554, 555, 557, 559, 573, 574, 575, 576, 621, 630, 643, 658 White, D., 590, 602 White, D. P., 165, 173, 174, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 195, 196, 198, 199, 209, 219, 220, 222, 242, 245, 246, 269, 283, 385, 394, 400, 406, 413, 415, 417, 420, 535, 538, 549, 567, 578, 590, 593, 599, 602, 604, 607, 674, 677, 684, 685 White, J. E. S., 537, 538, 549 White, M. L., 315, 355 White, S. W., 46, 59, 60, 78, 83 White, W. F., 331, 363 Whitelaw, W., 534, 548 Whitelaw, W. A., 98, 103, 111, 131, 168, 176, 196, 197, 254, 255, 256, 280, 394, 396, 400, 415, 416, 417, 470, 476, 485, 486, 507, 511, 512, 524, 535, 545, 548 Whitford, E. G., 404, 419 Whittaker, G. E., 309, 353 Whittingham, S., 317, 356 Whitworth, F., 222, 246, 386, 414 Whorwell, P. J., 277, 286 Wiatrak, B. J., 298, 343 Wiberg, D. M., 210, 243 Wick, H., 306, 350 Widdicombe, J., 51, 80, 609, 627 Widdicombe, J. G., 41, 42, 76, 111, 130, 175, 176, 188, 197, 450, 451, 452, 454, 463, 464, 553, 554, 555, 573, 610, 612, 617, 622, 628, 629 Widimsky, J., 449, 462 Wiegand, D. A., 187, 200, 386, 400, 413 Wiegand, L., 187, 200, 386, 400, 409, 413, 421 Wiener, D. H., 561, 562, 576 Wientjes, C. J. E., 634, 655 Wientjes, J. E., 99, 103 Wiestler, O. D., 307, 350 Wiggers, C. J., 150, 161 Wiggins, C. L., 397, 416 Wiklund, U., 404, 419 Wilborn, J., 385, 413 Wilbourn, A. J., 521, 534, 544 Wilcox, I., 403, 404, 419, 569, 579 Wilcox, P. A., 269, 283 Wilcox, P. G., 445, 461 Wilen, M., 558, 576 Wilen, M. M., 558, 575, 576 Wiles, C. M., 320, 357, 476, 510, 519, 542, 544, 550 Wiley, R. L., 273, 285 Wilhelmsen, L., 145, 158 Wilhoit, S. C., 165, 195, 373, 377, 394, 415 Wilken, B., 313, 354
Page 752
Wilkin, P., 222, 246, 386, 414 Wilkinson, I. A., 301, 344 Wilkinson, P. W., 304, 313, 347 Willems, J. L., 306, 349 Willens, R., 373, 376 Williams, A., 476, 510 Williams, D., 374, 377 Williamson, J., 279, 287 Willinger, M., 330, 331, 362, 364 Willshaw, P., 53, 81 Wilson, A., 476, 510 Wilson, A. J., 331, 363, 364 Wilson, D., 672, 683 Wilson, D. F., 638, 656 Wilson, G. V., 222, 246 Wilson, J. R., 552, 558, 559, 561, 562, 563, 572, 575, 576, 578 Wilson, P., 210, 215, 242, 571, 579 Wilson, P. A., 459, 467 Wilson, R., 109, 130 Wilson, R. C., 122, 133 Winchell, P., 531, 547 Windsor, A., 596, 606 Winkelman, J. W., 588, 602 Winkle, R., 327, 361 Winlow, W., 5, 6, 35 Winning, A. J., 124, 134, 451, 463, 611, 612, 628 Winter, B., 52, 53, 80 Winter, R. J., 305, 348 Winter, W. C., 392, 415 Winters, R. W., 302, 305, 344 Winterstein, H., 44, 77, 150, 161 Wisdom, P. J., 519, 527, 544 Wise, J. C. M., 610, 628 Wise, R. A., 165, 168, 185, 195, 196, 199, 394, 415, 538, 549 Wisenring, J. J., 311, 353 WittEngerstrom, I., 305, 306, 349 Witteman, R., 410, 422 Wittesaele, W. M., 215, 244 Wittig, R., 410, 422 Wittig, R. M., 401, 417 Wizen, B., 534, 548 Wo, R., 226, 246 Woda, R. P., 320, 356 Wohl, M. E., 327, 361 Wohl, M. E. B., 324, 325, 359 Wolfe, L., 596, 606 Wolfel, E. E., 403, 418 Wolff, C. B., 210, 212, 227, 242, 257, 258, 262, 281, 498, 514, 662, 678 Wolfson, D. A., 502, 515 Wolkove, N., 622, 631 Wollschlager, H., 558, 575 Wolraich, M., 309, 311, 353 Wong, B., 204, 210, 215, 226, 234, 241, 243 Wongsa, A., 494, 514 Woo, M., 304, 346 Woo, M. A., 304, 346 Woo, M. S., 304, 346 Wood, B. G., 408, 421 Wood, D. E., 408, 421 Wood, J. B., 53, 61, 81 Wood, L. D. H., 476, 510 Wood, R. E., 166, 195 Wood, R. P., 297, 298, 299, 342, 343 Wood, R. P. D., 298, 299, 342 Wood, S. E., 49, 79 WoodDauphinee, S., 674, 684 Woodard, W. D., 583, 591, 592, 601 Woodcock, A. A., 127, 128, 134, 135, 675, 685 Woodrow Weiss, J., 473, 509 Woodrum, D. E., 291, 338, 339 Woods, M., 621, 630 Woods, S. W., 645, 658 Woodson, B. T., 397, 416 Woodson, G. E., 191, 201, 304, 347 Woodson, H., 178, 198 Woodward, C. E., 306, 350 Woolcock, A. J., 450, 452, 463 Woolf, G. M., 599, 607 Woolman, P., 610, 628 Wooters, E. F., 426, 434 Wren, C., 304, 346 Wright, C., 558, 575 Wright, D., 562, 577 Wright, E., 672, 683 Wright, G. W., 176, 183, 197 Wright, I. G., 623, 631
Page 753
