Cosmology and New Testament Theology (Library of New Testament Studies 355)

LIBRARY OF N E W TESTAMENT STUDIES 355 formerly the Journal for the Study of the N e w Testament Supplement series Ed...

Author: Jonathan T. Pennington | Sean M. McDonough

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LIBRARY OF N E W TESTAMENT STUDIES

355 formerly the Journal for the Study of the N e w Testament Supplement series

Editor Mark Goodacre

Editorial

Board

John M. G. Barclay, Craig Blomberg, Kathleen E. Corley, R. Alan Culpepper, James D. G. Dunn, Craig A. Evans, Stephen Fowl, Robert Fowler, Simon J. Gathercole, John S. Kloppenborg, Michael Labahn, Robert Wall, Steve Walton, Robert L. Webb, Catrin H. Williams

COSMOLOGY A N D NEW TESTAMENT THEOLOGY

EDITED BY

JONATHAN T. PENNINGTON AND SEAN M. MCDONOUGH

t&t dark

Copyright © Jonathan T. Pennington, Sean M. McDonough and contributors, 2008

Published by T&T Clark International A Continuum imprint The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX 80 Maiden Lane, Suite 704, New York, NY 10038 www.tandtclark.com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN-10: 0-567-03143-8 (hardback) ISBN-13: 978-0-567-03143-3 (hardback)

Typeset by CA Typesetting Ltd, www.sheffieldtypesetting.com Printed on acid-free paper in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd, King's Lynn, Norfolk

T h e e d i t o r s w o u l d like t o d e d i c a t e t h i s v o l u m e t o t h e i r w i v e s w i t h affectionate gratitude for their l o v e , support, a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t . Sine qua non. Tracy Diane Pennington

Ariana M . H. McDonough

CONTENTS

List o f C o n t r i b u t o r s INTRODUCTION

ix 1

Sean M. McDonough and Jonathan T. Pennington 1.

G R A E C O - R O M A N A N D A N C I E N T JEWISH COSMOLOGY

5

Edward Adams 2.

HEAVEN, EARTH, A N D A N E W GENESIS: THEOLOGICAL C O S M O L O G Y IN M A T T H E W

28

Jonathan T. Pennington 3.

TEARING THE HEAVENS A N D SHAKING THE HEAVENLIES: M A R K ' S C O S M O L O G Y IN ITS A P O C A L Y P T I C C O N T E X T

45

M i c h a e l F. B i r d 4.

' T H E HEAVENS OPENED': COSMOLOGICAL A N D THEOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION IN L U K E A N D A C T S

60

Steve W a l t o n 5.

LIGHT OF THE W O R L D : COSMOLOGY A N D THE JOHANNINE LITERATURE

74

E d w a r d W . K l i n k III 6.

P A U L ' S C O S M O L O G Y : T H E W I T N E S S OF R O M A N S , 1 A N D 2 CORINTHIANS, A N D GALATIANS

90

Joel W h i t e 7.

REORIENTED TO THE C O S M O S : COSMOLOGY & THEOLOGY IN E P H E S I A N S T H R O U G H P H I L E M O N

107

R o b e r t L. F o s t e r 8.

T H E C O S M O L O G Y OF H E B R E W S

125

Jon Laansma 9.

G O D A N D ' T H E W O R L D ' : C O S M O L O G Y A N D T H E O L O G Y IN T H E LETTER OF JAMES

Darian Lockett

144

viii

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

1 0 . C O S M O L O G Y IN T H E P E T R I N E L I T E R A T U R E A N D J U D E

157

John Dennis 1 1 . REVELATION: T H E CLIMAX OF COSMOLOGY

178

Sean M. McDonough 12. CONCLUSION

189

Sean M . M c D o n o u g h and Jonathan T. Pennington

Index of Ancient Sources Index of Names

193 210

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

J o n a t h a n T. P e n n i n g t o n ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f St A n d r e w s ) is A s s i s t a n t P r o fessor o f N e w T e s t a m e n t Interpretation at S o u t h e r n S e m i n a r y in L o u i s v i l l e , Kentucky. S e a n M . M c D o n o u g h ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f St A n d r e w s ) is A s s o c i a t e Professor o f N e w T e s t a m e n t at G o r d o n - C o n w e l l T h e o l o g i c a l Seminary, S o u t h H a m i l t o n , Massachusetts. E d w a r d A d a m s ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f G l a s g o w ) is L e c t u r e r in N e w T e s t a m e n t Studies at K i n g ' s C o l l e g e L o n d o n , L o n d o n , E n g l a n d . M i c h a e l B i r d ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f Q u e e n s l a n d ) is Tutor in N e w T e s t a m e n t at H i g h l a n d T h e o l o g i c a l C o l l e g e , D i n g w a l l , Scotland. J o h n D e n n i s ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f L e u v e n ) is L e c t u r e r in N e w T e s t a m e n t at International Christian College, Glasgow, Scotland. R o b e r t F o s t e r ( P h D , S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t University, D a l l a s , Texas) is Adjunct A s s o c i a t e Professor o f O l d T e s t a m e n t ( P e r k i n s S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g y ) a n d R e l i g i o n at S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t University. E d w a r d W. K l i n k III ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f St A n d r e w s ) is A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f N e w T e s t a m e n t at Talbot S c h o o l of T h e o l o g y , B i o l a University, L a M i r a d a , California. J o n L a a n s m a ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f A b e r d e e n ) is A s s o c i a t e Professor o f A n c i e n t L a n g u a g e s a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t at W h e a t o n C o l l e g e , W h e a t o n , Illinois. D a r i a n R. L o c k e t t ( P h D , U n i v e r s i t y o f St A n d r e w s ) is A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f N e w T e s t a m e n t at Talbot S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g y , B i o l a University, L a M i r a d a , California. S t e v e W a l t o n ( P h D , Sheffield U n i v e r s i t y ) is S e n i o r L e c t u r e r in G r e e k a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t Studies at L o n d o n S c h o o l o f T h e o l o g y , N o r t h w o o d , E n g l a n d .

X

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

J o e l W h i t e ( P h D , D o r t m u n d U n i v e r s i t y ) is L e c t u r e r in N e w Testament, F r e i e Theologische Akademie, Giessen, Germany.

INTRODUCTION

S e a n M . M c D o n o u g h a n d J o n a t h a n T. P e n n i n g t o n

C o s m o l o g y is easily d i s r e g a r d e d in t h e m o d e r n w o r l d . Pictures o f the m o o n s of Saturn are q u i c k l y t o s s e d aside t o m a k e r o o m for pictures o f t h e stars o f H o l l y w o o d ; t h e lights o f t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l b l o t out t h e n i g h t sky for a g o o d portion o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n in t h e West. N o t s o for t h e ancients. W h e t h e r it w a s the p h i l o s o p h e r c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e perfection o f t h e h e a v e n l y orbits, t h e farmer searching t h e sky for signs o f w h e n to p l a n t his c r o p s , or t h e d e s e r t - d w e l l i n g sectarian l o o k i n g for t h e e n d o f t h e w o r l d , t h e c o s m o s h e l d an e n d l e s s fascina tion. It is ironic that w h i l e scientific k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e u n i v e r s e h a s e x p o n e n tially w a x e d o v e r t h e last t w o m i l l e n n i a , p o p u l a r interest h a s w a n e d . In light o f t h i s , it is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g that t h e s t u d y o f c o s m o l o g y h a s b e e n r e l a t i v e l y u n d e r - s e r v e d in N e w T e s t a m e n t s t u d i e s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e m a n y valuable specialty studies on bits and pieces of N T cosmology available, and r e c e n t y e a r s h a v e s e e n s o m e i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c a t i o n s , t h e r e is still a n e e d for an o v e r a r c h i n g p e r s p e c t i v e o n this c r u c i a l b a c k d r o p t o t h e w o r l d o f t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s . T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y is a n a t t e m p t t o b e g i n t o a d d r e s s t h i s l a c u n a in t h e field. I n it, w e w i l l a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y o r i e n t a t i o n t o a n c i e n t c o s m o l o g y in g e n e r a l , a n d t h e n a d d r e s s specific q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r e s e n c e a n d function o f c o s m o l o g y in t h e m a j o r a r e a s o f t h e N T c a n o n . It is h o p e d t h a t this w i l l o p e n u p a n o n g o i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n o n this a s p e c t o f N T theology.

Ancient

Roots

A fascination w i t h ( a n d fear of) t h e h e a v e n s g o e s d e e p into h u m a n history. I n the A n c i e n t N e a r East, t h e stars w e r e universally r e g a r d e d as d i v i n e b e i n g s , a n d 'astral m y t h o l o g y ' is p e r v a s i v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e literature o f E g y p t a n d M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e B a b y l o n i a n s in particular m a d e m e t i c u l o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s o f the h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , a n d t h e interplay o f their scientific calculations a n d their religious beliefs r e m a i n s a fascinating a r e a o f inquiry. O f particular interest w a s the w i d e s p r e a d a s s u m p t i o n that terrestrial e v e n t s w e r e o v e r s e e n , m a n i p u l a t e d , or e v e n c o m p l e t e l y c o n t r o l l e d b y celestial forces (see, e.g., t h e h e a v e n l y t e m p l e o f M a r d u k as t h e p r o t o t y p e for the earthly B a b y l o n i a n t e m p l e ) . T h e v e r y fact that t h e h e a v e n s w e r e t h e e p i t o m e o f p r e d i c t a b l e , o r d e r e d m o v e m e n t m a d e

Cosmology

2

and New Testament

Theology

d i s t u r b a n c e s in that o r d e r - c o m e t s , falling stars, t h e u n e v e n m o v e m e n t s o f t h e planets (the 'wanderers') - deeply troubling. N o r d i d interest in t h e h e a v e n s d i m i n i s h w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e distinctively G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l a p p r o a c h . T h e stars r e m a i n e d t h e s t a n d a r d o f perfect order, a n d if t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f v a r i o u s h e a v e n l y b o d i e s b e c a m e less p r o n o u n c e d , t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d n o less, a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e , d i v i n e for all that. A s t r o n o m i cal o b s e r v a t i o n c o n t i n u e d a n d p r o d u c e d m a n y quite r e m a r k a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s . Astrology, w h i c h h a d d o u b t l e s s a l w a y s b e e n p r e s e n t in s o m e form, t o o k o n a greater p r o m i n e n c e in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c period, d r a w i n g u p o n b o t h a n c i e n t astral religiosity a n d scientific (or pseudo-scientific) observation.

Biblical

Resonance

The biblical texts are very m u c h a part of this world. In the H e b r e w Bible, motifs d r a w n from astral m y t h o l o g y a r e a l m o s t certainly p r e s e n t in p l a c e s like Isaiah 14 a n d E z e k i e l 2 8 , e v e n if t h e y h a v e b e e n substantially r e w o r k e d in t h e light o f t h e I s r a e l i t e s ' d i s t i n c t i v e r e l i g i o u s history. T h e w o r s h i p o f h e a v e n l y b o d i e s w a s r e g u l a r l y c o n d e m n e d , s h o w i n g t h a t it w a s c o n s i d e r e d a c l e a r a n d p r e s e n t d a n g e r b y t h e biblical a u t h o r s . Yet t h e foundational text o f G e n . 1.14 left r o o m for a p o s i t i v e e n g a g e m e n t w i t h a n c i e n t a s t r o n o m y , w h i c h c o u l d o f c o u r s e b l e e d easily into m o r e a s t r o l o g i c a l speculations. ( W h a t d o w e m a k e , for example, of the brontologia and horoscopes within the hyper-orthodox commu nity at Q u m r a n ? ) T h e s u p r e m a c y o f Y H W H , m e a n w h i l e , c o u l d b e effectively d e m o n s t r a t e d b y n o t i n g that h e is t h e c r e a t o r o f h e a v e n a n d earth, t h e o n e w h o calls t h e stars b y n a m e , t h e L o r d o f t h e h e a v e n l y h o s t A n c i e n t c o s m o l o g y is e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t for correctly situating t h e texts o f the N T . P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e 'spiritual forces o f w i c k e d n e s s ' h a v e rightly b e e n seen a g a i n s t t h e b a c k d r o p o f c o s m i c battles o f g o o d a n d evil, w h i l e his m e n t i o n o f ' a s c e n d i n g to h e a v e n ' m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n s o m e c o n c e p t u a l framework

o f t h e u n i v e r s e . T h e s a m e g o e s for t h e d e s c e n t / a s c e n t m o t i f s in t h e

g o s p e l s , a n d J o h n in particular. N T a p o c a l y p t i c p a i n t s its p i c t u r e o f t h e past, p r e s e n t a n d future o n a c o s m i c c a n v a s , y e t c o s m o l o g i c a l investigations of, for e x a m p l e , t h e b o o k o f R e v e l a t i o n h a v e b e e n d e e p l y flawed a n d t h e r e is m u c h yet to b e said. A l l u s i v e r e f e r e n c e s t o J e s u s a s t h e a g e n t o f creation, w i t h their e c h o e s o f P r o v e r b s 8 a n d G e n e s i s 1, a r e i n e x p l i c a b l e apart from s o m e u n d e r standing of ancient conceptions of the creation and ordering of the cosmos. A s u r v e y o f this m a t e r i a l is s o r e l y n e e d e d . O n e further refinement in t h e p r e s e n t study, h o w e v e r , is t h e attention d e v o t e d to t h e status

of cosmological

s t a t e m e n t s in t h e N T . F o r m a n y y e a r s , o n e w o u l d i m a g i n e that t h e H o l y Grail o f biblical c o s m o l o g y w a s t h e p r e c i s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e n u m b e r o f ' l a y e r s ' or ' t i e r s ' o f t h e c o s m o s , w i t h d e b a t e s r a g i n g b e t w e e n t w o , t h r e e , four, s e v e n , n i n e , or m o r e o f s u c h layers. W h i l e this is a legitimate a r e a o f inquiry, it h a s distracted attention from other, p e r h a p s m o r e p r e s s i n g , c o n c e r n s a b o u t b i b l i -

Introduction

3

cal v i e w s o f t h e u n i v e r s e . M o r e o v e r , m a n y o f t h e studies s e e m t o p r e s u p p o s e that t h e r e w a s a tacit, s h a r e d 'scientific' v i e w o n t h e s e m a t t e r s w h i c h m e t w i t h m o r e or less u n i v e r s a l a p p r o v a l in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . T h e biblical w r i t e r s t h e n reflect, o r in i g n o r a n c e d e v i a t e from, w h a t e v e r y o n e k n e w a b o u t t h e o r d e r o f t h e c o s m o s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e p u t a t i v e l y a l l - i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n o f h o w m a n y layers it had). B u t is this really t h e c a s e ? B o n a fide scientific o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e c o s m o s g o b a c k at least to t h e B a b y l o n i a n s , a n d P l a t o h a d g i v e n a fairly c o m p r e h e n s i v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e u n i v e r s e in h i s h i g h l y influential Timaeus.

But

e v e n in t h e latter c a s e , h e g o e s o u t o f h i s w a y t o state that this is o n l y h i s b e s t g u e s s a s t o w h a t is g o i n g o n , a n d that o n e o u g h t n o t to s u p p o s e it is a definitive statement at all. M o r e t o t h e point, n o n e o f t h e N T s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e c o s m o s h a s a n y t h i n g r e m o t e l y like t h e flavour o f scientific i n q u i r y a b o u t it. R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g illegitimate or distorted v e r s i o n s o f a s u p p o s e d a n c i e n t scientific c o n s e n sus, N T c o s m o l o g y s e e m s t o h a v e a n entirely different function. Could the N T writers, while gravitating towards a 'three-tiered' view of the h e a v e n s , n o t h a v e c o u n t e n a n c e d alternative s c h e m a for ' l e v e l s ' o f t h e c o s m o s , with t h e full a w a r e n e s s that t h e s e w e r e n o t m e a n t t o b e definitive a c c o u n t s o f w h a t is scientifically t h e c a s e , b u t r a t h e r w e r e e m p l o y e d b e c a u s e t h e y s e r v e d useful literary o r theological p u r p o s e s ? I f this is t h e c a s e , t h e n t h e s e a r c h for o n e definitive m o d e l o f t h e c o s m o s is d o o m e d from t h e start. Rather, w e o u g h t to r e c o g n i z e t h e latitude p e o p l e in t h e first c e n t u r y h a d to e m p l o y different m o d e l s a c c o r d i n g t o their t h e o l o g i c a l n e e d s . T h i s d o e s n o t m a r k t h e e n d o f t h e inquiry into N T c o s m o l o g y , b u t t h e p r o p e r b e g i n n i n g . D o e s t h e ' t h r e e h e a v e n s ' s c h e m e , for i n s t a n c e , refer to t h e r e g i o n s b e l o w t h e m o o n , a b o v e t h e m o o n , a n d a b o v e t h e s u n - or m i g h t it b e a tri-partite d i v i s i o n o f t h e n i g h t sky, w i t h t h e M i l k y W a y at t h e a p e x , w i t h t h e o t h e r t w o r e g i o n s d r o p p i n g into t h e n o r t h a n d south? T h e s e a r e q u e s t i o n s w e l l w o r t h a s k i n g , p r o v i d e d w e also a s k w h y P a u l m i g h t h a v e u s e d this p a r t i c u l a r s c h e m a at this p o i n t in h i s Epistle. L i k e w i s e , o n e c a n e x p l o r e t h e u s e o f huperouranos, c o m p a r e it w i t h P l a t o ' s self-consciously the soul in t h e Phaedrus.

'the above heaven', and fictionalized

fruitfully

depiction of the ascent of

W h a t w e a r e loath t o d o is t o pit t h e v a r i o u s allusions

to celestial m a t t e r s in a k i n d o f gladiatorial c o m b a t , w i t h o n e m o d e l e m e r g i n g victorious a b o v e t h e rest.

The Present

Volume

W h a t e v e r differences m a y exist b e t w e e n a n c i e n t s a n d m o d e r n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e u n i v e r s e , t h e r e is a n a g r e e m e n t that t h e c o s m o s is a large p l a c e . Yet it h a s o c c u p i e d a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p l a c e in f o r m a l N T study. T h e following e s s a y s h o p e to b e g i n to redress t h e b a l a n c e . I n o r d e r t o e n s u r e that n o p o t e n t i a l l y r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l is o v e r l o o k e d , w e h a v e a d o p t e d a s u r v e y format, r a n g i n g t h r o u g h t h e c a n o n b o o k b y b o o k (or w h e r e n e c e s s a r y section b y section,

Cosmology

4

and New Testament

Theology

as in t h e P a u l i n e c o r p u s ) . O n e m i g h t easily w r i t e a m o n o g r a p h o n selected aspects of, for e x a m p l e , t h e c o s m o l o g y o f 2 Peter. It is h o p e d that t h e b r o a d strokes o f t h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e w i l l facilitate this t y p e o f detailed investigation in t h e future. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , w e h o p e t o m a k e a m a t e r i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e field b y a consistent e m p h a s i s o n t h e theological d i m e n s i o n s o f N T c o s m o l o g y . E v e n w i t h i n this limited s p h e r e , t h e r e is a m p l e r o o m for d i s a g r e e m e n t , a n d w e will w e l c o m e alternative e x p l a n a t i o n s o f h o w t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e w o r l d a r o u n d t h e m ; ' i n a m u l t i t u d e o f c o u n s e l l o r s t h e r e is s a f e t y ' ( P r o v . 11.14). O u r collection b e g i n s w i t h E d d i e A d a m s ' erudite o v e r v i e w o f a n c i e n t c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d c o s m o g o n i c a l p o s i t i o n s . F o l l o w i n g this, o u r v a r i o u s essayists systematically w o r k their w a y t h r o u g h t h e N T c a n o n , a s k i n g t h e s i m p l e q u e s tion: W h a t c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e a n d c o n c e p t s d o e s this a u t h o r e m p l o y , a n d h o w d o e s this c o s m o l o g y i n f o r m a n d affect t h e a u t h o r ' s t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t ( s ) ? W e h a v e intentionally g i v e n m u c h latitude to t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s , n o t requir i n g a set structure o r p a t t e r n for t h e e s s a y s . A s a result, t h e e s s a y s follow the expertise a n d interest o f t h e s c h o l a r s a n d t o u c h o n a w i d e v a r i e t y o f theological topics in t h e N T . Yet, e v e n m o r e t h a n w a s anticipated at t h e outset, t h e r e are several consistent a n d crucial t h e m e s that b u b b l e to t h e t o p in a l m o s t e v e r y treatment. T h e s e i n c l u d e t h e foundational duality o f h e a v e n a n d earth, t h e w a y in w h i c h c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e serves to form Christian identity, c o m m u n i t y a n d w o r l d view, a n d t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t h o p e o f t h e e s c h a t o n , itself inevitably d e s c r i b e d in c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s . A l l o f t h e studies confirm o u r initial i m p r e s sion: t h e N T a u t h o r s r e g u l a r l y e m p l o y c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e ( m o r e t h a n h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d in t h e p a s t ) a n d w h e n t h e y d o so it is a l w a y s for t h e p u r p o s e o f m a k i n g i m p o r t a n t theological, p o l e m i c a l a n d exhortational p o i n t s . Weltbild a n d Weltanschauung

a r e inextricably a n d substantially intertwined.

F o r their a s s i s t a n c e in p r e p a r i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t , t h e a u t h o r s w o u l d like t o thank: Stefan M c B r i d e , J a m e s D a r l a c k , C a m e r o n M o r a n a n d Elisa D o n n e l l y ; a n d from C o n t i n u u m , D o m i n i c M a t t o s , J o a n n a K r a m e r , Patricia H a r d c a s t l e a n d David Sanders.

1 G R A E C O - R O M A N A N D ANCIENT JEWISH COSMOLOGY

Edward Adams

C o s m o l o g y s e e k s t o e x p l a i n t h e origin, structure a n d d e s t i n y o f t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . C o s m o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s o c c u p i e d major thinkers o f G r e e k a n d R o m a n antiquity. Q u e s t i o n s w h i c h h a v e e x e r c i s e d c o s m o l o g i s t s in m o d e r n t i m e s w e r e 1

r e h e a r s e d l o n g a g o b y t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e . Is t h e c o s m o s static or d e v e l o p i n g ? If t h e u n i v e r s e h a d a b e g i n n i n g (in t i m e ) , h o w d i d it e m e r g e ? W h a t is its size a n d c o m p o s i t i o n ? Is it finite o r b o u n d l e s s ? H o w is m a t t e r d i s tributed in t h e u n i v e r s e ? D o e s t h e u n i v e r s e s h o w signs o f intelligent d e s i g n ? O r is o u r w o r l d t h e p r o d u c t o f c h a n c e e v e n t s ? W h a t will b e t h e u l t i m a t e fate o f t h e u n i v e r s e ? R e c e n t l y p r o p o s e d m o d e l s o f t h e e m e r g e n c e , e v o l u t i o n a n d future o f t h e c o s m o s h a v e their p r e c e d e n t s in a n c i e n t theories. T h e cyclic, e k p y r o t i c theory o f scientists P a u l Steinhardt a n d N e i l Turok, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e u n i v e r s e e x p e r i e n c e s a n e n d l e s s series o f c o s m i c eras b e g i n n i n g w i t h a ' b i g 2

b a n g ' a n d e n d i n g in a ' b i g c r u n c h ' , is a c o n t e m p o r a r y r e v i v a l o f t h e Stoic v i e w o f c o s m i c c y c l e s . T h e cyclic c o s m o l o g y a d v a n c e d b y physicists L a u r i s B a u m a n d P a u l F r a m p t o n , w h i c h h a s it that o u r u n i v e r s e will shatter into s m i t h e r e e n s in a n e v e n t called t h e ' b i g r i p ' , w i t h e a c h s h a r d g o i n g into t h e formation o f n e w 3

u n i v e r s e s , h a s a p r e c u r s o r in t h e ancient A t o m i c t h e o r y o f the g e n e r a t i o n a n d destruction o f u n i v e r s e s . T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t c o n t a i n s m a t e r i a l o f a c o s m o l o g i c a l n a t u r e , t h o u g h it lacks a 'scientific' c o s m o l o g y o f t h e k i n d d e v e l o p e d , from t h e sixth c e n t u r y BCE o n w a r d in a n c i e n t G r e e c e . O l d T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s a r e n o t r e a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in c o s m o l o g y for its o w n s a k e ; o n e m i g h t s a y that t h e k i n d o f c o s m o l o g i c a l reflec tion w e find in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is m o r e theological c o s m o l o g y . S o m e other early J e w i s h w r i t e r s , t h o u g h , d o i n d u l g e in a m o r e speculative ( a n d m y s t i c a l ) style o f c o s m o l o g y . C o s m o l o g i c a l interest is especially e v i d e n t in t h e J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c literature.

1. See M. R Wright, Cosmology in Antiquity (London: Routledge, 1995). 2. R J. Steinhardt and N. Turok, 'Cosmic Evolution in a Cyclic Universe', Physical Review (web-based journal) D65 126003 2002. 3. L. Baum and R Frampton, 'Turnaround in Cyclic Cosmology', Physical Review Letters (web-based journal) 98.071301 (16 Feb 2007).

6

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

T h i s e s s a y is a s u r v e y o f G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d a n c i e n t J e w i s h c o s m o l o g y , setting t h e s c e n e for t h e c h a p t e r s that follow o n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . T h e first a n d l o n g e r p a r t d e a l s w i t h G r a e c o - R o m a n v i e w s ; t h e s e c o n d l o o k s at t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d early J e w i s h material.

1. Graeco-Roman

Cosmology

Scientific study o f the fabric o f the universe b e g a n in G r e e c e in the sixth century BCE, w i t h t h e w o r k o f t h e Ionian, or M i l e s i a n , natural p h i l o s o p h e r s ; b u t t h e r e w a s b y this t i m e a l o n g tradition o f a s t r o n o m i c a l interest a n d i d e a s a b o u t t h e structure o f t h e u n i v e r s e in M e s o p o t a m i a (especially B a b y l o n i a ) a n d E g y p t , a n d some important astronomical discoveries had already been made. For example, from a r o u n d t h e thirteenth c e n t u r y BCE, t h e E g y p t i a n s h a d identified t h e five p l a n e t s visible to t h e n a k e d e y e ( M e r c u r y , V e n u s , M a r s , Jupiter a n d Saturn) a n d 4

o v e r forty stellar constellations, i n c l u d i n g t h e signs o f t h e Z o d i a c . T h e r e w e r e also in circulation v a r i o u s p o p u l a r m y t h i c a l a c c o u n t s o f h o w t h e w o r l d c a m e t o b e . H e s i o d ' s Theogony

( o n w h i c h see b e l o w ) is to s o m e extent a synthesis o f

(competing) archaic cosmogonical myths. G r e e k cosmological enquiry, from the sixth century BCE o n w a r d s , w a s b a s e d o n the recognition that the external universe is a well-ordered s y s t e m a n d t h e conviction that this order is o p e n to rational analysis a n d explanation. It w a s t h e strong sense that the early G r e e k philosophers h a d o f the w o r l d ' s orderliness that p r o m p t e d t h e application o f the w o r d kosmos

(KOO|JOS),

w h i c h h a d the p r i m a r y

sense o f ' o r d e r ' , to the physical universe. In early G r e e k u s a g e , the t e r m w a s u s e d with reference to specific types o f social orderings, such as t h e seating order o f r o w e r s ( H o m e r , Od. 13.77), the order o f soldiers (Homer, 77. 12.225) a n d w e l l ordered political states such as Sparta ( H e r o d o t u s 1.65). It w a s also u s e d for order 5

in a general sense (Herodotus 2.52; 9.59). A c c o r d i n g to Charles K a h n , the t e r m w a s applied to the c o s m i c order ' b y conscious analogy w i t h the g o o d order o f 6

s o c i e t y ' . Initially, kosmos w a s e m p l o y e d for the order exhibited b y the universe, a n d then, b y extension, it c a m e to designate the universe itself as a well-ordered 7

s y s t e m . O n e ancient tradition ( D i o g e n e s Laertius 8.48) accords P y t h a g o r a s the distinction o f b e i n g the first to call t h e universe b y the n a m e o f kosmos,

but w e

cannot b e certain that h e w a s responsible for this semantic m o v e . B y the time o f Plato in t h e fourth century BCE, kosmos w a s w e l l established as a technical t e r m

4. Wright, Cosmology, p. 15. 5. These earlier non-cosmological senses did not fall into disuse after the cosmological usage took off, but carried on alongside it. 6. C. H. Kahn, Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), p. 223. 7. See further E. Adams, Constructing the World: A Study in Paul's Cosmological Language (SNTW; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000), pp. 44-6; Kahn, Anaximander, pp. 219-30; G. Vlastos, Plato's Universe (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), pp. 3-22.

1.

Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

7

8

for the u n i v e r s e ( w h i c h w a s also designated b y t h e expressions, ' t h e w h o l e ' , TO

bAov, ' t h e a l l ' ,

T O TTCCV,

'all t h i n g s ' ,

TTCCVTO:,

a n d ' h e a v e n ' , oupccvos). T h e

ancient G r e e k s s a w b e a u t y in order. In addition to its various senses relating to order, the w o r d kosmos

h a d the aesthetic senses ' d e c o r a t i o n ' a n d ' a d o r n m e n t '

(especially the a d o r n m e n t o f w o m e n , e.g., H o m e r , 77. 14.187; H e r o d o t u s 5.92). W h e n applied to the physical world, therefore, kosmos

9

n o t only c o n v e y e d the

idea o f a well-arranged structure, it indicated that t h e orderliness displayed in the universe w a s a ' b e a u t y - e n h a n c i n g o r d e r ' .

10

T h e early G r e e k natural philosophers

o f antiquity w e r e profoundly a w a r e that w e live in an 'elegant u n i v e r s e ' .

11

T h e earliest p i c t u r e o f t h e c o s m o s w e e n c o u n t e r in G r e e k literature is that a s s u m e d in t h e e p i c p o e m s o f H o m e r , t h e Iliad a n d t h e Odyssey.

T h e e a r t h is

v i e w e d a s a circular, flat disc s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e g r e a t r i v e r O c e a n (77. 1 8 . 6 0 7 ; cf. H e r o d o t u s 4 . 8 ) , a n d t h e s k y as a b o w l - l i k e h e m i s p h e r e o f b r o n z e o r i r o n (77. 5 . 5 0 4 ; 1 7 . 4 2 5 ; Od. 1 5 . 3 2 9 ) , c o v e r i n g t h e flat earth. B e l o w its surface, t h e e a r t h e x t e n d s d o w n w a r d s as far as Tartarus (77. 8.14). A n a x i m a n d e r , in t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y BCE, p i c t u r e d t h e e a r t h a s c y l i n d r i c a l in s h a p e , like a c o l u m n d r u m , h a n g i n g w i t h o u t s u p p o r t in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a i r .

12

In t h e fourth c e n t u r y

BCE, w i t h P l a t o , E u d o x u s a n d e s p e c i a l l y A r i s t o t l e , t h e ' c l a s s i c a l ' v i e w o f t h e c o s m o s t o o k s h a p e ; this v i e w w a s g i v e n its definitive e x p r e s s i o n b y P t o l e m y in his Almagest

( m e a n i n g ' t h e G r e a t e s t ' ) w r i t t e n in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y CE. A c c o r d

ing to t h e Aristotelian c o s m i c m o d e l , t h e earth lies at t h e centre o f t h e c o s m o s , surrounded by a n u m b e r of concentric, rotating spheres, to which the sun, m o o n a n d p l a n e t s are a t t a c h e d (see further b e l o w ) . T h e o u t e r m o s t s p h e r e o f t h e c o s m i c s y s t e m is that o f t h e fixed stars. T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e structure o f t h e u n i v e r s e , in its P t o l e m a i c form, p r e v a i l e d until C o p e r n i c u s in the sixteenth century. A h e l i o c e n t r i c p i c t u r e o f t h e c o s m o s w a s p r o p o s e d b y A r i s t a r c h u s o f S a m o s ( b . c. 3 2 0 BCE), b u t this w a s a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y r e j e c t e d .

13

A s u r v e y o f G r e e k a n d Hellenistic c o s m o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h the p o e t H e s i o d , w h o lived a r o u n d 7 0 0 BCE. H e s i o d b r i d g e s t h e m y t h o l o g i z i n g o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s a n d t h e rationalizing o f his p h i l o s o p h i c a l s u c c e s s o r s . 1.1.

Hesiod

H e s i o d ' s Theogony

(Birth of the Gods) is a g e n e a l o g y o f t h e g o d s o f G r e e c e ,

i n t e r w o v e n w i t h e p i s o d e s in t h e tale o f the s u c c e s s i o n o f d i v i n e k i n g s . T h e 8. Plato, Phileb. 29e; Polit. 269d; cf. Xenophon, Mem. 1.1.11. 9. It is from kosmos in the sense of 'adornment* that we get the English words 'cosmetic', 'cosmetics', 'cosmetician'. 10. Vlastos,Plato's Universe, p. 3. Cf. Plato, Tim. 30a. 11. B. Greene, The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (London: Jonathan Cape, 1999). 12. G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts (2nd edn; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), texts nos. 122-4, pp. 133-4. 13. Wright, Cosmology, pp. 153-6.

Cosmology

8

and New Testament

Theology

p o e m , w r i t t e n in t h e E p i c style, is set forth as a s o n g t a u g h t to H e s i o d b y t h e M u s e s w h e n t h e y a p p e a r e d to h i m o n M o u n t H e l i k o n (Theog.

1-32), w h i c h

g i v e s it t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a k i n d o f d i v i n e revelation. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n is p a r t l y a n a t t e m p t t o c o m b i n e v a r i o u s l o n g s t a n d i n g m y t h s a b o u t t h e g o d s into a c o m m o n narrative. It t r a c e s t h e history o f t h e g o d s from t h e b e g i n n i n g t o t h e established a n d u n c o n t e s t e d r e i g n o f Z e u s . T h e first g o d s are personifications o f t h e m a i n c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e c o s m o s , s o their a p p e a r a n c e constitutes t h e f o r m a t i o n o f the p h y s i c a l w o r l d . First c a m e C h a o s . After C h a o s c a m e Earth, Tartarus a n d E r o s . C h a o s t h e n p r o d u c e d E r e b o s ( d a r k p l a c e ) a n d N i g h t (night). F r o m t h e m c a m e A i t h e r (brightness) a n d H e m e r a ( d a y ) . E a r t h b r o u g h t forth O u r a n o s ( h e a v e n ) , m o u n t a i n s a n d sea. A striking feature o f this c o s m o g o n y is the p r i m a c y o f C h a o s . W h a t H e s i o d m e a n t b y ' C h a o s ' w a s t h e subject o f m u c h a n c i e n t d i s c u s s i o n a n d c o n t i n u e s to b e d e b a t e d . A n attractive ( t h o u g h n o t u n p r o b l e m a t i c ) s u g g e s t i o n is that it refers t o t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e s k y a n d earth, w h i c h w o u l d m a k e t h e first stage o f creation t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f w h a t w a s formerly o n e m a s s .

1 4

The idea of

t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f a n originally indistinct earth a n d s k y w a s a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d feature o f A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n ( A N E ) c o s m o g o n i e s .

15

T h e rest o f t h e g o d s in t h e g e n e a l o g y a r e m o s t l y a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c m y t h i c a l p e r s o n a g e s . T h e Titans, t h e y o u n g e s t o f w h o m is C r o n o s , t h e C y c l o p e s a n d t h e h u n d r e d - h a n d e d giants a r e t h e offspring o f E a r t h a n d O u r a n o s . T h e O l y m p i a n g o d s , t h e y o u n g e s t o f w h o m is Z e u s , a r e t h e children o f C r o n o s a n d his sister Rhea. T h e c l a s h b e t w e e n t h e T i t a n s a n d t h e O l y m p i a n s , a n d t h e later conflict b e t w e e n Z e u s a n d T y p h o e u s , t a k e s t h e w o r l d t o e d g e o f total collapse. H e s i o d e m p l o y s colourful i m a g e r y o f c o s m i c c a t a s t r o p h e to d e p i c t t h e battles o f t h e d i v i n i t i e s (Theog.

6 7 8 - 7 0 5 , 8 4 7 - 6 8 ) . W i t h all o p p o s i t i o n v a n q u i s h e d , Z e u s

secures t h e stable e x i s t e n c e o f t h e c o s m o s . H e s i o d s e e m s t o s u g g e s t that t h e earth is everlasting (Theog.

116-17). P h i l o ( o n w h o m see b e l o w ) r e g a r d s h i m

as t h e father o f t h e P l a t o n i c d o c t r i n e that t h e w o r l d is c r e a t e d a n d indestructible (Aet. Mund.

1.2. The

17).

Milesians

It w a s in t h e h a r b o u r c i t y a n d t r a d i n g c e n t r e o f M i l e t u s , in t h e r e g i o n o f I o n i a , d u r i n g t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y BCE, t h a t t h e first G r e e k a t t e m p t s t o g i v e a r a t i o n a l , non-mythological account of the structure of the cosmos were made. T h e pio n e e r i n g figures w e r e T h a l e s , A n a x i m a n d e r a n d A n a x i m e n e s .

1 6

These thinkers

m a i n t a i n e d that t h e u n i v e r s e o r i g i n a t e d from a single g e n e r a t i v e p r i n c i p l e o r arche.

T h e y e x p l a i n e d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e c o s m o s in b i o l o g i c a l t e r m s , a s

14. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, p. 39. 15. Ibid., pp. 4 3 ^ . 16. None of the writings of the Presocratic philosophers has survived. Their teachings are only known from fragments, reports and summaries.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

9

growth from a seed. T h e Milesians w e r e hylozoists: they believed that the c o s m o s is a n i m a t e . F o r T h a l e s , w h o m A r i s t o t l e identifies a s t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e arche t y p e o f c o s m o g o n y , t h e o r i g i n a t i n g p r i n c i p l e w a s w a t e r .

17

Thales also 1 8

s e e m s t o h a v e t a u g h t t h a t t h e e a r t h floats like a p i e c e o f a w o o d .

H e appar

e n t l y p r e d i c t e d t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a s o l a r e c l i p s e in t h e c o u r s e o f a p a r t i c u l a r 19

year, a n d h i s p r e d i c t i o n c a m e t r u e . H o w h e m a n a g e d t o d o s o is still d e b a t e d . A n a x i m a n d e r h e l d that t h e s e e d from w h i c h t h e u n i v e r s e g r e w w a s s e c r e t e d b y 20

a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e e n t i t y w h i c h h e c a l l e d ' t h e b o u n d l e s s ' (apeirori).

H e con

t e n d e d that t h e w o r l d ' s o r d e r is m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s .

21

T h e r e a r e r h y t h m i c a l shifts b e t w e e n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , h e a t a n d d r o u g h t , a n d o n t h e other, c o l d n e s s a n d r a i n , a s in t h e s e a s o n s o f s u m m e r a n d w i n t e r , b u t a n o v e r a l l e q u i l i b r i u m is m a i n t a i n e d b e c a u s e o f a c e r t a i n j u s t i c e in t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s that p r e v e n t s o n e o f t h e o p p o s i n g forces from g a i n i n g c o m p l e t e ascendancy.

22

A n a x i m e n e s , like T h a l e s , t o o k t h e arche o f t h e c o s m o s t o b e a

m a t e r i a l p r i n c i p l e , b u t h e identified t h e s u b s t a n c e a s air. H e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l e l e m e n t s c o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d a s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f air. T h u s air, b y r a r e f a c t i o n , c h a n g e s i n t o fire, a n d t h r o u g h c o n d e n s a t i o n c h a n g e s i n t o w a t e r and earth.

23

T h e M i l e s i a n s a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d that t h e c o s m o s w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y return to t h e p r i n c i p l e o u t o f w h i c h it a r o s e ; t h u s g e n e r a t i o n w o u l d b e m a t c h e d b y dissolution at t h e e n d o f its natural l i f e .

24

T h e r e is a tradition w h i c h states that

the M i l e s i a n s , o r A n a x i m a n d e r at least, h e l d to a cyclic v i e w o f c o s m i c history, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e c o s m o s is g e n e r a t e d , d i s s o l v e d a n d g e n e r a t e d a g a i n in endless cycles.

25

B u t w e c a n n o t b e sure that t h e I o n i a n s t h e m s e l v e s e s p o u s e d

such a scheme.

17. Aristotle, Met. 983b6. Aristotle, who is our only source of information on this point, presents Thales as teaching that all things were made of water and that water continues as the material substrate of all things. It is possible, though, that what Thales actually taught was that the earth emerged from water, and that he was simply reflecting the belief that the earth rose out of the primaeval ocean, found in ANE cosmogony and also in Homer (77. 14.201,246). But, on the other hand, Thales could well have transformed the mythological notion into a physical theory. Anaximenes, his successor, certainly believed that air was the actual material source and substrate of everything, and it is generally assumed that he was pursuing a line of reasoning instigated by Thales. See the discussion in Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, pp. 88-95. 18. Aristotle, de Caelo 294a28. 19. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, pp. 81-2. 20. text no. 101. 21. Ibid., text no. 110 (the extantfragmentof Anaximander). On the role of the opposites in the process of world-formation, see text nos. 118,119,121. 22. Ibid., pp. 119-20. 23. Ibid., pp. 144^8. 24. So Aristotle in Afef. 983b6. 25. Eusebius, Ev. Praep. 1.7.

Cosmology

10

1.3. Heraclitus,

and New Testament

Parmenides,

Empedocles

and

Theology

Anaxagoras

H e r a c l i t u s (c. 5 4 0 - 4 8 0 BCE) s p o k e o f t h e w o r l d - o r d e r as u n m a d e : 'it a l w a y s 26

w a s a n d is a n d shall b e : a n e v e r l i v i n g fire'.

H e c o n c e i v e d o f fire as t h e b a s i c

form o f m a t t e r , t h o u g h it w a s n o t a n o r i g i n a t i n g s u b s t a n c e a s w a t e r a n d air w e r e for T h a l e s a n d A n a x i m e n e s .

2 7

A l t h o u g h later Stoics a s c r i b e d t o h i m their

d o c t r i n e o f t h e p e r i o d i c d e s t r u c t i o n a n d r e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s b y fire, this fragment o f his t e a c h i n g s e e m s t o i n v a l i d a t e t h e attribution a n d r a t h e r indicates that h e t o o k t h e v i e w that t h e w o r l d h a d n e i t h e r b e g i n n i n g n o r e n d .

28

He was

thus a n early p r o p o n e n t o f t h e ' s t e a d y - s t a t e ' v i e w o f t h e u n i v e r s e . F i r e , w h i c h is the u n d e r l y i n g s u b s t r a t e , e a r t h a n d s e a a r e t h e three m a i n c o s m i c c o n s t i t u e n t s .

29

T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s e t h r e e m a s s e s a r e g o i n g o n all t h e t i m e , b u t in such a w a y to preserve the quantity o f each, and to maintain the stability of the w h o l e . H e r a c l i t u s s p o k e o f t h e logos ( X o y o s ) as t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i t y a n d 30

b a l a n c e . T h i s logos is a c c e s s i b l e t o all, t h o u g h t h e m a j o r i t y fail t o c o m p r e h e n d it. P a r m e n i d e s o f E l e a ( b o r a c. 5 1 4 ) is o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m p l e x a n d intrigu i n g P r e s o c r a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s . H i s c o s m o l o g i c a l v i e w s w e r e e x p r e s s e d in a p o e m t h a t h a s n o t b e e n p r e s e r v e d in its totality. T h e p o e m falls i n t o t w o p a r t s , c o m m o n l y l a b e l l e d , ' T h e W a y o f T r u t h ' a n d ' T h e W a y o f O p i n i o n ' . In t h e first, P a r m e n i d e s insists that o b j e c t i v e truth c a n n o t b e a r r i v e d at v i a s e n s o r y p e r c e p t i o n , s i n c e t h e s e n s e s c a n n o t b e trusted. R a t h e r , j u d g e m e n t s a b o u t w h a t is t r u e m u s t b e m a d e b y r e a s o n a l o n e . O n logical g r o u n d s , o n l y w h a t ' i s ' c a n be the proper subject of h u m a n thought and discourse; w h a t 'is n o t ' must b e excluded.

31

S i n c e w h a t ' i s ' is n o t subject t o c h a n g e , that w h i c h e x i s t s , i.e., t h e

u n i v e r s e , is c o n t i n u o u s a n d i n d i v i s i b l e , u n c r e a t e d a n d i m p e r i s h a b l e .

32

In t h e

s e c o n d p a r t , h o w e v e r , P a r m e n i d e s c o n s t r u c t s a c o s m o l o g y ( i n v o l v i n g t h e allp e r v a s i v e n e s s o f light a n d n i g h t ) p r e c i s e l y o n t h e b a s i s o f s e n s o r y o b s e r v a t i o n a n d t h e o p i n i o n o f m o r t a l s , t h e a p p r o a c h h e h a s j u s t rejected. H o w t h e s e t w o s e c t i o n s o f t h e p o e m a r e m e a n t t o r e l a t e t o e a c h o t h e r is n o t o r i o u s l y unclear. S u c c e e d i n g G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s g e n e r a l l y t o o k ' T h e W a y o f T r u t h ' as r e p r e s e n t i n g P a r m e n i d e s ' f u n d a m e n t a l p o s i t i o n . S i n c e his a r g u m e n t h e r e s t y m i e s empirical enquiry into the nature of the cosmos, subsequent natural philoso p h e r s w h o w a n t e d t o follow t h e e m p i r i c a l r o u t e h a d t o a n s w e r P a r m e n i d e s ' objection or circumvent it.

33

26. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, text no. 217 (= Heraclitus,fr.30). 27. Ibid., p. 198. 28. Kahn, Anaximander, pp. 225-6; J. V. Luce, An Introduction to Greek Philosophy (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992), p. 44. 29. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, text no. 218. 30. Ibid., pp. 186-8. 31. 76K/., text no. 291. 32. Ibid., pp. 249-53. 33. Luce, Introduction, pp. 54-5.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

11

E m p e d o c l e s m a i n t a i n e d that t h e c o s m o s d e r i v e s from t h e four e l e m e n t s or ' r o o t s ' a s h e called t h e m , earth, air, fire a n d w a t e r .

34

H e rejected P a r m e n i d e s '

d i s a l l o w a n c e o f t h e c o n c e p t o f c h a n g e , a n d s a w c h a n g e in t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d as influenced b y t h e o p p o s i n g forces o f ' l o v e ' (attraction) a n d ' s t r i f e ' ( r e p u l s i o n ) . F o l l o w i n g A r i s t o t l e ' s interpretation o f h i m (de Caelo

35

1.10), E m p e d o c l e s is

u s u a l l y s e e n a s p r o p o u n d i n g a cyclic c o s m o l o g y , a n d t h e r e l e v a n t e x t a n t

frag

m e n t s o f his w o r k h a v e b e e n r e a d in this light. O n a c o n v e n t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f E m p e d o c l e s ' c o s m o l o g y , t h e w o r l d alternates b e t w e e n t h e total a s c e n d a n c y of love and the complete domination of strife.

36

A t t h e h e i g h t o f l o v e , t h e ele

m e n t s a r e c o m p l e t e l y a m a l g a m a t e d , a n d t h e r e is n o distinction b e t w e e n earth, sea, etc. W h e n strife is d o m i n a n t , t h e e l e m e n t s a r e c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e . A w o r l d - a r r a n g e m e n t s u c h a s w e h a v e at p r e s e n t is p o s s i b l e d u r i n g t w o p h a s e s o f t h e c y c l e , w h e n l o v e is in p r o c e s s o f a s c e n d i n g , or w h e n strife is i n c r e a s ing. H o w e v e r , in r e c e n t y e a r s , s o m e E m p e d o c l e a n s c h o l a r s h a v e rejected t h e ' c o s m i c ' interpretation o f E m p e d o c l e s ' cycle, a r g u i n g that h e w a s r a t h e r talking a b o u t t h e r e g u l a r c y c l e s o f n a t u r e , w i t h i n a fixed a n d stable c o s m o s .

37

Certainly,

E m p e d o c l e s v i e w e d t h e w o r l d as h a v i n g a birth. A r e m a r k a b l e feature o f h i s t h e o r y o f origins is his a c c o u n t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a n i m a l a n d h u m a n life, w h i c h in a c r u d e w a y anticipates t h e D a r w i n i a n e x p l a n a t i o n .

38

A n a x a g o r a s (c. 500-^428) s h a r e d t h e v i e w o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s t h a t it is ' q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e that a n y t h i n g s h o u l d c o m e into b e i n g from t h e n o n - e x i s t e n t o r b e d i s s o l v e d into i t ' .

39

In h i s o p i n i o n , t h e c o s m o s is c o m p o s e d o f a n infinite n u m b e r

o f ' s e e d s ' o f v a r i o u s s u b s t a n c e s , e a c h o f w h i c h c o n t a i n s at t h e s a m e t i m e a tiny p o r t i o n of e v e r y o t h e r s u b s t a n c e .

40

Initially e x i s t i n g in a p r i m e v a l m i x t u r e ,

M i n d (nous) set in m o t i o n a p r o c e s s w h i c h s p r e a d a n d s e p a r a t e d t h e s e e d s , s u c h as h o t a n d cot, d r y a n d w e t , f o r m i n g t h e o r d e r e d u n i v e r s e that w e e x p e r i e n c e .

41

A n a x a g o r a s c o n c e i v e d o f M i n d as a q u a s i - a u t o n o m o u s , a l l - p e r v a d i n g force, b u t h e a v o i d s s u g g e s t i n g that it is g o d .

42

H i s successor, D i o g e n e s o f A p o l l o n i a

(fl. 4 4 0 - 3 0 BCE) identified t h e c o s m i c intelligence w i t h air, w h i c h following A n a x a m e n e s h e t o o k t o b e t h e m a t e r i a l s o u r c e o f all t h i n g s . D i o g e n e s t o o k t h e step o f calling t h e directing intelligence ' g o d ' .

4 3

34. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, text nos. 346-7. 35. Ibid., text no. 348 (= Empedocles fr. 17.1-13). 36. Luce, Introduction, pp. 63-4. 37. See D. J. Furley, The Greek Cosmologists. Volume 1: The Formation of the Atomic Theory and its Earliest Critics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 101-2. 38. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, pp. 302-5. 39. Ibid., text no. 496. 40. Ibid., pp. 365-8,376-8. 41. Ibid., pp. 362-5. 42. Wright, Cosmology, p. 171. 43. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, Presocratic Philosophers, text no. 603.

Cosmology

12

1.4.

and New Testament

Theology

TheAtomists

T h e A t o m i s t s , L e u c i p p u s a n d h i s y o u n g e r but m o r e w e l l - k n o w n c o n t e m p o r a r y D e m o c r i t u s , rejected t h e i d e a that t h e u n i v e r s e a r o s e from a single m a t e r i a l p r i n ciple, s u c h as w a t e r or air. In their v i e w , t h e c o s m o s is m a d e u p o f indestructible particles o f m a t t e r called a t o m s (atomon

m e a n i n g ' u n c u t t a b l e ' ) . T h e s e particles

are o f different sizes a n d s h a p e s b u t a r e s o tiny that they are b e l o w the threshold o f visibility. A t o m s are infinite in n u m b e r a n d m o v e r a n d o m l y in infinite s p a c e or v o i d .

44

T h e y collide, b o u n c e b a c k a n d interlock t o form a g g r e g a t e s that c a n

be seen and touched. The ordered cosmos came about w h e n a mass of atoms collected in a r e g i o n o f t h e v o i d . T h e i r collisions c a u s e d a v o r t e x or w h i r l w i n d a n d t h e a t o m s b e g a n a t t a c h i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o e a c h o t h e r t o form c o m p o u n d s . T h e h e a v i e r c o m p o u n d s collected at t h e centre t h u s f o r m i n g t h e earth. T h e lighter c o m p o u n d s , ignited b y t h e w h i r l i n g m o t i o n , f o r m e d t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e celestial b o d i e s .

45

T h i s w o r l d c a m e into b e i n g b y c h a n c e a n d necessity; there

w a s n o c o s m i c intelligence d i r e c t i n g t h e p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s . O u r c o s m o s is o n e o f m a n y kosmoi

in infinite s p a c e . L e u c i p p u s a n d D e m

ocritus m a i n t a i n e d that t h e r e a r e i n n u m e r a b l e w o r l d s , differing in size, s h a p e and constituency.

46

S o m e w o r l d s h a v e n o sun a n d m o o n , in others t h e celestial

l u m i n a r i e s a r e larger t h a n in o u r w o r l d , a n d in others t h e y a r e m o r e n u m e r o u s . Worlds a r e at v a r i o u s stages o f g r o w t h : s o m e a r e j u s t in p r o c e s s o f e m e r g i n g , s o m e a r e fully d e v e l o p e d , a n d s o m e a r e n e a r i n g their end. S i n c e all c o m p o u n d s are inherently destructible, o u r c o s m o s a n d all o t h e r w o r l d s will e v e n t u a l l y b e destroyed. L e u c i p p u s a n d D e m o c r i t u s b e l i e v e d that a c o s m o s is d e s t r o y e d w h e n it c l a s h e s w i t h a n o t h e r c o s m o s . T h e particles o f a shattered c o s m o s g o into t h e formation o f n e w w o r l d s .

1.5.

Plato

Plato d i s m i s s e d t h e A t o m i s t s ' v i e w that o u r c o s m o s is o n e o f a n infinite n u m b e r o f accidentally c a u s e d w o r l d s . H e insisted o n t h e singularity a n d u n i q u e n e s s o f o u r c o s m o s , a n d m a i n t a i n e d that t h e o r d e r m a n i f e s t e d in t h e c o s m o s w a s n o t there b y c h a n c e b u t h a s b e e n i m p o s e d u p o n it b y a d i v i n e intelligence. P l a t o set o u t h i s c o s m o l o g y in detail in h i s t r e a t i s e , t h e Timaeus,

which

b e c a m e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d influential c o s m o l o g i c a l w o r k in a n t i q u i t y .

47

In

this w r i t i n g , P l a t o d r a w s a distinction b e t w e e n t h e r e a l m o f b e i n g a n d the r e a l m o f b e c o m i n g . T h e former is t h e r e a l m o f i d e a s , w h i c h is eternal, u n c h a n g i n g a n d accessible t o r e a s o n ; t h e latter is t h e r e a l m o f s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n , t h e visible

44. Ibid., pp. 413-16. 45. Ibid., text no. 563. 46. Ibid., text no. 565. 47. See D. T. Runia, Philo ofAlexandria and the Timaeus of Plato (Philosophia Antiqua 44; Leiden: Brill, 1986), pp. 46-57. Runia states that (p. 57), 'the Timaeus was the only Greek prose work that up to the third century AD every educated man could be assumed to have read'.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

13

world. Plato tells h o w the visible c o s m o s w a s formed by a craftsman-deity - a d e m i u r g e - w h o s h a p e d t h e r a w m a t e r i a l at his disposal into a n o r d e r e d structure b a s e d o n t h e m o d e l o f t h e eternal f o r m s . T h e extent t o w h i c h P l a t o i n t e n d e d h i s r e a d e r s t o interpret t h e details o f t h e c r e a t i o n - s c h e m e literally h a s b e e n d e b a t e d . T h a t h e calls his a c c o u n t a ' l i k e l y s t o r y ' (Tim. 2 9 D ) tells against a straightforwardly literal interpretation. W h e t h e r h e m e a n t t o c o n v e y t h e t h o u g h t that t h e w o r l d h a d a n actual b e g i n n i n g i n t i m e h a s b e e n a particular m a t t e r o f controversy. Aristotle interpreted h i m literally o n this point, b u t P l a t o ' s s u c cessors in t h e A c a d e m y , from X e n o c r a t e s o n w a r d , m a i n t a i n e d that h e w a s n o t a s s i g n i n g a t e m p o r a l starting-point t o i t .

48

It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that P l a t o d o e s n o t a c c e n t u a t e t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e ideal r e a l m a n d t h e visible w o r l d . N o r d o e s h e e m p h a s i z e , in P a r m e n i d e a n fashion, t h e u n t r u s t w o r t h y n a t u r e o f t h e sense-perceptible: in fact h e c l a i m s that t h e faculties o f sight a n d h e a r i n g a r e gifts from h e a v e n (Jim.

46C-47D).

Certainly, t h e visible c o s m o s lacks t h e a b s o l u t e perfection o f t h e r e a l m o f b e i n g ( d u e t o a n e l e m e n t o f ' b r u t e fact' in it), b u t P l a t o stresses h o w closely rial c o s m o s r e s e m b l e s t h e ideal p a t t e r n .

49

the mate

T h e c o s m o s is d e s c r i b e d as ' b e a u t i

ful'; ' t h e fairest o f all that h a s c o m e into e x i s t e n c e ' ( 2 9 A ) ; ' m o s t fair a n d m o s t good' (30B). Plato tells u s that t h e c o s m o s h a s b e e n perfectly c o n s t r u c t e d ( 3 2 D - 3 3 B ) . A l l existing m a t t e r h a s b e e n u s e d in u p its p r o d u c t i o n ; n o t h i n g h a s b e e n left o u t s i d e . In its formation, t h e e l e m e n t s h a v e b e e n perfectly c o m b i n e d . T h e c o s m o s c a n n o t b e injured b y s o m e t h i n g external t o it, n o r c a n it b e u n d o n e b y internal dishar m o n y . T h e r e f o r e , it is n o t subject t o d e c a y a n d dissolution. O n l y t h e craftsman h i m s e l f c a n u n m a k e w h a t h e h a s created. B u t t h e d e m i u r g e is w h o l l y g o o d ( 3 0 A ) a n d c o u l d n e v e r e n g a g e in s u c h a n evil act a s t o d e s t r o y this c o n s u m m a t e a c h i e v e m e n t a n d w o r k o f art. T h e p h y s i c a l c o s m o s is t h u s everlasting a n d i n d e structible. It is a living creature ( 3 0 C D ) w i t h b o d y a n d soul ( 3 4 B ) . T h e w o r l d ' s b o d y consists o f t h e four e l e m e n t s ; t h e soul e x t e n d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o d y a n d a n i m a t e s it. ( P l a t o ' s w o r l d - s o u l b e c a m e a central feature o f M i d d l e P l a t o n i c c o s m o l o g y . ) A s r e g a r d s its structure, t h e c o s m o s is spherical in s h a p e ( 3 3 B ) , rotating o n its o w n axis, w i t h t h e earth at t h e c e n t r e ( 4 0 B - C ) . T h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s s e r v e to m a r k t i m e , w h i c h P l a t o calls t h e m o v i n g likeness o f eternity ( 3 7 D ) . T h e r e v o l u t i o n s o f t h e h e a v e n s also h a v e a n ethical function, m a n i f e s t i n g a c o s m i c o r d e r that h u m a n behjgs^ s h o u l d replicate in t h e m s e l v e s (47B-C).

50

T h e c o s m o s is s u c h an excellent structure o f m a t c h l e s s b e a u t y that

it m u s t b e r e g a r d e d as ' a p e r c e p t i b l e G o d m a d e in t h e i m a g e o f t h e I n t e l l i g i b l e ' ( 9 2 C ; cf. 3 4 B ; 6 8 E ) .

48. F. M. Cornford, Platos Cosmology: The Timaeus ofPlato (reprint of 1935 original; India napolis: Hackett, 1997), p. 26. 49. See C. J. de Vogel, 'Was Plato a Dualist?', Theta-Pi 1 (1972), 4-60. 50. Cf. Plato's Laws 897A-B.

14

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

After a p e r i o d o f relative n e g l e c t , there w a s a r e v i v a l o f P l a t o ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l t e a c h i n g in t h e first c e n t u r y BCE leading to t h e m o v e m e n t g e n e r a l l y k n o w n as Middle Platonism.

51

P h i l o a n d P l u t a r c h , M i d d l e Platonists o f t h e first c e n t u r y

CE, d e m o n s t r a t e a c l o s e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e Timaeus ( o n P h i l o , see b e l o w ) . 1.6.

Aristotle

Aristotle h a d m u c h to say a b o u t t h e structure a n d w o r k i n g s o f t h e p h y s i c a l c o s m o s in t h e c o u r s e o f h i s vast p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o j e c t .

52

A number of his works

are r e l e v a n t t o t h e t o p i c , b u t e s p e c i a l l y t h e treatise k n o w n a s De Caelo (On the Heavens). A r i s t o t l e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e c o s m o s is e t e r n a l , h a v i n g n e i t h e r b e g i n n i n g n o r e n d (De Caelo

1.10-12). T h e c o s m o s is s p h e r i c a l in f o r m , a n d l i m i t e d in

e x t e n t ( 1 . 5 - 7 ) . T h e r e is n o e m p t y s p a c e b e y o n d it n o r w i t h i n it. H e v i e w e d matter as extending continually throughout the universe leaving no gaps. At t h e c e n t r e is t h e e a r t h , w h i c h is e n c i r c l e d b y c o n c e n t r i c s p h e r e s t o w h i c h t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s a r e affixed. T h e o u t e r m o s t s p h e r e , e n c a s i n g t h e w h o l e , is t h e s p h e r e o f t h e fixed stars. T h e terrestrial s p h e r e is m a d e u p m a i n l y o f t h e e l e m e n t e a r t h , w h i c h h a s o n its s u r f a c e w a t e r , a n d is e n c l o s e d b y air, w h i c h is in t u r n e n v e l o p e d b y a s p h e r e o f fire. A r i s t o t l e d i d n o t , t h o u g h , t h i n k t h a t t h e e l e m e n t s w e r e c o m p l e t e l y d i s t i n c t ; h e a l l o w e d for t h e i r i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . A b o v e t h e l u n a r s p h e r e , m a t t e r is o f a different c h a r a c t e r . T h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s a n d t h e i r s p h e r e s a r e n o t c o m p o s e d o f a n y o f t h e four terrestrial e l e m e n t s , b u t a 'fifth e l e m e n t ' , a i t h e r ( 2 . 7 ) . A r i s t o t l e l i m i t e d c h a n g e to the sublunary sphere. F o r b o t h P l a t o a n d A r i s t o t l e , p e r f e c t m o t i o n w a s circular. H o w e v e r , t h e p l a n e t s (literally, t h e w a n d e r e r s ) d i d n o t a p p e a r to exhibit that m o t i o n c o n s i s tently. T h e y s e e m e d t o d e v i a t e o c c a s i o n a l l y from their r o t a t i o n s , t u r n i n g b a c k from their e a s t w a r d m o v e m e n t in relation to t h e constellation a n d m o v i n g w e s t w a r d for a w h i l e - a p h e n o m e n o n k n o w n a s retrogradation. E u d o x u s , a y o u n g e r c o n t e m p o r a r y o f P l a t o , offered a m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f p l a n e t a r y m o v e m e n t s that tried t o a c c o u n t for this p h e n o m e n o n . H e p r o p o s e d that t h e p a t h s o f t h e celestial b o d i e s w e r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e rotations o f c o n c e n t r i c s p h e r e s m o v i n g at different velocities a n d w i t h different a x e s , w i t h t h e earth a s t h e s h a r e d c e n t r e (Aristotle, Meta.

12.8.9-10). C a l l i p p u s t h e n modified E u d o x u s '

t h e o r y ( 1 2 . 8 . 1 1 ) . Aristotle m a d e h i s o w n a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e theory, p o s i t i n g the e x i s t e n c e o f n o less t h a n fifty-five rotating s p h e r e s ( 1 2 . 8 . 1 2 - 1 4 ) . W h e r e a s

51. On which see J. M. Dillon, The Middle Platonists: A Study of Platonism 80 B.C. to A.D. 220 (London: Duckworth, 1977). 52. On Aristotle's cosmology see L. Elders, Aristotle's Cosmology: A Commentary on the De Caelo (Philosophical Texts and Studies 13; Assen: Van Gorcum & Comp. N.V., 1965); F. Solmsen, Aristotle's System of the Physical World: A Comparison with his Predecessors (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1960).

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

15

for E u d o x u s a n d C a l l i p p u s , t h e s p h e r e s e x i s t e d o n l y o n a theoretical level, for Aristotle, t h e y w e r e actual c o r p o r e a l entities. Aristotle t h u s p r o d u c e d a n a c c o u n t o f t h e o r d e r e d u n i v e r s e as a m e c h a n i z e d s y s t e m . F o r Aristotle, t h e u n i v e r s e c o u l d n o t b e t h e c a u s e o f its o w n m o v e m e n t A p r i m e m o v e r w a s required, external t o t h e u n i v e r s e : ' s o m e t h i n g w h i c h m o v e s w i t h o u t b e i n g m o v e d ' (Met

12.7.2). Aristotle d i d n o t hesitate t o call t h e p r i m e

m o v e r ' g o d ' ( 1 2 . 7 . 7 - 9 ) , t h o u g h A r i s t o t l e ' s ' g o d ' is n o t the p e r s o n a l deity o f t h e O l d Testament. 1.7. Epicurus

and

Lucretius

E p i c u r u s ( 3 4 1 - 2 7 1 BCE) w a s t h e o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p h i l o s o p h e r s o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c e r a a n d f o u n d e r o f the influential E p i c u r e a n s c h o o l o f p h i l o s o p h y . H e w r o t e extensively, p r o d u c i n g a g r a n d ' t h e o r y o f e v e r y t h i n g ' , b u t m o s t o f h i s w o r k h a s n o t survived. T h r e e letters h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d b y D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s w h i c h p r o v i d e a s u m m a r y o f his t e a c h i n g .

53

E p i c u r u s a c c e p t e d t h e A t o m i s t s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e n a t u r e o f reality a n d t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e c o s m o s . O u r w o r l d , o n e o f a n infinite n u m b e r o f w o r l d s in infinite s p a c e , c a m e into e x i s t e n c e , n o t b y d i v i n e a g e n c y ,

54

but through the accidental

collision a n d c o m b i n a t i o n o f a t o m s in a n a r e a o f t h e void. It w i l l e v e n t u a l l y p e r i s h w h e n t h e c o m p o u n d b r e a k s u p a n d t h e a t o m s disperse. H e e x p l a i n e d t h e life o f a c o s m o s u s i n g a b i o l o g i c a l m o d e l .

55

A w o r l d g r o w s b y t a k i n g in

n o u r i s h m e n t . It a b s o r b s a t o m i c m a t t e i until it r e a c h e s t h e p e a k o f maturity. After g r o w t h , t h e r e is d e c l i n e , w h e n m o r e particles are e x u d e d t h a n t a k e n in, until e v e n t u a l l y t h e c o s m i c b o d y , n o l o n g e r a b l e to resist t h e e x t e r n a l forces b e a r i n g d o w n u p o n it, b e c o m e s s o w e a k that it c o l l a p s e s a n d disintegrates. L u c r e t i u s ( 9 9 - 5 5 BCE), a d e d i c a t e d E p i c u r e a n , g i v e s a n e x p o s i t i o n o f E p i c u r u s ' p h y s i c a l s y s t e m in h i s De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things);

this

is t h e fullest extant a c c o u n t o f E p i c u r e a n c o s m o l o g y . I n B o o k 5, h e attacks P l a t o n i c a n d Aristotelian belief in c o s m i c indestructibility. T h e w o r l d is a m o r t a l entity, t h e c o l l a p s e o f w h i c h is i n e v i t a b l e .

56

Its e n d m a y c o m e ' w i t h i n

s o m e short t i m e ' . H e also strikes at t h e belief that t h e c o s m o s h a s b e e n divinely o r d e r e d a n d m a d e for t h e benefit o f h u m a n b e i n g s . H e a r g u e s that t h e w o r l d is far t o o flawed to b e o f d i v i n e origin ( 5 . 1 9 5 - 2 3 4 ) . M o s t o f t h e e a r t h ' s surface is u n i n h a b i t a b l e , a n d o f w h a t is left, m u c h is w i l d a n d infertile. E x t r e m e s o f

53. Diogenes Laertius 10. Charred fragments of his work, On Nature, were discovered at Herculaneum. With technological advances, the text is gradually being recovered. 54. Epicurus believed in the existence of the gods but denied that they involve themselves in cosmic processes or human affairs. 55. See F. Solmsen, 'Epicurus on the Growth and Decline of the Cosmos', AJP 74 (1953), 34-51. 56. Lucretius (5.235-415) offers four arguments for the destruetibility of the cosmos. See further Adams, The Stars Will Fallfrom Heaven: 'Cosmic Catastrophe 'in the New Testament and its World (London: T&T Clark, 2007), pp. 112-13.

Cosmology

16

and New Testament

Theology

w e a t h e r frustrate h u m a n agricultural e n d e a v o u r s . L u c r e t i u s t h u s dissents from the v i e w that the w o r l d h a s b e e n s h a p e d t o w a r d t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e e n d . 1.8. The

Stoics

C o s m o l o g y w a s a c h i e f interest o f t h e Stoics, a n d Stoic c o s m o l o g y is a fas cinating subject in its o w n r i g h t .

57

H a h m thinks that ' f r o m t h e third c e n t u r y

BC to t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD m o r e p e o p l e in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d s e e m to h a v e h e l d a m o r e or less Stoic c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d t h a n a n y o t h e r ' .

58

He

m a i n t a i n s that t h e Stoic w o r l d v i e w w a s t h e m o s t influential in G r a e c o - R o m a n antiquity. In s h a r p contrast to t h e E p i c u r e a n s , t h e Stoics v i e w e d t h e c o s m o s as t h e w e l l - c o n s t r u c t e d p r o d u c t o f a d i v i n e creator. T h e y differed from P l a t o a n d Aristotle, t h o u g h , in m a k i n g t h e d i v i n e intelligence, ' g o d ' , c o - e x t e n s i v e w i t h the c o s m o s . ' G o d ' w a s u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e rational, active p r i n c i p l e - t h e

logos

- p r e s e n t in m a t t e r ( a n d i n s e p a r a b l e from it), p e r v a d i n g it a n d g i v i n g it o r d e r ( D i o g e n e s Laertius 7.134). T h e Stoics w e r e t h u s t h o r o u g h g o i n g p a n t h e i s t s ( a n d t h o r o u g h g o i n g materialists), identifying t h e c o s m o s itself w i t h g o d ( D i o g e n e s Laertius 7.137). T h e ascription o f full divinity to t h e c o s m o s s h o w s h o w h i g h l y they e s t e e m e d it. Plato a n d Aristotle rejected the notion o f space outside the c o s m o s , b u t the Stoics argued for the existence o f a n infinite void external to the c o s m o s (into w h i c h the c o s m o s e x p a n d s w h e n it ignites at the conflagration).

59

They made

a terminological distinction b e t w e e n ' t h e w h o l e ' a n d ' t h e a l l ' , w h i c h hitherto h a d b e e n u s e d s y n o n y m o u s l y : t h e former is the physical c o s m o s ; t h e latter is the c o s m o s a n d the v o i d together.

60

T h e c o s m o s is conceived in Aristotelian fashion

as a series o f spherical tiers, w i t h earth at the centre a n d the h e a v e n l y bodies at the periphery.

61

Terrestrial matter divides into t h e four terrestrial elements: earth,

fire, air a n d water. B u t these elements are transformations o f a m o r e basic form o f 62

matter, 'designing fire', to b e distinguished from the e l e m e n t fire.

T h e celestial

bodies are c o m p o s e d o f aither, w h i c h is 'designing fire' in its purest form, t h o u g h the Stoics appear to h a v e shied a w a y from calling aither a fifth e l e m e n t .

63

57. See D. Hahm, The Origins of Stoic Cosmology (Columbus: Ohio State Press, 1977); M. Lapidge, 'Stoic Cosmology', in J. M. Rist (ed.), The Stoics (Berkeley, CA/London: University of California Press, 1978), pp. 160-85; idem, 'Stoic Cosmology and Roman Literature, First to Third Centuries A.D.', ANRW363 (1989), 1379-1429. 58. Hahm, Origins, p. xiii. 59. A. A. Long and D. N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers: Translations of the Principal Sources with Philosophical Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 294-7. 60. Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, text no. 44A. 61. Lapidge,'Stoic Cosmology', p. 177. 62. Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, text no. 46D; Lapidge, 'Stoic Cosmol ogy', p. 167. 63. Cicero, de fin. 4.12. Lapidge, 'Stoic Cosmology', p. 178.

1.

Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

17

O n t h e Stoic t h e o r y o f c o s m o g o n y , t h e u n i v e r s e originates in a p u r e fire ( n o n e o f t h e G r e e k natural p h i l o s o p h e r s p o s i t e d creation ex nihilo).

T h e fiery

s u b s t a n c e c h a n g e s to air a n d t h e n to water, a n d out o f t h e p r i m o r d i a l w a t e r t h e four e l e m e n t s arise, a n d t h e s e c o m b i n e in m a n y w a y s to m a k e u p t h e variety o f t h i n g s a n d forms o f life o n earth (Plutarch, Stoic. 142).

1053a; D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s

F r o m t h e r e s i d u e o f t h e original fiery matter, t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s are

m a d e . W o r l d - f o r m a t i o n is n o ^ t h o u g h , a p u r e l y m e c h a n i c a l p r o c e s s ; it is the activity o f a d i v i n e a g e n t acting in a n d t h r o u g h natural forces ( D i o g e n e s Laer tius 135-6). S i n c e g o d is c o n t e r m i n o u s w i t h matter, t h e e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e s that b r i n g a b o u t t h e v a r i e g a t e d c o s m o s are transformations o f g o d himself. E v e n t u a l l y , t h e p r e s e n t o r d e r e d w o r l d w i l l r e t u r n t o its o r i g i n a l s t a t e o f 64

p u r e fire.

T h e c e l e s t i a l b o d i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e s u n , w h i c h feed o n t e r r e s t r i a l

m o i s t u r e , w i l l i n d u e c o u r s e s u c k t h e c o s m o s dry, c a u s i n g it t o i g n i t e a n d t u r n i n g it i n t o a t o t a l c o s m i c fireback ( C i c e r o , Nat. de. 2 . 1 1 8 ) . T h i s is n o t a s a d e n d for t h e c o s m o s , b u t a w h o l l y p o s i t i v e e n d in t h e life o f g o d , w h e n he reaches the p e a k state of his e x i s t e n c e .

65

A f t e r t h e c o n f l a g r a t i o n , t h e fire

a b a t e s a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f w o r l d - f o r m a t i o n b e g i n s all o v e r a g a i n . T h e c y c l e r e p e a t s i t s e l f e n d l e s s l y . T h e p e r i o d i c d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s i n t o fire w a s t a u g h t b y t h e e a r l y S t o i c s . It w a s a b a n d o n e d b y s o m e m i d d l e S t o i c s , i n c l u d i n g P o s i d o n i u s , w h o s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e a c h i n g w a s v e r y influential ( P h i l o , Aet. 7 6 - 7 ) . B u t it s e e m s to h a v e b e e n w i d e l y a c c e p t e d in R o m a n S t o i c i s m o f t h e first c e n t u r y CE. S e n e c a , in a n u m b e r o f p a s s a g e s , tries t o p o r t r a y t h e destructive event.

66

T h e S t o i c s , like P l a t o , v i e w e d t h e c o s m o s b i o l o g i c a l l y (but t h e y p r e s s e d t h e b i o l o g i c a l a n a l o g y further t h a n P l a t o ) . It c o m p r i s e s b o d y a n d s o u l ,

67

and

is a n i m a t e d b y ' b r e a t h ' (TTVEUIJCC). ' B r e a t h ' is t h e life-force o f t h e c o s m o s , s u s t a i n i n g it a n d m a i n t a i n i n g its u n i t y . it ' m u s t b e n o t s a i d t o d i e ' ;

6 9

68

The cosmos has birth and growth, but

t h e conflagration is n o t t h e d e a t h o f t h e c o s m o s

b u t its a c m e . F o r t h e Stoics, e v e r y e v e n t in history is c o n n e c t e d in a causal c h a i n : ' n o t h i n g in t h e w o r l d exists o r h a p p e n s c a u s e l e s s l y ' .

70

The whole course of universal

history, i n c l u d i n g e v e r y detail o f it, is d e t e r m i n e d in a d v a n c e b y t h e d i v i n e intel-

64. On the Stoic theory of ekpurosis or cosmic conflagration, see A. A. Long, 'The Stoics on World-Conflagration', The Southern Journal of Philosophy 23 (1985), 13-37; J. Mansfeld, 'Providence and the Destruction of the Universe in Early Stoic Thought', in M. J. Vermaseren (ed.), Studies in Hellenistic Religion (Leiden: Brill, 1979), pp. 129-88. 65. Mansfeld,'Providence', pp. 176-77. 66. Ben. 6.22.; Consol ad Marc 26.6-7; Nat. Quest. 27; Thyes. 835-884. Similar imagery is found in Lucan's Civil War. See further E. Adams, The Stars Will Fall. 67. Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, text no. 46E (= Plutarch, Stoic. 1052C-D). 68. See Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, pp. 280-9. 69. #w/.,textno.46E. 70. /ta/., text no. 55N.

Cosmology

18

and New Testament

Theology

ligence. T h i s history is r e p e a t e d exactly, o r a l m o s t exactly, in e v e r y s u c c e s s i v e world-cycle.

71

Stoic c o s m o l o g y s u p p o r t e d n a t u r a l t h e o l o g y .

72

T h e S t o i c s b e l i e v e d that g o d ' s

e x i s t e n c e a n d p r o v i d e n t i a l activity c o u l d b e d e d u c e d from t h e structure o f t h e u n i v e r s e . T h i s is p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f t h e affinity b e t w e e n h u m a n r e a s o n i n g a n d t h e r e a s o n or logos that p e r m e a t e s t h e c o s m o s . T h e Stoics also d r e w c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n c o s m o l o g y a n d e t h i c s . T h e g o a l o f ethics, in Stoicism, is to live in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h n a t u r e , o r t h e u n i v e r s a l order.

73

T h e n o t i o n o f c o n t e m p l a t i n g a n d learning from t h e g o v e r n a n c e o f t h e

c o s m o s b e c a m e a p r o m i n e n t ethical t h e m e in R o m a n S t o i c i s m ( E p i c t e t u s , Disc. 1.9.4; 1.10.10). A k e y c o n c e r n w a s to find o n e ' s p l a c e in t h e u n i v e r s a l s c h e m e ( E p i c t e t u s , Disc. 3.1.19-20; 2 4 . 9 5 ) . T h e h u m a n individual, t h e h o u s e h o l d a n d t h e city a n d t h e state w e r e v i e w e d as m i c r o c o s m s o f t h e c o s m i c order. A c c o r d i n g to C i c e r o , The Stoics hold that the world is governed by divine will: it is as it were a city and state shared by men and gods, and each one of us is part of this world. From this it is a natural consequence that we prefer the common advantage to our own. 74

T h e s t r e a m o f t h o u g h t that t h e order o f t h e u n i v e r s e is a n a l o g o u s t o t h e civic o r d e r ran d e e p in G r e e k c o s m o l o g i c a l reflection, g o i n g b a c k as far as A n a x i m a n d e r ,

75

a n d w a s , I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e , a feature o f t h e w o r l d v i e w e v o k e d b y t h e w o r d kosmos

( w h e n applied to t h e u n i v e r s e ) .

76

In Stoicism, t h e ideological

ramifications o f this linkage w e r e m a d e explicit. T h u s w e see t h e politicizing o f c o s m o l o g y a n d its u s e to legitimate the social o r d e r a n d t h e p o w e r structures o f the day. 1.9. A High

View of the

Cosmos

It s h o u l d b e clear from t h e f o r e g o i n g that G r e e k a n d H e l l e n i s t i c c o s m o l o g y , u p to N e w T e s t a m e n t t i m e s , w a s o n t h e w h o l e world-affirming. O u t r a g e o u s is t h e v i e w , w h i c h h a s b e e n q u i t e p o p u l a r , that G r e e k t h i n k e r s from P l a t o o n w a r d s d e n i g r a t e d a n d d e s p i s e d t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d . A s J a a p M a n s f e l d states, By and large, Greek philosophical cosmology is positive and optimistic. This holds especially for Plato, and for Aristotle and the Stoics, who have been decisively influ enced by Plato in this respect. [T]he mainstream of Greek thought concerning the cosmos is optimistic; such less positive views as can be found, are, as a rule, against the current or are only introduced for the sake of an argument 77

71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77.

See Ibid., pp. 308-13. See Ibid., pp. 323-33. Luce, Introduction, p. 135. Cicero, On Ends, 3.62. Long and Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, 57F. Kirk, Raven and Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, text no. 110. E. Adams, Constructing the World, pp. 69-75. J. Mansfeld, 'Bad World and Demiurge: a Gnostic Motif from Parmenides and Empe-

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish Cosmology

19

P l a t o , a s w e h a v e seen, at least in t h e Timaeus, w a s h i g h l y enthusiastic a b o u t the p h y s i c a l c o s m o s , calling it a ' g o d ' . T h e t e n d e n c y t h r o u g h o u t t h e Hellenistic e r a a n d early R o m a n t i m e s , w a s t o w a r d v e n e r a t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s , rather t h a n vilification o f it. Stoicism, as w e h a v e seen, fully divinized t h e c o s m o s , a n d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 100 BCE t o 100 CE, there d e v e l o p s , a c c o r d i n g t o Schweizer, 7 8

' a r e l i g i o n o f t h e c o s m o s ' . A distinction b e t w e e n t h e c o s m o s a n d g o d is m a i n tained in t h e S t o i c i z i n g Aristotelian treatise, De Mundo, b u t t h e w o r k n e v e r t h e less exemplifies t h e c o s m i c piety o f t h e t i m e .

2 . Ancient

Jewish

79

Cosmology

W e t u r n n o w t o O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d early J e w i s h c o s m o l o g y . T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t c o n t a i n s a g r e a t deal o f m a t e r i a l that c o u l d b e called c o s m o l o g i c a l . H o w e v e r , it is o n l y w i t h i n t h e last g e n e r a t i o n that scholars h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of c r e a t i o n a n d c o s m o l o g y t o O l d T e s t a m e n t theology. F o r t h e best p a r t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ( a n d b e f o r e ) , c o s m o l o g y w a s v i e w e d a m i n o r a n d late interest in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t .

80

A c c o r d i n g t o G e r h a r d v o n R a d , in a n influential e s s a y

p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 3 6 , t h e d o c t r i n e o f creation d i d n o t e m e r g e in Israel until after the exile; it d e v e l o p e d o u t o f t h e H e b r e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f salvation in h i s t o r y .

81

O l d T e s t a m e n t scholars t e n d e d t o n e g l e c t o r historicize references t o t h e natural w o r l d in t h e H e b r e w B i b l e . T h e m o u n t i n g p u b l i c c o n c e r n for t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h o u g h , h a s b r o u g h t a b o u t a n u p s u r g e in interest in w h a t t h e B i b l e , particularly the O l d T e s t a m e n t , h a s t o s a y a b o u t t h e w i d e r created o r d e r .

82

S t u d y o f O l d Tes

t a m e n t t h o u g h t r e g a r d i n g creation in relation t o c o n t e m p o r a r y e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n s is n o w a m a j o r g r o w t h area. C o n t r a v o n R a d , it s e e m s u n l i k e l y that c o s m o l o g i c a l interest w a s a late d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e history o f Israel. A s n o t e d earlier, t h e r e w a s a l o n g h i s t o r y o f c o s m o l o g i c a l speculation, largely m y t h i c a l , in t h e c u l t u r e s s u r r o u n d i n g Israel, a n d t h e O l d Testament exhibits c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s w i t h their i d e a s . I f c o s m o l o g y w a s a l o n g s t a n d i n g interest in t h e A N E generally, it is p r o b a b l e that Israel s h a r e d that w i d e r interest from a n early stage

docles to Lucretius and Philo', in R. van den Broek and M. J. Vermaseren (eds.), Studies in Gnosticism and Hellenistic Religions (Leiden: Brill, 1981), pp. 261-314 (263). 78. Schweizer, ac5|ia,rDiV7 7: 1024-94(1037). 79. A more negative cosmology did come to expression with later Platonic thinkers, especially Numenius, and among (to use the increasingly problematic label) 'Gnostic' authors. 80. Cf. T. E. Fretheim, God and the World in the Old Testament: A Relational Theology of Creation (Abingdon: Nashville, 2005), p. ix. 81. G. von Rad, 'The Theological Problem of the Old Testament Doctrine of Creation', in The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays (New York: McGraw Hill, 1966), pp. 131-43. 82. See the seminal essay, B. W. Anderson, 'Creation and Ecology', in B. W. Anderson (ed.), Creation in the Old Testament (Issues in Religion and Theology 6; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), pp. 152-71. For more recent work, see the Earth Bible, vols 2-4.

Cosmology

20

in its h i s t o r y .

83

and New Testament

Theology

Israel's o w n cosmological thought m a y well have developed,

t o s o m e extent, in relation to t h e cult. T h e structure o f creation a n d that o f the t e m p l e a r e correlated in P s . 7 8 . 6 9 : ' H e built h i s s a n c t u a r y like t h e h i g h h e a v e n s , like t h e earth, w h i c h h e h a s f o u n d e d f o r e v e r ' . Scholars h a v e n o t e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e Priestly a c c o u n t o f creation in G e n . l . l - 2 . 4 a a n d G o d ' s instructions to M o s e s for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t a b e r n a c l e in E x o d u s 2 5 - 3 1 , suggesting ' a homology of world building and temple building'.

84

In t h e O l d Testament, t h e c r e a t e d u n i v e r s e is m o s t frequently d e s i g n a t e d 'heaven(s) and earth'.

85

In t h e Septuagint,

KOO|JOS

w i t h the s e n s e w o r l d or

u n i v e r s e o c c u r s o n l y in t h e later w r i t i n g s , 2 a n d 4 M a c c a b e e s (5 a n d 4 t i m e s respectively) a n d t h e Wisdom of Solomon

( 1 9 t i m e s ) , w o r k s originally w r i t t e n

in G r e e k , a n d n o t translations from t h e H e b r e w . T h i s is n o t t o say, t h o u g h , that t h e H e b r e w B i b l e itself h a s little o r n o c o n c e p t i o n o f a n orderly c o s m o s . T h a t G o d h a s e s t a b l i s h e d a w e l l - o r d e r e d a n d w e l l - r e g u l a t e d creation e m e r g e s from G e n . l . l - 2 . 4 a , a n d is e x p r e s s e d in p a s s a g e s s u c h a s P s a l m 104 a n d Prov. 8.22-31. T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t s e e m s t o p r e s u m e a three-level structure o f t h e w o r l d , w i t h a central earth, h e a v e n a b o v e a n d S h e o l b e l o w (Ps. 115.16-17; 139.8; cf. 86

Sir. 1.3). S u c h a p i c t u r e , as L u i s S t a d e l m a n n o b s e r v e s , is r o o t e d ' i n t h e basic h u m a n experience o f the external w o r l d from w h o s e impressions m a n conceived s u c h a n i m a g i n a t i v e d e p i c t i o n ' , b u t it is also reflective o f a w i d e s p r e a d m y t h o logical p a t t e r n in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d .

87

J o b 11.8-9 s u g g e s t s a four-fold division

o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e d u n i v e r s e : h e a v e n , earth, S h e o l a n d sea. In G e n e s i s 1 (cf. P s . 19.1), t h e p h y s i c a l h e a v e n (i.e., t h e s k y ) is p i c t u r e d a s a d o m e a r c h i n g o v e r t h e earth, m u c h like t h e b o w l - l i k e c o v e r i n g e n v i s a g e d b y H e s i o d . T h e c u r v e d structure or ' f i r m a m e n t ' p r e v e n t s t h e w a t e r s a b o v e t h e earth from engulfing the earth, u n l e s s its w i n d o w s a r e o p e n e d ( G e n . 7 . 1 1 ; Isa. 2 4 . 1 8 ) . In o t h e r p l a c e s t h e h e a v e n s a r e l i k e n e d t o a c a n o p y stretched o u t o v e r t h e e a r t h ( P s . 104.2; Isa. 4 0 . 2 2 ; 4 4 . 2 4 ; etc.). T h e earth is c o n c e i v e d as resting u p o n foundations (Ps. 18.15; 8 2 . 5 ; 104.5; Isa. 2 4 . 1 8 ; 4 0 . 2 1 , etc.; J o b 9.6 h a s it s t a n d i n g o n ' p i l l a r s ' ) , w h i c h e x t e n d d o w n into t h e c o s m i c s e a ( P s . 2 4 . 2 ) . In J o b 2 6 . 7 , t h o u g h , t h e earth is said to h a n g from a b o v e a n d rest o n n o t h i n g . J o b 26.11 s p e a k s o f the 'pillars o f h e a v e n ' . T h e u s e o f architectural i m a g e r y indicates that t h e w o r l d is

83. See Robert A. Oden Jr., 'Cosmogony, Cosmology', ABD 1: 1164-7. 84. J. D. Levenson, Creation and the Persistence of Evil (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988), p. 84. See also J. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introduc ing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible (Nottingham: Apollos, 2007), pp. 123-5,196-9. 85. Gen. 1.1; 2.1,4; Ps. 113.6; Jer. 10.11; etc. 86. L. J. Stadelman, The Hebrew Conception of the World: A Philological and Literary Study (AB 39; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1970), pp. 9-10. Though see also the critique of this common view in Jonathan T. Pennington, 'Dualism in Old Testament Cosmology: Weltbild and Weltanschauung', SJOT18/2 (2004), 260-77. 87. Stadelmann, Hebrew Conception, p. 9.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

21

b e i n g l i k e n e d to a b u i l d i n g ( s u c h a s the t e m p l e ) . T h i s a n a l o g y is g i v e n its m o s t e x t e n s i v e application in J o b 3 8 . 4 - 7 . Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Tell me, if you have understanding. Who determined its measurements - surely you know! Or who stretched the line upon it? On what were its bases sunk, or who laid its cornerstone when the morning stars sang together and all the heavenly beings shouted for joy? In post-biblical c o s m o l o g i c a l tradition, w e find a desire to structure a n d n u m b e r t h e h e a v e n s . T h e n o t i o n o f three h e a v e n s , w h i c h is p r o b a b l y reflected in 2 Cor. 12.2,

88

m a y h a v e o r i g i n a t e d in t h e biblical f o r m u l a ' h e a v e n a n d t h e h e a v e n o f

h e a v e n s ' ( D e u t . 10.14; 2 K g s 8.27). T h e i d e a o f s e v e n h e a v e n s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n m o r e c o m m o n ; it is f o u n d in t h e Testament form is a C h r i s t i a n r e d a c t i o n ) , t h e Apocalypse C h r i s t i a n w o r k Ascension

of Isaiah.

be connected with the seven planets,

of Levi ( w h i c h in its p r e s e n t of Abraham,

2 Enoch a n d t h e

T h e s e v e n h e a v e n s are often t h o u g h t to 89

b u t Yarbro C o l l i n s p o i n t s o u t that there

is n o clear indication o f s u c h a link in t h e early J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e . 2 Baruch

90

4 Ezra a n d

o n l y s p e a k o f o n e h e a v e n , s o there d o e s n o t a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n a

consistent J e w i s h c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d in t h e first c e n t u r y CE.

2 . 1 . The Old

Testament

In t h e O l d Testament, c o s m o l o g i c a l reflection serves a theological p u r p o s e . T h i s is clear from t h e n a t u r e p s a l m s , e s p . P s s . 8; 19.1-6; 3 3 . 6 - 9 ; 136.4-9, 104, w h i c h e x t o l t h e variety, b e a u t y a n d h a r m o n y o f t h e c r e a t e d order, n o t as virtues in their o w n right, b u t as t e s t i m o n y to t h e majesty, s u p r e m a c y a n d o m n i p o t e n c e o f t h e creator. A d m i r a t i o n o f t h e natural o r d e r a n d its s p l e n d o u r leads t o p r a i s e o f its creator. N a t u r e p s a l m s n o t o n l y elicit h u m a n p r a i s e ; s o m e o f t h e m , s u c h as P s . 148.3-10, b i d n a t u r e itself t o p r a i s e G o d .

91

Praise him, sun and moon; praise him, all you shining stars! Praise him, you highest heavens, and you waters above the heavens!

88. J. D. Tabor, Things Unutterable: Paul's Ascent to Paradise in its Greco-Roman, Judaic, and Early Christian Contexts (Lanham, MD: University Press of America), pp. 113-25, thinks Paul is working with the seven heavens scheme, but this seems less likely. 89. Cf. the seven planetary spheres in Cicero's 'Dream of Scipio' (Republic 6.17). 90. A. Yarbro Collins, 'The Seven Heavens in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses', in idem. Cosmology and Eschatology in Jewish and Christian Apocalypticism (JSJS 50; Leiden: Brill, 1996), pp. 21-54. 91. Fretheim, God and the World, pp. 249-68.

22

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

Let them praise the name of the LORD, for he commanded and they were created. He established them forever and ever; he fixed their bounds, which cannot be passed. Praise the LORD from the earth, you sea monsters and all deeps, fire and hail, snow and frost, stormy wind fulfilling his command! Mountains and all hills, fruit trees and all cedars! Wild animals and all cattle, creeping things and flying birds! T h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e n a t u r a l order, from t h e celestial b o d i e s a n d m e t e o r o logical p h e n o m e n a t o t h e features a n d creatures o f t h e earth, are c a l l e d to j o i n in a u n i v e r s a l a c c l a m a t i o n a n d c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e L o r d ' s s o v e r e i g n t y a n d p o w e r . T h e r e m a y b e a n i m p l i e d critique h e r e o f t h e w i d e s p r e a d t e n d e n c y in A N E t o deify p a r t s o f n a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e celestial b o d i e s . G o d ' s p o w e r o v e r n a t u r e is also e x p r e s s e d in h y m n s a n d o r a c l e s w h i c h exhibit t h e t h e o p h a n y pattern: G o d a p p e a r s a n d n a t u r e c o n v u l s e s at h i s p r e s e n c e .

92

T h e creation o f t h e w o r l d is d e s c r i b e d in G e n . 1.1-2.4, w h i c h is c o n v e n tionally a s s i g n e d to t h e Priestly writer. T h e p a s s a g e h a s r h y t h m i c features (the r e c u r r i n g u s e o f v a r i o u s f o r m u l a e , s u c h as ' a n d G o d s a i d ' , ' a n d there w a s e v e n i n g a n d t h e r e w a s m o r n i n g ' , a n d ' a n d G o d s a w that it w a s g o o d ' ) g i v i n g it a p o e t i c quality, t h o u g h it is still m o r e p r o s e t h a n p o e t r y ( w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e n a t u r e P s a l m s , e s p e c i a l l y P s a l m 104, w h i c h are plainly h y m n i c ) . T h e creation narrative o f G e n . 1.1-2.4 h a s parallels w i t h other c o s m o g o n i e s o f t h e A N E , especially t h e B a b y l o n i a n c r e a t i o n e p i c Enuma Elish. B u t t h e differences are m o r e striking, t h e m o s t b a s i c o f w h i c h is that t h e Enuma Elisha depicts creation as t a k i n g p l a c e t h r o u g h conflict, w i t h M a r d u k killing t h e sea m o n s t e r T i a m a t a n d f o r m i n g h e a v e n a n d earth o u t o f its split carcass, w h i l e G e n e s i s b e t r a y s n o h i n t o f t h e conflict m y t h o l o g y ; G o d creates b y his o w n w o r d a n d activity. U n l i k e t h e Enuma Elish, t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e is t h o r o u g h l y m o n o t h e i s t i c (the plural o f G e n . 1.26, ' l e t u s m a k e ' , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ) . T h e author/editor o f t h e G e n e s i s a c c o u n t s e e m s to b e familiar w i t h older A N E creation stories, b u t h i s stance t o w a r d t h e m is p r e d o m i n a n t l y a n t a g o n i s t i c .

93

C r e a t i o n is d e s c r i b e d as t a k i n g p l a c e in s u c c e s s i v e stages, o v e r six ' d a y s ' . W o r l d - c o n s t r u c t i o n is effected b y d i v i n e c o m m a n d ( ' G o d s a i d ' , 1.3, 6, 9, etc.)

92. See J. Jeremias, Theophanie: die Geschichte einer alttestamentlichen Gattung (Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 10; Neukirchen: Neukirchener, 1965). 93. See esp. G. F. Hasel, 'The Polemic Nature of the Genesis Cosmology', Evangelical Quar terly 46 (1974), 81-102.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

23

a n d a c t i o n - m a k i n g ( 1 . 7 , 1 6 , 2 5 , 3 1 ) a n d s e p a r a t i n g ( 1 . 4 , 6 , 7 , etc.). T h e c l i m a x o f t h e creative p r o c e s s is t h e m a k i n g o f h u m a n k i n d ( 1 . 2 6 - 3 0 ) . T h e p r i m o r d i a l situation is d e s c r i b e d in G e n . 1.2: ' t h e earth w a s f o r m l e s s a n d v o i d a n d d a r k n e s s c o v e r e d t h e face o f d e e p ' . W h e t h e r G e n . 1.1 refers t o a p r i o r act o f c r e a t i o n - that o f b r i n g i n g t h e u n f o r m e d m a s s o f 1.2 into e x i s t e n c e - h a s b e e n m u c h d e b a t e d . It is e x t r e m e l y doubtful that t h e a u t h o r / r e d a c t o r o f G e n e s i s t h o u g h t in t e r m s o f creation ex nihilo, a n o t i o n w h i c h e m e r g e d s o m e t i m e later. N e v e r t h e less, t h e a m b i g u o u s relation o f 1.1 to 1.2 c r e a t e d s p a c e for t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f this later i d e a into t h e text. O n e o f t h e k e y features o f t h e c r e a t i o n story is t h e e m p h a s i s laid o n t h e g o o d n e s s o f G o d ' s creative h a n d i w o r k . After e a c h act o f creation, t h e s t a t e m e n t is m a d e , ' a n d G o d s a w that it w a s g o o d ' ( 1 . 4 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 8 , 2 1 , 2 5 ) . A t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f G o d ' s activity ( 1 . 3 1 ) it is stated c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y that ' G o d s a w e v e r y t h i n g that h e h a d m a d e , a n d i n d e e d , it w a s v e r y g o o d ' . A t h o r o u g h l y p o s i t i v e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e w h o l e c r e a t e d o r d e r is t h e r e b y g i v e n . All t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e u n i v e r s e , n o t m e r e l y its h u m a n i n h a b i t a n t s , a r e d e c l a r e d to h a v e a n intrinsic v a l u e t o G o d , a n o b s e r v a t i o n that h a s r e l e v a n c e for c o n t e m p o r a r y e n v i r o n m e n tal c o n c e r n s . T h e r e are traces w i t h i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t o f t h e conflict m o d e l o f c r e a t i o n w h i c h is rejected in G e n . l . l - 2 . 4 a ( P s . 7 4 . 1 2 - 1 7 ; 8 9 . 9 - 1 0 ; Isa. 5 1 . 9 - 1 0 ) ,

94

t h o u g h there a r e d e b a t e s a b o u t h o w this i m a g e r y functions w i t h i n t h e literary contexts in w h i c h w e find i t .

95

T h e creation p o e m / h y m n o f Prov. 8.22-31 focuses o n t h e p r e s e n c e o f w i s d o m a l o n g s i d e G o d at t h e w o r l d ' s o r i g i n s . W i s d o m is a d i v i n e attribute (not a separate entity), b u t for p o e t i c p u r p o s e s , G o d ' s w i s d o m is personified a n d g e n d e r e d f e m a l e . S h e is t h e s p e a k e r t h r o u g h o u t this p a s s a g e . W h e t h e r personified w i s d o m p l a y e d a n active p a r t in creation is u n c l e a r b e c a u s e o f t h e u n c e r t a i n t y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e H e b r e w w o r d in v. 3 0 . If translated ' m a s t e r w o r k m a n ' , as t h e N R S V h a s it, W i s d o m is b e i n g a c c o r d e d a r o l e in t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e c o s m o s . In t h e a p o c r y p h a l w o r k , t h e Wisdom of Solomon

( 7 . 2 2 - 8 . 1 ) , W i s d o m is clearly

p r e s e n t e d a s G o d ' s i n s t r u m e n t o f creation. S h e is ' t h e fashioner o f all t h i n g s ' ( W i s . 7.22). S i n c e t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t gives attention to t h e w o r l d ' s o r i g i n s , it is n a t u r a l to a s s u m e that there w o u l d b e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g interest in its fate. T h e r e are v a r i o u s texts that s e e m to s a y that t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r is d e s i g n e d t o b e everlast ing. F o r e x a m p l e , P s . 1 4 8 . 6 , cited a b o v e , states t h a t t h e celestial o r d e r s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d 'for e v e r a n d e v e r ' . E c c l . 1.4 s p e a k s o f t h e e a r t h r e m a i n i n g forever. T h e p h y s i c a l h e a v e n s , u n d e r s t o o d to b e p e r m a n e n t fixtures, s e r v e as a

94. On the conflict model of creation, see J. Day, God's Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 1-61. 95. For example, some think that the reference in Ps. 74.12-17 is to the Exodus, rather than the creation of the world.

Cosmology

24

and New Testament

Theology

s y m b o l o f e n d u r a n c e a n d long-lastingness ( P s . 7 2 . 5 - 7 ; 7 8 . 6 9 ; 8 9 . 2 9 , 3 6 - 7 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e p a s s a g e s that i m p l y o r s p e a k e x p l i c i t l y o f a definite e n d to t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d , a b o v e all P s . 102.25-7. T h e s e a p p a r e n t l y contradictory affirmations c a n b e r e s o l v e d w i t h i n a h i e r a r c h y o f e n d u r a n c e . A s C a i r d states, in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e transitoriness o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e , t h e earth will last till the e n d o f t i m e , b u t it is n o t everlasting as G o d is e v e r l a s t i n g .

96

P r o p h e t i c texts,

especially Z e c h a r i a h 14, anticipate a transformation o f t h e c r e a t e d order. Isa. 6 5 . 1 8 - 2 5 (cf. 6 6 . 2 2 ) e n v i s a g e s ' a n e w h e a v e n a n d a n e w e a r t h ' , t h o u g h scholars d e b a t e w h e t h e r this i n v o l v e s t h e destruction o f the p r e s e n t c o s m i c o r d e r or its (non-destructive) r e n e w a l . 2 . 2 . The Apocalyptic

97

Literature

J e w i s h apocalypticists display a particular interest in c o s m o l o g i c a l m a t t e r s . T h e c o r r u p t i o n a n d r e d e m p t i o n o f t h e natural w o r l d a r e r e c u r r i n g t h e m e s in J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c a n d related w r i t i n g s . T h e corruption o f creation (i.e., t h e introduction o f evil into t h e c r e a t e d c o s m o s ) is n o r m a l l y r e l a t e d to h u m a n sin or t h e sins o f t h e W a t c h e r s - there is n o indication that creation is

inherently

evil. T h e c o s m i c r e n e w a l is u s u a l l y c o n c e i v e d either a s t h e (non-catastrophic) transformation o f t h e existing creation or, m o r e c o m m o n l y , its destruction a n d re-making. A fascination w i t h t h e structure a n d operation o f the c o s m o s is a notable feature of the E n o c h i c literature, a n d this s e e m s to reflect a tradition o f cosmological speculation in the circle within w h i c h the literature arose. In 1 Enoch

17-36,

w h i c h b e l o n g s to the Book of the Watchers (7 Enoch 1-37), E n o c h is taken o n a tour o f t h e c o s m o s a n d s h o w n places out o f the reach o f other h u m a n b e i n g s .

98

The

c o s m o g r a p h y o f these chapters, w h i c h is not consistent, h a s affinities w i t h A N E a n d G r e e k c o s m o g r a p h i e s . Reflected, for e x a m p l e , is the early G r e e k tradition that the earth is a flat disc s u r r o u n d e d b y a great river. O n h i s c o s m i c tour, E n o c h sees the c h a m b e r s of thunder a n d lightning, the source o f all the w o r l d ' s

rivers

a n d the storerooms o f t h e w i n d s ( 1 7 . 1 - 1 8 . 1 ) . H e is s h o w n h o w the stars turn, a n d sees the cornerstone o f the earth a n d the four w i n d s w h i c h b e a r the w h o l e 99

cosmic edifice ( 1 8 . 2 - 4 ) . H e also visits the prison h o u s e s for the seven stars a n d the fallen angels ( 1 8 . 1 3 - 1 5 ; 21.1-10) a n d the places w h e r e the ' t h e spirits o f the souls o f the d e a d ' are kept till the final assize (ch. 22). T h e reference to the seven stars (18.13-14; 21.3-6) is intriguing. T h e y are h e l d accountable for transgressing 96. Caird, Language and Imagery (Grand Rapids: Eerdmann, 1997), p. 257. 97. For fuller discussion of OT views of creation's future, see Adams, The Stars Will Fall, pp. 28-35. 98. Chapters 17-19 and 20-36 are twin accounts of the journey. On the former see K. C. Bautch, A Study of the Geography of I Enoch 17-19 (JSJS 81; Leiden: Brill, 2003). 99. The idea of the earth resting on the four winds arises from Job 26.7. See further G. W. E. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1: A Commentary on 1 Enoch Chapters 1-36, 81-108 (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2001), p. 285.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

25

G o d ' s c o m m a n d (18.15; 21.6). M a t t h e w B l a c k connects the disobedient stars to the seven recognized p l a n e t s .

100

If this identification is correct, their ' w a n d e r i n g '

is b e i n g interpreted as an errant feature in n a t u r e .

101

Overall, though, the picture

in these chapters is o f a c o s m o s that operates according to G o d ' s design a n d c o m m a n d . E n o c h ' s j o u r n e y through t h e created w o r l d 'provides a frame within w h i c h h u m a n p r o b l e m s are seen in a n e w p e r s p e c t i v e ' .

102

T h e A s t r o n o m i c a l B o o k (7 Enoch 7 2 - 8 2 ) is a sustained description o f t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e celestial b o d i e s from a quasi-scientific p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e regularity o f the celestial p h e n o m e n a u n d e r p i n s belief in t h e o r d e r a n d h a r m o n y o f t h e c r e a t e d c o s m o s . T h e c o s m o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s also s u p p o r t t h e solar calendar of 364 d a y s .

1 0 3

T h e introduction m a k e s clear, t h o u g h , that t h e c y c l e s

o f n a t u r e c o n t i n u e 'till the n e w creation w h i c h a b i d e s forever is c r e a t e d ' ( 7 2 . 1 ) . C h a p t e r 8 0 , w h i c h is t h o u g h t b y s o m e t o b e a later addition to t h e b o o k , d e s c r i b e s w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n t h e e n d a p p r o a c h e s , a n d t h e n o r m a l l y consistent o r d e r o f t h e c o s m o s b r e a k s d o w n w i t h the increase o f h u m a n sin that p r e c e d e s t h e end. 2 Enoch, w h i c h is n o r m a l l y d a t e d in t h e late first c e n t u r y CE, is a n a c c o u n t o f E n o c h ' s a s c e n t into h e a v e n t h r o u g h t h e s e v e n h e a v e n s ( c h s 3 - 3 7 ) a n d h i s return t o earth t o tell h i s family w h a t h e h a s seen a n d inform t h e m o f c o m i n g e v e n t s (chs 3 8 - 6 6 ) . T h e b o o k s h o w s a d e e p interest in t h e structure o f t h e c o s m o s , especially t h e h e a v e n s . T h e first h e a v e n is t h e level o f t h e a n g e l s w h o g o v e r n t h e stellar constellations. T h e s e c o n d h e a v e n is w h e r e t h e c o n d e m n e d a n g e l s a r e incarcerated. T h e third contains paradise, w h i c h is the p l a c e o f r e w a r d p r e p a r e d for t h e r i g h t e o u s . O n this level is also l o c a t e d the p l a c e o f p u n i s h m e n t r e s e r v e d for t h e w i c k e d . T h e fourth h e a v e n c o n t a i n s the tracks o f the s u n a n d t h e m o o n . T h e fifth h e a v e n is w h e r e t h e unfallen W a t c h e r s o p e r a t e . In t h e sixth h e a v e n a r e t h e a n g e l s w h o r e g u l a t e t h e stars a n d the s e a s o n s . T h e s e v e n t h a n d h i g h e s t h e a v e n is t h e d w e l l i n g - p l a c e o f G o d . C h a p t e r s 24—33 are a n e x t e n d e d a c c o u n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s creation from ' i n v i s ible t h i n g s ' . F r o m t h e invisible entities, w h i c h exist a l o n g s i d e h i m , G o d calls d o w n A d a i l a n d A r u k h a s , from w h o m light a n d d a r k n e s s originate. T h e natural w o r l d is f o r m e d t h r o u g h t h e creative p r o c e s s e s o f c o n d e n s a t i o n a n d m i x i n g . L i g h t solidifies into t h e u p p e r foundation, a n d d a r k n e s s into the l o w e r founda tion. L i g h t a n d d a r k n e s s m i x to form water. W a t e r solidifies t o f o r m r o c k s , a n d t h e r o c k s are a s s e m b l e d t o f o r m earth, a n d so on. T h e narrative r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t to c o m b i n e t h e G e n e s i s creation a c c o u n t w i t h Persian c o s m o l o g y a n d G r e e k science. 100. M. Black with J. C. VanderKam, The Book of Enoch or Enoch I. A New English Edition (Leiden Brill, 1995), p. 160. 101. Bautch (Study, pp. 147-9) connects the seven stars to the Pleiades. 102. J. J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Litera ture (2nd edn) (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), p. 58. 103. In early Judaism, there were sharp disputes about the correct calendar. See J. VanderKam, Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Measuring Time (London: Routledge, 1998).