Wright, S., 397, 416 Wu, R. H., 326, 359 Wuyam, B., 50, 80 Wynne, J. W., 327, 360, 592, 593, 604 X Xaubet, A., 450, 462 Xi, L., 239, 250, 498, 503, 515 Xiaoling, S., 570, 579 Xie, A., 204, 210, 215, 226, 234, 241, 243, 252, 255, 280 Xie, J., 305, 348 Xu, F. D., 69, 87 Y Yacoub, M., 626, 632 Yacoub, M. H., 558, 575, 614, 615, 617, 623, 629, 631 Yaeger, D., 151, 161 Yager, D., 110, 130, 526, 546 Yalaz, K., 312, 354 Yamada, K. A., 44, 68, 78, 85 Yamada, M., 96, 102, 115, 132 Yamaguchi, E., 298, 342 Yamakoshi, K. I., 384, 413 Yamamoto, H., 68, 85, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 282, 283, 284, 285 Yamamoto, M., 68, 85, 260, 261, 263, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 276, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 368, 375 Yamamoto, T., 588, 601 Yamamoto, Y., 69, 74, 86, 87 Yamashina, T., 263, 281 Yamashiro, S. M., 208, 209, 241 Yamashiro, Y., 410, 422 Yamashita, H., 312, 353 Yamazaki, Y., 403, 418 Yan, S., 477, 483, 511 Yanagisawa, M., 305, 348 Yang, F., 221, 246 Yang, K., 322, 358, 488, 513 Yankowitz, F. G., 561, 576 Yanos, J., 476, 510 Yanowitz, F. G., 669, 681 Yasue, H., 638, 657 Yasuma, F., 222, 246 Yates, D., 634, 655 Yawakami, Y., 368, 375 Yayakawa, T., 404, 419 Yeh, M. P., 561, 576, 669, 681 Yernault, J., 563, 577 Yernault, J. C., 313, 355, 442, 444, 460, 461, 625, 631 Yoffey, J. M., 188, 200 Yokoi, T., 454, 464 Yokokawa, N., 41, 76 Yokomori, K., 304, 347 Yokoyama, H., 563, 578 Yonemoto, K., 94, 101 Yonge, R., 562, 577 Yoshida, A., 118, 133, 221, 246, 368, 375, 592, 594, 603, 605, 676, 685 Yoshikawa, T., 259, 262, 263, 269, 270, 271, 281, 283, 284, 285, 427, 428, 430, 435 Yoshimoto, T., 313, 354 Yoshioka, A., 68, 85, 260, 263, 268, 269, 271, 276, 280, 281, 284, 285 Yoshizaki, K., 72, 87 Younes, A., 459, 467 Younes, M., 127, 134, 204, 231, 236, 241, 249, 389, 414, 469, 470, 471, 475, 483, 486, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 498, 499, 500, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 526, 542, 546, 550, 624, 631, 646, 685 Younes, M. N., 458, 466 Young, I. H., 450, 451, 452, 463 Young, T., 380, 381, 396, 397, 412, 416 Young, T. B., 381, 406, 412, 420 Younges, M., 384, 389, 413 Yu, J., 454, 464 Yuan, X., 185, 199 Yuguchi, Y., 263, 267, 282 Z. Zacchardelli, W., 118, 133 Zacchello, F., 334, 366
Page 754
Zachariah, P. K., 370, 375 Zagelbaum, G., 143, 158, 473, 476, 483, 509, 667, 680 Zahedpour, M. R., 263, 267, 282 Zakynthinos, S., 477, 483, 511 Zakynthinos, S. G., 484, 486, 512 Zamel, N., 118, 133, 317, 356, 397, 405, 416, 419, 597, 599, 606, 642, 658 Zanaboni, S., 671, 682 Zandbergen, J., 641, 645, 657, 659 Zaoui, D., 41, 76 Zapata, P., 55, 56, 81 Zavala, D. C., 403, 418 Zawadski, D. K., 298, 299, 343 Zbou, D., 12, 36 Zechman, F. W., 107, 129, 273, 285, 457, 465, 624, 631 Zerhooni, E. A., 431, 436 Zetterquist, S., 647, 659 Zhang, J. X., 331, 363 Zhang, R., 210, 216, 243 Zhang, S., 183, 199 Zhang, Y., 367, 368, 374 Zhou, D., 183, 191, 199 Zibrak, J. D., 535, 548, 674, 684 Zimmerman, J. C., 371, 376 Zimmerman, L., 315, 356 Zin, W. A., 272, 285 Zintel, T., 445, 449, 461, 462 Zintel, T. A., 451, 463 Ziskind, M., 442, 443, 446, 447, 460 Zoghbi, H. Y., 305, 306, 349 Zohar, Y., 401, 417 Zonta, S., 397, 416 Zorick, F., 410, 422 Zorick, F. J., 372, 373, 376, 401, 417 Zuberi, N., 569, 579 ZuberiKhokhar, N., 405, 419, 565, 578 Zucconi, M., 374, 378, 397, 416, 538, 540, 550 Zuckerman, M., 99, 103 Zumoff, B., 593, 604 Zuntz, N., 151, 152, 161 Zuperku, E. J., 553, 573 Zurob, A. S., 505, 516 ZuWallack, R. L., 672, 682 Zwillich, C., 402, 418, 532, 547, 565, 578 Zwillich, C. W., 64, 84, 165, 187, 195, 200, 210, 214, 219, 220, 222, 243, 245, 246, 268, 269, 283, 305, 313, 319, 348, 355, 386, 400, 403, 406, 410, 413, 417, 419, 420, 422, 428, 430, 435, 436, 535, 538, 549, 582, 583, 584, 586, 590, 592, 595, 597, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 677, 685 Zwillich, W., 385, 4134
Page 755
SUBJECT INDEX A A (Slope of ventilationPO2 hyperbola), 263, 266 Acid maltase deficiency, 521, 534 Aerial respiration, 20 Afferent information, 290 Afferent mechanism, 9395 arising from chest wall, 94 Afferent mismatch, 117 Afferent reflexes, 552553 sympathetic afferent fibers, 553 vagal afferent fibers, 553 Air hunger, 623 Airway occlusion pressure (see P0.1 response and Occlusion pressure) Amphibia, 1825 Anticholinergic agent, 668 Apnea central, 232, 309, 394, 396 expiratory, 231 mixed, 232 obstructive, 232, 328, 374 Apnea/hypopnea index (AHI), 381 Aspiration reflex, 188 Asthma, nearfatal, 123 Autoresuscitation, 24 B B (Position of hypercapnic ventilatory response), 260 Behavioral control system, 51 and respiratory sensation, 9597 Behavioral effects on respiratory tests, 279280 Benzodiazepine, 127 adrenergic agonist, 668 Boetzinger complex, 11, 29 Borg scale, 108, 154, 275 Brain stem preparation in vitro, 20 Breathholding, 115, 622624 Breathlessness (see also Dyspnea) behavioral, 277 Bronchial asthma, 123, 321322 Bronchoconstriction, 113 C C (PO2 at infinite ventilation), 266 Cigarette smoke, 424 Capsaicin, 553 CO2 controller line, 258 CO2 rebreathing, 258, 259 Cardiac performance, 370 Cardiopulmonary insufficiency, 156157
Page 756
Carotid body, 293, 368 dual function, 7274 resection, uni and bilateral, 42, 51 restoration after, 5557 tachycardia after, 5861 lack of biphasic HVD, 7274 role in cardiovascular activities, 5864 Caudal ventral group, 29 Central apnea, 203240 Central neuronal elements, 2530 Central neuronal processing and integration, 290 Central pattern generator (CPG), 35 Central respiratory drive, 471472 in neuromuscular disease during sleep, 538540 Cerebral infarct, bilateral, 121 Cfibers, 93, 112, 113, 114, 123, 453, 553 receptors (juxtacapillary receptors), 151, 556 Chemoreceptors central, 427 and dyspnea, 109 peripheral, 4243, 427 denervation, 5758 Chemosensitive regions, within brain stem, 44 Chemosensitivity to carbon dioxide, 4251 central, 20, 4451 in hypocapnic range, 47 localized acid secretion, 7071 loss during sleep, 4951 heterogeneity within brain stem, 45 hypoxic, 5175 Chest strapping, 124 Chest wall vibration, 9697 CheyneStokes respiration (see also Periodic breathing), 203, 216217, 404, 564, 568 Circulation time, 569 Codeine, 127 Cognitive function, 373 Command neuron expiratory, 6 giant dopamine neuron, 6 inspiratory, 6 Computed tomography (CT), 337 Conditioned reflex, 151 Conditioning, 122 Congestive heart failure, 405 Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS), 49, 119, 302, 303, 305, 472 Compensatory actions of control system in COPD, 426428 Control of breathing (Control of respiration) in acute ventilatory failure, 471489 assessment, 522 adult, 271272 children, 335338 influence of muscle weakness, 522 interpreting results, 523 clinical disorders in children, 294335 achondroplasia, 326 acute bilateral vocal cord paralysis, 309311 apnea of prematurity, 328330 apparent lifethreatening event, 332334 asthma, 321322 behavioralawake dysfunction, 295301 brainstem malformation or compression, 308312 breathholding spells, 296, 299301 severe, 311 bronchopulmonary dysplasia, 323324 central apnea, 309 central nervous system dysfunction, 301313 central neurogenic hyperventilation, 312 central neurophysiological aspects, 292293 cerebral palsy, 334
Page 757
[Control of breathing (Control of respiration)] Chiari malformation, 308311 congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS), 302305, 472 congenital cyanotic disease, 335 congenital myopathies, 320, 521 cystic fibrosis, 322323 depressant drugs, opiates, anesthesia, 334335 developmental aspects, 291294 Duchenne's muscular dystrophy (DMD), 318 expiratory apnea, 301 familial dysautonomia, 316317 GuillainBarré syndrome, 316 habit cough, 297298 hyperventilation syndrome, 296297 hypothalamic and endocrine dysfunction, 305 hypoventilation and sleep apnea, 309 interstitial lung disease, 325326 Joubert's syndrome, 311312 kyphoscoliosis, 320321 Leigh encephalomyelopathy, 306307 miscellaneous respiratory control disorders, 326335 Moebius syndrome, 312 muscle core disease, 320 myasthenia gravis, 317318 myopathies and muscular dystrophies, 318320 myotonic dystrophy, 319320 neurometabolic and genetic disorders, 302308 obesity hypoventilation syndrome, 327 obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, 328 peripheral nervous system dysfunction, 313320 [Control of breathing (Control of respiration)] peripheral sensory aspects, 293294 