Cosmology

26

2.3.

and New Testament

Theology

Philo

P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a w a s t h o r o u g h l y c o n v e r s a n t w i t h G r e e k c o s m o l o g i c a l tradi tions. H i s o w n c o s m o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t is h e a v i l y influenced b y P l a t o ' s c o s m o l ogy, a n d also to a lesser e x t e n t b y S t o i c i s m .

104

In Platonic fashion, h e c o n c e i v e s

o f t h e u n i v e r s e as g l o b u l a r in form, w i t h earth at the c e n t r e (Mos.

1.212), t h e

planets r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d it, a n d t h e s p h e r e o f t h e fixed stars at t h e outer limit (Cher. 2 3 ) .

1 0 5

L i k e P l a t o , h e e m p h a s i z e s t h e o n e n e s s o f t h e c o s m o s a n d its i n d e

structibility, a n d a l s o like P l a t o , h e calls t h e c o s m o s an intelligent creature a n d e v e n applies t h e w o r d 0 e o s t o it. H e a g r e e s w i t h P l a t o that t h e u n i v e r s e o w e s its e x i s t e n c e t o t h e g o o d n e s s o f t h e creator. P h i l o ' s treatise, On the (De Opificio)

Creation

is a r e m a r k a b l e a t t e m p t t o synthesize G e n e s i s 1-3 w i t h P l a t o ' s

Timaeus. T h e visible w o r l d is p a t t e r n e d o n t h e ideal, perfect w o r l d . P h i l o relates t h e first ' d a y '

1 0 6

o f G e n e s i s 1 to t h e creation o f t h e

KOOJJOS

v o n r o s - t h e intel

ligible w o r l d , a n d d a y s t w o to six t o t h e creation o f t h e corporeal c o s m o s . T h e logos is a n i m p o r t a n t feature o f P h i l o ' s c o s m o l o g y . It p e r f o r m s a r a n g e o f functions in relation t o t h e c o s m o s . It contains t h e w o r l d o f ideas (De ficio 2 4 ) , it is t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f c r e a t i o n (Alleg. c o s m i c c o h e s i o n (Fug. 1 2 2 ) .

Opi

3.96) a n d it is t h e p r i n c i p l e o f

107

In line w i t h S t o i c i s m , P h i l o s e e s t h e c o s m o s as a great city g o v e r n e d b y a universal l a w (Opific.

3). H e p u t s h i s o w n twist o n t h e Stoic t h e m e , t h o u g h , b y

identifying t h e u n i v e r s a l l a w w i t h t h e l a w o f M o s e s . H u m a n b e i n g s are m e a n t to live in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e l a w o f n a t u r e (Abr. 6 1 ) . P h i l o exhibits t h e h i g h r e g a r d for t h e c o s m o s that w a s typical o f G r e e k a n d Hellenistic n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y . H i s J e w i s h n e s s c o m e s out, t h o u g h , in h i s firm insistence that t h e c r e a t e d u n i v e r s e is s u b o r d i n a t e to its father a n d m a k e r (despite calling t h e c o s m o s a ' g o d ' ) a n d in his p o l e m i c against astral w o r s h i p . P h i l o ' s e u l o g i z i n g o f c r e a t i o n is t e m p e r e d b y his p r a i s e o f t h e c r e a t o r .

108

Conclusion A c c o r d i n g to t h e faithful s a y i n g o f 1 T i m . 1.15, ' C h r i s t J e s u s c a m e into the w o r l d (els

T O V KOOMOV)

to s a v e s i n n e r s ' . N e w T e s t a m e n t scholars r e g a r d it as vital to

h a v e a n a c c u r a t e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e w o r l d or ' U m w e l t ' into w h i c h Christ c a m e , but it is also i m p o r t a n t to h a v e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w the w o r l d - u n d e r s t o o d in its b r o a d e s t s e n s e - w a s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d at t h e t i m e o f h i s c o m i n g . In this essay, I h a v e d o n e little m o r e t h a n a d u m b r a t e G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d ancient J e w i s h c o s m o l o g y , b u t I trust that t h e r e v i e w serves t h e i m m e d i a t e 104. 51-6. 105. 106. 107. 108.

See K. Schenck, A Brief Guide to Philo (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 2005), pp. Schenck, Brief Guide, pp. 63-4. For Philo, this 'day' is not meant to be understood literally. See further Schenk, Brief Guide, pp. 58-63. Runia, Philo ofAlexandria, pp. 458-61.

1. Graeco-Roman

and Ancient Jewish

Cosmology

27

p u r p o s e o f setting out, at least in g e n e r a l t e r m s , t h e cultural c o n t e x t o f N e w T e s t a m e n t c o s m o l o g i c a l statements. I n t e r m s o f influence, it is c l e a r that t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b a c k g r o u n d to N e w T e s t a m e n t c o s m o l ogy. H o w e v e r , as w i l l b e seen, t h e w r i t e r s o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t d o n o t s i m p l y i m p a r t a w o r l d v i e w t h e y h a v e inherited. T h e c o m i n g o f Christ into t h e c o s m o s h a s for t h e m g i v e n n e w m e a n i n g to t h e c o s m o s . I n d e e d , it h a s o c c a s i o n e d a r e - c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d r e - m a p p i n g o f the c o s m o s .

2 HEAVEN, EARTH, A N D A N E W

GENESIS:

THEOLOGICAL COSMOLOGY IN MATTHEW

J o n a t h a n T. P e n n i n g t o n

Introduction O v e r 3 0 y e a r s a g o J o h n D o m i n i c C r o s s a n w r o t e a little b o o k entitled The Interval:

Towards

a Theology

of Story}

Dark

Therein Crossan provides a schema

of w a y s in w h i c h Story relates t o t h e world. O n o n e e n d o f t h e s p e c t r u m a M y t h establishes t h e story o f t h e w o r l d . O n the o p p o s i t e e n d , a P a r a b l e is u s e d to s u b v e r t t h e w o r l d ' s story. In b e t w e e n w e h a v e the c a t e g o r i e s o f A p o l o g u e ( w h i c h d e f e n d s t h e w o r l d ) , A c t i o n (describing t h e w o r l d ) , a n d Satire (attacking t h e w o r l d ) . T h e s e heuristic categories are u s e d b y C r o s s a n t o d e m o n s t r a t e that J e s u s ' p a r a b l e s are w o r l d - d i s r u p t i n g . In reflecting o n the teaching o f Matthew, Richard H a y s adopts Crossan's catego ries a n d suggests that the First G o s p e l lies ' s o m e w h e r e at the m y t h / a p o l o g u e e n d of the s p e c t r u m . . . M a t t h e w is both creating an ordered, symbolic world, in which Jesus possesses all authority in heaven and o n earth, and defending it against rival 2

w o r l d v i e w s ' . H a y s is certainly right. T h e Gospel o f M a t t h e w is a complex and highly-skilled literary piece w h i c h h a s the grand point o f establishing and defend ing a Christocentric universe, a world view that centres u p o n the person o f Jesus. It is t h e p u r p o s e o f this c h a p t e r to s h o w h o w M a t t h e w ' s frequent a n d n u a n c e d u s e o f c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e s e r v e s t o create a n d establish a theological w o r l d view, o n e that finds its foundation in G e n e s i s a n d its c o n s u m m a t i o n in t h e n e w G e n e s i s i n a u g u r a t e d b y J e s u s Christ.

Survey

of Some Key Cosmological

Terms

It will b e helpful t o b e g i n w i t h a s u r v e y o f s o m e o f the varied w o r d s a n d e x p r e s sions in M a t t h e w that m a y b e called c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s . In d o i n g so w e will 1. J. D. Crossan, The Dark Interval: Towards a Theology of Story (Niles, IL: Argus Com munications, 1975). Crossan's book is a period piece from early 1970s Structuralism, which I find ultimately lacking, yet these categories are helpful in thinking about the different modes through which the biblical authors witness to their revelation. 2. R. B. Hays, The Moral Vision of the New Testament (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996), p. 94.

2.

Matthew

29

b e g i n to s e e t h e w a y s in w h i c h ' p h y s i c a l ' c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n v e s t e d w i t h m e t a p h o r i c a l o r theological m e a n i n g . (I)

Heaven

R e g a r d i n g c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e in M a t t h e w , p r i d e o f p l a c e certainly b e l o n g s to ' h e a v e n ' ( o u p a v o q ) . O f c o u r s e , this w o r d is n o stranger t o t h e p a g e s o f t h e J e w i s h Scriptures o r t h e N T . F r o m G e n . 1.1 t o t h e e n d o f J o h n ' s R e v e l a t i o n w e r e g u l a r l y e n c o u n t e r reference to h e a v e n . T h e v a r i e d a p p e a r a n c e s o f this i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t c a n b e c a t e g o r i z e d into t h r e e p r i m a r y u s e s : 1.

o u p a v o g in reference to p o r t i o n s o f t h e visible creation d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e earth, s u c h as t h e firmament or s k y a b o v e , t h e starry h e a v e n , a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r e w h e r e t h e b i r d s fly.

2.

o u p a v o c ; c o m b i n e d w i t h yf\ as a m e r i s m t o refer t o t h e w h o l e w o r l d ,

3.

o u p a v o g in reference t o t h e invisible, t r a n s c e n d e n t place(s) a b o v e

h e a v e n a n d earth. w h e r e G o d d w e l l s a l o n g w i t h his a n g e l s a n d t h e righteous dead. O f t h e N T a u t h o r s , M a t t h e w e m p l o y s o u p a v o q m o r e t h a n a n y other, a l o n e 3

s u p p l y i n g u s w i t h 3 0 p e r cent o f all t h e N T u s e s . Additionally, t h e related t e r m oi>pavio<; ( ' h e a v e n l y ' ) is f o u n d n i n e t i m e s in t h e N T , s e v e n o f w h i c h a r e 4

in M a t t h e w . A n o t h e r interesting o b s e r v a t i o n to n o t e is that M a t t h e w prefers plural f o r m s o f o u p a v o c ; to singular o n e s , a n d h e a p p e a r s to u s e t h e s e different 5

forms t o contrast t h e d i v i n e a n d h e a v e n l y r e a l m s . Clearly t h e l a n g u a g e a n d c o n c e p t o f h e a v e n is o n e o f M a t t h e w ' s favourites a n d o n e t o w h i c h h e d e v o t e d careful t h o u g h t . In t e r m s o f h o w h e a v e n functions in M a t t h e w , w e m a y o b s e r v e that t h e First G o s p e l utilizes h e a v e n in all three o f t h e senses d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . H e a v e n is fre q u e n t l y u s e d t o refer to t h e created o r d e r o f t h e s k y a n d a t m o s p h e r e . J e s u s will a p p e a r o n t h e c l o u d s o f h e a v e n , i.e., t h e s k y ( 2 4 . 3 0 ; 2 6 . 6 4 ) , the c o l o u r o f t h e face o f h e a v e n r e v e a l s t h e w e a t h e r ( 1 6 . 2 - 3 ) , a n d b i r d s a r e regularly c a l l e d t a iT6T6Lva xoO o u p a v o O ( 6 . 2 6 ; 8.20; 13.32). M o r e frequently, h e a v e n is u s e d in its ' s p i r i t u a l ' s e n s e . W e find that G o d is t h e F a t h e r in h e a v e n ( 5 . 1 6 ; 6 . 1 ; 16.17;

3. Of the 273 occurrences of oupavoc; in the NT, 82 are found in Matthew. This is far more than any other author, with the second being the book of Revelation with 52 occurrences. 4. In the NT we also find the later adjective eiroupavKx; 12 times in the Pauline corpus and 6 times in Hebrews. 5. For charts and fuller statistics on the use of heaven in Matthew, see J. T. Pennington, Heaven and Earth in the Gospel of Matthew (NovTSup 126; Leiden: Brill, 2007). Regarding singular and plural forms of oupavo<;, I argue that Matthew uses singular 'heaven' to refer to the skies (earthly realm) and in conjunction with 'earth', while he uses plural forms ('heavens') always to refer to the divine realm, such as the 'kingdom of (the) heaven(s)' and the 'Father in (the) heaven(s)\ Thus, even at the level of morphology Matthew is communicating a distinction between the divine realm and the earthly realm.

Cosmology

30

and New Testament

Theology

18.19; et al) a n d his t h r o n e is t h e r e ( 5 . 3 4 ; 2 3 . 2 2 ) . H e a v e n is w h e n c e the Spirit o f G o d d e s c e n d s ( 3 . 1 6 ) a n d t h e v o i c e o f G o d s p e a k s ( 3 . 1 7 ) . It is also t h e p l a c e o f p r o m i s e d r e w a r d s ( 5 . 1 2 ; 6.20; 19.21) a n d the n o r m a l r e a l m o f e x i s t e n c e o f t h e a n g e l s ( 1 8 . 1 0 ; 2 2 . 3 0 ; 2 4 . 3 6 ; 2 8 . 2 ) . O v e r l a p p i n g w i t h b o t h o f t h e s e categories, h e a v e n in M a t t h e w is v e r y frequently conjoined w i t h r e f e r e n c e to the earth. This t o o is a favourite t h e m e o f h i s , especially w h e n c o m p a r e d t o the o t h e r 6

G o s p e l s , w h i c h rarely m a k e u s e o f this e x p r e s s i o n . B y far t h e m o s t c o m m o n u s e s o f o u p a v o q in M a t t h e w are in the p h r a s e s f) |3aoiA.eia t ( 3 v o u p a v c S v (kingdom of heaven), occurring 32 times, and 6

iTanip 6 kv tol<; o u p a v o i c ;

(Father in h e a v e n ) a n d t h e r e l a t e d 6 ratfip i)|i(3i> 6 o u p a v i o g ( h e a v e n l y Father), o c c u r r i n g 13 a n d 7 t i m e s , respectively. T h e s e t w o e x p r e s s i o n s c o m p r i s e major t h e o l o g i c a l t h e m e s i n M a t t h e w (the k i n g d o m a n d t h e f a t h e r h o o d o f G o d ) a n d it is n o t a b l e that b o t h are r e g u l a r l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h reference to h e a v e n . (2)

Earth

E a r t h (yfj) o c c u r s 4 3 t i m e s in t h e First G o s p e l , 16 o f w h i c h are in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h oupavoc ( 3 7 p e r c e n t ) . A s in t h e O T , yx\ in M a t t h e w reflects the w i d e s e m a n t i c flexibility o f this t e r m . It c a n refer to specific p e o p l e s ' a r e a s s u c h as the land o f Israel, J u d a h a n d Z e b u l u n ( 2 . 6 , 2 0 ; 4 . 1 5 ; 11.24), m o r e g e n e r a l l y to g e o g r a p h i c s p a c e ( 9 . 2 6 , 3 1 ; 14.24), o r to the g r o u n d o r soil ( 1 0 . 2 9 ; 13.5, 8). E a r t h c a n a l s o refer t o t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d ( 5 . 1 8 ; 1 2 . 4 0 , 4 2 ; 2 7 . 4 5 , 51) as w e l l as to t h e i n h a b i t a n t s a n d s y s t e m s o f the earth ( 5 . 1 3 ; 6.10; 17.25), a n d m a n y t i m e s it is difficult to d i s c e r n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o . O n e t h e o l o g i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e of M a t t h e w ' s u s e o f yf\ is w h e n the w o r d is u s e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h J e s u s ' Gentile-inclusive m i s s i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , after four c h a p t e r s o f p r o l o g u e a n d p r e p a r a t i o n , M a t t h e w p r e s e n t s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y a s t h e fulfilment o f Isaiah 8, w i t h its reference to light c o m i n g t o t h e lands o f t h e G e n t i l e s ( 4 . 1 4 - 1 6 ; cf. M t . 12.17-21). Additionally, in t h e m i d s t o f t h e m a n y s t a g g e r i n g p r o m i s e s o f the B e a t i t u d e s , t h e inheritance o f t h e e a r t h / l a n d is p r o m i s e d n o t e x c l u s i v e l y to t h o s e o f J e w i s h d e s c e n t (cf. the p a r a d i g m a t i c w o r d s o f M t . 3.8-9), b u t to t h e disciples o f J e s u s w h o , like h i m , are m e e k (5.5). T h e significance o f s u c h ' t h e o l o g i c a l ' u s e s o f yf\ b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s h o w t h e p r o m i s e o f t h e land is at t h e v e r y core o f I s r a e l ' s self-identity b e f o r e G o d . N o w this p r o m i s e is m a d e to all t h o s e w h o align t h e m s e l v e s w i t h J e s u s . A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t u s e o f yf\ is w h e n it is c o m b i n e d w i t h oiypavoQ. W h e n j o i n e d together, this familiar e x p r e s s i o n (found t h r o u g h o u t the 6. Matthew uses heaven and earth pairs of some kind over 20 times, compared with twice in Mark and 5 times in Luke. Again, for fuller discussion, see my treatment in Heaven and Earth in the Gospel of Matthew. There I argue that the heaven and earth theme is a key literary and theological motif in Matthew, used by him to emphasize the contrast between God and humanity, all the while looking forward to its eschatological resolution inaugurated by Jesus Christ See further discussion below.

2.

Matthew

31

Scriptures from G e n . 1.1 o n ) g i v e s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p i c t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e , d e p i c t e d a s a bipartite reality. S u c h is t h e u s a g e in M t . 5.18, 11.25, a n d 2 4 . 3 5 . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f ' h e a v e n ' a n d ' e a r t h ' is quite

frequently

u s e d b y M a t t h e w t o contrast t h e t w o r e a l m s o f reality, that o f t h e d i v i n e a n d t h e h u m a n (e.g., 5 . 3 4 - 3 5 ; 6.10; 6.19-20; 18.18). T h e significance o f this w i l l b e t a k e n u p below. (3)

World 7

M a t t h e w also o c c a s i o n a l l y e m p l o y s t h e t e r m KOO|iog, w h i c h for h i m a p p a r e n t l y s e r v e s a s a s y n o n y m for earth, u n d e r s t o o d in a b r o a d sense. It is f o u n d either in i d i o m a t i c p h r a s e s a b o u t t h e ' f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d ' ( 1 3 . 3 5 ; 2 4 . 2 1 ; 2 5 . 3 4 ) , or m o s t often, a s a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n h a b i t e d earth ( 4 . 8 ; 5.14; 1 3 . 3 8 ; 16.26; 2 6 . 1 3 ) . T h e r e is also o n e i n s t a n c e o f t h e t e r m o'iKOU|i€vr| in 2 4 . 1 4 . T h i s w o r d , w h i c h clearly refers t o t h e i n h a b i t e d w o r l d o f h u m a n i t y , h e l p s u s s e e that M a t t h e w c a n v i e w KOO\XOQ in t h e s a m e w a y , a s t h e t w o w o r d s a r e u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y in t h e parallel v e r s e s o f 2 4 . 1 4 a n d 2 6 . 1 3 .

8

R e g a r d i n g t h e t h e o l o g i c a l significance o f KOO|io<;, w e d o n o t find it a s fre q u e n t a n d h i g h l y significant a t e r m a s w e d o in t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n or e v e n P a u l .

9

Instead, M a t t h e w prefers t h e older m a n n e r o f s p e a k i n g o f t h e u n i v e r s e , w i t h t h e e x p r e s s i o n ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w e m a y o b s e r v e o n e subtle w a y in w h i c h M a t t h e w d o e s u s e KOO|!0<; in a significant theological w a y . I n t h e t e m p t a t i o n n a r r a t i v e (4.1-11) M a t t h e w c h o o s e s to m a k e t h e final a n d c l i m a c t i c t e m p t a t i o n to b e t h e d e v i l ' s offer o f ' a l l t h e k i n g d o m s o f t h e w o r l d a n d their g l o r y ' (4.8). T h i s is t h e final stage before J e s u s b e g i n s h i s ministry, a m i n i s t r y that is s u m m a r i z e d in 4 . 1 7 a s t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n that t h e ' k i n g d o m o f h e a v e n ' is at h a n d . T h e contrast o f S a t a n ' s offer o f t h e glory a n d authority o f t h e k i n g d o m s o f this world

w i t h J e s u s ' offer o f t h e k i n g d o m that comes from heaven

is n o

accident. O n c e again, a contrast b e t w e e n this h u m a n w o r l d a n d G o d ' s r e a l m is posited.

(4)

Hades/Gehenna

C o m p a r e d t o t h e other E v a n g e l i s t s , M a t t h e w m o r e frequently a n d m o r e d e s c r i p 10

tively s p e a k s o f a future j u d g e m e n t a n d h e l l . A m o n g t h e variety o f e x p r e s s i o n s 7. There are either 8 or 9 occurrences of KOO^iog, depending on the textual variant in 13.35. 8. There is also another Greek word that occasionally is translated as 'world', alcov. This occurs 8 times in Matthew, 5 of which are in direct combination with ow/re^eia. One can see with this intriguing word how its semantic range spans our ideas of 'world' and 'age' while indicating the eschatological-cosmological expectation of the two ages, this age and the (eschatological) age to come. 9. See inter alia the helpful entry under Koajicx; in Balz and Schneider's Exegetical Diction ary of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 2:309-12. Also see the essays on Pauline cosmology in the present volume. 10. See the helpful discussion and analysis in the essay 'The Problem of Gehenna' in D. C.

Cosmology

32

and New Testament

Theology

u s e d , t h e m o s t potentially ' c o s m o l o g i c a l ' t e r m s a r e H a d e s (twice) a n d G e h e n n a (7 t i m e s ) . H a d e s is t h e G r e e k e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e general p l a c e o f t h e d e a d , Sheol. Its 2 o c c u r r e n c e s in M a t t h e w are strongly s y m b o l i c , b o t h b e i n g u s e d as h y p e r bolic c o u n t e r p o i n t s t o h e a v e n ( 1 1 . 2 3 ; 16.18). G e h e n n a o c c u r s o n l y 12 t i m e s in t h e N T , 7 o f w h i c h a r e in M a t t h e w . It is clearly c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e n o t i o n s o f fire a n d j u d g e m e n t . It is n o t entirely clear if M a t t h e w ' s 6 references to a p l a c e o f outer d a r k n e s s a n d g n a s h i n g o f teeth refer t o t h e s a m e t h i n g a s G e h e n n a or not, b u t it s e e m s likely. W h e t h e r s u c h t e r m s a r e truly c o s m o l o g i c a l in intent is difficult t o discern. T h a t i s , w h i l e t h e y a r e referred to as ' p l a c e s ' , it is n o t clear w h e t h e r t h e y are thoughtfully c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f t h e structure o f t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d , o r instead are s t o c k i m a g e s for t h e reality o f future j u d g e m e n t . ' O u t e r d a r k n e s s ' , ' g n a s h ing o f t e e t h ' , a n d G e h e n n a a r e ' s y m b o l i c J e w i s h descriptions o f the fate o f t h e ungodly'.

11

N e a r l y e v e r y o n e o f t h e references t o G e h e n n a a n d t h e p l a c e o f

g n a s h i n g o f teeth c o n n e c t this i d e a w i t h r a g i n g fire. T h e e m p h a s i s is n o t o n a p l a c e p e r s e , b u t o n t h e exhortational v a l u e o f t h e eschatological j u d g e m e n t to come upon those w h o do not align themselves with the kingdom of heaven. A s A l l i s o n r e m a r k s , w e m a y n o t e that J e s u s n e v e r t u r n s G e h e n n a i n t o a t o p i c in a n d o f itself; it is n e v e r a subject o f d i s c o u r s e n o r d o e s J e s u s d w e l l o n it at a n y length. 'It is a l w a y s r a t h e r a serviceable a s s u m p t i o n s h a r e d b y t h e a u d i e n c e , a dreaded thing invoked to admonish or r e b u k e ' .

12

So once again w e m a y observe

that t h e p u r p o s e o f s u c h c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s , if H a d e s a n d G e h e n n a c a n b e called s u c h , is theological rather t h a n p u r e l y c o s m o l o g i c a l .

( 5 ) Assorted

Meteorological

Terms

F o r c o m p l e t e n e s s , w e s h o u l d a l s o m e n t i o n a n u m b e r o f w o r d s that fall u n d e r t h e rubric o f c o s m o l o g i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s s u c h a s f|A.io<; ( ' s u n ' , 5 t i m e s ) ,

otXr\vr\

( ' m o o n ' , o n c e ) , vetyeXr\ ( ' c l o u d ' , 4 t i m e s ) , a n d ritOTip ( ' s t a r ' , 5 t i m e s ) . T h e s e t e r m s a r e s t a n d a r d e l e m e n t s in t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d . F o r o u r p u r p o s e s it is n o t e w o r t h y that in a l m o s t e v e r y u s a g e , t h e s e w o r d s t a k e o n great theological sig nificance. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e references t o t h e m o o n a n d c l o u d s are e m p l o y e d as part o f s t a n d a r d S e c o n d T e m p l e a p o c a l y p t i c l a n g u a g e . H e r e in M a t t h e w t h e y refer t o t h e e v e n t s o f J e s u s ' c o m i n g ( 2 4 . 2 9 - 3 0 ; 2 6 . 6 4 ) a s w e l l a s t h e glory c l o u d o f t h e Transfiguration ( 1 7 . 5 ) . A l l o f t h e u s e s o f d o t i p a r e l i k e w i s e i m b u e d w i t h theological significance. T h e r e v e a l i n g a n d l e a d i n g star is referenced 4 t i m e s in ch. 2 ( w . 2 , 7, 9 , 1 0 ) , likely b e i n g u s e d as a n u n d e r s t o o d m e t a p h o r for

Allison, Jr's Resurrecting Jesus: The Earliest Christian Tradition and Its Interpreters (New York: T&T Clark, 2005), pp. 67-8. 11. R. T. France, Matthew (TNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), p. 156. Cf. F. V. Filson, 77K? Gospel according to St Matthew (2nd edn; London: A&C Black, 1971), p. 100; R. Schnackenburg, The Gospel of Matthew (trans. R. Barr; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002), p. 83. 12. Allison, 'The Problem', p. 78.

2.

the a n g e l o f t h e L o r d .

13

Matthew

33

T h e stars are a l s o said t o fall at t h e return o f t h e S o n

(24.29). T h e s e u s e s o f c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s are i n t e n d e d to c o m m u n i c a t e t h e gravity o f t h e e v e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g J e s u s - e v e n t h e c o s m o s itself is d i s r u p t e d b y his a p p e a r i n g . A t his birth a n e w star a p p e a r s , disturbing t h e set m o t i o n s o f t h e heavens,

14

a n d at h i s S e c o n d C o m i n g , t h e fabric o f creation itself is torn (as it

w a s proleptically at J e s u s ' b a p t i s m a n d resurrection).

Summary

and

Purpose

T h e p u r p o s e o f this s u r v e y o f t e r m s h a s b e e n to s e e k t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w M a t t h e w depicts t h e w o r l d or t h e c o s m o s b y l o o k i n g at k e y w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s . W e m a y call this his Weltbild, or picture o f the physical universe. Yet w e h a v e b e g u n to see that for M a t t h e w , like t h e o t h e r N T a u t h o r s , c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s a n d e x p r e s s i o n s carry m u c h theological freight. T h e N T a u t h o r s , unlike s o m e o f their G r a e c o R o m a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , w e r e n o t interested in c o s m o l o g y qua Instead, w h a t e v e r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d (Weltbild)

cosmology.

15

existed in t h e

m i n d o f M a t t h e w , it w a s certainly n o t d i v o r c e d from his theological constructs r e g a r d i n g G o d a n d creation, w h a t w e m a y call his Weltanschauung.

Moreover,

w h e n e v e r M a t t h e w s p e a k s a b o u t t h e c o s m o s h e is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d p r i m a r i l y m a k i n g theological c l a i m s . T h u s , w e m a y o b s e r v e h o w M a t t h e w ' s w h i c h is likely at least in p a r t u n c o n s c i o u s , p r o m o t e his Weltanschauung.

16

Weltbild,

is b o t h i n f o r m e d b y a n d s e r v e s t o

It is this ' t h e o l o g i c a l w o r l d v i e w ' that drives h i s

a p o l o g e t i c , p o l e m i c a l , a n d evangelistic p o i n t s .

A Worlaview

Pattern?

G o i n g b e y o n d this s u r v e y o f t e r m s , it is fair to ask w h e t h e r w e c a n o b s e r v e a n y p a t t e r n to M a t t h e w ' s Weltbild a n d / o r Weltanschauung.

A close r e a d i n g o f

13. Following the argument in Allison's essay, 'The Magi's Angel', in his Studies in Matthew (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), pp. 17-41. 14. See the interesting essay by N. Denzey, 'A New Star on the Horizon: Astral Christologies and Stellar Debates in Early Christian Discourse', in Scott Noegel, Joel Walker and Brannon Wheeler (eds.), Prayer, Magic, and the Stars in the Ancient and Late Antique World (University Park, PA: Perm State University Press, 2003). She suggests that in the early Christian interpreta tions of Matthew 2 'Christians saw themselves as triumphant, possessed of a secret conviction that the star of Bethlehem signaled not just the birth of the Savior but the transformation of the entire cosmic oikonomia* (p. 221). 15. See the survey of the variety of ancient cosmological theories in Edward Adams' essay in the present volume. 16. As E. C. Lucas observes, the biblical (and human) tendency is to articulate one's world view more clearly than one's cosmological view. The two are interrelated, though rarely does a biblical author clearly spell out the latter. E. C. Lucas, 'Cosmology', in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch (Downers Grove, EL: Intervarsity Press, 2003), p. 131.

34

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

M a t t h e w ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e a n d h o w it functions in h i s n a r r a t i v e r e v e a l s that t h e r e is i n d e e d a central r u b r i c that h o l d s t o g e t h e r b o t h h i s Weltbild Weltanschauung:

and

t h e t h e m e o f h e a v e n a n d earth.

I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e t h a t in t h e O T w e find a n e s s e n t i a l l y b i p a r t i t e picture of the world, built on the foundational pattern of heaven and earth.

17

T h i s c o s m o l o g i c a l v i e w in t h e O T is o r g a n i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o a n d u n d e r g i r d s t h e m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r , w h i c h is t h e c o n c e p t u a l w o r l d v i e w . T h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e for t h e F i r s t G o s p e l . T h r o u g h a s e r i e s o f literary d e v i c e s , M a t t h e w h a s d e v e l o p e d a n e l a b o r a t e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h t h e m e . T h i s i n c l u d e s a differ e n c e in s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l u s e s o f o u p a v o g , h i s d e v e l o p i n g a n d e x p l o i t i n g t h e e x p r e s s i o n s ' F a t h e r in h e a v e n ' a n d ' k i n g d o m o f h e a v e n ' , a n d h i s r e g u l a r l y pairing of heaven and earth both lexically and conceptually. All of this serves for M a t t h e w t o m a k e t h e t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t that a g r e a t c o n t r a s t a n d t e n s i o n exists b e t w e e n heaven and earth, b e t w e e n G o d and humanity. B y regularly e m p h a s i z i n g t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , M a t t h e w crafts a s h a r p distinction b e t w e e n t w o realms: one represented b y the earthly world and the o t h e r b y G o d in h e a v e n . T h i s is f u n d a m e n t a l t o all o f M a t t h e w ' s t h e o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d it c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h h i s b i b l i c a l l y - i n f o r m e d p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d as c o n s i s t i n g o f ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' . S p a c e d o e s n o t p e r m i t m e h e r e t o p r e s e n t full a r g u m e n t s for t h e s e p o i n t s , b u t o n l y t o s u g g e s t t h i s a s a c e n t r a l point of understanding along the w a y toward establishing the main point of t h i s essay. B u i l d i n g u p o n this u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e n e x t q u e s t i o n to a s k is w h a t t h e origin m a y b e o f M a t t h e w ' s h e a v e n a n d earth Weltbild

a n d Weltanschauung.

The

o b v i o u s a n s w e r is t h e J e w i s h S c r i p t u r e s , a n d especially t h e o p e n i n g b o o k o f the OT, which establishes the foundation of Jewish and Christian understanding. It is n o t m e r e l y c o i n c i d e n t a l that G e n e s i s b e g i n s w i t h r e f e r e n c e s to h e a v e n a n d earth a n d that M a t t h e w also u s e s this l a n g u a g e a n d t h e m e regularly. To t h e b o o k o f G e n e s i s w e m a y n o w turn.

Matthew,

Genesis

and the New

Genesis

L i k e all t h e N T a u t h o r s , w h e n M a t t h e w s p e a k s h e e x u d e s B i b l e . F r o m t h e level o f b a s i c v o c a b u l a r y to t h e h e i g h t o f m a c r o s t r u c t u r e , M a t t h e w c o n s c i o u s l y a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y m i m i c s t h e J e w i s h Scriptures. A s H a y s r i g h t l y o b s e r v e s a b o u t all o f t h e G o s p e l s , t h e e v a n g e l i s t s a r e c o n c e r n e d to s h o w that J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s , actions, d e a t h a n d v i n d i c a t i o n ' c o n s t i t u t e d the c o n t i n u a t i o n a n d c l i m a x o f t h e ancient biblical s t o r y ' . T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t w a s t h e ''generative

milieu for t h e

g o s p e l s , t h e o r i g i n a l e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h t h e first C h r i s t i a n traditions w e r e

17. J. T. Pennington, 'Dualism in Old Testament Cosmology: Weltbild and Weltanschauung*, SJOT18/2 (2004), 260-77.

2.

conceived, formed and nurtured'. any of the Gospels.

Matthew

18

35

T h i s is a p p a r e n t for M a t t h e w a s m u c h a s

19

It is n o surprise, t h e n , t o discern s o m a n y q u o t e s from a n d allusions t o t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t in t h e First G o s p e l . E v e n m o r e t h o r o u g h g o i n g t h a n that o f t h e other Synoptic Gospels,

20

M a t t h e w p r o v i d e s u s w i t h o v e r sixty explicit a n d

implicit citations a n d q u o t a t i o n s .

21

In addition t o t h e s e , t h e r e are c o u n t l e s s other

a l l u s i o n s w h i c h w e c a n d i s c e r n w i t h v a r i o u s levels o f confidence. N u m e r o u s studies o n M a t t h e w ' s frequent ' f o r m u l a q u o t a t i o n s ' h a v e b e e n u n d e r t a k e n , in a d d i t i o n to i n v e s t i g a t i o n s into t h e influence o f specific O T b o o k s a n d motifs on Matthew.

22

T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e O T for M a t t h e w c a n n o t b e overstated.

G r a h a m S t a n t o n s u m s it u p this w a y : ' T h e O T is w o v e n into t h e w a r p a n d w o o f o f this g o s p e l ; t h e e v a n g e l i s t u s e s Scripture t o u n d e r l i n e s o m e o f h i s m o s t p r o m i n e n t a n d distinctive t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s ' .

23

I n light o f t h e O T ' s genetic s t a m p o n M a t t h e w andihs o f G e n e s i s in t h e J e w i s h m i n d ,

24

centrality o f t h e b o o k

it is n o t surprising t o find that t h e First G o s p e l

18. R. B. Hays, 'The Canonical Matrix of the Gospels', in S. C. Barton (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 53. 19. Cf. the excellent discussion in R. T. France's, Matthew: Evangelist and Teacher (Downers Grove EL: Intervarsity Press, 1989), particularly pp. 166ff. France argues that the theme that best summarizes the whole of Matthew's message is the fulfilment of the OT. While this could be said for all of the NT books, in Matthew it plays a most dominant role. 20. Compared to the other Synoptics, Matthew includes all of the OT citations from parallel passages in Mark and Q and expands upon them. 21. Richard Beaton, Isaiahs Christ in Matthews Gospel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 17, leaning on the works of M. D. Goulder and D. Senior. 22. Examples include K. Stendahl, The School of St Matthew and its Use of the Old Testa ment (Lund: Gleerup, 1968); R. Gundry, The Use of the Old Testament in St Matthew's Gospel with Special Reference to the Messianic Hope (Leiden: Brill, 1967); Beaton, Isaiah's Christ; M. Knowles, Jeremiah in Matthew's Gospel: The Rejected Prophet Motif in Matthaean Redac tion (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993). One may also consult a large number of articles, such as A. Leske, 'Isaiah and Matthew: The Prophetic Influence in the First Gospel: A Report on Current Research', in W. H. Bellinger, Jr. and W. R. Farmer (eds.), Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins (Harrisburg PA: Trinity Press, 1998), pp. 152-69. A good recent example of the subtle but powerful way in which the OT serves as a subtext for Matthew can be found in D. Moffitt, 'Righteous Bloodshed, Matthew's Passion Narrative, and the Temple's Destruction: Lamentations as a Matthean Intertext', JBL 125.2 (2006), 299-320. 23. G. Stanton, A Gospelfor a New People: Studies in Matthew (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993), p. 346. 24. A number of recent books have dealt with history of interpretation of Genesis, showing how central and pervasive its influence is. Examples include G. H. van Kooten (ed.), The Creation of Heaven and Earth: Re-interpretations of Genesis I in the Context of Judaism, Ancient Phi losophy, Christianity, and Modern Physics (Leiden: Brill, 2005); J. Frishman and L. van Rompay (eds.), The Book of Genesis in Jewish and Oriental Christian Interpretation: A Collection of Essays (Leuven: Peeters, 1997); and several of the essays in A. Wenin (ed.), Studies in the Book of Genesis: Literature, Redaction and History (Leuven: Peeters, 2001).

Cosmology

36

and New Testament

Theology

also s h o w s c o n s c i o u s d e p e n d e n c e u p o n a n d interaction w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e a n d themes of Genesis.

25

T h e a r g u m e n t that follows w i l l s e e k t o s h o w a v a r i e t y o f

w a y s in w h i c h G e n e s i s s e r v e s a s a c r u c i a l b a c k d r o p for M a t t h e w , a s w e l l as h o w this G e n e s i s t h e m e p r o v i d e s t h e v o c a b u l a r y for t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f M a t t h e w ' s h e a v e n a n d e a r t h tension.

Genesis

in

Matthew

Not a great deal of work has been done on Matthew's connection with Genesis. T h e s u g g e s t i o n that M a t t h e w ' s structural form m i m i c s t h e P e n t a t e u c h as a whole was famously argued b y B a c o n ,

2 6

b u t h a s b e e n m u c h d i s p u t e d since. A

few o t h e r studies h a v e u n c o v e r e d t y p o l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n G e n e s i s Exodus and Matthew.

27

But the most obvious connection between Matthew and

G e n e s i s , a n d t h e o n e m o s t d i s c u s s e d , is t h e striking o p e n i n g t o t h e First G o s p e l : ptpAxx; yeveoecoQ TrjooO X p i o t o O u l o u A a u l 8 u l o O

'APpaap.. T h e

first t w o

w o r d s a n d this o p e n i n g line a r e n o t a c c i d e n t a l in their intertextual p o w e r . T h i s o p e n i n g s a l v o p u t s J e s u s C h r i s t in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h r e e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t realities o f J e w i s h h i s t o r y a n d identity - t h e b o o k o f G e n e s i s , t h e k i n g D a v i d , and the patriarch A b r a h a m .

2 8

N u m e r o u s c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e o b s e r v e d h o w t h e w o r d s ptpAog yeveoeiOQ c o n n e c t M a t t h e w ' s n a r r a t i v e w i t h t h e first b o o k o f t h e B i b l e .

29

Recently, Warren

C a r t e r h a s similarly a r g u e d t h a t t h e p h r a s e p t p t a x ; yeveoecoQ in M t . 1.1 e v o k e s for t h e r e a d e r n o t j u s t t h e n a m e o f t h e B o o k o f G e n e s i s in t h e L X X a n d t h e references in G e n . 2.4 a n d 5 . 1 , b u t a l s o ' t h e larger G e n e s i s a c c o u n t s o f w h i c h

25. The NA27 appendix of references lists four quotations and 23 allusions to Genesis, the latter of which vary in strength. 26. B. W. Bacon, Studies in Matthew (London: Constable, 1930). 27. D. Allison's The New Moses: A Matthean Typology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993) pro vides a full-length treatment of this theme. Additionally, Michael Goulder uses the Genesis and Exodus allusions in Matthew 1-5 as an example of justified typological interpretation: M. D. Goulder, Type and History in Acts (London: SPCK, 1964), pp. 1-13. 28. One may observe how the Gospels of Mark and John similarly connect themselves with Genesis through their opening words: TSv dpxfi fi" ^OY°C (Jn 1.1) and 'Apxfj TOO exxtyy^Xiox} Irpov XpiOToO (Mk 1.1). 29. Persuasive arguments can be found in W. D. Davies and D. C. Allison, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew (3 vols.; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998-1999), 1:149-54. See also now Allison's essay, 'Matthew's First Two Words (Matt 1:1)' in his Studies in Matthew, pp. 157-62. In addition to citing many sources who understand Mt 1.1 as referring to Genesis, Allison points out that Ulrich Luz himself has changed his mind in this regard between thefirstand second editions of his commentary. Instead of translating Mat thew's opening words as 'Urkunde des Ursprungs' Jesu Christi', Luz now glosses the phrase as 'Buch der "Genesis" Jesu Christi'. Also helpful is R. Heckl's 'Der biblische Begrundungsrahmen fur die Jungfirauengeburt bei Matthaus: Zur Rezeption von Gen. 5,1-6,4 in Mt 1', ZNW95 (2004), 161-80. 0

2.

they are a p a r t ' .

30

Matthew

37

L e a n i n g o n J o h n F o l e y ' s w o r k o n 'traditional referentiality'

a n d h o w a partial citation e v o k e s a w e l l - k n o w n larger text, C a r t e r s u g g e s t s that M a t t h e w intentionally a l l u d e s to G e n e s i s to call to m i n d ' t h e story o f G o d ' s creative a n d s o v e r e i g n p u r p o s e s for t h e w h o l e w o r l d a s t h e initial c o n t e x t for h e a r i n g t h e story o f J e s u s ' .

31

F o l l o w i n g right after t h e s e e v o c a t i v e w o r d s in 1.1, M a t t h e w ' s g e n e a l o g y also displays i m p o r t a n t intertextual c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h G e n e s i s . T h e series o f ' b e g a t s ' in 1.2-17 c l e a r l y p a r a l l e l s t h e series o f

m-6in p h r a s e s

' b e g a t t i n g s ' ) . A s M . D . J o h n s o n states, plpAxx; yevtoew;

in G e n e s i s (literally, is b e s t u n d e r s t o o d a s

a 'reflection o f t h e toledoth formula in G e n e s i s , in either t h e H e b r e w o r G r e e k form, o r b o t h ' .

3 2

A l s o s u p p o r t i n g this c o n n e c t i o n , J o h n N o l l a n d h a s a r g u e d that

t h e M a t t h e a n g e n e a l o g y c a n b e classified as a n ' a n n o t a t e d g e n e a l o g y ' , a t y p e o f g e n e a l o g y w h i c h functions particularly ' t o set g e n e a l o g i e s into their w i d e r n a r r a t i v e c o n t e x t a n d to e n s u r e that t h e g e n e a l o g i e s function a s c o m p r e s s e d tellings o f t h e history that s t a n d s b e h i n d t h e m ' . M o s t i m p o r t a n t for o u r pur p o s e s , N o l l a n d s u g g e s t s that ' M a t t h e w l e a r n e d h i s craft for t h e creation o f a n a n n o t a t e d g e n e a l o g y from s t u d y o f t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s in G e n e s i s ' .

33

T h u s , from t h e first w o r d s t h r o u g h t h e first section o f M a t t h e w , t h e i m p r i n t o f G e n e s i s is clear. T h i s p a t t e r n c o n t i n u e s a s M a t t h e w p r o g r e s s e s . It m a y b e m o r e t h a n c o i n c i d e n t a l that M a t t h e w e m p h a s i z e s that J e s u s ' father, n a m e d J o s e p h , is a receiver o f divine d r e a m s ( 1 . 1 8 - 2 5 ; 2.19-23), e v e n a s the m o r e f a m o u s J o s e p h o f G e n e s i s w a s . T h i s possibility is s t r e n g t h e n e d w h e n o n e o b s e r v e s h o w i m p o r tant m o v e m e n t to a n d from E g y p t is for J o s e p h , M a r y a n d t h e y o u n g J e s u s . M o r e certainly, t h e w o r k o f t h e H o l y Spirit in 3.16 h a r k e n s b a c k to t h e Spirit's activity at creation. W h i l e t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e Spirit's d e s c e n t a s a d o v e is n o t entirely clear ( 3 . 1 6 ) , it likely alludes either to t h e Spirit's b r o o d i n g o v e r t h e w a t e r s in G e n . 1.2 like a b i r d o v e r its nest, o r to t h e d o v e r e t u r n i n g to N o a h ' s a r k ( G e n . 8.8-12), t h u s signalling t h e e n d o f j u d g e m e n t a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e a g e of blessing.

34

Either w a y , t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G e n e s i s is m a d e . Similarly, refer

e n c e t o t h e b e l o v e d s o n in 3.17 recalls I s a a c , the s o n A b r a h a m loves in G e n e s i s 2 2 . R e f e r e n c e s t o A b r a h a m also a p p e a r several t i m e s in M a t t h e w ( 1 . 1 - 2 ; 3.9; 8.11; 2 2 . 3 2 ) as d o S o d o m ( 1 0 . 1 5 ) a n d ' t h e d a y s o f N o a h ' ( 2 4 . 3 7 ) . A l s o sig nificant is t h e three-fold allusion t o t h e C a i n a n d A b e l story ( G e n . 4 . 1 - 1 6 ) in

30. W. Carter, 'Matthew and the Gentiles: Individual Conversion and/or Systemic Transformation\ JSNT263 (2004), 259-82 (262). See also Carter's 'Evoking Isaiah: Matthean Soteriology and an Intertextual Reading of Isaiah 7-9 in Matthew 1:23 and 4:15-16', JBL 119 (2000), 503-20. 31. Carter, 'Matthew and the Gentiles', p. 262. 32. M. D. Johnson, The Purpose of the Biblical Genealogies (2nd edn; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 149. 33. J. Nolland, 'Genealogical Annotation in Genesis as Background for the Matthean Geneal ogy of Jesus', Tyndale Bulletin 47.1 (1996), 115-22(115). 34. D. A. Hagner, Matthew 1-13 (WBC; Dallas: Word, 1993), p. 58.

38

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

35

M a t t h e w ( 5 . 2 1 - 2 5 ; 18.21-22; 2 3 . 3 4 - 3 6 ) . T h e r e are also t h e o b v i o u s quotations o f G e n e s i s in M t . 19.4-5 a n d 2 2 . 2 4 . O n e m a y also see a p r o b a b l e allusion t o t h e p r e - c r e a t i o n d a r k n e s s o f G e n . 1.2 in M t . 2 7 . 5 4 , w h e r e t h e w h o l e earth/land is c o v e r e d w i t h d a r k n e s s at J e s u s ' d e a t h .

36

W e h a v e o b s e r v e d that t h e o p e n i n g w o r d s a n d s e c t i o n o f M a t t h e w m a k e a particularly clear intertextual allusion to G e n e s i s . It is n o t insignificant that t h e c l o s i n g w o r d s o f M a t t h e w likewise reference t h e s a m e . W e m a y e v e n say that t h e c l i m a c t i c p e r i c o p e o f M a t t h e w ( 2 8 . 1 6 - 2 0 ) s e r v e s as a c a p s t o n e for this intentional c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G e n e s i s .

37

N o t i c e h o w M t . 1.1 h i g h l i g h t s t h e

r o l e o f A b r a h a m , as d o e s 2 8 . 1 9 w i t h its reference to t h e G o s p e l g o i n g forth to 'all n a t i o n s ' . T h i s clearly alludes to G e n e s i s 1 1 - 1 2 a n d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f A b r a h a m as t h e o n e t h r o u g h w h o m G o d will b l e s s 'all t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e e a r t h ' ( 1 2 . 2 - 3 ) . T h i s c o n n e c t i o n is v e r y significant b e c a u s e in G e n e s i s G o d ' s authority as creator o v e r h e a v e n a n d earth ( G e n e s i s 1-2) is t h e b a s i s for h i s r e d e m p t i v e p u r p o s e for all t h e n a t i o n s , w o r k e d o u t t h r o u g h t h e p e r s o n o f A b r a h a m ( G e n e s i s 12 a n d b e y o n d ) . M a t t h e w ' s structure s h o w s sensitivity t o this r e d e m p t i v e nar rative, w i t h its s t r o n g t h e m e o f h e a v e n a n d earth t h r o u g h o u t , c u l m i n a t i n g in J e s u s ' o w n authority o v e r h e a v e n a n d earth ( G o d ' s p r e r o g a t i v e in G e n . 1.1) with the result that h i s disciples m a y g o a n d b r i n g t h e b l e s s i n g s o f t h e g o s p e l t o all n a t i o n s - t h e p u r p o s e a n d z e n i t h o f t h e p r o c e s s b e g u n in G e n e s i s 1-12. It a p p e a r s that M a t t h e w u s e s 2 8 . 1 6 - 2 0 so that w e m i g h t v i e w his G o s p e l a c c o u n t as a n a p p r o p r i a t e b o o k e n d m a t c h i n g t h e first b o o k o f t h e Scriptures. O n e o f t h e k e y p o i n t e r s t o this is that t h e final five w o r d s o f M a t t h e w (eax; ifj<; owxektiaQ

T O O a l ( 3 v o g , ' t o t h e e n d o f t h e a g e ' ) f o r m a n inclusio

with both

M t . 1.1 a n d G e n . 1.1, s p a n n i n g from t h e creation to t h e end. Additionally, b e y o n d t h e level o f t h e s e q u o t a t i o n s a n d allusions t o G e n e s i s , w e m a y also o b s e r v e that t h e p r e d o m i n a n t t h e m e o f h e a v e n a n d earth in M a t t h e w , s u g g e s t e d a b o v e , finds its fount in t h e l a n g u a g e o f G e n e s i s . H a v i n g

35. The words 'the blood of Abel the just' in Mt. 23.35 make this connection explicit. The other two passages in Matthew are thick with allusions to Gen. 4.1 -16 as Dale Allison ably points out in his essay, 'Murder and Anger, Cairfand Abel (Matt. 5:21-25)', in Studies in Matthew, pp. 65-78. 36. W. D. Davies, The Setting of the Sermon on the Mount (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), p. 84. See also Allison's essay 'Darkness at Noon', in his Studies in Matthew, pp. 83^. 37. This important text in Matthew likely serves several intertextual purposes. In addition to connecting to Genesis, it is widely recognized that Mt. 28.16-20 also refers to Dan. 7.13. Additionally, a good argument can also be made for a connection between Mt. 28.16-20 and 2 Chron. 36.23 (canonically, the last verse of the Hebrew Bible): 'Thus says Cyrus king of Persia, "The LORD, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth, and he has charged me to build him a house at Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whoever is among you of all his people, may the LORD his God be with him. Let him go up"'. Cf. B. J. Malina, 'The Literary Structure and Form of Mt. 28:16-20', NTS 17 (1970), 87-103; Schnackenburg, Matthew, p. 297.

2.

Matthew

39

seen h o w i m p o r t a n t G e n e s i s is for M a t t h e w , it is n o t difficult n o w to r e c o g n i z e that M a t t h e w ' s central h e a v e n a n d earth t h e m e h a s its p r i m a r y s o u r c e in t h e o p e n i n g w o r d s o f t h e J e w i s h Scriptures. T h u s , n o t o n l y at t h e level o f citation a n d allusion, b u t also o n t h e p l a n e o f l a n g u a g e a n d t h e m e - h e r e t h e e x p r e s s i o n ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' - M a t t h e w is e x p r e s s i n g his i n d e b t e d n e s s t o G e n e s i s .

The Function

of Genesis

in

Matthew

Having established the frequency and depth of Matthew's dependence on G e n e s i s , w e m a y a s k w h a t significance this m a y h a v e . W h a t is t h e function o f G e n e s i s in M a t t h e w ? W e h a v e s e e n a b o v e that C a r t e r s u g g e s t e d that t h e o p e n i n g w o r d s o f M a t t h e w s e r v e t o e v o k e t h e w h o l e story o f G e n e s i s a n d G o d ' s r e d e m p t i v e a c t s . T h i s a c c o r d s w i t h t h e m a n y functions o f intertextuality in Scripture. A l o n g similar lines, r e f e r e n c e to t h e G e n e s i s D H ^ I D s c h e m a in t h e M a t t h e a n g e n e a l o g y s h o w s J e s u s t o b e t h e n e w a n d final m i l e s t o n e in this foundational s y s t e m . T h i s , c o m b i n e d w i t h m a n y o t h e r typological c o n n e c t i o n s in t h e o p e n i n g chapters o f M a t t h e w , serves to s h o w the continuity o f M a t t h e w ' s story a n d t h e e v e n t s o f J e s u s w i t h t h e w o r k o f t h e G o d o f Israel. E v e n m o r e specifically, M a t t h e w ' s frequent u s e o f G e n e s i s , i n c l u d i n g t h e h e a v e n a n d earth t h e m e , is a k e y that M a t t h e w w a n t s u s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e w o r k o f J e s u s C h r i s t a s constituting a c o m p l e m e n t t o t h e G e n e s i s story, i n d e e d a n e w creation. T h o m a s H i e k e m a k e s t h e fascinating a r g u m e n t that t h e first four w o r d s o f M t . 1.1 a r e a n i n t e n d e d c h a n g e o f a n d twist u p o n the LXX version o f G e n . 2.4 a n d 5 . 1 . T h o s e t w o texts b o t h u s e pipAoq y e v e a e a x ; followed b y t h e g e n i t i v e p h r a s e s o u p a v o u K a l yf\Q (2.4) a n d dv0pcoiTG)v (5.1). Significantly, M a t t h e w substitutes t h e s e g e n i t i v e p h r a s e s w i t h h i s o w n I n p o O X p i G T o O . H i e k e c o n c l u d e s that it is v e r y e a s y t o see that this s h o w s that J e s u s is to b e u n d e r s t o o d as signifying a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l n e w creation, as t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n o f b o t h h e a v e n a n d earth a n d h u m a n i t y .

38

Similarly, in c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e o p e n i n g w o r d s ,

D a v i e s a n d A l l i s o n a r g u e that M a t t h e w e m p l o y s t h e w o r d s ptpAoc;

yeveoeux;

' i n o r d e r t o d r a w a parallel b e t w e e n o n e b e g i n n i n g a n d a n o t h e r b e g i n n i n g , between the creation of the cosmos and A d a m and Eve on the one hand and t h e n e w creation b r o u g h t b y t h e M e s s i a h o n t h e o t h e r ' .

39

They continue, 'This

m e a n s , a c c o r d i n g to t h e p r i n c i p l e that t h e e n d will b e like t h e b e g i n n i n g , that t h e g o s p e l c o n c e r n s e s c h a t o l o g y ; it r e c o u n t s the fulfillment o f the h o p e for a " n e w creation"'.

40

Or, t o u s e t h e w o r d s o f J o h n N o l l a n d , if M t . 1.1 w e r e m e a n t as a

38. T. Hieke, 'Biblos Geneseos: Mt 1,1 vom Buch Genesis her Gelesen', in J.-M. Auwers and H. J. De Jonge (eds.), The Biblical Canons (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2003), pp. 646-7; see also the chart on p. 644. 39. Davies and Allison, Matthew, 1:150. See also Allison, 'Matthew's First Two Words', pp. 157-62. 40. Davies and Allison, Matthew, 1:153.

Cosmology

40

and New Testament

Theology

reference t o t h e ' b o o k o f G e n e s i s ' , t h e n M a t t h e w w o u l d b e u s i n g this l a n g u a g e ' t o i m p l y that telling t h e story o f J e s u s is like p r o v i d i n g a n e w G e n e s i s a c c o u n t , that is, s i n c e c r e a t i o n is t h e o r i g i n t o w h i c h G e n e s i s t r a c e s t h i n g s , t h a t a n e w ( e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ) creation c o m e s into b e i n g w i t h J e s u s ' .

4 1

T h e r e f o r e , in light o f t h e p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n , t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e that M a t t h e w intentionally i n t e r w o v e his G o s p e l w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e a n d i m a g e s o f G e n e s i s to s h o w that t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n o f G o d ' s r e d e m p t i v e w o r k h a s o c c u r r e d in J e s u s Christ. In a d d i t i o n t o a s s o r t e d u s e s o f G e n e s i s overall, h e u s e s t h e familiar a n d f o u n d a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e o f h e a v e n a n d earth f o u n d in G e n . 1.1 a n d b e y o n d t o c o n n e c t h i s o w n G o s p e l w i t h t h e larger n a r r a t i v e o f G e n e s i s , t h e r e b y p r o c l a i m i n g that J e s u s is t h e O n e in w h o m G o d ' s f o u n d a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s a r e c o n s u m m a t e d . S o , w e m a y o b s e r v e that t h e u l t i m a t e function o f M a t t h e w ' s cosmological language (especially but not only 'heaven and earth') is t h e t h e o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e o f s h o w i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n t h e G o d o f t h e O l d Testament and the Messiah Jesus.

The Meaning

of Matthew

s

Palingenesia

T h e r e is y e t o n e crucial r e f e r e n c e t o G e n e s i s that w e h a v e n o t m e n t i o n e d . It is the oft-overlooked w o r d

raAiYYeveota

in 19.28. T h e v a r i e t y o f d a t a p r e s e n t e d

a b o v e for t h e significance o f G e n e s i s in M a t t h e w p r o v i d e s a n i m p o r t a n t b a c k d r o p for fully u n d e r s t a n d i n g this w o r d a n d its function in M a t t h e w . HuXv(Y£V€oicL

o c c u r s o n l y t w o t i m e s in t h e N T , h e r e in M a t t h e w a s w e l l as

in Tit. 3 . 5 . In t h e latter c a s e it is typically translated w i t h t h e w o r d ' r e g e n e r a t i o n ' . W i t h l a n g u a g e that a p p r o a c h e s a c r e e d a l formulation, Tit. 3.4-7 s p e a k s o f t h e s a v i n g w o r k o f G o d t h r o u g h t h e a g e n c y o f t h e H o l y Spirit. Verse 5 d e s c r i b e s this a s a s a v i n g 5ux Axnrrpou ^aXiyy^v^oioQ

KOCI

ai/aKaivcooeax; ('through the

w a s h i n g o f r e g e n e r a t i o n a n d r e n e w a l ' ) . F o r o u r p u r p o s e s w e m a y n o t e that t h e c o m m o n t h r e a d b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o n o u n s ( i T o d i Y Y ^ ^ o t a a n d ( f o w c a i v o o i c ; ) is that o f ' a g a i n - n e s s ' . T h e r e is a s t r o n g affirmation h e r e that t h e n e w , life-giving w o r k o f G o d is o n e o f restoration, r e s u l t i n g in eternal life for h u m a n i t y (3.7) e v e n as G o d ' s o r i g i n a l w o r k b r e a t h e d life into m a n a n d w o m a n . YUxXiyy^ayjOL

d o e s n o t o c c u r in t h e L X X , b u t t h e N T ' s u s a g e d o e s n o t c o m e

t o u s in a v a c u u m . T h e N T ' s relative infrequency o f u s a g e d o e s n o t reflect that o f G r e e k literature p r e c e d i n g a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h M a t t h e w , w h e r e w e d o find m a n y u s e s o f t h e w o r d . A n u m b e r o f scholars h a v e e x p l o r e d this issue. F o r e x a m p l e , F. W. B u r n e t t d i d a n e x t e n s i v e s t u d y o f t h e m a n y o c c u r r e n c e s

41. It must be stated that this is not Nolland's position, though ironically, it is one of the best summaries of what I am arguing here. This quote comes from Nolland's essay, 'What Kind of Genesis Do We Have in Matt. 1.1?', NTS 42 (1996), p. 469, n. 25, in which he rejects the view that Matthew's opening words are functioning in this way, though his arguments to this end are less than convincing.

2.

of iTaA.iYY

6 l / € 0

Matthew

41

a

t in P h i l o a n d found that t h e w o r d is a central idea in P h i l o ' s

w r i t i n g s a n d b a s i c a l l y m e a n s t h e rebirth o f t h e v i r t u o u s s o u l into a n o n c o r poreal existence,

42

t h o u g h it c a n also refer to t h e n e w w o r l d after t h e F l o o d

(Vit. Mos. 2 . 6 5 ; cf. 1 Clem, 9.4). JlaXiyy^v^oxxL

is u s e d in o t h e r G r e e k litera

t u r e in a variety o f w a y s . It is p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t in Stoic w r i t i n g s , w h e r e TTodiYYeveoia w a s often u s e d t o refer t o t h e p e r i o d i c d i s s o l u t i o n a n d r e n e w a l o f t h e u n i v e r s e in fiery c o n f l a g r a t i o n .

43

O n e interesting u s e is f o u n d in J o s e p h u s

w h e r e t h e w o r d is u s e d t o refer t o I s r a e l ' s r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t after t h e E x i l e {Ant. 11.66) In t e r m s o f the w o r d ' s m e a n i n g in M t . 19.28, w e m a y first o b s e r v e that it is defined, at least in part, in t h e following p h r a s e as ' w h e n t h e S o n o f M a n sits u p o n h i s g l o r i o u s t h r o n e ' , a r e f e r e n c e itself t o D a n . 7.9-27 w h i c h w i l l o c c u r 4 4

a g a i n in M t . 2 5 . 3 1 a n d 2 6 . 6 4 . T h i s t i m e is also d e s c r i b e d as w h e n t h e disciples ' j u d g e t h e t w e l v e tribes o f I s r a e l ' , w h i c h likely refers t o t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a g e w h e n the disciples w i l l e x e r c i s e s o m e t y p e o f authority in G o d ' s k i n g d o m o n t h e earth. B u r n e t t , m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , w r o t e a n article e x a m i n i n g this w o r d in 19.28 a n d s u g g e s t e d that it refers to t h e rebirth o f t h e w o r l d o r t h e rebirth o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , a n d that t h e s e often entail o n e another. T h u s , ' i n its M a t t h e a n c o n t e x t mkiyyevtoia

c o u l d h a v e o v e r t o n e s o f b o t h t h e n e w w o r l d a n d life in t h e n e w

w o r l d ( " r e s u r r e c t i o n " ) ' . I n p a r a l l e l w i t h M k 10.30 it is b a s i c a l l y s y n o n y m o u s with 'the end of the a g e ' or 'the age to c o m e ' .

4 5

J. D u n c a n M . D e r r e t t r e s p o n d e d

a n d a r g u e d that i n s t e a d t h e w o r d m e a n s o n l y t h e single e v e n t o f ' t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n ' . H e c l a i m s in s u p p o r t o f h i s v i e w m a n y h e a v y w e i g h t s in t h e h i s t o r y of interpretation, including Augustine, Munster, Beza, Capellus and (though h e is s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s ) J e r o m e . H o w e v e r , D e r r e t t ' s v i e w is t o o n a r r o w in limiting it t o t h e t i m e o f t h e resurrection. A s a result, m a n y , i n c l u d i n g D a v i e s a n d A l l i s o n , reject D e r r e t t ' s r e a d i n g o f the w o r d a s t o o punctiliar; b e t t e r is t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g that t h e aakiyyeveout c o m e ' . T h e utikiyy^v^oia a redeemed Israel'.

46

refers t o a t i m e p e r i o d , ' t h e a g e t o

is ' t h e w o r l d in w h i c h C h r i s t r e i g n s , a w o r l d w i t h

D a v i d S i m t a k e s u p t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n c e m o r e in h i s 1993

42. F. W. Burnett, 'Philo on Immortality: A Thematic Study of Philo's Concept of iraA.iyyeveoLa', CBQ 46 (1984), 447-70. Burnett even states that when one speaks of TrcdiYY^veoia in Philo one is speaking simultaneously 'of what is perhaps the organizing centre of his thought, viz., the migration of the soul towards immortality' (p. 447). 43. E.g., Marcus Aurelius 11.1.3. See also Diogenes Laertius 7.134; Cicero Nat. Deorum 2.118. See discussion in Nolland, The Gospel of Matthew (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), p. 799. 44. In addition to Daniel 7, connection can also be found with Deut. 17.18 and 1 Enoch 62.5; 69.29 (and cf. Rev. 3.21). 45. F. W. Burnett, 'IIaA.iYY€veo-ia in Matt. 19:28: A Window on the Matthean Community?', JSNT17 (1983), 60-72 (65). 46. Davies and Allison, Matthew, 3:57-8. This is also the view of BDAG. Quite similar is the

42

Cosmology

JSNT a r t i c l e .

47

and New Testament

Theology

H e r e v i e w s t h e a r g u m e n t that t h e w o r d m e a n s t h e a g e to c o m e

a n d o n l y that, w i t h n o c o n n o t a t i o n o f c o s m i c destruction a n d re-creation. T h i s is a n issue b e c a u s e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l influence that S t o i c i s m , w i t h its b e l i e f in t h e r e g u l a r d e s t r u c t i o n a n d re-creation o f t h e u n i v e r s e , h a d o n J e w i s h a n d C h r i s tian c o s m o l o g y . M a n y h a v e b e e n rightly c o n c e r n e d to s h o w t h e differences b e t w e e n a Stoic c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d a n d that o f S e c o n d T e m p l e J e w i s h eschatology, n a m e l y that ( u n l i k e t h e Stoic v i e w ) t h e c y c l e o f d e s t r u c t i o n a n d re-creation is not p e r p e t u a l in t h e J e w i s h w o r l d view. B u t S i m s h o w s that a view of i T o d i Y Y

€ l / e o

t

a

that d o e s n o t t a k e into a c c o u n t t h e reality o f c o s m i c

destruction a n d r e - c r e a t i o n is insufficient. T h i s is b e c a u s e t h e rejection o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n - r e c r e a t i o n v i e w is u s u a l l y m a d e b y a r g u i n g t h a t M a t t h e w n e v e r s p e a k s o f t h e e n d o f t h e w o r l d o r c o s m o s . B u t as S i m p o i n t s o u t , M a t t h e w d o e s i n d e e d d o s o in 5.18 a n d 2 4 . 3 5 . T h e r e f o r e , S i m a r g u e s that (in line w i t h 0

the S e c o n d T e m p l e a p o c a l y p t i c literature) T T a X t Y Y ^ ^ ' e x p r e s s e s t h e idea, c o m m o n in a p o c a l y p t i c circles, o f c o s m i c destruction a n d r e g e n e r a t i o n w h i c h the n e w a g e will b r i n g ' .

4 8

T h u s , in 19.28 t h e w o r d m e a n s ' n o t j u s t t h e n e w a g e

b u t t h e total r e - c r e a t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s t h e n e w a g e ' . S i m p o i n t s o u t that w h i l e M a t t h e w d o e s d e s c r i b e this r e g e n e r a t i o n w i t h a w o r d bor r o w e d from S t o i c i s m , h e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o share t h e Stoic v i e w .

49

Thus, while

M a t t h e w , like o t h e r S e c o n d T e m p l e w r i t e r s , d o e s n o t b e l i e v e in t h e Stoic v i e w o f a p e r p e t u a l c y c l e o f d e s t r u c t i o n - r e - c r e a t i o n , his b o r r o w i n g o f

itakiyyeveoia

is a p p r o p r i a t e in that it e n v i s a g e s a real destruction a n d re-creation. W r i t i n g m u c h earlier, G e e r h a r d u s Vos c o m e s to similar c o n c l u s i o n s .

50

He

d i s c u s s e s t h e biblical e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e that t h e e n d c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e b e g i n n i n g , b u t n o t e s that u n l i k e o t h e r A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n beliefs s u c h as S t o icism, in t h e biblical v i e w t h e r e w i l l n o t b e a repetition o f t h e s a m e p r o c e s s , b u t ' a restoration o f t h e p r i m e v a l h a r m o n y o n a h i g h e r p l a n e s u c h as p r e c l u d e s all further d i s t u r b a n c e ' . Vos sees M a t t h e w 19.28 as a reference t o this n e w h e a v e n s a n d n e w earth that ' m a r k s t h e w o r l d - r e n e w i n g as t h e r e n e w a l o f a n a b n o r m a l state o f t h i n g s ' . Vos is careful t o p o i n t o u t that this is i n d e e d a r e n e w a l , n o t a creation de novo, biblical v i e w s .

t h e r e b y a g a i n m a k i n g a distinction b e t w e e n t h e Stoic a n d

51

T h i s m o d e r n s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n o f TtaXiyyeveoia

is beneficial. B u t w h a t

h a s n o t b e e n sufficiently p o i n t e d o u t is that in M a t t h e w this w o r d c o m e s to u s

view of Gundry: The word '... probably refers to Israel's renewal when God fully establishes his kingdom on earth'. Gundry, Matthew, p. 392. 47. D. C. Sim, 'The Meaning of TiaXiyyeveoia in Matthew 19.28', JSNT 50 (1993), 3-12. 48. Sim, 'The Meaning', p. 5. 49. Sim, 'The Meaning', p. 11. 50. Geerhardus Vos, ISBE, s.v. 'Heavens, New (and Earth, New)', 2:1353-4. 51. In this discussion Vos also addresses what may appear to be the Stoic view in 2 Pet 3.6-13. He argues that in that text the language of destruction byfireis actually renewal language, not that of destruction in light of analogue of the Flood which also 'destroyed' the world through water.

2.

Matthew

43

n o t a l o n e b u t as o n e o f t h e m a n y s i g n p o s t s p o i n t i n g u s b a c k t o G e n e s i s a n d t h e t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t h e is m a k i n g v i a this intertextual m o v e . t h e referent or denotation

o f mkiyyeveoia

5 2

T h a t i s , I affirm that

for M a t t h e w is t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l

a g e t o c o m e , d e p i c t e d as that o f a r e n e w e d creation. B u t j u s t a s importantly, w e m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h e g r e a t e r connotation

that w e a s r e a d e r s o f M a t t h e w are

i n t e n d e d t o r e c e i v e : that reference to a ' g e n e s i s a g a i n '

5 3

s h o u l d t r i g g e r in o u r

m i n d s t h e p l e t h o r a o f o t h e r w a y s that M a t t h e w h a s b e e n u s i n g G e n e s i s from h i s o p e n i n g w o r d s o n . A n d a g a i n , t h e p o i n t o f this b r o a d t h e m a t i c a n d linguistic o v e r l a p b e t w e e n G e n e s i s a n d M a t t h e w is to a r g u e that in J e s u s C h r i s t w e find t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n o f G o d ' s w o r k that b e g a n w i t h h i s creation. T h e s a m e is o c c u r r i n g h e r e in 19.28. In t h e eschatological n e w creation t h o s e w h o w i l l sit as j u d g i n g authorities a r e n o n e other t h a n J e s u s ' o w n c h o s e n d i s c i p l e s . T h i s is clearly a c l a i m that g o e s far b e y o n d a m e r e p r o p h e t i c e s c h a t o l o g i c a l vision! T h i s is o n e s t a t e m e n t a m o n g m a n y in t h e First G o s p e l that r e v e a l s that M a t t h e w ' s Weltbild a n d Weltanschauung

are t h o r o u g h l y C h r i s t o c e n t r i c .

Conclusion O u r earlier d i s c u s s i o n o f w o r l d v i e w w i l l b r i n g to m i n d for m a n y t h e p a r a digmatic w o r k of Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, and the idea of one's ' s y m b o l i c u n i v e r s e ' . B e r g e r a n d L u c k m a n n define s y m b o l i c u n i v e r s e s as ' b o d i e s o f theoretical tradition that integrate different p r o v i n c e s o f m e a n i n g a n d e n c o m p a s s t h e institutional o r d e r in a s y m b o l i c t o t a l i t y ' .

54

M o r e simply,

w e m a y d e s c r i b e a s y m b o l i c u n i v e r s e as t h e integrated s y s t e m o f b e l i e f s , v a l u e s a n d s y m b o l s w h i c h are u s e d b y g r o u p s to legitimate their u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r l d . T h e s y m b o l i c u n i v e r s e is u n d e r s t a n d a b l y i m p o r t a n t for r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s , especially o n e s w h i c h h a v e b r o k e n a w a y from another, ' m o t h e r ' g r o u p . B e r g e r

52. It should be noted that one of the few people to explicitly make the connection between Genesis 1 and Mt. 19.28 is John Nolland. Though, as with the discussion above (see n. 41), Nolland sees how some could make this connection only to reject it himself (Nolland, 'What Kind of Genesis...?', p. 465). However, Nolland's brief arguments against the Genesis-Matthew connection here prove wanting. He does not seemingly want to allow Matthew to make such a play on words, and more perplexing, he writes that 'TrodiYY^cua has clearly been chosen for its wider Hellenistic associations and not for any capacity to evoke the biblical creation tradition'. Herein lies a false dichotomy. Can we say that a Jew, writing in Greek from within the Hellenis tic world, has chosen a word with Greek connotations rather than for its biblical connections? Rather, it seems that the biblical authors chose Hellenistic Greek words, often aware that these words had different Hellenistic connotations, yet they imbued them with their own meaning from their own biblical world view. 53. I am quite aware of the many dangers of dissecting a word into its etymological parts to discern its meaning. However, in this instance, especially in light of the many Genesis references in Matthew, this translation has much to commend itself. 54. P. L. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Soci ology of Knowledge (London: Penguin, 1966; repr. 1991), p. 113.

44

Cosmology

and New Testament

h a s called this a ' s a c r e d c a n o p y ' .

55

Theology

T h e last quarter-century h a s s e e n m u c h w o r k

d o n e in a p p l y i n g this v i e w to t h e s t u d y o f M a t t h e w .

56

This a p p r o a c h is v e r y p e r t i n e n t t o o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f M a t t h e w ' s c o s m o l o g y . I h a v e a r g u e d a b o v e that a variety o f c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s c a n b e found in M a t t h e w a n d that in e v e r y c a s e this l a n g u a g e u l t i m a t e l y h a s a strongly theological point. Central to M a t t h e w ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e is t h e t h e m e o f h e a v e n a n d earth. M a t t h e w r e g u l a r l y u s e s this t h e m e as b u t o n e o f t h e m a n y w a y s in w h i c h h e is p r e s e n t i n g h i s G o s p e l a s a b o o k e n d t o G e n e s i s . In a striking w a y , M a t t h e w ' s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G e n e s i s s e r v e s as t h e foundation for b o t h h i s Weltbild Weltanschauung.

and

B y u s i n g G e n e s i s a s a foundational subtext, M a t t h e w is a b l e

to p r o v i d e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s y m b o l i c u n i v e r s e w h i l e a l s o i n d i c a t i n g w h a t is likely h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p h y s i c a l w o r l d , t h u s a g a i n s h o w i n g t h e inevi table o v e r l a p o f t h e s e t w o realities. A s H a y s h a s o b s e r v e d , t h e First G o s p e l functions v e r y m u c h like a

mythos,

a w o r l d - c r e a t i n g , foundational story o f reality. In this w a y M a t t h e w clearly m i m i c s G e n e s i s . T h e stories o f G e n e s i s , especially c h s 1 - 1 1 , p r o v i d e the fun d a m e n t a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r l d (both Weltbild a n d Weltanschauung).

For

M a t t h e w , this is a c c e p t e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d a n e w in light o f t h e p e r s o n o f J e s u s . F o r M a t t h e w , t h e entirety o f creation a n d G o d ' s d e a l i n g s w i t h h i s creation are c o n s u m m a t e d in t h e G o d - m a n w h o t o o k o n created flesh, J e s u s t h e Christ. W i t h G e n e s i s as t h e foundational t e s t i m o n y t o t h e w o r l d v i e w o f M a t t h e w t h e Jew, h e n o w u n d e r s t a n d s this reality t o find its a p e x a n d g o a l in t h e incarnation o f 4

G o d w i t h u s ' ( 1 . 2 3 ; cf. 2 8 . 2 0 ) . T h u s , M a t t h e w is p r o v i d i n g for h i s r e a d e r s a

mythos that establishes t h e n e w a n d final w o r l d v i e w , o n e that c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h Genesis even while w e await the 'genesis-again' inaugurated by Jesus.

55. P. L. Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (New York: Anchor Books, 1990). See also the discussion in P. Esler, The First Christians in their Social Worlds: Social-Scientific Approaches to New Testament Interpretation (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. g-10. 56. Examples include D. L. Balch (ed.), Social History of the Matthean Community (Minne apolis: Fortress, 1991); J. A. Overman, Matthews Gospel and Formative Judaism (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990); idem, Church and Community in Crisis: The Gospel According to Matthew (Valley Forge: Trinity, 1996); A. J. Saldarini, Matthews Christian-Jewish Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).

3 TEARING THE HEAVENS A N D SHAKING THE HEAVENLIES: M A R K ' S COSMOLOGY IN ITS APOCALYPTIC CONTEXT

M i c h a e l F. B i r d

Carl S a g a n ' s b o o k , The Demon Haunted

World, is a militantly atheistic a t t e m p t 1

to d i s l o d g e a theistic w o r l d v i e w w i t h a p u r e l y materialistic o n e . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e S e c o n d G o s p e l , w h o m I follow tradition in n a m i n g M a r k , w o u l d b e m o s t unlikely t o s u b s c r i b e t o S a g a n ' s atheological

perspective of the cosmos. For

M a r k , his w o r l d v i e w is consistently theocentric a n d i n d e b t e d to t h e J e w i s h Weltanschauungwith

a C r e a t o r o f ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' (e.g. G e n . 1 4 . 1 9 , 2 2 ; E x o d .

20.11) w h o h a s a l s o created/elected h i s o w n p e o p l e , Israel (Deut. 4 . 3 2 - 3 3 ; Isa. 2

4 3 . 1 ; 44.1-2). But one point where M a r k would agree with Sagan, or Sagan's b o o k title at least, is that this w o r l d is i n d e e d d e m o n h a u n t e d . In a v e r y real s e n s e , h u m a n s a r e o p p r e s s e d b y m a l e v o l e n t p o w e r s (the political a n d spiritual n o t a l w a y s n e a t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d , e.g. M k 5.1-14), it is full o f suffering, a n d r e e k s o f death. M a r k ' s ' w o r l d ' is truly m a c a b r e , d a r k a n d tragic - b u t M a r k t h i n k s this ' w o r l d ' is c h a n g i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o M a r k , G o d h a s b o t h a S o n a n d a K i n g d o m w h i c h h a v e b r o k e n into this d e m o n h a u n t e d w o r l d a n d a r e effecting its transformation, its r e d e m p t i o n a n d finally its re-creation. A s M i c h a e l P a t e l l a w r i t e s : ' T h e p a s s i o n , d e a t h , a n d resurrection a r e J e s u s ' t r i u m p h o v e r S a t a n in t h e c o s m i c battle. T h i s t r i u m p h s w e e p s in the e s c h a t o n . C r e a t i o n is s a v e d a n d 3

r e u n i t e d w i t h G o d ' . T h i s is t h e fulcrum o f M a r k ' s story o f J e s u s , this is t h e h o p e that h e w i s h e s to i m p a r t to h i s a u d i e n c e s , this is w h y M a r k called h i s w o r k e u a y y E A i o v ( ' g o s p e l ' ) in 1.1. T h u s , M a r k ' s G o s p e l p r e s u p p o s e s a certain c o s m o l o g y in that t h e salvation a n d r e d e m p t i o n a c h i e v e d b y t h e M a r c a n J e s u s is indelibly b o u n d u p w i t h a certain u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r l d . I n light o f t h i s , t h e a i m o f this s t u d y is t o d e s c r i b e e l e m e n t s o f M a r k ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l s c h e m e

1. C. Sagan, The Demon Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark (New York: Random House, 1995). 2. Cf. J. T. Pennington, 'Dualism in Old Testament Cosmology: Weltbild and Weltanschau ung', Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 18 (2004), 260-77; S. Grindheim, The Crux of Election (WUNT 2.202; Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2005), pp. 8-9. 3. M. Patella, The Lord of the Cosmos: Mithras, Paul, and the Gospel of Mark (New York: T&T Clark, 2006), p. 59.

Cosmology

46

and New Testament

Theology

a n d t o identify h o w it i m p a c t s t h e t h e o l o g i c a l structures e m b e d d e d w i t h i n h i s narrative. Mark as Apocalyptic

Eschatology

M a r k e x p r e s s e s a w o r l d v i e w w h i c h , i n its b a s i c o u t l o o k , c a n b e c a t e g o r i z e d a s a p o c a l y p t i c eschatology. C e r t a i n w r i t i n g s c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s ' a p o c a l y p t i c literature' b u t M a r k is n o t ' a p o c a l y p t i c ' if b y that o n e m e a n s t h e t e x t ' s p e r s p e c tive a n d w o r l d v i e w ; rather, M a r k exhibits a form o f a p o c a l y p t i c eschatology. B y ' a p o c a l y p t i c e s c h a t o l o g y ' I m e a n that t h e c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l b e a r s significant correlation t o t h e features o f a certain e s c h a t o l o g y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y p e s s i m i s m , d u a l i s m , d e t e r m i n i s m , m e s s i a n i s m a n d a h o p e for a d i v i n e d e l i v e r a n c e . T h i s s h o u l d b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h apocalypticism,

w h i c h is

a social a n d religious p h e n o m e n o n f o u n d a m o n g g r o u p s like Q u m r a n a n d t h e B r a n c h D a v i d i a n s . I t h i n k it p o s s i b l e that M a r k ' s G o s p e l is o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s t h e a p o c a l y p t i c i s m that c h a r a c t e r i z e d c e r t a i n quarters o f t h e early J e s u s m o v e m e n t , b u t it is g o i n g b e y o n d t h e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t that M a r k w a s w r i t t e n for a n 4

apocalyptic c o m m u n i t y . W e m u s t also distinguish M a r k from a n

apocalypse,

w h i c h is a literary g e n r e that g i v e s w r i t t e n e x p r e s s i o n t o a p o c a l y p t i c e s c h a t o l o g y t h r o u g h a variety o f literary, rhetorical, narrative a n d t h e o l o g i c a l d e v i c e s focusing o n t h e disclosure o f d i v i n e m y s t e r i e s .

5

T h e G o s p e l o f M a r k is m o s t a n a l o g o u s in g e n r e t o t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n [Sioi.

6

A t t h e s a m e t i m e , o n e o f t h e features o f M a r k ' s J e s u s - s t o r y is that it is a form 7

o f h i s t o r i o g r a p h y w r i t t e n u p in a p o c a l y p t i c m o d e . S e v e r a l t h i n g s e v i d e n c e this: (1) T h e G o s p e l r e p r e s e n t s a form o f m e s s i a n i s m in that t h e central c h a r a c t e r is J e s u s Christ ( M k 1.1). M a r k ' s p r e f e r r e d title for J e s u s , t h e ' S o n o f M a n ' , is also found in other apocalyptic writings such as Daniel (7.13-15), Revelation (1.7, 13; 14.14), 1 Enoch ( 3 7 - 7 1 , e s p . 4 6 . 1 - 8 ; 4 8 . 1 - 1 0 ; 6 2 . 1 - 1 5 ; 7 0 . 1 ) a n d 4 Ezra ( 1 3 . 1 - 1 3 ) . ( 2 ) T h e u s e o f p a r a b l e s , e s p e c i a l l y in M a r k 4 , is i n d i c a t i v e o f o t h e r a p o c a l y p t i c literature that u s e s p a r a b l e s s u c h a s t h e Q u m r a n w r i t i n g s ( l Q a p G e n 2 0 . 1 3 - 1 6 , 4 Q 3 0 2 a ) , 4 Ezra ( 4 . 4 7 - 5 2 ; 8.1-3), a n d 1 Enoch ( 3 7 - 7 1 ) . T h e M a r c a n p a r a b l e s a r e also revelatory in that t h e y i m p a r t t h e m y s t e r y (jjuaTrjpiov) o f the k i n g d o m o f G o d ( M k 4 . 1 1 - 1 2 ; cf. 6.51-52; 7.19; 8.17-21 a n d 13.14) that consti 8

tutes a n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a x i o m for M a r k . ( 3 ) T h e d i s c o u r s e o f M a r k 1 3 , t h o u g h

4. On the problems of finding and describing a 'Marcan community' see M. F. Bird, 'The Marcan Community, Myth or Maze?', JTS 57 (2006), 474-86. 5. Cf. P. D. Hanson, 'Apocalypses and Apocalypticism', in D. N. Freedman (ed.), ABD (6 vols.; ABRL; New York: Doubleday, 1992), 1:280-2. 6. R. A. Burridge, What are the Gospels?: A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 7. A. Y. Collins, 'Narrative, History and Gospel: A General Response', Semeia 43 (1990), 145-53 (148). 8. Joel Marcus, The Mystery of the Kingdom of God (Atlanta: Scholars, 1986), pp. 62-5,

3.

Mark

47

n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b u r g e o n i n g w i t h a p o c a l y p t i c d e v i c e s like h e a v e n l y j o u r n e y s , is r e c o g n i z a b l e a s a n a p o c a l y p t i c c o m p o s i t i o n . (4) T h e n e c e s s i t y o f J e s u s ' d e a t h (e.g. M k 8.31-32; 9 . 3 0 - 3 2 ; 10.32-34; 14.21) a n d its r e d e m p t i v e significance ( M k 1 0 . 4 5 ; 14.22-25) a r e c o n c e i v a b l e as t h e o u t w o r k i n g o f a n a p o c a l y p t i c s c e n a r i o . P a u l H a n s o n g o e s so far a s to s a y that: ' W i t h M a r k t h e g o s p e l tradition 9

r e a c h e s its a p o c a l y p t i c p e a k ' . A c c o r d i n g to N . T. W r i g h t , M a r k invites r e a d e r s to d i s c o v e r t h e i n n e r secrets b e h i n d t h e outer story o f J e s u s , a story that retells a n d s u b v e r t s c o m m o n n a r r a t i o n s o f I s r a e l ' s history a n d h o p e s . W h i l e d e n y i n g that M a r k is an a p o c a l y p s e , W r i g h t s a y s n e v e r t h e l e s s that: 'Marks of the story of Jesus is designed

to function

as an

whole

telling

10

apocalypse'.

O n t h e w h o l e , t h e attention g i v e n to situating M a r k in t h e c o n t e x t o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e , a l t h o u g h c o m m e n t a t o r s interpret its significance differently.

11

B u t h o w d o e s M a r k ' s apocalyptic eschatological framework i m p a c t

his cosmological perspective?

12

T h e short a n s w e r is t h r o u g h t h e radical d u a l i s m

o f t h e narrative w h e r e t h e climactic events o f J e s u s ' life reveal h e a v e n l y signs, p r o v i d e portents o f destruction, a n d offer g l i m p s e s o f a glory that lies b e y o n d t h e veil o f h u m a n k n o w l e d g e . In addition t o J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s that r e v e a l t h e m y s t e r ies o f the K i n g d o m , a n d b e y o n d J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s that fight the battle against the evil o n e , t h e M a r c a n narrative exhibits k e y m o m e n t s w h e r e h e a v e n a n d earth meet, and readers gain a panoramic view of Mark's symbolic universe.

Marcan

Cosmology:

The Linguistic

Indicators

and their

Significance

M a r k ' s use of key cosmological terms illuminates his 'symbolic universe' of m e a n i n g generated b y his story of Jesus. In a sense M a r k ' s

Weltbild

c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y b e d e s c r i b e d a s t h r e e - t i e r e d w i t h o u p c c v o s ( ' h e a v e n ' ) , yf| ( ' e a r t h ' ) , a n d yeevvcc ( ' h e l l ' ) . B u t w h a t c o m p l i c a t e s t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t is t h a t M a r k ' s Weltbild

i n t e r f a c e s w i t h h i s Weltanschauung

s o that t h e c o n s t i t u e n t

levels of the created order are permeated by spiritual and political realities and they are part of an over-arching narrative. The apocalyptic world view

229-33; idem, Mark 1-8: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB; New York: Doubleday, 1999), pp. 303-3. 9. Hanson, * Apocalypses and Apocalypticism', 1:289. 10. N. T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), p. 395 (italics original). 11. For example, H. C. Kee, Community of the New Age: Studies in Mark's Gospel (London: SCM, 1977), pp. 64—76; idem, The Beginnings of Christianity: An Introduction to the New Testa ment (New York: T&T Clark, 2005), pp. 99-120; B. L. Mack, A Myth of Innocence: Mark and Christian Origins (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), pp. 325-31; C. Myers, Binding the Strongman: A Political Reading of Mark's Story of Jesus (New York: Maryknoll, 1988); Wright, The New Testament and the People of God, pp. 391-6; Marcus, Mark IS, pp. 70-3. 12. Cf. A. Y. Collins, Cosmology and Eschatology in Jewish and Christian Apocalypticism (JSJSup 50; Leiden: Brill, 1996).

Cosmology

48

and New Testament

Theology

a l s o b l u r s t h e h e a v e n / e a r t h d i s t i n c t i o n in its entirety. T h u s , it is p e r h a p s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e to s p e a k o f M a r k ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e t h a n a specific

Welt

bild. F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e w o r d K T I O I S ( ' c r e a t i o n ' ) o c c u r s at M k 10.6; 13.19 a n d in P s . - M k 16.15. O u t o f all o f t h e G o s p e l s , t h e w o r d is f o u n d o n l y in M a r k a n d is r a r e e v e n in t h e S e p t u a g i n t w h e r e it a p p e a r s o n l y in w o r k s d e r i v i n g the Hellenistic p e r i o d .

13

from

Its o b v i o u s s e n s e is that w h i c h G o d h a s c r e a t e d .

14

M a r k ' s specific f o r m u l a t i o n u n d e r s t a n d s K T I O I S a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e d i v i n e creation-act. Additionally, salvation will mark a restoration of d i v i n e - h u m a n a n d h u m a n - h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s b a c k t o t h e initial o r d e r i n g o f K T I O I S . T h e r a t i o n a l e for p r o h i b i t i n g d i v o r c e b y t h e M a r c a n J e s u s in M k 10.2-9 is t h a t t h e c o m i n g o f t h e K i n g d o m w i l l m a r k a r e t u r n t o t h e p r i m a e v a l state o f h u m a n r e l a t i o n s , w h e r e d i v o r c e b e t w e e n m a n a n d w o m a n is i m p o s s i b l e s i n c e t h e u n i o n o f m a l e a n d f e m a l e is d i v i n e l y instituted. H e n c e , t h e p h r a s e cctro 5e apx?|S KTiaeeos ( ' f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f c r e a t i o n ' ) is n o t s i m p l y a t e m p o r a l marker, but designates the normative period to which h u m a n relations will r e t u r n w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e k i n g d o m . J e s u s d e m a n d s t h a t p e o p l e start l i v i n g that w a y n o w in a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e c o m i n g k i n g d o m . T h a t i m p l i e s t h a t t h e o r d e r i n g o f K T I O I S is m o r e a u t h o r i t a t i v e t h a n t h e l a w o f M o s e s . T h e u s e o f t h e w o r d in M k 13.19 signifies t h a t t h e c o m i n g t r i b u l a t i o n is a crisis t h a t affects t h e w h o l e K T I O I S . In this s e n s e t h e fate o f J e s u s - f o l l o w e r s a n d t h e fate o f creation are intertwined (see R o m . 8.19-23). In regards to KOOIJOS in M k 8.36; 14.9, a n d P s . - M k 16.15, its u s e h a s slightly n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s in contrast t o K T I O I S . F o r M a r k t h e Koopos is the s u m of h u m a n existence, including empires, nations, material wealth, patronage and p o w e r that s t a n d s against J e s u s a n d h i s followers a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e is in d e s p e r a t e n e e d o f t h e m . A c c o r d i n g to M k 8.36, in following J e s u s a p e r s o n gains their

v|/uxr| ( ' s o u l ' ) b u t s p u r n s t h e Koopos ( ' w o r l d ' ) . T h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f

the g o s p e l is said t o c o m e u p o n t h e w h o l e Koopos ( M k 14.9; cf. P s . - M k 16.15). A c o m p a r i s o n o f M k 14.9 w i t h 13.10 is illuminating: Z\S iravra IA I0vn, TTDGDTOV SSI icripuxQflvai TO euayy'eAiov And the gospel mustfirstbe preached to all the nations (Mk 13.10). 15

auT)v 5e Aeyco v\i\v OTTOU eav Krjpuxfyl TO euayyeXiov BIS OXOV TOV K O O U O V , KCCI O £7roir|oev auTT) XaXrjOrjaeTai eis UVTIMOOUVOV auifis. Truly I tell you, wherever the gospel is proclaimed in the whole world, what she has done will be told in remembrance of her (Mk 14.9). 13. Cf. Jdt. 16.14; Tob. 8.5; 3 Mace. 6.2; Wis. 5.17; 16.24; 19.6; Sir. 43.25. 14. Thus, the addition of the phrase f]v IKTIOSV b 0ebs ('which God created') to CCTT' apx% KTioseos ('from the beginning of creation') in Mk 13.19 is tautological and may rest on a Semitic idiom. 15. On text-critical issues, grammar and meaning see M. F. Bird, Jesus and the Origins of the Gentile Mission (LNTS, 331; London: T&T Clark, 2006), pp. 296-302.

3.

Mark

49

T h e c o m p a r i s o n s h o w s that Koopos a n d sBvos stand parallel a n d a r e b o t h objects o f t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e g o s p e l . It is evident that Koopos a n d i 6 v r | also s t a n d i n opposition t o t h e gospel a n d r e p r e s e n t hostility t o t h e d i v i n e o r d e r a n d t h e divine e m i s s a r i e s . T h a t is n o t t o s a y that t h e Koopos is t h e s a m e t h i n g as t h e i9vr). T h e latter is a subset o f t h e former. I n t h e J e w i s h r e c k o n i n g t h e n a t i o n s a r e w h a t create s u c h t u m u l t w i t h i n t h e c o s m o s since t h e y rebel against Israel, t h e p o s t - E d e n i c c u s t o d i a n s o f creation (see D a n i e l 7 a n d 4 Ezra 6.54-59). P r o b a b l y t h e b e s t exposition o f w h a t M a r k thinks o f Koopos is found i n t h e stories o f t h e R i c h Y o u n g R u l e r ( M k 10.17-31) a n d t h e t e a c h i n g s o f J e s u s a b o u t service ( M k 10.41-45), w h e r e t h e p u r s u i t o f p o s s e s s i o n s a n d p o w e r character izes w h a t t h e w o r l d v a l u e s a n d aspires t o . I n b o t h stories t h e v a l u e s o f J e s u s a n d the k i n g d o m a r e t h e o p p o s i t e o f t h e p r e s e n t a g e . T h e c o m i n g o f t h e k i n g d o m a n d t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e g o s p e l result in t h e s u b v e r s i o n a n d finally t h e trans formation o f the Koopos. It m i g h t b e p o s s i b l e t o s p e c u l a t e a n d t o s a y that M a r k h a s a s u b - t e x t u a l m e t a - n a r r a t i v e b e i n g p l a y e d out i n h i s G o s p e l . T h e K T I O I S o f G o d h a s b e c o m e the Koopos o f t h e n a t i o n s , a n d it i s t h r o u g h J e s u s a n d h i s g o s p e l that t h e Koopos w i l l b e g i n t o reflect t h e g l o r y a n d g o o d n e s s o f t h e original K T I O I S . I n a s e n s e this is s t a n d a r d a p o c a l y p t i c theology. W h e r e M a r k differs from o t h e r a p o c a l y p t i c i s t s is i n h i s c o n v i c t i o n that t h e r e t u r n t o t h e p r i m a e v a l e r a , t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f Israel, a n d t h e r e n e w a l o f t h e A d a m i c r a c e d o n o t o c c u r t h r o u g h a purge o f the Gentiles or through the military triumph o f a Jewish ruler over t h e n a t i o n s ; rather, it is t h r o u g h t h e c r o s s , in J e s u s ' suffering u n d e r t h e fury o f t h e gentile b e a s t s for Israel,

a n d i n t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e g o s p e l , that

the a l i e n a t i o n b e t w e e n c r e a t i o n a n d C r e a t o r c o m e s t o a n e n d . It i s t h e n i n t h e r u m o r s o f r e s u r r e c t i o n that M a r k alerts h i s r e a d e r s t o t h e possibility o f a w o r l d n o w partially r e b o r n , b u t o n l y for t h o s e w i t h e y e s t o s e e a n d e a r s t o h e a r a n d faith i n G o d .

The Marcan

Inclusio:

T h e m o s t significant a n d m o s t

Tearing

frequently

of the

Heavens

used cosmological term in Mark's 16

G o s p e l is oupavos ( ' h e a v e n ' ) w h i c h it o c c u r s 16 t i m e s in a l l . I n M a r c a n u s a g e oupavos c a n function a s a c i r c u m l o c u t i o n for ' G o d ' ( M k 8 . 1 1 ; 11.30-31), J e s u s frequently

l o o k s t o t h e oupavos in p e r f o r m i n g m i r a c l e s ( M k 6 . 4 1 ; 7.34), w h i l e

e l s e w h e r e oupavos is u s e d c o s m o l o g i c a l l y for t h e d w e l l i n g p l a c e o f G o d , o f the angels a n d t h e e x p a n s e a b o v e t h e earth ( M k 1.10, 11; 4 . 3 2 ; 1 0 . 2 1 ; 11.25; 12.25; 13.25, 2 7 , 3 1 , 3 2 ; 14.62). B u t t h e significance o f oupavos for M a r k ' s narrative is b e s t o b s e r v e d b y j u x t a p o s i n g t h e b a p t i s m a l e p i s o d e w i t h t h e a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' death.

16. Mk 1.10, 11; 4.32; 6.41; 7.34; 8.11; 10.21; 11.25,30, 31; 12.25; 13.25,27,31, 32; 14.62.

50

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

Km eysvcTO ev eiceivais toTis f|uepais fiXBevlnoous octto Na£apeT rr\s TaXiXais Km ipaTrTioBr) BIS Tov'lopSavriv uTrblcoavvou. K(x\ eu9us avapaivcov Ik t o u uScctos ct&v oxi£ou'evous t o u s oupavous Kai t o irveuua cos Trepiorepav KcxTaPcfiov eis a u T o v Kai 4>covr| eyeveTO Ik tcov oupavcov ou el b uios uou b a y a i r n T o s , £v 001 euooKrjoa.

In those days Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee And he was baptized by John into the Jordan. And when he came up out of the water, immediately he saw the heavens torn open And the Spirit descending upon him like a dove And a voice came from heaven, 'You are my beloved Son; with you I am well pleased' (Mk 1.9-11). T h e s t o r y o f J e s u s ' b a p t i s m is significant b o t h for e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d for M a r k ' s G o s p e l . T h e fact that J e s u s w a s b a p t i z e d b y J o h n , w h i c h i m p l i e s J e s u s ' s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o J o h n , a n d that it w a s a b a p t i s m o f r e p e n t a n c e , w a s p o t e n t i a l l y e m b a r r a s s i n g t o t h e early C h r i s t i a n m o v e m e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e E v a n g e l i s t s d i d n o t shirk from i n c l u d i n g t h e p e r i c o p e in their J e s u s - s t o r i e s a n d t h e y h a v e u n d e r s t o o d it a s p a r t o f J e s u s ' c o m m i s s i o n i n g as b o t h t h e S e r v a n t o f t h e L o r d a n d t h e M e s s i a h , h e n c e t h e e c h o e s o f Isa. 4 2 . 1 ; 64.1 a n d P s . 2 . 7 . W i t h i n t h e scope o f the M a r c a n narrative the baptism episode signals the inauguration of t h e n e w e x o d u s , v a l i d a t e s J e s u s ' m e s s i a n i c identity, a n d m a r k s o u t J e s u s a s t h e true r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e solidarity o f b a p t i s m . T h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e d i v i n e v o i c e l e n d s s o m e s u p p o r t t o t h e i d e a that w h a t t r a n s p i r e s is a n ' a p o c a l y p t i c t h e o p h a n y ' .

1 7

M o r e t o t h e p o i n t , this ' t h e o p h a n y ' results in

t h e u n i o n o f t h e M e s s i a h w i t h t h e Spirit, a w e l l - k n o w n J e w i s h t h e m e (Isa. 11.2; 6 1 . 1 ; 1 En. 4 9 . 3 ; 6 2 . 2 ; Pss. Sol

17.42; T. Levi 18.6-7; T. Jud. 2 4 . 2 - 3 ) . I n M a r k ' s

n a r r a t i o n : ' J e s u s is a n o i n t e d b y t h e v e r y p r e s e n c e a n d p o w e r o f G o d ' .

1 8

A s J e s u s ' c a m e u p ' o u t o f t h e w a t e r it is r e p o r t e d that ' h e s a w t h e h e a v e n s t o r n o p e n ' . M a r k ' s l a n g u a g e is clearly a b r u p t a n d d r a m a t i c , t h u s L u k e (Lk. 3.21) a n d M a t t h e w ( M t . 3.16) feel c o m p e l l e d t o substitute t h e m o r e s u b d u e d ccvoiyco ( ' o p e n ' ) for t h e v i o l e n t axi£co ( ' t e a r ' ) . T h e v e r b el5ev h a s J e s u s a s its subject a n d n o t J o h n . I n c o n t r a s t t o M a t t h e w a n d L u k e , M a r k ' s v e r s i o n is n o t objectivized, b u t it is a n e x p e r i e n c e o f J e s u s . T h a t c o m p o r t s w i t h t h e n o t i o n that J e s u s w a s a p r o p h e t i c seer w h o e x p e r i e n c e d v i s i o n s d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f h i s m i n i s t r y (see Lk. 10.18).

19

T h e m o t i f o f t h e tearing o f t h e h e a v e n s is a t t e s t e d e l s e w h e r e

17. J. Marcus, Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992), pp. 56-8. 18. B. Witherington, The Gospel of Mark: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), p. 75. 19. Cf. Christopher Rowland, The Open Heaven (London: SPCK, 1982), pp. 358-68; Ben Witherington, Jesus the Seer (Peabody MA: Hendrickson, 1999), pp. 246-92.

3.

Mark

51

in I s r a e l ' s s a c r e d traditions a n d S e c o n d T e m p l e literature (Isa. 6 4 . 1 ; E z e k . 1.1; 2 Bar. 2 2 . 1 ; T. Levi 2 . 6 ; 5 . 1 ; 18.6; T. Jud. 2 4 . 2 - 3 ; Jos. Asen.

14.2-3) as w e l l a s

t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t (Jn 1.51; A c t s 7.56; Rev. 4 . 1 ; 11.19; 19.11). V i n c e n t Taylor c o m m e n t s : ' T h e r e n d i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s is a c o m m o n feature o f a p o c a l y p t i c t h o u g h t , t h e u n d e r l y i n g i d e a b e i n g that o f a fixed s e p a r a t i o n o f h e a v e n earth o n l y to b e b r o k e n in special c i r c u m s t a n c e s ' .

from

20

T h e ' t e a r i n g ' m o s t likely e c h o e s Isa. 64.1 [LXX 63.19] a n d it is interesting t o o b s e r v e h o w s u c h intertextuality s h a p e s M a r k ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l perspective. Oh, that you would tear the heavens [LXX: a v o i d s TOV oupavov, MT: •''DC? nmp and come down. That the mountains might quake at your presence As when fire kindles brushwood And the fire causes water to boil to make your name known to your adversaries And that the nations might tremble at your presence (Isa. 64.1-2). In c o n t e x t , t h e p r o p h e t d e s p e r a t e l y l o n g s for I s r a e l ' s liberation from foreign o p p r e s s i o n . W h e n this d a y c o m e s , it will b e t h e c o m i n g o f G o d himself. I n t h e d i v i n e visitation t h e h e a v e n s a r e torn a n d the earth q u a k e s , b o i l s a n d m e l t s at t h e p r e s e n c e o f G o d . G o d enters into contention against Israel's o p p r e s s o r s (Isa. 6 4 . 2 - 4 ) , H e b r i n g s c l e a n s i n g from sin a n d iniquity (Isa. 6 4 . 5 - 7 ) a n d r e s t o r e s J e r u s a l e m from desolation (Isa. 6 4 . 8 - 1 2 ) . T h e p l e a o f Isaiah 61 is for a h e a v e n s h a k i n g a n d earth-shattering e v e n t w h e r e b y G o d i n t e r v e n e s a g a i n s t I s r a e l ' s a d v e r s a r i e s a n d r e s t o r e s t h e fortunes o f Israel. T h e h o p e for d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n is cast in c a t a c l y s m i c a n d c o s m i c i m a g e r y w h e r e t h e tearing o f t h e h e a v e n s o c c a s i o n s t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f G o d into t h e w o r l d to radically t r a n s f o r m t h e cir c u m s t a n c e s o f h i s p e o p l e . M a r k ' s e m p l o y m e n t o f this Isaianic m o t i f h a s t h e effect that t h e d e s p e r a t e l y s o u g h t after t h e o p h a n y o f G o d a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d e a r t h - m e l t i n g r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e divine p r e s e n c e h a s t a k e n p l a c e in J e s u s . M a r k ' s b a p t i s m a l a c c o u n t , far from i m p l y i n g a n adoptionist christology, e x h i b i t s a n implicit incarnational c h r i s t o l o g y w h e r e t h e tearing o f t h e h e a v e n s that m a r k e d t h e c o m i n g o f G o d instead m a r k s t h e u n i o n o f G o d ' s Spirit w i t h G o d ' s S o n .

21

T h e o n l y l a n g u a g e a p p r o p r i a t e to d e s c r i b e this u n i o n o f d i v i n e a g e n t s is t h e cosmological language of heaven being ripped open. A l t h o u g h it is n o t i m m e d i a t e l y obvious, t h e tearing of the veil in t h e t e m p l e at the m o m e n t o f J e s u s ' d e a t h i n M k 15.39 actually h a s great significance for M a r k ' s story. It is also related in m o r e than o n e w a y to the baptismal a c c o u n t .

22

20. V. Taylor, The Gospel According to St. Mark (London: Macmillan, 1952), p. 160. 21. Although it is common to regard Mark's Christology as 'low', this evaluation overlooks the abundance of 'God' language used for Jesus in the Marcan Gospel. See E. Boring, 'Markan Christology: God-Language for Jesus?', NTS 45 (1999), 451-71. 22. Cf. S. Motyer, 'The Rending of the Veil: A Markan Pentecost', NTS 33 (1987), 155-7.

52

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

b Se'lrjoous aeis 4>covr)V ueyaXrjv e^sTrveuaev. KOL\ TO KCCTaiTCTaaua TOU vaou eoxiaBr] sis duo arf avco6ev ecos KCCTCO. iScbv 5e b Kevrupicov b iTapearr|Kcos e£ evavTias CCUTOU OTI OUTCOS e^'eTrveuoev

elTTEV* aXnScas OUTOS 6 avOpcotros uibs 8eou ?|v. And Jesus uttered a loud cry, and breathed-out his last. And the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from top to bottom. And when the centurion, who stood facing him, saw that he thus breathed his last, he said, 'Truly this man was the Son of God' (Mk 15.37-39). W h a t is d e p i c t e d h e r e is t h e v e i l o r curtain o f t h e H o l y P l a c e b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y a n d t h o r o u g h l y into t w o p a r t s .

23

ripped

T h e function o f t h e e v e n t is p r o b

a b l y t w o f o l d . First, t h e t e a r i n g o f t h e v e i l functions as riposte t o t h e c h a r g e s that J e s u s is a p s e u d o - p r o p h e t ( M k 14.62) a n d p s e u d o - M e s s i a h ( M k 15.32), a n d so v i n d i c a t e s J e s u s ' c l a i m s , d e s p i t e h i s trial a n d crucifixion, a g a i n s t t h e s e c h a r g e s . Second, the tearing of the veil announces the triumph of the eschatological king and the declaration of j u d g e m e n t u p o n an apostate institution.

24

This comports

w i t h M a r k ' s v i e w o f t h e T e m p l e a s a p o s t a t e a n d ripe for j u d g e m e n t g i v e n h i s intercalation o f t h e T e m p l e i n c i d e n t b r a c k e t e d b y t h e c u r s i n g o f t h e fig t r e e ( M k 11.12-25) a n d t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e ' s destruction in t h e Olivet discourse ( M k 13.2; cf. 1 5 . 2 9 ) .

25

23. The word vabs could refer to either the Holy of Holies (e.g. Mt 23.17, 35) or the temple generally (e.g. Mk 14.58; 15.29; Lk. 1.9; Jn 2.19-20). Likewise, KaTCCTTCTaoua could refer to the curtain of the inner sanctuary (Exod. 26.31-35; Lev. 16.2,12; 21.23; 24.3; Num. 3.26; [LXX]; Josephus, Ant. 8.75, 90; War 5.219; Heb. 6.19; 9.3; 10.20; Philo, Vit. Mos. 2.86, 101; cf. Gos. Phil. 84) or the outer sanctuary (Exod. 26.37; 38.18; Josephus, Ant. 8.75; War 5.212; Ep. Arist. 86; also used is KaXuuucc in Exod. 27.16; 40.5; Num. 3.25). In some later Christian literature the curtain in question is ambiguous (cf. Gos. Naz. 36; Gos. Eh. 6; Gos. Pet. 5.20; Gos. Jos. 24.3; T. Levi 10.3 [if a Christian interpolation]). Others such as R. Pesch (Das Markus Evangelium [2 vols.; HTKNT; Freiburg: Herder, 1976-77], 2:498) and R. Brown (Death of the Messiah [ABRL; New York: Doubleday, 1994], pp. 1109-13) think it is either irrelevant or impossible to determine which curtain was destroyed However,fromGolgotha only the outer curtain of the Holy Place or court of the Israelites would be visible (cf. Mt 27.51,54). Although the tearing of the curtain in the Holy of Holies would be theologically significant, as the metaphor is for the author of Hebrews, R. T. France (The Gospel of Mark [NIGTC: Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 2002], pp. 656-7) is correct to note that we cannot assume that Mark shared the same theological perspective as the writer to the Hebrews. Mark's focus is not about human access to the divine as such (though it is probably implied), his attention is the dramatic and visual effect of Jesus' death and the confirmation of a forthcoming judgment against the temple. In support of a reference to the outer curtain see J. R. Edwards, The Gospel According to Mark (PNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002), pp. 478-9; France, Mark, pp. 656-7, and BDAG, 524. See for general discussion D. M. Gurtner, 'The Veil of the Temple in History and Legend', JETS 49 (2006), 97-114 who thinks there was only 'one' curtain in the Herodian Temple. 24. C. Rowland, 'Christ in the New Testament', in John Day (ed.), King and Messiah in Israel and the Ancient Near East (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), p. 480. 25. C. Evans, Mark 8:27-16:20 (WBC; Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2001), p. 509.

3.

Mark

53

P r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e T e m p l e ' s d e s t r u c t i o n ( s o m e legendary, s o m e ex

eventu,

a n d s o m e p e r h a p s g e n u i n e l y p r e d i c t i v e ) often i n c l u d e a c c o m p a n y i n g signs a s s o c i a t e d w i t h its d e s t r u c t i o n . J o s e p h u s w r i t e s t h a t m a n y d i v i n e p o r t e n t s o c c u r r e d l e a d i n g u p to t h e w a r w i t h R o m e . T h e s e w e r e a p p a r e n t l y signs that foretold t h e future d e s o l a t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e ( War 5 . 2 8 8 - 3 1 5 ) . Tacitus states that d u r i n g t h e assault o f the t e m p l e t h e d o o r o f t h e east g a t e o f the inner court sud d e n l y o p e n e d b y t h e m s e l v e s a n d a great v o i c e cried, ' T h e g o d s are d e p a r t i n g ' (Hist. 5 . 1 3 ; cf. J o s e p h u s , War 5.412). T h e Testament

of Levi d e c l a r e s t h a t ' t h e

c u r t a i n o f t h e t e m p l e w i l l b e t o r n ' as a j u d g e m e n t o n I s r a e l ' s l a w l e s s n e s s a n d s h a m e l e s s b e h a v i o u r (T. Levi 10.3). In Lives of the Prophets

a prophecy was

g i v e n that a ' w e s t e r n n a t i o n ' w o u l d c o m e a n d ' t h e curtain o f the Dabeir o f holies] w i l l b e t o r n into s m a l l p i e c e s ' (Liv. Proph.

[holy

12.11-12). In a r a b b i n i c

tradition t h e R o m a n g e n e r a l Titus s l a s h e d the veil w i t h his s w o r d (b. Git. 5 6 b ) . M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e t e a r i n g o f the veil is a n a l o g o u s t o similar s i g n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e as a n act o f d i v i n e j u d g e m e n t against Israel. T h e ' t e a r i n g o f the h e a v e n s ' narrated in M k 1.10 relates t o the ' t e a r i n g o f t h e v e i l ' in M k 15.38 in several w a y s . First, b o t h tearings o c c u r in t h e c o n t e x t of b a p t i s m . T h e ' t e a r i n g ' in M k 1.10 transpires in t h e setting o f J e s u s ' b a p t i s m b y J o h n a n d in conjunction w i t h J e s u s ' identification a s the m e s s i a n i c s o n a n d his intention to l a u n c h the Isaianic E x o d u s . Conversely, the tearing o f the veil in M k 15.38 takes p l a c e at t h e m o m e n t o f J e s u s ' death, w h i c h h a s already b e e n identi fied a s J e s u s ' b a p t i s m e l s e w h e r e in the M a r c a n story ( M k 10.37-39). S e c o n d , in b o t h p a s s a g e s the tearings are a c c o m p a n i e d b y reference to m / s u p a o r ' S p i r i t ' . In M k 1.8-10, J e s u s receives t h e ' H o l y Spirit' directly after the h e a v e n s are t o r n o p e n , w h i l e in M k 15.37 h e ' e x p i r a t e s '

(EKTTVECO)

or g i v e s u p the Spirit j u s t

prior t o t h e tearing o f t h e veil. T h e activity o f the Spirit in the m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s is o n l y operative b e t w e e n his b a p t i s m a n d his death, b e t w e e n t h e and the second

ax»£co. Third,

first

oy\t^

b o t h tearings are followed i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h an

a n n o u n c e m e n t o f J e s u s ' d i v i n e s o n s h i p . In M k 1 . 1 1 a v o i c e from h e a v e n calls J e s u s , b M\6S |iou b ayaTrr|T6s ( ' m y b e l o v e d s o n ' ) w h i l e t h e c e n t u r i o n at the c r o s s professes that, aArjBcos

O U T O S

6 a v S p c o i r o s uibs

8EOU

f]v

('truly this

m a n w a s t h e S o n o f G o d ' ) . T h e d i v i n e v o i c e a n d t h e c e n t u r i o n ' s confession b e c o m e m o m e n t s o f revelation, triggered b y t h e tearings, w h i c h disclose J e s u s ' m e s s i a n i c identity a n d his u n i q u e filial relation to Israel's G o d . F o u r t h , a n d m o s t significant of all, b o t h tearings are in fact tearings o f the h e a v e n s , albeit in different w a y s . T h i s is m a d e explicit in M k 1.10 ( o u p a v o s , ' h e a v e n ' ) , b u t t h e veil in t h e outer sanctuary is also a tearing o f t h e h e a v e n s since t h e veil was decorated with an embroidered pattern of the universe upon it.

26

Josephus

describes the outer veil o f the Jerusalem t e m p l e as it w a s during H e r o d i a n times.

26. Cf. further D. Ulansey, 'The Heavenly Veil Tom: Mark's Cosmic "Inclusio" ', JBL 110 (1991), 123-5.

54

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

A c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s , this veil w a s intricately crafted a n d m e a s u r e d s o m e 80 feet in h e i g h t . J o s e p h u s d e s c r i b e s t h e veil as follows: TTpb 6e T O U T C O V ioourjKes KccTaTTeTaoucc TTCTTXOS f\v BaPuXcovios T T O I K I X T O S e£ uaKiv6ou Kai pdoaou K O K K O U T E Km TTOp<|>upas BauuaoTGas uev sipyaaijevos O U K aSecoprjTov 5e TT)S uXrjs T T | V Kpaoiv Ixcov aXX' cooiTep eiKova T C O V O X C O V KaTeyeypaTTTO & b

TTETTXOS

ocTTaoav

TTJV

oupaviov Secopiav

TTXTIV

£cp5icov

But before these doors there was a veil of equal size with the doors. It was a Baby lonian tapestry, with embroidery of blue and fine linen, of scarlet also and purple, wrought with marvelous skill. Nor was this mixture of materials without its mystic meaning: it typified the universe... Crafted on this tapestry was a panorama of the heavens except for the signs of the zodiac. (Josephus, War 5.212, 14). T h u s , w h i l e t h e r e is n o m e n t i o n o f t h e tearing o f t h e

oupocvos, the

same motif

is s u p p l i e d b y t h e t e a r i n g o f t h e veil w h i c h w a s a tapestry o f t h e h e a v e n s . D a v i d Ulansey writes: In other words, the outer veil of the Jerusalem temple was actually one huge image of the starry sky! Thus, upon encountering Mark's statement that 'the veil of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom', any of his readers who had ever seen the temple or heard it described would instantly have seen in their mind's eye an image of the heavens being torn, and would immediately have been reminded of Mark's earlier description of the heavens being torn at the baptism. This can hardly be coincidence: the symbolic parallel is so striking that Mark must have consciously intended it. 27

Dale C. Allison contends that the rending of the outer veil with the heavens u p o n it m e a n s t h a t t h e r e n d i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s o f t h e ' D a y o f t h e L o r d ' h a s c o m e t o p a s s ( J o b 14.12 [LXX]; P s . 1 0 2 . 2 6 ; Isa. 6 4 . 1 ; H a g . 2 . 6 ; Sib. Or. 3 . 8 2 ; 8.233, 4 1 3 ; Mt. 24.29; Lk. 21.25; 2 Pet. 3.10; Rev. 6.14).

28

T h i s is s u p p o r t e d

further o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e i m a g e r y a n d l a n g u a g e o f M k 1 5 . 3 3 , w i t h t h e s u d d e n ' d a r k n e s s ' (cf. E x o d . 1 0 . 2 1 ; Jer. 15.9; A m o s 8.9), s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c o m i n g j u d g e m e n t o f t h e D a y o f t h e L o r d is m a n i f e s t e d at J e s u s ' c r u c i f i x i o n .

29

27. Ulansey, 'Heavenly Veil Torn', p. 125. R. H. Gundry (Mark: A Commentary on His Apology for the Cross [Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1993], p. 972) objects as to whether the pattern on the tapestry can be thought of as being significant for Mark's readers: 'But Mark cannot expect an audience who require his explanation of Jewish matters to know the pictorial design embroidered on the outer veil of the Jewish temple. Had they known so much about the temple, he would have needed to specify the outer veil if they were to detect the suggest symbolism'. Against Gundry we simply do not know how much of the design and artistry of the temple was known to Mark's readers or to Christians outside of Judaea. But the spread of Christians from Palestine to the Diaspora and the reports of the Temple's destruction may have meant mat such knowledge was more widespread than Gundry allows for. 28. D. C. Allison, The End of Ages Has Come (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1985), p. 33. 29. E. Best, The Temptation and the Passion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3rd edn, 1990), p. 126.

3.

Mark

55

In M a r k ' s ' D a y o f t h e L o r d ' t h e r e is a c o s m o l o g i c a l transfer t a k i n g p l a c e w h e r e t h e d r a m a t i c a n d a p o c a l y p t i c e v e n t o n c e t r a n s p i r i n g in h e a v e n is n o w s a i d t o t a k e p l a c e in t h e T e m p l e , w h i c h h a s b e c o m e t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e o f d i v i n e revelation and judgement. That accords with the Jewish perception of the Temple as the epicentre of the earth and the n e x u s to heaven. T h e Temple w a s a l s o filled w i t h ' c o s m i c s y m b o l i s m ' a n d c o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e i n h a b i t e d world, the expanse of the cosmos, an earthly counterpart to the heavens or a m i c r o c o s m o f h e a v e n a n d e a r t h (cf. P s . 7 8 . 6 9 ; J o s e p h u s , Ant. 3 . 1 8 1 ; P h i l o , Vit. Mos.

2.87-88).

30

A s s u c h , t h e lines b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h b e c o m e

b l u r r e d m o m e n t a r i l y u p o n b o t h ' t e a r i n g s ' . T h e first t e a r i n g i n d i c a t e s t h a t w h a t w a s e x c l u s i v e l y a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e T e m p l e , t h e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e , is n o w a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h J e s u s . T h e s e c o n d t e a r i n g signifies t h a t t h e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e is n o l o n g e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e T e m p l e , a s its j u d g e m e n t is n o w s e a l e d b y v i r t u e o f t h e r o l e o f t h e t e m p l e l e a d e r s h i p in o r c h e s t r a t i n g J e s u s ' d e a t h . I n t h e w o r d s of H e r m a n Waetjen: Jerusalem is no longer the navel of the world where heaven and earth are united and where God's presence is uniquely experienced. Heaven and earth have been reconciled cosmically and universally. Accordingly, the binary opposition between the sacred and the secular, constituted by the temple as the axis mundi of Judaism, is dissolved. Both are reunited, and the entire creation once again becomes ambigu ously sacred and profane... God's presence will be experienced wherever the eschatological reality of the New Humanity that Jesus incarnated throughout his ministry is encountered. 31

The Marean

Apocalypse:

Shaking

the

Heavenlies

T h e d i s c o u r s e o f M a r k 13 h a s b e e n c a l l e d t h e ' E s c h a t o l o g i c a l D i s c o u r s e ' , t h e ' O l i v e t D i s c o u r s e ' a n d t h e ' L i t t l e A p o c a l y p s e ' . T h e s p e e c h is n o t strictly s p e a k ing an apocalypse,

32

b u t it c o n t a i n s m a n y striking similarities t o a n a p o c a l y p s e

i n c l u d i n g familiar i m a g e r y ( c o s m i c p o r t e n t s ) , c o m m o n t h e o l o g i c a l features (e.g. d e t e r m i n i s m , p e s s i m i s m , c o m b a t m y t h a n d j u d g e m e n t ) , a n d s h a r e d motifs (e.g. the p r e d i c t i o n o f familial d i s c o r d in v. 12, t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e tribulation in v. 1 3 , t h e c o s m i c signs in w . 2 4 - 2 5 , a n d t h e g a t h e r i n g o f t h e elect in v. 2 7 ) that signify that M a r k 13 is a n a p o c a l y p t i c - p r o p h e t i c d i s c o u r s e w r i t t e n u p in a

30. G. K. Beale, The Temple and the Church's Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God (NSBT 17; Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2004), pp. 2£-80. 31. H. C. Waetjen, A Reordering of Power: A Socio-Political Reading of Marks Gospel (Min neapolis: Fortress, 1989), p. 238; see also Patella, Lord of the Cosmos, p. 111. 32. Cf. the definition given by John Collins: 'Apocalypse is a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envis ages eschatological salvation, and spatial, insofar as it involves another supernatural world'. J. J. Collins, 'Apocalypses and Apocalypticism',^/) 1:279.

56

Cosmology

u n i q u e literary f o r m .

33

and New Testament

Theology

M a r k 13 is a b o u t t h e e n d o f t h e w o r l d - m o r e p r o p e r l y

the end of ' a w o r l d ' - the world of Judaism centred u p o n the Jerusalem Tem ple.

3 4

I find m y s e l f in a g r e e m e n t w i t h a g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s w h o

s u g g e s t that M a r k 13 c o n c e r n s itself w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m a n d n o t (directly at least) w i t h t h e parousia

3 5

of J e s u s . 1 cannot imagine M a r k depicting

t h e disciples as a s k i n g J e s u s a q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e a n d t h e n h a v i n g J e s u s r e s p o n d b y e n g a g i n g in a s p e e c h a b o u t h i s r e t u r n

from

h e a v e n . It m a y b e p o s s i b l e t o t a k e t h e later sections in w . 3 2 - 3 7 a s referring t o the eschatological d e n o u e m e n t

36

o r detect a m e r g i n g o f historical a n d e s c h a t o

logical e v e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s p e e c h ,

37

b u t this is far from certain. T h a t b e i n g

said o n e d o e s n o t h a v e t o c o l l a p s e t h e entire e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s c e n a r i o into p r e - 7 0 CE e v e n t s . A s H e i n r i c h H o l t z m a n n s a w l o n g a g o , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m itself m a r k s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f G o d ' s final j u d g e m e n t .

38

T h e ' D a y of the Lord'

a n d t h e ' c o m i n g o f t h e S o n o f M a n ' that b r i n g j u d g e m e n t o n J e r u s a l e m r e m a i n a typos

for a future j u d g e m e n t o f t h e

salvation of the

EAEKTO!

OIKOUIJEVT]

('inhabited world') and the

( ' e l e c t ' ) that w i l l t a k e p l a c e t h r o u g h t h e a p p o i n t e d

j u d g e , J e s u s C h r i s t , as t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s w e r e t o b e l i e v e ( A c t s 1 0 . 4 2 ; 1 7 . 3 1 ; R o m . 2 . 1 6 ) . W e s h o u l d n o t forget either that r e g a r d l e s s o f h o w o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e referents for t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e v e n t s p o r t r a y e d in M k 1 3 . 3 - 3 7 , t h e u l t i m a t e task o f t h e text is p a r a e n e t i c , viz., a n e x h o r t a t i o n t o faithfulness a n d e n d u r a n c e in t h e light o f t h e sufferings a n d tribulation a b o u t t o occur. W h a t is o f i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n is t h e i m a g e r y in t h e later s e c t i o n s o f t h e discourse: ' AAAa i v eiceivais T O I S Tiuepais ueTa T T J V 0 A ? V | / I V eKEivrjv 6 fjAios cncoTia8f)a£Tai, Kai r\ aeArjVT) ou Scooei T O <J>eyyos auTrjs, Kai oi a o r e p e s I O O V T O I I K T O U oupavou TTiTTTovTESf

KOI

ai Suvaueis ai ev T O 7 S o u p a v o l s aaAeuSrjOovTai.

33. On the association of Mark 13 with an apocalypse see further J. D. G. Dunn, Unity and Diversity in the New Testament (London: SCM, 2nd edn, 1990), p. 329. See also Gerd Theissen (The Gospels in Context: Social and Political History in the Synoptic Tradition [trans. Linda M. Maloney; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991], pp. 134-5) who labels the speech 'apocalyptic prophecy'. 34. Cf. N. T. Wright, yew** and the Victory of God (COQG; London: SPCK, 1996), pp. 345-6; Witherington, Mark, p. 340; Beale, Temple, pp. 212-16. 35. Examples include R. T. France, Jesus and the Old Testament (London: Tyndale, 1971), pp. 139-48,231-3; idem, Mark, pp. 497-546; G. B. Caird, New Testament Theology (ed. L. D. Hurst; Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 365-6; Wright, New Testament and People of God, pp. 393-6; idem, Jesus and the Victory of God, pp. 339-68; S. McKnight, A New Vision for Israel: The Teachings of Jesus in National Context (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), p. 142; B. Pitre, Jesus, the Tribula tion, and the End of the Exile (WUNT 2.204; Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2005), pp. 330-48. 36. France, Jesus and the Old Testament, pp. 231-2; idem, Mark, pp. 541-6. 37. Cf. E. Adams, 'Historical Crisis and Cosmic Crisis in Mark 13 and Lucan's Civil War\ TynBul 48 (1997), 329-44; idem, 'The Coming of the Son of Man in Mark's Gospel', TynBul 56 (2005), 39-61; Evans, Mark, pp. 328-9. 38. H. J. Holtzmann, Lehrbuch der Neutestamentlichen Theologie (2 vols; Tubingen: Mohr/ Siebeck, 2nd edn, 1911 [1896-1897]), 1:150.

3.

Mark

57

T O T E O V | / O V T C C I T O V uibv Tou avSpcotrou epxopevov Iv ve'eAais METCX 5uva|j6cos T T O X X T J S Kai 6o£rjs. Kai T O T C aTToareAsi T O U S ayyeXous KOCI eTnauva£ei T O U S eicAeKTous E K T Q V Teooapcov avcpcov a if aicpou yfjs ecos aicpou oupavou.

Kai

But in those days, after that tribulation,titlesun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light, and the stars will be falling from heaven, and the powers in the heavens will be shaken. And then they will see the Son of Man coming in clouds with great power and glory. And then he will send out the angels, and will gather the elect from the four winds, from the ends of the earth to the ends of heaven. (Mk 13.24-27) C o m m e n t a t o r s are p e r p l e x e d as t o w h e t h e r or n o t the i m a g e r y of celestial h a v o c refers t o t h e destruction o f J e r u s a l e m o r to t h e e n d o f the s p a c e - t i m e u n i v e r s e a n d w h e t h e r the descriptions should b e t a k e n literally o r metaphorically. T h e l a n g u a g e itself is d e r i v e d from Isa. 13.10 a n d 3 4 . 4 that depict the v e n g e a n c e o f G o d e x e c u t e d against B a b y l o n a n d E d o m (see similar m e t a p h o r s in Isa. 14.4, 12-15; E z e k . 3 2 . 5 - 8 ; Joel 2 . 1 0 - 1 1 , 3 0 - 3 2 ; 3 . 1 4 - 1 5 ; A m o s 8 . 9 ) .

39

W h a t w e find in

all o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s are predictions o f a d i v i n e j u d g e m e n t , w h i c h is t e m p o r a l , in a historical framework, a n d is orientated against a political entity that threatens Israel. T h e a c c o m p a n y i n g l a n g u a g e w i t h its c o s m i c u p h e a v a l a n d g e o p h y s i c a l disturbances invests political events w i t h theological m e a n i n g .

40

The language

o f t h e h e a v e n s b e i n g s h a k e n a n d stars falling is n o t literal (like m e t e o r s c r a s h i n g t o earth) b u t it a i m s to introduce a t r a n s c e n d e n t p e r s p e c t i v e into t h e e q u a t i o n so that t h e rise a n d d e m i s e o f e m p i r e s is n o t a m a t t e r o f p u r e l y historical c a u s e a n d effect ( d u e to e c o n o m i c , political a n d social forces) b u t results from t h e radical intervention o f Israel's G o d into the s p h e r e o f h u m a n e m p i r e s , e m p e r o r s , cities, a n d alliances. T h i s is m o s t aptly d e s c r i b e d as religio-political

cosmology.

But

this is m o r e t h a n u s i n g m e t a p h o r i c a l l a n g u a g e t o describe A n c i e n t N e a r Eastern politics, a s there is u n d o u b t e d l y a religious d i m e n s i o n to the e v e n t s described. T h e r e is a n intrinsic c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p a g a n politics a n d t h e p a g a n p a n t h e o n ; in o r d e r t o destroy o n e , y o u m u s t destroy the other. T h e luminaries that c r a s h t o earth m a y b e t a k e n

figuratively

for t h e ejection o f p a g a n g o d s from t h e h e a v

e n l y habitation b y Y a h w e h . It is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e h o w s u c h s y m b o l i s m c o u l d b e applied t o B a b y l o n , E g y p t , E d o m o r R o m e , b u t t h e application o f s u c h vivid m e t a p h o r s t o t h e destruction o f J e r u s a l e m m a y a p p e a r d e c i d e d l y o d d . T h e ratio nale is p e r h a p s that t h e religion o f t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e is effectively p a g a n a n d this T e m p l e a n d all its political a n d e c o n o m i c tiers w i l l b e a r the d i v i n e w r a t h .

39. See the excellent treatment by Pitre, Jesus, pp. 333-4 on the imagery and its connection to Jewish restoration hopes. More immediately we should note that the eclipses of the sun and moon were often regarded as signs foreshadowing the death of kings and the destruction of cities: Eusebius, Praep. Ev. 395d; Plutarch, Caes. 69; Dio Cassius 56.29.3; Josephus, Ant. 17.167; Sib. Or. 3.796-803. 40. Cf. Wright, New Testament and the People of God, pp. 298-9.

Cosmology

58

and New Testament

Theology

T h e interface o f r e l i g i o u s a n d political m e a n i n g s is c o n t i n u e d i n t h e c o m i n g o f t h e S o n o f M a n in M k 13.26. T h e l a n g u a g e is a n explicit e c h o o f D a n . 7.13-14 a n d t h e u n d e r l y i n g n a r r a t i v e c r e a t e d b y t h e i n t e r t e x t u a l a l l u s i o n is that o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f G o d ' s p e o p l e g o i n g b e f o r e t h e A n c i e n t o f D a y s (i.e. Yahweh) and receiving kingship and vindication over and against the pagan beasts w h o oppress the Jewish people. The Danielic vision of the enthronement o f t h e v i c t o r i o u s S o n o f M a n is o s t e n s i b l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e t r i u m p h o f J e s u s against t h e T e m p l e . T h i s d o e s n o t spell o u t t h e d e m i s e o f t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r I s r a e l ' s v i n d i c a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e fulfilment o f J e s u s ' p r o p h e c y a g a i n s t the Temple.

41

T h e political d i m e n s i o n is u n d e r s c o r e d further w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t

that t h e elect will b e g a t h e r e d from t h e e n d s o f t h e earth. T h e act m a y n o t only b e concurrent with the destruction of the Temple, but to s o m e degree also l o o k b e y o n d it. A c o m m o n l y h e l d h o p e in I s r a e l ' s s a c r e d t r a d i t i o n s w a s for t h e r e g a t h e r i n g o f t h e D i a s p o r a t o P a l e s t i n e a n d t h e r e t u r n o f t h e exiles t o J e r u s a l e m w i t h G e n t i l e s in t o w .

42

T h e d i s c o u r s e t h u s shifts from j u d g e m e n t t o restoration,

from political d i s i n t e g r a t i o n t o n a t i o n a l re-creation. T h u s , M a r k ' s n a r r a t i o n c o s m o l o g y is j u s t as political a s it is r e l i g i o u s a n d spatial. B e t w e e n G o d , t h e

firmament,

earth, a n d political k i n g d o m s is a n

indelible c o n n e c t i o n . H o w e v e r foreign it m i g h t b e t o o u r m o d e r n m i n d s e t , t h e s h a k i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s m e a n s t h e e n d o f political fortunes a n d t h e r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s realities.

Conclusion T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a u t h o r s a r e h a r d l y u n a n i m o u s in s h a r i n g t h e o n e b u t t h e y d o p a r t a k e o f a s i m i l a r Weltanschauung

3

Weltbild*

in that J e s u s is G o d ' s a g e n t t o

b r i n g salvation t o t h e elect, a n d this salvation will h a v e a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e i m p a c t u p o n t h e w h o l e o f t h e i n h a b i t e d w o r l d . M a r k ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o that p e r s p e c t i v e is that t h e c o m i n g o f J e s u s h a s w r o u g h t a c a t a c l y s m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in t h e relation b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h .

44

A l t h o u g h t h e Koopos is h o s t i l e t o G o d ' s

41. Cf. further France, Mark, pp. 534-5. 42. Deut. 30.4; Ps. 107.2-3 (= 106.2-3 L X X ) ; Isa. 11.11-12; 35.10; 43.5; 49.5-6, 22-26; 56.8; 60.4,9; 66.20; Jer. 3.18; 31.10; Ezek. 11.17; 20.34,41; 28.25; 34.12-16; 36.19,24-28; 37.21-23; 39.27-28; Zeph. 3.20; Zech. 2.6-11; 8.7-8; 10.9-12; 2 Mace. 1.27-29; 2.18; Sir. 36.11-22; 48.10; Bar. 4.37; 5.5; 4 Ezra 13.39-50; Tob. 13.4-5; 14.5-6; Josephus, Ant. 11.63, 98, 131-33; Philo, Praem. Poen. 117, 164-70; Pss. Sol. 8.28; 11.1-5; 17.31, 44; T. Jos. 19.2-12 (Arm); I En. 57.1; 90.33;/wZ>. 1.15-18; 23.27'-32; 2 Bar. 29.1-30.3; 78.7; T. Benj. 9.2; 10.11; 7. Mw. 10.7-10; Sib. Or. 3.265-294; 1QM 2.1-3, 7; 3.13; 5.1; 11Q19 18.14-15; 57.5-6; 59.9-13; CD 2.11-12; m.Sanh. 10.3; t.Sanh. 13.10; Tg. Isa. 45.5; 53.8; Tg. Hos. 14.8; Tg. Mw. 5.1-3; Lk. 13.28-29/Mt. 8.11-12; Jn 11.52; Lk. 24.21; Acts 1.6; 26.7; Rev. 21.12; Justin, Dial Tryph. 134.4. 43. Collins, Cosmology and Eschatology, p. 32. 44. In addition to the rending of the veil and the eschatological discourse, the transfiguration (Mk 9.2-8) has a further bearing upon Mark's cosmological perspective.

3.

Mark

59

p e o p l e , a t i m e is c o m i n g w h e n t h e Koopos w i l l b e g i n t o reflect the g o o d n e s s o f the original K T I O I S . F o l l o w i n g the Isaianic script, M a r k describes the anointing o f the m e s s i a n i c Servant for his ministry as c o m m e n c i n g w i t h the h e a v e n s b e i n g r i p p e d o p e n a n d t h e Spirit d e s c e n d i n g into h i m . T h e r e n d i n g o f t h e veil in t h e T e m p l e s i g n a l s t h e e n d , h o w e v e r , o f t h e T e m p l e ' s r o l e a s a n e x u s into t h e d i v i n e r e a l m . T h e t e a r i n g is a s y m b o l o f j u d g e m e n t u p o n the r e l i g i o u s institution a n d its l e a d e r s h i p . L i k e w i s e , t h e s h a k i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s a n d t h e falling stars w h e n j u x t a p o s e d w i t h t h e c o m i n g o f t h e S o n o f M a n in M a r k 13 is i n d i c a t i v e o f a p a r t i c u l a r m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n w h e r e politics a n d p o r t e n t s are m e r g e d together. T h a t i m p l i e s that M a r k ' s c o s m o l o g y is all at o n c e social, r e l i g i o u s a n d political.

4

'THE HEAVENS OPENED': COSMOLOGICAL AND THEOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION IN LUKE AND ACTS Steve Walton

In L u k e ' s story, b o t h h e a v e n a n d earth are transformed t h r o u g h J e s u s a n d b y t h e Spirit. T h i s p r o c e s s o f transformation affects e v e n h o w G o d is t o b e seen a n d understood, for there is n o w a h u m a n b e i n g in h e a v e n at G o d ' s right h a n d - a n d he p o u r s out the Spirit u p o n G o d ' s p e o p l e t o e q u i p t h e m to r e c l a i m creation for its Creator. L u k e ' s G o s p e l a n d A c t s are u n i q u e in t w o important respects for this study. 1

First, L u k e a l o n e o f t h e E v a n g e l i s t s p r o v i d e s a ' v o l u m e t w o ' telling the story of t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the earliest Christian c o m m u n i t i e s . T h i s a l l o w s u s to see h o w the r e m a r k a b l e intervention o f Israel's G o d in h u m a n history t h r o u g h J e s u s is p l a y e d out a m o n g those w h o follow J e s u s . B y w r i t i n g A c t s , L u k e p o r t r a y s the universal c l a i m s o f J e s u s w i t h particular clarity. S e c o n d , L u k e a l o n e a m o n g t h e N T writers narrates the a s c e n s i o n o f J e s u s , and h e d o e s s o t w i c e ( L u k e 2 4 ; A c t s 1). B y contrast w i t h a n g e l s , w h o c o m e from h e a v e n a n d return t h e r e , J e s u s is a h u m a n b e i n g w h o enters h e a v e n . J e s u s both shares the rule o f G o d o v e r t h e u n i v e r s e a n d c o n t i n u e s t o intervene in the story o f his followers, b o t h in his o w n p e r s o n a n d b y t h e Spirit. I n p i e r c i n g t h e barrier b e t w e e n earth a n d h e a v e n , J e s u s restructures h o w reality is u n d e r s t o o d , both n o w a n d in the d a y s to c o m e . To e x p l o r e L u k e ' s e n g a g e m e n t w i t h c o s m o l o g y , w e shall first r e v i e w his perspective o n the k e y c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m s a n d ideas w h i c h h e u s e s . W e shall then focus o n t h e shift o f p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h t h e a s c e n s i o n o f J e s u s b r i n g s . T h i s will lead into discussion o f t h o s e w h o i n v a d e this r e a l m o f earth from h e a v e n , notably a n g e l s , the Spirit a n d J e s u s h i m s e l f after his a s c e n s i o n , r e p u l s i n g the o c c u p y i n g forces o f Satan, d e m o n s , a n d u n c l e a n a n d evil spirits. Finally, w e shall c o n s i d e r s o m e k e y p a s s a g e s in A c t s w h e r e there s e e m s to b e explicit dia logue w i t h rival a c c o u n t s o f c o s m o l o g y , particularly t h o s e w h i c h centre o n t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e , on p a g a n i s m , or o n t h e role o f Caesar.

1. For the purpose of this study we make no assumption about the identity of the author of Luke and Acts, other than his gender.

4.

Naming

Luke-Acts

Space(s):

61

Key

Terms

L u k e u s e s o v p a v o s ( ' h e a v e n ' or ' s k y ' ) 6 1 t i m e s i n h i s t w o b o o k s . T h e L u k a n favourite UV|;IOTOS ( ' h i g h e s t ' ) c a n d e n o t e t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m a s w e l l . L u k e also h a s a n u m b e r o f u s e s o f ?5TIS ' H a d e s ' ( 4 o f 10 N T u s e s a r e i n L u k e - A c t s ) . B y contrast, L u k e d o e s n o t u s e t h e KTI£CD ( ' c r e a t e ' ) w o r d g r o u p at all, a n d u s e s Koopos ( ' w o r l d ' ) o n l y four t i m e s . L u k e d o e s u s e yTj, v a r i o u s l y translated a s ' e a r t h ' , ' s o i l ' , ' l a n d ' , 5 8 t i m e s , n o t a b l y for o u r p u r p o s e i n c o m b i n a t i o n s w i t h

oupccvos. T h i s i m p r e s s i o n is b o r n e o u t b y m o r e detailed e x a m i n a t i o n . T h u s prima facie

L u k e s h o w s a strong interest in t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m a n d its interac

tion w i t h t h e earthly o n e . L u k e ' s p r e f e r e n c e for ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' l a n g u a g e o v e r Koopos is r a t h e r u n e x p e c t e d g i v e n that L u k e is w r i t i n g into a G r a e c o - R o m a n setting, w h e r e Koopos is m o r e c o m m o n t h a n ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' a s a label for t h e u n i v e r s e . Plausibly, t h i s is a n e x a m p l e o f L u k e i m i t a t i n g t h e LXX, w h e r e u s a g e is similar.

2

Heaven/the

Heavens*

T h e large majority o f L u k a n u s e s o f

the Highest,

and

Hades

oupccvos o c c u r in prepositional p h r a s e s .

L u k a n a s s u m p t i o n o f a n a b o v e / b e l o w m e t a p h o r for t h e division o f h e a v e n a n d earth is s e e n i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n ' u n d e r h e a v e n '

(urrb T O V oupavov), in e a c h

u s e s u g g e s t i n g universality (Lk. 17.24; A c t s 2 . 5 ; 4 . 1 2 ) . Likewise, movement 'into heaven'

(sis

TOV

oupavov) is u p w a r d s in relation

to earth, especially i n J e s u s ' a s c e n s i o n (Lk. 2 4 . 5 1 ; A c t s 1.9-11). P e t e r contrasts Jesus with David, w h o did not ascend

(ccvePrj) there ( A c t s 2 . 3 4 ) . J e s u s is n o w 4

in a n exalted p o s i t i o n o f p o w e r in t h e r e a l m o f G o d (cf. A c t s 3 . 2 1 ; 7 . 5 6 ) . T h e a n g e l s d e p a r t into h e a v e n ( L k . 2 . 1 5 ) , a n d t h e sheet in P e t e r ' s vision is t a k e n u p into h e a v e n ( A c t s 10.16; 11.10). T h e a b o v e / b e l o w m e t a p h o r is e x p r e s s e d i n relation t o p r a y e r i n t h e t a x collector w h o will n o t lift his e y e s sis T O V oupavov (Lk. 18.13) a n d J e s u s l o o k i n g u p (ccva|3AEv|/as) into h e a v e n w h e n h e g i v e s

2. As a rough and ready measure, (he 71 L X X uses of K O O U O S are completely outweighed by 621 uses of oupccvos and 3043 uses of yf|. I am grateful to Dr Jonathan Pennington for suggest ing the link with the L X X to me. 3. I have excluded uses of oupccvos for 'sky' or 'air' (such as TOC T T £ T E I V C C T O U oupccvou 'the birds of the air', found five times in Luke-Acts), but have focused on those of greater cosmologi cal and theological significance. 4. It is hard to accept Strelan's antithesis concerning the three-fold use of eis T O V oupavov in 1.10-11: 'This is not a spatial or locative description; it means that Jesus now participates in the rule of God'. R. Strelan, Strange Acts: Studies in the Cultural World of the Acts of the Apostles (BZNW 126; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2004), p. 39. Why can location not be the denotation and rule the connotation of the expression?

62

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

t h a n k s (Lk. 9.16). I n t h e s e c a s e s ' h e a v e n ' stands for t h e r e a l m o f G o d , a s it d o e s in t h e p r o d i g a l s o n ' s affirmation that h e h a s s i n n e d ' a g a i n s t h e a v e n ' (Lk. 15.18, 2 1 ) , a n d in S t e p h e n s e e i n g ' i n t o h e a v e n ' ( A c t s 7.55). The expression 'from heaven'

(EK

T O U

oupocvou,

E£

oupccvou o r

CCTTO

T O U

oupccvou) indicates i n t e r v e n t i o n from that r e a l m into t h e earthly. Often this is positive i n t e r v e n t i o n from t h e d i v i n e r e a l m in t h e f o r m o f s o u n d (Lk. 3 . 2 2 ; A c t s 2.2; 11.9) o r sight ( A c t s 9 . 3 ; 11.5; 2 2 . 6 ) o r great signs ( L k . 2 1 . 1 1 ) . H o w e v e r , j u d g e m e n t in t h e f o r m o f fire c a n c o m e from h e a v e n (Lk. 9.54; 17.29), a n d Satan fell from h e a v e n ( L k . 10.18). A s previously, ' h e a v e n ' is t h e d i v i n e r e a l m , w h e r e t h e F a t h e r is (Lk. 11.13; cf. 2 0 . 4 ) . B y contrast w i t h t h e s e p r e s e n t - o r i e n t e d e x p r e s s i o n s , E V T G O oupccvcd, ' i n h e a v e n ' is often u s e d in future settings. T h o s e w h o follow J e s u s w i l l r e c e i v e a r e w a r d or t r e a s u r e in h e a v e n ( L k . 6 . 2 3 ; 12.23; 18.22), a n d their n a m e s are w r i t t e n in h e a v e n ( L k . 10.20). T h e r e is rejoicing in h e a v e n w h e n sinners r e p e n t (Lk. 15.7; cf. 15.10). R e j o i c i n g h a p p e n s E V inpiaTOis ' i n t h e h i g h e s t ' (Lk. 2 . 1 5 ; 19.38). H e a v e n is a l s o a p l a c e o f p e a c e a n d glory (Lk. 19.38). H e a v e n , h o w e v e r , is n o t to b e attained easily: C a p e r n a u m w i l l n o t b e exalted to h e a v e n

(EGOS

oupccvou), b u t b r o u g h t d o w n to H a d e s ( L k . 10.15). H a d e s is

a r e a l m o f p a i n a n d suffering (Lk. 16.23; a l t h o u g h a p a r a b l e , this d r a w s o n 5

p o p u l a r a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e after-life ). P s . 15.10 LXX ( M T 16.10) is q u o t e d in A c t s 2 . 2 7 , 3 1 , a n d r e a d a s a p r o p h e c y o f t h e M e s s i a h n o t being abandoned to Hades. In mentioning Hades, Luke m a y n o w b e using a ' t h r e e - d e c k e r ' m o d e l o f t h e u n i v e r s e , w i t h earth in t h e m i d d l e , h e a v e n ' a b o v e ' and Hades 'below'.

6

M o s t striking for o u r s t u d y a r e u s e s o f oupccvos as c l o s e d o r o p e n . J e s u s s p e a k s o f t h e f a m i n e in E l i j a h ' s t i m e in w h i c h ' t h e h e a v e n w a s c l o s e d

(EKAEIOOT)

b o u p c c v o s ) for three y e a r s a n d six m o n t h s ' (Lk. 4 . 2 5 ) . T h e c l o s u r e o f h e a v e n is clearly a r e f e r e n c e to t h e lack o f r a i n from t h e sky, b u t p r o b a b l y also implies that G o d h a d c e a s e d t o c a r e for t h e p e o p l e o f Israel b e c a u s e o f A h a b ' s sin a n d 7

their idolatry. C o n v e r s e l y , t o s p e a k o f h e a v e n as o p e n indicates that intercourse b e t w e e n G o d a n d earthly b e i n g s is t a k i n g p l a c e - i n d e e d ' I s a w h e a v e n o p e n e d ' 8

is a s t a n d a r d a p o c a l y p t i c f o r m u l a for G o d r e v e a l i n g himself. J e s u s h a s a vision o f h e a v e n o p e n e d at h i s b a p t i s m (Lk. 3.21); S t e p h e n sees t h e h e a v e n s o p e n e d as h e is b e i n g s t o n e d a n d r e c o g n i z e s t h e e x a l t e d J e s u s in h e a v e n ( A c t s 7.56); a n d

5. J. Nolland, Luke (WBC 35; Dallas: Word, 1989-93), 2:557. 6. Cf. Leslie Houlden, 'Beyond Belief: Preaching the Ascension', Theology 94 (1991), 173-80 (177). 7. I. H. Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (NIGTC; Exeter: Paternoster, 1978), p. 188. 8. E.g. Ezek. 1.1 L X X ; John 1.51; Rev. 19.11. See the surveys of Jewish apocalyptic in M. N. A. Bockmuehl, Revelation and Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity (WUNT 2/36; Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1990); and Christopher Rowland, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity (London: SPCK, 1982).

4.

Luke-Acts

63

P e t e r sees h e a v e n o p e n e d w h e n h e h a s t h e v i s i o n o f t h e sheet ( A c t s 10.11). T h i s l a n g u a g e is h i g h l y s u g g e s t i v e , for it indicates that G o d is c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h h i s creation, b o t h w i t h J e s u s w h i l e h e is o n earth a n d , after h i s a s c e n s i o n , w i t h J e s u s ' followers.

9

Earth,

the

World

A n u m b e r o f t i m e s t h e p a i r ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' e x p r e s s e s t h e totality o f e x i s t e n c e . G o d m a d e t h e m a n d is their L o r d ( A c t s 4 . 2 4 ; 1 4 . 1 5 ; 17.24). H e a v e n is G o d ' s t h r o n e a n d earth h i s footstool ( A c t s 7.49, q u o t i n g Isa. 66.1). In a n intriguing pair o f s a y i n g s , Jesus asserts that it is easier for h e a v e n a n d earth to p a s s a w a y t h a n for t h e smallest character t o b e d r o p p e d from t h e l a w (Lk. 16.17), a n d y e t s a y s that h e a v e n a n d earth will p a s s away, b u t his w o r d s will n o t ( L k . 2 1 . 3 3 ) . H e a v e n a n d earth clearly p o s s e s s a certain durability, b u t n o t greater durability t h a n J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g ! L u k e t h u s hints at t h e c o m i n g r e n e w a l o f t h e u n i v e r s e . E l s e w h e r e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h s t a n d in contrast: t h e sheet P e t e r sees is let d o w n from h e a v e n to earth ( A c t s 10.11) a n d , suggestively, S a u l falls to t h e e a r t h after t h e light from h e a v e n shines a r o u n d h i m ( A c t s 9.3-4). H e r e t h e superiority o f t h e r e a l m o f G o d is asserted o v e r t h e h u m a n , earthly r e a l m . W h e r e y ? | o c c u r s w i t h o u t o u p a v o s it is u s e d t o s p e a k o f life h e r e a n d n o w b y implicit contrast w i t h life in h e a v e n (e.g. A c t s 8.33 [quoting Isa. 5 3 . 8 LXX]; 2 2 . 2 2 ) . T h u s J e s u s ' birth b r i n g s p e a c e u p o n earth (Lk. 2.14) a n d h e h a s author ity o n e a r t h (Lk. 5.24). T h e fixture o f w h i c h h e w a r n s w i l l i n c l u d e distress a n d suffering o n earth ( L k . 2 1 . 2 3 , 2 5 , 3 5 ) , a n d h i s o w n m i n i s t r y will b r i n g fire rather t h a n p e a c e (Lk. 12.49, 5 1 ) . In A c t s t h e e x p r e s s i o n ecos EOXCCTOU TTJS yfjs ' t o the e n d o f e a r t h ' , d e r i v e d from Isa. 4 9 . 6 , is a k e y n o t e for t h e b r e a d t h o f t h e b e l i e v e r s ' m i s s i o n ( A c t s 1.8), a m i s s i o n w h i c h t h e y g r a d u a l l y c o m e t o see includes G e n t i l e s ( A c t s 13.47) - t h u s , all t h e e a r t h ' s families w i l l b e b l e s s e d ( A c t s 3 . 2 5 , e c h o i n g G e n . 12.3).

The Universe Luke does not use the

K T I £ C Q

as Gods

Creation

' c r e a t e ' w o r d g r o u p at all, b u t t h e i d e a o f t h e

u n i v e r s e as G o d ' s creation is clear, particularly w h e r e believers are e n c o u n t e r ing p a g a n s . I n A t h e n s , P a u l p r e s e n t s G o d as t h e o n e ' w h o m a d e ( b TTOirjaas) h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' a n d w h o (in c o n s e q u e n c e ) is ' L o r d o f h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' ( A c t s 17.24). T h i s G o d is n o deistic w a t c h m a k e r , for h e c o n t i n u e s to g i v e

TTOCOI

£cor|v

Kai Trvorjv Kai T C C rravTa ' t o all p e o p l e life a n d b r e a t h a n d all t h i n g s ' (v. 2 5 ) , a n d ( q u o t i n g a p a g a n p o e t ) ' i n h i m w e live a n d m o v e a n d e x i s t ' (v. 2 8 ) . L u k e also p r e s e n t s J e s u s as referring t o G o d ' s k i n d l y p r o v i d e n c e t o w a r d t h e b i r d s a n d

9. I exclude here uses of yr] for 'soil', 'land' (i.e., a country) or 'land' (by contrast with sea or lake); these account for about 25 uses from a total of 58 in Luke-Acts.

64

Cosmology

and New Testament

t h e flowers o f t h e field a n d t h u s , a fortiori,

Theology

for p e o p l e m a d e in h i s i m a g e (Lk.

12.24-28). This t h e m e c a n also b e seen in S t e p h e n ' s speech (Acts 7.50, quoting Isa. 66.2), w h e r e G o d ' s ' h a n d ' is s y n e c d o c h e for G o d h i m s e l f - h i s p o w e r in particular; in t h e p r a y e r o f t h e b e l i e v e r s ( A c t s 4 . 2 4 ) ; a n d in P a u l ' s w o r d s in Lystra ( A c t s 14.24).

10

In t h e latter t w o c a s e s , t h e s e q u e n c e ' t h e h e a v e n a n d the earth a n d the

sea a n d e v e r y t h i n g in t h e m ' follows that in t h e creation story of G e n . 1.1-2.3, further u n d e r l i n i n g t h e c l a i m that t h e G o d o f t h e b e l i e v e r s is t h e Creator. G o d ' s creation o f t h e u n i v e r s e is a l s o h i n t e d at in the idea o f ' t h e foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' (Lk. 11.50), w h i c h p r e s u p p o s e s a b e g i n n i n g , a l t h o u g h hints o f creation in L u k e ' s G o s p e l a r e r a r e - it is o n l y in t h e w i d e r m i s s i o n in A c t s that this t h e m e becomes explicit.

11

Changing

Space(s):

the

11

Ascension

L u k e a l o n e n a r r a t e s J e s u s ' a s c e n s i o n , a n d d o e s so t w i c e (Lk. 2 4 . 5 0 - 5 3 ; A c t s 1.6-11); o t h e r N T a u t h o r s a s s u m e its existence or spell out its s i g n i f i c a n c e .

13

L u k e ' s d o u b l e telling s h o w s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e a s c e n s i o n , w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s for m u c h that follows in A c t s , a s w e l l as b e i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c l i m a x to t h e G o s p e l ' s s t o r y .

14

It m a r k s J e s u s ' s t e p p i n g from t h e r e a l m o f earth into

h e a v e n , from w h e n c e h e c o n t i n u e s t o act; it m a r k s a w a t e r s h e d in h i s life a n d in t h e w a y t h e u n i v e r s e is s e e n a n d e x p e r i e n c e d . B e c a u s e t h e a s c e n s i o n is s o significant for t h e c o s m o l o g y o f L u k e - A c t s , w e shall focus o n it first, a n d t h e n c o n s i d e r h o w L u k e ' s G o s p e l p r e p a r e s for this r e m a r k a b l e event. T h e a s c e n s i o n o f J e s u s m a r k s t h e c l o s e o f t h e forty-day p e r i o d o f r e s u r r e c tion a p p e a r a n c e s ( A c t s 1.3), a n d v i v i d l y s h o w s t h e risen J e s u s e n t e r i n g h e a v e n ( s i s T O V o u p a v o v , ' i n t o h e a v e n ' ) , a n e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h o c c u r s three t i m e s in

10. Both 4.24 and 14.15 echo L X X Exod. 20.11; Neh. 9.6; Ps. 145.6 [MT 146.6]; Isa. 37.16, while not being an exact quotation of any of them. 11. It is also worth observing that, while God's fatherhood is linked in the OT and Second Temple Jewish writings with creation, this link is not made in Luke-Acts. For references and discussion, see D. G. Chen, God as Father in Luke-Acts (StBibL 92; Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2006), pp. 84-5,136-7. 12. A number of significant issues concerning the ascension, including its historicity, are beyond the scope of this limited study. Significant studies include: Strelan, Strange, pp. 33-49; A. W. Zwiep, The Ascension of the Messiah in Lukan Christology (NovTSup 87; Leiden: Brill, 1997); M. C. Parsons, The Departure of Jesus in Luke-Acts: The Ascension Narratives in Context (JSNTSup 21; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987), with useful review of previous work on pp. 14-18; G. Lohfink, Die Himmelfahrt Jesu: Untersuchungen zu den Himmelfahrts- und Erhohungstexten heiLukas (SANT 26; Munchen: K6sel, 1971). 13. See Douglas Farrow, Ascension andEcclesia: On the Significance of the Doctrine of the Ascension for Ecclesiology and Christian Cosmology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1999), pp. 15-40, 275-80; T. F. Torrance, Space, Time, and Resurrection (Edinburgh: Handsel, 1976), pp. 106-22. 14. Cf. Eric Franklin, Christ the Lord (London: SPCK, 1975), p. 35.

4.

Luke-Acts

65

A c t s 1.10-11. L k . 2 4 . 5 0 - 5 3 a p p e a r s t o relate t h e s a m e event, b u t w i t h n o t i m e frame p r o v i d e d : v. 5 0 is l i n k e d t o v. 4 9 only b y t h e v a g u e 5 s . T h i s a c c o u n t c o n t a i n s t h e s a m e n o t e o f J e s u s entering h e a v e n (v. 5 1 ) . It is b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f this e s s a y t o d e b a t e t h e p r e c i s e relationship o f resurrection a n d a s c e n s i o n ; t h e v i e w t a k e n h e r e is that t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d a s c e n s i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e y s h o u l d b e s e e n together, a r e distinct m o m e n t s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f J e s u s ' exaltation t o G o d ' s right h a n d .

15

T h e a s c e n s i o n m a y t h e n b e seen a s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e

p r o c e s s o f J e s u s ' exaltation a n d t h e p o i n t at w h i c h J e s u s is visually e x a l t e d t o h e a v e n , t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g t h e disciples w i t h a visual d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e truth o f J e s u s ' e x a l t e d status. H e n c e , A c t s 1.9-10 u s e s a rich visual v o c a b u l a r y w h i c h stresses t h e reality o f t h e event, for t h e t e r m s u s e d a r e n o t v i s i o n a r y o r d r e a m language:

PAETTOVTCDV,

TGDV

cxj>9aApcov a u T o v ,

C C T E V I ^ O V T E S ,

1

6

EP{3AETTOVTES,

iBEaaaaSE.

What the Ascension

Implies

G i v e n t h e stress L u k e p l a c e s o n t h e a s c e n s i o n a n d h e a v e n l y session o f J e s u s , w h a t intersection d o e s it h a v e w i t h c o s m o l o g i c a l issues? A t least six p o i n t s come to mind. First, t h e a s c e n s i o n a n d exaltation o f Jesus t o G o d ' s right h a n d i m p l y that h e n o w r e i g n s a l o n g s i d e G o d from h e a v e n ; it is n o w a p p r o p r i a t e t o call h i m Kuptos ( ' L o r d ' ) a s w e l l a s X p i o x o s ( ' M e s s i a h ' ) , for G o d h i m s e l f h a s d o n e s o in e x a l t i n g Jesus t o h i s right h a n d ( A c t s 2.36). H i s a s c e n s i o n is ' i n t o h e a v e n ' (Lk. 2 4 . 5 1 ; A c t s 1.10,11). T h e a c c o u n t o f t h e a s c e n s i o n i s b r o u g h t t o a c l o s e for t h e disciples b y a c l o u d ( A c t s 1.9), a c l o u d w h i c h e c h o e s t h e singular c l o u d o f Lk. 2 1 . 2 7 u p o n w h i c h t h e s o n o f m a n c o m e s (contrast M k 13.26; M t . 2 4 . 2 9 ) . It therefore a p p e a r s that L u k e i n t e n d s a n e c h o o f L k . 2 1 . 2 7 in A c t s 1.9, a n d t h e r e b y makes a connection to Dan. 7.13 concerning the Son of M a n w h o comes to the

15. See the helpful summaries in Kevin L. Anderson, 'But God Raised Him from the Dead': The Theology ofJesus 'Resurrection in Luke-Acts (PBM; Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2006), pp. 6-10,41-7; R. F. O'Toole, 'Luke's Understanding of Jesus* ResuiTectic^-Ascension-Exaltation', BTB 9 (1979), 106-14.1 share the view of Anderson and P. A. Van Stempvoort, 'The Interpreta tion of the Ascension in Luke and Acts', NTS 5 (1958-59), 30-42, contra Lohfink, Himmelfahrt, pp. 80-98, 270; J. A. Fitzmyer, 'The Ascension of Christ and Pentecost* in J. A. Fitzmyer, To Advance the Gospel: New Testament Studies (2nd edn; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 265-94, esp. 265-77; Zwiep, Ascension. 16. Strelan, Strange, pp. 38-9 unconvincingly seeks to argue that ccTevi^ovrcs implies entering into a trance-like state, which is unlikely - the verb here (as elsewhere) denotes intent looking or staring at something or someone (BDAG, 148). Even if Strelan were correct about aTevi£ovres, Luke has used numerous other visual words which carry no such implication; cf. C. K Barrett, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (2 vols; ICC; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994, 1998), 1.81 on PXETTOVTCOV, whose use 'places the Ascension in the same category of events as any other happening in the story of Jesus'.

Cosmology

66

and New Testament

Theology

M o s t H i g h o n t h e c l o u d s . T h e p r o m i n e n t u s e o f a c l o u d in t h e transfiguration (three t i m e s in L k . 9.34-35) further reinforces the l i k e l i h o o d that t h e a s c e n s i o n cloud connotes G o d ' s presence and glory.

17

A l o n g s i d e t h e s e links, L u k e explicitly states that, after J e s u s a s c e n d e d , ' t h e y w o r s h i p p e d h i m ' ( L k . 2 4 . 5 2 ) . S i n c e for J e w s w o r s h i p is to b e g i v e n to G o d a l o n e , J e s u s is h e r e b e i n g p l a c e d a l o n g s i d e Y H W H as a n object o f w o r s h i p .

18

H i s e n t r y into h e a v e n is t h u s different from t h o s e o f Elijah o r E n o c h , for his entry follows his r e s u r r e c t i o n .

19

T h u s , t h e w a y ' G o d ' is u n d e r s t o o d c h a n g e s :

the way that Luke narrates the ascension of an eschatologically transformed, fleshly human being inevitably alters the life of... God and forever breaks the bounds of any cosmology, ancient or modern, that portrays the gap that needs overcoming between God and humanity as primarily ontological rather than hamartiological. 20

S e c o n d , the t w o w h i t e - r o b e d interpreters tell t h e disciples that J e s u s ' a s c e n sion p r e s a g e s h i s return from h e a v e n t o earth ( A c t s l . l l ) .

2 1

T h i s return to earth

will b e t h e t i m e o f c o s m i c r e n e w a l a n d restoration p r o m i s e d in Scripture ( A c t s 3.20-21) as w e l l a s o f j u d g e m e n t ( A c t s 17.31). T h e c l o u d a l s o b e c a m e e m b l e m atic o f t h e return o f J e s u s , a s h e w a s to c o m e from t h e p r e s e n c e o f G o d w h i c h the c l o u d s y m b o l i z e s (cf. 1 T h e s s . 4 . 1 7 ; Rev. 1.7; 14.14-16). It is p o s s i b l e that this p a r o u s i a s y m b o l i s m m a y h a v e further e n c o u r a g e d L u k e to r e p o r t t h e c l o u d as e n v e l o p i n g J e s u s . Third, h e a v e n ' s gift, t h e H o l y Spirit, flows from J e s u s ' exaltation to G o d ' s right h a n d ( A c t s 2.33). H e a v e n is o p e n ( A c t s 2.2 s p e a k s o f a s o u n d c o m i n g ' f r o m h e a v e n ' ) a n d t h e Spirit is p o u r e d u p o n G o d ' s p e o p l e as a result o f J e s u s ' 22

exaltation, w h i c h itself m a r k s h i m a s L o r d o f t h e Spirit ( A c t s 2 . 3 6 ) . T h e futur istic p r e s e n t

CCTTOOTSAACO

( L k . 2 4 . 4 9 ) a n d the e m p h a t i c eyeb s h o w that J e s u s

h i m s e l f w i l l s e n d the H o l y Spirit a s ' p o w e r from o n h i g h ' (cf. A c t s 1.5). T h e

17. Cf. the thoughtful argument of Strelan (Strange, p. 36) for early Christian appropriation of Pss. 8,46 to connect Jesus' exaltation with reigning, as well as his helpful tracing of references to clouds connoting God's presence (pp. 37-8). 18. Larry W. Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rapids/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2003), p. 345. 19. This is the diametrical opposite of the puzzling view of Franklin, Christ, p. 35, that it was the ascension rather than the resurrection which marked Jesus out as 'other than one of the prophets'. 20. A. Johnson, 'Resurrection, Ascension and the Developing Portrait of the God of Israel in Acts', SJT 57 (2004), 146-62 (147); see also D. Buckwalter, The Character and Purpose of Lukes Christology (SNTSMS 89; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), esp. pp. 180-92. 21. Torrance, Resurrection, pp. 150-8. 22. M. Turner, Power from on High: The Spirit in Israel's Restoration and Witness in LukeActs (JPTSup, 9; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), p. 278; M. Turner, ' *Trimtarian Pneumatology in the New Testament? - Towards an Explanation of the Worship of Jesus', AsTJ 57 (2003), 167-86 (178); Buckwalter, Character, pp. 194-6. ,,

4.

67

Luke-Acts

Spirit h e r e a n d in A c t s 2 . 3 3 - 3 6 is the e x e c u t i v e p o w e r o f t h e e x a l t e d J e s u s , b y w h i c h h e e x e r c i s e s his s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e w o r l d .

23

T h i s s a m e Spirit will b e

t h e m e a n s o f e m p o w e r i n g t h e b e l i e v e r s for the t a s k o f calling creation b a c k to G o d as t h e y w i t n e s s to J e s u s ( A c t s 1.8),

24

in p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e d a y o f J e s u s '

return. Fourth, the heavenly Jesus will w e l c o m e and receive believers. This seems to b e t h e significance o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f J e s u s to S t e p h e n ( A c t s 7.55-56). J e s u s is n a m e d as ' t h e s o n o f m a n ' (v. 5 6 ) , u n i q u e l y o u t s i d e t h e G o s p e l s . H e h a s fulfilled D a n . 7.13 a n d therefore h a s r e c e i v e d t h e u n i v e r s a l j u r i s d i c t i o n g i v e n to t h e s o n o f m a n . S t e p h e n ' s m u r d e r e r s r e c o g n i z e this (to t h e m ) b l a s p h e m o u s c l a i m b y refusing to h e a r it further a n d b y s t o n i n g S t e p h e n ( w . 5 7 - 5 8 ) . D a n i e l 7 w a s , o f c o u r s e , a d d r e s s e d to a m a r t y r c o n t e x t o f t h e p e o p l e o f G o d suffering against t h e p a g a n s , p o r t r a y e d as w i l d b e a s t s ( w . 2 - 8 ) , i m m e d i a t e l y before t h e A n c i e n t o f D a y s enters t h e s c e n e to find in favour o f his p e o p l e . particularly a p p r o p r i a t e that D a n i e l 7 is a l l u d e d to h e r e .

25

It is t h u s

26

Fifth, S t e p h e n p r o v i d e s a n e x a m p l e o f a w i d e r c a t e g o r y o f J e s u s ' appear a n c e s a n d actions from h e a v e n . T h e s e flow from J e s u s ' role at G o d ' s right h a n d as G o d ' s ' c h i e f e x e c u t i v e a g e n t ' - L u k e h a s n o ' a b s e n t e e c h r i s t o l o g y ' .

27

Hence

J e s u s a p p e a r s from h e a v e n to Saul o f Tarsus o n t h e r o a d to D a m a s c u s a n d exer cises his p o w e r b y striking h i m b l i n d ( A c t s 9.8). J e s u s is n o t a b s e n t from earth, for h e is identified w i t h t h e b e l i e v e r s w h o m Saul is p e r s e c u t i n g - to p e r s e c u t e t h e m is t o p e r s e c u t e J e s u s h i m s e l f ( A c t s 9.5). T h e Jesus w h o r e i g n s w i t h t h e F a t h e r is also t h e J e s u s w h o suffers w i t h his p e o p l e , t h e r e b y s h a r i n g G o d ' s o w n ability to b e p r e s e n t in m a n y locations at o n c e - a n d this illustrates o u r h u m a n difficulty w i t h u s i n g t h e l a n g u a g e o f ' p r e s e n c e ' a n d ' a b s e n c e ' in relation to t h e exalted Jesus.

28

N o t o n l y d o e s J e s u s m e e t Saul directly, b u t h e g o e s o n to p r e p a r e for S a u l ' s integration into t h e b e l i e v i n g c o m m u n i t y b y s p e a k i n g t o A n a n i a s ( A c t s 9.10-16).

23. See, much more fully, Turner, Power, pp. 290-315. 24. I here take 'the end of the earth' as a reference to 'everywhere', in tune with the echo of Isa. 49.6, with, inter alia, L. T. Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles (SP 5; Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1992), pp. 26-7. Note also that the crowd at Pentecost come 'from every nation under heaven' (Acts 2.5) - while all of these are Jews, the choice of term hints at the universality of the concerns of God. 25. N. T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God (London: SPCK, 1992), pp. 291-7. 26. C. F. D. Moule, The Origin of Christology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 17. 27. See Turner, Power, pp. 295-6 for the point and the specific phrases, contra (famously) H. Conzelmann, The Theology of St Luke (London: Faber & Faber, 1960), passim, esp. p. 204. 28. I owe this point to an unpublished paper presented by Prof. Beverly Gaventa to the Book of Acts Section at the SBL Annual Meeting of November 2003; I gratefully acknowledge her kindness in providing me with a copy.

68

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

T h e exalted J e s u s s t a g e - m a n a g e s events to his o w n e n d s , a n d t h u s exercises his s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e u n i v e r s e . Similarly, it is J e s u s w h o p o u r s o u t t h e Spirit ( A c t s 2 . 3 3 ) . It is J e s u s w h o h e a l s A e n e a s ( A c t s 9.34) a n d , w h e n o t h e r h e a l i n g s t a k e p l a c e in t h e n a m e o f J e s u s , t h e n a m e stands for his p e r s o n t o o (e.g. A c t s 3.6, 16; 4 . 7 , 17, 3 0 )

2 9

a n d s h o w s h i s p r e s e n t , earthly e x e r c i s e o f p o w e r : ' W h a t

b e l i e v e r s d o in J e s u s ' n a m e is in effect b e i n g d o n e b y J e s u s h i m s e l f .

3 0

That

p o w e r is a l s o s e e n in d e l i v e r a n c e from evil spirits ( A c t s 16.18 a n d , comically, 19.13, 1 7 ) .

31

I n d e e d , s o p o w e r f u l is J e s u s ' n a m e that it is t h e u n i q u e a n d sole

i n s t r u m e n t o f salvation ( A c t s 4 . 1 2 ) , so that n e w b e l i e v e r s a r e b a p t i z e d into J e s u s ' n a m e ( A c t s 2 . 3 8 ; cf. 1 0 . 4 3 ; 2 2 . 1 6 ) a n d p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e m e s s a g e is p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f J e s u s ( A c t s 9 . 1 5 , 2 7 , 2 8 ) . Prayer, t o o , is calling upon the n a m e of Jesus (Acts 9.14,21). Sixth, t h e a s c e n s i o n o f J e s u s , h i s p i e r c i n g t h e barrier b e t w e e n earth a n d h e a v e n , m e a n s that h e a v e n is o p e n to earth. To b e sure, h e a v e n h a s b e e n i n v a d ing earth in a n d t h r o u g h t h e m i n i s t r y o f t h e earthly J e s u s , b u t t h e flurry o f angelic activity in t h e e a r l y c h a p t e r s o f A c t s is u n p r e c e d e n t e d , directing, s a v i n g and emboldening believers and bringing God's judgement to Herod (Acts 1.10-11; 5.19; 8.26; 1 0 . 3 ; 1 2 . 7 - 1 1 , 2 3 ; cf. 2 7 . 2 3 - 2 4 ) . T h e r e p e a t e d c o m i n g a n d action o f t h e H o l y Spirit is a further i m p o r t a n t instance o f h e a v e n i n v a d i n g earth (e.g. A c t s 2 . 1 - 4 ; 4 . 8 , 3 1 ; 6.10; 7 . 5 5 ; 8.17; 9.17; 10.44; 11.28; 13.2, 9, 5 2 ) , as are t h e h e a l i n g s a n d e x o r c i s m s w h i c h t a k e p l a c e . T h e e x o r c i s m s , in particular, d r i v e b a c k t h e o c c u p y i n g forces o f evil a n d free p e o p l e from b o n d a g e t o b e l o n g to G o d ' s p e o p l e (e.g. A c t s 5.16; 8.7; 1 6 . 1 6 - 1 8 ; 19.12). ' S i g n s a n d w o n d e r s ' o c c u r at the b e a c h h e a d s o f t h e i n v a s i o n (e.g. A c t s 2 . 2 2 , 4 3 ; 4 . 3 0 ; 5.12; 6.8; 14.3; 15.12). T h o s e w h o o u t w a r d l y j o i n G o d ' s r e n e w e d p e o p l e , b u t w h o lie t o the h e a v e n l y Spirit, a r e j u d g e d ( A c t s 5.1-11). Further, G o d ' s w o r d is a n active a g e n t w i t h i n t h e m i s s i o n o f G o d ( A c t s 6.7; 12.24; 13.48-49; 2 0 . 3 2 ) ,

32

a n d acts as a

further a g e n t o f G o d ' s h e a v e n l y i n v a s i o n o f earth (cf. Isa. 5 5 . 1 0 - 1 1 ) . In contrast w i t h p r e v i o u s t i m e s , b o t h in the O T a n d in t h e m i n i s t r y o f J e s u s , h e a v e n is n o w ' o p e n for b u s i n e s s ' o n a p e r m a n e n t b a s i s .

Space

Invaders:

Heaven

Coming

to

Earth

W e h a v e d i s c o v e r e d t h u s far that t h e exaltation o f J e s u s , visually r e p r e s e n t e d a n d c u l m i n a t e d in t h e a s c e n s i o n , initiates a n e w c h a p t e r in t h e life o f h e a v e n a n d earth. T h e r e is n o w a h u m a n b e i n g r e i g n i n g a l o n g s i d e G o d , a n d earth is o p e n to h e a v e n in a fresh w a y . H o w far d o e s L u k e ' s G o s p e l p r e p a r e for this? 29. J. A. Ziesler, 'The Name of Jesus in the Acts of the Apostles', JSNT 4 (1974), 28-41 (35-37). 30. Buckwalter, Character, p. 184; see pp. 182-4 for a helpful discussion. 31. J. Goldingay, 'Are They Comic Acts?', EvQ 69 (1997), 99-107 (102-104). 32. See the valuable discussion in D. W. Pao, Acts and the Isotonic New Exodus (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 2002), pp. 160-7.

4.

Luke-Acts

69

T h e t i m e o f J e s u s ' b i r t h b r i s t l e s w i t h d i v i n e activity. G o d s e n d s a n g e l s t o announce both the birth of John, the forerunner of Jesus, a n d Jesus himself ( L k . 1.11-20, 2 6 - 3 8 ; 2 . 8 - 1 4 ) . T h e H o l y Spirit i n s p i r e s s p e e c h t o a n n o u n c e w h a t G o d is n o w d o i n g ( L k . 1.41-45, 6 7 - 7 9 ; 2 . 2 5 - 3 2 ) . M o s t n o t a b l y o f a l l , t h e Spirit c a u s e s M a r y t o b e c o m e p r e g n a n t ( L k . 1.35),

33

a fresh c r e a t i v e a c t

w h i c h reflects G o d ' s d e s i r e t o i n t e r v e n e a n e w i n h i s u n i v e r s e i n a n d t h r o u g h Jesus. A t J e s u s ' b a p t i s m t h e a p o c a l y p t i c e x p r e s s i o n avEcoxflrjvai T O V o u p a v o v ' t h e h e a v e n w a s o p e n e d ' ( L k . 3.21) p r e s a g e s a significant d i s c l o s u r e God.

3 4

from

H e r e , 'after a p e r i o d o f a p p a r e n t inactivity G o d h i m s e l f c o m e s d o w n

to a c t i n p o w e r ' .

3 5

J e s u s ' vision o f t h e Spirit's d e s c e n t is interpreted b y t h e

h e a v e n l y v o i c e , e c h o i n g P s . 2.7 a n d Isa. 4 2 . 1 . J e s u s is e m p o w e r e d b y t h e Spirit for h i s m e s s i a n i c t a s k a s ' g r e a t D a v i d ' s greater s o n ' .

3 6

Luke repeatedly under

lines J e s u s ' e m p o w e r m e n t b y t h e Spirit, for J e s u s returns from J o r d a n 'filled w i t h t h e H o l y Spirit' a n d is t h e n ' l e d b y t h e Spirit' ( L k . 4 . 1 ) . J e s u s e m e r g e s from t h e t e m p t a t i o n s ' i n t h e p o w e r o f t h e Spirit' ( L k . 4 . 1 4 ) , a n d a n n o u n c e s i n N a z a r e t h that h e is t h e o n e a n o i n t e d w i t h t h e L o r d ' s Spirit for h i s m i s s i o n ( L k . 37

4 . 1 8 - 1 9 , q u o t i n g Isa. 6 1 . 1 - 2 ; 5 8 . 6 ) . T h i s m i s s i o n is G o d ' s w o r k t h r o u g h J e s u s , so t h a t h i s e x o r c i s m s a r e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e p o w e r o f G o d ( L k . 11.20) - h i s m i n i s t r y is p r o g r e s s i v e l y b r i n g i n g d o w n S a t a n ' s e m p i r e ( L k . 38

1 0 . 1 8 ) . J e s u s ' h e a l i n g m i n i s t r y similarly restores p e o p l e t o full participation in t h e p e o p l e o f G o d , n o t a b l y a m a n w i t h leprosy ( L k . 5.12-14); t h e w o m a n w h o w a s h a e m o r r h a g i n g for 12 y e a r s ( L k . 8.43-48), w h o w o u l d b e u n c l e a n b e c a u s e o f h e r b l e e d i n g ; a n d t h e w o m a n w h o h a d b e e n b e n t o v e r for 18 y e a r s b e c a u s e o f a spirit ( L k . 13.10-17), w h o m J e s u s r e g a r d s a s a ' d a u g h t e r o f A b r a h a m ' (v. 16) and thus a m e m b e r of God's people. N o t o n l y is J e s u s h i m s e l f e m p o w e r e d b y G o d t h r o u g h t h e Spirit, b u t w e a l r e a d y k n o w from J o h n that t h e c o m i n g o n e is also t h e o n e w h o b a p t i z e s w i t h t h e H o l y Spirit ( L k . 3 . 1 6 ) - J e s u s is t h u s p i v o t a l t o G o d ' s p u r p o s e t o o p e n

33. With Turner, Power, pp. 155-60; contra R. P. Menzies, Empowered for Witness: The Spirit in Luke-Acts (JPTSup 6; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), pp. 111-16. 34. Cf. Acts 10.11; Jn 1.51; Rev. 4.1; 19.11; and Isa. 64.1; Ezek. 1.1; T Levi 2.6; 2 Bar. 22.1. 35. Marshall, Gospel, p. 152. 36. See discussion in Turner, Power, pp. 197-201, contra J. D. G. Dunn, Baptism in the Holy Spirit (London: SCM/Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970), pp. 23-37; Menzies, Empowered, pp. 132-9. 37. Discussion in Turner, Power, pp. 213-64. 38. The image of Satan falling cos ocorpamiv I K T O U oupavov as lightning from heaven' likely continues an echo of Isaiah 14 found in Lk. 10.15. 10.15 applies the Isaianic imagery of being exalted to heaven and being thrown down to Hades (Isa. 14.11,13-15) to Capernaum which rejects Jesus. So L. T. Johnson, The Gospel of Luke (SP 3; Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1992), p. 169; full discussion in S. R. Garrett, The Demise of the Devil: Magic and the Demonic in Luke's Writings (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1989), pp. 46-57. 4

70

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

h e a v e n to earth afresh b y e n a b l i n g t h e Spirit to c o m e . L u k e m a k e s it clear that 4

h e sees t h e fulfilment o f this p r o m i s e at Pentecost b y J e s u s ' statement t h a t J o h n b a p t i z e d w i t h water, b u t y o u will b e b a p t i z e d w i t h the H o l y Spirit n o t m a n y d a y s from n o w ' ( A c t s 1.5). T h u s t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y p o i n t forward to t h e t i m e w h e n t h e b e l i e v e r s will b e e q u i p p e d to serve G o d b y calling all in creation b a c k t o h i m . W h e n w e focus o n J e s u s ' d e a t h a n d resurrection, n o n - e a r t h l y b e i n g s a n d p h e n o m e n a are a g a i n p r e s e n t .

39

T h e d a r k n e s s at t h e cross (Lk. 2 3 . 4 4 - 4 5 a ) s u g

gests that creation is t u r n i n g its b a c k o n t h e suffering M e s s i a h , J e s u s .

40

Even

G o d is t u r n i n g a w a y from Jesus as h e suffers, for d a r k n e s s s y m b o l i z e s b o t h G o d ' s a b s e n c e a n d t h e p r e s e n c e a n d d o m i n a n c e o f evil, j u s t as light s y m b o l i z e s God's presence.

41

In t h e m i d s t o f t h e d a r k n e s s t h e T e m p l e curtain is torn in t w o (Lk. 2 3 . 4 5 b ) . Readers

frequently

see this incident t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f H e b . 10.20, w h i c h

p i c t u r e s J e s u s o p e n i n g a n e w w a y t o G o d t h r o u g h t h e curtain, a n d thus interpret t h e t e a r i n g o f t h e curtain as s y m b o l i z i n g access to G o d .

4 2

H o w e v e r , it s e e m s

likely that t h e tearing m a y r a t h e r focus o n the e m p t i n e s s o f t h e H o l y o f H o l i e s , to d e m o n s t r a t e that this is n o t w h e r e G o d is to b e f o u n d (cf. E z e k . 10; 2

Baruch

6.7; 8.2), a n d t h u s this e v e n t p o r t e n d s t h e u l t i m a t e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e .

43

T h i s l i k e l i h o o d is i n c r e a s e d b y t w o features o f A c t s . First, S t e p h e n ' s s p e e c h ( A c t s 7) is critical o f t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e as the p l a c e w h e r e G o d is k n o w n , a l t h o u g h n o t o f its f o u n d a t i o n or existence. S t e p h e n ' s s p e e c h c l a i m s that t h e T e m p l e ' s t i m e is over, for G o d is active a n d available apart from t h e 44

T e m p l e - h e is n o t limited to this particular h o l y s p a c e ( A c t s 7 AS).

Second,

G o d m a k e s h i m s e l f k n o w n t o p e o p l e in A c t s a w a y from t h e h o l y s p a c e o f t h e T e m p l e , s u c h as in t h e desert to a e u n u c h ( 8 . 2 6 - 4 0 ) , in a n u n c l e a n G e n t i l e h o u s e h o l d in J o p p a ( 1 0 . 1 - 4 8 ) , a n d in m a n y p l a c e s o u t s i d e t h e l a n d o f Palestine during Paul's travels.

45

T h e T e m p l e , w h o s e destruction J e s u s h a s p r o p h e s i e d

39. It is textually unlikely that the angel in Gethsemane (Lk. 22.43-44) is original (TCGNT, p. 151), so it is omitted from discussion here. 40. Cf. Josephus, Ant. 14.12.3 §309, a comment from a letter of Mark Antony to Hyrcanus concerning his opponents in battle: 'the sun turned away his light from us, as unwilling to view the horrid crime they were guilty of in the case of Caesar'. 41. Cf. Lk. 22.53 and note the contrast with Lk. 1.79, where Jesus' birth is depicted as the dawn rising (so R. E. Brown, The Death of the Messiah [ABRL London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1994], 2:1042); cf. J. A. Fitzmyer, Luke (AB 28; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1981, 1985), 2:1518-19; Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke (NICNT; Grand Rapids/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1997), p. 825. 42. See the useful enumeration of possibilities in Nolland, Luke, 3:1157. 43. Marshall, Gospel, p. 875; Brown, Death, 2:1101-06. 44. S. Walton, 'A Tale of Two Perspectives? The Temple in Acts', in T. Desmond Alexander and S. J. Gathercole (eds.), Heaven on Earth: The Temple in Biblical Theology (Carlisle: Pater noster, 2004), pp. 135-49 (138-43). 45. Walton, 'Tale', pp. 146-8.

4.

71

Luke-Acts

(Lk. 2 1 . 6 ) , b e c o m e s functionally r e d u n d a n t , for a c c e s s to G o d is t h r o u g h J e s u s and b y the Spirit.

46

A t t h e t o m b o f J e s u s , t h e w o m e n m e e t t w o m e n in d a z z l i n g c l o t h e s , w h o are a n g e l s a n d a n n o u n c e J e s u s ' r e s u r r e c t i o n (Lk. 2 4 . 4 - 5 , 2 3 ) . T h e s e a n g e l s f o r m a n inclusio

w i t h t h e a n g e l s w h o a n n o u n c e J e s u s ' birth in L u k e 1-2, a n d p r o v i d e

heaven's commentary on the empty tomb. L u k e ' s G o s p e l p r e p a r e s for t h e fuller p i c t u r e seen in A c t s b y p o r t r a y i n g p h e n o m e n a w h i c h s h o w that h e a v e n is e n t e r i n g the earthly r e a l m t o r e c l a i m t h e w o r l d for its Creator. T h e angels w h o s u r r o u n d t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d o f J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y will b e active in t h e c h u r c h ' s ministry. T h e s a m e Spirit w h o e m p o w e r e d J e s u s for h i s m e s s i a n i c t a s k will e m p o w e r his followers for their m i s s i o n a r y task. T h e c o s m o l o g i c a l c h a n g e o f J e s u s ' p r e s e n c e in h e a v e n at G o d ' s right h a n d p r o d u c e s a t h e o l o g i c a l c h a n g e in h o w G o d is to b e s e e n , u n d e r s t o o d a n d k n o w n - it is n o w t h r o u g h Jesus a n d b y t h e Spirit that h e is t o b e k n o w n , a n d that b y t h e G e n t i l e s as w e l l as t h e J e w s ( A c t s 1.8).

Space(d)

Out? Challenging

Other

Cosmologies

Finally, w e briefly c o n s i d e r s o m e p l a c e s w h e r e there a p p e a r s to b e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n a Christian c o s m o l o g y a n d o t h e r c o s m o l o g i e s . W e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t i c e d S t e p h e n ' s s p e e c h ( A c t s 7 ) , for h e r e S t e p h e n i m p l i c itly critiques a c o s m o l o g y w h i c h g i v e s a u n i q u e a n d special p l a c e t o t h e Jerusa l e m T e m p l e as the earthly p l a c e o f a c c e s s to G o d . Instead, S t e p h e n asserts, G o d h a s m a d e h i m s e l f k n o w n in p a g a n l a n d s (e.g., w . 2 , 9, 2 9 - 3 4 , 4 4 ) . H e p r e s e n t s t h e T e m p l e ' s status as a m b i g u o u s , in t u n e w i t h t h e a m b i g u i t y in t h e d e d i c a t i o n 4 7

o f t h e T e m p l e (1 K g s 8 . 1 5 - 5 3 , e s p . 2 7 ) . W h e n the S a n h e d r i n r e s p o n d in r a g e to the s u g g e s t i o n that t h e y o p p o s e t h e H o l y Spirit ( w . 5 1 - 5 4 ) , S t e p h e n ' s v i s i o n o f J e s u s , t h e S o n o f M a n , v i n d i c a t e d a n d exalted to G o d ' s right h a n d ( w . 5 5 - 5 6 ) , a n n o u n c e s that it is t h r o u g h J e s u s that access to G o d is n o w f o u n d - h e n c e S t e p h e n ' s p r a y e r is for J e s u s to r e c e i v e h i m (v. 5 9 ) . T h e latter p o i n t c o m b i n e s the c l a i m s that it is J e s u s w h o r e c e i v e s p e o p l e into h e a v e n - n o r m a l l y G o d ' s p r e r o g a t i v e - a n d that it is a p p r o p r i a t e to p r a y t o J e s u s , rather t h a n G o d a l o n e . S e c o n d , this c o s m o l o g y critiques t h e c l a i m e d p l a c e o f C a e s a r in t h e R o m a n e m p i r e . R a t h e r t h a n C a e s a r b e i n g t h e o n e w i t h universal j u r i s d i c t i o n a n d w o r t h y of worship, Jesus should receive the highest honours.

48

This theme underlies a

46. Cf. Green, Luke, pp. 825-6, who seeks to combine the best of both positions. 47. Walton, 'Tale', pp. 141-2. 48. E.g. Julius Caesar is described as 'the god made manifest (SIG §760) and Claudius as 'god who is saviour and benefactor' (IGRR W §584); more fully, see the listing of evidence in S. Walton, 'The State They Were In: Luke's View of the Roman Empire', in Peter Oakes (ed.), Rome in the Bible and the Early Church (Carlisle: Paternoster/Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002), pp. 1-^1 (26-8); Jacob Jervell, Die Apostelgeschichte (KEK, 17th edn; Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998), p. 434 with n. 175. ,

3

72

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

n u m b e r o f e v e n t s a n d s p e e c h e s in A c t s , n o t least 17.7, w h e r e J e s u s is r e c o g n i z e d as b e i n g ' a n o t h e r k i n g ' in p l a c e o f Caesar. T h i r d , this c o s m o l o g y e n g a g e s h i g h l y critically w i t h p a g a n c o s m o l o g i e s w h i c h s e e a multiplicity o f g o d s controlling v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s o f t h e u n i v e r s e . P a u l e n g a g e s in Lystra w i t h u n e d u c a t e d p a g a n s ( A c t s 14.11-18) a n d in A t h e n s w i t h h i g h l y e d u c a t e d p a g a n s ( A c t s 17.16-31) w h o h o l d s u c h v i e w s . It is inter esting that, in Lystra, P a u l d o e s n o t s p e a k explicitly o f J e s u s in r e s p o n s e to t h e c r o w d s ' desire t o offer sacrifice to h i m a n d B a r n a b a s , a l t h o u g h o u r e x p e c t a tion as L u k e ' s r e a d e r s is that w h e n P a u l s p e a k s (14.9), it is a b o u t J e s u s . P a u l critiques p a g a n i s m b y focusing o n t h e o n e n e s s o f t h e true G o d a s C r e a t o r a n d implicitly that h e a l o n e s h o u l d b e w o r s h i p p e d ( 1 4 . 1 5 - 1 7 ) . In A t h e n s ,

49

b y contrast, P a u l explicitly s p e a k s a b o u t J e s u s a n d h i s r e s u r r e c

tion ( a n d t h u s , p r e s u m a b l y , his exaltation), a n d this p r o v o k e s t h e invitation to 50

the A r e o p a g u s ( 1 7 . 1 8 ) . P a u l e n g a g e s w i t h Stoics a n d E p i c u r e a n s ( 1 7 . 1 8 ) b o t h h e l d c o s m o l o g i e s different to t h e Christian o n e .

51

and

52

T h e Stoics c o l l a p s e d g o d a n d t h e u n i v e r s e into o n e in p a n t h e i s t i c fashion; h o w e v e r , it s e e m s likely that at least s o m e Stoic t h i n k e r s also deified natural forces: Jupiter w a s t h e s k y - g o d , N e p t u n e controlled t h e sea, a n d s o on. Stoics w e r e materialistic, a n d b e l i e v e d t h e r e to b e n o real r e a l m o u t s i d e t h e visible u n i v e r s e . T h e y w e r e h i g h l y d e t e r m i n i s t i c , a n d u s e d a u g u r y a n d h a r u s p i c y to s e e k w h a t t h e g o d s w e r e g o i n g to d o , b u t d i d n o t r e g a r d t h e g o d s a s p e r s o n a l l y ' k n o w a b l e ' b y h u m a n s . A g a i n s t S t o i c i s m , P a u l insists that t h e C r e a t o r is distinct from his creation (v. 2 4 ) , a n d that G o d is k n o w a b l e (v. 2 7 ) . A n d , rather t h a n t h e g o d s h a v i n g c o n t r o l o f particular e l e m e n t s or l a n d s , t h e true G o d allocated w h e r e all p e o p l e s lived (v. 2 6 ) . It is a m i s t a k e to identify e l e m e n t s w i t h i n c r e ation for w o r s h i p , for this is idolatry ( w . 2 4 - 2 5 , 2 8 ) .

5 3

P a u l asserts firmly that

the w a y that G o d is k n o w n is t h r o u g h J e s u s , w h o m G o d h a s r a i s e d from t h e

49. For very useful discussions, see E. Schnabel, Early Christian Mission (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004), 2:1169-80; B. W. Winter, 'On Introducing Gods to Athens: An Alterna tive Reading of Acts 17:18-20', TynBul 47 (1996), 71-90. 50. If Winter's reconstruction is correct, the invitation was to offer grounds for building a temple to Jesus in Athens (Winter, 'Gods', esp. pp. 71-80, 87-9). If so, Paul's speech is par ticularly acute, for he rejects the premise that gods require temples, and asserts that, rather than humans building a temple for God, the one true God has created the world where he should be worshipped. 51. See B. W. Winter, 'Introducing the Athenians to God: Paul's Failed Apologetic in Acts 17?', Them 31 (2005), 3&-59 (48-57). 52. For a helpful overview of the various positions held in the ancient world, see Cicero, Nat. d., written around the middle of the first century BC, and identifying the Stoics, the Epicureans and the sceptical Academicians. See also the summary essay by Edward Adams in this volume. 53. If Paul asserted this in Ephesus, it is easy to see why the silversmiths, who made souvenir models of the temple of Artemis, would be upset (Acts 19.23-29)! It is possible that 'pure' Sto icism rejects idols; if so, Paul is critiquing a popularized version of Stoicism (although see Winter, 'Athenians', p. 54 for a contrary view).

4.

Luke-Acts

73

d e a d a n d w h o w i l l b e t h e o n e w h o w i l l j u d g e all o n t h e D a y (v. 3 1 ) . O n e c a n see w h y Stoics w o u l d b e doubtful o f t h e resurrection (v. 3 2 a ) , a n d also w h y it is t h e c l i m a x a n d c e n t r e p i e c e o f P a u l ' s s p e e c h , for it is J e s u s ' exaltation b y G o d w h i c h g i v e s J e s u s t h e status a n d right t o j u d g e . T h e E p i c u r e a n s s h a r e d t h e S t o i c s ' m a t e r i a l i s m a n d rejected i d e a s o f life after death. T h e y p o r t r a y e d t h e g o d s in h u m a n form s i n c e t h e y b e l i e v e d h u m a n form t o b e t h e m o s t beautiful. H o w e v e r , the g o d s w e r e u n i n t e r e s t e d in h u m a n affairs, so there w a s n o p o i n t in offering sacrifice, for t h e g o d s w o u l d n o t i n v o l v e t h e m selves in earthly life. W o r s h i p w a s offered, b u t o n l y t o c h a n g e t h e worshipper. A g a i n s t this b a c k c l o t h , P a u l argues n o t o n l y that G o d is t h e Creator, b u t that h e d e s i r e s to k n o w his c r e a t u r e s a n d b e k n o w n b y t h e m ( w . 2 4 , 2 7 ) . W h i l e P a u l m a k e s c o m m o n g r o u n d w i t h t h e E p i c u r e a n s in p r e s e n t i n g G o d a s n o t n e e d i n g h u m a n s (v. 2 5 ) , h e is critical in c l a i m i n g that G o d n e v e r t h e l e s s is interested in h i s creation a n d w a n t s p e o p l e to r e s p o n d t o h i m t h r o u g h J e s u s ( w . 3 0 - 3 1 ) . P a u l ' s r e s p o n s e , after b u i l d i n g c o m m o n g r o u n d w i t h h i s interlocutors, is to focus o n J e s u s a n d h i s exaltation, v i a resurrection, t o t h e p l a c e o f j u d g e m e n t o v e r the c o s m o s (v. 3 1 ) . A s e l s e w h e r e in A c t s , t h e e v a n g e l i s m o f t h e earli est b e l i e v e r s centres o n h o w G o d is n o w k n o w a b l e t h r o u g h J e s u s . T h e r i s e n J e s u s h a s a s c e n d e d t o h e a v e n t o r e s i d e at G o d ' s right h a n d , t h u s t r a n s f o r m i n g b o t h c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s : h e is n o w t h e p a t h w a y for h i s p e o p l e t o j o i n h i m . H e a v e n is i n d e e d o p e n - t o e v e r y o n e w h o c o m e s to G o d through Jesus.

5

LIGHT OF THE WORLD: COSMOLOGY AND THE JOHANNINE LITERATURE E d w a r d W . K l i n k ffl

1. Introduction:

The Light of the

World

J o h n b e g i n s at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s t o r y a n d t i m e itself, ' i n t h e b e g i n n i n g ' . T h i s p h r a s e is m o r e t h a n j u s t a n inter-textual link t o t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e o f the First T e s t a m e n t , b u t locates t h e entire J o h a n n i n e narrative in a c o s m o l o g i c a l e v e n t r o o t e d in t h e b e g i n n i n g o f life, o r as 1 J o h n d e c l a r e s , t h e ' w o r d o f life' (1 J n 1.1). T h e g o a l o f this c h a p t e r is t o e x p l o r e t h e c o s m o l o g y o f the J o h a n n i n e literature,

1

m o v i n g b e y o n d a n analysis o f t h e t h e m a t i c - t h e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c o s m i c m o t i f a n d into t h e c o s m i c d r a m a foundational t o t h e J o h a n n i n e c o r p u s .

2 . Cosmological

Language

in the Johannine

Literature

O u r s t u d y m u s t b e g i n in t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e in t h e J o h a n n i n e litera ture. T h e l a n g u a g e that fits this criterion is subjective as t o h o w it is u s e d a n d c o n c e i v e d w i t h i n t h e d o c u m e n t itself. E v e n m o r e , this definition o f l a n g u a g e c a n n o t b e forced o n t o w o r d s a l o n e , b u t m u s t rest o n t h e larger structure o f t h e d o c u m e n t ( s ) . B u t it is at t h e level o f w o r d s that w e m u s t b e g i n . 2.1.

World

T h e w o r d c o s m o s (Koopog) a p p e a r s 102 t i m e s in t h e J o h a n n i n e literature. T h e w o r d a p p e a r s i n t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n 7 8 t i m e s , o v e r five t i m e s m o r e

frequently

t h a n it d o e s i n t h e S y n o p t i c s ( 1 4 ) . E v e n m o r e , t h e frequency o f u s e in o n l y the G o s p e l a n d Letters is t w o a n d o n e h a l f t i m e s that o f the entire r e m a i n d e r o f 2

t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t ( 1 8 4 ) . W h i l e t h e H e b r e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f ' u n i v e r s e ' is 1. By 'Johannine literature' we mean the Gospel and the three Letters. Although Revelation is traditionally considered to be Johannine, for the purpose of this volume it is being treated separately. Thus, any statistic or reference to the Johannine literature excludes Revelation. 2. N. H. Cassem, 'A Grammatical and Contextual Inventory of the Use of Koapo<; in the Johannine Corpus with Some Implications for Johannine Cosmic Theology', NTS 19 (1972), 84-91 (81).

5. Johannine

75

Literature

to b e f o u n d in t h e w o r d s ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' , G r e e k f o u n d in c o s m o s a w o r d ' t o 3

g i v e e x p r e s s i o n to t h e H e l l e n i c a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e o r d e r in t h e u n i v e r s e ' . I n this s e n s e c o s m o s carries t h e c o n n o t a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . J o h n clearly u n d e r s t a n d s this u s a g e o f c o s m o s , for in J n 17.5 J e s u s a s k s t h e Father, 'glorify m e in y o u r o w n p r e s e n c e w i t h t h e g l o r y that I h a d in y o u r p r e s e n c e b e f o r e t h e w o r l d e x i s t e d ' . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is in J n 2 1 . 2 5 w h e r e t h e fourth e v a n g e l i s t e n d s t h e G o s p e l w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t that ' t h e w o r l d itself c o u l d n o t c o n t a i n t h e b o o k s that w o u l d b e w r i t t e n ' . I n b o t h t h e s e instances c o s m o s is certainly creation, t h e physical universe. C o s m o s n e e d n o t b e limited to t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e , h o w e v e r , for it c a n also refer to t h e u n i v e r s e as a p e r s o n a l entity, a s is c o m m o n in J e w i s h literature ( G e n . 1.26; Sir. 17.2), or m o r e directly, t o h u m a n i t y a s a g r o u p . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o s m o s is relational in n a t u r e . A clear e x a m p l e o f this u s a g e is in J n 1.10 w h e r e c o s m o s is u s e d 3 t i m e s : ' H e w a s in t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e w o r l d c a m e into b e i n g t h r o u g h h i m ; y e t t h e w o r l d d i d n o t k n o w h i m ' . T h e first a n d s e c o n d instances o f c o s m o s refer to t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e , t h e c r e a t e d order, b u t t h e third i n s t a n c e functions in a relational sense. E v e n t h e w o r d t r a n s l a t e d ' k n o w ' (tyvG)) is characteristically u s e d in J o h n o f h u m a n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d i v i n e 4

p e r s o n s a n d o f t h e relationship a m o n g s t t h o s e p e r s o n s . T h i s o n e v e r s e p r e s e n t s a n excellent contrast in t h e J o h a n n i n e u s a g e o f c o s m o s , a l l o w i n g t h e t e r m to function a s t h e p h y s i c a l , c r e a t e d u n i v e r s e a s w e l l a s t h e living, r e l a t i o n a l w o r l d , its a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c self. In this w a y , w h a t w e call m a n k i n d o r h u m a n i t y m a y b e called 'the world'.

5

T h e relational sense o f c o s m o s in t h e J o h a n n i n e literature generates t h e largest 6

scholarly confusion. O l d e r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f J o h a n n i n e d u a l i s m c o m b i n e d w i t h m o r e r e c e n t s o c i o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s o f a sectarian-like J o h a n n i n e c o m m u n i t y h a v e led to t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n introspective g r o u p w h i c h v i e w s itself in 7

isolation from ' t h i s w o r l d ' . M o r e r e c e n t J o h a n n i n e r e s e a r c h h a s a d v o c a t e d t h e m o r e c o m p l e x relational n a t u r e o f c o s m o s . T h e c o s m o s is t h e p l a c e o r r e a l m

3. Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John (AB 29; New York: Doubleday, 1966), p. 508. 4. D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), p. 139. 5. Ibid., p. 509. 6. This is due in no small part to the influence of Rudolf Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament (2 vols; trans. Kendrick Grobel; London: SCM Press, 1951,1955), 2:21. 7. See, for example, J. Ashton, Understanding the Fourth Gospel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1991), pp. 206-8, who reads the term as dualistic opposition. Cf. R. E. Brown, The Community of the Beloved Disciple: The Life, Loves, and Hates of an Individual Church in New Testament Times (New York: Paulist Press, 1979), pp. 63-6; J. H. Neyrey, An Ideology of Revolt: John's Christology in Social-Science Perspective (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988); B. J. Malina, 'John's: The Maverick Christian Group: The Evidence of Sociolinguistics', BTB 24 (1994), 167-S2; B. J. Malina and R. L. Rohrbaugh, Social-Science Commentary on the Gospel of John (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998), pp. 245ff.

Cosmology

76

and New Testament

Theology

w h e r e G o d is at w o r k , t h e p l a c e t h a t is t h e m a i n f o c u s o f G o d ' s a t t e n t i o n .

8

R e n s b e r g e r a l l u d e s t o it as a ' d i m e n s i o n o f e n c o u n t e r ' b e t w e e n G o d a n d m a n .

9

K o s t e n b e r g e r d e s c r i b e s it a s ' a d a r k p l a c e that is alienated from G o d b u t n e v ertheless r e m a i n s a n object o f h i s l o v e ' .

1 0

B u t p e r h a p s t h e b e s t description is

g i v e n b y K e e n e r : ' T h e w o r l d is t h u s t h e a r e n a o f t h e light's salvific i n v a s i o n o f d a r k n e s s . . . " t h e l o s t " that J e s u s c a m e t o s e e k a n d to s a v e ' .

11

The language of

evil that p e r v a d e s t h e G o s p e l ' s d e p i c t i o n o f the c o s m o s d o e s n o t classify it in a c o m p l e t e l y n e g a t i v e s e n s e ; a l t h o u g h t h o s e w h o r e m a i n in t h e d a r k n e s s r e m a i n n e g a t i v e , out o f this s a m e ' d a r k w o r l d ' c o m e t h o s e w h o J e s u s c a m e t o s a v e .

12

T h i s m o r e r e c e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e J o h a n n i n e c o s m o s v i e w s t h e t e r m as m o r e relationally c o m p l e x t h a n p r e v i o u s descriptions o f J o h a n n i n e d u a l i s m . It a p p e a r s that t h e personification o f t h e c o s m o s in t h e J o h a n n i n e literature is t h e portrait o f a c l a s s o f p e o p l e . 2 . 2 . Orientational

Dualism:

Above

and

Below

J o h n ' s s y m b o l i c d u a l i s m is m o s t n o t e d in h i s u s e o f b i p o l a r t e r m i n o l o g y .

13

A l t h o u g h u n i q u e in the G o s p e l s , it m i g h t e v e n b e a r g u e d that his b i p o l a r ter m i n o l o g y is a n a p e r t u r e to t h e G o s p e l ' s Weltanschauung.

T h e strangeness o f

this bipolar, dualistic l a n g u a g e h a s often led interpreters t o reflect m o r e o n its societal function t h a n o n its c o s m i c function. O u r e x a m i n a t i o n o f this t e r m i n o l o g y will e x p l o r e its c o s m o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n . W h i l e t h e d u a l i s m in t h e S y n o p t i c s is p r i m a r i l y h o r i z o n t a l - this a g e a n d the a g e t o c o m e , t h e d u a l i s m o f J o h n is p r i m a r i l y vertical - a contrast b e t w e e n the w o r l d a b o v e a n d t h e w o r l d b e l o w .

14

In his dialogue with Nathanael Jesus

declares h e w i l l see ' h e a v e n o p e n e d a n d t h e a n g e l s o f G o d a s c e n d i n g a n d descending upon the Son of M a n ' (1.51). Since the time of Augustine exegetes h a v e s e e n a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n this v e r s e a n d G e n . 2 8 . 1 2 , w h e r e in a d r e a m

8. M. Davies, Rhetoric and Reference in the Fourth Gospel (JSNTSup 69; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992), p. 155. A. T. Lincoln, Truth on Trial: The Lawsuit Motif in the Fourth Gospel (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2000), p. 260, similarly describes this realm as 'cosmic'. 9. D. Rensberger, Johannine Faith and Liberating Community (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1988), p. 137. 10. A. J. Kdstenberger, The Missions of Jesus and the Disciples According to the Fourth Gospel: With Implications for the Fourth Gospel's Purpose and the Mission of the Contemporary Church (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), p. 187. 11. C. S. Keener, The Gospel ofJohn: A Commentary (2 vols; Peabody: Hendrickson, 2003), 1:329. 12. See Brown, The Gospel According to John, p. 509. See also S. B. Marrow, 'Koo|io<; in John', CBQ 64 (2002), 90-102. 13. Our use of 'orientational' and 'ontological' to describe John's dualism is taken from G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980). 14. Conceptually this would include language of heaven and earth. Cf. Brown, The Gospel According to John, p. 347.

5. Johannine

Literature

11

J a c o b sees a ladder stretching from earth t o h e a v e n . A m i d s t all t h e t h e o r i e s o f intertextual e x p l a n a t i o n , t h e vision m u s t m e a n that J e s u s is t h e p o i n t o f contact between heaven and earth.

15

J e s u s h i m s e l f is t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e h e a v

e n l y reality a n d earth; t h e locus o f t h e 'traffic' that b r i n g s h e a v e n ' s b l e s s i n g t o h u m a n i t y , t h e living t e m p l e o f G o d ( 2 . 1 9 ) .

16

Yet this b i p o l a r m o t i f is n o t m e r e l y unifying, b u t is also o n e o f contrast a n d division. In J e s u s ' d i a l o g u e w i t h N i c o d e m u s , h e e x p l a i n s that ' n o o n e c a n see t h e k i n g d o m o f G o d w i t h o u t b e i n g b o r n from a b o v e ' (3.3). T h e t e r m avcoOev is i m p o r t a n t h e r e , for it c a n b e translated b o t h t e m p o r a l l y a s ' a g a i n ' , or spatially as ' f r o m a b o v e ' . N i c o d e m u s u n d e r s t a n d s the t e r m in its t e m p o r a l s e n s e , a s k i n g o f t h e possibility o f a s e c o n d birth, b u t J e s u s clearly h a s t h e spatial s e n s e in m i n d . T h e d o u b l e m e a n i n g o f t h e t e r m s e e m s to b e u s e d h e r e as p a r t o f t h e t e c h n i q u e of misunderstanding.

17

For, as J e s u s e x p l a i n s : ' I f I h a v e told y o u a b o u t earthly

things a n d y o u d o n o t b e l i e v e , h o w c a n y o u b e l i e v e if I tell y o u a b o u t h e a v e n l y t h i n g s ? N o o n e h a s a s c e n d e d into h e a v e n e x c e p t t h e o n e w h o d e s c e n d e d

from

h e a v e n , t h e S o n o f M a n ' ( 3 . 1 2 - 1 3 ) . J e s u s n o w e x p l a i n s his earlier c o m m e n t in an oriented s e n s e w i t h h i m s e l f as the object. J e s u s u s e s N i c o d e m u s ' m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d o u b l e m e a n i n g t o reference b o t h spaces: earthly a n d h e a v e n l y (v. 12). Similar t o 1.51, in v. 13 J e s u s describes h i m s e l f as t h e S o n o f M a n w h o h a s a s c e n d e d a n d d e s c e n d e d , n o t m e r e l y ' f r o m a b o v e ' , but this t i m e ' f r o m h e a v e n ' . In this w a y , t h e J o h a n n i n e d u a l i s m , ' f r o m a b o v e / f r o m b e l o w ' , func tions t o d e s c r i b e the h e a v e n l y j o u r n e y o f J e s u s . B u t this h e a v e n l y j o u r n e y is a 4

m a r k o f distinction: T h e o n e w h o c o m e s from a b o v e is a b o v e all; t h e o n e w h o is from t h e earth b e l o n g s t o t h e earth, a n d s p e a k s a s o n e from t h e earth. T h e o n e w h o c o m e s from h e a v e n is a b o v e a l l ' ( 3 . 3 1 ) . A s W a y n e M e e k s e x p l a i n s , this m o t i f in t h e G o s p e l ' p o i n t s to contrast, foreignness, division, j u d g m e n t . O n l y w i t h i n that d o m i n a n t structure o f e s t r a n g e m e n t a n d difference is d e v e l o p e d t h e counterpoint of u n i t y . . . \

1 8

Jesus is 'from a b o v e ' . T h i s is an important realization

for t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l . A s J e s u s e x p l a i n s in 8.23, ' Y o u are from b e l o w , I a m from a b o v e ; y o u a r e o f this w o r l d , I a m n o t o f this w o r l d ' . W h i l e t h e r e is this c o n t r a s t i n g d u a l i s m , it m u s t b e n o t e d that Jesus is n o t c o m p l e t e l y isolated from

15. Brown, The Gospel According to John, pp. 88-91. 16. G. R. Beasley-Murray, John (WBC 36; Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1999), p. 28. 17. Brown, The Gospel According to John, p. 130. While the double meaning in 3.3 is col laborated by Nicodemus' confusion, the remainder of the Nicodemus dialogue clearly expresses the spatial sense (see 3.31), as well as the two other uses of the term (19.11, 23). See also R Bultmann, The Gospel of John: A Commentary (trans. G. R. Beasley-Murray; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971), pp. 135-6, n.4; and S. Hamid-Khani, Revelation and Concealment of Christ: A Theological Inquiry into the Elusive Language of the Fourth Gospel (WUNT 2.120; Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 2000). 18. W. Meeks, 'The Man from Heaven in Johannine Sectarianism', JBL 91 (1972), 44-72 (67). Unfortunately, Meeks explains this bipolarity entirely by the narrative's ecclesiological tale, which distorts the essence of the motif.

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'this w o r l d ' . Rather, J o h n ' s l a n g u a g e ' o f derivation is itself a w a y o f m a k i n g an anthropological s t a t e m e n t . . . W h a t t h e G o s p e l . . . asks from t h e r e a d e r is n o t the m i n d ' s a s s e n t t o a dualistic w o r l d v i e w b u t a d e c i s i o n a b o u t o n e ' s e x i s t e n c e ' . T h i s b i p o l a r i t y is, a s e x p r e s s e d b y B u l t m a n n , a ' d u a l i s m o f d e c i s i o n ' .

20

19

A t the

v e r y p o i n t o f d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o sides o f t h e bipolarity t h e r e is a strong p a r t i c i p a t o r y s e n s e . In this w a y , t h e d u a l i s m h a s a n implicit s e n s e o f m o v e m e n t . T h e contrast b e t w e e n ' f r o m a b o v e ' a n d ' f r o m b e l o w ' h a s a relational s e n s e that c r e a t e s a d r a m a . T h i s o r i e n t a t i o n a l c o n t r a s t is a d r a m a t i c ' c o m i n g i n t o t h e world'(1.9). 2 . 3 . Ontological

Dualism:

Light and Darkness,

Flesh and Spirit,

Truth

and

Falsehood T h e F o u r t h E v a n g e l i s t u s e s n u m e r o u s o n t o l o g i c a l d u a l i s m s , or bipolarities, to communicate his message.

21

Our examination can only summarize the cosmic

function o f s o m e o f t h e p r i m a r y d u a l i s m s . Light and Darkness.

T h e t e r m ' l i g h t ' a p p e a r s 2 9 t i m e s in t h e J o h a n n i n e litera

ture ( 2 3 in t h e G o s p e l ) ; t h e t e r m ' d a r k n e s s ' a p p e a r s 14 t i m e s . T h e p h y s i c a l p h e n o m e n a o f light a n d d a r k n e s s a r e easily a d a p t e d to s y m b o l i s m . T h e s y m b o l i c u s e o f light/dark w a s c o m m o n in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , y e t it a l w a y s r e m a i n e d o n l y a p o e t i c s y m b o l for g o o d a n d evil (e.g., J o b 3 0 . 2 6 ) .

22

E v e n in t h e w r i t i n g s

at Q u m r a n this s y m b o l i s m h a s t a k e n o n a n e w d i m e n s i o n , 'for in t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls light a n d d a r k n e s s h a v e b e c o m e t w o m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s l o c k e d in struggle for d o m i n a t i o n o v e r m a n k i n d ' .