poliomyelitis, 314315 PraderWilli syndrome, 307308 psychogenic disorders, 296299 reflexive disorders, 299301 restrictive lung disease, 324325 Rett syndrome, 305306 spinal cord injury, 314 spinal muscular atrophy, 315316 sudden infant death syndrome, 330331 thoracic cage, pulmonary parenchyma, airway disease, 320326 trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), 326327 vocal cord dysfunction, 298299 during exercise in the elderly, 370371 in the elderly, 367369 general precautions for studying, 268 in hyperventilation syndrome (see Hyperventilation) in interstitial lung disease, 446459 instability, 205217 mechanical loading, 272273 in metabolic disorders, 581600 acromegaly, 589 diabetes, 588589 gender, 590 hyperthyroidism and thyrotoxicosis, 582584 hypothyroidism and myxedema, 584588 menstrual cycle, 590 obesity, 593599 obesity hypoventilation, 327, 595599 pregnancy, 590591 progesterone, 592 sex hormones, 589593 simple obesity, 594595 testosterone, 592593 thyroid disease, 581588
Page 758
[Control of breathing (Control of respiration)] methods evaluating, 257279 chemical control of breathing, 257272 hypercapnic ventilatory response, 257261 hypoxic ventilatory response, 261268 isocapnic progressive hypoxia method, 261266 transient O2 test, 266268 in neuromuscular disease, 525535 bilateral diaphragm paralysis, 527529 Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 318, 520, 529, 538 motor neuron disease, 527 myotonic dystrophy (Steinert's dystrophy), 531534 noninvasive mechanical ventilation, 542543 poliomyelitis, 527 sensation and breathing pattern, 529531 during sleep, 535541 spinal cord disease, 526527 treatment, 541543 ventilatory loading, 542 in obesity (see Control of breathing in metabolic disorders) physiological factors affecting, 268271 arterial blood gas values, acidbase homeostasis, 270 body size, age, gender, 268269 consciousness, mental activity, 270 drugs, 271 ethnicity, hereditary factors, 269270 genetic control, 598 hormonal effects, 270271 smoking, 270 respiratory muscle weakness and fatigue, 476484 breathing pattern, 477, 483 central fatigue, 479 [Control of breathing (Control of respiration)] hightolow ratio, 480 maximum relation rate (MRR), 480 peripheral fatigue, 479 P0.1 response to CO2' 479 rapid, shallowbreathing, 483, 667 tensiontime index (TTI), 483 twitch interpolation technique, 480 ventilatory response to CO2' 479 weaning from mechanical ventilation, 476 theoretical framework, 521522 ventilatory demand or load, 484489 breathing pattern, 488 chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), 484 intrinsic positive endexpiratory pressure (PEEPi), 488 load compensation, 486 ventilatory and P0.1 responses to CO2' 484, 486 during sleep (see Sleep and Sleepdisordered breathing) system operation, 432433 Controller, 205 Corollary discharge, 95, 115, 116 D Damping effect, 569 Denervation, peripheral chemoreceptor, 5758 Desensitization, 128 Diaphragm paralysis, bilateral, 519520 Dihydrocodein, 128 Diurnal rhythms, in arterial blood gas values, 252 Diving reflex, 175 Dog leg response, 47 Dorsal respiratory group (DRG), 29 Dual control, arterial blood gases, 259 Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 318, 520, 529, 538 Duty cycle (TI/TTOT), 255 Dynamic airway compression, 126
Page 759
Dyspnea, 105129 in bronchial asthma, 123 chemoreceptors, 109 in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 124125, 429, 432 in congestive heart failure, 562 cold air, 112 desensitization, 672 difficult breathing, 95 evaluation, 273277 facial receptors, 111 and hypercapnia, 110, 125126 and hypoxia, 110 in interstitial lung disease, 123124 and leg effort, 154 lengthtension inappropriateness, 117 in lung (and heart) transplantation, 623624 measurement, 106109 mechanism, 109 mechanoreceptors, 111115 in chest walls, 114115 in lungs, 112114 in upper airways, 111112 oxygen therapy, 675 in patients, 122128 perceived, 154 personality and psychological factors, 276277 after pulmonary rehabilitation, 672 respiratory sensation and, 273277 and sense of effort, 124 treatment, 127128 vagal afferent, 114 E Emotion and breathing, 99100 Esophageal pressure, 145146 Eupnea, 2 Eupneic motor output, 15 Exercise, 137162 anaerobic threshold in congestive heart failure, 560 bronchospasm, 297 capacity in COPD, 429 [Exercise] control of breathing, 149153 flow, 147148 flow, volume, and pattern, 147149 historical background of control of breathing, 149 hemeostatic control, 150 hyperventilation, 153 in lung (and heart) transplantation, 624627 phosphate, 152 potassium, 152 pulmonary gas exchange, 142 sensory aspects, 154155 task, 139 testing, 152153, 449 volume, 148149 F Fictive breathing, 17, 18, 20 Flywheel phenomenon, 643 Freund's adjuvant, 452 G Gain (see Plant gain) Gamma ( ) loop, 9495 Gasping, 24 and eupnea, 1115 type breathing, 15 Gill ventilation, 24 Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, 298 Glucose, 140 H Halfcenter model, 4 Heartlung transplantation, 151 Hockey stick response, 47 H+ ion, into deeper medullary layers, 44 Hypercapnia, 110, 429431 Hypercapnic ventilatory response (see Ventilatory response to hypercapnia and Chemosensitivity to carbon dioxide) Hyperventilation, 633655
Page 760
[Hyperventilation] caffeine, 644 chemical drive, 641 control of breathing, 641646 definitions, 633634 diagnosis, 647651 epidemiology, 635 epinephrine, 644 during exercise, 153 history, 634635 hyperventilation syndrome, 296297, 633634 hypocapnia, 633 hypoxic, delayed, in humans, dogs, and cats, 5758 Nijmegen questionnaire, 649 signs and symptoms, 636641 cardiovascular, 638639 cerebral, 638 gastrointestinal, 639 general, 639 neuromuscular, 637638 psychological, 639641 respiratory, 637 therapy, 652654 abdominaltype breathing, 652 adrenergic blockers, 653 breathing retraining, 652 high thoracicbreathing pattern, 652 relaxation, 653 voluntary hyperventilation, 645 Hypnosis, 122 Hypocapnia, 214215, 447 Hypoxia, 110 as dyspnogenic stimuli, 111 Hypoxic depression, central, 236 Hypoxic ventilatory response (see Ventilatory response to hypoxia and Chemosensitivity to hypoxia) I. Inductive plethysmograph, 254 Inhibitory memory, 204 Instability in control congestive heart failure and CheyneStokes breathing, 216217 factors, inducing, 205209 hypocapnia, 214215 hypoxiainduced periodic breathing, 209211 peripheral and central mechanisms, 232240 inhibitory memory effect, 239240 shortterm potentiation (STP), 234239 upper airways, 232234 peripheral versus central chemoresponsiveness, 211214 during sleep, 219222 Integrative model, 138139 Interneurons, 6 Irritant receptors (rapidly adapting receptors), 93, 112, 113, 114, 427, 453 J J receptor (juxtacapillary receptor), 151, 556 K Koelliker fuse nucleus (KFN), 13, 29, 30 L Labored breathing, 95 Lactic acid generation, 141, 151 Least noticeable load, 273 Leg effort, 154 Lengthtension inappropriateness, 117 Limbgirdle dystrophy, 534 Limbic and hypothalamic projections, 296 Lockedin syndrome, 51 Load compensation, 429431, 472 Lungheart transplantation breathholding, 622624 chemoresponsiveness, 617621
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[Lungheart transplantation] cough, 610 dyspnea (breathlessness), 623624 exercise, 624627 HeringBreuer reflex, 610, 612 hypercapnic ventilatory response, 618620 hypoxic ventilatory response, 620621 load detection, 624 lower airway obstruction, 616617 lung inflation reflex, 611 lung volume, 622623 obliterative bronchiolitis, 625 perception of breathing, 622624 reinnervation, 610 resting lung volume, 612614 restrictive ventilatory pattern, 614616 sleepdisordered breathing, 617 wakefulness and sleep, 614617 Lymnaea stagnalis, 5 M McArdle's syndrome, 561 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 336, 337 Magnitude scaling, 107109, 274 psychophysical law, 107 Maximal static inspiratory pressure (MIP), 445 Mechanical loading, 368, 454, 457459 Mechanical ventilation, 489507 after discharge, 495 behavioral factors, 506507 chemoreceptors feedback, 497501 mechanoreceptor feedback, 501507 flowrelated feedback, 505 reflexmediated feedback, 502506 volumerelated feedback, 503505 memory phenomenon, 495 patient inspiratory effort, 495496 respiratory center output, 492495 response to changes in PaCO2' 498501 [Mechanical ventilation] response to changes in PaO2' 