2 3

T h e reality o f light/dark is e v e n m o r e

p r o m i n e n t in J o h a n n i n e t h o u g h t , w h e r e G o d h i m s e l f is d e s c r i b e d a s light a n d in h i m t h e r e is n o d a r k n e s s (1 J n 1.5). E v e n m o r e , J o h n d e s c r i b e s t h e c o m i n g o f J e s u s as light s h i n i n g into d a r k n e s s ( J n 1.5), for h e is t h e ' l i g h t o f m e n ' (Jn 1.4)

19. L. E. Keck, 'Derivation as Destiny: "Of-ness" in Johannine Christology, Anthropology, and Soteriology', in R. A. Culpepper and C. C. Black (eds), Exploring the Gospel of John: In Honor of D. Moody Smith (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996), pp. 274-88 (284). For a fixed dualism see J. A. Trumbower, Born from Above: The Anthropology of the Gospel of John (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992). 20. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament, 2:21. 21. Helpful here is J. KraSovec, Antithetical Structure in Biblical Hebrew Poetry (Leiden: Brill, 1984), p. 5, who explains that 'opposite concepts do not serve to create a contrast of thought but a unity of thought - a totality*. 22. See E. Achtemeier, 'Jesus Christ, the Light of the World. The Biblical Understanding of Light and Darkness', Interpretation 17 (1963), 439-49. 23. Brown, The Gospel According to John, p. 515. For a recent evaluation of the dualism common to John and Qumran see D. E. Aune, 'Dualism in the Fourth Gospel and the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Reassessment of the Problem', in D. E. Aune, T. Seland and J. Henning Ulrichsen (eds), Neotestamentica et Philonica: Studies in Honor of Peder Borgen (NovTSup 106; Leiden: Brill, 2003), pp. 281-303.

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a n d t h e ' l i g h t o f t h e w o r l d ' a n d t h e ' l i g h t o f life' ( J n 8.12). T h o s e w h o d e s i r e to b e c o m e h i s c h i l d r e n m u s t n o t w a l k in d a r k n e s s ( J n 8.12; 1 J n 1.6) b u t m u s t w a l k in t h e light - a s h e is in t h e light (1 J n 1.7). S u c h l a n g u a g e d o e s t w o t h i n g s . First, it d e s c r i b e s t h e c o m i n g o f J e s u s a s light c o m i n g into d a r k n e s s . S u c h c o s m i c l a n g u a g e reflects t h e force a n d t y p e o f c o m i n g w i t n e s s e d in t h e rest o f t h e J o h a n n i n e literature. T h e l a n g u a g e o f light a n d d a r k reflects a c o s m i c battle a n d a c o s m i c reality. S e c o n d , t h e o n t o l o g i c a l d u a l i s m o f light/dark ' s h a p e s the w a y r e a d e r s see t h e m s e l v e s in relation t o G o d a n d t h e w o r l d ' .

2 4

The contrasting

n a t u r e o f this bipolarity is h o w J o h n e x p r e s s e s its m e s s a g e . Flesh and Spirit. T h i s d u a l i s m is less p r o m i n e n t t h a n light/darkness. A s stated in t h e P r o l o g u e , h u m a n life is ' b o r n . . . o f t h e w i l l o f t h e flesh' ( 1 . 1 3 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e flesh is n o t sinful, for t h e W o r d b e c a m e flesh ( 1 . 1 4 ) , it is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h h u m a n i t y a n d is, therefore, limited to t h e l o w e r o r lesser r e a l m . F o r 'flesh g i v e s birth to flesh, b u t t h e Spirit g i v e s birth t o spirit' ( J n 3.6). T h i s is clearly stated b y J e s u s in J n 6 . 6 3 : ' I t is t h e spirit that g i v e s life; t h e flesh is u s e l e s s . T h e w o r d s that I h a v e s p o k e n to y o u are spirit a n d life'. Life in G o d is life in t h e Spirit. In m a n y w a y s t h e flesh/spirit bipolarity c o r r e s p o n d s to the orientational d u a l i s m o f ' f r o m a b o v e / f r o m b e l o w ' . Spirit is b o t h a n i m p r o v e m e n t to flesh, b u t it is a l s o w h a t c o n n e c t s o n e t o t h e r e a l m o f G o d (Jn 4 . 2 4 ) . Truth and Falsehood.

T h e bipolarity o f truth a n d f a l s e h o o d is i n t i m a t e l y c o n

n e c t e d t o t h e bipolarity o f light a n d d a r k n e s s . W h i l e t h e r e is often d i s a g r e e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g a H e b r e w o r G r e e k u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f truth - t h e f o r m e r carries t h e s e n s e o f reliable a n d t r u s t w o r t h y w h e r e a s t h e latter carries t h e s e n s e o f t h i n g s u n v e i l e d o r n o t c o n c e a l e d - t h e d e b a t e is futile. ' T r u t h ' is reflected in b o t h s e n s e s in J o h n . A l l three m e m b e r s o f t h e trinity are d e s c r i b e d in t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l as true: ' t h e o n l y true G o d ' ( 1 7 . 3 ) , Jesus is ' t h e T r u t h ' ( 1 4 . 6 ) , a n d ' t h e Spirit o f T r u t h ' ( 1 6 . 1 3 ) . Yet truth is also characteristic o f t h e C h r i s t i a n (1 J n 1.6), a n d e v e n m o r e , it is a w a y o f life (1 J n 1.8). T h e arrival o f J e s u s is t h e arrival o f truth ( 1 . 1 7 ) . J e s u s is truth b e c a u s e h e e m b o d i e s t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f G o d - ' h e h i m s e l f "narrates" G o d '

2 5

( 1 . 1 8 ) a n d is a perfect reflection a n d conjoiner o f t h e reality

o f G o d . B u l t m a n n e x p l a i n s w e l l this i d e a o f truth a s reality: The basic meaning of 'truth* in John is God's reality, which, since God is creator is the only true reality. The emancipating knowledge of the truth (8.32) is not the rational knowledge of the reality of that-which-is in general... No, this knowledge of the truth is the knowledge, granted to men of faith, of God's reality; itfreesone of sins (8.32-34). True, aXvffeia does have the formal meaning of 'truth' when it is said that Jesus tells the truth (8.45), or that the Spirit guides us into all truth (16.13). But the truth into

24. C. R. Koester, Symbolism in the Fourth Gospel: Meaning, Mystery, and Community (2nd edn; Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003), p. 172. 25. Carson, The Gospel According to John, p. 491.

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which the Spirit guides is factually the reality of God; and Jesus does not merely tell the truth but also is the truth (14.6). So truth is not the teaching about God transmitted by Jesus but is God's very reality revealing itself - occurring! - in Jesus. 26

T h e o p p o s i t e side o f t h e bipolarity, falsehood, is s i m p l y a n y t h i n g that is c o u n t e r to G o d a n d h i s reality - a n y t h i n g c o u n t e r t o J e s u s . Truth, t h e n , is s o m e t h i n g that exists w i t h i n t h e Christian (1 J n 1.8; 2,4) a n d is a reality t o w h i c h a Christian belongs (1 J n 3.19). A n d the source o f this truth is the Father, revealing himself through the Son (1.14). 2 . 4 . Life and

Death

A l t h o u g h t h e bipolarity o f life a n d d e a t h m i g h t b e s t b e classified a l o n g w i t h the other ontological m e t a p h o r s , its i m p o r t a n c e in t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l justifies a separate treatment. O v e r one-third o f t h e u s e s o f t h e w o r d ' l i f e ' in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t c o m e from t h e J o h a n n i n e literature. T h e F o u r t h G o s p e l ' s declaration o f p u r p o s e e v e n centres n o t m e r e l y o n t h e S o n o f G o d , b u t o n t h e life that h e b r i n g s : ' B u t t h e s e are w r i t t e n so that y o u m a y c o m e to b e l i e v e that J e s u s is the M e s s i a h , t h e S o n o f G o d , a n d that t h r o u g h b e l i e v i n g y o u m a y h a v e life in h i s n a m e ' ( 2 0 . 3 1 ) . T h e t h e m e o f ' l i f e ' flows t h r o u g h t h e entire G o s p e l . G o d h i m s e l f is called ' t h e living F a t h e r ' (Jn 6.57); h e ' h a s life in h i m s e l f (Jn 5.26); h e ' r a i s e s t h e d e a d a n d gives t h e m life' (Jn 5.21); h e e v e n gives life to t h e s o n (Jn 6.57). T h e S o n is t h e creator o f life (Jn 1.3), so m u c h so that the G o s p e l declares ' i n h i m w a s life' (1.4). E v e n m o r e , J e s u s is d e s c r i b e d as t h e life itself: ' I a m t h e resurrection a n d t h e life. T h o s e w h o b e l i e v e in m e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y die, will live, a n d w h o e v e r lives a n d b e l i e v e s in m e will n e v e r d i e ' (Jn 11.25-26). It is h e r e that t h e bipolarity o f life a n d d e a t h is m a d e c l e a r .

27

Life in J o h n d o e s n o t m e r e l y refer to p h y s i c a l life, for J o h n u s e s i|n)Xil for that life t o w h i c h d e a t h is a t e r m i n u s ( J n 1 0 . 1 1 ; 1 5 . 1 3 ; 3 J n 2 ) .

2 8

Life is w h a t

t h e G o s p e l m e s s a g e offers to t h e believer. A s F l o y d F i l s o n h a s argued, t h e G o s p e l c o u l d h a v e b e e n called ' t h e G o s p e l o f L i f e ' .

29

John appears to use 'life'

in a related m a n n e r to u s e o f t h e ' k i n g d o m o f G o d ' in t h e S y n o p t i c s . If t h e 'kingdom of G o d ' denotes the almighty power of God as sovereign Lord of t h e u n i v e r s e a n d h i s ability t o s a v e his p e o p l e , ' l i f e ' is t h e b l e s s e d e x i s t e n c e 30

u n d e r that s a v i n g sovereignty, w i t h all t h e e n s u i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h i s b l e s s e d

26. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament, 2:18-19. 27. It is worth noting that the negative element in these bipolarities is ontologically deficient, or more accurately, a non-entity (e.g., falsehood - an absence of truth; darkness - an absence of light; death - an absence of life). 28. Brown, The Gospel According to John, p. 506. 29. F. V. Filson, 'The Gospel of Life: A Study of the Gospel of John', in W. Klassen and G. F. Snyder (eds), Current Issues in New Testament Interpretation: Essays in Honor of Otto A. Piper (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1962), pp. 112-13. 30. G. R. Beasley-Murray, Gospel of Life: Theology in the Fourth Gospel (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1991), pp. 2-3.

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e x i s t e n c e o c c u r s n o t o n l y in t h e future (eternal life), b u t is e v e n r e a l i z e d in t h e present. F o r as J e s u s e x p l a i n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e reality o f this bipolarity: ' a n y o n e w h o h e a r s m y w o r d a n d b e l i e v e s h i m w h o sent m e h a s eternal life, a n d d o e s n o t c o m e u n d e r j u d g e m e n t , b u t h a s p a s s e d from d e a t h to life' (Jn 5.24). Life b e g i n s in t h e p r e s e n t for J o h n ; a n d ' e t e r n a l life' ' i n e v i t a b l y calls t o m i n d t h e future that flows from t h e p r e s e n t ' .

31

T h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t a n d future a s p e c t s

o f this bipolarity h a s baffled interpreters, forcing t h e m into m a s s confusion concerning the eschatology of the Gospel.

32

B u t it is exactly at this p o i n t , at the

intersection o f t h e p r e s e n t a n d t h e future, that J o h n ' s portrait o f ' l i f e ' b e g i n s t o t a k e o n its c o s m i c s c o p e . T h e reality o f t h e W o r d is p a s t , present, a n d future. It is n o t b o u n d u p b y g e o g r a p h y , for it m a d e t h e w o r l d , n o r is it b o u n d u p i n t i m e , for it c a m e t o t h e w o r l d ' f r o m a b o v e ' . T h e G o s p e l p o r t r a y s t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f G o d into h u m a n history, a n e v e n t that c a n b r i n g real life. It is in this w a y that t h e c o n c e p t o f ' l i f e ' in t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l b e a r s a n in n a t e narratival s e n s e . Life in J o h n is a living event, n o t a thing. It is real a n d relational - r o o t e d in c o m munion of God and m a n .

3 3

It is r o o t e d in eternity; it is r o o t e d in t h e o n e w h o is

called ' t h e Way, t h e Truth a n d t h e L i f e ' (14.6).

2 . 5 . Conceptual

Emplotment:

The Narrative

Structure

of

Concepts

O u r study o f c o s m o l o g y in t h e J o h a n n i n e literature b e g a n at the level o f w o r d s or c o n c e p t s , b u t it c a n n o t r e m a i n t h e r e . A s w e h i n t e d a b o v e , w h i l e t h e r e is w a r r a n t for a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f w o r d s or t h e m e s i n J o h n that h a v e c o s m o l o g i c a l freight,

s u c h studies often d i v o r c e t h e w o r d s o r t h e m e s from t h e m a c r o - l e v e l

of the narrative.

34

T h e w o r d s o r p h r a s e s m u s t b e located w i t h i n t h e story t o l d

b y the n a r r a t i v e . E v e n m o r e , t h e w o r d s a n d c o n c e p t s e x a m i n e d a b o v e w e r e narratological in n a t u r e . T h e t e r m s implicitly m o v e d in t h e direction o f story; o n l y b y their innate participatory s e n s e c o u l d t h e t e r m s b e u n d e r s t o o d t o h a v e a n y m e a n i n g . In this w a y , t h e goal o f this s t u d y is to e x a m i n e n o t m e r e l y J o h n ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e b u t t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l m o t i f r o o t e d in t h e entire J o h a n nine corpus.

35

O u r g o a l , t h e n , is t o e n g a g e t h e ' e m p l o t t e d ' c o s m o l o g y o f t h e

31. Ibid.,p.5. 32. See, for example, Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament, 2: 49-59. 33. As described by B. D. McLaren, The Secret Message of Jesus: Uncovering the Truth that Could Change Everything (Nashville: W Publishing Group, 2006), p. 37, the Gospel of John depicts 'life' as 'an interactive relationship with the only true God and with Jesus Christ'. 34. See, for example, Cassem, 'KOop,oc in the Johannine Corpus', which defines its 'cosmic theology' in terminology alone, with no mention of the larger cosmic functions of the narrative, although Cassem admits that 'the simple "inventory" approach of this type of paper provides basic data upon which a developed Johannine cosmic theology can be based' (p. 90). 35. This type of analysis requires a sense of the narrative's identity, or maybe something Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, vol. 1 (trans. K. McLaughlin and D. Pellauer; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), called emplotment, whereby the narrative configuration itself gives meaning to ideas and events. In this way, an idea or even an event 'gets its definition from its

82

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J o h a n n i n e literature. O u r starting a s s u m p t i o n is that t h e similar introductory l a n g u a g e o f c o s m i c b e g i n n i n g s in J o h n a n d 1 J o h n u n i t e t h e G o s p e l w i t h t h e letters b y a c o m m o n n a r r a t i v e e m p l o t m e n t - a c o m m o n w o r l d - c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

36

e v e n if t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o is u n c e r t a i n . W e w i l l b e g i n b y e x a m i n ing the Gospel of John.

3 . The Gospel The Cosmic Drama.

of John

T h e spiritual nature o f t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l h a s l o n g distin

g u i s h e d this G o s p e l from t h e S y n o p t i c s . P e o p l e s p e a k o f t w o different, t h o u g h related,

37

' t a l e s ' functioning w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e .

38

T h e first, t h e historical tale,

is w h e r e t h e J e s u s in the n a r r a t i v e is t a k e n t o b e t h e c h a r a c t e r J e s u s in t h e story. T h e s e c o n d , t h e ecclesiological tale, is w h a t t h e n a r r a t i v e tells (reveals) b e c a u s e o f its historical s i t u a t e d n e s s .

39

In fact, w i t h t h e a m o u n t o f literature o n

t h e J o h a n n i n e c o m m u n i t y in r e c e n t d e c a d e s , a l o n g w i t h t h e l a c k o f h o p e for finding a historical Jesus in J o h n , it m i g h t b e said that t h e n a r r a t i v e h a s b e e n r e a d p r i m a r i l y for its ecclesiological tale. T h e s e t w o t a l e s , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t c o m p r e h e n s i v e o f t h e n a r r a t i v e tale(s). W h i l e t h e n a r r a t i v e is clearly reflecting o n history a n d c h u r c h , it also h a s its focus o n s o m e t h i n g that g o e s w e l l b e y o n d t h e t e m p o r a l a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l . T h e G o s p e l o f J o h n is clearly telling w h a t A d e l e R e i n h a r t z calls a c o s m o l o g i c a l tale.

40

T h i s c o s m o l o g i c a l tale d o e s n o t b e g i n w i t h J e s u s or a virgin, b u t w i t h

G o d ' i n t h e b e g i n n i n g ' . N o r d o e s it e n d w i t h t h e d i s h e a r t e n e d disciples, w h o a w a i t t h e H o l y Spirit. Rather, it carries f o r w a r d into the n e w p h a s e , g u i d e d b y the Paraclete. A s Reinhartz explains:

contribution to the development of the plot. A story, too, must be more than just an enumeration of events in serial order; it must organize them into an intelligible whole, of a sort such that we can always ask what is the "thoughf' of this story' (p. 65). 36. This language is taken from E. Adams, Constructing the World: A Study in Paul's Cosmo logical Language (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000), p. 3. See also P. L. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Penguin, 1967). 37. According to Brown, The Community of the Beloved Disciple, pp. 31-4, 89, it is the Beloved Disciple that connects the historical tale with the ecclesiological tale. In essence, Jesus' intimate disciple in the historical tale was the leader of the Johannine community in the ecclesio logical tale. 38. This use of 'tale' to refer to the Johannine narrative is taken from A. Reinhartz, The Word in the World: The Cosmological Tale in the Fourth Gospel (SBLMS 45; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992). 39. This second tale has been made almost paradigmatic by J. L. Martyn, History and Theol ogy in the Fourth Gospel, 3rd edn (NTL; Westminster/John Knox Press, 2003). For a critique of the abuses of the ecclesiological tale see E. W. Klink III, The Sheep ofthe Fold: The Audience and Origin of the Gospel ofJohn (SNTSMS 141; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 40. Reinhartz, The Word in the World.

5 . Johannine

83

Literature

The cosmological tale intersects and parallels the historical and ecclesiological tales at many points. Indeed, it may be said that the cosmological tale provided the narrative framework into which the other tales are set. The two- to three-year span of Jesus' earthly mission - the 'story time' of the historical tale - and the period of the Johannine church - 'the story time' of the ecclesiological tale - are placed in a continuum of the Word's pre-existence with God and the eventual return of the Word and his disciples to God's realm, that is, the 'story time' of the cosmological tale. 41

T h u s , t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l tale or ' c o s m i c d r a m a ' framework

4 2

provides the overarching

o f t h e G o s p e l n a r r a t i v e - i n c l u d i n g all t e m p o r a l , g e o g r a p h i c , a n d

t h e o l o g i c a l s e n s e s . R a t h e r t h a n c o m p i l i n g t h e v a r i o u s c o s m i c t h e m e s , w h a t is n e e d e d is a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s acts o f this c o s m i c d r a m a . O u r p o i n t o f c o n t a c t w i t h this c o s m i c d r a m a is b a s e d u p o n a literaryrhetorical r e a d i n g o f t h e p l o t o f t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l . W h i l e several h a v e e x a m ined t h e plot o f J o h n , m o s t h a v e u s e d strictly internal evidence w i t h an e m p h a s i s on thematic-theological criteria.

43

U s i n g the w o r k o f F e r n a n d o S e g o v i a , this

c h a p t e r w i l l p o s i t a p l o t o f t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l that also i n c l u d e s a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r i c c o n v e n t i o n s o f p l o t c o m m o n to a n c i e n t b i o g r a p h i e s .

44

Beginning

w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n that t h e F o u r t h G o s p e l is a f o r m o f a n c i e n t b i o g r a p h y , it is c o m m o n t o e x p e c t a three-fold structural

framework

for a b i o g r a p h y : a

b e g i n n i n g n a r r a t i v e o f origins a n d y o u t h , a central a n d e x t e n d e d n a r r a t i v e o f t h e p u b l i c life or career o f t h e h e r o , a n d a c o n c l u d i n g narrative o f d e a t h a n d lasting s i g n i f i c a n c e .

45

T h u s , u s i n g t h e three-fold structure c o m m o n t o a n c i e n t

41. Ibid., pp. 4-5. 42. Although the use of 'tale' by Reinhartz is useful, this essay prefers the term 'drama'. The reason is more theological than literary, for while 'tale' implies a more straightforward report of events or facts, 'drama' carries a greater sense of performance. For a discussion of the theological sense of'drama' see K. J. Vanhoozer, The Drama ofDoctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 2004), who explains that in a drama 'the actor/audience boundary was blurred; all humans were players before God... the audience is part of the action' (p. 37). Cf. the different use of 'drama' by Martyn, History and Theology in the Fourth Gospel, pp. 35ff. 43. For a history of previous approaches and methods to the plot of John see F. F. Segovia, 'The Journey(s) of the Word of God: A Reading of the Plot of the Fourth Gospel', Semeia 53 (1991), 26-31. For a fuller theoretical discussion see R. A. Culpepper, Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel: A Study in Literary Design (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983); and J. L. Staley, The Print's First Kiss: A Rhetorical Investigation of the Implied Reader in the Fourth Gospel (SBLDS 82; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988). 44. Segovia, 'The Joumey(s) of the Word of God', pp. 32-5. 45. For a discussion of the basic conventions of ancient biographies see, among others, J. Fairweather, 'Fiction in the Biographies of Ancient Writers', Ancient Society 5 (1974), 266-75; P. Cox, Biography in Late Antiquity: A Quest for the Holy Man (Berkeley: University of Cali fornia Press, 1983), pp. 45-64; and R. A. Burridge, What Are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography, 2nd edn (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004).

84

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

b i o g r a p h y , as w e l l a s a n explicit a w a r e n e s s o f t h e o v e r a r c h i n g c o s m i c d r a m a , t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n c a n b e d i v i d e d into three sections: (1) narrative o f c o s m i c origins ( 1 . 1 - 1 8 ) ; (2) n a r r a t i v e o f c o s m i c career ( 1 . 1 9 - 1 7 . 2 6 ) ; a n d (3) narrative o f c o s m i c significance ( 1 8 . 1 - 2 1 . 2 5 ) .

46

In this w a y , w e a r e n o w p r e p a r e d t o

e x a m i n e t h e t h r e e acts o f t h e c o s m i c d r a m a in t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n . 3 . 1 . Narrative

of Cosmic

Origins

(1.1-18)

T h e narrative o f origins s e r v e d as t h e b e g i n n i n g frame for t h e d e p i c t i o n o f t h e c a r e e r o f t h e subject o f t h e b i o g r a p h y . B u t this narrative o f origins is quite u n u s u a l , for 'it c o n t a i n s n o s t a n d a r d a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' a n c e s t o r s , birth, or y o u t h ; in fact, n o information w h a t s o e v e r o f this k i n d is g i v e n ' .

47

T h e g e n e a l o g i e s in

t h e G o s p e l s o f M a t t h e w a n d L u k e a r e m o r e c o n d u c i v e to a s t a n d a r d narrative o f origins. B u t this is exactly w h e r e o n e m i s r e a d s J o h n - at t h e p o i n t o f c o m p a r i son. Certainly o n e m i g h t c o m p a r e t h e P r o l o g u e t o a L o g o s , Torah, or W i s d o m tradition or t o P h i l o o r t h e G o s p e l o f T h o m a s ,

4 8

b u t t h e thrust o f t h e P r o l o g u e

is the c o s m i c origin o f J e s u s . F o r w h e r e t h e P r o l o g u e falls short c o n c e r n i n g n o r m a l o r i g i n a c c o u n t s , ' i t g o e s w e l l b e y o n d t h e u s u a l attribution o f divine p a r e n t a g e g r a n t e d t o a s o n o f g o d as s u c h a n d b e s t o w s o n J e s u s a v e r y h i g h degree of divinity' - the Son of the G o d of the c o s m o s .

49

T h u s , this narrative

o f origins signifies n o t s i m p l y a b e g i n n i n g , b u t a n introduction t o the subject at h a n d . It d o e s n o t e x p o u n d t h e m a i n p o i n t s , b u t i n t r o d u c e s t h e m - it r e v e a l s J o h n ' s p u r p o s e , intentions, a n d i n t e r e s t .

50

It is t h e starting p o i n t from w h i c h t h e

rest o f t h e G o s p e l m u s t b e read. F o r J o h n , t h e starting p o i n t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g J e s u s is t h e origin o f t h e w o r l d itself. A m i d s t d e b a t e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e literary structure o f t h e P r o l o g u e , this e s s a y will a s s u m e a three-part structure in t h e form o f a n inclusion ( A B A ) : (1) T h e W o r d a n d G o d ( w . 1-2); (2) T h e W o r d a n d t h e W o r l d ( w . 3-17); (3) T h e W o r d a n d G o d (v. 1 8 ) .

51

The Word and God (1.1-2). A t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e , b o t h in t i m e a n d s p a c e , b e i n g G o d in participation a n d e s s e n c e , w a s t h e S o n , t h e W o r d o f G o d . T h i s b i o g r a p h y o f J e s u s is set in relation to t h e G o d o f eternity, t h e L o r d o f all a g e s and Creator of all.

52

46. It is important to note with Segovia, 'The Journey(s) of the Word of God', that 'This pro posed demarcation is not entirely free of difficulties; indeed, a number of other options can be reasonably advanced as weir (p. 35). 47. Segovia, 'The Journey(s) of the Word of God\ p. 36. 48. For a recent discussion of these readings of the Prologue see J. Painter, 'Rereading Genesis in the Prologue of John?', in Aune et al Neotestamentica etPhilonica, pp. 179-201. 49. Segovia, 'The Journey(s) of the Word of God', p. 36. 50. Keener, The Gospel ofJohn, 1: 338. 51. This structure is taken from F. F. Segovia, 'John 1:1-18 as Entree into Johannine Reality: Representation and Ramifications', in J. Painter, R. A. Culpepper and F. F. Segovia (eds), Word, Theology, and Community in John (St Louis: Chalice Press, 2002), pp. 33-64. 52. Beasley-Murray, John, p. 16.

5. Johannine

The Word and the World (1.3-17).

85

Literature

T h e W o r d relates to t h e W o r l d in three differ

ent relations: creation (v. 3 ) , h u m a n i t y ( w . 4 - 1 3 ) , children o f G o d ( w . 14-17). T h e W o r d is t h e creator o f all t h i n g s ; t h e apriority; t h e s o u r c e o f s o u r c e s ; t h e origin o f origins. T h e creation o f t h e w o r l d is itself revelatory; creation itself 53

b e a r s t h e s t a m p o f t h e W o r d ( 1 . 3 ) . T h e S o n is t h e origin o f life, a n d t h e life that h e g i v e s is light t o h u m a n i t y . T h i s is t h e o n t o l o g y o f L i g h t a n d Life (1.4). B u t this light is n o t stagnant, for it is in m o t i o n , c o m i n g t o a n d victoriously s h i n i n g u p o n t h e d a r k w o r l d (1.5). T h e first g l i m p s e o f this light w a s m a d e b y G o d ' s a p p o i n t e d w i t n e s s , J o h n t h e Baptist. T h i s w i t n e s s n o t o n l y b e a r s t e s t i m o n y to t h e light, b u t confirms its c o s m i c origin. F a r from b e i n g t h e light, h e s e r v e d a s its first w i t n e s s (1.6-8). A n d t h e h u m a n w i t n e s s is this: t h e L i g h t o f t h e W o r l d is c o m i n g . W h i l e s o m e rejected t h e light, a s d a r k n e s s d o e s , o t h e r s r e c e i v e d h i m a n d w e r e g i v e n t h e right t o b e c o m e children o f G o d . T h e s e c h i l d r e n a r e n o t g i v e n w o r l d l y life, b u t a r e g i v e n t h e W o r d o f Life. T h e G o d o f t h e u n i v e r s e M

h a s a c t e d o n their b e h a l f ( 1 . 9 - 1 3 ) . A l l o f this o c c u r r e d b e c a u s e t h e W o r d , t h e narrative o f G o d , w h o c a m e t o t h e W o r l d . H e w a s attested a s t h e W o r d i n flesh b y J o h n , a n d a s t h e n e w M o s e s w h o b e s t o w s u p o n h i s children g r a c e a n d truth (1.14-17). The Word and God (1.18).

T h e role o f t h e W o r d is t o ' s h o w ' G o d . A s t h e nar

rative o f G o d , J e s u s is t h e u l t i m a t e d i s c l o s u r e o f G o d . T h e S o n o f G o d reflects the v e r y e s s e n c e o f t h e G o d o f t h e c o s m o s . To k n o w t h e S o n is t o k n o w t h e F a t h e r - a n i m p o r t a n t reality for children o f G o d . T h e L i g h t o f t h e W o r l d is shining from t h e s o u r c e o f t h e c o s m o s itself. T h e c o s m i c d r a m a is t h e story o f u n i o n b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n i t y t h r o u g h t h e W o r d o f Life. 3 . 2 . Narrative

of Cosmic

Career

(1.19-17.26)

F o l l o w i n g t h e three-fold structural division o f a n c i e n t b i o g r a p h i e s , t h e n a r r a t i v e o f origins is followed b y a m o r e e x t e n d e d narrative o f t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s p u b l i c life or career. Yet, t h e narrative o f origins is n o t forgotten. B u l t m a n n d e c l a r e d that the Prologue ... is folly comprehensible only to the man who knows the whole Gospel. It is only when the circle is complete, and the 'Son' has returned to the 6o£a which the love of the 'Father' has prepared for him iTpo Kaiafk)A.f|C KOO|iOi) (17.24), only when the reader has been led back out of the temporal sphere into the eternal, that he can judge conclusively in what sense the Prologue leads out of the eternal into the temporal. 55

In t h e s a m e w a y , t h e narrative o f career is o n l y c o m p r e h e n s i b l e w h e n o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e P r o l o g u e ' s narrative o f origins. W h i l e a full e x a m i n a t i o n o f this n a r r a t i v e s e g m e n t is b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f this essay, a few a s p e c t s a r e 53. Brown, The Gospel According to John, p. 25. 54. Carson, The Gospel According to John, p. 126. 55. Bultmann, The Gospel ofJohn: A Commentary, p. 13.

Cosmology

86

and New Testament

Theology

i m p o r t a n t t o h i g h l i g h t . First, t h e j o u r n e y m o t i f is t h e d o m i n a n t feature o f J o h n ' s n a r r a t i v e o f career. W h i l e b i o g r a p h i e s o f h o l y m e n g e n e r a l l y follow a topical rather than chronological development, the Fourth Gospel portrays Jesus with a chronological type of presentation.

56

T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f this c a n n o t b e over

stated. T h e r e is e v i d e n c e that in a n c i e n t b i o g r a p h i e s t h e subject's career, o r 6LK\IX\ (akme),

w a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d p r o d u c t i v e p a r t o f t h e subject's life

a n d t h e s u m total o f h i s life w o r k .

5 7

' D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f akme, the h e r o is at

the h e i g h t o f his p r o d u c t i v e p o w e r s a n d p e r f o r m s his m o s t significant d e e d s . His c h a r a c t e r h a s r e a c h e d its m o s t m a t u r e s t a g e ' .

58

T h e difference b e t w e e n a

topical a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f akme is t h e ability t h e b i o g r a p h e r h a s to e m p h a s i z e t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e subject, a n d e v e n m o r e , h i s activities. ' T h e g r a d u a l u n f o l d i n g o f c h a r a c t e r t h r o u g h successful d e e d s g a v e [the h e r o ] that unity and dramatic q u a l i t y . . .

9 5 9

It is n o t j u s t t h e p e r s o n o f J e s u s that t h e G o s p e l

p o r t r a y s , b u t a l s o h i s m i s s i o n , h i s c o m i n g eiQ t o v K O O | i o v . S e c o n d , t h e e m p l o t m e n t o f this j o u r n e y m o t i f is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e c o s m i c d r a m a d e s c r i b e d in t h e P r o l o g u e . T h e narrative o f c a r e e r c a n b e d i v i d e d into numerous journeys of Jesus,

60

all o f w h i c h w o r k w i t h i n t h e original c o s m i c

j o u r n e y . T h e n a r r a t i v e ' s focus o n t h e final j o u r n e y o f J e s u s t o J e r u s a l e m (12.12ff.) a n d a u n i q u e focus o n t h e ' h o u r ' , w i t h all t h e d r a m a t i c t e n s i o n that creates, e x p l a i n that ' t h e initial e v e n t s o f t h e j o u r n e y p r o p e r clearly s h o w that this final visit is u n d e r t a k e n w i t h t h e a p p o i n t e d e n d o f t h e m i s s i o n in full view...'.

6 1

E v e n m o r e , r a t h e r t h a n t h e o p p o n e n t s b e i n g h u m a n forces, J o h n

r e v e a l s that t h e b a t t l e i n v o l v e s c o s m i c forces - t h e d e v i l / S a t a n ( 1 3 . 1 - 3 , 2 7 ) . T h e c a r e e r o f t h e Word-in-flesh is r o o t e d in t h e c o s m i c d r a m a o f t h e W o r d o f G o d .

3 . 3 . Narrative

of Cosmic

Significance

(18.1-21.25)

T h e third o f t h e three-fold structural divisions o f a n c i e n t b i o g r a p h i e s , the n a r r a t i v e o f d e a t h a n d lasting significance, frames t h e n a r r a t i v e o f career a n d b r i n g s c o n c l u s i o n to t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l presentation. T h e n a r r a t i v e o f signifi c a n c e p r o v i d e s a p r o p e r c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e life a n d m i s s i o n o f t h e subject. T h r e e aspects are i m p o r t a n t for this essay. First, t h e narrative o f significance p o r t r a y s the completion of the mission of the Word. This narrative division highlights ' t h e h o u r ' - t h e r e a s o n for t h e W o r d ' s c o m i n g (12.27). F o r as J e s u s h a d earlier declared: ' w h e n I a m lifted u p from the earth, [I] will d r a w all p e o p l e to m y s e l f ( 1 2 . 3 2 ) . S u c h l a n g u a g e d e s c r i b e s b o t h t h e act o f crucifixion a n d the final status

56. Segovia, 'The Journey(s) of the Word of God\ p. 38. 57. G. H. Polman, 'Chronological Biography and AKME in Plutarch*, Classical Philology 69 (1974), 169-77. 58. Ibid.,p. 172. 59. Ibid. 60. As argued by Segovia, 'The Journey(s) of the Word of God', pp. 37-45. 61. Ibid., p. 44.

5. Johannine

Literature

87

o f the exalted redeemer. Jesus is b o t h crucified a n d exalted; this is t h e last p h a s e o f his m i s s i o n . A n d this m i s s i o n h a s c o s m i c results: ' N o w is t h e j u d g m e n t o f this w o r l d ; n o w t h e ruler o f this w o r l d will b e d r i v e n o u t ' ( 1 2 . 3 1 ) . T h e c o s m i c battle is over; t h e r e s u r r e c t e d L o r d is v i c t o r i o u s . S e c o n d , w h i l e t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e S o n o f G o d is c o m p l e t e , t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e c h i l d r e n o f G o d is j u s t b e g i n n i n g . T h e m i s s i o n o f t h e S o n t a k e s its d e p a r t u r e from 3.16. T h e F a t h e r is t h e origin a n d goal o f t h e m i s s i o n a r y enterprise, t h e unsent sender of the S o n .

62

The Father's sending of the Son shows his supreme

l o v e for h u m a n i t y . T h e S o n , t h e sent o n e , is n o t t o d o his o w n w i l l b u t t h e will o f t h e sender, t o d o his w o r k s a n d t o s p e a k his w o r d s , a n d t o b e a c c o u n t a b l e to t h e sender ( 4 . 3 4 ; 5.19-20, 3 6 ; 9.4). T h e ' s e n t o n e ' h a s the responsibility o f r e p r e s e n t i n g his s e n d e r ( 5 . 1 9 - 2 3 ; 1 2 . 4 4 - 4 5 ; 13.20; 14.9b). T h i s u n i q u e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e F a t h e r a n d t h e S o n , t h e ' s e n d e r ' a n d t h e ' s e n t o n e ' , is d u p l i c a t e d later b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d his disciples. W h i l e e v e r y o t h e r m i s s i o n is d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e S o n ' s , ' J o h n m a k e s clear that J e s u s ' m i s s i o n . . . w a s n o t to s t a n d a l o n e ; it w a s t o b e c o n t i n u e d in t h e m i s s i o n o f h i s f o l l o w e r s ' (cf. 4 . 3 8 ; 15.8, 16, 2 7 ; 17.18; 2 0 . 1 9 - 2 3 ) .

63

A n d this m i s s i o n o f G o d ' s c h i l d r e n is a c o s m i c m i s s i o n ,

r e q u i r i n g p r o t e c t i o n from t h e ' e v i l o n e ' ( 1 7 . 1 5 ) , w i t h t h e g o a l that ' t h e w o r l d m a y k n o w that y o u h a v e sent m e a n d h a v e l o v e d t h e m e v e n as y o u h a v e l o v e d me'(17.23). Third, if t h e n a r r a t i v e o f origins describes the W o r d ' s c o m i n g into t h e w o r l d , t h e n a r r a t i v e o f significance d e s c r i b e s the W o r d ' s d e p a r t u r e from t h e w o r l d . A s J e s u s tells M a r y M a g d a l e n e after his resurrection, ' D o n o t h o l d o n to m e , b e c a u s e I h a v e n o t y e t a s c e n d e d to t h e Father. B u t g o to m y b r o t h e r s a n d s a y t o t h e m , " I a m a s c e n d i n g t o m y F a t h e r a n d y o u r Father, t o m y G o d a n d y o u r G o d " ' ( 2 0 . 1 7 ) . T h e a s c e n s i o n p a s s a g e s m a k e clear ' t h a t this d e p a r t u r e from t h e w o r l d is a r e t u r n t o t h e situation Jesus enjoyed before e n t e r i n g t h e w o r l d . A s s u c h it c o m p l e t e s t h e circle o f activity that b e g a n w i t h his p r e - e x i s t e n t c r e a t i o n ' .

64

In this w a y , t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e W o r d is c o m p l e t e d . B u t this is n o t t h e e n d o f t h e c o s m i c d r a m a , for its significance is carried forth in t h r e e w a y s . First, t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e S o n is c o n t i n u e d b y his disciples: ' A s t h e F a t h e r h a s sent m e , so I s e n d y o u ' ( 2 0 . 2 1 ) . S e c o n d , t h e c o m i n g o f t h e P a r a c l e t e will c o n t i n u e t h e m i s s i o n o f J e s u s b y t e a c h i n g t h e followers a n d r e m i n d i n g t h e m o f t h e w o r d o f t h e W o r d ( 1 4 . 2 6 ) , b y testifying a b o u t t h e W o r d ( 1 5 . 2 6 ) ; a n d b y c o n v i c t i n g t h e w o r l d ( 1 6 . 8 ) . Finally, t h e W o r d h i m s e l f will r e t u r n for t h e c h i l d r e n o f G o d and take them ' h o m e ' .

6 5

I n this w a y , w h i l e t h e S o n h a s w o n a c o s m i c v i c t o r y

a n d c o m p l e t e d his m i s s i o n , t h e c o s m i c d r a m a is o n g o i n g for a n y o n e w h o h a s

62. T. Okure, The Johannine Approach to Mission: A Contextual Study of John 4:1-42 (WUNT 2.31; Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1998), p. 23. 63. KSstenberger, The Missions ofJesus and the Disciples, p. 141. 64. Reinhartz, The Word in the World, p. 24. 65. Ibid.

88

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

r e c e i v e d t h e W o r d a n d b e c o m e a child o f G o d . T h e participatory n a t u r e o f t h e d r a m a c o n t i n u e s for t h e r e a d e r s o f J o h n . 4 . The Letters

of John

A l t h o u g h m o s t c o m m e n t a r i e s o f the J o h a n n i n e letters focus o n the ecclesiologi cal tale a n d t h e ' J o h a n n i n e c o m m u n i t y ' ,

66

the letters are b e s t v i e w e d as continu

ing t h e c o s m i c d r a m a o f the F o u r t h G o s p e l . In fact, b e c a u s e the c o s m i c d r a m a focuses o n t h e life a n d m i n i s t r y o f t h e (historical) W o r d , it m a t t e r s n o t if the letters w e r e w r i t t e n before o r after t h e G o s p e l , for in the c h r o n o l o g y o f the c o s m i c d r a m a the letters s p e a k t o t h e c o n t i n u i n g m i s s i o n o f the children o f G o d . T h i s c o n t i n u i n g m i s s i o n is still c o n c e r n e d w i t h the relationship o f t h e children to G o d , a n d the n e e d for the w o r l d to k n o w G o d : ' h e is the a t o n i n g sacrifice for o u r sins, a n d n o t for o u r s o n l y b u t a l s o for the sins o f the w h o l e w o r l d ' (1 J n 2.2). Issues for these children o f G o d are v e r y m u c h related to t h e w o r d o f the Word: to b e ' o f G o d ' is to b e d o i n g r i g h t e o u s n e s s (1 J n 4.7) - for k n o w i n g h i m is o b e y i n g h i m (1 J n 2.3); reflecting the ' t r u e light' (1 J n 2.8); r e m a i n i n g separate from the w o r l d (1 J n 2.15); ' a b i d i n g ' in G o d (1 J n 2.24); r e l y i n g o n t h e Spirit (1 J n 4 . 2 , 1 3 ) ; a n d living in t h e h o p e o f t h e S o n ' s return (1 J n 2 . 2 5 , 2 8 ) . In this p o s t - J e s u s stage in t h e c o s m i c d r a m a , t h e s a m e J o h a n n i n e c o s m i c d u a l i s m s , the ' w o r l d ' a n d ' l i g h t / d a i k n e s s ' are u s e d to describe t h e situation o f the r e a d e r s . T h e battle is o n g o i n g b u t t h e t w o sides are k n o w n : ' W e k n o w that w e are G o d ' s children, a n d that the w h o l e w o r l d lies u n d e r the p o w e r o f t h e evil o n e ' (1 J n 5.19). A n d the r e a s o n for this c o s m i c e n m i t y is the w o r l d ' s rejection o f t h e S o n : ' T h e r e a s o n t h e w o r l d d o e s n o t k n o w u s is that it did n o t k n o w h i m ' (1 J n 3.1). B u t there is n o c a u s e for fear, 'for w h a t e v e r is b o r n o f G o d c o n q u e r s the w o r l d . A n d this is the victory that c o n q u e r s t h e world, o u r faith' (1 J n 5.4). This is life in t h e ' W o r d o f L i f e ' . It is in the letters o f J o h n that the oddities of the F o u r t h G o s p e l are m a d e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h e c o s m i c d r a m a n o t o n l y contextualizes s o m u c h o f J o h n ' s so-called ' s p i r i t u a l ' l a n g u a g e , b u t also reflects u p o n his ' r e a l i z e d ' eschatology. R a t h e r t h a n locating J o h n ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e a s either p r e s e n t or future, the c o s m i c d r a m a a l l o w s for a n incarnational tension o f p r e s e n t a n d future, j u s t as the W o r d , t h e G o d o f t h e u n i v e r s e , koKT\v(x>oev kv rp.lv ( 1 . 1 4 ) . T h e c o s m i c d r a m a r e q u i r e s t h e r e a d e r t o s e e the J o h a n n i n e reality a s t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n G o d a n d humanity. A n d it is this reality that is p o r t r a y e d in t h e J o h a n n i n e letters, written t o the children o f G o d w h o c o n t i n u e t h e m i s s i o n o f the W o r d . It is in this w a y that B u l t m a n n ' s ' d u a l i s m o f d e c i s i o n ' e x p l a i n s t h e rhetorical function o f t h e J o h a n n i n e c o r p u s . J o h n clearly creates a n d divides its readers into t w o classes o f p e o p l e . B u t this d u a l i s m o f b e l i e f is n o t b e t w e e n ' g r o u p s ' .

66. See, for example, J. Lieu, The Theology of the Johannine Epistles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

5. Johannine

89

Literature

Rather, it i n v o l v e s all w h o see t h e L i g h t o f t h e W o r l d a n d r e c e i v e t h e W o r d o f Life. T h i s c o n c e p t , s o pertinent i n t h e J o h a n n i n e literature, h a s p o t e n t i a l for assisting o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e identity f o r m a t i o n o f early Christians. A c c o r d i n g t o J u d i t h L i e u , t h e identity o f C h r i s t i a n s a s a ' t h i r d r a c e ' w a s c o n firmed b y t h e u s e o f t h e t e r m ' t h e w o r l d ' . A s L i e u e x p l a i n s : Although it has its roots in the Jewish eschatological contrast between 'this world' and 'the world to come', this opposition to 'the world' is characteristically, although not exclusively, Christian. Within the NT it is most developed in the Johannine lit erature where it has often been dubbed 'sectarian', yet in principle it may become a fundamental organizing point for Christian self-identity, capable of multiple expres sions. This is the language of internal identity-formation, not of external visible perception. 67

T h e story o r ' t a l e ' o f t h e J o h a n n i n e literature, therefore, is n o t m e r e l y historical o r ecclesiological, b u t c o s m o l o g i c a l . It is t h e internal p e r c e p t i o n o f o n e ' s status before G o d - w i t h d r a m a t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s for all o f life. It is life in t h e W o r d , t h e S o n o f G o d , a n d a n e x i s t e n c e as t h e children o f G o d , r e c e i v i n g from h i s fullness g r a c e u p o n g r a c e (1.16).

5 . Conclusion:

Cosmology

and the Johannine

Literature

T h e e n i g m a o f J o h n is n o t w h e r e h e e n d s b u t w h e r e h e b e g i n s . T h e t h r e e o t h e r G o s p e l s t a k e t h e r e a d e r t o t h e c r o s s ; J o h n is n o different. B u t w h i l e t h o s e s a m e t h r e e G o s p e l s start t h e r e a d e r in J e w i s h P a l e s t i n e , J o h n starts t h e r e a d e r at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t i m e itself, at t h e v e r y c e n t r e o f t h e c o s m o s . F o r h i m , o n l y a c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e o n J e s u s , e v e n m o r e , a c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e entire C h r i s t i a n faith, c a n fully e x p r e s s w h a t it m e a n s t o b e Christian. It is in this w a y that J o h n ' s c o s m o l o g y , t h o u g h b e w i l d e r i n g t o t h e historian a n d a m b i g u o u s to t h e t h e o l o gian, is perfectly suited t o e x p l a i n t h e life a n d m i s s i o n o f J e s u s from N a z a r e t h . R a t h e r t h a n p o s i t i n g J o h a n n i n e c o s m o l o g y as a m e r e t h e o l o g i c a l o r sociological motif, this c h a p t e r h a s a r g u e d that J o h n ' s c o s m i c d r a m a s e r v e s a s t h e o v e r r i d i n g story o f t h e J o h a n n i n e J e s u s a n d t h e J o h a n n i n e faith. T h e J o h a n n i n e literature p r o c l a i m s a c o s m i c d r a m a a b o u t t h e L i g h t o f t h e W o r l d a s t h e W o r d o f Life. T h e reality o f this truth h a s n o t h i n g less t h a n c o s m i c r a m i f i c a t i o n s .

68

67. J. Lieu, Neither Jew Nor Greek? Constructing Early Christianity (Study of the New Testament and Its World; London: T&T Clark, 2002), p. 188. Cf. V. L. Wimbush, ' "...Not of this World..." Early Christianities as Rhetorical and Social Formation', in E. A. Castelli and H. Taussig (eds), Reimagining Christian Origins: A Colloquium Honoring Burton Mack (Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1996), pp. 23-36. 68. Thanks are due to the Biola University Faculty Research and Development Grant Program for providing release time in early 2007, during which some of the research for this essay was accomplished.

6

PAUL'S COSMOLOGY: THE WITNESS OF ROMANS,

1 AND 2 CORINTHIANS, AND GALATIANS

Joel White

O u r topic calls at the outset for a clear definition of cosmology. W h e n I talk about P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g y I m e a n his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the structure a n d m e c h a n i c s o f the 1

c o s m o s (i.e., t h e physical u n i v e r s e ) o n the o n e h a n d a n d o f its origin a n d p u r p o s e o n the other. Since the E n l i g h t e n m e n t attempts h a v e b e e n m a d e to limit the scope 2

of c o s m o l o g y t o the first part o f this definition. This preference underscores the fact that the perceived task o f c o s m o l o g y varies according to o n e ' s w o r l d view. T h e m o d e r n understanding o f c o s m o l o g y as a sort o f ' a n a t o m y a n d p h y s i o l o g y ' of the universe reflects t h e naturalistic p a r a d i g m of the post-Enlightenment West.

3

F r o m the perspective o f the ancient world, however, questions concerning the structure a n d w o r k i n g s o f the c o s m o s cannot b e separated from questions con 4

cerning its origin, a n d within a n early J e w i s h w o r l d view, the question of the p u r p o s e o f the c o s m o s m u s t b e considered p a r a m o u n t . O u r t a s k is t o a n a l y s e P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g y , particularly a s it surfaces in his letters t o the R o m a n s , C o r i n t h i a n s a n d G a l a t i a n s , a n d t o d i s c o v e r h o w this m a y h a v e influenced his theology. A m o m e n t ' s reflection s h o u l d m a k e it clear that the t a s k is fraught w i t h pitfalls. T h e r e is, first o f all, t h e d a n g e r o f construct ing a g r a n d a n d a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g p a r a d i g m - c o s m o l o g y is, after all, rather h e a d y stuff - that is internally c o h e r e n t b u t h a r d t o actually a n c h o r in t h e r o u g h a n d t u m b l e l a n g u a g e o f P a u l ' s letters. W e m u s t n o t forget, in t h e thick o f o u r theorizing, that w e are n o t really ' c o n s t r u c t i n g P a u l ' s w o r l d ' , w i t h t h e b e g u i l i n g 5

p r o m i s e o f p e n e t r a t i n g insight into P a u l ' s t h e o l o g y that p h r a s e i m p l i e s . R a t h e r

1. Unless otherwise noted, I will use the English word 'cosmos' in this restricted sense below. 2. Cf. W. Gantke, 'Welt/WeltanschauungAVeltbild IV.l Religionsgeschichtlich', TRE 35: 562. 3. Cf. W. Spam, 'Welt/Weltanschauung/Weltbild IV.4 Kirchengeschichtlich', TRE 35: 595-8. 4. Cf. R. A. Oden, Jr., 'Cosmology, Cosmogony', ABD 1: 1162. 5. Peter Berger introduced the concept of 'world construction' to delineate the process by which human beings produce society in The Social Reality of Religion (London: Faber & Faber, 1969), pp. 3-28; but of course both he and those who make use of the concept are aware of its

6. Romans,

Corinthians,

Galatians

91

w e are a t t e m p t i n g t h e m o r e c i r c u m s p e c t t a s k o f articulating h i s c o s m o l o g y o n t h e b a s i s o f - it m u s t b e r e a d i l y a d m i t t e d - s p a r s e e v i d e n c e a n d o f d e t e r m i n i n g its specific r o l e in t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f h i s theology. It is, in fact, n o t i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t at t h e o u t s e t that w e h a v e e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to fruitfully c o m p l e t e t h e task, at least w i t h r e g a r d t o P a u l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e structure a n d m e c h a n i c s o f t h e c o s m o s . P a u l offers u s little in t h e w a y o f direct d e s c r i p t i v e l a n g u a g e about the world. E v e n w h e n P a u l d o e s e m p l o y c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y - ' t h e third h e a v e n ' in 2 C o r i n t h i a n s 12, for i n s t a n c e ( o n w h i c h see b e l o w ) - w e h a v e to b e a w a r e o f a s e c o n d d a n g e r : that o f m i s t a k i n g P a u l ' s s y m b o l i c u n i v e r s e for h i s actual u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e structure a n d m e c h a n i c s o f t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . E v e n today, c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e is s e l d o m u s e d m e r e l y for d r a w i n g u p b l u e p r i n t s o f w h a t m o d e r n s call ' t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d ' . M o r e often, it s e r v e s m e t a p h y s i c a l e n d s . T e n a c i o u s talk o f t h e s u n rising a n d setting, for i n s t a n c e , b e t r a y s t h e n e e d , e v e n in o u r p o s t - C o p e r n i c a n w o r l d , t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e u n i v e r s e a s a m e a n i n g f u l c o n t e x t for h u m a n life. It i s , h o w e v e r , quite u s e l e s s as a n indicator o f m o d e r n Western conceptions of the physical universe. A n o t h e r d a n g e r lurks in t h e m i s u s e o f w o r d studies. O u t l i n i n g P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g y entails m u c h m o r e t h a n a n a l y s i n g all texts t h a t c o n t a i n t h e t e r m Koopxx; 6

a n d s y n t h e s i z i n g t h e r e s u l t s . F o r o n e thing, t h e t e r m s e l d o m d e n o t e s a n y t h i n g that, strictly s p e a k i n g , p e r t a i n s t o c o s m o l o g y (as defined a b o v e ) in t h e letters u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n h e r e . O n l y in t h r e e texts d o e s it refer t o t h e p h y s i c a l earth o r 7

u n i v e r s e p e r se ( R o m . 1.20; 4 . 1 3 ; p r o b a b l y 1 Cor. 3 . 2 2 ) . In a handful o f other p a s s a g e s it refers t o the c r e a t e d o r d e r (i.e., t h e w a y t h e w o r l d w a s d e s i g n e d to 8

w o r k ; R o m . 5.12, 1 3 ; 1 Cor. 8.4; 14.10; G a l . 4 . 3 ) . W h i l e t h e s e a r e clearly o f

metaphorical nature. Cf. E. Adams, Constructing the World: A Study in Paul's Cosmological Language (SNTW; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000), pp. 3-6. 6. The noun appears 9 times in Romans (1.8,20; 3.6,19; 4.13; 5.12,13; 11.12,15), 21 times in 1 Corinthians (1.20,21,27 [2x], 28; 2.12; 3.19,22; 4.9,13; 5.10 [2*]; 6.2 [2*]; 7.31 [2x], 33, 34; 8.4; 11.32; 14.10), 3 times in 2 Corinthians (1.12; 5.19; 7.10), and 3 times in Galatians (4.3; 6.14[2x]). Cf. H. Balz, 'KOOPOC;', EDNT 1:310. 7. So also Hermann Sasse, 'KOOPOC;', TDNT 3:884. Many commentators take the term here to refer more narrowly to humanity or humanity and angelic beings. 8. Most scholars treat KOOPO; in 1 Cor. 8.4 as a reference to the physical world. If, however, the phrase ou6ei> elbcxiXnv kv KOAPCJ) is a Corinthian slogan, as most commentators believe, and if, further, ou6ev is understood as a predicate ('an idol is nothing in the world'), rather than as an attributive ('there is no idol in the world'), then the sense of the phrase would more naturally be something like 'an idol is of no consequence in the nature of things'. This seems to me to be more in line with the Corinthians' position. Conversely, for either Paul or the Corinthians to say 'there is no idol in the created world', when the ancient world was chock full of them and when they actually meant 'there are no other gods in the created world' strikes me as somewhat odd. Most scholars argue for an attributive use of ou6ev because of the parallel clause ouSetc; Geo; el PF] €*IQ, in which oi>6ei<; is clearly used attributively. They overlook the fact that Paul is not freely constructing a parallelism here, but rather quoting the Corinthians, on the one hand, and

Cosmology

92

and New Testament

Theology

interest for this study, t h o s e o c c u r r e n c e s w h e r e t h e t e r m is u s e d in a sociological s e n s e to d e n o t e t h e structure a n d w o r k i n g s o f h u m a n society (1 Cor. 7 . 3 1 , 3 3 , 3 4 ; G a l . 6.14) o r in a n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l sense to d e n o t e t h e s u m o f h u m a n i t y (all other o c c u r r e n c e s ) a r e r e l e v a n t o n l y t o t h e extent that t h e y c a n b e s h o w n t o be something m o r e than well-established synecdochal extensions of the term. Similar c a v e a t s o b t a i n for o t h e r ' c o s m o l o g i c a l ' t e r m s s u c h a s yr\

oupavoc;

a n d all the m o r e for t e r m s s u c h as oiKOtyievri* w h i c h is often discussed b e c a u s e o f its p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p t o KOO\IOQ. T h e m e r e p r e s e n c e o f c o s m o l o g i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y in a g i v e n text d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y indicate that P a u l is really describing the physical world. A final d a n g e r i n v o l v e s t h e p a l p a b l e b l u r r i n g o f t h e lines b e t w e e n c o s m o l o g y a n d e s c h a t o l o g y in m a n y scholarly d i s c u s s i o n s o f N e w T e s t a m e n t c o s m o l o g y . T h e s e often t a k e u p t o p i c s s u c h as t w o - a g e d u a l i s m o r t e r m s s u c h a s aloSv, for 9

e x a m p l e . T h i s is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e s i n c e c o s m o l o g y a n d e s c h a t o l o g y s o clearly i m p i n g e u p o n e a c h o t h e r in early J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c texts. Still, w h i l e it is certainly t r u e that a p o c a l y p t i c e s c h a t o l o g y c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t a solid g r a s p o f early J e w i s h c o s m o l o g y , s i n c e t h e former follows from certain funda m e n t a l beliefs p r e s u p p o s e d in t h e latter (e.g. that G o d c r e a t e d t h e w o r l d ) , o n e w o u l d b e h a r d p r e s s e d t o c o n v i n c i n g l y a r g u e t h e r e v e r s e . C o s m o l o g y , in other w o r d s , is foundational t o eschatology. T h i s is n o t to d e n y that P a u l ' s c o s m o l ogy, like t h e rest o f h i s theology, e x p r e s s e s itself w i t h i n a n a p o c a l y p t i c narrative structure that h a s a distinctly e s c h a t o l o g i c a l f o c u s .

10

If Heilsgeschichte

is the

story o f G o d p u r s u i n g a n d attaining h i s p u r p o s e s w i t h i n history, t h e c o s m o s is t h e s t a g e o n w h i c h t h e story is a c t e d out. N e v e r t h e l e s s , p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e w e are a t t e m p t i n g to isolate t h e specific c o n t r i b u t i o n o f c o s m o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s to P a u l ' s theology, w e m u s t strive, at least initially, to delineate t h e s e w i t h o u t reference t o e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s a n d t e r m s . It is, however, important t o r e m e m b e r that Paul n o w h e r e discusses his c o s m o l o g y p e r se. It surfaces h e r e a n d there in his treatment o f other topics, but it is m o r e p r e s u p p o s e d than articulated. It is, a b o v e all, part o f the w a r p a n d w o o f o f t h e biblical m e t a n a r r a u v e w h i c h shapes his thinking. This m e a n s that the best w a y to describe P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g y is in t e r m s o f its narrative flow. That is j u s t as well since considerations o f space d o not a l l o w for an exhaustive exegesis o f all texts that i m p i n g e o n t h e topic o f c o s m o l o g y in P a u l ' s early letters. Instead w e will

alluding to the Shema, on the other (on which, see below), so that the nuance of ouoev/ouoelt; is predetermined in each case by the quoted pre-text rather than the present context. 9. Cf. R. Bultmann's treatment of the term Koqicx; in Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 9th edn (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1984), pp. 254-60, esp. 256-7, where Bultmann virtually equates the term with alcov and perceives Koojicx; as per se a negative theological concept denoting ruin. For a critique cf. Adams, Constructing the World, pp. 13-18. 10. I am in general agreement with J. C. Beker's thesis that Paul's theology is essentially apocalyptic in nature. Cf. Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought (Philadel phia: Fortress, 1980), esp. pp. 135-81.

6. Romans,

Corinthians,

93

Galatians

p r o c e e d thematically, discussing first o f all P a u l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e structure o f t h e w o r l d , then describing in b r o a d strokes w h a t I will call P a u l ' s ' c o s m o l o g i cal n a r r a t i v e ' a n d assessing its i m p a c t o n P a u l ' s t h e o l o g y a l o n g t h e way. W e c a n n o t s a y w i t h a n y p r e c i s i o n h o w P a u l u n d e r s t o o d t h e structure o f t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . A s a n E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n J e w o f t h e first c e n t u r y CE, h e w o u l d likely h a v e b e e n e x p o s e d t o O T , H e l l e n i s t i c a n d M e s o p o t a m i a n c o s m o l o g i e s , at t h e v e r y least, a n d h i s c o n c e p t o f t h e c o s m o s m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n less p r e c i s e t h a n that o f m o d e r n W e s t e r n e r s . T h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e that t h e r e w a s n o unified c o s m o l o g y in early J u d a i s m .

11

We can nonetheless make

a few b r o a d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g y . In Phil. 2.11 h e s p e a k s o f t h r e e distinct r e a l m s w h i c h a r e i n h a b i t e d b y sentient b e i n g s : t h e h e a v e n l y , t h e earthly a n d t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n (enoupaviGW

Kai

eiuyeicov

Kai KataxGoviwv).

T h i s is, o f c o u r s e , v e r y m u c h in line w i t h t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t c o n c e p t i o n o f h e a v e n as t h e d w e l l i n g p l a c e o f t h e a n g e l s , earth as t h e habitat o f t h e living, a n d 1 2

S h e o l a s t h e r e a l m o f t h e d e a d . 1 Cor. 15.40 w o u l d s e e m t o confirm that P a u l t h i n k s o f t h e s e as real p l a c e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y different p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a n d therefore r e q u i r i n g different b o d i e s : h e a v e n l y b o d i e s (ooS|iaTa for t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m a n d earthly b o d i e s (oi^xaza realm.

13

CTOupavaa)

eTTiyeia) for t h e earthly

P a u l also s p e a k s in 2 Cor. 12.2-3 o f b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e ' t h i r d

h e a v e n ' , b u t it is p r o b a b l y b e s t n o t t o r e g a r d this as p r o o f that P a u l s h a r e d t h e a p o c a l y p t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f a stratified h e a v e n .

14

H e may be doing nothing more

11. The competing cosmologies of the ancient world left their mark on the calendrical con troversies that characterized much of early Judaism (on which, see below). Cf. R. Beckwith, Calendar and Chronology, Jewish and Christian: Biblical, Intertestamental and Patristic Studies (Leiden: Brill, 2001), pp. 98-110. Even individuals may not have conceptualized the universe in terms of a unified cosmology. Philo, for instance, seems to have worked at various points with different cosmological models. Cf. A. Scriba, 'Welt/Weltanschauung/Weltbild IV.4 Neues Testa ment', TRE 35: 582-3. 12. Cf. J. Guhrt, 'Earth', NIDNTT 1:523. 13. Although commentators generally assume that o c ^ i a r a €Troupdvia in 1 Cor. 15.40 refers exclusively to the sun, moon and stars mentioned in 1 Cor. 15.41 due to the link established by 6o£a in both verses, I am inclined to see a reference to the resurrection bodies of believers and to view 1 Cor. 15.41 as a parenthetical analogy establishing the fact that there are different levels of luminosity - the exact sense of the term bdcpi here is a matter of much discussion - between the heavenly lights. The following considerations lead me to question the scholarly consensus here: (1) the analogy makes the most sense in the context of an argument concerning the nature of resur rection bodies when interpreted against the background of Dan. 12.2-3, one of the few explicit OT references to the resurrection of the dead, in which the resurrected righteous are compared to stars. Cf. R. Hays, First Corinthians (Interpretation; Louisville: John Knox, 1997), p. 271. (2) The argu ment in 1 Cor. 15.42-44 continues to highlight the contrast between the pre- and post-resurrection body (OWjia is the subject of the passive verbs in 1 Cor. 15.42-43, as 1 Cor. 15.44 makes clear) and it is explicitly affirmed that the latter is 'raised in glory' (cf. 1 Cor. 15.43: €y€ip€Tttl kv 6o£tj). (3) Those belonging to Christ are referred to as 'the heavenly ones ( o l €TTOi)pdviOl) in 1 Cor. 15.48 and are explicitly said to bear the image of 'the heavenly one' ( T O O €iroupaviou). 14. A seven-tiered heaven is more frequent in Jewish and early Christian apocalyptic literature

94

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

t h a n b o r r o w i n g t h e l a n g u a g e o f v i s i o n a r y transport to e m b e l l i s h h i s description o f h i s m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . T h u s , t h e f e w clues that P a u l g i v e s u s lead t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n that h i s i m a g e o f t h e c o s m o s w a s s h a p e d b y t h e O T c o n c e p t i o n o f a tripartite u n i v e r s e . M o r e w e c a n n o t s a y w i t h a n y d e g r e e o f certainty. W e turn n o w t o P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l narrative, w h i c h c a n b e a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s o f n i n e tenets I b e l i e v e P a u l w o u l d h a v e affirmed: 1. God created

the cosmos.

P a u l a d h e r e s , o f c o u r s e , t o t h e fundamental truth

o f t h e O T that G o d m a d e ' t h e h e a v e n s a n d t h e e a r t h ' ( p « m m e r i s m d e n o t i n g t h e entire u n i v e r s e

15

CO

H), a Semitic

(cf. G e n . 1.1; 14.19, 2 2 ; E x o d . 2 0 . 1 1 ;

3 1 . 1 7 ; 2 K g s 19.15; 2 C h r o n . 2 . 1 2 ; P s s . 115.5; 121.2; 124.8; 1 3 4 . 3 ; 146.6; Isa. 3 7 . 1 6 ; Jer. 3 2 . 1 7 ) . H e d e s c r i b e s G o d a s t h e ' c r e a t o r ' ( R o m . 1.25; s e e also E p h . 3.9), a n d asserts i n c r e d a l s t a t e m e n t s that ' a l l t h i n g s a r e from h i m ' ( R o m . 11.36: &; a u x o O . . . t a n a v t a ; 1 C o r . 8.6: 4£ o u t a n a v t a ) , w i t h t a mvxa

serving a s

the functional e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e m e r i s m ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' (cf. A c t s 17.24; C o l . 1.16). T h e e£ a u t o O / k£ oft construction contrasts w i t h Hellenistic formula 16

tions that c o m b i n e e£ w i t h p r e v i o u s l y existing m a t t e r (i5A,r|). P a u l t h e r e b y implicitly affirms creatio

ex nihilo, t h u s aligning h i m s e l f w i t h a n established

tenet o f early J e w i s h theology, e s p e c i a l l y in Hellenistic J e w i s h circles (cf. e.g. 2 M a c e . 7 . 2 8 ; P h i l o , Spec. Leg. 4 . 1 8 7 ) .

17

T h i s doctrine is also p r e s u p p o s e d in

P a u l ' s characterization o f G o d in 2 Cor. 4 . 6 a s ' t h e o n e w h o s a y s "light shall shine forth o u t o f d a r k n e s s " ' (6

eluoSv

4K

O K O T O I X ;

Aa|ii|/ei), a n d it is

explicitly affirmed in R o m . 4 . 1 7 w h e r e h e describes G o d a s t h e o n e w h o 'calls things n o t existing into e x i s t e n c e ' (KaAoOviog x a |if) o i r a ax; o v x a ) . 2 . Christ is the agent of creation

of the cosmos.

I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f the issue

o f m e a t that h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n offered to idols ( 1 Cor. 8 . 1 - 1 1 . 1 ) P a u l ascribes to Christ a u n i q u e r o l e in t h e creation o f t h e w o r l d . I n 1 Cor. 8.4 h e first o f all e x p r e s s e s h i s g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e C o r i n t h i a n s that ' a n idol is o f n o c o n s e q u e n c e in t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s ' (cf. n . 8) a n d that ' t h e r e is n o G o d b u t o n e ' , t h e central affirmation o f J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m . T h e r e m a y b e other ' s o - c a l l e d g o d s ' , h e c o n c e d e s in 1 Cor. 8.5, ' b u t ' h e c o n t i n u e s in 1 Cor. 8.6, ' f o r u s there is o n e G o d t h e F a t h e r (€i<;

0€O<;

6 n c m p ) , from w h o m all t h i n g s exist, a n d w e exist

for h i m , and o n e L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t ( e l g KUpux; Trjooug XpioxoQ),

through

w h o m all things exist, a n d w e exist t h r o u g h h i m ' . I n this d r a m a t i c christological

(cf. Apoc. Mos. 35.2; Apoc. Ab. 19.4; 2 En. [shorter recension] 20.1; Ascen. Isa. 9.1), but the first Greek recension of T. Levi 2-3 (second century BCE) describes a three-tiered heaven. Cf. A. Y. Collins, Cosmology and Eschatology in Jewish and Christian Apocalypticism (Leiden: Brill, 2000), p. 26. The 'third heaven' and 'paradise' designate the same, rather than different levels of heaven (cf. 2 En. 8.1; Apoc. Mos. 37.5). The repetition is stylistic. 15. Cf. G. J. Wenham, Genesis 1-15 (WBC 1; Milton Keynes: Word, 1987), p. 15. 16. Cf.W.Schr^e I^ersteBriefandieKorinther(lKor6J2-llJ6 (EKKVH72;Solothurn; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Benzinger; Neukirchener, 1995), p. 242; E. Schnabel, Der erste Brief des Paulus an die Korinther (HTA; Wuppertal; Giessen: Brockhaus; Brunnen, 2006), p. 448. 17. Cf. J. D. G. Dunn, Romans 1-$ (WBC 38A; Dallas: Word, 1988), p. 218. t

6. Romans, modification o f t h e S h e m a

1 8

Corinthians,

Galatians

95

(Deut. 6.4: ' H e a r , O Israel, t h e L o r d y o u r G o d is

o n e L o r d ' [cbcoue IoparjA, Kupiog 6 Geoq f)p(3v KUpiog eiQ e a u v ] ) , P a u l h a s creatively a s s i g n e d the t e r m s Qe6<; a n d Kupux;, w h i c h in their original c o n t e x t h a d o n e a n d t h e s a m e referent, to t w o separate referents: 0€O<; n o w refers to 19

G o d t h e F a t h e r a n d KUpiog n o w refers to C h r i s t . P a u l ' s h i g h C h r i s t o l o g y (cf. R o m . 9.5; Phil. 2.6-11) d e m a n d e d that r o o m b e m a d e for Christ w i t h i n t h e O T ' s definitive s t a t e m e n t o f G o d ' s fundamental unity. T h i s h a s , o f c o u r s e , u n a v o i d a b l e i m p l i c a t i o n s for the doctrine o f G o d as creator. P a u l is fully a w a r e o f these a n d , i n d e e d , is e a g e r to exploit t h e m : G o d the F a t h e r r e m a i n s t h e effective c a u s e o f c r e a t i o n (e£ o u ) , b u t Christ h a s b e c o m e the a g e n t b y m e a n s o f w h o m ( 8 i ' o u ) G o d b r i n g s e v e r y t h i n g into existence. 3 . God created

the cosmos

in order to bring glory to himself. T h i s O T p e r

s p e c t i v e (cf. N u m . 1 4 . 2 1 ; P s s . 5 7 . 6 ; 7 2 . 1 8 - 1 9 ; H a b . 2.14) is s h a r e d b y P a u l . R o m . 11.36a n o t o n l y d e s c r i b e s G o d as t h e effective c a u s e a n d m e d i a t o r o f creation ( h e r e P a u l is stressing the u n i t y o f G o d ' s p u r p o s e s a n d d o e s n o t delin e a t e s e p a r a t e roles for G o d a n d Christ in creation), b u t also as its u l t i m a t e g o a l : ' A l l t h i n g s exist from a n d t h r o u g h a n d for h i m ' (e£ a u i o u Kal 5 i ' a u t o O Kal ei<; ambv

t a i r a i / t a ) . T h a t this is to b e u n d e r s t o o d in t e r m s o f G o d ' s u l t i m a t e

g l o r y is m a d e clear b y t h e d o x o l o g y that follows in R o m . 11.36b: ' T o h i m b e g l o r y forever, a m e n ' . T h a t P a u l p e r c e i v e s the g o a l o f creation to b e the g l o r y o f G o d is also implicit in R o m . 1.20-25. I n his i n d i c t m e n t o f h u m a n i t y d u e to its d i s r e g a r d for t h e revelation o f G o d in n a t u r e , P a u l clearly a s s u m e s , on t h e b a s i s o f his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e O T creation a c c o u n t ,

20

that the w o r l d w a s d e s i g n e d

to facilitate t h e w o r s h i p o f G o d . Indeed, h e states a s m u c h t h r e e t i m e s in t h e c o u r s e o f this short p a s s a g e . First, in R o m . 1.20-21 h e a r g u e s that h u m a n b e i n g s are w i t h o u t e x c u s e b e c a u s e a l t h o u g h creation reveals G o d ' s i n c o m p a r a b l e glory, this did n o t b r i n g a b o u t the a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e : ' A l t h o u g h t h e y k n e w G o d , t h e y n e i t h e r glorified h i m as G o d nor t h a n k e d h i m ' (yvovzeq

t o v 0 € o v oi>X Q<;

Qebv 4 o o £ a o a v r\ n u x a p i o i r i o a v ' ) . S e c o n d , in R o m . 1.23 P a u l c h a r g e s h u m a n ity w i t h ' e x c h a n g i n g t h e g l o r y o f t h e incorruptible G o d ' ( f } M a £ a v xv\v 6 o £ a v xoO ac|)0apTOU OeoO) for i m a g e s o f p e o p l e a n d v a r i o u s a n i m a l s . T h u s the glory that w a s rightly G o d ' s w a s offered t o idols. T h i r d , P a u l reiterates his i n d i c t m e n t a g a i n s t idolatry in R o m . 1.25, d e c l a r i n g that h u m a n b e i n g s e x c h a n g e d truth for a lie and ' w o r s h i p p e d and s e r v e d c r e a t e d t h i n g s r a t h e r t h a n t h e c r e a t o r ' ( e o e p a o 0 r ) o a v Kal eAxfopeuoav ifj K t i o e i mpa

t o v K i i o a v t a ) . Together

t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s r e v e a l P a u l ' s c o n v i c t i o n that t h e w o r l d w a s c r e a t e d w i t h a specific p u r p o s e : to direct t h e m i n d s and hearts o f h u m a n b e i n g s to their creator s o that t h e y m i g h t w o r s h i p and glorify h i m .

18. So also Schnabel, Korinther, p. 449. 19. So also recently G. D. Fee, Pauline Christology: An Exegetical-Theological Study (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2007), p. 90. 20. Cf. Adams, Constructing the World, pp. 153-4.

Cosmology

96

4 . The cosmos aware

imparts

of their obligation

and New Testament

enough

information

to worship

Theology

to human beings

to make

them

God. P a u l a r g u e s in R o m . 1.20-25 that

e v e n t h e G e n t i l e s , w h o d o n o t p o s s e s s t h e Torah, c a n n o t c l a i m i g n o r a n c e w i t h r e g a r d t o this o b l i g a t i o n since ' w h a t c a n b e k n o w n a b o u t G o d (yvovzeQ 060V)

21

xov

is m a n i f e s t a m o n g t h e m ' ( R o m . 1.19). P a u l e x p l a i n s w h a t h e m e a n s

m o r e p r e c i s e l y in R o m . 1.20a: ' t h e u n s e e n things o f G o d , that i s , his eternal p o w e r a n d deity, h a v e b e e n s e e n a n d u n d e r s t o o d b y m e a n s o f t h e t h i n g s h e h a s m a d e from t h e creation o f t h e w o r l d ' . T h o u g h t h e l a n g u a g e P a u l e m p l o y s h e r e h a s s t r o n g affinities w i t h Stoic t h o u g h t , a n y G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l influence 22

is p r o b a b l y m e d i a t e d v i a t h e J e w i s h w i s d o m tradition (cf. e s p . W i s . 1 3 . 3 - 9 ) .

It is less likely that P a u l is directly ' a p p r o p r i a t i n g ] t h e Stoic n o t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d ' s i n h e r e n t rationality a n d o r d e r l i n e s s ' .

23

I n d e e d , t h e v e r y fact that h e u s e s

t h e p h r a s e ' f r o m t h e creation o f t h e w o r l d ' (diro KXioeox; KOO(iou) p o i n t s u p a crucial difference o v e r against the Stoic c o n c e p t o f a n eternally existing, self-sustaining c o s m o s . N e i t h e r is P a u l a r g u i n g that creation i m p a r t s e x h a u s tive o r e v e n s a v i n g k n o w l e d g e o f G o d .

2 4

A n d though commentators generally

u n d e r s t a n d ' t h e u n s e e n things o f G o d ' (xa d o p a x a a u x o u ) t o refer to G o d ' s 25

'invisible a t t r i b u t e s ' , 1 a m n o t c o n v i n c e d that P a u l h a s in m i n d a list o f divine characteristics in t h e abstract, o f t h e sort o n e c o m m o n l y finds in systematic t h e o l o g i e s . Rather, P a u l delimits t h e s c o p e o f xa d o p a x a a u x o u b y d e s c r i b i n g it as ' h i s eternal p o w e r a n d d e i t y ' (f) dt8io<; a u x o u 5uva|ii<; Kai Oeioxr)*;). P e r h a p s 8uvap,i<; serves a s a n e x a m p l e o f o n e specific attribute w h i l e

26

0€i6xr|<;

functions a s a catch-all w o r d d e n o t i n g all other p o s s i b l e d i v i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

27

H o w e v e r , t h e possibility that t h e d o u b l e t is a h e n d i a d y s s h o u l d a l s o b e consid ered, in w h i c h c a s e t h e s e c o n d t e r m s h o u l d b e v i e w e d a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e 28

first.

If s o , t h e n P a u l w o u l d b e referring t o ' t h e eternal p o w e r o f h i s d e i t y ' , t h e

i m p l i c a t i o n b e i n g that P a u l is n o t t h i n k i n g o f particular attributes o f G o d at all, b u t r a t h e r o f G o d ' s i n e x h a u s t i b l e p o w e r a n d i n e s t i m a b l e w o r t h . T h u s w e find o u r s e l v e s at t h e v e r y h e a r t o f t h e O T c o n c e p t o f g l o r y a n d v e r y c l o s e i n d e e d to O T traditions that discern in creation a p r o f o u n d r e v e l a t o r y m o m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o that v e r y g l o r y o f G o d (cf. P s s . 8 . 1 , 5 ; 19.1-6; 104 e s p . v. 3 1 ) .

21. E. Kasemann, An die Romer (HNT 8a; 2nd edn; Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1974), p. 35, argues convincingly for this sense of the phrase. 22. Cf. Dunn, Romans 1-8, pp. 57-8. 23. So Adams, Constructing the World, p. 163. 24. Cf. T. Schreiner, Romans (ECNT; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), pp. 85-6. 25. Cf. e.g. D. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 19%), p. 104. 26. C. K. Barrett, The Epistle to the Romans (HNTC; New York: Harper & Row, 1957), p. 35, renders the doublet similarly: 'his eternal power, his very Godhead'. 27. Similarly J. A. Fitzmyer, Romans (AB 33; New York: Doubleday, 1993), p. 280. 28. Cf. K. Haacker, Der Brief des Paulus an die Romer (THKNT 6; Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1999), p. 49.

6. Romans,

5. There is a divinely humanity

and the cosmos.

Corinthians,

ordained

97

Galatians

hierarchy

of relationships

between

God,

It is h a r d to k n o w w h a t P a u l m a d e o f G r e e k a n d 29

Hellenistic c o n c e p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e aesthetics o f t h e u n i v e r s e . A s w e s a w a b o v e , h i s l a n g u a g e b e t r a y s familiarity w i t h t h e m at t i m e s , b u t h e d o e s n o t i n d u l g e in t h e abstract c o s m o l o g i c a l speculation characteristic o f t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l tradition. H e d o e s n o t e x p o u n d , like his y o u n g e r c o n t e m p o r a r y P h i l o , o n t h e rationality o f d e s i g n (cf. Opif

2 0 - 2 5 ) , b e a u t y (cf. Praem.

41-42)

a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l perfection (cf. Opif. 13-14; Aet. 2 6 ) o f t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d , n o r d o e s h e theorize, like Plato, a b o u t t h e organic c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e c o s m o s a n d h u m a n b e i n g s (cf. Tim. 4 4 d - 4 5 b ) o r b e t w e e n t h e c o s m o s a n d h u m a n society (cf. Gorg. 5 0 8 a ) . T h e closest P a u l c o m e s t o that sort o f s p e c u l a tion is in 1 Cor. 14.10, w h e r e h e d r a w s c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n v a r i o u s s o u n d s a n d l a n g u a g e s , a n d in 1 Cor. 15.35-44, w h e r e h e c o m p a r e s t h e resurrection b o d y to s e e d s , v a r i o u s k i n d s o f flesh, a n d t h e luminosity o f h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , respectively. N o t h i n g in P a u l ' s a r g u m e n t in either p a s s a g e , h o w e v e r , s u g g e s t s that h e r e g a r d s t h e s e as a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n helpful a n a l o g i e s . P e r h a p s P a u l ' s u n i q u e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l implications o f t h e Fall ( s e e b e l o w ) p r e c l u d e d idealized speculation a b o u t such c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s .

30

In a n y c a s e ,

P a u l d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e t h e o r d e r o f t h e c o s m o s in t e r m s o f its internal structural cohesion. O n e p a s s a g e , h o w e v e r , y i e l d s s o m e e v i d e n c e , albeit indirect, that P a u l c o n c e i v e d o f a divinely o r d a i n e d h i e r a r c h y o f relationships as a part o f t h e c r e a t e d order. W e h a v e a l r e a d y h a d o c c a s i o n t o m e n t i o n R o m . 1.25, w h e r e P a u l m a i n tains that h u m a n i t y offered w o r s h i p t o created b e i n g s instead o f G o d , t o w h o m it w a s rightfully d u e ; ' t h e y w o r s h i p p e d a n d s e r v e d t h e creation r a t h e r t h a n t h e c r e a t o r ' (koefiaoQryoav

Kal kXixpewav

xf\

K T L O € L

irapa t o v K i i o a v i a ) . P a u l

is p r o b a b l y c o n s c i o u s l y alluding to D e u t . 4 . 1 9 a h e r e :

31

' D o n o t l o o k u p at t h e

h e a v e n s and, s e e i n g t h e sun, m o o n , a n d stars, t h e entire host o f h e a v e n , b o w d o w n a n d s e r v e t h e m . . . ' (LXX: iTpooKUViioqg amoiQ

Kal A a i p c u o r i g a u x o l g ) .

If s o , P a u l m a y also h a v e D e u t . 4 . 1 9 b in m i n d : ' . . . all the things [i.e. t h e sun, m o o n a n d stars] w h i c h t h e L o r d y o u r G o d h a s assigned

(or " a l l o t t e d " ; M T :

p ^ n , LXX: aiTOvepa)) t o all t h e p e o p l e s e v e r y w h e r e u n d e r h e a v e n ' . Clearly,

29. Adams, Constructing the World, pp. 64-7, identifies five features of Hellenistic cosmol ogy that would have enjoyed widespread cultural dissemination and affirmation: (1) the cosmos is characterized by order; (2) the cosmos is marked by unity; (3) the cosmos is an object of beauty; (4) human beings are related to the cosmos as microcosm to macrocosm; (5) the cosmos is an object of praise. Paul certainly would have agreed with (1) and (2), though he would have modified them to account for the effects of sin. There is no reason to think he would have objected to (3), though he nowhere takes up the topic. His strong allegiance to Jewish monotheism would probably have led him to modify (4) and (5) to avoid their pantheistic presuppositions. See below. 30. Cf. Kasemann, Romer, pp. 35-6. 31. Cf. C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans (ICC; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1975), 1:124.

Cosmology

98

and New Testament

Theology

D e u t . 4 . 1 9 e n v i s i o n s a h i e r a r c h y in w h i c h h u m a n i t y w o r s h i p s G o d a n d t h e c o s m o s s e r v e s h u m a n i t y , particularly b y e n a b l i n g h u m a n i t y to w o r s h i p G o d properly. T h i s b e c o m e s clear w h e n w e r e m e m b e r that from a n O T cultic per spective t h e h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s c o u l d b e w r o n g l y u s e d a s objects o f w o r s h i p , t h e v e r y t h i n g p r o h i b i t e d in D e u t . 4 . 1 9 , o r rightly u s e d to r e g u l a t e t h e p r o p e r t i m e s for t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e o n e t r u e G o d .

3 2

I f this t h e o l o g y o f w o r s h i p forms

t h e b a c k g r o u n d for P a u l ' s deliberations in R o m . 1.20-25, t h e n h e v i e w s idolatry, 33

w h i c h h e h a s in v i e w h e r e (cf. R o m . 1.23), n o t m e r e l y as a d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e C r e a t o r from h i s rightful p o s i t i o n at t h e p i n n a c l e o f t h e h i e r a r c h y o f creation, b u t as a c o m p l e t e i n v e r s i o n o f its p r o p e r order. P a u l also alludes to t h e s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e o f t h e c o s m o s w i t h respect to humanity in R o m . 8.20.

34

In a rather cryptic remark h e states that 'creation

w a s subjected to futility' (if) yap | i a r a i 6 i ; r | T i f) the Fall.

35

B y 'creation'

(KTLOLC;)

bitezayr\) b e c a u s e o f

KTLOLC;

P a u l m e a n s t h e entire s u b h u m a n creation,

essentially t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e m o d e r n c o n c e p t o f ' n a t u r e ' .

36

T h e futility that

P a u l h a s in m i n d s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e c o n s t r u e d as c r e a t i o n ' s 'frustration o f n o t b e i n g a b l e p r o p e r l y to fulfill t h e p u r p o s e o f its e x i s t e n c e ' .

37

S i n c e t h e futility o f

creation is r e l a t e d to its ' b o n d a g e to d e c a y ' in R o m . 8 . 2 1 , it s e e m s likely that P a u l u n d e r s t a n d s t h e p u r p o s e that c r e a t i o n w a s originally o r d a i n e d b y G o d t o fulfil t o h a v e b e e n that o f sustaining life, especially h u m a n life, so that h u m a n ity, in turn, c o u l d fulfil its r o l e w i t h respect t o G o d . 6. Sin has brought about the disruption relationships

between

God

t

humanity

of the divinely

and the cosmos.

ordained

hierarchy

of

Paul does not comment

o n t h e origin o f sin, e x c e p t t o a c k n o w l e d g e in R o m . 5.12 that it ' e n t e r e d t h e

32. The reference to the sun, moon and stars being allotted to humanity calls to mind Gen. 1.14 which emphasizes that the heavenly luminaries were created not only to give light, but also for the determination of 'seasons, days and years' (D^tfl nwb') D'HIttD). Early Jewish sources understood these terms to refer to the regulation of the calendar in order to insure that weekly Sabbaths ('days'), yearly festivals ('seasons'), and Sabbath and Jubilee years ('years') were held at the proper time. Cf. e.g. 1QS 1.13-15; 1 En. 82.7-10; Jub. 2.8-10; also Wenham, Genesis 1-15, p. 23; James C. VanderKam, Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Measuring Time (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 3-4. 33. Paul's description of idols in Rom. 1.23 contains allusions to Deut. 4.16-18. 34. In the discussion of Rom. 8.20 here and of Rom. 8.18-22 below, I am drawing on my analysis of the passage in J. White, Die Erstlingsgabe im Neuen Testament (TANZ 45; Tubingen: Francke, 2007), pp. 171-S2. 35. It is generally agreed that Paul is interacting with Gen. 3.17-19 here. Cf. the references in White, Erstlingsgabe, p. 177, n. 561; as well as Adams, Constructing the World, p. 174; and H. A. Hahne, The Corruption and Redemption of Creation: Nature in Romans 8:19-22 and Jewish Apocalyptic Literature (LBS; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2006), p. 189. Hahne's study was not yet available to me when I wrote my analysis of Rom. 8.18-22 in Erstlingsgabe. I find myself in substantial agreement with his exegesis throughout 36. Cf. Hahne, Corruption, p. 180. 37. Cranfield,/tomo/is, 1:413.

6. Romans,

Corinthians,

Galatians

w o r l d t h r o u g h o n e m a n ' (81' h/OQ dvOpoiiTou f| d | i a p t i a eiQ xbv KOO\IOV kfkv),

99

elof|

t h e r e b y accepting its p r e s e n c e as a n established fact o f t h e postlapsarian

w o r l d . T h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f sin into the w o r l d h a s d i s r u p t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n i t y is clearly o n e o f P a u l ' s m a j o r t h e m e s ( a n d i n d e e d o f t h e B i b l e as a w h o l e ) . I will n o t d i s c u s s it h e r e e x c e p t t o n o t e that from P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , sin seriously interferes w i t h t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f G o d ' s p u r p o s e in c r e a t i n g t h e w o r l d , w h i c h a s w e n o t e d in tenet # 3 i n v o l v e d b r i n g i n g g l o r y t o himself. T h i s h e i n t e n d e d t o a c c o m p l i s h b y i m p a r t i n g h i s o w n g l o r y t o h u m a n i t y (cf. R o m . 8 . 1 8 , 2 1 ) a n d t h e r e b y m u l t i p l y i n g it (cf. R o m . 8.29-30), b u t t h e universality o f h u m a n sin calls this p l a n into q u e s t i o n : ' A l l h a v e s i n n e d a n d fall short o f t h e g l o r y o f G o d ' ( R o m . 3.23). A s w e w i l l s e e , P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e c o n c l u d e s b y p r o v i d i n g a n a n s w e r t o this theodicy. Paul's m o s t unique contribution to N T cosmology, however, surfaces in 38

R o m . 8.18-22. 1 noted the positive presuppositions regarding the role of the c o s m o s in t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r t h a t u n d e r g i r d P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t in R o m . 8.20 a b o v e , b u t h i s c o n c e r n i n t h e l a r g e r p a s s a g e , to w h i c h w e n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n , is t o h i g h l i g h t t h e n e g a t i v e effect t h a t sin h a s h a d o n t h e c o s m o s . I n R o m . 8.18 P a u l states h i s t h e s i s : B e l i e v e r s ' p r e s e n t sufferings a r e insignificant c o m p a r e d t o t h e i r future glory. I u n d e r s t a n d R o m . 8 . 1 9 - 2 5 a s t h e first o f t h r e e a r g u m e n t s s u p p o r t i n g t h i s t h e s i s . It is d e s i g n e d t o s h o w t h e f u n d a m e n t a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f b o t h c r e a t i o n ( R o m . 8 . 1 9 - 2 2 ) a n d b e l i e v e r s ( R o m . 8 . 2 3 - 2 5 ) t o t h e future g l o r y t h a t a w a i t s t h e b e l i e v e r s . I n R o m . 8.19, a b r i e f b u t c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e t h a t u t i l i z e s t h r e e different figures o f s p e e c h ( p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , e n a l l a g e a n d p l e o n a s m ) , P a u l e x p r e s s e s h i s c o n v i c t i o n that ' t h e e a g e r e x p e c t a t i o n o f c r e a t i o n e a g e r l y a w a i t s t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e s o n s o f G o d ' (f) yap d i r o i c a p a S o K i a tfjg KTLO€G)<;

rf)v diTOKdAui|/LV T ( 3 v u l ( 3 v

T O O

OeoO dTT6K5€^6T(xL). T h e r e a s o n

t h a t P a u l g i v e s for c r e a t i o n ' s a n t i c i p a t i o n is, as w e s a w a b o v e , t h a t ' c r e a t i o n w a s s u b j e c t e d t o futility' ( R o m . 8.20) a n d finds itself in ' b o n d a g e t o d e c a y ' ( R o m . 8.21), s o t h a t it c a n n o l o n g e r fulfil its G o d - g i v e n p u r p o s e , t h a t o f s u s t a i n i n g ( h u m a n ) life, a p e r s p e c t i v e h e m a y h a v e g l e a n e d from Isa. 2 4 . 1 - 6 .

3 9

T h i s is t r u e b e c a u s e sin h a s e n t e r e d t h e w o r l d , b r i n g i n g a b o u t d e a t h (cf. R o m . 5 . 1 2 ; 8.10). P a u l is q u i c k t o a d d in R o m . 8 . 2 0 b t h a t c r e a t i o n d i d n o t w i l l i n g l y r e l i n q u i s h its G o d - o r d a i n e d t a s k , b u t w a s c o n s t r a i n e d t o d o s o b y G o d h i m s e l f (ou% eKoOoa aXXa 8i<x x o v i m o i d ^ a v i a ) . P a u l is a l l u d i n g , o f c o u r s e , t o G o d ' s curse on the ground in Gen. 3.17, but h e adds a note of h o p e ( R o m . 8.20b: e A m 5 i ) n o t p r e s e n t in t h e G e n e s i s a c c o u n t : G o d s u b j e c t e d c r e a t i o n t o futil-

38. W. Bindemann, Die Hoffnung der Schopfung: Romer 8,18-27 und die Frage nach einer Theologie der Befreiung von Mensch und Natur (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1983), p. 175, notes that, although Paul draws on various apocalyptic motifs in this passage, it is, taken as a whole, without parallel. 39. Cf. Hahne, Corruption, p. 194.

Cosmology

100

and New Testament

Theology

ity w i t h a v i e w t o w a r d h e r fixture r e s t o r a t i o n w h e n c r e a t i o n w i l l b e l i b e r a t e d from

t h e b o n d a g e s h e p r e s e n t l y e n d u r e s ( R o m . 8.21). U n t i l t h e n , h o w e v e r ,

t h e e n t i r e c r e a t i o n ' g r o a n s a n d suffers b i r t h p a n g s ' ( R o m . 8 . 2 3 : Kal o\)V(d5ivei).

OUOTEVACEI

Here Paul uses a combination of O T a n d Jewish apocalyptic

m e t a p h o r s t o intensify t h e s e n s e o f a n t i c i p a t i o n h e h a s a l r e a d y a s c r i b e d t o c r e a t i o n in R o m . 8 . 1 9 . T h e c o s m o s h a s suffered t h e d i s a s t r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s i n a n d y e a r n s j u s t a s m u c h a s b e l i e v e r s d o ( h i s p o i n t i n R o m . 8.23-25) t o b e l i b e r a t e d from t h e m . P a u l ' s c o n g e n i a l personification o f the c o s m o s in R o m . 8.19-22 a s a p a s s i v e v i c t i m o f s i n a w a i t i n g r e d e m p t i o n is n o t t h e w h o l e story, h o w e v e r . T h e r e is also, s o t o s p e a k , a d a r k side t o t h e c o s m o s that h a s b e e n u n l e a s h e d b y sin. P a u l alludes t o it in G a l . 4 . 3 w h e r e h e s p e a k s o f t h e ' e l e m e n t s o f t h e w o r l d ' ( r a OTOixeta t o u Koopou; cf. C o l . 2 . 8 , 2 0 ) ,

4 0

a n d in G a l . 4 . 9 w h e r e h e refers

t o t h e ' w e a k a n d i m p o v e r i s h e d e l e m e n t s ' (doOevf] K a l t t t q x ^

OXOIXETA).

Scholarly discussion o f the term h a s engendered m a n y proposals concerning 41

its b a c k g r o u n d a n d m e a n i n g that w e c a n n o t t a k e t h e t i m e t o d i s c u s s h e r e . T h e three m a j o r interpretive o p t i o n s t a k e t h e t e r m t o m e a n either ' e l e m e n t s ' in t h e physical sense o f the t e r m

4 2

o r a s a n abstraction, d e n o t i n g either s o m e t h i n g

impersonal such as 'rudimentary principles of the w o r l d ' tially d e m o n i c like ' e l e m e n t a r y spiritual p o w e r s ' .

4 4

4 3

or something essen

I n m y o p i n i o n , t h e latter o f

t h e t h r e e is p r o b a b l y correct s i n c e P a u l e q u a t e s t h e ' w e a k a n d i m p o v e r i s h e d e l e m e n t s ' i n G a l . 4 . 9 w i t h ' t h o s e that a r e b y n a t u r e n o t g o d s ' ( x o l g

(J)U0€i

pf) o C o l v QeoiQ) in G a l . 4 . 8 , t o w h o m t h e G e n t i l e b e l i e v e r s i n G a l a t i a w e r e formerly e n s l a v e d . H e e x p r e s s e s h i s c o n c e r n that t h o s e b e l i e v e r s a r e in d a n g e r o f ' t u r n i n g b a c k t o t h e m a g a i n ' (ir(3<; 6iuoTp€(j)€T€ i r a X i v . . . ; t h e s a m e v e r b is u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e believers in T h e s s a l o n i c a from idolatry to t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e ' l i v i n g a n d t r u e G o d ' in 1 T h e s s . 1.9). P a u l ' s l a n g u a g e calls t o m i n d h i s c ha ra cter izatio n o f idols a s ' s o - c a l l e d g o d s ' ( A e y o p e v o i 0€Oi) in 1 Cor. 8 . 5 , a n d later in 1 C o r i n t h i a n s P a u l a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e real e x i s t e n c e o f d e m o n s b e h i n d t h e s e idols (cf. 1 Cor. 1 0 . 2 0 - 2 1 ) .

45

Thus, the term

OTOIXEIA

m o s t likely d e n o t e s d e m o n i c p o w e r s o f s o m e sort a n d is r o u g h l y s y n o n y m o u s w i t h m o r e characteristically P a u l i n e t e r m s s u c h a s ' r u l e r s ' , ' a u t h o r i t i e s ' , a n d

40. The term was probably coined by Paul. Cf. G. Delling, 'axoixeiov', TDNT1: 666-87. 41. For an overview cf. P. T. O'Brien, * A Note on the "Elements of the Universe" (OTOix^la T O U Koapou)', in Colossians, Philemon (WBC 44; Waco: Word, 1982), pp. 129-32. 42. Cf. E. Schweitzer, 'Die "Elemente der Welf * Gal 4,3.9; Kol 2,8.20', in O. Bocher und K. Haacker (eds), Verborum Veritas: Festschrift Gustav Stdhlin (Wupppertal: Brockhaus, 1970), pp. 245-59. 43. Cf. e.g. Delling, 'OTOixeloi>', pp. 683-5; R. N. Longenecker, Galatians (WBC 41; Dallas: Word, 1990), pp. 165-6. 44. Cf. H. Lietzmann, An die Galater (2nd edn; HNT 10; Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1923), p. 24; H. D. Betz, Galatians (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), pp. 205,215. 45. Cf. Adams, Constructing the World, p. 230.

6. Romans,

Corinthians,

101

Galatians

' p o w e r s ' (apxal, e £ o i x n a i , 8 u v a | i e i g ; c o m p a r e R o m . 8.38; 1 Cor. 15.24 w i t h E p h . 1.21; 3.10; 6.10; C o l . 1.16; 2 . 1 0 , 1 5 ) . I n w h a t s e n s e d o e s P a u l v i e w t h e s e p o w e r s a s ' e l e m e n t a l ' , a n d w h a t is their relationship to t h e c o s m o s ? A n a l y s i s o f P a u l ' s u s e o f o x o i x e l a in G a l . 4 . 3 , 9 y i e l d s intriguing a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . To b e g i n w i t h , it is clear that P a u l h a s J e w s in m i n d w h e n h e s a y s in G a l . 4 . 3 that ' w e w e r e u n d e r t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e w o r l d ' , for h e e q u a t e s this state w i t h b e i n g ' u n d e r t h e l a w ' in G a l . 4 . 5 . In G a l . 4 . 9 , h o w e v e r , P a u l clearly h a s G e n t i l e s in v i e w w h e n h e e x p r e s s e s h i s c o n c e r n a b o u t their p o s s i b l e r e - e n s l a v e m e n t to t h e w e a k a n d i m p o v e r i s h e d e l e m e n t s . I n G a l . 4 . 1 0 h e d e s c r i b e s this e n s l a v e m e n t as ' k e e p i n g d a y s a n d m o n t h s a n d s e a s o n s a n d y e a r s ' (rpepac; i r a p a T T p e t o G e Kai |if|va<; Kai Katpoix; Kai e a a u x o i x ; ) . A s w e n o t e d a b o v e (cf. n. 3 8 ) , t h e O T creation a c c o u n t assigns the h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s t h e t a s k o f r e g u l a t i n g s a c r e d feasts a n d h o l i d a y s . W h a t G e n . 1.14 r e g a r d s a s a n a i d to t h e p r o p e r w o r s h i p o f G o d , h o w e v e r , e v o l v e d into a p r e o c c u p a t i o n in early J u d a i s m w i t h t h e cultic calendar. ' C a l e n d a r p i e t y ' 46

m o v e d to t h e v e r y c e n t r e o f J e w i s h religious l i f e , a n d celebrating t h e feasts o n t h e correct d a y s b e c a m e t h e o b s e s s i o n o f v a r i o u s g r o u p s in t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , n o t t o m e n t i o n o n e o f t h e m a i n t o p i c s o f intra-Jewish p o l e m i c .

47

Against

this b a c k g r o u n d P a u l ' s v i g o r o u s rejection o f t h e J u d a i z e r s ' d e m a n d that G e n t i l e b e l i e v e r s in G a l a t i a treat t h e cultic c a l e n d a r a s a m a t t e r o f religious obligation m a k e s sense. If G e n t i l e b e l i e v e r s w e r e to a c c e d e t o it, t h e y w o u l d r u n t h e risk o f ' p u t t i n g t h e m s e l v e s in b o n d a g e t o t h e forces that c o n t r o l t h e c a l e n d a r ' ,

48

i.e.,

t u r n i n g b a c k t o t h e g o d s b e h i n d t h e h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s that they h a d formerly served.

49

It is, to b e sure, n o t h i n g less t h a n startling that P a u l implicitly e q u a t e s

n o t only p a g a n w o r s h i p o f t h e h e a v e n l y lights b u t also legalistic o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e J e w i s h cultic c a l e n d a r w i t h b o n d a g e to t h e o x o i x e t a . Still, it is readily u n d e r s t a n d a b l e w h y P a u l w o u l d m a k e this b o l d rhetorical m o v e , g i v e n his a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e G o d - o r d a i n e d p u r p o s e o f creation a s a catalyst t o t h e w o r s h i p o f G o d in R o m . 1.20-25 (see a b o v e ) . H e r e g a r d s b o t h J e w i s h c a l e n d a r p i e t y a n d p a g a n w o r s h i p o f t h e sun, m o o n , stars, a n d p l a n e t s a s a m i s u s e o f t h e h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s s i n c e b o t h detract from t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e o n e true G o d . 7. God will restore the cosmos

to its original purpose

and role by

recreating

it W e h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d P a u l ' s u n i q u e p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e p r e d i c a m e n t o f creation in t h e p o s t l a p s a r i a n w o r l d . W e s a w that P a u l inferred from h i s r e a d i n g

46. Cf. F. Mussner, Der Galaterbrief (HTKNT; Freiburg: Herder, 1974), pp. 298-301. The term 'calendar piety' translates Mussner's 'Kalendarfrommigkeit' (cf. p. 299). 47. Cf. K. Koch and U. Glessmer, 'Neumonds-Neujahr oder Vollmonds-Neujahr? Zu sp&tisraelitischen Kalendar-Theologen', in Antikes Judentum und Fruhes Christentum (FS Hartmut Stegemann; BZNW 97; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1999), pp. 116-17. 48. F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Galatians (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), p. 204. 49. Cf. Mussner, Galaterbrief, p. 302.

102

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

o f G e n . 3.17 that t h e c o s m o s w a s ' s u b j e c t e d to futility' b y G o d (cf. R o m . 8.20), b u t that h e a d d e d a n o t e o f h o p e n o t detectable in the G e n e s i s a c c o u n t . P a u l d e s c r i b e s t h e r e a s o n for h i s h o p e in R o m . 8 . 2 1 : ' c r e a t i o n itself w i l l b e liber ated from its b o n d a g e t o d e c a y ' (can;f| r)

K T L O K ;

6A,€i)0€pa)0iiO€Tai d u o tf|<;

5ouA.€ia<; XX\Q (|)9opaq). T h o u g h h i s l a n g u a g e is s o m e w h a t e l u s i v e at this p o i n t , there c a n b e little d o u b t that h e h a s in m i n d t h e Isaianic p r o m i s e o f t h e r e creation o f t h e c o s m o s (cf. Isa. 4 3 . 1 8 - 1 9 ; 6 5 . 1 7 ; 6 6 . 2 2 ) . In early J e w i s h texts ' n e w c r e a t i o n ' (Koavr) (cf. e.g. Jub. 4 . 2 6 ) .

50

KTLOIC;)

b e c a m e the s t a n d a r d t e r m d e n o t i n g this c o n c e p t

P a u l u s e s it t w i c e , o n c e in 2 Cor. 5.17 t o d e s c r i b e w h a t

h a p p e n s at c o n v e r s i o n a n d o n c e in G a l . 6.15 to c h a r a c t e r i z e w h a t h a s r e p l a c e d t h e all-important division b e t w e e n J e w s a n d G e n t i l e s . W e w i l l d i s c u s s t h e sig nificance o f t h o s e texts presently. H e r e w e m e r e l y n o t e that 2 Cor. 5.17 c o n t a i n s an u n m i s t a k a b l e allusion t o Isa. 4 3 . 1 8 - 1 9

51

and possibly 65.17,

52

highlighting

t h e crucial role t h e c o n c e p t o f n e w creation p l a y s in P a u l ' s theology. It is this h o p e that informs P a u l ' s e x p e c t a t i o n that t h e c o s m o s will b e liberated from t h e b o n d a g e to decay. Paul n e v e r describes t h e r e n e w a l o f t h e c o s m o s p e r se, b u t it is r e a d i l y a p p a r ent that h e e x p e c t e d that it w o u l d result in t h e reconstitution o f p r o p e r r e l a t i o n ship b e t w e e n h u m a n i t y a n d creation. In his d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e b o d y in 1 Cor. 15.50-57 h e e n v i s i o n s a t r a n s f o r m e d w o r l d in w h i c h b e l i e v e r s ' b o d i e s will b e incorruptible a n d i m m o r t a l b e c a u s e d e a t h itself will h a v e b e e n o v e r c o m e . T h u s , h i s a r g u m e n t p r e s u p p o s e s that creation will o n c e a g a i n b e e n a b l e d t o fulfil its G o d - g i v e n r o l e o f s u s t a i n i n g h u m a n life indefinitely. P a u l also foresees t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f h u m a n i t y ' s d o m i n i o n o v e r t h e earth (cf. G e n . 1.28). In a n intriguingly e x p a n s i v e interpretation o f G o d ' s p r o m i s e t o g i v e A b r a h a m a n d h i s d e s c e n d a n t s t h e l a n d o f C a n a a n in p e r p e t u i t y (cf. G e n . 12.7; 13.15; 17.8), P a u l a r g u e s in R o m . 4 . 1 5 that G o d h a d , in fact, p r o m i s e d to m a k e A b r a h a m t h e heir o f t h e entire c o s m o s ( t o

KAr|POV6|!OV

a u t o v e lv a t

K O O | I O U ) .

Since h e redefines A b r a h a m ' s descendants to m e a n all w h o b e l i e v e in t h e s a m e m a n n e r as A b r a h a m , w h e t h e r c i r c u m c i s e d o r u n c i r c u m c i s e d ( R o m . 4 . 1 1 - 1 2 ) , there c a n b e little d o u b t that h e v i e w s b e l i e v e r s as t h e future h e i r s o f t h e c o s m o s . T h e y w i l l n o l o n g e r s e r v e c r e a t e d t h i n g s (cf. R o m . 1.25). In fact, t h e c o s m o s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p u t at their d i s p o s a l (cf. 1 Cor. 3.22), t h e r e b y r e s t o r i n g h u m a n ity's authority o v e r c r e a t i o n .

53

E v e n n o w believers are n o l o n g e r subject to t h e

50. Cf. U. Mell, Neue Schopfung: eine traditionsgeschichtliche und exegetische Studie zu einem soteriologischen Grundsatzpaulinischer Theologie (BZNW 56; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1989), p. 254. 51. Cf. F. Wilk, Die Bedeutung des Jesajabuches fur Paulus (FRLANT 179; G6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998), pp. 276-7. 52. Gregory K. Beale, 'The Old Testament Background of Reconciliation in 2 Corinthians 5-7 and its Bearing on the Literary Problem of 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1 \ NTS 35 (1989), 552-6. 53. Cf. C. K. Barrett, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (HNTC; Peabody: Hendrickson, 1968), p. 96.

6. Romans,

Corinthians,

103

Galatians

e l e m e n t a r y spirits, t h o s e d e m o n i c p o w e r s o f t h e c o s m o s that w e r e u n l e a s h e d b y sin a n d h e l d t h e m in b o n d a g e until t h e c o m i n g o f Christ (cf. R o m . 8.38), a n d o n e d a y t h e y will sit in j u d g e m e n t o v e r t h e m (cf. 1 Cor. 6 . 3 ) . 8. The restoration 55

of Christ.

of the cosmos

has already

54

begun with the

resurrection

Just as Christ w a s t h e m e d i a t o r o f t h e original creation, s o h e is

also t h e m e d i a t o r o f the n e w creation. F o r P a u l , h o w e v e r , n e w c r e a t i o n is n o t s o m e t h i n g that h e e x p e c t e d t o t a k e p l a c e o n l y in t h e future. R a t h e r it h a s a l r e a d y b e g u n w i t h t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f J e s u s . T h i s is i m p l i e d b y P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t in 1 Cor. 15.45 that b y virtue o f h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n ' t h e last A d a m b e c a m e t h e lifeg i v i n g Spirit' (6 eoxaxoQ

' A S a p eiQ n v e u p a

CCDOITOIOIH/).