497498 response to ventilator, 496507 Mechanoreceptors, 111115 in chest walls, 114115 facial receptors, 111 HeringBreuer inflation reflex, 112, 114, 151, 494, 610, 612 in lungs, 112114 rapidly adapting receptors (irritant receptors), 112, 114 slowly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors, 112 in upper airways, 111112 Medulla rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM), 47 ventral intermediate area, 4547 M, L, and S areas, 4445 retrotrapezoid nucleus, 4547 Metabolic control system, 51 depression, 70 Metabolic demand, 139143 Metabolic hyperbola, 258 Mitochondrial myopathy, 534 Monosodium trichloroethyl phosphate (Trycloryl), 49 Morphine, 128 Motor command, 96 Motor cortex, functional localization in, 9293 Motor neuron disease, 519 Motor output, 2530 Motor pathways, 9093 descending pathways, 90 for voluntary and involuntary breathing, 90 Muscle fatigue in COPD, 432 highfrequency fatigue, 143 in hypercapnia, 673 lowfrequency fatigue, 143 in respiratory insufficiency, 667 Muscle spindle, 9495
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Muscle tone, 536537 Muscle weakness, 537, 666, 667 Myasthenia gravis, 317318, 520, 535 Myopathy, congenital, 320, 521 Myositis, chronic, 535 Myotonic dystrophy, 319320, 520521, 540 N Negative feedback system, 289 Nemaline myopathy, 535 Nerve disruption, 473475 Neural afterdischarge, 236 Neural control system, central, 140 Neuronal system, 3 depression, 70 Neuromodulators (see also Neurotransmitters), 3334 Neuromuscular failure, 291 Neurotransmitters (see also Ventilatory depression), 3334 acetylcholine, 403 adenosine, 151 bicuculine, 33 endorphins, 293 aminobutyric acid (GABA), 33, 292 glutamate, 292 glycine, 33 strychinine, 33 Nitric oxide, 403 Nocturnal nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP), 571, 598 Noninvasive positivepressure ventilation (NIPPV), 542 Nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep (see Sleep) NonNmethylDaspartate (NMDA), 11 Nuclear bag fibers, 94 Nuclear chain fibers, 94 Nucleus ambiguus, 29 Nucleus parabrachialis medialis (NPBM), 13, 29, 30 Nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), 29, 45 O Obesity, 307 Occlusion pressure (see also P0.1 response and Respiratory output), 447, 455, 529 Oculocutaneous syndrome, 535 Ondine's curse, 49, 151, 526 Ontological considerations, 1518 Opioids (see also Morphine), 127 Oscillations, compensating, 228, 229, 230 Oxygen cost of breathing, 147 P Palmitate, 140 Panic disorders, 645 Pattern of breathing effect on respiratory sensation, 120121 instability, 381389 cardiovascular, 387388 cardiovascular modulation, 388389 change in FRC, 385386 delays in stimulusresponse, 388 destabilizing influence, 383388 hypocapnia, 383 hypoxia, 385 metabolic rate, 385 poststimulus potentiation, 389 stabilizing influence, 388389 upper airway instability, 386 wakefulness drive, 388 Periodic breathing (see also Respiratory pattern generation and Control of breathing, instability), 203240, 386, 388, 389, 396, 564566 hypoxiainduced, 209211, 231 Personality and breathing, 99100 Phenothiazine, 127 Pickwickian syndrome, 593 Plant, 205 Plant gain (gain), 207, 567, 568, 644 frequency response, 208
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[Plant gain (gain)] loop gain, 208 response time, 208 steadystate gain, 208 Plaque rupture, 404 Pneumotaxic center, 30 Poliomyelitis, 519 Polysomnography, 278279, 401 Poor perceivers, 123 Positron emission tomography (PET), 93 Posthyperventilation hypocapnea, 383 Postsynaptic inhibition, 33 Postsynaptic potentials, 26 inhibitory (IPSPs), 26, 30, 31 excitatory (EPSPs), 32 Posture and breathing, 9799 P0.1 response (see also Occlusion pressure and Respiratory output), 125, 255, 472, 492, 529 PreBoetzinger complex, 11, 12, 18, 29 Pressuretime index (PTI), 667 Pseudorandom binary stimulation, 369 Pulmonary chemoreflex, 553 Pulmonary mechanics in congestive heart failure, 552 in the elderly, 368 in interstitial lung disease, 442443 Pursedlip breathing, 126127 Q Quadriplegia, 473 breathing pattern in, 474 driving pressure, 475 Quadrupedal locomotion, 20 R Reaction theory, 44 Reflexes from pulmonary vasculature, 554557 mixed venous CO2 receptor, 554 pulmonary blood flow, 554555 pulmonary vascular transmural pressure, 555557 Reinforcing oscillations, 228, 230 REM sleep (see Sleep) REM sleep latency, 371 Reptiles, 1825 Resistance, external, 113 Respiratory control in interstitial lung disease, 446459 animal models, 452454 chest wall restriction, 454457 clinical studies, 446452 external elastic loading, 457459 internal elastic loading, 454 Respiratory effort, 115116 Respiratory insufficiency, 155156, 661677 causes, 662667 CO2 retention, 665 central respiratory control abnormalities, 662663 chest wall disorders, 664 intrinsic PEEP, 665, 666 lung diseases, 664667 neuromuscular disorders, 663664 central fatigue, 667 high/low EMG ratio, 667 management, 667677 acetazolamide, 677 almitrine bismesylate, 677 bronchodilators, 668 doxapram, 676 general exercise training, 671672 hightension, lowrepetition activity, 669 intermittent noninvasive positivepressure assistance, 674 lowtension, highrepetition training, 669 mechanical ventilatory support, 673675 nutritional support, 672 oxygen therapy, 675676 peripheral muscle weakness, 671 progesterone, 676 respiratory muscle conditioning, 669 theophylline, 669 threshold pressure training, 670 ventilatory impedance, 668
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[Respiratory insufficiency] rapid, shallow breathing, 666 respiratory control system, 662 respiratory muscle fatigue, 667 respiratory muscle weakness, 666, 667 Respiratory muscle coordination, 146147 in COPD, 427 in exercise, 143 fatigue in COPD, 432 fatigue in hypercapnia, 673 fatigue in respiratory insufficiency, 667 forces opposing contraction, 144145 in interstitial lung disease, 444446 power output, 146 Respiratory neurons augmenting expiratory, 26, 31 augmenting inspiratory, 26, 31 bulbar, 29, 30 common types, 26 crosscorrelation in detecting, 30 early inspiratory, 29 extracellular recordings, 26 late inspiratory, 29, 31 postinspiratory, 26 postsynaptic potentials in detecting, 30 preinspiratory, 29 spiketriggered average in detecting, 30 Respiratory output measurement, 252257 arterial blood gas values, 252 diaphragmatic electromyography, 256257 high/low frequency (H/L) ratio, 256 minute ventilation, 254 occlusion pressure (P0.1), 255256 respiratory pattern, 254255 respiratory pressure, 255256 thoracic and abdominal respiratory movements, 254 transdiaphragmatic pressure, 256 [Respiratory output] ventilation, 254 Respiratory pattern generation and hypercapnia in COPD, 431432 in interstitial lung disease, 443444 and periodic breathing, 227231 breathing patterns during periodic ventilation, 227228 dynamic interactions, 228231 inspiratoryexpiratory switching, 231 Respiratory rhythm, 15, 290 generation as emerging network behavior, 59 by pacemaker neurons, 911 rhythmic neuromuscular controller, 20 Respiratory sensation, 9597, 129 effect of breathing pattern, 120121 effect on breathing, 121122 interplay with respiratory pattern, 120122 and respiratory control, 118120 Respiratory system function effect of COPD, 425 Restrictive ventilatory defect, 537538 Rostral pons, 29, 291 Rostral pontine group, 29 S. S (Slope of ventilationPCO2 line), 260 Sense of effort, 124, 126 Shortterm potentiation (afterdischarge), 369 Sleep in congestive heart failure, 563572 periodic breathing, 565566 therapeutic modalities, 570572 ventilatory instability, 566570 fragmentation, 400 nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, 368, 565, 566 rapideye movement (REM) sleep, 386, 565 Sleep apnea syndrome (SAS), 400405 automobile accidents, 401