5 6

it follows, as w e l l ,

from t w o s t a n d a r d beliefs o f J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c that P a u l w o u l d h a v e s h a r e d (cf. n. 10). First, r e s u r r e c t i o n is a unified c o n c e p t ; in early J u d a i s m t h e r e is o n l y ' t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n ' , n o t m a n y i n d i v i d u a l r e s u r r e c t i o n s (cf. M k 12.23 par.; Lk. 14.14; J n 5.29; 11.24; A c t s 4.2). T h e r e f o r e t h e resurrection o f J e s u s c o u l d n o t b e v i e w e d as a n isolated e v e n t ; rather, it w a s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the e s c h a tological r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e d e a d . P a u l makes this c o n n e c t i o n explicit in h i s characterization o f Christ as t h e 'firstfruits from a m o n g t h e d e a d ' (dirapxf] t ( 3 v K€KOiprp€VG)v 1 Cor. 1 5 . 2 0 ) .

57

S e c o n d , r e s u r r e c t i o n is i n e x t r i c a b l y linked t o

t h e c o n c e p t o f n e w creation (cf. E z e k . 3 6 . 1 6 - 3 0 ; 3 7 . 1 4 ) .

58

That Paul associates

resurrection w i t h n e w creation is clear in R o m . 4 . 1 7 , w h e r e h e e q u a t e s G o d ' s ' g i v i n g life to the d e a d '

(CGOOTOIOUVTOC; TOIX;

V€Kpou<;) w i t h creatio

ex

nihilo.

T h e link is also implicit in R o m . 8 . 2 3 , t h o u g h it h a s b e e n o v e r l o o k e d b e c a u s e scholars h a v e , in m y o p i n i o n , m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e referent o f t h e 'firstfruits o f 5 9

t h e Spirit' (anapxT) t o u w e u p a t o c ; ) . I n m y earlier analysis o f t h e p h r a s e , 1 a r g u e d that t o u n v e u p a t o g is n o t , a s g e n e r a l l y a s s u m e d , a genitivus ticus that e q u a t e s 'firstfruits' w i t h t h e Spirit, b u t rather a genitivus

epexege-

auctoris

that

54. It seems likely that Paul has evil angels in mind in Rom. 8.38 since (1) benevolent angels would hardly constitute a threat to believers' fellowship with Christ, and (2) the term Oiyy^oi is paired with A P X A I (cf. Col. 2.15), Paul's mostfrequentterm for denoting demonic powers (cf. Dunn, Romans 1-8, p. 507). It is also probable that Paul is thinking of evil angels in 1 Cor. 6.3 and is drawing on an apocalyptic motif that envisions their judgement (cf. Schrage, IKor 6,12-11,16, p. 411; Fee, Corinthians, p. 234). The CRROIXELA would certainly be among them. 55. It is clear that, at this point in the 'cosmological narrative', Paul's cosmology and eschatology become inextricably intertwined so that we must, despite our caveat (cf. pp. 91-2), treat them together. Still, our emphasis will continue to be on the particular contribution of cosmological elements. 56. Cf. R. B. Gaflfin, Jr., Resurrection and Redemption: A Study in Paul's Soteriology (2nd edn; Phillipsburg: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1987), pp. 78-92. 57. Cf. my extensive analysis of diTapXTl in 1 Cor. 15.20-28 in White, Erstlingsgabe, pp. 109-^3. 58. Cf. W. Schrage, 'Schopfung und Neuschopfung in Kontinuitat und Diskontinuitat bei Paulus', in Studien zur Theologie im 1. Korintherbrief (BThSt 94; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2007), p. 132. 59. Cf. White, Erstlingsgabe, pp. 182-93.

104

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

b e a r s t h e c o n n o t a t i o n 'firstfruits b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e Spirit'. I further s o u g h t to d e m o n s t r a t e that 'firstfruits' is a n intra-textual allusion to 1 Cor. 15.20, o n e that A q u i l a a n d Priscilla ( a n d p e r h a p s others a m o n g t h e recipients o f R o m a n s , especially E p a e n e t u s ; cf. R o m . 16.5b) w o u l d h a v e readily r e c o g n i z e d , h a v i n g b e c o m e t h o r o u g h l y familiar w i t h P a u l ' s t e a c h i n g o n t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n in C o r i n t h a n d E p h e s u s (cf. A c t s 18.2; R o m . 16.3-5a; 1 Cor. 16.9), a n d t h u s refers t o t h e resurrected Christ. T h e p o i n t o f R o m . 8.23 w o u l d t h e n b e that, s i n c e b e l i e v e r s h a v e t h e Spirit w h o r a i s e d Christ from t h e d e a d (cf. R o m . 8.11; this e x p l a i n s the genitivus

auctoris)

a n d i n d e e d h a v e w i t n e s s e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the resur

rection in Christ, t h e y l o n g for its c o m p l e t i o n , n a m e l y the ' l i b e r a t i o n ' o f theno w n m o r t a l b o d i e s . U n d e r s t o o d in this w a y , t h e implication o f P a u l ' s a r g u m e n t in R o m . 8.19-23 is that t h e resurrection o f C h r i s t h a s set e s c h a t o l o g i c a l n e w creation in m o t i o n a n d that, a s a result, b o t h the c o s m o s a n d b e l i e v e r s l o n g to e x p e r i e n c e its u l t i m a t e fulfilment. P a u l ' s p e r s p e c t i v e that n e w creation h a s a l r e a d y b e g u n w i t h t h e resurrection o f J e s u s m a r k s , o f c o u r s e , a significant p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e from J e w i s h a p o c a lyptic t h e o l o g y a n d results in s o m e important modifications to t h e conventional t w o - a g e apocalyptic scenario. T h e ' a l r e a d y a n d n o t y e t ' character o f n e w creation 60

in t h e N T h a s b e e n ably described b y o t h e r s , s o it n e e d s n o further explanation h e r e . F o r P a u l , this h a s t r e m e n d o u s implications for t h e w a y b e l i e v e r s s h o u l d live in t h e p r e s e n t . T h i s is p e r h a p s clearest in 1 Cor. 7 . 2 9 - 3 1 : T h e ' c o m p r e s s i o n ' o f t h e p r e s e n t a g e (so literally 1 Cor. 7.29a: 6 Koapcx; o w e o t a A j j i v o c ; h a s r e s u l t e d in its o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h t h e a g e to c o m e ,

6 2

€OTLV)

6

1

s o that t h e f u n d a m e n t a l

societal institutions d e s i g n e d for e a c h a g e - m a r r i a g e a n d family for the former a n d celibacy for t h e latter ( c o m p a r e 1 Cor. 7.32-34 w i t h J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g in M k 12.25 par.) - a r e b o t h o p e r a t i v e in t h e present. B e l i e v e r s ' a s s e s s m e n t s o f their o w n e x p e r i e n c e s o f j o y a n d s o r r o w a s w e l l a s their attitudes t o w a r d s acquisi tions s h o u l d reflect this spiritual reality. T h e y are free to m a k e u s e o f all that h u m a n society h a s to offer, b u t t h e y s h o u l d d o so w i t h a m e a s u r e o f d e t a c h m e n t , since ' t h e form o f this w o r l d ' (1 Cor. 7.3 l b : t o O X F | | i a xoO

KOOJIOU TOUTOU),

i.e.

the 'socially c o n s t r u c t e d w o r l d ' in t h e s e n s e that B e r g e r talks a b o u t (cf. n. 5 ) , is p a s s i n g away. Clearly, this i m p l i e s that P a u l is u s i n g K O O | i o g t o refer n o t to the p h y s i c a l w o r l d b u t to h u m a n society, a n inference that fits w e l l in t h e larger context o f P a u l ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e relative desirability o f c h a n g i n g o n e ' s social, e c o n o m i c , o r religious station (cf. 1 Cor. 7.17-31). N e v e r t h e l e s s , his a r g u m e n t p r e s u m e s that t h e p r o m i s e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s h a s b e g u n a n d that 60. Cf. esp. G. K. Beale, 'The Eschatological Conception of New Testament Theology', in K. E. Brower and M. W. Elliott (eds), The Reader Must Understand: Eschatology in Bible and Theology (Leicester: Apollos, 1997), pp. 12-28. 61. Cf. Fee, Corinthians, p. 339, n. 14. 62. This is possibly the meaning behind the cryptic phrase in 1 Cor. 10.11 that 'the ends of the ages' (T& xekx] x&v aloovoov) have come upon us. So similarly D. E. Garland, 1 Corinthians (ECNT; Grand Rapids: Baker, 2003), p. 465.

6. Romans,

Corinthians,

105

Galatians

therefore t h e social categories d e s i g n e d for t h e p r e s e n t a g e h a v e a l r e a d y started to l o s e their s i g n i f i c a n c e .

63

P a r a m o u n t a m o n g t h e s e for P a u l is w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o v e n a n t a l division b e t w e e n J e w s a n d G e n t i l e s . W e h a v e a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d t h e b o l d m o v e P a u l m a k e s in G a l a t i a n s b y r e l e g a t i n g strict o b s e r v a n c e o f ritual a s p e c t s o f t h e Torah t o the r e a l m o f o i o i x e l a . P a u l c o n t i n u e s in that vein, c l a i m i n g in G a l . 6.15 that ' n e i t h e r c i r c u m c i s i o n n o r u n c i r c u m c i s i o n a r e o f a n y a c c o u n t ' (ofrte yap TT€piTO|iii T L koxiv o i k e ( k p o P u o T i a ) a n d i m p l y i n g that this division b e l o n g s to t h e ' w o r l d ' (here, t o o , in t h e s e n s e o f s o c i e t y ' s m o r e s a n d n o r m s ) , w h i c h h a s n o further r e l e v a n c e for h i m (cf. G a l . 6.14). T h o s e old c o v e n a n t structures h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d b y a n e w s t a n d a r d (KavoSv), that o f t h e i n a u g u r a t e d n e w creation ( G a l . 6 . 1 5 : Koavr) KTIOIQ),

a n d b y this s t a n d a r d

m e m b e r s o f t h e ' I s r a e l o f G o d ' , w h i c h includes b o t h J e w s a n d G e n t i l e s u n i t e d b y faith in J e s u s Christ, a r e a l r e a d y o r d e r i n g their lives ( c o m p a r e G a l . 6.16 w i t h G a l . 3.26-28). P a u l ' s r a d i c a l n e g a t i o n o f t h e d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n J e w s a n d G e n t i l e s , at least w i t h r e g a r d t o soteriology, m a k e s p e r f e c t s e n s e w h e n w e c o n s i d e r t h a t h e v i e w s c o n v e r s i o n itself a s i n a u g u r a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e n e w c r e a t i o n . T h i s is t h e force o f 2 Cor. 5.17a, t h o u g h its s e n s e is often o b s c u r e d b e h i n d i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g t r a n s l a t i o n s in t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e K i n g J a m e s Version: ' T h e r e f o r e if a n y m a n b e in C h r i s t , h e is a n e w c r e a t u r e ' . A b e t t e r r e n d e r i n g w o u l d a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y b e : ' T h e r e f o r e if a n y o n e is in C h r i s t , it is n e w c r e a t i o n ' XIQ

kv

XpiOTCij),

KOAVFI

KTLOK;).

6 4

( ( 3 O T €

ei

S i n c e , a s n o t e d a b o v e , 2 Cor. 5 . 1 7 b p i c k s

u p t h e l a n g u a g e o f Isa. 4 3 . 1 8 - 1 9 , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o a s s u m e t h a t P a u l is s p e a k i n g m e t a p h o r i c a l l y . R a t h e r h e s e e m s t o m e a n , q u i t e literally, t h a t w h e n s o m e o n e t u r n s to C h r i s t , t h i s m a r k s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s o r h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e p r o m i s e d I s a i a n i c r e n e w a l o f t h e c o s m o s .

6 5

T o b e s u r e , P a u l is e a g e r to

e m p h a s i z e that this r e n e w a l p r e s e n t l y o n l y affects t h e b e l i e v e r s ' ' i n n e r m a n ' (2 Cor. 4 . 1 6 : 6 € 0 0 ) r||i(3v [av0po)TO(;]), b u t it c a n h a r d l y b e d o u b t e d t h a t h e v i e w s this c h a n g e a s a d i v i n e a c t o f r e c r e a t i o n , e v e n if it c a n n o t b e s e e n (cf. 2 Cor. 4 . 1 8 ) , at least n o t yet. 9. The restoration

of the cosmos will be completed

when Christ returns.

Without

q u e s t i o n , P a u l ' s e x p e c t a t i o n that Christ w o u l d return w a s f u n d a m e n t a l to his t h e o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k (cf. R o m . 13.11; 1 Cor. 1.7; 4 . 5 ; 15.23; 16.22b; 2 Cor. 11.2 etc.).

66

T h o u g h h e d o e s n o t say s o explicitly, h i s u s e o f J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c

motifs in 1 Cor. 15.52-54, n o t a b l y t h e i m a g e o f t h e last t r u m p e t , m a k e s clear

63. Cf. similarly, Adams, Constructing the World, pp. 130-6. 64. Mell, Schopfung, p. 353, argues convincingly that since Paul is making use of the quasitechnical term Kaivr) K T L O K ; here, K T L O K ; should be rendered in line with standard early Jewish usage as a nomen actionis. 65. Cf. Mell, Schopfung, pp. 368-9. 66. Cf. White, Erstlingsgabe, pp. 143-50.

106

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

that h e a w a i t s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s at t h e p a r o u s i a .

67

In a m e r e

m o m e n t n e w creation will b e c o m p l e t e d (1 Cor. 15.52). B o d i e s e n s l a v e d t o t h e b o n d a g e o f d e c a y ( R o m . 8.21) w i l l b e i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y t r a n s f o r m e d a n d c r e a t i o n ' s subjection t o futility w i l l e n d . T h e c o s m o s will finally b e a b l e to fulfil its G o d - g i v e n p u r p o s e o f s u s t a i n i n g h u m a n life forever, for d e a t h will b e s w a l l o w e d u p in v i c t o r y (1 Cor. 15.54). O n c e this last e n e m y h a s b e e n d e s t r o y e d (1 Cor. 15.26), t h e n t h e p r o p e r h i e r a r c h y o f relationships in t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r will b e c o m p l e t e l y restored: t h e c o s m o s will b e subject to h u m a n i t y , h u m a n i t y to Christ, t h e m e d i a t o r o f t h e n e w creation, a n d Christ to G o d (1 Cor. 3 . 2 1 - 2 3 ) . All sentient b e i n g s , w h e t h e r in h e a v e n , o n earth, o r b e l o w t h e earth w i l l confess J e s u s a s L o r d to t h e g l o r y o f G o d , t h e F a t h e r (Phil. 2.10-11). T h e n , in t h e final act o f P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e , Christ, to w h o m t h e entire c o s m o s a n d all its i n h a b i t a n t s h a v e s w o r n their fealty, will subject h i m s e l f t o G o d , ' s o that G o d m a y b e all in a l l ' (1 Cor. 15.28). W i t h that, G o d ' s p u r p o s e in creation, to b r i n g glory to himself, will h a v e b e e n utterly a n d i n c o n t e s t a b l y fulfilled.

67. Cf. J. Plevnik, Paul and the Parousia: An Exegetical and Theological Investigation (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1997), p. 168.

7

REORIENTED TO THE COSMOS: COSMOLOGY & THEOLOGY IN EPHESIANS THROUGH PHILEMON Robert L. Foster

H u m a n m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e e m e r g e in n o s m a l l m e a s u r e from a p e r s o n ' s per c e p t i o n o f his o r h e r relation to t h e w o r l d a n d its inhabitants. Particular s p a c e s p r o v i d e significant orientation b a s e d o n t h e relationships a s s o c i a t e d w i t h that s p a c e , as in the h o m e . R a d i c a l c h a n g e s in s p a c e a n d / o r relationship c a n i n d u c e disorientation, as in the d e a t h of a family m e m b e r , a m a r r i a g e , o r a m o v e t o a n e w p l a c e . T h e s e k i n d s o f c h a n g e s r e q u i r e a reorientation to s p a c e a n d relation ship that g i v e s a r e n e w e d s e n s e o f m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e . I u n d e r s t a n d the nature o f this project o n c o s m o l o g y a n d theology in the N e w Testament to involve the exploration o f a k i n d o f language of reorientation found in the N e w Testament writings intended to facilitate a r e n e w e d sense o f m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e in the early Jesus c o m m u n i t i e s , w h o felt s o m e disorientation in their c h a n g e d relationship to G o d , the g o d s , other h u m a n b e i n g s , a n d their world. In particular, w e explore language concerning the structure of the universe as it pertains especially to the p e r s o n a n d w o r k i n g s o f G o d in Christ Jesus. F o r this essay, I u s e a definition of c o s m o l o g y as 'the consciously entertained i m a g e s , doctrines, a n d scientific v i e w s o f the universe that p r o v i d e a sense o f its struc 1

ture a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e ' . 1 define theology as ' s p e a k i n g o f all things in relation to G o d ' . T h u s , this essay investigates the language u s e d b y the authors o f Ephesians 2

through P h i l e m o n to structure a vision of the universe as it relates to G o d a s o n e m e a n s of reorienting these early Jesus c o m m u n i t i e s t o w a r d a r e n e w e d sense o f life a n d p u r p o s e in this w o r l d given their c h a n g e d relationships b o t h w i t h G o d a n d w i t h the universe. I should note h e r e that w e will investigate every letter except P h i l e m o n , w h i c h s e e m s d e v o i d o f any cosmological imagery.

1. Kees W. Bolle, 'Cosmology: An Overview', in Lindsay Jones (ed.), Encyclopedia of Reli gion, Vol. 3 (Detroit: Thompson/Gale, 2nd edn, 2005), p. 1992. 2. I prefer 'structure' over 'construct' because the former gives the sense of organizing preexistent reality (or perceived reality), whereas the latter term signifies to me the creation of reality, a stronger claim for the use of language than I wish to make. Cf. E. Adams, Constructing the World: A Study ofPaul's Cosmological Language (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000), following P. L. Berger and T. Luckman, The Social Construction of Reality (New York: Anchor, 1967).

Cosmology

108

and New Testament

Theology

Ephesians 3

F r o m t h e outset, P a u l s e e k s t o reorient t h e E p h e s i a n s t o their n e w p l a c e i n t h e c o s m o s that t h e y e x p e r i e n c e b e c a u s e o f G o d ' s w o r k i n Christ J e s u s : Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places, just as he chose us in him before the foundation of the world to be holy and blameless before him in love (1.3-4, NRSV). In t h e s e v e r s e s w e o b s e r v e P a u l ' s b a s i c division o f t h e c o s m o s into the ' h e a v enly p l a c e s '

(sTroupccvioic) a n d

4

t h e w o r l d o r u n i v e r s e ( K o o p o c ) . W h a t distin

guishes t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s a n d t h e u n i v e r s e , at least in part, is t h e fact that t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s existed s o m e t i m e earlier t h a n t h e u n i v e r s e . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y to P a u l ' s a r g u m e n t , i n t h e s p h e r e o f t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s G o d w o r k e d i n Christ Jesus o n b e h a l f o f the E p h e s i a n s , c h o o s i n g t h e m t o b e h o l y a n d b l a m e l e s s before h i m i n the p r e - e x i s t e n t Christ. P a u l introduces t h e distinction b e t w e e n the h e a v e n l y p l a c e s a n d t h e u n i v e r s e t o focus the E p h e s i a n s o n t w o i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s . First, t h e E p h e s i a n s o u g h t to orient t h e m s e l v e s p r i m a r i l y to t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s b e c a u s e i n t h e m t h e y r e c e i v e their p r i m a r y b l e s s i n g s , spiritual b l e s s i n g s . S e c o n d , the p r e e m i n e n t b l e s s i n g is G o d ' s c h o i c e t o m a k e t h e m h o l y a n d b l a m e less before h i m . T h e general trajectory o f t h e letter t o w a r d t h e TrapocKaAco o f 4.1 indicates t h e significance o f listing t h e first b l e s s i n g a s G o d ' s c h o i c e t o m a k e the Ephesians holy and blameless.

5

Though t h e Ephesians receive numerous blessings in t h e heavenly places (holiness, adoption, redemption, knowledge o f the mystery, a n inheritance; 1.3-14), t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s r e m a i n c o n t e s t e d s p a c e . P a u l a p p a r e n t l y t h i n k s that t h e E p h e s i a n

'EKKATJOI

a finds it difficult t o live u p t o their h i g h c a l l i n g (4.1)

in p a r t b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t r e a l i z e , o r n o t sufficiently, that t h e y s t r u g g l e p r i marily, n o t w i t h t h e w o r l d , ' a g a i n s t b l o o d a n d flesh', b u t ' . . . a g a i n s t t h e r u l e r s , against t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , a g a i n s t t h e c o s m i c p o w e r s o f this p r e s e n t d a r k n e s s , against t h e spiritual forces o f evil i n t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s ' ( 6 . 1 2 ) . I n t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e y r e c e i v e e v e r y spiritual b l e s s i n g t h e y a l s o s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t spiritual forces o f evil.

3. For the sake of continuity, in this article I will use the name 'Paul' to refer to the authors of all the letters under consideration, even though scholars question Paul's authorship in several instances. The disputed books, in my mind, require individual investigation to determine author ship, which falls beyond the scope of this piece. I would prefer to offer a separate designation for each author, but this would prove unwieldy. 4. I prefer the word 'universe' over 'world' given modern associations of 'world' and 'earth', 'earth' being an important half of the 'universe' in Ephesians. 5. Cf. F. J. Long, 'Learning Christ: The Dynamics of Moral Formation in Ephesians' (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature. Washington, DC, November 20,2006).

7. Ephesians

through

Philemon

109

B y p e r c e i v i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s as a c o n t e s t e d s p a c e in the m i n d o f P a u l w e s e e t h e significance o f t h e ' i n C h r i s t ' f o r m u l a o f 1.3. T h i s is b e c a u s e t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s are not a c o n t e s t e d s p a c e for Christ. In fact, G o d raised Christ from t h e d e a d , seating h i m at h i s right h a n d in t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s 'far a b o v e all rule a n d authority a n d p o w e r a n d d o m i n i o n , a n d e v e r y n a m e that is n a m e d , n o t o n l y in this a g e b u t also in t h e a g e to c o m e ' (1.21). T h e E p h e s i a n s ' struggle against spiritual forces in t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s t a k e s o n a n e w m e a n i n g g i v e n that t h e y n o w r e c e i v e e v e r y spiritual b l e s s i n g in Christ, w h o r e i g n s o v e r all s u c h rulers a n d authorities a n d p o w e r s a n d d o m i n i o n s . In their struggle to live h o l y a n d b l a m e l e s s lives, to live u p to their h i g h calling, P a u l reorients t h e E p h e s i a n eiocAriata t o w a r d at least three i m p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e s t o a i d t h e m in their struggle: (1) the spiritual b l e s s i n g s t h e y h a v e in Christ J e s u s , i n c l u d i n g r e d e m p t i o n (1.7); (2) t h e v e r y s a m e p o w e r that G o d u s e d t o raise C h r i s t from t h e d e a d a n d to c a u s e h i m to r e i g n o v e r t h e hostile p o w e r s ( 1 . 2 2 ) ; a n d (3) G o d ' s panoply, w h i c h t h e y m u s t p u t o n t o w i t h s t a n d t h e evil d a y ( 6 . 1 0 - 1 7 ) . T h o u g h P a u l d i v i d e s t h e c o s m o s into t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s a n d t h e u n i v e r s e , there r e m a i n s s o m e p e r m e a b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e t w o s p a c e s , especially a s t h e E p h e s i a n s struggle in this w o r l d w i t h the spiritual forces in t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s . A m o n g t h e s e spiritual forces is o n e p r i m a r y evil p e r s o n a that p l o t s against t h e E p h e s i a n s , referred to in t h e c l o s i n g section as ' t h e evil o n e ' ( 6 . 1 6 ) . P a u l indi cates t h e a p p a r e n t ' o m n i p r e s e n c e ' o f this c h i e f evil w o r k e r b y e x h o r t i n g t h e E p h e s i a n s to t a k e u p t h e shield o f faith ' i n e v e r y [ c i r c u m s t a n c e ] ' (ev T T S O I V ) .

6

T h e c h a n g e in t h e E p h e s i a n s ' c i r c u m s t a n c e s b e c a u s e o f t h e w o r k o f G o d in Christ d o e s n o t m e a n t h e y are n o t in d a n g e r from o t h e r spiritual forces. T h e y m u s t n o t act ignorantly (or p e r h a p s overconfidently), b u t t a k e u p t h e shield o f faith (in G o d ; 6.11) in e v e r y c i r c u m s t a n c e . T h i s p r i m a r y evil p e r s o n a is t h e ' r u l e r o f t h e p o w e r o f t h e a i r ' ( 2 . 2 ) . Fur t h e r m o r e , this evil p e r s o n a exercises his r e i g n o v e r t h e s e p o w e r s in ' t h e a g e o f this w o r l d ' , in w h i c h t h e E p h e s i a n s formerly w a l k e d w h e n t h e y w e r e d e a d in trespasses a n d sins (2.1). Still, t h e o n e w h o r e i g n s o v e r all t h e s e p o w e r s , includ ing their ruler, is Christ, seated at t h e right h a n d o f G o d ( 1 . 2 0 - 2 ) . T h u s , in t h e a g e o f this w o r l d , w h i c h will c o m e t o a n e n d ( 1 . 2 1 ; 2 . 2 ; 3.21), t h e ruler o f t h e p o w e r s o f t h e air c o n t i n u e s t o w o r k a m o n g t h o s e w h o a r e d i s o b e d i e n t (2.2), b u t t h e E p h e s i a n s are n o t a m o n g t h e s e . Instead, t h e y a r e seated w i t h C h r i s t J e s u s (EV X p i o x c p 'Irjoou) in the h e a v e n l y p l a c e s (3.6), m a d e in Christ J e s u s for g o o d w o r k s , w h i c h G o d p l a n n e d , in o r d e r that t h e y m i g h t w a l k in t h e m ( 2 . 1 0 ) . T h e link w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s , t h e ' i n C h r i s t ' formula, t h e i n v o c a t i o n o f t h e p l a n o f G o d , a n d t h e vision o f G o d ' m a k i n g ' t h e E p h e s i a n s (Tro'ir^a, 2 . 1 0 ) , all s e e m

6. NRSV translates this phrase as 'With all these', though in a textual note they observe one may translate this as 'In all circumstances'. This latter option seems to fit well in the context which instructs the readers to have their feet fitted with readiness (6.14) and to pray at all times, with alertness and perseverance (6.18).

110

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

to p o i n t b a c k to 1.3-4 a n d t h e idea that in t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s , b e f o r e t h e foun d a t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e , G o d p l a n n e d for t h e E p h e s i a n s to b e h o l y a n d b l a m e l e s s 7

before h i m , e n v i s i o n e d in 2 . 1 0 a s w a l k i n g in g o o d w o r k s . T h u s , t h o u g h t h e E p h e s i a n s live in t h e a g e o f this w o r l d , t h e y e x p e r i e n c e a radical c h a n g e in t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s , g i v e n ' i n C h r i s t ' t h e p o w e r to o v e r c o m e t h e w o r k s o f t h e evil p o w e r s a n d their ruler. T h i s is s o that in t h e a g e o f this w o r l d t h e y c a n w a l k in g o o d w o r k s , b e i n g h o l y a n d b l a m e l e s s b e f o r e G o d as G o d i n t e n d e d before creation. In P a u l ' s rhetoric, p a r t o f w h a t o u g h t to i n v i g o r a t e t h e E p h e s i a n s t o w a l k in g o o d w o r k s is t h e w o r k o f C h r i s t in t h e u n i v e r s e (Koopoc). O n e a s p e c t o f C h r i s t ' s w o r k w i l l e m e r g e in t h e future. A c c o r d i n g to t h e m y s t e r y r e v e a l e d in t h e g o s p e l , at t h e fullness o f t i m e , G o d w i l l ' g a t h e r u p all t h i n g s in h i m [ C h r i s t ] , t h i n g s in h e a v e n a n d t h i n g s o n e a r t h ' ( 1 . 1 0 ) . H e r e w e s e e t h e b a s i c structure o f t h e u n i v e r s e , a d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n that w h i c h is in t h e h e a v e n s (pi. T O I C oupccvoic) a n d that w h i c h is u p o n t h e earth. W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is that all things in this u n i v e r s e w i l l b e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r in Christ. O n e t h i n g that e n a b l e s t h e E p h e s i a n s t o m o v e b e y o n d t h e c o n c e r n s o f this u n i v e r s e to a focus o n the h e a v e n l y p l a c e s is that e v e r y t h i n g in t h e h e a v e n s a n d earth will b e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r (in s u b m i s s i o n ) to Christ, w h o r e i g n s in t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s ( 1 . 2 0 - 2 ) . Still, this future that b r i n g s t o g e t h e r all t h i n g s in C h r i s t a p p a r e n t l y reflects t h e p r e v i o u s w o r k o f Christ in earth a n d t h e h e a v e n s . I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e gifts given to the community by which they build u p one another (4.7-12), Paul i n t r o d u c e s a q u o t a t i o n from P s . 6 8 . 1 9 , ' W h e n h e a s c e n d e d o n h i g h , h e m a d e captivity itself captive; h e g a v e gifts t o h i s p e o p l e ' (4.8). I n e x p l a i n i n g this q u o t a t i o n P a u l a r g u e s that a n a s c e n t i m p l i e s a descent, a d e s c e n t h e links to J e s u s ' c o m i n g into t h e ' l o w e r p a r t s o f t h e e a r t h ' (4.9). H o w e v e r , J e s u s also t h e n a s c e n d e d a b o v e all t h e h e a v e n s , ' s o that h e m i g h t fill all t h i n g s ' (4.10). T h e ' l o w e r p a r t s o f t h e e a r t h ' p r o b a b l y d o e s n o t refer t o s o m e ' u n d e r w o r l d ' , b u t r a t h e r serves as a spatial t e r m for C h r i s t living in t h e earth, a l o w p o i n t 8

c o m p a r e d t o his e x a l t e d status in t h e h e a v e n s . F r o m a c o s m o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c tive it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that P a u l e n v i s i o n s t h e w o r k o f C h r i s t in t e r m s o f t h e u n i v e r s e , b o t h earth a n d t h e h e a v e n s . F r o m a t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o n e s h o u l d n o t e that t h e w o r k effected t h e c a p t u r e o f captivity itself, w h i c h in this c a s e likely refers to G o d r e s c u i n g t h e E p h e s i a n s from their captivity to t h e ruler 9

o f the p o w e r o f t h e air a n d c o n c o m i t a n t sin ( 2 . 1 - 7 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , this

freedom

from t h e captivity t o t h e ruler o f t h e p o w e r o f t h e air, in t h e a g e o f this w o r l d

7. The second half of the letter unfolds around the 'walk' metaphor: 4.1,17; 5.2, 8,15. 8. See the arguments against the view of descent into the 'underworld' and a similar conclu sion in M. Barth, Ephesians 4-6 (AB 34A; New York: Doubleday, 1974), pp. 433-4. 9. See Robert L. Foster, 'Exploring the Limits of Grace: The Theological and Rhetorical Force of X<*P»S in Ephesians', in R. L. Foster and C. J. Roetzel (eds), The Impartial God: Essays in Honor ofJouette M. Bossier (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, forthcoming).

7. Ephesians

through

111

Philemon

(2.2), e n a b l e s t h e c o m m u n i t y to freely r e c e i v e a n d u s e t h e gifts i m p a r t e d b y Christ for their m u t u a l u p b u i l d i n g ( 4 . 8 , 11-12). T h e fact t h a t G o d c r e a t e d t h i s u n i v e r s e i m p a c t s P a u l ' s r h e t o r i c . W h e n P a u l p r a y s for t h e E p h e s i a n

EKKArjoia, h e

offers t h i s p r a y e r t o ' t h e F a t h e r ,

from

w h o m all f a t h e r h o o d in t h e h e a v e n s a n d u p o n t h e e a r t h is n a m e d ' ( 3 . 1 4 - 1 5 ) .

10

T h o u g h it r e m a i n s difficult t o d i s c e r n w h a t ' f a t h e r h o o d in t h e h e a v e n s ' refers t o exactly, t h e p o i n t is that all p a r e n t a g e in t h e c r e a t e d u n i v e r s e d e r i v e s

from

its creator. T h i s v i s i o n o f t h e d e r i v a t i v e n a t u r e o f all l i v i n g b e i n g s from t h e c r e a t o r o f all life r e i n f o r c e s P a u l ' s a i m t o set t h e E p h e s i a n s v i s i o n ' o n w h a t e x i s t e d b e f o r e c r e a t i o n in t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s , in t h i s c a s e o n t h e Father. L a t e r in t h e b o o k , P a u l b e c o m e s m o r e e x p l i c i t a b o u t h o w t h i s v i s i o n d i r e c t l y i m p a c t s t h e E p h e s i a n eKKArjoia. I n i n s t r u c t i o n s t o C h r i s t i a n m a s t e r s , P a u l w r i t e s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d ' d o t h e s a m e t o t h e m [their s e r v a n t s ] . S t o p t h r e a t e n i n g t h e m b e c a u s e y o u b o t h h a v e t h e s a m e M a s t e r in h e a v e n [the h e a v e n s ; o u p c c v o i c ] , a n d w i t h h i m t h e r e is n o p a r t i a l i t y ' . T h e c o n t r a s t , b y i m p l i c a t i o n , is b e t w e e n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e m a s t e r / s l a v e o n e a r t h , a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f b o t h m a s t e r a n d s l a v e t o t h e o n e w h o , in t h e h e a v e n s , is M a s t e r o f t h e m b o t h . T h e shift in l a n g u a g e from ' h e a v e n l y p l a c e s ' to ' h e a v e n s ' a p p a r e n t l y d e r i v e s from P a u l ' s p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h s e r v e a s a p a i r o f realities t h a t t o g e t h e r m a k e u p t h e u n i v e r s e . Yet, t h e p o i n t r e m a i n s t h e s a m e as throughout: the m e m b e r s of the Ephesian

EKKATICJICC

m u s t fix t h e i r g a z e

b e y o n d t h e e a r t h t o focus o n t h e L o r d a n d t h e d e m a n d s h e m a k e s o n all t h o s e w h o exercise lordship on the earth. T h u s , P a u l ' s c o s m o l o g y reflects t w o i m p o r t a n t realities: t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s a n d t h e u n i v e r s e , w i t h t h e u n i v e r s e d i v i d e d further into t h e h e a v e n s a n d t h e earth. T h e b a s i c distinction b e t w e e n t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s a n d t h e u n i v e r s e is that t h e u n i v e r s e c a m e into e x i s t e n c e s o m e t i m e after t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s . T h e k e y t e r m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u n i v e r s e is ' e v e r y t h i n g ' (TCC TravTa, 1 . 1 0 , 2 3 ; 3.9; 4 . 1 0 ) , w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e spiritual p o w e r s that w o r k in t h e w o r l d , a s w e l l a s all p a r e n t a g e , a n d all h u m a n b e i n g s , w h e t h e r s l a v e o r free. I n t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s r e s i d e G o d a n d J e s u s Christ, t h o u g h a m y r i a d o f spiritual forces also p o p u l a t e this r e a l m . Theologically, G o d c r e a t e d all t h e realities o f t h e u n i v e r s e ; e v e r y t h i n g derives from h i m . Yet, G o d w o r k e d within the u n i v e r s e in Christ, so that C h r i s t ' s d e s c e n t into t h e earth a n d a s c e n t into t h e h e a v e n s effectively t o o k captivity itself c a p t i v e . A t s o m e p o i n t in t h e future, at t h e fullness o f t i m e , e v e r y t h i n g w i l l b e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r in Christ, w h o w i l l r e i g n o v e r all. T h i s future r e i g n reflects t h e w o r k o f G o d a l r e a d y effected in t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s , w h e r e C h r i s t rules p r e s e n t l y h i g h a b o v e all rulers a n d authorities a n d p o w e r s a n d d o m i n i o n s . T h e E p h e s i a n s m u s t r e c o g n i z e their o w n p l a c e w i t h i n t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s , seated

10. I retain the masculine 'Father/fatherhood' to show the play on words lost in the NRSV translation, 'the Father, from whom every family in heaven and on earth takes its name'.

112

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

w i t h Christ (2.6). In fact, t h e life o f t h e E p h e s i a n EKKArjoicc d e m o n s t r a t e s the m a n i f o l d w i s d o m o f G o d to t h e rulers a n d authorities in t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s (3.10). A l l o f this c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e is u s e d b y P a u l to reorient t h e lives o f t h e E p h e s i a n ExxArioia.

Philippians T h o u g h t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e is n o t frequently a s e x p l i c i t in P h i l i p p i a n s a s in E p h e s i a n s , P a u l i n t r o d u c e s a l l u s i o n s t o c o s m o l o g y e a r l y in t h e letter. S e v e r a l p l a c e s in t h e l e t t e r ' s proem

e n v i s i o n t h e t i m e b e y o n d t h i s p r e s e n t life

w h e n t h e p e o p l e o f G o d j o i n C h r i s t in t h e h e a v e n s , t h o u g h in n o n e o f t h e t h r e e i n s t a n c e s d o e s P a u l u s e t h e t e r m ' h e a v e n ' . In 1.6 P a u l a s s u r e s t h e P h i l i p p i a n s that t h e o n e w h o b e g a n a g o o d w o r k in t h e m w i l l b r i n g it t o c o m p l e t i o n ' i n t h e d a y o f C h r i s t J e s u s ' . T h i s s t a t e m e n t i m p l i e s at least a n e n d t o t h e w o r l d a s t h e y k n o w it at t h e r e t u r n o f C h r i s t . S i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h i s l a n g u a g e r e i n f o r c e s t h e p l a c e o f t h e P h i l i p p i a n s w i t h i n t h e u n i v e r s e as t h e i r w o r k finds its c o m p l e tion in t h a t day, in n o s m a l l m e a s u r e b e c a u s e God w o r k s in t h e m a n d w o r k s in t h e m faithfully t o t h e e n d .

11

1.10 reinforces this i d e a as P a u l p r a y s for t h e

P h i l i p p i a n s t o h a v e k n o w l e d g e a n d d e p t h o f i n s i g h t , l e a d i n g t o their p u r i t y a n d b l a m e l e s s n e s s u n t i l t h e d a y o f Christ. A g a i n , P a u l e n v i s i o n s a n e n d t o t h e c u r r e n t e x p e r i e n c e o f t i m e that sets a p a r t i c u l a r t r a j e c t o r y for t h e life o f t h e Philippian community. P a u l anticipates his o w n e n t r a n c e into t h e other w o r l d , t h o u g h h e fears that h e m i g h t e n t e r this w o r l d , shall w e say, prematurely, b y d y i n g for t h e c a u s e o f t h e g o s p e l . P a u l anticipates that h e will c o n t i n u e t o live in t h e present, that is, in t h e b o d y , b u t if h e dies h e k n o w s h e will b e w i t h Christ, p r e s u m a b l y in h e a v e n , w h i c h h e prefers (1.23). T h i s life in t h e n e x t w o r l d ' w i t h C h r i s t ' , in P a u l ' s m i n d , is 'far b e t t e r ' ( 1 . 2 3 ) .

12

Paul enters t h e b o d y o f t h e Letter at 1.27 calling o n t h e Philippians to ' l i v e as w o r t h y c i t i z e n s ' o f t h e g o s p e l . W i t h i n t h e b o d y itself P a u l u s e s c o s m o l o g i c a l i m a g e r y to reinforce w h a t it m e a n s for t h e Philippians t o live as w o r t h y citizens of the gospel. O n e o f t h e initial e x h o r t a t i o n s i n v o l v e s a call t o u n i t y ( 2 . 1 - 4 ) w i t h Christ as the first a n d greatest e x a m p l e o f t h e life t h e y o u g h t t o imitate ( 2 . 5 - 1 1 ; followed b y T i m o t h y in 2 . 1 9 - 2 4 a n d E p a p h r o d i t u s in 2.25-30). In t h e f a m o u s ' C h r i s t h y m n ' , P a u l m a k e s several references to his o w n c o s m o l o g i c a l vision. W e notice in this h y m n another d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n this w o r l d a n d that o f h e a v e n ,

11. P. T. O'Brien, The Epistle to the Philippians (NIGNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), p. 65. 12. Gordon Fee notes, 'Thus, even though he throws himself with abandon into life in the present, the entire orientation of his life is toward the (absolutely certain) future' (G. Fee, Paul's Letter to the Philippians [NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995], p. 145).

7. Ephesians

through

Philemon

113

so that w h e n Christ d w e l l e d w i t h G o d in h e a v e n Christ e x p e r i e n c e d ' e q u a l i t y ' ( i o a ; 2.6) w i t h G o d , b u t c o m i n g into earth m e a n t t a k i n g o n t h e form o f a slave (SouAou; 2.7). T h i s vision o f the difference b e t w e e n the t w o w o r l d s reflects P a u l ' s earlier l a n g u a g e o f t h e life in h e a v e n as 'far b e t t e r ' a n d m a y intimate s o m e t h i n g o f the qualitative difference t h o s e w h o depart to b e w i t h Christ will e x p e r i e n c e . F o r Christ, his o w n r e t u r n t o h e a v e n p r o v e s e v e n m o r e t r i u m p h a n t t h a n his original equality w i t h G o d so that e v e r y k n e e in h e a v e n a n d earth a n d u n d e r t h e earth b o w s t o Christ (1.10). Paul g i v e s explicit l a n g u a g e t o a vision o f a three-storied u n i v e r s e p o p u l a t e d w i t h unspecified b e i n g s in e a c h r e a l m that m a y , at least metaphorically, b e n d t h e k n e e . A s P a u l b r i n g s t h e b o d y o f t h e letter to a close h e returns to t h e m e t a p h o r o f citizenship, m a k i n g o n e last contrast b e t w e e n life o n earth a n d life in h e a v e n . P e o p l e i n v e s t e d in t h e earth are destined for destruction, h a v e their b e l l y as their g o d , g l o r y in their s h a m e , a n d set their m i n d s continually o n earthly things (3.19). O n t h e other h a n d , t h e Philippians b e l o n g w i t h t h o s e w h o k n o w their citizenship lies in h e a v e n , from w h i c h t h e y e x p e c t their saviour, t h e L o r d J e s u s Christ (3.20). T h o u g h 3.20 m i g h t i m p l y current citizenship, it s e e m s that a g a i n w e find a vision o f t h e future as P a u l anticipates that h e a n d t h e P h i l i p p i a n s will h a v e their ' b o d y o f h u m i l i a t i o n ' (TCCTTE'IVCOOIC) t r a n s f o r m e d into o n e like t h e glorious b o d y o f Christ. T h i s ' b o d y o f h u m i l i a t i o n ' a n d ' b o d y o f g l o r y ' links 3.21 to t h e earlier Christ h y m n , so that t h e b o d i e s t h e P h i l i p p i a n s inhabit are b o d i e s o f slavery, like C h r i s t ' s o n earth, so that t h e y h o p e to r e c e i v e salvation from this b o d y a n d so find their b o d i e s glorified as Christ d i d at h i s exaltation. T h e vision o f t h e c o s m o s in t h e letter to t h e Philippians entails t h e vision o f a three-storied u n i v e r s e that all will o n e d a y s u b m i t t o Christ. Yet, for t h e p r e s e n t instruction to the Philippian EKKAnoia P a u l contrasts life o n earth a n d life in h e a v e n , this life o n earth as o n e o f slavery a n d t h e o n e in h e a v e n a s a life o f glory. T h e division b e t w e e n t h e s e w o r l d s is less spatial a n d m o r e t e m p o r a l in Philippians, s o that the transformation awaits a future t i m e o f either d e a t h or the d a y o f Christ, p r e s u m a b l y t h e d a y o f C h r i s t ' s return. T h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e P h i l i p p i a n 'EKKAnoia i n v o l v e s t h e i r l e a r n i n g that their c i t i z e n s h i p d o e s n o t b e l o n g o n e a r t h , in t h e flesh. R a t h e r , t h e i r c i t i z e n s h i p lies in h e a v e n w h e r e C h r i s t d w e l l s in e x a l t a t i o n a n d from w h i c h h e w i l l r e t u r n t o glorify t h e i r b o d i e s like h i s o w n . T h e P h i l i p p i a n s m u s t n o t l o s e sight o f t h e i r final a i m a n d t h e final p r i z e b u t m u s t p e r s e v e r e in t h e i r g o o d w o r k s t o b e freed from s l a v e r y in t h e b o d y . N o t o n l y d o e s t h e i r future d e p e n d o n t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d h e a v e n , P a u l ' s future d e p e n d s o n t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d heaven as well.

Colossians Paul also i n t r o d u c e s k e y c o s m o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s early o n in the Letter to t h e C o l o s s i a n s , in the o p e n i n g t h a n k s g i v i n g :

114

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

... for we have heard of your faith in Christ Jesus and of the love that you have for all the saints, because of the hope laid up for you in heaven. You have heard of this hope before in the word of truth, the gospel that has come to you. Just as it is bearing fruit and growing in the whole world, so it has been bearingfruitamong yourselves from the day you heard it and truly comprehended the grace of God (1.4-6). In t h e s e o p e n i n g lines w e o b s e r v e t w o b a s i c c o s m o l o g i c a l realities: (1) t h e h e a v e n s (pi.

TOTC

o u p a v o T c ) , in w h i c h the C o l o s s i a n s ' h o p e is laid u p ; a n d

(2) ' t h e w h o l e w o r l d '

(TTCCVTI

T G J KOOMCO),

w h i c h is t h e r e a l m in w h i c h the

gospel is p r o c l a i m e d , a n n o u n c i n g this h o p e . T h o u g h P a u l c o n n e c t s t h e t w o realities a r o u n d t h e i d e a o f h o p e , there r e m a i n s s o m e distinction b e t w e e n t h e m in that t h e g o s p e l o n l y p r o c l a i m s t h e h o p e in t h e w o r l d , w h i l e this h o p e resides in reality in t h e h e a v e n s . A s P a u l b e g i n s t o reorient t h e C o l o s s i a n s w i t h t h e d e m a n d s o f this particular Letter, h e r e m i n d s t h e m that t h e h o p e in h e a v e n g a v e birth to their faith in Christ J e s u s a n d their love for all t h e saints, as t h e g o s p e l b e a r s fruit a m o n g t h e m a n d in t h e w h o l e w o r l d . T h e m a j o r contrast b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o realities s e e m s t o b e that t h i n g s in the h e a v e n s r e m a i n invisible w h i l e t h i n g s in t h e w o r l d ( c o s m o s ) a r e visible. I n Christ, w h o is t h e i m a g e o f t h e invisible G o d ( 1 . 1 5 ) , all t h i n g s w e r e created, t h i n g s in the h e a v e n s a n d o n earth, visible o r invisible (1.16). I n t h e h e a v e n s r e s i d e s the invisible G o d , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r c r e a t e d h e a v e n l y t h i n g s , t h e t h r o n e s , d o m i n ions, rulers a n d p o w e r s m e n t i o n e d in 1.16. T h i s contrast b e t w e e n t h e visible a n d invisible is p r i m a r y as P a u l reorients t h e C o l o s s i a n EKKArjaicc, e n c o u r a g i n g t h e m to c o n t i n u e steadfast i n their faith, ' w i t h o u t shifting from t h e h o p e p r o m ised b y t h e g o s p e l that y o u h e a r d , w h i c h h a s b e e n p r o c l a i m e d to e v e r y creature under heaven' (1.23). The Colossian

EKKATIOICC

m u s t focus their m i n d s o n t h e

invisible t h i n g s in t h e h e a v e n s r a t h e r t h a n o n the visible, w h i c h will h i n d e r their faith a n d divert t h e m from their h o p e . W h a t are t h e visible t h i n g s that m i g h t lead t h e C o l o s s i a n s a s t r a y from their faith a n d h o p e ? T h e s e visible things a r e evident in t h e p o t e n t i a l l y d e c e i v i n g ' p l a u s i b l e s o u n d i n g a r g u m e n t s ' (2.4). S u c h a r g u m e n t s are r e l a t e d t o ' p h i l o s o p h y a n d e m p t y deceit, a c c o r d i n g to h u m a n tradition, a c c o r d i n g t o e l e m e n t a l spirits o f t h e u n i v e r s e '

(KOOUOU;

2.8). S o , t h e visible t h i n g s o f t h e w o r l d are

related to t h i n g s s p o k e n : p l a u s i b l e s o u n d i n g a r g u m e n t s , p h i l o s o p h y a n d e m p t y deceit. M o r e to t h e point, t h e y s p e a k o f h u m a n traditions, ' a c c o r d i n g to t h e e l e m e n t a l spirits o f t h e u n i v e r s e ' . 2 . 1 6 - 1 8 u n p a c k s this further a s P a u l instructs the C o l o s s i a n s n o t to a l l o w a n y o n e to condemn you in matters of food and drink or of observing of festivals, new moons, or Sabbaths. These are only a shadow of what is to come, but the substance belongs to Christ. Do not let anyone disqualify you, insisting on self-abasement and worship of angels, dwelling on visions, puffed up without cause by a human way of thinking. C o n c e r n for s u c h t h i n g s indicates that t h e C o l o s s i a n s act like t h e y still b e l o n g to the w o r l d

(KOOUCO),

o b e y i n g r e g u l a t i o n s that in t h e e n d c a n n o t k e e p t h e m from

7. Ephesians

through

Philemon

115

self-indulgence ( 2 . 2 0 , 2 3 ) . I n fact, s u c h ' r e g u l a t i o n s refer to things that p e r i s h with u s e ' (2.22). T h u s t h e visible things o f t h e w o r l d are t h i n g s that will p e r i s h , a n y t h i n g that o n e m a y h a n d l e , taste, o r t o u c h ( 2 . 2 1 ) . B e c a u s e s u c h t h i n g s p e r i s h w i t h u s e , it s e e m s b e s t t o t a k e OTOixeioc in 2.8 a n d 2 0 n o t as ' e l e m e n t a l s p i r i t s ' ( N R S V ) , s o m e sort o f s u p e r n a t u r a l forces, b u t r a t h e r as ' t h e m a t e r i a l s o f w h i c h t h e w o r l d a n d t h e u n i v e r s e are c o m p o s e d ' ,

1 3

similar to 2 Pet. 3.10, w h i c h states that ' t h e 14

e l e m e n t s w i l l b e d i s s o l v e d w i t h fire'.

T h e w o r l d t h e n is that w h i c h is visible,

things p e o p l e t o u c h , t h e e l e m e n t s d e s t i n e d t o p e r i s h w i t h u s e . T h e i r o n y is that r e g u l a t i o n s a b o u t s u c h t h i n g s are ' p l a u s i b l e s o u n d i n g a r g u m e n t s ' , b u t focus o n t h e m a t e r i a l , w h i c h is o n l y a s h a d o w o f t h e t h i n g s t o c o m e , w h o s e s u b stance b e l o n g s t o Christ ( 2 . 1 7 ) . T h u s , a s e c o n d i m p o r t a n t distinction b e t w e e n t h e t w o realities: o n e will p e r i s h (the w o r l d ) w h i l e t h e other will e n d u r e (the heavens).

15

A third distinction b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o b a s i c realities o f t h e c o s m o s e m e r g e s in the i m m e d i a t e l y following section w h i c h i m a g e s t h e h e a v e n s in t e r m s o f ' t h i n g s that a r e a b o v e ' ( 3 . 1 ) . P r e e m i n e n t a m o n g t h e s e is Christ, seated at t h e right h a n d o f G o d . B u t , r e l a t e d t o C h r i s t ' s sitting in t h e h e a v e n s is t h e C o l o s s i a n s ' o w n life h i d d e n w i t h Christ in G o d (3.3). T h u s , t h e y s h o u l d focus o n t h e things a b o v e b e c a u s e , ' W h e n Christ w h o is y o u r life is r e v e a l e d , t h e n y o u also will b e r e v e a l e d w i t h h i m in g l o r y ' ( 3 . 4 ) . T h o u g h P a u l instructs t h e C o l o s s i a n s n o t to focus their m i n d s o n t h e t h i n g s o f t h e earth ( y f | C ; 3.3), t h e C o l o s s i a n s m u s t still p u t t o d e a t h ' w h a t e v e r in y o u is e a r t h l y ' (TCC \ii\r\

TCC BTTI T ? | C y f | c ; 3.5). I n s t e a d o f following their former

w a y o f life, t h e C o l o s s i a n s h a v e b e e n c l o t h e d w i t h a n e w self ' b e i n g r e n e w e d in k n o w l e d g e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i m a g e o f its c r e a t o r ' ( 3 . 1 0 ) . T h i s u s e o f ' i m a g e ' (e'iKcov) a l l u d e s b a c k t o t h e o p e n i n g h y m n o f Christ, w h i c h refers to h i m as t h e ' i m a g e ' (EIKCOV) o f t h e invisible G o d ( 1 . 1 6 ) . T h u s , in t h e n e w self that t h e y c l o t h e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h , t h e C o l o s s i a n s e m b o d y t h e things o f h e a v e n , as Christ

13. J. P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida (eds), Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains (2 vols.; Atlanta: Scholars, 1992) Vol. 1 2.1; p. 19, not as they list it, among the supernatural forces in 12.43; p. 147. 14. Though, as Lohse notes, the context includes discussion of Christ's triumph over rulers and authorities (E. Lohse, Colossians and Philemon (A Commentary on the Epistles to the Colos sians and to Philemon) [trans. W. R. Poehlman and R. J. Harris; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1971], p. 98), this does not necessarily mean that the elements are elemental spirits, authorities contest ing Christ's authority. Notice the whole discussion in 2.8-15 regards circumcision of the flesh and spiritual circumcision, i.e. baptism (2.11-14). Demands for circumcision, which seem of the sort of fading elements of this world, are those that Christ 'set aside, nailing it to the cross' (2.14). 15. O'Brien writes with regard to the statement that these are only a shadow of things to come, that the Colossians should not allow themselves 'to be judged in these matters because they all belonged to the transitory order' (P. T. O'Brien, Colossians and Philemon [Waco: Word, 1982], p. 139).

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and New Testament

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d i d T h e invisible b e c o m e s visible n o t in t h e visible things o f t h e w o r l d , the earth, t h e e l e m e n t s , w h i c h w i l l all perish. R a t h e r the invisible b e c a m e visible in t h e C h r i s t w h o lives a s t h e firstborn from t h e d e a d (1.18) a n d in the lives o f the C o l o s s i a n s , w h o h a v e b e e n r a i s e d w i t h Christ (3.1). T h e c o s m o l o g y o f C o l o s s i a n s , m u c h like that o f E p h e s i a n s , i n c l u d e s t w o m a j o r r e a l m s , t h e h e a v e n s a n d t h e w o r l d , t h o u g h t h e c o s m o s in C o l o s s i a n s d o e s n o t divide a n y further. T h e h e a v e n s a r e w h e r e G o d a n d C h r i s t reside, invisible, eternal, a n d ' a b o v e ' . I n this r e a l m are rulers, authorities, t h r o n e s a n d p o w e r s . H o w e v e r , P a u l d o e s n o t instruct t h e C o l o s s i a n s a b o u t struggling against s u c h p o w e r s , b u t s i m p l y n o t e s that Christ t r i u m p h e d o v e r t h e rulers a n d authorities in t h e cross ( 2 . 1 5 ) . T h e w o r l d ( c o s m o s ) consists o f the visible, things o n e c a n t o u c h , taste, or h a n d l e , material things. T h e s e things a r e b e l o w a n d o f t h e earth, t h i n g s that will p e r i s h in t i m e . Theologically, t h e i m p o r t a n t distinction b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o r e a l m s is t h e fact that o n e is o f C h r i s t a n d t h e o t h e r is not. T h u s t h e t e a c h i n g that m i g h t t a k e t h e C o l o s s i a n s c a p t i v e c o n c e r n s t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e w o r l d a n d n o t Christ (2.8). T h e c o n c e r n for food a n d drink, festivals, n e w m o o n s , a n d S a b b a t h s a r e s h a d o w s , w h i l e t h e s u b s t a n c e b e l o n g s t o Christ (2.17). T h e C o l o s s i a n s d i e d w i t h Christ a n d n o l o n g e r n e e d r e g u l a t i o n s a b o u t n o t h a n d l i n g , tasting, o r t o u c h i n g things, as if t h e y still b e l o n g e d to t h e w o r l d a n d its e l e m e n t s (2.20). Instead, t h e y h a v e b e e n r a i s e d u p w i t h Christ a n d seated w i t h h i m in t h e h e a v e n s , w i t h their h o p e in t h e h e a v e n s a n d their life h i d d e n w i t h G o d . W h e n Christ, w h o is their life, a p p e a r s , t h e y will a p p e a r w i t h h i m in glory. T h e y k n o w w h a t t h e invisible G o d is like b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e h e a r d the g o s p e l a b o u t Christ, w h o is the i m a g e o f t h e invisible G o d in w h o m t h e fullness o f G o d d w e l l e d .

16

T h u s , P a u l reorients the C o l o s s i a n s t o w a r d a better w a y o f c o n t i n u i n g stead fast in their faith, n o t shifting from t h e h o p e p r o m i s e d to t h e m in t h e gospel. T h e y s h o u l d n o t g i v e in to p l a u s i b l e s o u n d i n g a r g u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g h o w t o c h e c k self-indulgence b u t instead r e c o g n i z e t h e y h a v e d i e d a n d b e e n r a i s e d w i t h Christ. T h e y s h o u l d direct their m i n d s t o w a r d t h i n g s that are a b o v e (3.2), b e c a u s e '[i]t is p r e c i s e l y in c o n s i d e r i n g ' t h a t w h i c h is a b o v e ' that t h e y m o l d e v e r y d a y life accordingly, in o b e d i e n c e to t h e L o r d ' .

1 7

They have the new,

w h i c h , like Christ, is t h e i m a g e o f their creator, a n d s o clothe t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h o s e virtues that reflect t h e life o f C h r i s t ( 3 . 1 2 - 1 5 ) , signs o f their r e n e w e d life in C h r i s t (3.10).

1

Thessalonians

T h e c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e in 1 T h e s s a l o n i a n s is rather sparse, b u t n o t insig nificant. A t t h e e n d o f his c o m m e n d a t i o n o f t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s , P a u l w r i t e s that 16. Thus, Christ is 'absolutely superior to the cosmos* as the image of God, in contrast to the Hellenistic view of the cosmos as the image of God (Lohse, Colossians and Philemon, pp. 47-8). 17. Ibid.,p. 133.

7. Ephesians

through

117

Philemon

they t u r n e d from idols to t h e living G o d a n d n o w ' w a i t for h i s S o n from h e a v e n , w h o m h e r a i s e d from t h e d e a d - J e s u s , w h o r e s c u e s u s from t h e w r a t h that is c o m i n g ' ( 1 . 1 0 ) . In t h e s e few w o r d s P a u l g i v e s u s several indications o f h i s c o s m o l o g y . First, J e s u s a b i d e s in t h e h e a v e n s until h e r e t u r n s . S e c o n d , a p p a r e n t l y at t h e t i m e o f his resurrection J e s u s w a s t a k e n u p into h e a v e n . Finally, P a u l i m p l i e s that this a g e w i l l c o m e t o a n e n d w h e n J e s u s returns w i t h j u d g e m e n t . T h i s b a s i c t h o u g h t c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s ' c o m i n g from h e a v e n to r e s c u e b e l i e v ers from w r a t h r e c e i v e s a m o r e d e v e l o p e d discussion in 4 . 1 3 - 5 . 1 1 , w h e r e P a u l tries to r e a s s u r e t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s a b o u t t h o s e a l r e a d y d e a d ( 4 . 1 3 ) . P a u l a g a i n asserts that t h e L o r d w i l l d e s c e n d from h e a v e n at that t i m e , w i t h t h o s e a l r e a d y d e a d rising first a n d t h e n t h o s e w h o r e m a i n alive c a u g h t u p in t h e c l o u d s to m e e t t h e L o r d in t h e air in o r d e r to live w i t h h i m forever ( 4 . 1 6 - 1 7 ) . A p p a r e n t in this l a n g u a g e is t h e b e l i e f that h e a v e n is t h e a b o d e o f G o d a n d Christ a n d o f the a r c h a n g e l , b u t n o t o f h u m a n s , including the d e a d . Rather, the d e a d a n d t h e living b o t h r e s i d e s o m e w h e r e on/in t h e earth a n d a w a i t C h r i s t ' s c o m i n g . T h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e d e a d a n d t h e living t h e n is n o t spatial, since b o t h a b i d e in t h e earth, b u t t e m p o r a l , w i t h t h e d e a d p r e c e d i n g t h e living t o m e e t C h r i s t in t h e air, t h o u g h b o t h w i l l finally reside w i t h t h e L o r d forever ( 4 . 1 7 ) .

18

I n t h e s e p a s s a g e s P a u l d i s c u s s e s the w a y s o f G o d in Christ in t h e c o s m o s to e n c o u r a g e this y o u n g c o n g r e g a t i o n , w h i c h h e s e e m s to think n e e d s special c a r e . P a u l reorients their t h i n k i n g c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e a d , s o that t h e y w i l l n o t g r i e v e like t h e w o r l d d o e s (4.13), b u t instead e n c o u r a g e a n d b u i l d e a c h o t h e r u p (5.11). B e c a u s e o f their a s s u r a n c e that Christ will return, that t h e d e a d will rise first, a n d that t h e living a n d t h e d e a d in Christ w i l l b e w i t h t h e L o r d forever, t h e y c a n take heart. In fact, C h r i s t ' s resurrection from t h e d e a d a n d s u b s e q u e n t exaltation to h e a v e n w i t h G o d , s e r v e s as t h e b a s i s for their future h o p e o f C h r i s t ' s r e t u r n .

19

N o t i c e that t h e s e b o t h a r e c o n n e c t e d at t h e close o f P a u l ' s p r a y e r for t h e T h e s salonians in t h e m i d d l e section, w h e r e h e h o p e s t h e y w i l l ' b e b l a m e l e s s before o u r G o d a n d F a t h e r at t h e c o m i n g o f o u r L o r d J e s u s w i t h all t h e s a i n t s ' ( 3 . 1 3 ) .

2

Thessalonians

2 T h e s s a l o n i a n s c o n t a i n s a greater d e n s i t y o f c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e c o m p a r e d to t h e earlier letter. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g w e find o n e o f t h e few instances o f t h e u s e o f k i n g d o m l a n g u a g e in t h e P a u l i n e c o r p u s . H e r e P a u l c o n s i d e r s t h e afflic tions a n d p e r s e c u t i o n s that t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s e n d u r e as p r e p a r i n g t h e m for the k i n g d o m o f G o d (1.4-5). Temporally, this K i n g d o m is a future K i n g d o m , 18. Malherbe argues that there is also a qualitative difference inherent in the term <J>6avco, so that he translates this phrase more generically, 'we... shall by no means have precedence over those who have fallen asleep' (A. J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians: A New Transla tion with Introduction and Commentary [AB 32B; New York: Doubleday, 2000], pp. 272-3). 19. I. H. Marshall, The New Century Bible Commentary: I and 2 Thessalonians (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983), p. 59.

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and New Testament

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s o m e t h i n g that t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s w i l l attain. Spatially, this K i n g d o m is also a h e a v e n l y k i n g d o m , if w e c o n s i d e r t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f J e s u s ' f r o m h e a v e n w i t h his m i g h t y a n g e l s in flaming fire' as a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t i m e w h e n t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e will e n t e r t h e K i n g d o m . T h e Letter reinforces this c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n e n t e r i n g t h e K i n g d o m a n d t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f J e s u s in h e a v e n w i t h P a u l ' s d e s c r i p tion that ' o n that d a y ' t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e d will m a r v e l at J e s u s ' a p p e a r a n c e ( 1 . 1 0 ) . T h e c o m i n g o f J e s u s t h e n e n d s this p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e o f t i m e a n d s p a c e s o that t h e b e l i e v e r s w i l l e n t e r into t h e K i n g d o m a n d J e s u s Christ will b r e a c h t h e d i v i d e b e t w e e n this w o r l d a n d t h e other. T h e activities in b o t h p l a c e s r e m a i n c o n s o n a n t , h o w e v e r . T h u s , at t h e p r e s e n t m o m e n t , the T h e s s a l o n i a n s e n d u r e affliction a n d p e r s e c u t i o n , c o n t i n u i n g stead fast a n d faithful, w h i c h P a u l c o n s i d e r s a sign o f t h e j u s t j u d g e m e n t o f G o d (1.4-5). T h e t h e o l o g i c a l c l a i m is that at t h e e n d o f this p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e o f t i m e a n d s p a c e G o d w i l l inflict p u n i s h m e n t o n t h o s e w h o d e s e r v e j u d g e m e n t . Implicitly, this p a s s a g e asserts that G o d r e m a i n s c o m p l e t e l y a w a r e o f t h e things h a p p e n i n g o n earth a n d s o will b e a b l e to right t h e w r o n g s h a p p e n i n g o n earth. P a u l u s e s this d i s c o u r s e o f t h e future r e i g n a n d c o n c o m i t a n t j u d g e m e n t o f G o d in p a r t b e c a u s e h e fears that t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s h a v e fallen p r e y to a d i s c o u r s e , p u r p o r t i n g to c o m e from P a u l a n d h i s c o m p a n i o n s , that t h e d a y o f the L o r d is a l r e a d y h e r e ( 2 . 1 - 2 ) . P e r h a p s t h e i m a g e r y o f G o d afflicting t h o s e w h o fall u n d e r j u d g e m e n t at t h e e n d o f t i m e c a u s e s t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s to w o n d e r w h e t h e r t h e y are p r e s e n t l y u n d e r G o d ' s eschatological j u d g e m e n t . P a u l assures t h e m that t h e c o m i n g j u d g e m e n t o f G o d in fact follows a discernible s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s . Several t h i n g s c a u s e t h e d e l a y o f ' t h a t d a y ' , i n c l u d i n g t h e fact that t h e lawless o n e a p p a r e n t l y h a s n o t a p p e a r e d y e t a n d h a s n o t a p p e a r e d b e c a u s e the o n e w h o n o w restrains t h e a p p e a r i n g o f t h e lawless o n e h a s n o t b e e n r e m o v e d ( 2 . 3 , 6-8). T h e e x a c t identity o f t h e ' l a w l e s s o n e ' a n d ' t h e o n e w h o r e s t r a i n s ' n e e d n o t d e l a y u s h e r e . W h a t is significant t o o u r p u r p o s e s is threefold. First, P a u l e n v i s i o n s t h e c o m i n g d a y o f J e s u s Christ as h a p p e n i n g o n a particular t i m e t a b l e , w i t h certain e v e n t s that m u s t o c c u r before J e s u s r e t u r n s . S e c o n d , the a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e ' l a w l e s s o n e ' c a n n o t t h w a r t t h e p u r p o s e s o f G o d a n d in fact, Christ will d e s t r o y / a n n i h i l a t e this b e i n g w h e n h e c o m e s (2.8). Third, t h e w o r k i n g o f the lawless o n e represents the w o r k i n g o f Satan, a b e i n g w h o appar ently w o r k s w i t h i n t h e c o s m o s p r e s e n t l y t h r o u g h ' p o w e r , s i g n s , lying, w o n d e r s a n d e v e r y k i n d o f w i c k e d d e c e p t i o n ' ( 2 . 1 0 ) . T h e r e a s o n that m a n y refuse to love t h e truth a n d r e c e i v e salvation (2.10) in n o s m a l l m e a s u r e relates t o t h e w o r k i n g o f S a t a n , w h i c h G o d reinforces b y s e n d i n g a p o w e r f u l d e l u s i o n u p o n unbelievers (2.11). T h e c o s m o s in 2 T h e s s a l o n i a n s c o n c e r n s m o s t l y t h e t e m p o r a l w o r l d , w h i c h for t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s is p r e s e n t l y e x p e r i e n c e d as a t i m e o f affliction. Yet, the g o o d n e w s for t h e m in t h e m i d s t o f their affliction is that their suffering is n o t a sign o f h a v i n g fallen u n d e r t h e j u d g e m e n t o f G o d . Rather, G o d will faith fully s t r e n g t h e n t h e m a n d g u a r d t h e m in t h e m i d s t o f t h e w o r k i n g o f v a r i o u s

7. Ephesians

through

Philemon

119

evil forces w h o are a p p a r e n t l y p h y s i c a l ( ' t h e lawless o n e ' a n d ' t h e o n e w h o r e s t r a i n s ' ) a n d t h o s e w h o a r e a p p a r e n t l y spirits ( S a t a n , t h e evil o n e ) . W h e n this current t i m e o f t h e c o s m o s c o m e s t o an e n d , at t h e p r o p e r t i m e , C h r i s t w i l l a p p e a r in a w a y e v i d e n t to all a n d G o d will e x e c u t e j u d g e m e n t a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o p r e s e n t l y afflict t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r u n b e l i e v e r s . A c c o r d i n g to P a u l ' s explicit d i s c o u r s e , G o d in fact r e i g n s in t h e w o r l d a n d will manifest that r e i g n m o r e clearly in the t i m e o f future j u d g e m e n t . Further m o r e , t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s will find t h e m s e l v e s able t o e n d u r e in their p r e s e n t struggles in t h e w o r l d b e c a u s e o f G o d ' s faithful protection. L i k e w i s e , t h o u g h G o d r e i g n s from h e a v e n t h e text i m p l i e s that G o d s e e s all that h a p p e n s o n t h e earth a n d will exercise j u s t j u d g e m e n t b a s e d o n this observation. T h e p r i m a r y a g e n t o f G o d , t h e L o r d J e s u s , will h i m s e l f e x e c u t e j u s t i c e against t h e l a w l e s s o n e b y annihilating h i m , d e s t r o y i n g h i m rather easily, s i m p l y w i t h t h e b r e a t h o f his m o u t h . Rhetorically, t h e n , t h e v i s i o n o f t h e c o s m o s i n t e n d s to affect t h e T h e s s a l o n i a n s in t w o w a y s d u r i n g their t i m e o f affliction. First, P a u l w a n t s t o allay their fears that their affliction s h o w s that t h e d a y o f t h e L o r d h a s a l r e a d y c o m e a n d t h e y s t a n d u n d e r t h e L o r d ' s j u d g e m e n t . S e c o n d , h e w a n t s t o e n c o u r a g e t h e m to e n d u r e d u r i n g this h o u r as a sign o f their faith in t h e j u s t j u d g e m e n t o f G o d , w h o will assert his r e i g n m o r e clearly at t h e a p p r o p r i a t e hour.

/

Timothy

T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e first c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e in 1 T i m o t h y o c c u r s in t h e ' t r u s t w o r t h y ' statement: ' C h r i s t J e s u s c a m e into the w o r l d t o s a v e sinners - o f w h o m I a m the f o r e m o s t ' ( 1 . 1 5 ) . This o n e line p r o v i d e s several k e y n u a n c e s o f c o s m o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t . P e r h a p s p r i m a r y a m o n g t h e m is t h e vision o f t h e w o r l d as the s p h e r e in w h i c h salvation is w r o u g h t .

20

We do not have a sense of Paul's

e m p h a s i s o n G o d r e c o n c i l i n g all t h i n g s in h e a v e n a n d o n earth in C h r i s t a s in C o l o s s i a n s , b u t r a t h e r a specific e m p h a s i s o n salvation in t h e w o r l d . S e c o n d , t h o u g h P a u l d o e s n o t indicate t h e total c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d , P a u l i m a g i n e s a world inhabited by sinners.

21

Third, this t r u s t w o r t h y s a y i n g i m p l i e s that J e s u s

existed o u t s i d e o f t h e r e a l m o f this w o r l d b u t w a s a b l e to enter it o n b e h a l f o f humanity. A s P a u l offers t h a n k s for G o d ' s m e r c y , h e refers to G o d in t e r m s o f o n e w h o is i m m o r t a l a n d invisible ( 1 . 1 7 ) . T h i s l a n g u a g e o f t h e invisible G o d s o u n d s m u c h like t h e l a n g u a g e o f visible/invisible in C o l o s s i a n s . H e r e it is s i m p l y e n o u g h to n o t e that P a u l a p p a r e n t l y c o n s i d e r s G o d t o a b i d e in a w o r l d invisible to h u m a n i t y , i.e. h e a v e n o r t h e h e a v e n s .

20. I. H. Marshall, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (ICC; Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1999), p. 398. 21. The term is again K O O U O C , but seems restricted to the earth given the focus on sinners.

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and New Testament

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3.16 i n t r o d u c e s a s i m p l e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e m y s t e r y o f faith, t h o u g h t h e exact m e a n i n g o f s o m e lines r e m a i n s u n c l e a r : He was revealed in the flesh, vindicated in the spirit, seen by angels, proclaimed among the Gentiles, believed in throughout the world, taken up in glory. T h e o p e n i n g line affirms w h a t w e o b s e r v e d in 1.15: C h r i s t c a m e i n t o t h e w o r l d , t h o u g h in 3.16 P a u l affirms t h a t h e c a m e in flesh. W i l l i a m M o u n c e p o i n t s o u t that flesh is n o t c o n s i d e r e d 'sinful f l e s h ' , b u t s i m p l y refers to Christ's humanity.

22

C h r i s t ' s v i n d i c a t i o n b y t h e Spirit is a b i t o b s c u r e b u t

s e e m s t o fall into line w i t h t h e c l a i m in R o m . 1.5 that J e s u s w a s d e c l a r e d t o b e t h e s o n o f G o d b y t h e spirit o f h o l i n e s s w h e n h e w a s r a i s e d from t h e d e a d . Yet, as o b v i o u s l y a s h e c a m e i n t o t h e w o r l d , t a k i n g o n t h e flesh, h e a l s o a p p a r e n t l y left t h e w o r l d , ' s e e n b y t h e a n g e l s ' in h i s a s c e n s i o n i n t o g l o r y .

23

And, though

t h e w o r l d is full o f s i n n e r s , it is a p p a r e n t l y n o t e v i l in itself, a s p e o p l e in t h e world believe the proclamation of the gospel.

24

Finally, w e s e e a n a l l u s i o n t o

h e a v e n a s a p l a c e o f ' g l o r y ' , likely a s a r e f e r e n c e t o h e a v e n a s a p l a c e w h e r e t h e G o d o f g l o r y d w e l l s . T h i s p r o v i d e s a stark c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth, w h e r e e a r t h is full o f s i n n e r s in n e e d o f salvation a n d h e a v e n is a p l a c e of glory as G o d ' s abode. The next invocation of cosmological language employs imagery of a cosmic tribunal as P a u l p r e s e n t s a c h a r g e before t h e j u d g e a n d c o u r t r o o m w i t n e s s e s , including t h e elect a n g e l s ( 5 . 2 1 ) , w h i c h a d d s to t h e s o l e m n i t y o f t h e c h a r g e , g i v e n that m e n t i o n i n g t h e elect a n g e l s is u n u s u a l in t h e N T .

2 5

Two important

e m p h a s e s e m e r g e in r e g a r d to c o s m o l o g y . O n e is that G o d , C h r i s t a n d t h e elect angels a b i d e in t h e h e a v e n s , b u t t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s o b s e r v e t h e affairs o f h u m a n ity, in this particular instance, t h e affairs o f t h e c h u r c h in E p h e s u s . T w o , there will b e a t i m e w h e n t h e y w i l l call a p e r s o n , in this c a s e Timothy, t o a c c o u n t for the d e e d s t h e y o b s e r v e o n earth. I n a s e c o n d c h a r g e to Timothy, P a u l a g a i n i n v o k e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f G o d a n d o f C h r i s t J e s u s , t h o u g h n o w l e a v i n g o u t the elect a n g e l s ( 6 . 1 3 - 1 4 ) . P a u l m a k e s explicit t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l o v e r t o n e s b y d e m a n d i n g that T i m o t h y k e e p ' t h e c o m m a n d m e n t w i t h o u t spot o r b l a m e until t h e manifestation o f o u r L o r d ' (6.14). A g a i n , t h e r e a d e r gets a s e n s e o f h e a v e n as a p l a c e w h e r e t h e invisible resides, t h o u g h t h e invisible n e v e r t h e l e s s sees w h a t o c c u r s in t h e visible w o r l d , whether Timothy keeps the commandment.

22. 23. 24. 25.

W. D. Mounce, Pastoral Epistles (WBC 46; Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2000), p. 227. Mounce, Pastoral Epistles, p. 229; Marshal, Pastoral Epistles, p. 527. Mounce, Pastoral Epistles, p. 230. G. D. Fee, land 2 Timothy, Titus (NIBCNT; Peabody: Hendrickson, 1988), p. 131.

7. Ephesians

through

121

Philemon

A s P a u l d r a w s t h e b o o k to a close, h e t w i c e a d d r e s s e s issues o f w e a l t h a n d possessions. In urging contentment, Paul apparently quotes a proverbial saying, ' w e b r o u g h t n o t h i n g into t h e w o r l d a n d w e c a n n o t t a k e a n y t h i n g out o f the w o r l d ' (6.7). It is clear that, c o s m o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , o n l y in this w o r l d are p o s s e s s i o n s a n y g o o d a n d that o n e will n o t carry p o s s e s s i o n s into t h e n e x t world.

26

Still, in a further s t a t e m e n t o n p o s s e s s i o n s , P a u l d o e s n o t c o n d e m n t h e m b u t states that G o d p r o v i d e s richly for u s ' e v e r y t h i n g for o u r e n j o y m e n t ' (6.17), reinforcing a v i s i o n o f G o d ' s p r o v i d e n t i a l care for h u m a n i t y .

27

A s God reaches

into t h e w o r l d t o p r o v i d e for h u m a n i t y , so t o o t h e rich o f this w o r l d m a y , shall w e say, r e a c h into h e a v e n . B y their g e n e r o s i t y t o w a r d others t h e y store u p 'for t h e m s e l v e s t h e treasure o f a g o o d foundation for t h e future, s o that t h e y m a y t a k e h o l d o f t h e life that really is life' ( 6 . 1 9 ) . Wealth, w h e n p u t to p r o p e r u s e , still c a n n o t b e t a k e n into h e a v e n , b u t d o e s m a k e p r o v i s i o n for life in h e a v e n . T h e c o s m o l o g y o f 1 T i m o t h y entails t w o r e a l m s , t h e r e a l m o f this w o r l d a n d a n o t h e r r e a l m , p r e s u m a b l y h e a v e n . T h e r e a l m o f t h e earth i n c l u d e s p e o p l e o f flesh a n d w e a l t h , t h o u g h t h e s e a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y ' c o r r u p t , sinful flesh'. T h e r e a l m o f h e a v e n is a p l a c e o f t h e invisible, w h e r e G o d , J e s u s a n d t h e a n g e l s a b i d e . T h e r e is s o m e p e r m e a b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a l m s a s t h e invisible o b s e r v e t h e activities o f t h e w o r l d a n d a s t h e d e e d s o f t h o s e in t h e w o r l d m a y p r o d u c e s o m e effect in t h e invisible w o r l d . T h e o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e w o r l d is a p l a c e o f b o t h sin a n d salvation, a p l a c e J e s u s e n t e r e d in o r d e r to b r i n g salvation. T h e w o r l d is also t h e r e a l m w h e r e p e o p l e b e l i e v e that J e s u s c a m e to p r o v i d e salvation. G o d , t h o u g h u n s e e n , m a k e s c o n t i n u e d p r o v i s i o n for t h e w h o l e w o r l d , sustaining h i s creation, b u t also o b s e r v e s t h e activities o f h u m a n i t y in t h e w o r l d a n d will h o l d t h e w o r l d accountable. In the w o r l d o f t h e E p h e s i a n

SKKXriaia Timothy

h a s the difficult task o f serving

a s a n emissary, holding the leading citizens o f this c o m m u n i t y accountable o n a n u m b e r o f fronts, w h e t h e r to s o u n d teaching ( 1 . 3 ; 4 . 1 1 ; 6.3), to correct b e h a v i o u r (3.15), to g i v e p r o p e r o r d e r to the care o f w i d o w s (5.7), or to serve a s a j u d g e in cases that arise in the EKKXTJOICC ( 5 . 2 1 ) . Consequently, P a u l reorients T i m o t h y t o w a r d t h e realities o f t h e c o s m o s in order to strengthen h i m for his tasks. A s o n e w h o s e t e a c h i n g w i l l s a v e b o t h h i m s e l f a n d h i s hearers (4.16), T i m o t h y n e e d s the r e m i n d e r that t h e w o r l d is t h e p l a c e o f salvation, w h e r e p e o p l e b e l i e v e t h e g o o d n e w s that J e s u s c a m e into t h e w o r l d for the e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o f salvation. A s T i m o t h y h o l d s others a c c o u n t a b l e for their t e a c h i n g a n d their actions, h e m u s t r e m e m b e r that there is a h e a v e n l y tribunal o b s e r v i n g his d e e d s a n d that will h o l d h i m a c c o u n t a b l e at t h e e n d o f t h e p r e s e n t a g e . In e x h o r t i n g others t o w a r d correct

26. Marshall, Pastoral Epistles, p. 646. 27. L. T. Johnson, The First and Second Letters to Timothy (AB 35 A; New York: Doubleday, 2001), p. 310.

122

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

behaviour, T i m o t h y m u s t r e m e m b e r that the d e e d s d o n e o n earth h a v e an effect o n the future o f p e o p l e in t h e n e x t life, real life.

2

Timothy

Early o n in 2 T i m o t h y w e r e a d c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e that divides t h e a g e s o f the w o r l d into t h e past, p r e s e n t a n d future. In t h e p a s t , ' b e f o r e t h e a g e s b e g a n ' , G o d g a v e g r a c e to P a u l a n d T i m o t h y b o t h for salvation a n d for t h e specific w o r k o f m i n i s t r y that e a c h p e r f o r m s ( 1 . 8 - 9 ) . Yet, t h e gift did n o t c o m e to light until the p r e s e n t m o m e n t , w i t h t h e a p p e a r i n g o f Christ J e s u s ( 1 . 1 0 ) . A s a result P a u l b e c a m e a h e r a l d o f t h e g o s p e l , w h i c h led t o h i s o w n suffering, b u t h e d o e s n o t b a c k a w a y in s h a m e b e c a u s e h e k n o w s that Christ will g u a r d w h a t h e entrusted to P a u l until ' t h a t d a y ' ( 1 . 1 2 ) . I n t h e p a s t , p r e s e n t a n d future o f t h e c o s m o s , w e find Christ w o r k i n g a n d w o r k i n g o n b e h a l f o f P a u l a n d T i m o t h y . T h i s w o r k o f Christ u n b o u n d b y t i m e l e n d s significance t o t h e t a s k e n t r u s t e d to T i m o t h y a n d Paul a n d e n c o u r a g e s t h e m to c o n t i n u e w i t h it in t h e m i d s t o f v a r i o u s struggles. T h e confidence o f T i m o t h y a n d P a u l is that, t h o u g h this p r e s e n t a g e w i l l appar ently p a s s , C h r i s t b r o u g h t life a n d immortality

to light t h r o u g h t h e g o s p e l (1.10).

Just as from t h e a g e before t h e w o r l d G o d g a v e g r a c e , s o i n t o t h e a g e after this w o r l d T i m o t h y a n d P a u l w i l l c o n t i n u e t o a b i d e in G o d ' s g r a c e . Yet, this sharing in eternal life, g a i n i n g eternal g l o r y in C h r i s t J e s u s ( 2 . 1 0 ) , requires certain a c t i o n s o n t h e p a r t o f T i m o t h y a n d P a u l . First, t h e y m u s t h a v e d i e d w i t h Christ to a l s o live w i t h h i m . S e c o n d , t h e y m u s t e n d u r e to r e i g n w i t h h i m ( 2 . 1 2 a ) . Third, t h e y c a n n o t d e n y h i m o r Christ w i l l d e n y t h e m ( 2 . 1 2 b ) . All three o f t h e s e c l a i m s s e e m t o e n v i s i o n a t i m e after t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d , w h e n o n e m a y live a n d r e i g n w i t h C h r i s t o r fall u n d e r h i s j u d g e m e n t . T h e t h i n g s that h a p p e n o n ' t h a t d a y ' i n c l u d e b o t h g o o d for t h o s e w h o e n d u r e d for t h e g o s p e l ' s sake a n d ill for t h o s e w h o d i d not. A s in 2 T h e s s a l o n i a n s , P a u l m u s t assert that t h e p r e s e n t h o u r is n o t t h e t i m e o f t h e future; in this c a s e t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e d e a d h a s n o t a l r e a d y t a k e n p l a c e (2.18). F o r P a u l , o n e m u s t m a i n t a i n a strict division b e t w e e n t h e b o u n d a r y o f t i m e d i v i d i n g this w o r l d a n d t h e future w o r l d . Talk that c o l l a p s e s t h e s e t w o different t i m e s is p r o f a n e c h a t t e r ( 2 . 1 6 ) that u p s e t s t h e faith o f s o m e ( 2 . 1 8 ) . E v e n t h o u g h P a u l a w a i t s ' t h a t d a y ' a n d d o e s n o t a l l o w that t h e p r e s e n t is actually t h e future, h e n e v e r t h e l e s s s e e m s t o c o n s i d e r that h e a n d T i m o t h y live in t h e ' l a s t d a y s ' ( 3 . 1 ) . P e o p l e w i l l d o all sorts o f evil d e e d s a n d s a y all sorts o f evil w o r d s (3.2-5) a n d P a u l e x h o r t s T i m o t h y t o a v o i d t h e s e p e o p l e (3.5), i m p l y ing that t h e t r o u b l e o f t h e last d a y s is, in fact for P a u l , t h e t r o u b l e s o f today. W h a t Paul w a n t s T i m o t h y t o consider in light o f 'that d a y ' is that, if Christ Jesus will i n d e e d j u d g e t h e living a n d t h e d e a d , a n d his K i n g d o m will appear, then T i m o t h y o u g h t to s p e n d h i s t i m e in this w o r l d b o l d l y p r o c l a i m i n g t h e m e s s a g e entrusted to h i m (4.1-2). O n e subtle c o s m o l o g i c a l n o t e h e r e is that P a u l divides the p e o p l e o f the c o s m o s into t w o distinct c a t e g o r i e s , t h o s e living a n d t h o s e

7. Ephesians

through

Philemon

123

d e a d . Eventually, e v e n t h e d e a d will live forever, or at least t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e d in Christ. In fact, P a u l k n o w s that h i s o w n t i m e is at h a n d , t h e t i m e o f h i s death (4.6) a n d that ' o n that d a y ' P a u l w i l l r e c e i v e t h e c r o w n o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s laid u p for h i m , a l o n g w i t h all t h o s e w h o l o n g for h i s a p p e a r i n g (4.8). T h u s , in 2 T i m o t h y , t h e c o s m o s is d i v i d e d into t h e w o r l d a n d h e a v e n , the living a n d t h e d e a d , a n d t h e t i m e b e f o r e t i m e , t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , a n d future t i m e , especially the t i m e o f ' t h a t d a y ' . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e p r e s e n t t i m e for P a u l w r i t i n g this letter a p p a r e n t l y i n v o l v e s t h e ' l a s t d a y s ' . P a u l s e e m s rather u n c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e s e last d a y s , k n o w i n g h e w i l l s o o n d e p a r t a n d that G o d h a s r e s e r v e d for h i m a c r o w n o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s . Theologically, w e see that P a u l ties all the different p h a s e s o f t h e w o r l d t o G o d ' s w o r k in Christ J e s u s . M o r e o v e r , Christ m a k e s p r o v i s i o n for t h e future, i m m o r t a l i t y , life a n d t h e ability t o r e i g n w i t h him. P a u l u s e s t h e s e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f h i s c o s m o l o g y t o e x h o r t T i m o t h y to certain a c t i o n s . First, P a u l w a n t s T i m o t h y t o e n d u r e suffering for t h e s a k e o f t h e g o s p e l (1.8), k n o w i n g t h e significance o f t h e g r a c e o f their calling b o t h in t h e p a s t a n d p r e s e n t , k n o w i n g that G o d w i l l p r o t e c t the gift e n t r u s t e d to t h e m until t h e day o f Christ. S e c o n d , T i m o t h y o u g h t t o r e m i n d t h o s e w h o m h e instructs a b o u t the potential g o o d s a n d ills o f t h e future t i m e in o r d e r t o c o n v i n c e t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n to quit ' w r a n g l i n g o v e r w o r d s ' ( 2 . 1 4 ) . Third, g i v e n that t h e y live in t h e last d a y s , T i m o t h y o u g h t t o a v o i d t h o s e w h o d o a variety o f evils (3.5). Finally, T i m o t h y o u g h t t o p r o c l a i m t h e m e s s a g e w i t h b o l d n e s s a n d persist in this w o r k w h e t h e r t h i n g s s e e m favourable o r u n f a v o u r a b l e (4.1-2).

Titus O f t h e letters e x p l o r e d in this chapter, Titus c o n t a i n s t h e least a m o u n t o f c o s m o l o g i c a l i m a g e r y , t h o u g h P a u l u s e s this l a n g u a g e a s early as h e d o e s in a n y o f t h e letters. In extolling G o d , P a u l p r o c l a i m s G o d ' s p r o m i s e d h o p e o f eternal life, s o m e t h i n g h e p r o m i s e d ' b e f o r e t h e a g e s b e g a n ' ( 1 . 2 ) . T h i s i n v o c a t i o n o f ' b e f o r e t h e a g e s ' s t a n d s ' o n t h e other e n d o f t h e t e m p o r a l s p e c t r u m ' eternal l i f e .

28

from

T h e w o r k i n g o f G o d s p a n s b o t h b e f o r e t i m e a n d after t i m e a n d

a g a i n focuses o n t h e elect w h o a r e t h e beneficiaries o f G o d ' s o m n i - t e m p o r a l w o r k . Yet at v a r i o u s a p p o i n t e d t i m e s G o d r e v e a l e d h i s w o r d t h r o u g h p r o c l a m a tion, in w h i c h P a u l n o w participates (1.3). T h e i d e a h e r e s e e m s t o b e that G o d ' s w o r d w a s p r o c l a i m e d at v a r i o u s t i m e s , p e r h a p s referring t o t h e t i m e s o f t h e p r o p h e t s o r p e r h a p s to v a r i o u s p r o c l a m a t i o n s o f t h e g o s p e l b y v a r i o u s servants o f the g o s p e l , i n c l u d i n g P a u l . I n a n y c a s e , w e find that P a u l a g a i n e n v i s i o n s t h e c o s m o s in three distinct p h a s e s o f t i m e , w i t h t h e m i d d l e t i m e d i v i d e d into 'times' of the proclamation of the word.

28. R. F. Collins, 1 &2 Timothy and Titus (NTL; Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 2002), p. 305.

124

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

Titus o u g h t t o instruct older m e n , o l d e r w o m e n , y o u n g e r m e n a n d slaves a b o u t t h e c o n d u c t a p p r o p r i a t e to their status in light o f their participation in t h e Jesus c o m m u n i t y ( 2 . 1 - 1 0 ) . T h e r e a s o n for this is that t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f G o d ' s salvation d e m a n d s that p e o p l e r e n o u n c e ' i m p i e t y a n d w o r l d l y p a s s i o n s ' a n d in this ' p r e s e n t a g e ' t o live g o d l y lives, anticipating t h e fixture w h e n t h e g l o r y o f G o d a n d J e s u s Christ is m a n i f e s t (2.11-12). L i k e m a n y o f t h e p r e v i o u s letters, P a u l m e n t i o n s t h e p r e v i o u s a g e s , b u t h i s m a i n c o n c e r n is for t h e p r e s e n t t i m e in t h e w o r l d in light o f t h e future a g e . O n e m u s t live a g o d l y life in this w o r l d in light o f t h e next. W h a t Titus c a n a s s u r e t h e p e o p l e o f is that t h e y a r e h e i r s o f t h e h o p e o f eternal life ( 3 . 7 - 8 ) , signified b y their r e n e w a l in t h e H o l y Spirit (3.5-6). T h u s , G o d w o r k s in t h e c o s m o s in t h e past, present, a n d future o n b e h a l f o f the elect. In light o f this w o r k , especially as t h e y a w a i t t h e c o m i n g manifesta tion o f t h e g l o r y o f G o d a n d J e s u s Christ, Titus o u g h t to instruct v a r i o u s g r o u p s in t h e c h u r c h t o live g o d l y lives in t h e present. T h e w o r k i n g o f t h e H o l y Spirit in t h e i m m e d i a t e is a sure sign o f their future h o p e .

8 T H E COSMOLOGY OF H E B R E W S

1

Jon Laansma

What is a Study of the Cosmology

of

Hebrews?

Satellite p i c t u r e s o f earth c a n t a k e quite different f o r m s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e data that is desired. A c o n v e n t i o n a l i m a g e displays a g i v e n r e g i o n in ' t r u e c o l o u r ' form, as w e w o u l d e x p e c t it t o a p p e a r w e r e w e t o l o o k at it w i t h o u r o w n e y e s from t h e w i n d o w o f a s p a c e shuttle. A n infrared p h o t o w o u l d g i v e a v e r y differ ent i m a g e , o n e that h u m a n s w o u l d n o t see w i t h t h e ' n a k e d e y e ' , t h o u g h it w o u l d n o t for that r e a s o n b e s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a real i m a g e o f t h e s a m e area. L o o k i n g at the text o f H e b r e w s for its c o s m o l o g y is s o m e t h i n g like taking an infrared p h o t o o f the b o o k . B y the b o o k ' s ' c o s m o l o g y ' I m e a n the

descriptions)

o f created reality that are expressed o r a s s u m e d or implied in this letter, includ ing created reality's history, its structure, its inhabitants, a n d to s o m e extent its m e a n i n g . G i v e n t h e n u m b e r a n d nature o f the connections b e t w e e n c o s m o l o g y p r o p e r a n d the earthly/heavenly tabernacles, these m u s t b e considered together a n d the latter, the sanctuaries, will feature prominently in the following discussion. It m u s t b e said i m m e d i a t e l y that c o s m o l o g y in t h e n a r r o w e r s e n s e , w i t h o u t r e g a r d to t h e h e a v e n l y sanctuary, is n o t w h a t H e b r e w s is ' a b o u t ' , a s if the w r i t e r

2

w e r e c o m p o s i n g a treatise for t h e s a k e o f i n f o r m i n g his c h u r c h l y r e a d e r s o n t h e point. It is n o t w h a t l e a p s out at t h e ' n a k e d e y e ' . Yet, as s h o u l d b e o b v i o u s , a n d a s t h e following will d r a w out, c o s m o l o g y is certainly there b e h i n d a n d w i t h i n t h e L e t t e r ' s t h e o l o g y a n d a r g u m e n t . A n d it c a n b e h i g h l i g h t e d in a w a y that m a r k s its c o n t o u r s , t h o u g h a d m i t t e d l y w i t h i n s t r u m e n t s less scientifically p r e c i s e t h a n t h o s e u s e d o n o u r satellite.

1. The writing of this essay was assisted by an Aldeen Grant from Wheaton College and by the helpful critiques of several colleagues and friends. Among the latter, besides the editors of this volume, I wish to name Stephen Spencer (theology), Joseph Spradley (physics), Douglas Penney (science and faith), Daniel Treier (hermeneutics), and John Walton (Old Testament and Ancient Near East). Any mistakes are entirely my responsibility. 2. For my view on authorship, date, audience, etc. see my / Will Give You Rest (WUNT 2.98; Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1997), esp. pp. 252-74; cf. also my article, 'Hebrews', in K. J. Vanhoozer (ed.), Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of Scripture (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), pp. 274-81.

Cosmology

126

Why Study

and New Testament

the Cosmology

of

Theology

Hebrews?

S c i e n t i s t s , at least, d o n o t t a k e infrared p h o t o s s i m p l y b e c a u s e w e c a n n o r s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y are pretty. T h e y d o so b e c a u s e t h e y are after particular data (e.g., s t u d y i n g h o w t h e G u l f S t r e a m actually l o o k s ) , a n d this d a t a h a s b e e n d e e m e d r e l e v a n t for s o m e larger set o f questions that t h e y are c o n v i n c e d is i m p o r t a n t (e.g., sailing in t h e N o r t h Atlantic). T h i s a n a l o g y raises t h e q u e s t i o n for u s , ' F o r w h a t is t h e e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g H e b r e w s ' c o s m o l o g y r e l e v a n t ? W h a t larger q u e s t i o n s p r o m p t u s t o a s k after it in t h e first p l a c e ? ' First, c o s m o l o g y b e a r s o n a p e r e n n i a l q u e s t i o n o f H e b r e w s , t o w i t , w h e t h e r the b o o k ' s c o n c e p t u a l b a c k g r o u n d is c l o s e r to that o f t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w P h i l o (as o n e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t a m o n g o t h e r s o n that e n d o f t h i n g s ) o r t o that o f t h e J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c i s m that w e s e e in 4 Ezra, P a u l ' s w r i t i n g s , a n d R e v e l a t i o n 3

( a g a i n , t o cite o n l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ) . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s q u e s t i o n is w e l l k n o w n t o i n t e r p r e t e r s o f t h i s letter a n d w i l l n o t b e d e t a i l e d h e r e . H o w e v e r , w i t h i n this set o f q u e s t i o n s t h e b o o k ' s c o s m o l o g y r e v o l v e s w i t h e v e r y t h i n g e l s e a r o u n d t h e c y c l e o f t h e i n t e r p r e t e r ' s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s in a p p r o a c h i n g a g i v e n p a s s a g e ( t h e d o w n s t r o k e o f t h e c y c l e : w i l l t h e i n t e r p r e t e r tend to r e a d a g i v e n p a s s a g e in H e b r e w s , e.g., 11.3, in line w i t h P h i l o ' s o r G n o s t i c i s m ' s d u a l i s m a s o p p o s e d t o that o f a p o c a l y p t i c i s m ? ) v e r s u s t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e e x e g e s i s o f a specific p a s s a g e m i g h t s h a p e t h e i n t e r p r e t e r ' s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s ( t h e u p s t r o k e ) . T h e r e is n o t r a n s c e n d i n g this c y c l e , b u t o n ' c r i t i c a l r e a l i s t ' g r o u n d s t h e r e is h o p e that it c a n r e p r e s e n t a spiral toward truthful u n d e r s t a n d ing of the intended sense of the discourse as Scripture rather than merely a vicious

circle

in t h e e x e r c i s e o f t h e a u t o n o m o u s h u m a n r e a d e r ' s w i l l t o

4

p o w e r . F o r o u r p u r p o s e s , t h e interest o f w h a t f o l l o w s is n o t t o e n t e r d i r e c t l y into t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e l i g i o u s - h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o f H e b r e w s , b u t w e w i l l b e a r that in m i n d a s it affects a n d is affected b y reflection d i r e c t l y o n t h e letter's cosmology.

5

3. See the survey in L. D. Hurst, The Epistle to the Hebrews: Its Background of Thought (SNTSMS 65; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 4. Giving warrant to this optimism and further explanation of what it involves is D. J. Treier, Virtue and the Voice of God (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006). 5. This debate constitutes the driving concern of another and very helpful study of this topic: E. Adams, 'The Cosmology of Hebrews in R. J. Bauckham, D. R. Driver, T. A. Hart and N. MacDonald (eds), The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, forthcoming 2008). Specifically, Adams' question is whether 'Hebrews evinces a radical cosmological (indeed anti-cosmic) dualism that negates the created, physical world'. His answer: 'Rather than displaying a radical cosmological dualism that negates creation and the material world, the cosmological ethos of the epistle to the Hebrews, as I read it, is decidedly procreationaF. He argues further that there is enough in Hebrews to deduce that the writer expected a 'new creation'. ,

)

8.

127

Hebrews

S e c o n d l y , H e b r e w s ' c o s m o l o g y d o e s enter into o p e n v i e w a s a n a s p e c t o f s a l v a t i o n itself; it is n o t merely a m o n g t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s ' p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . S a l v a t i o n in this letter is c o n s t r u e d t o a significant d e g r e e in local t e r m s : it is a d e s t i n a t i o n o f r e d e e m e d h u m a n i t y , a place

u n d e r v a r i o u s n a m e s (resting

p l a c e , city, t h r o n e r o o m , etc.; see b e l o w ) . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , v e r b s o f m o v e m e n t (especially

eiospxoMca

and

6

TrpooepxoMai)

are prominent within the charac

t e r i z a t i o n o f h u m a n i n v o l v e m e n t in salvation. I n 12.18-29 this locale m i n g l e s t o p i c a l l y w i t h c o s m o l o g y , m a k i n g s o m e w h a t explicit w h a t is implicit t h r o u g h out. M o r e o v e r there is, a m o n g other t h i n g s , a v e r y definite e a r t h l y - h e a v e n l y 7

d u a l i t y at p l a y w i t h i n t h e letter's c h r i s t o l o g y a n d soteriology, there is a n explicit r e f e r e n c i n g o f c o s m o g o n y , a n d there is a s t r o n g anticipation o f c r e a t i o n ' s

telos.

C o s m o l o g y m a y n o t b e t h e m a i n t h e m e o f t h i s h o m i l y b u t it c a n n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s e x t r a n e o u s t o t h e b o o k ' s actual interests a n d so it m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d as an a s p e c t o f its

theology}

Thirdly, t h e r e is t h e q u e s t i o n o f reality itself a s t h e t e x t ' s referent, w h i c h r e m a i n s a c o n c e r n o f all w h o r e a d t h e L e t t e r from w i t h i n t h e faith it c o m m e n d s . ' R e a l i t y ' in this sense is w h a t m u s t exist if the h u m a n m i n d is to h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o talk o r t h i n k a b o u t in t h e first p l a c e , in a n y w a y w h a t s o e v e r . Faith, l o v e , a n d h o p e w o u l d self-destruct if their realities - that w h i c h is b e l i e v e d (in), loved, a n d h o p e d for - w e r e s h o w n t o b e m i r a g e s . W i t h i n t h e J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n traditions t h e m s e l v e s it h a s a l w a y s b e e n t a k e n for g r a n t e d that t h e h o p e d - f o r realities w i l l o u t d o o u r scripturally-shaped i m a g i n a t i o n s , b u t g e n e r a l l y w i t h i n a n a l o g i c a l limits w h e r e revelation pertains. T h a t this is t h e faith ' c o m m e n d e d ' b y t h e letter is e v i d e n t t h r o u g h o u t , a n d n o t least at 11.1-3 in direct c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e c o s m o s . S o , in short, t h e q u e s t i o n s are: W h a t is out t h e r e ? H o w a n d w h e r e d i d it b e g i n ? W h e r e is it n o w ? W h e r e is it g o i n g ? Is t h e r e a ' w h y ' t o it? A n d so forth. H e r e t h e r e a d e r o f H e b r e w s j o i n s c o m p a n y w i t h p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d scientists from w i t h i n a n d o u t s i d e o f that faith, w i t h all o f t h e u s u a l c o m p l e m e n t a r i t i e s a n d d i s a g r e e m e n t s , in a c o m m u n a l s e a r c h for a faithful u n d e r s t a n d i n g . O f c o u r s e a n y s u c h d i s c u s s i o n , if it is to b e fruitful, m u s t i n v o l v e at s o m e p o i n t a n a t t e m p t actually to r e a d this letter. F o u r t h l y , v e r y directly r e l a t e d t o t h i s , there a r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f o u r reflec t i o n s for t h e o l o g y a n d for p r a c t i c e ( a n d v i c e v e r s a ) . S i m p l y to m e n t i o n t h e m : F o r b i b l i c a l t h e o l o g y t h e r e is t h e q u e s t i o n o f c a n o n i c a l c o h e r e n c e , e.g., w i t h R o m a n s 8 and other themes, and possibly canonical development. For system atic t h e o l o g y t h e r e is t h e q u e s t i o n o f h e r m e n e u t i c s , e.g., B u l t m a n n ' s p r o g r a m m e

6. For a protracted discussion of this terminology, see J. M. Scholar, Proleptic Priests (JSNTSS 49; Sheffield: JSOT, 1991), pp. 91-184. 7. On the term duality versus dualism and the varieties thereof, see N. T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992), pp. 252-6; Laansma, Rest, pp. 255-7. 8. Adams, 'Cosmology', insists on the same point

Cosmology

128

and New Testament

Theology

9

o f d e m y t h o l o g i z a t i o n . F o r p r a c t i c e t h e r e a r e i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e C h r i s t i a n a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d , e.g., t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t

10

a n d t o e a c h other.

In short, there a r e in fact a g o o d m a n y larger q u e s t i o n s that w a r r a n t this ' i n f r a r e d p h o t o ' o f H e b r e w s . It c a n n o t b e o u r u n d e r t a k i n g to a n s w e r all these q u e s t i o n s , or a n y o f t h e m satisfactorily, b u t t h e y will b e b o r n e in m i n d throughout.

How is the Cosmology

of Hebrews

to be

Studied?

There are different possible a p p r o a c h e s to studying the c o s m o l o g y o f H e b r e w s . O n e a p p r o a c h w o u l d b e to stay a s c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o t h e b o o k ' s a r g u m e n t - its rhetorical strategies, literary structure, theological logic - a n d to depict its c o s m o l o g y as c o n v e y e d t h r o u g h t h e s e e l e m e n t s . T h i s a p p r o a c h is a vital a n d n e c e s s a r y o n e . H a r o l d A t t r i d g e is right that ' t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n ' c o n ceptual parallels in c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t i n g s s u c h as t h o s e o f P h i l o o r 4

Ezra

' m a y o b s c u r e t h e d y n a m i c s o f H e b r e w s ' a r g u m e n t , w h i c h s h o u l d serve as t h e fundamental criterion b y w h i c h t o assess t h e w o r k ' s t h o u g h t .

11

This is the sort

o f t h i n g I h a v e d o n e e l s e w h e r e , at least in part, a n d I w i l l h a v e t h o s e reflections in m i n d .

12

T h e c o n c l u s i o n t h e r e w a s that for t h e writer o f H e b r e w s t h e c o s m o s is 13

destined t o b e c o m e G o d ' s t e m p l e . A l t h o u g h t h e i m a g e r y o f t e m p l e a n d cultus is n o t m o n o l i t h i c o r e m p l o y e d w i t h s y s t e m a t i c consistency, for this w r i t e r t h e h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e r e p r e s e n t s t h e future o f t h e c o s m o s , n o t s i m p l y o f b e l i e v -

9. R. Bultmann famously threw down the gauntlet with these words: 'The cosmology of the New Testament is essentially mythical in character. The world is viewed as a three-storied structure, with the earth in the centre, the heaven above, and the underworld beneath... To this extent the kerygma is incredible to modern man, for he is convinced that the mythical view of the world is obsolete*. 'New Testament and Mythology', in H. W. Bartsch (ed.), Kerygma and Myth (New York: Harper and Row, 1961), pp. 1,3. The kerygma must be 'demythologized\ The exegetical and hermeneutical problems attached to questions of cosmology in the NT writings are indeed numerous and daunting. J. D. G. Dunn registers the problems and the resulting dearth of studies with respect to the ascension in Acts in his "The Ascension of Jesus: A Test Case for Hermeneutics', in F. Avemarie and H. Lichtenberger (eds), Auferstehung - Resurrection (WUNT 135; Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001), p. 301. 10. Cf. D. J. Moo, 'Nature in the New Creation: New Testament Eschatology and the Environ ment', JETS 493 (2006), 449-88. 11. H. Attridge,' "Let Us Strive to Enter That Rest": The Logic of Hebrews 4:1-11', HTR 73 (1980), 279-88 (280; cf. 287-8). 12. 'Hidden Stories in Hebrews: Cosmology and Theology', in R. Bauckham and N. MacDonald (eds), A Cloud of Witnesses: The Theology of Hebrews in its Ancient Context (LNTS; London: T&T Clark, forthcoming 2008). 13. As is commonly done, I will use the word temple, though Hebrews limits itself to the wilderness tabernacle (oKrjvrj), including at 13.10.1 presume that for this writer, what he says of the tabernacle applies equally to the temple; cf. Laansma, Rest, p. 12 n. 64.

8.

ers.

14

Hebrews

129

Additionally, h e d o e s n o t a s s u m e that, w i t h b e l i e v e r s safely r e l o c a t e d

in t h e eternal h e a v e n s , t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d will b e s u m m a r i l y annihilated a n d negated

15

b u t that, b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e b o d i l y d e a t h at G o l g o t h a , resurrection,

a n d a s c e n s i o n o f J e s u s , t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d is b e i n g c l e a n s e d a n d r e c l a i m e d as God's temple.

16

W h i l e I h a v e p a i d attention t o this sort o f study, t h e a p p r o a c h in the p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w i l l b e different. T h e a p p r o a c h h e r e will b e t o abstract a n d s y n t h e s i z e e l e m e n t s w i t h o u t r e g a r d for h o w t h e y are d e p l o y e d a n d w e i g h t e d w i t h i n t h e b o o k itself.