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[Sleep apnea syndrome (SAS)] central, 404405, 565 hypoventilation, 309 obstructive, 232, 400404, 565 cardiovascular consequences, 402403 diagnosis and evaluation, 400401 neuropsychiatric consequences, 401402 myocardial infarction and stroke, 404 pulmonary hypertension, 403404 systemic hypertension, 402403 screening, 277279 sleepiness, 401 sympathetic nerve activity, 402, 403 vigilance, 401 Sleepdisordered breathing (SDB) diagnosis, 277279 in the elderly, 372374 epidemiology, 380381 in lung (and heart) transplantation, 617 pharmacological therapy, 406 acetazolamide, 406 fluoxetine, 407 medroxyprogesterone, 406 serotonin, 407 supplemental CO2' 406 tricyclic antidepressants, 407 Ltryptophan, 407 treatment, 405412 alcohol, 405 benzodiazepines, 405 current smoking, 406 electrical stimulation of pharyngeal dilators, 407408 lateral decubitus position, 406 management, 411 modification of risk factors, 405406 nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nasal CPAP), 409411 oral appliances, 409, 411 recommendations for driving, 411412 [Sleepdisordered breathing (SDB)] supine position, 406 supplemental oxygen, 407 surgery, 408409 tracheostomy, 408 twophased surgical protocol, 408 uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP), 408, 411 weight loss, 405 Sleeping state, 396 Sleep quality in the elderly, 371372 Sleepwake state and respiratory stability, 217227 dynamic fluctuations, 222227 loss of wakefulness stimulus, 218219 sleepinduced changes, 217218 ventilatory instability during sleep, 219222 Slice preparation, 18 Sneeze, 175 Snoring, 381, 396399 Spinal cord injury, 518519 Steroid myopathy, 445 Stevens' law, 108, 274 Stretch receptors, 114, 427 Stroke, 374 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 293, 294, 304, 330331 Supplemental oxygen, 407, 448 Sustained hypoxia, 396 Swallowing reflex, 188 System delay, 205 T Tachypnea, 616 Tadpole, 2024 Tension time index (TTdi), 144, 562 Tetraplegia, 526 Three compartment model, 142 Three phase respiratory cycle, 2425 Threshold discrimination, 106107 justnoticeable difference, 107 Transdiaphragmatic pressure, maximal (Pdi, MAX), 445 Transplantation, heartlung, 151
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U Upper airways biomechanical properties, 164169 anatomy, 165 compliance, 165167 pressureflow dynamics, 167169 determinants for patency, 389396 airway closure during central apnea, 392393 anatomy, 389392 obstructive apnea and hypopnea, implications, 393396 fat deposition, 389 high upper airway resistance syndromes, 396400, 409, 411 esophageal pressure, 398, 400 snoring, 396397 larynx, 188194 anatomy, 188194 laryngeal musculature, 189192 laryngeal reflexes, 192194 nose, 169176 anatomy, 169171 nasal dilator muscles, 173175 nasal mucosal volume, 171173 nasal patency, 171175 nasal reflexes, 175176 pharynx, 176188 anatomy, 176178 genioglossus muscles, 182186 hyoid bone position, 186188 musculatures, 178188 palatal muscles, 178181 pharyngeal constrictors, 181182 pharyngeal reflexes, 188 resistance, 538 ventilatory drive on, 394 V at infinite PO2), 266 Vagal afferent as a cause of dyspnea, 114 pulmonary, 9394 Vagal block, 113 Velopharyngeal narrowing, 393 Ventilation in COPD, 428429 in exercise, 142 Ventilationperfusion mismatch, 370 Ventilatory decline biphasic, 64, 6667 roleoff phenomenon, 64 Ventilatory depression biphasic, 6669 brain blood flow in, 6768 during ambient air, 7172 during mild hypoxia, 6475 hypoxic ventilatory response, 267 neuromodulators (see also Neurotransmitters), 6869 neurotransmitters (see also Neurotransmitters), 6869 adenosine, 68 dopamine, 69 GABA, 68 lactic acid, 69 opioids, 68 somatostatin, 69 physiological and pathophysiological significance, 7475 tissue hypoxia, 6768 Ventilatory efficiency, 155 Ventilatory facilitation, 267 Ventilatory failure, acute, 471 Ventilatory overshoot, 215 Ventilatory response to exercise in congestive heart failure, 557563 central circulatory hemodynamics, 558 lactate production, 560562 muscle function in congestive heart failure, 562563 peripheral O2 utilization, 560562 respiratory gas exchange, 558560 to hypercapnia, 257261, 447, 644 in lung transplanted patients, 618620 rebreathing method, 259261 to hypoxia
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[Ventilatory response] in lung transplanted patients, 620621 progressive, 5155, 261268 transient, 5155 Ventilatory variability in aging, 369370 Ventilorespiratory insufficiency, 156 Ventral respiratory group (VRG), 29 Vibration, chest walls, 94, 96, 115 Visual analog scale (VAS), 108, 275 Vocal cord paralysis, acute, 309 Volitional act, 138 W Wakefulness stimulus, 388, 498, 499 Weber's law, 107