17

For example, within the argument of Hebrews angels get m o r e

p l a y t h a n b o d i l y resurrection, t h o u g h t h e latter will r e c e i v e equal if n o t g r e a t e r

14. To be distinguished from the view noted by H. W. Attridge, The Epistle to the Hebrews (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), pp. 222f. n. 88. 15. E.g., M. E. Isaacs, Sacred Space (JSNTSS 73; Sheffield: JSOT, 1992): The writer of Hebrews urges his readers 'to move beyond an understanding of sacred territory as located geo graphically on earth to an appreciation of its re-location as a beatific state in heaven' (p. 82); again, 'Hebrews does not speak of a restoration of sacred space on earth but of its re-location in heaven (p. 86, adding that this is in contrast to Jewish apocalyptic writings that do speak of a renewal of the earth; cf. pp. 65, 67). Also Attridge, Hebrews, on Heb. 12.27: 'Hebrews does not seem to suggest, as do some apocalyptists, a renewal of heaven and earth. What is expected is 'rather the complete destruction of what, because it can be "shaken", is transitory. The language thus reflects other strands of apocalyptic speculation that predicted the annihilation of the visible universe' (p. 381, citing as support for the latter 4 Ezra 7.31; 1 Cor. 7.31; 1 Jn 2.8, 17; Rev. 21.1). 16. The argument against cosmic renewal (see Isaacs and Attridge above) is the easier argu ment to make in Hebrews on prima facie grounds, and the claim in favour of renewal is often given in the form of assertion - perhaps based on general associations with apocalyptic parallels which involve the idea - rather than exegetical argument. An exception to the latter is Adams, 'Cosmology*. In my essay 'Hidden Stories' I do foreground those aspects of the book that argue for the 'renewal' interpretation. At the same time the fact that the author of Hebrews does not make the statement of 2 Pet. 3.13 or Rev. 21.1 (although see Heb. 1.12; 9.11) remains noteworthy and must make us pause before too quickly and too easily using metaphors such as 'renewal', 'renovation', and 'transformation'. In my view the resurrection of Jesus would have been the basis of Christian reflection on the nature of salvific transformation (1 Corinthians 15). This entailed ideas of both radical continuity and discontinuity with the original creation, so metaphors can range from renewal to annihilation and replacement. Hebrews' rhetoric tends toward the latter end (though 12.25-29 has been misread, as I argue in 'Hidden Stories') but does not exclude the former, and the former seems worked rather thoroughly, albeit quietly, into the book's fabric. In any event, less often noticed and argued is the cosmos-temple element (in this form) of my proposal. G. Beale, The Temple and the Church's Mission (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004), does the most to anticipate it based on his general thesis regarding the canon as a whole, but his points with respect to Hebrews - interesting on their own - do not constitute a compelling framework for the idea within Hebrews itself. 17. Such attempts to synthesize the book's cosmology are not common. Cf. P. Ellingworth, 'Jesus and the Universe in Hebrews', EvQ 58 (1986), 337-50; G. W. MacRae, 'Heavenly Temple and Eschatology in the Letter to the Hebrews', Semeia 12 (1978), 179-99; Adams, 'Cosmology'.

130

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

e m p h a s i s in the following sketch. O f c o u r s e n o o n e d o e s this sort o f thing without a p r e - e x i s t i n g grid, s o m e h y p o t h e s i z e d construct that assists in c o n n e c t i n g the d o t s . I n t h e interests o f full d i s c l o s u r e , t h e n , I will b e b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f c o s m o l o g y in a n t i q u i t y s u c h a s t h e y are laid o u t for t h e O T p e r i o d by, e.g., J o h n W a l t o n , critical c o n t e x t ) .

19

18

o r for t h e N T by, e.g., B u l t m a n n (in a s o m e w h a t

I will a l s o b e r e a d i n g t h e text w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o n the

historical-religious b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e letter that I h a v e e x p r e s s e d e l s e w h e r e .

20

In short, I find c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h t h e linear historical, e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n c e p tions o f J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n a p o c a l y p t i c to b e m o r e fruitful t h a n c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h P h i l o a n d G n o s t i c i s m as a w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g the t h o u g h t w o r l d o f this b o o k . It is n o t m y desire to force H e b r e w s ' s t a t e m e n t s into t h e s e a p o c a l y p t i c c o n c e p t i o n s b u t t o a d m i t t h e p l a c e o f t h e latter in m y t h i n k i n g a n d t o p r o c e e d from t h e r e . T h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h this is right- or w r o n g - h e a d e d will b e o p e n t o j u d g e m e n t , b u t if a n y o n e d i s a g r e e s w i t h m y analysis it w i l l n o t b e b e c a u s e h e or she t r a n s c e n d s this h e r m e n e u t i c a l circle.

Preliminary

Observations:

Cosmology

in Antiquity

and Sacred

Space

T w o g e n e r a l c o m m e n t s w i l l serve to g i v e a b r o a d orientation t o o u r investiga tion. First, c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e c o s m o l o g i e s o f t h e A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t ( A N E ) , John Walton writes, Like everyone else in the ancient world, Egyptians were less interested in that which was physical than in that which was metaphysical - what lies beyond physical reality. Nut, as the sky goddess, is portrayed arching her body over the disk shaped earth. She is often supported by the hands of the god of the air while the earth god, Geb, lies prone at her feet. This is not a physical representation. The Egyptians did not believe that one could go step on Nut's toes, or throw a rock and hit her knees. Instead the portrayal communicates important truths concerning what the Egyptians believed about authority and jurisdiction in the cosmos. These truths concern function, not substance. Though they may not deal with the material world per se, they represent reality - a greater reality than the material world offered. The cosmos functioned by means of the gods playing out their roles. Whatever the physical structure of the heavens, it was not a priority to them. To describe creation is to describe the establishment of the functioning cosmos, not the origins of the material structure or substance of the cosmos. Material substance had relatively little importance or relevance to their understanding of the world. 21

A t least at s o m e p o i n t s in that p a r a g r a p h W a l t o n ' s w o r d i n g d o e s n o t e x c l u d e e n t i r e l y a n i n t e r e s t in ' m a t e r i a l s t r u c t u r e o r s u b s t a n c e ' , a n d , in a n y e v e n t , h i s

18. 2006). 19. 20. 21.

J. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker, Bultmann, 'New Testament and Mythology'. See my discussion in Rest, esp. pp. 10-13,253-9, 317-58. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, p. 181.

8.

Hebrews

131

d e p i c t i o n w o u l d h a v e t o b e qualified b y t h e t i m e w e r e a c h t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d o f t h e first c e n t u r y in g e n e r a l .

22

B u t W a l t o n ' s c o m m e n t is r e l e v a n t

as a description of the O T w o r l d that shaped the Scriptures of the writer of H e b r e w s , a n d it is t h e p o s i t i v e p o i n t r e g a r d i n g ( A N E ) a n t i q u i t y ' s d o m i n a t i n g metaphysical

a n d functional

i n t e r e s t t h a t is i m p o r t a n t t o register. A t t h a t p o i n t

W a l t o n ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n h o l d s a s a g o o d m o d e l for t h e e n t i r e t y o f H e b r e w s , i n c l u d i n g 11.3 a n d 1 2 . 2 7 . W h a t e v e r t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s m i g h t h a v e s a i d in a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , in t h i s letter n o t h i n g g o e s e v e n as far a s 1 Cor. 1 5 . 3 5 - 5 4 in the direction of addressing questions of material structure or substance. We cannot assume that the writer of H e b r e w s w a s aware of Greek conceptions of the earth as a sphere and debates over whether the earth circled the sun or the sun the earth;

23

but neither can w e assume, as Bultmann seemed to do, that

he took his c o s m o l o g y and talk of the heavenly tabernacle as straightforward s t r u c t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n . T h e s e t w o w e r e n e v e r t h e o n l y o p t i o n s in u n d e r s t a n d ing t h e u s e o f c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d h e a v e n l y s a n c t u a r y l a n g u a g e . I n w h a t w a y this p a r t i c u l a r t h i n k e r - from w h o m w e h a v e b u t o n e a n o n y m o u s d i s c o u r s e of uncertain social location - w a s even aware of our form of the question c a n n o t b e m o r e t h a n g u e s s e d at. B u t from w h a t is h e r e it a p p e a r s t h a t a s far a s cosmology and the heavenly tabernacle are concerned the writer of Hebrews w a s c o n t e n t t o f o l l o w t h r o u g h w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f 11.1 -3 - t o a c c e p t b y faith the Word of Scripture, read christologically - and to concern both himself and h i s r e a d e r s w i t h t h e meaning through to the

o f it all a s that S c r i p t u r a l p r o j e c t i o n is c a r r i e d

telos.

Secondly, it w a s n o t e d a b o v e that salvation is a distinctly local c o n c e p t in H e b r e w s , a destination o f t h e p e o p l e o f G o d that g o e s u n d e r different n a m e s . A t the heart o f this c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n is t h e d i v i n e t h r o n e a n d p r e s e n c e c o o r d i n a t e d with the M o s t Holy Place of the earthly and heavenly tabernacles. This brings u s , in turn, t o t h e i d e a o f s a c r e d s p a c e .

24

In t h e w o r l d o f Israel s p a c e m i g h t b e

religiously c h a r g e d o n t h e m o d e l o f c o n c e n t r i c s p h e r e s o f d e c r e a s i n g h o l i n e s s as o n e m o v e s o u t w a r d from a c e n t r e ,

25

h a v i n g a partial a n a l o g u e in t h e a m o u n t

22. Cf., e.g., O. Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, 2nd edn (New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1993); M. R. Wright, Cosmology in Antiquity (New York: Routledge, 1995); and Edward Adams' essay in the present volume. 23. See, e.g., J. Painter, 'Creation, Cosmology', in R. P. Martin and P. H. Davids (eds), Diction ary of the Later New Testament and its Developments (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 1997), pp. 250-5; cf. N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003), p. 655; A. C. Thiselton, The Two Horizons (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), p. 288. 24. Note, among others, Isaacs, Sacred Space; J. Dunnill, Covenant and Sacrifice in the Letter to the Hebrews (SNTSMS, 75; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, pp. 118-23. 25. Cf. m. Kel 1.6-9, which mentions 'ten [degrees] of holiness[es]', as one moves out from the Most Holy Place to the entire land of Israel; cf. J. Neusner (ed.), The Mishnah. A New Transla tion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), pp. 894-5.

Cosmology

132

and New Testament

Theology

o f radiation that w o u l d b e m e a s u r e d as o n e m o v e d t o w a r d a n d a w a y from Cher n o b y l in 1986. C e r t a i n locations s u c h as J a c o b ' s s t a i r w a y ( G e n e s i s 2 8 ) a n d the Most Holy Place of the tabernacle and temple were thought of as kinds of 'portals through which the gods traversed'. o f intersection b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h

26

27

The Most Holy Place was a point a n d t h e c e n t r e o f Israel a s sacred

s p a c e . M o r e o v e r , p r e c i s e l y in this c o n n e c t i o n it w a s a p l a c e integrally related to creation

28

a n d t h e c o s m o s . A g a i n , Walton:

Since the temple on earth was considered only a type of the larger, archetypal cosmic temple, many images and symbols evoke the relationship between temple and cosmos. The temple is considered the centre of the cosmos, and in itself a microcosmos... In Syro-Palestine the temple was the architectural embodiment of the cosmic moun tain. This concept is represented in Ugaritic literature as well as the Bible, where Mount Zion is understood as the mountain of the Lord (e.g., Ps. 48) and the place where his temple, a representation of Eden, was built. 'For ancient Israel, the Temple of Solomon - indeed, the Temple Mount and all Jerusalem - was a symbol as well as reality, a mythopoeic realization of heaven on earth, Paradise, the Garden of Eden'. 29

The sanctuary of Israel represented a small, idealized island of order in a world of threatened chaos. It was a place that preserved equilibrium for God's presence, which in turn was an anchor against disorder. Preserving sacred space provided for God's continued presence. God's continued presence served to maintain equilibrium and uphold creation. 30

W h e t h e r in t h e e n d it will r e m a i n true that ' n o t all that c o u n t s c a n b e c o u n t e d ' , o n e m i g h t y e t w i s h to insist o n it for o u r p r e s e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o u r w o r l d . T h e cultic a n d h e a v e n l y - e a r t h l y d y n a m i c s o f s a c r e d s p a c e introduce into H e b r e w s e l e m e n t s that are n o t natural o n e s ( t h o u g h p e r h a p s n o t i n c o n c e i v able) for m o d e r n c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e s p a c e - t i m e u n i v e r s e . It is in line w i t h this a s s u m e d w o r l d that C h r i s t ' s d e a t h c a n b e p o r t r a y e d b o t h a s a n earthly a n d h e a v e n l y event, w i t h t h e earthly c e n t r e o f s a c r e d s p a c e shifted from t h e J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e to G o l g o t h a . It is also in line w i t h this that I e l s e w h e r e m o u n t t h e argu m e n t that for t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s t h e tabernacle r e p r e s e n t s t h e future o f the c l e a n s e d c o s m o s ( s e e a b o v e ) . T h e localized s a c r e d offering o n G o l g o t h a will

26. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, p. 118. 27. Note the cover illustration of Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, depicting the Shamash plaque (c. ninth-sixth centuries BCE) about which Walton comments, p. 168, 'The Shamash plaque is particularly informative as it shows worshipers who, though physically in the earthly temple, view themselves before Shamash's heavenly throne. The heavenly waters are beneath his feet and the stars are shown in the sky across the bottom of the picture'. 28. See especially J. Walton, Genesis 1 as Ancient Cosmology (Eisenbrauns, forthcoming). In this same work Walton takes up and develops further several points I am mentioning here. 29. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, pp. 123, 127 (citing L. Stager, 'Jerusalem as Eden', BAR 26 [2000], 37). 30. Walton, 'Equilibrium and the Sacred Compass: The Structure of Leviticus', BBR 11.2 (2001), 296-7.

8.

133

Hebrews

radiate t h r o u g h t h e entire c o s m o s . F o r t h e p r e s e n t it is all w e c a n d o to register this d y n a m i c a s essential to t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t o f this d i s c o u r s e .

The Structure

of the Cosmos

in

Hebrews

G i v e n t h e a b o v e orientation w e c a n distil from t h e d i s c o u r s e o f H e b r e w s its p o r t r a y a l o f creation. C r e a t i o n consists o f t h e visible earth a n d h e a v e n (sky), w i t h t h e invisible h e a v e n ( G o d ' s a b o d e ) a b o v e . N o attention is g i v e n to d e a t h as a p l a c e , a n u n d e r w o r l d , sphere

31

a n d it is n o t clear that t h e writer h a s a n intermediate

b e t w e e n earth a n d h e a v e n in m i n d in 2 . 6 - 9 .

32

T h e p e r s p e c t i v e is not

a n t i - c o s m i c . T h e w r i t e r affirms t h e creation a c c o u n t s o f t h e O T , c l a i m s that s a m e C r e a t o r G o d a s t h e F a t h e r o f t h e Son, a n d affirms creation itself, all o f w h i c h p l a c e s h i m o n a different trajectory t h a n t h e G n o s t i c s .

33

T h e S o n ' s role

is p i c t u r e d in t e r m s r e m i n i s c e n t o f w i s d o m in t h e O T a n d other J e w i s h texts. C r e a t i o n w a s b r o u g h t a b o u t t h r o u g h (5i ou [1.2]) t h e S o n a n d b y (Si b u = effi cient c a u s e [2.10]) G o d . It w a s c r e a t e d b y t h e w o r d o f G o d (pr)Mcm 8eoSj, 11.3), 34

a n d is b o r n e u p ( p e r h a p s also ' b o r n e along')

by the word of the Son's power

(TCO p r j u c m "T% 6 u v a | i S c o s CCUTOU, 1.3). A l l t h i n g s exist o n a c c o u n t o f (61 o v = final c a u s e

35

[2.10]) G o d , a n d c o m p r i s e the inheritance o f t h e S o n ( 1 . 2 ) .

36

T h e flow o f history b e t w e e n t h e s e p o l e s o f p r o t o l o g y a n d e s c h a t o l o g y c o n t a i n s

31. It is clearly implied, however: 13.20 (cf. 5.7; 6.2; 11.19, 35). See also 10.27, 31; 12.29. Demons are not mentioned (they may be included in the generic ex6poi of 1.13 and 10.13), and the Devil (2.14) is not localized beyond his association with death. 32. The latterpace Ellingworth, 'Universe', pp. 341,349 (comparing and contrasting Hebrews to Ascension of Isaiah 7-9; Slavonic Enoch 1-20; Greek Apocalypse of Baruch; Test. Levi 2.3). Though Hebrews' imagery itself speaks of being higher and lower than the angels, nothing in 2.6-9 requires a spatially separate sphere, an intermediary world, and 12.22 is against it. The author's imagery may well assume this intermediate sphere, but we cannot know this with any confidence and it shouldn't lead to the complications that Ellingworth struggles with on p. 349. 33. Among others, cf. Ellingworth, The Epistle to the Hebrews (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerd mans, 1993), pp. lOOf. This of course also removes him from Marcion's trajectory. 34. Ellingworth, Hebrews, pp. 100f., takes <(>epco in the sense of 'sustain' rather than 'bear along'. B. F. Westcott, The Epistle to the Hebrews, 2nd edn (London: MacMillan and Co., 1892), p. 13, gives the sense as a 'present and continuous support and carrying forward to their end of all created things'. 35. Westcott, Hebrews, p. 48; P. E. Hughes, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 98. 36. The Holy Spirit is not assigned a role in cosmology in any direct sense within the discourse of Hebrews. In two ways perhaps the Spirit is implicated, however. The Spirit's association with divine speech hints at a relationship with both the original act of creation and the sustaining of the cosmos (11.3; 1.3), on the one hand, and the act of salvation (which can be coordinated with ideas of 'new creation') on the other; cf. 3.7; 9.8; 10.15. Secondly, the Spirit is closely bound up with the action that brings cleansing to the cosmos (9.14; 10.29) and with the share of believers in the 'present and future' sacred space of salvation (2.4; note the terminological tie with Josh. 11.23 and the theme of inheritance in Hebrews generally; 6.4).

134

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

God's testimony to his 'great salvation' through 'signs, wonders, a n d manifold d e e d s o f p o w e r ' ( 2 . 4 ; cf. a l s o c h . 11). T h e c r e a t i o n event itself c a n b e s p o k e n o f either elliptically ( 1 . 2 ; 2 . 1 0 ) o r a s a m a k i n g (TTOIECO, 1.2; cf. 12.27), f o u n d i n g (6EPEAI6CO, 1.10; KCCTafSoAr], 4 . 3 ; 9.26), e r e c t i n g (KCCTCCOKEUCC^CO, 3 . 4 ) , f a s h i o n i n g (KCCTCtpTi^co; 1 1 . 3 ; cf. 1 0 . 5 ; 13.21), c r e a t i n g ( y i vopcci, 11.3; cf. 4 . 3 ) , o r s i m p l y a s t h e w o r k s o f G o d ' s h a n d s ( 1 . 1 0 ; cf. 4.3f., 10); t h e result c a n b e called a c r e a t i o n (KTIOIS, 4 . 1 3 ; 9.11). W h a t is m a d e i s , o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e v i s i b l e earth a n d h e a v e n s .

3 7

O n the other

h a n d , t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m a n d p l a c e o f salvation is a l s o s p o k e n o f a s m a d e b y G o d , c e r t a i n l y i n 11.10 (cf. 13.14), w h e r e G o d is t h e craftsperson (TEXVITTIS, designer)

38

and builder (Srjpioupyos)

3 9

of the 'city having foundations',

4 0

in

11.16, w h e r e G o d ' p r e p a r e s ' (ETOipa£co) a city, a n d a t 8 . 2 , w h e r e G o d ' s e t s u p ' (Trrjyvupi) t h e h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e (cf. also 1.2 a n d 4 . 3 ) . O n e m a y t h e n n o t e t h a t i n 9.11 h e d o e s n o t w r i t e T O U T EOTI V o u KTIOECOS, b u t T O U T EOTI V o u TaUTT|S T % KTIOECOS.

T h e s t a t e m e n t a b o u t c r e a t i o n at 11.3 is m o r e directly i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e m a t t e r o f faith t h a n c o s m o g o n y . T h e w o r d i n g e x p r e s s e s w h a t t h e v i s i b l e u n i v e r s e w a s

37. It is debated whether TOUS ccicovocs in 1.2 is temporal (ages) or spatial (worlds), and whether the plural equals a singular idea (world). Based on 11.3 Ellingworth, Hebrews, argues that it is spatial and that the plural should be taken as 'referring to the visible and invisible worlds... and thus denoting the totality of the universe' (p. 96; likewise Attridge, Hebrews, p. 41). At 11.3 he understands xous ccicovas as the visible world only (p. 569). Koester, Hebrews, p. 178, sees both spatial and temporal aspects in 1.2. 38. Cf, e.g., 1 Chr. 22.15; 29.5 (both regarding the temple); Wis. 13.1. Cognates are used of the building of the tabernacle: Exod. 28.11; 30.25; 31.5; and the temple: 2 Kings 12.11; 22.6; 1 Chr. 14.1; 22.15; 28.21; 29.5; 2 Chr. 24.12; 34.11; 1 Esdr. 5.53[55]; Ezra 3.7; Sir. 45.10. 39. This word is defined as one who designs something and builds it. Neither this term nor the cognate verb is used of God in the L X X or elsewhere in the NT. It was often used of the creator god in philosophical and religious traditions since Plato, and is used commonly in that way by Philo and early Christian writers. 'Hebrews here no doubt relies on the theological vocabulary of Hellenistic Judaism' (Attridge, Hebrews, p. 324), a comment that is true in terms of occurrence but fallacious semantically in slipping in the phrase 'theological vocabulary' (an 'illegitimate total ity transfer'). W. L. Lane, Hebrews 9-13 (WBC 47B; Dallas: Word Books, 1991), p. 352, also connects both TexviTrjs and Snuioupyos to Hellenistic Judaism, noting that they are frequently joined in Philo. But, in contrast to Attridge, Lane adds: 'That Josephus could use Snuioupyos of God with none of the philosophical associations of the word found in Plato or Philo shows that the mere presence of a term is insufficient basis for determining its significance. Williamson has observed a significant difference in context for 5r|uioupy6s in Philo and in Hebrews. Philo con sistently uses 6r)uioupy6s and TexviTrjs of God to refer to the creation of the physical universe. In v. 10, however, the context established for the use of these terms is distinctively eschatological; the city is unquestionably the heavenly city of God. The context in which the combination of the two words occurs in Hebrews suggests that it is no more than a rhetorical flourish, appropriate to the literary language of the homily...'. Cf. R. Williamson, Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1970), pp. 42-51. 40. See Lane, Hebrews 9-13, p. 352; Isa. 28.16; 54.11 L X X ; 4 Ezra 10.27; Rev. 21.10-14, 19-20.

8.

135

Hebrews

41

not c r e a t e d out of, n a m e l y jjril EK 4>OCIVO|JEVCOV. T h i s m a y a s s u m e a d o c t r i n e o f creation ex nihilo b u t if so this is a v e r y indirect w a y o f e x p r e s s i n g t h e t h o u g h t . T h e p r e c i s e m e a n i n g o f t h e p h r a s e is far from clear in a n y e v e n t .

43

42

T h e simplest

solution is p r o b a b l y t o t a k e p r ) | j c m Beou a n d pr| EK ((XXIVOMEVCOV as getting at u

t h e s a m e t h i n g a n d t h e w h o l e t h o u g h t a s alluding t o G e n e s i s 1 , A s E l l i n g w o r t h c o m m e n t s , ' H e b r e w s ' c o n c e r n i s . . . w i t h t h e u n s e e n origin o f t h e visible w o r l d , a n origin p e r c e i v e d o n l y b y f a i t h . . . T h e essential t h o u g h t is that creation is b y

41. I am taking eis + infinitive as consecutive and ur] with EK <|>ai vousvcov. I am also restrict ing T O U S ocicovas to the visible universe (contrast 1.2). 42. For discussion and parallels see Ellingworth, Hebrews, p. 569; Lane, Hebrews 9-13, p. 332; Attridge, Hebrews, pp. 315f. It seems to me that the doctrine of creation ex nihilo is consistent with the overall conception of Hebrews, however (e.g., 1.2; 2.10). 43. For example, Lane, Hebrews 9-13, p. 332, follows Williamson, Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews, in the view that for Philo and Plato 'the visible universe was made E K <J>OU V O M £ V C O V , "out of visible material", in the sense that God molded ^ouvoueva into the visible objects of the world we see around us'. Hebrews' phrasing accordingly 'excludes any influence from Platonic or Philonic cosmology. It may, in fact, have been the writer's intention to correct a widespread tendency in hellenistic Judaism to read Genesis 1 in the light of Plato's doctrine of creation in the Timaeus\ Adams, 'Cosmology', though differing from Lane, also finds the wording of 11.3 to be incompatible with Platonic conceptions. Attridge, Hebrews, p. 316, takes the exact opposite view, arguing that a Platonic cosmogonic model is implicit here. Both views are defensible though both can be charged with over-reaching. In particular it is far from clear that a specifically Platonic cosmogonic model is implied in or needed for 11.3, though it plainly works for someone inclined to see that background behind the book as a whole. Attridge, 'Logic of Hebrews 4.1-11', suggests that the same idea is behind 4.1-11: 'the goal which the Exodus generation pursued corresponds to the goal which Christians pursue in the same way, as antitype to type. However, the type in this analogy (the rest in the land of Canaan) is itself an antitype of a more original type, the state of rest which God himself entered at the completion of the week of creation'. My critique in Rest still stands; Attridge's reading of the logic of 4.1-11 is problematic in that the writer of Hebrews' argument does not make anything of a typology with the earthly land (it is concerned throughout with the one reality that is or is not entered) nor of a heavenly-earthly contrast (the interest is with a future entrance); the KCCTCCTrauais is not redefined as a Sabbath-rest but rather the future Sabbath-celebration occurs in God's resting place. But - considering the book as a whole - if this writer was inclined to see the tabernacle as a model of the universe and the tabernacle was modelled after a heavenly pattern (8.5) then the universe itself wouldfind its pattern in what was shown to Moses (8.5). In other words, I agree in some important respects with Attridge's way of conceptualizing the thought of the book as a whole. The main differences with Attridge are that (1) I am not confident that this is the precise thought being expressed in the language of 11.3; (2) I see this as further in the background of Hebrews 3-4 than Attridge does; (3) in 4.1 -11, in the sense that this thought is behind the passage, this has as much or more to do with cosmology (resting place and cosmos) than experience (rest); (4) it is not clear that the Platonic tradition had a patent on this model. But in agreement with Attridge this broad conception is basic to the thought of Hebrews. 44. Ellingworth, Hebrews, pp. 568-70, taking EK as causal (BDAG, s.v. 3e); cf. C. R. Koester, Hebrews (CAB 36; New York: Doubleday, 2001), p. 474.

136

Cosmology

and New Testament

G o d (cf. 3.4; 4 . 3 ) , w h o is p e r c e i v e d o n l y b y f a i t h ' .

Theology

45

Or Lane: 'The discernment

o f t h e u n s e e n creative activity o f G o d b e h i n d the visible u n i v e r s e e x e m p l i fies t h e c a p a c i t y o f faith to d e m o n s t r a t e t h e reality o f that w h i c h c a n n o t b e p e r c e i v e d t h r o u g h s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n , w h i c h is c e l e b r a t e d a s t h e e s s e n c e o f faith 46

inv.

lb'.

T h e c r e a t e d w o r l d h a s n o t o n l y a b e g i n n i n g b u t also a n e n d ( 1 . 2 , 1 1 - 1 3 ; 3.14; 4 . 1 3 ; 9 . 2 6 - 2 8 ; 10.13, 2 7 ; 12.25-29; 13.14); this telos w a s anticipated in t h e pattern s h o w n M o s e s o n t h e m o u n t a i n (8.5). It is this that I p u r s u e in a separate essay.

47

H e r e w e n o t e m e r e l y that t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s s h a r e s w i t h other N T

writers the i d e a that t h e e n d h a s a l r e a d y b e g u n ( 1 . 2 ; 6.4-5; 9 . 2 6 ) . w o r l d a l s o h a s a point.

48

T h e created

It h a s a destiny, w h i c h is b r o u g h t to fulfilment in t h e S o n

(2.6-9), w h o s e inheritance it is ( 1 . 2 ) . H a n g i n g o v e r all o f this in H e b r e w s is t h e promise

of God,

4 9

w h i c h is a l r e a d y anticipated b y t h e e x o r d i u m o f t h e letter

(1.1-4). T h i s m a k e s all o f h i s t o r y far m o r e t h a n m e r e l y p h y s i c a l ; it is a h i g h l y personal

affair, for u p o n its o u t c o m e rests t h e v e r y r e p u t a t i o n o f t h e Creator.

A s for d e m o g r a p h i c s , w e c a n a c c o u n t for G o d , t h e S o n , t h e H o l y Spirit, a n g e l s , t h e D e v i l , a n d h u m a n s . G o d is e n t h r o n e d in h e a v e n ; t h e location o f his footstool is n o t indicated (cf. Isa. 6 6 . 1 ; 1 Chr. 2 8 . 2 ; P s . 9 9 . 5 ; 132.7; L a m . 50

2 . 1 ) . T h e S o n d e s c e n d e d from t h e F a t h e r to earth in h i s incarnation, d e s c e n d e d (evidently) further t o death, w a s resurrected, a n d w a s e x a l t e d to t h e right h a n d o f G o d ; h e w i l l m a k e a s e c o n d a p p e a r a n c e w i t h i n the s p h e r e o f visible creation (9.28).

51

T h e r e is n o indication o f t h e H o l y Spirit's m o v e m e n t or location other

t h a n h i s p r e s e n c e w i t h h u m a n i t y in G o d ' s w o r k o f salvation ( 2 . 4 ; 3.7; 6.4; 9.8, 14; 1 0 . 1 5 , 2 9 ) ; t h e Spirit's r o l e in c o s m o l o g y w a s m e n t i o n e d in a footnote a b o v e . A n g e l s p o p u l a t e h e a v e n ( 1 2 . 2 2 ) , w o r s h i p the S o n (1.6), a r e sent as servants o f t h o s e a b o u t to inherit salvation ( 1 . 1 4 ) , a n d c a n b e e n c o u n t e r e d o n earth in the a p p e a r a n c e o f h u m a n strangers ( 1 3 . 2 ) . T h e D e v i l is m e r e l y associated w i t h death; h i s role in t h e larger d r a m a o f t h e c o s m o s is a l m o s t entirely a s s u m e d , b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h t o t h e surface o n l y in t h e allusion t o h i s destruction t h r o u g h

45. Ellingworth, Hebrews, pp. 569f. 46. Lane, Hebrews 9-13, p. 330. 47. Laansma, 'Hidden Stories'. 48. C. K. Barrett, 'The Eschatology of the Epistle to the Hebrews', in D. Daube and W. D. Davies (eds), The Background of the New Testament and its Eschatology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1956), pp. 363-93; Hurst, Background, pp. 7-42. 49. Cf.4.1;6.12,13,15,17;7.6;8.6;9.15; 10.23,36; 11.9,11,13,17,33,39; 12.26;also4.2, 6; Laansma, Rest, pp. 301-2. 50. Cf. Beale, Temple, p. 134. 51. The Son's movements are indicated at more than one point; see further below. It is worth noting the way in which G. Guthrie, The Structure of Hebrews: A Text-Linguistic Analysis (NovTSup 73; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994), pp. 121-4, demonstrates that the embedded discourses of 1.5-14; 2.5-9; 2.10-18; 5.1-7.28; 8.1-2; and 8.3-10.18 follow the path of the Son from heaven to earth and back to heaven.

8.

137

Hebrews

t h e d e a t h o f J e s u s a n d t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f t h o s e that t h e D e v i l h e l d e n s l a v e d b y m e a n s o f their fear o f d e a t h ( 2 . 1 4 - 1 5 ) .

52

L i v i n g h u m a n s p o p u l a t e t h e earth;

b e l i e v e r s h a v e a c c e s s t o t h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e r o o m . T h e r e is n o clear indication o f w h e r e d e c e a s e d p e r s o n s a r e at p r e s e n t ( 1 2 . 2 3 ? ; w h o a r e faithful w i l l b e b o d i l y r e s u r r e c t e d

55

53

11.5?).

54

Ultimately those

a n d enter t h e p l a c e o f salvation,

w h i c h g o e s u n d e r different depictions (see b e l o w ) . T h e e n e m i e s o f G o d - in this letter t h e s e a r e a b o v e all t h o s e w h o d o n o t c o n t i n u e in faith - w i l l find t h e m selves w i t h o u t a n e s c a p e ( 2 . 3 ; 12.25), m a d e a footstool o f t h e S o n ' s feet ( 1 . 1 3 ; 2 . 8 ; 10.13), e x c l u d e d from the p l a c e o f salvation, ' r e m o v e d ' as that w h i c h c a n b e s h a k e n ( 1 2 . 2 7 ) , in r a g i n g fire ( 1 0 . 2 7 ; cf. 6.8), a n d in t h e h a n d s o f t h e living G o d ( 1 0 . 3 1 ) w h o is a c o n s u m i n g fire ( 1 2 . 2 9 ) . O n earth t h e central locations a n d architecture are M t Sinai, t h e w i l d e r n e s s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e t a b e r n a c l e . T h e closer earthly realities, R o m e ( a s s u m i n g this t o b e t h e location o f t h e l e t t e r ' s recipients) w i t h its p e r s e c u t i o n , J e r u s a l e m w i t h its T e m p l e (if it is still s t a n d i n g ) , G e t h s e m a n e , a n d G o l g o t h a (cf. o n l y 12.2; 6.6), a r e p r e s e n t o n l y b y implication. Yet J e r u s a l e m is in m i n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e a r g u m e n t . A n d J e s u s ' crucifixion is central, b u t this is s w a l l o w e d in t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e a n d cultus. H e a v e n c o n t a i n s G o d ' s t h r o n e , w i t h a seat t o its right, l o c a t e d in t h e M o s t H o l y P l a c e o f a h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e . T h e r e is a curtain, after t h e p a t t e r n o f that w h i c h separates t h e H o l y P l a c e (present in h e a v e n o n l y b y implication) t h e M o s t H o l y P l a c e in t h e earthly t a b e r n a c l e .

56

from

T h e r e is a b o o k inscribed w i t h 57

t h e n a m e s o f t h e c h u r c h o f t h e firstborn ( 1 2 . 2 3 ) . T h e s a m e

5 8

location, w i t h its

52. The Devil's appearance in 2.14-15 indicates that this much of the drama is relevant to the needs addressed by Hebrews, and certainly his role fits with both the key function of Genesis 1-3 in Hebrews generally and the apocalyptic cast of the book. The isolated nature of this allusion, however, suggests that this is not a topic that was currently problematized in this community. 53. According to Ellingworth the tension with 11.40 suggests that in 12.23 'the heavenly iravTiyupts is anticipated rather than fully realized: worshippers now enjoy communion in advance with the righteous of earlier generations with whom they will be made perfect at the end... It is probably misleading to suggest that the righteous are thought of here as having been made perfect in spirit, but not yet in body: this dichotomy does not appear significant in Hebrews' (Hebrews, pp. 680f.). 54. Cf. Laansma, Rest, pp. 309f., 283 n. 149; F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Hebrews, rev. edn (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), p. 110. 55. 2.9, 14-15; 5.7; 6.2; 9.27-28; 11.19, 35; 12.2; 13.20; cf. Wright, Resurrection, pp. 457-61. 56. See D. M. Gurtner, 'The Veil of the Temple in History and Legend', JETS 49/1 (2006), 97-114. In Hebrews the earthly tabernacle as a whole is made obsolete but neither of the veils earthly or heavenly - is ever explicitly 'torn' (Mk 15.38 par.) or removed. The question is one of the privilege of passing beyond it 57. Exod. 32.32f.; Ps. 69.28; Isa. 4.3; Dan. 12.1; Mai. 3.16; Lk. 10.20; Phil. 4.3; Rev. 3.5; 13.8; 17.8; 20.12,15; 21.27. 58. Lane's comment fits here: 'The designation "city of the living God, heavenly Jerusalem"

138

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

e n v i r o n s , is v a r i o u s l y d e p i c t e d a s t h e d e s t i n y o f t h e faithful: It is a resting p l a c e (KaTaTrccuais), o r w o r l d (oiKOU|JEvr|) o r a city (TTOAIS) p l a c e (TOTTOS, 11.8), fatherland (TrccTp(s), p l a c e o f i n h e r i t a n c e (KAr|povo|Jia), M o u n t Z i o n a n d t h e city o f t h e living G o d , t h e h e a v e n l y J e r u s a l e m (Zicov o p o s Kai TTOAIS 0EOU £ c o v T o s , ' l e p o u a a A r | | j e r r o u p a v i o s ) , o r a n u n s h a k a b l e k i n g d o m (fJccaiAEia CCOOCAEUTOS). T h e a c c e s s o f b e l i e v e r s t o this locale is b o t h i m m e d i a t e (as d i v i n e t h r o n e r o o m ) a n d i m m i n e n t (e.g., as t h e KCCTCtTrauais). T h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e S o n - H i g h Priest in relation to t h e c o s m o s a n d t h e h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e h a v e b e e n p l o t t e d o u t b y E l l i n g w o r t h , for w h o m w e c a n n o t afford t h e s p a c e that critical interaction w o u l d r e q u i r e , b u t w h o s e s t u d y d e s e r v e s n o t i c e . H e c o m m e n t s that 'It is r e m a r k a b l e . . . h o w often t h e w r i t e r ' s view of w h o Jesus w a s and what he did does involve presuppositions about the u n i v e r s e . . . T h e a u t h o r t h i n k s synthetically, n o t analytically: for h i m , w h a t Jesus did, w h o h e w a s , a n d h o w t h e u n i v e r s e is framed, b e l o n g together, t h o u g h t h e last is least i m p o r t a n t for h i m ' .

5 9

T h e m o s t p r o b l e m a t i c texts, h e n o t e s , are

t h o s e that c o m b i n e latent ( p r e s u p p o s e d ) c o s m o l o g y a n d p a t e n t s o t e r i o l o g y ( 2 . 9 ; 4 . 1 4 ; 6.19f.; 7.26; 8.1-2; 9.1-14; 9.24; l O . ^ f . ) .

6 0

A survey of the language of

structure a n d m o v e m e n t in t h e s e p a s s a g e s leads h i m to t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s :

61

(1)

' T h e vertical l a n g u a g e o f 2 . 9 ; 4 . 1 4 ; a n d 7.26 p r o b a b l y o w e s m o r e to p r i m i t i v e Christian tradition, w h e r e a s t h e h o r i z o n t a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e h e a v e n l y a n d earthly t a b e r n a c l e s . . . is d e v e l o p e d in a distinctive w a y t o e x p r e s s t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n t y p o l o g y ' . (2) A t least in s o m e p l a c e s (e.g., 10.20) t h e ' c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e is u s e d in a n ad hoc a n d incidental w a y to e x p r e s s a soteriological r e a l i t y ' . A l m o s t certainly h e r e w e h a v e l a n g u a g e b e i n g e m p l o y e d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y t o d r a w o u t t h e t h e o l o g i c a l significance o f t h e cross a n d exaltation. (3) T h e verti cal a n d h o r i z o n t a l c o s m o l o g i c a l i m a g e s o f t h e b o o k d o n o t r e a d i l y r e c o n c i l e ,

62

b u t ' t h e t w o t y p e s o f l a n g u a g e c o m p l e m e n t o n e a n o t h e r ' . In e x p l a n a t i o n h e

evokes the thought of the heavenly sanctuary or temple as well. Cody has observed that in the NT, when the idea of God present and meeting with his people is stressed, there is a strong tendency to prefer the temple symbolism. When the allusion is to the goal of pilgrimage in its social significance (the fellowship of the elect and the angels), writers prefer to use the symbol of the city, as in 22a...' (Hebrews 9—13, p. 466; citing A. Cody, Heavenly Sanctuary and Liturgy in the Epistle to the Hebrews [St Meinrad, IN: Grail, 1960], p. 115 n. 65). 59. Ellingworth, 'Universe', p. 340. 60. Eliminating several passages that either treat only one or the other of these, or where neither is a factor (e.g., 3.7-4.11, as he sees it, is explicitly cosmological and does not do much with Christology). Some of the passages in Ellingworth's list of eight are particularly difficult and admit of alternative interpretations. 61. Ellingworth, 'Universe', pp. 348-50. 62. He considers rotating the horizontal through ninety degrees, especially since the horizon tal imagery is only implicit. But he notes that the writer is nowhere concerned to reconcile the horizontal and vertical images and he finds it difficult to equate the curtain (from the horizontal imagery) with the intermediary angelic sphere (from the vertical imagery). I am not sure the writer of Hebrews operates with the intermediary sphere, but hisfirstpoint is significant.

8.

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Hebrews

a d d s , ' o n e m i g h t s a y that t h e h o r i z o n t a l , t y p o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e e x p r e s s e s n a t u r e or origin, w h e r e a s t h e vertical l a n g u a g e e x p r e s s e s location, a n d is t h u s m o r e truly c o s m o l o g i c a l ' .

63

General

Observations

Based

on this

Survey

F o u r b r o a d o b s e r v a t i o n s in r e s p o n s e t o t h i s s u r v e y o f c o s m i c l a n g u a g e in Hebrews: (1) If it is o b v i o u s that s o m e o f this is self-consciously figurative in t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s ' m i n d - that is, a w a y o f d e p i c t i n g s o m e t h i n g s o a s t o d r a w o u t its t h e o l o g i c a l significance - it is also clear that t h e s e features ( w h e r e v e r t h e y m a y b e i n t h e letter) b l e n d w i t h o u t distinction into a w o r l d that t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s t a k e s quite seriously as reality. H e certainly b e l i e v e s in b o d i l y resurrection. T h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to t h i n k that h e b e l i e v e s that a n g e l s exist a n d that t h e y h a v e a n d c a n still a p p e a r in h u m a n form; h i s a r g u m e n t s in c h s . 1-2 a n d at 13.2 fall flat if h e d o e s n ' t . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t that h e b e l i e v e s that h e a v e n 64

is u p , t h o u g h it is gratuitous s i m p l y to a s s u m e that h e d o e s b e l i e v e i t . T h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to d o u b t that h e p i c t u r e s G o d as s e a t e d o n a t h r o n e , J e s u s c a r r y i n g a b o w l o f b l o o d t h r o u g h a h e a v e n l y t e m p l e , o r living b e l i e v e r s a s m y s t i c a l l y 65

v e n t u r i n g u p (in t h e n a t u r e o f a M e r k a b a h a s c e n t ) into t h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e r o o m . W h e r e to d r a w t h e lines is t h e p r o b l e m , a n d r u n s t h e risk o f fostering m o r e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h i s g o e s n o t least for 12.25-29, w h i c h m a n y interpreters h a v e b e e n q u i c k t o t a k e a s ' l i t e r a l ' description. I n m y j u d g e m e n t , W i l l i a m L a n e h a s s h e d t h e m o s t light o n that p a s s a g e , a n d I d e v e l o p e d m y o w n c o n c l u s i o n s o n it e l s e w h e r e .

63

66

I.e., 'In horizontal, typological language, the nature of Christ's work is heavenly, while that of the levitical cultus was of the earth. In vertical, cosmological language Jesus lived and died on earth, and now reigns in heaven at therighthand of God'. 64. The canvas of imagery as a whole assumes it, of course, though I cannot see that any thing in his argument depends on whether he thought that language to be descriptively accurate (and recall the insights of Walton, noted above). But saying this does not mean that we know whether and how the writer of Hebrews would have been theologically shaken by the argu ment that heaven is not straight up. As has already been stated, the hermeneutical problems are difficult at this point. Some answers may come through reexamination of the Scriptural texts in their contexts, allowing for the conclusion that apparent contradictions between the Bible and science are really just apparent. But other answers will probably require the admission that Scriptures meaning cannot be reduced to the human author's theological understanding. Perhaps Moses and the writer of Hebrews would have been theologically shaken by a modem course in physics. So much the worse for the human authors, who, it may appear, wrote better than they knew. There is also wisdom and considerable perspective in the words of J. Pelikan, Whose Bible Is It? A Short History of the Scriptures (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), pp. 232-3. 65. Cf. Hurst, Background, pp. 82-5. 66. Lane, Hebrews 9-13, pp. 464-91; Laansma, 'Hidden Stories'.

140

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and New Testament

Theology

(2) T h e c o s m o s is m o r e than j u s t setting for the writer o f H e b r e w s . T h e t h e m e surfaces t o o insistently t o treat it as m e r e l y stylistic e m b e l l i s h m e n t (e.g., at 3.4). It is h e r e to highlight t h e jurisdiction

o f G o d a n d t h e S o n , w h i c h is c o m p r e h e n

sive chronologically, g e o g r a p h i c a l l y a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l y ( 4 . 1 2 - 1 3 ; 9 . 2 6 - 2 8 ; 12.25-29). T h e implications a r e g o o d o r b a d , d e p e n d i n g o n faithfulness. It is h e r e to assert t h e finality, scope, h e r e t o m a n i f e s t t h e superiority

a n d nature o f G o d ' s salvation in t h e Son. It is o f t h e S o n , a n d i n d e e d h i s separation from t h e

other s o n s / c h i l d r e n a n d h i s p o s i t i o n o n t h e d i v i n e side o f t h e d i v i n e - a n g e l i c / cosmos divide.

67

Finally, H e b r e w s ' c o s m o l o g y is h e r e t o p o i n t u p t h e glory

G o d , a n d in t h e best o f t h e biblical tradition to r e q u i r e exclusive

of

reliance on G o d

a n d his w o r d . It is t h e great q u e s t i o n : Will w e cling t o t h e R o c k o f salvation or to t h e r o c k s o f c r e a t i o n ? H e will s h a r e his glory w i t h n o o n e a n d n o t h i n g a n d t o instil t h e p o i n t h e declares that h e will s h a k e out a n d c h a n g e h i s v e r y creation ( 1 . 1 0 - 1 2 ; 12.25-29). B u t for m y p a r t it is finally unsatisfying to s a y that all this is d e v e l o p e d m e r e l y to set u p a great snuffing out o f t h e visible u n i v e r s e at 12.25-29. P u r e a n d s i m p l e annihilation is a n o d d w a y to treat o n e ' s inheritance. O f c o u r s e G o d ' s w a y s are n o t o u r w a y s , b u t s u c h a n e n d is n o t in a n y e v e n t t h e writer o f H e b r e w s ' e x p e c t a t i o n . A s e l s e w h e r e an e n d (death) is t h e o c c a s i o n for r e c l a m a t i o n (resurrection), w h i c h r e d o u n d s all t h e m o r e to t h e g l o r y o f G o d (13.20-21).

68

(3) T h e latter p o i n t d o e s b r i n g u s b a c k to t h e p e r e n n i a l q u e s t i o n o f t h e c o n ceptual b a c k g r o u n d o f H e b r e w s , b r o a d l y consisting o f t h e t u g o f w a r b e t w e e n t h o s e a d v o c a t i n g for a m o r e P l a t o n i c a n d t h o s e a d v o c a t i n g for a m o r e a p o c a l y p tic m a t r i x . B u t that d e b a t e t e n d s to h a v e m o r e to d o w i t h w h a t t h e a u t h o r s a y s about t a b e r n a c l e a n d cultus t h a n a b o u t t h e c o s m o s itself.

69

The exception to

67. Cf. L. W. Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), especially pp. 497-504. 68. The very idea of bodily resurrection - which is certainly present in Hebrews - seems on theological grounds to entail the inclusion of the entire cosmos, which is where Paul takes the idea (Rom. 8.20-21; cf. Wright, Resurrection, p. 813). The writer of Hebrews may take a different view but I doubt it, for exegetical and scientific reasons already given. If the annihilationist view can claim the advantage of a primafacie reading of 12.25-29 then a resurrection model can claim the advantage of the broader tradition (represented by Romans 8) in which this writer plainly stood. In any event, our argument does not hang entirely on a deduction from resurrection. 69. The writer of Hebrews' spatial and metaphysical dualism divides terminologically along these lines: On the one hand, there is the 'true tent' (8.2; 9.24), 'pattern' (8.1-5), 'greater and more perfect tent, not made with hands' (9.11,24), 'heavenly things themselves' (9.23), 'heaven itself (9.24), 'the image itself of the [coming] things' (10.1). On the other hand, there is the 'copy', shadow' (8.1-5; 9.23), 'made with hands' (9.11, 24), 'antitype of the true' (9.24), 'regulations of flesh' (9.10), 'shadow of the good things coming' (10.1). To this can be added the language of creation surveyed above, especially related to the heavenly world. What is immediately apparent is that the language of 'copy', 'shadow', 'made with hands', and 'antitype' all attaches specifi cally to the earthly tabernacle with its law, that is, to something within the cosmos more than to the cosmos as such. In other words, the heavenly world tends to be merged in these comparisons,

8.

141

Hebrews

70

that s t a t e m e n t is 1 2 . 2 5 - 2 9 , a n d p o s s i b l y 3 . 7 - 4 . 1 1 a n d 1 1 . 3 . O f t h e s e , 12.25-29 r e q u i r e s t h e m o s t attention a n d w e h a v e dealt w i t h this e l s e w h e r e ; h e r e t h e i d e a that t h e t a b e r n a c l e r e p r e s e n t s t h e future o f t h e c o s m o s c o m e s t o its h e a d . In brief, w e c a n reinforce t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f o t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y W i l l i a m s o n and Hurst,

71

to t h e effect that t h e L e t t e r ' s c o s m o l o g y e v i d e n c e s n o real s h a r i n g

in t h e Platonic thought w o r l d represented, e.g., b y Philo o f A l e x a n d r i a . B e y o n d w h a t w a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e o b s e r v a t i o n c a n b e a d d e d that n o n e o f t h e various e l e m e n t s o f t h e writer o f H e b r e w s ' c o s m o l o g y are b r o u g h t forth for pur p o s e s o f allegorical m e a n i n g s , certainly n o t relating to p h i l o s o p h i c a l currents in t h e P l a t o n i c tradition. T h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s ' soteriological a n d christological c o n c e p t i o n s a r e subtle a n d creative b u t the letter's c o s m o l o g i c a l features are rather u n a d o r n e d .

72

(4) I n d e e d , the a b o v e description e n c o u r a g e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n that t h e w r i t e r is w o r k i n g w i t h a c o s m o l o g y that w o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d traditional b y Christians s t e e p e d in t h e O T . It w o u l d b e consistent w i t h t h e i d e a that this w r i t e r derives his c o s m o l o g y m o r e from h i s Scriptures a s filtered t h r o u g h ( b y n o w ) traditional christology t h a n from either e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l speculations, h o w e v e r a c q u a i n t e d h e m a y b e w i t h t h i n k i n g s u c h as w e find in P h i l o a n d to w h a t e v e r d e g r e e it affects t h e form o f his e x p r e s s i o n .

Closing

Reflections

T a k e n t o g e t h e r t h e foregoing p r o v i d e s p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e relationship b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e a n d c o n c r e t e referent for t h e writer o f H e b r e w s . T h e n u m b e r o f w a y s meaning that when the author is speaking in this way of the heavenly world as present or future he telescopes in and out from the tabernacle and city to the realm of heaven in general. On the earthly side of things, however, he keeps narrowly to the tabernacle and its law. The possible exception is the 'city' and 'fatherland' imagery of ch. 11(11.10-16; cf. 13.14) but (1) by this time in the book's argument the idea is plainly that of sacred space (cf. 12.18-29; in other words, these are specific parts of creation that had symbolic import, especially as spheres in relation to the Most Holy Place, rather than creation as such; we can observe that in the OT the land, like the tabernacle and temple, was portrayed as a symbolic return to Paradise, i.e., to the original creation); (2) the latter passages are decidedly oriented along temporal, futuristic lines; and (3) nothing in these passages on their own requires anything beyond the conception of, say, 1 Pet 1.1,17; 2.11; Phil. 3.19-21; Gal. 4.25-26; Col. 3.1-4; Rev. 21.1-2. There is accordingly no direct line from the language of 'copy', etc. to the writer's general view of the cosmos. He does not picture creation as such as a copy or shadow or antitype. The assumed indirect line between this language and his view of the cosmos would be closer to this: The heavenly world as a whole was a pattern for the tabernacle/ law, which was itself the shadow of the state of the world as a whole to come, a world identified with the pre-existing pattern shown to Moses on the mountain. 70. Perhaps also 9.11; 11.10, 13-16. 11.3 was dealt with above; see the preceding note on 11.10-16. 71. Williamson, Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews, passim; Hurst, Background, passim. 72. This aspect of this subject - the contrasts with the Platonic tradition - are more thoroughly examined by Adams, 'Cosmology'.

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Theology

in w h i c h t h e p l a c e o f salvation c a n b e p i c t u r e d - tabernacle, city ( = M o u n t Z i o n , h e a v e n l y J e r u s a l e m ) , r e s t i n g p l a c e , fatherland, w o r l d , etc. - a l r e a d y e x p r e s s e d m o r e interest in g e t t i n g at significance a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a n in d e s c r i b i n g realistically a n d literalistically a c o n c r e t e reality, a s if t h e r e is actually a h e a v enly a n d future tabernacle structure, a city w i t h b u i l d i n g s , a n d so o n . In particu lar, t h e elasticity o f t h e cultic a n d t a b e r n a c l e i m a g e r y p o i n t s in t h e direction o f m e t a p h o r i c a l u s a g e . E s p e c i a l l y in c h s 5 - 1 0 t h e w r i t e r v e r y creatively exploits the t a b e r n a c l e cultus a n d liturgy t o articulate c h r i s t o l o g y a n d s o t e r i o l o g y in p o w e r f u l l y practical

w a y s . It is e v i d e n t that h e is finding y e t a n o t h e r w a y o f

expressing t h e ' a l r e a d y - n o t y e t ' p e r s p e c t i v e that is f o u n d e l s e w h e r e in t h e N T ; the attempt is to articulate t h e b a s i s a n d nature o f t h e ' e n t r a n c e ' that t h e believer already h a s w h i l e a w a i t i n g t h e e n t r a n c e t o c o m e . In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p o i n t m a d e earlier a b o u t s a c r e d s p a c e w e c a n g o a n o t h e r step. If w e a r e r i g h t that G o l g o t h a is c o n c e i v e d after t h e m a n n e r o f the M o s t Holy Place as the intersection of the earthly sanctuary and divine t h r o n e r o o m , a n d if t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s is n o t i m a g i n i n g a f o r m o f m y s t i c a l a s c e n t for b e l i e v e r s , t h e n t h e l a n g u a g e o f heavenly

e n t r a n c e (eiaEpxopcct) a n d

a p p r o a c h (Trpoaspxopcci) is a l w a y s oriented p r e c i s e l y t h r o u g h G o l g o t h a ' s v e r y earthly cross a n d s o , for t h e present, is a l w a y s conceptualized as the w a y o f suf fering, o f c r o s s b e a r i n g . T h i s is consistent n o t o n l y w i t h t h e d y n a m i c s o f s a c r e d s p a c e , b u t w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e a n d t h e j u x t a p o s i n g o f i d e a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e letter (e.g., 2 . 1 0 - 1 1 ; 6.9-20; 10.19-36; 12.1-29; 13.12-16). T h e t h e m e s o f 'suffering/ s h a m e ' a n d ' a p p r o a c h t o t h e d i v i n e t h r o n e ' are n o t m e r e l y r e l a t e d a s ' n e e d a n d provision' but as t w o aspects of the one movement of worship. T h u s w e a p p r o a c h t h e d i v i n e t h r o n e in h e a v e n p r e c i s e l y a n d only w h e n w e g o out (e^epxoiicci) to J e s u s a n d h i s faithful o n e s o u t s i d e t h e c a m p , t o t h e n e w a n d u l t i m a t e c e n t r e o f s a c r e d s p a c e , suffering o u t s i d e t h e g a t e w h e r e G o l g o t h a is found, b e a r i n g h i s s h a m e (TOV o v s t S i a p b v CCUTOU (|>epovTes). T h a t is w h e r e t h e h e a v e n l y d i v i n e t h r o n e is t o b e f o u n d o n earth; there is n o o t h e r p o r t a l . H e n c e forth b e l i e v e r s w i l l n e i t h e r s e e k n o r cling t o a n y p l a c e o r m e a n s o f security a n d sanctification b e y o n d G o l g o t h a w i t h i n ' t h i s c r e a t i o n ' for h e r e t h e y h a v e n o a b i d i n g city - n o t e v e n J e r u s a l e m , far less R o m e . Rather, t h e y a r e c o m m u n a l l y s e e k i n g that city that is c o m i n g ( 1 3 . 1 2 - 1 4 ) , t h e c l e a n s e d c o s m o s in its entirety as t h e t e m p l e o f G o d . T h e p o s i t i v e cast o f 13.15-16 s h o u l d n o t c a u s e u s t o m i s s t h e c r u c i f o r m n a t u r e o f t h e life it calls forth a s a n e n c a p s u l a t i o n o f t h e w h o l e string o f e x h o r t a t i o n s t o faithful action - focused p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e d o i n g o f g o o d w i t h i n t h e C h r i s t i a n fellowship - that r u n s t h r o u g h t h e Letter. To say, t h e n , that this c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d h e a v e n l y t a b e r n a c l e l a n g u a g e h a s n o c o n c r e t e referent is to m o c k e x p e r i e n c e a n d h o p e . N o r a r e w e c l a i m i n g that the preceding paragraphs b y any means exhaust what the writer of Hebrews m a y h a v e u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e c o n c r e t e reality t o w h i c h this l a n g u a g e refers. B u t neither is it t o say that h e w o u l d h a v e (or c o u l d h a v e ) s u r r e n d e r e d a n y o f his i m a g e s for a m o r e 'literalistic' a t t e m p t at description o r for a n y o t h e r set o f

8.

Hebrews

143

i m a g e s . T h e s e a r e i m a g e s h e w o u l d - I t h i n k - h a v e insisted o n a s n e c e s s a r y a n d i n d i s p e n s a b l e b y d i n t o f their b e i n g revealed

(cf. 8.5; 9.23-24). T h e y

finally

b e l o n g to a c o h e r e n t w o r l d d r a w n from t h e O T a s m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h C h r i s t i a n tradition; t h e y form a n o r g a n i c w h o l e , a k i n d o f self-sustaining e c o s y s t e m that d o e s n o t a d m i t o f t a m p e r i n g . T h e r e m a y b e n o h e a v e n l y tabernacle - a s w e k n o w t a b e r n a c l e s - b u t if w e m e n t a l l y raze t h e i m a g e the reality itself disappears from view. T h e i m a g e d o e s n o t h o l d t h e t h i n g in e x i s t e n c e b u t it m a k e s it k n o w a b l e in t h e o n l y w a y it c a n b e a n d ( m o r e importantly, g i v e n t h e w r i t e r ' s p a s t o r a l c o n cerns) must b e k n o w n . O r t o revisit a n d r e d e p l o y t h e i m a g e r y o f c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d infrared p h o t o g r a p h y w i t h w h i c h this e s s a y b e g a n , w e m a y s a y that e v e n if a n o t h e r t y p e o f ' p h o t o ' o f t h e s e h e a v e n l y a n d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l realities w e r e p o s s i b l e t h a n t h e o n e i n v o l v i n g t h e cultic s y m b o l i s m o f t h i s Letter, t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s w o u l d insist o n this i m a g e a s t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t a n d m e a n i n g f u l for t h e q u e s t i o n s that matter. A n d , in a n y event, B e a l e is correct to stress that for t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s a s for o t h e r early C h r i s t i a n s - w h a t w a s c o n s i d e r e d ' f i g u r a t i v e ' a n d w h a t w a s considered 'real' w a s the reverse of what w e m a y b e accustomed to thinking.

73

I n t h e e n d t h e ' r e a l ' t a b e r n a c l e h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h a locatable b u i l d i n g ; it w a s t h e M o s a i c t a b e r n a c l e that w a s figurative. S o for t h e w r i t e r o f H e b r e w s it is n o t a m a t t e r o f t r y i n g t o u s e a ' r e a l ' t a b e r n a c l e

figuratively

t o talk a b o u t a

' s p i r i t u a l ' o n e , b u t o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r o p e r l y w h a t w a s a l w a y s a figure t o get at t h e reality to w h i c h it a l w a y s p o i n t e d , t h e h e a v e n l y eternal a n d c o s m i c a l l y future KCCT6:TTO:UOIS. W h e t h e r this is ' d e m y t h o l o g i z i n g ' d e p e n d s t h e n o n h o w w e define m y t h a n d w h a t in t h e w o r l d is to b e i n c l u d e d in i t .

74

73. Beale, Temple, pp. 295-8. 74. Among other works that help in thinking through this sort of use of figurative language and the relationship between metaphor and referent, see J. M. Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985); H. Weder, 'Metaphor and Reality', in J. Polkinghorne and M. Welker (eds), The End of the World and the Ends of God (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2000), pp. 291-7; R. Bauckham and T. Hart, Hope Against Hope: Christian Eschatology at the Turn of the Millennium (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999).

9 G O D A N D 'THE W O R L D ' : COSMOLOGY A N D THEOLOGY IN THE LETTER OF JAMES

Darian Lockett J a m e s declares, ' w h o e v e r w i s h e s to b e a friend o f the w o r l d b e c o m e s a n e n e m y o f G o d ' (4.4b) a n d thus d r a w s a line in the sand (or in the c o s m o s ) separating the antithetical w o r l d v i e w s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ' t h e w o r l d ' a n d G o d . T h o u g h a c c o r d i n g t o 4 . 4 it s e e m s clear that J a m e s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c o s m o s r i d e s u p o n this G o d / ' w o r l d ' d i v i d e , it h a s often b e e n a r g u e d that J a m e s lacks a n y s u c h coher ent structure a n d theology. M u c h o f this d i s c u s s i o n h a s b e e n d o m i n a t e d b y the influential a s s u m p t i o n s o f M a r t i n D i b e l i u s . H e c o n c l u d e d that b e c a u s e the text w a s m a d e u p largely o f s a y i n g s m a t e r i a l , 'the entire document 1

in thought'

a n d t h u s 'has not "theology"

lacks

continuity

'?

If J a m e s lacks coherent structure, a n d thus any clear theology, w h y include the Letter in a text considering the interplay b e t w e e n c o s m o l o g y a n d theology? T h o u g h an a n s w e r to such a question s e e m e d certain for Dibelius, the last t w o decades h a v e seen quite a shift, b e g i n n i n g with Peter D a v i d s ' c o m m e n t that 'the a g e o f the string-of-pearls conception o f the letter is passed, a n d its essential theological unity 3

is ready for exploration'. M a t t J a c k s o n - M c C a b e nicely indicates this in his recent article: ' W i t h the general shift, since the 1960's, t o w a r d reading strategies that emphasize coherence a n d connections in t e x t s . . . has c o m e a steady erosion in the 4

h e g e m o n y o f Dibelius's atomistic, form-critical approach to J a m e s ' . Furthermore L u k e Timothy J o h n s o n notes that J a m e s , as w i s d o m literature, t h o u g h 'general in i n t e n t i o n . . . is particular in expression. E v e n m i n i m a l arrangement o f materi als represents a n interpretation a n d point o f v i e w ' . H e continues b y insisting that though ' a p h o r i s m s m a y b e w o r n to c l i c h e s . . . they d o claim to m a k e statements about reality - not only to say something well b u t to say

5

something'.

1. M. Dibelius, James: A Commentary on the Epistle ofJames (rev. H. Greeven; trans. M. A. Williams; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 11th edn, 1976), p. 2 (emphasis original). 2. Dibelius, James, p. 21 (emphasis original). 3. P. H. Davids, The Epistle of James: A Commentary on the Greek Text (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), p. 13. 4. M. Jackson-McCabe, 'The Messiah Jesus in the Mythic World of James', JBL 122 (2003), 701-30 (703). 5. L. T. Johnson, Brother of Jesus, Friend of God: Studies in the Letter of James (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), pp. 204-5, n. 14 (emphasis mine).

9.

James

145

Johnson has noted h o w the w i s d o m sayings of James have been arranged. H e asserts that t h e ' i m p o r t a n t o r g a n i z i n g ( a n d selecting) p r i n c i p l e in J a m e s is a central set o f c o n v i c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the a b s o l u t e i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f t w o c o n struals o f reality a n d t w o m o d e s o f b e h a v i o r following from s u c h d i v e r s e u n d e r standings. This "deep structure" of polar opposition... undergirds the inclusion 6

a n d s h a p i n g o f J a m e s ' m a t e r i a l ' . H e a r g u e s , ' [ e ] v e n a c u r s o r y s u r v e y o f this c o m p o s i t i o n s h o w s that J a m e s characteristically establishes p o l a r c o n t r a s t s ' . J o h n s o n c o n c l u d e s that the central contrast b e t w e e n 'friendship w i t h G o d ' a n d ' f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d ' in 4 . 4 offers t h e b e s t ' t h e m a t i c centre for [ J a m e s ' ] ethical a n d religious d u a l i s m ' .

7

H e r e w e will e x p l o r e , in J o h n s o n ' s w o r d s , t h e ' s o m e t h i n g ' J a m e s s a y s , specifically w i t h r e s p e c t t o h o w J a m e s ' s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o s m o s m a y b e s e e n t o g e t h e r a s a w h o l e a n d w h e t h e r this c o s m o l o g i c a l

framework

may

indicate a well-crafted t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view. It is in the fitting confines o f ' t e x t ' that s u c h a n e n c o d i n g o f w o r l d v i e w t a k e s p l a c e , for in J u d i t h L i e u ' s w o r d s : ' T e x t s p l a y a central p a r t n o t j u s t in d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f w h a t it m e a n t t o 8

b e a C h r i s t i a n , b u t in actually s h a p i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y ' . A c c o r d i n g t o Lieu, C h r i s tian reality (theological reality) w a s textually constructed. T h u s , in d e s c r i b i n g the c o s m o s , J a m e s calls forth a n e w identity for his r e a d e r s a n d articulates a t h e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u a l o f reality. T h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r will outline t h e v a r i o u s indications o f c o s m o l o g y in J a m e s a n d will a t t e m p t to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m w i t h i n a c o h e r e n t , textually c o n s t r u c t e d v i e w o f the u n i v e r s e . F r o m t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s w e will reflect u p o n h o w J a m e s ' c o s m o l o g y r e n d e r s a t h e o l o g i c a l m a p w h i c h plots b o t h h u m a n a n d d i v i n e action - c h a r t i n g a n e w , t h e o l o g i c a l identity for his r e a d e r s . O u r p r e s e n t j o u r n e y t h r o u g h this J a c o b e a n m a p o f t h e c o s m o s b e g i n s w i t h t h e ' e a r t h l y ' , n a m e l y a d i s c u s s i o n o f ' t h e w o r l d ' in J a m e s , t h e n p r o c e e d s u p w a r d t o h e a v e n , especially c o n s i d e r i n g the p h r a s e ' f r o m a b o v e ' , a n d

finally

descends d o w n w a r d to 'Gehenna'.

1. 'The World* in

James

To v i e w J a m e s ' m a p o f t h e c o s m o s w e m u s t first v i e w t h e ' w o r l d ' as h e d o e s . J a m e s u s e s t h e t e r m ' w o r l d ' (Koopos) 5 t i m e s ( 1 . 2 7 ; 2 . 5 ; 3.6; 4.4 [ 2 * ] ) a n d ' e a r t h l y ' (ETTiy£»os) o n c e ( 3 . 1 4 ) . In its first o c c u r r e n c e , t h e t e r m ' w o r l d ' is set i n contrast t o G o d ' s s t a n d a r d o f m e a s u r e ( 1 . 2 7 ) . F o r J a m e s , ' p u r e a n d undefiled' religion is qualified as s u c h

6. L. T. Johnson, The Letter of James (AB 37A; New York: Doubleday, 1995), p. 14. See also, T. B. Cargal, Restoring the Diaspora: Discursive Structure and Purpose in the Epistle of James (SBLDS 144; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993), pp. 229-32; and K. D. Tollefson, 'The Epistle of James as Dialectical Discourse', BTB 21 (1997), 62-9 (62). 7. Johnson, The Letter of James, p. 84. 8. Judith Lieu, Christian Identity in the Jewish and Graeco-Roman World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 7.

146

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

' b e f o r e G o d , t h e F a t h e r ' (TTapa TCO 0ECO Km TTaTpi). T h e TTapa h e r e c a n b e t a k e n s u g g e s t i n g s p h e r e : ' i n t h e sight/judgement o f G o d ' (see R o m . 2 . 1 3 ; 1 Cor. 3 . 1 9 ; 7 . 2 4 ; 1 P e t . 2 . 2 0 ) w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h e u l t i m a t e s t a n d a r d b y w h i c h all a s p e c t s o f w o r s h i p , t h o u g h t , a n d c o n d u c t s h o u l d b e a s s e s s e d a n d w i l l in t h e e n d 9

b e j u d g e d . It is ' w i t h reference to G o d ' s scale o f m e a s u r e m e n t ' that s u c h reli g i o n is ' p u r e a n d u n d e f i l e d ' . A n d this religion, a c c e p t a b l e in G o d ' s estimation, is set o v e r a g a i n s t w o r t h l e s s religion in 1 . 2 6 . H e r e J a m e s insists that it is G o d ' s p e r s p e c t i v e that functions as t h e k e y indicator s e p a r a t i n g w o r t h l e s s religion from ' p u r e a n d undefiled r e l i g i o n ' . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e TTapa TCO 0ECO a l o n g w i t h t h e similar p h r a s e in v. 2 7 (CCITO TOU Koopou), ' c l e a r l y suggest an opposition between G o d and the w o r l d ' .

1 0

T h i s rhetoric indicates

that t h e a u t h o r d o e s n o t w i s h to cast t w o types o f r e l i g i o n as e q u a l b u t o p p o s i t e ; rather, h e refers t o G o d as t h e o n l y o n e w h o a p p r o v e s p u r e religion, d e m o n s t r a t ing that t h e r e is o n l y o n e w a y to c o n s t r u e o r d e r e d w o r s h i p a n d piety. T h e definition o f a c c e p t a b l e religion in t h e sight o f G o d is first c h a r a c t e r i z e d as l o o k i n g after o r p h a n s a n d w i d o w s in their affliction a n d t h e n a s k e e p i n g o n e s e l f ' u n s t a i n e d ' (OCOTTIAOV) from ' t h e w o r l d ' (TOU Koopou) ( 1 . 2 7 ) . To r e m a i n ' u n s t a i n e d ' w i t h r e s p e c t t o ' t h e w o r l d ' J a m e s ' r e a d e r s m u s t m a i n t a i n a particular b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e influences o f ' t h e w o r l d ' . E l s e w h e r e in t h e N T t h e t e r m ' u n s t a i n e d ' is p a i r e d w i t h t h e t e r m ' u n b l e m i s h e d ' ( a p c o p o s )

1 1

w h i c h t o g e t h e r c o n v e y t h e n o t i o n o f defilement. H e r e J a m e s ' r e a d e r s m u s t k e e p t h e m s e l v e s from ' t h e w o r l d ' b e c a u s e it is the agent o f pollution w h i c h , b y m e a n s o f contact, t r a n s m i t s a c o u n t e r form o f ' r e l i g i o n ' c o n t a m i n a t i n g J a m e s ' r e a d e r s . B e c a u s e o f their 'failure t o live in a c c o r d w i t h this c o m p l e t e l a w a n d their c o m p r o m i s e w i t h the alien v a l u e s a n d n o r m s o f s o c i e t y ' , as r e m e d y , J a m e s ' u r g e s his r e a d e r s t o s e v e r their ties w i t h secular p o l l u t i o n . . . t o purify their h a n d s a n d hearts b y b r e a k i n g c l e a n from s o c i e t y ' s p o l l u t i o n ' .

12

' W o r l d ' a p p e a r s a g a i n in ch. 2 . I n c h a l l e n g i n g h i s r e a d e r s w i t h t h e i n c o n g r u ity o f b e l i e v i n g in J e s u s C h r i s t a n d practising favouritism, J a m e s rhetorically a s k s in 2 . 5 , ' H a s G o d n o t c h o s e n t h e p o o r in the w o r l d (TCO Koopco) to b e

9. Johnson, The Letter of James, p. 212. 10. Wesley Wachob, The Voice ofJesus in the Social Rhetoric ofJames (SNTSMS 106; Cam bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 83. 11. See 1 Pet. 1.19, with reference to Christ as an 'unblemished' lamb; 2 Pet. 3.14. In Jude 24, several manuscripts read doTriXous either beside ducouous r earlier in the verse (cf. Sp , C, 945, 1243, 1505) and thus may add weight to understanding the two terms as commonly being used together. 12. J. H. Elliott, 'The Epistle of James in Rhetorical and Social Scientific Perspective: Holiness-Wholeness and Patterns of Replication', BTB 23 (1993), 71-8 (78). Elliott's notion of 'breaking clean from society's pollution' specifically entails drawing boundaries of sectarian separation. I have argued elsewhere that 'keeping oneself unstained from the world' need not imply the construction of sectarian boundaries (see D. Lockett, Purity and Worldview in the Epistle of James [LNTS; London: T&T Clark, forthcoming], ch. 5). 72

G

9.

James

147

rich in f a i t h ? ' T h o u g h a f e w m a n u s c r i p t s r e a d TOU Koapou, t h e d a t i v e is w e l l attested a n d m a k e s b e t t e r s e n s e h e r e . r e a d as a dative o f a d v a n t a g e

14

13

The phrase

TCO Koopco

should be

a n d t h u s ' p o o r in t h e e y e s o f t h e w o r l d ' . T h e

syntactical construction indicates that it is from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o r valuation o f ' t h e w o r l d ' that t h e s e p e o p l e are c o u n t e d p o o r o r l o w in social a n d e c o n o m i c status. N o t e the similar u s e o f a dative o f a d v a n t a g e w i t h r e g a r d to t h e ' p o o r ' in M t . 5 . 3 : MccKCcpioi oi TTTCOXCM TCO TTVEupcrn. T h e u s e o f t h e d a t i v e , b o t h in J a s . 2.5 a n d M t . 5.3, indicates that t h e p o o r m a y b e v i e w e d from different v a n t a g e p o i n t s and, specifically in J a m e s b e c a u s e it is from t h e w o r l d ' s v a n t a g e point, this is t h e w r o n g v i e w or m e a s u r e o f the poor. J o h n s o n h a s o b s e r v e d that b e c a u s e t h e p o o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o 6 Koopos are to b e ' r i c h in faith' i m p l i e s that ' t h e " w o r l d ' s " m e a s u r e m e n t o f v a l u e is directly o p p o s e d to G o d ' s ' .

1 5

Rather

t h a n h u m a n i t y in g e n e r a l , ' t h e w o r l d ' h e r e is t h e s y s t e m o f o r d e r c o n t r a r y t o t h e h e a v e n l y order, ' a m e a s u r e distinguishable from G o d ' s ' .

1 6

In 3.6 J a m e s identifies the t o n g u e as a ' w o r l d o f w i c k e d n e s s ' ( b Koopos TTJS a S i K i a s ) , or taken adjectivally, ' a w i c k e d w o r l d ' w h i c h 'stains (oTnAouocc) the w h o l e b o d y ' . A precise translation o f the first p h r a s e o f v. 6 is e x t r e m e l y difficult. T h e p h r a s e consists o f five n o u n s in the n o m i n a t i v e case along w i t h o n e v e r b , a n d the p r o b l e m is h o w best to c o m b i n e these w o r d s in a w a y that m a k e s b o t h g r a m m a t i c a l a n d logical sense. In J o h n s o n ' s estimation '[t]he p r o b l e m s revolve m a i n l y a r o u n d h o w to understand the phrase ho kosmos

tes adikias,

especially

since it h a s a definite article, a n d h o w t o understand it syntactically in relation to the substantive " t h e t o n g u e " \

1 7

S o m e h a v e argued that b Koopos m e a n s ' w h o l e ' 18

or ' s u m total' as in LXX Prov. 1 7 . 6 . Others h a v e suggested the translation ' a d o r n m e n t ' (1 Pet. 3.3) a n d thus understand the t o n g u e as the ' a d o r n m e n t ' o f evil.

13. Davids understands the genitive as a scribal attempt to smooth out the grammar {James, p. 112). 14. As in D. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 144, or a dativus commodi. Examples of commentators who understand the dative in this way include Johnson, Brother of Jesus, Friend of God, p. 212; Dibelius, James, p. 138; Davids, James, pp. 111-2; R. P. Martin, James (WBC 48; Waco: Word, 1988), pp. 64-5; D. Moo, The Letter of James (PNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), p. 107; pace S. Laws, A Commentary on the Epistle of James (BNTC; London: A&C Black, 1980), p. 103, who takes it as a dative of respect. 15. Johnson, Letter of James, p. 224. 16. Johnson, Brother ofJesus, Friend of God, p. 212. Laws {James, p. 174) rightly argues that 'world' in James denotes 'in general the values of human society as against those of God, and hence the man who pursues pleasure aligns himself with the world and compromises or actually denies his relationship with God' (see L. L. Cheung, The Genre, Composition and Hermeneutics ofJames [Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2003], pp. 202-3). 17. Johnson, Letter of James, p. 259. 18. Both Cheung (Hermeneutics of James, p. 203) and Moo (Letter of James, p. 157) feel this may be due to the influence of the Vulgate (universitas iniquitatis), a translation reflected in the NLT. Both scholars reject this meaning.

Cosmology

148

and New Testament

Theology

B u t Dibelius correctly objects, ' N o reader w o u l d h a v e h e a r d either o f those t w o m e a n i n g s in this e x p r e s s i o n ' .

19

' W o r l d ' conveys neither o f these senses in other

occurrences in J a m e s , thus M a y o r s e e m s to h a v e h a d the best feel for the p h r a s e saying: ' I n our m i c r o c o s m , the t o n g u e represents or constitutes the unrighteous world'.

20

W i t h M a y o r m o s t take xfjs ccSiKias as an attributive genitive a n d thus

render the phrase, 'unrighteous w o r l d ' as the RSV. U n d e r s t a n d i n g the p h r a s e b KOCHJOS T % a S i i a a s as ' t h e unrighteous w o r l d ' , w e m u s t p l a c e it w i t h i n the s e n t e n c e a s a w h o l e . M o o o b s e r v e s that there a r e three p o s s i b l e o p t i o n s .

21

T h e first o p t i o n is as follows. ' T h e t o n g u e is a fire,

t h e w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s . T h e t o n g u e is a p p o i n t e d a m o n g o u r m e m b e r s a s t h a t w h i c h stains t h e w h o l e b o d y . . . ' T h i s r e n d e r i n g (a) t a k e s ' w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' in a p p o s i t i o n to ' f i r e ' ; (b) p l a c e s a full s t o p after this p h r a s e ; a n d (c) takes t h e p h r a s e ' w h i c h stains the w h o l e b o d y ' as t h e p r e d i c a t e o f ' i s a p p o i n t e d ' (KaBiaTocTcci). T h o u g h t h e appositional r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n 'fire' a n d ' w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' c a n n o t b e ruled out, M o o is correct in n o t i n g that t h e ferninine participle ' s t a i n ' (f) a m A o O o a ) is ' v e r y difficult t o turn into t h e p r e d i c a t e o f the v e r b "is a p p o i n t e d " \

2 2

A second rendering maintains, 'The

t o n g u e is a p p o i n t e d as a fire, i n d e e d , as t h e w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s in our m e m b e r s ; it stains t h e w h o l e b o d y , sets o n fire t h e c o u r s e o f o u r e x i s t e n c e . . . ' H e r e a g a i n ' w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' stands in a p p o s i t i o n to 'fire', y e t it is t h e t e r m 'fire' that is t a k e n as t h e p r e d i c a t e o f the v e r b ' i s a p p o i n t e d ' . A third, a n d m o s t popular, o p t i o n m a i n t a i n s t h e translation, ' A n d the t o n g u e is a fire. T h e t o n g u e is a p p o i n t e d a m o n g o u r m e m b e r s as t h e w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s , staining t h e w h o l e b o d y . . . ' H e r e ' w o r l d o f u n r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' is t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e v e r b ' i s a p p o i n t e d ' a n d as M o o p o i n t s out, it p l a c e s ' a p u n c t u a t i o n b r e a k b e t w e e n t h e initial assertion a n d t h e further e l a b o r a t i o n ' .

23

T h i s final o p t i o n is

likely the b e s t overall r e n d e r i n g o f t h e p a s s a g e ; h o w e v e r , in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n uniformity w i t h h o w the v e r b KaSiaTOCTOCi is u s e d e l s e w h e r e in J a m e s (4.4) t h e translation s h o u l d m a i n t a i n the m i d d l e voice. T h u s t h e p a s s a g e s h o u l d b e r e n d e r e d , ' A n d t h e t o n g u e is a fire. T h e t o n g u e a p p o i n t s itself a n u n r i g h t e o u s w o r l d a m o n g o u r m e m b e r s , staining t h e w h o l e b o d y . . . ' . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p a s s a g e is consistent w i t h t h e L e t t e r ' s overall n o t i o n o f b KOOUOS as a n evil a n d u n r i g h t e o u s s y s t e m in o p p o s i t i o n to G o d . J o h n s o n n o t e s :

19. Dibelius, James, p. 194. 20. J. B. Mayor, The Epistle of St. James (3rd edn; London: MacMillan, 1913, p. 115; cf. J. H. Ropes, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel of St. James (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1916), p. 233; Laws, James, p. 91; Johnson, Letter of James, p. 259; Cheung, Hermeneutics of James, p. 203. Here the genitive is a substitute for the adjective as elsewhere in James (cf. 2.4 KpiTCu SiaAoyiaucov Trovrjpcov, 'judges with evil motives'; cf. / En. 48.7; Mk 16.14; Lk. 16.9). 21. Moo, Letter of James, pp. 157-8. 22. Ibid.,p. 158. 23. Ibid.

9.

James

149

James' meaning is only to be grasped in the light of 1.27 and 2.5, where kosmos and God are opposed, and in light of 4.4, where the same verb (kathistemi) is used for those whose choice of 'friendship with the world' has 'established' them as an enemy of God. 24

G i v e n this understating o f the 'unrighteous w o r l d ' , the surrounding context d o e s s p e a k o f creation in implicitly positive t e r m s , n a m e l y h u m a n i t y m a d e in the likeness o f G o d (3.9). Yet ' t h e w o r l d ' , o v e r against G o d ' s g o o d creation, carries the negative connotation o f an evil a n d unrighteous system in opposition to G o d w h i c h finds particular manifestation in t h e t o n g u e . Therefore j u s t a s ' t h e w o r l d ' is t h e a g e n t o f p o l l u t i o n w h i c h r e a d e r s a r e to a v o i d ( 1 . 2 7 ) , s o t o o the t o n g u e is likened to t h e ' u n r i g h t e o u s w o r l d ' that is able to p o l l u t e ' t h e w h o l e b o d y ' (3.6). L a w s aptly c o m m e n t s that: It is the tongue that brings the individual man into relation with 'the world'; indeed brings the world within him... The tongue effects in a man the defilement that is inherent in the world (cf. i.27, with the warning already in i.26 that the religious man must bridle his tongue), and its effect is total: it defiles the whole body. The idea is presumably that it is in his speech that a man identifies with that total hostility to God, and shows that it is part of his inner character. 25

It is t h r o u g h t h e t o n g u e that hostility t o G o d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a l i g n m e n t w i t h t h e c o u n t e r s y s t e m o f ' t h e w o r l d ' , is manifest. T h e final t w o o c c u r r e n c e s o f ' t h e w o r l d ' a r e f o u n d in J a m e s 4 . I n 4 . 4 J a m e s u s e s ' w o r l d ' t w i c e in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h f r i e n d s h i p : ' Y o u a d u l t e r e s s e s , d o y o u n o t k n o w that f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d (TOU Koopou) is h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d G o d ? T h e r e f o r e w h o e v e r w i s h e s t o b e a friend o f t h e w o r l d (TOU Koopou) m a k e s h i m s e l f a n e n e m y o f G o d ' . Significantly r e a d e r s a r e w a r n e d a w a y from ' f r i e n d s h i p ' w i t h ' t h e w o r l d ' . T h e n o t i o n o f ' f r i e n d s h i p ' (<j>iA'ia) in t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d m e a n t a b o v e all t o s h a r e , t h a t is t o h a v e t h e same mindset, the same outlook, the same view of reality.

26

To b e a

friend

o f ' t h e w o r l d ' is to l i v e in h a r m o n y w i t h its v a l u e s a n d l o g i c - in 4 . 1 - 1 0 t h i s e n t a i l s e n v y , rivalry, c o m p e t i t i o n a n d m u r d e r . F r i e n d s h i p w i t h ' t h e w o r l d ' is t h e h e i g h t o f d i s l o y a l t y t o w a r d G o d ( n o t e t h e t h e o l o g i c a l l y l o a d e d l a b e l ' a d u l t e r e s s e s ' in 4 . 4 d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d t o I s r a e l ' s c o v e n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o G o d ) . O n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n u s e s o f f r i e n d s h i p in a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e a p p l i e d to a l l i a n c e s , c o o p e r a t i o n o r n o n - a g g r e s s i o n t r e a t i e s a m o n g p e o p l e s .

2 7

24. Johnson, Letter of James, p. 259. 25. Laws, James, p. 150 (emphasis original). 26. Friends were essentially 'one soul' (Euripides, Orestes 1046); they 'share all things in common' (Aristotle, Eth. nic. 9.82); afriendis 'another self (Eth. nic. 1166A; Cicero, De amicitia 21.80); furthermore, friends 'saw things the same way' for in friendship there is 'equality' (Plato, Laws 151 A; 744B; Aristotle, Eth. nic. 1157B; see Johnson, Letter ofJames, pp. 243-4). 27. See Homer, //. 3.93, 256; 4.17; 26.282; Virgil, Aen. 11.321; Demosthenes, On the Navy Boards 5; On the Embassy 62; Letters 3.27.

Cosmology

150

and New Testament

Theology

Thus, 'friendship' with 'the w o r l d ' constitutes an alliance with a system of v a l u a t i o n set a g a i n s t G o d . The emerging

framework

from

this a n d t h e a b o v e references to ' t h e w o r l d '

s h o w s that J a m e s is n o t w o r k i n g w i t h a strict c o s m o l o g i c a l d u a l i s m - ' t h e w o r l d ' is n o t m e r e l y t h e trees, cities a n d p e o p l e s o f t h e p h y s i c a l earth. Rather, as J o h n s o n 28

puts it, the w o r l d is ' a s y s t e m o f u n t r a m m e l e d desire a n d a r r o g a n c e ' . T h e ' w o r l d ' here is more t h a n t h e material w o r l d o r h u m a n i t y in general, b u t rather t h e entire cultural v a l u e s y s t e m o r world-order w h i c h is hostile t o w a r d w h a t J a m e s frames as the divine v a l u e s y s t e m . H e r e references t o ' t h e w o r l d ' are clearly i n t e n d e d to b e plotted as b o u n d a r y lines u p o n J a m e s ' theological m a p o f reality. A r e l a t e d r e f e r e n c e t o w h a t is ' e a r t h l y ' c o m e s in c h . 3 . H e r e ' w i s d o m

from

a b o v e ' is set at o d d s w i t h w i s d o m that is 'earthly, u n s p i r i t u a l , d e m o n i c ' ( 3 . 1 4 ) . T h i s s o - c a l l e d w i s d o m , w h i c h a n i m a t e s self-seeking, is ' e a r t h l y ' (ETnyEios), ' u n s p i r i t u a r (V|/UXIKTI), a n d ' d e m o n i c ' (5cci|JOvcoSr}s). E a c h adjective i n d i c a t e s a n i n c r e a s i n g l y n e g a t i v e a s p e c t o f this w i s d o m a n d t h u s further a l i e n a t i o n from God.

2 9

T h e first term, ' e a r t h l y ' , is n o t attested in t h e LXX a n d in t h e N T it is

often u s e d for w h a t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e e a r t h as o p p o s e d t o t h e h e a v e n l y ( s e e J n 3.12; 1 Cor. 15.40; 2 Cor. 5 . 1 ; P h i l . 2 . 1 0 ) . W i t h this i m p l i c i t c o n t r a s t in m i n d , ' e a r t h l y ' d e n o t e s n o t o n l y w h a t is inferior t o t h e h e a v e n l y , b u t also that w h i c h is in o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e h e a v e n l y . I f J a m e s c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e s ' t h e w o r l d ' t o d e n o t e t h e c o n t a g i o u s s y s t e m o f v a l u e s s t a n d i n g in o p p o s i t i o n t o G o d , t h e term ' e a r t h l y ' t h e n certainly r e i n f o r c e s this n o t i o n . ' E a r t h l y ' specifically d e s c r i b e s a c o u n t e r form o f s o - c a l l e d w i s d o m w h i c h is n o t ' f r o m a b o v e ' b u t is o f 'earthly, d e m o n i c ' origin. T h e n e x t verse carries t h r o u g h o n t h e logic o f this w i s d o m , for J a m e s states t h a t ' w h e r e j e a l o u s y a n d selfish a m b i t i o n exist, there w i l l b e d i s o r d e r (aKCCTaaTaaicc) a n d every v i l e (<J>auAov) p r a c t i c e ' ( 3 . 1 6 ) . ' E a r t h l y ' w i s d o m traffics in j e a l o u s y a n d selfish a m b i t i o n , t h e e x t e r n a l qualities i n d i c a t i v e o f o n e m o t i v a t e d b y self-interest, v i e w i n g o t h e r s as rivals b e c a u s e they p o s s e s s w h a t h e h i m s e l f l a c k s . A g a i n , this is n o m e r e dualistic c o n c e p t for, a c c o r d i n g t o 3.16, this ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m is a n e x t e n s i o n o f a t h e o l o g i c a l world-order w h i c h is h o s t i l e t o w a r d G o d . ' W o r l d ' a n d ' e a r t h l y ' t h r o u g h o u t J a m e s c o n s i s t e n t l y refer t o t h e w o r l d as a c o u n t e r m e a s u r e o f order over a g a i n s t t h e order o f G o d . M o o c o m m e n t s in this regard: The 'world' is a common biblical way of referring to the ungodly worldview and lifestyle that characterizes human life in its estrangement from the creator. Christians who have ended that estrangement by accepting the reconciling work of God in Christ must constantly work to distance themselves from the way of life that surrounds us on every side - to keep themselves 'spotless'... from the world's contaminating influence. 30

28. Johnson, Brother of Jesus, Friend of God, p. 210. 29. Ropes, St. James, p. 248. 30. Moo, Letter of James, p. 97

9.

James

151

W h e r e a s J a m e s refers to G o d ' s c r e a t e d o r d e r i n p o s i t i v e t e r m s ( 3 . 9 , s e e a l s o 1 . 1 8 ) , ' t h e w o r l d ' ( o Koopos) is c l e a r l y a s y s t e m o f v a l u a t i o n at o d d s w i t h G o d ' s s y s t e m o f v a l u a t i o n a n d order.

2 . The Heavenly 'Father

in James:

of Lights'

'From Above*and

in James'

the

Cosmology

W h e r e a s ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m p r o d u c e s ' b i t t e r j e a l o u s y ' a n d 'selfish a m b i t i o n ' ( 3 . 1 4 ) , w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' (avcoSev) p r o d u c e s t h e h o s t o f p o s i t i v e qualities listed in 3 . 1 7 (purity b e i n g c h i e f a m o n g t h e m ) . A s t h e rhetoric o f t h e p a s s a g e u n f o l d s , t h e origin o f w i s d o m is h i g h l i g h t e d as c o m i n g d o w n ' f r o m a b o v e ' , that is, from G o d , a n d t h u s t h e o n l y real w i s d o m . T h e 8E i n 3 . 1 7 s i g n a l s a contrast w i t h w h a t h a s c o m e b e f o r e , n a m e l y that w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' is set a g a i n s t ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m b o t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o its o r i g i n a n d its effect. A g a i n , the r h e t o ric r e v e a l s t h e a u t h o r ' s v i e w that ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m is really s u c h b y n a m e only, a n d that t h e w i s d o m c o m i n g d o w n from a b o v e , that is from G o d , is t h e o n l y real w i s d o m b y w h i c h o n e m a y d e m o n s t r a t e h e is ' w i s e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' ( 3 . 1 3 ) . T h e first characteristic o f ' w i s d o m from a b o v e ' is that it is ' p u r e ' ( a y v r j ) . Here, a y v o s

d e n o t e s that ' w i s d o m from a b o v e ' is

free

from

theological

contamination (which 'the world' conveys to J a m e s ' readers, 1 . 2 7 , 3 . 6 ) and, therefore, entails total sincerity or a l l e g i a n c e t o G o d . T h i s is v e r y m u c h like t h e central n o t i o n o f w h o l e h e a r t e d , u n d i v i d e d c o m m i t m e n t t o G o d c o n v e y e d b y t h e central i d e a o f ' p e r f e c t i o n ' (TEAEIOS) i n t r o d u c e d in 1 . 2 - 4 .

3 1

Hartin suggests:

This pure wisdom is such that it has come down from above (3:17) as opposed to the wisdom from the earth, which is 'demonic* (3:15). This provides the backdrop to the search for wholeness and purity: it comes from having access to God, from being in a wholehearted relationship with God. 32

O n o n e level this spatial d u a l i s m , ' f r o m a b o v e ' o v e r a g a i n s t ' e a r t h l y ' r e v e a l s an important region of J a m e s ' cosmological m a p of the universe. That which c o m e s ' f r o m a b o v e ' is implicitly related t o G o d a n d t h u s p u r e . J o h n Elliott notes: This distinction between divine wisdom 'from above' and devilish wisdom 'from below' is significant conceptually and socially. Conceptually, this distinction between above and below demarcates and contrasts two distinct and opposing realms of the cosmos in terms of a spatial perspective. Accordingly, for James, space rather than time, as in other Christian writings, becomes the dominant perspective for viewing issues of human allegiance, good and evil, purity and impurity. 33

31. Both Cheung (Hermeneutics of James, p. 143) and P. Hartin, A Spirituality of Perfection: Faith in Action in the Letter of James (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1999), p. 72 n. 34 make this connection independently of one another. 32. Patrick Hartin, James (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2003), p. 74. 33. Elliott, 'Holiness-Wholeness', p. 77 (emphasis original).

152

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

Unfortunately Elliott o n l y sees t h e c o n c e p t u a l a n d social significance o f this c o n trast. W i t h o u t a d o u b t t h e s e r e a l m s o f c o s m o s , w h i l e c o n v e y e d in spatial t e r m s , are indicative o f h o w J a m e s charts t h e o l o g i c a l reality a s a w h o l e . F u r t h e r m o r e , Elliott p o s i t s t o o s h a r p a distinction b e t w e e n s p a c e a n d t i m e in J a m e s . T h o u g h largely implicit, J a m e s indicates a full e x p e c t a t i o n that t h e spatial distinction b e t w e e n w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' a n d ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m is u l t i m a t e l y related to the t e m p o r a l c o n s u m m a t i o n o f ' p e r f e c t i o n ' (1.4) in h i s r e a d e r s in t h e eschatological future. C l e a r l y t h e patient w a i t i n g for t h e ' c o m i n g o f t h e L o r d ' (5.7) a n d its i n c u m b e n t future e x p e c t a t i o n o f restoration casts d o u b t o n s u c h a s h a r p s p a c e / 34

t i m e d i s t i n c t i o n . W h a t is u l t i m a t e l y b e h i n d t h e contrast b e t w e e n the t w o k i n d s o f w i s d o m in their c o s m o l o g i c a l orientation is a theological contrast b e t w e e n G o d a n d the w o r l d / d e v i l , w i t h their r e s p e c t i v e s y s t e m s o f v a l u e s . A n d s u c h a contrast rhetorically p u s h e s t h e r e a d e r s to m a k e a c h o i c e t o w h i c h s y s t e m they will align t h e m s e l v e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' (avcoBsv) is v i e w e d a s a n i n s t r u m e n t originating c o s m o l o g i c a l l y (spatially) a n d theologically from G o d . T h e o n e lacking w i s d o m is to a s k from G o d in faith (1.5), a n d this w i s d o m certainly is the ' g o o d e n d o w m e n t a n d e v e r y perfect gift' that c o m e s ' f r o m a b o v e ' (avcoBsv) (1.17). T h e s e g o o d a n d perfect gifts c o m e d o w n ' f r o m t h e F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' , a n o t h e r indication o f J a m e s ' c o s m i c cartography. W h e r e a s J a m e s d e s c r i b e s G o d in characteristically J e w i s h t e r m s , referring t o t h e classic articulation o f J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m t h e Shema ( 2 . 1 9 ; 4 . 1 2 e l s SOTIV [6] VOMO8£TT)S Kai KpiTT|s, 4 . 1 2 ) , J a m e s a l s o refers to G o d in t h e b r o a d e r s e n s e o f creator o f all, n a m e l y a s ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' . T h i s description o f G o d is r a r e a n d m o s t likely refers t o t h e fact that G o d c r e a t e d t h e l u m i n a r i e s ( G e n . 1.14-19, n o t e especially that h e r e t h e s u n a n d m o o n , r a t h e r t h a n called b y n a m e , a r e c a l l e d the ' t w o great l i g h t s ' ) . A n d it is b y m e a n s o f G o d ' s c r e a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e l u m i n a r i e s that h i s s o v e r e i g n p o w e r is clearly d e m o n s t r a t e d (T. Abr. 7.6; C D 5 . 1 7 - 1 8 ) .

35

James makes another

allusion to G o d a s C r e a t o r in ch. 3 . T h o s e c r e a t e d b y G o d are n o t to b l e s s ' t h e L o r d a n d F a t h e r ' o n l y to t u r n a n d c u r s e others w h o h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d in the likeness o f G o d ( 3 9 ; cf. t h e implicit allusion to G e n . 1.26-28). T h u s J a m e s clearly c o n c e i v e s G o d a s b o t h L a w g i v e r ( 2 . 1 9 ; 4 . 1 2 ) a n d C r e a t o r ( 1 . 1 7 ; 3.9). O b s e r v i n g this description o f G o d , t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l i m p l i cations o f 1.17 m a y b e p r o b e d further still. I n 1.17 J a m e s contrasts t h e character o f G o d w i t h t h e l u m i n a r i e s : t h e ' F a t h e r o f lights w i t h w h o m there is n o varia tion o r s h a d o w d u e t o c h a n g e ' . T h e p h r a s e ' w i t h w h o m t h e r e is n o ' ( n a p ' GO OUK EVI) implicitly sets o u t a s h a r p contrast b e t w e e n creator ( ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' ) a n d c r e a t e d t h i n g s (the l u m i n a r i e s ) . T h e r e is n e i t h e r ' v a r i a t i o n ' (TrapaAAayTJ)

34. See for example the work of Todd Penner, who argues that the epistolary opening and closing of James points to an eschatological horizon for the wisdom instruction of the text (The Epistle ofJames and Eschatology [JSNTSup 121; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996]). 35. Martin, James, p. 38.

9.

James

153

n o r ' s h a d o w d u e to c h a n g e ' (TpoTrfjs aTroaKiaoua) - b o t h characteristic o f t h e h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s - t o b e found in t h e ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' . T h e p h r a s e h a s l o n g p r o v e n difficult t o establish, for e a c h G r e e k t e r m is a hapax legomenon

in the

N e w Testament. T h e n o u n TTapaAAayri o n l y a p p e a r s h e r e a n d in LXX 2 K g s 9.20 w h e r e it r e n d e r s t h e H e b r e w flUaE

o r ' m a d n e s s ' . T h o u g h TTapaAAayri

is rarely u s e d a s a technical astrological t e r m , TponT) ( ' p r o c e s s o f t u r n i n g ' o r ' c h a n g e ' ) c a n d e s c r i b e a ' s o l s t i c e ' (Plato, Laws 7 6 7 C ; W i s . 7.18) o r t h e general m o v e m e n t s o f h e a v e n l y b o d i e s (Plato, Timon 3 9 d ; Aristotle, Historia

Animalia

5, 9 ) . A T r o a K i a o u a ( o r t h e genitive form aTToaiaaauccTOs p r e s e r v e d in t h e m a r g i n o f X a n d in B ) literally refers t o a ' s h a d o w ' c a u s e d b y s o m e object w h i c h b l o c k s t h e s u n ' s rays. J o h n s o n n o t e s that, t h o u g h there a r e several p o s s i b l e variations o f this p h r a s e ,

36

t h e basic m e a n i n g is quite clear: ' T h e text o p p o s e s

t h e steadfastness o f G o d t o t h e c h a n g e a b l e n e s s o f creation, exemplified b y t h e heavenly bodies'.

37

T h o u g h s o m e w o u l d p r o c e e d t o a r g u e that s u c h l a n g u a g e

b e t r a y s J a m e s ' Hellenistic leanings t o w a r d d e s c r i b i n g G o d a s ' u n c h a n g e a b l e ' (the n o t i o n o f cxTpsTrros) this contrast n e e d n o t lead in t h e direction o f G r e e k thought - namely ontological immutability.

38

H e r e J a m e s m a r k s t h e vacillation

o f t h e c r e a t e d order, especially t h e l u m i n a r i e s , in contrast t o G o d ' s steadfastness (1.17) a n d singularity ( G o d is ' s i n g l e ' 1.5). G o d , a s creator o f t h e l u m i n a r i e s , exists in t h e h i g h e s t h e a v e n l y s p h e r e a n d r e m a i n s constant in contrast t o t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e c r e a t e d lights. T h e ' s i m p l i c i t y ' o f G o d , h i s u n c h a n g e a b l e n e s s or better steadfastness, is a characteristic o f his 'perfection' o r w h o l e n e s s (holi n e s s ) - a characteristic J a m e s ' readers a r e t o strive for o v e r against duplicity o r vacillation ( s e e 1.2-4 a s setting t h e t h e m e for t h e entire letter). N o t o n l y h a s G o d c r e a t e d t h e l u m i n a r i e s b u t h e ' g a v e u s birth b y t h e w o r d o f truth, s o that w e w o u l d b e c o m e a k i n d o f first S u i t s o f his creatures (KTiapccTcov)' (1.18). S o m e h a v e a r g u e d that t h e birth i m a g e r y h e r e o n l y refers t o G o d ' s creation o f h u m a n b e i n g s - a n d t h u s specifically n o t t o r e d e m p t i o n .

39

Yet if,

a s D o n a l d Verseput h a s argued, t h e ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' l a n g u a g e in fact reflects t h e J e w i s h m o r n i n g prayer, w h i c h m o v e s from a c k n o w l e d g i n g G o d a s creator (literally a s ' F a t h e r o f l i g h t s ' ) directly t o a c k n o w l e d g i n g h i m a s r e d e e m e r , then

27

36. There are six different readings of the phrase noted in the Nestle-Aland apparatus. Dibel ius (James, p. 102) offers the conjecture: TrapaXXayrj T p o n % fj aTTOOKiaauaTOs ('alteration of change or shadow'). 37. Johnson, Letter of James, p. 197. 38. See the discussion in D. J. Verseput, 'James 1.17 and the Jewish Morning Prayers', NovT (1997), 177-91. Here he suggests that the image here refers to the unwavering character of God's faithfulnessratherthan an ontological immutability. 39. Jackson-McCabe ('The Messiah Jesus', p. 712, n. 44) argues that '...the description of those so "born" as "a sort of first fruits of [God's] creatures" ... can be understood quite well in light of the Stoic notion of humanity's elevated place in the order of creation due to its endow ment with logos'. Indeed Philo uses the Greek verb 6:ITOKUECO in the sense of God's creation of humanity (Philo, On Drunkenness 30). Also see the discussion in Moo (Letter of James, p. 79).

154

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

t h e 'first fruits o f c r e a t i o n ' in 1.18 s h o u l d rather b e v i e w e d a s a r e f e r e n c e to r e d e m p t i o n . T h u s M o o helpfully c o n c l u d e s : ' t h e l a n g u a g e J a m e s u s e s in t h e v e r s e , w h i l e c a p a b l e o f a g e n e r a l " c o s m o l o g i c a l " application, is m o r e likely to b e r e a d in a soteriological l i g h t ' .

40

T h e creational m o t i f (KTIOMOCTCOV) indicates

n o t o n l y that G o d c r e a t e d h u m a n i t y b u t that creation is in n e e d o f r e d e m p t i o n . L u k e C h e u n g correctly a s s e r t s : ' . . . t h e creation m o t i f h a s b e e n a p p l i e d to a t i m e o f n e w creation in t h e O T a n d t h e entire c r e a t i o n . . . is in n e e d o f r e d e m p t i o n . Christians are seen as t h e firstfruit [sic] in t h e c o s m i c r e d e m p t i o n ' .

41

Though

C h e u n g d o e s n o t p u r s u e t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l implications o f his statement, it is clear i n light o f J a s . 5.7-11 that r e a d e r s are to e n d u r e p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s in light o f future h o p e o f r e s t o r a t i o n - t h e first fruits o f w h i c h m a y b e seen in p r e s e n t r e d e m p t i o n (1.18).

3 . Gehenna

and the Terrestrial

Sphere

H a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d t h e ' e a r t h l y ' a n d h e a v e n l y ('from a b o v e ' ) , w e finally d e s c e n d to t h e d e p t h s in 3.6: ' A n d t h e t o n g u e is a fire. T h e t o n g u e is a n u n r i g h t e o u s w o r l d a m o n g o u r m e m b e r s , staining t h e w h o l e body, setting o n fire t h e c y c l e o f n a t u r e (TOV T p o x b v TTJS y s v e o e e o s ) , a n d set o n fire b y G e h e n n a (yesvvris)'. W e h a v e a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r e d t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l significance o f ' u n r i g h t e o u s w o r l d ' a b o v e . H e r e w e a s k further h o w ' t h e c y c l e o f n a t u r e ' a n d ' G e h e n n a ' (ysEvvrjs) fit into J a m e s ' view of the universe. R i c h a r d B a u c k h a m h a s m a d e a v e r y interesting a r g u m e n t that t h e text o f Jas. 3.6 s h o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e Peshitta b y inserting uAr]

after

42

a S i K i c c s . B a u c k h a m t h e n translates 3.5-6: ' S e e h o w s m a l l a fire sets alight so large a forest [ w o o d ] ! T h e t o n g u e is a fire, the sinful w o r l d w o o d ' . G i v e n this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n h e c o n c l u d e s that t h e 'first s e n t e n c e states t h e i m a g e , w h i c h t h e s e c o n d interprets b y identifying t h e t w o e l e m e n t s in t h e allegory. T h e i m a g e is t h e n p i c k e d u p a g a i n in v e r s e 6 b ("setting o n fire t h e w h e e l o f e x i s t e n c e . . . " ) , w h e r e TOV Tpoxbv T % y e v e o e e o s is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h 6 KOO|JOS T % CCSIK'ICCS \

4 3

N o t i n g that it is o n l y a possibility, B a u c k h a m o b s e r v e s that J a m e s ' p h r a s e ' w h e e l o f e x i s t e n c e ' is strikingly similar to t h e Hellenistic p h r a s e ' t h e circle o f e x i s t e n c e ' ( b T p o x b s TX\S y s v e o e c o s ) , w h i c h w a s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a traditional p u n i s h m e n t in t h e u n d e r w o r l d .

44

H e suggests that t h e o d d p h r a s e TOV T p o x b v

40. This is apparent especially in light of the redemptive context provided by the phrase 'by the word of truth'; see Moo, Letter ofJames, p. 79. 41. Cheung, Hermeneutics of James, p. 87 n. 1. 42. R. Bauckham, 'The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell [James 3.6]', in Fate of the Dead. Studies on the Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (NovTSup 93; Leiden: Brill, 1998), pp. 119-31 (119 n. 1); here he follows J. B. Adamson, The Epistle of James (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976), pp. 158-9. 43. Bauckham, 'The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell', p. 119 n. 1. 44. In Hades Zeus bound Ixion to a wheel so that he would revolve around it for eternity

9.

James

155

xfjs yev'eoecos in 3.6 w a s selected b e c a u s e o f t h e p u n b e t w e e n yev'eoecos a n d yeevvrjs w h i c h t h e o l o g i c a l l y indicates that t h e p u n i s h m e n t ( G e h e n n a ) fits t h e c r i m e ( t h e entire ' l i f e ' affected b y t h e t o n g u e ) .

45

T h a t G e h e n n a is a fitting a n d v e r y real p l a c e o f p u n i s h m e n t s k e t c h e s a further c o s m o l o g i c a l feature o f J a m e s ' theological atlas. W h e r e a s 3.6 is often u n d e r s t o o d as i m p l y i n g that the defilement o f t h e t o n g u e d e r i v e s from t h e p o w e r s o f G e h e n n a , a n d therefore t h e d e v i l ,

46

this is unlikely. A g a i n , B a u c k h a m p o i n t s

out that G e h e n n a is n o t t h e location o f t h e devil or o f the forces o f evil in firstc e n t u r y J e w i s h o r C h r i s t i a n thought. Rather, h e asserts G e h e n n a is the place where the wicked are punished, either after the last judgment or... after death. Its angels, terrifying and cruel as they are, are servants of God, executing God's judgment on sin. They are not evil angels who rebel against and resist God. These evil angels, with Satan or the devil at their head, will at the end of history be sent to their doom in Gehenna, but they are not there yet. Rather, they inhabit the terrestrial area from the earth to the lowest heavenly sphere. (It is with this area that James associates them when he contrasts the wisdom mat comes from heaven with the false wisdom that is earthly [eiriyios] and demonic [SaiuovieoSrjs] [3.15].) 47

W i t h this u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f G e h e n n a it is clear w h y J a m e s contrasts w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' w i t h ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m , instead o f w i s d o m ' f r o m b e l o w ' . It is p r e c i s e l y t h e d e m o n i c p o w e r s at w o r k in t h e terrestrial s p h e r e that p r o d u c e a counterfeit w i s d o m that sets itself o v e r against w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' . H e r e J a m e s u s e s G e h e n n a a s t h e fitting location o f future p u n i s h m e n t d u e t o t h e t o n g u e ' s defilement w h i l e i m p l y i n g that d e m o n i c forces a r e currently at w o r k u p o n t h e earth specifically t h r o u g h counterfeit w i s d o m ( 3 . 1 4 - 1 6 ) .

4 . Conclusion:

Cosmology

and Theology

in

James

J a m e s charts t h e u n i v e r s e v i a t w o c o m p e t i n g w o r l d v i e w s , or s y s t e m s o f v a l u e , w h i c h o r d e r c o s m o l o g i c a l a n d theological order. T h e c o s m o s is bifurcated

(Pindar, Pythian Odes 2.20). Bauckham further notes that 'the philosopher Simplicius (writing c. 300 CE), refers to the myth and gives it an allegorical interpretation in terms of Orphic beliefs: the wheel, he says, is "the wheel of fate and becoming..." (In Aristot. de caelo comm. 2.168b). James may not have known this Orphic interpretation of the myth, but he could have been aware of the wheel as a punishment in hell depicted in Jewish apocalyptic descriptions, which had borrowed it, like various other infernal punishments, from the Greek Hades...' ('The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell\ p. 130). 45. Bauckham, 'The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell', p. 130. That the phrase 'cycle of nature', or 'wheel of existence' refers to 'life' see Dibelius, James, p. 198; Davids, James, p. 143. 46. See William R. Baker, Personal Speech-Ethics in the Epistle of James (WUNT 2/68; Tubingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 1995), p. 128: 'what is conveyed here is tht [sic] the person who does not control his tongue makes his tongue an agent for Satan's harmful designs on the individual and society'. 47. Bauckham, 'The Tongue Set on Fire by Hell', p. 120.

156

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

along the boundary between these two world views - one associated with ' G o d ' ( 1 . 2 7 ; 2 . 5 ; 4.4) a n d t h e o t h e r w i t h ' t h e w o r l d ' ( 1 . 2 7 ; 2 . 5 ; 3.6; 4 . 4 [ 2 x ] o r ;

' e a r t h l y ' 3.14-17). N o t o n l y are t h e s e s y s t e m s o f m e a s u r e set in opposition, b u t ' t h e w o r l d ' is e x p r e s s l y m a r k e d off a s c o n t a g i o u s territory - p o l l u t i n g g r o u n d (1.27). F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a l l e g i a n c e o f J a m e s ' r e a d e r s is d e t e r m i n e d b y their cartographic location w i t h respect t o r e g i o n s o f ' t h e w o r l d ' or G o d - if o n e is a friend o f ' t h e w o r l d ' , a n d t h u s p l o t t e d w i t h i n defiled territory, t h e n h e is a n e n e m y o f G o d (4.4). R a t h e r t h a n b o u n d w i t h i n t h e ' e a r t h l y ' r e a l m , G o d is n o t o n l y a b o v e ' t h e world', but above the luminaries as well. A s 'Father of lights' he remains con sistent in contrast to t h e variations o f the h e a v e n l y o r b s a n d t h u s , i n h a b i t i n g t h e highest h e a v e n , is a faithful a n d steadfast s o u r c e o f g o o d gifts (1.17) a n d w i s d o m (1.5). B e c a u s e G o d is ' f r o m a b o v e ' , w i s d o m ' f r o m a b o v e ' (3.17) n e c essarily is h i s i n s t r u m e n t a l m e a n s o f r e n d e r i n g defiled r e a d e r s ' p u r e ' (3.17). It is within t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l s p h e r e o f the ' e a r t h l y ' , t h e a r e a from t h e g r o u n d t o t h e lowest h e a v e n l y r e a l m , that the battle b e t w e e n ' d e m o n i c ' ( 3 . 1 4 ) a n d h e a v e n l y w i s d o m is w a g e d - w h e r e the struggle takes o n t h e f o r m o f h u m a n s u b m i t ting (to G o d ) a n d resisting (the ' d e v i l ' ) (4.7). In this Epistle w e v i e w J a m e s ' textually constructed, theological g r i d as it m a p s o u t t h e w a y o f ' p e r f e c t i o n ' o r w h o l e n e s s (holiness) (1.2-4) for his r e a d e r s . A n d , as w e h a v e seen, this ' p e r f e c t i o n ' is ultimately e x p e c t e d in t h e future r e n e w a l r e a d e r s are to w a i t for w i t h e n d u r i n g h o p e (1.2-4 a n d 5.7-11). W i t h i n t h e lines o f this m a p t h e r e is at least o n e clear a n d practical w a r n i n g : t h e t o n g u e is t h e c o n d u i t t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e polluting w o r l d transmits duplicity, t h u s c o m p r o m i s i n g r e a d e r s ' p r e s e n t ' p e r f e c t i o n ' ( 1 . 2 7 ; 3.6) - a n d t h u s p e r h a p s future ' p e r f e c t i o n ' a s w e l l . J a m e s ' c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e is l i n e - d r a w i n g l a n g u a g e - o r ' w o r l d v i e w ' l a n g u a g e - that r e n d e r s a m a p o f theological reality. R e a d e r s a r e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m s e l v e s a s p l o t t e d w i t h i n this theological construal o f t h e u n i v e r s e , a n d t h u s inscribed w i t h a n e w identity. It is clear, if r e a d e r s are m a p p e d in ' w o r l d l y ' t e r m s , a n i m a t e d b y ' e a r t h l y ' w i s d o m , t h e y are in d a n g e r o f theological defilement. A ' p e r f e c t ' relationship t o G o d clearly calls for separation from ' t h e w o r l d ' s ' defilement. Yet this separation from ' t h e w o r l d ' is n o t m e r e l y c o s m o l o g i c a l ; t h e c o s m o l o g y is integrated into a t h e o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e u n i v e r s e w h e r e individuals m u s t s t a n d free from t h e w o r l d v i e w o f ' t h e w o r l d ' in o r d e r to b e w h o l l y d e v o t e d to G o d - the line in t h e s a n d d r a w n b e t w e e n a friend o f G o d a n d a friend o f ' t h e w o r l d ' .

10 C O S M O L O G Y IN THE PETRINE LITERATURE A N D J U D E

John Dennis

This chapter will e x a m i n e passages in the Petrine literature a n d J u d e that e m p l o y explicit c o s m o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s a n d terminology. C o s m o l o g y is u s e d h e r e to describe the w a y in w h i c h o u r literature speaks about the structure o f the c o s m o s , 1

or universe, as a meaningful place. B u t our authors are n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o s m o l o g y as a n e n d in itself or for m e r e speculative purposes. Rather, c o s m o l o g y is dealt w i t h for the express p u r p o s e o f theology,

that is, in order to say s o m e

thing about G o d a n d particularly G o d ' s salvific w o r k in Christ. C o s m o l o g y is the c a n v a s , so to speak, o f Heilsgeschichte

(salvation history). T h e p r i m a r y goal,

then, o f this contribution will b e to investigate h o w c o s m o l o g y serves t h e a u t h o r s ' theological

a n d ethical purposes. S o m e o f the p a s s a g e s dealt w i t h are notoriously

difficult a n d w e d o not pretend to settle all the debated issues. Nevertheless, it is h o p e d that this study will p r o v i d e a clear, t h o u g h introductory, account o f the function o f c o s m o l o g y in the Petrine literature a n d Jude.

1 1. The Setting

of 1

Peter

Peter

T h e life-situation o f t h e recipients o f 1 P e t e r is o n e o f p e r s e c u t i o n a n d suffering. T h u s , P e t e r w r o t e to c o n s o l e ' t h o s e c a u g h t u p in s u c h a d v e r s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s ' M i d t o p r o v i d e ' p e r s p e c t i v e o n Christian life that will e n a b l e t h e c o m m u n i t y to s u r v i v e p e r s e c u t i o n s w i t h its faith i n t a c t ' .

2

O n e of the ways the author

a c c o m p l i s h e s this strategy is to relate h i s r e a d e r s ' lives t o the r e d e m p t i v e story b e g i n n i n g w i t h G o d a s creator ( 4 . 1 9 ) a n d h i s r e d e m p t i v e activity from b e f o r e creation (1.20) t o t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n (1.5). T h e r e f o r e t h e a u t h o r is n o t interested b y ' e x p l a i n i n g m e t a p h y s i c s , history, or c o s m o l o g y t o t h e m , b u t b y a d d r e s s i n g t h e m from w i t h i n this w o r l d , confirming t h e n e w w o r l d t h e y r e c e i v e d at their n e w birth, a n d b y d e e p e n i n g a n d w i d e n i n g their p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e n e w reality in

1. See R. A. Oden, 'Cosmogony, Cosmology', in ABD 1:1162. 2. P. J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter: A Commentary on First Peter (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), p. 65. See also A. Schlatter, Petrus und Paulus nach dem Ersten Petrusbrief (Stuttgart: Calwer, 1937), p. 13.

158

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

3

w h i c h t h e y l i v e ' . T h u s , c o s m o l o g y is a m e a n s to a n e n d for Peter, t h e e n d b e i n g his r e a d e r s ' faithful o b e d i e n c e t o t h e G o s p e l e v e n in t h e c o n t e x t o f suffering a n d persecution. 2 . 1 Pet

1.20:

The Foundation

of the Cosmos

and the Last

Times

T h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f 1 P e t . 1.20, n a m e l y , w . 1 3 - 2 5 , c o n t i n u e s t h e a p o s t l e ' s p a r a e n e s i s to t h e s e b e l e a g u e r e d C h r i s t i a n s . H e e n c o u r a g e s t h e m t o 'fix y o u r h o p e c o m p l e t e l y ' o n t h e future g r a c e p r o m i s e d to t h e m at C h r i s t ' s p a r o u s i a (v. 13) a n d to b e t h e m s e l v e s h o l y in all their b e h a v i o u r , a c c o r d i n g to G o d ' s h o l i n e s s as their p a t t e r n (v. 15), r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g c o n f o r m e d to their f o r m e r desires in their i g n o r a n c e as n o n - b e l i e v e r s (v. 14). 1 Pet. 1.17 c o m m u n i c a t e s essentially the s a m e idea: t h e r e a d e r s a r e to ' c o n d u c t y o u r s e l v e s in fear

(or

reverence)

d u r i n g t h e t i m e o f y o u r p i l g r i m a g e ' . T h e section c o m p r i s i n g w . 18-21 s e r v e s as the g r o u n d for the m a i n c l a u s e o f v. 17 ( ' c o n d u c t y o u r s e l v e s . . . ' ) . T h u s , b e c a u s e t h e s e Christians h a v e firm c o n f i d e n c e that their r e d e m p t i o n (Xirrpoo)) w a s secured ' b y m e a n s o f t h e v a l u a b l e b l o o d (TLIILCO a i f i a T i ) ' o f C h r i s t (v. 19), t h e y s h o u l d c o n d u c t t h e m s e l v e s in r e v e r e n t fear t o w a r d G o d in t h e c o n t e x t o f their p r e s e n t p i l g r i m a g e in a hostile w o r l d (v. 17). Verses 2 0 a n d 2 1 t h e n spell out further a s p e c t s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g v e r s e s : f o l l o w i n g u p o n t h e m e n t i o n o f C h r i s t ' s b l o o d in v. 19, v. 2 0 further d e s c r i b e s C h r i s t a s t h e o n e w h o w a s ' f o r e k n o w n before t h e foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' . O u r p r i m a r y focus h e r e c o n c e r n s t h e m e a n i n g a n d function o f t h e o b v i o u s cosmological term

Koa|iog

in t h e p h r a s e

upb KcrrapoXfis

KOO\LOV

( ' f r o m the 4

foundation o f the w o r l d ' ) in v. 2 0 . T h e t e r m Koafios ( w o r l d , u n i v e r s e ) , u s e d 7 5

t i m e s in o u r literature, t a k e s o n t h e f o l l o w i n g three b a s i c m e a n i n g s in t h e N T : 6

(1) ' t h e s u m total o f e v e r y t h i n g h e r e a n d n o w ' , that is, t h e c r e a t e d u n i v e r s e ; (2) t h e a b o d e o f h u m a n i t y , o r t h e i n h a b i t e d w o r l d ; a n d (3) t h e r e a l m o f sin a n d 7

alienation from t h e C r e a t o r . In 1-2 P e t e r a n d J u d e , all t h r e e o f t h e s e senses are found. B u t , it m u s t b e k e p t in m i n d that significant o v e r l a p in m e a n i n g is inevitable. A l t h o u g h 1 Pet. 4.7 d o e s n o t e m p l o y t h e t e r m K<3a|ios, it n e v e r t h e l e s s u s e s t h e virtually s y n o n y m o u s t e r m TTdira in t h e p h r a s e TTdvrwv 8e TO reXos

fyyyiKev

( ' t h e e n d o f all t h i n g s h a s c o m e n e a r ' ) . T h e i d e a h e r e is that t h e e n d , o r final, 8

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c r e a t e d w o r l d ( m e a n i n g 1) (or TTdvra) is i m m i n e n t . A n

3. M. E. Boring, J Peter (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1999), p. 184. 4. See E. Adams' Constructing the World: A Study of Paul's Cosmological Language (Edin burgh: T&T Clark, 2000), pp. 41-81, for an excellent study of the term Koap-os in Greek, Jewish and Pauline literature. 5. 1 Pet. 1.20; 3.3 (here meaning 'adornment'); 5:9; 2 Pet. 1.4; 2.5,20; 3.6. 6. BDAG,p. 561. 7. See further BDAG, p. 561; H. Balz, 'KOTOS', EDNT2:3U; H. Sasse, 'KOTOS', TDNT 3:885-9. 8. See also Jn 1.3 where it is said that 'all things came into being through him' (iravra 6V

10.

Petrine

Literature

and

159

Jude

o v e r l a p o f m e a n i n g s 1 a n d 2 is e v i d e n t in 2 P e t . 3.5-6 w h e r e t h e ' h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h ' (v. 5 ) s e e m t o b e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e ' w o r l d ' : G o d ' f o r m e d ' t h e h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h (v. 5; cf. G e n e s i s 1) a n d d e s t r o y e d ' t h e w o r l d at that t i m e ' (v. 6; cf. G e n e s i s 6 - 7 ) . G o d is b o t h t h e c r e a t o r a n d j u d g e o f t h e w o r l d in its totality a n d all l i v i n g b e i n g s in its s p h e r e . 2 Pet. 2 . 5 , a r e l a t e d text t o 2 Pet. 3.5-6 in that 9

b o t h c o n c e r n u n i v e r s a l j u d g e m e n t b y m e a n s o f t h e flood (cf. G e n e s i s 6 - 7 ) , d e c l a r e s that G o d ' d i d n o t s p a r e t h e ancient w o r l d ( d p x a i o u KO<j|JLOU) . . . w h e n h e b r o u g h t a flood u p o n t h e u n g o d l y w o r l d ' (Koapxi) aoefi&v). that c o s m o s h e r e ' m e a n s p r i m a r i l y inhabitants o f t h e w o r l d ' ,

B a u c k h a m states 1 0

a l t h o u g h in light

o f t h e u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e o f t h e flood, this v e r s e m a y w e l l refer t o s o m e k i n d o f 'cosmic catastrophe'.

11

I n a d d i t i o n , 2 Pet. 2 . 5 , a l o n g w i t h s u c h r e f e r e n c e s a s

2 P e t . 3.10 w h e r e t h e ' h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h ' are a n a l o g o u s t o t h e p r e s e n t ' w o r l d ' as t h e totality o f t h e c r e a t e d u n i v e r s e ( m e a n i n g n u m b e r 1 a b o v e ) , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e 'author of 2 Peter seems to have thought of three successive worlds: the ancient w o r l d b e f o r e t h e flood, p r e s e n t w o r l d a n d t h e n e w w o r l d t o c o m e ( 3 . 1 3 ) after judgement'.

1 2

W h a t is c r u c i a l t o p o i n t o u t c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e p a s s a g e s is that t h e y

u l t i m a t e l y p o i n t to t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e s t o r a t i o n o f all t h i n g s : 1 Pet. 4 . 7 i m p l i e s it in the overall context o f 1 P e t e r

13

a n d the a r g u m e n t s o f 2 Pet. 2.5 a n d 3.6 p e a k

at t h e p r o m i s e o f t h e ' n e w h e a v e n s a n d n e w e a r t h ' , or t h e c o s m o s o f t h e n e w age, in 3 . 1 3 . T h e p h r a s e s ' c o r r u p t i o n that is in t h e w o r l d b e c a u s e o f sinful d e s i r e '

1 4

ev TCO Koau.q) iv e m G v u I a <|>0opas) in 2 Pet. 1.4 a n d ' t h e defilements o f t h e w o r l d ' (TOL [ i i d a j i a T a TOO KOOJIOU) in 2 Pet. 2 . 2 0 s u g g e s t that ' w o r l d ' in t h e s e i n s t a n c e s s h o u l d b e c a t e g o r i z e d m a i n l y u n d e r m e a n i n g ( 3 ) : t h e w o r l d is the p l a c e or s p h e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y sinful d e s i r e ( e m G u j j u a ) ,

15

defilement a n d t h e

c o r r u p t i o n , d e c a y a n d transitoriness o f this a g e (signified b y t h e t e r m c(>Gopd,

airroO eyev€To) and Acts 7.49-50 where the adjective Trdira refers to 'all things' created by God including 'heaven and earth'. 9. R. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter (WBC 50; Waco: Word, 1983), p. 250. 10. Ibid. Meaning (2) (cosmos as the inhabited world) is clearly found in 1 Pet. 5.9: 'your brethren who are in the world'. BDAG, p. 561, categorizes 1 Pet. 5.9 under the definition 'world as the habitation of humanity'. 11. J. N. D. Kelly, A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and of Jude (BNTC; London: A & C Black, 1969), p. 332; and particularly E. Adams, The Stars will Fall From Heaven: Cosmic Catastrophe in the New Testament and its World (LNTS 347; London: T&T Clark, 2007), pp. 214-16. 12. Bauckham, Jttdfe, 2 Peter, p. 250. 13. SeeAchtemeier, I Peter, p. 294. 14. The translation here is Bauckham's from his Jude, 2 Peter, p. 182. 15. Bauckham's translation of emOuuia in 2 Pet 1.4 as 'sinful desire' is wholly justified. The term's basic sense is 'desire for something forbidden or simply inordinate, craving, lust' (BDAG, p. 372). In our literature it is used in the follow ways: 1 Pet 1.14; 2.11 (lusts of the flesh); 4.2 (human desires and will of God contrasted); 4.3; here; 2 Pet. 2.10; 2.18 (desires of the flesh); 3.3; Jude 16,18 (ungodly lusts).

Cosmology

160

and New Testament

Theology

16

1.4). B u t a g a i n a m e s s a g e o f eschatological h o p e is p r e s e n t i n t h e s e p a s s a g e s . B e l i e v e r s h a v e ' e s c a p e d ' (dTro<|)6i3ya)) t h e ' c o r r u p t i o n ' (c(>0opd) a n d 'defile m e n t s ' ( p i a a p a ) o f a n d in this w o r l d ( 1 . 4 ; 2.20). B e c a u s e o f G o d ' s 'magnificent p r o m i s e s ' (1.4) a n d ' i n a c c o r d a n c e ' w i t h t h e m , believers in this p r e s e n t w o r l d ' w a i t for n e w h e a v e n s a n d a n e w e a r t h ' (3.13), or, t h e ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l gift o f a0opoia ("imperishability", 1 Pet. 1 . 4 , 1 8 , 2 3 ) ' .

1 7

R e t u r n i n g t o 1 Pet. 1.20, t h e t e r m ' w o r l d ' falls u n d e r m e a n i n g (1) a n d refers to t h e c r e a t e d c o s m o s . T h e t e r m is u s e d in 1.20 in a prepositional p h r a s e ('before t h e foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' ) that e m p l o y s t h e n o u n KcrrapoXii ( ' f o u n d a t i o n ' ) a n d t h e p r e p o s i t i o n Trpo ( ' b e f o r e ' ) a n d a s such refers t o a t i m e ' b e f o r e ' o r ' p r i o r t o ' t h e creation o f all t h i n g s (cf. G e n . l . l ) .

1 8

O u r prepositional p h r a s e is u s e d

o n l y t w o o t h e r t i m e s in t h e N T : E p h . 1.4 s p e a k s o f G o d ' s election o f h i s p e o p l e in Christ ' b e f o r e t h e foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' a n d J n 17.24 s p e a k s o f the eternal love o f the F a t h e r for t h e S o n ' b e f o r e the foundation o f t h e w o r l d ' . In 1 Pet. 1.20 Christ is d e s c r i b e d w i t h a parallel p a i r o f participial p h r a s e s : (a)

(a) who was foreknown before the foundation of the world (b) who has appeared at the end of times

TRPOE-YVWCJP.EVOU TTPB KDTAPOAFJS VLOO\LOV

(b) 4>av€pa)0€VTO9 €7T' £OX&TOV T(3I>

xp&vuw

T h e p e r s o n o f Christ, a n d b y implication t h e r e d e m p t i o n t h r o u g h h i m ,

1 9

is

related to eternity p a s t and t h e e n d o f t h e a g e in w h i c h believers n o w live. G o d ' f o r e k n e w ' o r ' d e s t i n e d ' (TTpoyivuxjKco) Christ before t h e creation o f t h e world.

20

T h e s e C h r i s t i a n s ' r e d e e m e r a n d h i s r e d e m p t i o n therefore h a v e n o t h i n g

to d o w i t h the corruption a n d defilements o f this w o r l d ( 1 . 4 ; 2.20) b u t rather stand o u t s i d e its s p h e r e . A s B . R e i c k e

21

h a s p o i n t e d out, 1.20a c o r r e s p o n d s in

e s s e n c e to t h e t e a c h i n g o f 1.4: G o d r e s e r v e d a n d s e c u r e d b e l i e v e r s ' inheritance in h e a v e n for t h e m a n d in 1.20 G o d h a s ' d e s t i n e d ' Christ a n d his r e d e m p t i o n 'for y o u r s a k e ' before creation. G o d not only foreknew or destined Christ before creation, h e also c a u s e d h i m to b e r e v e a l e d ' a t t h e e n d o f t i m e s ' , that is, at t h e

16. Bauckham, Jude, 2Peter, p. 182; Balz, 'KOOUOS', EDNT2:3U. 17. Similarly, Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 182. 18. The phrase, according to Balz, Voauos', EDNT2:311, means: the 'Cosmos has a begin ning that has been established by God'. 19. The two participles TTPOEYVAXJU.evoi; and (JxiveptoOevTos clearly describe XpiaToO and not God's 'plan' of redemption. But given that the redemption secured with Christ's blood (v. 19) and the fact that Christ 'has appeared at the end of times for your sake* (v. 20) suggest that Christ, along with the redemption he came to bring his people, was also 'foreknown before the founda tion of the world'. 20. Achtemeier's translation of TRPOEYVOXJUIVOU ITPB KCRRAPOXRIS K<XJU.OU captures well the intended sense: 'whose destiny was set before creation'. 21. Reicke, The Epistles ofJames, Peter and Jude (AB; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1980), p. 86.

10. Petrine Literature

'the beginning of the end of

22

time'

andJude

161

in w h i c h b e l i e v e r s n o w live. S i n c e all o f

t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s ( 1 . 2 0 a - b ) h a p p e n e d precisely for t h e s a k e o f G o d ' s p e o p l e ('for y o u r s a k e ' , v. 2 0 ) , t h e y h a v e t h e effect o f ' f o c u s i n g t h e w h o l e s w e e p o f history o n the r e a d e r s , a n d sets t h e m , exiles a n d aliens that t h e y a r e , at centre stage in t h e d r a m a o f s a l v a t i o n ' .

23

In addition, b e c a u s e t h e s e C h r i s t i a n s ' k n o w '

these things c o n c e r n i n g their r e d e e m e r a n d r e d e m p t i o n ( w . 18-21), they can, w i t h confidence, ' c o n d u c t t h e m s e l v e s in fear d u r i n g their p i l g r i m a g e ' (v. 17) in t h e s e 'last t i m e s ' .

3 . 1 Pet.

3.18-22

T h i s e x t r e m e l y difficult p a s s a g e is full o f exegetical minefields w h i c h w e shall 24

n o t b e able to d i s c u s s in detail in this c h a p t e r . W e will limit t h e f o c u s ily o n t h e references to t h e ' c o s m i c p o w e r s '

2 6

25

primar

in v. 19 ( ' t h e spirits in p r i s o n ' )

a n d in v. 2 2 ( ' a n g e l s a n d authorities a n d p o w e r s ' ) , all o f w h i c h relate t o the Jewish apocalyptic 'cosmic m y t h ' .

2 7

It is p r o b a b l y b e s t to t a k e t h e ' f o r ' (on) that b e g i n s v. 18 a s p r o v i d i n g t h e ' t h e o l o g i c a l b a s i s ' for t h e entire p r e c e d i n g section ( 3 . 1 2 - 1 7 ) ,

28

a section that

e n c o u r a g e s b e l i e v e r s to c o n t i n u e their ' g o o d b e h a v i o u r in C h r i s t ' (v. 16) e v e n as t h e y a r e b e i n g p e r s e c u t e d for it. In this w a y , t h e s e Christians c a n live lives that b e a r w i t n e s s t o their h o p e in Christ (v. 15). C h r i s t ' s u n i q u e d e a t h ( ' o n c e for a l l ' , cnra?) is p r e s e n t e d ' a s t h e objective g r o u n d a n d c a u s e o f s a l v a t i o n ' p r o v i d e s t h e s e C h r i s t i a n s w i t h confidence in their suffering

29

which

that C h r i s t ' s d e a t h

a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n a c c o m p l i s h e d their reconciliation t o G o d (it b r o u g h t t h e m ' t o G o d ' , v. 18) a n d v i c t o r y o v e r e v e r y o p p o s i n g p o w e r .

30

W e m u s t k e e p in m i n d

that this is t h e overall p o i n t o f 3.18-22. C h r i s t ' s o n c e for all suffering for sins in v. 18a is further d e s c r i b e d in v. 18b as C h r i s t ' h a v i n g b e e n p u t t o d e a t h in t h e flesh, b u t m a d e alive in t h e spirit'

22. L. Goppelt, A Commentary on I Peter (trans. J. E. Alsup; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), p. 118. 23. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, p. 132. 24. On the extensive history of interpretation of w . 18-22, see particularly B. Reicke, The Dis obedient Spirits and Christian Baptism: A Study of 1 Peter iii.21 and Its Context (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1946), pp. 7-51; and W. J. Dalton, Christ's Proclamation to the Spirits: A Study of 1 Peter 3:18-4:6 (Rome: Pontificio Istituto Biblico, 1989), pp. 15-41. 25. In light of space restrictions exegetical conclusions will be mentioned for which I can provide (at best) limited support. 26. Designated as such by Goppelt, I Peter, p. 248. 27. Ibid., p. 251. 28. So Achtemeier, / Peter, p. 243; L. Thuren, Argument and Theology in 1 Peter. The Origin of Christian Paraenesis (JSNT 114; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), p. 158; Kelly, Commentary, p. 146; Dalton, Proclamation, p. 158. 29. Dalton, Proclamation, p. 122. 30. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, p. 251.

162

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

( N A S B ) . T h e s e p h r a s e s refer to C h r i s t ' s d e a t h o n t h e c r o s s a n d his v i n d i c a tion b y r e s u r r e c t i o n respectively. T h e |±€v-8e c o n s t r u c t i o n that correlates t h e s e participles s u g g e s t s that t h e e m p h a s i s is p l a c e d o n t h e s e c o n d e l e m e n t ,

31

so that

C h r i s t ' s r e s u r r e c t i o n is t h e e m p h a s i s . T h e following t w o g r a m m a t i c a l / s y n t a c t i cal q u e s t i o n s that b e a r directly o n t h e m e a n i n g o f w . 19-20 are: w h a t is t h e s e n s e o f t h e d a t i v e c a s e o f t h e t w o n o u n s a a p i d /irvev[iari

(v. 18) a n d w h a t

d o e s ev <S (v. 19) refer to a n d m e a n ? T h e t w o n o u n s in t h e d a t i v e c a s e ( N A S B translation: ' i n t h e f l e s h ' / ' i n t h e s p i r i t ' ) h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d in a n u m b e r o f w a y s , b u t p r o b a b l y the o n l y real o p t i o n s a r e t o c o n s t r u e t h e m a s either d a t i v e s o f reference/respect ( ' w i t h refer e n c e to t h e

32

flesh'),

sphere ('in the sphere of the S/spirit')

datives ('by the Spirit').

33

or as instrumental

34

If t h e c l a u s e £a>OTroir)9eis m>€U|iaTi is a reference t o C h r i s t ' s r e s u r r e c t i o n b y t h e a g e n c y o f t h e Spirit t h e n this s u g g e s t s that ev to (v. 19), w h o s e a n t e c e d e n t is t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g W€U(iaTL, s h o u l d l i k e w i s e b e u n d e r s t o o d instrumentally

35

a n d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n s e : ' b y w h o m [the Spirit] h e w e n t a n d

p r o c l a i m e d to t h e spirits in p r i s o n ' .

36

In t h e e n d , a s M i c h a e l s o b s e r v e s , t h e r e is

n o t a great d e a l o f difference in t e r m s o f the overall s e n s e , s i n c e ' t h e w o r d s ev to Kai s e r v e to link Co)OTToir|6eig c l o s e l y t o t h e TropeuGeis eKT\pv^ev that follows, m a k i n g C h r i s t ' s p r o c l a m a t i o n to t h e spirits a direct o u t c o m e o f h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n from t h e d e a d ' .

3 7

W h e r e did Christ ' g o ' , what did he 'proclaim', and to w h o m

d i d h e p r o c l a i m ? T h e s e a r e t h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s that p e r t a i n t o w . 19-20. One of the dominant interpretations

38

t h r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s h a s b e e n to

a r g u e that C h r i s t p r o c l a i m e d t h e g o s p e l to t h e d e p a r t e d spirits (i.e., ' t h e spirits in p r i s o n ' , v. 19), that is, t h e u n b e l i e v i n g c o n t e m p o r a r i e s o f N o a h , w h o w e r e p r e s e r v e d in a p l a c e o f p u n i s h m e n t after their d e a t h .

39

T h e r e f e r e n c e in 1 Pet.

4.6 to t h e g o s p e l b e i n g p r e a c h e d to ' t h e d e a d ' is often u s e d to s u p p o r t this

31. See D. Blass and R. W. Funk, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 2000), §447; BDAG, p. 629; Dalton, Proclamation, p. 137. 32. J. R. Michaels, 1 Peter (Waco: Word, 1988), p. 205. 33. Kelly, Commentary, p. 151. 34. Achtemeier, / Peter, p. 250; J. S. Feinberg, '1 Peter 3:18-20, Ancient Mythology, and the Intermediate State', WTJ 48 (1986), 303-36 (335); R. T. France, 'Exegesis in Practice: Two Examples', in I. H. Marshall, ed., New Testament Interpretation: Essays on Principles and Methods (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 267. 35. Reicke, Disobedient Spirits, pp. 103-15 and Michaels, I Peter, p. 205. 36. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, pp. 252-3. Similarly, Goppelt, I Peter, p. 254, n. 28. 37. Michaels, 1 Peter, pp. 205-6. 38. See the excellent summary of the history of research on 1 Pet. 3.19-20 in Feinberg,' 1 Peter 3:18-20', pp. 309-12. 39. So F. W. Beare, The First Epistle of Peter: The Greek Text with Introduction and Notes (Oxford: Blackwell, 1970), p. 172; and Goppelt, I Peter, p. 259. The main thrust of this view was also held by Augustine.

10. Petrine

interpretation.

40

Literature

and

Jude

163

H o w e v e r , t h e interpretation that is far m o r e likely argues that

the ' s p i r i t s ' o f 1 Pet. 3.19 are t h e fallen a n g e l s identified w i t h story o f G e n . 6.1-4 in J e w i s h (particularly 1 Enoch 6 - 1 6 ) a n d C h r i s t i a n tradition (2 Pet. 2.4-5 and Jude 5-7).

4 1

T h e full s t o r y a p p e a r s in 1 Enoch

6-16,

4 2

a second-century

BCE J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c text. It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that in m o s t i n s t a n c e s o f this e x p a n d e d J e w i s h s a g a a b o u t fallen angels/spirits, t h e flood story (follow i n g G e n . 6.1-6) features as a n integral part, j u s t as it d o e s in 1 Pet. 3 . 1 9 - 2 0 . F o l l o w i n g t h e full a c c o u n t in 1 Enoch

6 - 3 6 , t h e story c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d

as follows. (1) T h e a n g e l i c ' W a t c h e r s ' left their G o d - g i v e n p r o p e r a b o d e as 'spiritual b e i n g s ' , that is, h e a v e n (7 En. 15.4-7) a n d t h e y r e b e l l e d against their p r o p e r function a s h e a v e n l y b e i n g s (7 Enoch 2 - 5 ) in o r d e r t o m a t e w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . A s a result, t h e W a t c h e r s b e g e t ' g i a n t s ' a n d e n g e n d e r all m a n n e r o f corrupt, sinful, a n d f o r b i d d e n acts a m o n g h u m a n b e i n g s . T h e offspring o f t h e u n i o n o f t h e W a t c h e r s a n d t h e w o m e n a r e identified w i t h ' e v i l spirits u p o n t h e e a r t h ' (7 En. 15.8-12). (2) T h e W a t c h e r s are p u n i s h e d b y b e i n g p u t a w a y in a h o l d i n g p l a c e until their eternal p u n i s h m e n t o n t h e final j u d g e m e n t d a y (cf. 7 En. 10.6-12). T h i s ' h o l d i n g p l a c e ' is v a r i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d as a ' h o l e in t h e d e s e r t ' (7 En. 10.4-6), ' u n d e r n e a t h t h e r o c k s o f t h e e a r t h ' or ' i n s i d e t h e e a r t h ' ( 1 0 . 1 2 ; cf. Jub. 5.6; 14.5), ' i n c h a i n s ' in t h e s e v e n t h h e a v e n (2 Enoch 7 ) , or as a ' p r i s o n h o u s e o f t h e a n g e l s ' (7 En. 18.21) w h e r e t h e earth a n d h e a v e n s c o m e together, ' t h e u l t i m a t e e n d o f h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' (7 En. 18.11-16). A p a r t

from

t h e clear parallels b e t w e e n t h e story o f t h e W a t c h e r s in t h e s e J e w i s h texts a n d 1 P e t e r 3 , it is a l s o striking to n o t e that t h e N o a h a n d t h e flood story is a l m o s t 43

a l w a y s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h this s t r a n g e story o f t h e W a t c h e r s , j u s t as t h e N o a h a n d t h e flood story is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e 'spirits in p r i s o n ' in 1 Pet. 3 . 1 9 - 2 0 . It is therefore m o s t likely that t h i s a p o c a l y p t i c s a g a s t a n d s b e h i n d 1 Pet. 3 . 1 9 - 2 0 (as it explicitly d o e s in J u d e 5 - 7 a n d 2 Pet. 2.4-5). W i t h this c o n c l u s i o n in m i n d , w h e r e is t h e ' p r i s o n '

(<|>uXaKTJ)

in w h i c h t h e

' s p i r i t s ' a r e l o c a t e d a n d w h e r e d i d t h e r i s e n C h r i s t ' g o ' (Trop€UO|iai) in o r d e r t o p r o c l a i m a m e s s a g e to t h e m ? T h e r e is g o o d e v i d e n c e that t h e participle

40. We will not specifically deal with 1 Pet. 4.6. But, suffice it to say that 4.6 uses the term 'dead' not 'spirits' (3.19) and the verb 'preach the gospel' (etjayyeXiCo)), not the general term 'proclaim' (icnptiooa)). 1 Pet. 4.6 concerns the Christians who have died, not the 'spirits' of the unbelieving dead. See Achtemeier, 1 Peter, pp. 286-91 and France, 'Exegesis', p. 269. 41. This is now the dominant interpretation. E.g., Achtemeier, 1 Peter, p. 256; N. Brox, Der erste Petrusbrief(Zurich: Benziger, 2nd edn, 1979), p. 172; Michaels, 1 Peter, pp. 207-9; France, 'Exegesis', pp. 264-81; Kelly, Commentary, pp. 153-4. 42. The story is also referred to in the mid-second-century BCE book of Jubilees 5, Josephus' J W. 1.73-74 and the late first-century CE 2 Baruch 56. All translations for the pseudepigraphical literature here and below are from Charlesworth's Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols.; New York: Doubleday, 1983,1985). 43. For example, in Josephus, J W. 1.73-74 we find a clear association between the stories of the Watchers, the 'sons of God' of Genesis 6, and Noah and the flood. See also T. Naph. 3.4-5.

Cosmology

164

TTopeuOetg ( ' w e n t ' ) ,

and New Testament

Theology

f o u n d in t h e s t a t e m e n t that Christ ' w e n t a n d p r o c l a i m e d ' 44

(v. 19), refers t o h i s a s c e n s i o n , j u s t as it d o e s in v. 2 2 : ' H e is at t h e right h a n d o f G o d , after h a v i n g g o n e (TropeuGeis) into h e a v e n . . . ' T h e v e r b Tropeuopcu is, after all, t h e v e r b that n o r m a l l y d e s c r i b e s C h r i s t ' s a s c e n s i o n ( o r h i s ' g o i n g ' ) t o h e a v e n in t h e N T .

4 5

W h e r e h e w e n t , o r w h e r e t h e p r i s o n w a s l o c a t e d in P e t e r ' s

m i n d , is n o t at all clear. F o l l o w i n g o n from interpreting Tropeuopai ( ' C h r i s t w e n t ' ) a s C h r i s t ' s a s c e n s i o n , D a l t o n a r g u e s that t h e p r i s o n w a s s o m e w h e r e in 46

t h e h e a v e n s , as it is in 2 En. 7 . 1 - 3 . C h r i s t t h e n p r o c l a i m e d t o t h e s e d i s o b e d i e n t angelic spirits in the context o f his ascension. T h i s m a y w e l l b e t h e case. B u t in light o f t h e v a r i o u s locations o f t h e p r i s o n in t h e a p o c a l y p t i c texts n o t e d a b o v e , t h e ' p l a c e ' u l t i m a t e l y e l u d e s u s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , that t h e r e w a s s u c h a p r i s o n for evil s p i r i t s

47

' i s a s s u m e d in t h e N T a n d J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n ' .

48

W h a t d i d C h r i s t ' p r o c l a i m ' (icnpuaaa)) t o t h e spirits, s a l v a t i o n o r c o n d e m n a t i o n ? T h e v e r b KT)puaoa) c a n b e u s e d o f p r e a c h i n g t h e g o s p e l ,

49

b u t in e v e r y

s u c h c a s e , t h e object o f t h e v e r b is t h e n o u n ' g o s p e l ' ( e u a y y e X i o v ) . In 1 Pet. 3.19 t h e v e r b is u s e d w i t h o u t a n explicit object a n d t h u s t h e ' m e s s a g e ' o f t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n is n o t specifically stated. T h a t t h e m e s s a g e o f t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n is n e g a t i v e is s u g g e s t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e v i d e n c e : (1) as D a l t o n p o i n t s o u t ,

50

2 Pet. 2.5 d e s c r i b e s N o a h a s a ' p r e a c h e r ' (»
t h e r e is a r e m a r k a b l e parallel b e t w e e n E n o c h ' s m i s s i o n t o

p r o c l a i m j u d g e m e n t t o t h e W a t c h e r s in 1 Enoch p r o c l a i m t o t h e spirits in 1 Pet. 3 . 1 9 .

51

1 2 - 1 4 and Christ's mission to

E n o c h is told t o ' g o a n d m a k e k n o w n

t o t h e W a t c h e r s o f h e a v e n . . . ' that ' t h e y h a v e defiled t h e m s e l v e s ' a n d ' n e i t h e r w i l l t h e r e b e p e a c e u n t o t h e m n o r t h e forgiveness o f s i n ' {1 En. 12.4-5). Later, E n o c h ' r e p r i m a n d s ' t h e W a t c h e r s ( 1 3 . 1 0 ; 14.3), a l s o c a l l e d their ' c h a s t i s e m e n t ' (14.1). D . A . D e S i l v a is p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t t o a r g u e that E n o c h ' b e c o m e s a t y p e for Christ, j u s t a s N o a h ( s a v e d t h r o u g h w a t e r ) b e c o m e s a t y p e for b e l i e v e r s (saved through the waters of baptism)'.

5 2

T h e interpretation a r g u e d a b o v e s u p p o r t s t h e v i e w that C h r i s t ' s ' g o i n g ' (Tropeuopai) is a reference t o h i s a s c e n s i o n after h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n ( ' m a d e alive

44. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, p. 258; Michaels, 1 Peter, p. 209; Dalton, Proclamation, pp. 159-60. 45. Acts 1.10,11; Jn 14.2, 3; 16.28. Note the very similar wording in Acts 1.11 (TTopeu6u.€vov us* T O V o u p a v o v ) as in 1 Pet 3.22 (TTopeuSeis' e l s ' o u p a v o v ) .

46. Dalton, Proclamation, pp. 177-84. 47. In Rev. 18.2 and 20.7 Satan and demons are held in a 'prison' (<|>uXaicn). 48. Achtemeier, I Peter, p. 256. 49. E.g., Mk 1.14; Gal. 2.2; 1 Thess. 2.9. 50. Dalton, Proclamation, pp. 156-7. 51. France, 'Exegesis', p. 270. 52. DeSilva, An Introduction to the New Testament: Contexts, Methods & Ministry Formation (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004), p. 854.

10. Petrine Literature

and Jude

165

b y t h e Spirit, v. 18) a n d h i s proclaiming (Krjpuooo)) t o t h e spirits in prison refers t o C h r i s t w h o , ' o n h i s w a y t o t h e right h a n d o f p o w e r ( 3 . 2 2 ) , a n n o u n c e s t o t h e i m p r i s o n e d angelic p o w e r s h i s victory a n d h e n c e their d e f e a t ' .

53

T h i s interpreta

tion is virtually m a d e certain o n t h e b a s i s o f v. 2 2 : ' W h o is at t h e right h a n d o f G o d h a v i n g g o n e into h e a v e n after a n g e l s a n d authorities a n d p o w e r s w e r e m a d e subjected t o h i m ' . B y t h e u s e o f this three-fold list (dyyeXwv, e f oiktigjv, 8uvdp€0)v), P e t e r h a s referred t o a r a n g e o f spiritual b e i n g s / p o w e r s

54

w h o have

b e e n s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e risen a n d exalted Christ. T h u s , 3.22 reiterates a n d e x p a n d s w h a t is found i n 3 . 1 9 . J e s u s ' t r i u m p h o v e r t h e p o w e r s o f evil w o u l d e n c o u r a g e b e l i e v e r s t o r e m a i n faithful despite their suffering b y t h e hostile forces in their e n v i r o n m e n t . ' C h r i s t ' s victory o v e r t h e evil forces b e h i n d such hostilities also e n s u r e s their [ C h r i s t i a n s ' ] o w n final victory o v e r t h e m ' .

5 5

They

c a n n o w , i n t h e m i d s t o f their p r e s e n t difficulties, 'resist h i m [the d e v i l ] ' ( 5 . 9 ) b e c a u s e o f C h r i s t ' s d e c i s i v e victory o v e r t h e devil a n d all evil forces.

Jude and 2

Peter

J u d e a n d 2 P e t e r a r e p o l e m i c a l letters i n that their a u t h o r s s e e k t o d e a l w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e influences o f itinerate false teachers ( J u d e 4 ; 2 Pet. 2 . 1 ) , a l s o called 'scoffers' ( J u d e 18; 2 P e t . 3.3), w h o w e r e e n c o u r a g i n g ideas a n d lifestyles that a r e c o n t r a r y t o t h e faith o n c e for all g i v e n (cf. J u d e 3 ) . A l t h o u g h their t e a c h i n g s a r e different, t h e t w o sets o f false t e a c h e r s share a b a s i c similarity: t h e y c o m m e n d a n d e n g a g e in i m m o r a l b e h a v i o r o f v a r i o u s k i n d s ( J u d e 4 , 7 - 8 ; 2 Pet. 2 . 2 , 1 8 ) . I n addition, t h e s e teachers a r e n o t p r e s e n t e d a s outsiders t o their respective c o m m u n i t i e s , for t h e y h a v e found their w a y into t h e m o s t intimate p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s life: t h e ' f e l l o w s h i p m e a l ' ( J u d e 12; 2 P e t . 2.13). O u r a u t h o r s h a v e t o a d d r e s s their r e s p e c t i v e situations h e a d - o n . O u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e function o f c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e a n d ideas in t h e s e t w o letters will b e limited t o t h e sections in w h i c h this l a n g u a g e is c o n centrated, n a m e l y , J u d e 6-8/2 P e t . 2 . 4 - 1 0 a n d 2 P e t . 3 . 4 - 1 3 . T h e specific issues that w i l l b e focused u p o n a r e : 2 P e t e r ' s u s e o f t h e t e r m TapTapoa) ( ' t o cast into h e l l ' ) ( 2 P e t . 2.4), t h e a n g e l s k e p t in t h e c h a i n s o f ' n e t h e r d a r k n e s s '

56

(C<*l>os)

( J u d e 6; 2 Pet. 2.4), t h e ' s l a n d e r i n g ' ( p X a a ^ r p e a ) ) o f t h e ' g l o r i o u s o n e s ' (oof a s ) ( J u d e 8; 2 P e t . 2 . 1 0 b ) , a n d issue o f c o s m i c conflagration ( 2 Pet. 3.4-13). 1. Tartarus,

the Nether

Darkness

and the Angels:

Jude 6 and 2 Pet. 2.4

In d e a l i n g w i t h their r e s p e c t i v e false t e a c h e r s , b o t h a u t h o r s m a k e u s e o f e x a m p l e s from t h e O T a n d J e w i s h tradition t o s h o w that G o d will p u n i s h t h e ungodly.

53. 54. 55. 56.

Achtemeier, 1 Peter, p. 260. For similar references to these spiritual beings, see 1 Cor. 15.24; Eph. 1.21; Col. 1.16. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, p. 261. This is Bauckham's translation of C&fosfromhis 2 Peter, Jude volume.

166

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

O n s u c h tradition is t h e story o f t h e W a t c h e r s (evil a n g e l s ) w h i c h clearly s t a n d s b e h i n d J u d e 6 a n d 2 Pet. 2.4 to v a r i o u s d e g r e e s . O n e c a n i m m e d i a t e l y see t h e parallels b e t w e e n t h e s e v e r s e s a n d t h e story o f t h e W a t c h e r s in 1 Enoch a b o v e ) . T h e k e y e l e m e n t s in J u d e , 2 P e t e r a n d 1 Enoch

(see

are: a n g e l s r e b e l l e d

a n d w e r e p u n i s h e d b y b e i n g c h a i n e d in a p l a c e o f d a r k n e s s u n t i l t h e final d a y o f j u d g e m e n t . J u d e ' s v e r s i o n is closer t o t h e W a t c h e r s ' story, n o t i c e a b l e in his s t a t e m e n t that t h e a n g e l s ' d i d n o t k e e p their o w n d o m a i n , b u t a b a n d o n e d their p r o p e r a b o d e ' ( J u d e 6; cf. 1 En. 15.4-7), w h i c h in 1 En. 15.7 is ' h e a v e n ' .

5 7

In P e t e r ' s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e story o f W a t c h e r s (2 Pet. 2.4) h e a d d s a refer e n c e to ' T a r t a r u s ' : G o d d i d n o t spare t h e angels ' b u t " c a s t t h e m into T a r t a r u s " (TAPTAPOCA)'. In G r e e k m y t h o l o g y Tartarus, often a s s o c i a t e d w i t h H a d e s , t h o u g h t to b e a s u b t e r r a n e a n a b y s s human beings) were punished.

60

5 9

5 8

was

where the disobedient (whether gods or

Tartarus is particularly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

defeat o f t h e Titans a n d their p u n i s h m e n t o f b e i n g c h a i n e d in t h e a b y s m a l d e p t h s o f t h e earth o r T a r t a r u s .

61

M y t h i c a l Tartarus w a s w i d e l y k n o w n b y Hellenistic

J e w i s h w r i t e r s a n d w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e ' g i a n t s ' o f G e n e s i s 6 a n d t h e angelic W a t c h e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , s o m e o f t h e J e w i s h translators o f t h e S e p t u a g i n t m a k e reference t o Tartarus in association w i t h t h e tradition o f t h e giants a n d W a t c h ers, L X X E z e k . 3 2 . 2 7 refers to t h e W a t c h e r s or giants (yiyas)

of Genesis 6 w h o

' w e n t d o w n t o " H a d e s " ' (#8r|s) a n d Jdt. 16.6 explicitly refers to t h e ' T i t a n s ' and the ' g i a n t s ' .

62

J o s e p h u s k n o w s a b o u t Tartarus as a p l a c e w h e r e d i s o b e d i e n t

g o d s are ' c h a i n e d ' (8€0)) ' u n d e r t h e e a r t h ' (Ag. Ap. 2 . 2 4 0 ) . W h a t is particularly i m p o r t a n t for o u r p u r p o s e s is w h a t J o s e p h u s d o e s in Ant. 1.73-75. O n a n a l o g y

57. 1 Pet. 3.22 may imply that the 'angels, authorities and powers' are in the heavens. 58. E.g., Plato, Gorgias 522E-523B; Homer, Iliad SAO. 59. Tartarus figures in Greek cosmogony and cosmology. In the Theogony, Hesiod gives an account of the origins of the cosmos and particularly 'how in the first place the gods and earth were born' (Theogony 104). Everything originates from a 'chasm' (xaog), a 'gap' or an 'opening' from which the earth emerged. 'Murky Tartarus' (Tdprapa f\ep6evra) is located 'in the depths' of the earth (Theogony 116) or 'under the earth' (Theogony 718). Homer locates 'murky Tartarus' 'far, far away, where is the deepest gulf beneath the earth...as far beneath Hades as heaven is above the earth' (Iliad 8.10-14). Cf. Plato, Phaedo 111E-112A (Tartarus is a 'chasm' in the 'lowest abyss beneath the earth'). 60. In Gorgias 523B, Plato refers to the myth as follows: 'Now in the time of Cronos there was a law concerning mankind, and it holds to this day amongst the gods, that every man who has passed a just and holy life departs after his decease to the Isle of the Blest... but whoever has lived unjustly and impiously goes to the dungeon of requital and penance which, you know, they call Tartarus'. See also Homer, Iliad$.5-15; Hesiod, Theogony 617; Virgil, Aeneid4.52S-552. On Tar tarus in Greek literature in general, see especially 'Tartaros', in H. Canick and H. Schneider (eds), Der neue Pauly Enzyklopddie der Antike (Vol. 12/1; StuttgartAVeimar: J. B. Metzler, 2002). 61. The Titan myth was widely known in Greek and Latin literature and particularly in the poets. E.g., Hesiod, Theogony 639-711; 811; Virgil, Aeneid 578-580. 62. See also L X X Job 40.20 (Tartarus is a 'deep' place); 41.24 ('Tartarus of the abyss' as a place for prisoners); L X X Prov. 30.16 (the 'abyss' and Tartarus).

10. Petrine

Literature

and

Jude

167

w i t h 2 Pet. 2 . 4 - 5 , J o s e p h u s conflates t h e story o f G e n e s i s 6 a n d t h e W a t c h e r s w i t h t h e story o f N o a h a n d t h e F l o o d a n d d r a w s a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e evil d e e d s o f t h e W a t c h e r s a n d t h e d e e d s o f t h e Titans: ' i n fact t h e d e e d s o f that tradition a s c r i b e d t o t h e m [the W a t c h e r s ] r e s e m b l e t h e a u d a c i o u s exploits told b y t h e G r e e k s o f t h e g i a n t s ' {Ant. 1.73).

63

A n o t h e r H e l l e n i s t i c Jew, P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a , also k n o w s Tartarus a n d u s e s t h e m y t h t o c o n t e x t u a l i z e h i s v i e w o f d i v i n e j u d g e m e n t for h i s G r a e c o - R o m a n audience. H e writes, ' A n d the proselyte w h o . . . has come over to G o d of his o w n a c c o r d . . . h a s r e c e i v e d a s a m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e r e w a r d a firm a n d s u r e h a b i t a tion in h e a v e n . . . B u t t h e m a n o f n o b l e descent, w h o h a s adulterated t h e c o i n a g e o f h i s n o b l e birth, will b e d r a g g e d d o w n t o t h e l o w e s t d e p t h s , b e i n g h u r l e d d o w n t o Tartarus a n d p r o f o u n d d a r k n e s s . . . ' {Rewards,

151).

64

T h e r e f o r e , in

light o f t h e fact that t h e c o n c e p t o f Tartarus w a s w e l l k n o w n a n d e m p l o y e d b y H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s a n d early C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

65

it s e e m s b e s t t o c o n c l u d e that 2

P e t e r ' s u s e o f t h e v e r b TapTapoco ( ' c a s t into T a r t a r u s ' ) in 2.4 is a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f c o n t e x t u a l i z i n g t h e J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t o f divine p u n i s h m e n t in t h e l a n g u a g e a n d t h o u g h t o f P e t e r ' s largely Gentile a u d i e n c e .

66

In b o t h 2 Pet. 2.4 a n d J u d e 6 t h e sinful a n g e l s a r e a s s i g n e d t o (2 Peter: ' c o m m i t t e d t h e m t o fetters o f ; J u d e : ' k e p t in eternal c h a i n s i n ' ) t h e ' n e t h e r dark n e s s ' (£6<|>os) w h e r e t h e y a w a i t t h e final j u d g e m e n t . A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , this 61

b i n d i n g o f t h e a n g e l s e c h o e s t h e j u d g e m e n t o f t h e ' W a t c h e r s ' in 1 Enoch.

The

68

t e r m C&fyos c o m e s from G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e a n d refers to t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l n o t i o n 69

o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d o r n e t h e r r e g i o n s . T h e t e r m t h u s refers to t h e s a m e subterra n e a n r e g i o n k n o w n a s Tartarus. T h i s is particularly clear in H e s i o d ' s

Theogony

w h e r e it is said that t h e Titans a r e c h a i n e d u n d e r t h e earth in ' m u r k y T a r t a r u s ' 70

71

( T d p T a p a f|€po€VTa) a n d ' u n d e r m u r k y g l o o m ' (OTO C & N f|epo€i>Ti). I n t h e s a m e c o n t e x t ' m u r k y T a r t a r u s ' is clearly s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e ' g l o o m y c h a s m '

63. See the second-century CE Christian work known as Sib. Or. 2:229-240 in which those who have been locked in 'Hades', namely, the 'ancient phantoms, Titans and the Giants and such as the Flood destroyed' will be led to thefinaljudgement seat of God and Christ. 64. See also Sib. Or. 4.185 where we find another Hellenistic Jewish author associating the place of the final punishment of sinners as being under the earth, Tartarus, and Gehenna. 65. A. V6gtle, Der Judasbrief /Der 2. Petrusbrief (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1994), p. 190. 66. Similarly Kelly, Commentary, p. 331; D. J. Moo, 2 Peter, Jude (The NTV Application Commentary; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), p. 103. 67. Cf.IEn. 13.1; 10.4-6; 14.5; 54.3-5; 56.1-4; 88.1; see also Jub. 5.6 and 2 Bar. 56.13. 68. The term is found five times in the New Testament: 2 Pet. 2.4, 17; Jude 6, 13; and Heb. 12.18. 69. Cf. Homer, Odyssey 11.54-7; 20.356; Iliad 15.191; 21.56. Cf. BDAG, p. 429. Cf. Bauck ham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 53. 70. Theogony 721; 736; 807. 71. Theogony 729. See also Theogony 650 where 'under the murky gloom' (irrrb Cfyov TT€p6evTos) is clearly describing the same reality as 'murky Tartarus'.

Cosmology

168

and New Testament

Theology

( x d e o s £o€poio), t h e p l a c e w h e r e the Titans a r e a s s i g n e d (Theogony

807-814).

I w o u l d therefore s u g g e s t that a l t h o u g h 2 P e t e r m a k e s explicit reference t o t h e t w o t e r m s t h a t refer t o t h e m y t h i c a l s u b t e r r a n e a n a b y s s , £64)09 a n d Tartarus (2.4), J u d e l i k e w i s e refers t o t h e s a m e reality b u t b y m e a n s o f o n l y o n e o f the t e r m s , £6os. I n s o d o i n g , b o t h a u t h o r s d e s c r i b e t h e J e w i s h c o n c e p t o f the a b y s m a l ' d a r k n e s s ' o r ' p r i s o n ' (cf. 1 Enoch

10; 1 P e t . 3.19) in w h i c h t h e evil

a n g e l s a r e b o u n d b y m e a n s o f t h e t e r m s £6<|>os. T h e k e y v e r s e s in 1 Enoch 10 r e a d a s follows: The Lord said to Raphael, 'Bind Azaz'el hand and foot (and) throw him into dark ness!'And he made a hole in the desert which was in Duda'el and cast him there; he threw on top of him rugged and sharp rocks. And he covered his face that he may not see light; and in order that he may be sent into the fire on the great day of judgement (w. 4-6). This temporary holding place should probably b e equated with Hades, the place o f the dead,

72

r a t h e r t h a n G e h e n n a s i n c e H a d e s w a s directly a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h Tartarus i n J e w i s h a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n tradition (LXX E z e k . 3 2 . 2 7 ; P h i l o , Rewards,

1 5 1 ; Sib. Or. 2 . 2 2 9 - 2 4 0 ) . G e h e n n a o n t h e o t h e r h a n d a p p e a r s t o s t a n d

for t h e final p l a c e o f e t e r n a l fiery j u d g e m e n t ,

73

that i s , t h e ' p l a c e ' w h e r e evil

creatures c o n g r e g a t e after t h e final j u d g e m e n t . I n light o f t h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s , t h e reality d e s c r i b e d b y Coc^os a n d Tartarus m a y b e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e ' a b y s s ' a n d ' p r i s o n ' i n w h i c h t h e d e v i l is ' t h r o w n ' a n d ' b o u n d ' until t h e final fiery d e s t r u c 74

tion i n R e v . 2 0 . 1 - 1 0 . M o o ' s c o n c l u s i o n i s therefore w a r r a n t e d : ' T a r t a r u s [and I w o u l d a d d £6<J>09]... a p p e a r s n o t s o m u c h t o r e p r e s e n t a p l a c e o f final o r e n d l e s s p u n i s h m e n t (as o u r " h e l l " often d o e s ) , b u t t h e limitation o n s p h e r e o f influence that G o d i m p o s e d o n t h e a n g e l s w h o f e l l ' .

2. Slandering

the Glorious

75

Ones: Jude 8 and 2 Pet. 2.10b

In b o t h 2 P e t e r a n d J u d e t h e false t e a c h e r s a r e a c c u s e d o f ' i n s u l t i n g / s l a n d e r i n g 76

( p X a o ^ n p e a ) ) t h e g l o r i o u s o n e s ' ( 2 Pet. 2 . 1 0 b ; J u d e 8). M o s t interpreters a g r e e that t h e t e r m S o f a s ( ' g l o r i o u s o n e s ' ) refer t o a n g e l s , b u t i n J u d e t h e y are g o o d a n g e l s a n d in 2 P e t e r t h e y are e v i l .

77

I n J u d e , the t w o ' e x a m p l e s ' (8eXypa, v. 7)

in v. 6 a n d v. 7 ( t h e a n g e l i c W a t c h e r s a n d S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ) a r e enlisted t o s h o w that s u c h sins w i l l b e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y p u n i s h e d b y G o d . T h e sins o f immorality of these two groups are equated: the Sodomites 'indulged in i m m o -

72. 73. 74. 75. 76.

Cf. Mt. 11.23; Acts 2.27,31; Rev. 1.18; 6.8; 20.13,14. See BDAG, p. 19. BDAG, pp. 190-1; J. Jeremias, '$8r|s\ TDNT 1:148. Similarly J. Jeremias,' afivooos', TDNT 1:9-10. Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, p. 103. The verb pXaacJ>r|u.ea) can mean 'to revile, defame, slander, speak disrespectfully o f

someone. See BDAG,

p. 178.

77. So Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 261; Vdgt\G,Judasbrief, p. 50; Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, p. 122; Kelly, Commentary, p. 337.

10. Petrine Literature

and

Jude

169

rality' (eicrropveua)) ' i n t h e s a m e w a y a s ' (TOV S|ioiov Tp6*rrov) the angels in v. 6. J u d e is clearly referring to t h e incident in G e n . 19.1-11 a n d t h u s B a u c k h a m ' s a s s e s s m e n t is a c c u r a t e : ' A s t h e a n g e l s fell b e c a u s e o f their lust for w o m e n , so t h e S o d o m i t e s d e s i r e d s e x u a l relations w i t h a n g e l s ' .

78

B a u c k h a m is a l s o correct

t o s e e in J u d e ' s references to t h e W a t c h e r s a n d S o d o m a similar tradition a s is f o u n d in T. Naph. 3 . In this c h a p t e r the sins o f S o d o m a n d t h e W a t c h e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d a s n o t c o n f o r m i n g to the divinely established o r d e r o f t h e c o s m o s : ' S u n , m o o n , a n d stars d o n o t alter their order; t h u s y o u s h o u l d n o t alter t h e L a w o f G o d b y t h e d i s o r d e r o f y o u r a c t i o n s ' (T. Naph. 3.2). In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e b e h a v i o u r o f G o d ' s p e o p l e s h o u l d reflect a n d c o n f o r m to G o d ' s o r d e r e d (that is, o b e d i e n t ) c o s m i c structure. T h i s is p r e c i s e l y t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e ' s i n ' o f t h e W a t c h e r s in J u d e 6, for t h e y ' d i d n o t k e e p their o w n d o m a i n , b u t a b a n d o n e d their p r o p e r a b o d e ' ( J u d e 6). ' A b a n d o n i n g o f t h e p r o p e r a b o d e ' , w h e t h e r b y a n a n g e l or h u m a n , is a sinful action at least in p a r t b e c a u s e it constitutes r e b e l l i o n against G o d ' s c o s m i c o r d e r o f t h i n g s (as in 7 Enoch 2 - 5 ) . In 1 Enoch 2 , a s in T. Naph. 3 , t h e c o s m i c e l e m e n t s (the sky, l u m i n a r i e s o f h e a v e n , t h e earth, t h e s e a s o n s , trees, t h e sun, c l o u d s , rain, etc.) function ' a c c o r d i n g t o their [divinely] a p p o i n t e d o r d e r ' (7 En. 2.1) a n d as s u c h t h e s e c o s m i c e l e m e n t s are t h e w o r k o f G o d w h i c h ' o b e y h i m [ G o d ] ' a n d d o ' n o t c h a n g e ; b u t e v e r y t h i n g functions in t h e w a y in w h i c h G o d h a s o r d e r e d it' (7 En. 5.2). ' Y e t in t h e s a m e m a n n e r t h e s e d r e a m e r s defile t h e flesh' ( J u d e 8), that is, t h e y b e h a v e a s t h e sinful a n g e l s a n d t h e S o d o m i t e s d i d w h e n t h e y ' w e n t after strange flesh' ( J u d e 7) a n d a s a result r e b e l l e d ' a g a i n s t t h e divinely established o r d e r o f t h i n g s ' . ' I n d o i n g s o t h e y w e r e m o t i v a t e d , like t h e W a t c h e r s a n d t h e S o d o m i t e s , b y s e x u a l lust, a n d , like t h e S o d o m i t e s , insulted t h e a n g e l s (v. 8 ) ' .

7 9

T h e actual n a t u r e o f t h e ' r e v i l i n g /

i n s u l t i n g ' o f the a n g e l s is unclear. B a u c k h a m m a y b e correct to g r o u n d t h e insults in their a n t i n o m i a n 'rejection o f the authority o f t h e L o r d '

8 0

(v. 8) a n d

h i s l a w s , particularly in light o f t h e fact that t h e a n g e l s w e r e v i e w e d a s t h e g u a r d i a n s o f t h e M o s a i c L a w (cf. G a l . 3.19) a n d t h e c r e a t e d order, a n 'office from w h i c h t h e W a t c h e r s apostatized, v. 6 ' .

8 1

In 2 Pet. 2 . 1 0 a - b t h e false t e a c h e r s a r e similarly d e s c r i b e d a s t h o s e w h o ' i n d u l g e the flesh (cf. J u d e 8: 'defile t h e flesh'), 'flout the authority o f the L o r d ' ( J u d e 8: 'reject t h e authority o f t h e L o r d ' ) a n d 'slander/insult t h e g l o r i o u s o n e s ' ( J u d e 8: 'slander/insult t h e glorious o n e s ' ) . B u t for 2 Peter t h e focus is a bit different. T h e description o f t h e false t e a c h e r s follows u p o n t h e m a i n p o i n t

78. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 54. 'Going after strange flesh' (dTreX0ouaai omaa) aapicbs €T€pas), in this context and the context of Gen. 19.1-22, must refer to the 'flesh of angels'. See also Kelly, Commentary, p. 259. 79. Bauckham, Jittfe, 2 Peter, p. 58. 80. The phrase KuptOTT|Ta aQerovaiv in Jude 8 means 'they reject the authority of the Lord'. See Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, pp. 56-7 and Vogtle, Judasbrief, pp. 49-50. 81. Bauckham, ./!«&?, 2 Peter, p. 58.

Cosmology

170

and New Testament

Theology

that P e t e r m a k e s in t h e e x a m p l e s h e e m p l o y s in 2 . 4 - 8 , n a m e l y , that t h e L o r d ' k n o w s h o w to r e s c u e t h e g o d l y ' a n d ' t o k e e p t h e u n r i g h t e o u s u n d e r p u n i s h m e n t for t h e d a y o f j u d g e m e n t ' (2.9). 2 Pet. 2 . 1 0 functions to spell out further t h e k i n d s o f sins that will b e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y p u n i s h e d . U n l i k e J u d e , t h e state m e n t a b o u t ' s l a n d e r i n g t h e g l o r i o u s o n e s ' in 2 Pet. 2 . 1 0 b is further e x p l a i n e d in v. 1 1 . A l t h o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h d e b a t e a b o u t t h e p r e c i s e m e a n i n g o f v. 1 1 , the following v i e w is s u p p o r t e d b y m o s t interpreters. T h e false t e a c h e r s w h o d a r e t o s l a n d e r t h e ' g l o r i o u s o n e s ' , or rebellious a n g e l s , in v. 10b are c o m p a r e d to t h e ' a n g e l s w h o , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e greater in strength a n d p o w e r [than t h e glorious o n e s , v. 1 0 b ] , d o n o t u s e insults w h e n p r o n o u n c i n g j u d g e m e n t o n t h e m [the glorious o n e s , v. 10b] from t h e L o r d ' (v. I I ) .

8 2

T h e false t e a c h e r s ' lack o f

fear (they ' a r e n o t afraid', v. 10b) a n d their p r e s u m p t u o u s overstepping o f their G o d - g i v e n b o u n d a r i e s , e v i d e n c e d b y their c o n t e m p t for a n d lack o f r e s p e c t for angelic p o w e r s , will i n c u r t h e s a m e eschatological destruction as will t h e evil angels (v. 12). E v e n t h o u g h t h e y d e n y it, t h e p o i n t h e r e is t o s h o w that t h e false t e a c h e r s ' eschatological j u d g e m e n t ' i s n o t idle, a n d their destruction is n o t asleep'(2.2).

3 . Cosmic

83

Destruction

a. 'All Things Continue

and Renewal:

3.4-13

as They Were from the Beginning

of Creation'

(2 Pet.

3.4b). T h e p r i m a r y false t e a c h i n g o f P e t e r ' s o p p o n e n t s , o r t h e ' s c o f f e r s ' (3.3), is r e v e a l e d in 3.4a-b: ' W h e r e is t h e p r o m i s e o f H i s c o m i n g ? F o r since t h e fathers fell a s l e e p , all t h i n g s c o n t i n u e as t h e y w e r e from t h e b e g i n n i n g o f c r e a t i o n ' . In w . 5-10, P e t e r e m b a r k s o n h i s direct refutation o f t h e false t e a c h e r s ' assertion in v. 4 . B u t w h a t d o t h e false t e a c h e r s assert o r d e n y in v. 4 ? T h i s v e r s e is c o m p r i s e d o f a m a i n p r o p o s i t i o n in t h e form o f a rhetorical q u e s t i o n in v. 4 a a n d o n e that p r o v i d e s t h e a r g u m e n t a t i o n for it in s o m e w a y in v. 4 b . T h e t w o p r o p o s i t i o n s c a n b e p a r a p h r a s e d as follows: t h e p r o m i s e o f C h r i s t ' s p a r o u s i a is e m p t y , that is, it h a s failed t o o c c u r (v. 4 a ) because died,

84

( y a p ) , s i n c e t h e fathers

all t h i n g s ( r a v T a ) c o n t i n u e u n a b a t e d , that is, n o t h i n g in e x i s t e n c e h a s

b e e n altered o r interfered w i t h since the origin o f t h e c o s m o s . B u t h o w d o e s this constitute a n a r g u m e n t for their denial o f t h e p a r o u s i a in v. 4 a ? T h e s t a n d a r d v i e w o f v. 4 b states that it constitutes a rejection o f t h e p o s s i b i l ity o f divine intervention in history a n d therefore, b y definition, t h e p r o m i s e o f t h e future p a r o u s i a and d i v i n e j u d g e m e n t is r u l e d o u t .

85

B a u c k h a m , following

82. So Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 261; V5gtle, Judasbrief, pp. 199-201; Kelly, Commen tary, p. 337; Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, pp. 121-2; S. J. Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter (Nashville: Abingdon, 2002), p. 136. 83. V6gfile, Judasbrief, p. 203. 84. Adams argues that 'the fathers* most likely refers to the OT fathers since the scoffers of 2 Peter seem to be denouncing the OT prophetic promises of God's eschatological parousia (pp. 204-6). He is probably correct. See also Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, p. 167. 85. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, pp. 293-5; Vogtle, Judasbrief, p. 221; Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter,

10.

J. N e y r e y ,

86

Petrine

Literature

and

171

Jude

is representative w h e n h e n o t e s that t h e closest parallel to t h e o p p o

n e n t s ' 'rationalistic s k e p t i c i s m a b o u t d i v i n e intervention in t h e w o r l d ' a p p e a r s to b e t h e E p i c u r e a n d e n i a l o f p r o v i d e n c e .

87

E . A d a m s h a s r e c e n t l y a r g u e d that t h e scoffers' c o s m o l o g i c a l assertion in v. 4 b d o e s n o t r e s e m b l e E p i c u r e a n t h o u g h t . F o r e x a m p l e , ' t h e scoffers affirm t h e created

n a t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e (KTLOL?); E p i c u r e a n s , o f c o u r s e , totally

r e p u d i a t e d t h e n o t i o n o f t h e divine creation o f t h e c o s m o s ' . In addition, t h e scoffers s e e m to assert t h e c o n t i n u a n c e o f all t h i n g s since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f creation, w h e r e a s t h e E p i c u r e a n v i e w t a u g h t t h e o p p o s i t e : ' t h e c o s m o s a n d all t h e c o s m o i a r e inherently d e s t r u c t i b l e ' .

88

T h u s , t h e s t a t e m e n t in 3.4 ' i s b e s t

t a k e n a s affirmation o f c o s m i c i n d e s t r u c t i b i h t y ' , reflecting n o t E p i c u r e a n i s m b u t ' t h e Platonic/Aristotelian d o c t r i n e o f c o s m i c i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y ' .

89

Neverthe

less, b o t h t h e traditional interpretation o f v. 4 b a n d t h e o n e set forth r e c e n t l y b y A d a m s r e c o g n i z e that t h e a u t h o r ' s o p p o n e n t s reject t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f C h r i s t ' s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a d v e n t , or h i s s e c o n d c o m i n g (v. 4 a ) . T h e u p s h o t o f their b a s i c d e n i a l o f t h e p a r o u s i a e x c l u d e s t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j u d g e m e n t w h i c h is p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f t h e p a r o u s i a . T h u s , ' t h e y a r e free to c o n d u c t their lives (cf. 3) a c c o r d i n g to their o w n p a s s i o n s ' . b . Counter-Argument

90

Against

the Opponents

(2 Pet. 3.5-7). Consistent w i t h the

m a i n thrust o f 2.9-12, 3.5-7 stress that the u n g o d l y ( d a e p ^ g ) will face e s c h a t o logical ' j u d g e m e n t a n d destruction'

Ocpioecos Kal

dTrcoXetg, v. 7; cf. 2.2), despite

t h e fact that t h e o p p o n e n t s i g n o r e or o v e r l o o k k e y facts a b o u t creation a n d t h e Flood ( w . 5-6).

91

T h e c o s m o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e in w . 5-7 s e r v e s t h e p u r p o s e o f

h i g h l i g h t i n g that t h e G o d w h o b y h i s w o r d (Xoyco) c r e a t e d t h e c o s m o s ( ' h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h ' , v. 5 )

%

is t h e o n e w h o b y w a t e r (UOOLTL) d e s t r o y e d t h e c o s m o s o f

pp. 152-3; M. Green, The Second Epistle General of Peter and the General Epistle of Jude (Leic ester: Intervasity Press, 1987), pp. 138-9. 86. Neyrey, 'The Form and Background of the Polemic in 2 Peter', JBL 99 (1980), 407-31. 87. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 294. 88. Adams, The Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 207. There may be another problem with the majority view. As mentioned above, the false teachers of 2 Peter seem to be regarded (or at least regard themselves) as in some sense 'Christian'. In light of this, Moo has suggested that, if the opponents denied divine providence and intervention in the world, 'it is difficult to understand how they could make any claim to be Christian, for they would have to deny the incarnation and resurrection of Christ as well as his Parousia' (2 Peter, Jude, p. 168). 89. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 208. 90. Kelly, Commentary, p. 357. 91. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 210, is probably correct in arguing mat it is not the feet of the world's creation as such that the opponents ignore or overlook, but rather the Flood and 'the character of that event as the reversal of creation'. 92. 'Heavens and earth' in w . 5,7 refer to the cosmos in its entirety. This is demanded by the term K 6 O U . O S in v. 6 which clearly refers to the same reality as 'heavens and earth' in w . 5, 7. So Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, pp. 213-14.

172

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

N o a h ' s day, i n c l u d i n g t h e w o r l d ' s u n g o d l y i n h a b i t a n t s (v. 6 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , it is b y m e a n s o f this s a m e G o d ' s c r e a t i v e ' w o r d ' (Xoyw) that h e h a s d e t e r m i n e d that t h e p r e s e n t ' h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h ' (i.e., t h e c o s m o s ) ' a r e b e i n g r e s e r v e d (T€6r)aaupia[i€i>oi) for fire' a n d ' k e p t ' (rnpoufievoi) until t h e final j u d g e m e n t (v. 7 ) , all o f w h i c h a g a i n z e r o s in o n t h e u n g o d l y (daepTfe).

93

Therefore, con

trary t o the false t e a c h e r s ' assertion in v. 4 , ' t h e o b s e r v a b l e stability o f t h e w o r l d i s . . . n o g u a r a n t e e o f its c o n t i n u e d stability in t h e f u t u r e ; '

94

the cosmos and the

u n g o d l y a r e certainly ' b e i n g k e p t for final j u d g e m e n t a n d d e s t r u c t i o n ' (v. 7). T h e central i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o w . 5-7 a r e : ( 1 ) w h a t d o t h e t w o p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s e£ vSaTos Kai 8 t ' iiSaTos ( ' o u t o f w a t e r a n d b y m e a n s o f w a t e r ' ) refer to (v. 5 ) ? (2) W h a t is t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e n o t i o n s o f t h e c o s m i c destruction b y w a t e r (v. 6) a n d ( 3 ) e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j u d g e m e n t b y m e a n s o f c o s m i c conflagration (w. 7,10,12). 1 . 2 Pet. 3.5: Word, Water and Creation.

The notion of the cosmos as having

b e e n c r e a t e d b y m e a n s o f G o d ' s ' w o r d ' clearly d r a w s u p o n t h e O T ( G e n . 1.3-30; P s . 3 3 . 6 , 9; 1 4 8 . 5 ; cf. Sir. 3 9 . 1 7 ) a n d C h r i s t i a n ( H e b . 11.3) tradition. T h i s is n o t d e b a t e d . T h e first p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e , €£ ii&rrog (the c o s m o s w a s c r e a t e d ' o u t o f w a t e r ' ) , is p r o b a b l y l i k e w i s e g r o u n d e d in t h e G e n e s i s c r e a t i o n n a r r a t i v e ( G e n . 1.2-7), w h i c h in turn e c h o e s t h e g e n e r a l A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t v i e w

9 5

that t h e

c o s m o s e m e r g e d out of t h e w a t e r y c h a o s o r p r i m a e v a l o c e a n ( G e n . 1.6; cf. G e n . 96

1.2-9; P s . 3 3 . 7 ; 136.6; Prov. 8.27-29; Sir. 3 9 . 1 7 ) . A s M o o p u t s it, t h e p h r a s e e £ u8aTos s u g g e s t s that ' P e t e r is a g a i n t h i n k i n g o f t h e story o f c r e a t i o n in G e n e s i s 1, w h e r e w a t e r p l a y s a significant r o l e ' .

9 7

T h e s e c o n d p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e in

2 Pet. 3.5 ( 8 i ' 0 8 a T o s ) is n o t as easily a c c o u n t e d for. W h a t c o u l d it m e a n for t h e c o s m o s t o h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d 8 i ' uScrros? M o s t interpreters still w a n t t o see this s e c o n d p h r a s e against t h e b a c k d r o p o f t h e G e n e s i s c r e a t i o n a c c o u n t a n d as s u c h it is t a k e n i n s t r u m e n t a l l y b y B a u c k h a m ( ' b y m e a n s o f w a t e r ' ) t o s u g g e s t that ' w a t e r w a s , in a l o o s e s e n s e , t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f creation, since it w a s b y s e p a r a t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g t h e w a t e r s that G o d c r e a t e d t h e w o r l d ' .

9 8

T h i s is

r e a s o n a b l y e v i d e n t in G e n . 1.7 w h e r e G o d ' m a d e t h e firmament a n d s e p a r a t e d

93. That this final judgement and cosmic conflagration have as their focus the punishment of the ungodly and not just the destruction of the cosmos may be indicated by the fact that the other occurrences of the notion 'kept (Tnpea)) for final judgement/destruction' have as their subjects disobedient beings (angels, 2.4; the unrighteous, 2.9; the opponents, 2.17; and the ungodly, 3.7), and all employ the term n]peoi. 94. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 302. 95. By 'echoes' I am not suggesting that Genesis simply takes over Ancient Near Eastern cosmogony. Rather, Genesis seem to be opposing Ancient Near Eastern cosmogony and theology by arguing that Israel's God is the true and only creator of the cosmos and thus he is wholly other than the cosmos. 96. See Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 297; and V6gtle, Judasbrief, pp. 225-6. 97. Moo, 2 Peter, Jude, p. 170. 98. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 297; cf. Kelly, Commentary, pp. 358-9.

10. Petrine Literature

and

Jude

173

t h e w a t e r s w h i c h w e r e b e l o w t h e firmament from t h e w a t e r s w h i c h w e r e a b o v e the

firmament'.

T h u s , G o d ' s act o f ' s e p a r a t i n g t h e w a t e r s ' b r o u g h t o r d e r t o t h e

c h a o s o f G e n . 1.2 a s w e l l as t h e formation o f ' h e a v e n ' (v. 8) a n d t h e ' e a r t h ' ( w . 9-10). E. A d a m s c h a l l e n g e s t h e s t a n d a r d interpretation o f b o t h p h r a s e s , w h i c h h e b e l i e v e s a m o u n t s to ' a strained a t t e m p t to m a k e t h e l a n g u a g e fit G e n e s i s 1 ' . " H e a r g u e s that t h e d o u b l e p h r a s e e£ i)8aTog Kai 8 i ' u 8 a T o s (2 Pet. 3.5) ' m a k e s b e s t sense against t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f Stoic c o s m o g o n y : w a t e r w a s t h e i m m e d i a t e substance out of which the cosmos w a s m a d e ' .

1 0 0

A d a m s s h o w s that a c c o r d i n g

to t h e Stoic v i e w , t h e c o s m o s originated from p r i m a l fire, w h i c h c h a n g e d into air a n d t h e n c o n d e n s e d into water. T h e ' w a t e r y m a s s ' t h e n c h a n g e d a g a i n into t h e four terrestrial e l e m e n t s w h i c h c o m b i n e d t o m a k e t h e earth a n d life-forms o n it. T h e c o s m o s t h e n e n d s in fiery destruction, o n l y t o r e p e a t t h e e n d l e s s c y c l e o f renewal and destruction.

101

T h e c y c l e b e g i n s a n d e n d s w i t h fire, b u t , ' t h e c h a n g e

to w a t e r is p r o p e r l y the beginning

m

of our world*.

T h i s is illustrated w e l l in

P l u t a r c h ' s Stoic, rep. 1053a a n d D i o g e n e s Laertius 7.142. P l u t a r c h states: ' T h e transformation o f fire is like this: b y w a y o f air it t u r n s into w a t e r ; a n d from this, as earth is p r e c i p i t a t e d . . . t h e stars a n d t h e s u n are k i n d l e d from t h e s e a ' (Stoic, rep. 1053a). D i o g e n e s describes t h e p r o c e s s as follows: ' T h e w o r l d . . . c o m e s into b e i n g w h e n its s u b s t a n c e h a s first b e e n c o n v e r t e d from fire... a n d t h e n t h e c o a r s e r p a r t o f t h e m o i s t u r e h a s c o n d e n s e d as e a r t h ' ( 7 . 1 4 2 ) . A d a m s m a y b e right in a r g u i n g that t h e c o n c e p t o f w o r l d formation ' b y m e a n s o f w a t e r ' ( 8 i ' i)8aT09) in 2 Pet. 3.5 reflects Stoic c o s m o g o n y . T h e a u t h o r certainly referred to o t h e r G r e e k c o n c e p t s , s u c h as Tartarus a n d Cfyos

( 2 . 4 ) , in o r d e r t o c o m

m u n i c a t e J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n content. A n d , as A d a m s e m p h a s i z e s , in 2 Pet. 3.5 t h e a u t h o r w a s n o t solely d e p e n d e n t o n S t o i c i s m ; rather, h e h a s c o m b i n e d t h e creation a c c o u n t o f G e n e s i s w i t h Stoic c o s m o l o g y . H o w e v e r , I c a n n o t g o a s far as A d a m s in s u g g e s t i n g that ' i f t h e a u t h o r . . . is alluding t o t h e Stoic v i e w o f w o r l d - f o r m a t i o n , h e is i m p l y i n g that the w a t e r p r e - c o s m i c state o f G e n . 1.2 w a s p r e c e d e d b y a m o r e p r i m a l state o f things - a state o f p u r e

103

fire'. 1

see n o

e v i d e n c e in 2 P e t e r 3 for this c o n c l u s i o n . 2. 2 Pet. 3.6: The Deluge

as Cosmic Destruction

of the Ancient

World. T h e

c o s m o s w a s c r e a t e d b y G o d ' s w o r d ' t h r o u g h w a t e r a n d b y w a t e r ' (v. 5). B u t (be) ' t h e c o s m o s at that t i m e ' (6 Tore KOO\LOS)

9

that i s , t h e a n t e d i l u v i a n w o r l d ,

was destroyed by the same word of God and w a t e r

104

o f creation (v. 6 ) .

1 0 5

This

99. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 212. 100. Ibid. 101. Ibid., p. 115. 102. Ibid, p. 213, n. 56. 103. Ibid.,p.2\3. 104. That v. 6 refers not to a local destruction (via the Flood) but rather a cosmic destruction is clear. See Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 299; Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 214. 105. The prepositional phrase 8i'
174

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

c o s m i c destruction v i a t h e F l o o d p r e p a r e s for t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n v i a fire in w . 7, 10, 12. B u t , a c c o r d i n g t o A d a m s , this u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e F l o o d a s a c o s m i c destruction g o e s b e y o n d t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e , a n a r r a t i v e that p o r t r a y s t h e destruction a s g l o b a l rather t h a n c o s m i c (cf. G e n e s i s 6 - 8 ) . A g a i n h e t h i n k s t h a t Stoic c o s m o l o g y , o r better, t h e ' R o m a n S t o i c n o t i o n o f a c o s m i c d e l u g e ' , is t h e closest parallel t o 3 . 6 .

106

A d a m s challenges Bauckham's

a r g u m e n t that 2 P e t e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e F l o o d a s a c o s m i c j u d g e m e n t ' i s n o t s o alien t o t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e ' o r t o later J e w i s h reflections o n that nar rative. B a u c k h a m p o i n t s t o t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e F l o o d in G e n . 7 . 1 1 , w h e r e ' t h e w a t e r s o f c h a o s , confined at t h e creation a b o v e t h e firmament, p o u r e d t h r o u g h the w i n d o w s o f t h e

107

firmament

to inundate the earth'. Enoch's vision of the

F l o o d i n 1 En. 83.3-5 e x t e n d s t h e ideas o f G e n . 7.11 into c o s m i c d e s t r u c t i o n .

108

H e r e , h e a v e n falls d o w n u p o n t h e earth, t h e earth is ' s w a l l o w e d u p into t h e great a b y s s ' , a n d t h e t h i n g s o f t h e earth a r e ' t h r o w n d o w n i n t o t h e a b y s s . . . t h e earth is b e i n g d e s t r o y e d ' (7 En. 8 3 . 4 - 5 ) . A d a m s c o u n t e r s b y p o i n t i n g o u t that the E n o c h p a s s a g e says nothing about ' o p e n i n g o f the w i n d o w s o f h e a v e n o r t h e bursting o u t o f t h e foundation of t h e d e e p ' (cf. G e n . 7.11). ' T h e p i c t u r e is really a b o u t that o f t h e final w o r l d - e n d i n g catastrophe w h i c h t h e a u t h o r h a s i m p o s e d on the

109

flood'.

B u t w h a t A d a m s o v e r l o o k s w i t h r e g a r d t o E n o c h ' s reflection o n G e n . 7.11 is that t h e m e n t i o n o f ' t h e great a b y s s ' (7 En. 8 3 . 4 ) c o m e s from G e n . 7.11 (cf. 8.2) w h e r e w e d o find ' t h e fountains

o / t h e great a b y s s ' b u r s t i n g o p e n a n d flood

ing t h e earth. T h e ' a b y s s ' ( D i n n / d p u a o o s ) , a l t h o u g h later a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e d e p t h o f t h e earth, w a s originally a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r i m e v a l o c e a n a n d ' t h e original flood' in a n c i e n t I s r a e l ' s c o s m o g o n y .

110

T h u s , t h e a b y s s is a l m o s t a l w a y s

m e n t i o n e d w i t h a reference t o w a t e r ( s ) o r t h e sea(s) a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m ,

111

h a r k e n i n g b a c k t o its u s e in G e n . 1.2. In fact, t h e a b y s s is itself c o m p r i s e d o f water. Prov. 8.28 s p e a k s o f ' s p r i n g s o f t h e a b y s s '

1 1 2

a n d Isa. 5 1 . 1 0 m e n t i o n s ' t h e

w a t e r s o f t h e great a b y s s ' . I n E z e k . 3 1 . 1 5 t h e a b y s s h a s ' m a n y w a t e r s ' ( H e b . ) o r 'fullness o f w a t e r s ' ( L X X ) . A n d in Isa. 63.13 t h e crossing o f t h e w a t e r s o f t h e R e d Sea is d e s c r i b e d w i t h t h e p h r a s e , G o d ' w h o l e d t h e m through

the abyss'

(8ia

rfjs d p u a a o u ) . H e r e , a s in 7 Enoch 8 3 , t h e c o n c e p t ' a b y s s ' is u s e d a l o n e t o refer to t h e great w a t e r s . T h i s c a n b e d o n e b e c a u s e t h e c o n c e p t w a s s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r i m a e v a l w a t e r s o f creation. I n a section w h e r e E n o c h is interpreting

and 'the word of God' in v. 5. See Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 298; Kelly, Commentary, pp. 359-60. 106. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 62. 107. Gen. 7.11 has 'the flood gates of heaven' (rO"IK / oupavos). 108. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 299. 109. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 214. 110. Jeremias, TDNT 1:9; BDAG, 2. 111. E.g. Gen. 7.11; 8.2; Job 28.14; Ps. 77.16; 106.9; 135.6; 148.7; Prov. 3.19. 112. L X X Prov. 8.28 has 'springs under the earth'.

10. Petrine

Literature

and

Jude

175

t h e F l o o d , a reference to t h e e a r t h b e i n g ' s w a l l o w e d u p into t h e great a b y s s ' (cf. G e n . 7.11) c o u l d o n l y m e a n ' s w a l l o w e d u p b y t h e waters T h e r e f o r e , final d e s t r u c t i o n is n o t j u s t ' s u p e r i m p o s e d o n '

o f t h e great a b y s s ' . 1 1 3

t h e F l o o d story in

1 Enoch 8 3 ; rather, t h e a u t h o r is interpreting t h e F l o o d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l l y a n d as a p r e d i c t i o n o f final c o s m i c destruction. T h i s s h o w s w e l l that a J e w i s h a u t h o r before

2 P e t e r c o u l d interpret t h e F l o o d a s a n e v e n t o f future j u d g e m e n t b y

cosmic destruction.

114

3 . 2 Pet. 3.7,12-13:

2 Peter could have done so as well. Cosmic

Conflagration.

T h e c o s m o s that G o d c r e a t e d

(v. 5) w a s l o n g a g o d e s t r o y e d b y w a t e r b e c a u s e o f h u m a n r e b e l l i o n a n d sin (v. 6 ) , a n d this s h o w s that G o d c a n a n d w i l l d e s t r o y ' t h e p r e s e n t h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h ' (i.e., t h e p r e s e n t c o s m o s ) again, b u t this t i m e b y fire. T h e a i m o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n is e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j u d g e m e n t a n d destruction o f ' u n g o d l y p e o p l e ' (v. 7 ) . T h e c o s m i c conflagration b r o a c h e d in v. 7 p r e p a r e s for the description o f t h e ' c o m i n g ' D a y o f t h e L o r d in w . 10, 12 a s a ' d a y ' that will b r i n g a b o u t t h e fiery destruction o f t h e ' h e a v e n s ' a n d t h e ' e l e m e n t s ' ( a T o i x e t a ) , that is, t h e w h o l e 115

created universe.

T h i s ' c o m i n g d a y ' ( 3 . 4 , 10, 12) w i l l b r i n g t h e destruction

o f t h e c o s m o s a n d t h e u n g o d l y (v. 7). T h e destruction w i l l g i v e w a y , in biblical fashion, to t h e n e w c r e a t i o n ( ' n e w h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h ' ; cf. Isa. 6 5 . 1 7 ; 6 6 . 2 2 )

1 1 6

(v. 13). T h e q u e s t i o n at this p o i n t is, w h a t is t h e origin o f t h e i d e a o f total c o s m i c conflagration in w . 7, 10, 12? B a u c k h a m

1 1 7

a n d V o g t l e locate t h e o r i g i n in

J e w i s h a p o c a l y p t i c a n d t h u s t h e c o s m i c conflagration f o u n d in S t o i c i s m ' h a s h o w e v e r h a r d l y c o n s i d e r a b l y influenced h i s [author] u s e o f t h e world-fire notion'.

118

T h e y p o i n t to O T a n d J e w i s h texts that p i c t u r e G o d ' s j u d g e m e n t as 119

a c o n s u m i n g fire.

H e r e a g a i n A d a m s p r o p o s e s that S t o i c i s m p r o v i d e s a m o r e

i m m e d i a t e b a c k g r o u n d t o 2 P e t e r ' s c o s m i c conflagration. H e m a i n t a i n s that e v e n in J e w i s h texts w h e r e c o s m i c c a t a s t r o p h e is e n v i s i o n e d a s a conflagration n o n e e n v i s a g e s total c o s m i c c o n f l a g r a t i o n ,

120

a s 2 Pet. 3.12-13 d o e s . T h e real

parallel t h e n is b e t w e e n 2 P e t e r 3 a n d Stoic d o c t r i n e o f ekpurosis

(conflagra

tion). A s V o g t l e h a s argued, t h e a u t h o r o f 2 P e t e r surely c o u l d h a v e k n o w n t h e

113. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 62. 114. In 1QH 11.19-20, 31-33, the earth's destruction comes by way of a flood of fire which corresponds to the Genesis Flood. 115. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 223. 116. Cf. Jub. 1.29; Rom. 8.21; 2 Cor. 5.17; Rev. 21.1. 117. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 300. 118. '... hat seine Wahl der Weltbrandvorstellung aber kaum betrachtlich beeinflufit' (V6gtle, Judasbrief, p. 228). 119. E.g. Deut 33.22; Ps. 97.3; Isa. 30.30; 66.15-16; Ezek. 38.22; Amos 7.4; Zeph. 1.18; Mai. 4.1 ( L X X 3 . 1 9 ) ; 1QH 11.19-36;Sib. Or. 3.80-90; Ant. 1.70;LifeofAdamandEve49-50; PseudoSophocles, Fragment 2. 120. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 97.

Cosmology

176

Stoic ekpurosis

idea

121

and New Testament

Theology

a n d t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o p r e c l u d e t h e possibility that

h e c o u l d h a v e u s e d it. B u t , d o t h e v a s t differences b e t w e e n t h e w o r l d v i e w s o f 2 P e t e r a n d R o m a n S t o i c i s m (differences that A d a m s ' r e c o g n i z e s ) s p e a k a g a i n s t s u c h a direct b o r r o w i n g ? V o g t l e a r g u e s that t h e Stoic i d e a o f t h e cyclical a n n i 122

hilation o f t h e w o r l d b y fire a n d t h e r e s u r g e n c e of exactly the same world

sets

it a p a r t from t h e c o s m i c conflagration e n v i s i o n e d b y 2 Peter, a conflagration that i s u n i q u e (it d o e s n o t r e p e a t o r ' c y c l e ' ) a n d results i n final j u d g e m e n t a n d vindication.

123

A d a m s h a s p o i n t e d out, t h o u g h , that t h e S t o i c v i e w o f c o s m i c

d e s t r u c t i o n a n d r e n e w a l w a s v i e w e d a s a k i n d o f katharsis, the creator g o d .

1 2 4

a refreshing b y

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e Stoic d o c t r i n e o f ' e v e r l a s t i n g r e c u r r e n c e '

a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e i d e a that ' e v e r y m a n a n d w o m a n are b o r n a g a i n in t h e n e x t w o r l d - c y c l e a n d r e p e a t their lives e x a c t l y ' ,

125

a n d a s s u c h s e e m s difficult t o

r e c o n c i l e w i t h 2 P e t e r ' s v i e w (consistent w i t h J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n e s c h a t o l o g y ) that c o s m i c d e s t r u c t i o n is a final j u d g e m e n t w h i c h b r i n g s a b o u t the final r e n e w a l o f t h e c o s m o s ' i n w h i c h ' (ev ols) r i g h t e o u s n e s s d w e l l s (SLKaioawr] raTOLKel)

(v. 13). T h u s , t h e r e n e w e d a n d final c o s m o s , ' t h e n e w h e a v e n s a n d

e a r t h ' (v. 13), w i l l b e a n e w w o r l d in w h i c h t h e g o d l y w h o h a v e b e e n v i n d i c a t e d o n the ' D a y o f t h e L o r d ' (v. 12) will d o r i g h t e o u s n e s s , that is, t h e will o f G o d .

1 2 6

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e differences w i t h Stoic t h o u g h t d o n o t r u l e o u t t h e possibility that t h e w r i t e r e m p l o y e d a s p e c t s o f Stoic c o s m o l o g y i n o r d e r t o better c o n n e c t w i t h his largely H e l l e n i s t i c - C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s , j u s t a s h e u s e d t h e c o n c e p t 'Tar t a r u s ' t o c o n t e x t u a l i z e J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n c o n t e n t i n 2 . 4 . H o w e v e r , I w o u l d still m a i n t a i n w i t h B a u c k h a m a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y V o g t l e that a l t h o u g h 2 P e t e r ' s c o s m i c conflagration i s q u i t e u n i q u e i n its formulation, the O T a n d J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s

127

p r o v i d e t h e r u d i m e n t a r y e l e m e n t s that c o u l d h a v e b e e n ' p u l l e d t o g e t h e r ' t o c o n s t r u c t 2 P e t e r ' s final j u d g e m e n t a s a cosmic-fiery d e s t r u c t i o n .

128

In t h e e n d , t h e p r i m a r y p o i n t o f 2 P e t e r i s clear: t h e d e n i a l o f t h e p a r o u s i a i s b y definition a d e n i a l o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l j u d g e m e n t for p r e s e n t b e h a v i o u r . 2 P e t e r insists that G o d h a s a n d will a g a i n d e s t r o y t h e u n g o d l y a n d t h e c o s m o s a l o n g w i t h t h e m . T h e destruction i s total; n o o n e c a n p o s s i b l y e s c a p e . 2 P e t e r d r a w s p r i m a r i l y u p o n h i s J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n traditions i n h i s p o l e m i c a g a i n s t t h e

121. V6gfle,Judasbrief, p. 228. 122. Cf. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, pp. 118-20. 123. V6gt\Q,Judasbrief, p. 22S. 124. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 121. 125. Ibid. 126. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, p. 326. 127. See particularly 1QH 11.34-35; God'sfieryjudgement has cosmic effects and incorporates aspects of the Flood tradition, as does 2 Peter. See also the latefirst-centuryJewish text known as the Life of Adam and Eve, which reveals the punishment upon the race of Adam and Eve as a 'judgement, first by water and then by fire; by these two the Lord will judge the whole human race' (cf. Pseudo-Sophocles, Frag. 2; and the Christian Apoc. Elijah 5 and Asa Isa. 4). 128. V6gt\e,Judasbrief, p. 227.

10. Petrine Literature

and

Jude

177

false t e a c h e r s . I c a n n o t rule o u t t h e possibility that the a u t h o r a l s o , particularly in 3.7, a l l u d e d t o s o m e aspects o f Stoic c o s m o l o g y in o r d e r to c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h h i s Hellenistic r e a d e r s . B u t t h e c o r e o f his i d e a s are J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n . T h a t t h e focus is G o d ' s c o m i n g for j u d g e m e n t for t h e w i c k e d a n d n o t c o s m o l o g i c a l speculation as s u c h s e e m s clear. G o d is n o t s l o w a b o u t his ' p r o m i s e ' (3.9), that is, the ' p r o m i s e o f h i s c o m i n g ' (3.4). Therefore, h e w a n t s ' y o u ' to r e p e n t a n d e s c a p e his w r a t h (3.9). In v. 1 1 , the c o s m i c destruction p r o v i d e s t h e u l t i m a t e m o t i v a t i o n for t h e r e a d e r s to b e ' h o l y a n d g o d l y ' (3.9). In v. 10 t h e j u d g e m e n t aspect o f the ' d a y o f the L o r d ' will surely result in the destruction o f the c o s m o s , b u t t h e a i m a p p e a r s t o b e t h e r e v e a l i n g or e x p o s i n g (€vpe&f\oeTai)

of

h u m a n ' w o r k s ' o r ' d e e d s ' ( e p y a ) d o n e o n the earth. ' T h e p o i n t . . . i s that t h e eschatological dissolution w i l l e x p o s e all the d e e d s o f h u m a n b e i n g s t o d i v i n e scrutiny'.

129

T h e readers ' w a i t for' the parousia a n d the ' D a y o f the L o r d ' (3.12),

b e c a u s e for t h e m t h e ' p r o m i s e o f his c o m i n g ' will m e a n a ' n e w h e a v e n s a n d e a r t h ' ( 3 . 1 3 ) , b u t for t h e false t e a c h e r s it will m e a n b e i n g engulfed in t h e c o s m i c ' b u r n i n g ' (3.12). It s h o u l d b e quite clear t h e n that c o s m o g o n y a n d c o s m o l o g y , h e r e in 2 P e t e r as w e l l as 1 P e t e r a n d J u d e , serve t h e m a i n c o n c e r n s o f t h e o l o g y a n d ethical formation a n d transformation.

129. Adams, Stars Will Fall From Heaven, p. 228.

11 REVELATION: T H E C L I M A X OF C O S M O L O G Y

Sean M. McDonough

If R e v e l a t i o n is, t o q u o t e t h e title o f R i c h a r d B a u c k h a m ' s b o o k , ' t h e c l i m a x o f 1

p r o p h e c y ' , it m a y e q u a l l y b e c a l l e d ' t h e c l i m a x o f c o s m o l o g y ' . J o h n ' s p i c t u r e o f t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f G o d ' s k i n g d o m is p a i n t e d o n t h e c a n v a s o f t h e c o s m o s , a n d t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r is i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d in e v e r y p h a s e o f t h e b o o k . W e c a n offer h e r e o n l y a b r i e f o v e r v i e w o f w h a t c o u l d b e a n e x p o n e n t i a l l y lengthier exposition.

2

Generic

Considerations

R e c o g n i z i n g t h e v i s i o n a r y n a t u r e o f t h e A p o c a l y p s e is essential for s p e a k i n g a c c u r a t e l y a b o u t the b o o k ' s c o s m o l o g y . W e learn v e r y little from R e v e l a t i o n a b o u t J o h n ' s v i e w o f the ' a c t u a l ' structure o r w o r k i n g o f t h e c o s m o s : t h e w e a l t h of cosmological imagery can only b e spent within the borders of the vision. W e c a n n o m o r e d e d u c e J o h n ' s v i e w o f t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e from, e.g., t h e a s c e n t

1. R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993). 2. A careful book-length treatise on the subject is still a desideratum. Paul Minear's brief but seminal essay 'The Cosmology of the Apocalypse' is the best introduction to the subject (in W. Klassen and G. F. Snyder [eds], Current Issues in New Testament Interpretation [London: SCM, 1962], pp. 23-37). The few books devoted exclusively to Revelation's cosmology tend to shunt all else aside in search of purported astronomical references. The most notable is Bruce Malina's On the Genre of the Book of Revelation (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1995), which in its efforts to read Revelation as 'astral prophecy' dismisses out of hand virtually all prior scholarship on Revelation (the most significant precursor to Malina's own approach, F. Boll's Aus Der Offenbarung Johannis (Leipzig: Teubner, 1914), is remarkably not even mentioned). The magisterial recent commentaries of Aune (Revelation [WBC 52a-c; Dallas: Word, 1997-1998]); and Beale (The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text [NIGNTC, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999]) contain much relevant information, while G. B. Caird's A Commentary on the Revelation of St. John the Divine (London: A&C Black, 1966) remains the best short commentary on the book. Among other works, significant attention is given to Revelation in A. Y. Collins' Cosmology and Eschatology in Jewish and Christian Apocalypyticism (Leiden: Brill, 1996); and there are numerous cosmological insights in S. Friesen's Imperial Cults and the Apocalypse of John Reading Revelation in the Ruins (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, esp. pp. 152 66).

11.

Revelation

179

vision of Revelation 4 than w e can deduce the physiognomy of the R o m a n E m p e r o r from t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e B e a s t in Rev. 13.2-3. W e s h o u l d n o t e v e n expect absolute consistency within the imagined cosmos of the Apocalypse. V i s i o n s a r e n o t c o i n c i d e n t a l l y linked in t h e biblical literature w i t h d r e a m s , a n d d r e a m - l o g i c is p r e c i s e l y w h a t w e e x p e r i e n c e in r e a d i n g R e v e l a t i o n . T h e u s u a l b o u n d a r i e s o f t i m e a n d s p a c e are fractured; d i s l o c a t i o n a b o u n d s . H e a v e n w i l l b e a b o v e , a n d earth b e l o w , b u t b e y o n d that n o t h i n g is n a i l e d d o w n - a n d e v e n this b a s i c separation o f h e a v e n a n d earth will b e subject t o r e v i s i o n b y t h e e n d o f t h e b o o k . J o h n d o e s n o t n e e d t o a c c o u n t for t h e p r e c i s e location o f t h e a b y s s , n o r t o e x p l a i n w h e t h e r t h e l a k e o f fire c a n b e said t o h a v e a n y ' l o c a t i o n ' at a l l .

3

C o n s t a n t a w a r e n e s s that R e v e l a t i o n is a v i s i o n is likewise essential for making proper use of putative source material. Mythological material of v a r i e d p r o v e n a n c e m a y a p p e a r in R e v e l a t i o n , b u t it d o e s n o t follow that J o h n h a s t h e r e b y a d o p t e d a n y g i v e n c o s m o l o g y in toto. Various p a g a n a n d biblical a s t r o n o m i c a l m o t i f s , for i n s t a n c e , a p p e a r t o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e story o f t h e w o m a n a n d t h e d r a g o n in Revelation 12: Z e u s a n d T y p h o e u s ; Isis, Osiris, a n d Seth; A p o l l o a n d T y p h o n ; a n d t h e b o o k o f D a n i e l all m a y h a v e p l a y e d a part in s h a p i n g t h e chapter. T h i s m a y tell u s a great deal a b o u t w h a t sort o f m a t e r i a l J o h n felt w a s a p p r o p r i a t e for c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n m e s s a g e , b u t it tells u s little a b o u t J o h n ' s v i e w o f p a g a n (or biblical) c o s m o l o g y as such. T h e fact that J o h n d o e s n o t directly d e s c r i b e t h e visible u n i v e r s e , h o w e v e r , is n o i n d i c a t i o n that h e t h i n k s it u n w o r t h y o f c o n c e r n . J o h n h a s a v e r y s t r o n g t h e o l o g y o f creation, as w i t n e s s e d b y t h e a c c l a i m o f t h e living creatures in 4 . 1 1 , ' Y o u are w o r t h y , o u r L o r d a n d G o d , to r e c e i v e g l o r y a n d h o n o u r a n d p o w e r , b e c a u s e y o u c r e a t e d all t h i n g s a n d b y y o u r w i l l t h e y w e r e a n d w e r e c r e a t e d ' ; a n d t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e ' g o o d n e w s ' o f 14.7, ' F e a r G o d a n d g i v e h i m glory, because the hour of his judgement has come, and worship him w h o m a d e the 4

h e a v e n a n d t h e earth a n d t h e s e a a n d t h e springs o f w a t e r ' . T h e p r e s e n t c o s m o s 5

is in the t h r o e s o f t h e d e - c r e a t i o n , b u t it is n e v e r m e a n t to b e t a k e n as a m e r e illusion. ( T h i s s t a n d s in contrast t o t h e B e a s t , w h o s e essential n o t h i n g n e s s is p o i n t e d l y m a d e in t h e d e s i g n a t i o n ' t h e o n e w h o w a s a n d is not a n d is a b o u t to 6

c o m e u p o u t o f t h e a b y s s a n d g o e s a w a y t o d e s t r u c t i o n ' [ 1 7 . 8 ] ) . T h e recipients o f t h e m e s s a g e s t o t h e c h u r c h e s lived in n a m e d cities a n d m u s t w r e s t l e w i t h c o n c r e t e social a n d political realities. F u r t h e r m o r e , d e s p i t e o b v i o u s discontinuities, t h e first h e a v e n a n d first earth s h a r e a m e a n i n g f u l c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e n e w h e a v e n s a n d n e w earth. T h e N e w 3. Friesen, Imperial Cults, p. 157. 4. Cf. also the rainbow around the throne, a symbol of God's faithfulness to the creation. See Bauckham, The Theology of the Book of Revelation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 51-3; cf. also Sean McDonough, 'Of Beasts and Bees: The View of the Natural World in Virgil's Georgics and John's Apocalypse'. NTS 46 (April 2000), 227-44. 5. See J. Ellul, Apocalypse (trans. G. W. Schreiner; New York: Seabury, 1977), p. 51. 6. See McDonough, YHWH at Patmos (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999), pp. 227-9.

180

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J e r u s a l e m o b v i o u s l y s h a r e s t h e name, a n d t h u s to s o m e e x t e n t t h e identity, o f t h e earthly city J e r u s a l e m . W h i l e t h e N e w J e r u s a l e m m a y in s o m e w a y s serve a s t h e a r c h e t y p e o f t h e earthly city, t h e narrative itself s u g g e s t s that t h e city c o m i n g d o w n from h e a v e n r e p r e s e n t s rather t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l destiny o f t h e o l d J e r u s a l e m . T h i s is confirmed b y t h e p i l g r i m a g e o f t h e k i n g s o f t h e earth into t h e h o l y city in 2 1 . 2 4 . T h e i m a g e r y d o e s n o t s u g g e s t a vertical ascent to a p l a t o n i c u r b a n ideal; it is instead t h e e n d o f t h e historical j o u r n e y to J e r u s a l e m as it w a s m e a n t to b e , a n d h a s finally b e c o m e . Within the city, w e find e l e m e n t s o f t h e G a r d e n o f E d e n , n o t a b l y t h e R i v e r a n d the Tree o f Life. W h e r e v e r they h a v e g o n e in t h e m e a n w h i l e (cf. 1 Enoch 24—25; Jubilees

4.23), or however

G o d h a s h i d d e n t h e m from h u m a n p e r c e p t i o n , they are h e r e a g a i n to c o n s u m m a t e t h e b l e s s i n g o f G o d t h r o u g h h i s creation to his p e o p l e . J o h n d o e s , then, ' d r e a m a w o r l d ' , b u t it r e m a i n s a d r e a m o f o u r w o r l d . T h i s b a l a n c e m u s t b e k e p t t h r o u g h o u t o u r discussion.

The Cosmological

Stage

H e a v e n p l a y s a crucial d u a l r o l e in t h e A p o c a l y p s e , signifying b o t h t h e visible sky, a n d t h e u n s e e n p l a c e o f G o d ' s t h r o n e . A t t i m e s it m a y b e difficult to distin guish between these two nuances of oupavog. A s t h e visible sky, oiipavoc; is t h e s o u r c e o f v a r i o u s m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n a (hailstones, fire, etc.), m o s t o f w h i c h p r e s a g e t h e d o o m o f idolatrous earth-dwellers. T h i s o f c o u r s e invites c o m p a r i s o n w i t h n u m e r o u s biblical a n d extra-biblical a c c o u n t s , m o s t n o t a b l y t h e p l a g u e s o n E g y p t . A d o o r c a n a p p e a r 7

in it, g i v i n g a c c e s s to G o d ' s t h r o n e r o o m . In this s e n s e o u p a v o c ; is p a r t o f t h e c o m p l e x o f sky, earth, sea, a n d under-earth, a n d like t h e m it is subject to 8

r e m o v a l a n d / o r r e n e w a l ( 6 . 1 4 ; 2 0 . 1 1 ; 2 1 . 1 ) . It m a y also b e s e e n as a k i n d o f veil separating t h e earth from t h e t h r o n e r o o m o f G o d . T h u s w h e n t h e s k y is p i c tured as rolling b a c k like a scroll o n t h e d a y o f G o d ' s w r a t h ( 6 . 1 4 ) , this s p e a k s n o t o n l y to c o s m i c dissolution, b u t to t h e u n v e i l i n g o f t h e majesty o f G o d to t h e creation. I n ch. 12, m e a n w h i l e , t h e starry sky b e c o m e s a living illustration o f t h e conflict o f S a t a n a n d t h e p e o p l e o f G o d : t h e s u n - c l a d w o m a n c r o w n e d w i t h t w e l v e stars is p u r s u e d b y the fiery d r a g o n until his fall from h e a v e n .

9

7. This assumes the more common understanding of 4.1 as referring to some sort of doorway offering entry through the sky, as opposed to a doorway above the heavenly dome leading into the heavenly temple. 8. We may also distinguish the ohpavoQ from the |ieooupai>Tflia mentioned in 8.13, 14.6, and 19.17. The [ieoovpdvrpa in 8.13 and 14.6 may refer to the zenith of the sun's orbit, and thus the apex of the celestial dome, rather than the middle region between heaven and earth. But in 19.17 it clearly means this middle region, as in English idiom 'the birds in the sky'. 9. In keeping with the OT focus on Revelation, I would take the stars to represent Israel, but it is not out of the question they represent the Zodiac, as Yarbro Collins (Cosmology and Eschatology, p. 130) suggests: 'For the author of Revelation, [the woman] is the heavenly Israel whose destiny foreshadows that of the followers of Jesus, her "seed"'.

11.

Revelation

181

T h i s leads u s n a t u r a l l y t o t h e s e c o n d s e n s e o f h e a v e n in R e v e l a t i o n , t h e p l a c e o f G o d ' s t h r o n e (e.g. 8 . 1 ; 16.11; 2 1 . 2 ) . I n k e e p i n g w i t h a ' n a i v e ' v i e w o f t h e c o s m o s a s a m a s s i v e d o m e o f s u s p e n d e d w a t e r o r ice, G o d ' s t h r o n e r o o m is p o r t r a y e d a s l y i n g o n t o p o f this d o m e in w h a t P l a t o w o u l d call t h e uiTepoupavioc; 10

b u t w h i c h t h e N T is c o n t e n t to call s i m p l y oi>pat>6<;. T h u s t h e ' r o o f o f t h e v i s i b l e w o r l d quite straightforwardly f o r m s t h e ' f l o o r ' o f t h e h e a v e n l y t h r o n e r o o m . H e n c e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n in 4 . 6 : d>Q Qahtooa vakivr) o p o i a KpixjiaAAto.

11

T h e m o s t n o t a b l e feature o f h e a v e n in R e v e l a t i o n is G o d ' s t h r o n e a n d t h e w o r s h i p p e r s a t t e n d i n g u p o n it. T h e r e is n o s u p p o s i t i o n o f a m u l t i - l a y e r e d h e a v e n s u c h as w e m e e t w i t h in s o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h literature: p r e s u m a b l y o n c e o n e g o e s t h r o u g h the sky-door, o n e is in t h e t h r o n e r o o m .

1 2

T h e t h e o l o g i c a l significance o f h e a v e n in t h e A p o c a l y p s e is p r o f o u n d . F r o m h e a v e n , o n e h a s a literally o v e r - a r c h i n g v i e w o f t h e w h o l e u n i v e r s e . J o h n is a b l e t o s p e a k authoritatively a b o u t t h e w o r l d a n d its h i s t o r y b e c a u s e h e h a s b e e n p r i v i l e g e d to s h a r e in t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t p e r s p e c t i v e o f G o d himself. T h u s w h i l e G o d is ' t h e o n e w h o is a n d w h o w a s a n d w h o is t o c o m e ' ( 1 . 4 ) , J o h n is t o w r i t e ' w h a t y o u h a v e s e e n , a n d w h a t t h e y a r e , a n d w h a t m u s t t a k e p l a c e after t h e s e t h i n g s ' ( 1 . 1 9 ) . W h a t e v e r t h e e x a c t m e a n i n g o f t h e latter p h r a s e m a y b e , t h e three-fold t i m e f o r m u l a is clearly m e a n t t o d r a w a p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e s c o p e o f God's being and the scope of John's message.

13

A s the p l a c e o f G o d ' s throne, h e a v e n also represents the determinative p l a n a n d p o w e r o f the A l m i g h t y .

14

Voices from h e a v e n , w h e t h e r divine o r angelic,

10. This is the view presupposed in the vision of Ezekiel 1, where God in the glory cloud is seen as enthroned above a miniature cosmos, replete with a SPjjn or 'firmament' (Ezek. 1.22, cf. Genesis 1). 11. The word KpuoraXAxx; can mean ice, which might help John explain why the firmament is firm, and why the heavenly throne room does not just come crashing down to earth. On the other hand, he may intend some vaguer sense of 'crystallized water-like substance', evoking the ultimate source of rain in 'the waters above', and providing a counterpart to the boundary waters of the Reed Sea and the Jordan (see below on 21.2). As always, John may not have felt the need for absolute or even proximate consistency here. 12. It is even questionable whether the levels of heaven in other literature constitute different layers within the invisible heaven as the dwelling place of God. It seems more likely that the levels refer to the regions of the visible cosmos which need to be traversed before reaching the throne of God. Thus 'seven heavens' could refer to the ascent through the levels of the seven planets, whereas in a system focused on the Sun and Moon, one could speak of three heavens. For detailed discussions see ch. 2 of Yarbro Collins' Cosmology andEschatology, and R. G. Edmonds III, 'The Faces of the Moon: Cosmology, Genesis, and the Mithras Liturgy' in R. S. Boustan and A. Y. Reed (eds), Heavenly Realms and Earthly Realities in Late Antique Religions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). 13. Cf. L. L. Thompson, The Book ofRevelation: Apocalypse and Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 84. 14. Cf. Minear, 'Cosmology', p. 32: 'The phrase "from God" would seem to underscore the ontological ultimacy of this heaven'.

182

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

cannot b e gainsaid ( 8 . 1 3 ; 10.4; 11.12; 12.10). Activity springing from h e a v e n cannot b e r e v e r s e d (11.19; 21.2). W h i l e there are indications in 12.7-12 o f pri m o r d i a l struggles in h e a v e n , a n d o f t h e erstwhile p r e s e n c e o f Satan as accuser in the h e a v e n l y c o u r t r o o m , for the m o s t p a r t h e a v e n serves as t h e place, as in the L o r d ' s Prayer, w h e r e G o d ' s will is d o n e . It is h e r e that the living creatures, representing the a n i m a t e creation o f G o d , ceaselessly w o r s h i p before his throne. T h e y are j o i n e d in their p r a i s e b y the twenty-four elders, w h o a p p e a r to b e ideal ized h u m a n o r angelic representatives o f the t w e l v e tribes o f Israel a n d the t w e l v e Apostles o f t h e L a m b (thus the saints o f the O l d a n d N e w C o v e n a n t s ) .

15

B u t t h e i n e x o r a b l e p u r p o s e o f G o d is n o t w o r k e d o u t in isolation from p e o p l e a n d e v e n t s o n earth. T h e m o s t n o t a b l e e x a m p l e o f this is t h e e n t h r o n e m e n t o f t h e L a m b in h e a v e n . A s Ellul n o t e s , J e s u s ' r e c e p t i o n o f t h e k i n g d o m is b a s e d o n his w o r k on earth:

' T h e terrestrial e v e n t p r o v o k e s t h e celestial e v e n t . . . W h a t

h a p p e n s in t h e d i v i n e w o r l d is defined, d e t e r m i n e d , p r o v o k e d b y t h e v e n t u r e o f Jesus upon the e a r t h ' .

16

T h e b r i e f n a r r a t i v e o f 8.3-5 illustrates t h e crucial r o l e

o f t h e p r a y e r s o f t h e earthly saints in t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f h e a v e n l y p u r p o s e s : the a n g e l i c offering o f h u m a n p r a y e r s p r e c i p i t a t e s t h e fiery t r u m p e t j u d g e m e n t s w h i c h follow. G o d a n d his t h r o n e r o o m , finally, a r e a k i n d o f a r c h e t y p e o f t h e e s c h a t o n .

17

T h e living c r e a t u r e s are d o i n g w h a t all c r e a t i o n o u g h t t o b e d o i n g w e r e it n o t for t h e taint o f h u m a n iniquity. T h e t h r o n e r o o m c a n e x p a n d in t i m e a n d s p a c e t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e c o u n t l e s s m u l t i t u d e w h i c h h a s c o m e o u t o f t h e great tribula tion ( 7 . 1 4 ) , a n d i n d e e d t o i n c l u d e all c r e a t e d t h i n g s in h e a v e n a n d o n t h e earth a n d u n d e r t h e e a r t h a n d in t h e s e a ( 5 . 1 3 ) . It c a n e v e n b e s a i d that h e a v e n p r o v i d e s the c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s o f t h e N e w J e r u s a l e m . G o d ' s a p p e a r a n c e is like j a s p e r a n d c a r n e l i a n a c c o r d i n g t o 4 . 3 : 6pao6L A.L0G) l a o i u 5 i Kai o a p 8 i a ) . T h e o n l y o t h e r a p p e a r a n c e o f j a s p e r in the N T c o m e s in R e v e l a t i o n 2 1 , w h e r e t h e N e w J e r u s a l e m s h i n e s like crystalline j a s p e r ( 2 1 . 1 1 ) ; j a s p e r is l i k e w i s e t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e c i t y ' s w a l l s , a n d t h e first listed a d o r n m e n t o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e m e s s a g e , like t h e s t o n e , is transpar ent: G o d ' s glory, h i t h e r t o restricted in its fullness t o t h e t h r o n e r o o m , h a s n o w

15. See Beale, Revelation, pp. 323-6; contra Collins, Cosmology and Eschatology, pp. 127-30, who suggests they are based on a group of 24 Babylonian astral deities. Aside from the fact that there are twenty-four of them in a heavenly place, and that they are described as 'judges', I see little to connect the two groups. 16. Ellul, Apocalypse, pp. 47-8. 17. If this strikes some as 'platonic', this may say as much about Plato's debt to earlier mytho logical conceptions as it does about John's debt to Plato (cf. especially Plato's use of myth in the Phaedrus). John's heaven is not a static realm of ideal concepts, but a living world of worship. It is superior to the present earth not because of any intrinsic ontological virtue, as in the Platonic scheme, but rather because unlike the earth, it is suffused with the presence of God. Once the earth is purged of its resident evil, it is just as 'real' as heaven, and equally fit to serve as the place of his throne.

11.

Revelation

183

permeated the world of humanity in accordance with the prophetic promise ( N u m . 14.2; H a b . 2.14). T h e earth h a s strong negative associations t h r o u g h m o s t o f R e v e l a t i o n .

18

For

the saints, t h e earth is a p l a c e o f struggle against t h e Beast a n d h i s m i n i o n s . T h e frequent

designation o f unbelievers a s 'earth d w e l l e r s ' is pointed: i n contrast t o

the saints, they h a v e n o love for t h e O n e w h o sits e n t h r o n e d in h e a v e n . A s w i t h the Egyptians at t h e E x o d u s , they will w a t c h in horror a s t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h they h a v e p u t all their trust falls i n ruins a r o u n d t h e m . Their attempt t o gain m a s t e r y o v e r t h e earth culminates in t h e great counterfeit city B a b y l o n , t h e d e a d - e n d street o f t h e hijacked creation p r o j e c t .

19

Yet as w e h a v e already noted, t h e p r o m i s e o f

a r e n e w e d earth is n o t a b a n d o n e d in Revelation. After t h e de-creation c o m e s r e creation, as the w o r l d a n d the nations i n it at last r e a c h G o d ' s a p p o i n t e d goal in t h e N e w Jerusalem. E v e n in the present age, parts o f t h e earth c a n b e a p l a c e o f refuge for t h e saints (12.14). W h e n t h e D r a g o n p o u r s a river out o f his m o u t h t o d r o w n the W o m a n , it is t h e earth w h i c h s w a l l o w s it u p (12.15-6). A s Paul M i n e a r n o t e s , the s a m e g r o u n d w h i c h h a d s w a l l o w e d t h e b l o o d o f A b e l a n d cried o u t against humanity has n o w become the church's helper.

20

T h e s e a is often l i n k e d w i t h earth a s p a r t o f t h e r e g i o n s b e l o w h e a v e n , a n d t h u s t o that e x t e n t r e m a i n s a g o o d creation o f G o d (cf. 5.13). B u t it also h a s a n i m p o r t a n t role a s a s y m b o l o f p r i m o r d i a l c h a o s . A t o n e level, t h e fact t h e B e a s t rises from t h e s e a i n 13.1 reflects t h e reality that R o m a n p o w e r c a m e t o A s i a M i n o r a s a foreign p o w e r from a c r o s s t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . B u t t h e o b v i o u s r e s o n a n c e s w i t h t h e n i g h t m a r e v i s i o n o f D a n . 7.4-6 p o i n t d e e p e r t o t h e s e a a s t h e font o f radical evil, t h e c h a o s w a t e r s o u t o f w h i c h e m e r g e t h e l e a d e r s o f o p p o s i t i o n t o G o d . T h u s t h e B e a s t c a n e q u a l l y b e said t o c o m e o u t o f t h e A b y s s (11.7;17.8). T h e fusion o f t h e S e a a n d t h e A b y s s w a s i n v i t e d b y t h e LXX, w h e r e f) aPuoooq is a l w a y s u s e d o f w a t e r y p l a c e s (cf. e.g. D e u t . 8.7; I s a . 5 1 . 1 0 ; P s . 1 0 3 . 6 ) , t h o u g h J o h n is c l e a r l y a w a r e o f t h e l a t e r J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h depict t h e A b y s s a s t h e p r i s o n - h o u s e o f evil spirits ( e . g . 9 . 1 - 1 1 ) .

21

T h e admit-

18. The earth is said to have four comers (tag teooapac yuv'iaQ iffe yrjC, 7.1, cf. 20.8), but this tells us no more about John's understanding of the shape of the world than our own colloquial expression 'from the four corners of the earth*. In the midst of an otherwise extremely helpful discussion, Friesen (Imperial Cults, p. 155) curiously suggests on the basis of 10.6 (without exegetical argument) that the 'earth is governed by time'. But Aune (Revelation, p. 567) is surely correct that o n xpovcx; oiMcext eorai should not be rendered 'Time will be no more' but rather 'there will be no more interval of time'; i.e. once the seventh trumpet sounds things will move straight to their denouement. 19. Note the numerous parallels between the description of Babylon in ch. 17 and of the New Jerusalem in chs 21-22. 20. Minear,' "Far as the Curse is Found": The Point of Revelation 12.15-16', NovT33 (1991), 71-7 (76). 21. Even this may relate to the flood waters overwhelming the rebellious angels of Genesis 6, as in 7 Enoch. Note that (J>p€ap is typically used of wells rather than merely 'shafts' (Rev. 9.2).

184

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

tedly p e r p l e x i n g d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e S e a in t h e e s c h a t o n (Rev. 2 1 . 1 ) is t h u s likely a n i m a g e o f t h e r e m o v a l o f all threat t o h u m a n i t y in t h e n e w h e a v e n s a n d n e w earth. It is a w o r l d n o t o n l y after t h e flood, like N o a h ' s , b u t a w o r l d b e y o n d a n y threat o f

22

flood.

T h e r e g i o n s u n d e r t h e earth a p p e a r first in a surprisingly p o s i t i v e context in 5 . 1 3 : t h e u n i v e r s a l w o r s h i p o f G o d a n d t h e L a m b i n c l u d e s t h o s e inroKata) tfjc; yf\Q. Its m o r e familiar r o l e a s a p l a c e o f g l o o m a n d m e n a c e is p i c k e d u p in ch. 9, w h e r e t h e d e m o n i c locust-warriors e m e r g e from t h e a b y s s to t o r m e n t the e a r t h - d w e l l e r s . W h i l e m u c h o f t h e i m a g e r y h e r e d e r i v e s from t h e p r o p h e t Joel, J o h n is n o d o u b t c o n t e n t to let t h e w i d e s p r e a d terror o f c h t h o n i c spirits h a v e its full effect o n h i s listeners in the Hellenistic w o r l d . H a d e s is m e n t i o n e d o n a few o c c a s i o n s , b o t h a s a n a m e for t h e fourth h o r s e m a n D e a t h (5.8), a n d as t h e p l a c e o f t h e d e a d ( 2 0 . 1 3 , a g a i n in conjunction w i t h Gavaxoc;). It m a y b e p r e s u m e d to lie u n d e r t h e earth, b u t t h e r e is little c o n c e r n t o locate it o r p o n d e r its d i m e n s i o n s . W h e n ' d e a t h a n d H a d e s ' a r e t h r o w n into t h e lake o f fire ( 2 1 . 1 4 ) , it is difficult t o k n o w exactly w h a t w e are m e a n t to e n v i s i o n ; b u t t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n that J o h n w a n t s u s t o realize that t h e spectre o f d e a t h n o l o n g e r h a u n t s the n e w world. W e are left at last w i t h t h e lake o f fire. J o h n h a s , I believe, carefully structured the j u d g e m e n t narrative o f ch. 2 0 to capture the p a r a d o x o f absolute j u d g e m e n t a n d absolute renewal. T h e familiar v i e w o f hell b e i n g u n d e r the earth c a n lead to the very reasonable question: h o w c a n I enjoy heavenly bliss w h i l e m y former friends a n d relations are roasting b e l o w m e ? To p u t it m o r e broadly, h o w c a n the evil d e a d perpetually taint the r e n e w e d c o s m o s ? J o h n ' s a n s w e r is, in brief, they are not ' b e l o w ' the earth at all. In 2 0 . 1 1 , w e r e a d that ' h e a v e n a n d earth fled from his face, a n d a p l a c e w a s n o t found for t h e m ' ( a n o t o O iTpoocoiTOU e ^ u y e v f) yf\

Kai 6 oupavog K a i

TOIKX; OI>X

113.3,7 a n d D a n . 2.35 ( T h ) ,

23

a>p€0r| a i r r o i c ) . T h e m o t i f is d r a w n from

LXX PS.

b u t J o h n h a s m a d e the passing a w a y o f the entire

c o s m o s m o r e explicit. It is crucial to n o t e that j u d g e m e n t thus occurs directly after the passing a w a y o f the first h e a v e n a n d earth, a n d directly before the intro duction o f the n e w h e a v e n s a n d earth in 21.1 ( K a i elbov o u p a v b v K a i v o v Kai

yf\v

Kaivrjv. 6

yap np&xoQ o u p a v o q

K a i f) iTpcStri

yf\ &uf\kBav). T h i s

d o e s not

appear to b e a m e r e literary inclusio. W e are instead m e a n t to see that the r e p r o bate in the lake o f fire are forever outside the r e n e w e d c o s m o s ; they h a v e , as it w e r e , b e c o m e eternally irrelevant. T h e y are in a place that is N o - P l a c e .

24

Why smoke (KOCTIVOC;) would come out of a watery prison remains a puzzle (unless steam is in view?; cf. Acts 2.19; and Odyssey 12.219, where KCtmxx; seems to mean 'sea spray'), but this is likely an instance where John is content to jumpfromone conception to another. The water image may be abandoned in favour of the lingering smoky destruction o£ e.g., Sodom and Gomorrah. 22. Bauckham, Theology, p. 53. 23. TOITOQ oux eup€6r| OLVZOIQ is verbatimfromDaniel (Th). 24. Aristotle confronts a similar paradox when he discusses the region above the heavens, see DeCaelo 279&11-2S.

11.

The

Revelation

185

Players

W h i l e o u r focus h e r e is o n t h e c o s m o s , it is n e c e s s a r y t o offer a v e r y b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p l a y e r s a n d their r o l e in t h e c o s m i c d r a m a o f the A p o c a lypse.

25

G o d , the O n e w h o sits o n t h e t h r o n e in h e a v e n , h a s c r e a t e d e v e r y t h i n g

that exists, a n d a s Pantokrator

( 1 . 8 ; 4 . 8 , etc.) h e h o l d s c o s m i c s o v e r e i g n t y .

26

He

e x e r c i s e s this s o v e r e i g n t y t h r o u g h J e s u s , the L a m b w h o s h a r e s h i s t h r o n e . J e s u s b e a r s t h e fiery d i v i n e likeness ( 1 . 1 2 - 1 6 ) , a n d in a n i m a g e o f u n i v e r s a l l o r d s h i p , h o l d s t h e stars in his h a n d s . H e is h i m s e l f t h e b r i g h t M o r n i n g Star ( 2 2 . 1 6 ) . T h e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e is c o m m u n i c a t e d to t h e c h u r c h b y the Spirit (2.11 e t c . ) .

27

A n g e l s are e s p e c i a l l y active in R e v e l a t i o n as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n t h e earthly a n d h e a v e n l y r e a l m s . T h e y are linked w i t h stars in 1.20, a v i v i d s y m b o l o f their heavenly status.

28

It is a n a n g e l w h o g i v e s J o h n the R e v e l a t i o n a n d g u i d e s h i m

t h r o u g h h e a v e n . A n g e l s r e p r e s e n t c h u r c h e s in t h e h e a v e n l y a s s e m b l y (cf. t h e g r e e t i n g s ' t o t h e a n g e l o f t h e c h u r c h i n . . . ' in c h s 2 a n d 3 ) , a n d p a s s t h e p r a y e r s o f t h e saints a l o n g t o G o d (8.3). T h e y are also a g e n t s o f j u d g e m e n t . E v i l a n g e l s a r e explicitly m e n t i o n e d in 12.7 ( ' S a t a n a n d h i s a n g e l s ' ) , w h i l e the star w h o o p e n s t h e a b y s s in 9.1 a n d p e r h a p s e v e n t h e four a n g e l s o f 7.1 m a y a l s o b e considered malevolent.

29

T h e l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s b e f o r e t h e t h r o n e a r e c l e a r l y b a s e d o n t h e figures in E z e k i e l 1 a n d I s a i a h 6. W h i l e t h e y m a y h a v e d i s t a n t c o m m o n a l i t i e s w i t h t h e h y b r i d g u a r d i a n s o f A n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n t e m p l e s , t h e y are h e r e e x c l u s i v e l y d e v o t e d t o w o r s h i p . W h i l e J o h n p r e s u m a b l y t h o u g h t o f t h e m as distinct, ' r e a l ' h e a v e n l y c r e a t u r e s , t h e y a p p e a r t o s y m b o l i z e the w o r s h i p o f G o d b y all a n i m a t e creatures.

25. Recognizing, of course, that the cosmos itself is in some ways itself a 'player' in Revelation and not merely the stage (a helpful reminder from Jonathan Moo in personal correspondence). 26. For the cosmic use of related terms see, e.g., Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus 1.1 (TravKpctT^e); Orphic Hymns 8.11 (Sun as KoqiOKprfTCop) and 10.4 (Nature as TravroKpavreipa). 27. I take the 'seven spirits before the throne' (1.4 TCOV errm weupaTCOV a kvumiov T O O OpovoD auxou) to be a reference to the manifold work of the Spirit in the world (and particularly to the church, represented by the seven churches of Asia Minor), rather than to seven angels. The expression is unusual, but so is much in Revelation, and the idea that this refers to the Holy Spirit is strongly suggested by the tri-partite form of the greeting in 1.4-5 and the repeated mention of the Spirit in chs. 2-3. 28. Much ancient mythology of course likely begins as a reading of the sky, under the assump tion that the stars are divine beings. But association in Revelation is not identification. Aside from the star who opens the abyss in 9.1, angels are not equated with stars. 29. On 7.1 (cf. 6.2-8) as depicting evil angels, see Beale, Revelation, pp. 370-408. In context, the battle of Michael and his angels versus Satan and his angels in ch. 12 appears to represent the termination of Satan's prosecuting role in the heavenly courtroom. But it is possible the motif could be drawn from an earlier source in which there was a primordial, Milton-esque expulsion of rebel angels from heaven.

Cosmology

186

and New Testament

Theology

T h e Saints are p o r t r a y e d ( w i t h h e a v y d e b t s t o E x o d u s a n d D a n i e l ) as t h o s e w h o d w e l l in t h e s h a d o w o f t h e B e a s t a n d m u s t resist t h e t w i n evils o f p e r s e cution a n d s e d u c t i o n a s t h e y a w a i t G o d ' s d e l i v e r a n c e . I n t h e v i s i o n t h e y a r e frequently

v i e w e d in h e a v e n , s i n c e their loyalty lies t h e r e , a n d t h e y a r e b o u n d

to d w e l l i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f G o d f o r e v e r .

30

T h e o p p o s i t i o n t o G o d is led b y t h e Satanic trinity: t h e D r a g o n , t h e B e a s t , a n d t h e F a l s e Prophet. T h e D r a g o n , t h e b l a s p h e m o u s imitation o f t h e Father, appears in t h e h e a v e n s w i t h c r o w n s o n h i s h e a d s ( 1 2 . 3 ) , a n d s w e e p s a third o f the stars t o earth. B a s e d o n t h e parallels w i t h D a n i e l 8, this p r o b a b l y refers n o t to a n y a n g e l i c fall, b u t r a t h e r t o t h e d e a t h o r a p o s t a s y o f saints in O l d T e s t a m e n t t i m e s , before t h e a d v e n t o f t h e C h i l d .

31

T h e D r a g o n , h o w e v e r , is cast d o w n t o earth, a n d m u s t p r o s e c u t e h i s w a r against t h e w o m a n b y o t h e r m e a n s .

3 2

H e calls forth o u t o f t h e c h a o s w a t e r s h i s

w o u l d - b e M e s s i a h , t h e B e a s t . T h i s is n o t s i m p l y t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r tout

court,

but r a t h e r t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r a s t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f r e c u r r e n t evil; a n y g i v e n ruler is s i m p l y t h e p e r i o d i c s p r i n g flowing from a n u n d e r g r o u n d river o f m a l i c e (cf. 11.7, ' t h e B e a s t w h o c o m e s u p o u t o f t h e a b y s s ' ) . H e h a s h i s false r e s u r r e c tion (13.3) a n d h i s false p a r o u s i a ( 1 7 . 8 ) b u t h e is d e s t i n e d for destruction. H i s

30. The saints are also likely in view in 13.6, where the Beast blasphemes God's 'tent, the ones who tent in heaven' (TT)V OKX\VT\V auioO, TOIX; kv TC5 oupavcp OKTIVOOVTOK;). The 144,000 (whom I take to be a symbol of the church, and equivalent to the countless multitude in ch. 7, cf. Bauckham, Climax ofProphecy, pp. 215-29) appear on Mount Zion in 14.1. This Zion is difficult to chart cosmologically. It could refer to the heavenly Zion in parallel to Hebrews 12.22. This would be supported by the note in 14.2-3 that John heard a voice 'from heaven' and that 'they' (presumably the 144,000) sang a new song before the throne. But the prophetic background of Joel 3.5 and Isa. 4.5 (cf. 4 Ezra 13.33-36) suggests this may be a proleptic view of the end-times deliverance of the earthly Zion (not necessarily the literal deliverance of Jerusalem, but presum ably a picture of the salvation of the church on earth in the manner of 20.9-10). In this view, the earthly saints would only be learning the heavenly song, not themselves singing it before the throne. It is almost impossible to choose between the two. See Aune, Revelation, pp. 803-9. 31. Dan. 8.10, 'and it [= the little horn] grew up towards the hosts of heaven, and it threw to earth some of the host and some of the stars and trampled them'. This is interpreted in Dan. 8.24, 'and he will destroy mighty ones and the holy people'. It is just possible that the host in Dan. 8.10 constitutes the heavenly representatives of the earthly people, but a more straightforward interpretation in which the host = the people is more likely. In support of this view, at least with respect to Revelation, note that the verb for 'trample' in Dan. 8.10 (ODI/KaieTTaTTTGr)) is a cognate to the verb used for the trampling of the holy city (a symbol of the saints) in Rev. 11.2 (TTaTTJOOUOLV).

32. 12.8 notes that there 'was no place found' (oi)6e TOTTO^ eupeOr) auicov) for Satan and his angels in heaven. The language is from Dan. 2.35, but has clear resonance with the disappearance of the first heaven and earth in Rev. 20.11 (see discussion above). To the extent that 'the whole world lies in the power of the evil one' (1 Jn 5.19), Satan's heavenly demise may presage the removal of the cosmos he has usurped. The narrative of ch. 12 also recalls the taunt over the king of Babylon in Isaiah 14, which has its roots in astral mythology; cf. esp. w . 13-15 where the astral elements are especially strong.

11.

Revelation

187

w o r s h i p is p r o m u l g a t e d b y t h e s e c o n d Beast, also k n o w n as t h e F a l s e P r o p h e t , a m o c k e r y o f the H o l y Spirit (cf. 13.11-17 a n d esp. 16.13-14, w h e r e the deceptive spirits c o m e o u t o f t h e m o u t h s o f t h e D r a g o n , t h e B e a s t , a n d t h e F a l s e P r o p h e t ) . W e h a v e a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d t h e e a r t h - d w e l l e r s w h o are s e d u c e d b y t h e Satanic trinity: t h e y a r e t h o s e w h o fall for t h e d e c e p t i o n o f Satan, a n d e n d u p m a k i n g t h e b l a s p h e m o u s a c c l a m a t i o n , ' W h o is like t h e B e a s t , a n d w h o c a n w a r against h i m ? ' (13.41 cf. E x o d . 1 5 . 1 1 ; P s . 8 9 . 7 ) .

The

Drama

T h e d r a m a o f t h e A p o c a l y p s e m a y b e profitably v i e w e d t h r o u g h t h e lens o f the c o s m o s . T h e c o s m o s a n d all that is in it w a s c r e a t e d g o o d b y a l m i g h t y G o d , a n d it exists to reflect h i s glory. T h e c r o w n o f c r e a t i o n is h u m a n i t y , a n d t h e c r o w n of h u m a n i t y is t h e M e s s i a h , t h e r i s e n L a m b o f G o d . T h o s e w h o r e m a i n faithful will s h a r e in his k i n g d o m a n d glory. T h e c o s m o s , h o w e v e r , h a s b e c o m e corrupted. T h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t r o o m itself h a s b e e n subject to t h e i n c u r s i o n s o f a n a c c u s i n g e n e m y , t h e S e r p e n t o f old. n o w s e e n in t h e g u i s e o f a fiery D r a g o n . T h e r e d e e m i n g w o r k o f C h r i s t (put into p r a c t i c e b y t h e celestial bailiff M i c h a e l ) h a s c l e a n s e d h e a v e n o f that scourge, a n d t h r o w n d o w n t h e devil a n d h i s a n g e l s , s u c h that G o d ' s t h r o n e r o o m is char acterized b y c e a s e l e s s w o r s h i p a n d p r a i s e . E v e n s o , t h e cries o f a d e s p e r a t e e a r t h are h e a r d in h e a v e n , a s t h e m a r t y r s b e l o w t h e t h r o n e cry out, ' H o w l o n g , O L o r d , h o l y a n d true, b e f o r e y o u j u d g e a n d a v e n g e o u r b l o o d from t h o s e w h o dwell on the earth?' (6.10). T h e earth, w h i c h h a s a l r e a d y l a b o u r e d u n d e r n u m e r o u s idolatrous tyrants, is n o w subject to t h e full fury o f t h e D r a g o n . H i s w r a t h is directed p r i m a r i l y against t h e c h u r c h , ' t h e W o m a n a n d h e r offspring', b u t t h e w a r w a g e d b y h i s a g e n t s t h e B e a s t s h a s d e v a s t a t i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e creation itself. G o d ' s p e o p l e cry out to h i m for d e l i v e r a n c e , a n d as at t h e first E x o d u s , s o in this great e s c h a t o logical E x o d u s h e a n s w e r s b y systematically d i s m a n t l i n g t h e c o s m o s w h i c h t h e D r a g o n is trying t o u s u r p . T h e beautiful o r d e r o f G e n e s i s disintegrates; things fall apart, t h e c e n t r e c a n n o t h o l d . A biblically literate auditor o f t h e A p o c a l y p s e w o u l d appreciate t h e p a t e n t a l l u s i o n s to t h e p l a g u e s u p o n E g y p t ; b u t a n y p a g a n listener c o u l d easily identify t h e h a i l s t o n e s a n d b l o o d y w a t e r s a n d t h e rest as signs o f d i v i n e w r a t h .

33

T h e n a t u r a l w o r l d h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d from living-

r o o m t o torture c h a m b e r . A s t h i n g s spiral b a c k t o w a r d s p r i m a l c h a o s , n e i t h e r t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r n o r t h e m o n u m e n t s o f h u m a n civilization offer a n y refuge. T h e r e is, a s t h e spiritual s a y s , n o h i d i n g p l a c e d o w n h e r e . T h e stars fall ( 6 . 1 3 ) , t h e m o u n t a i n s a n d islands a r e r e m o v e d from their p l a c e s ( 6 . 1 4 ) . T h e sky, w h i c h h a d s e r v e d t o shelter h u m a n i t y from t h e l o o m i n g w r a t h o f G o d a n d t h e L a m b , is rolled b a c k like a

33. Cf., e.g., Virgil's Georgian 1.471-80; 3.541-58.

Cosmology

188

and New Testament

Theology

scroll, l e a v i n g t h e w o r l d n a k e d before t h e divine j u d g e m e n t . T h e ' l i g h t n i n g s a n d s o u n d s a n d t h u n d e r s ' that g o forth from t h e t h r o n e o f G o d (4.5) b r e a k forth u p o n t h e earth, a n d t h e eschatological e a r t h q u a k e r e m o v e s t h e foundation o f idolatrous h u m a n i t y ( 1 6 . 1 8 - 2 1 ) . T h e great city falls u n d e r t h e w r a t h o f G o d (16.19). A t last, h e a v e n a n d earth itself flee from his p r e s e n c e (20.11). B u t G o d , w h o in the b e g i n n i n g said, ' L e t it b e . . . ' , n o w d e c l a r e s , ' B e h o l d , I a m m a k i n g all things n e w ' ( 2 1 . 5 ) . T h e c e n t r e p i e c e o f t h e n e w creation is t h e N e w J e r u s a l e m , w h i c h e v o k e s at o n c e G o d ' s p e o p l e , G o d ' s p l a c e a n d G o d ' s 34

p r e s e n c e . A t o n e level, t h e city r e p r e s e n t s G o d ' s p e o p l e , as is indicated b y t h e description o f t h e city as a ' b r i d e ' ( 2 1 . 2 ) , c o u p l e d w i t h its g a t e s a n d foundations b e i n g n a m e d for t h e t w e l v e tribes o f Israel a n d t h e t w e l v e apostles o f t h e L a m b ( 2 1 . 1 2 - 1 4 ) . B u t it is e q u a l l y G o d ' s p l a c e , t h e G a r d e n C i t y w h e r e N a t u r e a n d C u l t u r e at last m e e t in h a r m o n y . T h e m a s s i v e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e city m a y i n d e e d suggest that it is n o t m e r e l y a part o f t h e n e w creation, it is itself t h e r e n e w e d cosmos.

35

B u t t h e N e w J e r u s a l e m is n o t G o d ' s p l a c e m e r e l y b y virtue o f its size, o r b y a fortuitous c o n v e r g e n c e o f a favourable c l i m a t e a n d w e l l - d i s p o s e d citizens: the N e w J e r u s a l e m is w h a t it is b e c a u s e it is suffused w i t h G o d ' s p r e s e n c e . T h e spatial b o u n d a r i e s w h i c h h a d s e p a r a t e d G o d a n d his p e o p l e h a v e b e e n r e m o v e d . G o d ' s t h r o n e is n o w o n earth. T h e m a r r i a g e o f the L a m b a n d h i s B r i d e , t h e m a r r i a g e o f h e a v e n a n d earth, h a s c o m e t o p a s s .

Conclusion T h e c o s m o s , then, plays a n u m b e r o f indispensable roles in the visions o f R e v elation. A s the h a n d i w o r k o f G o d , it bears the s t a m p o f his glory a n d b e c o m e s t h e b a s i s for creaturely praise. B u t like a s t o r y - b o o k m a n s i o n , it is a p l a c e o f m a n y r o o m s , n o t all o f t h e m inviting: there is a h e a v e n l y t h r o n e - r o o m a b o v e , b u t t h e a b y s s a n d t h e p a t h l e s s sea lurk below. It c a n b e c o m e a p l a c e o f terror, as t h e D r a g o n ' s fall a n d h u m a n idolatry trigger a spiral b a c k t o w a r d s p r i m a l c h a o s . Yet in t h e e n d , j u s t a s h u m a n p l o u g h s h a r e s are b e a t e n into s w o r d s , s o t h e c o s m o s itself will r e a c h its a p p o i n t e d p l a c e o f rest a n d p e a c e , a n d b e c o m e a p l a c e o f n u r t u r e : a river r u n n i n g t h r o u g h it, a n d t h e tree o f life w i t h its leaves for t h e h e a l i n g o f t h e n a t i o n s ; G o d its light, its l a m p t h e L a m b .

34. See Bauckham, Theology, pp. 132^3. 35. Yarbro Collins, following suggestions by Charles and others, believes that part of the depiction of the New Jerusalem as cosmic city consists in the connection of its foundation stones with the zodiac {Cosmology and Eschatology, pp. 131-4). The evidence of such a connection is not entirely secure, and I am more inclined to see the basis in the twelve stones on the breastplate of the High Priest (see Caird, Revelation, pp. 274-5). The breastplate in its turn may well have had some astronomical connotations; but I do not believe these can be assumed for John. For the New Jerusalem as cosmic temple, see above all Beale, The Temple and the Church's Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God (Downer's Grove: Apollos/Intervarsity Press, 2004).

12 CONCLUSION

Sean M. McDonough and Jonathan T. Pennington

W h a t , then, h a v e w e learned from o u r tour o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t c o s m o s ? W e m a y b e g i n w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e results. T h e detailed c o s m i c t e m p l a t e b e l o v e d o f theorists a n d illustrators r e m a i n s elusive. A p a r t from a t e n d e n c y to d e s c r i b e the c o s m o s in t e r m s o f ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' (with t h e occasional addition o f ' t h e s e a ' or ' u n d e r t h e e a r t h ' ) , t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t texts d o n o t offer e n o u g h informa tion t o reconstruct a u n i f o r m ' e a r l y Christian v i e w ' o f t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . In scholarly t e r m s , this m e a n s that it is u n l i k e l y there is a R o s e t t a S t o n e w a i t i n g t o b e f o u n d w h i c h m i g h t u n l o c k t h e secrets o f N e w Testament c o s m o l o g y . A t the p o p u l a r level, t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t c a n n o t b e u s e d to p r o v i d e a g u i d e t o m o d e r n a s t r o p h y s i c s , b u t n e i t h e r c a n it b e assailed for h o l d i n g forth a n a n t i q u a t e d , 'unscientific' v i e w o f reality. T h e r e t i c e n c e o f t h e texts t h e m s e l v e s c o u l d b e m a n a g e d , o f c o u r s e , if t h e y s h o w e d clear allegiance t o s o m e w e l l - k n o w n c o s m o l o g i c a l s c h e m a . B u t w h i l e there are i n t i m a t i o n s that t h e writers w e r e in t o u c h w i t h t h e intellectual currents a r o u n d t h e m , there is n o t h i n g t o indicate that a n y g i v e n a u t h o r a d o p t e d s u c h a s y s t e m in toto. W e m a y a s s u m e that t h e y w o u l d h a v e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d t h e w o r l d o n t h e b a s i s o f e v e r y d a y o b s e r v a t i o n : t h e s u n a n d stars m o v e t h r o u g h t h e sky, t h e s k y is like a great d o m e , a n d s o on. B u t t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s n e v e r c o m m i t t o a n y t h i n g b e y o n d t h e o r d i n a r y h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w o r l d ; there is n o c h a p t e r a n d v e r s e citation w h i c h d e m a n d s t o b e r e a d against G a l i l e o or C o p e r n i c u s . ' H e c a u s e s t h e s u n t o rise o n t h e evil a n d t h e g o o d ' ( M t . 5.45) is n o t a disquisition o n celestial m e c h a n i c s . T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t c a n b e a s s u m e d a s g e n e r a l l y authorita tive for t h e N T w r i t e r s , a n d it surely h a d a p r o f o u n d effect o n their

theological

a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e c r e a t e d order. B u t there is n o d e m o n s t r a b l e c o m m i t m e n t t o a real o r i m a g i n e d O l d T e s t a m e n t b l u e p r i n t o f p h y s i c a l reality. R e v e l a t i o n c o m e s closest t o t r a c k i n g O l d T e s t a m e n t c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m , b u t this is a b o u t as far a s p o s s i b l e from straightforward scientific description. E a r l y J u d a i s m likewise s h a p e d t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w r i t e r s w i t h o u t leaving clear traces o n their c o s m o l o g y per se. P a u l ' s cryptic m e n t i o n o f t h e ' t h i r d h e a v e n ' in 2 Cor. 12.2 s e e m s t o b e i n d e b t e d t o early J e w i s h s p e c u l a t i o n , b u t p r e c i s e l y w h a t h e m e a n t b y t h e t e r m is still difficult t o d e t e r m i n e .

190

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

T h e H e l l e n i s t i c b a c k g r o u n d is if a n y t h i n g m o r e tantalizing; t h e r e a c h c o n tinually e x c e e d s t h e g r a s p . T h e r e is certainly n o t h o r o u g h g o i n g e n g a g e m e n t w i t h scientific c o s m o l o g y o r c o s m o g o n y in o u r texts. T h e m o s t e x t e n d e d m e d i tation o n c o s m i c structures in t h e N T is p r o b a b l y t h e b o o k o f H e b r e w s , w h i c h is also g e n e r a l l y s e e n a s t h e m o s t H e l l e n i z e d b o o k in t h e N T . B u t t h e epistle is clearly focused o n t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s , a n d w h a t m i g h t a p p e a r at first b l u s h t o b e ' p l a t o n i c ' e l e m e n t s turn o u t o n c l o s e r inspection t o b e fully c o n s o n a n t w i t h traditional J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n beliefs. T h e a u t h o r h a s likely h i g h l i g h t e d t h o s e aspects o f t h e tradition that w e r e m o s t a m e n a b l e t o refined G r e e k sensibilities, b u t h e h a s n o t initiated t h e k i n d o f w h o l e s a l e m e r g e r o f J u d a i s m a n d H e l l e n i s m w e see in, e.g., P h i l o ' s Opificio Mundi. 2 Pet. 2 . 4 , m e a n w h i l e , c o u l d h a v e distant e c h o e s o f H e s i o d ' s T i t a n s in h i s u s e o f tartaroo,

b u t w e c a n h a r d l y d e d u c e from

this that P e t e r b e l i e v e d Tartarus w a s a t e n d a y s ' a n d n i g h t s ' anvil-fall b e l o w the earth (Theogony

U.713ff.). W h a t e v e r fusion t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n b e t w e e n

G e n e s i s 6 a n d H e s i o d t o o k p l a c e l o n g before t h e w r i t i n g o f 2 Peter, a n d Tartarus in a n y c a s e a p p e a r s a s a g e n e r a l t e r m for t h e u n d e r w o r l d in, for e x a m p l e , t h e G r e e k translation o f J o b 4 0 . 2 0 a n d 4 1 . 2 4 . L a t e r in t h e E p i s t l e , t h e r e is d e b a t e a b o u t t h e p o s s i b l e Stoic influences o n t h e p h r a s e s c o n c e r n i n g c r e a t i o n ' o u t o f w a t e r a n d t h r o u g h w a t e r ' (3.5) a n d t h e c o s m i c conflagration ( 3 . 7 , 10-12). B u t t h e p a t e n t biblical a s s o c i a t i o n s o f w a t e r / c r e a t i o n a n d

fire/judgement

make a

' p u r e ' Stoic b a c k g r o u n d unlikely. T h e e x t e n t o f 2 P e t e r ' s d e p e n d e n c e o n Stoic cosmological theory remains obscure. T h e r e is, then, n o d i s c e r n i b l e , fixed b a c k g r o u n d a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e N T sets forth t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . Instead, t h e texts a p p e a r to d r a w u p o n a v a r i e t y o f r e s o u r c e s a n d i m a g e s to articulate f u n d a m e n t a l l y theological p o i n t s . I f w e focus o n t h e t h e o l o g i c a l orientations o f t h e text, r e a l g r o w t h in u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n b e m a d e . If t h e a u t h o r s are loath t o tell u s w h a t t h e y t h i n k o f the p r e c e s s i o n o f t h e e q u i n o x e s , o r t h e n u m b e r o f p r i m a l e l e m e n t s , t h e y a r e n o t at all s h y a b o u t setting their t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s o n t h e c a n v a s o f t h e c o s m o s . H e r e w e d o find a n u m b e r o f c o m m o n l y s h a r e d p e r s p e c t i v e s . A s w e n o t e d a b o v e , ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' w a s a b a s i c d i v i s i o n o f reality, w i t h ' h e a v e n ' d o i n g d o u b l e d u t y a s t h e p l a c e o f G o d ' s t h r o n e a n d t h e visible sky. Typically, h e a v e n r e p r e s e n t s t h e d w e l l i n g o f G o d , from w h i c h p r o c e e d h i s directives for t h e rest o f creation: ' T h y k i n g d o m c o m e , t h y w i l l b e d o n e , o n earth a s it is in h e a v e n ' ( M t . 6.9). M e t e o r o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n a like hail a n d lightning c a n easily fuse into ' h e a v e n l y ' j u d g e m e n t s in t h e fullest s e n s e o f t h e t e r m E a r t h carries a m u c h m o r e a m b i v a l e n t r o l e in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . W h i l e t h e h e a v e n l y p l a c e s m i g h t b e t h e s c e n e o f c o s m i c warfare, o r o n o c c a s i o n t h e a b o d e o f maleficent spiritual forces, e a r t h is s o b u r d e n e d w i t h h u m a n iniquity that an adjective like ' e a r t h l y ' c a n fit c o m f o r t a b l y a l o n g s i d e ' u n s p i r i r u a l ' a n d ' d e m o n i c ' in J a s 3 . 1 5 . W i t h ' e a r t h ' t h u s d e s c r i b e d , it is n o t surprising that allusions to t h e r e g i o n u n d e r t h e e a r t h are a l m o s t u n r e m i t t i n g l y n e g a t i v e ( t h e e x c e p t i o n s b e i n g Rev. 5.12 a n d p e r h a p s P h i l . 2 . 1 0 ) . Yet t h e earth r e m a i n s t h e p r o d u c t o f G o d ' s

12.

Conclusion

191

c r e a t i v e h a n d , a n d t h e object o f his p r o v i d e n t i a l a n d r e d e m p t i v e c o n c e r n (1 Cor. 10.26; A c t s 1.8; Rev. 2 1 . 1 ) . I n all o f this, ' e a r t h ' b e a r s r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e t e r m ' w o r l d ' . J o h n in particular typically u s e s ' w o r l d ' for t h e

'world-system'

i m p l a c a b l y o p p o s e d to G o d a n d his w a y s , w h i l e for J a m e s , 'friendship w i t h t h e w o r l d ' is t h e signal t e m p t a t i o n for believers (4.4). In t h e s a m e w a y , P a u l d e c l a r e s that t h e ' w i s d o m o f t h e w o r l d ' is foolishness in t h e e y e s o f G o d (1 Cor. 3.19). B u t t h e s a m e J o h n w h o u s e s ' w o r l d ' in s u c h a consistently n e g a t i v e w a y c a n e q u a l l y declare, ' G o d so l o v e d the w o r l d that h e sent his only b e g o t t e n S o n , that w h o e v e r b e l i e v e s in h i m m i g h t n o t p e r i s h b u t h a v e eternal life' ( J n 3.16). T h e L o r d ' s P r a y e r p o i n t s to t h e fact that t h e spatial ' h e a v e n ' functions in an a n a l o g o u s w a y t o t h e u l t i m a t e future, t h e ' d a y o f t h e L o r d ' in its v a r i o u s lexical g u i s e s . T h i s leads u s naturally to t h e flow o f c o s m i c history in t h e N T . T h e c o m p r e h e n s i v e n a t u r e o f t h e creator G o d ' s k i n g d o m m e a n s that t h e u n i v e r s e m u s t b e t a k e n into c o n s i d e r a t i o n b y o u r texts, e v e n if t h e d i v i n e - h u m a n relationship r e m a i n s central. T h u s t h e creation o f t h e w o r l d b y G o d is

frequently

affirmed

or a l l u d e d t o , a l t h o u g h t h e details o f this creative act d o n o t g o m u c h b e y o n d s t a t e m e n t s that it w a s d o n e ' t h r o u g h C h r i s t ' a s G o d ' s c r e a t i v e a g e n t ( J n 1.1-3; 1 Cor. 8.6; C o l . 1.15-20; H e b . 1.2). T h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e creation in h u m a n i t y ' s fall w o u l d h a v e b e e n a theological c o m m o n p l a c e for t h o s e c o m m i t t e d to t h e O T a s Scripture, n o t to m e n t i o n a n existential reality. E v e r y b u m p a n d b r u i s e a n d t h o r n a n d thistle w o u l d h a v e b e e n t a k e n as a sign that t h i n g s w e r e n o t n o w a s t h e y w e r e m e a n t to b e . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e fall for t h e c o s m o s are v i v i d l y d e p i c t e d in R o m a n s 8 a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k o f R e v e l a t i o n . B u t t h e p r e s e n t state o f affairs w o u l d n o t obtain forever. T h e c o m i n g d a y o f t h e L o r d w o u l d b e signalled b y c o s m i c dissolution, the unravelling o f w h a t h a d b e e n w o v e n t o g e t h e r in t h e b e g i n n i n g . W h i l e h y p e r b o l i c l a n g u a g e is d o u b t l e s s in p l a y in certain texts, there is n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t that t h e early Christians a n t i c i p a t e d that t h e e s c h a t o n w o u l d b e m a r k e d b y d i s t u r b a n c e s in t h e n a t u r a l order. W h e t h e r this i n v o l v e d a n annihilation o f t h e creation, v e r s u s a c l e a n s i n g or r e n e w a l , m a y b e questioned. E v e n 2 Peter 3 c a n b e ( a n d s h o u l d b e ) t a k e n to indicate p u r g a t i o n rather t h a n annihilation. In a n y event, t h e t h e o l o g i c a l c r u x is that t h e ' d e - c r e a t i o n ' m u s t p r e c e d e t h e re-creation. T h i s re-creation is a s s u r e d l y c o m i n g . T h e l a n g u a g e u s e d m a y b e localized a n d e v e n h o m e l y (reclining at t h e table in t h e k i n g d o m o f G o d , L k . 13.29) or m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e ( ' t h e n e w h e a v e n s a n d n e w e a r t h ' o f Rev. 2 1 . 1 a n d 2 Pet. 3.13). B u t it all p o i n t s to t h e reality o f a t r a n s f o r m e d creation. Naturally, w e find h e r e t h e o b v e r s e o f t h e questions raised a b o v e c o n c e r n i n g t h e annihilation or p u r g a t i o n o f t h e o l d creation: is t h e n e w creation absolutely n e w , o r r e n e w e d ? R a t h e r t h a n h o l d forth a p r o b a b l y false d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n c o m p l e t e continuity a n d c o m p l e t e discontinuity, it s e e m s b e t t e r to say that t h e d e g r e e o f ' n e w n e s s ' d e p e n d s o n t h e p o i n t a n a u t h o r is m a k i n g in a n y text. T h u s e v e n w i t h i n t h e s a m e letter t o t h e C o r i n t h i a n s , P a u l c a n stress t h e m e a n i n g f u l c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e

192

Cosmology

and New Testament

Theology

n o w - b o d y a n d t h e n e w - b o d y (1 Cor. 6.9-20), a n d t h e n e m p h a s i z e t h e radical differences b e t w e e n t h e t w o (1 Cor. 15.35-58). T h e transition from t h e n o w t o the n e w is c o m p l e x , a n d w e m u s t b e w i l l i n g t o tolerate a certain a m b i g u i t y in various descriptions. T h e a m b i g u i t y c a n b e n e a t l y illustrated b y c o n s i d e r i n g the G o s p e l a c c o u n t s o f J e s u s ' r e s u r r e c t i o n b o d y , t h e first i n s t a l m e n t o f t h e full restoration to c o m e . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e logic o f G o d ' s v i n d i c a t i o n o f J e s u s d e m a n d s that t h e r e b e a continuity b e t w e e n w h o h e is n o w a n d w h o h e w a s then. T h i s theological n e c e s s i t y is confirmed b y t h e e m p t y t o m b a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n s c e n e s w i t h t h e disciples. L u k e in particular h i g h l i g h t s t h e materiality o f t h e resurrection b o d y , a s J e s u s eats t h e b r o i l e d fish in L k . 2 4 . 4 2 - 4 3 (a m o t i f likely p r e s e n t a l s o in J n 2 1 . 9 - 1 5 , t h o u g h J e s u s ' eating is n o t m a d e explicit). A t the s a m e t i m e , r e c o g n i t i o n is often s l o w in corning, a n d J e s u s is supernaturally q u i c k in g o i n g ( L k . 2 4 . 1 3 - 3 1 ) . H i s b o d y m a y b e material, b u t it a p p e a r s t o b e a radically u p g r a d e d s u b s t a n c e , o n e that c a n n o t o n l y d i s a p p e a r a n d a p p e a r at will, b u t c a n a p p a r e n t l y w a l k t h r o u g h w a l l s a s w e l l (Jn 2 0 . 1 9 ) . W e b e g a n w i t h t h e central i m a g e o f ' h e a v e n a n d e a r t h ' , a n d w i t h it w e will c o n c l u d e . A s often as not, t h e N T p r e s e n t s h e a v e n a n d earth in s h a r p o p p o s i t i o n to another. B u t in the e n d , t h e s e t w o j o i n in h a r m o n i o u s u n i o n . G o d creates a n e w h e a v e n and a n e w earth. T h e final w o r d s o f I r e n a e u s ' Against

Heresies,

w h i l e directed t o w a r d s t h e destiny o f h u m a n i t y , m a y e q u a l l y serve t o p o i n t to the c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e creation project as a w h o l e : ' F o r there is t h e o n e S o n , w h o a c c o m p l i s h e d H i s F a t h e r ' s w i l l ; a n d o n e h u m a n r a c e a l s o in w h i c h t h e m y s t e r i e s o f G o d are w r o u g h t , " w h i c h t h e angels desire to l o o k i n t o " ; a n d they are n o t able to search o u t t h e w i s d o m o f G o d , b y m e a n s o f w h i c h H i s h a n d i w o r k , confirmed a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h H i s S o n , is b r o u g h t t o perfection; that H i s offspring, t h e First-begotten W o r d , s h o u l d d e s c e n d to t h e creature (facturam),

that is, to w h a t h a d b e e n m o u l d e d

(plasma),

a n d that it s h o u l d b e c o n t a i n e d b y H i m ; a n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e creature should contain the Word, and ascend to Him, passing beyond the angels, and b e m a d e after t h e i m a g e a n d l i k e n e s s o f G o d ' (Adv. Haer. 5.36, t r a n s . P h i l i p Schaff).

INDEX OF ANCIENT

SOURCES

O L D TESTAMENT

Genesis 1

1-2 1-3 1-11 1-12 1.1

1.1-2.3 1.1-2.4 1.2 1.2-7 1.2-9 1.2-17 1.3 1.3-30 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9-10 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.14-19 1.16 1.18

20,23, 43n. 52, 135, 159, 172, 173 181n. 10 38 26,137n. 52 44 38 20n.85, 29,31, 38,94, 160 64 20,22,23 23,38, 173,174 172 172 37 22 172 23 22,23, 172 23,172 173 22 173 23 23 101 152 23 23

1.21 1.25 1.26 1.26-28 1.26-30 1.28 1.31 2.1 2.4 3.17 3.17-19 4.1-16 5.1 6

6-7 6-8 6.1-4 6.1-6 7.11

8.2 8.8-12 11-12 12f 12.2-3 12.3 12.7

23 23 22,75 152 23 102 23 20n. 85 20n. 85, 36, 39 37,99, 102 98n.35 37,38n. 35 36,39 163n. 43,166, 183n. 21, 190 159 174 163 163 20,174, 174n. 107, 174n.Ill, 175 174, 174n. I l l 37 38 38 38 63 102

13.15 14.19 14.22 17.8 19.1-11 22 28 28.12

102 45,94 45,94 102 169,169n. 78 37 132 76

Exodus 10.21 15.11 20.11 20.11 ( L X X ) 25-31 26.31-35 26.37 27.16 28.11 30.25 31.5 31.17 32.32f 38.18 40.5

54 187 45,94 64n. 10 20 52n. 23 52n. 23 52n. 23 134n.38 134n. 38 134n.38 94 137n. 57 52n. 23 52n. 23

Leviticus 16.2 16.12 21.23 24.3

52n. 52n. 52n. 52n.

Numbers 3.25 3.26 14.2 14.21

52n. 23 52n. 23 183 95

23 23 23 23

194

Index of Ancient

Deuteronomy 4.16-18 4.19 4.19a 4.19b 4.32-33 6.4 8.7 10.14 17.18 30.4 33.22 Joshua 11.23

26.7 98n. 32 98 97 97 45 95 183 21 41n.44 58n. 42 175n. 119

71 71

2 Kings 8.27 9:20 ( L X X ) 12.11 19.15 22.6

21 153 134n.38 94 134n. 38

1 Chronicles 14.1 22.15 28.2 28.21 29.5

134n. 38 134n.38 136 134n.38 134n. 38

94 134n. 38 134n.38 38

Ezra 3.7

134n. 38

Nehemiah 9.6

(LXX)

64n. 10

Job 9.6 11.8-9 14.12 ( L X X )

Psalms 2.7 8

133n.36

1 Kings 8.15-53 8.27

2 Chronicles 2.12 24.12 34.11 36.23

26.11 28.14 30.26 38.4-7 40.20 40.20 ( L X X ) 41.24 41.24 ( L X X )

20 20 54

8.1 8.5 15.10 ( L X X ) 18.15 19.1 19.1-6 24.2 33.6 33.6-9 33.7 33.9 46 48 57.6 68.19 69.28 72.5-7 72.18-19 74.12-17 77.16 78.69 82.5 89.7 89.9-10 89.29 89.36-7 97.3 99.5 102.25-27 102.26 103.6 104 104.2 104.5

Sources

20,24n. 99 20 174n. I l l 78 21 190 166n. 62 190 166n.62

50,69 21,66n. 17 96 96 62 20 20 21,96 20 172 21 172 172 66n. 17 132 95 110 137n. 57 24 95 23,23n.95 174n. I l l 20,24, 55 20 187 23 24 24 175n. 119 136 24 54 183 20,21, 22,96 20 20

104.31 106.2-3 ( L X X ) 106.9 107.2-3 113.3 ( L X X ) 113.6 113.7 ( L X X ) 115.5 115.16-17 121.2 124.8 132.7 134.3 135.6 136.4-9 136.6 139.8 145.6 ( L X X ) 146.6 148.3-10 148.5 148.6 148.7

96 58n.42 174n. I l l 58n. 42 184 20n.85 184 94 20 94 94 136 94 174n. I l l 21 172 20 64n. 10 64n. 10, 94 21 172 23 174n. I l l

Proverbs 3.19 8.22-31 8.27-29 8.28 8.28 ( L X X ) 17.6 ( L X X ) 30.16 ( L X X )

174n. I l l 20,23 172 174 174n. 112 147 166n. 62

Ecclesiastes 1.4

23

Isaiah 4.3 4.5 6 11.2 11.11-12 13.10 14 14.4 14.11 14.12-15 14.13-15

137n. 57 186n. 30 185 50 58n.42 57 69n. 38, 186n. 32 57 69n.38 57 69n. 38, 186n. 32

Index of Ancient 22.22 24.1-6 24.18 28.16 30.30 34.4 35.10 37.16 40.21 40.22 42.1 43.1 43.5 43.18-19 44.1-2 44.24 49.5-6 49.6 49.22-26 51.9-10 51.10 53.8 ( L X X ) 54.11 ( L X X ) 55.10-11 56.8 58.6 60.4 60.9 61 61.1 61.1-2 63.13 63.19 ( L X X ) 64.1

64.2-4 64.5-7 64.8-12 65.17 65.18-25 66.1 66.2 66.15-16 66.20 66.22

63 99 20 134n.40 175n. 119 57 58n. 42 64n. 10, 94 20 20 50,69 45 58n. 42 102,105 45 20 58n. 42 63,67n. 24 58n. 42 23 174,183 63 134n.40 68 58n. 42 69 58n. 42 58n. 42 51 50,136 69 174 51 50,51, 54, 69n. 34 51 51 51 102,175 24 63 64 175n. 119 58n. 42 24,102, 175

Jeremiah 3.18 10.11 15.9 31.10 32.17 Lamentations 2.1 Ezekiel 1 1.1 1.1 ( L X X ) 1.22 10 11.17 20.34 20.41 28.25 31.15 32.5-8 32.27 ( L X X ) 34.12-16 36.16-30 36.19 36.24-28 37.14 37.21-23 38.22 39.27-28 Daniel 2.35 2.35 (Th) 7 7.2-8 7.4-6 7.9-27 7.13 7.13-14 7.13-15 8.10 8.24 12.1 12.2-3

Sources

58n.42 20n.85 54 58n.42 94

136

195 Joel 2.10-11 2.30-32 3.5 3.14-15

57 57 186n. 30 57

Amos 7.4 8.9

175n. 119 54,57

Habakkuk 181n. 10, 185 51,69n. 34 62 181n. 10 70 58n.42 58n. 42 58n. 42 58n. 42 174 57 166,168 58n. 42 103 58n.42 58n. 42 103 58n.42 175n. 119 58n. 42

186n. 32 184 41n. 44, 49 67 183 41 38n. 37, 65,67 58 46 186n. 31 186n. 31 137n. 57 93

2.14

95,183

Zephaniah 1.18 3.20 Haggai

175n. 119 58n. 42

2.6

54

Zechariah 2.6-11 8.7-8 10.9-12 14 Malachi 3.16

58n.42 58n. 42

3.19(LXX)

175n.

4.1

175n. 119

Apocrypha Baruch 4.37 5.5

58n. 42 58n. 42

1 Esdras 5.53 5.55

134n. 38 134n. 38

Judith 16.6 16.14

166 48n. 13

2 Maccabees 1.27-29 2.18 7.28

58n.42 58n. 42 94

24 137n. 57 119

3 Maccabees 6.2 48n. 13

196 Sirach/Ecclesiasticus 1.3 20 17.2 75 36.11-22 58n.42 39.17 172 43.25 48n. 13 45.10 134n. 38 48.10 58n. 42

Index of Ancient Tobit 8.5 13.4-5 14.5-6

Sources

48n. 13 58n. 42 58n.42

7.22-8.1 13.1 13.3-9 16.24 19.6

23 134n.38 96 48n. 13 48n. 13

80 82.7-10 83 83.4 88.1 90.33

25 98n. 32 174,175 174 167n.67 58n. 42

Wisdom of Solomon 5.17 48n. 13 7.18 153 7.22 23 PSEUDEPIGRAPHA

Apocalypse of A braham 19.4 94n. 14 Apocalypse of Elijah 5 176n. 127 Apocalypse of Moses 35.2 94n. 14 37.5 94n. 14 2 Baruch (Syriac Apocalypse) 6.7 70 8.2 70 22.1 51,69n. 34 29.1-30.3 58n. 42 56 163n. 42 56.13 167n. 67 78.7 58n. 42 1 Enoch (Ethiopic Apocalypse) 1-37 24 2 169 2.1 169 2-5 163, 169 5.2 169 6-16 163 6-36 163 10 168 10.4-6 163, 167n. 67, 168 10.6-12 163 10.12 163 12-14 164 12.4-5 164

13.1 13.10 14.1 14.3 14.5 15.4-7 15.7 15.8-12 17.1-18.1 17-19 17-36 18.2-4 18.11-16 18.13-14 18.13-15 18.15 18.21 20-36 21.1-10 21.3-6 21.6 22 24-25 37-71 46.1-8 48.1-10 48.7 49.3 54.3-5 56.1-4 57.1 62.1-15 62.2 62.5 69.29 70.1 72.1 72-82

167n.67 164 164 164 167n. 67 163,166 166 163 24 24n. 98 24 24 163 24 24 25 163 24n. 98 24 24 25 24 180 46 46 46 148n. 20 50 167n. 67 167n.67 58n.42 46 50 41n. 44 41n. 44 46 25 25

2 Enoch (Slavonic Apocalypse) 1-20 133n. 32 3-37 25 6.54-59 49 7 163 7.1-3 164 8.1 94n. 14 20.1 (shorter recension) 94n. 14 24-33 25 38-66 25 4 Ezra 4.47-52 7.31 8.1-3 10.27 13.1-13 13.33-36 13.39-50

46 129n. 15 46 134n. 40 46 186n. 30 58n. 42

Joseph andAseneth 14.2-3 51 Jubilees 1.15-18 1.29 2.8-10 4.23

58n.42 175n. 114n. 116 98n. 32 180

Index of Ancient

4.26 5 5.6 14.5 23.27-32

102 163n. 42 163, 167n. 67 163 58n. 42

Life and Adam and Eve 49-50 175n. 119 Lives of the Prophets 12.11-12 53 Psalms of Solomon 8.28 58n. 42 11.1-5 58n.42 17.31 58n.42 17.42 50 17.44 58n. 42 Sibylline Oracles 2.229-240 167n. 63, 168 3.265-294 58n. 42 3.796-803 57n. 39 3.80-90 175n. 119 3.82 54 4.185 167n. 64 8.233 54 8.413 54 Testament of Benjamin (From T 12 Patr.) 9.2 58n. 42 10.11 58n.42 Testament of Joseph (From T. 12 Patr.) 19.2-12 (Arm) 58n. 42 Testament of Judah (From T 12 Patr.) 24.2-3 50,51 Testament of Levi (From T. 12 Patr.) 2-3 94n. 14 2.3 133n. 32 2.6 51,69n. 34 5.1 51

10.3 18.6 18.6-7

197

Sources

52n.23, 53 51 50

Testament ofNaphtali (From T 12 Patr.) 3 169 3.2 169 3.4-5 163n.43 Testament of Abraham (From 7: 3 Patr) 7.6 152 Testament of Moses 10.7-10 58n. 42 Ascension of Isaiah 4 176n. 127 7-9 133n. 32 9.1 94n. 14 Qumran lQapGen 20.13-16

46

1QH 11.19-20 11.19-36 11.31-33 11.34-35

175n. 175n. 175n. 176n.

114 119 114 127

CD 2.11-12 5.17-18

58n.42 152

Josephus Jewish Antiquities {Ant.) 1.70 175n. 119 1.73 167 1.73-75 166 3.181 55 8.75 52n. 23 8.90 52n. 23 11.63 58n.42 11.66 41 11.98 58n.42 11.131-133 58n.42 14.12.3 §309 70n.40 17.167 57n. 39 Jewish War (War.) 1.73-74 163n.42, 163n. 43 5.212 52n. 23, 54 5.214 54 5.219 52n. 23 5.288-315 53 5.412 53 Against Apion (Ag. Ap.) 2.240 166 Ep. Arist

1QM 2.1-3 2.7 3.13 5.1

5.13 Philo Abra.

53

98n.32

61

26

4Q302a

Aet. 46

11Q19 18.14-15 57.5-6 59.9-13

52n. 23

Hist.

1QS 1.13-15

86

58n.42 58n. 42 58n.42 58n. 42

58n.42 58n. 42 58n. 42

17 8 26 97 76-7 17 Alleg. Interp. 3.96 26

Index of Ancient

198 Cher. 23

26

Drunkenness/Ebr. 30 153n. 39 Fug. 122

26

Opif. 3 13-14 20-25 24 Spec. 4.187 Mos. 1.212

26 97 97 26 94

2.65 2.86 2.87-88 2.101

Sources

41 52n. 23 55 52n.23

Rewards/Praem. 41-42 97 117 58n.42 151 167,168 164-70 58n. 42 Rabbinic Works b. Git. (Babylonian Gittin) 56b 53 m. Kelim. (Mishnah Kelim) 1.6-9 131n.25

m. Sanh. (Mishnah Sanhedrin) 10.3 58n. 42 t. Sanh. (Tosefta Sanhedrin) 13.10

58n.42

Targum Tg. Isa. Targum Isaiah 45.5 58n. 42 53.8 58n. 42 Tg. Hos. Targum Hosea 14.8 58n. 42 Tg. Mic. Targum Micah 5.1-3 58n.42

26 N E W TESTAMENT

Matthew 1-5 1.1

1.1-2 1.18-25 1.23 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.9 2.10 2.19-23 2.20 3.8-9 3.9 3.16 3.17 4.1-11 4.8 4.14-16 4.15 4.17 5.1 5.3

36n. 27 36,36n. 29,37, 38,39 37 37 44 32 39 30 32 32 32 37 30 30 37 30,37,50 30 31 31 30 30 31 39 147

5.5 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.16 5.18 5.21-25 5.34 5.34-35 5.45 6.1 6.9 6.10 6.19-20 6.20 6.26 8.11 8.11-12 8.20 9.26 9.31 10.15 10.29 11.23 11.24 11.25

30 30 30 31 29 30,31,42 38 30 31 189 29 190 30,31 31 30 29 37 58n.42 29 30 30 37 30 32,168n. 72 30 31

12.17-21 12.40 12.42 13.5 13.8 13.32 13.35 13.38 14.24 16.2-3 16.10 16.17 16.18 16.26 17.5 17.25 18.10 18.18 18.19 18.21-22 19.4-5 19.21 19.28

22.24 22.30

|f 30 30 30 30 29 31 31 30 29 62 29 32 31 32 30 30 31 30 38 38 30 40,41, 42,43n. 52 38 30

Index of Ancient 22.32 23.17 23.22 23.34-36 23.35 24.14 24.21 24.29 24.29-30 24.30 24.35 24.36 24.37 25.31 25.34 26.13 26.64 27.45 27.51 27.54 28.2 28.16-20 28.19 28.20 Mark 1.1 1.8-10 1.9-11 1.10 1.11 1.14 4.11-12 4.32 5.1-14 6.41 6.51-52 7.19 7.34 8.11

37 52n. 23 30 38 38n. 35, 52n. 23 31 31 33, 54, 65 32 29 31,42 30 37 41 31 31 29,32,41 30 30,52n. 23 38,52n. 23 30 38,38n. 37 38 44

45,46 53 50 49,49n. 16, 53 49,49n. 16,53 164n.49 46 49,49n. 16 45 49,49n. 16 46 46 49,49n. 16 49,49n. 16

8.17-21 8.31-32 8.36 9.2-8 9.30-32 10.2-9 10.6 10.17-31 10.21 10.30 10.32-34 10.37-39 10.41-45 10.45 11.12-25 11.25 11.30-31 12.23 12.25 13 13.2 13.3-37 13.10 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.19 13.24-25 13.24-27 13.25 13.26 13.27 13.31 13.32 13.32-37 14.9 14.21 14.22-25 14.58 14.62

199

Sources

46 47 48 58n. 44 47 48 48 49 49,49n. 16 41 47 53 49 47 52 49,49n. 16 49,49n. 16 103 49,49n. 16,104 46,55, 56,59 52 56 48 55 55 46 48,48n. 14 55 57 49,49n. 16 58,65 49,49n. 16,55 49,49n. 16 49n. 16 56 48 47 47 52n. 23 49,49n. 16, 52

15.29 15.32 15.33 15.37 15.38 15.39 16.14

52n.23 52 54 53 53,137n. 56 51 148n.20

Ps-Mark 16.15

48

Luke 1-2 1.9 1.11-20 1.26-38 1.35 1.41-45 1.67-79 1.79 2.8-14 2.14 2.15 2.25-32 3.16 3.21 3.22 4.1 4.14 4.18-19 4.25 5.12-14 5.24 6.23 8.43-48 9.16 9.34-35 9.54 10.15 10.18 10.20 11.13 11.20 11.50 12.23 12.24-28 12.49

71 52n.23 69 69 69 69 69 70n.41 69 63 61,62 69 69 50, 62,69 62 69 69 69 62 69 63 62 69 62 66 62 62,69n. 38 50,62,69 62,137n. 57 62 69 64 62 64 63

200 Luke (cont.) 12.51 13.10-17 13.16 13.28-29 13.29 14.14 15.7 15.10 15.18 15.21 16.9 16.17 16.23 17.24 17.29 18.13 18.22 19.38 20.4 21.6 21.11 21.23 21.25 21.27 21.33 21.35 22.43-44 22.53 23.44-45a 23.45b 24 24.4-5 24.13-31 24.21 24.23 24.42-43 24.49 24.50 24.50-53 24.51 24.52 John 1.1-18 1.1-2 1.1-3 1.3 1.3-17

Index of Ancient

63 69 69 58n.42 191 103 62 62 62 62 148n.20 63 62 61 62 61 62 62 62 71 62 63 54,63 65 63 63 70n. 39 70n. 41 70 70 60 71 192 58n.42 71 192 65,66 65 64,65 61,65 66

84 84 191 80,85, 158n. 8 84,85

1.4 1.4-13 1.5 1.6-8 1.9 1.9-13 1.10 1.13 1.14 1.14-17 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19-17.26 1.51

2.19 2.19-20 3.3 3.6 3.12 3.12-13 3.13 3.16 3.31 4.24 4.34 4.38 5.19-20 5.19-23 5.21 5.26 5.29 5.36 6.57 6.63 8.12 8.23 8.32 8.32-34 9.4 10.11 11.24 11.25-26 11.52 12.12ff 12.27

Sources

80 85 85 85 78 85 75 79 79,80,88 85 88 79 79,84 84 51,62, 69n. 34, 76, 77 77 52n. 23 77,77n. 17 79 77,150 77 77 87, 191 77,77n. 17 79 87 87 87 87 80 80 103 87 80 79 79 77 79 79 87 80 103 80 58n.42 86 86

12.31 12.32 12.44-45 13.1-3 13.20 13.27 14.2 14.3 14.6 14.9b 14.26 15.8 15.13 15.16 15.26 15.27 16.8 16.13 16.28 17.3 17.5 17.15 17.18 17.23 17.24 18.1-21.25 19.11 19.23 20.17 20.19 20.19-23 20.21 20.31 21.9-15 21.25 Acts 1 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6-11 1.8 1.9 1.9-10 1.9-11 1.10 1.10-11

87 86 87 86 87 86 164n. 45 164n. 45 79,80 87 87 87 80 87 87 87 87 79 164n. 45 79 75 87 87 87 85,160 84 77n. 17 77n. 17 87 192 87 87 80 192 75

58n. 42 64 66,70 58n.42 64 63,67, 71,191 65 65 61,65 65,164n. 45 61n.4, 65,68

Index of Ancient 1.11 2.1-4 2.2 2.5 2.19 2.22 2.27 2.31 2.33 2.33-36 2.34 2.36 2.38 2.43 3.6 3.16 3.20-21 3.21 3.25 4.2 4.7 4.8 4.12 4.17 4.24 4.30 4.31 5.1-11 5.12 5.16 5.19 5.24 6.7 6.8 6.10 7 7.2 7.9 7.29-34 7.44 7.48 7.49 7.50 7.51-54 7.55

65,66, 164n. 45 68 62,66 61,67n. 24 184n. 21 68 62,168n. 72 62,168n. 72 66,68 67 61 65,66 68 68 68 68 66 61 63 103 68 68 61,68 68 63,64, 64n. 10 68 68 68 68 68 68 81 68 68 68 70,71 71 71 71 71 70 63 64 71 62,68

7.55-56 7.56 7.57-58 7.59 8.7 8.17 8.26 8.26-40 8.33 9.3 9.3-4 9.5 9.8 9.10-16 9.14 9.15 9.17 9.21 9.27 9.28 9.34 10.1-48 10.3 10.11 10.16 10.42 10.43 10.44 11.5 11.9 11.10 11.28 12.7-11 12.23 12.24 13.2 13.9 13.47 13.48-49 13.52 14.3 14.6 14.9 14.11-18 14.15 14.15-17 14.24

201

Sources

67,71 51,61, 62,67 67 71 68 68 68 70 63 62 63 67 67 67 68 68 68 68 68 68 68 70 68 63,69n. 34 61 56 68 68 62 62 61 68 68 68 68 68 68 63 68 68 68 81 72 72 63,64n. 10 72 64

15.12 16:16-18 16.18 17.7 17.16-31 17.18 17.24 17.24-25 17.25 17.26 17.27 17.28 17.30-31 17.31 17.32a 18.2 19.12 19.13 19.17 19.23-29 20.32 22.6 22.16 26.7 27.23-24 Romans 1.5 1.8 1.19 1.20 1.20a 1.20-21 1.20-25 1.23 1.25 2.13 2.16 3.6 3.19 3.23 4.11-12 4.13 4.15 4.17 5.12

68 68 68 72 72 72 63,72, 73,94 72 63,73 72 72,73 63,72 73 56, 66, 73 73 104 68 68 68 72n. 53 68 62 68 58n. 42 68

120 91n.6 96 91,91n.6 96 95 95,%, 98.101 98,98n. 33 94,95, 97.102 146 56 91n. 6 91n.6 99 102 91,91n.6 102 94 91,91n. 6,98,99

202

Index of Ancient

Romans (cont.) 5.13 91,91n.6 8 140n. 68 8.10 99 8.11 104 8.18 99 8.18-22 98n. 34, 99 8.19 99, 100 8.19-22 99,100 8.19-23 48,104 8.19-25 99 8.20 98,98n. 34,99, 102 8.20-21 140n.68 8.20b 99 8.21 98,99, 100,102, 175n. 116 8.23 100,103, 104 8.23-25 99,100 8.29-30 99 8.38 101,103, 103n. 54 9.5 95 11.12 91n.6 11.15 91n.6 11.36 94 11.36a 95 11.36b 95 13.11 105 16.3-5a 104 16.5b 104

4.13 5.10 6.2 6.3

1 Corinthians 1.7 1.20 1.21 1.27 1.28 2.12 3.19

15.26 15.28 15.35-44 15.35-54 15.35-58 15.40

3.21-23 3.22 4.5 4.9

105 91n.6 91n. 6 91n.6 91n.6 91n. 6 91n. 6, 146,191 106 91,91n. 6,102 105 91n. 6

6.9-20 7.17-31 7.24 7.29a 7.29-31 7.31

7.31b 7.32-34 7.33 7.34 8.1-11.1 8.4

8.5 8.6 8.8 10.11 10.20-21 10.26 11.32 14.10 15 15.20 15.20-28 15.23 15.24

15.41 15.42-44 15.44 15.45 15.48 15.50-57 15.52

Sources

91n.6 91n.6 91n. 6 103,103n. 54 192 104 146 104 104 91n.6, 92,129n. 15 104 104 91n. 6, 92 91n. 6,92 94 91,91n. 6,91n. 8, 94 94, 100 94, 191 94 104n.62 100 191 91n.6 91,91n. 6,97 129n. 16 103,104 103n. 57 105 101, 165n. 54 106 106 97 131 192 93,93n. 13,150 93n. 13 93n. 13 93n. 13 103 93n. 13 102 106

15.52-54 15.54 16.9 16.22b 2 Corinthians 1.12 4.6 4.16 4.18 5.1 5.17 5.17a 5.17b 5.19 7.10 11.2 12 12.2 12.2-3 Galatians 2.2 3.19 3.26-28 4.3

4.5 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.25-26 6.14 6.15 6.16 Ephesians 1.3 1.3-4 1.3-14 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.10 1.20-2 1.21

105 106 104 105

91n.6 94 105 105 150 102, 175n. 116 105 105 91n. 6 91n. 6 105 91 21, 189 93

164n. 49 169 105 91,91n. 6,100, 101 101 100 100,101 101 141n. 69 91n. 6, 92,105 102,105 105

109 110 108 160 112 109 110,111, 112,113 109,110 101,109, 165n. 54

Index of Ancient 1.22 1.23 1.27 2.1 2.1-4 2.1-7 2.2 2.5-11 2.6 2.7 2.10 2.19-24 2.25-30 3.6 3.9 3.10 3.14-15 3.19 3.20 3.21 4.1 4.7-12 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11-12 4.17 5.2 5.8 5.15 6.10 6.10-17 6.11 6.12 6.14 6.16 6.18

109 111,112 112 109 112 110 109, 111 112 112,113 113 109,110 112 112 109 94,111 101, 112 111 113 113 109,113 108, 110n.7 110 110,111 110 110,111 111 HOn.7 110n.7 110n.7 HOn.7 101 109 109 108 109n.6 109 109n.6

Philippians 2.6-U 2.10 2.10-11 2.11 3.19-21 4.3

95 150,190 106 93 141n.69 137n. 57

Colossians 1.15 1.15-20

114 191

1.16

1.18 1.23 2.4 2.8 2.8-15 2.10 2.11-14 2.14 2.15

2.16-18 2.17 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 3.1 3.1-4 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.10 3.12-15

Sources

94,101, 114,115, 165n. 54 116 114 114 100,114, 115,116 115n. 14 101 115n. 14 115n. 14 101, 103n. 54, 116 114 115,116 100,115, 116 115 115 115 115,116 141n. 69 116 115 115 115 115,116 116

1 Thessalonians 1.9 100 1.10 117 2.9 164n. 49 3.13 117 4.13 117 4.13-5.11 117 4.16-17 117 4.17 66,117 5.11 117 2 Thessalonians 1.4-5 117,118 1.10 118 2.1-2 118 2.3 118 2.6-8 118 2.8 118 2.10 118 2.11 118

203 1 Timothy 1.3 1.15 1.17 3.15 3.16 4.11 4.16 5.7 5.21 6.3 6.7 6.13-14 6.14 6.17 6.19

121 26,119, 120 119 121 120 121 121 121 120,121 121 121 120 120 121 121

2 Timothy 1.8 1.8-9 1.10 1.12 2.10 2.12a 2.12b 2.14 2.16 2.18 3.1 3.2-5 3.5 4.1-2 4.6 4.8

123 122 122 122 122 122 122 123 122 122 122 122 122,123 122,123 123 123

Titus 1.2 1.3 2.1-10 2.11-12 3.4-7 3.5 3.5-6 3.7 3.7-8

123 123 124 124 40 40 124 40 124

Hebrews 1-2 1.1-4

139 136

204 Hebrews (cont) 1.2 133,134, 134n. 37, 135n. 41, 135n. 42 136,191 1.3 133, 133n. 36 1.5-14 136n.51 1.6 136 1.10 134 1.10-12 140 1.11-13 136 1.12 129n. 16 1.13 133n.31, 137 1.14 136 2.3 137 2.4 133n. 36, 134,136 2.5-9 136n. 51 2.6 137n. 55 2.6-9 133, 133n. 32 2.8 137 2.9 138 2.10 133,134, 135n. 42 2.10-11 142 2.10-18 136n.51 2.14 133n. 31 2.14-15 137, 137n. 52, 137n. 55 3.4 134,136, 140 3.7 133n. 36, 136 3.7-4.11 138n.60, 141 3.14 136 4.1 136n.49 4.1-11 135n.43 4.2 136n. 49 4.3 134,136 4.6 136n. 49 4.10 134 4.12-13 140 4.13 134,136 4.14 138

Index of Ancient

5-10 5.1-7.28 5.7 6.2 6.4 6.4-5 6.6 6.8 6.9-20 6.12 6.13 6.15 6.17 6.19 6.19f 7.6 7.26 8.1-2 8.1-5 8.2 8.3-10.18 8.5 8.6 9.1-14 9.3 9.8 9.10 9.11

9.14 9.15 9.23 9.23-24 9.24

9.26 9.26-28 9.27-28 9.28

Sources

142 136n. 51 133n. 31, 137n. 55 133n. 31, 137n. 55 133n. 36, 136 136 137 137 142 136n.49 136n.49 136n.49 136n.49 52n. 23 138 136n. 49 138 136n.51, 138 140n. 69 134, 140n. 69 136n. 51 135n. 43, 136,143 136n. 49 138 52n. 23 133n. 36, 136 140n.69 129n. 16,134, 140n. 69, 141n. 70 133n. 36, 136 136n.49 140n. 69 143 138, 140n. 69, 140n.69 134,136 136,140 137n. 55 136

10.1 10.5 10.13 10.15 10.19f 10.19-36 10.20 10.23 10.27 10.29 10.31 10.36 11 11.1-3 11.3

11.5 11.9 11.10

11.10-16 11.11 11.13 11.13-16 11.16 11.17 11.19 11.33 11.35 11.39 11.40 12.1-29 12.2 12.18

140n.69 134 133n.31, 136,137 133n. 36, 136 138 142 52n.23, 70,138 136n.49 133n.31, 136,137 133n. 36, 136 133n. 31, 137 136n. 49 134, 141n. 69 127,131 126,131, 133,133n. 36,134, 134n. 37, 135n. 43, 141,141n. 70,172 137 136n.49 134, 134n. 39, 141n. 70 141n.69 136n.49 136n.49 141n.70 134 136n.49 133n.31, 137n. 55 136n.49 133n.31, 137n. 55 136n.49 137n.53 142 137, 137n. 55 167n.68

Index of Ancient 12.18-29 12.22

12.22a 12.23 12.25 12.25-29

12.26 12.27

12.29 13.2 13.10 13.12-14 13.12-16 13.14 13.15-16 13.20 13.20-21 13.21 James 1.2-4 1.4 1.5 1.17 1.18 1.26 1.27

2.5 2.19 3

127, 141n. 69 133n. 32,136, 186n. 30 138n. 58 137, 137n. 53 137 129n. 16,136, 139,140, 140n. 68 141 136n.49 129n. 15, 131, 134, 137 133n.31, 137 136, 139 128n. 13 142 142 134,136, 141n. 69 142 133n.31, 137n. 55 140 134

151,153, 156 152 152, 153, 156 152,153, 156 151,153, 154 146, 149 145,146, 149,151, 156 145,147, 149,156 152 150

3.5-6 3.6

3.9 3.13 3.14 3.14-16 3.14-17 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.39 4 4.1-10 4.4

4.4b 4.7 4.12 5.7 5.7-11 / Peter 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.13 1.13-25 1.14 1.15 1.17 1.18 1.18-21 1.19 1.20

1.20a 1.21 1.23 2.11

205

Sources

154 145,147, 149,151, 154, 155, 156 149,151, 152 151 145,150, 151,156 155 156 151,155, 190 150 151,156 152 149 149 145,148, 149,156, 191 144 156 152 152 154,156

141n. 69 160 157 158 158 158, 159n. 15 158 141n. 69, 158,161 160 158,161 146n. 11, 158 157,158, 158n. 5, 160,161 160 158 160 141n.69, 159n. 15

2.20 3 3.3 3.12-17 3.15 3.16 3.18 3.18a 3.18-22 3.18b 3.19

3.19-20

3.22

4.2 4.3 4.6 4.7 4.19 5.9

2 Peter 1.4

2.1 2.2 2.4

146 163 147, 158n. 5 161 161 161 161,162, 165 161 161, 161n. 24 161 161,162, 163, 163n. 40, 164,165 168 162, 162n. 38, 163,164 161,164, 164n. 45,165, 166n. 57 159n. 15 159n. 15 162, 163n. 40 158,159 157 158n. 5, 159n. 10, 165

158n. 5,159, 159n. 15, 160 165 165,170, 171 165,166, 167,167n. 68,168, 172n. 93, 173,176, 190

Index of Ancient 2 Peter (cont) 2.4-5 163,167 2.4-8 170 2.4-10 165 2.5 158n. 5, 159,164 2.9 170, 172n. 93 2.9-12 171 2.10 159n. 15, 169 2.10b 165,168, 170 2.11 170 2.12 170 2.13 165 2.17 167n. 68, 172n. 93 2.18 159n. 15, 165 2.20 158n. 5, 159,160 3 175,191 3.3 159n. 15, 165,170, 171 3.4 170,171, 172,175, 177 3.4a 170,171 3.4b 171 3.4-13 165 3.5 159, 171n. 92, 172.173, 174n. 105 175,190 3.5-6 159,171 3.5-7 171,172 3.5-10 170 3.6 158n. 5, 159,171n. 92,172, 173,173n. 104.174, 175 3.6-13 42n.51 3.7 171,171n. 92,172,

3.9 3.10

3.10-12 3.12

3.12-13 3.13

3.14

Sources

172a 93, 174 175,177, 190 177 54,115, 159,172, 174.175, 177 190 172,174. 175.176, 177 175 129n. 16, 159,160, 175,176, 177 191

Jude 3 4 5-7 6

146n. 11

24

2.15 2.17 2.24 2.25 2.28 3.1 3.19 4.2 4.7 4.13 5.4 5.19 3 John 1.2

12 13 16 18

146n. 11

Revelation

1 John 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.8

6-8 7 7-8 8

165 165 163 165,166, 167, 167n. 68, 168,169 165 169 165 165,168, 169, 169n. 80 165 167n. 68 159n. 15 159n. 15, 165

74 78 78 79 79 79,80 88 88 80 88, 129n. 15 88 129n. 15 88 88 88 88 80 88 88 88 88 88,186n. 32 80

1.4 1.4-5 1.7 1.8 1.12-16 1.13 1.18 1.19 1.20 2-3 2.11 3.5 3.21 4.1

4.3 4.5 4.8 4.11 5.8 5.12 5.13 6.2-8 6.8 6.10

181,185n. 27 185n.27 46,66 185 185 46 168n.72 181 185 185n.27 185 137n. 57 41n.44 51,69a. 34,180n. 7 182 188 185 179 184 190 182,183, 184 185n. 29 168n. 72 187

Index of Ancient 6.13 6.14 7.1 7.14 8.1 8.3 8.3-5 8.13 9 9.1 9.1-11 9.2 10.4 10.6 11.2 11.7 11.12 11.19 12

12.3 12.7 12.7-12 12.8 12.10 12.14 12.15-16 13.1 13.2-3 13.3 13.6 13.8 13.11-17 13.41 14.1 14.2-3 14.6

187 54,180, 187 185, 185n. 29 182 181 185 182 180n. 8, 182 184 185, 185n. 28 183 183n. 21 182 183n. 18 186n. 31 183,186 182 51,182 180, 185n. 29, 186n. 32 186 185 182 186n. 32 182 183 183 183 179 186 186n. 30 137n. 57 187 187 186n.30 186n. 30 180n. 8

14.7 14.14 14.14-16 16.11 16.13-14 16.18-21 16.19 17 17.8

18.2 19.11 19.17 20 20.1-10 20.7 20.8 20.9-10 20.11 20.12 20.13 20.14 20.15 21 21-22 21.1

21.1-2 21.2

21.5 21.10-14 21.11 21.12

207

Sources

179 46 66 181 187 188 188 183n. 19 137n.57, 179,183, 186 164n,47 51,62, 69n. 34 180n.8 184 168 164n.47 183n. 18 186n. 30 180,186n. 32,188 137n.57 168n.72, 184 168n.72 137n.57 182 183n. 19 129n. 15, 129n. 16, 175n. 116,180 184,191 141n.69 181, 181n. 11, 182 188 134n.40 182 58n.42

21.12-14 21.14 21.19-20 21.24 21.27 22.16

188 184 134n.40 180 137n. 57 185

Christian and/or gnostic works 1 Clement 9.4 41 Eusebius Ev. Praep. 1.7 395d

9n.25 57n. 39

Gos. Phil. Gospel of Philip (Nag Hammadi) 84 52n. 23 Gos. Eb. Gospel of the Ebionites 6 52n. 23 Gos. Jos. (Apocryphon of James) 24.3 52n. 23 Gos. Naz. Gospel of the Nazarenes 36 52n. 23 Gos. Pet. Gospel of Peter 5.20 52n. 23 Irenaeus Adv. Haer. 5.36

192

Justin

Dial. Tryph. 134.4

58n. 42

1166A

149n.26

GRECO-ROMAN TEXTS

Aristotle De Caelo 1.5-7 1.10 1.10-12 2.7

279al7-28 294a28 14 11 14 14

Eth. nic 9.82 1157B

184n. 24 9n. 18

149n. 26 149n.26

Historia Animalia 5 153 9 153

208 Met. 12.7.2 12.7.7-9 12.8.9-10 12.8.11 12.8.12-14 983b6

Cicero De amicitia 21.80

Index of Ancient

15 15 14 14 9n. 17, 9n. 24

149n.26

de finJOn Ends 3.62 18n. 74 4.12 16 Nat. de./Nat. Deorum 2.118 17,41n. 43 Republic 6.17

21

Cleanthes Hymn to Zeus 1.1 185n.26 Orphic Hymns 8.11 185n.26 10.4 185n.26 Demosthenes On the Navy Boards 5 149n. 27 On the Embassy 62 149n. 27 Letters 3.27

149n. 27

Dio Cassius 56.29.3

57n. 39

Diogenes Laertius 7.134 16,41n. 43 7.137 16 7.142 173 8.48 6

Sources

10 135-6 142

15n.53 17 17

12.219 13.77 15.329 20.356

184n.21 6 7 167n. 69

Empedocles fr. 17.1-13

lln.35

Iliad 3.93 3.256 4.17 5.504 8.5-15 8.10 8.10-14 8.14 12.225 14.187 14.201 14.246 15.191 17.425 18.607 21.56 26.282

149n. 27 149n. 27 149n. 27 7 166n. 60 166n. 58 166n.59 7 6 7 9n. 17 9n. 17 167n.69 7 7 167n.69 149n. 27

Epictetus Disc. 1.9.4 1.10.10 3.1.19-20 24.95

18 18 18 18

Euripides Orestes 1046

149n. 26

Heraclitus fr. 30 Herodotus 1.65 2.52 4.8 5.92 9.59

lOn. 26 6 6 7 7 6

Hesiod Theogony 1-32 11.713ff 104 116 116-17 617 639-711 650 678-705 718 721 729 736 807 807-814 811 847-68

8 190 166n. 59 166n. 59 8 166n. 60 166n.61 167n. 71 8 166n. 59 167n. 70 167n. 71 167n. 70 167n. 70 168 166n.61 8

Homer Obyssey 11.54-7

167n.69

Lucretius De rerum natura 5.195-234 15 5.235-415 15n. 56 Marcus Aurelius 11.1.3 41n.43 Pindar Pythian Odes 2.20 155n. 44 Plato Gorgias 508a 522E-523B 523B

97 166n. 58 166n. 60

Laws 744B 757A 767C 897A-B

149n. 26 149n. 26 153 13n. 50

Phaedo 111E-112A

166n.59

Index of Ancient Phileb. 29e

Sources

Plutarch Caes

Thyes. 835-884

7n. 8 69

57n. 39

Polit Stoic. 269d

7n. 8

Timaeus 29A 29D 30A 30CD 32D-33B 33B 34B 37D 40B-C 44d-45b 46C-47D 47B-C 68E 92C Timon 39d

13 13 7n. 10,13 13 13 13 13 13 13 97 13 13 13 13 153

1053a Stoic. Rep. 1053a

17 173

Pseudo-Sophocles Fragment 2 175n. 119, 176n. 127 Seneca Ben. 6.22

17

Simplicius In Aristot. De caelo comm. 2.168b 155n.44 Virgil Aenead 4.528-552 11.321 578-580

166n. 60 149n.27 166n. 61

Georgics 1.471-80 3.541-58

187n.33 187n.33

Xenophon Mem. 1.1.11

7n.8

17n. 66

Consol. ad Marc 26.6-7 17n. 66 Nat Quest. 27

209

17

INDEX OF NAMES

Achtemeier, E. 78 Achtemeier, P. J. 157,159,160,161, 162,163,164,165 Adams, E. 6 , 1 5 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 2 4 , 56, 82, 91, 92, 95,96, 97, 98,100,105,107, 126,127,129,131,135,141,158, 159,171,173,174,175,176,177 Adamson, J. B. 154 Allison, D. C. Jr. 31, 32, 33, 36,38, 39, 41,54 Anderson, B. W. 19 Anderson, K. L. 65 Ashton, J. 75 Attridge, H. W. 128,129,134,135 Aune, D. E. 78, 178,183,186 Bacon, B. W. 36 BakeT,W.R. 155 Balch, D. L. 44 Balz,H. 31,91, 158,160 Barrett, C. K. 65,96,102,136 Barth,M. 110 Bauckham, R. 143,154,155,159,165, 167,168,169,170,171,172,173, 174,175,176,178,179,184,188 Baum,L. 5 Bautch, K. C. 24,25 Beale, G. K. 55, 56,102,104,129,136, 143,178,182, 185,186,188 Beare,F.W. 162 Beasley-Murray, G. R. 77, 80, 81, 84 Beaton, R. 35 Beckwith, R. 93 Beker,J.C. 92 Berger,P. 43,44,82,90,107 Best,E. 54 Betz, H. D. 100 Bindemann, W. 99 Bird, M. F. 46,48 Black, M. 25 Blass,D. 162

Bockmuehl, M. N. A. 62 Boll,F. 178 Bolle,K.W. 107 Boring, E. 51 Boring, M.E. 158 Brown, R. E. 52,70, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 85 Brox,N. 163 Bruce, F. F. 101,137 Buckwalter, D. 66,67 Bultmann, R. 75,77, 78, 80, 81, 85, 92, 128,130 Burnett, F. W. 40,41 Burridge, R. A. 46,83 Caird, G. B. 24, 56,178,188 Canick,H. 166 Cargal,T.B. 145 Carson, D. A. 75,79,85 Carter, W. 36,37 Cassem, N. H. 75, 81 Charlesworth, J. H. 163 Chen, D. G. 64 Cheung, L. L. 147,148,151,154 Cody, A. 138 Collins, A. Y. 21,46,47, 58,94,178, 180,181,188 Collins, J. J. 25, 55 Collins, R.F. 123 Conzelmann, H. 67 Omiford, F. M. 13 Cox, P. 83 Cranfield, C. E. B. 97,98 Crossan, J. D. 28 Culpepper, R. A. 83 Dalton, W.J. 161,162,164 Davids, P. H. 144,147 Davies, M. 76 Davies, W. D. 36,38,39,41 Day, J. 23

Index of Delling,G. 100 Denzey, N. 33 DeSilva,D.A. 164 Dibelius, M. 144,147,148,153 Dillon, J. M. 14 Dunn, J. D. G. 56, 69,94,96,103,128 Dunnill,J. 131 Edmonds, R. G. 181 Edwards, J. R. 52 Elders, L. 14 Ellingworth, P. 129,133, 134,135,137, 138 Elliott, J. H. 146,151 Ellul,J. 179,182 Esler,P. 44 Evans, C. 52,56 Fairweather, J. 83 Farrow, D. 64 Fee, G. D. 95,103,104,112,120 Filson, F. V. 32, 80 Fitzmyer, J. A. 65,70,96 Foster, R.L. 110 Frampton, P. 5 France, R. T. 32, 35,52,56, 58,162, 163,164 Franklin, E. 64, 66 Fretheim, T. E. 19,21 Friesen,S. 178,179,183 Frishman,J. 35 Funk,R.W. 162 Furley,D.J. 11 Gaffin,RB.Jr. 103 Gantke,W. 90 Garland, D. E. 104 Garrett, S. R. 69 Gaventa,B. 67 Glessmer,U. 101 Goldingay, J. 68 Goppelt,L. 161,162 Goulder, M. D. 35,36 Green, J. B. 70,71 Green, M. 171 Greene, B. 7 Grindheim, S. 45 Guhrt,J. 93 Gundry, R. H. 35

Names

211

GurtneT, D. M. 52,137 Guthrie, G. 136 Haacker,K. 96 Hagner,D.A. 37 Hahm,D. 16 Hahne, H. A. 98,99 Hamid-Khani, S. 77 Hanson, P. D. 46,47 Hart,T. 143 Hartin,P. 151 Hasel, G. F. 22 Hays, R. B. 28,34,35, 93 Heckl,R. 36 Hieke,T. 39 Holtzmann, H. J. 56 Houlden, L. 62 Hughes, P. E. 132 Hurst, L.D. 126,136,139 Hurtado, L. W. 66,140 Isaacs, M.E. 129,131 Jackson-McCabe, M. 144,153 Jeremias, J. 22,168,174 Jervell,J. 71 Johnson, A. 66 Johnson, L. T. 67,69,121,144,145, 146,147, 149,150,153 Johnson, M. 76 Johnson, M. D. 37 Kahn, C. H. 6,10 Kasemann, E. 96,97 Keck, L. E. 78 Kee, H. C. 47 Keener, C. S. 76,84 Kelly, J. N. D. 159,161,162,163,167, 169,170,171 Kirk,G.S. 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 8 Klink, E. W. Ill 82 Koch,K. 101 Koester, C. R. 79,134,135 Kooten, G. H. van 35 Kostenberger, A. J. 76,87 Krasovec, J. 78 Kraftchick, S. J. 170 Laansma, J. 127,128,130, 136, 137, 139 Lakoff,G. 76

212

Index of

Lane,W.L. 134,135,137,139 Lapidge, M. 16 Laws,S. 147,148,149 Leske,A. 35 Levenson, J. D. 20 Lietzmann, H. 100 Lieu, J. 88, 89,145 Lincoln, A. T. 76 Lockett, D. 146 Lohflnk, G. 64,65 Lohse, E. 115,116 Long, A. A. 16,17,18 Long, F.J. 108 Longenecker, R. N. 100 Louw,J.P. 115 Lucas, E. C. 33 Luce, J. V. 10,11,18 Luckmann, T. 43, 82,107 Luz,U. 36 Mack, B. L. 47 McDonough, S. 179 McLaren, B.D. 81 McKnight,S. 56 MacRae,G.W. 129 Mahlherbe, A. J. 117 Malina, B. J. 38, 75,178 Mansfeld,J. 17,18 Marcus, J. 46, 50 Marrow, S. B. 76 Marshall, I. H. 62,69, 70,117,121 Martin, R. P. 147,152 Martyn, J. L. 82,83 Mayor, J. B. 148 Meeks,W. 77 Mell,U. 102,105 Menzies,RP. 69 Michaels, J. R 162,163,164 Minear, P. 178,181,183 Moffitt,D. 35 Moo, D. 96,128,147,148,150,153, 154, 167, 168, 170,172 Moo, J. 185 Motyer, S. 51 Moule,C.F.D. 67 Mounce, W. D. 120 Mussner, F. 101 Myers, C. 47 Neugebauer, O. 131 Neusner, J. 131

Names Neyrey, J. H. 75,171 Nickelsburg, G. W. E. 24 Nida,E.A. 115 Nolland, J. 3 7 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 4 3 , 6 2 , 70 O'Brien, P. T. 100,112,115 Oden,R.A. Jr. 20,90, 157 Okure,T. 87 OToole, R. F. 65 Overman, J. A. 44 Painter, J. 84,131 Pao,D.W. 68 Parsons, M. C. 64 Patella, M. 45 Pelikan,J. 139 Penner, T. 152 Pennington, J. T. 20,29, 30, 34,45,61 Pesch,R. 52 Pitre,B. 56,57 Plevnik,J. 106 Polman,G.H. 86 Rad,G.von 19 Raven, J. E. 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 8 Reicke, B. 160,161,162 Reinhartz, A. 82,83,87 Rensberger, D. 76 Ricoeur,P. 81 Rohrbaugh, R L. 75 Rompay, L. van 35 Ropes, J. H. 148,150 Rowland, C. 50,52,62 Runia,D.T. 12,26 Sagan,C. 45 Saldarini, A. J. 44 Sasse,H. 91,158 Schenck,K. 26 Schlatter, A. 157 Schnabel,E. 72,94,95 Schnackenburg, R. 32,38 Schneider, G. 31 Schneider, H. 166 Schofield, M. 7, 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 8 Scholar, J. M. 127 Schrage, W. 94,103 Schreiner,T. 96 Schweizer, E. 19,100 Scriba,A. 92 Sedley,D.N. 16,17,18

Index of Segovia, F.F. 83,84,86 Senior, D. 35 Sim, D. C. 42 Solmsen,F. 14,15 Soskice,J.M. 143 Spara,W. 90 Stadelman, L. J. 20 Stager, L. 132 Staley,J.L. 83 Stanton, G. 35 Steinhardt, P. J. 5 Stendahl,K. 35 Strelan,R. 61,64,65,66 Tabor, J. D. 21 Taylor, V. 51 Theissen,G. 56 Thiselton, A. C. 131 Thuren, L. 161 Thompson, L. L. 181 Tollefson, K. D. 145 Torrance, T. F. 64,66 Treier,D.J. 126 Trumbower, J. A. 78 Turner, M. 66,67,69 Turok,N. 5

Names

Vanhoozer, K. J. 83 Van Stempvoort, P. A. 65 Verseput, D. J. 153 Vlastos,G. 6,7 Vogel, C. J. de 13 Vdgtle, A. 167,168, 169,170,172,175, 176 Vos, G. 42 Wachob,W. 146 Waerjen, H. C. 55 Wallace, D. 147 Walton, J. 20,130, 131,132 Walton, S. 70,71 Weder,H. 143 Wenham, G. J. 94, 98 Wenin,A. 35 Westcott, B. F. 133 White, J. 98,103, 105 Wilk,F. 102 Williamson, R. 134,135,141 Wimbush, V. L. 89 Winter, B. W. 72 Witherington, B. 50 Wright, M. R. 5,6,7,11,131 Wright, N. T. 47, 56, 57,67,127,131, 137,140

Ulansey,D. 53 VanderKam, J. C. 25, 98

213

Ziesler,J.A. 68 Zwiep,A.W 64,65